THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1962


Table of Contents

PREFACE

The New Zealand Official Yearbook seeks to present as completely as possible within one volume a wide range of information on the administration and national economy of New Zealand, as well as on social aspects. In the selection and presentation of material there is kept in mind the use of the Official Yearbook not only as a standard reference work by the general public, but also as a source of material for students and research workers. Information on New Zealand is being increasingly sought by administrators and universities overseas, and the Official Yearbook now goes to over 60 countries. This is a natural development as international relationships grow and the Official Yearbook helps present New Zealand to the world in which this country has expanding interests.

In this the sixty-seventh issue there is a separate section on the tourist industry, which is of increasing world importance, and the bibliography has been made more comprehensive. Substantial rearrangement has been effected in a number of sections, notably population, vital statistics and education. Naturally, since it has become the first independent Polynesian state, Western Samoa is no longer part of New Zealand's island territories.

In line with the policy decision of the Department of Statistics to substitute statistical areas for provincial districts, some of the tables show the new classification; the main effect here is to show the former Auckland Provincial District as four statistical areas.

A special article summarises some of the economic problems posed for New Zealand in relation to Britain's negotiations for membership of the European Economic Community.

New Zealand's national parks are featured in the set of photographs.

I desire to express my appreciation to officers of this and other Government Departments for their assistance in preparing material and to the Government Printer and his staff for cooperation in the printing of this volume. My thanks for their comprehensive contribution to the production of the Yearbook are extended to Mr J. B. McKinney, M.A., ADMIN, PROF., Editor of Publications, and members of the Editorial Branch and Statistical Draughting Unit of the Department of Statistics.

GOVERNMENT STATISTICIAN

Department of Statistics, Wellington,

6 August 1962.

SYMBOLS

The interpretation of the symbols used in the tables throughout this publication is as follows:

- nil or zero

.. figures not available

not yet available = space left blank

… not applicable

- - amount too small to be expressed

VALUES

All values are shown in New Zealand currency,

MEASURES

Unless otherwise stated, a ton is a long ton (2,240 lb).

ROUNDING

On occasions figures are rounded off to the nearest thousand or some other convenient unit. This may result in a total disagreeing slightly with the total of the individual items as shown in tables. Where figures are rounded the unit is in general expressed in words below the table headings, but where space does not allow this the unit may be shown as 000 for thousand, etc.

FISCAL YEARS

Figures for fiscal years ended 31 March (the fiscal year) are indicated in the text and headings of tables; otherwise figures are mainly for calendar years.

ABBREVIATIONS

bd. ft.board feet
chchains
ctd.continued
cu. ft.cubic feet
cwthundredweight
d.pence
Eeast
ftfeet
ggramme
galgallon
hhour
h.p.horsepower
in.inch
kWkilowatt
kWhkilowatt-hour
lbpound
mmile
minminute
mmmillimetre
Nnorth
ozounce
£(000)thousand pounds
£(m)million pounds
s.shillings
SSouth
sq. ft.square feet
sup. ft.super feet
Wwest
yyard

Chapter 1. Section 1 PHYSIOGRAPHY

Table of Contents

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION — The islands of New Zealand have been shaped from the projecting crests of earth folds which rise as broad ridges from the floor of the South Pacific Ocean, 1,000 miles east of the continent of Australia. There are three main islands — North, South, and Stewart separated only by relatively narrow straits — with adjacent islets and a small group called Chatham Islands, 536 miles to the east. Dating from 1842 the administrative boundaries of New Zealand, exclusive of island territories, extend from 33 degrees to 53 degrees south latitude and from 162 degrees east longitude to 173 degrees west longitude. Inhabited outlying minor islands are Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group, 614 miles north-east of the Bay of Islands, and Campbell Island, 320 miles south of Stewart Island.

New Zealand is also responsible for the administration of three island groups in the south-west Pacific — the Cook Islands, Niue Island, and the Tokelau Islands. These are incorporated within the boundaries of New Zealand. The principal island of the Cook Group, Rarotonga, is 1,638 miles north of Auckland, and Niue to the west of the Cook Islands is a similar distance away. Lying to the north-west of the Cook Islands are the Tokelau Islands. In all, there are 23 islands scattered over a vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean making up New Zealand's island territories. The territorial area reaches to within 8 degrees of the Equator and extends south to the Tropic of Capricorn, while in longitude it covers nearly 20 degrees (156 degrees west to 173 degrees west).

The Ross Dependency, some 1,400 miles to the south, has been under New Zealand's jurisdiction since 1923 and comprises the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160 degrees east and 150 degrees west longitude, together with the islands lying between those degrees of longitude and south of latitude 60 degrees south.

The administrative area of New Zealand can be classified as follows. In this volume, in general, New Zealand refers to the group of islands shown in (a) only, unless it is expressly stated that the other islands as a whole or in part are included.

New Zealand:

* Situated off North Island.

† Situated off South Island.

(a) Exclusive of island territories-Area in Square Miles
    North Island44,281
   South Island58,093
   Stewart Island670
   Chatham Islands372
   Minor islands -
     Inhabited -
       Kermadec Islands*13
       Campbell Island44
     Uninhabited (areas in parentheses)263
       Three Kings* (3); Snares (1); Solander† (1/2); Antipodes† (24); Bounty† (1/2); Auckland† (234).
Total New Zealand, exclusive of island territories103,736
(b) Island territories -Area in Square Miles
    Tokelau Islands, comprised of -
      Fakaofo Island, Nukunono Island, Atafu Island4
    Cook and associated islands, comprised of -
      Southern Group82
        Rarotonga, Aitutaki, Mangaia, Mauke, Atiu, Takutea, Mitiaro, Manuae and Te-au-o-tu.
      Northern Group11
        Palmerston, Pukapuka, Penrhyn, Suwarrow, Manihiki, Nassau, Rakahanga.
      Niue Island100
   Total island territories197
(c) Ross Dependency(Estimated)160,000
Total New Zealand, inclusive of island territories and Ross Dependency263,933

The total area of the foregoing groups, exclusive of the Ross Dependency, is 103,933 square miles. Elsewhere in this issue — viz, in the section on land tenure, settlement, etc. — the aggregate area of New Zealand appears as 66,390,700 acres — i.e., 103,736 square miles. The latter area does not include the Cook and associated islands or the Tokelau Islands. (Western Samoa, which had been administered as a trust territory since 1946, became an independent territory from 1 January 1962.)

The relevant Proclamations, defining from time to time the administrative area of New Zealand, are briefly referred to in Section 2.

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES: Coastline-Since the combined length of the North and South Islands extends just over a thousand miles, and since the width of neither Island exceeds 280 miles at its broadest point, New Zealand possesses a very lengthy coastline in proportion to its area. With the exception of the low-lying North Auckland Peninsula, the New Zealand land mass lies along a south-westerly and north-easterly axis, parallel to the direction of its mountain chains.

By reason of the latter fact the coastline is, on the whole, not greatly indented; and, as a consequence, New Zealand is not well endowed with natural harbours. In the North Island, Auckland and Wellington are two safe natural harbours of which the fullest commercial use is made and the use of Tauranga harbour is expanding. On the east coast of the North Auckland Peninsula several deep and sheltered harbours exist, but production from the hinterland is limited. In the South Island the Marlborough Sounds and the West Coast Sounds form perfect land-locked harbours, but owing to their situations and to the rugged nature of the terrain they have — with the exception of Queen Charlotte Sound — little or no commercial utility. Where vital localities have not been endowed with ideal harbours it has been necessary to improve existing facilities by dredging and by breakwater construction, etc. In this manner efficient ports, capable of accommodating overseas vessels, have been formed in Lyttelton, Otago, and Bluff Harbours. On the west coast of both Islands the strong ocean drifts and high seas cause shoaling at river mouths and harbour entrances, while on the east coast of the South Island similar circumstances prevail, due to the large quantities of shingle brought down by the rivers being spread along the coast by ocean currents. The mountainous nature of the country makes the haulage of goods to and from the better equipped natural harbours both costly and difficult, and the construction and maintenance of further ports at various points along the coasts of both Islands has been necessary, either by dredging river mouths or by harbour-construction work.

Mountains — The mountainous nature of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics, less than one-quarter of the land surface lying below the 650 ft contour. In the North Island the higher mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (8,260 ft), Ruapehu (9,175 ft), Ngauruhoe (7,515 ft), and Tongariro (6,458 ft), they do not exceed an altitude of 6,000 ft. Of these four volcanoes only the first named can be classed as dormant. Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe have been particularly active from time to time. Other volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, each of which has, upon one occasion within historical times, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The mountain system of the North Island runs generally in a south-west direction, parallel to the coast, from East Cape to Turakirae Head, and includes the following ranges from the north: Raukumara, Huiarau, Ruahine, Tararua, and Rimutaka. This chain is flanked on the west between the Huiarau and Ruahine by the Ahimanawa, Kaweka, and Kaimanawa Ranges, while west of the Kaimanawa is the National Park volcanic group comprising Mounts Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. The Hauhangaroa and Rangitoto Ranges run in a northerly direction from the National Park group. In the east the Moehau Range parallels the length of the Coromandel Peninsula. Mount Egmont forms the only country above 4,000 ft on the west coast of this Island.

The South Island is much more mountainous than the North, but shows fewer manifestations of recent volcanic activity. Along almost the entire length of the Island runs the massive chain known as the Southern Alps, which attains its greatest height in Mount Cook (12,349 ft), while no fewer than 17 peaks exceed 10,000 ft. West and north-west of the main portion of the Southern Alps are the Victoria, Brunner, and Lyell Ranges and the Tasman Mountains, the Victoria Range being flanked by the Paparoa Range. To the north run the St. Arnaud and Richmond Ranges, while to the north-east are the Spenser Mountains and the Kaikoura and Seaward Kaikpura Ranges, the two latter ranges running parallel to the east coast. The south portion of the Southern Alps breaks up into a miscellany of ranges dominating the mountainous Fiord and north-western Southland regions.

As might be expected, the higher mountains of the South Island have exerted a greater influence on the economic development of the country than those of the North Island. For many years the Southern Alps were an effective barrier to communication by land between the east and west coasts, while their climatic effects on the Canterbury plains and Otago plateaus determined the types of cultivation undertaken. Moreover, the existence of much elevated open country led to the development of pastoral holdings on a large scale. While the mountains in the North Island are not as high nor as extensive as those of the South Island, in the early days they effectively isolated various portions of the coastal plains and valleys. Their effect on climatic conditions, however, is considerably less, the rainfall being more evenly distributed. Owing to this more even distribution of the rainfall, and to the existence of considerable areas of lower relief, the foothills of the mountain systems were heavily wooded, and so proved a hindrance to agrarian development.

There are at least 223 named peaks of 7,500 ft or more in altitude. Below is a list of the peaks restricted to the four largest volcanic cones in the North Island and to mountains of a minimum height of 9,000 ft in the South Island.

Mountain or PeakHeight (Feet)
NORTH ISLAND 
Ruapehu9,175
Egmont8,260
Ngauruhoe7,515
Tongariro6,458
SOUTH ISLAND
Kaikoura Ranges- 
   Tapuaenuku9,465
   Alarm9,400
Southern Alps- 
   Cook   12,349
   Tasman   11,475
   Dampier   11,287
   Silberhorn   10,757
   Lendenfeldt   10,450
   David's Dome   10,443
   Malte Brun   10,421
   Torres   10,376
   Teichelmann   10,370
   Sefton   10,359
   Haast   10,294
   Elie de Beaumont   10,200
   Douglas Peak   10,107
   La Perouse   10,101
   Haidinger   10,059
   Aspiring   9,957
   Hamilton   9,915
   Glacier Peak   9,865
   De la Beche   9,815
   Aiguilles Rouges   9,731
   Nazomi   9,716
   Darwin   9,715
   Chudleigh   9,686
   Annan   9,667
   Low   9,653
   Haeckel   9,649
   Le Receveur   9,562
   Goldsmith   9,532
   Big Mac   9,511
   Conway Peak   9,510
   Bristol Top   9,508
   Walter   9,507
   Grey   9,490
   Green   9,307
   Hutton   9,297
   D'Archiac   9,279
   Ronald Adair   9,276
   Hochstetter Dome   9,258
   Earnslaw   9,250
   Nathan   9,200
   Barnicoat   9,183
   Sibbald   9,181
   Arrowsmith   9,171
   Spencer   9,167
   The Footstool   9,073
   Rudolf   9,039
   The Dwarf   9,025
Darran Range   
   Tutoko   9,042

Glaciers — In keeping with the dimensions of the mountain system, New Zealand possesses, in the South Island, a glacial system of some magnitude. Of the glaciers the largest is the Tasman, which, with others of comparable size, rises in the more elevated area surrounding Mount Cook. Flowing down the eastern slope of the range, the Tasman Glacier has a length of 18 miles and a width of 1 1/4 miles. In common with other glaciers on the eastern slope, of which the more important are the Murchison (11 miles), the Mueller (8 miles), the Godley (8 miles), and the Hooker (7 1/4 miles), its rate of flow is slow, while its terminal face is at an altitude of somewhat over 2,000 ft. On the western slope of the range, owing to the greater snow precipitation, the glaciers are more numerous and descend to lower levels, while the steeper slope gives them a more rapid rate of flow. The two largest of these are the Fox and the Franz Josef, with lengths of 9 3/4 miles and 8 1/2 miles respectively, and terminal faces at altitudes of 670 ft and 690 ft.

As will be realised, these glaciers are an important tourist attraction, and as such have definite economic significance. Moreover, those glaciers on the eastern slopes which feed rivers utilised for irrigation and hydro-electric purposes are valuable in that they help to ensure a steady volume of water throughout the year.

Rivers — Of the numerous New Zealand rivers few are of sufficient length or volume to be navigable. Moreover, owing to the high relief of the country, they are mostly swift-flowing, while, as mentioned previously, nearly all are obstructed at their mouths by bars. For the purpose of internal communication, therefore, they are of little economic utility, and only in two or three isolated instances have they been thus consistently used. With improved roading conditions, however, their traffic has become negligible even in these cases.

As sources of hydro-electric power New Zealand rivers are of considerable importance, since their rapid rate of flow and dependable volume of ice-free water make them eminently suitable for this purpose. At the present time the Waikato and the Mangahao in the North Island and the Waitaki, Cobb, Clutha, and Waipori in the South are used for major hydro-electric schemes. The characteristics just mentioned are also important for purposes of irrigation, but, owing to the country's reliable rainfall, there are few areas other than in Canterbury and Otago where the rivers are so utilised.

Following is a list of the more important rivers. For purposes of uniformity, the length of a river is taken to be the distance from the mouth to the farthest point in the system, whether this should happen to bear the same name or that of an affluent, and is inclusive of the estimated course of a river flowing into and emerging from any lake in the system.

NORTH ISLAND
RiverLength (Miles)

* Cook Strait is defined as follows: northern limit is a line between northern points of Stephens Island and Kapiti Island; southern limit is a line between Cape Palliser and Cape Campbell.

NORTH ISLAND
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean
   Piako65
   Waihou (or Thames)95
   Rangitaiki95
   Whakatane65
   Waiapu (from source, Mata River)75
   Waipaoa (from source, Waipapa Stream)70
   Wairoa (from source, Hangaroa River)85
   Mohaka (from source, Taharua River)95
   Ngaruroro90
   Tukituki70
Flowing into Cook Strait* 
   Ruamahanga90
   Hutt35
   Flowing into the Tasman Sea 
   Otaki30
   Manawatu120
   Rangitikei130
   Turakina70
   Wangaehu100
   Wanganui180
   Waitotara55
   Patea75
   Waitara85
   Mokau85
   Waikato (from source, Upper Waikato River)270
   Wairoa (from source, Waiotu Stream)115
   Hokianga (from source, Waihou River)45
SOUTH ISLAND
RiverLength (Miles)
SOUTH ISLAND 
Flowing into Cook Strait 
   Pelorus40
   Wairau105
   Awatere70
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean 
   Clarence130
   Conway30
   Waiau-uha (or Waiau)105
   Hurunui90
   Waipara40
   Ashley60
   Waimakariri100
   Selwyn50
   Rakaia90
   Ashburton70
   Rangitata (from source, Clyde River)75
   Opihi50
   Pareora35
   Waihao45
   Waitaki (from source, Hopkins River)135
   Kakanui40
   Shag.45
   Taieri175
   Clutha (from source, Makarora River)210
Flowing into Foveaux Strait 
   Mataura140
   Oreti120
   Aparima (Jacobs River)70
   Waiau (from source, Clinton River)135
Flowing into the Tasman Sea 
   Hollyford50
   Cascade40
   Arawhata45
   Haast60
   Karangarua25
   Cook25
   Waiho (from source, Callery River)20
   Whataroa35
   Wanganui35
   Waitaha25
   Hokitika40
   Arahura35
   Taramakau50
   Grey75
   Buller (from source, Travers River)110
   Mokihinui35
   Karamea50
   Heaphy25
   Aorere (from source, Spee River)45
   Takaka (from source, Cobb River)45
   Motueka70
   Waimea (from source, Wai-iti River)30

The discovery in 1861 that the beds of numerous rivers in the South Island contained extensive deposits of alluvial gold was of considerable importance in the economic development of the country. Not only did it lead to an increase in population and in wealth, but, through the following of the numerous streams to their sources, it also led to the rapid exploration of large tracts of remote country. The exploitation of these deposits has been carried on with varying degrees of success up to the present time by both manual and mechanical means, but the amount of gold now extracted is comparatively small.

A further factor in connection with the rivers is that, owing to the very successful acclimatisation of freshwater fish, notably trout, many of them now provide exceptionally fine fishing.

Lakes — In considering New Zealand's numerous lakes a distinction can be made, especially from the scenic viewpoint, between the lakes of the two Islands. Surrounded by extremely rugged country the larger lakes of the South Island are distinguished by the grandeur of their alpine settings, while those of the North Island, situated on a volcanic plateau, are of interest by reason of the neighbouring thermal activity. Owing to the excellence of their fishing, the North Island lakes possess an added tourist attraction. In both Islands the larger lakes are situated at high altitudes, and their consequent remoteness renders them unsuitable as a means of communication. In their functions as reservoirs the lakes of both Islands are of vital importance for the maintenance of the streams draining them and as a means of flood prevention. More especially is this the case where hydro-electric schemes are involved, Lakes Waikaremoana and Taupo in the North Island, and Lakes Coleridge, Pukaki, Tekapo, Wanaka, Hawea, and Wakatipu in the South Island, being of particular significance in this respect. A series of narrow man-made lakes have been produced in connection with hydro-electric development along some of the rivers.

Some particulars of the more important lakes are given in the following table.

LakeLength, in MilesGreatest Breadth, in MilesArea, in Square MilesDrainage Area, in Square MilesApproximate Volume of Discharge, in Cubic Feet per SecondMaximum Height Above Sea Level in Feet (Range in Brackets)*Greatest Depth, in Feet

* The range in lake levels is not available for all lakes.

    NORTH ISLAND
   Natural
Taupo25172341,2704,4901,172 (5)522
Rotorua7 1/2631203..920 (2)84
Rotoiti10313248852916 (2)230
Tarawera75 1/21472273981 (2)285
Rotoaira31 3/45502401,852 (3)..
Waikaremoana126211656232,015 (45)840
Wairarapa124311,236..564
Rotoehu32317..968 (4)..
Rotoma3 1/42 1/44 1/212..1,036 (6)..
Okataina43425..1,018 (9)..
Okareka1 1/21 1/41 1/48..1,160 (4)..
Rotomahana41 3/43 1/227..1,116(22)..
Rerewhakaitu2 1/21 3/43....1,441 (4)..
Tikitapu13/41/2....1,364..
Rotokakahi2 1/211 3/411401,298..
   Artificial
Ohakuri211/45 1/21,8505,540942..
Atiamuri41/41/21,9805,830826..
Whakamaru13 1/21/232,1556,160742..
Maraetai4 1/21/21 1/22,3906,730618..
Waipapa61/41/22,5007,010417..
Arapuni101/252,6557,310363 (2)..
Karapiro151/432,8807,820176..
Whakamarino1/21/41/10....900..
SOUTH ISLAND       
   Natural
Rotoiti91 1/24714402,020 (6)250
Rotoroa5 1/2291459601,462 (5)499
Brunner5 1/25 1/215160..280357
Kaniere61 1/4611..429646
Coleridge11214216..1,672680
Sumner61 1/25 1/2130......
Tekapo113 1/2375503,0602,347 (25)620
Pukaki9 1/25325234,5201,640(30)..
Ohau113234602,3101,730 (9)..
Hawea195465672,2401,133(53)1,285
Wanaka283749827,150915 (14)..
Wakatipu4831131,1506,1601,017 (7)1,239
Te Anau3861361,2759,730686 (15)906
Manapouri185551,78513,630608 (21)1,455
Monowai12111105495643 (13)..
Hauroko221 1/227 1/22251,100513 (6)..
Poteriteri181 1/2181601,05096..
Waihola41 1/432,200..(Tidal)52
Ellesmere14870745..(Tidal)7
   Artificial
Cobb31/43/4281982,650 (50)..
Waitaki31/22 1/23,75012,150753..
Roxburgh201/42 1/46,01217,270430..
Mahinirangi9181202301,282..

GEOLOGY — In New Zealand, ancient rocks (intensely deformed and indurated Paleozoic and Mesozoic geosynclinal sediments and Paleozoic metamorphic and intrusive rocks) form a “core” which is buried, over about half the country, by geologically young (late Cretaceous and Cenozoic) sedimentary and volcanic rocks. In most parts of the country major unconformity separates these younger rocks from the older ones. The present structure has been developed by vigorous deformation during the Cenozoic era. A feature of the country's structure are the numerous lengthy, active, transcurrent faults. Volcanic activity continues; the largest accumulations of volcanic rocks are geologically very young (late Tertiary and Quaternary), and most of them lie in the central North Island.

A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand contains geological maps of New Zealand and summaries of New Zealand's geology and landscape development. New Zealand Geological Survey Bulletin 66, The Geological Map of New Zealand, 1:2,000,000 is a lengthier summary with a more detailed geological map and cross sections. Other Geological Survey bulletins and maps are mentioned in Section 17 of this Yearbook. Numerous geological articles are contained in the New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology, and Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand.

EARTHQUAKES: Geophysical Background — Earthquakes are geographically associated with active volcanoes and with major earth movements such as mountain building; these three types of disturbance are confined, for the most part, to certain limited regions of the world. Such disturbed regions, of which New Zealand is one, are evidently the site of some kind of development affecting the outer shell of the Earth. Little is yet known about the internal processes that give rise to these geophysical disturbances, nor are the relations connecting them understood in any detail.

Formerly earthquakes were believed to be caused by volcanic activity, but it is now recognised that volcanic earthquakes are restricted to small shocks in the immediate vicinity of the volcanism. In New Zealand, tremors of this kind are experienced in the zone of active volcanism that extends from Mount Ruapehu to White Island.

In some places geological faulting at the surface gives visible evidence that a major earth movement has occurred. Occasionally movement on a fault has been observed to occur simultaneously with an earthquake in the same vicinity. New Zealand provided one of the earliest examples of this to become generally known, when movement took place on the Wairarapa Fault at the time of the great Wellington earthquake of 1855. Such events as this have led to the idea that earthquakes in general are caused by fault movements, but it has proved difficult to find convincing evidence in support of this theory. It is noteworthy that there seems to be little earthquake activity along much of the Alpine Fault, which has been traced for 300 miles from Milford Sound to Lake Rotoiti and is classed by geologists as one of the largest and most active faults in the world. The nature of the connection between earthquakes and faulting is still somewhat obscure.

The great majority of the world's earthquakes occur at depths of less than 40 miles, and in many earthquake zones there are no shocks at any greater depth. A moderate number of New Zealand earthquakes are classed as intermediate in depth, i.e., originating at between 40 miles and 190 miles deep. The two deepest New Zealand earthquakes recorded so far occurred six minutes apart on 23 March 1960, with a common focus 370 miles deep under north Taranaki; this is about 80 miles shallower than the deepest earthquake known.

It is difficult to compare the degree of earthquake activity in New Zealand with that in other regions because of the many differences that arise in earthquake type and mode of occurrence. New Zealand and California are often regarded as roughly similar, with an activity very much less than, for example, Japan or Chile.

Regional Distribution — There are two separate regions of earthquake activity in New Zealand. The larger, northern region may be roughly defined as lying between latitude 36 1/2°S and 43 1/2°S. It thus includes the northern half of the South Island, and all the North Island apart from the North Auckland peninsula; but the area from Kaipara Harbour to the lower Waikato River should be excluded. The southern active region lies to the west of longitude 169 1/2°E, and incorporates Southland, western Otago, and southern Westland. Earthquakes have only occasionally been located in the parts of New Zealand lying outside these two regions.

Within the active regions the occurrence of shallow earthquakes is widely scattered. There has been a tendency, however, for the larger shallow earthquakes to lie towards the Pacific side of the northern active region and towards the Tasman side of the southern active region. Earthquakes with deeper foci are mostly confined to a narrow belt in the northern region, extending from the Bay of Plenty south-westwards to Tasman Bay.

The historical record is too brief to support a quantitative assessment of the frequency with which one might expect earthquakes to be felt at a given intensity in various parts of New Zealand. Considering the distances to which major earthquakes can be effective, in relation to the size of New Zealand, it would be imprudent to regard any part of the country, except perhaps the far north, as permanently exempt from the possibility of earthquake damage.

Outside the active regions there are many areas, however, where no damaging intensity has actually been experienced in historical times. Moreover, since the major shallow earthquakes on record have been rather widely distributed within the active regions, there appears to be no particular area of markedly intense seismicity.

The Hawke's Bay earthquake of 3 February 1931 resulted directly or indirectly in 255 deaths. The total of deaths that have been recorded as due to other earthquakes since 1848 is 29.

Seismological Observatory — Earthquake recorders are operated continuously at the following stations by the Seismological Observatory, Wellington: Apia and Afiamalu (Samoa); Raoul Island (Kermadecs); Suva (Fiji); Onerahi, Auckland, Karapiro, Tuai, Taranaki, Tongariro, Bunnythorpe, and Wellington (North Island); Cobb, Kaimata, Gebbies Pass, Roxburgh, and Monowai (South Island); Hallett Station and Scott Base (Antarctica). The installations at the following stations include instruments for recording distant earthquakes: Apia, Suva, Auckland, Wellington, Roxburgh, Hallett, Scott Base. At the Samoan and Antarctic stations preliminary readings are made locally and notified by radiogram. The analysis of records from all stations is carried out at the Observatory in Wellington.

The Observatory publishes regular reports of all significant earthquakes occurring in the New Zealand region; in a normal year there are about 200 such earthquakes, and about 100 of these are reported felt. The analysis involves using observations from stations in other countries as well as those from the local network, and the Observatory likewise contributes data to the international seismological agencies about distant earthquakes as well as large local ones. Details of tremors felt in New Zealand are supplied to the public and the press. In the study of felt earthquakes the instrumental results are augmented by “felt reports”; these are supplied by a large number of voluntary observers throughout New Zealand in response to a standard questionnaire issued by the Observatory.

Earthquake data are used by the Observatory for studying the fundamental characteristics of the Earth's crust in New Zealand, Antarctica, and the neighbouring oceanic regions, and also for contributing to geophysical knowledge of the Earth's deep interior.

Principal Earthquakes During the Year 1961 — No unusual seismic events came to notice during 1961. Two earthquakes were very widely felt in the North Island because of the rather great depth at which they originated. One of these, which was also the largest earthquake of the year (magnitude 6 3/4, Richter scale), occurred on 26 July at a depth of 140 miles beneath the Bay of Plenty; the other was of magnitude 6 and occurred on 4 February at a depth of 200 miles beneath the Te Aroha district.

Three earthquakes of shallow origin were fairly widely felt. The largest (magnitude 6 1/4) occurred on 28 December and was centred at sea about 80 miles to the south-east of Masterton; it caused slight damage in the Wairarapa. An earthquake (magnitude 5.4) centred near Dannevirke on 14 May was felt as far north as Kawhia. The third of these shallow earthquakes occurred near Lake Wakatipu on 4 July and was felt from Bruce Bay to Dunedin and Stewart Island.

WEATHER INFORMATION — The collection of weather information and the provision of weather forecasts and climatic data for diverse interests in aviation, shipping, agriculture, Government Departments, and the general public are functions of the New Zealand Meteorological Service. By arrangement with the administrations concerned the Service performs similar functions for British territories in the Pacific.

Weather reports for use in forecasting are made at about 110 places within New Zealand and 50 in Pacific islands and collected by telegraph and radio, along with measurements of winds at upper levels made at eight radar wind-measuring stations and of temperatures made at seven radiosonde stations. Daily observations are made for climatological purposes at about 170 places in New Zealand and 60 in the islands. Rainfall measurements are made at a total of about 1,300 places within New Zealand and 110 outside the country.

Detailed climatological statistics are published annually in the Meteorological Observations. Current statistics appear monthly in a climatological table included in the New Zealand Gazette.

CLIMATE — Situated between 34°S and 47°S the main islands lie within the broad belt of strong westerly winds which encircles the hemisphere south of about latitude 35°S. Just to the north is the high-pressure ridge of the subtropics from which barometric pressure decreases southwards over New Zealand to the deep low-pressure trough located near latitude 60°S.

In the Australasian region there is no semipermanent anticyclone, as exists in subtropical latitudes in the Indian and eastern Pacific Oceans. Instead, a continual eastward migration of anticyclones takes place, roughly at weekly intervals. Most of the centres pass over or to the north of the North Island. The low-pressure troughs which separate successive anticyclones are associated with deep depressions centred far to the south. A period of disturbed weather accompanies the trough with a change to cold southerly or south-westerly winds as it advances north-eastwards over New Zealand. Conditions improve again with the approach of the next anticyclone from the west. While this simple progression dominates the day-to-day weather, the situation frequently becomes much more complex. The troughs are unstable systems where depressions commonly form, some of which develop into vigorous storms that travel south-eastwards across New Zealand.

The anticyclones themselves continually vary in size, intensity, and rate of movement. Their tracks are furthest north in the spring, on the average, and reach their southern limit in late summer or early autumn when most of the centres cross central or southern New Zealand. At this time of the year, too, northern and eastern districts of the North Island occasionally come under the influence of deep cyclones of tropical origin.

The other main factors which influence the climate of New Zealand are, first, its position in the midst of a vast ocean, and second, the shape and topography of the country itself.

Australia, the nearest continent, is 1,000 miles to the west; Antarctica is 1,400 miles to the south. Hot air masses from the interior of Australia in summer, or freezing air masses from the Antarctic, which occasionally reach New Zealand, retain little of their original character after their long ocean passage. Thus, there is an absence of extreme variations of temperature. On the other hand, since abundant supplies of moisture are supplied by evaporation from the oceans, and depressions are frequent and vigorous, the average precipitation is high.

The chain of high mountains, which extends from south-west to north-east through the length of the country, rises as a formidable barrier in the path of the prevailing westerly winds. The effect is to produce much sharper climatic contrasts from west to east than in the north-south direction. In some inland areas of the South Island just east of the mountains the climate is distinctly continental in character, despite the fact that no part of New Zealand is more than 90 miles from the sea.

Winds — Winds from a westerly quarter prevail in all seasons, with a general tendency to increase in strength from north to south. However, considerable local modifications to the general air flow occur during its passage across the mountainous terrain. Approaching the main ranges the westerly flow turns towards the north-east and on descending on the eastern side swings towards the southeast. This results in an increased number of south-westerlies in Westland and a predominance of north-westerlies in inland districts of Otago and Canterbury, where strong gales from this quarter occur at times in the late spring and summer. Daytime sea breezes usually extend from the coast inland for 20 miles or more during periods of settled weather in summer. On the Canterbury coast, north-easterlies are almost as frequent as the predominant south-westerlies, mainly as a result of a persistent sea breeze. Cook Strait, the only substantial gap in the main mountain chain, acts as a natural funnel for the air flow and is a particularly windy locality afflicted by gales from the southeast as well as the north-west. This “funnel” effect is also in evidence about Foveaux Strait. North of Taranaki the general air flow is more south-westerly, and there is a noticeable reduction in windiness in the summer.

Rainfall — The distribution of rainfall is mainly controlled by mountain features, and the highest rainfalls occur where the mountains are exposed to the direct sweep of the westerly and north-westerly winds. The mean annual rainfall (see map) ranges from as little as 13 in. in a small area of Central Otago to over 300 in. in the Southern Alps. The average for the whole country is high, but for the greater part it lies between 25 and 60 in., a range regarded as favourable for plant growth in the temperate zone. The only areas with under 25 in. are found in the South Island, to the east of the main ranges. These include most of Central and North Otago, and South Canterbury. In the North Island, the driest areas are southern Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa, and Manawatu where the average rainfall is 30–40 in. a year. Of the remainder, much valuable farm land, chiefly in northern Taranaki and Northland, has upwards of 60 in. Over a sizeable area of both Islands rainfall exceeds 100 in. a year but, with the exception of Westland, this is mountainous and unoccupied, much of it being forest covered.

For a large part of the country the rainfall is spread evenly through the year, although its effectiveness in summer is, of course, much reduced. The greatest contrast is found in the north, where winter has almost twice as much rain as summer. This predominance of winter rainfall diminishes southwards. It is still discernible over the northern part of the South Island but, over the southern half, winter is the season with least rainfall, and a definite summer maximum is found inland due to the effect of convectional showers. The rainfall is also influenced by seasonal variations in the strength of the westerly winds. Spring rainfall is increased in and west of the ranges as the westerlies rise to their maximum about October, while a complementary decrease occurs at the same time in the lee of the ranges.

Areas which are exposed to the west and south-west experience much showery weather, and rain falls on roughly half the days of the year. Over most of the North Island rain can be measured on at least 150 days a year except to the east of the ranges where there are., in places, fewer than 125 rain days. Those areas of the South Island with annual rainfall under 25 in. generally have about 100 rain days a year. In the far south the frequency of rain increases sharply; in Stewart Island and Fiordland rain days exceed 200 a year. Over most of the country between 55 and 65 per cent of the rain days also qualify as wet days (0.10 in. or more). The percentage increases to over 70 in Westland, but in the low rainfall area of inland Otago there are only about 40 wet days a year compared with 100 rain days.

On the whole the seasonal rainfall does not vary greatly from year to year, the reliability in spring being particularly advantageous for agricultural purposes. It is least reliable in late summer and autumn when very dry conditions may develop east of the ranges, particularly in Hawke's Bay.

The highest daily rainfall on record is 22 in., which occurred at Milford Sound where the mean annual rainfall is 250 in. Other areas with considerably lower rainfall are also subject to very heavy daily falls; such areas are to be found in northern Hawke's Bay and in north-eastern districts of the Auckland Province. By contrast, in the Manawatu district and in Otago and Southland daily falls reaching 3 in. are very rare.

Thunderstorms — Thunderstorms are not numerous. Their frequency is greatest in the north and west where thunder is heard on 15 to 20 days a year; east of the ranges the figure is five or less.

Hail — Hail is most frequent in the south-west where it is reported on about 20 days a year, but for the greater part of the country it occurs on about five days a year or less. Most of the hailstones are small, but occasionally large stones cause local damage to glasshouses, and to orchards and market gardens, chiefly in Canterbury and Hawke's Bay.

Frost — It is well known that local variations in frostiness are considerable, even within quite small areas. On a calm, clear night the cold air in contact with a sloping surface gravitates slowly downhill to collect in valleys and depressions, and it is these “Katabatic” drifts which are mainly responsible for local temperature variations at night. Gently sloping ground with a northerly aspect tends to be least

affected by frost. Favourable sites in coastal areas of Northland are free of frost, although further inland light frosts occur frequently in the winter months. At Albert Park, Auckland, the screen minimum thermometer (4 ft above the ground) has registered below 32° F only once in nearly 50 years, yet across the harbour at Whenuapai Aerodrome there are eight screen frosts per annum on the average. Excluding the uninhabited mountainous areas, the most severe winter conditions are experienced in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Plains of inland Canterbury, and on the central plateau of the North Island. Even in these areas night temperatures as low as 10° are rarely recorded. Elsewhere over the North Island the winters are very mild and pastures maintain continuous growth. In both Islands sheep and cattle remain in the open all the year round.

Snow- The majority of New Zealanders rarely see snow except on the mountains. The North Island has a small permanent snow field above about 8,000 ft on the central plateau, but the snow line rarely descends below 2,000 ft even for brief periods in winter. In the South Island snow falls on a few days a year in eastern coastal districts and in some years may lie for a day or two even at sea level. In Westland it does not lie at sea level. The snow line on the Southern Alps is around 7,000 ft in summer, being slightly lower on the western side where the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers descend through heavy bush to within 1,000 ft of sea level. In inland Canterbury and Otago, where there are considerable areas of grazing lands above 1,000 ft, snowfalls are heavier and more persistent and have caused serious losses of sheep during severe winters in the past. However, only rarely does the winter snow line there remain permanently below 3,000 ft.

Relative Humidity — Humidity is commonly between 70 and 80 per cent in coastal areas and about 10 per cent lower inland. It varies inversely to the temperature, falling to a minimum in the early afternoon when temperature is highest and frequently lying between 90 and 100 per cent during clear nights. As the following table shows, the diurnal variation is greater than the difference between summer and winter.

StationMean Relative Humidity
JanuaryJuly
3 a.m.3 p.m.3 a.m.3 p.m.
 per cent
Auckland (Mechanics Bay)85639074
Gisborne89629072
Ohakea Aerodrome87628972
Wellington89718777
Christchurch87618973
Hokitika95789375
Invercargill90729178

Very low humidities — between 20 and 30 per cent or lower — occur at times in the lee of the Southern Alps where the Föhn effect is often very marked. In summer the hot, dry “Canterbury Norwester” is generally a most unpleasant wind. Cool south-westerlies are also at times very dry when they reach eastern districts. In Northland the humid mid-summer conditions are inclined to be rather oppressive though temperatures rarely reach 85°. Dull, humid spells are generally not prolonged anywhere, but their frequency shows a marked increase in the south.

Sunshine — The sunniest areas are to be found locally near Blenheim, Nelson, and Whakatane, where the average duration of bright sunshine exceeds 2,400 hours per annum. Napier and the rest of the Bay of Plenty are only slightly less sunny. A large portion of the country is favoured with at least 2,000 hours. Even Westland, despite its high rainfall, has 1,800 hours. Southland, where sunshine drops sharply to 1,700 hours per annum, lies on the northern fringe of a broad zone of increasing cloudiness. Four hundred miles further to the south at Campbell Island the sunshine has the extremely low value of 650 hours per annum. A pleasant feature of the New Zealand climate is the high proportion of sunshine during the winter months. To eliminate the effect of varying day-length the summer and winter sunshine at a few selected stations have been expressed as a percentage of the possible sunshine.

 Summerwinter
 per cent
Auckland5749
Hamilton5244
New Plymouth5347
Napier5752
Wellington5242
Nelson5857
Hokitika4344
Christchurch4645
Dunedin4143
Invercargill4235

As these figures indicate, there is a marked increase in cloudiness in the North Island in winter, but little seasonal change in the South Island, except in Southland.

Temperature — Mean temperatures at sea level decrease steadily southwards from 59°F in the far north to 54° about Cook Strait, then to 49° in the south. With increasing altitude, temperatures drop about 3° per 1,000 ft. January and February, with approximately the same mean temperature, are the warmest months of the year; July is the coldest. Some temperature statistics for selected places are included in the following table. Highest temperatures are recorded east of the main ranges, where they rise to the nineties on a few afternoons in most summers, usually in association with a north-westerly Föhn wind. The extremes for New Zealand (measured in a standard thermometer screen) are 101° at Ashburton and—3° at Ophir (Central Otago).

As is to be expected, there is a small annual range of temperature (difference between mean temperature of the warmest and coldest months). In Northland and in western districts of both Islands the annual range is about 15°F. For the remainder of the North Island, and east coast districts of the South Island, it is 17°–19°. Further inland it exceeds 20° in places, reaching a maximum of 25° in Central Otago where there is an approach to a continental type of climate.

Climatological Averages — The following table provides a brief summary of the main climatological elements for selected locations.

StationAltitudeAverage Annual RainfallAnnual Averages ofAir Temperature (Degrees Fahrenheit)
Rain Days (0.01 in. or more)Bright SunshineMean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily MinimumMean Annual
JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum
 ftin. hours       
Te Paki, Te Hapua19056.81872,14459.172.759.557.445.97830
Auckland16048.91732,09360.573.156.96004608137
Tauranga1251.21522,31656.974.657.355.339.98529
Ruakura, Hamilton13145.91681,98255.273.956052.537.38523
Rotorua97553.71511,99854.473.854.352.437.28726
Gisborne1439.81582,21257076056.654.74009128
Onepoto, Lake, Waikaremoana2,11076.9196 51.668.347.752.237.48330
New Plymouth16061.21662,11056069.455.255.943.37832
Napier531.21242,28156.974.155.357.339.48929
Wanganui7234.41462,12356.171.254.256.440.68330
Palmerston North (D.S.I.R.)11039.01721,81454.871.153.354.63908227
Waingawa, Masterton34038.01722,06153.774.353.350.73608925
Kelburn, Wellington41549.21582,01254.167.751.354.741.67934
Nelson Airfield635.91252,41452.970.953.253.733.78223
Blenheim1425.81082,43354.573.754.852.535.58923
Hanmer Forest1,27045.31431,91150.473.147.947.928.38915
Hokitika South12108.81941,85551.765.952.851.23607627
Lake Coleridge1,19533.0118..50.870.848.449.23008818
Christchurch2226.31161,99052.570.350.252.734.59025
Timaru5623.51121,91251.870.349.551.433.19024
Milford Sound16253.3193..50065048.650.234.37727
Queenstown1,03032.01321,97550070.645.749.330.88623
Alexandra52013.21002,08150.673.644.751.127.99018
Musselburgh, Dunedin531.01671,73451.666.750.351.636.98628
Invercargill Airfield042.81991,66149.165.249.147.532.98222

Note

Averages of rainfall, 1921–50; rain days, 1950–59; sunshine, 1935–60; temperature, various periods-all exceeding 10 years.

Normal Seasonal Temperature Pattern — A feature of the seasonal pattern of temperature for New Zealand is the near symmetry about either the hottest summer months or the coldest winter months. In other words the summer-winter decline is an almost identical reversal of the winter-summer rise. This shows up clearly when temperatures for 100 climatological stations are averaged month by month. The first two months of the calendar year, the summer months of January and February, display the same average temperature, that of 61.3°F. This temperature is the highest average for any month, being approached by only the December average of 59.2°F. Once February is past a decline sets in, the estimated average New Zealand temperature falling by 2.5°F from February to March to give a March average of 58.8°F. Thereafter, successive inter-monthly temperature drops of 4.4°, 5.4°, 4.2°, and 1.2°F finally produce a July average of 43.6°F, which makes this month the coldest of the year. Progressing through and past July the temperature steadily rises, the increments being successively, 1.8°, 3.4°, 3.8°, 3.2°, 3.4°, and 2.1°F, finally returning to the January mark of 61.3°F.

ESTIMATED NORMAL NEW ZEALAND TEMPERATURE (°F)*
Calendar MonthMean Temperature

* Based on temperature normals for 100 climatological stations.

January61.3
February61.3
March58.8
April54.4
May49.0
June44.8
July43.6
August45.4
September48.8
October52.6
November55.8
December59.2

The following diagram illustrates the seasonal temperature pattern.

Brief Review of 1961:Year — Rainfall was below average in western districts from Milford Sound to Waitomo (mainly by 10–15 per cent) and above average in eastern districts from North Otago to Gisborne (mainly by 20-40 per cent). 1961 was the third successive year with this general distribution. It was also below average by about 15 per cent in northern Northland and the Taupo — eastern Bay of Plenty area, and in the Marlborough Sounds by 25 per cent.

Temperatures were above average by up to 1 1/2°F in northern and most western districts of the South Island. In remaining districts of both islands they were mainly above average by 1/2 to 1 degree, but in a few inland areas they were very close to average. The mean positive departure for the country as a whole was about 3/4 degree, and it was the eighth successive year with a positive departure of at least 1/2 degree.

Sunshine was above average by more than 50 hours in most western districts of the North Island, in northern districts of the South Island, and in inland Canterbury. The greatest surplus of about 200 hours occurred about Cook Strait. In most of Southland and coastal Otago and in eastern Northland sunshine was below average by 50 to 150 hours.

Seasonal Notes — January was the third successive month of unusually cloudy, wet weather in Gisborne and Hawke's Bay owing to the comparatively high frequency of winds from an easterly quarter. In these districts many crops were seriously affected by the wet weather. A large number of thunderstorms were reported in the North Island from 18 to 23 January, with some severe local flooding causing disruption of road and rail services at times.

February and March were drier than usual over the Auckland provincial district, and in some areas dairy production suffered. They were also comparatively cloudy months, and March was cool over the South Island.

April was a sunny month with some spells of settled weather suitable for harvesting. May was not as wet as usual in many districts, thus providing mainly favourable conditions for stock. However, in some western and northern districts of the North Island the ground was too dry after four to eight months of below-average rainfall. By contrast, in Canterbury it was cloudy, wet, and cold, adversely affecting the health of young sheep.

The winter of 1961 was very different from that of 1960, as it was marked by somewhat colder temperatures than usual in the South Island, and at times considerable snow. A heavy fall to low levels between 27 and 30 June affected especially Southland and west Otago, with up to a foot of snow in some areas. July was unsettled, and much too wet and cloudy in the South Island. Serious flooding in the third week affected widely separated areas, especially the Waikato — Thames Valley area, New Plymouth, inland South Canterbury, and a considerable part of Otago. In August the main feature was a southerly storm which raged over the southern half of the North Island from 4 to 10 August with disruption of all forms of transport. In the centre of the Island the heaviest snowfall for many years blocked the Desert Road, and at this time heavy losses of Iambs were reported from west of the Ruahines and in eastern districts of the North Island.

September, like August, was marked by an unusually high frequency of southerly to easterly winds, with cloudy, wet conditions in Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa, and Manawatu. In the South Island it was also a cold month. However, in Auckland and Taranaki conditions were favourable for farming.

The weather changed at about the beginning of October and the last three months of the year were rather exceptional. Barometers remained unusually high over New Zealand, and the weather was warm and for the most part also sunny and very dry. The total rainfall for October-December was the lowest in more than 50 years of record for a number of stations in the southern half of the North Island and also in Marlborough and Canterbury. These stations included Marshlands (Blenheim) 0.95 in., Hastings 1.24 in., Christchurch 1.4 in., Palmerston North 2.7 in., Ashburton 2.7 in., Wellington 4 in., New Plymouth 6 in. Sheep lost condition in many districts and dairy production also suffered.

Summary of Meteorological Observations for 1961 — The observations from which the following summary was compiled for the year 1961 were taken at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time, i.e., 2100 hours Greenwich mean time.

StationAir Temperature (Degrees Fahrenheit)Bright Sunshine (Hours)Rainfall, Total Fall (Inches)No. of Rain Days
Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily MinimumApproximate Mean Temp.Extremes for 1961Extremes*
MaximumMonthMinimumMonthAbsolute MaximumAbsolute Minimum

* Highest and lowest temperature for the duration of records.

Te Paki, Te Hapua66.852.159.577.8Feb28.8Jul82.827.02,07548.20178
Auckland66.353.559.978.9Feb37.6Jul90.231.52,20658.43144
Tauranga66.049.257.689.4Jan30.3Jun91.922.52,34357.68142
Ruakura, Hamilton66.246.056.181.8Feb26.2Jul94.414.22,14244.05155
Whakarewarewa63.945.654.886.2Jan27.8Jun98.021.32,04052.28136
Onepoto, Lake Waikaremoana..45.1..82.1Feb30.9Jul88.122.2..80.66178
Gisborne66.347.957.187.9Jan28.0Jul99.825.92,24542.66148
New Plymouth63.250.556.879.8Jan34.0Jun86.028.02,17253.34120
Napier-65.549.157.389.0Dec29.7Jul96.527.52,26735.54118
Wanganui63.549.056.385.0Dec30.3Jul88.028.62,15934.05122
Palmerston North (D.S.I.R.)63.947.455.784.8Dec27.9Jul87.021.21,84837.06142
Waingawa, Masterton63.744.053.985.6Dec23.5Jul95.419.52,08049.00152
Kelburn, Wellington60.349.254.880.5Jan33.8Jul88.028.62,19840.85145
Nelson Airfield62.845.153.985.4Jan24.4Jul92.021.02,52232.9998
Blenheim65.245.255.290.4Jan27.0Jul94.716.12,67320.0479
Hanmer Forest61.538.950.290.9Jan18.0Jul97.08.22,04749.06133
Hokitika South60.244.652.476.5Jan28.0Jul84.525.01,89893.33171
Lake Coleridge60.340.150.287.0Feb20.0Jun97.010.0..35.95115
Christchurch62.644.053.487.7Jan24.3Jul97.019.31,99124.10107
Timaru61.943.352.692.2Dec26.2Jun99.019.81,76826.70113
Milford Sound58.644.451.580.9Jan29.0Jul81.823.1..227.69181
Queenstown59.241.550.484.2Feb23.6Jul93.419.21,95632.53122
Alexandra62.039.950.989.0Feb14.0Jun99.011.02,07812.3486
Musselburgh, Dunedin58.144.951.588.1Feb27.0Jul94.023.01,59328.59155
Invercargill Airfield57.741.349.581.0Dec24.1May90.019.01,51244.12201

For 1961 the mean sea-level pressure values in millibars at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time were: Auckland 1017.3; Kelburn, Wellington 1016.0; Nelson Airfield 1016.3; Hokitika South 1016.8; Christchurch 1014.8; and Dunedin 1014.5.

Chapter 2. Section 2 HISTORY, CONSTITUTION, AND GOVERNMENT

Table of Contents

EARLY HISTORY: General — When New Zealand was discovered by Europeans in 1642 it was found to be inhabited by a race of Polynesians called Maoris, who had migrated to these islands at least 300 years previously. It is generally accepted that the Maoris came originally from South-East Asia, whence, as proto-Polynesians, they moved eastwards from island to island until they reached the eastern Pacific, where they settled the islands now known collectively as Polynesia. From Polynesia the ancestors of the Maori sailed south-west in ocean-going canoes to reach New Zealand and these voyages were probably spread over several generations, perhaps several centuries. Oral Maori history and genealogy support the view that there was a final wave of migration of considerable magnitude about A.D. 1350. Adapting themselves to a new physical environment, in isolation from the outside world, the Maoris produced forms of social and economic organisation and material culture which were significantly different from their Polynesian prototypes.

Coming from tropical latitudes, the Maoris mainly confined themselves to the warmer North Island, and when discovered by Europeans were in a high state of neolithic civilisation, with marked superiority in the arts of wood carving and military engineering. Their principal social unit was the family group, and from combinations of the numerous groups were formed the subtribes and tribes. They had highly developed social and ritualistic customs, and their system of land tenure and methods of cultivation were communal within the subtribes. Inter-tribal and intra-tribal warfare was common, and as individuals they displayed exceptional courage and intelligence.

The immediate effect of European contacts on the Maoris was the outburst of a series of tribal wars waged with greater ferocity and a vastly greater loss of life than was customary in pre-European tribal engagements. The high mortality could, of course, be credited to the acquisition of a more lethal weapon, the musket. The advantage lay originally with the coastal tribes as a result of their earlier contact with Europeans, the wars continuing until all tribes were equally well armed. These wars were later followed by wars against the colonists, but after 1870 the story has been one of unbroken peace between Maoris and Europeans.

The introduction of European diseases and firearms, and the impact of European civilisation on the traditional way of life and customs of the Maoris, had such an adverse effect that their numbers must have been reduced by over half during the nineteenth century. However, the virility of the race gradually asserted itself, and from the beginning of the twentieth century the Maori population has been rapidly increasing.

Other island groups, such as the Cook Islands, Niue Island, and the Tokelau Islands, had also long been inhabited by Polynesians from various successive migrations extending over considerable periods prior to their discovery by Europeans.

Discovery by Europeans — On 13 December 1642, Abel Janszoon Tasman, a navigator of the Dutch East India Company, discovered the country to which he gave the name of Staten Land, and which later became known as “Nieuw Zeeland”. Tasman had left Batavia on 14 August 1642, and, after having discovered Tasmania, he steered eastward and sighted the west coast of the South Island, described by him as a high mountainous country. Sailing north, he had the misfortune to come into conflict with the Maoris at Golden Bay, on the north coast of the South Island, so that, though he continued his northward journey until he reached the northern tip of the country, he did not again attempt to land. His exploration was of necessity very cursory, for having explored only part of one coast he had no knowledge of the country's extent or shape.

There is no record of any European visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until Captain Cook sighted land on 6 October 1769, at Young Nick's Head, near Gisborne. On his first voyage Cook spent six months exploring the New Zealand coastline, and he completely circumnavigated the North and South Islands. His activities can be best described by saying “he found New Zealand a line on the map, and left it an archipelago”. Not only was Cook's ability shown by his cartographical accuracy, but also in his peaceful dealings with the truculent Maoris. He returned to New Zealand again in 1773, in 1774, and in 1777.

Several other explorers also visited New Zealand during the latter portion of the eighteenth century, amongst whom may be mentioned M. de Surville 1769, M. Marion du Fresne 1772, Captains Vancouver and Broughton 1791, Captain Raven 1792–93, Alejandro Malaspina and Jose de Bustamente y Guerra 1793, and Lieutenant Hanson 1793.

The European discovery of many of the islands of the Cook Group was made by Captain Cook in 1773. Rarotonga and Mauke were not officially discovered for another 50 years, although there were records of earlier visits by the Bounty under the control of the mutineers in 1789 and later, in 1814, by the Cumberland. Niue Island was discovered by Cook in 1774. The first recorded discovery of the Tokelau Islands was made by Quiros in 1606. Of the remaining islands of the group, Atafu was discovered in 1765, Nukunono in 1791, and Fakaofa in the 1840s.

European Settlement and Colonisation — So far as is known, the first instance of Europeans being left in New Zealand to their own resources occurred in 1792, when Captain Raven of the Britannia landed a sealing party at Facile Harbour, on the west coast of the South Island, where they remained a little over 12 months before being called for.

In the years that followed, whaling stations sprang up along the coast, and a trade with New South Wales began not only in whale oil and seal skins, but also in flax and timber. Attracted to New Zealand were deserters from whaling vessels and escaped convicts from Australia, who, in the absence of any jurisdiction, soon became notorious for their extreme lawlessness. In 1814 Samuel Marsden, chaplain to the Governor of New South Wales, obtained permission to send two of his protégés, Kendall and Hall, to the Bay of Islands to consider the desirability of establishing a mission station. Later they returned to Sydney for Marsden, who arrived in New Zealand to preach his first sermon at the Bay of Islands on Christmas Day, 1814. Of the many admirable activities undertaken by the missionaries, their action in having the Maori language “reduced to a rational orthography” deserves special mention.

In 1825 three separate, but abortive, attempts were made to found colonies; however for some years the only settlements were those round the principal whaling stations, although a number of Europeans gradually penetrated inland and resided there permanently, many marrying Maori women.

The first body of immigrants under a definite scheme of colonisation arrived in Port Nicholson in January 1840, there to found the town of Wellington, just one week before Captain William Hobson arrived at the Bay of Islands as Governor to proclaim British sovereignty (see page 20). These settlers were brought out from England by the New Zealand Company, whose moving spirit was Edward Gibbon Wakefield.

It was hoped that, by producing a proper balance of capitalists and artisans, self-contained communities could be successfully established. However, owing to the unsatisfactory nature of the land purchases, considerable difficulty was experienced in these initial settlements, and friction grew up not only between the settlers and the Maoris, but also between the Governor and the settlers. Before his death in 1842 Governor Hobson had transferred his capital from Russell to Auckland, but this transfer was of little assistance to the colonists, who had extended their settlements to Wanganui, New Plymouth, and Nelson.

Following the death of Hobson, the existence of the colony became precarious, for, through lack of funds and weak administration, Maori aggression became a real menace. To cope with the situation, the Colonial Office appointed Captain George Grey as Governor. Being well equipped with troops and funds, as well as being a man of vigour and perception, Grey soon restored order and won the confidence of both the settlers and the Maoris. During Grey's term two further organised settlements were made. In cooperation with the New Zealand Company the Free Church of Scotland sponsored the Dunedin Settlement of 1848, and the Church of England the Canterbury Settlement of 1850. These settlements, owing to their more favoured situations, their satisfactory land-purchase agreements, and their freedom from trouble with the Maoris, achieved a greater measure of success in carrying out the company's avowed aims.

After Grey's departure the question of relationship with the Maoris again came to the fore through the land-purchasing activities of the settlers — a situation aggravated by subsequent lack of consideration for the Maori system of land tenure. Following an incident at Waitara in the Taranaki district, where a dispute arose concerning land titles, war broke out in 1860 and lasted spasmodically till 1870. The recall of Grey did not solve the problem, as Grey, an autocrat, could not work with the elected Ministers, nor did his presence prevent the confiscation of land belonging to the Maoris, whether friendly or hostile. It was under the sympathetic administration of Sir Donald McLean as Minister for Maori Affairs that the dispute finally died down.

These hostilities were confined to the North Island; and, in the meantime, in 1861, large alluvial deposits of gold had been discovered in the South Island — leading to a tremendous influx of population and an alteration of the economic structure of the country.

No organised form of European colonisation has at any time taken place in the Cook Islands, Niue Island, or the Tokelau Islands.

SUBSEQUENT HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT (1870 ONWARDS) — The discovery of gold, by increasing the wealth of the South Island, allowed it to obtain a lead in commercial and political development which it long maintained. Moreover, with the subsequent agrarian expansion, especially in the development of the large pastoral holdings, the country ceased to be merely self-sufficient agriculturally, but began to develop a substantial export trade, mainly in wool, which it has maintained to the present day.

These factors, together with freedom from strife with the Maori population, led after 1870 to a quickening in political activities. Under the leadership of Sir Julius Vogel a policy of extensive borrowing for railway and road construction was begun. The provincial system, which really commenced in 1853, had largely outlived its usefulness; in fact, the parochialism of the provincial assemblies had frequently proved obstructive, and in consequence the system was abolished in 1875, local administration being provided for by the Counties Act and the Municipal Corporations Act of 1876.

Of great social significance was the passing in 1877 of the Education Act, making education free, compulsory, and secular, while the laying during that decade of the first cable between Australia and New Zealand was a major advance in communications. At this time party politics began to enter into the parliamentary system, and the slump conditions which prevailed in the eighties (due to a fall in the world price level) intensified the political atmosphere. By the abolition of plural voting in 1889, and the introduction of female suffrage in 1893, the way was opened for a practical expression of political convictions by all adult members of the community.

In 1891 Ballance, as Leader of the Liberal Party, became Premier, to be followed on his death in 1893 by Seddon, and during the next decade the legislative essays of this party evoked world-wide interest. The main aim of the legislation was social justice, and its principal manifestations were in land division, the establishment of the Court of Arbitration, and the introduction of old-age pensions. The policy of land division aimed at closer land settlement, and it was achieved by the compulsory subdivision of large estates, with subsequent loans to small independent farmers wishing to establish themselves. In inaugurating the Court of Arbitration the object was to eliminate strikes by giving labour a recognised bargaining status; and the enactment was in accord with the enlightened code of labour legislation passed at that time.

With the commencement of the refrigerated trade in 1882, the policy of closer settlement progressed rapidly, since the production of frozen meat and dairy produce for export encouraged more intensive farming. There thus arose a new farming class which in 1911, some five years after Seddon's death, was mainly responsible for the overthrow of the Liberal regime.

The policy of the succeeding Reform Party under Massey was one favouring agricultural production. Farming interests were given constant encouragement by a series of enactments of which the extension of rural credit was typical. Three years after the advent of the Reform Party the First World War, 1914–18, broke out, leading to the formation of a Coalition Government and an Imperial commandeer of exports. War activities were marked by heavy casualty lists, in proportion to the population, and by enhanced cordiality in Imperial relations. One noteworthy outcome of the war commandeer was the precedent given for the establishment, after the war, of control boards to regulate the export of pastoral products.

Though the effects of the post-war depression during the period 1921–24 showed themselves in an increase in unemployment and slight wage reductions, no drastic legislation was necessary to stabilise economic conditions. During the following years the price level rose; and from the administrative side, the period was characterised by extensive public works expenditure, with particular attention to hydro-electric schemes and highways.

Owing to the encouragement given to farming, pastoral production constantly expanded, so that New Zealand became one of the world's greatest exporters of pastoral produce. As a consequence, her national income was extremely sensitive to price fluctuations of these products; so that, with the advent of the depression in 1930, her economic position became extremely vulnerable. In order to produce balanced budgets, both public and private, various legislative remedies were attempted. In particular, enactments were provided for unemployment relief, for the suspension, in effect, of compulsory arbitration, for the establishment of a Reserve Bank, for a mortgage moratorium, for raising the exchange rate, and for reduction in interest rates and wages. With the recovery in price levels and consequent general economic revival, amendments were made to several of these Acts, removing the more stringent measures. The election of a Labour Government in 1935 led to a change in administrative policy, the preoccupation being mainly with social problems. Further amendments were made to the depression legislation, certain restrictive measures were removed, and other temporary adjustments made permanent.

The general climate of opinion and gradual maturity of outlook furnish the background in which certain distinctive trends appear in legislation passed since 1936.

The first major influence was a humanitarian attitude reinforced by a progressive economic policy. Evidence of this is implicit in the provision for a basic wage, and later for a minimum wage, employment-promotion legislation, amendments to workers' compensation, industrial conciliation and arbitration, mining, etc., legislation, the system of guaranteed prices for certain primary produce, the creation of farm industry reserves, and the rationalisation of production and marketing by the establishment of boards for certain items of primary produce.

The second major influence on legislation was conditioned by the outbreak of the Second World War, 1939–45. A vast body of legislation was placed on the statute book during the war period dealing with the control of manpower and materials, stabilisation of prices, wages, and rents, conditions of employment and suspension of certain peacetime features of industrial activity, discouragement of some industries and diversion to or encouragement of other industries, provision for rehabilitation, etc.

A third dominant trend was the acceptance of the principle that society should take active steps towards the improvement of the working, living, and social circumstances of its members. Foremost in this category was the Social Security Act and its later extensions providing for monetary benefits such as age, superannuation, family allowances, sickness, and unemployment, and by the provision of a system of medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, and other related benefits.

Other legislative enactments under this heading include the provision for paid annual holidays, reduction of working hours, extension of workers' compensation insurance, improvement in safety and health and welfare conditions in industry, and extension of educational facilities and opportunities.

A fourth approach to law making resulting from maturity of outlook has been the increased participation by New Zealand in international affairs consequent on its acceptance of responsibility in the wider issues of the present era. Legislation authorising participation in United Nations activities generally and in particular emergencies, such as military service in Korea, Malaya, and elsewhere; the extension of New Zealand representation in overseas countries and with the United Nations; the greater frequency of Commonwealth consultation; extension of aid to less developed countries, e.g., participation in the Colombo Plan, all bear witness to this change in outlook.

Another influence on legislation presents some parallels to that last mentioned, but is more concerned with the domestic sphere. It is exemplified in the increasing interest taken in welfare and social development generally of both the rapidly growing Maori population and the inhabitants of New Zealand's island territories, such as the Cook Islands.

Contemporaneously with the expansion of the field of legislative interest, the economic and industrial development of the country has proceeded with marked impetus in recent years. Expansion and diversification of manufacturing and servicing industries have provided avenues of employment for the growing labour force. At the same time the basic industries of the country, those concerned with primary production, have increased output, assisted by the rapid application of technological improvements and research findings.

The history of New Zealand's island territories has been largely one of wise paternal oversight, particularly in the earlier periods, by the New Zealand Government and by the various missions established in the islands. More recently, successive Governments have in various ways encouraged the inhabitants to take an increasing share in the administration of their communities, thus paving the way for some form of self-government. Much attention has been paid to combating tropical diseases and to health problems generally; such island industries as citrus fruit, and banana growing have been fostered and encouraged in various ways, with outlets being found for produce available for export. By and large, however, their economy is necessarily one of a subsistence type only, with financial and other assistance provided from Government sources for the expansion of educational facilities and opportunities, public works such as reading, conservation of water supplies by reservoir construction, communication facilities, etc.

Owing to limitations of space, the foregoing is but a brief résumé of New Zealand history. For detailed information, reference should be made to the many excellent books dealing with the subject, of which the more recent ones are listed in the General Bibliography appearing in Appendix (c) of this Yearbook, and others in earlier issues.

SOVEREIGNTY — Following representations from Maori chiefs for protection from the prevailing turmoil and lawlessness caused by tribal warfare and the rough element around the whaling stations, the New South Wales Government appointed, in 1832, Mr James Busby as British Resident at Russell. Owing to the failure to supply him with any means of exerting authority, his appointment was largely ineffective. Finally the disorder, and the friction between the two races, became so intolerable that even the missionaries, who were opposed to annexation, made representations for British sovereignty.

On 29 January 1840, Captain William Hobson, RN, arrived at the Bay of Islands, empowered, with the consent of the Maoris, to proclaim the sovereignty of Queen Victoria over the Islands of New Zealand, and to assume the government thereof. Hobson formally read his commissions at Kororareka on 30 January 1840, and on 6 February of the same year a compact called the Treaty of Waitangi was entered into, whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights being secured to the chiefs and their tribes.

On 21 May 1840 Governor Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty in the case of the North Island by virtue of the Treaty of Waitangi, and in the case of the South Island and Stewart Island by right of discovery. New Zealand remained a dependency of New South Wales until 3 May 1841, when it was created a separate colony by Royal Charter dated 16 November 1840. The capital was at first transferred by Hobson from Russell to Auckland, but in 1865 it was again transferred, on this occasion to Wellington, where the seat of Government has since remained.

During Governor Grey's term, steps were taken to draft a constitution for the colony. An Act granting representative institutions was passed by the Imperial Parliament on 30 June 1852, and was published in New Zealand by Proclamation on 17 January 1853. Under it provision was made for the constitution of a General Assembly consisting of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives. Provision was also made for the division of the country into provinces, each province having an elected Council and Superintendent. (The provincial system was abolished in 1875 and the Legislative Council in 1950.) In the first General Assembly of 27 August 1854 certain members of this body were associated with the permanent members of the executive but they did not hold any portfolios. It was not until 7 May 1856 that responsible government was actually established.

With the gradual development of the country's economy, the acquisition of political and administrative experience, and the increasing desire for self-reliance in political matters, the degree of self-government became more complete. In recognition of this and of a nascent sense of nationality, New Zealand was given the title of Dominion in lieu of Colony, the new title taking effect on 26 September 1907.

Of the constitutional events in recent years the passing by the United Kingdom Parliament of the Statute of Westminster in December 1931 was of major importance. The draft of this statute was submitted for the confirmation of the various Commonwealth Legislatures before its passage through the United Kingdom Parliament. The statute granted complete autonomy to the various self-governing member countries, but it did not automatically apply to Australia or New Zealand. In other words, its operation in the latter self-governing members of the Commonwealth was declared to require specific adoption by the Legislatures of those countries. It was not until 1947 that the New Zealand Government formally adopted the Statute of Westminster.

As far as the island territories are concerned, the Cook Islands were proclaimed a British protectorate in 1888, and in 1901 were annexed and proclaimed part of New Zealand under the Colonial Boundaries Act 1895. Niue Island is part of the Cook Islands, though separately administered, and became part of New Zealand in 1901 with the extension of boundaries to include the Cook Islands. The Tokelau Islands were placed under the protection of Great Britain in 1877, formally annexed at the inhabitants' request in 1916, and from 1925 were administered by New Zealand at the request of the United Kingdom Government. From 1949 they became part of New Zealand by virtue of the Tokelau Islands Act 1948.

NEW ZEALAND'S INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES — Though in the nineteenth century Sir Julius Vogel and the Right Hon. R. J. Seddon had original views about the policy which Britain and New Zealand should pursue in the Pacific area — views which they announced with vigour — New Zealand did not acquire the right to conduct an independent foreign policy until the end of the First World War when the full nationhood of the “Dominions” was recognised. For some years after this, however, successive New Zealand Governments chose not to exercise this right and (pursuing a passive role in the League of Nations and refraining from establishing diplomatic relations with foreign Governments, or with other members of the Commonwealth apart from Britain) preferred to make known any views on matters of foreign affairs only to the British Government and through the confidential channels of intra-Commonwealth consultation.

Few pressures existed in the 1920s and early 1930s to impel New Zealand towards enunciating an independent foreign policy. The population was mainly British in composition and comparatively few were concerned to distinguish between the interests of New Zealand and those of the Mother Country. Nor had they much cause to do so: New Zealand had established a fruitful economic partnership with Britain, upon which country nearly all her material and cultural links were centred; and New Zealand's surest protector against dangers which it was incapable of meeting alone was the Royal Navy. It was, moreover, realised that New Zealand in her own right could make little impact on world affairs, whereas Britain was a great power capable of affecting the pattern of world events. New Zealand “foreign policy” therefore consisted chiefly in seeking to modify British policy in those few cases where New Zealand had a strong interest or a viewpoint rather different from that of Britain. A standing opportunity was provided by the system of confidential intra-Common wealth consultation whereby Britain provided full information to the Dominions and sought their comments upon issues of international policy as they arose. In this way New Zealand tended to prefer a share of great power status to “independence” of foreign policy; this sufficed until the middle of the 1930s.

In practice, during the first 16 years after the First World War the New Zealand Government on only a few occasions thought it necessary to make significant efforts to bring about a modification of British policy. This situation resulted chiefly from the factors earlier outlined which made for an identity of interest and viewpoint between Britain and New Zealand. In part also it arose because few problems directly affecting New Zealand remained to be settled; in part it was because of a considered reluctance to give advice when the main consequences of accepting that advice fell upon Britain, not New Zealand; in part it was because New Zealand Governments tended to approach problems pragmatically rather than on grounds of principle, and were conscious of having no expert New Zealand Department organised to collect and appraise the facts on equal terms with the British Foreign Office; in part it was because New Zealand Governments, supplied by the Foreign Office with very much the same information as that on which the United Kingdom Cabinet based its judgments, viewed problems from a similar standpoint to that of the British Government. In short, most New Zealanders thought of external affairs in terms of Imperial unity and relied on British leadership of the Empire.

The emergence of an independent New Zealand foreign policy is usually held to date from 1935. Some Ministers in the new Government were deeply interested in world affairs in general, and the Government's approach was influenced by theory and principle. In particular, they held strong views on the principle of collective security and upon the League of Nations as the embodiment of that principle. In its method of championing the principles of collective security, pressing for the restoration of the authority of the League of Nations and, at a time when the United Kingdom Government was pursuing the policy which came to be known as appeasement, urging positive League action over Abyssinia, Spain, and China, the Government came to depart from the pattern of the previous 16 years: for, in addition to making its views known in confidential communications to the United Kingdom Government, it also stated them with vigour in the international forum of the Council and the Assembly of the League of Nations.

There was, however, no fundamental departure from the traditional policy of association with Britain. Moreover, the course that would be followed in the event of war was never in doubt. As early as 16 May 1938 a leading member of the Government had said, “If the Old Country is attacked, we are too … we will assist her to the fullest extent possible.” When war broke out the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage, expressed New Zealand's position in terms that were as true in 1939 as they would have been in 1914:

“Behind the sure shield of Britain we have enjoyed and cherished freedom and self-government. Both with gratitude for the past, and with confidence in the future, we range ourselves without fear behind Britain. Where she goes, we go. Where she stands, we stand. We are only a small and young nation, but we are one and all a band of brothers, and we march forward with a union of hearts and wills to a common destiny”.

But the Second World War changed the pattern of power in the world and made it necessary for New Zealand gradually to revise its foreign policy and its method of implementing that policy. Even though the basic attachment of New Zealanders to the Mother Country was little affected, the fact became manifest that Britain was no longer a power able to determine events on a world scale and that, since New Zealand interests could no longer be protected by British actions alone, it did not suffice to confine New Zealand foreign policy to occasional attempts to persuade the British Government to take note of New Zealand views. Japanese aggression and, later, the rise of Communist China forced New Zealand to face the reality of its geographical location in the Pacific and to develop an additional relationship with the only other friendly power capable of protecting New Zealand — the United States of America — with the least possible prejudice to its association with the United Kingdom. To contribute to Anglo-American harmony is therefore a major preoccupation of New Zealand foreign policy.

To be woven into any post-war policy was the now traditional New Zealand belief in the principle of collective security and international justice, especially as symbolised by, though not yet embodied in, the United Nations. This was by no means an easy task in a world where the divisions of the cold war were reflected in competing regional alliances. There had to be a place, too, for belief in the ability of international cooperation to control armaments and to eliminate poverty, disease, and other economic and social causes of international tension.

During the war years New Zealand was admitted to the councils of the Allies and was expected to advance informed views. The Government honoured its responsibility and, having established in wartime the habit of participating in the making of international decisions, accepted it as natural that New Zealand should continue to participate in the development of a post-war world order and in subsequent international consultations. To this end New Zealand established (in effect from 1943) a professional Department of External Affairs and a career foreign service, and proceeded slowly to establish diplomatic missions in countries where New Zealand's interests merited protection. In particular, New Zealand sought increasingly to make its individual contribution to fostering good relationships with its neighbours in the Pacific and to increasing the measure of security and welfare in this area.

The threat to New Zealand's security, posed by the entry of Japan into the war at a time when the United Kingdom was fully committed in Europe, brought New Zealand into the closest relations with two of her Pacific neighbours, Australia and the United States. Recognition of the need for a greater measure of collaboration with Australia resulted in the signing in 1944 of the Canberra Pact which provided machinery for continuing consultation between the two Governments. Upon the entry of Japan into the war both New Zealand and Australia looked principally to the United States for protection. Relations among the three countries thus entered a new phase. The close association of wartime found expression in peacetime in the Anzus Treaty, in which, for the first time, New Zealand and Australia entered into a treaty of alliance and mutual defence with a foreign country. While neither Australia nor New Zealand was in favour of a vindictive or onerously restrictive peace settlement with Japan, they both made clear during the negotiation of the Japanese Peace Treaty their apprehension at the possibility of future aggression in the Pacific. The Anzus Treaty, which came into force in April 1952, was designed to allay these fears at the same time as it achieved the aim of both countries to enter into a close relationship with the major Pacific power. The treaty gives an assurance of United States support in the event of an armed attack from any quarter in the Pacific and so constitutes New Zealand's major safeguard from aggression in the area.

Since the signature of the Anzus Treaty, New Zealand has become a member of another regional defence system, the South-East Asia Treaty Organisation, SEATO. In joining SEATO, a body made necessary by the failure of the Great Powers to cooperate in carrying out the security functions entrusted to them by the United Nations Charter, New Zealand demonstrated further its new awareness of the international and strategic implications of its position in the South Pacific. In 1955, the Minister of External Affairs, the Hon. T. L. Macdonald, discussing New Zealand's foreign policy, said that the only possible threat to New Zealand's security could come from Asia, and in particular from the spread of Communist power in South-East Asia. “New Zealand's foreign policy grows,” he said, “from the need to reconcile geography and history, economic fact and strategic fact. In practical terms at present this means that, without weakening the many links which bind us to Britain and the whole Atlantic community, we must increase our concern with South-East Asia.”

This regional approach implied no weakening of the belief in the pre-eminent value of collective security organised on a world basis. New Zealand continued to place special importance upon its membership of the United Nations. It has been an active participant in the work of the General Assembly, has been a member of all Councils of the Organisation, has provided troops to the United Nations Force in Korea and military observers in Palestine, Kashmir, and Lebanon, and has endeavoured to assist all efforts to attain the political and social objectives outlined in the Charter.

At the time of the formation of SEATO, New Zealand's interest in South-East Asia had already been expressed in social and economic terms. In 1950, New Zealand, along with a group of other Commonwealth countries, became a member of the Colombo Plan established to assist the countries of South-East Asia to improve their standards of living. To New Zealand, a pioneer in the field of social legislation and a country where wealth is spread throughout all levels of the population, the Colombo Plan has a special significance and contributions, large by New Zealand standards (if small when measured against the potential need), have been made to it. Despite this new concentration on South-East Asia, New Zealand continued and developed its efforts (as will be seen later) to promote action on a world scale to deal with social and economic problems.

New Zealand's geographical position and that of its island territories, the Cook, Niue and Tokelau Islands, also gives this country a direct interest in political, social, and economic developments in the South Pacific. This is reflected not only in New Zealand's membership of such regional organisations as the South Pacific Commission, but also in a wide and growing range of contacts with island people and an increased sense of involvement in their problems. The evolution of self-government and nationalism in the South Pacific reached a new stage when Western Samoa became the first independent Polynesian state on 1 January 1962. New Zealand's own colonial past and her liberal tradition of friendship for emergent peoples, together with the large number of Polynesian people who have settled in this country, mean that the islanders tend to look to New Zealand for leadership and encouragement. In particular, Western Samoa, Tonga, and Fiji already look to New Zealand as an important export market and as a source of administrative and technical assistance. Inevitably, New Zealand is going to be increasingly affected by what happens in the South Pacific region.

If, since the war, the facts of geography have had an important influence on New Zealand's attitudes towards foreign affairs, history and tradition continue nevertheless to mould its outlook. The historic links with the United Kingdom and with Western Europe and North America remain as strong as ever; and the economic links with the United Kingdom, New Zealand's best customer, remain strong. No situation is, however, constant. One of the key problems of external political, not merely economic, policy now presented to New Zealand arises out of the movement towards political and economic integration in Europe and especially the possibility of Britain's membership of the European Economic Community. New Zealand must expand the volume and value of its exports of primary products if the standard of living of its rapidly increasing population is to be maintained and improved. In recent years it has become increasingly apparent, however, that the United Kingdom market is capable of only a limited expansion. The development of new markets in Asia and other less developed countries is hindered by low income levels as well as by consumption patterns in which the type of foodstuff exported by New Zealand does not figure prominently. New Zealand's foreign policy is likely to continue the endeavour to reconcile geography and history, economic fact and strategic fact.

Department of External Affairs — The External Affairs Act 1943 made provision for the appointment of a Minister of External Affairs* charged generally with the administration of external and foreign affairs, including relations with other countries, communications with other Governments, representation abroad, and representation of other countries in New Zealand. The Act also authorised the appointment of a Secretary of External Affairs and (superseding the High Commissioner Act of 1908) dealt with the appointment of High Commissioners and of overseas representatives.

The functions of the Department were defined at its inception as follows:

  1. To act as a channel of communication between the Government and other British and foreign Governments on matters relating to external affairs.

  2. To assist in negotiating treaties and international agreements.

  3. To direct New Zealand's overseas diplomatic posts.

  4. To deal with foreign diplomats, and to issue exequaturs to foreign consuls.

The Act thus established the Ministry of External Affairs as the normal channel of communication with the Governments of other countries. As, however, the new Department was in fact still a part of the Prime Minister's Department, no change in procedure, apart from the use of the changed nomenclature, was necessary.

Dealings with overseas Governments usually involve considerable interdepartmental coordination. Since the Prime Minister's Department has always been regarded primarily as a department of coordination, an intimate relationship has existed between the two Departments. The Prime Minister has for three periods found it appropriate to assume the portfolio of External Affairs and the Departments have in any case been run as a unit. The staff is held in common and, though some officers are engaged on work peculiar to one Department, the work of the majority involves both Departments. The Secretary of External Affairs is also Permanent Head of the Prime Minister's Department. In defence matters the two Departments have been closely associated. During the war, the Permanent Head was also Secretary of the War Cabinet. In that period the responsibility of the Prime Minister's Department for defence coordination was extended and developed; in discharging this responsibility the Permanent Head is now assisted by the Defence Secretariat of the Prime Minister's Department. This Secretariat works closely with the Defence Division of the Department of External Affairs, and the head of that Division is chairman of the body which coordinates military and civilian intelligence.

* The portfolio was assumed by the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. Peter Fraser.

In the formulation and application of external affairs policy, close association with other Government Departments is necessary. Defence planning, for example, entails close liaison with the Service Departments, participation in the Colombo Plan with the Treasury and with the many Departments which supply experts and training facilities, consular questions with the Department of Labour, and legal questions with the Department of Justice. Moreover, the Department is a clearing house for a wide variety of material provided by overseas posts for other Departments. As well as fulfilling its major function of acting as a channel of communication with other Governments, the Department thus also acts as a coordinating centre for other Government Departments. The Department and its network of posts overseas also performs numerous services on behalf of Departments which are without overseas representatives of their own.

In the Official Section at the end of the Yearbook the diplomatic and other New Zealand representatives overseas are listed, as well as the official representatives of other countries in New Zealand.

New Zealand in the Commonwealth — Despite the new emphasis in New Zealand's approach to international affairs resulting from its consciousness of the realities of its geographical position in the South Pacific, membership of the Commonwealth remains the central feature of its policy. Intimate association with the United Kingdom is the historical basis, and remains an important principle of New Zealand's external relations. The ties between New Zealand and the United Kingdom are embodied in the close association of the Commonwealth, membership of which has given New Zealand an international status that such a small and isolated community could not otherwise claim.

Although one of the oldest members, New Zealand, unlike some of its fellow members, did not seek to hasten the process of constitutional transition within the Commonwealth. At the Imperial Conference in 1930 the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. G. W. Forbes, stated that “We have felt that all times within recent years we have had ample scope for our national aspirations and ample freedom to carry out in their entirety such measures as have seemed to us to be desirable”. There was little interest in the adoption of the relevant provisions of the Statute of Westminster enacted in 1931 to give legal endorsement to the transformation that had taken place in the relationship between Britain and the Dominions. It was not, in fact, until 1947 that the necessary formalities were completed in New Zealand by the passing of the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act.

Since that time there have been many changes in the Commonwealth association both in constitutional respects and in numbers. Whereas at the beginning of the war there were only five members, (of whom one, South Africa, withdrew from the association in 1961), there are now 13 and it is expected that more will join within the next few years. With the entry of India, Pakistan, Ceylon, the Federation of Malaya, Ghana, Nigeria, Cyprus, Sierra Leone, and Tanganyika, the Commonwealth has become an entity embracing several continents and its relationships have taken on a new scope and emphasis. New Zealand, itself a country where two races live side by side, sees in the Commonwealth a special opportunity for multiracial cooperation and understanding.

New Zealand has as yet exchanged representatives with only the following members of the Commonwealth: Australia, Canada, India, the Federation of Malaya, and the United Kingdom.*

The importance New Zealand attaches to the Commonwealth association has been given practical expression in its membership of a number of Commonwealth organisations, including the Commonwealth Air Transport Council, the Commonwealth Telecommunications Board, the Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, the Imperial War Graves Commission, the Commonwealth Institute, the Commonwealth Economic Consultative Council, and the Commonwealth Scientific Office.

New Zealand in the United Nations — It has been noted earlier that the first significant expression of an independent New Zealand foreign policy occurred in the League of Nations and was directed to supporting the principle of collective security. Support for this principle later and through the United Nations has remained a cornerstone of New Zealand's foreign policy.

The purposes which motivated the policy in 1935 were strongly held beliefs, rather than a set of principles developed from any careful assessments by a national foreign service. The beliefs were nevertheless a reflection of widely held concern over world events, a concern which the succeeding years were to reinforce. It was, therefore, perhaps understandable that at San Francisco in 1945 New Zealand should argue so forcibly, if unsuccessfully, to eliminate the veto and to strengthen the collective security provisions of the United Nations Charter.

* The New Zealand High Commissioner in India is also appointed High Commissioner in Ceylon.

Despite its physical isolation New Zealand has felt unable to regard with unconcern the fate of other small countries helpless to defend themselves against a powerful aggressor and thus liable to be picked off one by one.

The United Nations does not, it is true, offer a complete guarantee of New Zealand's or any other small country's security against aggression. Nor has it yet achieved agreement on disarmament; but New Zealand Governments have acted upon the conviction that the United Nations, and it alone, contains the rudiments of a universal collective security system, and that it is through the United Nations, and not through its abandonment in favour of some alternative, that an effective and comprehensive collective security system may eventually be developed and agreement on disarmament achieved.

New Zealand has recognised that this objective must be a long-term one, and that the United Nations in its present form must be buttressed by regional defensive alliances. It has not taken the view that all multilateral diplomacy must be conducted within the United Nations. In general, however, New Zealand has regarded the United Nations as the natural centre of international diplomacy unless there were, in special cases, good reasons to work outside it.

Within the United Nations the expression of this policy has taken several forms. New Zealand has sought to remove the causes which might produce the need for recourse to collective security action. Its representatives have urged that the Assembly be used as a place for harmonising relations between nations: they have voiced the need for restraint in the pursuit of national objectives; they have consistently sought and supported responsible action in aid of an effective international organisation; they have reiterated the need for the early adoption of a broad programme of supervised disarmament. At the 1961 session of the General Assembly the New Zealand representative, Mr A. D. McIntosh, deplored the continuing arms race and the resumption of nuclear tests, and reiterated New Zealand's concern to see the early application of disarmament machinery and the conclusion of an international treaty to bring about the permanent cessation of nuclear weapons tests. Subsequently, New Zealand supported the establishment of a new Disarmament Committee to undertake urgent negotiations with a view to reaching agreement on general and complete disarmament under effective international control.

New Zealand has at the same time advocated adequate and timely preparations in case aggression should occur. When occasion has arisen New Zealand has been prepared to play its part: troops were supplied to the United Nations Force in Korea and military observers to the United Nations Observer Groups in Palestine, Kashmir, and Lebanon. New Zealand representatives in the United Nations have also strongly supported the principle that all members must bear an equitable share of the cost of international action to meet aggression, e.g., the cost of supporting the United Nations Emergency Force in the Middle East and the United Nations' operation in the Congo.

To maintain the peace is the primary purpose of the United Nations, and for New Zealand the search for effective guarantees of international peace and security continues to be the first object of membership. It is not, however, the only object, nor is a system of collective security (or disarmament) the only means of giving effect to it.

The state of economic, social, and general political relations goes far to determine the urgency of the need for a collective security system. For New Zealand, geographically isolated and with limited direct diplomatic relations, the United Nations is inevitably one of the most important forums available, not only to influence the course of international events, but also to secure the friendship and understanding of the world community. For any country, its international reputation is a valuable asset. If New Zealand is better known and commands more influence in international affairs than some other small States similarly situated, this is in some measure, at least, due to New Zealand's record of active participation in the United Nations.

Economic and Social Council-New Zealand's interest in economic and social questions — as well as the recognition by other countries that New Zealand has special experience to offer — is illustrated by its membership of the Economic and Social Council (an elective body of 18 members of the United Nations) from 1947 to 1949 and its re-election in 1958 for a further term for the period 1959 to 1961. The New Zealand representative, Mr Foss Shanahan was, in fact, elected President of the Council for 1961. New Zealand is also a member of the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE), the Technical Assistance Committee, the Statistical Commission, and the Commission on International Commodity Trade. In the past New Zealand has also designated representatives on the Social and Fiscal Commissions and the Commission on the Status of Women.

In undertaking these responsibilities New Zealand may to some extent be regarded as “taking its turn”. In few cases, however, are the considerations in favour of representation so simple. New Zealand certainly shares with others an interest in ensuring that economic and social conditions are such as to permit ordered political progress. It is concerned to ensure that, where political principles are in issue, the beliefs which New Zealanders hold as essential should be recognised and, if possible, accepted by the world community. Sometimes there are strong reasons of self-interest; the weight of advantage received, in terms of professional benefit, and the contribution made are evenly balanced in the case of technical bodies such as the Statistical Commission. On the other hand some organs which were first designed to meet the emergency of post-war conditions, such as UNICEF, have developed programmes, e.g., the supply of milk powder and fish-liver oil, which are of economic interest to New Zealand.

The biggest single task now facing the Economic and Social Council is to promote and direct programmes for economic development in underdeveloped countries. New Zealand has always recognised the need for economic development and made its contributions to the appropriate funds, e.g., the Expanded Programme for Technical Assistance and the Special Fund. It has been concerned to ensure that international programmes in this field should be effective and realistic.

At present New Zealand representatives in the United Nations are called upon to deal with questions of economic development in three different fields. One is in the Economic Committee of the General Assembly, where the economic work of the Organisation is subject to general review; the second arises out of New Zealand's membership of ECAFE. In this setting, the detailed study of development programmes is closely related to the work of the Colombo Plan, and provides a significant counterpart to New Zealand's growing political interest in Asia. Finally, as a member of the Technical Assistance Committee of the Economic and Social Council, New Zealand is associated with activities affecting the lives and welfare of a considerable proportion of the world's population.

Specialised Agencies — It is the responsibility of the Economic and Social Council under the Charter to coordinate the activities of the Specialised Agencies through consultations and recommendations. New Zealand is a member of all the Agencies except the International Development Association. As a contributor to their budgets, it is concerned to ensure that activities are not duplicated and that the Secretariats of the United Nations and of the Agencies work closely together on matters of common interest. New Zealand has also been concerned to ensure that on political and administrative matters the policies of the Agencies are adjusted to those of the United Nations. As in the case of the different organs and subsidiary bodies of the United Nations, so with the Specialised Agencies, New Zealand's reasons for membership have ranged from motives of self-interest to its conviction of the value of international cooperation. In some cases non-membership would place New Zealand at a distinct disadvantage. Membership of the Universal Postal Union is essential to facilitate the efficient international movement of mails to and from this country. Similarly the International Telecommunications Union regulates international radio, telephone, and telegraphic traffic, and the need to belong to this body is universally accepted. The World Meteorological Organisation is the medium for setting standards and encouraging the free interchange of meteorological information. Wartime experience emphasised the fact that few countries have as direct an interest in international civil aviation as New Zealand; New Zealand is closely concerned with the efforts of the International Civil Aviation Organisation to foster the planning and development of international air transport and to ensure proper standards for the development of airways, airports, and air navigation facilities.

No clear line can, however, be drawn between the “technical” Agencies and others, and some degree of technical advantage is to be derived from membership of all the Specialised Agencies. Although its own health standards are high, New Zealand has nevertheless drawn benefits, particularly in its island territories, from its membership of the World Health Organisation. Each in its own field — the Food and Agriculture Organisation, the International Labour Organisation, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation, and the International Atomic Energy Agency — constitutes an important international medium for the free interchange of knowledge and experience.

On occasion the Specialised Agencies provide the forum for advancement of a New Zealand interest. The FAO has played a prominent part in the formulation of measures to encourage the establishment of a stable international market for agricultural commodities, particularly in the enunciation of principles to govern the disposal of surplus commodities. The FAO's interest in the disposal of surplus foodstuffs was increased in December 1961 when the United Nations approved the establishment of a World Food Programme to be administered jointly by FAO and the United Nations. New Zealand has been elected to the inter-Governmental Committee charged with the responsibility of supervising the Programme.

New Zealand's accession to the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Monetary Fund, and the International Finance Corporation will not only allow this country to participate in measures designed to increase the stability of international trade and promote the economic development of the underdeveloped areas of the world. It will also serve to strengthen New Zealand's own economic position by providing access to more varied sources of capital.

As well as the Commonwealth organisations mentioned earlier some regional organisations, particularly the South Pacific Commission, are of particular importance to New Zealand. Since the establishment of the Commission in 1947, New Zealand's island territories have derived much benefit from its work on fisheries, cooperatives, control of the rhinoceros beetle, and research upon filariasis.

New Zealand and the South-East Asia Treaty Organisation — New Zealand, together with other countries concerned at the deteriorating security situation in South-East Asia, followed with close attention the development of the Indo-China crisis during the first half of 1954. After a United States plea on 29 March for “united action” by the free world to resist further Communist expansion in South-East Asia, the following month the United Kingdom and French Governments made known their agreement with the United States that consideration should be given to the establishment as soon as possible of a collective security system in the area. In New Zealand the Minister of External Affairs stated on 14 April that the Government welcomed this proposal, and was prepared to participate in discussions for this purpose.

The clarification of the situation in Indo-China, as a result of the cease-fire agreements reached at Geneva on 21 July 1954, gave fresh impetus to the proposals for a collective security arrangement. After a further period of consultation, eight countries — Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and the United States — announced on 14 August that they had agreed to attend a conference in the Philippines in September to consider the establishment of a system of collective defence for the area. On 8 September in Manila representatives of the eight Governments signed the South-East Asia Collective Defence Treaty. At the same time they agreed on a Pacific Charter setting out the principles upon which the signatories undertook to base their policies for maintenance of peace and stability in the treaty area. The treaty was ratified by New Zealand on 19 February 1955 and entered into force for all the parties on that date.

The work of SEATO is directed by the Council of Ministers, which consists of the Foreign Ministers of all member governments and meets annually at the seat of government of a member country. The 1959 Council Meeting was held in Wellington. Council members are represented permanently at the headquarters of the Organisation in Bangkok, usually by their Ambassadors to Thailand. There is an international Secretariat headed by a Secretary-General. On the military side, joint planning is carried out in a Military Planning Office under the direction of Military Advisers from each member country who normally meet bi-annually.

In guiding the principal civil activities of the Organisation, the Council Representatives are advised by a Permanent Working Group and by three specialist committees — the Committee of Security Experts, the Committee of Economic Experts and the Committee on Information, Cultural, Educational, and Labour Activities — which meet periodically and to which all member countries send representatives.

New Zealand and the Colombo Plan — Under the Colombo Plan, New Zealand, with Australia, Canada, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America, has joined with the countries of South and South-East Asia to help them improve their standards of living. The Colombo Plan is not a single plan, but a series of separate plans drawn up and administered by each country in the region; the external assistance required and made available to help implement these plans is negotiated on a bilateral basis. The Plan had its origin in, and took its name from, a meeting of Commonwealth Foreign Ministers held in January 1950 in Colombo to exchange views on world problems, particularly on the economic needs of the countries of South and South-East Asia. The meeting established a Consultative Committee to “… survey the needs, to assess the resources available and required, to focus world attention on the development problems of the area, and to provide a framework within which an international cooperative effort could be promoted to assist the countries of the area to raise their living standards”. Since then the Consultative Committee has met consecutively in Sydney, London, Colombo, Karachi, New Delhi, Ottawa, Singapore, Wellington (1956), Saigon, Seattle, Jogjakarta, Tokyo, and Kuala Lumpur (1961).

A foundation member of the Plan and an active participant at every meeting, New Zealand has done its utmost, within the scope of its limited resources, to make significant grants of capital and technical assistance to the countries of the area.

Capital Assistance — By 31 March 1962 New Zealand had appropriated a total of £11,315,000 for capital and technical assistance under the Colombo Plan. Of this, at 31 December, 1961, £6,632,567 had been transferred to the governments concerned or used at their request to buy equipment. Most of New Zealand's capital aid has been given in the form of direct transfers of overseas funds, but in appropriate cases it has been possible to supply equipment manufactured in New Zealand.

Among the capital-aid grants during 1960 were a further £45,000 for the Akkarayankulum irrigation tank in Ceylon, £5,000 for educational materials sent to Laos, and the provision of surveying equipment for North Borneo. Grants of £150,000 were made in 1961 for the Jaipur and Lucknow milk schemes in India, and assistance was also given to Malaya for a Civil Service Training Centre. A sum of £60,000 was also set aside for land-development projects in Malaya. Substantial capital aid, combined in most cases with the provision of New Zealand technical personnel, was being considered for Pakistan's Jaipur Hat sugar mill, an artisan training centre and other projects in Burma, an agricultural faculty at the University of Northern Sumatra in Indonesia, further assistance for dairy projects in India, and a pasture-improvement project in Nepal. New Zealand has assisted regional projects in providing launches at a cost of £35,000, for the Mekong River Development Scheme, as well as equipment for the Tonle Sap tributary project, and is giving £100,000 annually for 10 years to the Indus Water Scheme in India and Pakistan.

Technical Assistance — By 31 March 1961 New Zealand had spent a total of over £1,750,000 on technical assistance, and 882 students had come to New Zealand. The number of Colombo Plan students in New Zealand had risen by 31 March 1961 to 297, the largest number ever here at any one time. At that date there were also 43 New Zealand experts overseas, including 12 English language teachers in Indonesia.

During the year progress was made with overcoming the serious shortage of teaching facilities and hostel accommodation that had previously limited the number of places New Zealand could offer to Asian students. In September 1960 the Prime Minister announced that the Government had decided to build a dairy technology unit and hostel at Massey College so that more students could be brought to New Zealand for agricultural training. Other projects to help increase New Zealand's capacity to train students announced during the year were the purchase of Warwick House in Christ-church to provide more places for Colombo Plan students and the opening of an English Language Institute at Victoria University of Wellington. The Institute, which began classes in March 1961, provided practical training in English in 1961 for 33 teachers of English from Indonesia and for 20 Vietnamese students. The latter went on to university courses in 1962. In succeeding years it is planned to widen considerably the scope and extent of the Institute's classes.

Commonwealth Aid Scheme — New Zealand participates in two cooperative aid programmes for Commonwealth members. Under the Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Scheme New Zealand offers each year 10 two-year scholarships for post-graduate study, three one-year administrative fellowships, and three one-year prestige fellowships. The New Zealand contribution to the Special Commonwealth African Aid Plan of £100,000, under which Commonwealth countries outside Africa provide bilateral assistance to African members, will enable up to 45 African students to study in New Zealand at any time, and about 10 New Zealand experts to work in Africa, as well as providing for small capital or equipment grants in appropriate cases.

The other form of technical aid, the sending of New Zealand experts to Asia, is also being expanded, and in the middle of 1961 there were 41 New Zealanders on assignment, compared with 33 in 1960. Twelve of the experts, comprising an English language team, are giving instruction in English teaching in training colleges and universities in 11 Indonesian cities. Another team consisting of 12 surveyors is working in Malaya on rural land-development schemes.

General Aims — It is clear that, as New Zealand has assumed the international responsibilities appropriate to an independent country, its foreign policy has changed in emphasis and scope. The foundations of New Zealand's pre-war position in international affairs — its identification with Britain and its membership of the Commonwealth — have been modified and extended to meet the demands of an international situation greatly changed from that of 1939. As a country of predominantly European settlement, New Zealand retains its traditional loyalties to the United Kingdom and a sense of identity with Europe and of involvement in its destiny. As a Pacific power, it has sought security in friendship and formal defensive arrangements with Australia and the United States of America. New Zealand's growing involvement in the problems of the South Pacific region and its close ties with the island peoples are giving rise to a new recognition of the importance of the role it will have to play in this area in the future. New Zealand is in a unique position to encourage the growth of a regional consciousness in the South Pacific which is essential if the problems of the area are to be seen and tackled as a whole. At the same time it has developed its association with Asian countries. As a country concerned with the preservation of world peace and the organisation of defence against aggression it has placed prime importance upon development of the United Nations as an agency for peaceful settlement of international disputes and for the achievement of collective security. Pending the establishment of a broadly based United Nations security system, however, New Zealand has been prepared, in respect of South-East Asia, to participate in a protective grouping concerned with the defence of a single area. Moreover, while it sees aggressive Communism as the greatest threat to individual liberty at the present time, it is well aware of the powerful stirrings of other forces — the yearning for political emancipation, the antagonism to systems of racial discrimination, the demand of underprivileged countries for a greater share of the world's prosperity, for social advancement and opportunity. New Zealand's actions in the international field are designed to take account of these forces and, where possible, to assist the people of other countries in their striving for a better life. The limits of what it is able to do are those imposed by its size and capacity; its disposition is towards peaceful and friendly relations with all nations and (whatever the modifications which the needs of national security may impose) it is to that ultimate goal that its foreign policy is directed.

CONSTITUTION OF NEW ZEALAND: General — New Zealand is a monarchical State; it is also a constituent member of the Commonwealth. It is in this context that the preamble to the Royal Titles Act 1953 is significant “… whereas it is expedient that the style and titles at present appertaining to the Crown should be altered so as to reflect more clearly the existing relationships of the Members of the Commonwealth to one another and their recognition of the Crown as the Symbol of their free association and of the Sovereign as the Head of the Commonwealth …”

Constitutional elements besides that of the titular head, the Monarch, can be reviewed under the categories of legislative authority, the executive and administrative structure, and the judiciary. This division is a convenient one, even though there is no absolute line of demarcation between the three phases (e.g., legislation may and often does arise through the day-to-day experience of those responsible for administration and execution of policy, or through difficulties or anomalies made explicit in the course of dispensing justice or interpreting law). Conversely, in the exercise of the powers and functions of industrial and other tribunals, commissions, authorities, etc., both administrative and judicial elements may be discerned.

THE MONARCH — The New Zealand Parliament in the Royal Titles Act 1953 gave its assent to the use of the Royal style and titles as' follows: Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Her Other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith.

While the seat of the Monarch is normally in the United Kingdom, the Queen is represented in New Zealand by the Governor-General appointed by the Crown on the advice of Her New Zealand Ministers. The Governor-General has, however, an official existence, even in the country to which he has been appointed, only in the absence of the Queen from that country. In the island territories the Crown is represented by the Resident Commissioner or Resident Agent. These officials carry out the constitutional functions of the Crown, but they also possess in varying degree certain executive and legislative powers, being responsible to the New Zealand Government for the administration and good government of the islands concerned.

Many powers held by the Monarch (or her representative) comprise but the means of giving effect to the public will. In New Zealand the Governor-General acts on the advice of the Ministers, which cannot constitutionally be ignored. Despite the long-term trend for powers to be assigned directly to Ministers without any necessity for vice-regal consultation, there are still many phases of Government which require Royal participation.

The Queen (in her absence the Governor-General) gives consent or approval prior to a Minister taking office or the formation of a Ministry; summons and prorogues Parliament; delivers the Speech from the Throne at the opening of a session; gives the Royal Assent to measures which have passed all stages in the House of Representatives, without which they have not the force of laws; makes appointments to most important State offices; confers knighthoods and other honours, etc.; and also provides that background of stability, continuity, and experience in many facets of government which is so desirable whenever there are sweeping changes in the dominance of political parties.

Besides those duties associated with the constitutional role, the Royal personage or representative makes an important contribution to the ceremonial life of the nation. This was particularly well illustrated during the sojourn of the Royal visitors in New Zealand in 1953–54. Both as the symbol of the nation and in virtue of her identification with the life and interests of her people, the Queen becomes the focus for all State occasions, as does the Governor-General in her absence.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY — The supreme law-making body with power to legislate for the whole country is the General Assembly, which now consists of the Governor-General and the House of Representatives, the former Legislative Council having been abolished since the close of 1950.

The powers of Parliament to make laws are legally untrammelled. This was not always so, for prior to the adoption by New Zealand of the Statute of Westminster in 1947 there was incapacity to make laws on certain matters which conflicted with United Kingdom statutes extending to New Zealand. There was also some doubt as to New Zealand's power to make laws possessing extra-territorial validity.

Although they do not limit the legal powers of Parliament as stated above, the provisions of the Electoral Act 1956 creating reserved sections in that Act are of great constitutional significance. The Act provides that certain of its sections may not be repealed except by a 75 per cent majority of the House of Representatives or following a referendum. These sections are those relating to:

  1. The constitution and order of reference of the Representation Commission.

  2. The number of European electoral districts and the basing of their boundaries on the total population.

  3. The fixing of the tolerance within which the Commission must work at 5 per cent.

  4. The age of voting.

  5. The secret ballot.

  6. The duration of Parliament.

This innovation is not legally effective in the sense that it does not prevent a subsequent Parliament from repealing it, since one Parliament cannot bind its successors. It should not be thought, however, that the new provision is a mere gesture. It records the unanimous agreement of both parties represented in Parliament that certain provisions have a fundamental character in the system of Government and should not be altered at the whim of a bare majority. Considered in this light the provision creating reserved sections introduces something in the nature of a formal convention which could not constitutionally be ignored.

While the law-making function is the prerogative of the members of Parliament, it must be remembered that, as in most democracies, laws are passed because of their acceptability to the majority party in Parliament — i.e., the Government party. Furthermore the initial acceptance will have probably been made in the deliberations of Cabinet.

With the increasing range and complexity of the statutory field, the multifarious concerns of a modern twentieth century government, and the necessity of conserving time for consideration of more important issues, much of the detailed procedural steps and other amplifying matter must become the subject of Orders in Council or of regulations made under the authority of some statute, rather than being incorporated in the statute itself. In this form of what has been termed legislation by delegation, the power to originate and sanction regulations rests with that comparatively small proportion of the majority party in Parliament individually known as Members of the Executive Council (or of Cabinet) and who collectively, together with the Governor-General, comprise the Executive Council. The same individuals, excluding the Governor-General, are members of the Cabinet, provided that each is the holder of a portfolio.

Cabinet may and often does function in a deliberate sense as well as in an executive or administrative sense. However, regulations, etc., though originating in Cabinet and becoming effective in the proceedings of the Executive Council, still remain subject eventually to the sovereign will of Parliament as a whole.

Meeting of Parliament — Parliament is summoned, prorogued, or dissolved by Proclamation issued by the Governor-General. A session is that period between the summoning of Parliament and its prorogation. Its length varies, but it usually occupies the months from June to November. When Parliament is prorogued all the business on hand lapses, and if this is to be proceeded with in the next session it must be re-introduced.

The course of a session may be interrupted by an adjournment.

Parliamentary Privileges — While in session these include freedom of speech and freedom from arrest, and also the right to engage in secret debate, if required, etc.

The Party System — There are two political parties represented in Parliament in New Zealand at present: National and Labour. At any general election these parties, together with any other political parties which may be desirous of so doing and also those standing as independents, state their respective policies before the electors. Each party normally puts forward one candidate for each of the 80 electorates into which the country is divided. The party which wins the majority of seats, although not necessarily the majority of votes, at the general election forms the Government. The leader of the elected members of the majority party becomes the Prime Minister, who makes Ministerial appointments from elected members of his party. The leader of the minority party in Parliament becomes the Leader of the Opposition. The effectiveness of the party system relies largely on the general agreement that the majority party is to govern and the minority is to criticise — so that there is ample time allocated for debate on Government measures in Parliament. While party control is exercised by national and local organisations outside Parliament, within the latter it is maintained by the respective party Whips.

Parliamentary Procedure — The House of Representatives has its Standing Orders, which govern its procedure and which are administered by Mr Speaker in the exercise of his control of the House. Mr Speaker's rulings on interpretation of the Standing Orders are followed in a similar manner to judicial decisions in the ordinary Courts of law. The main means by which Parliament does its work is through the system of debate and Committees. The election of a Speaker is the first business of a new House after the members have been sworn. A Chairman of Committees is elected as soon afterwards as is convenient. Twenty members, inclusive of the Speaker, constitute a quorum.

Parliamentary Functions and Control — The Parliament controls the Government in power in the last resort by its power to pass a resolution of no confidence in the Government, or to reject a proposal which the Government considers so necessary that it is made a matter of confidence, and thus force the Government to resign.

Financial control is exercised by the fact that expenditure of public money must be authorised by the House of Representatives in the form of an Appropriation Act, which authorises or grants money to the Government for the purposes approved. The authority for the raising of revenue by taxation or borrowing must also be given by Parliament. The functions of Parliament are, of course, the passing of legislation and taking action to make available finances or funds as required for State expenditure, while it also controls the Government. Legislation can be initiated from any member of Parliament, but in practice almost all Bills are introduced by the Government in power as a result of policy decisions taken in Cabinet, sometimes at the instigation of those Government Departments which will be responsible for their administration when the Bills become law. The chief exceptions are private Bills, which are designed for the particular interest or benefit of a person or body of persons, whether incorporated or not, and local Bills which relate largely to matters of local (as distinct from central) government business. The process of passing a public Bill is as follows: it receives a formal first reading on introduction, is then printed, and after some time it is given a second reading as a result of a debate on its general merits or principles. It may then be referred to one of the Select Committees, for consideration in the closest detail, before being considered by the whole House sitting in Committee. During these stages members have opportunities to suggest amendments which may be incorporated in the Bill if the majority so decide. The Bill is then reported to the House, and later read a third time, and passed; debate rarely occurs at these stages. The final stage is to send the Bill to the Governor-General for the Royal Assent and, unless provision is made for commencement on another date, it then becomes law. The Bills providing for receipt of moneys, such as the Finance Bill, and expenditure of moneys, such as the Appropriation Bill, are initiated only by a Minister of the Crown, normally the Minister of Finance.

Duration of Parliaments — Quinquennial Parliaments, instituted under the Constitution Act, were abolished by the Triennial Parliaments Act 1879, which fixed the term at three years. General elections have been held at three-yearly intervals since 1881, with a few exceptions. The term of the nineteenth Parliament was during the First World War extended to five years by special legislation, and that of the twenty-fourth (1931–35) and subsequent Parliaments to four years under the Electoral Amendment Act 1934. By the Electoral Amendment Act 1937 the three-year term was restored, but on account of war conditions the term of the twenty-sixth Parliament was extended to four years by the Prolongation of Parliament Act 1941. The Prolongation of Parliament Act 1942 extended the term still further to one year from the termination of the war, but with a proviso for a motion to be moved in the House of Representatives each year after the year 1942 either approving the continuation of the House or fixing an earlier date for its expiry. During the 1943 session a motion in favour of dissolution was carried, and Parliament was dissolved on 30 August 1943. Since then the duration of Parliaments has been of three years, with the exception that the twenty-ninth Parliament was dissolved after the expiration of approximately 20 months. The three-year limit was re-enacted in the Electoral Act 1956, this being one of the reserved provisions referred to on page 30.

Number of Representatives — The number of members constituting the House of Representatives is 80 — 76 Europeans and four Maoris. They are designated “members of Parliament”. The number was originally fixed by the Constitution Act as not more than 42 and not less than 24, and the first Parliament called together in 1854 consisted of 40 members. Legislation passed in 1858 fixed the number of European members at 41; in 1860, at 53; in 1862, at 57; in 1865, at 70; in 1867, at 72; in 1870, at 74; in 1875, at 84; in 1881, at 91; in 1887, at 70; and in 1900, at 76. Since 1867 there have been four Maori representatives, and provision for this number was retained in the Electoral Act 1956. In 1952 the boundaries of the Maori electoral districts, which had remained unaltered since 1867, were changed by Proclamation so as to give a greater degree of equality of population among the four districts (in effect the Southern Maori Electoral District now includes a considerable area of the North Island).

Qualifications of Members — Under the Electoral Act 1956 every registered elector of either sex, but no other person, is qualified to be a parliamentary candidate. It is provided, however, that a person shall not be so elected who is disqualified as an elector under any of the provisions of the Act (see under “Franchise” later); or is an undischarged bankrupt; or is a contractor to the Public Service of New Zealand to whom any public money above the sum of £200 is payable, directly or indirectly (but not as a member of a registered company or incorporated body), in any one financial year. Although women have had the vote since 1893, they were not eligible as Parliamentary candidates until the passing of the Women's Parliamentary Rights Act 1919. Prior to 1936 a public servant was prohibited from being elected, but this prohibition was removed by the Political Disabilities Removal Act 1936. The present law is that if a public servant is elected to Parliament he vacates his office forthwith and he cannot resume employment in the Public Service within 12 months of ceasing to be a member of Parliament unless he had previously been a public servant for at least five years.

Salaries, etc. — Section 27 of the Civil List Act 1950 provides that on the recommendation of a Royal Commission the Governor-General may from time to time, by Order in Council, fix the salaries and allowances to be paid to the Prime Minister and other Ministers of the Crown or members of the Executive Council, to Parliamentary Under-Secretaries, and to the Speaker and Chairman of Committees and other members of the House of Representatives, and that a Royal Commission shall be appointed for this purpose within three months after the date of every general election of members of Parliament.

In accordance with the recommendations contained in the report (issued in 1961) of the Royal Commission upon Parliamentary Salaries and Allowances, the Prime Minister's salary, as from 1 July 1961, was increased to £4,750 with a tax-free allowance of £1,600 for the expenses of his office and a Ministerial residence. In addition, while travelling on official business he receives £4 4s. per day to meet expenses, and by virtue of his office is entitled to free cars, secretarial assistance, and free postage. The Deputy Prime Minister's salary is £3,350 with a tax-free expense allowance of £600. The salary of each other Minister holding a portfolio is £3,150 with a tax-free expense allowance of £550, and that of each Minister without portfolio £2,500, with £450 tax-free expense allowance. Where the office of Minister of External Affairs is held by a Minister other than the Prime Minister the expense allowance is increased to £730. Any Minister not occupying a Ministerial residence receives an allowance in lieu at the rate of £300 a year. This allowance, or the assessed value of the residence where one is provided, is subject to income tax. Previously Ministers did not receive an expense allowance as such, but the Commissioner of Inland Revenue allowed a deduction from salary of £250 as an expense allowance. Ministers also receive an allowance of £4 4s. per day when travelling on official business within New Zealand, and in addition are entitled to free cars, secretarial assistance, and free postage.

The Civil List Amendment Act 1936 made provision for the appointment of Parliamentary Under-Secretaries, an innovation in executive control in New Zealand. The rate of salary attachable to such position is now £2,250, with the same house provision or allowances, and travel allowance while on official business, as for Ministers. An expense allowance of £450 is also payable. After the general election of November 1954 no appointments were made until 1960, and the two Parliamentary Under-Secretaries became Ministers in January 1961.

The honorarium paid to members of the House of Representatives is now £1,550 a year. European members are also paid an allowance to provide for expenses incurred in connection with parliamentary duties ranging from £370 to £550 a year subject to the classification of their electorates by the Representation Commission into the four classes of (a) a wholly urban electorate, or (b) a substantially urban electorate, or (c) a partially urban and partially rural electorate, or (d) a predominantly rural electorate. An expense allowance of £675 a year is paid to the member for Southern Maori, and an expense allowance of £600 to the members representing the other three Maori Electorates. A sessional accommodation allowance is paid at the rate of £2 10s. for each day on which a member is in Wellington to attend the sittings of Parliament, or of a Select Committee of Parliament. The sessional accommodation allowance is not payable to any member in respect of any day unless the attendance of the member in Wellington necessitates his absence from his home overnight on the night immediately before or immediately after the said sittings, or on both of those nights. (For full details see Parliamentary Salaries and Allowances Order 1961.) Payment to members is subject to certain deductions for absence not due to sickness or other unavoidable cause. In addition to the honorarium, members are entitled to certain privileges in respect of railway and other forms of travel, a stamp allowance of £5 a month, and certain other concessions regarding telegrams and telephone services. If a member is defeated at an election he continues to receive salary only to the end of the month following the month in which the election took place.

Part V of the Superannuation Act 1947, as amended by the Superannuation Amendment Act 1955, consolidated in 1956 and amended in 1961, introduced a compulsory contributory superannuation scheme for members of the House of Representatives. The scheme now provides that a retiring allowance shall be payable to a member after nine years' service and the attainment of 50 years of age, and shall be calculated at the rate of one thirty-second of the basic salary for a member as at the date of his ceasing to be a member, for each year of service with a maximum of two-thirds of that basic salary, or alternatively the member may elect to take a variable retiring allowance so as to secure a level income, or he may elect to receive a refund of his contributions. The annual contribution is 10 per cent of an ordinary member's salary, and the Government subsidises the fund by an equal amount. In the case of a male member dying and leaving a widow surviving she becomes entitled during her widowhood to receive an annuity of half of the retiring allowance to which her husband was entitled at the time of his death, or £130 a year, whichever is the greater.

Both the Speaker and Chairman of Committees hold office until a dissolution and receive payment until the first meeting of a new Parliament. The Speaker's remuneration is £2,700 a year in addition to which he receives an expense allowance of £675 a year and residential quarters in Parliament House. The honorarium of the Chairman of Committees is £2,100 a year and an allowance of £100 a year to cover the expenses incurred in connection with his official duties is also paid. In addition he receives the appropriate electorate allowance to which he is entitled.

The Leader of the Opposition is paid a salary of £2,600 a year with an expense allowance of £550 a year. In addition, a secretary, a messenger, and a typist are provided by the State, and an allowance of £215 is payable for travel outside his electorate. His stamp allowance is £12 10s. per month. In addition, the Leader of the Opposition is entitled to an official residence on the same basis as a Minister, or to an allowance of £300 a year in lieu thereof. The Deputy Leader of the Opposition receives a salary of £1,700 a year in addition to his appropriate electorate allowance and the sessional accommodation allowance where this is payable.

The Chief Whip of each party receives a salary of £1,625 a year, and the Junior Whip of each party receives a salary of £1,600 a year, together with the appropriate expense allowance in each case in accordance with the classification of his electorate and where applicable a sessional accommodation allowance.

ADMINISTRATION AND EXECUTIVE RESPONSIBILITY — After the election of a new Parliament, the Prime Minister, who is the leader of the majority party in the elected members, is given the task of selecting the members of the Executive Council (i.e., the new Ministry). Each of those members of Parliament to form the Government is entrusted by the Prime Minister with responsibility for administration of a specified field or aspect of government. This field is entitled a portfolio, e.g., all relevant matters relating to Customs would be allocated to one member, who is henceforth known as the Minister of Customs. He may also have other portfolios and the supervision of one or more Government Departments in which the activities carried out, though important, either do not rank as portfolios or are subsidiary aspects of the field — in these cases the Minister's responsibility will extend to being in charge of the named Department. One or other of the appointed Ministers in this way is responsible for the direction of activities and executive acts of each of the Government Departments and offices, etc., embracing the entire range of State activities. Thus arises the concept of Ministerial responsibility.

Executive Council — In the legal sense those members of Parliament who have been appointed Ministers, together with the Governor-General, comprise the Executive Council. The powers, duties, and responsibilities of the Governor-General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of 11 May 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of 24 April 1919. The Royal Powers Act 1953 provides that the statutory powers conferred on the Governor-General may be exercised either by Her Majesty the Queen in person or by the Governor-General. In the execution of the powers and authorities vested in him the Governor-General must be guided by the advice of the Executive Council; but, if in any case he sees sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the Council, he may act in the exercise of his powers and authorities in opposition to the opinion of the Council, reporting the matter to Her Majesty without delay, with the reasons for his so acting.

In any such case any member of the Executive Council may require that there be recorded in the minutes of the Council the grounds of any advice or opinion that he may give upon the question.

A point of interest is that the Civil List Act 1950, in section 6, provided that no person shall be appointed a Minister or a member of the Executive Council unless he is a member of Parliament and that a person who ceases to be a member of Parliament cannot continue to be a Minister or a member of the Executive Council for more than 21 days. This gave statutory recognition for the first time to what had long been the convention.

At January 1961 the Executive Council consisted of 16 members in addition to the Governor-General. Two members, exclusive of His Excellency or the presiding member, constitute a quorum.

Under the Civil List Act 1950 and its amendments, His Excellency the Governor-General receives a salary of £6,500 per annum, and an allowance of £5,000 per annum for the salaries and expenses of his establishment (exclusive of the Official Secretary), plus all expenditure incurred in respect of the transport to and from New Zealand and the travel within or outside New Zealand of the Governor-General and his family and staff.

Cabinet — There is a close relationship between the Executive Council and the Cabinet. There are, however, significant differences in membership and functions.

The Council consists of all Ministers and is presided over by the Governor-General. Cabinet may or may not comprise all the Ministers, including a Minister without portfolio; the Governor-General is not a member. The Council (a statutory body) is one of the instruments for giving the imprint of legal form to policy determined by Cabinet (which is recognised only by constitutional convention).

Cabinet has been described as the directing body of national policy whose nature is more easily explained by analogy than by definition. It determines the policy to be submitted to Parliament. In it is vested the supreme control of national policy within the limits of Parliamentary approval. It coordinates and delineates the activities of the several Departments of State.

The juridical acts which are necessary to give legal force to certain of the decisions of Cabinet are taken by others — the Crown, the Executive Council, a Minister of the Crown, a Statutory Commission and the like. The preliminary review of proposed policy or of current administrative developments, which takes place in the informal atmosphere of Cabinet meetings, implies both deliberative or selective and administrative procedures on the part of this body.

Cabinet discussions are informal and confidential, anonymity being maintained as to the individual advocacy or opposition to particular proposals. The Cabinet system enables general agreement to be reached on any line of action proposed by either an individual Minister or by the Government as a whole. As a result the Executive Council confirmation can proceed smoothly and expeditiously. In Parliament a Minister can be confident that his legislative or other proposals will have the unqualified support of the Government no matter what divergences of opinion may have been apparent before general agreement was reached in Cabinet. A consistent and agreed course of action on any particular issue can be determined. The work of Cabinet thus exemplifies the concept of the collective responsibility of the Government.

Certain questions are considered by committees of Cabinet composed of those Ministers primarily concerned. Some executive action may be undertaken by these committees within the lines of established Government policy. Their work is subject to periodical report to, and overall supervision by, the entire Cabinet. On occasions, ad hoc committees may be established to review or investigate particular questions and to present their conclusions and recommendations to Cabinet.

The Cabinet Secretariat is responsible for the servicing of Cabinet and its committees to ensure their smooth functioning. It is its purpose also to assist in the coordination and review of the work of the Departments of State.

Government Departments — The Minister as the political head of a Department of State may in fact have several Departments under his control. There are however some 44 different Departments with separate functions in New Zealand. Each of these has a permanent head who is responsible for the work and administration of the Department. He is of course responsible to the Minister in charge of the Department, while he also acts as adviser to the Minister on all matters within his appointed competence. Besides ensuring that the ministerial policy and directions communicated to him are effectively put into practice, his functions as the adviser include assessing the consequences of any executive action resulting from his departmental activity, evaluating the merits and demerits, whether political, social, or financial, of various modes of action, and making suggestions for improvements and for new policy measures as derived from departmental experience in the day-to-day execution of policy.

Departments can be broadly classified according to the administrative or regulatory, developmental, or social nature of their activities. Within the first group are the servicing subgroup, such as the Legislative, Prime Minister's Office, External Affairs, Printing and Stationery, Law Drafting, Valuation, Statistics, and Audit; the finance subgroup — Treasury, Customs, Inland Revenue; the regulatory subgroup — Public Service Commission, Internal Affairs, Island Territories, Labour, Marine; the defence and law and order subgroup — Navy, Army, Air, Justice, Crown Law, and Police; the publicity and research subgroup — Tourist and Publicity, Scientific and Industrial Research.

In the second group are the transport and communications subgroup, such as Transport, Post Office, and Railways; the developmental — Ministry of Works, Agriculture, Lands and Survey, Mines, Electricity, Maori Affairs, and Industries and Commerce; the commercial — Public Trust, Government Life Insurance, State Advances Corporation, and State Fire and Accident Insurance.

The third group comprises the Education, Health, and Social Security Departments.

This broad division serves merely to indicate the field of the dominant activity or purpose of the particular Department. Most Departments have servicing, informative, and regulatory functions, and many are equally regulatory and developmental in nature.

In addition to the system of direct administration in the form of Government Departments, there are other activities over which the State exercises some ultimate measure of control or ownership, though divorced in varying degrees from immediate supervision. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand (the central bank), and one trading bank, are entirely State-owned, although the actual administration is quite independent, subject in the case of the Reserve Bank to the proviso that the Governor or Board of Directors is to give effect to any resolution of the House of Representatives in respect of the bank's functions or business.

Further instances of this principle are shown by the National Airways Corporation, which, although owned by the State, is administratively self-contained, and by the Tourist Hotel Corporation. In certain other avenues the type of administration is in between the normal departmental form and that evident in the corporation type; of such is the National Roads Board, which, though determining policy to a large degree, yet makes use of departmental administrative structures for implementation of policy.

Some administrative organisations have also quasi-judicial functions. Examples of this class are the Price Tribunal, Transport Charges Authority, Licensing Control Commission, and Local Government Commission.

JUDICIARY — The hierarchy of Courts in New Zealand comprises the Court of Appeal, the Supreme Court, and the Magistrates' Court. Apart from these Courts of general jurisdiction there are other Courts dealing with specific fields. In the latter category are the Court of Arbitration, concerned with awards and general orders governing wage determination and conditions of employment in industry; the Compensation Court dealing with workers' compensation; and the Land Valuation Court, which settles land valuation disputes and compensation claims where land is taken for public works. For further details refer to Section 8 (Justice) of this issue.

ELECTORAL PROVISIONS — The law on these matters is now contained in the Electoral Act 1956. Following each population census, which is normally taken every five years, New Zealand is divided anew into 76 European electorates. In addition, there are four Maori electoral districts, three in the North Island and one covering a portion of the North Island together with the whole of the South Island, where the Maori population is comparatively small. The Governor-General may at any time by Proclamation alter the boundaries of the Maori electoral districts, but, as in the case of European electoral districts, any alterations are to come into force at the expiry of the Parliament existing when the Proclamation is issued.

The Government Statistician is required to supply population figures to the Surveyor-General as soon as possible after the census. The population used as the basis in obtaining the quota for each European electoral district is defined in section 2 (1) of the Electoral Act 1956.

The term “European population” means total population with the following exceptions:

  1. Maoris:

  2. Persons residing on board ship, whether as passengers or members of the crew or otherwise:

  3. Persons residing temporarily as guests in any licensed hotel:

  4. Persons residing temporarily in any naval, military, or air force camp, station, or establishment:

  5. Persons residing as patients or inmates in any hospital:

  6. Persons in respect of whom reception orders under the Mental Health Act 1911 are in force:

  7. Persons detained pursuant to convictions in any penal institution.

After the population figures are supplied by the Government Statistician it is then the responsibility of the Representation Commission to define new electoral districts for Europeans. The Commission is constituted by virtue of section 15 of the Electoral Act 1956 and comprises seven members. Four of these, the Surveyor-General, the Government Statistician, the Chief Electoral Officer, and the Director-General of the Post Office, are official members. Two are unofficial members, being persons nominated by the House of Representatives, one nominated to represent the Government, and one to represent the Opposition. The seventh member is appointed, on the nomination of the official and unofficial members of the Commission or a majority of them, to be the Chairman of the Commission. The Chairman and unofficial members cease to be members on the date on which the first periodical census is taken after the date of their appointment.

The Commission determines the number of electoral districts in the North and in the South Islands so that the number of districts in the North Island bears, as nearly as possible, the same proportion to the number of districts in the South Island as the European population of the North Island bears to the European population of the South Island. Once this is done the next step is to determine the population quota for electoral districts in each Island by dividing the European population of each Island by the number of districts in that Island. In applying the quota, provision exists for an allowance by way of addition or subtraction of 5 per cent of the quota where districts containing the exact quota could not be formed consistently with consideration of topography, community of interest, communications, and existing electoral boundaries.

When the boundaries have been provisionally determined, maps are prepared illustrating the proposed electoral districts, and descriptions of each electoral district are published in the New Zealand Gazette. A time limit of one month is given thereafter in which objections to the proposed boundaries may be lodged. These objections are then considered by the Representation Commission and a final decision reached on boundaries which then become the new electoral districts.

In addition to determining new European electoral districts the Representation Commission is also charged with the responsibility of classifying them for the purpose of allowances as provided by section 14 of the Parliamentary Salaries and Allowances Order 1959. Under this section provision is made for an allowance based on the size, topography, and transport facilities of the electorate, the nature of its roads, the distribution of its population, and all other considerations that the Commission deems relevant.

The Act provides that all general elections and by-elections shall be held on a Saturday and for both European and Maori elections to be held on the same day. Polling hours in all electorates are from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m.

The Act provides that, if at any time Parliament is dissolved before it has been two years in existence, the main and supplementary rolls used in the previous general election, together with a further supplementary roll, may be used if in the opinion of the Chief Electoral Officer it is impracticable to print new main rolls. The same rolls, together with a further supplementary roll, are to be used for any by-election occurring before the next following general election.

Provision is made for the voting at elections and licensing polls by servicemen serving overseas, who are or will be of, or over the age of, 21 years before the date of the election or poll, whether or not registered as electors of any electoral district. Each such serviceman shall be qualified to vote as an elector of the electoral district in which is situated his usual place of residence before he last left New Zealand.

FRANCHISE — Since the abolition of plural voting in 1889 and the introduction of women's suffrage in 1893, every person 21 years of age or over (with certain obvious exceptions) has had the right to exercise one vote and one vote only in the election of members of the House of Representatives. The present law relating to electors and elections is contained in the Electoral Act 1956, and a note of some of the more important provisions of this Act is given below.

Qualification for Registration as Elector — To be qualified for registration as a parliamentary elector in New Zealand a person must have attained the age of 21 years and must (a) be a British subject or Irish citizen, (b) be ordinarily resident in New Zealand, (c) at some period have resided continuously in New Zealand for at least a year, and (d) except in special cases have resided continuously for three months or more in the electoral district in respect of which application for registration is made, and not have subsequently resided for three months or more in any other electoral district.

The Act defines what is meant by the term “ordinarily resident”. To be ordinarily resident in New Zealand, a person must be or have been actually resident in New Zealand with the intention of residing there indefinitely. If he is absent from New Zealand he must have had, ever since he left New Zealand, an intention to return to reside there indefinitely, and (except in the case of a public servant or the wife or husband of a public servant) must not have been absent from New Zealand for more than three years.

This new requirement that an elector must be ordinarily resident in New Zealand is an important departure from the previous position. Prior to 1957 any British subject who had been in New Zealand for a year was entitled to register and to vote, even though his residence might have been of a temporary nature and although he did not associate himself with the New Zealand community. Conversely, a New Zealander absent from New Zealand for more than a year lost the right to vote. Broadly speaking, the new qualifications restrict the right to vote to permanent residents, the test laid down being similar to the legal concept of domicile.

The following persons are disqualified from registration as electors: (a) Those in respect of whom reception orders under the Mental Health Act 1911 are in force, (b) those detained pursuant to a conviction in any penal institution, and (c) those whose names are on the Corrupt Practices List for any district. These qualifications and disqualifications apply alike to Maoris and Europeans.

Registration of Electors — A system of compulsory registration of electors has been in operation in respect of Europeans since 1924 and was introduced in respect of Maoris in 1956. Every person qualified to be registered as an elector of any district must, if he is in New Zealand, apply for registration within one month after the date on which he first becomes qualified to be registered as an elector. He must also apply for registration within three months after the issue of every Proclamation proclaiming the names and boundaries of electoral districts or within such later period as may be provided by Order in Council. Qualified electors who are outside New Zealand may apply for registration if they wish.

A European is not entitled to be registered as an elector of a Maori district and a Maori (other than a half-caste) is not entitled to be registered as an elector of a European district. A half-caste Maori may choose to be registered either for a Maori or European district, and special rules are laid down to govern a change from one to the other.

Voting at Elections — Voting at parliamentary elections is by secret ballot, a method which was first introduced in New Zealand in 1870. Recognition of the fundamental character which the secret ballot has attained in New Zealand was given in the Electoral Act 1956, which included the section providing for this method of voting among the reserved sections which may be repealed only by a 75 per cent majority vote of all the members of the House of Representatives or following a referendum.

In general, only those persons whose names are lawfully on the main and supplementary rolls of electors compiled prior to an election may vote at that election. The following classes of persons whose names are not on the roll are however entitled to vote:

  1. Those who have applied for registration between writ day and polling day and have satisfied the Registrar that they became qualified for registration not earlier than one month before writ day.

  2. Those who are qualified for registration and were at the last preceding election registered in that district or, where boundary changes have intervened, in some other district in which their then residence within the first-mentioned district was then situated.

  3. Those who are qualified for registration and have since the last election and before 6 p.m. on writ day applied for registration in that district, or where boundary changes have intervened, in some other district in which their then residence within the first-mentioned district was then situated.

  4. Servicemen outside New Zealand, if they are or will be 21 years of age or more on polling day and their place of residence before they left New Zealand is within the district.

Special Voters — A vote is normally cast by the elector at a polling booth within his district. An elector may, however, vote as a “special voter”, either at a polling booth outside his district or by post, in the following cases:

  1. If his name does not appear on the main roll, or any supplementary roll for the district, or has been wrongly deleted from the roll.

  2. If he will be outside New Zealand on polling day.

  3. If he is or will be absent from the district on polling day.

  4. If he will not be within 2 miles by the nearest practicable route of any polling place in the district during the hours of polling.

  5. If he will be travelling during the hours of polling under conditions which will preclude him from voting at a polling place in the district.

  6. If he is ill or infirm.

  7. If, in the case of a woman, she is precluded from attending at a polling place by reason of approaching or recent maternity.

  8. If he is a lighthouse keeper or a member of a lighthouse keeper's staff, or if she is the wife of a lighthouse keeper or of one of his staff.

  9. If he has a religious objection to voting on the day of the week on which polling day falls.

  10. If he satisfies the Returning Officer or Deputy Returning Officer that on any other ground he cannot vote at a polling place in the district without hardship or undue inconvenience.

These latter conditions replace the former classes of absentee, postal, and declaration voters, including servicemen outside New Zealand.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT — In 1876, following the abolition of the provinces, local government assumed the form it still basically retains. The Counties Act of 1876 divided the country into 63 counties, with provision for administration by elective councils having powers considerably less than those enjoyed by the Provincial Councils. In the same year the Municipal Corporations Act provided for the incorporation of the 36 boroughs then in existence and for the creation of new boroughs.

A description of the development of counties, boroughs, and town districts follows.

Counties — Counties are now constituted under the Counties Act 1956, which consolidated earlier legislation relating to counties and road districts. In general, the county organisation makes provision for the primary needs of a scattered population within a large area. With increasing settlement the original 63 counties were gradually subdivided until in 1920 the maximum of 129 was reached, although the number of councils formed and actively functioning never exceeded 126. Since 1955 the number of counties has been reduced by amalgamations and mergers under the Local Government Commission Act 1953. At April 1961 there were 121 counties constituted, of which 119 were actively functioning, Sounds and Fiord being the two sparsely populated counties in which the Counties Act is not wholly in force.

County councils may appoint county town committees for the purpose of advising the councils on the administration of county towns. The Counties Amendment Act 1959 amended the conditions for the constitution of county towns to provide that any part of a county not being part of a dependent town district in which there are not less than 60 houses with average density of not less than one house to every 3 acres may be constituted a county town.

The provisions relating to the persons eligible to act on a county town committee were also amended. The Act now provides that a member of the county council representing the riding in which the county town is situated, and any county elector having a residential or rating qualification in respect of an address or property within the county town, is eligible for appointment to the county town committee. Under the old legislation only ratepayers having a qualification in respect of property situated within the county town were eligible.

Boroughs — Dealing with the needs of a concentrated population, the borough organisation is concerned with a wide range of functions of a purely local nature. With the growth and centralisation of population the number of boroughs, despite numerous amalgamations of adjacent boroughs, steadily increased until 1955 when the total was 146. In April 1961 the total was 143.

Under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954 for the constitution of a borough there must be a population of at least 1,500 with an average density of population of at least one person per acre. A borough containing a population of 20,000 or more may be proclaimed a city, although the corporation remains unaltered.

Town Districts - The town district represents a form of local government intermediate between the county and the borough. It implies a certain concentration of population and the presence of interests which, from their purely local nature, cannot be satisfactorily met by the county organisation. In its early stages a town district usually remained subject to county control, although such control was practically confined to the main and county roads in the town district; in such circumstances it was known as a dependent town district. The Town Boards Amendment Act 1908 enabled town districts on reaching a population of more than 500 to become independent. On attaining its independence a town district becomes in all respects a separate entity, and, apart from its smaller population, is not essentially different from a borough. The constitution and powers of town districts have been brought into closer relationship to boroughs over the years, and independent town districts are now constituted under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954. The Act required that the area should not be more than 2 square miles, within which no two points are more than 4 miles distant and with a density of population of not less than one person to the acre. No new dependent town districts can be constituted. The number of town districts in April 1961 was 27 (15 independent and 12 dependent).

General Powers — Local authorities in New Zealand derive their powers from the Acts under which they are constituted, and also from special empowering Acts. In addition to legislation providing for particular types of local authority or for individual local authorities, there are several statutory measures which are more or less applicable to all local authorities, such as the Local Elections and Polls Act 1953 and the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956. For most harbour boards, there is in addition to the general Harbours Act a special Act for each board, which is subordinate to the general Act. Certain types of local authority — urban drainage boards, transport boards, the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority, the Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel Authority, and the Waikato Valley Authority — derive their principal powers from special constituting Acts.

Local authorities have general powers of entering into contracts for any of the purposes for which they are constituted; of selling and leasing land; and of taking or purchasing any land which may be necessary or convenient for any public work.

The Local Authorities' Emergency Powers Act 1953 confers on local authorities certain powers (e.g., in respect of rescue, first aid, provision of relief and welfare, distribution of foodstuffs, information and advice to public, etc.) in emergencies arising from earthquake, fire, or flood, or in time of war from enemy action or from the action of enemy sympathisers.

Number of Local Authorities — Since the inception of the county system there has been a great expansion of local government throughout New Zealand. With the growth of population there has been a steady increase in the number of counties, boroughs, and town districts, while entirely new types of districts have been created to cater for special services. Geographically, New Zealand is divided into 121 counties, which comprise its total area, except for certain small islands which are not included within the boundaries of the adjacent counties. Administratively, boroughs and independent town districts, which are contained within the areas of the several counties, are regarded as separate entities. From an administrative point of view, therefore, the fundamental districts are counties, boroughs, and independent town districts. Upon this foundation a considerable superstructure of districts of other types has been erected. These overlapping districts may be divided into two broad classes, viz: (1) Districts formed from parts of counties, e.g., road districts; and (2) those which are composed of a group of adjacent districts of other types united for a common purpose, e.g., electric power districts.

The number of local authorities actively functioning at 1 April 1961 was 981 made up as follows: County councils, 119; borough (including city) councils, 143; town councils (independent), 15; town councils (dependent), 12; road boards, 3; river boards (2 boards also have the power of land-drainage boards), 10; catchment boards, 13; land-drainage boards, 40; electric power boards, 41; water-supply board, 1; urban drainage boards, 5; transport boards, 2; local railway board, 1; electric power and gas boards, 2; milk boards (including 33 where the board is a borough council), 44; nassella tussock boards, 2; harbour bridge authority, 1; road tunnel authority, 1; valley authority, 1; plantation board, 1; underground water authorities, 3; rabbit boards, 208; fire boards (including 176 where the board is a borough or county council, etc.), 236; harbour boards (including 19 where the board is a borough or county council, etc.), 40; and hospital boards, 37. In addition to the 981 local authorities, there were 21 district councils of the National Roads Board constituted under the National Roads Act 1954. These district councils of the National Roads Board, although not local authorities in the strict sense of the term, are nevertheless intimately connected with certain aspects of local government, and have power to make recommendations of considerable importance.

Local Government Commission — The Local Government Commission Act 1961, which replaced the Local Government Commission Act 1953, set up a Local Government Commission which is a permanent institution deemed to be a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908.

The Act provides that the Commission shall consist of a Chairman who is a barrister or solicitor of the Supreme Court of New Zealand and two other members having a special knowledge of local government.

The functions of the Commission are to carry out investigations, prepare reorganisation schemes, and make recommendations and reports for the purpose of ensuring that the system of local government in any locality will best provide for the needs and continued development of the locality, that local authorities have such district boundaries and such functions and powers as will enable them to provide most effectively and economically essential or desirable local government services and facilities, and that the provisions of the Act and of other Acts in relation to local government are effectively implemented. Reorganisation schemes may provide for the union of adjoining districts, the merger, constitution, or abolition of districts, the alteration of boundaries, the conversion of a district into one of a different kind, the transfer of functions of one local authority to another or the dissolution of a local authority.

The Act provides for the appointment of a Local Government Appeal Authority whose function is to sit as a judicial authority to determine appeals made from decisions of the Commission. Any decision finally approving a scheme of reorganisation of districts may be appealed against only by the following parties:

  1. The local authority of any district to which the scheme relates;

  2. Any person or body having statutory authority to make decisions or recommendations in respect of the union, merger, constitution, alteration, or abolition of any district to which the scheme relates; and

  3. The Minister, in any case where the scheme affects only one local authority, or only one local authority and an adjoining area that does not form part of a district, or does not affect any local authority.

Franchise — The franchise in local government is a variable one, differing materially in certain respects as between urban and country districts. Prior to the passing of the Local Elections and Polls Amendment Act 1941 the county franchise was based solely on property qualification, with a differential voting power according to the value of property possessed, whereas in boroughs and town districts every adult possessing the necessary residential qualifications was entitled to be enrolled as an elector for the election of the local-governing authority. On any proposal relating to loans or rates, however, a ratepaying qualification was, and still is, necessary.

An amendment passed in 1944 extended the franchise in counties and road districts to include a residential qualification on the same lines as for boroughs, but did not interfere with the multiple voting power conferred by a property qualification. One vote only is allowed in boroughs and town districts, but it is possible, by virtue of property qualification, to have a vote in more than one district. The 1944 amendment introduced compulsory registration of electors for boroughs and town districts, all adult persons not entitled to enrolment by virtue of a property qualification being required to make application for enrolment within a prescribed time. The Act also removed the disability which prevented persons in the employ of local authorities from becoming members thereof. The Local Elections and Polls Amendment Act 1946 provided that all general elections of local authorities were to be held on the third Wednesday in November of the year in which such elections were due, instead of in May as previously. The 1950 amendment altered this to the third Saturday in November. It also abolished the provisions of the 1946 amendment that any person could be entered on the local authority roll whose name appeared on the parliamentary roll with an address in that authority's district provided he or she had a residential qualification, and that, if not so entered, he or she could vote by declaration. The Local Elections and Polls Act 1953, which consolidated and amended previous Acts and amendments, provided that future elections were to be held on the third Saturday in November, commencing 1956, and every third year thereafter. The 1961 amendment has altered this to the second Saturday in October 1962 and on the same date in every third year thereafter. The 1953 Act also extends the compulsory enrolment of residential electors to counties and road districts in addition to boroughs and town districts (for which provision had been made in 1944). Power is also given to make regulations to give full effect to the Act. Details of the franchise as it affects each type of local district are now given.

Counties — Any person of 21 years of age and over who possesses either of the following qualifications is entitled to be enrolled on the county electors roll:

  1. Rating qualification, which may be held by any person whose name appears in the valuation roll as the occupier of any rateable property within a riding of the county. One vote is allowed where the rateable value does not exceed £1,000, two votes where the value is greater than £1,000 but not in excess of £2,000, and three votes where the value exceeds £2,000.

  2. Residential qualification, which may be held by a person who is or has the status of a British subject or is an Irish citizen, and who has resided for one year in New Zealand and has had permanent residence of not less than three months in the riding of the county to which the roll relates.

Boroughs — Any person of 21 years of age and over who possesses any of the following qualifications is entitled to enrolment:

  1. Freehold qualification — meaning the beneficial and duly registered ownership of a freehold estate in land of a capital value of not less than £25 situated in the borough, notwithstanding that any other person is the occupier thereof.

  2. Rating qualification, which may be held by any person whose name appears in the valuation roll as the occupier of any rateable property within the borough.

  3. Residential qualification, which may be held by a person who is or has the status of a British subject or is an Irish citizen, and who has resided for one year in New Zealand and who has had permanent residence during the last three months in the borough to which the roll relates.

Town Districts — The franchise is the same as for boroughs, except that for county electoral purposes in dependent town districts the county qualification is necessary.

Rabbit Districts — Where the rates of the district are based on the acreage and rateable value of land occupied by the ratepayer, the franchise is the same as that exercised for county council elections. Where the franchise is based on stock ownership, from one to five votes are allowed according to the number of stock units owned.

Other Districts — Road districts, river districts, land-drainage districts, water-supply districts, and the local railway district all have a franchise similar to that of counties except that the residential qualification applies to road districts only.

Districts composed of a grouping of districts of other types united for a common purpose have a franchise as for the component districts. Such districts are urban drainage districts, electric power districts, harbour districts, hospital districts, urban transport districts, and catchment districts. In some cases — e.g., the Auckland Metropolitan and Hutt Valley Drainage Boards — the members are appointed or elected by the territorial local authorities included in the district.

In addition to elected members, the constitution of harbour boards provided in most cases for certain nominated or appointed members (representatives of the Government, the waterfront industry, and the payers of harbour dues), but the Harbours Act 1950, which consolidated and amended previous legislation, provides that every harbour board shall now consist of members elected by the electors of constituent local authorities only.

TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING — The Town and Country Planning Act 1953 provides for the making and enforcement of regional and district planning schemes, and the detailed procedure to be followed in each case is amplified by the Town and Country Planning Regulations 1960. The Government administers the Act through the Minister of Works who may delegate his authority to the Commissioner of Works.

Regional Planning Schemes — Regional planning schemes must be preceded by a comprehensive survey of the natural resources of the areas concerned, and of the present and potential uses and values of all lands in relation to public activities or amenities. Regional schemes envisage the conservation and economic development of natural resources by classification of lands according to their best uses and by the coordination of all such public improvements, utilities services, and amenities as are not limited to the territory of any one local authority. For the purposes of every regional planning scheme proposed to be prepared there is a Regional Planning Authority consisting of representatives of the several councils whose districts are wholly or partly within the region. Every local authority within the region other than the constituent councils may be represented by an associate member but is not entitled to a vote. Regional planning schemes are required to be reviewed at intervals of not more than 10 years.

District Schemes — Every district scheme is required to have for its general purpose the development of the area to which it relates (including where necessary the replanning and reconstruction of an area already built on) in such a way as will most effectively tend to promote and safeguard the health, safety and convenience, the economic and general welfare of its inhabitants, and the amenities of every part of the area. The council of every city, borough, county, and independent town district must provide and maintain a district scheme whether or not a regional planning scheme including its district has been prepared or become operative.

While a district scheme is being prepared a council may refuse its consent to the carrying out of any development that would be in contravention of the scheme and falls within the definition of a “detrimental work”, but the owner or occupier affected may appeal against such a decision to the Town and Country Planning Appeal Board. The Minister can require the council to exercise these powers where the development would or might adversely affect Government works or the public interest, and local authorities have similar rights in respect of their works. Any appeal proceedings lie against the Minister or the local authority concerned.

In the period before a district scheme becomes operative, any change of use of land that detracts or is likely to detract from the amenities of the neighbourhood is required to have the prior consent of the council. Where an application is made to the council for consent, the applicant and every person who claims to be affected by the proposed use has a right to be heard by the council and may appeal to the Appeal Board against the council's decision.

When completed and recommended by the council, copies of a district scheme are submitted to the Minister of Works and to adjoining councils and to local authorities within the area covered by the scheme for consideration, particularly in relation to their public works. When the Minister and each local authority is satisfied that all public works have been provided for in the scheme and have certified accordingly the district scheme is publicly notified for inspection for three months. Any owner or occupier of land affected may object to any provision of the scheme, and the Minister, other local authorities, professional, business, sporting or other such organisations, may also object to the scheme on grounds of public interest. In the event of an objection not being sustained by the council the objector may appeal to the Appeal Board whose decision is final.

The Minister of Works may prepare and obtain approval for a district scheme in any case where a local authority under an obligation to prepare such a scheme fails to do so after being notified in writing. The costs and expenses incurred by the Minister are recoverable from the local authority, or they may be deducted from any moneys payable to the local authority by the Crown.

When a district scheme has been finally approved and made operative the council and all local authorities having jurisdiction in the district are bound to observe, and enforce observance of, the requirements of the scheme. The provisions of an operative regional planning scheme are also obligatory, but a constituent council has a right of appeal to the Town and Country Planning Appeal Board where a provision of a proposed or operative district scheme conflicts with the regional scheme.

Operative district schemes may be altered at any time, and must be reviewed when any part of the scheme has been operative for five years. The procedure to be followed in the preparation, recommendation, and approval of an alteration or review of a scheme is the same as that for a new scheme commencing at the point where the scheme is ready to be recommended by the council.

Where a district scheme is operative the local authority may take under the Public Works Act 1928 any land in its district if in accordance with the scheme it considers it is necessary or expedient to do so for the proper development or use of the land, or for the provision or preservation of amenities, or for the improvement of areas that are too closely subdivided or are occupied by decadent buildings.

Chapter 3. Section 3 POPULATION

Table of Contents

CENSUS OF POPULATION — A census of population is taken every five years. The basis adopted for the census, and virtually throughout population statistics in New Zealand, is that of the population present, which may be defined as the population present at the place of enumeration at the time of the enumeration.

All references to New Zealand relate solely to geographic New Zealand, i.e., island territories are omitted except where their inclusion is specifically stated. Though Cook Islands, Niue Island, and Tokelau Islands are constitutionally part of New Zealand, for geographical reasons they are administered separately.

Maoris are included in all population data unless the contrary is stated.

A population census was taken as for the night of Tuesday, 18 April 1961, in New Zealand and some figures are given in this section. The 1961 census population of New Zealand, excluding island territories, was 2,414,984. Armed forces personnel overseas at the time of the census and not included in the New Zealand population numbered 2,559, inclusive of 304 Maoris.

The minor islands (see page 1), other than the Kermadec Islands and Campbell Island, were uninhabited at the date of the census. The Ross Dependency had a population of 198 males at the 1961 census date, these men being members of scientific expeditions.

A census of the island territories was conducted by the Department of Island Territories for the night of Monday, 25 September 1961, and the census figures are shown below.

The following table gives a complete summary of New Zealand population.

TerritoryDate of CensusMalesFemalesTotal

* Includes population of the inhabited minor islands, i.e., Kermadec Islands, 10 (males); and Campbell Island, 9 (males).

† Preliminary census figures.

New Zealand:    
  (a) Exclusive of island territories:    
    Europeans18 April 19611,128,4061,119,4922,247,898*
    Maoris18 April 196184,97082,116167,086
Totals, New Zealand (excluding island territories) 1,213,3761,201,6082,414,984
  (b) Island territories:    
    Tokelau Islands25 September 19618749961,870
    Cook Islands25 September 19619,4708,89918,369
    Niue Island25 September 19612,4002,4684,868
Totals, island territories 12,74412,36325,107
  (c) Ross Dependency18 April 1961198198

INCREASE OF POPULATION — Since the commencement of European settlement in New Zealand the European population has in every year shown an increase, though the rate of increase has fluctuated considerably, and the Maori population has increased continuously since 1896. Census records since 1901 are quoted in the succeeding table and include Maoris.

In no fewer than six of the 11 censuses covered by the table the figures are disturbed by the absence overseas of armed forces. Their departure and return affect intercensal increases. Numbers of armed forces personnel overseas at the respective dates were: 1901,2,500 (approx.); 1916,44,000 (approx.); 1945, 45,381; 1951, 1,894; 1956, 2,162; and 1961, 2,559.

It will be noted that the growth of population has been substantial in each period. The lowest rates are those of 1926–36, which included some years of economic depression, and of 1936–45, which included six years of war.

Date of CensusTotal PopulationIntercensal Numerical IncreaseIntercensal Percentage IncreaseAverage Annual Percentage Increase

* Excludes New Zealand armed forces personnel overseas.

† Includes New Zealand armed forces personnel overseas.

March 1901*815,85372,6469.771.89
April 1906936,304120,45114.762.75
April 19111,058,308122,00413.032.52
October 1916*1,149,22590,9178.591.50
April 19211,271,664122,43910.652.27
April 19261,408,139136,47510.732.06
March 19361,573,810165,67111.771.13
September 1945*1,702,298128,4888.160.83
September 19451,747,679173,86911.051.11
April 1951*1,939,472237,17413.932.37
April 19511,941,366193,68711.081.91
April 1956*2,174,062234,59012.102.31
April 19562,176,224234,85812.102.31
April 1961*2,414,984240,92211.082.12
April 19612,417,543241,31911.092.13

The reproduction index, though not infallible, is a convenient indication of the growth or decline of a population. It is based on female children born (gross rate) and probably surviving to maturity (net rate). A net rate of 1.0 indicates a stationary population; and a higher rate a rising population.

Reproduction rates during the latest five years were as follows, the figures relating only to the European population.

YearGross RateNet Rate
19561.8391.771
19571.8931.822
19581.9311.859
19591.9501.878
19601.9681.905

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES — The annual average percentage increases of population during the respective intercensal periods are given in the following table for certain selected countries.

CountryCensus PeriodAverage Annual Percentage Increase

* European population.

† Including Hyderabad, but excluding Kashmir, Jammu, and the tribal areas of Assam.

‡ Excluding full-blooded aborigines.

NOTE — Minus sign (—) denotes a decrease.

New Zealand1956–612.12
Australia1947–542.46
Canada1951–562.79
Ceylon1946–532.84
England and Wales1931–510.46
Scotland1931–510.26
Northern Ireland1937–510.48
Republic of Ireland1951–56−0.45
Austria1939–510.33
Denmark1950–550.77
Finland1940–500.82
France1946–540.90
Hungary1949–600.74
India1941–511.26
Netherlands1930–471.18
Pakistan1941–510.79
Portugal1940–500.89
South Africa*1946–512.18
Sweden1945–501.09
Switzerland1941–501.12
United States of America1950–601.75

INTERCENSAL RECORDS — Intercensal statements of total population are prepared from the records of vital statistics and of external migration and are relatively accurate. Discrepancies have in fact been so slight that revisions of the intercensal figures between 1951 and 1956 and between 1956 and 1961 were not necessary.

The following population figures exclude members of New Zealand armed forces who were overseas, and also members of the armed forces of other countries who were in New Zealand.

YearTotal Population at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPer Cent
Years Ended 31 March
1951973,082964,9501,938,03235,1491.851,917,934
1952997,468987,2621,984,73046,6982.411,958,729
19531,024,4631,013,0902,037,55352,8232.662,009,506
19541,049,9631,037,7772,087,74050,1872.462,061,376
19551,072,0901,058,8372,130,92743,1872.072,105,767
19561,094,2831,081,0902,175,37344,4462.092,150,290
19571,116,6861,104,4832,221,16945,7962.112,194,108
19581,144,6701,130,8452,275,51554,3462.452,246,093
19591,170,0071,156,1222,326,12950,6142.222,298,814
196011,191,3991,178,7672,370,16644,0371.892,345,602
19611,213,3561,200,9402,414,29644,1301.842,388,004
Years Ended 31 December
1950967,308960,3211,927,62935,5871.881,909,092
1951989,513981,0091,970,52242,8932.231,947,529
19521,017,8741,006,6822,024,55654,0342.741,996,149
19531,043,1431,031,6382,074,78150,2252.482,048,826
19541,065,4901,052,9442,118,43443,6532.102,094,910
19551,089,0701,075,6642,164,73446,3002.192,138,946
19561,111,1761,097,9562,209,13244,3982.052,182,833
19571,137,7991,125,0152,262,81453,6822.432,232,591
19581,165,5681,150,3322,315,90053,0862.352,285,852
19591,186,0831,173,6632,359,74643,8461.892,334,617
19601,207,9461,195,6212,403,56743,8211.862,377,010

The figures given in the preceding table show the population inclusive of Maoris. The following table shows the population exclusive of Maoris.

YearPopulation (Excluding Maoris) at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPer Cent
Years Ended 31 March
1951913,852908,6741,822,52632,1981.801,803,944
1952936,338929,1041,865,44242,9162.351,841,332
1953961,389952,9651,914,35448,9122.621,888,334
1954984,822975,5341,960,35646,0022.401,936,202
19551,004,530994,4321,998,96238,6061.971,976,156
19561,024,4271,014,3672,038,79439,8321.992,016,067
19571,044,1341,035,0012,079,13540,3411.982,054,687
19581,069,6661,058,7312,128,39749,2622.372,101,543
19591,092,2841,081,2022,173,48645,0892.122,149,072
19601,110,8501,100,9612,211,81138,3251.762,190,101
19611,129,9121,120,2052,250,11738,3061.712,226,778
Years Ended 31 December
1950908,479904,4671,812,94632,7181.841,795,830
1951928,879923,3371,852,21639,2702.171,831,058
1952955,354947,1021,902,45650,2402.711,875,940
1953978,636969,9991,948,63546,1792.431,924,680
1954998,544989,0841,987,62838,9932001,966,454
19551,019,7921,009,5732,029,36541,7372.102,005,871
19561,039,3031,029,2062,068,50939,1441.932,044,752
19571,063,5251,053,6182,117,14348,6342.352,089,307
19581,088,6061,076,1582,164,76447,6212.252,137,483
19591,106,2461,096,6612,202,90738,1431.762,180,543
19601,125,2231,115,6692,240,89237,9851.722,217,242

POPULATION PROJECTIONS — An indication of future population growth, including Maoris, in New Zealand is given by the detailed projections for the period 1963–80 and the less elaborate calculations for the five-yearly points 1985–2000 set out in the following table.

Projections of future population almost always involve an element of uncertainty owing to incomplete knowledge of the factors underlying changes in fertility, mortality, and migration levels, coupled with the difficulty of accurately forecasting the future course of the factors which are known to affect these components of population change. It should be understood, therefore, that these projections merely show the effect of the assumptions stated below the table on the future growth of the existing population. The assumptions, however, have been adopted only after careful studies of trends in the patterns of fertility, mortality, and migration and, in the light of available current information, are regarded as those most likely to produce realistic projections over the length of the projection period.

POPULATION PROJECTIONS FOR TOTAL POPULATION
As at 31 MarchAssuming Net Immigration of
5,000 per Year10,000 per Year
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
(thousand)
19631,2561,2442,5001,2631,2492,512
19641,2781,2652,5431,2891,2732,562
19651,3011,2872,5881,3141,2972,611
19661,3261,3092,6351,3421,3222,664
19671,3511,3332,6841,3701,3472,717
19681,3771,3572,7341,3971,3752,772
19691,4021,3822,7841,4271,4032,830
19701,4281,4082,8361,4571,4332,890
19711,4561,4352,8911,4891,4632,952
19721,4851,4622,9471,5221,4943,016
19731,5151,4893,0041,5571,5253,082
19741,5461,5203,0661,5921,5573,149
19751,5781,5523,1301,6261,5923,218
19761,6121,5843,1961,6621,6273,289
19771,6461,6163,2621,7001,6623,362
19781,6811,6493,3301,7391,6983,437
19791,7171,6853,4021,7791,7363,515
19801,7521,7203,4721,8181,7773,595
1985....3,766....3,924
1990....4,084....4,279
1995....4,425....4,662
2000....4,793....5,074

Assumptions — The two projections are linked to actual population numbers as at 31 March 1961. The assumptions on which the more detailed projections for 1963–80 depend are as follows:

  1. Birthrates for each quinquennial age and marital status (“married” and “not married”) group of females will continue at the average 1952–56 level.

  2. The proportion of married females in each quinquennial age group will, in the future, vary in accordance with the rate of variation in the 1951–56 intercensal period.

  3. Mortality rates for each quinquennial age group, male and female, will be maintained at the level shown by the New Zealand Life Tables, 1950–52.

  4. Future net immigration will be at the rates of either 5,000 or 10,000 persons per annum, the age and sex distribution being based on the average 1937–58 pattern.

    The long-term projections for 1985–2000 are linked to the earlier projections. They are based on the following assumptions:

  5. The rate of natural increase of population, excess of births over deaths, for the period 1980–2000 will be 15 persons per 1,000 living.

  6. Net immigration will be as assumed for the period 1960–80.

The following diagram presented on a ratio scale shows the growth of actual population from 1880 to 1961 and projections through to 2000.

POPULATION

(INCLUDING MAORIS)

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION — Detailed population statistics are compiled for each census. Final figures for the 1961 census for statistical areas, urban areas, counties, cities, boroughs, town districts, county towns, extra-county islands, and shipping are published in this volume.

North and South Islands — In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, but this position was reversed at the succeeding enumeration, and the South Island had the larger population (exclusive of Maoris) at each census from 1861 to 1896. In 1901 the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total and since then has steadily increased its lead.

The following table gives the population, excluding Maoris, of the North and South Islands as disclosed by each census since 1901.

Census YearPopulation (Excluding Maoris)Percentages
North IslandSouth IslandTotalNorth IslandSouth Island
1901388,626381,678770,30450.4549.55
1906474,605411,390885,99553.5746.43
1911561,281444,3041,005,58555.8244.18
1916648,439447,7891,096,22859.1540.85
1921741,255477,6581,218,91360.8139.19
1926831,813512,6561,344,46961.8738.13
1936938,939552,5451,491,48462.9537.05
19451,050,984552,5701,603,55465.5434.46
19511,202,357621,4391,823,79665.9334.07
19561,365,470671,4412,036,91167.0432.96
19611,524,839723,0592,247,89867.8332.17

The natural increase of European population (i.e., excess of births over deaths) for the North Island during the 1956–61 intercensal period was 121,852, and the total net increase 159,369. For the South Island the natural increase was 50,101, and the total net increase 51,618. The population of the North Island increased at a greater proportionate rate than that of the South Island between the 1956 and 1961 censuses. Inclusive of Maoris, the North Island increase was 187,421, or 12.52 per cent, and the South Island increase 53,501, or 7.91 per cent.

At the 1961 census the North Island population was 1,684,785, inclusive of 159,946 Maoris, and the South Island population 730,199, inclusive of 7,140 Maoris.

Statistical Areas — Statistical areas are now being used in preference to provincial districts. Auckland Provincial District has been split into four areas; Northland comprises the northern counties from Mangonui to Otamatea; central Auckland, the counties from Rodney to Franklin (including islands in the Hauraki Gulf); East Coast, the area north of Wairoa; while South Auckland — Bay of Plenty comprises the remainder of the provincial district. Hawke's Bay, Taranaki, and Wellington statistical areas are the same as the provincial districts of the same names.

In the South Island only minor changes have been made in the provincial district boundaries to give better statistical areas. These are the transfer of Amuri and Cheviot counties from Nelson to Canterbury statistical area, and the transfer of all that area of Grey county north of Grey River from Nelson to Westland.

It is ultimately intended to drop statistics for provincial districts completely.

In the table following, the approximate areas and the total populations of the new statistical areas are shown.

Statistical AreaArea (Square Miles)Total Population 1961 Census (18 April)
Northland4,88386,391
Central Auckland2,155514,507
South Auckland — Bay of Plenty14,187349,624
East Coast4,19546,478
Hawke's Bay4,260114,470
Taranaki3,75099,774
Wellington10,870473,541
      Totals, North Island44,3001,684,785
Marlborough4,22027,748
Nelson6,91062,967
Westland6,01024,841
Canterbury16,770344,597
Otago14,070176,325
Southland11,46093,721
      Totals, South Island59,440730,199
      Totals, New Zealand103,7402,414,984

Urban Areas — These are statistical conceptions and not administrative units. Their purpose is to provide definite, stable, and comparable boundaries for the larger centres of population. In addition to the central city or borough, they include neighbouring boroughs and town districts and parts of counties which are regarded as suburban to the centre of population.

Urban areas were defined in 1917 and, except for two additions and one deletion, remained unaltered until 1951, when a revision of boundaries was made and the new areas used in the 1951 census. From census records and maps, revised population figures were prepared on the basis of the new boundaries. In the case of European population the figures were revised for each census back to 1911, and on the basis of population including Maoris the revision was possible back to the 1926 census. The most significant change resulting from this revision was the division of the former Wellington Urban Area, plus additional areas to the north, into the two adjacent urban areas of Hutt and Wellington. The two areas in a sense form a single centre of population and it is preferable at times to treat them as such. However, the extent and pattern of development in the Hutt Valley have been such as to establish it as a centre complementary to Wellington. In Auckland the boundaries were extended considerably, but in most other cases it was found that little change was necessary. For the 1961 Census, three new urban areas were defined at Whangarei, Tauranga, and Rotorua and comparable figures have been compiled for past years.

Urban AreaTotal PopulationPopulation Increase 1956–61
1945195119561961NumericalPercentage
Whangarei12,24815,43118,36921,7903,42118.62
Auckland286,767329,123381,063448,36567,30217.66
Hamilton27,31933,13740,64650,5059,85924.26
Tauranga8,34213,01018,72424,6595,93531.70
Rotorua10,41714,69319,00425,0686,06431.91
Gisborne16,99519,77422,62225,0652,44310.80
Napier20,74124,53827,50732,7165,20918.94
Hastings20,30623,79727,78732,4904,70316.93
New Plymouth21,05724,92328,29232,3874,09514.47
Wanganui26,26229,71732,10035,6943,59411.20
Palmerston North27,82032,90837,77543,1855,41014.32
Hutt55,78674,87886,05398,98812,93515.03
Wellington132,305133,414138,297150,54412,2478.86
Nelson16,52320,49722,50325,3212,81812.52
Christchurch151,068174,221193,367220,51027,14314.04
Timaru19,67222,85124,69426,4241,7307.01
Dunedin87,58795,45799,370105,0035,6335.67
Invercargill27,75531,61335,10741,0885,98117.04
Totals968,9701,113,9821,253,2801,439,802186,52214.88

In the period covered by the table all urban areas have consistently recorded increases in population. In the years 1956–61 Auckland had the greatest numerical growth, while Rotorua, Tauranga, and Hamilton had the highest proportionate increases.

The lowest percentage increase was recorded by Dunedin (5.67 per cent) which, with eight of the other 17 urban areas, had a percentage increase lower than the average for the 18 urban areas together.

Auckland Urban Area, with a total population now of 448,365, took well over a third of the total increase in population in the 18 urban areas.

Wellington and Hutt Urban Areas together have slightly under 250,000 population.

The next table contains the total population of the 18 urban areas as at the 1961 census. The component parts of the five largest centres of population are given in detail, while for the remaining 13 areas totals only are quoted. In most of the 13 cases the urban area comprises the central city or borough plus the urban portion of the adjoining county. At 18 April 1961 the five largest urban areas had a total population of 1,023,410. this being equivalent to 42.4 percent of the New Zealand total. The total for all urban areas at the same date was 1,439,802, or 59.6 per cent of the total population of New Zealand.

Urban AreaTotal Population 18 April 1961
Auckland 
Auckland city143,583
East Coast Bays borough9,501
Takapuna borough20,394
Devonport borough10,976
Northcote borough5,183
Birkenhead borough7,283
Henderson borough3,959
Glen Eden borough5,174
New Lynn borough8,779
Newmarket borough1,860
Mt. Albert borough25,990
Mt. Eden borough18,348
Mt. Roskill borough29,938
Onehunga borough16,313
One Tree Hill borough12,846
Ellerslie borough4,406
Mt. Wellington borough16,031
Howick borough6,393
Otahuhu borough8,775
Papatoetoe borough17,924
Manurewa borough10,984
Papakura borough7,997
Remainder of urban area55,728
Total448,365
Hutt 
Lower Hutt city53,044
Upper Hutt borough16,861
Petone borough9,891
Eastbourne borough2,653
Remainder of urban area16,539
Total98,988
Wellington 
Wellington city123,969
Tawa borough7,204
Remainder of urban area19,371
Total150,544
Christchurch 
Christchurch city151,671
Riccarton borough7,372
Lyttelton borough3,400
Heathcote county6,070
Remainder of urban area51,997
Total220,510
Dunedin 
Dunedin city73,245
Port Chalmers borough3,120
West Harbour borough2,292
St. Kilda borough6,626
Green Island borough5,159
Mosgiel borough6,456
Remainder of urban area8,105
Total105,003
Whangarei21,790
Hamilton50,505
Tauranga24,659
Rotorua25,068
Gisborne25,065
Napier32,716
Hastings32,490
New Plymouth32,387
Wanganui35,694
Palmerston North43,185
Nelson25,321
Timaru26,424
Invercargill41,088

Over two-fifths (42.4 per cent) of the total population are included in the five principal urban areas and nearly three-fifths (59.6 per cent) in the 18 urban areas.

Counties — The following table gives the total population of individual counties at 18 April 1961, together with the approximate area of each. It should be noted that “Administrative Counties” do not include boroughs or town districts independent of county control, but include town districts and county towns which form parts of counties.

Administrative CountyTotal Population 18 April 1961Approximate Area, in Square Miles
North Island:
   Mangonui7,563958
   Whangaroa2,304240
   Hokianga6,006613
   Bay of Islands12,795823
   Whangarei13,8271,039
   Hobson6,366745
   Otamatea6,936421
   Rodney6,811477
   Waitemata53,136600
   Great Barrier Island243110
   Manukau28,167237
   Franklin18,398550
   Raglan12,079931
   Waikato18,589643
   Waipa21,587444
   Otorohanga8,196762
   Waitomo8,7891,297
   Taumarunui8,8741,873
   Coromandel2,826444
   Thames3,205414
   Hauraki Plains5,695233
   Ohinemuri4,161241
   Piako12,487444
   Matamata22,403994
   Tauranga19,975713
   Rotorua14,3651,035
   Taupo13,0723,040
   Whakatane16,2531,671
   Opotiki4,8861,324
   Matakaoa1,827295
   Waiapu5,694792
   Uawa1,725262
   Waikohu3,5181,012
   Cook9,120848
   Wairoa7,7151,395
   Hawke's Bay21,0521,668
   Waipawa4,021524
   Patangata3,432651
   Waipukurau1,289128
   Dannevirke4,597546
   Woodville1,735156
   Clifton2,600443
   Taranaki7,934227
   Inglewood3,273199
   Stratford6,027846
   Egmont6,240240
   Eltham3,620207
   Waimate West2,88583
   Hawera5,381190
   Patea3,836591
   Waimarino2,321829
   Waitotara3,301468
   Wanganui3,505460
   Rangitikei13,9751,730
   Kiwitea2,339359
   Pohangina1,199259
   Oroua4,559190
   Manawatu7,288265
   Kairanga6,160184
   Horowhenua10,561544
   Hutt29,729443
   Makara16,96298
   Pahiatua2,740286
   Akitio1,189321
   Eketahuna1,819318
   Mauriceville515115
   Masterton4,132808
   Wairarapa South3,038440
   Featherston3,676954
     Totals, North Is. counties586,52343,690
South Island:
   Sounds857457
   Marlborough7,9581,946
   Awatere1,7401,030
   Kaikoura3,132905
   Golden Bay3,6721,011
   Waimea14,1031,533
   Buller4,0881,885
   Murchison1,4481,372
   Inangahua3,081942
   Grey4,7671,579
   Westland4,3974,410
   Amuri2,9402,285
   Cheviot1,532327
   Waipara2,927937
   Kowai2,220157
   Ashley665309
   Rangiora3,78596
   Eyre1,876175
   Oxford1,586318
   Tawera751941
   Malvern4,255250
   Paparua15,895133
   Waimairi39,61043
   Heathcote6,07012
   Halswell2,86639
   Mt. Herbert62766
   Akaroa1,827170
   Chatham Islands487372
   Wairewa798170
   Springs2,62592
   Ellesmere3,699232
   Selwyn1,703954
   Ashburton11,6072,460
   Geraldine5,149578
   Levels5,731263
   Mackenzie3,3102,852
   Waimate6,0581,383
   Waitaki11,0212,412
   Waihemo1,003338
   Waikouaiti3,598315
   Peninsula3,67740
   Taieri7,827901
   Bruce3,981520
   Clutha6,1181,045
   Tuapeka4,7471,388
   Maniototo2,7951,340
   Vincent4,0122,922
   Lake1,8393,871
   Southland29,2743,703
   Wallace10,0993,728
   Fiord513,035
   Stewart Island542670
     Totals, South Island counties270,42658,912
     Grand totals, all counties856,949102,602

Waitemata county, with a 1961 census population of 53,136, has the largest county population, followed by Waimairi county with 39,610. Most of those counties showing considerable gains of population are adjacent to large cities, the most significant percentage population increases being recorded in the counties of Halswell, Makara, Waitemata, Waimairi, Hutt, and Manukau.

Considerable rates of expansion were recorded in a group of counties in the South Auckland — Bay of Plenty area including Taupo, Rotorua, Tauranga, Matamata (which includes the county town of Tokoroa), and Waipa and Waikato (both of which adjoin Hamilton).

Boroughs — Similar information as in the case of counties is now given for cities and boroughs.

BoroughTotal Population 18 April 1961Approximate Area, in Acres
North Island:
   Kaitaia2,7061,310
   Kaikohe2,7321,342
   Whangarei17,8806,510
   Dargaville3,7332,800
   Helensville1,2141,315
   East Coast Bays9,5013,850
   Takapuna20,3943,280
   Devonport10,9761,100
   Northcote5,1831,190
   Birkenhead7,2833,084
   Henderson3,9591,278
   Glen Eden5,1741,244
   New Lynn8,7791,393
   Auckland (city)143,58318,493
   Newmarket1,860182
   Mt. Albert25,9902,430
   Mt. Eden18,3481,477
   Mt. Roskill29,9384,604
   Onehunga16,3131,876
   One Tree Hill12,8462,430
   Ellerslie4,406745
   Mt. Wellington16,0314,075
   Howick6,3931,534
   Otahuhu8,7751,345
   Papatoetoe17,9242,241
   Manurewa10,9841,727
   Papakura7,9972,010
   Pukekohe5,7983,471
   Waiuku1,6121,465
   Tuakau1,5211,091
   Huntly4,6331,678
   Cambridge5,2902,646
   Ngaruawahia3,2731,112
   Hamilton (city)42,2126,576
   Te Awamutu5,4251,202
   Otorohanga2,002560
   Te Kuiti4,4921,668
   Taumarunui4,9613,234
   Thames5,3152,712
   Paeroa2,8941,419
   Waihi3,1641,330
   Te Aroha3,0602,783
   Morrinsville4,1111,177
   Matamata3,298934
   Putaruru3,551975
   Mt. Maunganui5,0913,475
   Tauranga13,4685,536
   Te Puke2,2981,047
   Rotorua19,3606,551
   Taupo5,2612,290
   Whakatane7,1671,975
   Kawerau4,4911,718
   Opotiki2,582772
   Gisborne (city)21,7693,610
   Wairoa4,3031,603
   Napier (city)24,5793,955
   Taradale4,8461,003
   Hastings (city)23,3833,211
   Havelock North3,6221,165
   Waipawa1,7141,710
   Waipukurau3,250971
   Dannevirke5,5081,300
   Woodville1,5301,054
   Waitara4,3721,587
   New Plymouth (city)29,3685,722
   Inglewood1,901703
   Stratford5,2732,016
   Eltham2,2711,599
   Hawera7,5421,270
   Patea1,9891,420
   Ohakune1,5422,079
   Raetihi1,343958
   Wanganui (city)33,3166,185
   Taihape2,6821,923
   Marton4,3191,415
   Feilding8,1722,031
   Foxton2,628757
   Palmerston N. (city)41,0147,190
   Shannon1,398844
   Levin7,9341,332
   Otaki2,9731,396
   Upper Hutt16,8612,165
   Lower Hutt (city)53,04411,004
   Petone9,8912,575
   Eastbourne2,6531,546
   Tawa7,2041,208
   Wellington (city)123,96918,226
   Pahiatua2,578720
   Eketahuna771948
   Masterton15,1283,116
   Carterton3,0771,265
   Greytown1,5801,093
   Featherston1,476759
   Martin borough1,4221,070
     Totals, North Island cities and boroughs1,081,427239,966
South Island:
   Picton2,3151,052
   Blenheim11,9562,497
   Nelson (city)23,9718,419
   Richmond3,4822,600
   Motueka3,3102,523
   Westport5,460760
   Runanga1,7351,204
   Greymouth8,8812,594
   Brunner1,0735,700
   Kumara435842
   Hokitika3,007674
   Ross5033,800
   Rangiora3,540877
   Kaiapoi3,110786
   Riccarton7,372728
   Christchurch (city)151,67126,178
   Lyttelton3,4002,560
   Ashburton11,6022,601
   Geraldine1,831745
   Temuka2,431795
   Timaru (city)24,8213,668
   Waimate3,310771
   Oamaru12,4292,811
   Hampden303630
   Palmerston868900
   Waikouaiti6871,958
   Port Chalmers3,120954
   West Harbour2,2922,181
   Dunedin (city)73,24513,942
   St. Kilda6,626463
   Green Island5,1591,818
   Mosgiel6,456965
   Milton1,922315
   Kaitangata1,2491,280
   Balclutha3,9351,258
   Tapanui767300
   Lawrence594615
   Roxburgh771515
   Naseby154188
   Alexandra2,296815
   Cromwell942972
   Arrowtown172457
   Queenstown1,321998
   Gore7,2702,276
   Mataura2,0851,272
   Winton1,473505
   Invercargill (city)35,6058,995
   Bluff3,0422,111
   Riverton1,225997
     Totals, South Island cities and boroughs455,224122,865
     Grand totals, all cities boroughs1,536,651362,831

Naseby, with a population of 154, is the smallest borough in New Zealand, while Christchurch city, with a population of 151,671, retains its place as the city with the greatest population within city council boundaries.

Several small boroughs have lost population between 1956 and 1961 while, out of 33 boroughs with populations of 10,000 or more in 1961, only three lost population during the 1956–61 period, namely Devonport, Mount Eden, and Onehunga, which all are among the inner boroughs in the Auckland Urban Area.

Town Districts — As stated earlier, the population of independent town districts — i.e., those contained in section (a) of the following table — is not included with that of the county in which the town district is located, but the population of dependent town districts — section (b) — is included in that of the respective parent county.

Town DistrictTotal Population 18 April 1961Approximate Area, in Acres

* Parent county shown in parentheses.

(a) Town Districts Not Forming Parts of Counties
North Island:
   Kawakawa936280
   Hikurangi967960
   Kamo1,599852
   Warkworth9911,427
   Ohura654815
   Mani9481,251
   Murupara1,571530
   Manaia815510
   Waverley890484
   Mangaweka333955
   Hunterville598791
   Totals, North Island10,3028,855
South Island:
   Lumsden6661,264
   Wyndham679680
   Nightcaps686285
   Otautau806490
Totals, South Island2,8372,719
     Grand totals13,13911,574
(b) Town Districts Forming Parts of Counties*
North Island:
   Kohukohu (Hokianga)1941,020
   Rawene (Hokianga)471280
   Russell (Bay of Islands)5691,066
   Mercer (Franklin)234890
   Te Kauwhata (Waikato)7571,290
   Ohaupo (Waipa)3291,281
   Kihikihi (Waipa)1,026523
   Te Karaka (Waikohu)472700
   Patutahi (Cook)2441,275
   Kaponga (Eltham)518558
   Normanby (Hawera)528260
   Totals, North Island5,3429,143
South Island: 
   Edendale (Southland)607696
   Totals, South Island607696
      Grand totals5,9499,839

Murupara town district, in the Kaingaroa Forest area, more than doubled its population in five years, thus reflecting the continued growth of the timber and allied products industry. Both Murupara and the nearby borough of Kawerau were created to serve the industry in the Bay of Plenty area.

County Towns — The populations of county towns were compiled for the first time at the 1961 census and are shown in the table following, with the parent county in parentheses. The populations of county towns are included in the administrative county populations shown previously.

Porirua (9,614), Wainuiomata (8,043), and Tokoroa (7,104) are the largest county towns in New Zealand.

County TownTotal Population 18 April 1961Approximate Area in Acres
North Island:
    Awanui (Mangonui)139139
    Kerikeri (Bay of Islands)280386
    Moerewa (Bay of Islands)75796
    Paihia (Bay of Islands)448356
    Te Kopuru (Hobson)582484
    Kaiwaka (Otamatea)3182,120
    Maungaturoto (Otamatea)565710
    Ruawai (Otamatea)590789
    Leigh (Rodney)163199
    Wellsford (Rodney)1,1361,368
    Green Bay (Waitemata)1,192471
    Kelston West (Waitemata)2,546974
    Titirangi (Waitemata)4,4992,299
    Glenfield (Waitemata)5,6834,642
    Beachlands (Manukau)465564
    Bucklands and Eastern Beaches (Manukau)1,950426
    Mangere Bridge (Manukau)4,0281,360
    Mangere East (Manukau)4,8671,152
    Pakuranga (Manukau)1,5971,358
    Raglan (Raglan)1,019919
    Rotowaro (Raglan)527131
    Kawhia (Otorohanga)324234
    Piopio (Waitomo)457366
    Whitianga (Coromandel)610868
    Whangamata (Thames)393271
    Waihi Beach (Ohinemuri)545517
    Tirau (Matamata)604143
    Tokoroa (Matamata)7,1041,057
    Athenree (Tauranga)83199
    Greerton (Tauranga)4,681997
    Katikati (Tauranga)9952,046
    Maketu (Tauranga)5091,455
    Ngongotaha (Rotorua)1,6261,242
    Takapau (Waipawa)558690
    Otane (Patangata)394199
    Porangahau (Patangata)22594
    Urenui (Clifton)265449
    Oakura (Taranaki)283256
    Okato (Taranaki)369252
    Midhirst (Stratford)347180
    Waitotara (Patea)14959
    Otamatea (Waitotara)349195
    Putiki (Wanganui)349215
    Ratana (Rangitikei)42452
    Bulls (Rangitikei)1,217995
    Ashhurst (Oroua)641298
    Foxton Beach (Manawatu)819980
    Himatangi Beach (Manawatu)81144
    Rongotea (Manawatu)369115
    Sanson (Manawatu)325132
    Tangimoana Beach (Manawatu)18694
    Waikanae (Horowhenua)1,0932,418
    Waitarere (Horowhenua)232261
    Paekakariki (Hutt)1,6821,518
    Plimmerton-Paremata (Hutt)2,968670
    Wainuiomata (Hutt)8,0433,553
    Porirua (Makara)9,6142,486
    Takapuwahia (Makara)373350
    Titahi Bay (Makara)5,8761,523
   Totals, North Island88,51348,516
South Island:
    Havelock (Marlborough)290209
    Kaikoura (Kaikoura)1,328700
    Waimangaroa (Buller)338264
    Karoro (Grey)428275
    Hornby (Paparua)5,6601,226
    Sockburn (Paparua)4,7952,661
    Akaroa (Akaroa)632420
    Leeston (Ellesmere)791394
    Southbridge (Ellesmere)476534
    Andrewville (Geraldine)324147
    Winchester (Geraldine)24771
    Fairlie (Mackenzie)844231
    Brighton (Taieri)886276
    Fairfield (Taieri)914310
    Middlemarch (Taieri)240263
    Waldronville (Taieri)50657
    Benhar (Bruce)27792
    Stirling (Bruce)243127
    Owaka (Clutha)404241
    Clinton (Clutha)462292
    Kaka Point (Clutha)9082
    Ranfurly (Maniototo)849880
    Wanaka (Lake)360456
    Balfour (Southland)246114
    Grassmere (Southland)1,246167
    Waikiwi (Southland)1,961530
    Ohai (Wallace)967275
    Tuatapere (Wallace)872460
Totals, South Island26,67611,754
Totals. New Zealand County Towns115,18960,270

Extra-county Islands and Shipboard Population — In addition to the populations quoted for administrative counties, cities and boroughs, and independent town districts, the New Zealand totals include shipboard population and persons located on islands not within the boundaries of any county. The two latter categories comprised a total of 8,245 people at the 1961 census.

Of the islands concerned, Waiheke, with a population of 2,060, was the only one of any size.

Urban and Rural Population — In the following table urban population means the population in cities and boroughs, while rural population covers counties, all town districts, and extra-county islands. It will be observed that there was a marked slackening in the rate of the urban drift between 1926 and 1936, but the 1945 figures, due no doubt to wartime influences, disclosed a substantial increase in the urban population, whereas the rural population for the first time recorded a decrease. In the three intercensal periods since 1945, the urban and rural populations have both increased numerically but the rural proportion has continued to decrease. A greater increase would be shown in the urban population if it included the substantial population gains recorded in urban counties such as Waitemata, Manukau, Hutt, Makara, and Waimairi, all of which are on the outskirts of main centres of population.

CensusPopulationPercentage of Total
RuralUrbanShipboardRuralUrbanShipboard

* Figures exclude military and internment camps.

† Figures exclude members of the United States forces present in New Zealand and also enemy prisoners of war.

‡ Inclusive of Maori half-castes (3,221 in 1916 and 4,236 in 1921) living as Europeans, as they cannot be distinguished separately for these two censuses.

Excluding Maoris:
1901416,701349,8423,76154.0945.420.49
1906457,297424,2514,44751.6147.890.50
1911495,577505,0035,00549.2850.220.50
1916*501,956585,3063,46346.0253.660.32
1921‡531,694681,9885,23143.6255.950.43
1926552,344785,0407,08541.0858.390.53
1936602,519884,2934,67240.4059.290.31
1945591,8551,008,5343,16536.9162.890.20
1951654,9211,163,0905,78535.9163.770.32
1956704,5361,327,9964,37934.5965.200.21
1961761,4171,480,9705,51133.8765.880.25
Total Population:
1926610,446790,5557,13843.3556.140.51
1936677,087892,0244,69943.0256.680.30
1945674,8211,024,2923,18539.6460.170.19
1951748,9221,184,6725,87838.6261.080.30
1956809,2671,360,3474,44837.2262.570.21
1961872,7681,536,6515,56536.1463.630.23

Another conception of urban and rural population is presented in the next table. For this purpose urban population has been taken as that enumerated in cities, boroughs, or town districts with a minimum population of 1,000. Shipboard population is excluded. The numbers of towns making up the populations shown are given in parentheses after the populations.

Size of CentreTotal Population
192619561961

* Figures in parentheses are the numbers of towns included in each category.

 Numbers*
Borough and town district with population of-
     1,000–2,499104,360 (63)65,931 (40)56,117 (33)
     2,500–4,99986,408(23)158,605(47)136,605 (39)
     5,000–9,99982,644(11)133,600(19)197,180(29)
     10,000–24,999186,545(12)297,699(19)361,023(21)
     25,000 or over338,213 (4)701,948(11)782,956 (12)
Totals, urban798,170(113)1,357,783(136)1,533,881 (134)
rural602,831811,831875,538
Totals, New Zealand (excluding shipboard)1,401,0012,169,6142,409,419
 Percentages
     1,000–2,4997.453.042.33
     2,500–4,9996.177.315.67
     5,000–9,9995.906.168.18
     10,000–24,99913.3113.7214.98
     25,000 or over24.1432.3532.50
Totals, urban56.9762.5863.66
rural43.0337.4236.34
Totals New Zealand100.00100.00100.00

Urban and rural communities are not evenly distributed. The South Island, for example, contains proportionately more rural population than does the North Island.

AGE DISTRIBUTION — The following table shows the estimated age distribution of the population at 31 December 1960 and of the mean population for the year 1960. The figures are based on the 1956 census data and brought up to date from statistics of births, ages of persons dying, and ages of persons arriving in or departing from New Zealand.

Age Group in YearsExcluding MaorisMaorisTotal Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
As at 31 December 1960
Under 5133,983127,519261,50216,29315,98732,280150,276143,506293,782
5 and under 10118,000113,900231,90013,11012,36025,470131,110126,260257,370
10 and under 15113,100107,800220,90010,61010,28020,890123,710118,080241,790
15 and under 2086,70082,700169,4008,4008,15016,55095,10090,850185,950
20 and under 2572,60069,700142,3006,9506,92013,87079,55076,620156,170
25 and under 3068,70065,100133,8005,7305,87011,60074,43070,970145,400
30 and under 3576,80070,600147,4004,9504,9009,85081,75075,500157,250
35 and under 4075,90073,000148,9003,7903,8407,63079,69076,840156,530
40 and under 4568,30069,600137,9003,1703,2206,39071,47072,820144,290
45 and under 5067,60067,000134,6002,7702,6205,39070,37069,620139,990
50 and under 5561,50059,900121,4002,4001,9704,37063,90061,870125,770
55 and under 6051,70050,600102,3001,6401,3703,01053,34051,970105,310
60 and under 6540,50043,90084,4001,2009802,18041,70044,88086,580
65 and under 7030,80037,90068,7007606201,38031,56038,52070,080
70 and under 7525,82032,63058,45052044596526,34033,07559,415
75 and under 8018,52023,64042,16025022047018,77023,86042,630
80 and over14,70020,18034,88018020038014,88020,38035,260
Totals1,125,2231,115,6692,240,89282,72379,952162,6751,207,9461,195,6212,403,567
Totals:
   Under 14343,383328,519671,90238,08336,77774,860381,466365,296746,762
   Under 16383,983367,419751,40241,77340,33782,110425,756407,756833,512
   Under 21468,483447,819916,30249,98348,29798,280518,466496,1161,014,582
   21 and over656,740667,8501,324,59032,74031,65564,395689,480699,5051,388,985
   16 and under 2184,50080,400164,9008,2107,96016,17092,71088,360181,070
   65 and over89,840114,350204,1901,7101,4853,19591,550115,835207,385
Mean Population for Year 1960
Under 5132,038125,804257,84215,91515,58331,498147,953141,387289,340
5 and under 10116,800112,600229,40012,88012,17025,050129,680124,770254,450
10 and under 15110,800105,900216,70010,35010,02020,370121,150115,920237,070
15 and under 2085,50081,500167,0008,3208,08016,40093,82089,580183,400
20 and under 2570,70068,100138,8006,8106,81013,62077,51074,910152,420
25 and under 3069,40065,300134,7005,6805,80011,48075,08071,100146,180
30 and under 3577,00070,800147,8004,8704,8109,68081,87075,610157,480
35 and under 4075,00072,700147,7003,7003,7607,46078,70076,460155,160
40 and under 4567,90069,300137,2003,1503,2006,35071,05072,500143,550
45 and under 5067,30066,500133,8002,7602,5505,31070,06069,050139,110
50 and under 5560,80059,000119,8002,3601,9304,29063,16060,930124,090
55 and under 6050,90049,900100,8001,5901,3502,94052,49051,250103,740
60 and under 6539,70043,30083,0001,1809702,15040,88044,27085,150
65 and under 7030,80037,70068,5007506101,36031,55038,31069,860
70 and under 7525,86032,34058,20050043593526,36032,77559,135
75 and under 8018,48023,41041,89026021547518,74023,62542,365
80 and over14,46019,65034,11019021040014,65019,86034,510
Totals1,113,4381,103,8042,217,24281,26578,503159,7681,194,7031,182,3072,377,010
Totals:
   Under 14339,338324,904664,24237,29535,99373,288376,633360,897737,530
   Under 16377,938361,804739,74240,87539,46380,338418,813401,267820,080
   Under 21460,938440,904901,84249,00547,33396,338509,943488,237998,180
   21 and over652,500662,9001,315,40032,26031,17063,430684,760694,0701,378,830
   16 and under 2183,00079,100162,1008,1307,87016,00091,13086,970178,100
   65 and over89,600113,100202,7001,7001,4703,17091,300114,570205,870

SEX PROPORTIONS — The figures for the census of 18 April 1961 show that males outnumber females by 8,914 in the European population, 2,854 in the Maori population, and 11,768 in the total population. Females per 1,000 males were: European, 992; Maori, 966; total population, 990. Net increase of population from migration adds to the male preponderance, but in the excess of births over deaths there is a female preponderance, with the lower death rate for females more than offsetting the masculinity of live births. Females per 1,000 males at the last five censuses have been:

* Including armed forces abroad.

19369701956989
19451,0441956*987
1945*9911961990
19519911961*988
1951*989  

There are marked differences in the sex proportions of the population of different parts of New Zealand. The following observations relate to the census of 1961 and give the number of females per 1,000 males.

In the aggregate of cities and boroughs the ratio was 1,049; in town districts, 963; and in counties, 905. For the statistical areas ratios were:

Central Auckland1,017
Otago1,015
Hawke's Bay1,011
Canterbury1,011
Nelson993
East Coast991
Wellington989
Taranaki987
Northland957
Marlborough949
South Auckland — Bay of Plenty947
Southland934
Westland926

Female preponderance in towns does not appear to have a direct relation to the size of the towns. Of the 18 urban areas which comprise the largest centres of population, 10 had ratios higher than the average for all cities and boroughs, but 8 were below the average, and of these Hutt, fifth largest urban area, even had an excess of males.

Timaru1,096
Gisborne1,088
New Plymouth1,077
Dunedin1,075
Palmerston North1,074
Hastings1,070
Napier1,062
Whangarei1,061
Christchurch1,057
Nelson1,051
Hamilton1,049
Tauranga1,045
Wanganui1,039
Auckland1,036
Wellington1,024
Invercargill1,019
Rotorua1,008
Hutt985

DENSITY OF POPULATION — The relation of population to area, which is commonly referred to as “density of population”, is a subject of much interest and a source of serious misconceptions. Generally speaking, a dense population must depend upon land utilisation or industrialisation. In New Zealand there is a great area of high mountainous country, particularly in the South Island, while there are also large areas of water or of broken, swampy, or hilly country which is either incapable of effective use or which can be used profitably only for pastoral purposes, afforestation, or the like.

Most of the land that can still be brought into occupation requires special methods or heavier capital expenditure to develop it. The Departments of Lands and Survey and Maori Affairs are grassing annually quite large areas of what was, until recently, regarded as useless land. The development of unimproved land for farming purposes can be expected to continue steadily, but the accompanying growth of mechanisation in farming tends to stabilise the size of the labour force engaged in farming operations.

While industrial development has made very marked growth in New Zealand over the years, and extensive further development appears certain, there are factors unfavourable to the growth of industry to a point where dense populations could be supported — not the least of which are a lack of mineral resources, relative smallness of the home market (even with an expanded population), and distance from export markets.

Within New Zealand there are wide variations in density of population. The North Island, with an area of 44,297 square miles, had a population density of 38.03 persons per square mile at the 1961 census date, and the South Island, with an area of 59,439 square miles, had a population density of 12.28 persons per square mile at the same date.

The following table provides comparative density figures on a statistical area basis from 1926 to 1961 censuses.

Statistical AreaArea, in Square MilesPersons per Square Mile
19261936194519511961
Northland4,88311.1513.2313.6115.4117.69
Central Auckland2,155109.64123.43154.03177.27238.75
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty14,18710.2312.6414.4417.3724.64
East Coast4,1958.028.849.009.8611.08
Hawke's Bay4,26016.5118.0718.5621.4126.87
Taranaki3,75019.1620.7120.4923.1726.61
Wellington10,87025.8629.1132.1435.9443.56
Marlborough4,2204.454.544.915.426.58
Nelson6,9105.977.006.768.179.11
Westland6,0103.564.293.984.234.13
Canterbury16,77013.0314.2214.9316.9320.55
Otago14,07010.6710.7610.2511.3312.53
Southland11,4605.876.356.286.768.18
Totals, New Zealand103,74013.6215.1716.4618.7023.28

MAORI POPULATION — The first official general census of Maoris was taken in 1857–58, and others occurred in regular sequence from 1874 onwards. Owing to inherent difficulties the earlier census records make no pretence towards complete accuracy. All persons with half or more of Maori blood are defined as Maoris.

According to census records the Maori population suffered a period of almost unbroken decline from 1858 to 1896. The following causes no doubt contributed to this decline — warfare amongst the tribes and with the European settlers; the susceptibility of the Maori to epidemic and other diseases introduced with the white race; and the mental outlook of the Maori under the new conditions.

Since 1896, however, the Maori population has increased continuously, at first steadily and of later years at a fairly rapid rate. In fact, the vitality exhibited by the Maori race in recent years is a most outstanding feature. The rate of natural increase of the Maori population is more than double that of the European.

A statement of Maori population is now given for each census from 1901 to 1961.

YearMaori PopulationIntercensal IncreaseIntercensal IncreaseAverage Annual Increase

* Includes members of armed forces overseas at census date.

 NumberNumberPer CentPer Cent
190145,5493,4368.21.6
190650,3094,76010.52.0
191152,7232,4144.81.0
191652,9972740.50.1
192156,9873,9907.51.6
192663,6706,68311.72.2
193682,32618,65629.32.6
194598,74416,41819.91.9
1945*100,04417,71821.52.1
1951115,67616,93217.12.9
1951*115,74015,69615.72.7
1956137,15121,47518.63.5
1956*137,34121,60118.73.5
1961167,08629,93521.84.0
1961*167,39030,04921.94.0

The average annual percentage increase from 1956 to 1961 was 4.03, which is considerably higher than the corresponding figure for the non-Maori population, viz, 1.99 per cent. The natural increase ratios for the year 1961 shown below afford a better illustration.

 EuropeanMaori
Birthrate25.5346.41
Death rate9.038.27
Natural-increase rate16.5038.14

Of the 167,086 Maoris at the 1961 census, 159,946 were in the North Island. Maoris have always been residents in rural communities and this is still substantially true. A marked change has, however, taken place during and since the war as a result of employment conditions. As late as the 1936 census only 8,249 Maoris (10.02 per cent) dwelt in cities, boroughs, or independent town districts. By the 1961 census the comparative figure was 57,411 (34.4 per cent). The largest concentration is in Auckland Urban Area, where 19,847 Maoris were enumerated.

Numbers of persons wholly or partly of Maori blood as disclosed by the censuses of 1951 and 1956 are set out in the following table. This information is not yet available for the 1961 census.

 19511956

* This category, first introduced in 1956, covers those cases of “Maori — other races” mixtures where there is half or more Maori blood involved; it accounts for the decline in most classes counted in the population other than Maori.

Counted in the Maori population:  
  Full Maori76,91888,440
  Maori-Europeans:  
    Three-quarter-caste15,20118,624
    Half-caste23,18328,492
    Maori — other Polynesian374775
  Maori — other races*820
Totals115,676137,151
Counted in the population other than Maori:
  Maori-European quarter-caste18,42125,108
  Maori-Japanese169
  Maori-Chinese36964
  Maori-Indian22064
  Maori-Syrian, Lebanese, or Arab7327
  Maori — American Indian3
  Maori-Negro112
  Maori-Filipino101
  Maori — West Indian136
  Maori-Melanesian3323
Totals19,16625,307

In 1956 there were recorded in New Zealand some 162,458 persons wholly or partly of Maori origin, compared with 134,842 in 1951.

EXTERNAL MIGRATION — Statistics of external migration are compiled from individual statements obtained from each person entering or leaving New Zealand.

Including crews of vessels, 206,428 persons from overseas arrived in New Zealand during the year ended 31 March 1961 which, compared with 1959–60, shows an increase of 23,191. During the same period 204,481 persons departed. This figure, compared with the corresponding one for 1959–60, shows an increase of 24,043.

In addition to the figures just quoted there were also 36,386 through passengers and tourists on cruising liners, who called in at New Zealand in the course of their voyages.

The excess of total arrivals over total departures for 1960–61 was 1,947, compared with an excess of 2,799 during 1959–60.

The numbers of arrivals and departures during the last 11 years are given in the table following. Crews of vessels, through passengers, tourists on cruising liners and members of the armed forces, etc. have not been taken into account in this table.

Year Ended 31 MarchArrivalsDeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
195128,30926,33554,64423,41123,71147,1227,522
195233,16229,33662,49824,00922,82546,83415,664
195335,57430,66666,24022,39921,80944,20822,032
195432,26629,57961,84524,17622,22846,40415,441
195532,49629,11461,61028,59325,98754,5807,030
195634,78931,68366,47230,33628,04458,3808,092
195740,83635,21976,05534,51830,04564,56311,492
195842,85936,80779,66634,46429,79464,25815,408
195944,95538,69383,64839,91733,73973,6569,992
196047,89441,48389,37746,46739,69786,1643,213
196157,30648,932106,23856,42348,195104,6181,620

A substantial increase of 9,583 was recorded in arrivals for 1956–57, and this was attributable, in part, to the fact that the Olympic Games held in Australia in November 1956 stimulated traffic both to and from New Zealand. This high level of arrivals has been maintained, with increases of 3,611 in 1957–58, 3,982, or 5 per cent, in 1958–59, 5,729, or 7 per cent, in 1959–60, and 16,861, or 19 per cent, in 1960–61. The arrivals include many New Zealanders returning from travel overseas.

From 1 April 1953 departures showed a steady increase year by year until 1957–58 when a slight drop of 305 occurred. However, 1958–59 showed a large increase of 9,398 or 15 per cent, while 1959–60 showed an increase of 12,508, or 17 per cent, and 1960–61 an increase of 18,454, or 21 per cent.

In the 10-year period ended 31 March 1961 the net gain from passenger migration was 109,984, while if movement of crews is taken into account this becomes 109,420.

Classes of Arrivals and Departures — The following table gives an analysis of all classes of arrivals during the last five years, including through passengers, tourists on cruising liners, and crews. In classifying arrivals or departures as permanent the commonly used international rule is applied — i.e., residence or absence of one year or more.

Class1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61

* Includes 856 persons on working holidays. Information not known for earlier years.

† Includes 1,431 persons on working holidays.

‡ Includes 2,480 on working holidays.

Immigrants intending permanent residence23,03026,25424,85220,29421,424
New Zealand residents returning25,04623,64027,62332,52643,890
Visitors     
    Tourists19,36820,72321,92724,79427,299
    On business3,7124,0253,6554,2414,963
    Theatrical, entertaining, etc.8798507649431,091
    Educational purposes227220233247252
    Others, officials, etc.2,9412,9503,675*5,3076,466‡
    In transit8521,0049191,025853
Through passengers and tourists on cruising liners20,71831,46826,04535,63736,386
Crews73,73887,32486,77993,860100,190
Totals170,511198,458196,472218,874242,814

The succeeding table gives a similar analysis of departures.

Class1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61
New Zealand residents departing     
    Permanently9,2208,10810,98513,42014,848
    Temporarily26,16224,51028,67434,66747,204
Temporary residents departing29,18131,64033,99738,07742,566
Through passengers and tourists on cruising liners20,71831,46826,04535,63736,386
Crews74,37586,14786,44294,27499,863
Totals159,656181,873186,143216,075240,867

Ages — The following table gives the age-distribution of immigrants and emigrants for the 12 months ended 31 March 1961.

Age, in YearsPermanent ArrivalsPermanent DeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalsMalesFemalesTotals
0–142,3882,2444,6321,4031,3622,7651,867
15–242,6652,8505,5152,1862,2974,4831,032
25–342,6942,5645,2582,0991,7423,8411,417
35–441,3681,3092,6778978301,727950
45–599771,1262,1036206951,315788
60 and over4707691,239267450717522
Totals10,56210,86221,4247,4727,37614,8486,576

Of the permanent arrivals during the year 1960–61, 22 per cent were under 15 years of age, 47 per cent under 25 years, 72 per cent under 35 years, and 84 per cent under 45 years. Permanent departures represented a similar age distribution, with percentages of 19, 49, 74, and 86 respectively.

Origin — The following table shows for the last three years the birthplaces of immigrants intending permanent residence and of New Zealand residents departing permanently.

Country of BirthImmigrants Intending Permanent ResidenceNew Zealand Residents Departing Permanently
1958–591959–601960–611958–591959–601960–61

* Includes arrival of 49 Hungarian refugees.

   Commonwealth Countries
England and Wales9,9957,3926,9822,7553,2823,469
Scotland2,2311,4791,573458555603
Northern Ireland501314347107108137
United Kingdom (other or undefined)298193158827081
Australia2,1691,6722,1789371,037948
Canada2342614431219880
India22725227115210394
New Zealand3,9043,7894,2855,0606,6597,909
Cook Islands and Niue474339507503735
Western Samoa157206158504145
Fiji203216293706355
Other Commonwealth countries in the Pacific -7788261405595
Other countries within the Commonwealth509471512133163104
Totals, Commonwealth countries20,97916,67217,96810,01512,27113,655
   Other Countries
Austria647248362526
China1068190313422
Denmark18311959226161
Germany154143178495852
Greece6155826915
Hungary67*5678151331
Italy455070221313
Indonesia1259193304939
Netherlands1,4661,6321,218209268235
Republic of Ireland492325291147202155
Switzerland888668242737
United States of America467439514198176219
Yugoslavia103150209111816
Others449319454169194270
Totals, other countries3,8703,6183,4529691,1471,191
At sea-33-11
Not specified -311111
Grand totals24,85220,29421,42410,98513,42014,848

Assisted Immigration — Various systems of assisted immigration have been in force since 1871, with the exception of the period 1892 to 1903 (inclusive). Assistance to immigrants was largely suspended between 1927 and 1947, and only 50 immigrants received financial assistance during the 10 years ended 31 March 1946.

To alleviate the shortage of staff in mental hospitals the Government decided in 1946 to recruit labour in the United Kingdom, and the number of arrivals under this scheme totalled 240 (all females).

In July 1947 a comprehensive free and assisted-passage scheme was introduced by the Government. Under this scheme certain categories of immigrants were given free passages to New Zealand provided they had served in the United Kingdom armed forces (including the Merchant Navy) during the Second World War, while others selected under the scheme were required to contribute only £10 towards the cost of their fares. Eligibility was confined to single residents of the United Kingdom (with no dependants) between the ages of 20 and 35 years who were suitable for, and willing to accept employment in, a wide variety of occupations. All assisted immigrants were required to enter into a contract with the New Zealand Government that they would engage in approved employment for two years after their arrival in New Zealand.

A scheme of child migration from the United Kingdom was in operation from June 1949 to May 1953. Arrivals of British children between the ages of five and 17 years totalled 169 in 1949–50, 107 in 1950–51, 99 in 1951–52, 87 in 1952–53, and 68 up to terminating date during 1953–54.

In May 1950 a new immigration policy was announced by the Government, the main changes being as follows:

  1. The existing scheme in regard to unmarried British immigrants, including nominations, to continue, but with an extension of the age limit from 35 to 45 years of age and abolition of the requirement of £10 contribution towards cost of fare.

  2. The extension of the free-passage scheme to certain categories of married British immigrants with up to two children — later extended to up to four dependent children.

  3. The acceptance of a number of single non-British men and women between the ages of 20 and 35 years. Dutch, Danish, Swiss, Austrian, and German nationals were selected.

At the end of 1958, it was decided to cut back assisted immigration by limiting male workers from the United Kingdom to skilled tradesmen, experienced farm workers, and experienced workers required in essential industries. Married workers accepted in these categories were limited to those with not more than two children. At the same time, the recruitment of German, Austrian, Danish, and Swiss migrants was terminated.

In 1960 steps were taken to increase the recruitment of skilled workers required for the expansion of essential industries. These steps included the acceptance of married men in approved categories with up to four dependent children. In March 1961 the Government announced a plan to bring to New Zealand in 1961–62 up to 5,000 assisted immigrants. Changed economic conditions later led to steps being taken to reduce the intake of assisted immigrants.

The numbers of assisted immigrants (exclusive of displaced persons and Hungarian refugees) arriving in New Zealand since the reintroduction of the scheme in 1947 are as follows.

 BritishDutchAustrianGermanDanishSwissTotal
Year ended 31 March 1947158-----158
Year ended 31 March 19481,140-----1,140
Year ended 31 March 19491,527-----1,527
Year ended 31 March 19502,532-----2,532
Year ended 31 March 19512,87355----2,928
Year ended 31 March 19523,8491,100----4,949
Year ended 31 March 19534,8722,709----7,581
Year ended 31 March 19545,611688----6,299
Year ended 31 March 19553,880452----4,332
Year ended 31 March 19564,732391----5,123
Year ended 31 March 19574,17225213930--4,593
Year ended 31 March 19584,0702454469106454,579
Year ended 31 March 19594,343141363592314,678
Year ended 31 March 19602,36090253913222,549
Year ended 31 March 19612,217122---2,231

In the preceding migration tables assisted immigrants are included in the totals of “Immigrants intending permanent residence”.

Displaced Persons — Commencing with the year 1949–50 the Government agreed to accept drafts of displaced persons from Europe, who were brought to New Zealand in shipping provided by the International Refugee Organisation. These settlers were chosen by a New Zealand Selection Mission, and arrivals totalled 941 in 1949–50, 978 in 1950–51, and 2,663 in 1951–52, made up of young single men and women, widows with one child, family groups, orphans, and a number of elderly people. This scheme was brought to an end with the arrival in April 1952 of the final two displaced persons accepted by the Government.

HUNGARIAN REFUGEES — Following the uprising in Hungary, the Government agreed to accept a quota of 1,000 Hungarian refugees. This quota was subsequently increased to 1,300. The first draft arrived by air in December 1956 and a total of 1,117 finally arrived, the last of them reaching New Zealand during the year ended 31 March 1959.

OTHER REFUGEES — Apart from displaced persons, New Zealand has accepted and continues to accept refugees from Europe and the mainland of China. In 1958 it was decided to offer resettlement opportunities to 20 “hard core” refugee families from Europe who, because of handicapped persons in each family unit, were unacceptable elsewhere. These families arrived during 1959. In 1959 it was decided to accept a further 100 “hard core” families. These were selected and arrived during 1960. A further 100 refugee families were being selected early in 1962.

PASSPORTS — Authority for the issue of passports in New Zealand and by New Zealand representatives overseas is contained in the Passports Act 1946 and the Passport Regulations 1946.

New Zealand passports are issued and renewed within New Zealand by the Department of Internal Affairs at Wellington, Auckland, and Christchurch and overseas by the representatives of New Zealand at London, Washington, New York, San Francisco, Ottawa, Canberra, Paris, The Hague, Tokyo, Singapore, Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, New Delhi, Djakarta, Geneva, and Apia. United Kingdom, Canadian, Australian, and Indian passports are issued and renewed in New Zealand by the respective High Commissioners for those countries.

Entry into New Zealand — Apart from British subjects and the wives of British subjects arriving from Australia, no person 16 years of age or over may land in New Zealand unless he is in possession of a valid passport or other recognised travel document. Exemption from the passport requirement (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Restriction and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Acts) may be granted in exceptional circumstances by the Minister of Internal Affairs. A British subject who is a master or a member of the crew of the vessel in which he arrives does not need to produce a passport.

With the exception of nationals of those countries with which New Zealand has concluded agreements for the mutual abolition of visas, every alien landing in New Zealand requires a British visa.

Persons born in the Cook Islands and the Tokelau Islands are British subjects and New Zealand citizens. They are required to obtain formal exit permission from the Resident Commissioner or Administrator respectively if they wish to proceed to New Zealand.

Departure from New Zealand — Every person leaving New Zealand, with the exception of a British subject travelling to Australia or making the round trip to New Zealand's island territories, should be in possession of a valid passport or other travel document.

IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION — The legislation respecting the restriction of immigration into New Zealand is contained in the Immigration Restriction Act 1908 and its amendments, and the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act 1919.

The Immigration Restriction Act is administered by the Department of Labour, while the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act is administered by the Department of Justice.

To obtain permits to enter New Zealand as permanent residents, application must be made by the intending immigrants themselves to the Secretary of Labour, Wellington, except in the case of persons who are of British birth and wholly European, who may travel to New Zealand without prior application. The application must be made in the prescribed form and must be supported by documents duly attested in the country of origin, in which country the applicant must have resided for at least 12 months prior to the date of application. Each application is considered individually on its own merits.

Provision is made in the law to permit persons to pay temporary visits to New Zealand for the purposes of business, pleasure, or health. Temporary permits are normally restricted to some period not exceeding six months, but may be extended if the proper authorities consider that the circumstances warrant such action. A deposit may be required in respect of such temporary permit, and is returned on the departure of the visitor if the conditions of the temporary permit have been complied with. A deed to be entered into by some approved person or persons resident in New Zealand guaranteeing to pay all expenses that may be incurred by the Crown or any public body for the visitor's maintenance, relief, arrest, or detention in New Zealand or his deportation therefrom may also be required.

Provision is also made whereby, under certain conditions, students may be allowed to enter New Zealand temporarily.

Subject to certain exemptions, the following classes of persons are prohibited from landing in New Zealand.

  1. Idiots or insane persons.

  2. Persons suffering from contagious diseases which are loathsome or dangerous.

  3. Persons who have been convicted of an offence for which they have been sentenced to a term of imprisonment or other form of detention for one year or more.

  4. Persons who are considered by the Attorney-General to be disaffected or disloyal, or of such a character that their presence in New Zealand would be injurious to the peace, order, and good government of the country.

Restricted Immigrants — When persons who are lunatic, idiotic, deaf, dumb, blind, or infirm arrive in New Zealand and are likely to become a charge upon the public or upon any public or charitable institution, the master, owner, or charterer of the ship by which such persons came to New Zealand may be called on to enter into a bond of £100 for each such person, guaranteeing payment of any expenses which may be incurred for their support and maintenance by or in any such institution within a period of five years.

Declaration by Persons Arriving in New Zealand — Every person of and over the age of 15 years who lands in New Zealand must, unless exempted by the Minister of Immigration, make and deliver to an officer of Customs a declaration giving the following particulars: Name, age, marital status. occupation, birthplace, nationality, race, particulars of children under 15 years of age arriving with him, residence, etc.

NATIONALITY AND NATURALISATION — The basic nationality law is the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948 as amended. The original Act came into force on 1 January 1949 and was enacted following a conference of nationality experts of Commonwealth countries m February 1947 to discuss the basis of new nationality legislation. The scheme of the legislation accepted by Commonwealth Governments is the “common status” of all British subjects, namely, that in each Commonwealth country all persons are recognised as British subjects who possess citizenship under the citizenship laws of any of the members of the Commonwealth, (NOTE — The Act states that “British subject” and “Commonwealth citizen” have the same meaning.)

Upon the commencement of the Act, New Zealand citizenship was automatically conferred on the following classes of British subjects: (a) those born in New Zealand; (b) those naturalised in New Zealand; (c) those ordinarily resident in New Zealand throughout the whole of the year 1948; (d) those whose fathers were British subjects born or naturalised in New Zealand; and (e) women married before the commencement of the Act to men who become citizens under the various provisions of the Act.

Since the commencement of the Act, New Zealand citizenship may be acquired in the following ways: (a) by birth in New Zealand; (b) by descent; (c) by registration; and (d) by naturalisation.

Citizens of other Commonwealth countries acquire New Zealand citizenship by registration, aliens by naturalisation.

Before granting New Zealand citizenship to an alien or to a citizen of another Commonwealth country (other than to a woman married to a New Zealand citizen, or to a minor) the Minister is required to be satisfied that the applicant — (a) has resided in New Zealand for the prescribed period, (b) is of full age and capacity, (c) is of good character, (d) has a sufficient knowledge of the English language, and of the responsibilities and privileges of New Zealand citizenship, (e) intends to reside in New Zealand, or to enter or continue Crown service under the New Zealand Government. The residential qualification for naturalisation is five years, for registration three years reducible to one year at the discretion of the Minister.

A British or an alien woman married to a New Zealand citizen, in the first case shall, and in the latter case may be registered as a New Zealand citizen without any residential qualifications. Such an applicant must satisfy the Minister that she is of good character and has a sufficient knowledge of the English language and of the responsibilities and privileges of New Zealand citizenship.

Minor children may be registered at the discretion of the Minister.

Irish citizens acquire New Zealand citizenship by registration under the same conditions as citizens of Commonwealth countries.

A British woman marrying an alien does not thereby lose her nationality under the present Act. Naturalisation granted to a married man does not automatically confer New Zealand citizenship on his wife and children nor does the act of marriage of an alien woman to a British subject confer her husband's nationality on her. Such wife and children acquire New Zealand citizenship by registration.

Acquisition of citizenship by naturalisation or registration automatically confers the status of a British subject, and the difference is procedural only.

Alien adults acquiring New Zealand citizenship by naturalisation or registration, and alien minor children over 16 years of age acquiring it by registration, are required to take the oath of allegiance. The Minister may also at his discretion require persons other than aliens acquiring New Zealand citizenship to take the oath of allegiance. Recognising the importance both to this country and to the new settlers themselves of their acquisition of New Zealand citizenship, the Government decided that ceremonies should be held at which applicants should, in an atmosphere of dignity and solemnity, take the oath of allegiance to Her Majesty and be presented with their certificates of naturalisation or registration as New Zealand citizens. Local authorities agreed to arrange such ceremonies. The first was presided over by the Mayor of Wellington on 24 May 1955. During the 1960–61 year there were 71 such ceremonies, at which 1,571 persons took the oath of allegiance.

New Zealand citizens are liable at the discretion of the Minister to deprivation of New Zealand citizenship if they voluntarily acquire a foreign nationality by any formal act other than marriage; or if they voluntarily exercise the privileges or perform any of the duties of a foreign nationality possessed by them. In addition, persons naturalised or registered as New Zealand citizens are liable to deprivation if citizenship was obtained by fraud, false representation, or the concealment of any material fact.

REGISTRATION OF ALIENS — The registration of aliens in New Zealand is provided for by the Aliens Act 1948, which is administered by the Department of Justice

The number of aliens on the New Zealand register at 1 April 1961 was 27,294, comprising 16,649 males and 10,645 females. This is not the complete number in New Zealand, as certain classes are not required to register, including the following: (a) children under 16 years of age; (b) persons holding diplomatic status, consuls, or employees of embassies, legations, and consulates who are resident in New Zealand solely for the purpose of performing official duties; (c) certain temporary visitors to New Zealand. Under the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948 a citizen of the Republic of Ireland, though not possessing the status of British subject (or, in alternative phraseology, Commonwealth citizen), is nevertheless not classed as an alien and is not required to register.

The numbers of naturalisations, registrations, etc., during the year ended 31 March 1961 were as follows.

Country of BirthCertificates of Naturalisation (Aliens and British-protected Persons)Certificates of Registration as a New Zealand Citizen (British Subjects, Irish Citizens, British-protected Persons, and Aliens)Certificates of Registration as a New Zealand Citizen—Minor Children (British Subjects and Aliens)
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
British Commonwealth of Nations2381706880
Bulgaria145
China1291052147
Czechoslovakia9151
Denmark2531176
Estonia7651
Germany55161216
Greece14512
Hungary75
Indonesia2731462
Ireland, Republic of9422
Italy1611137
Latvia1911324
Lithuania8141
Netherlands370121634841
Poland7193134
Rumania2741521
Switzerland143
U.S.S.R.2151332
Western Samoa71-
Yugoslavia4232283
Other countries2583385
Totals85773247600188 

The certificates of registration granted to adult females included 137 to British wives of New Zealand citizens and 426 to alien wives of New Zealand citizens.

The following table shows the numbers on the register at 1 April 1960 and 1 April 1961.

Country of Nationality1 April 19601 April 1961
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Austria340118458329110439
Belgium473279342458
Bulgaria1089117986104
China2,0811,1853,2661,9341,1733,107
Czechoslovakia1114015110542147
Denmark605294899546288834
Estonia425294344579
Finland60451055748105
France851001856887155
Germany308362670323372695
Greece5354651,000519464983
Hungary7323821,1147383981,136
Indonesia2712833841
Italy248184432258200458
Japan5505544145
Latvia129131260101113214
Lebanon131427151530
Lithuania444791364076
Netherlands8,3255,26513,5908,1805,34913,529
Norway1184316111033143
Poland8375631,4007655361,301
Rumania352055272047
Russia (U.S.S.R.)73471206744111
Sweden76431197042112
Switzerland443219662424226650
United States of America8123561,1689183921,310
Yugoslavia6764061,0827114501,161
Other countries1076216911056166
Stateless503686352358
Totals17,07210,57127,64316,64910,64527,294

The number of aliens on the register at 1 April 1961 decreased by 349 as compared with 12 months earlier. During the year increases were shown by United States of America (142) .Yugoslavia (79), Italy (26), and Germany (25). Decreases were shown by several countries, the largest being China (159), Poland (99), Denmark (65), and Netherlands (61).

Tables showing for aliens registered at 1 April 1961, ages, occupational groups, and geographical ocation by countries of nationality follow.

REGISTERED ALIENS AS AT 1 APRIL 1961 — NATIONALITY BY AGE GROUPS
Country of NationalityAge Groups in Years
Under 2121–2425–2930–3435–3940–4950–5960 and overTotal

* Includes one not specified for age. Includes two not specified for age.

† Includes two not specified for age. Includes two not specified for age.

Males
Austria247127103271544329
Belgium11446531034
Bulgaria12104525113198
China48142208149711113558501,934
Czechoslovakia28192519104105
Denmark187011076731025839546
Estonia1314865634
Finland63599148357
France13813118101468
Germany1943945934291827323
Greece26367667571068071519
Hungary33177156122891073419738*
Indonesia31671633
Italy628394839412136258
Latvia226518322610101
Lithuania2213520336
Netherlands2756451,6662,8501,4938862361298,180
Norway1461917191331110
Poland34712314015114410255765
Rumania222694227
Russia (U.S.S.R.)4124319132167
Sweden22791373070
Switzerland11461047656702337424*
United States of America123178485611621483100918
Yugoslavia3949797611492120142711
Stateless232914535
Other countries41921271919812129
Totals, males6261,5572,9423,9932,4842,1261,2611,65816,649†
Females
Austria312302221958110
Belgium126731424
China26124185117351613122121,173*
Czechoslovakia2-12848842
Denmark1635404644682811288
Estonia25361210745
Finland3311311142148
France391018131381387
Germany1441898049402732372
Greece2442667366745564464
Hungary2862616659623129398
Italy39213939272339200
Japan1191451141
Latvia222919321631113
Lithuania21410136440
Netherlands1634991,3421,5378115742611625,349
Norway1228765233
Poland8541149883836135536
Rumania12664120
Russia (U.S.S.R.)22510781044
Sweden2179965342
Switzerland721413635402719226
United States of America2726405356815455392
Yugoslavia2346565189865148450
Stateless23353723
Other countries310913101681685
Totals, females3621,0082,1452,3341,5111,4431,02082110,645*
REGISTERED ALIENS AS AT 1 APRIL 1961 — OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS BY SEX*
n.e.c: not elsewhere classified
Occupational Major GroupMalesFemalesTotal

* Details according to individual countries of nationality are available from the Department of Statistics.

Architects, engineers, surveyors71172
Nurses and midwives12182194
Teachers8564149
Clergy and related members of religious orders36452416
Artists, writers, and related workers601575
Draughtsmen and science, and engineering technicians, n.e.c.13315148
Directors, managers, and working proprietors, not including proprietors on own account in wholesale-retail trade1,011631,074
Stenographers and typists1228229
Other clerical workers393305698
Commercial travellers, and manufacturing agents87491
Salesman, shop assistants, and related workers402230632
Farmers and farm managers1,135151,150
Farm workers n.e.c.1,051391,090
Fishermen and related workers5151
Loggers and other forestry workers6868
Drivers, road transport3021303
Workers in transport and communication occupations, n.e.c.801191
Spinners, weavers, knitters, dyers, and related workers150251431
Tailors, cutters, furriers, and related workers185731916
Leather cutters, casters, and sewers (except gloves and garments) and related workers113152265
Precision instrument makers, watchmakers, jewellers, and related workers76278
Tool-makers, machinists, plumbers, welders, platers, and related workers1,967332,000
Electricians and related electrical and electronic workers36427391
Carpenters, joiners, cabinet makers, coopers, and related workers1,20261,208
Painters and paperhangers4042406
Bricklayers, plasterers, and construction workers, n.e.c.408408
Compositors, pressmen, engravers, bookbinders, and related workers12226148
Millers, bakers, brewmasters, and other food and beverage workers50752559
Chemical and related process workers741387
Tobacco preparers and tobacco product makers3483117
Craftsmen and production process workers, n.e.c.11974193
Stationary engine, excavating and lifting-equipment operators, and related workers6262
Packers, labellers, and related workers195170
Waterside workers and related freight handlers3807387
Labourers, n.e.c.2,880322,912
Housekeepers, cooks, maids, and related workers256580836
Waiters, bartenders, and related workers105113218
Building caretakers, cleaners, and related workers9729126
Launderers, drycleaners, and pressers9451145
Service, sport, and recreation workers, n.e.c.593594
Occupation ill-defined or not classified5555091,064
Workers not reporting any occupation5296,3856,914
Other occupational groups552176728
Totals16,64910,64527,294
REGISTERED ALIENS AS AT 1 APRIL 1961 — URBAN AREAS AND PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS*
 MalesFemalesTotal

* Details according to individual countries of nationality are available from the Department of Statistics.

Urban Area   
Auckland4,1012,6026,703
Hamilton381256637
Gisborne11475189
Napier15599254
Hastings204123327
New Plymouth152109261
Wanganui14793240
Palmerston North307203510
Hutt9646271,591
Wellington2,8451,8314,676
Nelson13997236
Christchurch1,6201,1002,720
Timaru5644100
Dunedin8205451,365
Invercargill296168464
Totals, urban areas12,3017,97220,273
Provincial DistrictMalesFemalesTotal
Auckland7,0064,43511,441
Hawke's Bay460278738
Taranaki388261649
Wellington4,9003,1498,049
Marlborough504090
Nelson259160419
Westland341549
Canterbury1,9081,2933,201
Otago
    Otago portion1,1907891,979
    Southland portion454225679
Totals16,64910,64527,294

STATISTICS OF THE 1956 AND 1961 CENSUSES — Publications containing the results of the census taken for the night of 17 April 1956 are included in the list on the page preceding the Index of this Yearbook.

The only volume so far released for the 1961 census is the Interim Returns of Population and Dwellings.

The following pages give details for 1956 census relating to Marital Status, Dependent Children, and Religious Professions. Information on Age Distribution, Racial Origins, Birthplaces, Duration of Residence of Overseas-born, and Overseas War Service was given on pages 56–65 of the 1958 Yearbook.

MARITAL STATUS—The marital status of persons aged 16 years and over as returned at the census of 1956 is summarised in the following tables.

Age (Years)Never MarriedMarriedLegally SeparatedWidowedDivorcedNot SpecifiedTotal
Males
16–1959,642454441760,112
2012,66079931813,471
21–2439,93915,54712425304455,709
25–2928,23150,4095121082105379,523
30–3414,59462,1917422206354778,429
35–398,94760,0337043458463870,913
40–447,43960,6646826331,0213370,472
45–496,39257,3266509571,1304766,502
50–545,22947,2325761,4141,0463855,535
55–594,56338,7384232,0568423246,654
60–643,43028,8253032,6526422935,881
65–693,35024,9092474,0095821933,116
70–742,70518,8162624,9503922427,149
75–791,96611,1231304,9512351518,420
80–849484,195553,37987128,676
85–893501,105421,6302823,157
90 and over66221648461784
Not specified adults166346104114208785
Totals, 1956200,617482,9335,47527,8597,747657725,288
Totals, 1951194,701433,0916,66327,1787,0391,239669,911
Females
16–1954,4334,1332371458,601
208,9854,1272984313,156
21–2419,61233,18137282771153,335
25–2911,23260,7578432503992173,502
30–347,69365,4159175917291675,361
35–396,50462,8598881,1661,0032172,441
40–446,46259,5068622,1131,2141370,170
45–496,54851,4307183,2971,2332063,246
50–545,81040,4145834,7681,0991652,690
55–595,44633,2994497,2519381547,398
60–644,99425,2623649,8187561641,210
65–694,67419,52430512,7806221337,918
70–743,95112,52121413,6273691330,695
75–792,9126,41410911,836182921,462
80–841,4872,059266,98660710,625
85–8955647263,272914,316
90 and over1491171,006321,277
Not specified adults165653616217241,027
Totals, 1956151,613482,1436,71479,0208,715225728,430
Totals, 1951153,199431,1767,80371,8357,891686672,590

The proportional distribution of the population aged 16 years or over according to marital status is given in the following summary.

Marital Status19511956
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
Never married29.1222.8027.6920.82
Married64.7764.1766.6466.21
Legally separated1001160.760.92
Widowed4.0610.693.8410.85
Divorced1051.181.071.20
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00

DEPENDENT CHILDREN — Married men, widowers, and widows were asked at the census in 1956 to state the number of their living children under 16 years (including stepchildren and children adopted by them). Married women, divorced and legally separated persons were not asked to supply the information as this would have created the risk of duplication of children counted.

The numbers of persons having dependent children, including Maoris, are shown with comparative figures from the 1951 census. The category “nil” includes those cases where members of the family were 16 years of age and over, as well as those cases where there were no children in the family.

Number of Dependent Children Under 16 Years1951 Census1956 Census Number
Married MenWidowersWidowsMarried MenWidowersWidows
Nil186,71224,41765,541195,41325,38172,579
183,2171,3013,18286,7301,1393,094
279,1557051,52692,8996541,678
345,22231570757,937329824
421,11822036928,080165407
59,1309819711,66484223
64,08052805,2533686
71,97419742,4512341
81,07610181,1641523
9 and over8187159881221
Not specified589341263542144
Totals433,09127,17871,835482,93327,85979,020

The numbers of dependent children in each of the three groups in 1956 were: dependent on married men, 684,846; dependent on widowers, 5,131; and dependent on widows, 12,862; a total of 702,839 dependent children out of a 1956 census total of 720,190 children under 16 years of age. The difference is accounted for mainly by the exclusion of children whose parents were legally separated; those whose parents where divorced and had not remarried; children who had lost both parents; and ex-nuptial children (the last two classes excluding cases of adoption).

Comparable numbers of dependent children in the three groups in 1951 were: dependent on married men, 562,401; dependent on widowers, 5,621; and dependent on widows, 12,108; a total of 580,130 out of a total of 596,876 children under 16 years.

Between the 1951 and 1956 censuses the total number of dependent children of married men increased from 562,401 to 684,846, a rise of 21.8 per cent. The number of married men increased by 49,842, or 11.5 per cent. Those recording “nil” dependent children increased by only 4.7 per cent, while those with dependent children increased by 16.8 per cent.

Married men with two children recorded the largest numerical increase, rising from 79,155 to 92,899, this representing a 17.4 per cent increase. The greatest percentage increase, however, was recorded by married men with four children, this group increasing from 21,118 in 1951 to 28,080 in 1956 a rise of 6,962, or 33 per cent.

The next table shows within each group, the average number of dependent children, firstly for all persons within the group, and then for persons with dependent children in that group.

Average Number of Dependent Children1951 Census1956 Census
Married men-
    Per person1.301.42
    Per person with dependent children2.292.38
Widowers-
    Per person0.210.18
    Per person with dependent children2.062.09
Widows-
    Per person0.170.16
    Per person with dependent children1.962.01

The most significant point from the table is the marked rise in the average number of dependent children of married men. This is a reflection of the sharp increases recorded, since 1951, in the numbers of married men having from two to seven dependent children.

RELIGIOUS PROFESSIONS — The following summary presents the main religious professions returned at the 1956 census.

Religious ProfessionNumber of Adherents, 1956 Census
Church of England780,999
Presbyterian483,884
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)310,723
Methodist161,823
Protestant (undefined)47,999
Baptist33,910
Brethren22,444
Ratana19,570
Salvation Army14,122
Latter Day Saints13,133
Church of Christ10,852
Christian (undefined)7,662
Congregational7,448
Seventh Day Adventist7,219
Ringatu5,092
Lutheran4,012
Christian Scientist3,992
Jehovah's Witness3,844
Hebrew3,823
Eastern Orthodox Catholic2,728
Undenominational2,062
Undenominational Christian1,765
Agnostic1,748
Freethinker1,661
Hindu1,597
Christadelphian1,459
Atheist1,316
Rationalist1,188
Apostolic Church969
Dutch Reformed Church829
Commonwealth Covenant Church813
Spiritualist748
Assemblies of God747
Society of Friends721
Non-conformist596
Pentecostal567
Missions513
Unitarian449
Liberal Catholic385
Confucian384
Theosophist332
No religion (so returned)12,651
All other religious professions5,462
Object to state173,569
Not specified16,252
Totals2,174,062

The four main churches — Church of England, Presbyterian, Roman Catholic, and Methodist -retained the adherence of the great bulk of the population, although their combined proportion fell from 82.2 per cent of the total population in 1951 to 79.9 per cent in 1956. All four churches increased in numbers, though only the Roman Catholic church increased its ratio to total population 13.6 per cent in 1951 to 14.3 per cent in 1956.

The large increase in the numbers recorded as “Protestant (undefined)” may have resulted from the wording of the questionnaire. Formerly the public were asked not to use indefinite terms such as “Protestant” or “Catholic”, but in 1956 no such request was made and it would appear that many persons used these terms without any further indication of their religious profession.

The category recorded as “Object to state” represents those persons availing themselves of the special statutory right of objecting to answer a question on this subject. The proportion of the population in this class increased from 7.1 per cent in 1951 to 8.0 per cent in 1956. It is probable that the “not specified” group includes a number of persons objecting to the question.

The proportional distribution according to number of adherents is as shown below.

Religious ProfessionPercentage of Total Population
19511956
Church of England37.4735.92
Presbyterian23.0122.26
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)13.6414.29
Methodist8.057.44
Protestant (undefined)0.742.21
Baptist1.621.56
Brethren1.101.03
Ratana0.900.90
Salvation Army0.700.65
Latter Day Saints0.520.60
Church of Christ0.620.50
No relic on (so returned)0.590.58
Object to state7.097.98
All other (including not specified)3.954.08
Totals100.00100.00

STATISTICS OF WORLD POPULATION — The area and estimated population of the continents and some of the principal countries of the world at 1 July 1960 are shown in the following table. (Source: United Nations Population and Vital Statistics Report for July 1961 and Demographic Yearbook.)

Continents and CountriesAreaPopulation

* 1958 Estimate.

† Former Belgian Congo.

‡ Includes Alaska and Hawaii as 49th and 50th States of the Union in 1959.

 sq. miles 
 (000)(000)
Continents  
Europe1,903427,000
Asia10,4801,665,000
U.S.S.R.8,650214,400
Africa11,670244,000
North America9,359265,000
South America6,870140,000
Oceania3,30416,400
Totals, world52,2362,971,800
Selected Countries  
Europe-
    United Kingdom9452,539
    Republic of Ireland272,834
    Belgium129,153
    Denmark174,581
    France21345,540
    Federal Republic of Germany9653,373
    Eastern Germany4116,213
    Italy11649,361
    Netherlands1311,480
    Norway1253,587
    Spain19430,128
    Sweden1747,480
    Switzerland165,298
Oceania-
    Australia2,97510,281
    New Zealand1042,372
Asia-
    China3,769669,000*
    India1,267432,410
    Japan14393,204
    Pakistan36592,600
    Federation of Malaya516,909
    Indonesia57692,600
Africa-
    South Africa47214,929
    Congo (Leopoldville)†90514,150
    Ghana926,691
    Federation of Nigeria33934,296
    Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland4848,330
    United Arab Republic45730,641
North America-
    United States of America‡3,615180,670
    Canada3,85117,852
South America-
    Argentina1,07320,956
    Brazil3,28765,743

Chapter 4. Section 4 VITAL STATISTICS

4 A — SUMMARY OF VITAL STATISTICS

GENERAL — Summary tables of births, deaths, natural increase, and marriages are presented in this subsection.

BIRTHS — The following table shows the numbers of births and the rates for the last 11 years.

YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Mean Population
EuropeanMaoriTotalEuropeanMaoriTotal
195144,6515,23849,88924.3944.9725.62
195246,4695,45951,92824.7745.4126.01
195346,4145,52951,94324.1244.5425.35
195448,4315,70054,13124.6344.3725.84
195549,8695,80755,67624.8643.6426.03
195650,4306,16356,59324.6744.6425.93
195751,8526,63258,48424.8246.2926.20
195853,7746,86160,63525.1646.2426.53
195954,7397,13061,86925.1046.2826.50
196055,4357,41562,85025.0046.4126.44
196157,7057,77065,47525.5346.4126.97

The inclusion of Maoris raised the level of the birth rate all through the period covered, but in no case does it reverse the trend of the rate for New Zealand, exclusive of Maoris. In an international comparison for the quinquennium 1956–60 the inclusion of Maoris does not alter New Zealand's position of sixth in a total of 28 countries covered.

Registration of Maori births is somewhat less accurate (although improvement has been manifest in recent years) than those of the European population. Owing to the extensive time lag in the receipt by the Registrar-General of a considerable number of registrations, the statistics of Maori births relate to the number of registrations received by the Registrar-General during the year, whereas the European figures cover the actual registrations effected during the year. Registrations of persons of half or more Maori blood were made in a separate register until the end of 1961, but since 1 January 1962 registration is the same for all races.

DEATHS — The effect of including Maoris is to increase slightly, except for the latest years, the total death rate for New Zealand, as is seen in the following table.

YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Mean Population
EuropeanMaoriTotalEuropeanMaoriTotal
195117,5121,32418,8369.5611.379.67
195217,4131,48318,8969.2812.349.47
195317,0091,34518,3548.8410.848.96
195417,6671,20918,8768.989.419.01
195517,9531,27219,2258.959.568.99
195618,4031,29319,6969.009.379.02
195719,4111,45120,8629.2910.139.34
195819,0141,28720,3018.908.678.88
195919,8141,31421,1289.098.539.05
196019,5241,36820,8928.818.568.79
196120,3971,38521,7829038.278.97

Although the Maori death rate was consistently higher than the European rate, the continuous decline of the former has now brought it to a position below the European rate. (This is partly a result of differences in the age composition — see subsection 4C.) The net result now is that the inclusion of Maoris reduces the general death rate to slightly lower than the European rate. Countries with lower death rates (in 1960) than New Zealand included Israel, 5.7; Netherlands, 7.6; Canada, 7.8; South Africa (European population only), 8.6; and Australia, 8.6.

NATURAL INCREASE — The birth and death rates of the population are not subject to violent fluctuation, and consequently the natural-increase rate, i.e., excess of births over deaths, shows, in the period covered by the next table, a rising trend with only minor fluctuations. The following table shows the numbers gained by natural increase, together with the rate per 1,000 of mean population, for the last 11 years.

YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Mean Population
EuropeanMaoriTotalEuropeanMaoriTotal
195127,1393,91431,05314.8333.6015.94
195229,0563,97633,03215.4933.0716.54
195329,4054,18433,58915.2833.7016.39
195430,7644,49135,25515.6534.9616.83
195531,9164,53536,45115.9134.0817.04
195632,0274,87036,89715.6735.2816.90
195732,4415,18137,62215.5336.1616.85
195834,7605,57440,33416.2637.57 .17.65
195934,9255,81640,74116.0237.7517.45
196035,9116,04741,95816.2037.8517.65
196137,3086,38543,69316.5138.1418.00

In the 10 years to 31 December 1961 New Zealand has gained by natural increase of population a total of 379,572, comprising 328,513 Europeans and 51,059 Maoris.

MARRIAGES — The following table shows the numbers of marriages contracted during each of the last 11 years. Maori marriages are included, but separate figures are not available.

YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Mean Population
195116,9158.78
195217,0618.55
195317,2248.41
195417,5578.38
195517,7958.32
195617,5318.03
195717,6147.89
195818,3058.01
195918,3157.84
196018,9097.96
196119.4268.00

4 B — BIRTHS

(NOTE—In the first part of this subsection the statistics are confined to Europeans. The term European, used in the context of this subsection, means the population exclusive of Maoris. Statistics for Maoris are given at the end of this subsection.)

REGISTRATION — The law as to registration of births is embodied in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951. Under the 1961 Amendment Act which came into force on 1 January 1962 European and Maori births are no longer registered separately. The provisions generally as to registration are that a birth may be registered within two months without fee. After two months and within six months a birth is registrable only after a statutory declaration of the particulars required to be registered has been made before the Registrar by the parent or some person present at birth, and on payment of the prescribed fee. A birth may be registered after six months only upon the direction of the Registrar-General, who may authorise registration in any case within two years after the date of birth. An information for neglect to register must be laid within two years of date of birth. In cases of neglect or refusal to give the Registrar information in respect of any birth the Registrar-General may at any time within two years after the birth of the child authorise some person to give the Registrar the information required to enable him to register the birth, and to sign as informant the entry in the register, upon which the Registrar shall register the birth.

Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions, power is given by the Act for the Registrar-General to register an unregistered birth which occurred in New Zealand, irrespective of the time that may have elapsed. Satisfactory evidence on oath, and such other proof as the Registrar-General may deem necessary, are required. This provision does not, however, relieve any person from liability to prosecution for failure to register in the proper manner.

Although two months are allowed for the registration of a birth, it is compulsory to notify the birth to the Registrar within a much shorter interval. The occupier of any premises in which a child is born is to give notice to the Registrar according to the best of the knowledge and belief of the occupier of the fact of the birth, the date on which it occurred, the name and address of the mother or father of the child, and of such other particulars as the Registrar-General may require. Any such notice is to be in writing, signed by the occupier and endorsed by some other person, if any, in attendance at the confinement, and is to be delivered or posted to the Registrar within 48 hours after the birth if in a borough, or seven days in any other case. Births are to be registered by the Registrar whose office is nearest to the place of birth.

Particulars required to be registered are: date and place of birth; name and sex of child; names, ages, and birthplaces of parents; occupation of father; maiden name of mother; date and place of parents' marriage; and ages and sex of previous issue (distinguishing living and dead) of the marriage. The father of an ex-nuptial child is not required to give information, nor is his name entered in the register unless at the joint request of the mother and himself, or unless he subsequently marries the mother. A child born out of New Zealand but arriving before attaining the age of 18 months may be registered within six months of arrival. The Registrar-General may authorise registration of such a child who is over 18 months but under three years of age. Additional information required on notification of birth — but not registration — includes (a) weight of child at birth, and (b) period of gestation of mother. These particulars are required for statistical purposes.

Birth statistics are compiled from the records of the Registrar-General. The births covered by a year's statistics are those registered during the year irrespective of the year of birth. The figures do not include still births, except where multiple births are discussed. A special classification of still births is given later in this subsection.

NUMBERS AND RATES — The numbers and rates of European births (children born alive) for each of the last 20 years are given in the following table.

YearNumberRate per 1,000 of Mean Population
194233,57421.73
194330,31119.70
194433,59921.59
194537,00723.22
194641,87125.26
194744,81626.47
194844,19325.59
194943,98824.98
195044,30924.67
195144,65124.39
195246,46924.77
195346,41424.12
195448,43124.63
195549,86924.86
195650,43024.67
195751,85224.82
195853,77425.16
195954,73925.10
196055,43525.00
196157,70625.53

“Crude” rates of the number of births per 1,000 of the mean population, irrespective of sex or age, do not take account of the variations in the proportion of women of the child-bearing ages. Refined rates are provided by computations of the legitimate birthrate per 1,000 married women of 15 and under 45 years of age, or the total birthrate per 1,000 of all women of these ages. The following table gives for Europeans both rates for each census year (on the basis of the births registered in that year and the population as at the census) from 1901 to 1956 together with the “crude” rate for the year.

Census YearBirthrate per 1,000 Women 15 and Under 45 Years“Crude” Birthrate
Married WomenTotal Women
1901246.2111.726.34
1906235.3114.127.08
1911211.7109.525.97
1916193.6106.725.94
1921181.699.023.38
1926166.990.921.06
1936136.672.216.64
1945166.599.823.22
1951172.8116.924.39
1956176.5124.124.66

The percentage of married women in the child-bearing ages was 67.1 in 1956 compared with 43.3 in 1901 but a study of the figures for successive censuses reveals considerable changes in the age constitution of married women within the child-bearing ages. As the birthrate varies with age, the change in age constitution over the period is a factor which should be taken into account.

NATURAL INCREASE — Recent increases in the birthrate have tended to result in a rise in the rate of natural increase, as shown in the following table for the European population.

YearNumbersRate per 1,000 Mean Population
BirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseBirthsDeathsNatural Increase
195144,65117,51227,13924.399.5614.83
195246,46917,41329,05624.779.2815.49
195346,41417,00929.40524.128.8415.28
195448,43117,66730,76424.638.9815.65
195549,86917,95331,91624.868.9515.91
195650,43018,40332,02724.669.0015.66
195751,85219,41132,44124.829.2915.53
195853,77419,01434,76025.168.9016.26
195954,73919,81434,92525.109.0916.01
196055,43519,52435,91125.008.8116.19
196157,70620,39737,30925.539.0316.51

The natural increase rate provides a useful guide to population increase and a further method is that of the net reproduction index, which is based on female children born and probably surviving. Details of gross and net reproduction rates for recent years will be found in Section 3 of this issue.

The movements that have taken place since 1901 are well illustrated in the accompanying diagram, which shows the rates at annual intervals.

VITAL STATISTICS

RATE PER 1,000 OF POPULATION

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—An international comparison of birth and natural-increase rates is made in the following table. New Zealand's position is higher on the basis of natural increase than it is on that of the birthrate. The rates, which are the average of the five years 1956–60, are taken from the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics issued by the United Nations.

CountryRate per 1,000 of Population
BirthsNatural Increase
Mexico46.334.1
Chile35.122.9
Puerto Rico32.725.8
Canada27.619.6
Israel27.521.4
India26.213.7
New Zealand25.316.3
South Africa24.816.2
United States of America24.415.1
Yugoslavia23.913.8
Portugal23.412.4
Australia22.613.8
Spain21.612.3
Republic of Ireland21.19.3
Netherlands21.113.5
Finland19.310.3
France18.36.6
Italy18.28.5
Norway17.99.0
Japan17.710.0
Switzerland17.67.8
Austria17.24.7
Germany (Western)17.26.1
United Kingdom16.85.2
Denmark16.77.4
Sweden14.24.5

SEXES OF CHILDREN BORN-With the exception of one year (1860), there has always been a preponderance of males in the number of children born in New Zealand. The proportions are usually shown by stating the number of births of male children to every 1,000 female births. This number has been as high as 1,113 (in 1859), and as low as 991 (in 1860), but little significance can be attached to any figures prior to 1870, on account of the comparatively small number of births.

Figures taken out some years ago prove that the masculinity rate for first births is distinctly higher than for subsequent births. The extreme range since 1870 has been from 1,016 male per 1,000 female births in 1878 to 1,081 in 1923. Rates for the latest five years are given below for the European population.

YearNumber of Births ofMale Births per 1,000 Female Births
MalesFemales
195626,01424,4161,065
195726,54225,3101,049
195827,67926,0951,061
195928,07026,6691,053
196028,46626,9691,056

MULTIPLE BIRTHS—The number of cases of multiple births and the proportion per 1,000 of the total (live births only) during the latest five years are shown in the following table.

YearTotal BirthsTotal CasesCases of TwinsCases of TripletsMultiple Cases per 1,000 of Total Cases

* Includes two cases where triplets would have been recorded had not one child been still born.

195650,43049,803619412.51
195751,85251,285555610.94
195853,77453,138620811.82
195954,73954,019708*613.22
196055,43554,799624611.50

Counting only cases where both children were born alive, there were 624 cases of twin births registered in 1960. There were also six cases of triplets.

The total number of confinements resulting in live births was 54,799, and on the average one mother in every 87 gave birth to twins (or triplets).

When still births are taken into account, the total number of confinements for the year 1960 is increased to 55,550, and the number of cases of multiple births to 685. On this basis the proportion of mothers giving birth to twins or triplets is increased to one in 81.

The incidence of multiple births has varied greatly in recent years, as may be seen from the following summary.

YearCases of TwinsCases of TripletsTotal Multiple CasesRate per 1,000 Confinements
Both Born AliveOne Born Alive, One Still BornBoth Still BornTotalAll Born AliveOne Born Alive, Two Still BornTwo Born Alive, One Still BornAll Still BornTotal
195661949176854468913.6
19575555196156662111.9
195862021106518865912.2
1959706418755612976414.0
19606244786796-668512.3
Average of five years62542106776 768412.8

The likelihood of still births occurring is much greater in cases of multiple births than in single cases. This is exemplified in the following table. The figures in respect of multiple cases include all cases where one or more of the children were still born.

YearStill-birth Cases per 100 of Total Cases (Including Still Births)
Single CasesMultiple Cases
19561.559.58
19571.499.66
19581.464.70
19591.366.81
19601.358.03
Average of five years1.447.76

During the five years 1956–60 there were 3,126 cases of live twin births (including ex-nuptial), and of these in 1,052 instances, or 33.6 per cent, both children were males; in 983, or 31.5 per cent, both were females; and in the remaining 1,091 or 34.9 per cent, the children were of opposite sexes.

The six cases of triplets in 1960 comprised one of three males, one of three females, one of two males and one female, and three of one male and two females.

AGES OF PARENTS — Information as to the relative ages of parents of legitimate living children whose births were registered in 1960 is shown in the following table for the European population.

Age of Mother, in YearsAge of Father, in Years
Under 2121 and Under 2525 and Under 3030 and Under 3535 and Under 4040 and Under 4545 and Under 5050 and Under 5555 and Under 6565 and OverTotal Cases

* Including 44 legitimate cases where twins would have been registered had not one child been still born.

† Including 6 cases of triplets.

Single Births
Under 218312,4831,174267648124,830
21 and under 251544,0177,1631,95233373289113,730
25 and under 30125816,8906,4721,612279902218315,979
30 and under 35388784,7123,2548712656333710,121
35 and under 40101127242,1851,4264981636135,182
40 and under 45310542255064001164551,364
45 and over11420492110106
Totals9977,13216,22814,1827,6773,1831,3313961671951,312*
Multiple Births
Under 21610132132
21 and under 25124592622114
25 and under 304909420321214
30 and under 35118246154158
35 and under 402y31208373
40 and under 451244112
45 and over
Totals73817621510444154603†
Grand totals1,0047,17016,40414,3977,7813.2271,3464001671951,915

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS — Tables are given in the annual Report on Vital Statistics containing detailed information as to number of previous issue in conjunction with (1) age of mother and (2) duration of marriage. The table under the first heading for the year 1960 is here summarised.

Age of Mother in YearsNumber of Previous IssueTotal Legitimate Cases
0123456 and Under 1010 and Under 1515 and Over

* This number represents 51,312 single cases and 603 multiple cases.

Under 213,4571,1712072524,862
21 and under 256,1884,9311,92361715527313,844
25 and under 303,2614,8514,4182,30186931817516,193
30 and under 351,2111,9002,6682,2071,2046104651410,279
35 and under 405607311,0221,0937594795545525,255
40 and under 451381622032581801482483811,376
45 and over1310'4161314197106
Totals4,8283,75610,4556,5173,1821,5961,464114351,915*

In computing previous issue, multiple births have been given their full significance, the numbers at the head of the columns relating to children born alive. In the following table this procedure has been followed not only for the previous issue, but also for children covered by the 1960 registrations, who are also taken into account in the computation of the averages.

Age of Mother, in YearsTotal MothersTotal IssueAverage Issue
Under 214,8626,5621.35
21–2413,84425,3621.83
25–2916,19343,1782.67
30–3410,27935,4313.45
35–395,25521,2144.04
40–441,3766,3634.62
45 and over1065164.87
Totals51,915138,6262.67

It should be stressed that the averages are no more than they purport to be — viz, the average number of children (including those registered in 1960) born up to the present time to those mothers of legitimate children whose births were registered during the year. They do not purport to represent, nor do they represent, the average issue of all women of the ages shown. Furthermore, they include issue born to the existing marriages only. The averages for recent years were as follows: 1954, 2.54; 1955 and 1956, 2.58; 1957, 2.60; 1958, 2.62; and 1959, 2.63. In 1915, the earliest year for which reliable comparative figures are available, the average issue was 3.11.

FIRST BIRTHS — Of a total of 296,969 confinements resulting in legitimate births during the six years 1955–1960, the issue of no fewer than 87,717, or 30 per cent, were first-born children. In 39,040, or 45 per cent, of these cases the birth occurred within 12 months, and in 65,045, or 74 per cent, within two years after the marriage of the parents. In the remaining 26 per cent of cases where there was any issue to the marriage two years or more had elapsed before the birth of the first child.

Statistics of first births indicate that the proportion occurring within one year after marriage is gradually increasing. There has been little fluctuation during die same period in the proportion of first births occurring within two years after marriage. The decline in the marriage rate in recent years has been accompanied by a downward movement in the actual proportion of first births to total births.

YearTotal Legitimate CasesTotal Legitimate First CasesProportion of First Cases to Total CasesFirst Cases Within One Year After MarriageFirst Cases Within Two Years After Marriage
NumberProportion to Total First CasesNumberProportion to Total First Cases
   per cent per cent per cent
195547,01514,13030.016,15643.5710,56274.75
195647,51414,40330.316,339440110,63773.85
195748,77214,40229.536,31443.8410,60073.60
195850,48714,86229.446,67844.9310,93473.57
195951,26615,09229.446,73844.6511,12473.71
196051,91514,82828.566,81545.9611,18875.45
Totals for six years296,96987,71729.5439,04044.5165,04574.15

The period of time elapsing before the birth of the first child has varied considerably during recent years mainly as a result of war and post-war influences. The following table compares the 1960 figures with those for earlier years, and illustrates the movement in the duration-of-marriage factor in first births.

Duration of Marriage in YearsProportion Per Cent of Total First Births
19241934194419541960
Under 1 year50.0646.2538.4742.6445.96
1 and under 2 years26.6426.7926.3030.5629.49
2 and under 3 years10.4310.2411.2811.5610.58
3 and under 4 years5.516.167.885.955.49
4 and under 5 years3.033.967.183.303.06
5 and under 10 years3.365.497.365.054.42
10 years and over0.971.111.530.941.00
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

For the years covered by the foregoing table the average duration of marriage before the birth of the first child was: 1924, 1.76 years; 1934, 1.85 years; 1944, 2.22 years; 1954, 1.87 years; and 1960, 1.75 years.

An item of interest extracted from the birth statistics is a table of first births occurring to mothers in different age groups, expressed as a proportion per cent of the total first births. A comparison has also been computed on this basis for the years 1924, 1934,1944, 1954, and 1960.

FIRST BIRTHS, BY AGE OF MOTHER
Age of Mother, in YearsFirst Births, Proportion Per Cent at Each Age Group Age of Mother, in to Total First Births
19241934194419541960
Under 207.558.907.339.0813.70
20 and under 2538.1640.3941.7947.7151.34
25 and under 3032.5932.7929.5427.7921.99
30 and under 3514.6813.1014.6110.398.17
35 and under 405.333.795.363.923.78
40 and under 451.590.991.341.020.93
45 and over0.100.040.030.090.09
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The figures of average ages of mothers at the birth of their first child are as follows for the above years: 1924, 26.39; 1934, 25.90; 1944, 25.18; 1954, 25.32; and 1960, 24.50.

EX-NUPTIAL BIRTHS — The numbers of ex-nuptial births registered during each of the years 1950–1960, with the percentages they bear to total births registered, were as follows.

Year1 NumberPercentage of Total Births
19501,7683.99
19511,9354.33
19522,1044.53
19531,9974.30
19542,1004.34
19552,2644.54
19562,3104.58
19572,5494.92
19582,6895.00
19592,7925.10
19602,9115.25

The long-term trend in the rate of ex-nuptial births is indicated by the movement in the proportion of ex-nuptial births per 1,000 unmarried women-i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women-[at the reproductive ages. The figures for each census year from 1911 to 1956 are as follows.

Census YearUnmarried Women 15 and Under 45 years of AgeEx-nuptial BirthsEx-nuptial Birthrate per 1,000 Unmarried Women
1911120,7781,0788.93
1916125,4611,1599.24
1921136,5391,2589.21
1926148,5511,4739.92
1936167,7811,1266.71
1945156,3261,82411.67
1951130,3431,93514.85
1956129,8772,31017.79

Included in the total of 2,911 ex-nuptial births in 1960 were 27 cases of twins, the number of confinements being thus 2,884. From the following table it will be seen that of the 2,884 mothers 1,202, or 42 per cent, were under 21 years of age.

AgeCases
135
1412
1546
16109
17202
18274
19285
20269
21214
22187
23140
24126
25–29459
30–34318
35–39185
40–4451
45 and over2
Total2,884

The Legitimation Act—The Legitimation Act 1939 stipulates that every ex-nuptial child whose parents have intermarried shall be deemed to have been legitimated from birth by reason of such marriage. The Act requires the parents or surviving parent of any person legitimated under the Act to register with the Registrar-General the particulars of the birth of that person, showing that person as the lawful issue of the parents. Application for registration must be made within three months after the date of the marriage.

Where the Registrar-General has reason to believe that any person has been legitimated under the terms of the Act, and no application for registration has been made within the prescribed time, he may require the responsible parents or parent to make an application within a specified period of not less than seven days after receiving notice to do so. Any failure to comply with the notice requiring application for registration within the time specified renders the person or persons responsible liable on summary conviction to a fine of £5. If no application for registration is made within the appropriate time specified in the Act or in the notice received from the Registrar-General, application for registration of the particulars of the birth of any legitimated person may be made by that person, or by one of his parents, or by any other person.

The numbers of legitimations of Europeans registered in each of the latest five years were as follows: 1956, 545; 1957, 555; 1958, 526; 1959, 620; and 1960, 569.

ADOPTIONS — The Adoption Act 1955 sets out the provisions regarding the adoption of children. The Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 contains provision for the registration of adopted children. The Registrar of the Court by which any adoption order is made is required to furnish to the Registrar-General particulars of the order, including the full name and place of birth of the child, as well the full names and addresses of both the natural and the adopting parents. An entry is made in the prescribed form in the register of births, particulars of the adopting parents being given in lieu of those of the natural parents. If the child's birth has previously been registered in New Zealand a note of the adoption order is made on the original entry. An amendment to the Infants Act in 1939 extended the age at which a child might be legally adopted from under 15 years to under 21 years.

The adoption of a Maori child is required to be registered in the same manner as that of a European child.

The Adoption Act 1955 requires interim orders to be made in the first instance, and for these to remain in force for six months before adoption orders become effective. This legislative change would account for the low total of 887 recorded in 1956.

The following table shows the number of adoptions (exclusive of Maori children) which have been registered during the latest five years.

YearNumber
MalesFemalesTotal
1956428459887
19579017901,691
19588568151,671
19599581,0111,969
19609679131,880

Of the 1,880 adoptions registered in 1960, 770 were children under the age of one year, 665 were between one and five years, 205 were between five and 10 years, and 240 were aged 10 years or over In addition, 362 Maori children (181 males and 181 females) were adopted in 1960.

Statistics of adoptions registered have been available in New Zealand since 1919, and these indicate that the numbers are considerably influenced by the economic condition of the country, the lowest total, 329, being recorded in 1931.

STILL BIRTHS — The registration of still births was made compulsory in New Zealand as from 1 March 1913. Although it is necessary to effect a birth-registration entry for a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. The Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 stipulates, however, that a medical practitioner or a midwife in attendance at the confinement where a still birth occurs must furnish a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the still birth. Particulars of causes of still births will be found in Section 4C relating to deaths. A stillborn child is defined as one “which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue”. Still births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths. The rate of 1.43 per 100 total births in 1960 is the lowest rate recorded since the registration of still births was made compulsory in 1913.

The registrations of European still births during each of the latest five years were as follows.

YearMalesFemalesTotalMale Still Births per 1,000 Female Still BirthsPercentage of Still Births to—
Living BirthsAll Births
19564613978581,1611.701.67
19574523828341,1831.611.58
19584663538191,3201.521.50
19594153908051,0641.471.45
19604233838061,1041.451.43

Masculinity is in general much higher among still births than among living births, the rate for still births in 1960 being 1,104 males per 1,000 females as compared with 1,056 for living births.

The percentage of ex-nuptials among still-born infants was in 1960, 6.20, and among infants born alive, 1.72.

Of the living legitimate births registered in 1960, 29 per cent were first births, while of legitimate still births 34 per cent were first births. Statistics over many years indicate that there is a considerably greater probability of still births occurring to mothers having their first confinement than to those having subsequent confinements. In addition to the 806 European still births in 1960, there were 81 Maori still births registered, comprising 46 males and 35 females.

FOETAL DEATHS — The Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 stipulates that in the case of a foetal death where the child has issued from its mother after the twentieth week, and up to and including the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy, a medical practitioner or a midwife who was in attendance at the confinement shall sign and supply a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the foetal death, and such other particulars as may be required by the Registrar-General. A foetal death is not required to be registered as in the case of a still-born child.

MAORI BIRTHS — Maori births became registrable as from 1 March 1913. Until the end of 1961 Maori registrations were entered in a separate register, which did not, however, make provision for as many particulars as is the case with registrations of Europeans.

The number of births of Maoris registered during 1961 was 7,770 (3,967 males, 3,803 females). The Maori birth rate in 1961 was almost twice the European birth rate (25.53 per 1,000). Registrations of Maori births in each of the last 11 years were as follows.

YearNumber of Maori BirthsRate per 1,000 of Mean Maori Population
MalesFemalesTotal
19512,7462,4925,73844.97
19522,8562,6035,45945.41
19532,8842,6455,52944.54
19542,9342,7665,70044.37
19552,9842,8235,80743.64
19563,1333,0306,16344.64
19573,3333,2996,63246.29
19583,4643,3976,86146.24
19593,6723,4587,13046.28
19603,7743,6417,41546.41
19613,9673,8037,77046.41

For registration purposes a Maori was defined as “a person belonging to the aboriginal race of New Zealand, and includes a half-caste and a person intermediate in blood between half-castes and persons of pure descent from that race”. Only registrations relating to persons possessing half or more Maori blood were made in the register of Maori births or Maori deaths. All registrations in respect of persons possessing less than half Maori blood had to be made in the European register.

These provisions were repealed at the end of 1961 and commencing on 1 January 1962 the separate registers for Maori and European births were abolished. Registration particulars are now the same for all races.

4 C — DEATHS

(NOTE — The term European used in the context of this subsection means the population exclusive of Maoris.)

REGISTRATION — The law as to registration of deaths is embodied in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951. Deaths of Maoris were recorded separately up to the end of 1961, but under the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1961 the procedure has been the same as for Europeans from 1 January 1962. Particulars required in the registration of a death include date, place of residence and domicile, name, occupation, sex, age, cause of death, birthplace, duration of residence in New Zealand, whether cremated or not, marital status, living issue of married persons, race (European or Maori), medical attendant by whom certified, particulars as to burial, and, in the case of married males, age of widow.

Every death occurring in New Zealand is required to be registered within three days after the day of the burial. There is a penalty up to £10 for neglect, the funeral director in charge of the burial being solely responsible for registration. When an inquest is held the Coroner becomes responsible for registration, the time allowed being three days after the conclusion of the inquest. The Coroner may, in writing, authorise an agent to attend to registration on his behalf. Registrations must not be effected before the conclusion of the inquest.

Where the Coroner decides not to hold an inquest the funeral director is responsible for registration of the death.

The law does not impose any limit of time after which a death may not be registered as it does in the case of a birth. Although it is necessary to effect a birth-registration entry in the case of a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. The principal Act stipulates, however, that a medical practitioner or a midwife in attendance at a confinement where a still birth occurs must furnish a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the still birth.

Provision is made for the registration of the death of a person whose body is removed for anatomical examination under Part II of the Medical Act 1908, or is removed for burial outside New Zealand.

Any person burying, or permitting or taking part in the burial of, the body of any deceased person without a certificate of cause of death signed by a duly registered medical practitioner, or a Coroner's order to bury the body, renders himself liable to a fine of £50. Burial at sea of a person dying in New Zealand is prohibited except on the authority of a Coroner.

It is incumbent upon a medical practitioner to give the certificate of cause of death to the person required to supply information for the purpose of registering the death (the funeral director in charge of the burial). The practitioner is required to report forthwith to the Coroner any case where, in his opinion, there are any suspicious circumstances.

Where the death of any person ours outside New Zealand and the death takes place on board a New Zealand ship within the meaning of the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, or on board an aircraft registered in New Zealand pursuant to'.he Civil Aviation Act 1948, or as the result of any occurrence on board any such aircraft during its operation, the death may be registered in accordance with the provisions of the Act relating to the registration of deaths taking place in New Zealand.

Deaths of Members of the Forces While Overseas—The Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 requires the Registrar-General to compile a register containing particulars of all persons who have died while out of New Zealand on service with any Commonwealth force within the meaning of the Army Act 1950 and who at the time of their deaths were domiciled in New Zealand. Deaths registered in the War Deaths Register from 1940 onwards were not taken into account in arriving at the number and rate of deaths in New Zealand, nor were deaths of visiting overseas servicemen or prisoners of war in New Zealand. Deaths of New Zealand servicemen which occurred in New Zealand were, however, included.

NUMBERS AND RATES — The following table shows the number of deaths and the death rate per 1,000 of the mean population during each of the last 20 years for the European population.

YearNumberRate per 1,000 of Mean Population
194216,38510.60
194315,44710.04
194415,3639.87
194516,05110.07
194616,0939.71
194715,9049.39
194815,8129.16
194916,0129.09
195016,7159.31
195117,5129.56
195217,4139.28
195317,0098.84
195417,6678.98
195517,9538.95
195618,4039.00
195719,4119.29
195819,0148.90
195919,8149.09
196019,5248.81
196120,3979.03

New Zealand has had for many years a favourable death rate. The fact that the death rate is still comparatively very low is probably due, among other things, to improvements in medical techniques and expansion of health services. This progress has been reflected, for example, in a relatively low incidence of serious outbreaks of the more important epidemic diseases and in a remarkably low infant-mortality rate.

The general trend of the death rate in New Zealand was for many years downwards, reaching its lowest level during the depression years of the early thirties. After that an upward trend was in evidence for some years, the figures recorded during the war years being the highest for a long time. It is possible that the absence overseas of considerable numbers of men of early adult age, at which mortality experience is the most favourable, would have some effect on the rates established. The strains of wartime would also have some effect on deaths in the older age groups; in fact, the high rate of 1942 disclosed a sharp rise in deaths resulting from diseases of the heart and nervous system. For four years following 1945 a downward trend was again in evidence, but the rates have fluctuated in recent years.

The death rates of males and females for the last 11 years are shown separately in the next table.

YearDeaths per 1,000 of Mean PopulationMale Deaths to Every 100 Female Deaths
MalesFemalesTotal
195110.508.629.56122
195210.128.449.28121
19539.807.868.84126
19549.968.008.98126
19559.868.038.95124
19569.998.009.00126
195710.358.229.29127
19589.738.068.90122
19599.988.199.09123
19609.677.938.81123
19619.798.269.03120

DEATHS OF MAORIS — Registrations of deaths of Maoris during each of the last 11 years have been as follows.

YearNumberRate per 1,000 of Mean Maori Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
19517395851,32412.3810.3111.37
19528036801,48313.0411.6012.34
19537605851,34511.979.6510.84
19546805291,20910.358.439.41
19556945781,27210.198.909.56
19567085851,29310.038.679.36
19578046471,45110.999.2210.13
19587285591,2879.637.688.67
19597175971,3149.147.898.53
19607755931,3689.547.558.56
19617895961,3859.277.248.27

In 1960 Maori deaths made up 6.5 per cent of all the New Zealand deaths registered. There is considerable variation in the proportion of Maori to total deaths at different ages, however, and whereas at preschool, school, and early working ages the Maori proportion is substantial, in old age the Maori percentage is small. The following are the 1960 proportions: Ages one to four years, 30.6 per cent; five to 14 years, 19.4 per cent; 15 to 24 years, 21.8 per cent; 25 to 44 years, 17.2 per cent; 45 to 64 years, 7.9 per cent; 65 years and over, 2.4 per cent.

The crude death rate for 1960 was the second lowest ever recorded for Maoris and indeed was lower than that recorded for Europeans. These two figures do not represent the real levels of mortality in the two races as the respective populations differ so greatly in their age compositions. The Maori population has a much higher proportion of those at younger ages who do not contribute many deaths to the total and conversely relatively few persons at older ages where the rate of dying is high. The effect of this is to produce a very deflated crude rate.

In the following table a comparison of age-specific rates is made for the two races for the year 1960.

By applying the Maori death rates at each age to the European population of this age, it is possible to arrive at the number of deaths which would have occurred in the European population had the Maori rates applied. This figure divided by the total European population produces a Maori rate which is adjusted to the age structure of the European and which is directly comparable with the European crude rate. The adjusted Maori rates computed on this system are entered in the following table and show in a true comparison Maori mortality to be approximately twice that of the European. At no age in either sex is the Maori rate less than twice the European and, for females of adolescent and early working years (15–25), the Maori rate is four times the European. It is at these ages that tuberculosis exacts a heavy toil among Maori women. At all higher ages the Maori excess is higher among females than among the males.

RaceAll Ages Rates per 10,000 Mean PopulationAge-specific Rates per 10,000 of Population at Ages
Crude RateMaori Rate Adjusted to European PopulationUnder FiveFive and Under 1515 and Under 2525 and Under 4545 and Under 6565 and Over
Males
Maori95.4186.3160.211.224.556.3215.51,111.8
European96.754.54.311.118.1116.3749.0
Females
Maori75.5184.8105.27.219.545.5252.9898.0
European79.345.53.54.312.067.0551.9
Both Sexes
Maori85.6185.5133.09.222.050.9232.81,012.6
European88.150.13.97.815.191.7639.0

Apart from mere numbers by sex, statistics of Maori deaths are not available prior to 1920, but annual tabulations are now made on the bases of age and cause of death. The ages of Maoris whose deaths were registered during the year 1960 were as shown in the following table.

Age, in YearsMalesFemalesTotal
Under 1205125330
1 and under 5503989
5 and under 1017724
10 and under 159918
15 and under 20171431
20 and under 25201535
25 and under 30241236
30 and under 35241438
35 and under 40212344
40 and under 45293160
45 and under 50493079
50 and under 55414687
55 and under 60385189
60 and under 65424587
65 and under 70543488
70 and under 75333568
75 and under 80431760
80 and under 85241640
85 and under 90231841
90 and under 957310
95 and under 1004610
100 and over134
Totals7755931,368

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES — An international comparison of death rates is made in the following table. They are the average of the five years 1956–60 and are taken from the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics issued by the United Nations.

CountryRates per 1,000 of Population

* European population only.

Israel6.1
Puerto Rico6.9
Netherlands7.6
Japan7.7
Canada8.0
South Africa*8.6
Australia8.8
Norway8.9
Finland9.0
New Zealand*9.0
Costa Rica9.3
Denmark9.3
Spain9.3
United States of America9.3
Italy9.7
Sweden9.7
Switzerland9.8
Yugoslavia10.1
Portugal11.0
Germany, Federal Republic11.1
United Kingdom11.6
France11.7
Republic of Ireland11.8
Chile12.2
Mexico12.2
Austria12.5
India12.5

DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS OVER THE YEAR — An examination of the total number of deaths registered in each quarter of the period 1950–60 gives the following averages: March quarter, 3,831 : June quarter, 4,505; September quarter, 5,411; and December quarter, 4,474.

A classification according to month of death shows that in 1960 the months during which the greatest number of deaths occurred were July, August, and September, with totals of 1,982, 1,903, and 1,734 respectively. Excluding December (a proportion of deaths occurring in that month not being registered till January) February had the least number of deaths, 1,328, followed by March and January with 1,369 and 1,430 respectively.

The lowest number of deaths on any one day, again excluding December, was 28, this number occurring on 27 November. The greatest number (84) occurred on 21 August.

AGE AT DEATH — The deaths of Europeans registered during the year 1960 are tabulated below according to age.

AgeMalesFemalesTotal
Under 1 month453351804
   1–2 months483381
   3–5 months583694
   6–11 months5358111
   1 year483886
   2 years252348
   3 year162137
   4 year181331
   5–9 year6248110
   10–14 year372865
   15–19 year8930119
   20–24 year8434118
   25–29 year7336109
   30–34 year10958167
   35–39 year141104245
   40–44 year202135337
   45–49 year354189543
   50–54 years513298811
   55–59 year7453971,142
   60–64 year9325811,513
   65–69 years1,1337701,903
   70–74 years1,4441,1442,588
   75–79 years1,7161,5393,255
   80–84 years1,3891,4232,812
   85–89 years7439111,654
   90–94 years239371610
   95–99 years4379122
   100 years123
   101 years112
   102 years11
   103 years123
   Totals10,7718,75319,524

The following table indicates the changes that have occurred since 1930 in the age distribution of persons dying. The movement in the proportions of deaths occurring at the different age groups is very striking. The results of three main factors are illustrated, viz, health measures, which have achieved an immense saving of young life; the fluctuations in the birthrate over the period; and the great increase in the proportion of old people in the community.

Age, in YearsNumber of DeathsPercentage of Total
19301940195019601930194019501960
Under 19249901,0081,0907.576.936.035.58
1 and under 53272051992022.681.441.191.03
5 and under 1016798871101.370.690.520.56
10 and under 1510510864650.860.760.330.33
15 and under 202221511201191.821060.720.61
20 and under 253152471581182.581.730.950.60
25 and under 303372701421092.761.890.850.56
30 and under 353372901911672.762.031.140.86
35 and under 403743202752453.072.241.651.25
40 and under 454783623283373.922.531.961.73
45 and under 506404725225435.253.303.122.78
50 and under 557947986978116.515.594.174.15
55 and under 608811,1451,0211,1427.228.026.115.85
60 and under 651,0031,4611,5031,5138.2210.238.997.75
65 and under 701,0771,6972,1701,9038.8311.8812.989.75
70 and under 751,1711,7722,5362,5889.6012.4115.1713.26
75 and under 801,2421,5562,3163,25510.1810.8913.8616.67
80 and over1,8052,3403,3785,20714.8016.3820.2126.68
Totals12,19914,28216,71519,524100.00100.00100.00100.00

During the earlier period covered by the next table the fall in the death rate was common to all ages and to both sexes. In more recent years, however, there have been some fluctuations in the rates for the higher age groups. Of special significance are the low rates recorded in the childhood and early adult life age groups in recent years. The female rate for the various age groups is now lower than the male rate in all instances, with the exception of the one and under Ave years group. The increase in the death rate (per 1,000 of European population) at successive age groups from 15 years onwards is well exemplified.

YearUnder 1*1 and Under 55 and Under 1515 and Under 2525 and Under 3535 and Under 4545 and Under 5555 and Under 6565 and Under 7575 and Over

* Per 1,000 live births in this case.

(rates per 1,000 of mean European population)
Males
190178.606.811.893.523.9761611.9423.1250.59141.67
191163.485.361.912.423.876.2711.0220.8353.22130.58
192153.104.781.852.443.565.559.6119.9646.17128.60
193138.212.831.352.282.774.648.6918.2544.18130.57
194132.552.140.991.982.623.768.7920.6746.31137.85
195126.491.400.641.541.822.937.2020.0446.90127.33
196021.501.020.431111.242.406.7718.5145.53125.51
Females
190163.875.501.643.584.726.7010.6219.4443.32127.98
191148.745.371.482.764.344.928.3817.8940.44119.60
192142.314.491.312.343.384.468.0014.8836.81120.23
193125.672.470.971.853.203.816.8415.3636.83122.87
194126.852.040.711.352053.146.5814.5538.06116.57
195118.811.190.360.731.172.045.2913.2732.35113.75
196017.720.950.350.430.691.683.8810.4927.33100.51
Both Sexes
190171.406.171.773.554.336.4011.3721.6347.87135.71
191156.315.361.702.584.095.649.8219.5547.74126.13
192147.824.641.582.393.475.108.8517.5941.90124.84
193132.152.651.172.072.984.227.8016.8840.56126.87
194129.772.090.851.652.323.447.6517.6842.20126.76
195122.771.300.501.151.492.496.2616.5239.36119.96.
196019.660.990.390.780.982.045.3414.4535.45111.34

The average (arithmetic mean) age at death of European persons of each sex at 10-yearly intervals since 1901 and during each of the last four years was as follows.

YearMalesFemales
age (years)
190141.6437.68
191146.1742.37
192148.4546.97
193154.1455.48
194158.6559.60
195161.5865.25
195763.7867.37
195863.2567.24
195963.9567.54
196063.0667.66

There has been a striking upward movement in the average age at death since 1901. A noticeable feature is that in the earlier years the age for females was considerably lower than that for males, the margin gradually narrowing until virtual equality was reached in 1927–28, since when the female average age at death has been higher than the male.

EXPECTATION OF LIFE — Life tables depicting the pattern of mortality over the age span of life for the non-Maori component of New Zealand's population have been constructed at various times since 1880. The most recent tables are based on the 1956 population census, together with mortality statistics for 1955–57. As the pattern of mortality among non-Maoris has stabilised in recent years, these latest life tables give an accurate statistical summary of current mortality experience.

Life tables contain a measure of the degree of longevity of the population called the “expectation of life”. The expectation of life at any age is the average remaining lifetime for persons of this age, assuming that mortality rates at each age continue at the level shown by the life table. The life expectancy at selected ages at the present time, for the non-Maori population in New Zealand, is shown in the table below. The overall longer span of life enjoyed by females, compared with males, is evident, as is the improvement in life expectancy once the first year of life is survived.

LIFE EXPECTANCY FOR NON-MAORI POPULATION, SELECTED AGES
Exact Age (Years)Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
068.8873.88
169.4774.17
268.6073.29
367.6972.38
466.7671.44
565.8170.49
1060.9865.60
1556.1260.72
2051.4455.87
2546.8751.02
3042.1946.17
4032.8436.65
5023.9327.53
6016.1919.16
7010.0811.91
805.716.47
902.863.09
1001.181.19

Improvement in non-Maori life expectancy since 1880, for both sexes, has been most striking for the younger ages, but has been relatively small for the advanced ages. Progress in medical science, coupled with improved social conditions, has resulted in substantial reductions in mortality among infants and children from infectious diseases; on the other hand, diseases of middle and old age are less amenable to control. It is unlikely, therefore, that increases in life expectancy in the future will occur on the scale of the past, but will be quite small and will happen very slowly. The table below displays the life expectancy revealed by each life table compiled since 1880 for the three exact ages of 0, 20, and 60 years.

IMPROVEMENT IN NON-MAORI LIFE EXPECTANCY SINCE 1880
Life TableLife Expectancy (Years)
Males AgedFemales Aged
0206002060
1880–9254.4444.5514.9557.2646.3916.39
1891–9555.2945.4715.0658.0947.1916.55
1396–190057.3746.3415.3359.9547.9116.54
1901–0558.0946.7415.4060.5548.2316.64
1906–1059.1747.2015.5161.7648.7716.77
1911–1560.9647.6115.5463.4849.1416.72
1921–2262.7648.6616.0365.4350.3617.29
1925–2763.9948.9315.7966.5750.9617.23
193165.0449.6116.2267.8851.2817.30
1934–3865.4649.8916.0668.4552.0217.49
1950–5268.2951.1516.1972.4354.6418.53
1955–5768.8851.4416.1973.8855.8719.16

Prior to the Second World War the New Zealand non-Maori population was probably the longest lived of any national population group in the world. This pre-eminent position has not beer maintained, however, although New Zealand still takes a very high place in the international ranking list. The table below compares the life expectancy at birth for the non-Maori population with the for selected overseas countries. In all cases the expectancies are the most recent available.

LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH, SELECTED COUNTRIES
CountryPeriodLife Expectancy at Birth (Years)
MalesFemales

* Non-Maori population.

† White population.

New Zealand*1955–5768.8873.88
Australia1953–5567.1472.75
Canada1950–5266.3370.83
Denmark1951–5569.8772.50
England and Wales195667.7673.36
France1952–5665.0471.15
Netherlands1953–5571.073.9
Norway1951–5571.1174.70
Sweden1951–5570.4973.43
South Africa†1945–4763.7868.31
United States of America195667.373.7
U.S.S.R.1955–566369

The expectation of life at various ages for the Maori population is shown below. These expectations are taken from Maori Life Tables, 1955–57.

LIFE EXPECTANCY FOR MAORI POPULATION, SELECTED AGES
Exact Age (Years)Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
057.2358.68
160.3060.80
259.8960.35
359.1759.63
458.3658.80
557.5257.91
1053.1553.24
2044.1244.14
3035.5735.20
4027.3126.55
5019.4319.28
6013.0313.38
708.849.12
805.445.75

Life expectancy at birth for a Maori male increased by 3.18 years in the interval 1950–52 to 1955–57, with that for females increasing by 2.80 years. This was a substantial increase in a short period and is evidence that, although Maori life expectancy is relatively low, it is improving at a fast rate. In this interval between the construction of the first and second sets of Maori life tables the improvement was not so spectacular at higher ages, however.

The expectation of life of Maoris is much shorter than that of the European population. A comparison at age 0 shows a life expectation which is 11.65 years longer for European males and 15–20 years longer for European females.

DEATHS BY CAUSES — Although the incidence of different diseases as causes of death varies considerably between the Maori and European sections of New Zealand's population, the only important disease to show a marked influence on the general death rate by the inclusion of Maoris is tuberculosis. The average death rate for the total population from tuberculosis (all forms) for the five years 1956–60 was 84 per million of population, compared with 63 for Europeans alone. New Zealand has for many years had a comparatively low tuberculosis death rate for the European section of its population, but when Maoris are included the latest triennial international figures available (1957–59) show New Zealand to be ninth out of a total of 35 countries. With Maoris excluded, New Zealand's position would be seventh.

Total deaths for the years 1957–60, classified according to the Abbreviated List of the sixth and seventh (1948 and 1955) revisions of the International Classification of Diseases, are contained in the following table. (The 1955 revision of the International Classification was adopted in New Zealand in 1958.)

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
19571958195919601957195819591960
Tuberculosis of respiratory system22616811897101735141
Tuberculosis, other forms28321917131487
Syphilis and its sequelae33221714151076
Typhoid fever31111
Dysentery, all forms16153
Scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat11 
Diphtheria1
Whooping cough1983431
Meningococcal infections2218111110855
Acute poliomyelitis26113
Measles1101613475
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic1059111610547405044
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissues3,2133,2973,3393,2901,4391,4421,4301,384
Benign and unspecified neoplasms4537344020161517
Diabetes mellitus286286240280128125103118
Anaemias5751485526222123
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system2,5192,6062,5702,5371,1281,1401,1011,067
Non-meningococcal meningitis3546504216202118
Rheumatic fever1710868433
Chronic rheumatic heart disease25527123421411411910090
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart disease5,3425,3055,6155,7792,3932,3212,4052,431
Other diseases of the heart770808922827345353395348
Hypertension with heart disease573461470407257202201171
Hypertension without mention of heart13014412310958635346
Influenza181371902881168112
Pneumonia9507511,0591,003426329454421
Bronchitis507477560497227209240209
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum20717017715993747667
Appendicitis3529363416131514
Intestinal obstruction and hernia18015114615881666366
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhoea of the newborn15413415214169596559
Cirrhosis of liver7556615434242623
Nephritis and nephrosis16015811912872695154
Hyperplasia of prostate15013513714067595959
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the Puerperium4431362420141510
Congenital malformations277354343353124155147149
Birth injuries, post-natal asphyxia, and atelectasis369318294336165139126141
Infections of the newborn5567615225292622
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy, and immaturity unqualified302333373377135146160159
Senility without mention of psychosis, ill-defined, and unknown causes10811711817348515173
All other diseases2,0761,9632,0302,035930859870856
Motor-vehicle accidents407405362356182177155150
All other accidents731684683736327299293310
Suicide and self-inflicted injury21522020423096968797
Homicide and operations of war152525257111111
Totals20,86220,30121,12820,8929,3448,8819,0508,789

CAUSES OF EUROPEAN DEATHS — Since 1908 the classification of causes of death in New Zealand has been on the basis of the international classification. Almost all countries are member states of the World Health Organisation, and the International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death has world-wide application.

The Seventh (1955) Revision of the Classification was applied to New Zealand in 1958. Like the Sixth Revision, this assigns the cause of death to the underlying cause. This is defined as (a) the disease or injury which initiated the train of morbid events leading directly to death, or (b) the circumstances of the accident or violence which produced the fatal injury. The responsibility for indicating the train of events is placed on the physician or surgeon signing the medical certificate of death.

The following table shows the numbers of deaths and death rates per million of mean population according to the Abbreviated List of 50 causes.

The statistics for tuberculosis, cancer, puerperal causes, and violent causes, which are of special interest and significance, are discussed later in this subsection. Certain diseases (cholera, plague, smallpox, typhus, and typhoid fever) are not listed in the table below as there were no deaths from these causes in the years shown.

Causes of DeathNumbersRates per Million of Mean Population
1956195719581959196019561957195819591960

* Less than one.

Tuberculosis of respiratory system14616312185747178573933
Tuberculosis, other forms1421171310710865
Syphilis and its sequelae1728181410813865
Dysentery, all forms1314*1*2
Scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat11**
Diphtheria211*
Whooping cough2721131*
Meningococcal infections161610879S543
Acute poliomyelitis502512412*
Measles388111445
Malaria1*
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic77847196933840334442
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissues3,0513,1103,1923,2203,1581,4921,4891,4931,4771,424
Benign and unspecified neoplasms43433531362121161416
Diabetes mellitus215271273232266105130128106120
Anaemias69564945533427232124
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system2,2562,4572,5502,5172,4661,1031,1761,1931,1541,112
Non-meningococcal meningitis31243135261511151612
Rheumatic fever7855 3422
Chronic rheumatic heart disease17120121819716884961029076
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart disease5,0235,1855,1665,4765,6002,4562,4822,4172,5112,526
Other diseases of the heart707716747851761346343350390343
Hypertension with heart disease546557443447393267267207205177
Hypertension without mention of heart1401261401181046860665447
Influenza831293017421416214809
Pneumonia657784621865865321375291397390
Bronchitis38446243351645018822 i203237203
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum1772021671701558797787870
Appendicitis27332535261316121612
Intestinal obstruction and hernia1261641431321496278676167
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhoea of newborn9910092103824848434737
Cirrhosis of liver64705259503134242723
Nephritis and nephrosis1191421431071145868674951
Hyperplasia of prostate1651441321361408169626263
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the Puerperium2035222719101710129
Congenital malformations255240316307319125115148141144
Birth injuries, post-natal asphyxia, and atelectasis271307257243286133147120111129
Infections of the newborn44414945352120232116
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy, and immaturity unqualified241256273322330118123128148149
Senility without mention of psychosis, ill defined, and unknown causes143961111111627046525173
All other diseases1,9161,9181,8501,9241,885937918865882850
Motor-vehicle accidents294336353308290144161165141131
AH other accidents525662610611665258317285280300
Suicide and self-inflicted injury194209211198222951009991100
Homicide and operations of war101314181856788
Totals18,40319,41119,01419,81419,5249,0009,2918,8969,0878,806

Tuberculosis — Since 1945 there has been a remarkable decline in the death toll from tuberculosis among Europeans. In 1951–55 the rate was only half that of the previous quinquennium, and during 1956–60 the rate halved again.

The following table shows the average annual number of deaths from tuberculosis and the death rate per million in each of the five quinquennia since 1936.

QuinquenniumRespiratoryNon-respiratoryAll Forms
Average Number Dying Each YearAverage Annual Rate per MillionAverage Number Dying Each YearAverage Annual Rate per MillionAverage Number Dying Each YearAverage Annual Rate per Million
1936–4050833410871616405
1941–4548831410667594381
1946–504052357543480278
1951–552211164222263138
1956–601185615713363

The steep decline in tuberculosis other than respiratory has been largely due to the decrease in tuberculosis involving the meninges and central nervous system, there being but four deaths from this cause in 1960 as compared with a total of 51 in 1936. In 1960, 74 of the 84 deaths recorded were of the respiratory system, five of the genito-urinary organs, four of the meninges, and one of the thyroid gland. The 1960 rates per million of population were: respiratory, 33.4; non-respiratory, 4.5.

The latest triennial figures available show New Zealand to be in seventh place out of 38 countries for which respiratory tuberculosis rates were available. The New Zealand European rate was 5.8 per 100,000. The countries with lower rates than New Zealand were: Netherlands, 3.4; Iceland, 3.8; Denmark, 4.1; Israel, 4.7; Australia, 5.3; Canada, 5.4.

The following table shows the number of deaths from tuberculosis in 1960, classified according to sex and age groups. Of those dying from this cause in 1960, persons under the age of 45 years formed 18 percent.

Age, in YearsMalesFemalesTotal
Under 5123
5 and under 10
10 and under 1511
15 and under 20
20 and under 2511
25 and under 30
30 and under 3511
35 and under 40224
40 and under 45235
45 and under 50538
50 and under 55527
55 and under 60314
60 and under 659211
65 and under 701111
70 and under 757310
75 and under 80729
80 and over369
Totals562884

Cancer - A detailed report on cancer mortality and morbidity in New Zealand was issued in 1958 by the Medical Statistics Branch of the Department of Health. This report covers mortality from cancer from 1941 to 1955, and also surveys all cases reported to the National Cancer Register by the various cancer clinics established in New Zealand under the auspices of the British Empire Cancer Campaign Society. In addition to discussion of the total cancer picture in New Zealand, an analysis, with discussion, is made by specific sites broken down under the following subheadings: the age and sex of new cases registered, incidence, survival experience, treatment, stage of disease at time of diagnosis, and period elapsing between first symptoms and diagnosis. Under each of these headings a comparison is made between the local figures and those available from other countries, while in the principal sites the New Zealand mortality is contrasted with that of generally 24 other countries of the world.

Attention is drawn to the transference, under the 1948 Revision of the International Classification, of Hodgkin's disease, leukaemia, etc., into the category of malignant diseases. This classification was introduced in 1950, and all cancer figures quoted for that and subsequent years include these conditions.

Cancer is annually responsible for more deaths in New Zealand than can be assigned to any cause other than diseases of the heart. While it is most prevalent in middle and old age, it exacts a heavy toll throughout the lifespan. With the inclusion of Hodgkin's disease and leukaemia under the cancer heading, the disease assumes a very high position as a cause of death among children and adolescents. It is interesting to compare the decline in the death rate from tuberculosis with the rise in the cancer death rate. These rates are set out in the following table and diagram. The fall in the tuberculosis rate may be said to reflect the achievements of the public health service, whilst the rise in the cancer rate portrays the increasing age of the population.

This is illustrated by the following figures.

Average Death Rates per 10,000 of Population
PeriodTuberculosisCancer
1880–8912.353.42
1890–9910.625.44
1900–099.106.79
1910–196.998.22
1920–295.699.30
1930–394.1711.17
1940–493.4613.56
1950–591.2014.91
19600.3814.24

The relative movements in the death rates from cancer and tuberculosis are further illustrated in the following diagram, which shows the rates at five-yearly intervals since 1875.

DEATHS FROM CANCER AND TUBERCULOSIS

(EXCLUDING MAORIS)

RATE PER 10,000 OF POPULATION

The most striking disease phenomenon of the last thirty years has been the steady rise, particularly among males, in cancer involving the respiratory organs.

The following table compares the mortality of Europeans from respiratory tuberculosis and respiratory cancer at intervals of five years and shows clearly how in the male sex the saving of human life from one form of disease has been largely offset by an almost equivalent rise in another form of disease affecting the same organs.

YearTuberculosis of the Respiratory SystemCancer of the Lung, Bronchus, Pleura, and Trachea
Number of DeathsRate per MillionNumber of DeathsRate per MillionNumber of DeathsRate per MillionNumber of DeathsRate per Million
 MalesFemalesMalesFemales
193525834321329229391014
194030739619425246591114
19453144051832241031332632
19502212461301451701892831
195513613559592872853939
1960534821193302965449

In 1960 there were 3,158 deaths from cancer in New Zealand, a proportion of 142 per 100,000 of mean population. While the crude male rate has shown very little significant movement there has undoubtedly been a fall in the female rate over the last ten years.

A summary for the latest 11 years of numbers and rates, both crude and standardised, is given in the following table:

YearNumber of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100,000Standardised Death Rate per 100,000*Number of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100,000Standardised Death Rate per 100,000*

* Standard population used for standardised rates — England and Wales, 1901.

 MalesFemales
19501,396155.196.51,256140.285.2
19511,470160.1100.51,366149.691.2
19521,433152.294.31,366146.287.9
19531,495154.797.81,291134.881.8
19541,515153.497.91,364139.483.8
19551,619160.6102.41,458146.186.7
19561,630158.7105.71,421139.683.4
19571,691161.1103.21,419136.581.3
19581,686157.0101.51,506141.685.8
19591,745159.3103.41,475136.082.5
19601,662149.297.61,496135.581.3

Standardised rates are adopted to eliminate the distorting effect of the changes which take place over a period in the age constitution of the population. The standardised rate for males has risen from 98.6 in the five years 1951–55 to 102.3 in 1956–60. This would indicate that there has been a real increase in the death toll in the male sex. The corresponding figures for females, 86.3 in 1951–55 and 82.8 in 1956–60, indicate that there has been a decline in the death rates of over 4 per cent during the ten-year period.

A summary showing the location of the disease in deaths from cancer during 1960 is given in the following table.

Site of DiseaseNumbersRates per Million of Mean Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Buccal cavity and pharynx421759381527
Oesophagus452671402432
Stomach242153395217138178
Intestine, except rectum153184337137167152
Rectum9767164876174
Larynx2342721412
Trachea, and of bronchus and lung not specified as secondary3305438429649173
Breast32652683240120
Cervix uteri37877939
Other and unspecified parts of uterus59595327
Prostate17517515779
Skin293160262827
Bone and connective tissue131528121413
All other and unspecified sites343407750308368338
Leukaemia and aleukaemia7170141646364
Lymphosarcoma and other neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic system9657153865269
Totals1,6621,4963,1581,4921,3551,424

There is considerable variation in the numbers and rates for different sites in males and females. The site principally involved in the male is the lung and bronchus and one male cancer death in every five is of this site. Cancer of the stomach is much more common in the male than the female but the situation is reversed in cancer involving the intestines. The leading site in the female is the breast, with 18 per cent of the total cancer deaths among women.

While cancer is undoubtedly increasing in numerical incidence it is not doing so out of proportion to the population exposed to the cancer risk. The following table shows the movement in the standardised death rates per 100,000 of the population in selected sites averaged over the latest three quinquennia.

Site1946–501951–551956–601946–501951–551956–60
 MalesFemales
Buccal cavity and pharynx3.492.502.471.121.091.16
Oesophagus3.252.922.451.431.57119
Stomach18.47.15.9813.8210.009.387.27
Large intestine10.039.248.5112.8211.2810.25
Rectum5.495.255.794.193.663.75
Biliary passages and liver1.402022.141.832.332.25
Pancreas5.074.835.133.313.162.80
Larynx1.491.491.130.280.250.16
Trachea, lung, and bronchus10.7916.4620.621.692.272.75
Breast0.1117.6617.5816.17
All parts of uterus9.719.018.19
Ovary, Fallopian tube, and broad ligament6.015.366.12
Prostate8.719.529.04—-—-
Kidney2.152.312.701.381.541.46
Bladder and other urinary organs2.733003.261.130.971.09
Skin (including melanoma)2.612.382.301.631.491.70
Brain and other parts of nervous system3.153.603.962.222.563.01
Lymphosarcoma and reticulosarcoma2.092.593.221.241.511.70
Hodgkin's disease1.521.371.420.650.890.90
Leukaemia and aleukaemia4.885.265.433.583.684.47
All sites95.0698.57102.2786.5486.2782.83

The upward trend in the total male cancer death toll can be ascribed chiefly to the increase in lung and bronchus cancer, already commented upon. The total female rate has declined appreciably in recent years.

Stomach cancer is clearly on the decline in both sexes and this is in accordance with the experience in several other countries. Some changes in the conditions of living are thought to underlie this drop in incidence.

The large intestine, another leading site, shows declining rates in both sexes. In the female breast and also the uterus, two of the leading sites, the downward trend is unmistakable. There is a tendency for cancers such as leukaemia and lymphosarcoma to increase slightly and again there has been evidence of this in countries throughout the world.

A classification according to sex and age groups for 1960 is now given.

Age, in YearsMalesFemalesTotal
Under 5131427
5 and under 10151833
10 and under 158715
15 and under 209615
20 and under 255510
25 and under 3011718
30 and under 35151328
35 and under 40194463
40 and under 45296392
45 and under 507169140
50 and under 55106109215
55 and under 60149135284
60 and under 65187160347
65 and under 70233183416
70 and under 75283224507
75 and under 80262203465
80 and over247236483
Totals1,6621,4963,158

Ninety per cent of the deaths from cancer during 1960 were at ages 45 years and upwards, and 59 per cent at ages 65 years and upwards. Approximately one death in every six of persons who die after the age of 50 years is due to cancer.

CAUSES OF MAORI DEATHS — The Maori is subject to infection, both respiratory and other types, to a much greater degree than is the European. The most noteworthy example is tuberculosis, especially of the respiratory system, where, despite the reductions effected over recent years, the Maori rates are still four times those of the European population. In pneumonia and other conditions of the respiratory system the Maori rates exceed the European three or fourfold and much the same state of affairs is disclosed for gastric and intestinal infections.

The rates set out in the following table are crude rates, i.e., the number of deaths attributed to the disease per 10,000 of the total Maori population. Taken at their face value the figures show the Maori as having a very low mortality from certain diseases which rank high as causes of death among Europeans. These diseases are generally described as being of a degenerative nature and include cancer, diabetes, vascular lesions of the brain, arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart conditions, and kidney disease. Relative to the European the Maori population is an extremely young one, and when allowance is made for the low numbers who would be likely to develop these conditions, it becomes apparent that the Maori has an unfavourable health record in these diseases also. This position is revealed when age-specific rates are compared in various disease categories and when age-adjusted rates are calculated which show what the death rate would have been in the Maori had the Maori population been of the same age structure as the European. These rates have been published and discussed for a comprehensive list of diseases in Maori-European Standards of Health, one of a series of special reports issued by the Department of Health. The comparison in this report is for the period 1954–58.

In addition to the greater susceptibility to disease processes the Maori has high accident and homicide rates. Maori children have accident rates more than double those of the European child; at older ages there are high Maori fatality rates in road accidents.

Maori deaths for 1958 to 1960 are compared in the following table, grouped according to the Abbreviated List of the 1955 Revision of the International List.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per 10,000 of Mean Maori Population Maori Population
195819591960195819591960
Tuberculosis of respiratory system4733233.172.141.44
Tuberculosis, other forms15671.010.390.44
Syphilis and its sequelae4340.270.190.25
Typhoid fever1110.070.060.06
Dysentery, all forms310.200.06
Scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat10.06
Whooping cough26−70.130.390.13
Meningococcal infections8340.540.190.25
Acute poliomyelitis10.07
Measles2820.130.520.13
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic2020121.351.300.75
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissues1051191327.017.728.26
Benign and unspecified neoplasms2340.130.190.25
Diabetes mellitus138140.880.520.88
Anaemias2320.130.190.13
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system5653713.773.444.44
Non-meningococcal meningitis1515161.010.971.00
Rheumatic fever5360.340.190.38
Chronic rheumatic heart disease5337463.572.402.88
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart disease1391391799.369.0211.20
Other diseases of the heart6171664.124.614.13
Hypertension with heart disease1823141.211.490.88
Hypertension without mention of heart4550.270.320.31
Influenza71670.471.040.44
Pneumonia1301941388.7612.598.64
Bronchitis4444472.972.862.94
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum3740.200.450.25
Appendicitis4180.270.060.50
Intestinal obstruction and hernia81490.540.910.56
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhoea of the newborn4249592.833.183.69
Cirrhosis of liver4240.270.130.25
Nephritis and nephrosis1512141.010.780.88
Hyperplasia of prostate310.200.06
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the Puerperium9950.600.580.31
Congenital malformations3836342.562.342.13
Birth injuries, post-natal asphyxia, and atelectasis6151504.113.313.13
Infections of the newborn1816171.211.041.06
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy, and immaturity unqualified6051474.043.312.94
Senility without mention of psychosis, ill-defined, and unknown causes67110.400.450.69
All other diseases1131061507.626.889.39
Motor-vehicle accidents5254663.503.504.13
All other accidents7472714.994.674.44
Suicide and self-inflicted injury9680.610.390.50
Homicide and operations of war11770.740.450.44
Totals1,2871,3141,36886.7485.2885.62

INFANT MORTALITY — Over a long period of years New Zealand has been renowned for its low rate of infant mortality, a fact attributable partly to such matters as climate, virility of the race, comparative absence of densely settled areas, etc., and partly to legislative and educative measures — the latter conducted by the State as well as by various organisations (one of the most important of these is the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children which was founded in 1907).

The infant-mortality rate of the European population of New Zealand is among the world's lowest, and recently has declined to a particularly low level. The Maori rate has shown a noticeable improvement in recent years. European, Maori, and total infant-mortality figures are given in the next table.

YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Mean Population
EuropeanMaoriTotalEuropeanMaoriTotal
19409903721,36230.2187.2236.78
19451,0364131,44927.9988.9334.79
19501,0083561,36422.7569.7427.60
19551,0023631,36520.0962.5124.52
19571,0363841,42019.9857.9024.28
19581,0433731,41619.4054.3723.35
19591,0893881,47719.8954.4223.87
19601,0903301,42019.6644.5022.59
19611,1043861,49019.1349.6822.76

In the quinquennium 1955–59 New Zealand's infant-mortality rate per 1,000 births (exclusive of Maoris), with an average of 19.8, was the fourth lowest of 36 countries for which reliable figures were available, whereas the inclusion of the Maori population, with a rate of 56.7, relegated it to sixth place, below Sweden, the Netherlands, Iceland, Norway, and Australia.

A progressive reduction in the infant-mortality rate for the European population has been accomplished during the period after the first month of life up to the end of the first year. Similarly, there have been reductions in the Maori mortality rate at the same period of life, but the rates are still comparatively high. The next table contrasts the mortality rates per 1,000 live births for European and Maori infants.

YearEuropeansMaoris
Under One MonthOne and Under Twelve MonthsTotal Under One YearUnder One MonthOne and Under Twelve MonthsTotal Under One Year
194022.038.1830.2123.9263.3087.22
194519.598.4027.9926.0562.8888.93
195016.576.1822.7528.4141.3369.74
195514.145.9520.0919.6342.8862.51
195613.356.0419.3919.9634.4054.36
195713.856.1319.9820.3637.5457.90
195813.595.8119.4022.0132.3654.37
195913.925.9719.8919.2135.2154.42
196014.485.1819.6617.2627.2444.50

The principal causes of death of Maori infants responsible for the high mortality rates after the first month of life are diarrhoea and enteritis, broncho-pneumonia, pneumonia, and other diseases of the respiratory system.

Comparing the average rates for the five-year period 1941–45, with those for the five years, 1956–60 the European neo-natal mortality was reduced by 31 per cent over the period in contrast to a much lower reduction in the Maori of 11 per cent; for those aged between one and 12 months the European reduction of 39 per cent was less favourable than that in the Maori at 58 per cent.

Birth injury and prematurity are two conditions in the neo-natal group in which Maori rates are considerably higher than the European. Contributing towards this disparity is the higher proportion of Maori confinements outside of hospital, and greater frequency of child bearing, as well as a reluctance on the part of many Maori mothers to seek ante-natal care.

The Maori infant who survives the first month of life is especially susceptible to gastro-intestinal disorders such as diarrhoea, colitis, and gastro-enteritis, and to respiratory conditions such as influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis. Certain environmental conditions and circumstances are known to underlie these diseases, such as unsatisfactory feeding associated with the failure to seek or heed skilled advice from Plunket or district nurses, and in many instances poor housing and sanitary conditions.

Particulars of deaths of European infants under one year of age for each of the years 1951–61 are shown in the following table.

YearNumberRate per 1,000 Live Births
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
19516114061,01726.518.822.8
19525534611,01423.220.421.8
195354938293123.016.920.1
195455641296822.317.620.0
19555994031,00223.316.620.1
195654243697820.817.719.4
19576054311,03622.817.020.0
19586084351,04322.016.719.4
19596094801,08921.718.019.9
19606124781,09021.517.719.7
19616554491,10422.215.919.1

In the following table New Zealand's European infant-mortality rate is shown in comparison with that of other countries. The figures are taken from the United Nations Demographic Yearbook 1960. It is interesting to observe that the distinction of having the lowest infant-mortality rate in the world belongs to Sweden, which achieved the phenomenally low ratio of 17 infant deaths per 1,000 live births in 1955–59, as compared with New Zealand's 20 for the same quinquennium. In the case of the United States of America, South Africa, and New Zealand the European population only has been taken into account.

CountryQuinquenniaDeaths Under 1 Year Per 1,000 Live Births

* White population only.

Sweden1955–5917
Netherlands1955–5918
Iceland1955–5918
New Zealand*1955–5920
Norway1955–5920
Australia1955–5921
United Kingdom1955–5924
Switzerland1955–5924
Denmark1955–5924
United States of America*1955–5926
Finland1955–5926
South Africa*1955–5929
Canada1955–5931
Czechoslovakia1955–5931
Cyprus1955–5931
China (Taiwan)1955–5934
France1955–5934
Republic of Ireland1955–5935
Israel1955–5936
Belgium1955–5936
Germany, Federal Republic1955–5937
Japan1955–5938
Austria1955–5943
Germany, Eastern1955–5945
U.S.S.R.1955–5947
Italy1955–5949
Spain1955–5951
Argentina1954–5862
Venezuela1955–5965
Ceylon1954–5868
Mexico1955–5978
Portugal1955–5988
Peru1955–5996
Yugoslavia1955–5998
India1954–58102
Chile1955–59122

The male rate of infant mortality is considerably above the female rate, the average for New Zealand over the five-year period 1956–60 being 21.8 male deaths per 1,000 male births and 17.5 female deaths per 1,000 female births.

The rates per 1,000 births for the two sexes combined at different ages during the first year of life are now given for each of the last 11 years.

INFANT MORTALITY RATES, 1950–60 (PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS)
YearUnder 1 Day1 Day and Under 2 Days2 Days and Under 1 WeekTotal Under 1 Week1 Week and Under 2 Weeks2 Weeks and Under 3 Weeks3 Weeks and Under 1 MonthTotal Under 1 Month1 Month and Under 12 MonthsTotal Under 1 Year
19507.33.14.214.61.20.60.216.66.222.8
19516.92.94.914.7100.20.316.26.622.8
19526.32.44.313.01.20.40.515.16.721.8
19535.92.14.112.11.10.60.514.35.820.1
19546.02.44.212.61.00.40.414.45.620.0
19556.41.93.511.81.30.50.514.16.020.1
19566.51.53.611.61.10.40.313.36.019.4
19576.92.33.112.31.00.30.213.86.120.0
19586.81.83.011.60.90.70.413.65.819.4
19597.11.83.312.10.90.50.413.96.019.9
19607.52.23.212.90.80.50.314.55.219.7

Infants who die in the first year of life may be grouped roughly into two main classes, viz, those dying within one month of birth and those surviving the first month of life but dying before the first anniversary of their birth. Deaths amongst the first class, called neo-natal deaths, are due principally to pre-natal and natal influences. The second group covers those infants who have succumbed in the main to causes arising from post-natal influences such as the various epidemic diseases, diseases of the respiratory system, faulty feeding, and other environmental factors.

The next table shows that, whereas in the quinquennium 1956–60 the death rate for children under one month of age was 53 per cent lower than in the quinquennium 1881–85, the rate for children who had survived the first month of life was only approximately one-tenth as high as in the eighties. In other words, whereas formerly over 60 children out of every 1,000 who survived the first month of life died before reaching one year of age, now only six such deaths occur. While the decline in the under-one-month group has been progressive for some years, it was among infants who had survived the first month of life that the most marked reductions were achieved. In the thirties, however, the reduction of this rate was arrested, and in the quinquennium 1941–45 an increase was recorded for the first time. For some years it had been considered that any further substantial decrease in the total infant-mortality rate would have to be achieved in the under-one month group. The figures for 1956–60, however, indicate that, whereas this group recorded a decrease of 31 per cent from the 1941–45 rate, the one-month-and-over group declined by 39 per cent.

PeriodDeaths per 1,000 Births
Under 1 YearUnder 1 MonthBetween 1 and 12 Months
1881–188590.6029.7760.83
1886–189084.0927.5756.52
1891–189587.6030.3457.26
1896–190080.0630.3849.68
1901–190574.7730.6444.13
1906–191069.6230.2839.34
1911–191553.6329.2824.35
1916–192048.6228.1620.46
1921–192542.7527.4815.27
1926–193036.7024.8211.88
1931–193531.8822.349.54
1936–194031.8322.519.32
1941–194529.5320.019.52
1946–195023.9217.316.61
1951–195520.9514.846.11
1956–196019.6713.875.80

The accompanying diagram further illustrates the reduction in the infant-mortality rate that has taken place over a long period, and the relatively steady low rate of recent years.

INFANT DEATH RATE

AVERAGE RATE PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS

Causes of European Infant Mortality — The principal causes of infant mortality over the last 10 years, showing both numbers and rates per 1,000 live births, are shown in the following table. The classification is according to the Sixth (1948) and Seventh (1955) Revisions of the International List.

Number of DeathsCauses of Death
1951195219531954195519561957195819591960
Tuberculosis, all forms14222111
Congenital syphilis1111
Enteric fever and other salmonella infections21
Dysentery, all forms —–11
Whooping cough464211621
Meningococcal infections51077989522
Tetanus1111
Poliomyelitis212
Measles22214
Influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis after the first four weeks of life967973777984107879170
Pneumonia of the newborn30222428213526313029
Gastro-enteritis after the first four weeks of life261012161014109166
Diarrhoea of the newborn151323351
Congenital malformations151205163208196186165223231226
Birth injury146118127110144143135123119151
Asphyxia and atelectasis164174152110137128172134124135
Haemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis)38343740403926504332
Immaturity unqualified191191162198162143176132167164
Accidents33262417272639272721
Other and undefined causes131129136152164166167213228244
Totals1,0171,0149319681,0029781,0361,0431,0891,090
Causes of DeathRates per 1,000 Live Births
1951195219531954195519561957195819591960

* Less than 0.1.

Tuberculosis, all forms*0.1******
Congenital syphilis****
Enteric fever and other salmonella infections**
Dysentery, all forms**
Whooping cough0.10.10.1***0.1**
Meningococcal infections0.10.20.20.20.20.20.20.1**
Tetanus****
Poliomyelitis0.1**
Measles0.1***0.1
Influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis after the first four weeks of life2.21.71.61.61.61.72.11.61.71.3
Pneumonia of the newborn0.60.50.50.60.40.70.50.60.50.5
Gastro-enteritis after the first four weeks of life0.60.20.30.30.20.3.0.20.20.30.1
Diarrhoea of the newborn*0.1*0.1*0.1*0.1*
Congenital malformations3.44.43.54.33.93.73.24.14.24.1
Birth injury3.32.52.72.32.92.82.62.32.22.8
Asphyxia and atelectasis3.73.73.32.32.72.53.32.52.32.4
Haemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis)0.90.70.80.80.80.80.50.90.80.6
Immaturity unqualified4.3413.54.13.22.83.42.73.13.0
Accidents0.70.60.50.40.50.50.80.50.50.4
Other and undefined causes2.92.82.93.13.33.33.33.84.24.4
Totals22.821.820.120.020.119.420012.419.919.7

Causes of Maori Infant Mortality — The next table shows the principal causes of death of Maori infants by numbers and rates for the latest ten years.

Causes of DeathNumber of Deaths
1951195219531954195519561957195819591960
Tuberculosis, all forms4795212721
Congenital syphilis1111
Enteric fever and other salmonella infections1 1
Dysentery, all forms12321211
Diphtheria1
Whooping cough3984551252
Meningococcal infection353434224
Tetanus193112
Poliomyelitis1
Measles54521222
Influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis, after the first four weeks of life1231491011011171111329514585
Pneumonia of the newborn71284361212106
Gastro-enteritis after the first four weeks of life38644838532640374143
Diarrhoea of the newborn32411424
Congenital malformations18283622182628322827
Birth injury19263219313531333127
Asphyxia and atelectasis29212522172031282023
Haemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis)4755311
Immaturity unqualified42414043403229433427
Accidents121418161416111496
Other and undefined causes49715543535058595471
Totals357461404334363335384373388330
Causes of DeathRates per 1,000 Live Births
1951195219531954195519561957195819591960
Tuberculosis, all forms0.81.31.60.80.30.20.31.00.30.1
Congenital syphilis0.20.2—-0.20.2
Enteric fever and other salmonella infections0.20.1
Dysentery, all forms0.20.40.50.40.20.30.10.1
Diphtheria0.2
Whooping cough0.61.61.40.70.90.80.10.30.70.3
Meningococcal infection0.61.00.50.70.50.60.30.30.6
Tetanus0.20.40.50.20.10.3
Poliomyelitis0.1
Measles0.90.70.90.30.20.30.30.3
Influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis, after the first four weeks of life23.527.318.217.720.118.019.913.820.311.5
Pneumonia of the newborn1.32.21.40.70.51.01.81.71.40.8
Gastro-enteritis after the first four weeks of life7.311.78.76.79.14.26.05.45.85.8
Diarrhoea of the newborn0.60.40.70.20.10.60.30.6
Congenital malformations3.45.16.53.93.14.24.24.73.93.6
Birth injury3.64.85.83.35.35.74.74.84.33.6
Asphyxia and atelectasis5.53.84.53.92.93.24.74.12.83.1
Haemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis)0.81.30.90.90.30.10.1
Immaturity unqualified8.07.57.27.56.95.24.46.34.83.6
Accidents2.32.53.32.82.42.61.72.01.30.8
Other and undefined causes9.413.09.97.59.18.18.78.67.69.6
Totals68.284.473.158.662.554.457.954.454.444.5

PERINATAL MORTALITY — It is convenient to consider still births and deaths in the first week of life together, as they are largely the result of common causes. The combined group is termed perinatal mortality. The term is particularly appropriate when we consider how deaths in the newborn crowd closely towards the day of birth. This is clearly shown in the table on page 112. Still births, deaths in the first week of life, and perinatal deaths (still births plus deaths in the first week) are shown in the following table. The still births and the perinatal mortality rate are calculated per 1,000 total births (still births plus live births), while the death rate for the first week of life is calculated per 1,000 live births. Statistics for Europeans only are given in the following table.

YearStill BirthsDeaths Under 1 WeekPerinatal Mortality
NumberRateNumberRateNumberRate
195579615.7158811.791,38427.32
195685816.7358411.581,44228.11
195783415.8363812.301,47227.94
195881915.0062411.601,44326.43
195980514.4966312.111,46826.43
196080614.3371312.861,51927.01

The combined rate has shown some slight improvement, due principally to the reduction in the stillbirth rate. It is observed that a considerable proportion of the live-born babies who would previously have been still births would be delicate, immature infants with a high risk of dying in the first week of life. Consequently the death rate for the first week has not changed noticeably.

CAUSES OF STILL BIRTH — A still-born child is defined in New Zealand as one “which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue”.

The registration of still births has been effected in New Zealand since 1913, but no information regarding the causes of still births was required for registration purposes until 1947. As from 1 July 1952 a certificate of the cause of death in cases of intermediate foetal deaths — i.e., deaths after the end of the twentieth but before the end of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy — was also required to be furnished. The certificates of causes of still birth and foetal death provide for both maternal and foetal causes to be entered.

The following table shows the 806 European still births registered during 1960 classified (a) according to maternal causes and (b) according to foetal causes.

Causes of Still-BirthNumber of Cases
MalesFemalesTotal
(a) Maternal Causes   
Chronic disease in mother516
Acute disease in mother112
Diseases and conditions of pregnancy and childbirth533487
Difficulties in labour162339
Other causes in mother112
Totals7660136
(b) Foetal Causes   
Placental and cord conditions138131269
Birth injury12820
Congenital malformation of foetus5668124
Diseases of foetus and ill defined causes141116257
Totals347323670
Totals, all causes423383806

PERINATAL MORTALITY AND PREMATURITY — Approximately three out of every four European infants who die in the first year of life do so in the first month, and of those dying in the first month 50 per cent die in the first day of life and 85 per cent in the first week.

A principal factor in the loss of this new life is prematurity. This is seen in the following table, where causes of neo-natal deaths for 1960 are set out in accordance with the International List of 1955.

Causes of DeathUnder 1 Day1 Day and Under 1 Week1 Week and Under 2 Weeks2 Weeks and Under 3 Weeks3 Weeks and Under 1 MonthTotal Under 1 Month
Congenital malformations445015189136
Injury at birth363631177
Injury at birth with prematurity4823374
Post-natal asphyxia and atelectasis3022355
Post-natal asphyxia and atelectasis, with prematurity5026379
Pneumonia of newborn11111317
Pneumonia of newborn, with prematurity3611112
Disorders arising from maternal toxaemia5139
Disorders arising from maternal toxaemia, with prematurity8917
Haemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis)104317
Haemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis), with prematurity65112
Haemorrhagic disease of newborn167
Haemorrhagic disease of newborn, with prematurity156
Diarrhoea of newborn11
Diarrhoea of newborn with prematurity
Ill-defined diseases peculiar to early infancy75214
Ill-defined diseases peculiar to early infancy, with prematurity472875
Immaturity with mention of any other subsidiary condition11
Immaturity, unqualified110503163
Pemphigus neonatorum
Umbilical sepsis1113
Umbilical sepsis with prematurity
Other sepsis of newborn11
Other sepsis of newborn, with prematurity11
External causes
Other causes81033226
Totals415298452817803

A total of 163, or 20 per cent, of all neo-natal deaths are directly attributed to immaturity, and a further 277 deaths are associated with it. The principal conditions of early infancy with which immaturity is associated are: (1) asphyxia in 79 cases (9.8 per cent of all neo-natal deaths); (2) diseases peculiar to early infancy in 75 cases (9.3 per cent); and (3) birth injury in 74 cases (9.2 per cent).

In the case of still births, out of 806 in 1960 there were 470 cases, or 58 per cent, where gestation fell short of full term.

It is not possible to assess what the reduction in perinatal mortality would be if every pregnancy were to go to full term, but there is no doubt that it would be considerable.

As a first step in the campaign to reduce this grave loss of new life, details of the birth weight and gestation period of all infants born alive or dead after 1 July 1952 were required to be furnished to the Registrars of Births and Deaths. These are providing essential basic data for further studies on prematurity.

PUERPERAL CAUSES — In point of numbers of deaths, puerperal accidents and diseases do not rank high among causes of death. Nevertheless, deaths from puerperal causes are of special importance and significance. The rate per 1,000 live births in each of the latest 20 years is shown in the following table. The rate for 1960 was the lowest ever in this country.

YearRate per 1,000 Live Births
EuropeanMaoriTotal Population
19413.363.873.42
19422.534.622.77
19432.212.252.22
19442.713.332.78
19452.241.942.21
19462.053.982.29
19471.072.211.18
19481.261.821.32
19491.023.461.27
19500.902.351.05
19510.690.760.70
19520.712.560.91
19530.541.450.64
19540.511.580.63
19550.442.070.61
19560.401.780.55
19570.671.350.75
19580.411.310.51
19590.491.260.58
19600.340.670.38

A survey of the European death rate from puerperal causes since 1872 shows that for a period in the early part of the twentieth century there was a tendency for the rate to decline. Then followed a definite upward movement, culminating in a rate of 6.48 per 1,000 live births in 1920, the third highest on record, this figure having been exceeded only in 1884 and 1885. Comparatively high rates persisted until 1931, since when the decline has been more or less steady. The efficacy of new drugs and methods of treatment is reflected in the extremely low rates recorded in recent years, the figure for 1960 of 0.34 being a new record. This low rate has been achieved mainly by a reduction in the number of deaths from septic abortion, and puerperal sepsis, and toxaemia. Deaths from complications of childbirth have also been few since 1949, but the 13 deaths in this category in 1957, as well as the 10 deaths attributed to toxaemic conditions, were the main factors in bringing the 1957 rate up to the highest since 1952.

The Maori death rate from puerperal causes, while not as low as the European, has also fallen steadily to the lowest rate of 0.67 in 1960.

Details of deaths from deliveries and complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium for the three years 1958 to 1960 are shown in the following summary for the total population.

Causes of DeathNumber of Deaths Live BirthsRate per 10,000 Live Births
195819591960195819591960 
Toxaemias of pregnancy9731.481.130.48
placenta praevia110.160.16
Other haemorrhage of pregnancy40.66
Other complications arising from pregnancy1120.160.160.32
Abortion without mention of sepsis or toxaemia4450.660.650.80
Abortion with sepsis2420.330.650.32
Abortion with toxaemia10.16
Delivery complicated by placenta praevia or antepartum haemorrhage1110.160.160.16
Delivery complicated by retained placenta110.160.16
Delivery complicated by other post-partum haemorrhage120.160.32
Delivery complicated by disproportion or malposition of foetus210.320.16
Delivery complicated by prolonged labour of other origin10.16
Delivery with trauma3320.490.480.32
Delivery with other complications of childbirth120.160.32
Sepsis of childbirth and the Puerperium120.160.32
Puerperal phlebitis and thrombosis120.160.32
Puerperal pulmonary embolism1520.160.810.32
Cerebral haemorrhage in the Puerperium10.16
Mastitis and other disorders of lactation110.160.16
Totals, including septic abortion3136245.115.823.82
Totals, excluding septic abortion2932224.785.173.50

A summary of European maternal mortality from all puerperal causes, in triennial periods since 1936, is now given.

Causes of Death1936–381939–411942–441945–471948–501951–531954–561957–591960
Puerperal sepsis44463012634
Eclampsia and other toxaemias94805862423020202
Septic abortion685861332071282
Accidents, haemorrhage, and other mortality91135941107349355215
Total maternal mortality29731924321714189678419
Maternal mortality, excluding septic abortion22926118218412182557617

In all four disease divisions there has been a steady downward trend in the numbers, despite the fact that in the quarter century covered the total of confinements has approximately doubled. This position has been brought about by improvements in the standard of ante-natal care and obstetrical skill as well as advances in medical science.

DEATHS FROM EXTERNAL CAUSES — Deaths from external causes, apart from suicide, claim approximately 6 per cent of the total deaths. The following table shows deaths from external causes for the three latest years classified according to the Intermediate List of the 1955 Revision of the International Classification. Falls on board ship and from horseback are included as transport fatalities.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
195819591960195819591960
Motor-vehicle accidents405362356177155150
Other transport accidents664438291916
Accidental poisoning21344391418
Accidental falls21327529593118124
Accidents caused by machinery463640201517
Accidents caused by fire and explosion of combustible material35192815812
Accidents caused by hot substance, corrosive liquid, steam, and radiation161011745
Accidents caused by firearms181219858
Accidental drowning and submersion143123143635360
All other accidental causes126130119555650
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons (not in war)242525111110
Totals1,113 1,0701,117487458470

The number of deaths recorded from all accidental causes in 1960 was 1,092, corresponding to a rate of 4.59 per 10,000 of population.

Drownings are a leading cause of accidental death in New Zealand. Included in the preceding table for 1960 are 27 deaths from drowning due to the capsize of small boats and 19 deaths involving principally the larger type of boat. The year 1960 shows a slight rise in the death rate from external causes.

Transport Accidents — In classifying deaths attributable to transport accidents under the various subheadings shown in the following table the rule of assignment is that in fatalities due to collisions of railway trains and electric tram cars with motor vehicles, the death is assigned to the railway train or electric tram car as being the heavier and more powerful vehicle. In the case of collisions between motor vehicles and horse-drawn vehicles, the death is assigned to the motor vehicle.

The number and rate of deaths resulting from railway, tramway, motor vehicle, and aircraft accidents during each of the last 11 years are as follows.

YearDeaths Due to AccidentRate per 10,000 of Mean Population
RailwayTramwayMotor VehicleAircraftRailwayTramwayMotor VehicleAircraft

* Less than 0.01.

195035722460.180.041.170.03
1951411028390.210.051.450.05
1952393281140.200.021.410.07
1953292308280.140.011.500.14
19541874323160.890.021.540.08
195546234590.220.011.610.04
1956233320100.110.011.470.05
1957352389220.160.011.740.10
1958361393230.16*1.720.10
195928134890.12*1.490.04
1960321340100.13*1.430.04

Deaths occurring as a result of the Tangiwai railway disaster were not registered till 1954, and consequently were not included in the 1953 totals. These deaths numbered 154, and of course account for the large increase in the number of deaths due to railway accidents shown for 1954. Of this number one was a Maori, and seven were registered as unidentified bodies.

New Zealand's worst air disaster occurred in 1949, when 15 lives were lost in a crash at Waikanae. In recent years the wide use of aircraft in agricultural operations such as aerial topdressing has resulted in a number of deaths from aircraft accidents.

Since the war the number of fatalities from motor-vehicle accidents progressively increased up to 1958, with the exception of small declines in 1952 and again in 1956. The year 1958 was a particularly bad year from the accident point of view, especially those involving motor vehicles, but there were improvements in 1959 and 1960.

The figures given in the above table for deaths from motor-vehicle accidents are exclusive of accidents where persons have been killed in collisions between motor vehicles and trains or trams, these being assigned to the heavier vehicle. For 1960 there were 16 deaths from such accidents, bringing the total number of deaths in cases where a motor vehicle was involved up to 356. The corresponding figure for 1959 was 362.

Non-transport Accidents — The 1955 Revision of the International List makes provision for non-transport accidents (excluding therapeutic misadventure in treatment, complications following vaccination or inoculation, and late effects of injury and poisoning) to be grouped according to the place where the accident or poisoning occurred. The following table shows the deaths, both numbers and rates, for each of the three years 1958, 1959, and 1960 according to this classification.

Place of OccurrenceNumberRate per Million of Mean Population
195819591960195819591960
Home (including home premises and vicinity and any non-institutional place of residence)259281287114120121
Farm (including buildings and land under cultivation, but excluding farm and home premises)645048282120
Mine and quarry1672731
Industrial place and premises303137131315
Place for recreation and sport61412365
Street and highway101921489
Public building (building used by the general public or a particular group of the public)10147463
Resident institution (homes, hospitals, etc.)515586222436
Other specified places96112111424847
Place not specified25202811912
Totals567603639248258269

One in every two fatal non-traffic accidents occurs in or about the home. The year 1957 was a particularly bad one for this type of mishap.

Falls are the chief cause of home fatalities, exacting a heavy toll of the aged and infirm. This is clearly illustrated in a special report on domestic accidents issued by the Department of Health in 1960. The second important cause of death in the home is asphyxia from regurgitation of food and inhalation of other objects, or mechanically from pillows and bedclothes; this is the principal hazard of die first six months of life, though a proportion of these deaths is probably due to some undisclosed respiratory infection. Almost all the home drowning fatalities are amongst toddlers between one and two years of age who fall into rivers, creeks, and ponds in the vicinity of the home.

Twenty of the 48 accidental deaths on farms in 1960 were caused by farm machinery (usually tractors). Further data regarding accidents will be found elsewhere in this volume (see Index). A later section is devoted wholly to statistics of industrial accidents.

Suicide — There were 222 suicidal deaths of Europeans in 1960 — 159 males and 63 females — the death rates per 100,000 of population being 14.3 for males and 5.7 for females. For Maoris there were eight suicidal deaths in 1960 — six males and 2 females, the death rates per 100,000 of population being 7.4 for males and 2.5 for females.

Rates per 100,000 of population showing the age distributions, averaged over the years 1958, 1959, and 1960 are shown next for the total population.

Sex10/1415/1920/2425/29130/3435/3940/4445/4950/5455/5960/6465/6970/7475/7980+
Males0.65.110.214.412.618.226.432.229.226.722.025.235.240.951.5
Females1.91.93.32.65.310.28.810.113.314.612.213.45.78.8

These figures show the typical increase in the suicide rates with increasing age and the fall in the female rate after the age of 75.

The next table presents the average, over three-yearly periods since 1921, of standardised European suicide rates per 100,000 of mean population.

Annual Average DuringMalesFemales
1921–2318.04.5
1924–2617.54.5
1927–2920.55.4
1930–3220.64.6
1933–3515.34.7
1936–3813.44.9
1939–4113.04.3
1942–4410.94.9
1945–4710.54.5
1948–5011.14.6
1951–5311.84.1
1954–5610.64.2
1957–5911.83.9
196012.54.6

The male rate fell sharply after the depression years, while the female rate has remained fairly constant.

The following table provides an international comparison of suicide rates for various countries. The figures have been calculated from material in the United Nations Demographic Yearbooks.

CountryTrienniumRate per 100,000 of Population
Mexico1955–571.5
Republic of Ireland1957–592.6
South Africa (coloured)1956–583.0
Guatemala1957–593.1
Northern Ireland1957–593.6
United States of America (coloured)1957–593.9
New Zealand (Maori)1957–594.7
Bulgaria1954–565.9
Italy1957–596.3
Netherlands1957–596.7
Canada1957–597.5
Norway1957–597.5
Ceylon1956–588.0
Scotland1957–598.4
South Africa (Asiatic)1956–588.9
New Zealand (European)1957–599.7
Uruguay1953–5510.9
United States of America (white)1957–5911.1
South Africa (white)1956–5811.7
England and Wales1957–5911.7
Australia1957–5911.8
Southern Rhodesia1957–5912.4
Belgium1957–5914.3
Alaska1954–5615.6
France1957–5916.7
France1957–5918.4
Sweden1957–5918.4
Germany, Federal Republic1957–5918.7
Switzerland1957–5920.4
Finland1957–5921.1
Denmark1957–5921.4
Hungary1957–5923.6
Austria1957–5924.0
Japan1957–5924.4

INQUESTS — An inquest may be held for the purpose of establishing: (a) The fact that a person has died; (b) The identity of the deceased person; (c) When, where, and how the death occurred.

All inquests are held in public, but under the Coroners Act 1951 there is power to exclude persons from an inquest and to prohibit the publication of any part of the evidence.

The next table classifies inquests for the latest five years according to the verdict returned and recorded in the Deaths Register of the Registrar-General.

YearDisease and Natural CausesAccidentHomicideSuicideTotal
MFMFMFMFMF
19562321246151706512765980364
195721512770020766151621,072402
195820077704206158163561,082347
1959158103611182121215347934344
196014076621199121116465937351

In the above table the accident and suicide groups showed increases in 1960 of 34.05 and 14.50 per cent respectively compared with those for 1959. There was a notable decrease in the disease and natural causes group of 45, or 17.24 per cent, on the 1959 figure. Maoris are included in this table.

4 D — MARRIAGES

GENERAL — Marriage may be solemnised in New Zealand either by a person whose name is on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act, or before a duly appointed Registrar or Deputy Registrar of Marriages. A licence must be obtained from a Registrar of Marriages before a marriage by an officiating minister can be solemnised. Marriage by an officiating minister may be solemnised at any time between 6 o'clock in the morning and 8 o'clock in the evening. Marriage before a Registrar can be solemnised at any time during the hours the office of the Registrar is open for the transaction of public business.

Notice of intended marriage must, be given to a Registrar of Marriages by one of the parties to the proposed marriage. In the case of a person under 21 years of age, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parents or guardian is necessary. Consent of the Court may also be given in cases of refusal by any person whose consent is required.

The system of notice and licence has operated in New Zealand since 1855. Officiating ministers and Registrars are required to send to the Registrar-General returns of all marriages solemnised, and as the returns come in they are checked off with the entries in the Registrars' lists of notices received. In case of the non-arrival of a marriage return corresponding to any entry in the list of notices, inquiries are made with a view to obtaining the return if the marriage has been solemnised.

Marriage is forbidden between persons within certain degrees of relationship, any such marriage being declared void. The prohibition applies whether the relationship is by the whole blood or by the half-blood, and whether the relationship is nuptial or ex-nuptial. The present law on this matter is contained in the Marriage Act 1955.

Section 34 of this Act provides that proxy marriages may be authorised by a Magistrate in New Zealand of any person who is resident in New Zealand to any person who is outside New Zealand, if the Magistrate is satisfied that the person who is outside the country is unable to come to New Zealand by reason of the existence of a state of war or armed conflict, or by reason of the conditions of his service as a member of the armed forces of any Commonwealth country, or of any country for the time being allied with any Commonwealth country.

Any New Zealand citizen who intends to be married in a country other than New Zealand according to the law of that country, and who desires to obtain a certificate for the purpose of complying with the law of that country, may give notice to the Registrar-General who, upon receiving the notice, shall make such searches and inquiries and give such notices as may be prescribed under the Act. If no caveat is entered within 14 days of the receipt by the Registrar-General, a certificate may be issued, after proper notices have been given that no lawful impediment to the marriage has been shown to the Registrar-General to exist.

Any New Zealand representative who has attended the marriage of a New Zealand citizen in a country other than New Zealand, and is satisfied that the marriage has been solemnised in accordance with the formalities of the law of that other country, may give a certificate and forward a duplicate copy to the Registrar-General, who shall bind the duplicate in a special register kept by him for the purpose.

Since 1933 the minimum age for marriage has been 16 years of age. No marriage shall be deemed to be void, however, by reason only of an infringement of the minimum age.

The Maori Purposes Act 1951 stipulated that after 1 April 1952 every marriage to which a Maori is a party shall be solemnised in the same manner, and its validity shall be determined by the same law, as if each of the parties was a European.

As a result of this legislative change, marriage statistics from the year 1952 are for the total population. Figures quoted in this subsection for years prior to 1952 are all exclusive of Maoris.

Particulars regarding divorce will be found at the close of this subsection.

NUMBERS AND RATES — The movement of the marriage rate over a lengthy period of time may be observed from the statistical summary appearing towards the end of this Yearbook. The numbers and rates of marriages during each of the last 20 years are here given.

YearNumberRate per 1,000 of Population

* Total population. Prior to 1952 the figures are for Europeans only.

194212,2197.91
194311,5797.53
194413,1258.43
194516,16010.14
194620,53512.39
194718,52510.94
194817,1929.96
194916,7859.53
195016,5049.19
195116,3598.93
1952*17,0618.55
1953*17,2248.41
1954*17,5578.38
1955*17,7958.32
1956*17,5318.03
1957*17,6147.89
1958*18,3058.01
1959*18,3157.84
1960*18,9097.96
1961*19,4268.00

Both the marriage rate and the number of marriages in 1946 were the highest on record. The main reason for this was the return from overseas of many thousands of men in the age groups of high marriage rates. An appreciable decline, however, in both the number of marriages and in the marriage rate took place in 1947 and 1948. The number continued to decline until 1951. Separate figures for European marriages are not available after 1951.

Comparison with Other Countries — Marriage rates for certain countries for 1960 are given below (these particulars have been taken from the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, issued by the Statistical Office of the United Nations).

CountryRate per 1,000 Mean Population
Yugoslavia8.9
Puerto Rico8.5
United States of America8.5
Austria8.2
New Zealand8.0
Italy7.9
Netherlands7.8
Spain7.8
Switzerland7.8
Israel7.6
Portugal7.6
Denmark7.5
United Kingdom7.5
Canada7.4
Australia7.3
Finland7.2
Chile7.1
France7.0
Norway6.6
Sweden6.6
Republic of Ireland5.5

MARITAL STATUS — The total number of persons married during the year 1960 was 37,818, of whom 33,535 were single, 1,779 widowed, and 2,504 divorced. The figures for the five years 1956 to 1960, showing the sexes separately, are given in the table following.

YearSingleWidowedDivorcedTotal Persons Married
BridegroomBrideBridegroomBrideBridegroomBride
195615,51315,5808377521,1811,19935,062
195715,63415,6258377981,1431,19135,228
195816,19816,2268107891,2971,29036,610
195916,26416,2068117921,2401,31736,630
196016,77316,7629158641,2211,28337,818

The position is more easily seen by studying the percentages given in the next table.

YearBridegroomsBrides
SingleWidowedDivorcedSingleWidowedDivorced
Per Cent
195688.494.776.7488.874.296.84
195788.764.756.4988.714.536.76
195888.484.437.0988.644.317.05
195988.804.436.7788.494.327.19
196088.704.846.4688.644.576.79

Divorce statistics at the end of this subsection show the numbers of decrees granted in recent years, the numbers varying from 1,400 to 1,900 a year. The number of widowed persons remarrying, which was 39 per 1,000 in 1940, rose to 47 per 1,000 in 1960.

The relative marital status of bridegrooms and brides for each of the latest five years is next given.

YearMarriages Between Bachelors andMarriages Between Widowers andMarriages Between Divorced Men and
SpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced Women
195614,607264642339335163634153394
195714,661291682316354167648153342
195815,191273734310346154725170402
195915,228303733300329182678160402
196015,782298693293426196687140394

The relative proportions of divorced men and divorced women remarrying during the last three years has changed but little compared with 20 years earlier. During the three years 1938–40 the number of male divorcees remarrying was 2,066, as compared with 2,169 females, which gives a rate of 95 males for every 100 females. In 1958–60 the respective numbers were 3,758 males and 3,890 females, and the corresponding rate 97 males for every 100 females. In the case of widowed persons remarrying, however, there has been a marked change in the figures. In the three-year period 1938–40, 2,420 widowers remarried but only 1,619 widows, whereas in 1958–60 there were 2,536 widowers and 2,445 widows who remarried, the number of widowers per 100 widows being 149 in the former period and 104 in the latter period.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED — Of the 37,818 persons married in 1960, 8,920, or 24 per cent were under 21 years of age; 13,886, or 36 per cent, were returned as 21 and under 25; 7,066, or 19 per cent, as 25 and under 30; 4,468, or 12 per cent, as 30 and under 40; and 3,478, or 9 per cent, as 40 years of age or over. The following table relates to the year 1960.

Age of Bride, in YearsAge of Bridegroom, in YearsTotal Bridegrooms
Under 2121 and Under 2525 and Under 3030 and Under 3535 and Under 4040 and Under 4545 and Over
Under 211,5182501811,787
21 and under 253,8863,110350388417,397
25 and under 301,3822,330904205541464,895
30 and under 3526259156330616230141,928
35 and under 40641432272161567232910
40 and under 45144371971249866513
45 and over722381001642339151,479
Total brides7,1336,4892,1719626684521,03418,909

The recent trend is for persons to marry at younger ages. The following table shows since 1925 the proportions of men and women married at each age group to every 100 marriages.

PeriodUnder 2121 and Under 2525 and Under 3030 and Under 3535 and Under 4040 and Under 4545 and OverTotals

* Total population. Periods prior to 1950 are for Europeans only.

Males
1925–293.4928.0434.4914.337.704.487.47100.00
1930–343.4627.2837.0215.146.103.617.39100.00
1935–392.6825.9138.2616.466.753.226.72100.00
1950–54*5.0535.4231.2110.955.863.567.95100.00
1955–59*7.1836.6829.4411.214.812.977.71100.00
1960*9.4539.1225.8910.204.812.717.82100.00
Females
1925–2918.6137.8823.678.934.652.823.44100.00
1930–3418.6738.5124.798.223.852.403.56100.00
1935–3917.1038.2626.308.863.912023.55100.00
1950–54*25.7838.6516.856.964.122.595.05100.00
1955–59*32.9935.7113.766.113.652.495.29100.00
1960*37.7234.3111.485.093.542.395.47100.00

For many years the average age (arithmetic mean) at marriage for both males and females, more particularly the latter, showed a tendency to increase. However, in recent years there has been a tendency towards a slight fall. The figures for each of the years 1951–60 are as follows.

YearAverage Age at Marriage
BridegroomsBrides
195129.4225.96
195229.5226.19
195329.3125.90
195429.2025.85
195528.9925.67
195629.0725.59
195728.9725.48
195829.9725.30
195928.7025.26
196028.5625.11

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown in the preceding table, which covers all parties and is naturally affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average ages of grooms and brides for each of the latest five years according to marital status were as shown below.

YearBridegrooms Brides
BachelorsDivorcedWidowersSpinstersDivorcedWidows
195626.6541.8156.0223.6036.9748.85
195726.5542.1356.1923.4637.0447.78
195827.7841.3755.8023.2036.9449.38
195926.3241.8256.3523.1037.4549.03
196026.1041.6756.1022.9037.7949.13

The foregoing figures give the average age at marriage, but these do not correspond with the modal or popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are .celebrated may be so termed. The modal age for brides (21) has remained unchanged for very many years, but in the case of bridegrooms the most popular age has varied, and for recent years it has been 22 to 24.

Marriages of Minors — Of every 1,000 men married in 1960, 95 were under 21 years of age, while 377 in every 1,000 brides were under 21.

In 1,518 marriages in 1960 both parties were given as under 21 years of age, in 5,615 marriages the bride was returned as a minor and the bridegroom as an adult, and in 269 marriages the bridegroom was a minor and the bride an adult.

The proportion of minors among persons marrying has been increasing over a fairly long period, and in the table below figures are given for the last five years. In the latest available year (1960) one bride in every three was under 21 years of age, the proportion for grooms being one in 11.

YearAge, in YearsTotals
1617181920NumberRate per 100 Marriages
Bridegrooms
19564331353536051,1306.45
19579501693606521,2407.04
19587582234337581,4798.08
19595732284977751,5788.62
196010582725838641,7879.45
Brides
19562135691,1341,6811,9095,50631.41
19572666361,1651,7061,9895,76232.71
19582816721,3191,9752,2196,46635.32
19592716691,3162,0702,3566,68236.48
19603027121,4022,1772,5407,13337.72

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS CHURCHES — Of the 18,909 marriages registered in 1960, Church of England clergymen officiated at 4,773, Presbyterians at 4,878, Roman Catholics at 2,824, Methodists at 1,551, and clergymen of other churches at 1,419, while 3,464 marriages were solemnised by Registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the largest churches and before Registrars in each of the years 1954–60.

ChurchPercentage of Marriages
1954195519561957195819591960
Church of England26.2125.6325.8824.6325.1224.3725.24
Presbyterian26.2326.2725.3226.2425.0825.3925.80
Roman Catholic14.4015.0514.8415.1915.1215.2914.93
Methodist7.968.088.358.317.788.008.20
Others6.566.736.796.827.287.247.51
Before Registrars18.6418.2418.8218.8119.6219.7118.32
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The foregoing figures must not be taken as an exact indication of the religious professions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that both (or even one) of the parties are adherents of the Church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before Registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any or none of the churches. Of the total population (inclusive of Maoris) at the general census of 1956, 35.9 per cent were recorded as adherents of the Church of England, 22.3 per cent Presbyterian, 14.3 per cent Roman Catholic, 7.4 per cent Methodist, and 20.1 per cent of other religions or of no religion, or who objected to state their religious profession.

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS — The number of names on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act was (January 1961) 3,436, and the churches to which they belong are shown hereunder.

ChurchNumber
Roman Catholic Church797
Church of England596
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand545
Methodist Church of New Zealand355
Ratana Church of New Zealand170
Salvation Army167
Baptist162
Latter Day Saints79
Brethren76
Ringatu Church49
Associated Churches of Christ48
Seventh Day Adventist42
Congregational Independent35
Assemblies of God29
Jehovah's Witness24
Apostolic Church24
Commonwealth Covenant Church19
Liberal Catholic Church17
Evangelical Lutheran Concordia Conference15
Evangelistic Church of Christ13
Church of God13
Churches of Christ11
Church of Te Kooti Rikirangi11
Spiritualist Church of New Zealand8
Hebrew Congregations6
United Maori Mission5
Others120
Total3,436

The Ratana Church of New Zealand, the Ringatu Church, the United Maori Mission, and the Church of Te Kooti Rikirangi are Maori organisations.

DIVORCE AND NULLITY — The present law is contained in the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act 1928 and its amendments and a résumé of its principal provisions is now given.

Grounds for Divorce — These are set out as follows:

  1. Adultery since the celebration of the marriage;

  2. Wilful and continuous desertion for three years or more;

  3. Habitual drunkenness for four years, coupled with (wife's petition) failure to support or habitual cruelty, or with/husband's petition) neglect of, or self-caused inability to discharge, domestic duties;

  4. Conviction for attempted murder of petitioner or of any child of petitioner or respondent or for an offence under sections 188, 198, and 199 of the Crimes Act 1961 against petitioner or any such child;

  5. Conviction for murder;

  6. Insanity and confinement as a lunatic for seven, out of 10 years preceding the petition;

  7. Insanity for seven years, and confinement for three years immediately preceding the petition;

  8. Insanity and confinement as a lunatic for the five years immediately preceding the petition;

  9. Failure for three years or more to comply with a decree for restitution of conjugal rights;

  10. Separation under an agreement, written or verbal, which has been in full force for not less than three years;

  11. Separation by decree of judicial separation or separation order (or their equivalent in any country), which has been in force for not less than three years;

  12. Parties living apart for not less than seven years and unlikely to be reconciled;

  13. Husband guilty of rape, sodomy, or bestiality since marriage.

In cases based on separation of the parties, whether by order or agreement or otherwise, the Court must dismiss the petition if the respondent opposes it and the Court is satisfied that the separation was due to the wrongful act or conduct of the petitioner. In these cases, and in cases where the ground is failure to comply with a decree for restitution of conjugal rights, the Court has in any event a discretion whether or not to grant a divorce. In practice, however, where the petition is not opposed the Court rarely exercises this discretion against a petitioner.

Jurisdiction — The Court has jurisdiction in divorce only in cases where the petitioner is domiciled in New Zealand. In petitions based on grounds (i) above, the petitioner must have been domiciled in New Zealand for at least three years at the time when the petition is filed.

Under the common law a married woman takes her husband's domicile and is incapable of acquiring a separate domicile while the marriage subsists. As a result of a series of statutory amendments, however, a wife who is living in New Zealand apart from her husband has in effect the capacity to acquire a separate domicile for the purposes of the divorce and nullity law as if she were unmarried.

Overseas Divorces — The common law relating to the recognition of overseas divorces was clarified and extended by an amendment in 1953, and further extended in 1958. New Zealand Courts will recognise divorces granted in any country by Courts exercising jurisdiction there on the basis of the domicile of either party in that country, or of the residence in that country of the wife for at least two years, or of the domicile of the husband in that country before a desertion or separation, or that either party was a national or citizen of that country.

Nullity — The first New Zealand legislation on the subject of nullity was enacted in 1953. It replaces and extends the common law on this topic.

The Court has jurisdiction to make a decree of nullity of marriage if either of the parties is domiciled in New Zealand when the petition is filed or if the marriage was solemnised in New Zealand.

A petition for a nullity decree may be presented in the case of either a void or a voidable marriage. Void marriages are those which are of no effect whether or not a decree is obtained. Voidable marriages are those which are valid unless and until a decree is obtained.

The following are the cases in which a marriage is void by the law of New Zealand:

  1. Where at the time of the ceremony either party to the marriage was already married;

  2. Where, whether by reason of duress or mistake or insanity or otherwise, there was at the time of the marriage an absence of consent by either party to marriage to the other party;

  3. Where the parties are within the prohibited degrees of relationship as set out in the Marriage Act 1955;

  4. Where the marriage was not solemnised in due form.

A marriage is voidable in New Zealand on the following grounds:

  1. Incapacity or wilful refusal of the respondent to consummate the marriage;

  2. Mental deficiency of either party within the meaning of the Mental Health Act 1911, although that party was capable of consenting to the marriage;

  3. Venereal disease (of the respondent) in a communicable form;

  4. Pregnancy of the respondent by some person other than the petitioner.

In cases (b), (c), and (d) the facts alleged must have existed at the time of the marriage and proceedings must be instituted within a year of the marriage. Furthermore the Court must be satisfied -

  1. That the petitioner was at the time of the marriage ignorant of the facts;

  2. That marital intercourse with the petitioner's consent has not taken place since the discovery of the existence of the grounds for a decree.

With the exception of inability to consummate the marriage there was no ground on which a marriage was voidable before the passing of the 1953 amendment.

A decree of nullity in a voidable marriage puts an end to the marriage from the date of the decree only and not from the date of the marriage. The principal effect of this is to ensure the legitimacy of any children of the marriage.

Statistical Data — Figures showing the operations of the Supreme Court in its divorce jurisdiction during recent years are as follows. A number of the decrees granted in any year relate to petitions filed in earlier years.

YearDissolution or Nullity of MarriageJudicial SeparationRestitution of Conjugal Rights
Petitions FiledDecrees NisiDecrees AbsolutePetitions FiledDecrees for SeparationPetitions FiledDecrees for Restitution
19501,9121,7071,633114304217
19511,8821,6661,582117263210
19521,9601,7271,684158296204
19531,8971,6431,540103227197
19541,8861,4791,5361232819
19551,7991,3791,472143248
19561,8911,5681,44985226
19571,9981,7191,40021102310
19582,0841,8051,7511913145
19591,9121,6481,639216199
19602,0581,6271,6489571

The passing in November 1953 of the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Amendment Act had a marked effect as regards petitions and decrees for restitution of conjugal rights.

The next table gives the grounds (dissolution or nullity cases) of petitions and decrees during 1959 and 1960.

GroundsPetitions FiledDecrees Absolute Granted
Husbands' PetitionsWives' PetitionsHusbands' PetitionsWives' Petitions
19591960195919601959196019591960
Adultery325354196219257260147143
Desertion144163961051151287896
Drunkenness with cruelty, failure to maintain, etc.16632
Attempted murder1
Insanity981510821
Non-compliance with order for restitution of conjugal rights321621
Separation for not less than three years408429553572318323436447
Separation by Court order16118394
Living apart for not less than seven years6694587571617961
Presumption of death
Sodomy, etc.
Nullity37
Non-consummation5124114533
Bigamy222111
Totals9621,065950993798799841849

The figures shown for decrees absolute cover all such granted during the year, whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in the same or in a previous year.

Over the five-year period 1956–60 inclusive, the average percentage of decrees absolute granted on wives' petitions (82.9), was greater than the percentage granted on husbands' petitions (75.9). It is of interest to point out that 1958 was the only occasion since 1952 in which the number of decrees absolute granted on husbands' petitions was greater than the total granted on wives' petitions.

In 502 of the 1,648 cases where decrees absolute were granted during 1960 there was no living issue of the marriage. The number of living issue was one in 385 cases, two in 349 cases, three in 217 cases, and four or more in 195 cases.

The table which follows shows the duration of marriage in all cases for which decrees absolute were granted in the five years 1956 to 1960.

Duration of Marriage, in YearsHusbands' Decrees Absolute GrantedWives' Decrees Absolute Granted
1956195719581959196019561957195819591960
Under 561517665634439544860
5 and under 10217184228233237255242275245232
10 and under 15140164227207173174203228228241
15 and under 2010510612910211111396134123119
20 and under 30120125153133166127110132151150
30 and over57406458493640514647
Totals700670877798799749730874841849

The number of living issue affected by the decrees absolute of their parents during each of the last five years was as follows: 1956, 2,365; 1957, 2,269; 1958, 2,737; 1959, 2,655; and 1960, 2,678.

Chapter 5. Section 5 PUBLIC HEALTH, HOSPITALS, ETC.

5 A — PUBLIC HEALTH

DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICES IN NEW ZEALAND — The Public Health Act 1900 placed public health administration in New Zealand on an efficient basis. A separate Department of Public Health was set up under its own Minister; the country was divided into a number of health districts, and properly trained and qualified staff were appointed to administer the Act. In the years following the establishment of the Department steady progress was made in the building up of a public health organisation. Acts were passed dealing with the sale of food and drugs; the registration of medical practitioners, pharmacists, nurses and midwives, plumbers; the prevention of quackery; and the control of venereal disease. Sanatoria were established to help in the prevention and treatment of tuberculosis. Attention was given to problems of maternal welfare. Medical supervision of school children came into operation, at first under the control of the Department of Education, then after 1921 under the Department of Health.

In 1909 a closer link between curative and preventive medicine was forged by merging the Hospitals and Charitable Aid Department into the Department of Public Health's organisation.

During the years 1900 to 1920 there was an increasing public interest taken in health matters. As a result a number of voluntary health organisations were established with the objects of diffusing knowledge of infant welfare, first aid, and home nursing.

The 1918–19 influenza epidemic brought to light a number of defects in the public hearth organisation, particularly the need for a simplification of existing health legislation and the need for a clear definition of the duties of local authorities, hospital boards, and the Department of Public Health. The result of this experience was the passing of the Health Act 1920 under which, with its amendments, the Department of Health operated until 1956.

Following the passing of this Act new health districts were created and the existing activities of the Department were expanded. Among the more important of the new activities of the Department were the establishment of a School Dental Service in 1920, the building up of health education work, and, in 1937, the institution of the Medical Research Council. Registration was widened to include dentists, opticians, and physiotherapists.

Developments since the Second World War included a more positive attack on tuberculosis marked by the passing of the Tuberculosis Act 1948, the establishment as a Government agency of the Dominion X-ray and Radium Laboratory existing at Christchurch, and the creation of the National Health Institute in Wellington. At the end of 1947 the Mental Hospitals Department ceased to be a separate Government Department, and became the Division of Mental Hygiene of the Department of Health. Occupational therapists and dietitians are further professional classes with legislation providing for national registration.

The Health Act 1956 consolidated and amended the law relating to public health.

A more detailed outline of the development of public health services in New Zealand up to 1939 will be found in the annual report of the Department of Health for that year.

PRESENT ORGANISATION OF PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICES — Local Authorities: Part II of the Health Act 1956 lays definite obligations on local authorities in regard to public health. Each local authority must either appoint its own health inspectors or contribute to the salary of an inspector of the Department of Health. Each inspector must hold a certificate of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health (or certain equivalents) before he can be appointed. A local authority's responsibility in health matters is wide. It must promote and conserve the public health within its district — a function which includes regular inspections of its district; abatement of nuisances as defined in the Health Act; provision of efficient refuse, nightsoil, and sanitary services; protection and purification of water supplies; closing and demolition of insanitary buildings; registration and regulation of cattle saleyards; and the enforcement of certain minimum sanitary requirements for residences and business premises. It may also make bylaws dealing with public health matters.

Department of Health: The chief administrative officer of the Department is the Director-General of Health. He is assisted by two Deputy Director-Generals, and the work of the Department is divided among the following divisions: Public Health, Hospitals, Child Health, Nursing, Clinical Services, Tuberculosis, Health Education, Maternal Welfare, Dental Health, and Physical Medicine. There is also the Division of Mental Health, the activities of which are described in Section 5C. New Zealand as a whole is divided into 19 health districts, each under the control of a medical officer of health, a medical practitioner with special qualifications in sanitary science.

The Department is required to secure the preparation, effective carrying out, and coordination of measures necessary to promote public health. It administers all Acts relating to public health; it advises local authorities on public health; it must do whatever is possible to prevent, limit, or suppress disease; it promotes research into public health fields and the prevention and treatment of disease; it conducts health publicity and organises and controls medical, dental, and nursing services paid from public funds. With the authority of the Minister, a medical officer of health may exercise very wide powers in the event of an epidemic or serious outbreak of infectious disease, including the requisitioning of land and buildings, prohibition of public gatherings, and controlling the movements of cases and contacts of any infectious disease. Certain diseases, mostly infectious, but including some non-communicable, must be notified by medical practitioners. Provisions relating to quarantine are included in the Health Act; and extensive power is given to make regulations relating to the conservation and promotion of public health.

The Department's organisation includes a Board of Health. The Health Act 1956 reconstituted the Board of Health and widened the scope of its functions. While the former Board of Health was principally concerned with water supply and drainage, the new Board, in addition to its responsibilities in relation to local authorities and their sanitary works, has the much wider function of giving the Minister authoritative advice on the broad aspects of public health policy and the relationship between the various health services.

In addition to the Health Act 1956, the following Acts are administered by the Department:

Cemeteries Act 1908

Dangerous Drugs Act 1927

Dentists Act 1936

Dietitians Act 1950

Food and Drugs Act 1947

Hospitals Act 1957

King George the Fifth Memorial Children's Health Camps Act 1953

Medical Act 1908 (Part II)

Medical Advertisements Act 1942

Medical Practitioners Act 1950

Medical Research Council Act 1950

Mental Health Act 1911

Nurses and Midwives Act 1945

Occupational Therapy Act 1949

Opticians Act 1928

Physiotherapy Act 1949

Plumbers Registration Act 1953

Poisons Act 1960

Radioactive Substances Act 1949

Social Security Act 1938 (Part III)

Tuberculosis Act 1948

A detailed report of the activities of the Department of Health is given in the annual report of the Director-General of Health (parliamentary paper H. 31).

The net expenditure of the Department (excluding capital expenditure from the Public Works Account) for the years ended 31 March 1960 and 1961 is given in the following table.

Item1959–601960–61Increase
NOTE —Minus sign (—) denotes a decrease.
Vote “Health”-£££
    General health services1,592,9071,681,97289,065
    Dental health1,042,3411,062,31419,973
    Departmental hospitals and institutions (other than mental health)562,489596,57934,090
    Mental health3,777,6324,106,441328,809
    Health education29,59624,094−5,502
    Medical Research Council107,623119,86612,243
    Homes for the aged479,035375,070−103,965
    Pensioners housing: Local authorities203,008207,6284,620
    Youth hostels8,3251,002−7,323
    Plunket Society subsidies128,113143,15715,044
    Miscellaneous grants and subsidies94,778111,31516,537
    Bursaries42,48745,0872,600
Totals8,068,3348,474,525406,191
Vote “Public Hospitals”
    Grants to hospital boards17,204,75119,561,0852,356,334
Vote ”Medical, Hospital, etc., Benefits”19,886,95721,143,8611,256,904
Grand totals45,160,04249,179,4714,019,429

Information on hospitals is given in Sections 5B and 5C, while information on medical, hospital, and other related benefits, which are administered by the Department of Health, is given in Section 6A (Social Security).

PUBLIC HEALTH — The Health Act places responsibility for the maintenance of the public health largely on the Department, but local authorities have powers and duties to perform in a number of sanitary and inspection services. Each of the 19 health districts in New Zealand is under the control of a medical officer whose duties include the administration of all enactments relating to public health and who can provide local governing bodies with expert advice in this field. Public hygiene is concerned more particularly with the control of infectious disease, environmental hygiene, food and drugs, poisons and addiction-producing drugs, and burial and cremation.

Disease: The control of disease is based on a system of notification which has long been in force. The present list of notifiable diseases is as follows.

Notifiable Infectious Diseases:
    Anthrax
    Cerebro-spinal fever (cerebro-spinal meningitis)
    Cholera
    Cysticercosis
    Diphtheria
    Dysentery (amoebic and bacillary)
    Encephalitis lethargica
    Enteric fever (typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever)
    Fulminant influenza
    Infective hepatitis
    Leprosy
    Leptospiral infections
    Ophthalmia neonatorum
    Ornithosis (psittacosis)
    Pemphigus neonatorum, impetigo, or pustular lesions of the skin of the newborn infant
    Plague (bubonic or pneumonic)
    Pneumonic influenza
    Poliomyelitis
Other Notifiable Diseases:
    Actinomycosis
    Anchylostomiasis (hookworm disease)
    Beriberi
    Bilharziasis (endemic haematuria, Egyptian haematuria)
    Chronic lead poisoning
    Compressed-air illness arising from occupation
    Damage to eyesight arising from occupation
    Dengue
    Diseases of the respiratory system arising from occupation
    Eclampsia
    Food poisoning
    Puerperal fever involving any form of septicaemia, sepsis, or sapraemia
    Relapsing fever
    Salmonella infections
    Septicaemia, sepsis, or sapraemia, in any form, following abortion or miscarriage
    Septicaemic influenza
    Smallpox (variola, including varioloid and alastrim)
    Staphylococcal pneumonia of the newborn infant
    Staphylococcal septicaemia of the newborn infant
    Taeniasis
    Trachoma (granular conjunctivitis, granular ophthalmia, granular eyelids)
    Typhus
    Undulant fever
    Yellow fever
    Hydatid disease
    Impaired hearing arising from occupation
    Malaria
    Phosphorus poisoning
    Poisoning from any insecticide, weedicide, fungicide, or animal poison met with at work
    Poisoning from any gas, fumigant, or refrigerant met with at work
    Poisoning from any solvent met with at work
    Poisoning from any metal or salt of any metal met with at work
    Skin diseases arising from occupation
    Tetanus

All forms of tuberculosis are notifiable under the Tuberculosis Act 1948.

Venereal Diseases: Venereal diseases are only notifiable if the patient discontinues treatment before cure is effected. The Venereal Diseases Regulations 1941 give adequate powers for the examination and treatment of persons suspected of suffering from the diseases. Free treatment has been established in the larger cities and treatment is available to seamen at the main ports in accordance with the Brussels Agreement. Restrictions are also placed on the nature of the employment such persons may undertake if they are suffering from the diseases in a communicable form.

In the administration of the regulations, every precaution is taken to ensure the avoidance of publicity.

Environmental Hygiene is concerned with the provision and proper maintenance of public water supplies and sewerage systems, the disposal of refuse, the condition of dwellinghouses, the control of offensive trades, and the hygiene of premises in which food is manufactured and sold, including eating houses. These matters are primarily the responsibility of the local authorities, but the Department of Health acts in a general advisory capacity. In the case of many of the smaller local authorities the necessary inspections are made by departmental inspectors on behalf of and by arrangement with the local authorities.

Food and Drugs: The Food and Drugs Act 1947 provides for the analysis, by analysts appointed under the Act, of any article of food or drink, or of any drug, which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any food or drug intended for sale. If any such article is proved to be unfit for human consumption heavy penalties may be inflicted on the person or persons responsible. Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration of food, drink, or drugs, and for the inspection of places where such goods are manufactured or packed. Control is also established over all utensils and appliances coming into contact with food and drugs.

Considerable progress has been made in implementing the purposes of the Act. All the common foodstuffs are standardised, and the labelling of packages is controlled by regulations, which are revised and added to as the necessity arises. Regular sampling of foods, particularly milk, is undertaken by departmental inspectors, and these samples are analysed in the Dominion Laboratory and its branch laboratories.

An important provision of the Act controls all kinds of publicity concerning any food or drug whereby a purchaser would possibly be deceived in regard to the properties of such food or drug, whether or not it is standardised by regulation. This matter is also covered by the Medical Advertisements Act 1942, which is referred to later.

The definition of “drug” includes medicines used externally or internally by man, anaesthetics, soaps, and disinfectants.

A power contained in the 1947 Act enables any drug to be withheld from the public except when prescribed by a doctor, dentist, or veterinary surgeon.

Dangerous Drugs and Poisons: In order to carry out New Zealand's obligations under international conventions relating to addiction-producing drugs, the Dangerous Drugs Act 1927 was enacted. The dealing in and the use of prepared opium, cocaine, and marihuana are prohibited, and the production, manufacture, sale, and distribution of other dangerous drugs are restricted to persons licensed by the Director-General of Health. The importation of these drugs is controlled by the Department of Health. Suitable regulations, the Dangerous Drugs Regulations 1951, are in force to give effect to the provisions of the Act, and are similar to the regulations in the United Kingdom and Australia.

The Poisons Act 1960 controls the distribution, use, labelling, and packing of all poisons and toxic substances. An important provision requires that before importing or putting on the market a new substance which might be toxic a proprietor must notify very full details to the Registrar of Poisons. It is an offence to pack poisons in bottles that are ordinarily used for food, drink, or medicine. The Act also provides for the control of certain poisonous drugs by preventing their sale to the public except on the prescription of a doctor, a dentist, or a veterinary surgeon. There is power to introduce special safeguards for certain dangerous chemicals used in horticulture. Labels for poisons in this “Deadly Poison” group must bear statements of the precautions to be taken in using the poison, the symptoms of poisoning, and the remedial treatment, and must be approved by the Director-General of Health.

Hydatids Eradication: The Hydatids Act 1959 provides new and more positive methods of attack in the campaign for the eradication of hydatid disease. The Act is administered by the Department of Agriculture and set up a National Hydatids Council on which the Department of Health has representation.

Medical Advertisements Act 1942: This Act came into force in January 1943. Under it the word “advertisement” is defined broadly, but does not include any advertisement or scientific matter distributed only to members of the medical and allied professions.

The Act set up a Medical Advertisements Board, which was given power as a quasi judicial body to examine statements made in any medical advertisement. The Board may require the claims or statements made or implied to be substantiated to its satisfaction. Subsequent publication of such an advertisement is prohibited until the Board has notified its decision, and the veto on publication becomes permanent if the Board decides the claim or statement has not been proved.

Regulations issued under the Act limit the claims which may be included in any medical advertisement, and include a list of diseases concerning which no advertisement may make a claim to cure.

Cemeteries: The law governing burial and cremation in New Zealand is found in the Cemeteries Act 1908 and its amendments. The registration by local authorities of funeral directors and mortuaries operated by them is provided for in the Health (Burial) Regulations 1946.

Widespread provision for cemeteries has been made in the past by the reservation of areas of Crown land for this purpose, but apart from this the Cemeteries Act makes it clear that local authorities are charged with ensuring that in their districts there exists adequate provision for the disposal of the dead.

In most rural areas and in the smaller centres the local authority either acts as trustee or else has been delegated the power of appointing individual trustees to carry out the provisions of the Act. For some cemeteries established on Crown reserves trustees are appointed by the Governor-General. In the larger centres local authorities have acquired land for the establishment of cemeteries.

The law provides that cremation may be carried out subject to the conditions that the deceased was not known to have left any written direction to the contrary and that the cremation is effected in conformity with the regulations. The latter imposed stringent precautions against cremation being used for any criminal purpose. Crematoria have been established in Auckland (2), Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Hastings, Wanganui, Nelson, and Palmerston North.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH — The Factories Act 1946, section 78, gives to medical officers of health or other authorised officers of the Department of Health the same powers and authorities as inspectors of factories with regard to the health and welfare sections of the Act. Towards the end of 1956 the functions of the Division of Occupational Health became one of the functions of the Division of Public Health and, whereas they were previously discharged in the field by five district industrial medical officers, they are now discharged by all medical officers of health.

The objective of the programme is to work with labour, management, the medical profession, and other groups to assist in improving the health of the worker. In the promotion of this programme it is evident that clearly defined arrangements are necessary to avoid duplication of effort so far as the Department of Labour and some other Departments are concerned, there being very necessary joint activities in this field of worker health.

The principle arrived at is that the Department of Labour is responsible for accident prevention, hours of work, employment of women and children, etc., but calls to the attention of the Department of Health any health problems which the factory inspectors may encounter. The enforcement of statutes and regulations is undertaken by the Department of Labour. The suspension of workers on health grounds, approval of respirators and similar protective equipment, and the arrangements for medical examinations are undertaken by the Department of Health, which also investigates health hazards referred to it from the Department of Labour or disclosed as a result of investigations into notified occupational disease, complaints, surveys, etc. Resulting from this cooperation, clearly established codes of practice are developing, as are also a series of regulations dealing with health hazards, many of the latter being administered by the two Departments, each in its own sphere.

A somewhat similar understanding has been established with the Waterfront Industry Commission and New Zealand Railways, and illustrates the general pattern of arrangements between the Department of Health and other Government Departments or agencies concerned with particular aspects of workers' health.

Occupational Disease: The notifiable occupational diseases are scheduled in the Health Act 1956 and details of diseases notified are published annually in the report of the Director-General of Health.

Control of Health Hazards: An increasing number of specific health hazards are coming under formal control, namely lead processes, electroplating, spray painting, sand blasting (siliceous blasting agents in factories are prohibited), fumigation, aerial application of poisons, where in conjunction with the Civil Aviation Administration a special rating is required by pilots, and agricultural chemicals. The organisation of radiation protection is dealt with by the Dominion X-ray and Radium Laboratory, while a number of other specific hazards are currently receiving consideration.

Medical, Nursing, and First-aid Services: While there are no statutory obligations on industry to provide medical and nursing services, an increasing number of Government and private factories do provide such services, details of which are published in the annual report of the Director-General of Health.

To meet the needs of small plants the Department has developed and is developing industrial health centres with financial support from the Waterfront Industry Commission in the case of harbour areas, and the Workers' Compensation Board in the case of general industry.

Minimal first-aid requirements have been laid down by the Department, which generally endeavours to encourage both the development of medical and nursing services and the raising of first-aid standards throughout industry generally.

Pre-employment Examinations: Pre-employment medical examinations are required for young workers before entering factory employment.

Air Pollution — The air pollution provisions of Part V of the Health Act have been enforced since 1958. A senior chemical inspector is resident in Wellington with a deputy in Auckland.

The classes of process requiring registration were increased from 20 to 26 by the Chemical Works Order of 1960 and now include, for the control of odours, supervision of rending processes. Most registrable processes are governed by the requirement to adopt the best practicable means, but there are limiting standards for lead and acid gases. All new installations or extensions of these registrable processes require approval by the Department of Health.

Air pollution committees in Auckland and Christchurch, in association with the Air Pollution Committee of the Board of Health, have established surveys to determine the extent of air pollution in these cities and the need for further action.

TUBERCULOSIS — Legislation for the control of tuberculosis in New Zealand is provided for in the Tuberculosis Act 1948, which is administered by the Department of Health. The Act provides for notification and registration of tuberculosis cases; compulsory medical examination and hospitalisation of recalcitrant tuberculosis patients; Government financial and housing assistance to tuberculosis patients; worker's compensation to hospital and other institutional employees who contract tuberculosis in the course of their employment.

The Department's programme for control of the disease is based on adequate case-finding and notification procedures, the proper treatment and surveillance of notified cases, investigation and control of contacts. This calls for close coordination of the staff and services of hospital boards (which are responsible for the diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis) and officers of the Department of Health who deal with the social and epidemiological aspects of the disease. The latter involves supervision of tuberculosis families, tracing of contacts, and the maintenance of tuberculosis statistics.

Mass miniature radiography is now an established and important feature of the Department's case-finding programme and during the years 1957 to 1960, 990,978 persons were X-rayed in the nine mass X-ray units then operated by the Department. This resulted in the discovery of 1,319 active cases.

B.C.G. vaccination is also undertaken by the Department and, in particular, is offered to the contacts of registered cases, post-primary-school children, and hospital workers partly exposed to infection.

Over the past decade, the results achieved are marked by a steady decrease each year in new notifications together with a marked decrease in mortality.

CHILD HEALTH — The Division of Child Health is responsible for the supervision of all measures for safeguarding the health of pre-school and school children, and also for ensuring a satisfactory environment at school. Priority is given to the health of the pre-school child.

The Division consists of a Director, who is a medical practitioner, with a staff of full-time and part-time medical officers. The medical officer of health in charge of a health district is responsible, within the limits of the policy laid down and the instructions he receives, for the direction and control of all child health work in his district.

An effort is being made to have every child examined in infancy and twice more before school entry. The examination of pre-school children is carried out by medical officers of the division in Plunket rooms in conjunction with Plunket nurses, and at kindergartens, day nurseries, and other pre-school organisations assisted by public health nurses.

The Division aims at giving each primary school child three physical examinations during primary-school life. Each infant not recorded as having been examined at a pre-school clinic by a medical officer within the preceding calendar year is examined by the public health nurse, who selects those children who require examination by the medical officer. During the remainder of primary school life two other examinations are carried out by the public health nurse. These are in Standard 2 and Form II. As in the case of new entrants not seen by a medical officer at a pre-school clinic, the nurse refers any departure from normal for a special examination by the medical officer. Special medical examinations by the medical officer are also made whenever parents, teachers, the public health nurse, or the medical officer considers them to be necessary. The children found to be suffering from defects are kept under observation until the necessary treatment is obtained from the private practitioner or the hospital.

Mentally backward and feeble-minded children are given special attention, arrangements being made in conjunction with the Department of Education for their entry into a special school or other institution as may be necessary.

A start has been made on the more detailed medical examination of post-primary-school children. Physically handicapped children enrolled with the Correspondence School are also thoroughly examined.

Throughout its work the Division tries to secure the interest and cooperation of parents and family doctors, because only in this way can the work be made effective. With this object in view parents are invited to be present at the medical examination of their children, an opportunity of which the majority take advantage.

Prevention of Disease: The activities of the Division are not confined to the routine medical examination of school children. In addition, certain positive measures are taken to prevent disease and correct physical defects. The more important of these measures are:

  1. Poliomyelitis Vaccination — Immunisation against poliomyelitis has been carried out by the Division's staff since 1956. The vaccine used was an injectable type but in August 1961 an oral vaccine was introduced. This oral vaccine is at present being confined to the vaccination of infants under 12 months, the injectable type still being used for other age groups.

  2. Diphtheria, Whooping Cough, and Tetanus Immunisation — Protection against these diseases is a routine procedure and a triple vaccine is used. It is preferable that immunisation be done by the family doctor, and the course of injections should be commenced as soon as possible after babies are three months old. Arrangements can be made for mothers who are unable to have the immunisation done privately to attend with the infant at a departmental clinic. Where necessary in country areas the public health nurse will visit the home to immunise the child. Booster doses (against diphtheria and tetanus) are given after the child's fourth birthday or as soon as possible after the child commences school. Further booster doses (against tetanus only) are recommended at five-yearly intervals.

  3. Typhoid Inoculations — Maori children in the North Island are inoculated annually against the typhoid group of diseases.

  4. Health Education — Officers of the Division give advice whenever possible and give health education talks. They advocate the use of iodised salt and iodine rich foods to control goitre, and the consumption of milk to maintain nutrition standards.

  5. Health Camps are established to which children are admitted for convalescence or correction of malnutrition and emotional disturbances.

Health camps were originally established to cater for the needs of delicate and undernourished children in the age group of five to 12 years. Now children suffering from minor emotional, psychological, and behaviour problems are also helped by the change in their environment which a camp provides. The service selects the children to attend the camps (which are maintained by an independent organisation — the King George the Fifth Memorial Children's Health Camps Federation) and, as necessary, re-examines them before admission and after discharge. In the camps the children live under an orderly and disciplined routine, they eat plain, well cooked food, and they get plenty of rest, fresh air, and sunshine. In practically all cases a child who attends a health camp benefits both physically and mentally. The opportunity is taken to impart health education by practising healthful living. There are six permanent and two part-time health camps in New Zealand.

For children with emotional or psychological disturbances and behaviour problems, child health clinics have been established in the larger centres and elsewhere. These are staffed by a team consisting of a pediatrician, psychiatrist, psychologist, play therapist, and social worker. Children are referred to these clinics through the family doctor if there is one.

DENTAL HEALTH — The Division of Dental Health, which was instituted 1921, in is concerned with the administration of the various dental activities of the Government, and in particular — (a) The National Dental Service, which comprises (i) the School Dental Service and (ii) the Adolescent Dental Service; (b) the Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations; (c) the Dentists Act 1936 and regulations; (d) dental bursaries; (e) dental research; (f) dental health education.

The Division of Dental Health has at its head a Director (a dental surgeon) who is responsible to the Minister of Health, through the Director-General of Health. There is a Deputy Director and one Assistant Director. A senior executive officer is responsible for the secretarial services. Also attached to the Director's staff is a dental research officer.

The service is organised in 16 units, each of which is controlled by a senior dental officer, who is directly responsible to the Director. These officers are: the principals of the schools for dental nurses at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, and the principal dental officers in charge of the 13 dental districts into which New Zealand is divided.

The School Dental Service is staffed by trained school dental nurses and the Adolescent Service by dental surgeons.

The School Dental Service — Briefly, the functions of the service are to improve the standard of dental health of school children (and of pre-school children) by affording them regular and systematic treatment at six-monthly intervals, commencing from the primer classes (or earlier where possible), and continuing through to the highest class of the primary (or intermediate) school. Thereafter they are eligible for enrolment in the Adolescent Service. At present an unprecedented increase in the school population is being experienced as a result of the unusually high birthrate of late years. Until the number of dental nurses can be increased proportionately, children are being transferred to the “adolescent” service at an earlier stage, in order to enable the dental nurses to maintain six-monthly treatment far the younger children. This is a temporary phase, pending the training of more dental nurses.

The other main function of the School Dental Service is health education — the instruction of the children and of the general public in the principles of oral hygiene and the prevention of dental disease. For this purpose there is within the Division an organisation for health education, to which further reference is made under a later heading.

Two years are devoted to the theoretical and practical training of school dental nurses. Approximately 400 student dental nurses are in training at the one time. The course is carefully graduated, and is in the hands of a staff of dental surgeons and dental tutor sisters. Private dental practitioners are represented on the examining board for the final examination. During the period of training, student dental nurses reside in hostels owned and controlled by the Department of Health.

On completing her training, a school dental nurse is posted to a school dental clinic, where she becomes responsible to the principal dental officer of her district for the dental treatment of a group of approximately 500 patients. She is visited at intervals by the principal dental officer or one of his staff, who discusses current problems, and assists the dental nurse to maintain a high standard in the conduct of her work.

Dental treatment comprises fillings in both temporary teeth and permanent teeth, cleaning and scaling of the teeth, extractions where necessary, and sodium fluoride treatment. There were 384,844 children under regular treatment by the school dental nurses during the year 1960–61. The aim of the service is to promote dental health by conserving the natural teeth and preventing dental decay. Only a small number of teeth have to be extracted as unsavable, less than four for every 100 saved by conservative treatment.

Orthodontic treatment is carried out principally in Wellington, where an orthodontic unit is established at the Children's Dental Clinic, which is associated with the School for Dental Nurses. Dental officers in field clinics undertake a limited amount of orthodontic treatment of a simple nature.

Adolescent Dental Service — In addition to the service provided by a number of clinics controlled by the Department of Health, dental care for adolescents is being provided by private practitioners as a dental benefit under the Social Security Act, the practitioners being reimbursed on a fee-for-service basis.

Eligibility for dental treatment as an adolescent is contingent upon a person having undergone regular dental care up to within three months of the time of application, either at a school dental clinic or from a private dental practitioner.

Treatment of adolescents, which has been available since 1946, is in effect a continuation of the treatment provided by the School Dental Service, and is continued until a patient has reached his sixteenth birthday.

Treatment is essentially of a nature designed to conserve the natural teeth. Dental supervision of adolescents is on a basis of examination and treatment at six-monthly intervals. There is free choice of dentists, and dentists have the right to decline patients.

The treatment (other than treatment requiring special approval) which may be provided as dental benefits, and the fees payable, are indicated in the Schedule to the Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1960. Dentists are free to exercise their professional judgment, and, if in their opinion a case demands a form of treatment that is not provided for in the Schedule, there is provision, with certain limitations, for such treatment to be approved as a charge on the Social Security Fund.

At 31 March 1961 there were 164,638 children enrolled for dental benefits, and the amount paid for their treatment for the year 1960–61 was £1,000,561. A further 10,080 children were enrolled at departmental clinics.

Dental Health Education — The dental health education activities of the Department include the production of posters, pamphlets, sound films, filmstrips, radio talks, newspaper advertisements, and all other types of advertising media.

Officers of the service are kept in touch with health education and other matters by means of the School Dental Service Gazette, which is published bi-monthly.

Dental officers and school dental nurses are expected to impress on their patients the necessity of maintaining a high standard of oral health. To further this end every opportunity is taken of distributing health educational literature, displaying posters, and devoting reasonable clinical time to instruction in oral hygiene. Opportunities to address meetings of various kinds are availed of wherever possible.

Dental Research — Dental research is directed by the Dental Research Committee of the Medical Research Council. The staff consisting of a principal dental research officer and a senior dental research officer are primarily engaged in a long-term programme of research in dental problems.

In addition, a dental research officer is employed by the Department to undertake investigations of methods of treatment, materials and equipment, etc., which have a direct bearing on the efficiency and effectiveness of the Division's programme.

Dental Bursaries — The Government grants up to 20 bursaries each year to selected students to assist them to qualify as dentists. The bursaries are of a value of £80 per annum, plus free tuition, the value of which is approximately £50, and are tenable for five years, subject to satisfactory reports from the university authorities. An additional allowance of £50 per annum is payable to students who have to live away from home in order to pursue their studies. Students who are granted bursaries must enter into an agreement to pursue their studies diligently and, on graduating, to enter the service of the Crown or of a hospital board appointed by the Crown for a specified period not exceeding three years.

HEALTH EDUCATION — The aim is to work with the public and to encourage action that will improve personal, family, and community health. The Division has a Director who is a medical practitioner with training in health education, a small staff of writers, technicians, and clerks at Head Office, and lay health education officers who are seconded to district offices and are responsible to the Director through their medical officers of health.

Medical and dental officers, public health nurses, dental nurses, and inspectors of health all devote some of their time to health education. The health education officer acts as a coordinator and stimulates and extends health teaching and health programmes in the district. All the health education officers are women and several hold the diploma in health education issued jointly by Victoria University of Wellington and the Department of Health. All are given special training before taking up their appointments. Various media are used to make the teaching as attractive, as direct, and as acceptable as possible. Daily newspapers and national periodicals carry regular advertisements in health subjects. Radio broadcasts are given at least twice a week and leaflets, pamphlets, and posters are available on many health topics.

The Division also publishes the Department's official bulletin Health which has a circulation of over 59,000 and is issued free to the public four times a year. It gives health information and publicises various aspects of the Department's work.

To assist field officers in their health education work, visual aids, displays, and other publicity material is provided and in addition district offices are encouraged to produce their own.

Voluntary organisations, too, are assisted in their work by the supply of teaching aids and other materials and by assistance with their training programmes.

Each district office has a health education committee consisting of senior administrative and professional officers which plans and budgets local health programmes. A central committee at Head Office largely plans and budgets for overall national requirements.

MATERNAL WELFARE — Maternal and infant welfare work in New Zealand is based on cooperation between the Department of Health, hospital boards, the medical and nursing professions, and the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children (Plunket Society).

The Director of the Division is a medical practitioner who, while not concerned with the particulars of day-to-day administration of maternity hospitals, is responsible for maternal welfare generally in its broadest sense. He keeps abreast of overseas and local developments and is regarded as a consultant on matters of national significance. For instance, in the event of an outbreak of infection affecting mothers or infants, he conducts and directs any necessary investigations as to causes and remedial measures required, in consultation with such other divisions as may be necessary.

The Director has the benefit of the advice of the Maternity Services Committee of the Board of Health, of which he is a member. This committee was formed to advise the Minister on matters relating to obstetric and maternal welfare generally.

The medical officers of health, through their staff of nurse inspectors, exercise a general supervision over the work of midwives and closely control the private hospitals throughout the country. All private hospitals are required to be licensed under the Hospitals Act 1957, and the Department of Health sees that standards regarding buildings, equipment, and staff are observed.

Except in an emergency, no persons other than registered medical practitioners and registered midwives are allowed to conduct confinements, and only registered midwives and registered maternity nurses are permitted to nurse women in childbirth. Approximately 98 per cent of all confinements (European over 99 per cent, Maori over 91 per cent) take place in the various types of maternity hospital — a maternity annex to a public hospital, a State (St. Helens) hospital, or a private maternity hospital.

Important contributions to maternal welfare are made by the Division of Nursing, which includes in its duties the supervision of the training of midwives and maternity nurses, and by the Hospitals Division, which includes in its duties the approval of plans for accommodation to be provided by the various types of maternity hospital. The work of these two Divisions is surveyed elsewhere in this section.

RADIATION PROTECTION — Under the Radioactive Substances Act 1949 the protection of the population from radiation hazards is solely the responsibility of the Department of Health, and the Department has established the Dominion X-ray and Radium Laboratory to provide the administrative and technical services required, and in addition the educational programme, without which effective cooperation in any safety field is not likely to be achieved. An important feature of the Act was the setting up of the Radiological Advisory Council on whose advice the Minister of Health may take action on radiation problems concerning the welfare of the people. Further legislation by way of regulations followed in 1951 and these include the Radiation Protection Regulations and the Transport of Radioactive Substances Regulations.

The Dominion X-ray and Radium Laboratory is required to maintain the primary X-ray standard for New Zealand and also reference standards for the accurate measurement of radioactive substances used in clinical work. Control of radiation sources is effectively obtained by licensing operators at each place where ionising sources are used, and the Electrical (X-ray) Wiring Regulations 1944 provide for the compulsory registration of all X-ray plants in the country. The importation and use of radioactive materials is strictly controlled and requests for such materials on overseas suppliers must be authorised by the laboratory, which acts as the procurement agency for most of the radioisotopes required.

The laboratory operates a field service whereby trained physicists regularly visit all places where ionising sources are used. During these visits measurements are taken, protection problems discussed, and everything possible is done to ensure that persons associated with the ionising sources adopt safe working habits. Apart from the obvious groups, e.g., medical and dental users, the laboratory is also concerned with specialised equipment, such as mass X-ray units, X-ray apparatus used in schools, radar and television equipment, X-ray diffraction units, electron microscopes, research accelerators, etc. Good protection, of course, depends not only on careful working habits but also on material protection.

In recent years the Department of Health has undertaken responsibility for the monitoring of air, rainwater, and soil for the incidence of radioactive contamination from fall-out.

PHYSICAL MEDICINE — The Division of Physical Medicine is concerned with potentially disabling conditions such as rheumatic diseases, cerebral palsy, and other disorders of the locomotor system. The Division is responsible for the general organisation and development of physiotherapy and occupational therapy services throughout the country. The Director is a medical practitioner with special training and experience in these fields.

The centre for the treatment of rheumatism is established at Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Rotorua, which has approximately 100 beds set aside for the treatment of rheumatic diseases. Clinical research is also carried out there. Use is made of the thermal waters of Rotorua, the chief establishment for hydrotherapy treatment at the moment being the Main Bath House which is administratively combined with the Queen Elizabeth Hospital. A proportion of the inpatients of Queen Elizabeth Hospital receive treatment at the Main Bath House and outpatients can also be referred for treatment. A large number of outpatients referred from all parts of New Zealand are seen every year.

Admission of patients to the hospital is arranged with the Medical Superintendent, who also arranges for outpatient consultations. The investigation of rheumatic patients and the application of specific measures, including physiotherapy for preventing and controlling deformity, have been developed considerably at Queen Elizabeth Hospital. Occupational therapy has been developed to teach people how to live with their disabilities. Social workers assist in bridging the gap between rehabilitation and vocational and social resettlement.

A cerebral palsy unit is also situated at Queen Elizabeth Hospital providing residential accommodation for 20 children. At this unit the activities of a team of physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists are coordinated by the supervisor of the unit working under a physician. In addition to treatment, post-graduate courses are given to physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists. Patients can be referred by their doctors to the physician in charge of the unit for advice only, or for admission and treatment. Cerebral palsy visiting therapist services are now operating in Christchurch and Palmerston North health districts. These have proved so successful that it is hoped to extend the service to other districts as qualified staff become available.

Cerebral palsy day schools have been established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill. Parents of cerebral palsy cases who seek their children's admission first apply to the appropriate medical officer of health or education board. The Director of the Division is often able to advise if cases are referred to him by medical practitioners. The schools are administered by education boards under the Department of Education, but close liaison exists between the schools, the Division, and the Rotorua unit.

The Division is closely associated with the Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy Boards, and the Divisional Director deputises for the Director-General of Health as chairman of these Boards.

The Department offers annually a limited number of bursaries for training at the New Zealand School of Physiotherapy which is governed by the Physiotherapy Board and administered by the Otago Hospital Board. Applicants for bursaries, if accepted for the training by the Physiotherapy Council of Otago Hospital Board, are interviewed by the Department's Inspectors of Physiotherapy and selected for award by the Physiotherapy Bursaries Selection Committee. A condition of bursary award is that on qualification the bursar will be required to work for a period of two years in a hospital or institution as directed by the Department.

The training school for occupational therapists is situated at Auckland Mental Hospital and is administered by the Mental Health Division. Trainees are paid a salary while training, and have to agree to work in a departmental or public hospital for two years after qualification.

Rehabilitation of Physically Disabled Civilians — The rehabilitation of disabled and handicapped civilians has received increasing emphasis over recent years in New Zealand.

Basically, public hospitals are the hub for development of an adequate rehabilitation service, with cooperation from governmental and voluntary agencies in furthering the medical, social, and vocational welfare of the disabled.

A Civilian Rehabilitation Centre has been established at Otara, under the Auckland Hospital Board's administration, for the treatment and overall restoration of those injured in employment or road accidents. For the rehabilitation of persons suffering from spinal injuries and paraplegia, spinal injury centres are proposed at Auckland and Christchurch.

The Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League provides trade and vocational training for disabled civilians recommended by district and national selection panels. These panels consist of representatives from the Departments of Labour, Social Security, and Health. For the more severely handicapped, whose productive potential is restricted, the Government has recently approved of a sheltered employment scheme. It is also being operated through the Disabled Servicemen's League and will incorporate a pilot occupational workshop. For both the vocational training and sheltered employment schemes, a measure of Government assistance is provided.

Coordination of the various services connected with civil rehabilitation is achieved by means of the Interdepartmental Committee on Civilian Rehabilitation. In addition to the Departments of Health, Labour, and Social Security, the Workers' Compensation Board, Hospital Boards, and the British Medical association are represented on this committee. There are also representative district and national panels to select disabled people for training and to advise on the various aspects of rehabilitation.

NURSING DIVISION — Training of nurses commenced in New Zealand in 1886, and registration of nurses was introduced in 1901 and of midwives in 1904. In 1921 the Division of Nursing was set up in the Department of Health and the Nurse Inspector of Hospitals was appointed Director of the Division. In 1928 a post-graduate course for the purpose of providing nurses for executive, teaching, and public health positions was established. Today a block and study day system of organisation of theoretical and practical work operates in all basic nursing schools.

The training of all nurses and midwives is governed by the Nurses and Midwives Act 1945. This Act is administered by the Nurses and Midwives Board, which comprises mainly nurse members who are in active practice, and is independent of political and departmental control, although the Director-General of Health is the Chairman, and the Director, Division of Nursing, is the Registrar. The current regulations under the, Act are the Nurses Registration Regulations 1958. Provision has been made for a three-year basic nursing curriculum which includes obstetric nursing, a three-year curriculum for male nurses, a three-year course in psychopaedic nursing, a lowering of the age at which nurses and male nurses may register — from 21 to 20 years, and for nurse aids from 19 to 18 years.

The Division is responsible for the maintenance of an adequate and efficient nursing service and the supervision of conditions, including health for nurses and other staff and recruitment of nurses.

The Nurses and Midwives Board through the Registrar supervises hospitals and nursing schools in all aspects of training, and also the examination and registration of nurses. The nurse inspector who makes a visit to a hospital carries out the dual purpose, therefore, of making reports both to the Director-General of Health through the Nursing Division, and to the Nurses and Midwives Board through the Registrar. This integration of work is a feature which has preserved good relationships in the hospitals, and has enabled the practical and theoretical training of nurses as well as their conditions to be maintained at a uniformly high standard.

The control of most of the public health nursing services and of district (home) nursing is exercised from the Division, although the specialised infant-welfare and mothercraft work of the Plunket Society is under the control of that organisation; close cooperation with that society is, however, maintained.

Another part of the work is the selection and placement of nurses in the various groups of Pacific islands for which the New Zealand Government is responsible. These nurses for hospital and public health work are seconded from the New Zealand service for periods of two years, pension rights being continuous. The supervision of this service is exercised by regular visits to the islands.

Close liaison exists between the nursing services organised for the armed services and the division, while any organisation for emergency nursing is carried out by the division.

The organisation of refresher courses for all groups is another responsibility, while the postgraduate course is a special feature of its work. As already stated this was organised in 1928 and is controlled by a committee on which the Department of Health, the Universities, Teachers' Colleges, and Hospital Boards Association are represented. Courses are followed in hospital and nursing school administration, public health nursing, medical social work, industrial nursing, and teaching and administration in obstetric nursing. A new course in pediatric nursing for sisters in charge of children's wards was instituted in 1957.

Up to 60 students take the nine months' post-graduate course annually, and with few exceptions they are specially selected and attend on bursaries from the Department of Health, hospital boards, and voluntary organisations, while during recent years there has been an increasing number from overseas countries. The school has its own building, library, classrooms, offices, and hostel. The full-time instructors at the school conduct the refresher courses during the school recess, and also carry out supervision of hospitals, nursing schools, and public health work, thus keeping up to date with the practical needs of the field.

The New Zealand Registered Nurses Association (Inc.) is an active body having relationships with the Nursing Division; it is represented by four members on the Nurses and Midwives Board, two members on the Matrons Grading Committee, and by two on the Nurses Salaries Board, while at the annual conference and more frequent executive meetings various matters are brought to the notice of the authorities concerned.

MEDICAL STATISTICS — The Medical Statistics Branch is responsible for the compilation of the statistics included in the Annual Report on the Medical Statistics of New Zealand. The Branch also prepares special statistics for the various Divisions of the Department and for research workers in different fields both in New Zealand and overseas. A constant liaison is maintained with the World Health Organisation, which is supplied with statistical material giving a picture of health trends in New Zealand. In addition from time to time special statistical investigations are made into important aspects of public health and diseases that warrant specific study.

NATIONAL HEALTH INSTITUTE — Opened in 1954, the National Health Institute is the Department of Health's centre for the study of public health problems. It contains an Epidemiology Section, an Occupational Health Unit and Public Health Laboratories.

The Epidemiology Section conducts field research into matters of public health interest and also is responsible for conducting the course of training for the diploma of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health and, in addition, refresher courses for health inspectors.

The recently established Occupational Health Unit will provide consultant and laboratory services in this field.

The Public Health Laboratories provide diagnostic and reference services in bacteriology and virology for medical officers of health and hospital laboratories as well as for the other sections of the institute. The institute is the national centre for those reference services which are organised on an international basis.

MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL — Under the Medical Research Council Act 1950 a Medical Research Council was established as a corporate body with the following functions.

  1. To foster medical research and to prepare and publish such reports on these matters as may in its opinion be necessary or of value to teachers or other persons:

  2. To furnish information, advice, and assistance to persons and organisations concerned with medical research.

This Council took over and developed the work of the departmental committee, bearing the same name, which had been in existence since 1938. At the end of 1960 research in the following fields was in progress: chest diseases; clinical medicine; dentistry; endocrinology; hydatids; Island Territories research; microbiology; neuropathology and neurophysiology; nutrition; obstetrics; psychiatry; surgery; toxicology; pathology.

The Council maintains liaison with the research work being carried out by the Travis Trust Laboratory for tuberculosis research, the New Zealand Branch of the British Empire Cancer Campaign Society, and medical research foundations established in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch.

The Council administers the Medical Research Endowment Fund, from which an annual expenditure of £128,000 is incurred in supporting research projects at the University of Otago, the University of Auckland, and the institutions of the Auckland, Wellington and North Canterbury Hospital Boards.

The Council employs a staff of 90 full-time workers and some 40 associated workers contribute to the activities of the Council.

The Council is empowered to receive bequests and donations to the fund for furthering the objects of the Council as set out in the Medical Research Council Act 1950.

MEDICAL COUNCIL — The Medical Council of New Zealand, constituted under the Medical Practitioners Act 1950, consists of the Director-General of Health, the Dean of the Faculty of Medicine in the University of Otago, and five other registered medical practitioners., One of the five members is appointed on the recommendation of the New Zealand Branch of the British Medical Association.

The Council deals with all applications for registration under the Act, which prescribes that every person shall be entitled to conditional registration who satisfies the Council that he is a graduate in medicine and surgery of the University of New Zealand; or registered on the register kept in accordance with the provisions of the Acts regulating the registration of medical practitioners in the United Kingdom or the Republic of Ireland; or the holder, after a course of not less than six years, of an overseas diploma approved by the Council. The Council may, however, refuse to approve any diploma (even in the case of persons registered in the United Kingdom or the Republic of Ireland) unless it appears that New Zealand graduates are, without further examination, entitled to registration in the country granting the diploma. It may also require the holder of a foreign diploma to attend a course and pass an examination in medicine and surgery. Until an applicant is able to satisfy the Council that he has obtained house officer experience, in a resident medical capacity, of not less than 12 months or has otherwise obtained comparable experience, registration is on a conditional basis. Persons registered conditionally may practise only in an approved hospital.

The fee for registration is £5, which is payable on deposit of evidence of qualifications. An applicant who is refused registration has the right of appeal to the Supreme Court. Each year every registered medical practitioner who is not specially exempted under the Act and who is actually practising medicine in New Zealand is required to obtain an annual practising certificate, the fee payable being £1.

The Medical Council is vested with certain disciplinary powers. Right of appeal to the Supreme Court is provided. The Supreme Court, on the motion of the Medical Council, may order the removal of a name from the register in cases where a medical practitioner is guilty of grave impropriety or infamous conduct in a professional respect, or is convicted of an indictable offence punishable by imprisonment for a term of two years or upwards. The Medical Council is also given power to hear appeals against the decisions of the Medical Practitioners Disciplinary Committee set up under the Medical Practitioners Act 1950. Any person involved who feels aggrieved by the decision of the Medical Council on an appeal from the Disciplinary Committee may appeal to the Supreme Court against the Council's decision.

The Medical Council was given power to institute an internship scheme in New Zealand. This became effective from 1 December 1952.

The number of medical practitioners on the register at 30 June 1961 was 3,508, and, of this number, approximately 2,800 were actively engaged in medical practice in New Zealand.

Investigation Committee: Complaints Against Roistered Medical Practitioners-The Medical Council Amendment Act 1957 introduced the Investigation Committee and established a procedure for the reception and investigation of complaints amounting to infamous conduct and grave impropriety against registered medical practitioners. Briefly, the procedure requires that a complainant should direct his complaint to a Crown Solicitor of a Supreme Court district, and the Crown Solicitor is required to further the matter by calling upon two registered medical practitioners, from a duly appointed panel of four such practitioners, to sit with the Crown Solicitor to investigate the complaint and to submit a report thereon to the Solicitor-General. The Solicitor-General is required to act in accordance with the recommendation of the committee as set out in the report referred to him. The Medical Council must hear a complaint submitted to it by the Solicitor-General.

The complaints amounting to professional misconduct must be referred to the secretary of the Disciplinary Committee and the Disciplinary Committee exercises certain disciplinary powers in relation to complaints amounting to professional misconduct.

REGISTRATION COUNCILS AND BOARDS — Dentists: The Dentists Act 1936 provides for the constitution of a Dental Council, the functions of which are to examine and approve of the qualifications of applicants desiring registration as dentists and to exercise disciplinary control over registered dentists.

The Dentists Register is kept by the Director-General of Health, to whom applications for registration are addressed. The applications are submitted by the Director-General of Health to the Dental Council for consideration and direction regarding acceptance for registration. The Director-General of Health may issue to any person who has applied for registration as a dentist a provisional practising certificate which entitles the person to practise dentistry pending consideration of his application by the Dental Council.

Any adult person is entitled to be registered as a dentist who satisfies the Dental Council that he is the holder of a qualification in dentistry obtained from the University of New Zealand; or that he is the holder of a qualification approved by the Dental Council and obtained from a university or other institution in the United Kingdom or in some other part of the British Commonwealth (in the latter case, however, the Council may require a further examination); or is the holder of an approved foreign qualification, but the Council may refuse to approve any foreign qualification if New Zealand graduates in dentistry are not accepted for registration without further examination in the country concerned, or the Council may require the applicant to pass a further examination.

The fee for initial registration is £5. If a provisional practising certificate is required, there is a further fee of 5s. A fee of £1 per annum is payable for an annual practising certificate.

The number of private dental practitioners holding annual practising certificates at 1 September 1961 was 785, and in addition there were 97 dentists in Government and university employment.

Nurses and Midwives: Under the Nurses and Midwives Act 1945 is constituted the Nurses and Midwives Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health (Chairman), the Director, Division of Mental Health, the Director, Division of Nursing (Registrar), one registered medical practitioner, a representative of the Hospital Boards Association of New Zealand, two registered nurses, one registered midwife, and one registered psychiatric nurse. Members other than official members are appointed on the recommendation of the Minister of Health, the nursing personnel being nominated by the New Zealand Registered Nurses Association.

The functions of the Board are:

  1. To determine the courses of training and instruction to be undergone by candidates for examination.

  2. To approve hospitals and other institutions at which training or any portion of training may be received.

  3. To conduct examinations; to appoint examiners and make all necessary arrangements for examinations; to issue suitable certificates of registration.

  4. To receive applications for registration and to authorise registration in proper cases.

  5. To have regard to the conduct of persons registered under the Act, and, within the scope of its authority, to do whatever may be necessary for the effective administration of the Act.

Under the Act, regulations authorised by the Governor-General by Order in Council may be made, the current regulations being the Nurses and Midwives Regulations 1958.

Registration -The Nurses and Midwives Act 1945 requires that the following registers be kept by the Registrar: (a) Nurses, (b) Midwives and Maternity Nurses, (c) Male Nurses, (d) Psychiatric Nurses, (e) Nursing Aids, and (f) Psychopaedic Nurses.

Every person trained in New Zealand who satisfies the Board that she or he has served the stipulated training period, has passed the prescribed qualifying examination, and has complied with the other conditions laid down by the Act, is entitled to have her or his name entered in the appropriate register. In addition, persons trained outside New Zealand who satisfy the Board that their training and qualifications are equal to the equivalent New Zealand training and qualifications are entitled to be registered in the appropriate New Zealand registers.

In the case of New Zealand trained nurses the fee payable for the qualifying examination includes the registration fee. Overseas-trained nurses whose applications for registration have been approved by the Board are required to pay a fee of £2 for the initial qualification and a further fee of £1 for each additional qualification. A practising fee of 5s. is payable annually.

Physiotherapists: Under the Physiotherapy Act 1949 is constituted the New Zealand Physiotherapy Board. The Board is concerned with the training, examination, and registration of candidates for physiotherapy practice, and the conduct of those registered under the Act.

The training period for physiotherapists is three years. Full-time training is conducted at the New Zealand School of Physiotherapy, Dunedin, administered by the Otago Hospital Board, and eight months of the final year are spent at one of the subsidiary training schools in various parts of New Zealand. All students are required to pass the State final examination in physiotherapy to qualify for registration. The fees payable for examination and registration are prescribed by regulations under the Act.

Every person registered under the Act and engaged in the practice of physiotherapy must hold an annual practising certificate. The fee payable is 10s. per annum.

The Act provides for the admission to the register of overseas personnel whose standard of training is acceptable to the Board.

Occupational Therapists: Under the Occupational Therapy Act 1949 is constituted the Occupational Therapy Board. The Board is concerned with the training, examination, registration, and conduct of persons engaged in the practice of occupational therapy in New Zealand. The training period is three years, and is undertaken at the School of Occupational Therapy, Avondale, Auckland.

Every person registered under the Act who is engaged in the practice of occupational therapy in New Zealand must hold an annual practising certificate, the fee payable being 5s. The Act provides for the admission to the register of persons trained outside New Zealand whose standard is acceptable to the Board.

Dietitians: Under the Dietitians Act 1950 is constituted the Dietitians Board. The functions of the Board are (a) to advise and make recommendations to the Minister of Health in respect of any matter affecting the profession of dietetics, (b) to determine courses of training and instruction to be undergone by candidates for examinations, (c) to approve hospitals and other institutions as training schools, (d) to conduct examinations, (e) to effect registration, (f) to have regard to the conduct of persons registered under the Act, and (g) to effectively administer the Act.

The training period for a dietitian is, in the case of the holder of a degree of bachelor of home science conferred by the University of New Zealand or of the holder of a diploma in home science of the University of Otago, 12 months in a hospital training school. In the case of a registered nurse, the training period is two academic years in the School of Home Science, University of Otago, together with two periods totalling 10 months in a hospital training school.

At the conclusion of training all students are required to pass the State examination for dietitians in order to qualify for registration. The fees payable for examination and registration are prescribed by regulations under the Act.

Every person registered under the Act and engaged as a practising dietitian must hold an annual practising certificate. The fee payable is 10s. per annum.

The Act also provides for admission to the Register of overseas personnel whose standard of training is acceptable to the Board.

Opticians: The Opticians Act 1928 provides for the constitution of an Opticians Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health (the Registrar), three persons engaged in practice as opticians in New Zealand (one of whom must be practising as an employee of another registered optician), and a registered medical practitioner with special knowledge of diseases of the eyes.

The Board deals with all applications for registration under the Act. On payment of the prescribed fee (£5), every person is entitled to registration as an optician who satisfies the Board that:

  1. He has received satisfactory training qualifying him to practise as an optician and is the holder of a certificate of qualification recognised by the Board; or

  2. He has passed an examination under the Act, both theoretical and practical, after a course of not less than three years' approved training in New Zealand as prescribed by regulations, or produces evidence of satisfactory training overseas.

An annual practising certificate fee of £1 is required.

Regulations pursuant to the Opticians Act 1928 prescribe the conditions and period of training and the syllabus for the examination conducted by the Opticians Board.

There are approximately 268 opticians registered, but not all are engaged in active practice as opticians.

Plumbers: The Plumbers Board of New Zealand consists of five members — the Director-General of Health or his deputy (Chairman), the Director of Education, a city or borough engineer nominated by the Municipal Association of New Zealand, and both a master plumber and a journeyman plumber elected by their respective associations.

The Board is concerned with the examination and registration of plumbers and once registered a plumber is issued with an annual practising certificate which is renewable on 31 March each year while he is engaged in sanitary plumbing.

Serving as an apprentice for about five years is the most frequent method of gaining entry to the written and practical examinations of the Board, although there is some limited reciprocity in recognition of plumbing qualifications obtained overseas, e.g., United Kingdom, Australia.

In many parts of New Zealand, especially the more populous and urban areas, all sanitary plumbing as defined in the Plumbers Registration Act 1953 must be performed only by registered plumbers. This restriction on the personal qualifications of plumbers is additional to specifications and standards of workmanship, etc., which have been prescribed for sanitary plumbing. Disciplinary action could be taken against a registered plumber who does unsatisfactory work. During the year ended 31 March 1961, 3,349 registered plumbers renewed their practising certificates.

Pharmaceutical Chemists: There are about 1,670 names on the Register of Pharmaceutical Chemists in New Zealand. All registered pharmaceutical chemists, except those who notify the Registrar that they have conscientious objection to membership, automatically become members of the Pharmaceutical Society of New Zealand, the society's affairs being managed by the Pharmacy Board constituted by the Pharmacy Act 1939.

The Board consists of 12 members, 11 being chemists, and one a barrister appointed by the Minister of Health. Nine members are elected on a district basis by registered pharmaceutical chemists who are either proprietors or enrolled managers of pharmacies and two by persons, not necessarily registered pharmaceutical chemists, who have served an approved apprenticeship and who, at the time of the election, are employed in pharmacy. The main function of the Pharmacy Board is to administer the Pharmacy Act and generally to protect and promote the interests of the profession of pharmacy and the interests of the public in relation thereto.

It is a specific requirement of the Pharmacy Act that pharmacies in New Zealand be at all times maintained under the immediate supervision and control of a registered pharmaceutical chemist, either in the capacity of proprietor or enrolled manager.

The Board has reciprocal arrangements with the pharmaceutical authorities of Great Britain, Northern Ireland, Republic of Ireland, and all the Australian States in the matter of registration. Any person registered as a pharmaceutical chemist in any of these places is eligible for registration in New Zealand. Persons registered as pharmaceutical chemists in New Zealand, similarly, are eligible for registration in the countries mentioned.

The Board conducts the examinations prescribed in the Pharmacy Regulations. Any adult person completing these examinations, as well as an approved apprenticeship of four years, qualifies for registration as a pharmaceutical chemist.

The College of Pharmacy in Wellington was taken over as a function of the society at the beginning of 1944, after having been conducted privately for a period of 11 years. All persons indentured after 1 October 1944 are obliged to attend personally at the college for a period of three weeks during their final year of apprenticeship.

With the commencement in 1960 of a new system of pharmacy education, the society's college will continue in existence only for as long as is necessary to afford existing students reasonable opportunities to qualify under the conditions that obtained at the time of entry into the profession. The new system involves full-time attendance for two years at the School of Pharmacy, Petone, followed by two years of apprenticeship. Commencing in 1960 also there is a four-year degree course in pharmacy at the University of Otago. It is proposed that graduates will be required to serve one year's apprenticeship before becoming eligible for registration as chemists.

Any chemist or company in which not less than 75 per cent of the share capital is owned by a chemist or chemists may establish one pharmacy. Unqualified persons or companies in which less than 75 per cent of the share capital is chemist-owned must, however, secure the consent of the Pharmacy Authority, set up under the Act, before commencing business, and in all cases the establishment of more than one pharmacy under the same ownership is subject to the consent of the Authority. All pharmacies must be registered with the Board.

VOLUNTARY WELFARE ORGANISATIONS — Over the years voluntary welfare organisations have made valuable contributions to certain aspects of the field of public health. In many cases they are encouraged and assisted in their work by grants from public funds. Among the more important of these organisations are the Plunket Society, the King George the Fifth Memorial Children's Health Camps Federation, St. John Ambulance (N.Z.), the New Zealand Red Cross Society, the Crippled Children Society, and the New Zealand Federation of Tuberculosis Associations.

The Plunket Society — the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children — is concerned with the welfare of all babies. The society trains its own infant-welfare nurses, conducts infant-welfare clinics, and maintains Karitane hospitals throughout the country for premature babies or difficult feeders. In rural areas where there is no Plunket clinic, public health nurses do infant-welfare work.

The King George the Fifth Memorial Children's Health Camps Federation maintains a chain of permanent health camps for delicate and undernourished children. The federation works in close cooperation with the Department of Health. It is the means whereby the voluntary nature of the various organisations is preserved, while ensuring that the available resources are utilised to the best advantage. Much of the finance for the federation's activities is derived from the proceeds of the annual health-stamp appeal.

The St. John Ambulance (N.Z.) has divisions throughout the country carrying out free ambulance work and instruction in first aid and home nursing. It is a branch of the Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem.

The New Zealand Red Cross Society, a part of the International Red Cross Committee, has centres and subcentres throughout the country. It gives training in first aid, home nursing, hygiene and sanitation, and emergency transportation of the injured. Graduates of these classes form voluntary-aid detachments that in peacetime are recruited as aids in hospitals, and in wartime may be recruited for service overseas as well.

The Crippled Children Society keeps a register of all crippled children, helps them to acquire all possible medical treatment, and undertakes vocational training and home education where these are required.

The New Zealand Federation of Tuberculosis Associations looks after the interests of patients suffering from tuberculosis. It assists the Department of Health with health education of the public regarding tuberculosis and concerns itself with after-care and vocational training and guidance of patients.

FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE FOR ACCOMMODATION AND SERVICES (Old People's Homes, Youth Hostels, and Short-stay Homes for Intellectually Handicapped Children) — The extent to which Government assistance is offered to religious and voluntary organisations and local authorities in providing accommodation and services for elderly people and others whom it is considered are in special need, has increased steadily over the past decade. Under this partnership with Government, the social service agencies of all the major religious bodies, as well as other welfare organisations, have established additional accommodation for sick and infirm old people. Where it is not possible to meet the need of elderly people through these agencies, the provision of care and nursing for the aged becomes a hospital board responsibility. Religious and welfare organisations at present provide approximately 3,600 home and hospital beds for the elderly, and hospital boards some 1,950 beds.

For the elderly who are ambulant and are able to care for themselves and whose main need is that of housing, local authorities are encouraged and assisted by Government to build specially designed flats or cottages which enable age beneficiaries and those with limited means to retain their independence.

Other measures which are of importance in assisting elderly people to remain in their homes as long as possible are receiving increased attention. Chief amongst these are the provision of district nursing services, home aid, meals-on-wheels, laundry services, and occupational therapy. In general, the services are provided by hospital boards with voluntary organisations and the Aged People's Welfare Councils assisting in various ways.

Old People's Homes — From April 1950 to July 1955, subject to certain conditions, religious or charitable institutions could be granted up to 50 per cent of the cost of providing accommodation for old people. In August 1955 the maximum amount of the subsidy offered was increased to 75 per cent. In February 1960 the rate of subsidy was increased to 100 per cent of the approved capital cost. The administration of this policy is the responsibility of the Department of Health.

During the year 1960–61 subsidies totalling £1,380,890 were approved to assist in the provision of accommodation for 551 old people. From April 1950 to 31 March 1961, subsidies totalling £3,603,690 have been approved and buildings erected as a result will accommodate 2,621 old people.

Pensioners' Flats — Since 1950 the Government has encouraged local authorities to undertake the provision of accommodation for age beneficiaries by offering subsidy and loan finance. The present policy is to offer a subsidy of up to 50 per cent of the cost of erecting accommodation such as flats or cottages for old people and to provide the balance from loan moneys at 3 1/2 per cent. The maximum subsidy available for a two-person flat is £850 and for a one-person flat £800. Since the policy was first initiated in 1951 a total of £1,060,717 had been made available as subsidy up to 31 March 1961. As a result 2,127 old people will be provided with suitable accommodation.

Youth Hostels — In June 1951 the Government decided that, subject to certain conditions, it would assist religious or welfare organisations to establish hostels for young people by granting subsidies of up to 50 per cent of the cost of erecting or acquiring hostels. The object of this decision is to assist young men and women who are living away from their homes and are having difficulty in finding suitable living accommodation. The Department of Health was made responsible for the administration of this policy.

During the year 1960–61 subsidies of £9,433 were approved to assist in the provision of hostels for 24 young people. Since the policy was approved, subsidies totalling £317,276 had been granted up to 31 March 1961 to assist in the provision of hostel accommodation for 541 young people.

Short-stay Homes for Intellectually Handicapped Children — In 1954 the Government approved the payment, under certain conditions, of a subsidy of up to 50 per cent on the capital cost of approved buildings and furnishings acquired for the purpose of providing short-stay homes for intellectually handicapped children. The intention was to assist the Intellectually Handicapped Children's Parents Association in the provision of homes where eligible children could be placed for up to two months in one continuous period during the. illness of a parent, absence of parents from the family home, or for other similar reasons. The administration of the policy is the responsibility of the Department of Health.

The total amount expended on capital subsidies for short-stay homes during the year ended 31 March 1961 was £3,295. In addition £2,247 was paid by way of maintenance subsidy during the same period.

NATIONAL PHYSICAL WELFARE AND RECREATION — Because of the abundant natural facilities for popular recreation, New Zealand citizens have always been characterised by a love of outdoor sporting and recreational activity. Although, compared with the older countries of the world, there are large areas available as playing fields, even in the cities, the demand still exceeds the supply. On the other hand, the long coastlines and frequent mountain ranges and rivers enable most people to enjoy outdoor life. A temperate, equable climate ensures the use of facilities on a year-round basis.

The most popular summer sports are swimming and surfing, tennis, cricket, athletics, lawn bowls, golf, softball, and rowing.

Rugby football is the premier sport in winter, but there are enthusiastic and numerically large followings for hockey, association football, tramping, ski-ing and mountaineering, outdoor and indoor basketball, badminton, and table tennis. Both professional and amateur boxing and wrestling are quite popular winter sports, whilst the game of indoor bowls, hitherto confined to isolated areas, is attracting increasing numbers.

Generally speaking, facilities for indoor sports are inadequate in the face of the growing interest and participation in such sports as indoor basketball, badminton, table tennis, and indoor bowls. There is a growing realisation of this inadequacy, and steps are being taken, usually in conjunction with community-centre movements, to provide and maintain indoor sporting facilities of a high standard.

Sporting activities in New Zealand are generally organised on a district basis, with representatives from each district forming a national controlling body. In this way each major sport has a number of associations, unions, subassociations, etc., which control the sport in each district from the strictly local aspect, while a New Zealand association (or union) is the controlling body in all matters of nation-wide significance in that particular sport.

An exception to this arrangement, whereby each sport is responsible for its own administration, is that of selection of representatives for the Olympic and the Empire Games. There exists in New Zealand an Olympic Council made up of representatives of all sports bodies interested in Olympic and Empire Games competition.

Organisational and Practical Assistance in Learn to Swim Campaigns — Extensive “Learn to Swim” campaigns are conducted each summer by the Department of Education (for school children) and by the Physical Welfare and Recreation Branch of the Department of Internal Affairs in conjunction with swimming associations. Frequently the two organisations combine in specific district campaigns. In recent years an extensive publicity campaign has been conducted in an effort to decrease the incidence of deaths by drowning.

Financial Assistance — Provision was made in the Physical Welfare and Recreation Act 1937 for the making of grants by the Government in aid of the development of sporting and recreational facilities. Such grants are not made for honoraria, travelling expenses, personal uniforms, or general administrative expenses, nor where it is considered that an organisation can carry out a project without grant assistance. In the main, grants are restricted to national organisations for the extension of sporting and recreational facilities and to leadership groups for the furtherance of their activities in the training of leaders.

5 B — HOSPITALS AND MORBIDITY

HOSPITALS

HISTORY — The Government in 1846 granted money for the erection of hospitals in each of the four centres — Auckland, Wellington, Wanganui, and Taranaki — for the treatment of sick and destitute Europeans and free treatment for all Maoris. The foundation stone of the Wellington Hospital was laid in November 1846, whilst the Auckland Hospital was founded the following year. The first Dunedin Hospital was built in 1851, and Christchurch was first served by a hospital at Lyttelton known to have been operating in 1853. In 1854 control of public hospitals was vested in the six Provincial Councils of Auckland, Taranaki, Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago, but in 1876, following the abolition of the provinces, control reverted to the General Government.

Hospitals generally remained under Government control until 1885, when the first Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act was passed. By it New Zealand was divided into 38 hospital districts, each under the control of its own board. The number of districts gradually increased until by 1926 there were 47; amalgamations since that date have reduced the number to 37, at which it now stands.

A Consultative Committee on Hospital Reform was appointed in May 1953 to inquire into and report on matters affecting the administrative control of public hospitals and other services provided by hospital boards and, after taking evidence, it made recommendations to the Government for the reform of the hospital system. A new Hospitals Act passed in 1957 broke new ground in the central principle of its operation. The Act came into force on 1 April 1958. It incorporated as a basic principle the main recommendation of the Consultative Committee on Hospital Reform that the Minister of Health on behalf of the Government should have the responsibility of ensuring the provision by hospital boards of hospital and associated services. The Government assumed complete financial responsibility for hospitals. Consonant with the new responsibilities the Minister was given wide powers of direction and regulation to ensure the establishment of a comprehensive and integrated hospital service for the whole country. Elected boards were retained to manage institutions and administer the services provided under the Act and no reduction was made in the number of boards.

A Hospitals Advisory Council, comprising three departmental members (Health, Treasury, and Works) and three hospital board members, is provided for by the Act. Primarily the function of the Advisory Council is to consider and make recommendations on matters referred to it by the Minister but it may also initiate business on matters covered by the Hospitals Act. Provision is also made for the appointment of technical or advisory committees to assist in the administration of the Act.

CONSTITUTION — A “hospital district” comprises one or more counties and includes boroughs and town districts within the boundaries of the county or counties. Districts vary in size from Auckland, with a population of 512,356, down to Maniototo, which has only 2,949 people.

A board consists of one or more representatives of each constituent district, or combined districts of two or more constituent districts where these do not justify independent representation, the number being fixed by the Governor-General by Order in Council, having regard to the relative populations of the districts. The total number of members of any board must in no case be less than eight or more than 14.

Board members are elected by the electors of the various constituent districts or combined districts in the hospital district, and the term of office is three years. Formerly, electors in counties required a ratepayer's qualification, whereas electors in boroughs and town districts required only a residential qualification, and this applied even though the elected members sat on the same board. Legislation in 1946 made the residential qualification universal.

POWERS — A hospital board has power to establish, control, and manage any of the following institutions: hospitals, relief institutions, maternity homes, convalescent homes, sanatoria, institutions for children, residential or day nurseries, and institutions of any kind which the Governor-General by Order in Council may declare that boards may establish. Power is given to boards to establish preventive health services and to combine for the purpose of establishing institutions or services which a board may establish.

AUTHORITY OF MINISTER OF HEALTH — It is the duty of every hospital board to provide and maintain such institutions, hospital accommodation, and medical, nursing, and other services as the Minister of Health considers necessary in any part of the district for the reception, relief, care, treatment, isolation, and removal to hospital or “other place” of persons who are suffering from infectious or other disease or from injury and for maternity cases. The Minister is specifically charged with the function of ensuring the provision of these services and of coordinating, guiding, and supervising the activities of hospital boards. The consent of the Minister of Health is required before a hospital board may:

  1. Borrow money.

  2. Spend more than £500 for capital purposes such as adding to or altering buildings, erecting new buildings, purchasing land or equipment.

  3. Make appointments to certain specified staff positions (but the Minister may veto appointments only on the advice of the Hospitals Advisory Council).

  4. Close an institution or restrict services (subject to a recommendation of the Hospitals Advisory Council).

  5. Make grants to medical or nursing associations or to hospitals, and allied services; grant bursaries or study and conference leave.

  6. Sell or exchange land.

The Minister may issue directions to boards as he considers necessary or expedient for the purposes of the Act; in particular he may direct boards as to the manner in which, and the conditions subject to which, any duty, power, or function is to be exercised. Where any duty, power, or function is to be exercised with the prior consent of the Minister, he may refuse consent or grant his consent subject to such conditions and restrictions as he thinks fit. Notice of any direction or consent of the Minister must be given to the board in writing, signed by the Minister or the Director-General. The Minister may fix from time to time the maximum amount a board may expend on any item or class of expenditure and may require a board to amend its financial estimates.

A board must appoint such number of medical practitioners, dentists, nurses, dental nurses, midwives, and other officers as the Minister may from time to time deem necessary for the efficient performance of the functions of the board, whether within an institution under the control of the board or elsewhere within the district.

The Director-General is authorised to visit and inspect hospitals and to appoint assistant inspectors, and is required to report to Parliament through the Minister on the administration of the Hospitals Act.

FINANCE — When boards were first established in 1885 they obtained their revenue from the following sources: (a) voluntary contributions and bequests; (b) Government subsidy £1 for £1 on voluntary contributions and bequests; (c) patients' fees; (d) levy on contributory local authorities by rate on the capital value of land; and (e) Government subsidy on levies paid from general taxation.

Voluntary contributions and bequests and subsidy thereon at no time formed an important part of board revenue, and in 1932 the subsidy in this connection was abolished.

In the earliest days public hospitals were meant only for the destitute sick, but as time went on the standard of service was greatly improved and gradually they were availed of by all sections of the community. The hospitals charged a fee which covered cost of maintenance, and patients able to pay were expected to do so. Fees collected were usually found to form about one-third of a board's total revenue.

Until 1923 the subsidy on levy was paid at the rate of £1 for £1 for both capital and maintenance purposes, but in that year the subsidy on account of maintenance was amended to a scale which had relation to the burden of levy on the rates of local authorities; the board with the highest burden was paid 26s. subsidy; the board with the lowest burden was paid 14s. subsidy; the average of all boards remained at 20s. subsidy.

Under the Social Security Act 1938 a charge was made on all salaries and wages and other income, and the proceeds were paid into a special fund named the Social Security Fund. The charge was fixed at 1s. in the pound, and in 1946 it was raised to 1s. 6d. in the pound. The Act was to provide, inter alia, “a system whereby medical and hospital treatment will be made available to persons requiring such treatment”. Hospital benefits for inpatients were inaugurated in 1939. The effect of this change was to transfer the liability for payment of patients' fees from the patient to the Social Security Fund. The charge on the Fund was initially fixed at 6s. per patient per day if for more than one day, being the average collection made by the boards from patients. To keep up with the rising cost of maintenance the rate in 1943 was increased to 9s. per day. As from 1 April 1961 the rate has been £1 8s. in a Class A hospital, £1 2s. for a Class B hospital, and £1 15s. 6d. per day in maternity hospitals.

In 1943 the proportions of revenue derived from the three main sources of Social Security Fund, levy on local authorities, and Government subsidy from general taxation, were almost even. Rising costs led to increases in the levies on local authorities, and property owners complained that they were being asked to carry an unfair burden as compared with other sections of the community. As a result legislation was passed in 1946 limiting the levy on contributory local authorities to 0.5d. in the pound of rateable capital value, and this had the immediate effect of transferring a substantial portion of boards' cash requirements from levy to the subsidy paid from general taxation. Also it followed that any further increases in cost would fall solely on the subsidy except to the extent that increases in rateable capital value of property increased the amount of levy. In consequence of this development and the increased benefits payments already mentioned, the proportions of revenue derived from the main sources have changed. The approximate position for 1950–51 was: Social Security Fund, 25 per cent; levy, 15 per cent; subsidy, 55 per cent. The Hospitals Amendment Act 1951 provided for the abolition of the levy on contributory local authorities by an annual reduction of the rate of levy during the next five years. The first reduction was made for the year ended 31 March 1953, when the rate was 5/12 d. on the capital value. For the final year ended 31 March 1957 the levy was 1/12 d. per pound of rateable capital value. In 1960–61 revenue was derived from Government grants, 72 per cent (£19,561,085); Social Security Fund, 24 per cent (£6,589,306); and sundry receipts, 4 per cent (£1,071,493).

From 1 April 1958 the Government assumed complete financial responsibility for the public hospitals, apart from the raising by hospital boards of loans for major capital construction.

Receipts — The following is a comparative statement of moneys received by hospital boards and sanatorium committees from Government and local authority funds.

YearFrom Government FundsFrom Local Authority Funds LeviesTotal
GrantsSocial Security Benefits

* Includes £33,308 payments to hospital boards for administration of medical services in special areas.

 ££££
1956–5712,895,6745,402,653657,69818,956,025
1957–5815,390,2525,508,78120,899,033
1958–5915,774,3246,380,65322,154,977
1959–6017,204,7516,516,95923,721,710
1960–6119,561,0856,589,306*26,183,699

Loans — Boards have been authorised by the Minister of Health to raise loans to cover a very extensive building programme. The position of loan liability is as under.

YearAmount RaisedRepaymentBalanceReducible by Sinking Fund
 ££££
1956–573,518,260837,89315,578,99774,188
1957–582,767,420988,92317,357,49277,375
1958–592,961,7601,056,58119,288,673121,953
1959–607,015,7301,201,56025,102,838205,856
1960–613,705,5201,373,24727,435,111385,814

Payments — Hospital board expenditure is subject to a measure of control by the Minister of Health. Boards are required in the month of April each year to make an estimate of their payments for both capital and maintenance purposes and to have the estimates confirmed at a special meeting of the board. The Minister may, if he thinks it necessary so to do, require the board to amend the estimate submitted. He may also require a board by notice to limit expenditure of whatever kind he may specify. Payments for the two latest years are now given.

Item of Expenditure1959–601960–61
 ££
Institutional maintenance19,504,26821,022,805
Outdoor relief32,55234,367
Grants to private hospitals42,31650,262
Other grants6,8227,349
Transport of patients235,971242,245
District nursing (including grants thereto)222,325241,009
Administration545,809584,492
Superannuation158,161173,456
Miscellaneous299,270328,005
Interest on loans928,4731,168,859
Repayment of loans1,306,8931,594,661
Capital works other than “loan”1,529,6741,635,358
Totals, excluding loans24,812,53427,082,868
Loan works5,256,3333,726,161
Totals30,068,86730,809,029

Institutional Operating Expenditure — The average operating expenditure per occupied bed relating to hospitals of all types and old people's homes for the last four years and for general hospitals for the last five years was as follows:

YearTreatmentInstitutional MaintenanceHeat, Light, Power, and WaterHousehold ExpensesBuildings and GroundsMiscellaneousTotal
All Institutions
 £££££££
1957–58501£994£7112£9504£779.01£31,294£5
1958–59519£398£5119£3531£278£91£41,348£6
1959–60572£1107£4127£2562£483£21£51,453£8
1960–61677£0130£9143£5652£294£72.01,700£3
1956–57491£298£4106£7503£873£01£21,274£3
General Hospitals
1957–58551£1108£3119£6537£479£91£21,397£5
1958–59572£2112£8123£8565£879£41£21,455£2
1959–60626£3122£0130£4595£781£51£51,557£4
1960–61587£491.9233£3604£5129£41.11,647£8

Each of these averages includes the direct expenditure of each activity for labour, materials, and incidental expenses, but excludes overheads such as depreciation and interest on capital.

PATIENTS: Public Institutions — Section 4F contains statistics of inpatients other than normal maternity cases treated at public hospitals. The statistics given in the following table relate to patients and inmates in all institutions (general, maternity, special hospitals, and old people's homes) including institutions under the control of the Department of Health. The number of beds in public institutions available at 31 March 1961 and the average number occupied during the year were as follows.

Type of BedBeds AvailableAverage Number of Occupied Beds per Day
NumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of Population
General12,7225.49,694.24.1
Maternity2,5721.11,760.10.8
Total hospital beds15,2946.511,454.34.9
Non-hospital beds1,1590.5955.40.4
Totals16,4537.012,409.75.3

In addition to the 15,294 hospital beds in public institutions there were 2,880 (2,496 general and 384 maternity) in the 156 licensed private hospitals. If the beds in licensed private hospitals are included, the ratios of beds per 1,000 of population become 6.4 for general beds and 1.2 for maternity beds.

The average number of occupied hospital beds per 1,000 of population in hospital districts varies from 3.5 to 13.7. This variation can be accounted for in the main by the fact that many hospitals to a varying extent draw patients from other districts. Other factors which influence the figures are the availability of medical practitioners and their habits in sending patients to hospital or retaining them for home treatment, the availability of private-hospital beds, housing facilities, domestic assistance, private or district nursing assistance, and the efficiency of the outpatient departments.

The number of institutions coming under the heading of public institutions for the year ended 31 March 1961 was 223, comprising 77 general hospitals (7 of which were also old people's homes), 2 homes for cripples, 6 non-acute hospitals, 4 convalescent hospitals, 105 maternity hospitals, 4 tuberculosis sanatoria, a hospital for physical disorders and a neurological hospital (both of which are under the control of the Department of Health), 22 old people's homes, and 1 children's home.

The following statistics for the latest two years relate to all institutions:

 1959–601960–61
Number of beds of all descriptions for patients or inmates in all public institutions, including institutions under the control of the Department of Health16,69516,453
Number of such beds per 1,000 of population7.17.0
Average number occupied per 1,000 of population5.35.2
Number of persons who, as inpatients or inmates, availed themselves of institutional services during the year255,195255,273
Number per 1,000 of population who, as inpatients or inmates, availed themselves of institutional services during the year108.8106.1
Number of attendances by outpatients (including 84,530 attendances for 1960–61 for dental treatment) during the year1,924,9441,909,812
Number per 1,000 of population of attendances (including dental) by outpatients820.7793.5

The Appendix to the Annual Report of the Director-General of Health on Hospital and Relief Statistics contains further detail on public institutions.

General Hospitals — In the following table the figures relate only to general hospitals under the control of hospital boards.

YearInpatients TreatedAverage Number of Occupied Beds per DayAverage Turnover of Patients Treated per Occupied BedAvailable BedsOutpatient Attendances (Including Dental)
NumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of Population
1956–57186,18684.98,827.04.021.111,1195.11,609,096733.4
1957–58194,58886.68,860.03.922.011,5505.11,647,668733.6
1958–59200,79587.38,886.23.922.611,5575.01,757,644764.6
1959–60210,45489.79,049.73.923.311,6905.01,792,531764.2
1960–61211,10287.79,076.43.822.311,8294.91,844,490766.3

Private Hospitals — The control and licensing of private hospitals is provided for in Part V of the Hospitals Act 1957. With specified exceptions such as institutions controlled by hospital boards and the State, any premises in which two or more patients are maintained at the same time must be licensed. No premises may be licensed unless the Director-General of Health is satisfied that they are suitable. Staffing and other requirements are governed by regulations and all private hospitals are subject to regular inspection by the Department of Health.

The total number of private hospitals licensed in New Zealand at 31 March 1961 was 156, providing 384 maternity, 17 psychiatric, and 2,479 beds for general cases.

The Social Security Act, inter alia, provides for the payment to licensees of private hospitals of prescribed amounts in respect of hospital treatment afforded by them. Particulars are contained in section 6A.

MATERNITY SERVICES: Benefits Under the Social Security Act 1938 — The Social Security Act, inter alia, makes provision for payments from the Social Security Fund to hospitals, medical practitioners, and nurses for services in connection with maternity cases. Particulars of maternity benefits provided under the Act will be found in section 6A.

At the end of 1960 available hospital-bed accommodation for maternity cases was 2,976, made up as follows:

  
Public hospitals2,439
Private hospitals384
State (St. Helens) hospitals133
Alexandra Home (Wellington)20
Total2,976

The total number of confinements in maternity hospitals in 1960 was 61,781, of which 49,822 were in public maternity hospitals, 7,734 in private hospitals, 3,695 in St Helens Hospitals, and 530 in the Alexandra Home, Wellington. There were 5,600 admissions for ante-natal treatment. All these figures are inclusive of Maoris.

State Maternity Hospitals — There were three State maternity (St. Helens) hospitals operating at 31 December 1960, these being located in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch. Prior to the advent of the maternity benefits under the Social Security Act the use of these hospitals was restricted to cases where the husband's income did not exceed £5 per week, and in cases of large families £6 per week. There are now no restrictions in this respect, and all service is free to the patient. The main function now served by these hospitals is to provide extended training for maternity nurses, so that they may qualify for the more responsible work of midwives.

This service is given under the supervision of a medical superintendent, who is also responsible for the conduct of all abnormal cases and for the supervision of the ante-natal and post-natal care of all patients attending. There is also an outpatient department attached to each hospital which provides nursing services for patients not entering the institution.

Domiciliary Midwifery Services — Public health nurses and hospital board district nurses carry out some pre-natal work and a limited amount of obstetrical work in back-country areas. In general, however, most of the population is within reach of a maternity hospital, and home deliveries are not encouraged. There remain, however, a few midwives who contract with the Department of Health to give home maternity service under the Social Security Act.

Ante-natal Services — Since maternity benefits have been provided free to patients under the Social Security Act and medical practitioners have been paid a fee under that Act for giving ante-natal, neo-natal, and post-natal attention, the bulk of the ante-natal attendance and instruction has been provided by the patient's own medical attendant, this being one part of the service for which he receives a fee. The doctor's attendance, if desired, is supplemented by that of the midwife in charge of an ante-natal clinic. These free ante-natal clinics are established in connection with the three St. Helens Hospitals, all public maternity hospitals or maternity wards, and a number of clinics conducted by the Plunket Society. Ante-natal classes to prepare mothers for the baby's arrival are also being developed and doctors can refer patients to these to supplement their own ante-natal instructions. In the case of women living far from the main centres of population, ante-natal work is supplemented by the public health nurses, who are employed by the Department of Health, or by hospital board district nurses.

The majority of women now realise that ante-natal care is as essential to their welfare as attendance, during their delivery and lying-in period, by a doctor and trained maternity nurse or midwife. The Department has supplemented the service by the free distribution of a pamphlet Suggestions to Expectant Mothers.

Every effort is being made to impress parents with the importance of personal hygiene and systematic ante-natal care throughout pregnancy. Addresses and lectures are delivered by medical officers of the Department of Health to nurses and societies interested in this subject. So that there will be definite cooperation between the midwife and the ante-natal clinic, and in order that the midwife may be informed of the clinical methods adopted by the Department, refresher courses of lectures, particularly on ante-natal work, are available to all registered midwives and maternity nurses.

MORBIDITY

NOTIFICATION OF DISEASES — The numbers of all notifiable diseases reported during the calendar year 1960 are shown in the following table; the total figures (including Maoris) are given month by month, with the totals for Maoris being shown in the last column.

DiseaseAll CasesMaoris
JanuaryFebruaryMarchAprilMayJuneJulyAugustSeptemberOctoberNovemberDecemberTotalsTotals Only
Diphtheria111
Enteric fever—
    Typhoid23102534583114540
    Paratyphoid31—-15
Tuberculosis—
    Pulmonary8911011476113118911167785104871,180393
    Other forms151822191531232121153125256104
Cerebrospinal meningitis4316711554345310
Poliomyelitis1214
Pneumonic influenza112
Puerperal fever—
    Ordinary3221221132
    Following abortion22221111 12
Eclampsia411123412423
Tetanus24112426131275
Hydatids473564131591317130
Trachoma11354
Ophthalmia neonatorum8913125933483779
Food poisoning79591139655112171627
Dysentery—
    Bacillary23203116322144545141403540882
    Amoebic11114
Undulant fever346511563413425
Leptospirosis1299832104323337191759
Salmonellosis31125115152514465412815
Malaria561041041211635313
Lethargic encephalitis-1113
Anchylostomiasis1111138
Infective hepatitis1721891691572002142293635335845175683,895314
Pemphigus neonatorum1519101211781319910513817
Staphylococcal pneumonia and septicaemia2113293
Septicaemia (following abortion or miscarriage)112152
Septicaemic influenza112
Leprosy11
Beriberi11
Totals3754294313444224474936837788238127746,8111,065

Notifications for some of the notifiable diseases for each of the latest five years are shown in the following table. Attention is drawn to the fact that these figures are not considered to be a complete coverage of the incidence of these diseases as medical practitioners frequently overlook the necessity of notifying the Medical Officer of Health.

Disease19561957195819591960
DiphtheriaAll cases313116181
 Maori35871
Typhoid and paratyphoid feverAll cases6749446650
 Maori5136144840
Pulmonary tuberculosisAll cases1,5651,5301,4251,2031,180
 Maori524521497406393
Cerebrospinal meningitisAll cases72102538753
 Maori1633142110
PoliomyelitisAll cases8976357164
 Maori42451
Puerperal fever and septic abortionAll cases4640583525
 Maori57872
TetanusAll cases2333323927
 Maori13255
HydatidsAll cases3856616971
 Maori1210171830
Food poisoningAll cases184384285310162
 Maori321637477
Bacillary dysenteryAll cases201165438679408
 Maori2822728182
Undulant feverAll cases3223383642
 Maori12745
Infective hepatitisAll cases..1,4431,8931,9733,895
 Maori..97156134314

Diphtheria — In 1960 there was only one case.

Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever — In 1960 the incidence was somewhat lower than in 1959.

Cerebrospinal Meningitis — The notifications in 1960 showed a considerable decrease on the 1959 figures.

Poliomyelitis — There was a further considerable drop in incidence in 1960. Vaccination against poliomyelitis has been completed in the age groups up to 21 years, and is now practically confined to the infants under 12 months of age and expectant mothers.

Hydatids -There are two main sources of information about hydatid disease in New Zealand: patients admitted to public hospitals, and cases notified to the district offices of the Department of Health. A register of hydatid disease patients treated in public hospitals is kept by the Medical Statistics Branch, Department of Health. Reference to the register makes it possible to distinguish between new cases and readmissions. Until recently the number of new public hospital cases registered each year has been considerably greater than the number of cases notified to District Health Officers in the same year. This apparent discrepancy was caused through incomplete notification. A recent study showed that in some districts less than one-third of new cases treated in public hospitals had been notified to the District Health Office.

The following table, which includes Maoris, shows the number of new public hospital cases admitted, the number of public hospital cases readmitted, and the number of notifications for the latest 10 years.

YearNumber of New Public Hospital CasesPublic Hospital Cases ReadmittedTotal Public Hospital CasesNotifications

* Provisional figures.

1950845313738
19511016216358
1952896915839
19531037818161
1954806314341
1955856214736
1956805913938
1957766914556
1958754812361
195980*64*144*71

The number of deaths from hydatid disease in New Zealand for the latest 11 years are shown below by site of disease. The figures include Maoris.

YearLiverLungOther SitesTotal
195094619
195172514
195263110
195363615
195464313
195575214
195663514
19574228
1958123
195955
19603339
Totals602935124

The educational activities of the Department of Health, carried out in conjunction with the Department of Agriculture, are continuing, and farmers are more conscious of the need to control this disease.

Food Poisoning — Notifications in 1960 were similar in number to those in 1959. It is certain, however, that while outbreaks involving numbers of people are generally reported there must be many sporadic cases and family outbreaks which are dismissed as “summer sickness” or “gastric 'flu”.

Infective Hepatitis — During 1960 there were 3,895 cases reported, an increase of 1,922 over the total for 1959. This disease continues to gain ground and is becoming one of the most serious public health problems.

Bacillary Dysentery - There was a decrease in notifications during 1960. This disease is one of the most infectious diseases.

Tuberculosis — The Department of Health is continuing its efforts to reduce further both incidence and mortality. In fact the mortality per 100,000 of population has decreased from 28.3 in 1951 to 4.8 in 1960. The number of public health nurses available for tuberculosis case-finding work has been increased, and hospital clinics in the charge of chest specialists have been provided to give a wide geographical coverage. The responsibilities of the Department of Health in case finding and domiciliary care are coordinated with those of the hospital boards, which are responsible for diagnosis and treatment.

Medical officers of the Department of Health assist the public health nurses in the examination of contacts and arrange tuberculin tests and X-ray examinations. There are at present some 10 mass miniature X-ray units strategically sited throughout the country. In 1960 nine of these carried out a total of 257,766 chest X-ray examinations, and found that 0.96 in every thousand examined required supervision and treatment for tuberculous disease. In addition to tuberculosis, many other conditions of lungs and heart were discovered and, where necessary, were referred to the individual's private doctor for further investigation and follow-up.

As a contribution to prophylaxis, B.C.G. vaccination against tuberculosis, which was commenced on hospital staffs, contacts, and adolescents, is being maintained in these groups. During 1959 vaccinations were performed on 35,421 persons after preliminary Mantoux testing, and the results of this activity should become manifest in the years to come.

The Department of Health maintains a Tuberculosis Register, which classifies all notified cases, and a clearer conception of the type, form, and extent of the disease is being obtained. The number of cases on the Register (inclusive of Maoris) at 31 December 1960 was 12,394, of which 11,498 were respiratory and 896 non-respiratory. The number of new cases notified in 1960 was 1,436, of which 939 were European and 497 Maori. Of the European cases, 787 were respiratory and J 52 non-respiratory, and in the Maori cases the figures were 393 and 152 respectively. Some of these cases may have since been proved non-tuberculous and subsequently deregistered.

The total number of European persons on the Register at the end of 1960 amounted to 36.3 per 10,000 of the European population and the Maori rate was 272 per 10,000 of the Maori population. The combined figure was 52.1 per 10,000.

PUBLIC HOSPITAL PATIENTS — Detailed statistical information is supplied to the Department of Health about every patient, except normal maternity cases, discharged from or dying in public hospitals in New Zealand. After tabulation in accordance with the International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death, this information is published annually in the Department of Health publication Medical Statistics. Patients in public hospitals comprise about 85 per cent of all hospital patients.

Patients Treated — The following table shows the number of patients created in public hospitals for the latest five years.

YearRemaining on 1 January from Previous YearAdmissionsDischargesDeathsTotal Number of Indoor PatientsRemaining on 31 December

* Does not include 16 patients in hospitals from which returns were not collected after 31 December 1955.

† Does not include 75 psychiatric patients in Queen Mary Hospital, Hanmer Springs, previously included in the total remaining on 31 December 1958.

19567,960*160,684151,8818,824168,6447,939
19577,939169,729160,0099,576177,6688,083
19588,083174,790165,4819,248182,8738,144
19598,069†184,195174,20210,020192,2648,042
19608,042183,743173,9909,768191,7858,027

Age and Sex of Patients — The age and sex of patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals during 1959 are shown below.

Age GroupsMalesFemalesTotal
Under 1 year4,9993,6678,666
1 and under 2 years2,4141,7654,179
2 and under 3 years2,0201,4583,478
3 and under 4 years1,8531,2993,152
4 and under 5 years1,9971,4243,421
5 and under 10 years8,7756,69315,468
10 and under 15 years6,5314,65011,181
15 and under 20 years6,3678,10914,476
20 and under 25 years5,3798,26013,639
25 and under 30 years4,5317,29611,827
30 and under 35 years4,3376,73311,070
35 and under 40 years4,2266,14210,368
40 and under 45 years3,8075,3489,155
45 and under 50 years4,3184,9469,264
50 and under 55 years4,4594,2998,758
55 and under 60 years4,5823,7188,300
60 and under 65 years4,1703,6497,819
65 and under 70 years4,1863,6797,865
70 and under 75 years4,2723,5887,860
75 and under 80 years3,8873,1977,084
80 and under 85 years2,3052,1564,461
85 years and over1,3331,3982,731
Totals90,74893,474184,222

Although there is little overall difference in the totals of males and females, there is a well defined pattern when figures for each sex are compared, age group by age group. In all ages under 15 years there is a preponderance of males. This difference is common to most disease groups but is more marked in diseases of the digestive genito-urinary and respiratory systems, in congenital malformations, and in accidental injuries. For the ages between 15 and 50 years there are more females than males. This age group covers the child-bearing ages in women, and the higher proportion of female patients is a reflection of this fact. Apart from conditions associated with pregnancy, abortion, delivery, and the Puerperium, female patients outnumbered male patients in both malignant and non-malignant tumours, in diseases of the thyroid gland and the respiratory system and in diseases of the genitourinary system. In the age groups from 50 years upwards the males once more predominate, particularly in diseases of the circulatory, respiratory, and digestive systems.

Principal Diseases and Injuries — The following summary shows the principal diseases and injuries treated, together with the number of deaths and the fatality rate per cent of total cases treated in public hospitals in 1959. The disease headings are the subtitles of the International Classification of Diseases. More detailed information is published annually in Medical Statistics.

It should be noted that the disease or condition for which a patient is admitted to hospital is not necessarily that which would rank as the cause of death in mortality statistics. Congestive heart failure, for instance, is comparatively highly ranked in hospital cases as the condition immediately affecting the patient, but is frequently only the consequence of some underlying disease, which would take precedence over congestive heart failure in the statistics of causes of death. Hospital returns show each disease for which the patient was treated while in hospital, but the classification for statistical purposes has been made on the basis of the principal disease for which the patient was admitted, regardless of what other unrelated diseases may have been present or developed during the stay in hospital. In mortality statistics, on the other hand, the underlying cause of death is of paramount importance. In the summary below a patient admitted on account of an injury is classified according to the nature of the injury. Should the patient die, however, the death would be classified in the mortality statistics according to the cause of the injury, e.g., motor-vehicle accident, accidental fall, etc.

DISEASES AND DISABILITIES TREATED IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS DURING 1959
DiseasesTotal Discharges and Deaths in Public HospitalsDeaths in Public HospitalsFatality Rate Per Cent
Tuberculosis of respiratory system1,972914.6
Tuberculosis, other forms498163.2
Syphilis and its sequelae74810.8
Gonococcal infection and other venereal diseases49
Infectious diseases commonly arising in intestinal tract33451.5
Other bacterial diseases675588.6
Spirochaetal diseases except syphilis95
Diseases attributable to viruses2,084432.1
Malaria7
Other infective and parasitic diseases38571.8
Cancer, malignant disease7,8141,85223.7
Benign neoplasm3,825230.6
Neoplasm of unspecified nature13875.1
Allergic disorders1,493342.3
Diseases of thyroid gland82091.1
Diabetes mellitus1,7271156.7
Diseases of other endocrine glands19684.1
Avitaminoses and other metabolic diseases410225.4
Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs852586.8
Psychoses1,449674.6
Psychoneurotic disorders1,40430.2
Disorders of character, behaviour and intelligence957141.5
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system3,2551,43544.1
Inflammatory diseases of central nervous system64811017.0
Other diseases of central nervous system1,87018810.1
Diseases of nerves and peripheral ganglia40361.5
Inflammatory diseases of eye54730.5
Other diseases and conditions of eye2,67690.3
Diseases of ear and mastoid process1,918100.5
Rheumatic fever752152.0
Chronic rheumatic heart disease3885614.4
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart disease4,3231,19727.7
Other diseases of heart1,96557729.4
Hypertensive heart disease40710325.3
Other hypertensive disease705426.0
Diseases of arteries86424528.4
Diseases of veins and other diseases of circulatory system4,655691.5
Acute upper respiratory infections2,05280.4
Influenza2,358291.2
Pneumonia6,88068510.0
Bronchitis2,9472107.1
Other diseases of respiratory system13,1711230.9
Diseases of buccal cavity and oesophagus1,99770.4
Diseases of stomach and duodenum2,3721506.3
Appendicitis6,128310.5
Hernia of abdominal cavity4,672531.1
Other diseases of intestines and peritoneum4,3402225.1
Diseases of liver, gallbladder, and pancreas3,1201635.2
Nephritis and nephrosis6327812.3
Other diseases of urinary system2,4981184.7
Diseases of male genital organs2,4601496.1
Diseases of breast, ovary, Fallopian tube, and parametrium1,24420.2
Diseases of uterus and other female genital organs6,71780.1
Complications of pregnancy2,82140.1
Abortion4,79440.1
Delivery without mention of complication55210.2
Delivery with specified complication1,25930.2
Complications of the Puerperium89410.1
Infections of skin and subcutaneous tissue4,568200.4
Other diseases of skin and subcutaneous tissue1,879241.3
Arthritis and rheumatism, except rheumatic fever2,187602.7
Osteomyelitis and other diseases of bone and joint3,534260.7
Other diseases of musculoskeletal system2,498110.4
Congenital malformations2,6251736.6
Birth injuries, asphyxia, and infections of newborn77712215.7
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy1,2581128.9
Symptoms referable to systems or organs8,736260.3
Senility and ill-defined diseases1,36625718.8
Fracture of skull, spine, and trunk2,1581376.3
Fracture of upper limb3,109170.5
Fracture of lower limb3,9462977.5
Dislocation without fracture73630.4
Sprains and strains of joints and adjacent muscles54910.2
Head injury (excluding skull fracture)4,702771.6
Internal injury of chest, abdomen, and pelvis341257.3
Laceration and open wound of face, neck, and trunk96460.6
Laceration and open wound of upper limb2,33130.1
Laceration and open wound of lower limb1,174
Laceration and open wounds of multiple location120
Superficial injury279
Contusion and crushing with intact skin surface1,17450.4
Effects of foreign body entering through orifice72710.1
Burns1,403191.4
Injury to nerves and spinal cord without bone injury15021.3
Effects of poisons1,411292.1
Effects of weather, exposure, and related conditions28
Other and unspecified injuries and reactions872101.1
Special conditions and examinations without sickness2,02420.1
Admission for convalescent care, plastic treatment, and fitting of prosthetic devices5411.9
Totals184,22210,0205.4

Duration of Stay in Public Hospitals — The average duration of stay of patients in public hospitals is shown for selected diseases in the following table.

SUMMARY OF SELECTED DISEASES TREATED IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS, SHOWING AVERAGE DURATION OF STAY, 1959
DiseasesTotal Discharges and Deaths in Public HospitalsAverage Stay (Days)
Respiratory tuberculosis1,972116.0
Non-respiratory tuberculosis49880.1
Infective and parasitic diseases other than tuberculosis3,70317.9
Otitis media and mastoiditis1,41212.0
Rheumatic fever75260.2
Chronic rheumatic heart disease38836.5
Acute upper respiratory infections, influenza, and acute bronchitis5,7297.3
Pneumonia6,88017.0
Chronic or unqualified bronchitis1,62825.1
Hypertrophied tonsils and adenoids, and quinsy10,3594.2
Appendicitis6,12810.0
Gastro-enteritis (acute)1,3778.5
Infections of skin and subcutaneous tissue4,56810.2
Osteomyelitis and periostitis1,01341.3
Malignant neoplasms7,81425.3
Benign tumours of uterus, ovary, and female genital organs1,67011.8
Allergic disorders1,49314.5
Thyrotoxicosis41620.4
Diabetes1,72732.7
Psychoneurotic disorders1,40412.7
Vascular lesions of central nervous system3,25560.9
Arteriosclerotic, hypertensive and degenerative heart disease, and general arteriosclerosis5,72535.7
Varicose veins and phlebitis2,66014.5
Haemorrhoids80311.7
Dental caries and other diseases of teeth and supporting structures1,4882.5
Peptic ulcer1,92422.3
Hernia4,67212.0
Gallbladder disease2,75616.7
Nephritis and nephrosis63234.9
Urinary infections and calculi1,61116.7
Hyperplasia of prostate1,21525.9
Diseases of female genital organs (excluding tumours)7,3859.0
Arthritis1,91558.4
Muscular rheumatism, neuralgia, and neuritis62818.3
Synovitis and other inflammatory diseases of tendons and fascia8569.1
Symptoms, senility, and ill-defined conditions10,10221.4
Accidents, poisoning, and violence26,17415.4
Deliveries and complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and puerperium10,3208.0
Remainder39,17021.2
Totals184,22219.3

Accident Cases — A summary is given below of accident cases treated as inpatients in public hospitals during 1959.

Type of AccidentTotal CasesPercentage of All Accident CasesAggregate Stay (Days)Average Stay (Days)Aggregate Stay as Percentage of Total
Transport —     
    Railway770.31,70722.20.4
    Motor-vehicle traffic5,07418.278,74415.516.4
    Motor-vehicle non-traffic1190.41,96216.50.4
    Other road vehicles1,5425.617,92111.63.7
    Water1220.41,75914.40.4
    Aircraft170.129317.20.1
Total transport6,95125.0102,38614.721.4
Non-transport —     
    Accidental poisoning1,0823.93,9963.70.8
    Accidental falls7,03425.3206,30029.343.2
    Other accidents9,93635.8116,74811.724.4
Total non-transport18,05265.0327,04418.168.4
Complications due to non-therapeutic medical and surgical procedures980.43313.40.1
Therapeutic misadventure and late complications of therapeutic procedures1,4495.229,34520.36.1
Late effects of injury and poisoning4131.512,22929.62.5
Suicide and self-inflicted injury3621.33,1098.60.7
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons4391.63,6748.40.8
Grand totals27,764100.0478,11817.2100.0

Most cases come under the heading “Non-transport — Other accidents”, which includes accidents caused by cutting and piercing instruments, machinery, falling objects, fire and hot objects, and so on. Of these most occurred in the home.

The second largest group is “Accidental falls”, which has an aggregate stay greater than any other group. This is due to the long periods spent in hospital by elderly people who have sustained serious falls.

Motor-vehicle traffic accidents comprise the third largest group, and have the third largest aggregate stay. It is interesting to note that there were three and a half times as many admissions to hospital and four times as many beds occupied by people injured in non-transport accidents as there were for motor-vehicle traffic accidents.

Deaths in Public Hospitals — The proportion of deaths in public hospitals to all deaths has increased over the last 11 years. Examination of the following table shows the trend.

YearDeaths in Public HospitalsTotal DeathsProportion of Deaths in Public Hospitals to Total Deaths
19507,74218,08442.8
19518,16318,83643.3
19528,11918,89643.0
19537,92618,35443.2
19548,14018,87643.1
19558,41019,22543.7
19568,82419,69644.8
19579,57620,86245.9
19589,24820,30145.6
195910,02021,12847.4
19609,76820,89246.8

5 C — MENTAL HOSPITALS

GENERAL — Mental hospitals are administered under the direction of the Minister of Health by the Mental Health Division of the Department of Health. Hospital boards have no jurisdiction over mental hospitals. There are ten mental hospitals, three hospitals and training schools for the mentally subnormal, and one hospital for functional nervous disease.

The newer hospitals are built on the villa system with accommodation provided in pleasant detached units of about 50 beds each. Each villa is surrounded by lawns and gardens and is largely self-contained. There are facilities for recreation and entertainment in addition to provision for modern methods of therapy. Of the older type of hospital multi-ward building, only two remain. One has been extensively modernised and the renovation of the other is being planned.

Nursing services are provided in the main by trained staff, both male and female. The training involves a three-year course leading to the State-registered qualification of psychiatric nurse. In addition to the nursing and medical staff, a wide range of ancillary staff categories provide for the therapeutic programmes of the hospitals. The Division administers and staffs the occupational therapy training school which provides occupational therapists for all hospitals in the country. In addition, the Division employs clinical psychologists, social workers, recreation officers, welfare officers, and, at the special hospitals and training schools for the mentally subnormal, specially qualified training officers and instructors.

A detailed Report on Mental Health Statistics of New Zealand is published annually by the Medical Statistics Branch of the Department of Health.

The following figures refer to hospital admissions and discharges (excluding Queen Mary Hospital for functional nervous diseases, but including figures for the mentally subnormal). It is intended to publish the figures for the mentally subnormal separately after 1961.

During 1960 there were 14,271 persons under care in mental hospitals and 1,511 persons in hospitals for the mentally subnormal at one time or another. The total of 15,782 was 401 more than in 1959. Persons admitted numbered 4,472 — an increase on the previous year of 268. Of the admissions, the majority (2,573) were voluntary boarders (289 more than for 1959). Those admitted by order of an authority numbered 1,899 — 21 less than for the previous year.

The average number of occupied beds was 9,957, which was seven less than for 1959. The rates of admission and discharge are about twice as high as they were 25 years ago but the average length of stay is shorter. The length of stay for first admissions is steadily declining, and far greater use is being made of periods of trial leave in the course of rehabilitation.

The Report on Mental Health Statistics contains administrative and clinical data about first admissions and readmissions (including replacements from probation), transfers, discharges, and deaths, for each mental hospital. The report also presents information about psychiatric disorders in terms of age and sex, etiological factors, country of birth, marital status, religion, race, family history, treatment, response to treatment, and length of stay.

Definitions:Patient — A patient is a person in a mental hospital who may not discharge himself.

Voluntary Boarder — A voluntary boarder is a person in a mental hospital who may discharge himself. In the following tables where there is information about both patients and voluntary boarders, the term “patient” has this special meaning and should not be regarded as being synonymous with the term “patient” as applied to general or public hospitals.

The average number on the registers in 1960 was 10,027 for patients and 1,022 for voluntary boarders. For the previous year the figures were 10,062 for patients and 915 for voluntary boarders.

In the following table the average number on the registers is shown for certain years.

YearResidentAbsent on LeaveTotal
MaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotal
Patients
19424,1903,4437,6332212364574,4113,6798,090
19474,3133,7508,0632543325864,5674,0828,649
19524,4754,1158,5903084887964,7834,6039,386
19574,6594,5309,1893105578674,9695,08710,056
19584,6514,5089,1593125358474,9635,04310,006
19594,6964,4599,1553435649075,0395,02310,062
19604,6954,3909,0853555879425,0504,97710,027
Voluntary Boarders
1942143150293112144151295
1947171205376145172209381
19522152654803811218273491
1957288373661215778309430739
1958312388700187896330466796
19593744358093571106409506915
1960409463872431071504525701,022
All Cases
19424,3333,5937,9262222374594,5553,8308,385
19474,4843,9558,4392553365914,7394,2919,030
19524,6904,3809,0703114968075,0014,8769,877
19574,9474,9039,8503316149455,2785,51710,795
19584,9634,8969,8593306139435,2935,50910,802
19595,0704,8949,9643786351,0135,4485,52910,977
19605,1044,8539,9573986941,0925,5025,54711,049

FIRST ADMISSIONS — In 1960 there were 2,787 first admissions to mental hospitals. Of these 1,331 were males and 1,456 were females. The number of voluntary boarders (1,430) exceeded the number of patients (1,357).

The numbers and rates of first admissions, together with the percentage of first admissions in total admissions and the percentage of voluntary boarders in first admissions, are shown in the next tables.

YearPatientsVoluntary BoardersTotal
MaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotal

* Average over five years.

Numbers
1935–39*481462943115972125965591,155
1940–44*4705269961101262365806521,232
1945–49*5446071,1512352675027798741,653
1950–54*6257461,3713493847339741,1302,104
1955–59*6697311,4004895771,0661,1581,3082,466
19566687531,4214925431,0351,1601,2962,456
19577007671,4674455701,0151,1451,3372,482
19586497051,3544815871,0681,1301,2922,422
19596906621,3526217461,3671,3111,4082,719
19606826751,3576497811,4301,3311,4562,787
YearPatientsVoluntary BoardersTotal
MaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotal
Rates per 100,000 of Mean Population
1935–39*59.558.959.214.212.413.373.771.372.5
1940–44*58.562.860.813.715.014.472.277.875.2
1945–49*61.167.564.526.229.627.987.397.192.4
1950–54*62.274.968.534.638.536.696.8113.4105.1
1955–59*59.665.862.743.451.747.5102.9117.5110.2
195660.968.465.144.850.047.4105.7118.4112.5
195762.369.165.739.651.345.4101.9120.4111.1
195856.462.159.241.851.746.798.2113.8105.9
195958.857.057.952.964.358.6111.7121.3116.5
196057.157.157.154.366.160.2111.41231117.3
 Percentage of First Admissions in Total AdmissionsPercentage of Voluntary Boarders in First Admissions

* Average over five years.

1935–39*80.118.3
1940–44*76.719.0
1945–49*75.630.1
1950–54*74.034.7
1955–59*67.543.0
195669.442.1
195767.740.9
195864.744.1
195964.750.3
196062.351.3

Diagnosis — The five leading diagnoses in 1960 were: senile psychosis, 451 cases; manic-depressive reaction, 449 cases; schizophrenia, 440 cases; neurotic-depressive reaction, 356 cases; and mental deficiency, 231 cases. These five diagnoses accounted for over two-thirds (69.1 per cent) of first admissions.

The number of patients and voluntary boarders, together with the percentage of voluntary boarders in all first admissions, are now shown for 1960.

DiagnosisPatientsVoluntary BoardersPercentage of Voluntary Boarders in All First Admissions
Psychoses   
General paralysis of insane1
Schizophrenia27316738
Manic-depressive reaction12032973
Involutional melancholia114179
Paranoia and paranoid states171750
Senile psychosis3975412
Presenile psychosis11321
Psychosis with cerebral arteriosclerosis561420
Alcoholic psychosis271231
Psychosis of other demonstrable etiology321227
Puerperal psychosis142362
Other and unspecified psychoses1716
Psychoneuroses   
Anxiety reaction210898
Hysterical reaction103176
Neurotic-depressive reaction2133594
Other and unspecified psychoneurotic disorders49100
Disorders of Character, Behaviour, and Intelligence   
Pathological and immature personality877446
Alcoholism1112492
Mental deficiency220115
Other and unspecified character, behaviour, and intelligence disorders61571
Other Conditions   
Epilepsy11739
Other defined conditions4120
Observation1019
Totals1,3581,42951

Changes in first admission numbers and rates per million of mean population over the last three years are shown in the following table. The rate for all first admissions rose from 1,060 in 1958 to 1,165 in 1959. In 1960, the rate rose to 1,172 per million, the highest on record. All diagnoses did not conform to this pattern, the most notable exception being senile psychosis, which showed a decline in both numbers and rates for each successive year.

DiagnosisNumbersRates per Million of Mean Population
195819591960195819591960
Psychoses      
Syphilis of central nervous system521211
Schizophrenia391477440171204185
Manic-depressive reaction414441449181189189
Involutional melancholia273552121522
Paranoia and paranoid states323234141414
Senile psychosis454447451199191190
Presenile psychosis13914646
Psychosis with cerebral arteriosclerosis564770242029
Alcoholic psychosis343239151416
Psychosis of other demonstrable etiology325144142219
Puerperal psychosis18363781516
Other and unspecified psychoses33321814148
Psychoneuroses      
Anxiety reaction133113110584846
Hysterical reaction724941312117
Neurotic-depressive reaction280391356122167150
Other and unspecified psychoneurotic disorders21384991621
Disorders of Character, Behaviour, and Intelligence      
Pathological and immature personality6087161263768
Alcoholism63106135284557
Mental deficiency24523623110710197
Other and unspecified character, behaviour, and intelligence disorders131121659
Other Conditions      
Epilepsy1930188138
Other defined conditions345122
Observation41311265
Totals2,4222,7192,7871,0601,1651,172

Etiological Factors — Information about the causes of mental disorders was reported in only 65.4 per cent of first admissions. It should also be noted that several factors can be reported for one case. For example, a person might be admitted because of a combination of old age and excessive use of alcohol. The principal factors were reported as old age, peculiarities in the structure of the personality, subnormal intelligence, alcohol, and congenital factors. The information is analysed in the following table.

Etiological FactorsNumber of First Admissions
Heredity7
Congenital159
Birth injury18
Other natal and prenatal conditions2
Constitutional235
Other factors in structure of personality224
Family relations132
Adolescence21
Pregnancy and Puerperium80
Climacteric61
Old age477
Religion6
Loneliness42
Sickness of near relative12
Unhappy love affair7
Sex trauma and difficulties5
Other stress24
Alcohol260
Drug addiction13
Financial difficulty19
Business worry19
Subnormal intelligence289
Tuberculosis8
Syphilis4
Acute infectious encephalitis3
Neoplasm of brain9
Other neoplasms8
Endocrine disorders17
Epilepsy59
Other diseases of central nervous system64
Arteriosclerosis88
Other circulatory diseases57
Musculoskeletal diseases9
Congenital malformation14
Injury13
Adverse reaction to reserpine2
Other illness58
Other factors26
Totals2,551

READMISSIONS — A readmission is a person admitted to a New Zealand mental hospital who has previously been in a New Zealand mental hospital.

Diagnosis — In the following table the numbers and causes of readmissions and rates per million of mean population are shown for the latest three years.

DiagnosisNumbersRates per Million of Mean Population
195819591960195819591960
Psychoses      
Syphilis of central nervous system34112
Schizophrenia460512606201219255
Manic-depressive reaction527538605231230255
Involutional melancholia25213911916
Paranoia and paranoid states252627111111
Senile psychosis708684313735
Presenile psychosis426213
Psychosis with cerebral arteriosclerosis9149464
Alcoholic psychosis192219898
Psychosis of other demonstrable, etiology22213310914
Puerperal psychosis5167273
Other and unspecified psychoses121621579
Psychoneuroses      
Anxiety reaction586951253021
Hysterical reaction352733151214
Neurotic-depressive reaction1941932408583101
Other and unspecified psychoneurotic disorders413292612
Disorders of Character, Behaviour, and Intelligence      
Pathological and immature personality21357491531
Alcoholism7496132324156
Mental deficiency648168283529
Other and unspecified character, behaviour, and intelligence disorders4412225
Other Conditions      
Epilepsy27291212125
Other defined conditions213111
Observation644322
Totals1,6701,8302,115731784890

Both numbers and rates have increased steadily over the last three years. Diagnoses showing the greatest increases are manic-depressive reaction, alcoholism, schizophrenia, and neurotic-depressive reaction.

DISCHARGES — There are four principal ways of being discharged from mental hospital: (a) outright discharge, which means being formally discharged at the time of leaving hospital; (b) trial discharge; (c) probation leave, being authorised leave of more than three months' duration for any other purpose; (d) discharged “not committed”, which means being discharged from a mental hospital on the grounds that the patient's mental condition does not warrant his being detained in a mental hospital.

There were 4,062 discharges in 1960. Of these 2,335 were outright discharges, 1,267 were on trial discharge, 301 were probation leavers, and 159 were discharged “not committed”.

The principal diagnoses were: manic-depressive reaction, 593 cases; neurotic-depressive reaction, 450 cases; and schizophrenia, 375 cases.

The following table shows the number of discharges for 1960 by diagnosis.

DiagnosisOutright DischargeTrial DischargeProbation LeaveNot CommittedTotal
Psychoses     
General paralysis of insane415
Schizophrenia38248210018982
Manic-depressive reaction6472835014994
Involutional melancholia51212276
Paranoia and paranoid states26271155
Senile psychosis6864282162
Presenile psychosis4419
Psychosis with cerebral arteriosclerosis68317
Alcoholic psychosis34172558
Psychosis of other demonstrable etiology172411254
Puerperal psychosis242145
Other and unspecified psychoses15151132
Psychoneuroses     
Anxiety reaction12125132161
Hysterical reaction42144464
Phobic reaction5117
Obsessive-compulsive reaction73111
Neurotic-depressive reaction44793294573
Psychoneurosis with somatic symptoms affecting circulation11
Psychoneurosis with somatic symptoms affecting digestive system1416
Psychoneurosis with somatic symptoms affecting other systems639
Other and unspecified psychoneurotic disorders442147
Disorders of Character, Behaviour, and Intelligence     
Pathological personality without psychosis481622995
Immature personality4926330108
Non-psychotic alcoholism22312311249
Drug addiction93113
Mental deficiency30804012162
Other and unspecified character, behaviour, and intelligence disorders141116
Other Conditions     
Postencephalitic Parkinsonism22
Epilepsy (without psychosis)11143432
Observation without need for further medical care11617
Totals2,3351,2673011594,062

Duration of stay — Over a quarter (25.4 per cent) of those discharged left hospital within a month of admission. A further 38.3 per cent left in the next two months, and a further 16.3 per cent were discharged in the subsequent three months. The average stay for all discharges was 43 weeks.

DEATHS — In 1960 there were 746 deaths in mental hospitals. In addition 70 people died while on probation and one died while on escape.

The principal diagnosis was senile psychosis, 379 cases. Next came schizophrenia, 106 cases, and mental deficiency, 72 cases.

In 1960, 108 people died during the first month in hospital and a further 73 deaths occurred of people who had been in hospital one but under three months.

EXPENDITURE, ETC. — The total expenditure on public mental hospitals (not including the cost of new buildings and additions) and particulars of receipts during the last 11 financial years are shown in the next table. As from 1 April 1939 free maintenance and treatment of patients have been provided in all public mental hospitals in accordance with the provisions of the Social Security Act 1938. The Mental Health Amendment Act 1950 provides that the cost of maintenance of any person who is not ordinarily resident in New Zealand and who is detained in any public institution shall be a debt due to the Crown.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal ExpenditureReceiptsNet ExpenditureGross Average Cost per Patient
Patients FeesSale of Produce, etc.
 ££ ££s.d.
19511,810,2852,956125,7711,681,55820620
19522,288,5894,983138,4652,145,14125760
19532,446.3441,84955,2102,389,28527220
19542,510,8861,21871,5282,438,14023188
19552,549,7333,10468,4372,478,192262410
19562,805,87762966,9622,738,286283194
19573,036,43187475,1932,960,36431282
19583,366,82056095,9903,270,270344122
19593,583,237664102,9513,479,622355173
19603,889,910815111,4633,777,632392157
19614,219,27817,79195,0454,106,44241284

As already stated, the expenditure included in the foregoing table does not include amounts spent on new buildings, additions, etc., the cost of which is met by the Ministry of Works. Expenditure for the last four financial years has amounted to £841,609 in 1957–58, £783,548 in 1958–59, £697,398 in 1959–60, and £906,479 in 1960–61.

Chapter 6. Section 6 SOCIAL SECURITY, PENSIONS, SUPERANNUATION, ETC.

6 A — SOCIAL SECURITY

DEVELOPMENT — Social security is a comprehensive plan of State assistance by a system of monetary benefits and free or subsidised medical and hospital provisions for the safeguarding of health.

The Social Security Act 1938, which came into operation on 1 April 1939, is the basic legislation. Its principal objects were (a) to substitute for the system of non-contributory civil pensions — e.g., old age, widows', and other pensions — a system of extended monetary benefits; (b) the inauguration of a system of medical and hospital benefits and of other related benefits.

The Social Security Amendment Act 1945 introduced a further important addition to the social legislation of New Zealand. It established the principle of universal family benefits, and from 1 April 1946 each mother has received a benefit in respect of each of her dependent children irrespective of the family income or property.

There is reciprocity of social security benefits with Australia, and with the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland. Under the Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948 the classes of benefits cover the following: age pensions and age benefits, invalid pensions (including wives' and children's allowances) and invalids' benefits, widows' pensions and widows' benefits, child endowment and family benefits, unemployment benefits, and sickness benefits. The Social Security (Reciprocity with the United Kingdom) Act 1956 provides for reciprocity between the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland and New Zealand to cover age, superannuation, widows', orphans', invalids', sickness, and unemployment benefits. Family benefits have been payable on a reciprocal basis since 1948.

Earlier Yearbooks should be referred to for details of social welfare benefits paid prior to the passing of the Social Security Act 1938.

ADMINISTRATION — The Social Security Act 1938 established the Social Security Department, which is under the control of a Commission. The Department administers, under the direction of the Minister of Social Security, Part II of the Act dealing with monetary benefits, while Part III of the Act, dealing with medical, hospital, and other related benefits, is administered by the Department of Health under the direction of the Minister of Health.

The War Pensions Act 1954 is also administered by the Social Security Department, one of whose officers is designated Secretary for War Pensions.

Owing to the continued decline in volume of rehabilitation work now that the needs of most ex-servicemen have been met, it was decided in 1959–60 to merge the Rehabilitation Division (formerly attached to the Department of Internal Affairs) with the War Pensions Branch of the Social Security Department.

FINANCIAL PROVISIONS — Finance to enable the provisions of the Act to be carried out was provided for by the establishment within the Public Account of the Social Security Fund. The principal revenue of the fund was derived from a charge (collected by the Inland Revenue Department) on salaries, wages, and other income, including the income of companies, but the Act also made provision for the payment to the fund of such other moneys as might be appropriated by Parliament from time to time, and a substantial amount has been transferred from the Consolidated Fund each year except 1957–58.

The social security charge, which had been at the rate of 1d. for every 1s. 8d. or part thereof of income since the inception of the scheme, was increased in 1946 to 1d. for every 13 1/3d. or part thereof—i.e., 1s. 6d. in the pound. The increase, in the case of salaries and wages, became effective from and including 13 May 1946, while “other” income received during the year ended 31 March 1946 was subject to the increased rate.

The Income Tax Assessment Act 1957, which introduced the Pay As You Earn system of taxation from 1 April 1958, provided for the imposition of a social security income tax in the place of the social security charge. This tax has also been written into the deduction tables under the PAYE system at the rate hitherto obtaining (i.e., 1s. 6d. in the pound). It forms part of the pay-period tax. By the Social Security Amendment Act 1958 all social security income tax was payable into the Consolidated Fund in 1958–59 and 1959–60, and the amount necessary for administering the Social Security Act was appropriated out of that fund. The Finance Act 1959 provided for the payment into the Social Security Fund, from 1 April 1960, of an amount computed at the rate of 1s. 6d. for each £1 of the national private income (as defined in the Act) for the preceding year, as estimated by the Government Statistician.

In the case of salaries and wages the amount of the tax is deducted by the employer or other person by whom the wages or salaries are paid, while the tax on other income is payable by the recipient in two instalments on 7 August and 7 February in the income year.

Receipts — Receipts of the Social Security Fund for five financial years are given in the following table.

Item1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61
Social security income tax —£££££
    On salary and wages5,739,381
    On other income of persons11,185,226
    On company income8,142,140
    PAYE55,547,91875,390,000
Charge on salaries and wages37,262,66740,317,504
Charge on other income of persons16,655,45818,008,194 
Charge on company income7,717,0997,930,406
Grants from Consolidated Fund (Social Security Act)14,000,00024,600,000106,500,00034,700,000
Maintenance recoveries against defaulting husbands92,233104,195115,558131,180140,980
Interest on investments80,73883,08211020,87950,396
Reciprocity arrangements: Recoveries from Australian Government11,0587,9787,6437,89114,283
Other receipts37,26658,23062,08073,480166,647
Total revenue75,856,51966,509,589105,400,056106,733,430110,462,306

Payments — Particulars of payments of the Social Security Fund during the same five financial years are contained in the next table.

Item1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61
Monetary benefits —£££££
    Superannuation7,908,7958,279,1998,940,75215,460,04720,087,377
    Age23,305,38324,304,07726,104,99227,291,00827,035,647
    Widows'2,934,2653,279,6833,642,3513,915,7854,200,457
    Orphans'31,59936,12938,19539,44142,948
    Family19,444,42120,152,61925,995,31531,791,98630,899,797
    Invalids'1,672,4381,799,8231,942,4902,118,4112,148,898
    Miners'121,048124,589119,205112,832117,822
    Unemployment20,57852,067111,723189,89892,681
    Sickness1,221,4091,368,3601,436,9131,719,3431,673,372
    Emergency729,309819,451849,461931,429932,458
    Supplementary assistance184,276218,201252,758273,010307,859
    Advances for repairs to homes4,05446,68733,715
    Capitalisation of family benefit3,879,8896,941,089
Total monetary benefits57,573,52160,434,19869,438,20987,769,76694,514,120
Medical benefits —     
    Medical3,797,0623,927,8923,969,6464,243,3614,244,798
    Hospital4,869,4534,930,4245,774,5195,650,2535,685,211
    Maternity1,414,7671,449,3591,542,4931,561,8611,656,725
    Pharmaceutical4,572,5574,466,5415,112,3435,956,3026,798,157
    Supplementary2,118,8732,284,0912,256,3742,479,8502,763,540
Total, medical benefits16,772,71217,058,30718,655,37519,891,62721,148,431
Reciprocity benefits —     
Australia10,2459,9779,19110,69912,991
United KingdomCr. 1790
Balance of maintenance moneys11430029111255
Administration expenses1,249,5421,398,2441,360,3021,522,1301,704,672
Total payments75,606,11778,901,11689,463,368109,194,334117,380,269
Balance of fund at end of year17,056,2304,664,70320,601,39118,140,48711,222,524

During the year ended 31 March 1961, £72,253,427, or 66.5 per cent of the total expenditure (£108,687,747) on monetary and medical benefits including supplementary assistance, was paid without a means test, the remaining amount being subject to a means test.

The following table gives details of expenditure on the various classes of medical benefits during the last five financial years.

Item1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61

* Mainly on account of hospital benefits.

Maternity benefits —£££££
    Public hospital fees776,321780,364873,755892,692905,389
    Private hospital fees190,613180,222181,254185,978184,679
    Medical practitioners' fees398,848440,563411,661432,170441,276
    Milage fees14,73216,13117,22319,19820,581
    Obstetric nurses' fees4,1533,0554,1023,6935,026
    Private hospital loans30,10029,02454,49828,13099,774
Totals1,414,7671,449,3591,542,4931,561,8611,656,725
Medical benefits —     
    Capitation fees4,4124,4114,4124,411-
    Milage fees207,292219,505205,362214,860193,445
    General medical services3,510,9713,626,8253,680,5203,931,2733,950,639
    Special arrangements69,16673,01976,57287,09491,755
    Purchase of sites and erection of residences for medical officers5,2214,1322,7805,7238,959
Totals3,797,0623,927,8923,969,6464,243,3614,244,798
Hospital benefits —     
    Public hospitals —     
    Inpatients3,564,4573,595,7144,252,6044,255,6814,322,413
    Outpatients397,716414,234414,602414,460413,921
    Private hospitals601,126616,964755,215770,358789,907
    Approved institutions107,057111,789117,153125,275129,936
    Private hospital loans179,368180,210196,42364,57715,795
    Grants towards operating costs of Karitane hospitals19,72911,51338,52219,90113,239
Totals4,869,4534,930,4245,774,5195,650,2525,685,211
Pharmaceutical benefits —     
    Chemists4,475,6064,353,7524,973,5585,787,6846,605,889
    Medical practitioners17,93422,46327,27432,12648,736
    Institutions79,01790,326111,511136,492143,532
Totals4,572,5574,466,5415,112,3435,956,3026,798,157
Supplementary benefits —     
    Radiological services474,369471,792471,202489,459510,234
    Laboratory services338,673414,863471,795585,644732,964
    Physiotherapy services66,49961,56961,67963,00561,916
    Specialist services (neurosurgery)2,8722,9903,7905,0033,324
    District nursing services162,016181,892195,518206,587222,916
    Dental services906,420932,451940,5901,000,8771,000,561
    Domestic assistance9,97712,56012,36514,75714,039
    Artificial-aids benefits73,22982,78693,782107,789114,899
    Other84,818123,1885,6536,730102,687
Totals2,118,8732,284,0912,256,3742,479,8512,763,540
Grand totals16,772,71217,058,30718,655,37519,891,62721,148,431
Recoveries*10,0537,6664,7744,6704,570
Net totals16,762,65917,050,64118,650,60119,886,95721,143,861

The following table summarises social security expenditure according to type of benefit and per head of mean population, and also relates expenditure to national income.

Year Ended 31 MarchNet National Income at Factor CostExpenditure
HealthFamilyOtherTotalPer Head of Mean Population
 Amount £(million)£ s.
1956843.815.518.937.371.733 7
1957885.916.719.538.174.333 17
1958929.917.120.240.277.534 10
1959961.718.726.043.488.138 6
19601,043.619.931.852.0103.744 4
19611,114.021.230.956.6108.745 10
 Percentage of Expenditure to National Income 
19561.82.24.48.5
19571.92.24.38.4
19581.82.24.38.3
19591.92.74.59.2
19601.93.05.09.9
19611.92.85.19.8

Benefits and Pensions in Force — The total number of persons in respect of whom social security benefits (including dependent wives and children) were payable at 31 March 1961 was 1,092,401, or 4,525 per 10,000 of population. For the previous year the corresponding figures were 1,061,980 and 4,481 respectively. Particulars of the various social security benefits in force and the annual value at 31 March for the three latest years is as follows.

Class of Benefit or PensionNumber in Force at 31 MarchAnnual Value at 31 March 1961
195919601961

* The expenditure figures given under this heading are gross widows' benefits — i.e., not reduced by the amounts recovered under maintenance orders.

Social security benefits —
    Monetary —   £
      Superannuation84,38387,95997,52818,650,279
      Age118,502116,077106,67324,630,824
      Widows'*12,83313,04913,3284,186,058
      Orphans'26427727444,834
      Family333,413343,193348,00429,858,743
      Invalids'8,0328,0248,1572,237,465
      Miners'386353316103,474
      Unemployment341312140
      Sickness4,1904,0643,929
      Emergency3,0393,1363,006
      Supplementary assistance5,1175,5256,200274,423
Totals570,500581,969587,555

MISCELLANEOUS PENSIONS, ETC. — In addition to the various classes of benefits enumerated in the foregoing part of this section there were 677 pensions at 31 March 1961 classed as “sundry pensions and annuities”. This class covers ex-officers of the Legislative Department, ex-members of the defence forces, certain ex-members of the Legislature, and others, by way of compassionate allowance, etc.

MONETARY BENEFITS — A summarised account of the changes in monetary benefits from the inception of the social security scheme to 1957 was given on pages 205–206 of the 1958 issue of the Yearbook. Since 1939 the original provisions have been considerably amended and enlarged to correct anomalies and to cover more comprehensively the needs of the people. In addition the rates of benefits have been increased from time to time, mainly as a result of the increased cost of living. In December 1959 additional payments of £6 to single beneficiaries and £12 to married couples were made. These payments covered the period from 12 October 1959 -when a general wage order came into effect-to 29 March 1960.

The Social Security Amendment Act 1960 increased the rates payable in respect of age, invalids', widows' (and mothers” allowances), and miners' benefits by £13 a year, and sickness and unemployment benefits by 5s. a week from 30 March 1960. The amendment abolished the means tests on property, formerly applicable to age, invalids', orphans', and unemployment benefits, and increased the amount of income allowable before reduction of age, widows', and invalids' benefits from £104 to £156 a year, and the allowable income for sickness and unemployment benefits from £2 to £3 a week from 12 October 1960. From the same date provision was made for an allowable income of £52 a year before reduction in the rate of orphans' benefit which was formerly reducible by £1 for every complete £1 of an orphan's income.

Also from 12 October 1960 the amendment increased the rate payable in respect of a superannuation benefit by £13 a year and gave the Social Security Commission discretionary power to grant on application an additional £26 a year to single, widowed, separated, or divorced superannuation beneficiaries.

The Social Security Amendment Act 1961 increased the amount of income allowable before reduction of a widow's benefit where the widow is supporting a dependent child or children from £156 to £260 a year from 13 September 1961. From the same date provision was made for up to £52 a year received by an age or invalid's beneficiary, or up to 20s. a week received by a sickness beneficiary as sick benefit from a friendly society or a like benefit from any other source, to be disregarded.

For the purpose of determining eligibility for benefit on grounds of residence, persons employed outside New Zealand will be deemed to be resident in New Zealand if employed on Government business, and may be so deemed at the Commission's discretion if employed otherwise, for the purposes of Part II of the principal Act, where liable for the payment of social security income tax on their earnings. In each case the wife and children are also included.

The receipt of a war disablement pension or a basic war widow's pension does not render a person ineligible to receive a social security benefit.

SUMMARY OF RATES OF SOCIAL SECURITY BENEFITS — The list below gives a summary of the annual and weekly rates for monetary benefits as at January 1962.

BenefitAnnual RateWeekly Rate
Superannuation —£s.d.£s.d.

* According to circumstances, but in general, standard rates will be increased by 20s. a week for beneficiary, 10s. a week for his wife, and 5s. a week for each dependent child.

    Unmarried person247004150
    Married person22100450
Age -—      
    Unmarried person247004150
    Married couple if both eligible (each)22100450
    Married woman whose husband is not eligible22100450
    Married man whose wife is not eligible442008100
Widows' —      
    Widow247004150
Additional mother's allowance where widow has —£s.d.£s.d.
    One dependent child15600300
    Two dependent children182003100
    Three dependent children20800400
    Four dependent children234004100
    Five dependent children26000500
    Six or more dependent children-286005100
Orphans' (each child)11700250
Family (each child)3900 150
Invalids' —      
    Unmarried person, 20 years or over247004150
    Unmarried person under 20 years20800400
    Married man with wife included442008100
    Married woman22100450
    Limit of income, including benefits, where domestic or nursing assistance required for a married woman7020013100
Miners' —      
    Unmarried person247004150
    Married man with wife included442008100
    Miner's widow214100426
Sickness or Unemployment —      
    Person under 20 years without dependants182003100
    Married man with wife included442008100
    Married woman22100450
    Others247004150
Supplementary AssistanceAccording to circumstances
EmergencyAccording to circumstances
Emergency — Sufferers from tuberculosis*....

Superannuation Benefits — Every person over the age of 65 years who satisfies the prescribed residential qualifications is entitled to a superannuation benefit without conditions as to income or property. The superannuation benefit is, however, regarded as assessable income for income-tax purposes but is exempt from the social security income tax. The residential qualifications require, in general, a period of residence in New Zealand of 20 years immediately preceding application for benefit, but in the case of a person who was resident in New Zealand on 15 March 1938 the qualifying period is 10 years only. Allowances are made for occasional offences.

For the 10 years' requirement, continuous residence is not deemed to be interrupted by absence —

  1. If the total period of absence from New Zealand does not exceed one year; or

  2. If the total period of absence from New Zealand exceeds one year but does not exceed that period by more than six months for every year of residence in New Zealand in excess of a period of 10 years, and the applicant is ordinarily resident in New Zealand at the date of his application.

A similar proviso for the 20 years' requirement applies —

  1. If the total period of absence from New Zealand does not exceed two years; or

  2. If the total period of absence from New Zealand exceeds two years but does not exceed that period by more than six months for every year of residence in New Zealand in excess of a period of 20 years, and the applicant is ordinarily resident in New Zealand at the date of his application.

Provision is made to cover absence by a seaman serving on board any ship registered or owned in New Zealand and absence in any capacity as a member of any of Her Majesty's Forces.

A superannuation benefit is not payable in addition to any other cash benefit except a family benefit. For example, a superannuation benefit and an invalid's benefit cannot be paid to the one person. Similarly, a superannuation benefit and an age benefit are not payable to the one person.

At the date of commencement on 1 April 1940, and for the remainder of the year, the rate of benefit was £10 a year, thereafter being increased by £2 10s. a year. As from 1 October 1951, however, the amount payable for the balance of the year 1951–52 was raised from £37 10s. to £75 a year, this amount increasing by £5 a year on 1 April of each succeeding year to £110 a year in 1958. From 1 April 1959 the rate increased to £156 a year, from 30 March 1960 to £208 a year, and from 12 October 1960 to £221 a year for a married person and to £247 a year for an unmarried person on application.

The number of superannuation benefits in force at 31 March 1961 was 97,528, an increase of 9,569 above the total for the previous year. Expenditure on these benefits rose from £15,460,047 in 1959–60 to £20,087,377 in 1960–61.

Age Benefits — Every person who has attained the age of 60 years is entitled to receive an age benefit, subject to satisfying certain qualifications in regard to residence and character. The residential qualifications are the same as those set out under the preceding heading in regard to superannuation benefits. The character qualifications mainly relate to desertion of wife or husband or wilful failure in the case of a married man or widower to provide adequate maintenance for wife or for children under 16 years of age.

The basic rate of the benefit is £221 a year, subject to certain deductions on account of income. Particulars of additions to and deductions from the basic rate are as follows:

Unmarried applicants: The basic rate is increased to £247, although reduced by £1 for every complete £1 of income in excess of £156 a year.

Married applicants: Where husband and wife are both entitled to the benefit the basic rate is reduced by 10s. for every complete £1 of their combined incomes in excess of £156 a year. In cases where only one of them, is entitled to the benefit the reduction is at the rate of £1 for every complete £1 of their total income (excluding a family benefit) in excess of £377 a year. A further provision allows of an extra payment, not exceeding £221 a year, to a male recipient when his wife is ineligible for any benefit under the Act. This is payable only up to a limit of the total income of the couple, plus benefit, of £598 a year.

For the above purposes, income is deemed not to include amounts received by way of war disablement pension or basic war widow's pension.

From 1 August 1955 age benefit has been payable to unmarried women between 55 and 60 years of age who are unable to engage in regular employment.

Age beneficiaries are entitled to surrender their benefits while their earnings are excessive and to apply for reinstatement immediately the employment ceases. The earnings received during the period that both husband and wife were not in receipt of age benefits are not taken into account.

Any deduction from the maximum rate of benefit because of excess income may be diminished by £6 10s. for each year that an applicant, on having attained the age of 65 years, has deferred applying for the benefit between the ages of 60 and 65 years, provided that he was residentially qualified to receive the benefit during that period.

During 1960–61, 662 existing beneficiaries and new applicants received additional benefit for the first time on account of the deferment concession. The periods of deferment were: one year, 53; two years, 78; three years, 87; four years, 76; and five years, 368.

In computing the allowable income of any female beneficiary or the wife of any beneficiary no account is taken of her personal earnings from domestic or nursing services in private homes or in hospitals or charitable institutions up to £78 a year.

A special allowance not exceeding £26 a year may be paid to any person in receipt of an age benefit who served as a member of a New Zealand contingent in connection with the South African War or in any of Her Majesty's forces in that war if he had been born in New Zealand or was domiciled therein at the commencement of the war.

The Commission may also, in its discretion, increase by an amount not exceeding £26 a year the rate of any benefit under Part II of the Act (including the age benefit) payable to any beneficiary who was one of the parents of a deceased member of any of Her Majesty's forces established in New Zealand whose death was attributable to service with the forces. Similar powers exist in respect of a parent of a deceased member of the New Zealand mercantile marine whose death was attributable to the Second World War. The provision also covers from 1 April 1949 the case of a deceased member of any force or of the mercantile marine of any part of the British Commonwealth other than New Zealand who was domiciled in New Zealand at the commencement of the Second World War and whose death was directly attributable to that war. At 31 March 1961 there were 2,214 of these allowances in force, this representing a decrease of 332 from the figure of 2,546 for 1960.

Where an applicant for an age benefit is totally blind, the rate of the benefit, together with any benefits and allowances payable to or in respect of the wife or husband of the applicant, is not to be less than the total of benefits and allowances that would have been paid if the applicant had been eligible for an invalid's benefit.

The number of age benefits in force at 31 March 1961 was 106,673, a decrease of 9,404 as compared with the figure at the end of March 1960. The 1961 total was inclusive of 4,448 husbands receiving benefits on account of dependent wives who were not eligible for benefits in their own right, and of 105 males receiving the additional allowance of up to £26 a year paid to veterans of the South African War. Expenditure on age benefits decreased from £27,291,008 in 1959–60 to £27,035,647 in 1960–61.

The following table shows the estimated age distribution of (a) persons who were granted new age benefits during the calendar year 1960 (including transfers from widows' and invalids' benefits), and (b) total age beneficiaries at 31 December 1960.

Age, in yearsPersons Granted New Age Benefits During 1960Total Age Beneficiaries at 31 December 1960
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
    601,2101,5302,7408459771,822
    613704808501,5702,1633,733
    623004007001,2852,6553,940
    631802904701,1423,0204,162
    64902103001,0103,1404,150
Totals, 60–642,1502,9105,0605,85211,95517,807
    65–694903608506,78514,93021,715
    70–742102304409,11417,62126,735
    75 and over10013023015,24127,98043,221
Totals2,9503,6306,58036,99272,486109,478

Widows' Benefits — Every widow who is the mother of one or more children under 16 years of age is entitled to a benefit in respect of widowhood. In addition, any widow not being the mother of children under 16 years of age who satisfies the following conditions is also entitled to the benefit:

  1. A widow who has had one or more children, provided that the duration of her marriage was not less than 15 years or, in the alternative, that the aggregate of the period of the duration of her marriage and any subsequent period during which she had the care of at least one of her children under 16 years of age was not less than 15 years:

  2. A widow who, on the expiration of not less than five years after the date of her marriage, became a widow after she attained the age of fifty years:

  3. A widow of not less than 50 years of age who became a widow after she had attained the age of 40 years, provided that the duration of her marriage was not less than 10 years and that not less than 15 years have expired since the date of her marriage.

It will be noted that no widow under 50 years of age who has not had one or more children can qualify for the benefit.

Provision is also made for other classes of women (not being widows) to receive benefits as if they were widows. Particulars are as follows:

  1. Any married woman who satisfies the Commission that she has been deserted by her husband and that she has taken proceedings against him for a maintenance order under the Destitute Persons Act 1910. Either the beneficiary or the Commission may institute and prosecute proceedings for the enforcement of the order, or for an order cancelling, varying, or suspending the maintenance order. Any moneys paid by a husband, whether by way of maintenance order or otherwise, are set off against any benefit so granted. Benefits for deserted wives may be continued after divorce:

  2. Any married woman in respect of whose husband a reception order is in force under the Mental Health Act 1911 (whether or not he is detained in an institution under the Act), or whose husband is for the time being an inmate of an institution under that Act, whether as a voluntary in-patient or otherwise.

The two paragraphs which follow also apply in such cases, reference to the date of death being deemed to be reference to date of desertion by the husband or to the making of a reception order.

Except in the case of widows with one or more children under 16 years of age, no widow is entitled to receive a widow's benefit unless she and her husband were both resident in New Zealand for not less than three years immediately preceding the death of the husband or, unless either of them, being ordinarily resident in. New Zealand at the date of the husband's death, has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than five years.

The term “children” does not include any child born out of New Zealand unless at least one of the following conditions is satisfied — namely, that —

  1. The mother of the child was only temporarily out of New Zealand at the time of its birth; or

  2. Both parents were resident in New Zealand for the three years immediately preceding the date of the death of the husband of the applicant; or

  3. One of the parents, being ordinarily resident in New Zealand at the date of the husband's death, has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than five years.

The term “child” includes a stepchild or a child adopted during the lifetime of the husband of the applicant (in cases where the husband is dead) or adopted while the husband and wife were living together (in cases of desertion, etc.). It may also (at the discretion of the Commission) include any child who is being maintained by the applicant or was at any time maintained by the husband of the applicant.

No woman shall be entitled to receive a widow's benefit unless the Commission is satisfied that she is of good moral character and sober habits.

The rate of benefit payable to a widow is £247 a year plus a supplementary benefit (mother's allowance) of £156 a year in cases where there is one dependent child and £182 a year where there are two dependent children under sixteen years of age. For a widow with three dependent children the rate of mother's allowance is £208; with four children £234; with five children £260; and with six or more children £286 a year.

Any income received, exclusive of war disablement or basic war widow's pension, is taken into account in computing the benefit payable. Where such income exceeds £156 the annual rate of benefit is reduced by £1 for every complete £1 of such excess, but in the case of a widow supporting a dependent child or children the allowable income without reduction is £260 a year. The maximum of income plus benefit in the case of a widow without dependent children is £403 a year and for a widow with one dependent child is £663 a year. This maximum is increased by £26 a year for each additional dependent child up to and including the sixth. A widow with dependent children will, of course, receive in addition the family benefit of 15s. a week for each child.

The provision relating to the allowable income of £78 a year gained from domestic or nursing services in private homes or in hospitals and charitable institutions without affecting the amount of the benefit payable to women age-beneficiaries also applies to widows' benefits. Widows' benefits cease on remarriage.

At 31 March 1961 there were 13,328 benefits in force, an increase of 279 during the year. Expenditure totalled £4,200,457 in 1960–61, compared with £3,915,785 in 1959–60. Offset against these amounts were the sums of £140,981 and £131,180 respectively, being recoveries of maintenance from defaulting husbands.

The following table affords an analysis of widows' benefits in force at 31 March 1961.

StatusWith One Dependent ChildWith Two or More Dependent ChildrenWithout Dependent ChildrenTotal
Widows2,3992,4736,95711,829
Deserted wives2526803501,282
Wives of mental hospital patients419878217
Totals2,6923,2517,38513,328

Orphans' Benefits — A benefit in respect of complete orphanhood is payable in the case of a child under 16 years of age who was born in New Zealand or whose last surviving parent was resident in New Zealand for a period of not less than three years preceding the date of his or her death. A stepchild or an adopted child comes within the definition of the term, and payment may be made to any person for the time being having the care and control of the child. No payment is made on account of any orphan maintained in a State institution, but payment may be made to the governing bodies of homes and orphanages of religious or other organisations.

The rate of an orphan's benefit is £117 a year reduced by £1 for each complete £1 of income received by or for the benefit of the orphan in excess of £52 a year. In any case where the benefit of the orphan falls below £39 a year application may be made for a family benefit of 15s. a week in lieu of orphan's benefit. For the purpose of assisting in the further education of any child, the Commission may grant or continue the benefit until the end of the year in which the child reaches the age of eighteen years.

The number of benefits in force at the end of March 1961 was 274 (in respect of 378 children), a decrease of 3 during the year. Expenditure increased from £39,441 in 1959–60 to £42,948 in 1960–61.

Family Benefits — As from 1 April 1946 the father or mother of any child or children under 16 years of age may apply for a family benefit, irrespective of the income or property of the parents or children. Prior to 1 April 1946 family benefits were payable subject to a means test.

The rate of the benefit is 15s. a week for each child, and in every case is paid to the mother of the children, unless in special circumstances the Commission considers that it should be paid to the father or to some other person for the benefit of the children.

If a beneficiary in receipt of an age or other monetary benefit is the parent of dependent children, payment in respect of the children is made by way of a separate family benefit.

The term “children” includes stepchildren and adopted children, but does not include —

  1. Any child who has attained the age of 16 years unless such child is continuing its education as a full-time day pupil at a school or college, in which case the Commission may grant or continue the benefit until the end of the year in which it reaches the age of 18 years.

  2. Any child who is not in fact maintained as a member of the family of the applicant.

  3. Any child in respect of whom any other benefit or pension, etc., is payable out of public moneys.

The Commission may regard as a member of the applicant's family any child who, although not a child of the applicant, is being maintained as a member of the family. A benefit may also be continued beyond the age of 16 years in respect of any child who is totally incapacitated from earning a living by reason of some physical or mental defect.

In order to qualify for a family benefit at least one of the following conditions must be satisfied, namely —

  1. The child was born in New Zealand.

  2. The mother of the child was only temporarily absent from New Zealand at the time of its birth.

  3. The Commission is satisfied that the child is likely to remain permanently in New Zealand.

  4. The child has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months.

A benefit is not payable in respect of any child committed to the care of the Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education nor in respect of any child residing in an institution under the care of the Division of Mental Hygiene of the Department of Health. Family benefits are payable to children of a member of any of Her Majesty's naval, military, or air forces.

A family benefit or portion of a family benefit may be paid in a lump sum in advance for a period not exceeding 52 weeks in respect of the first child of a marriage or a child who has commenced his first year of post-primary instruction.

Under the provisions of the Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1958, family benefits may be capitalised and paid in advance to assist parents with the purchase of home properties, additions or alterations to existing homes, or the repayment of mortgages and other obligations on family homes. In outline, the measure provides for the capitalisation of the family benefit in respect of one or more children from the age of one year up to the age of 16 years, provided that the total of the advance or advances in the case of any one family is not less than £200 or more than £1,000.

The Act came into force on 1 April 1959. During the year ended 31 March 1961, 11,442 applications for capitalisation were approved in respect of the benefits of 21,170 children. The aggregate capitalised value of the benefits involved was £7,234,836.

A family benefit may be paid in cash, or to the credit of the Post Office Savings Bank account of the mother. The number of family benefits being paid to Post Office Savings Bank accounts increased from 120,569 at 31 March 1960 to 120,911 at 31 March 1961, the amount lodged decreasing from £11,835,911 to £10,156,601. The drop in expenditure may be accounted for partly by the capitalisation of some benefits for housing purposes and partly by the eight-weekly payment of benefits lodged to Post Office Savings Bank accounts, only six payments having been made in the financial year.

The total number of benefits in force at 31 March 1961 was 348,004 covering 850,683 children, compared with corresponding figures of 343,193 and 820,000 at 31 March 1960. Included in the 1960–61 total of children were 20,700 pupils and 35 incapacitated minors over the age of 16 years. Expenditure decreased from £31,791,986 in 1959–60 to £30,899,797 in 1960–61.

The following table gives the number of family benefits in force at the end of March 1961 classified according to the number of children receiving the benefit in each case.

Number of Children Receiving Benefit in Each CaseNumber of Benefits at 31 March 1961
1104,325
2106,710
370,983
436,582
515,585
67,112
73,357
81,731
9917
10 or over702
Totals348,004

The average number of children per family in respect of whom benefit was paid was 2.25 in 1950–51, 2.30 in 1952–53, 2.33 in 1954–55, 2.36 in 1956–57, 2.39 in 1958–59, and 2.45 in 1960–61.

Invalids' Benefits — Subject to certain residential and other qualifications, every person of the age of 16 years and upwards who is not qualified to receive an age benefit is entitled to an invalid's benefit if he —

  1. Is totally blind; or

  2. Is permanently incapacitated for work as the result of an accident or by reason of illness or of any congenital defect.

The other qualifications referred to are as follows:

  1. That he has fulfilled certain residential qualifications, these in the main being the same as for superannuation benefits described on page 182.

  2. That incapacity for work was not self-induced or in any way brought about with a view to qualifying for an invalid's benefit.

  3. Applicant must be of good moral character and sober habits.

Provision is made for a medical examination, when necessary, to determine the extent of incapacity. In the event of an application being declined on medical grounds, the applicant has the right of appeal, within three months after the decision of the Commission has been communicated to him, to a board of three medical practitioners nominated by the Department. An invalid's benefit may be paid in respect of a period of absence from New Zealand not exceeding two years in the aggregate, if the Commission is satisfied that such absence was for the purpose of obtaining any special medical or surgical treatment, or in the case of blindness, for the purpose of undertaking vocational training or treatment in respect of the eyes.

The prescribed rates for invalids' benefits, together with the amounts of allowable income, exclusive of war disablement or basic war widows' pensions, are as follows.

Class of PersonRate of BenefitAllowable Income
WeeklyYearlyWeeklyYearly
Unmarried person under£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
20 years4002080030015600
Married man4502210030015600
Wife4502210030015600
All other persons41502470030015600

As in the case of other benefits, dependent children are provided for by way of the family benefit at 15s. a week each.

In each case the amount of the benefit is reduced by £1 for every complete £1 of income, exclusive of war disablement or basic war-widow's pension, in excess of the amounts stated as allowable. In computing the income of any blind person no account is taken of his personal earnings. In addition, personal earnings of such blind persons are subsidised to the extent of 25 per cent so long as the total income, including any benefit received, does not exceed £533 a year (£559 if unmarried).

Where an applicant is a married woman and, by reason of incapacity, necessary nursing or domestic assistance is required to be paid for, the Commission may increase the rate of any benefit which may have been reduced on account of income to an amount not in excess of £221 a year, but so that the total income of applicant and husband, inclusive of the benefit, does not exceed £13 10s. a week.

Any person in receipt of an invalid's benefit who, on the attainment of age 60, becomes entitled to receive an age benefit is required to relinquish his invalid's benefit and is granted an age benefit in lieu thereof, but the aggregate amount payable for a blind beneficiary and his wife (if any) is not altered by this transfer.

Of 969 new benefits granted in 1960 the marital status of the recipients was single 455 (223 males, 232 females), married 365 (363 males, 2 females), widowed 39 (28 males, 11 females), and apart, separated, divorced 110 (58 males, 52 females). By far the greatest number were aged 50 years or over, 509, the numbers for other age groups being as follows: under 20 years, 155; 20 and under 40 years, 158; and 40 and under 50 years, 147.

Invalids' benefits in force at 31 March 1961 numbered 8,157, an increase of 133 on the March 1960 figure, while expenditure rose from £2,118,411 in 1959–60 to £2,148,898 in 1960–61.

Miners' Benefits — Subject to the qualifications set out hereunder, a miner's benefit is payable to any person who, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, contracted miner's phthisis and is thereby permanently and seriously incapacitated for work, or to any person who contracted, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, any other occupational or heart disease and is thereby permanently and totally incapacitated for work. The term “miner's phthisis” means pneumoconiosis and includes tuberculosis of the lungs or any other disease of the respiratory organs commonly associated with, or a sequel to, pneumoconiosis. The necessary qualifications are —

  1. Employment as a miner in New Zealand for not less than two and a half years:

  2. Continuous residence in New Zealand for not less than five years immediately preceding the date of his application for a benefit. Continuity of residence is not deemed to have been interrupted by occasional absences aggregating not more than six months:

  3. Good moral character and sober habits and must not have deserted or wilfully failed to provide for his wife and children during the period of five years immediately preceding the date of application:

  4. That compensation under the Workers' Compensation Act in respect of the same disability is not being received.

The rates of miners' benefits are £4 5s. a week or £221 a year (or £247 if unmarried), increased by £4 5s. a week, or £221 a year, for a wife. Dependent children under 16 years are provided for by way of family benefit at the rate of 15s. a week each.

There is no reduction in the benefit on account of the income or property of the applicant and/or his wife.

Provision is made for medical examination where necessary to determine whether the applicant is permanently incapacitated for work, or the extent of his incapacity.

An applicant whose claim has been declined on medical grounds has a right of appeal to a board consisting of three registered medical practitioners appointed by the Department.

A special provision is made for the payment from the Social Security Fund of a reasonable contribution towards the funeral expenses of any person who dies while in receipt of a miner's benefit. The amount to be paid is at the discretion of the Commission.

If a person in receipt of a miner's benefit dies leaving a widow, such widow is entitled to a benefit of £4 2s. 6d. a week, or £214 10s. a year, during widowhood. This benefit is payable regardless of the circumstances of the widow, her income or property not being considered in the granting of a benefit.

Payment of benefits is not affected by a period or periods of absence from New Zealand not exceeding two years in the aggregate.

Miners' benefits in force at 31 March 1961 numbered 316 (including 78 widows), 37 fewer than at the corresponding date in 1960. During 1960–61 the expenditure on this class of benefit was £117,822, compared with £112,832 in 1959–60.

Unemployment Benefits — Subject to the conditions set out below, every person over the age of 16 years who is not qualified to receive an age benefit is entitled to a benefit in respect of unemployment. An applicant is required to satisfy the Commission in respect of the following:

  1. That he is unemployed:

  2. That he is capable of undertaking and is willing to undertake suitable work:

  3. That he has taken reasonable steps to obtain suitable employment:

  4. That he has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months.

An unemployment benefit is not payable in respect of the first seven days of any period of unemployment, except in special circumstances. In addition, the Commission may postpone, for a period not exceeding six weeks, the commencement of the benefit, or it may terminate the benefit in any of the following circumstances:

  1. If the applicant has voluntarily become unemployed without good and sufficient reason:

  2. If the applicant has lost his employment by reason of any misconduct as a worker:

  3. If the applicant or beneficiary has refused or failed, without a good and sufficient reason, to accept any offer of suitable employment:

  4. In the case of a seasonal worker if his earnings for the season are sufficient for the maintenance of himself and his family notwithstanding a period of temporary unemployment.

Unemployment benefits are payable in accordance with the following scale:

 Weekly Benefit
 £s.d.
Person under 20 years without dependants3100
Married man with wife included8100
Others4150

Dependent children are paid for by way of family benefit at the rate of 15s. per week each.

The benefit is payable so long as the beneficiary is unemployed or until he becomes eligible to receive another class of benefit, other than a family benefit — e.g., an age benefit.

A married woman is entitled to receive the benefit of up to £4 5s. a week only if her husband is unable to maintain her. If a beneficiary is not receiving a benefit in respect of a wife, an allowance may be paid in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

The foregoing rates of benefits may be reduced, having regard to the income received by the applicant or his wife.

The numbers of applications for unemployment benefits dealt with during the years ended 31 March 1960 and 1961 were 5,228 and 1,888 respectively, 3,588 persons being granted a benefit in 1959–60, and 1,320 in 1960–61. At the end of March 1961, 140 benefits were in force, compared with 312 at the end of the previous year. Payment of additional benefit for a dependent wife was included in 649 of the benefits granted during 1960–61 and in 50 of the benefits in force at 31 March 1961. Expenditure for the year 1960–61 amounted to £92,681, as against £189,898 in 1959–60.

Sickness Benefits — Every person over the age of 16 years who has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months and who satisfies the Commission that he is temporarily incapacitated for work through sickness or accident, and that by reason thereof he has suffered a loss of salary, wages, or other earnings, is entitled to a sickness benefit. The amount of the benefit is limited to the amount by which the weekly earnings of the applicant have been reduced by reason of his incapacity or to a maximum of £8 10s. a week payable to a man and his wife. Where a person is engaged in business on his own account and by reason of sickness or accident is obliged to employ a substitute during the period of incapacity, the remuneration paid to the substitute is regarded as loss of earnings. Every application for a benefit must be supported by a medical certificate, and no benefit is payable for the first seven days of incapacity except under special circumstances.

A married woman shall be entitled to receive a sickness benefit of up to £4 5s. a week, only if the Commission is satisfied that her husband is unable to maintain her.

Subject to the foregoing remarks concerning amount of benefit, the rates of sickness benefits are as follows:

 Weekly Benefit
 £s.d.
Person under 20 years without dependants3100
Married man with wife included8100
Others4150

Any applicant who is maintaining a home and who is not drawing a benefit in respect of a wife, may receive a benefit at a rate not exceeding that for a wife, in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

Dependent children are provided for by way of family benefit.

The rate of benefit computed as aforesaid is reduced by 1s. for every complete 1s. of the total income, exclusive of war disablement or basic war-widows' pensions, of the applicant and of his wife or her husband, as the case may be, in excess of £3 a week.

The numbers of applications for sickness benefits dealt with during the years ended 31 March 1960 and 1961 were 31,748 and 30,089 respectively. The number of persons granted sickness benefits was 29,542 in 1959–60 and 28,149 in 1960–61. Benefits in force at 31 March 1961 totalled 3,929, compared with 4,064 at the end of March 1960. Total expenditure for 1960–61 amounted to £1,673,372, a decrease of £45,971 on the 1959–60 figures.

In the following table sickness benefits which ceased during the calendar year 1960 are shown according to the duration of the sickness benefit.

Duration of Sickness Benefit (Weeks)Number of Benefits
MalesFemalesTotal
0–49,4062,58811,994
5–126,6282,2318,859
13–252,5001,8494,349
26–521,3145121,826
53–104585186771
Over 10417021191
Totals20,6037,38727,990

The following table gives a classification of sickness benefits according to the disease suffered by the beneficiary. The data are obtained from an analysis of the benefits which ceased during the calendar year 1960.

Disease or InjuryMalesFemalesPercentage of Total
Infective and parasitic diseases1,4304146.6
Neoplasms4332032.3
Allergic, endocrine system, metabolic, and nutritional diseases5441932.6
Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs55670.4
Mental, psychoneurotic, and personality disorders9646415.7
Diseases of the nervous system and sense organs9432194.2
Diseases of the circulatory system2,0533818.7
Diseases of the respiratory system2,90077413.2
Diseases of the digestive system3,04374413.2
Diseases of the genito-urinary system5513723.3
Deliveries and complications of pregnancy 1,6535.9
Diseases of the skin and cellular tissue9662464.3
Diseases of the bones and organs of movement1,6494567.5
Congenital malformations80320.4
Senility, and ill-defined conditions1,0064085.4
Accidents, poisonings, and violence (nature of injury)3,98658416.3
Totals20,6037,387100.0

Emergency Benefits — An emergency benefit may be granted by the Commission on the grounds of hardship to any person who by reason of age, physical or mental disability, domestic circumstances, or any other reason is unable to earn a sufficient livelihood for himself and those dependent on him and is ineligible for any other monetary benefit.

The amount of the emergency benefit is at the discretion of the Commission, which fixes as nearly as possible an amount equal to that payable for the type of benefit for which the applicant most closely qualifies.

Payments of benefits for which tuberculosis sufferers may qualify are at the rates of £4 10s. a week for a single person under 20 years of age without dependants, £5 15s. a week for a single person 20 years and over, and £10 a week for a married couple. These rates are increased by 5s. a week for each dependent child.

Emergency benefits in force at 31 March 1961 numbered 3,006, compared with 3,136 at 31 March 1960. Expenditure in the 1960–61 year amounted to £932,458 and in 1959–60 to £931,429.

Supplementary Assistance — Since 1951 supplementary assistance has been available to social security beneficiaries and others who have special commitments which cannot be met out of current income, have insufficient other resources, and are unable to help themselves. Welfare and other organisations have been encouraged to assist in bringing this source of help to the knowledge of persons who might qualify, and departmental literature has included information on the purpose of supplementary assistance, the cost of which is now borne by the Social Security Fund. Continuing grants are made where the applicant's continuing committee, e.g., food, fuel, rent, are in excess of the income received by the applicant, and lump sum grants are usually made to meet some nonrecurring expense. An analysis of these grants snowing age, sex, marital status, rate and purpose of grants, type of living accommodation, and number of dependent children, is given in the parliamentary paper H. 9, 1961.

In the 1960–61 year, 9,670 applications for assistance were granted, expenditure totalling £307,859, compared with 9,333 grants totalling £273,010 in 1959–60. There were 5,743 continuing grants in force at 31 March 1961.

Domestic and Nursing Concession — Female social security beneficiaries or the wives of social security beneficiaries are allowed, in addition to the ordinary income exemption of £156 a year, to earn up to £78 a year in domestic or nursing service in private homes, hospitals, homes for the care of the aged, or charitable institutions approved by the Commission, without their benefits being reduced. During the year 1960–61, 337 applications were received for employment in private homes, of which 313 were granted, while at 31 March 1961 there were 717 concessions in force, compared with 892 at the end of March 1960. During the year 1960–61, 240 applications were received for employment in hospitals and institutions, of which 236 were granted, while at 31 March 1961 there were 416 concessions in force.

Reciprocity with Australia — The Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948, provided for reciprocity in relation to a wide range of benefits between New Zealand and the Commonwealth of Australia. The Act came into force on 1 July 1949. A similar Act was passed in Australia and came into force on the same date.

Part II of the Act covers the case of former residents of Australia and applies to any person who, having at any time resided in Australia, is permanently resident in New Zealand inasmuch as he either satisfies the Commission that he is so permanently resident or has been in continuous residence in New Zealand for not less than six months (unless in this case the appropriate authorities in both countries agree that the residence is not to be regarded as permanent).

For the purpose of any application for a benefit in respect of a person covered by this Act, residence in Australia or birth in Australia will be regarded as residence or birth in this country.

Applicants for age, invalids', or widows' benefits must be qualified on residential grounds to receive the corresponding pensions under the Social Services Act (Australia) as if their residence in New Zealand had been residence in Australia. No male person is entitled to receive an age benefit unless he has attained the age of 65 years. The Act also provides that the Commission shall treat blindness or permanent incapacity for work occurring in Australia as if it had occurred in New Zealand.

Part III of the Act deals with persons who, although ordinarily resident in New Zealand, are temporarily resident in Australia. Such residence is not a disqualification for a benefit. Benefits may be applied for and paid in Australia, although the Commission may, in its discretion, postpone payment of the whole or any part of the benefit until the return of the beneficiary to New Zealand.

The appropriate reciprocal provisions made in respect of Australia are contained in the Schedule to the Act.

Reciprocity exists in respect of the following classes of pensions, allowances, endowments, and benefits under the respective Acts governing social security provisions:

  1. Age pensions and age benefits.

  2. Invalid pensions (including wives' and children's allowances) and invalids' benefits.

  3. Widows' pensions and widows' benefits.

  4. Child endowment and family benefits.

  5. Unemployment benefits.

  6. Sickness benefits.

Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand as at 31 March 1961 numbered 470, as compared with 363 at 31 March 1960.

Reciprocity with United Kingdom — As mentioned earlier, reciprocity in respect of family benefits between New Zealand and the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland was provided for by legislation during 1948, reciprocal family benefits in force at 31 March 1961 numbering 11, compared with the 1960 figure of five.

The Social Security (Reciprocity with United Kingdom) Act 1956 brought into operation from 1 April 1956 an agreement providing for reciprocity in a comprehensive range of benefits between New Zealand and the United Kingdom.

General Principles of the Agreement — The general principle of the agreement is that persons migrating from one country to the other for permanent residence will be taken into the social security scheme of the receiving country and paid benefits by the receiving country under the laws and conditions applicable to other residents of that country.

This principle is modified to the extent that the United Kingdom has agreed to continue to pay retirement pensions and widows' pensions in New Zealand to former residents of the United Kingdom who are qualified under the United Kingdom scheme. In such cases, New Zealand will supplement such pensions to bring them up to the New Zealand rates where necessary.

United Kingdom Residents in New Zealand — In New Zealand the agreement applies to former residents of England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, and the Isle of Man who claim age, superannuation, widows', orphans', invalids', sickness, and unemployment benefits under the Social Security Act.

The agreement modifies the residential requirements of the Social Security Act and enables persons who formerly lived in the United Kingdom to be treated as if they resided in New Zealand during any period they lived in the United Kingdom. Though the normal qualifying age for a grant of age benefit in New Zealand is 60, no man claiming age benefit by virtue of the agreement is entitled to receive it till he reaches 65.

The United Kingdom continues to pay retirement pensions and widows' pensions to persons in New Zealand who are qualified under the national insurance scheme and, in such cases, New Zealand, where necessary, supplements the national insurance pensions to bring them up to the rate of the appropriate New Zealand benefit. There is no supplementation in cases where the national insurance retirement or widow's pension is equal to, or greater than, the New Zealand social security benefit which could be paid.

New Zealand Residents in the United Kingdom — In the United Kingdom the agreement applies to former residents of New Zealand who claim retirement pensions, widows' pensions, widowed mother's and guardian's allowances, sickness and employment benefits under the National Insurance Act.

The United Kingdom scheme is a contributory scheme, and payment of benefits is dependent upon the satisfaction of specified contributory conditions.

The agreement modifies the provisions of the National Insurance Act of the United Kingdom and enables persons who formerly lived in New Zealand to be treated for the purpose of satisfying the contribution conditions of that Act as if they had paid contributions under the national insurance scheme for each week during which they had been resident in New Zealand. The qualifying age for retirement pension under the National Insurance Act is 60 for women and 65 for men.

A man who was in receipt of superannuation or age benefit solely by virtue of the New Zealand legislation when he left New Zealand and was then over 65 years of age, or a single, widowed, separated, or divorced woman over 60 years of age, will generally be regarded as having satisfied the contribution conditions under the national insurance scheme, and may receive the appropriate national insurance benefit at the full rate from the date of arrival in the United Kingdom. It is to be noted that, although a man may have been in receipt of age benefit when he left New Zealand, he is not entitled to retirement pension in the United Kingdom unless he is 65 years of age.

A married woman who was receiving age or superannuation benefit in New Zealand cannot qualify in her own right for a retirement pension in the United Kingdom unless she has, since the date of her marriage, paid at least 156 contributions under the legislation of the United Kingdom, or was treated under the New Zealand legislation as an unmarried woman. She may, however, qualify for a wife's allowance of £1 15s. a week, provided that her husband has attained the age of 70 years or has retired from regular employment and attained the age of 65 years.

Persons in receipt of social security benefits in New Zealand who go to the United Kingdom for the purpose of a visit will normally have their benefits suspended on departure, but if they return to New Zealand within 12 months they will be paid arrears of their social security benefit for the period of their absence. If they apply for, and receive, national insurance pensions while in the United Kingdom, the amount paid by the United Kingdom will be deducted from the arrears of social security benefit payable on their return.

MEDICAL, HOSPITAL, AND OTHER RELATED BENEFITS — The part of the Act dealing with medical and like benefits is of general application to all persons ordinarily resident in New Zealand, and makes provision for medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, and other related benefits.

The Act also gives authority for the inauguration of supplementary benefits as and when the occasion for providing such benefits arises. Among the supplementary benefits introduced are radiological services, dental services, home nursing services, and domestic assistance.

Medical Benefits — Under the provisions contained in the Act every person is entitled to such medical treatment as is ordinarily given by medical practitioners in the course of a general practice. Certain services are excluded, the principal of these being as follows:

  1. Medical services afforded in relation to maternity cases. (These services are covered by maternity benefits and are described under a later heading):

  2. Medical services involved in any medical examination of which the sole or primary purpose is the obtaining of a medical certificate:

  3. Medical services other than anaesthetic services, involved in or incidental to the extraction of teeth by a medical practitioner:

  4. Medical services in respect of which fees are payable under the Social Security (X-ray Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1941, Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951, and Social Security (Laboratory Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1946–see later headings:

  5. Medical services afforded by means of advice given by telephone, telegram, or letter except under circumstances specifically approved by the Director-General of Health, and medical services not afforded by a medical practitioner in person.

Every medical practitioner who renders any of the prescribed services is entitled to receive from the Social Security Fund a reasonable fee not exceeding 7s. 6d. for every occasion on which any such service is provided. Milage fees are also provided for in certain cases. Where the practitioner is called upon to provide, in response to an urgent request, services on a Sunday or holiday, or between the hours of 8 p.m. and 8 a.m., the appropriate fee shall be a reasonable one not exceeding 12s. 6d. For specialist services an amount not exceeding 7s. 6d. for each attendance is likewise recoverable. Doctors may claim directly from the Department of Health, or may require the patient to pay the fee and himself claim a refund from the Department of Health. There has been a steady swing towards the direct-claim system by doctors, and 77 per cent now follow this practice.

Pharmaceutical Benefits — This class of benefit was introduced on 5 May 1941. Persons claiming medical benefits are entitled to receive, without cost to themselves, all such prescribed medicines, prescribed drugs, prescribed materials, and prescribed appliances as are ordered for their use by a medical practitioner in the course of providing any medical services under the Act. There is a Drug Tariff, which sets out particulars of all medicines, drugs, appliances, etc., that may be supplied and charged against the fund. The proprietor of any pharmacy within the meaning of the Pharmacy Act 1939 or any other person entitled to sell any drugs or pharmaceutical requirements may be permitted to become a contractor under the scheme. Hospital boards are entitled to receive payment for pharmaceutical requirements supplied to outpatients, but not in respect of inpatients.

Hospital Benefits — The Act provides for the payment to hospital boards and the proprietors of licensed hospitals and to other approved institutions (who have entered into contracts under the Act) of prescribed amounts in respect of hospital treatment afforded by them. The amount paid to a hospital board is in full satisfaction of its claim for the treatment of patients; in the case of licensed hospitals and other institutions the amount paid is in partial satisfaction of claims against the patients or other persons liable for the hospital charges.

These benefits came into force on 1 July 1939, and the present rates from 1 April 1961, which vary for different classes of hospitals defined by regulations, are as follows:

  1. Where treatment has been afforded in a Class A hospital on not more than two days, the sum of £2 16s.:

  2. Where afforded in a Class A hospital on more than two days, the sum of £1 8s. for every day on which any treatment is afforded:

  3. For treatment in a Class B hospital, the sum of £1 2s. for each day:

Provided that the day of admission to hospital and day of discharge therefrom shall together be counted as one day.

Class A hospitals are public or private hospitals with properly equipped facilities for surgical operations.

The Act also provides that in lieu of payment being made in respect of individual hospital patients the Minister may from time to time authorise the payment of a grant in respect of hospital treatment afforded in any private hospital or other approved institution.

In addition to the public hospitals and licensed private hospitals, there is another limited class of semi-public hospitals which, in accordance with the Act, has been approved for the purposes of hospital benefits. This class includes the Karitane Baby Hospitals (six), conducted by the Royal New Zealand Society for the Protection of Women and Children, more commonly known as the Plunket Society, and in addition a home for incurables operated under a charitable trust. Special rates were determined for these classes of hospital, and such payments must be accepted in full satisfaction of the claim of the institution authorities.

Hospital benefits are also available in respect of maintenance and treatment afforded to any inpatient of Queen Mary Neurological Hospital, Hanmer Springs, or of the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Rotorua. Treatment is free except that a small charge is made in respect of single-room accommodation at Queen Mary Hospital when obtained at the request of the patient.

The Social Security (Hospital Benefits for Outpatients) Regulations 1947 provide for free treatment of outpatients at public hospitals. “Hospital treatment” in relation to an outpatient of any public hospital covers the supply of artificial aids, including contact lenses (introduced 1 June 1947), hearing aids (1 November 1947), artificial limbs (1 April 1948), surgical footwear (1 December 1951), ileostomy and colostomy appliances (27 April 1955), urinals: men's (25 July 1955), women's (29 October 1959), and all medical, surgical, or other treatment afforded by the staff of the hospital; but does not include dental treatment or services in respect of which fees are payable under specific Social Security Regulations (X-ray diagnostic services, laboratory diagnostic services) referred to under later headings. In respect of artificial limbs and surgical footwear the conditions of supply provide for part payment by the patient.

Mental Hospitals — The principal Act made provision for the treatment of patients in public mental hospitals without charge as from 1 April 1939. By section 10 of the Social Security Amendment Act 1939 a licensed (private) mental hospital may be recognised and approved by the Minister as a hospital for the purposes of the Act, and hospital benefits in respect of treatment therein are payable accordingly. All expenditure since 1 April 1945 in connection with public mental hospitals has been borne by the Consolidated Fund.

Maternity Benefits — Maternity benefits include ante-natal and post-natal advice and treatment by medical practitioners, and the services of doctors and nurses at confinements in maternity hospitals or elsewhere.

These benefits came into force on 15 May 1939, but the maternity medical practitioner service was not in full operation until 1 October of that year. The amount calculated in accordance with the scale of fees for the time being in force shall be accepted by the medical practitioner in full satisfaction of his claims except in the case of a practitioner who is recognised as an obstetric specialist in accordance with the terms of the Act. Such a practitioner, in addition to the fees payable from the Social Security Fund, may recover additional fees from the patient. A medical practitioner may contract out of the maternity benefits provisions. In such cases the patient is responsible for all the fees.

The main provisions in regard to maternity benefits apart from the medical practitioner service are as follows:

  1. Public maternity hospitals or maternity wards under the control of hospital boards: Payment from Social Security Fund to hospital board —

    1. £1 15s. 6d. in respect of the day of birth of the child and for each of the succeeding 14 days:

    2. A fee of £2 where any patient is actually attended during labour and at delivery by a medical officer employed by the board.

      These amounts are to be regarded as in full settlement of all claims in respect of the maternity benefits afforded by the board.

  2. Licensed (private) maternity hospitals: Licensees of licensed maternity hospitals who have entered into contracts under the Act are entitled to receive fees from the Social Security Fund at the same rate as stated in (a) (i) in regard to hospital boards. The licensee's contract permits a specified additional charge to the patient.

  3. Midwives and maternity nurses: Approved midwives and maternity nurses who are in attendance in cases where confinement takes place other than in a maternity hospital are entitled to receive from the fund fees at the rate of £1 10s. for the day or days of labour (£3 in the case of midwives) and £1 7s. per day for each of the 14 days succeeding the birth of the child or 10s. 6d. per day if a visiting obstetric nurse only. These amounts are to be regarded as in full satisfaction of a nurse's claims in respect of the nursing services.

X-ray Diagnostic Services — The benefits provided for comprise the following:

  1. The making of X-ray examinations with the aid of a fluorescent screen:

  2. The taking of X-ray photographs:

  3. The supply and administration of any drugs or other substances for the purposes of any such examination or photograph:

  4. The provision of medical services incidental to any such examination or photograph, except medical services of a kind not ordinarily performed by radiologists as such:

  5. The provision of any other incidental services for the purposes of any such examinations or photographs.

X-ray photographs or X-ray examinations made or taken for dental purposes or for the purposes of life assurance, visas, emigration permits, and examinations for the sole or primary purpose of obtaining medical certificates for production to some other person, are not included in the services that may be provided. This does not exclude examinations for medical certificates for the purposes of benefits under the Social Security Act 1938 or “sickness benefits” from a friendly society, or group examinations approved by the Director-General of Health.

The scale of fees payable from the fund in respect of services rendered by recognised radiologists is prescribed in a schedule to the Social Security (X-ray Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1941, Amendment No. 5, issued on 26 January 1960. Where the service is rendered by a medical practitioner employed or engaged by a hospital board the prescribed fees are to be accepted by the board in full settlement, but in other cases the amount of such fees is deducted from the amount charged to the patient, who is responsible for the balance, if any.

Physiotherapy Benefits — Physiotherapy treatment by private physiotherapists are covered by the Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951. The general arrangement for these benefits consists of contracts with registered physiotherapists under which they are paid from the Social Security Fund a fee of 3s. 6d. for each treatment and undertake not to charge the patient any additional fees in excess of 8s. for treatment afforded in their rooms or 13s. for treatment afforded elsewhere.

No physiotherapy treatment is recognised for the purpose of the benefits unless it is given on the recommendation of a medical practitioner, and not more than six weeks' treatment may be given on a single recommendation except in the case of certain specified diseases, illness, etc., approved by the Director-General of Health, when the period of treatment on any one recommendation may be extended up to six months.

Home-nursing Services — Home-nursing services free of cost to the recipients were introduced by the Social Security (District Nursing Services) Regulations 1944, which stipulate that no charge may be made for district nursing services provided by any Department of State, hospital board, or subsidised association elsewhere than in a hospital or other institution, but provision is made for payments to these organisations from the Social Security Fund.

Domestic Assistance — The provision of monetary assistance to approved incorporated associations formed for the purpose of providing domestic assistance in homes, or whose objects include the provision of such assistance, is made by the Social Security (Domestic Assistance) Regulations 1944. Assistance in this connection (commenced 20 December 1944) is restricted by the regulations to the following classes:

  1. Cases where there are one or more children under 12 years of age permanently residing in a home and the mother or other woman in charge of the home is wholly or partially incapacitated from undertaking her ordinary domestic duties by reason of pregnancy or maternity, or by reason of accident, sickness, etc.:

  2. Cases where there are three or more children under 12 years of age permanently residing in the home, and any member of the household requires special care and attention by reason of sickness or infirmity:

  3. Cases where all members of the household of an age or condition to help in the home are wholly or partially incapacitated from work by sickness or otherwise:

  4. Cases where lack of domestic assistance in the home is a cause of undue hardship.

Laboratory Diagnostic Services — The benefits concerning laboratory diagnostic services came into operation on 1 April 1946, and comprise the supply of all materials or substances required for the purpose of providing laboratory diagnostic services, and the provision of medical services incidental to any laboratory diagnostic service, except medical services of a kind that are not ordinarily performed by pathologists as such, and the provision of any other incidental services for the purposes of laboratory diagnostic services.

The following services are not included:

  1. Examination of specimens for public health.

  2. Post-mortem examinations.

  3. Laboratory services for dental purposes or for the purposes of life insurance.

  4. The preparation of sera and vaccines.

The schedule of fees payable from the fund covers fees payable to hospital boards and to recognised pathologists. The prescribed fee shall be accepted in full satisfaction in respect of the services provided.

Dental Services — The Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1960 provide for free dental treatment. These benefits commenced on 1 February 1947, and at present are confined to persons who are under 16 years of age.

The regulations provide that the services may be provided —

  1. By a registered dentist in a State dental clinic; or

  2. By a State dental nurse in a State dental clinic; or

  3. By a contracting dentist pursuant to a contract under these regulations; or

  4. By a contracting authority in the dental department of a public hospital or in a dental school, pursuant to a contract under these regulations.

A schedule to the regulations prescribes the nature of the benefits that may be provided and a scale of fees payable to contracting dentists and authorities in respect thereof.

Artificial Aids — The Social Security (Hospital Benefits for Outpatients) Regulations 1947 made provision for the supply of artificial aids, such as artificial limbs, hearing aids, and contact lenses.

Contact Lenses — These may be supplied in respect of the following optical disabilities: (a) conical cornea, (b) high myopia — 10 D.S. and above, (c) monocular aphakia. In each case the supply of such lenses must be recommended by an approved ophthalmologist.

Lenses may also be supplied in respect of any other ocular condition which cannot be corrected by ordinary spectacles; in these cases recommendation by two ophthalmologists is necessary.

Bearing Aids — Individual electrical hearing aids may be supplied subject to the following conditions:

  1. The patient possesses a hearing loss of at least 35 decibels in the better ear over the significant frequencies of speech or such other loss of a lesser degree as, in the opinion of an otologist employed or engaged by a hospital board, renders the use of an aid necessary.

  2. The patient's hearing loss is such that in the opinion of the otologist it is capable of correction or marked improvement by the use of the type of hearing aid supplied or approved for the purpose of the benefit.

It is provided that in respect of patients who satisfy these conditions but who do not wish to avail themselves of the hearing aid issued free of charge by hospital boards there may be paid a sum not exceeding £13 towards the purchase of any aid approved for the purposes of these benefits. If a patient has received a benefit for a hearing aid within the preceding five years, the hospital board may pay half (or up to a maximum of £6 10s.) of the cost of replacement, provided that the replacement aid will assist hearing more than the existing aid and that the patient is otherwise eligible.

Artificial Limbs — The supply of artificial limbs is subject to the following conditions:

  1. The patient has not obtained or is not entitled to obtain a limb as an ex-serviceman under the provisions of the War Pensions Regulations 1956 or under the provisions of section 22 of the Workers' Compensation Act 1956:

  2. The supply of the limb is recommended by an orthopaedic surgeon employed or engaged by a hospital board:

  3. The limb is of an approved type and can, in the opinion of the supplier's orthopaedic adviser, be satisfactorily fitted:

  4. Not more than 80 per cent of the cost of the limb shall be borne by the Social Security Fund.

For the purposes of the regulations “artificial limb” includes artificial arms, artificial hands, artificial legs, and artificial feet, and includes an initial supply of not more than six pairs of limb socks for such limbs, plus a further supply of two limb socks a year.

6 B — WAR PENSIONS, ETC.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY — All pensions payable to or on account of members of the forces, the Mercantile Marine, and the Emergency Reserve Corps are governed by the War Pensions Act 1954.

ADMINISTRATION — The Secretary for War Pensions, who under the Act must be an officer of the Social Security Department, is charged with the administration of war pensions under the general direction and control of the Minister in Charge of War Pensions. The Act also provides for the appointment of a War Pensions Board (or boards), which has the responsibility of granting or declining claims for pensions and allowances. This board consists of not less than three and not more than four members, one of whom must be a registered medical practitioner and one a representative of returned servicemen. Claimants have the right of appeal to a War Pensions Appeal Board, also appointed under the Act. An appeal board consists of three members, two of whom must be registered medical practitioners, one of these being a representative of returned servicemen.

GROUNDS FOR PAYMENT OF WAR PENSIONS — Pensions in respect of the death or disablement of any member of the New Zealand forces are payable to the dependants of the member (in the case of death) and to the member and his dependants (in the case of disablement) in any of the following cases:

  1. Where death or disablement occurred while on service overseas as a member of the forces in connection with any war in which Her Majesty was then engaged, or in connection with any emergency, whether arising out of the obligations undertaken by New Zealand under the Charter of the United Nations or otherwise (i.e., includes service rendered in Korea):

  2. (2) Where death or disablement is attributable to his service in New Zealand or overseas, e.g., in Malaya:

  3. In any case where the condition which resulted in the death or disablement was aggravated by his service in New Zealand or overseas.

It is laid down that the onus of proving that death or disablement was attributable to service, or that the condition which resulted in death or disablement was aggravated by such service, shall not be on the claimant and that the War Pensions Board and the War Pensions Appeal Board shall give claimants the full benefit of all presumptions in their favour. A member who was graded fit for service when he entered the forces is deemed to have been absolutely fit at that time unless any defects were noted then or within the first two months of service. This presumption does not operate if the member failed to disclose any material fact to the medical examiner. The Act also states that the boards are not to be bound by technicalities or legal forms or rules of evidence, but shall determine all claims in accordance with their merits.

WAR PENSIONS AND ALLOWANCES, AND WAR VETERANS' ALLOWANCES: SUMMARY OF RATES — The list below summarises the rates of war and economic pensions and allowances at January 1962.

Class of Pensions, Allowance, etc.Weekly Rate
 £s.d.

* Ranges from £3 7s. 6d. for all ranks and ratings up to major (Army) and equivalent in other services, members of Mercantile Marine, and members of Emergency Reserve Corps; £3 16s. lieutenant-colonel and equivalent; £3 18s. colonel and equivalent; and £4 brigadier or upwards or equivalent in other services.

Dependants of Deceased Members of the Forces, Mercantile Marine, or Emergency Reserve Corps 
  Widow   
    Basic rate*376
    Mother's allowance (where one child)300
    Mother's allowance (where two children)3100
    Mother's allowance (where three children)400
    Mother's allowance (where four children)4100
    Mother's allowance (where five children)500
    Mother's allowance (where six or more children)5100
    Economic pension4150
    Allowable income300
  Child
    Where both parents dead or if not under control of mother2150
    Other children 150
  Widowed mother —
    Basic rate376
    Economic (wholly dependent or mother of two or more sons being deceased members of the forces)4150
    Economic (partly dependent)3126
  Other dependant376
  Guardian of children of deceased member450
Totally Disabled Members of the Forces, Mercantile Marine or Emergency Reserve CorpsWeekly Rate
    Member —£s.d.
      Basic disablement pension4100
      Special increment for blindness, multiple or serious disabilities2100
      Economic pension (if unmarried £4 15s.)450
      Allowable income300
      Attendant's allowance800
    Wife450
    Child 150
    Other dependant450
War Veteran's Allowance
    Unmarried veteran (£247 a year)4150
    Married male veteran (£442 a year)8100
    Married female veteran (£221 a year)450
 Yearly Rate
 £s.d.
    Age supplement (maximum) payable to veteran or to his wife, or both, as each attains the age of 65 years3900
Supplementary AssistanceAccording to circumstances
Clothing AllowanceYearly Rate
    Loss of£s.d.
      Two limbs or parts3000
      Leg or part27100
      Arm or part2000
    Use of mechanical appliance apart from artificial limb2000

The payment of 15s. a week to each child may be made either by way of family benefit or, alternatively, by way of war pension.

The earnings of women from domestic or nursing services in private homes or in hospitals or charitable institutions up to £78 a year are not taken into account.

The War Pensions Amendment Act 1961 made provision for any sick benefit from a friendly society or a like benefit from any other source up to £1 a week to be disregarded in computing the rate of pension or war veteran's allowance. Provision was also made to increase the allowable income in the case of a widow who is supporting a dependent child or children from £3 to £5 a week. These amendments operated from 13 September 1961.

Pensions payable for specific disabilities are assessed as a percentage of the full pension payable for total disablement. The following schedule sets out the relevant disabilities and percentages.

Nature of DisabilityPer Cent of Full Pension Payable
Total blindness100
Loss of: two limbs; limb and eye; both hands; all fingers and thumbs; both feet; hand and foot100
Incurable insanity100
Very severe facial disfigurement100
Amputation of—
    Right arm through shoulder joint; leg through hip joint; leg through upper third of thigh (without useful stump)100
    Left arm through shoulder joint95
    Leg through upper third of thigh (with useful stump)90
Permanent loss of speech90
Amputation of: arm at or above elbow; leg through knee joint or middle or lower third of thigh85
Total deafness85
Severe facial disfigurement80
Amputation of—
    Arm below elbow; leg below knee; right hand75
    Left hand70
Loss of—
    One eye; four fingers50
    Three fingers; thumb40
    Two fingers25
    Index finger of either hand20

If a member, while in receipt of a permanent pension of an amount of not less than 70 per cent of the maximum pension that would be payable in respect of total disablement, dies from any cause not attributable to service as a member of the forces, a pension may be granted to his widow or dependent children as if death was attributable to service. The 1961 Amendment Act extended this provision to include the widow or dependent children of a member who was not in receipt of such a pension, but who, in the opinion of the Board, could have been granted a permanent pension of not less than 70 per cent of total disablement if he had not died.

Other grants and concessions which may be made include the following:

  1. A free pass on the New Zealand Railways rail and road services to members in receipt of full permanent pensions:

  2. A permit to travel first class at second-class rates on the New Zealand Railways to amputees and others suffering locomotive disabilities to a degree of over 50 per cent for which they receive permanent pensions:

  3. Free medical and surgical treatment in respect of pensionable disabilities. Surgical appliances such as artificial limbs, etc., are also supplied free and kept in good order and repair:

  4. Payment of an annual travelling allowance of up to £26 to totally disabled pensioners who are unfit to travel alone:

  5. Payment of up to £100 towards the cost of structural alterations with a £25 provision for furniture to provide special accommodation for a pensioner suffering from pulmonary tuberculosis:

  6. A maximum accommodation allowance of £2 a day is payable to war pensioners reporting for medical examination or treatment, while compensation of up to £2 per day is paid in respect of loss of earnings:

  7. Interest-free loans to certain seriously disabled pensioners to purchase motorcars; payment of loadings on life-assurance policies where the loadings are due to war disabilities; gallantry awards to disablement pensioners; and funeral grants in respect of deceased ex-servicemen.

Pensions to Dependants (other than Wives or Children) — In addition to pensions for wives and children, a pension may be granted to any member of a deceased or disabled serviceman's family. “A member of the family” includes a parent, grandparent, step-parent, grandchild, stepchild, brother, sister, half-brother, half-sister, and mother-in-law. “Child,” in relation to any member of the forces, means a child under the age of 16 years, and includes an adopted child and an ex-nuptial child (subject to certain conditions). The parents of a male member of the forces are included in the definition of dependant in every case, without proof of pre service dependency. Also, except in the case of the wife, widow, children under 16, and parents, the eligibility of dependants is based on the expectation of dependency on the member.

Economic Pensions — An “economic pension” is defined as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds and is in addition to any pension payable as of right in respect of death or disablement. In considering a claim for an economic pension a War Pensions Board is required to take into consideration the ability of the claimant to obtain and retain suitable employment, the personal income and ownership of any property, the cost of living, and other relevant matters.

The personal earnings of a disablement pensioner are disregarded in the assessment of an economic pension to an amount equivalent to that by which the disablement pension is less than the amount of pension for total disablement.

Servicemen pensioned for minor disablement do not receive economic pensions.

WAR VETERANS' ALLOWANCES — The object of war veterans' allowances was to make provision for members of the forces who, apart from any wounds or other injuries received during war service, were ageing prematurely or otherwise becoming unfit for permanent employment by reason of mental or physical incapacity. The term “veteran” includes —

  1. Any male member of the New Zealand forces who has served as such in actual engagement with the enemy or, by reason of his period of overseas service and the arduous or dangerous nature of it, is considered a proper person for the grant of an allowance:

  2. Any female member who has served overseas as a member of the New Zealand forces:

  3. Any other person who, being a bona fide resident of New Zealand at the commencement of any war or emergency in which members of the New Zealand forces have served as such, has served in that war or emergency as a member of any of Her Majesty's forces, other than the New Zealand forces.

A condition precedent to the granting of a war veteran's allowance is a minimum of five years' continuous residence in New Zealand immediately preceding the date of the claim. Continuous residence is not deemed to be interrupted by occasional absences not exceeding six months in the aggregate, increased by one month for each year in excess of five that the veteran has resided in New Zealand; any absences as a member of the Commonwealth forces are also disregarded.

Whether or not a claimant for an allowance is unfit for permanent employment by reason of mental or physical infirmity is a question of fact to be determined by the War Pensions Board. Claimants have the right of appeal to a War Pensions Appeal Board.

No account is taken of the amount of war disablement pensions in the determination of the basic war veterans' allowances. In computing any war veteran's allowance no account is taken of the personal earnings of any woman from domestic or nursing services in a private home or hospital or charitable institution up to £78 per year.

Where any veteran and his wife have attained the age of 65 years, an age supplement of a maximum of £39 a year each may be paid provided that the amount of the age supplement, together with income from other sources and any disablement pension, does not exceed £156 a year.

The War Pensions Amendment Act 1960 extended the meaning of the term “veteran” to include an ex-serviceman of any Commonwealth country (other than New Zealand) provided that he has resided in New Zealand for at least 20 years and fulfils the service requirements for the grant of an allowance. Absences not exceeding two years in the aggregate during the 20 years preceding application are permitted, with a further allowance of six months for every year of residence in excess of 20. Under this amendment provision is also made for veterans of the South African War who served with the New Zealand forces and do not fulfil the service requirements but have attained the age of 75 years.

Where a veteran in receipt of an allowance dies leaving a widow in respect of whom an allowance is being paid a War Pensions Board may, in its discretion, grant the widow a gratuity equivalent to £422 10s. a year for two years or of such lesser amount as it thinks fit.

EMERGENCY RESERVE CORPS PENSIONS — These pensions are payable under the 1954 Act where death or disablement was suffered by a member of the Emergency Reserve Corps in the course of service (including training), or was directly attributable to such service.

MERCANTILE MARINE PENSIONS — The 1954 Act provides for the payment of pensions and allowances in respect of death or disablement of members of the mercantile marine as a result of the Second World War.

SUPPLEMENTARY ASSISTANCE — Since 1951 supplementary assistance has been available to provide for similar cases to those set out under social security supplementary assistance (see page 191). During the year ended 31 March 1961 there were 288 grants totalling £9,544, compared with 260 grants totalling £9,580 in the previous year. Expenditure on supplementary assistance is now met from the Consolidated Fund.

WAR BURSARIES — Bursaries for educational purposes are available to children of war veterans, seriously and permanently disabled ex-servicemen, and of deceased ex-servicemen in respect of whose deaths war pensions are paid. Bursaries are paid at the following rates:

Class of BursaryPer Year
£s.d.
(a) Secondary school children2500
(b) Full-time university students3000
(c) Part-time university students1000
(d) Part-time technical school children1100

The rates payable under (a) and (b) are doubled in the case of an orphan child or a child whose father or mother is in receipt of an economic pension or a war veteran's allowance.

During 1960–61, 1,873 bursaries were granted, expenditure on this behalf being £67,457 for the year. The 1959–60 figures were 1,678 bursaries and £60,899.

WAR PENSIONS APPEAL BOARD — A claimant may appeal to a War Pensions Appeal Board from a decision of a War Pensions Board within six months of the date on which the decision of the latter was communicated to him. Such an appeal can be made only in so far as it relates to —

  1. The rejection of any claim for a pension in respect of the death or disablement of a member of the forces on the ground that the death or disablement was not attributable to his service as a member of the forces or that the condition that resulted in his death or disablement was not aggravated by such service.

  2. The assessment of a pension granted to any member of the forces in so far as the assessment is based on medical grounds.

  3. The rejection of any claim for a war veteran's allowance on the ground that the applicant is not unfit for permanent employment.

The appeal board may confirm the decision of the War Pensions Board or may grant a pension, or, within the limits prescribed by the Act, may increase or reduce the amount of any pension. The number of appeals dealt with was 251 in 1960–61. Of these, 111 or 44 per cent were upheld, 111 disallowed, and 29 struck out or withdrawn.

STATISTICAL REVIEW OF WAR PENSIONS ALLOWANCES, ETC. — During the year ended 31 March 1961 the Department dealt with 4,811 applications for war pensions. Of these, 604 applications were lodged by ex-servicemen in respect of their own disabilities, the balance being made up of claims by dependants, applications for economic pensions, and war veterans' allowances. The total for the previous year was 3,526; of these, 621 were in respect of the applicants' own disability. In addition there were 138 claims received during the year in respect of disablement arising from service with peacetime armed forces, of which 87 were granted and 51 declined.

Summary of Disabilities for Which Pensions Granted, 1939–61 — The following is a summary of the disabilities attributed to war service from 1939 onwards and for which ex-service personnel had been granted pensions up to 31 March 1961.

Class of Disability or DiseaseType of ServiceTotalPercentage of Total
Overseas (1939–45)K ForceJ ForceNew Zealand
Infections and infestations2,0389271482,2853.9
Nervous system9,49638131,71511,26219.0
Eye, ear, and nose6,80679201,4148,31914.0
Circulatory and blood system2,293921,0463,3505.7
Metabolism and endocrine system423211776031.0
Respiratory system3,59528541,2094,8868.2
Diseases of bones, joints, muscles, tendons, and ligaments5,0782481,8316,94111.7
Digestive system4,44037121,2075,6969.6
Generative system340111224640.8
Gunshot wounds and accidental injuries to bones, joints, and soft tissues7,910108271,7719,81616.6
Skin2,50924125443,0895.2
Areolar tissue45226730.1
Tumours and neoplastic growths1971542520.4
Malformations30111324340.7
Amputations (not including fingers and toes)5023225270.9
Urinary tract614731567801.3
Debility4441095530.9
Totals47,03145616011,68359,330100.0

The following table shows for all classes of war pensions the number in force at the end of March in each year and the expenditure during the years given.

Year Ended 31 MarchFirst World War (1914–18)Second World War (1939–45)K ForceWar VeteransSouth African WarMercantile MarineEmergency Reserve CorpsSupplementary AssistanceTotal
Number in Force
195118,57325,9014,77637261149,324
195218,13525,356135,46834241049,040
195317,78625,141855,9643224949,041
195417,41924,7661046,8102924949,161
195537,07424,7031647,6162824949,618
195616,68324,6871838,4792624950,091
195716,31724,5192009,5202427950,616
195815,69424,33020310,8812126951,164
195915,38324,42319912,1572128911652,336
196014,89024,43020912,9612124912752,671
196114,33924,51819714,2511928916153,522
Expenditure (£)
19512,311,6061,970,236964,8823,7262,3591,6285,254,437
19522,711,7102,071,8296711,282,0944,4292,8721,9736,075,578
19532,747,2982,072,4294,4781,471,4054,3152,9571,7641,0816,305,727
19542,776,8912,107,5759,3771,822,0184,5282,3841,6182,7726,727,163
19553,110,9482,341,94014,5052,212,2235,0512,8671,9343,2657,692,733
19563,043,3952,357,35514,8332,707,3085,3632,6681,9784,2548,137,154
19573,126,5462,410,85917,9902,999,5655,1593,3751,9435,5428,570,979
19583,294,3682,566,81619,3863,539,0985,0883,5902,1017,1029,437,549
19593,332,2392,721,44417,5194,508,7725,4054,0062,2679,05510,600,707
19603,390,1832,837,89817,7014,927,6815,5023,8522,1499,58011,194,546
19613,319,4982,878,56417,6305,704,8735,4954,1082,3239,54411,942,035

The foregoing figures include the following: (a) travelling allowances of £26 a year paid to 1,189 pensioners at 31 March 1961; (b) clothing allowances, of which 1,372 were being paid at 31 March and expenditure on which for 1960–61 was £31,628; and (c) gallantry awards of an annual value of £1,692. The following are not included: (a) costs of certain medical treatment not available under social security amounting to £57,066 in 1960–61 and £61,477 in 1959–60; (b) railway and bus concessions to pensioners for total and permanent disablement and for locomotive disabilities for which a permanent pension of over 50 percent disablement has been granted, costing £18,488 in 1960–61 and £18,530 in the previous year; (c) loadings on life-assurance policies where the loadings are due to war disabilities, expenditure under this heading being £1,042 in 1960–61; (d) funeral grants, which cost £22,209 in 1960–61; (e) 21 interest-free loans in 1960–61 totalling £7,566 towards the purchase of motor vehicles by certain seriously disabled pensioners; and (f) supplementary assistance of £9,544 in 1960–61 and £9,580 in 1959–60.

Administrative costs for 1960–61 in respect of war pensions and allowances amounted to £14,666, as against £14,492 in 1959–60.

The numbers of First and Second World War and K Force pensions in force as at 31 March of each of the last five years are given below.

At 31 MarchDisablement PensionsDependants of Disabled Ex-membersOn Account of DeathTotal
PermanentTemporaryWidowsParents and Other Dependants
First World War, 1914–18
195711,1232522,1152,7299816,317
195810,5992352,0182,7637915,694
195910,3402081,9432,8147815,383
19609,8902341,8102,8867014,890
19619,5001561,6992,9236114,339
Second World War, 1939–45
195714,4977,0047851,45378024,519
195815,0966,3367831,42469124,330
195915,8045,6927981,49463524,423
196016,1055,3538411,56456724,430
196116,7774,7258421,56061424,518
K Force
195729164511200
195841156411203
195957137212199
196066136412209
19618311022197

The number of children for whom payments were made during 1960–61 but who were not included in the preceding table totalled 1,232, being 126 in respect of First World War pensions, 1,100 for Second World War pensions, and six for K. Force pensions.

The next table shows the number of disability pensions in force at 31 March 1961, classified according to percentage of disablement.

Percentage of DisablementFirst World WarSecond World WarK ForceTotal
PermanentTemporaryPermanentTemporaryPermanentTemporary

* Includes “over 100 per cent” disablement which is a special rate pension for total blindness or other serious disablement.

100*1,786361,170418843,422
90–9910379440-244
80–8929410301961702
70–7967312477161331,329
60–6953616433230221,219
50–591,14612993380372,541
40–491,486191,041413772,973
Under 403,4764412,2682,987598718,921
Totals9,50015616,7774,7258311031,351

Details of economic pensions payable at 31 March 1961 are now given, together with the totals as at 31 March 1960.

Class of PensionFirst World War 1914–18Second World War 1939–45K Force
NumberAnnual ValueNumberAnnual ValueNumberAnnual Value
  £ £ £
Ex-members with permanent pensions2,381536,096846190,6963663
Ex-members with temporary pensions204,46127862,3653715
Widows2,301563,0951,090265,532
Widowed mothers132,62520441,018
Totals at 31 March 19614,7151,106,2772,418559,61161,378
Totals at 31 March 19604,8291,063,0352,334506,18491,733

6 C — SUPERANNUATION

General — Superannuation for all Government employees is provided for under the authority of the Superannuation Act 1956, and provisions for members of the Judiciary and members of Parliament are also included in this measure. Members of the armed forces, Police, Post Office, Public Service, Railways, and teachers, are now contributing to the one fund, with slightly differing terms and conditions provided to meet the requirements of the various services.

Local Government employees and the permanent employees of all statutory bodies are provided for under the National Provident Fund Act 1950. For the operations of the National Provident Fund, see Section 6D.

There are also a considerable number of private superannuation funds in existence, some self-contained. Information respecting these is given at the end of this subsection.

The Government Superannuation Fund — The Government Superannuation Fund, came into being on 1 April 1948, replacing and absorbing the moneys belonging to the former Public Service Superannuation Fund, the Teachers' Superannuation Fund, and the Government Railways Superannuation Fund. Its revenues comprise contributions, subsidies from the Consolidated and other funds, interest accruing from investments, fines, all moneys that would have been paid into the earlier three funds, and all other moneys that may be payable into the Fund.

The Fund is administered by a board consisting of the Minister of Finance as chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Chairman of the Public Service Commission, the General Manager of Railways, the Director of Education, the Director-General of the Post Office, the Commissioner of Police, and six members appointed on the nomination of the various service organisations.

The benefits of superannuation are now available for all Government servants, i.e., persons in the permanent service of the State. Employees of the Government Service, which includes the Education Service, Police, the Cook Islands Public Service, and the State Advances Corporation, in addition to the Departments of State under the control of the Public Service Commission, the Railways Department, and the Post Office, may all become contributors to the Fund. Separate provision is made for persons in the service of the Crown in respect of the Government of New Zealand in other than an honorary capacity — permanent members of the regular armed forces, Police, Magistrates and Maori Land Court Judges and members of the Judicature (Judges of the Supreme Court and Court of Arbitration), and members of Parliament. A contributor to the Fund who enters the service of the Government of Western Samoa or of the Western Samoa Trust Estates Corporation may, if the Beard so agrees, remain a contributor to the Fund.

Contributions range from 5 per cent of annual salary, if under 30 years of age at commencement of contributory service, to 10 per cent where the age exceeds 50 years, the increase being at the rate of 1 per cent for each five-year increase in age group. An alternative modified scheme, within the framework of the present standard scheme, was introduced in 1955, under which contributors may elect to contribute only 60 per cent of the standard contribution rates and receive only 60 per cent of the standard benefits. Standard retiring allowances are computed at the rate of a one hundred and twentieth part of the annual salary for each year of contributory service, increased by a sum equal thereto (i.e., on a £1 for £1 basis) up to £500 per annum, reducing thereafter by £1 for each £2 by which the amount exceeds £500. In no case shall the added amount be computed on a lesser salary than £600 per annum. The annual salary for the purpose of this computation is deemed to be the average of that received during the five years immediately preceding retirement, although in special cases, so long as the first computed portion of the retiring allowance is a lesser amount than £150, the average salary received during the last three years may be used if it results in a more favourable computation.

Upon retirement a contributor entitled to a retiring allowance may elect (1) to take an increased allowance to age 65, reducing thereafter, (2) to surrender portion of his retiring allowance in favour of his widow or other approved dependant after his death, (3) to elect to surrender not more than one-quarter of his retiring allowance and to receive in lieu thereof a lump sum payment equivalent to nine times the amount of allowance surrendered, (4) to accept a refund of his contributions.

Payment of retiring allowances and annuities is now made in advance in instalments every 28 days, no recovery being made should the beneficiary die during the benefit period. When a married contributor dies, whether before or after becoming entitled to a retiring allowance, his widow may elect to receive a refund of the amount of his contributions less any sums received by him during his lifetime, or to receive an annuity at one-half of the rate of his retiring allowance at the date of his retirement (or, if he died before then, to which he would have been entitled if he had retired on the date of his death on the ground of being medically unfit for further duty) disregarding any election to take a variable allowance or to surrender part of the allowance to an approved dependant.

The amount of the widow's annuity is not to be less than £130 (£78 in modified scheme). In addition, £26 per annum (£15 12s. in modified scheme) is payable in respect of each child under 16 years of age left by a deceased contributor. The widow's benefit is payable only during widowhood but is reinstated if subsequent to remarriage a person again becomes a widow.

The above are general provisions only and for a complete survey need to be supplemented by reference to other provisions in respect of age, length of service, sex, sickness, withdrawals, refunds, subsidiary benefits, etc., contained in the Act. Adjustments have been made from time to time in the allowances payable to retired contributors and also to widows of ex-contributors to assist in meeting the increased cost of living.

Contributory membership and retiring allowances as outlined apply generally to permanent members of the regular armed forces.

The Police Act 1958 provides for compulsory membership for the Police, with retirement at age 60. The rate of contribution varies from 5 per cent to 12 per cent. For computing the retiring allowance, each year in the Police is deemed to be one year and one-seventh where the contributory service commenced after age 25. Where contributory service commenced between 20 and 25 years a lesser proportion is added.

Members of the Judicature are entitled to a retiring allowance based on one twenty-fourth of their salary for each year of service, with a maximum of two-thirds, and they may elect to contribute 5 per cent of their salary to provide annuities for their widows, calculated as 15 per cent of the final salary. Magistrates and Judges of the Maori Land Court are also entitled to retiring allowances, subject to age and length of service qualifications, one-fortieth of the annual salary at the date of retirement being allowed for each year of service, but in no case is the retiring allowance to exceed two-thirds of that salary.

Members of Parliament contribute 10 per cent of salary, but if at the date of commencement of the retiring allowance contributions are less than £425 the deficiency must be paid into the Parliamentary Superannuation Account within such time and in such manner as the Minister of Finance may allow. Subject to service of nine years and attainment of the age of 50 years, retiring allowances are computed at the rate of one thirty-second part of a member's salary for each year of service, with a maximum of two-thirds of that salary. A widow receives one-half of her husband's entitlement or, if he died before having an entitlement, one-half of the retiring allowance he would have been entitled to if he had retired at the date of his death and there had been no provision for his serving a minimum period with a minimum of £130 a year.

At 31 March 1961 there were 74,458 contributors, paying £3,758,476 per annum into the Fund. The pensioners at the same date numbered 21,482 and were entitled to £7,232,457 per annum, made up as follows.

 NumberAnnual Allowances
MalesFemalesTotal
    £
Retired for age or length of service9,8263,21313,0395,994,401
Retired for ill health1,3542611,615343,626
Widows5,6005,600862,770
Children6335951,22831,660
Totals11,8139,66921,4827,232,457

Accumulated funds at 31 March 1961 amounted to £35,259,451. Total assets, which amounted to £35,344,627, included: Investments, £33,414,400, interest, due and accrued, £336,899, contributions in course of transmission, etc., £179,012, and cash in hand and at bank, £1,414,316.

The average effective interest earnings (per cent) of the Fund for the year ended 31 March 1961 was £4 0s. 3d.

The total revenue of the Fund for the year ended 31 March 1961 was £11,638,040, including members' contributions £3,775,984, interest on investments and on contributions, £1,328,163, other items £310, and subsidy £6,533,583. The total amount expended during the year was £8,641,262, including retiring and other allowances £7,824,146, refunds of contributions £776,138, and transfers to National Provident Fund £40,978.

The following statistics present a review of the operations of the Fund during the latest five years.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of ContributorsAnnual ContributionsInterest Receivable From InvestmentsContributions From GovernmentAnnual Value of AllowancesAccumulated Fund
  £££££
195764,7432,665,663770,6623,862,0655,533,58123,707,430
195868,3803,116,414902,0004,617,8095,908,89526,500,249
195970,8783,403,7491,032,5034,850,1396,353,38629,455,351
196072,8843,500,4951,160,1714,971,0006,821,40832,262,673
196174,4583,758,4761,328,1635,381,0007,232,45735,259,451

Private Superannuation Funds — Most large and many small employers have established their own staff superannuation funds. Certain taxation concessions are available to an employer and his employees in respect of their contributions to a superannuation fund provided the fund is approved by the Commissioner of Inland Revenue, and it is probable that there are very few funds being administered which have not been approved. The numbers of approved Funds at 31 March in the latest eight years were as follows.

19542,912
19553,147
19563,388
19573,625
19583,844
19593,967
19604,201
19614,404

A few funds, particularly those of banks, oil companies, insurance companies, and large companies engaged in international trade, provide pensions on retirement, but approximately 95 per cent of all approved funds provide lump-sum payments on retirement.

Of every 95 lump-sum funds approximately two are invested in shares, debentures, and trustee securities, and the remaining 93 are invested in life-insurance policies taken out on the lives of the various employees.

The life-insurance companies regard superannuation funds as an important part of their business, and they have been responsible for a great increase in the number of approved funds in recent years.

6 D — NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND

GENERAL—The National Provident Fund came into operation on 1 March 1911 and is administered by a board comprising the Minister of Finance as chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Health, the Valuer-General, the Superintendent of the Fund, and three other members appointed by and holding tenure of office during the pleasure of the Governor-General. The present legislative authority is contained in the National Provident Fund Act 1950, and its amending Acts.

The Act enables any local authority to pay money at credit of any account into the Fund for investment under an agreement providing for the repayment of the money to the local authority when required, together with interest thereon. Any other body or person approved by the Minister may also pay money into the Fund for investment in the same manner as a local authority.

The National Provident Fund Board is authorised to act as sole Commissioner of any depreciation fund or sinking fund established by a local authority. In addition, Commissioners of any depreciation fund or sinking fund may similarly pay money under their control into the Fund for investment.

Any money paid to the Board in its capacity of sole Commissioner of any depreciation fund or sinking fund shall be invested in the Fund or in such other manner as may be specially authorised by the Governor-General in Council.

The interest payable on money paid into the Fund for investment in the Fund shall be at such rate or rates determined from time to time by the Governor-General in Council.

The Act provides for the appointment of an Investment Committee consisting of the Secretary to the Treasury, the Superintendent of the Fund, and two other persons appointed by the Minister. The Board may from time to time, with the consent of the Minister, delegate to the Committee any of the powers and functions of the Board in respect of this investment of money in the Fund.

The National Provident Fund Account is kept at the Reserve Bank with appropriate provision for overdraft authority.

In addition to guaranteeing the benefits payable under the Act, the State provides a subsidy to the extent of one-fourth of the contributions paid into the Fund, and also meets all the administrative expenses.

The Fund now provides three distinct services:

  1. Public Fund — Pensions and subsidiary benefits for members of the general public, with extensions for members of approved friendly societies and employees of firms, trade unions, etc.

  2. Local Authorities Superannuation — Superannuation for employees of all local authorities and other statutory bodies.

  3. Local Authorities Investment Pool — Local authorities may temporarily invest otherwise idle loan and other moneys in the pool.

Public Fund — Membership to the public portion of the Fund is open to any resident of New Zealand over the age of 16 years who wishes to purchase a retirement pension and obtain cover for the various other benefits offered.

Contributors have the option of joining one or both of the schemes offered. The Public Fund Scheme, as detailed in the National Provident Fund Act 1950 and subsequent amendments, provides a medium by which a predetermined amount of pension may be purchased by the payment of fixed regular contributions. After five years' membership subsidiary benefits in the form of an incapacity allowance, widows' and children's allowances attach to membership.

The Single Premium Scheme, introduced by authority of the 1958 amendment, enables residents to purchase a retirement pension by making contributions of varying amounts according to their ability to pay. At the end of each 12-monthly period the total contributions made during the previous 12 months are added up and from this total is calculated the value of the pension purchased during that year which together with purchases in other years becomes available at any age between 60 and 65 years.

Both the Public Fund Scheme and the Single Premium Scheme provide the contributor with optional benefits which become available on retirement. These include a variable pension from 60 to 65 years, the right to accept a joint and survivorship pension with the spouse, and an opportunity of surrendering up to one-quarter of the pension in return for a capital payment.

Both schemes are available without medical examination. The benefits to those contributing for five year; or over include a liberal widow's allowance.

Local Authorities Superannuation — Funds earlier established under the Local Authorities Superannuation Act 1908 have been merged with the National Provident Fund, and there is now operating one uniform superannuation scheme to which all local authorities in New Zealand contribute; employees may move more freely from employment in one local authority to another without sacrifice of accrued superannuation benefits.

The principle of voluntary membership introduced into State schemes extends to the National Provident Fund schemes and provision is made for the recognition, by agreement with the employing authority, of General or Local Government service within the British Commonwealth or Western Samoa or within New Zealand. A further provision enacted authorises the board to protect accrued superannuation rights of New Zealanders moving from General or Local Government service to service with a United Nations organisation.

The Fund is the approved superannuation vehicle for all statutory corporations and also provides facilities whereby registered educational institutions may provide superannuation for teachers, thus removing another artificial barrier to the free interchange of teachers in the educational services. With the consent of the Minister of Finance, Government Departments also contribute for nurses and other specialist officers not adequately provided for in the normal superannuation scheme.

The benefits and contributions are substantially the same as those operating in the Government Superannuation Fund, and there is provision whereby employees may transfer from local authority to State employment, and vice versa, without loss of accrued rights.

On retirement there are several options as to joint and survivorship or variable pensions, which enable the income payable after retirement to be arranged to meet individual needs. A superannuitant may elect to surrender his right to a proportion (not exceeding one-fourth) of the pension and to receive instead payment of a sum equal to nine times the amount by which his annual pension is reduced consequent on the surrender.

Local Authorities Investment Pool — Nearly 400 local authorities are now paying money into the Fund for investment. Since the inauguration of the pool the total amount invested in the Fund exceeds £43.5 million and the total amount withdrawn is nearly £22.2 million, leaving a balance of about £21.4 million invested in the Fund as at 31 March 1961. The following table shows the various types of money invested in the Fund and the different classes of local authorities supporting the pool as at 31 March 1961.

Class of Local AuthorityDepreciation FundsSinking FundsReserve FundsLoan and Miscellaneous MoneyTotal
 £(000)
Cities and boroughs1053012,5883,6756,668
Counties711326267301,559
Electric power boards2831241,8368343,077
Fire boards3724328111
Harbour boards211,7081,7303,459
Hospital boards2921852,5433,020
Sundry local authorities2332,6427873,463
Total amount invested4979069,62710,32721,358

Nearly half of the pool is made up of loan and miscellaneous money which cannot be expected to be retained by the Fund for any very long period and, as a result, a considerable portion of the pool must of necessity be invested in readily realisable short-term Government stocks. From the balance of the longer term money invested in the Fund has developed a “hard core” from which it has been possible for the Fund substantially to augment its normal investable income for lending to local authorities.

Statistical Summary — The numbers of contributors as at 31 March 1961 were as follows.

FundMalesFemalesTotal
Annual single premium9911141,105
Public Fund9,45967410,133
Superannuation7,1663,58510,751
Totals17,61643,37321,989

Summarised figures set out for the year ended 31 December 1958, the 15 months ended 31 March 1960, and the year ended 31 March 1961 form a useful basis for comparative analysis.

ItemYear Ended 31 December 1958Fifteen Months Ended 31 March 1960Year Ended 31 March 1961
New contributors1,9993,1333,208
Total contributors21,72421,68221,989
Pensioners and other beneficiaries4,8205,1365,398
Income—£££
   Contributions1,381,1541,655,9401,540,922
   Interest (including fines)812,9671,182,5681,100,145
   State subsidy310,791391,329352,213
Total income (including State subsidy)2,638,9483,233,2772,993,280
Outgo —
   Pensions535,434724,507645,759
   Other benefits341,069461,845411,297
   Total outgo877,2381,186,8701,057,056
Funds at end of year21,405,96723,452,36425,388,588
Effective interest earnings (per cent)£4 0s. 10d.£4 6s. 7d.£4 12s. 2d.

The next table presents an alternative comparison, the periods covered on this occasion being the years ended 31 December until the end of 1958, the 15 months ended 31 March 1960, and the year ended 31 March 1961.

YearNumber of ContributorsAnnual Rate of Contributions PayableTotal Amount of FundPensions and Allowances Paid During Year
IncapacityRetiringWidows' and Children's

* Estimated.

† Actual.

  £££££
195622,571946,140*18,236,94021,818453,65170,500
195722,455984,292*19,644,24722,885500,71376,272
195821,7241,381,15421,405,95728,028535,43479,612
1 Jan 1959–31 Mar 196021,6821,655,94023,452,36437,987724,507103,490
1 Apr 1960–31 Mar 196121,9891,540,92225,388,58833,267645,75990,649

Of the accumulated fund of £25,388,588, and the local authority loan and special reserve fund of £21,357,519 as at 31 March 1961, £45,538,350 was invested, the principal classes of investments being Government securities, £21,121,355; local authority securities, £23,505,052; mortgages, etc., £713,943; and debentures, shares, etc., £198,000.

The following table shows the details of investments of the Fund for the year ended 31 March 1961.

Class of SecurityInvestments, 31 March 1960Movements During PeriodInvestments, 31 March 1961
New InvestmentsRealisations and Repayments
Government and State Advances££££
   Corporation stock16,310,1029,437,7504,626,49721,121,355
Local authority debentures21,156,2413,814,7751,465,96423,505,052
Mortgages734,32315,96448,656701,631
Company shares and debentures198,000198,000
Reversions13,6119962,29512,312
Totals38,412,27713,269,4856,143,41245,538,350

6 E — FRIENDLY SOCIETIES

THE legislation dealing with friendly societies is contained in the Friendly Societies Act 1909 and its amendments. Provision is made for the registration of all societies and branches with the Registrar of Friendly Societies, and also for the general superintendence by the Government of the administration of the funds of the societies.

LODGES AND MEMBERS — The table following gives the number of registrations (i.e., of friendly societies proper, or lodges, together with benevolent societies, working-men's clubs, etc., registered under the Act) and of lodge members as at 31 December of the years shown.

Name of OrderRegistrationsLodge Members
195819591960195819591960

* Membership figures relate to “actuarial” societies only.

Manchester Unity Independent Order of Oddfellows24323823728,40628,05727,735
Independent Order of Oddfellows1901871867,5737,3387,181
National Independent Order of Oddfellows111555248
Ancient Order of Foresters13013012910,68410,43410,249
United Ancient Order of Druids13813813614,08613,74313,360
Independent Order of Rechabites4646452,7452,6552,587
Order of Sons of Temperance766386377371
Sons and Daughters of Temperance111757169
Hibernian-Australasian Catholic Benefit Society7473713,7493,7073,646
Protestant Alliance Friendly Society of Australasia111010460433416
Grand United Order of Oddfellows10102207189177
Isolated friendly societies676970535*527*508*
Working-men's clubs242425
International Order of Good Templars111111
Specially authorised societies193232
Totals97297696268,96167,58366,347

Annual returns of receipts, expenditure, etc., of lodges are required by law. For the year 1960 the Registrar of Friendly Societies received returns from 782 “actuarial” lodges, with an aggregate membership of 66,347 at the end of the year, as compared with 798 lodges and 67,583 members for 1959. During the year, 1,796 members were admitted by initiation, etc., and 647 by clearance; 1,345 died, 644 left by clearance, and 1,690 by arrears, etc.

The aggregate membership of lodges increased year by year, reaching a peak in 1930, when the total was 107,167. The economic depression probably accounted for the decrease in each of the following three years, the number at the end of 1933 being 100,237. A series of increases then commenced, the 1930 level being passed in 1936, and by 31 December 1938 a total of 113,709 had been reached. Each of the succeeding years, however, has witnessed a fall in membership, although the decrease in 1960 was comparatively slight. The number at the end of that year (66,347) was, however, 47,362, or 42 per cent less than in 1938. The various benefits under the social security scheme, particularly medical and hospital benefits (see Section 6A), have no doubt had a considerable effect on the membership of friendly societies.

The statistics given subsequently relate to the lodges (782 in 1960) for which returns were received and tabulated.

MORTALITY AND SICKNESS — In the following statement of the mortality experience for the last five years no account has been taken of age incidence.

YearDeaths of MembersPer 1,000 Members at RiskDeaths of Members' WivesPer 1,000 Members at Risk
19561,26417.663014.20
19571,35619.123334.69
19581,22717.603264.68
19591,36119.743234.68
19601,34519.922824.18

The number of members sick during 1960 was 10,713, equal to 16.4 per 100 members at risk. The sickness experienced during 1960 was 277,930 weeks, equal to 26 weeks per sick member and 4 weeks 2 days for each member at risk.

FUNDS OF FRIENDLY SOCIETIES — The total funds of the societies and branches as at 31 December 1960 amounted to £9,989,885, made up as follows.

FundsAmount
 £
Sick and funeral funds7,091,964
Surplus appropriation funds, etc.1,251,261
Management funds, goods, etc.607,125
Distress, benevolent funds, etc.1,039,535
Total9,989,885
AssetsAmount
 £
Investments at interest9,056,557
Value of land and buildings865,023
Cash not bearing interest15,249
Value of goods29,848
Other assets11,945
Owing by management funds11,263
Total9,989,885

The net income from investments credited to the sick and funeral funds for 1960 amounted to £359,851, the average rate being £5 6s. 0d. per cent, as against £5 5s. 0d. in 1959.

There has been over many years a continuous increase in the amount of accumulated funds standing to the credit of friendly societies, the increase in the last 10 years amounting to £3,131,823, or 46 per cent. The average capital per member has also appreciably increased, the gain in the last 10 years amounting to £59 2s. 5d. (65 per cent). The substantial fall in membership over the last 10 years has resulted in outstanding increases being shown for the average capital per member.

YearTotal FundsAverage Capital per Member
 ££s.d.
19506,858,0629190
19517,126,44995168
19527,331,34199183
19537,523,88310383
19547,780,41910820
19558,078,280113611
19568,512,156120101
19578,840,887126104
19589,140,1251321010
19599,524,723140188
19609,989,885150115

The contributions and entrance fees paid to sick and funeral funds in 1960 amounted to £191,291. Divided by the mean number of members, the average for 1960 was £2 17s. 2d., as against £2 15s. 10d. for 1959.

The interest and rent received by the lodges and central bodies amounted to £359,851 in 1960, equal to £5 7s. 6d. per member, as against £5 0s. 10d. for 1959.

The amount of sickness benefit paid was £141,011 in 1960, equal to £13 3s. 3d. per member sick and £2 2s. 1d. per member, as against £12 14s. 0d. and £2 3s. 3d. respectively for 1959. Viewing the amount paid in relation to the weeks of sickness, the average benefit per week is found to be 10s. 2d. in 1960, as against 10s. 4d. for 1959.

The funeral benefit paid amounted to £103,715 in 1960, equal to £1 11s. 0d. per member, as compared with £1 11s. 8d. for 1959.

The total worth of the sick and funeral funds at the beginning of 1960 was £6,843,225, and at the end of the year £7,091,964.

Chapter 7. Section 7 EDUCATION

Table of Contents

GENERAL — The strongly egalitarian temper of New Zealand society — a product of historical, geographical, and economic factors — is reflected in education administration by the policy of giving education at all levels to those who desire it. In few other countries is there closer approximation to equality of educational opportunity.

Education in New Zealand has its legal basis in the Education Act 1914 (with a number of later amendments), which was based largely on the original Education Act 1877. The Act provides for compulsory education, which is free and secular in public schools.

The original Education Act, which was mainly concerned with the provision of public primary education, created the Department of Education and prescribed the constitution and functions of education boards and school committees. As far as mere structure is concerned, this still remains the pattern of the system of public primary school administration but there have been, in the intervening years, great changes in the relative function of the three types of authority. The general tendency has been for final power and responsibility to shift from the school committees to the education boards and from the education boards to the Department.

The Department controls the inspectorate and supervises the staffing of schools and all matters pertaining to curricula and conducts the School Certificate Examination. The Maori schools, the Correspondence School, and several special schools arc administered by the Department. It has official contacts with the University Grants Committee and the National Council of Adult Education, whilst the universities and the regional councils of adult education are independent in their educational activities. The Department distributes the funds voted annually for education by Parliament, and it administers the capital expenditure voted for educational building. There are regional offices of the Department in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch.

All schools, both at the primary and the post-primary level, are regularly visited by inspectors, who give assistance and guidance to teachers in educational matters. They also assess teaching efficiency for grading purposes in State-controlled schools.

Education Boards and School Committees — There remains, however, a considerable amount of local and regional control. Statutory boards (i.e. education boards administering public, primary, and intermediate schools, and governing bodies of post-primary schools) are responsible for the schools in their area. They are the employing authorities of the teachers. They disburse the grants received from the Department of Education for teachers' salaries, for maintenance of schools and new building of schools, for equipment and teaching materials. No local rates are levied for education either by municipal or local education authorities.

Each primary school has its locally elected committee of parents (school committee), which is a statutory body charged with management of property and other matters on behalf of the board. The members of the school committee form the electorate for electing the board members. The local boards controlling post-primary schools (either singly, or several schools in the same town) are made up of representatives of the parents of pupils, of the education board of the district, and other local organisations, and, in the case of technical schools, of employers and employees in local industries.

Although the boards and the school committees have lost many of their original powers, they have not ceased to play an important part in the system. A school committee's primary function is the care of school buildings, grounds, and equipment, but, in addition to this, many interest themselves very keenly in the general activities of the school and provide, along with voluntary parent-teacher associations, a focusing point for local opinion on educational matters. In the primary field in particular, the education boards are still the initiating bodies on matters of buildings, sites, conveyance of pupils, consolidation, and provision of school facilities generally, and, although the final word often lies with the Minister of Education or the Department, the boards have no small influence in the fixing of policy within their districts.

Trends and Problems — Among the main problems in education at present are those arising from the dramatic increase in the school population during the post-war years. At a time when smaller classes were being planned for, the intake of pupils became greater than ever before and this slowed up the move to reduce the size of classes. Such reduction, however, is still regarded as a major educational objective. The problem has been complicated by a general shortage of adolescent labour and there has been difficulty in training sufficient teachers to staff the schools.

Prominent among trends that have become discernible in recent years are the following: a more flexible school and class organisation; a fuller recognition of individual differences among children; study of subject-matter that has real meaning for children; free post-primary education for all; and developments in the field of advanced technical education to meet needs arising from the expansion and diversification of industry.

COMMISSION ON EDUCATION IN NEW ZEALAND — On 15 February 1960 the Minister of Education announced that Sir George Currie, Vice-Chancellor of the University of New Zealand, had accepted the Government's invitation to serve as chairman on a broadly representative, 11-member commission on New Zealand education.

The terms of reference of the Commission were as follows:

  1. To consider the publicly controlled system of primary, post-primary, and technical education in relation to the present and future needs of the Dominion, and, within the broad scope of this reference, to inquire into:

    1. The aims and purposes of the curricula, and the methods and internal school organisation used to achieve them.

    2. The organisation and scope of the school system, and the relationships between the post-primary schools and the university and other forms of further education.

    3. The status of the teaching profession and its conditions of service, the recruitment and training of teachers (including in-service training), the staffing of schools and their physical facilities.

    4. The distribution of public expenditure on education among the various objectives of educational policy.

    5. The place of private contributions towards expenditure on education, whether by way of fees, subsidised contributions, gifts, or endowments.

    6. The functions, powers, responsibilities, and inter-relationships of the Department of Education, education boards, school committees, post-primary school councils, and technical school boards, and the need, if any, for changes in the geographical areas of responsibility, the functions, constitutions, or powers of such bodies.

    7. The desirability and practicability of greater use being made of school buildings and school facilities generally for community purposes.

    8. The question of religious teaching in State schools.

    9. Child welfare and delinquency so far as they have a bearing on the education system.

  2. To consider also the question of financial assistance to private schools.

  3. To report on these matters, and to make recommendations.

At the inaugural meeting of the Commission on Education in New Zealand held in March 1960, the Minister of Education asked the Commission to consider urgently matters relating to the staffing of schools and, in particular, to the recruitment of post-primary teachers, with a view to bringing down an interim report. In July 1960 the Commission presented its interim report on post-primary staffing and recruitment. During 1960 and 1961 the Commission heard submissions from interested parties on the various matters included within its terms of reference. The main report of the Commission was presented in 1962.

THE SCHOOL SYSTEM — Perhaps the best method of sketching the outline of the school system as it now stands is to trace the career of a child as he passes through the system. He may at the age of three enter a free kindergarten under the control of the Free Kindergarten Association. At the age of five he may enter, and at seven he must enter, either a primary school under one of the 10 education boards, or some other registered primary school, or, if living in an isolated area or physically handicapped, the primary department of the Education Department's Correspondence School. All State primary schools are co-educational. The child passes through the infant classes and Standards 1, 2, 3, and 4. This normally takes six years. The remaining two years of the primary course will be taken either in Forms I and II at the same primary school or, if there is one conveniently situated at an intermediate school. The intermediate school is a centrally situated school which pupils enter from the surrounding primary schools (called in these circumstances “contributing schools”) after they have completed the primary-school course as far as Standard 4. Because the intermediate school comprises a fairly large number of pupils (usually between 300 and 600) who are mainly between the ages of 11 and 13 years it is possible to classify them into groups of approximately equal ability, provide a good range of optional courses, and utilise specialist teachers and advanced equipment to the full. As at this point in his school career the pupil's social and intellectual interests have developed, he is ready to take full advantage of the varied and enriched courses provided. In some intermediate schools a third-year course (Form III) is provided to give a rounded-off education to pupils who do not intend to proceed to a post-primary school.

On completing a course in Form II or on reaching the age of 14 by 31 March of the first year in which he attends a post-primary school, the child becomes entitled to free post-primary education until the age of 19 is reached. All children are required to attend school until they reach the age of 15 years. This means, in effect, that some period of secondary education is now compulsory for nearly all children. The only provision for exemption is inability to profit from the further period of education.

When a child leaves the primary stage he normally enters Form III of a secondary school or a technical high school. In some towns a secondary school and a technical high school have been amalgamated to form a combined school. In some country areas a child enters the secondary department of a district high school. Since 1944 secondary schools have catered increasingly not only for “academic” pupils, but for those pupils as well who, after fulfilling the core requirements, specialise in the more practical subjects (technical, agricultural, domestic, commercial).

School Certificates — The School Certificate Examination conducted by the Department of Education is now regarded as the accepted test of a completed post-primary education for the great bulk of the pupils who do not desire to proceed to university. The School Certificate Examination is taken at the end of the third or fourth year of the post-primary course. The subjects of the examination are English and three other subjects from a wide range. School Certificates are endorsed on satisfactory completion of an advanced course of instruction for one year.

Higher School Certificates are awarded after a five years' course to pupils who have been awarded a School Certificate and satisfactorily completed an advanced course of two years; and to pupils who have been accredited for or have passed the University Entrance Examination and satisfactorily complete an advanced course of one year. A Higher School Certificate may also be awarded after a four years' course to pupils who have obtained a credit pass or better in the Entrance Scholarship Examination of the University of New Zealand.

Since 1961 a Certificate of Education has been awarded to those candidates who, while not successful in qualifying for the School Certificate, have performed creditably in some subjects in the examination. It certifies that the holder has had at least three years' post-primary education and shows the subjects of the School Certificate Examination in which the candidate gains 30 per cent or more of the possible marks. The degree of success in each subject is shown in four grades. The introduction of the new Certificate of Education followed the recommendation of the School Certificate Review Committee which sat during 1960.

Technical Training — The technical schools, combined schools, and some secondary schools run evening classes, particularly in practical and vocational subjects, which an adolescent may attend after he leaves full-time day school. Apprentices in some trades are required to attend day or evening classes as a part of their trade training. These classes include boilermaking and panel-beating, carpentry and joinery, cabinetmaking, electrical wiring, mechanical engineering, motor-engineering, plumbing, aircraft engineering, radio servicing, refrigeration engineering, ship, yacht, and boat building, painting and decorating, signwriting, printing and photo-engraving, sheet-metal work, and moulding and casting. In some of the larger technical schools part-time students may take professional courses in engineering, architecture, and accountancy.

Apprentice classes are well established, as is the system of examinations provided for these students by the Trades Certification Board. In recent years there has developed a tendency towards regional consolidation and the substitution of “block” courses for half-day-a-week attendance even though apprentices live within easy reach of a school. An important part in apprentice education is played by the Technical Correspondence School for about two in every five apprentices are on its roll. Its function is threefold: it fills the geographical gaps left by the other schools; it provides, on a national basis, technical education for some of the smaller trades and occupations; and it produces technical textbooks.

The Technicians Certification Authority was constituted under the Technicians Certification Act 1958 to prescribe courses and syllabuses and conduct examinations appropriate to the needs of persons in occupational groups. The Authority, in addition to developing courses for engineering technicians originally inaugurated by the former controlling authority for the N.Z. Certificates in Engineering, has instituted courses for building, architectural draughtsmen, and chemical technicians, and inquiries into the needs of other occupational groups for similar courses are in progress.

The Central Technical College, Petone, was split into a Technical High School and a Senior Technical School or polytechnic — the first of its kind in New Zealand — from the beginning of 1960. The senior school, which specialises in block courses for apprentices and technicians and includes the School of Pharmacy, is now known as the Central Institute of Technology. The Technical High School has reverted to the former name for the school, Hutt Valley Memorial Technical College. A similar division of the Seddon Memorial Technical College in Auckland took place towards the end of 1960, and of the Wellington Technical College towards the end of 1961.

University Entrance — Prior to 1944 all pupils desiring to undertake a university course were required to sit and pass the University Entrance Examination conducted by the University of New Zealand. In 1944 a system of partial accrediting came into operation. Under this system pupils attending certain approved schools may be accredited for matriculation purposes provided they have completed a four years' post-primary-school course. The University Entrance Examination is now conducted by the Universities Entrance Board, and pupils not accredited for entrance to university may qualify in this manner. The standard of the present entrance examination is somewhat higher than that maintained prior to the introduction of the accrediting system.

Pupils who have been accredited for, or who have passed a University Entrance Examination, may without further post-primary education receive a fees bursary entitling them to tuition fees for a recognised course at a university. The term of a fees bursary is normally the minimum period in which a student pursuing a full-time course of study in each year could complete the recognised course taken under the bursary. Where pupils have obtained a Higher School Certificate, they may receive a fees and allowances bursary. Also, a person who during the first year of his tenure of a fees bursary has obtained passes in three units of a course for a degree of bachelor of arts or of bachelor of science, or equivalent passes in some other recognised course, may transfer to the second year of a fees and allowances bursary. A fees and allowances bursary is tenable for any recognised course at a university provided that the student pursues a full-time course of study during each year of the bursary. The term of a fees and allowances bursary is similar to that of a fees bursary. The holder of a fees and allowances bursary is entitled to tuition fees, and allowances of £40 in the first year of the bursary, £60 in the second year of the bursary, £60 in the third year of the bursary, and £100 in the fourth year of the bursary and in any subsequent year.

A holder of a fees and allowances bursary who is obliged to live away from his home or his usual place of residence in order to attend a university affording tuition in the subjects appropriate to his course and year may also qualify for a boarding allowance of £80 per annum. Students who complete a bachelor's degree in not more than one year in excess of the minimum period in which that degree may be completed by a student taking a full-time course each year are eligible for the award of a master's bursary. They must, however, intend in the next year or the following year to take a full-time course leading to a master's degree. A master's bursary is tenable for one year and entitles the holder to receive tuition fees and an allowance of £100. A boarding allowance may be paid in conjunction with a master's bursary in the same way as with a fees and allowances bursary.

From the beginning of 1962, the New Zealand university system changed from a federal university with constituent colleges to a system of separate universities, comprising the University of Auckland, the Victoria University of Wellington, the University of Canterbury, and the University of Otago. These universities had formerly constituted the University of New Zealand and they took over the power to confer degrees and diplomas exercised by the University of New Zealand before its dissolution. In 1960 there was established a new branch of the Victoria University of Wellington at Palmerston North, and a branch of the University of Auckland at Hamilton. In addition to the four separate universities, there are two university colleges of agriculture, Massey College and Lincoln College. These university colleges are open to students specialising in agricultural studies. They were associated with the University of New Zealand prior to its dissolution at the end of 1961. Massey College is now associated with the Victoria University of Wellington and Lincoln College is a constituent college of the University of Canterbury.

The seven teachers' training colleges, although they work in conjunction with the four universities, are organically related to them only through their boards of studies. The seventh teachers' training college was opened at Hamilton at the beginning of 1960. The education boards are the controlling authorities of the training colleges.

Special Groups — The State system also caters for the needs of certain special groups of children. Maori children may attend the public schools, but there are also public Maori schools provided for their primary education. There are also a few private church schools remaining from the pre- Maori War system established with the help of Government subsidies. For his post-primary education the Maori child may go free to any available public post-primary school or Maori district high school. If he lives in a rural area he may gain a Maori scholarship awarded by the Department of Education which will enable him to attend one of a number of full post-primary schools where boarding facilities are available. Of these, 11 are private church schools operated on a single-sex basis and providing full post-primary courses. Some of them are partly financed out of public endowments originally provided for the purpose of Maori education.

As mentioned earlier, children living in isolated areas or prevented in other ways from attending school may be enrolled in the Correspondence School for both primary and post-primary work.

For children with various types of handicap there are provided numerous special educational services. The mentally backward are grouped in 85 special classes attached to ordinary schools throughout the country and in two residential special schools. For children who are extremely backward mentally there are 14 special centres (occupation centres) in the main cities, and voluntary groups (occupational groups) which are given financial assistance by the Department have been formed in 11 smaller towns. Two residential schools cater for the needs of the deaf and those partially deaf children who cannot profit from teaching in an ordinary primary school. In addition, two classes for severely deaf and one for partially deaf children are attached to ordinary schools. A national diagnostic and guidance service organised in association with the two schools for the deaf gives assistance to deaf babies and infants and their parents and advises teachers in ordinary schools who have children with a hearing loss in their classes. Children with speech defects attend regularly one of 64 speech clinics. In six of the largest cities there are eight remedial clinics to assist children suffering from serious educational retardation (mainly in reading). Two reading consultants have been appointed to assist teachers in ordinary schools in coping with backward readers. Classes have been established for partially sighted children in the four main cities, and blind children are catered for in a school for the blind attached to the Foundation for the Blind, Auckland. Six schools have been organised as separate units for cerebral-palsied children. Where a sufficient number of children in hospital justifies it, teachers are made available to conduct hospital classes which are attached to a local school. There are 44 classes of this type. There are four classes for physically handicapped or delicate children. Children who are admitted to one or other of the seven health camps for a period of six to 10 weeks attend the school associated with each health camp. Recently, the Department of Education has set up under its direct control a residential school for severely disturbed children. Other special schools and homes which take care of children with the most serious and deep-seated problems of maladjustment or delinquency, the schools for the deaf, and the two special schools for the mentally backward, are administered for the Department by the Child Welfare Division, which, in educational matters, is under the control of the Minister of Education. All other special classes and centres are controlled by the education boards. The boards also employ 29 visiting teachers whose task it is to help children whose progress at school is causing concern, by acting as a link between the school, the home, and the community. The psychological service of the Department of Education is established in 11 centres. It comprises 18 psychologists, who offer a comprehensive diagnostic and guidance service, and six area organisers of special classes for mentally backward pupils. The Department conducts special classes in five prisons for prisoners whose basic education is of a low standard.

Private Schools — In addition to the various State schools described, a parent may send his child to a private school, either primary or secondary, conducted by either religious bodies or private individuals. No Government free place is tenable at these schools,* but a secondary school bursary (referred to later) may be tenable at a private school, while assistance for transport by rail and road and a boarding allowance under certain conditions may also be given to pupils attending private schools, whether primary or post-primary. All private schools must be registered, and are subject to regular inspection by the Department's inspectors. The majority of the private schools are conducted by the Roman Catholic Church. Amongst the private schools are two endowed secondary schools modelled after the English public school.

Coeducation — To complete the sketch of the school system it should be added that coeducation exists in all stages of the system. At the primary stage, all public, intermediate, and Maori schools and some private schools teach boys and girls together. At the teachers' training colleges and the universities, students of both sexes attend together. At the post-primary level all district high schools and technical colleges have both boys and girls on their rolls, whilst just over one-third of the secondary and combined schools and nearly all of the private secondary schools are single-sex schools. A comparison of the total enrolment of all post-primary schools (State as well as private) in 1960 with that over 20 years earlier shows that the ratio of pupils in single-sex to coeducational schools has changed from 51 to 49 in 1935 to 43 to 57 in 1960.

* Except for Maori scholarship holders in the denominational secondary schools.

SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS — The numbers of scholars and students receiving instruction in educational institutions are shown in the following summary. The table refers to roll numbers at 1 July (except in the case of kindergartens, which are as at end of year).

Class of Institution19561957195819591960

* Pupils on roll at end of year.

† There were also 1,876 students taking part-time courses.

‡ Includes 4,807 part-time students enrolled with Technical Correspondence School and 1,811 part-time students enrolled with Correspondence School.

§ There were also 1,133 “part-time students” who were full-time day pupils included under primary and post-primary education.

|| Includes 715 students taking short courses.

¶ Students holding post-primary teacher studentships (1,421 in 1960) and bursaries (35 in 1960) are included under universities.

Preschool Education*     
Kindergartens (morning and afternoon sessions)12,81013,36813,92814,80715,168
Primary Education     
Public (State) schools317,855331,277342,360351,906357,907
Intermediate schools and departments
Maori schools13,60613,08413,13513,15313,187
Maori private church schools866840840766689
Registered private primary schools45,29446,98247,47050,67052,090
Lower departments of secondary schools101131108113108
Correspondence classes (primary)1,1691,1761,0871,1501,125
Chatham Islands schools111116112117121
Totals, primary379,002393,606405,112417,875425,227
Post-primary Education     
Secondary schools39,07344,26848,78355,16462,629
Combined schools5,3595,4285,3715,4355,656
Secondary departments of district high schools9,5939,7819,5329,0128,361
Technical high schools21,19819,23118,98419,86922,716
Maori secondary private (boarding) schools968983918875960
Registered private and endowed schools14,85515,28216,06616,78818,333
Correspondence classes (secondary)549464469507551
Totals, post-primary91,59595,437100,123107,650119,206
Part-time Post-primary Education     
Classes conducted by education boards and post-primary school boards providing part-time post-primary instruction37,51438,61743,69351,57054,845‡§
Higher Education     
Universities9,66910,19711,15512,45513,678
Lincoln and Massey Colleges of Agriculture1,2021,4271,5101,3501,584||
Students exempt from lectures8829129661,0981,262
Teachers' colleges2,9633,2183,6023,7533,838
Totals, higher14,71615,75417,23318,65620,362
Totals, scholars and students535,637556,782580,089610,558634,808

The preceding table reveals the marked enrolment increases of between 20,000 and 30,000 in each of the last five years. The expansion of the education system began in 1945 when the enrolments of primary and post-primary full-time pupils rose by some 9,000, and by another 8,500 in the following year. In the period between 1950 and 1960 the total increase in enrolments was 194,000 full-time pupils, and the number of part-time students at day and night classes increased by 31,000 in those 10 years. This development led in turn to proportionate increases in the recruitment of teachers, and in the provision of classrooms, of teaching equipment, and other facilities such as school transport.

The expansion was in the first instance due to the increase in the yearly number of births. This number was some 28,000 in 1936, but had risen to nearly 63,000 in 1960. The number of pupils and students at all educational institutions increased from 192 per 1,000 population in 1936 to 268 per 1,000 population in 1960. A second factor, accentuating the rate of expansion in the post-primary school sector, was the gradual increase in the number of students who stayed at school beyond the age of 15, and left school from a higher form. The effect of this second movement has been that the number of candidates for the School Certificate Examination increased by 158 per cent in the 12 years 1948 to 1960.

The school enrolment increases were felt first in the primer classes, then in the lower standards. They gradually spread to the upper primary classes, and are expected to reach peak figures at the post-primary school level in the next two years. With the increasing numbers of school leavers qualified for university entrance, a similar expansion at the level of higher education is to be expected, with a more rapid rate of enrolment increases expected between 1963 and 1968. Projections of school and university enrolment as far as 1972 were published in a statement by the Minister of Education (E. 2, 1959), which sets out in some detail the assumptions on which the projections were based.

The development since 1930 of the school enrolments is illustrated by the diagram below, which gives for the years 1961 to 1972 estimates based on the most recently revised enrolment projects.

TOTAL SCHOOL POPULATION

ACTUAL ROLLS 1930-60 WITH ENROLMENT PROJECTION 1961-72

The changes in total enrolment were accompanied by changes in the yearly number of school leavers entering occupations. The first change was that fewer and fewer pupils leaving primary or intermediate school went directly to work, and more and more went on to some form of post-primary education; the latter proportion was 60 per cent in 1936, it rose to over 80 per cent in 1945, and has now reached over 95 per cent. The educational implications of this change for the kind of post-primary education, that now must cater for almost the whole of the country's child population, are obvious. The second change, which is now gradually taking effect, is that more and more of the pupils leaving post-primary school do so from higher forms than formerly. Finally, the total numbers of school leavers, have been increasing from an estimated 26,000 in 1951 to 39,000 in 1959; in 1962 more than 40,000 pupils are expected to leave school, and some 50,000 in 1969.

The enrolment at universities which reached a total of 16,524 in 1960 has almost trebled since 1939. From about 1956 onwards the age groups born after the depression years began to reach the institutions of higher education, and these had from then on to be ready to accommodate increasing numbers of students. The intake at the teachers' training colleges has increased in order to meet the higher demand for certificated teachers. The total rolls at the training colleges were 2,704 in 1951, 2,710 in 1952, 2,769 in 1953, 2,744 in 1954, 2,741 in 1955, 3,549 in 1956, 4,055 in 1957, 4,436 in 1958, 4,915 in 1959, and 5,318 in 1960.

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS — The numbers of candidates who actually presented themselves for the various examinations conducted by the Department of Education and also by the Trades Certification Board during the latest five years are given below.

Examination19561957195819591960

* These numbers represent subjects taken. The number of individual candidates in 1960 was 83.

† These number represent subjects taken. The number of individual candidates in 1960 was 83.

Teachers' Certificate305315331336303
School Certificate17,33519,14919,17921,17022,362
London University6771410
Handicraft Teachers' Certificate5351677619
Homecraft Teachers' Certificate577474
Technological898793102110
City and Guilds of London112*112*127*111*106*
Samoan Public Service129158157230403
Engineers' and Surveyors' Assistants6653514534
New Zealand Certificate in Engineering3577128140222
Technical Teachers' Certificate203
Totals18,18720,08320,21422,22423,772
Trades Certification6,1526,0846,2337,0027,716

The University of New Zealand conducted examinations in 1960 in the faculties of arts, science, medicine, dentistry, home science, law, engineering, commerce, agriculture, music, architecture, and divinity; for diplomas in journalism, in banking, and in fine arts; and for admission to the legal and accountancy professions. There were 15,693 entrants for the degree and professional examinations in 1960, compared with 14,498 in 1959.

Comparative figures for the number of candidates for the University Entrance Examination and the number of passes by accrediting and by examination are given in the following table.

YearCandidatesPasses
AccreditedBy Examination
19565,3752,890492
19576,5883,605692
19587,4604,100702
19597,3403,949774
19608,1124,362777

TRADES EXAMINATIONS — The Trades Certification Act 1948 provides for the establishment of the New Zealand Trades Certification Board, consisting of the following members:

  1. Three persons to be appointed on the recommendation of the Director of Education, one of the three to be appointed as chairman of the Board on the Director's recommendation.

  2. Two persons to be nominated by the New Zealand Employers' Federation and two by the New Zealand Federation of Labour.

  3. Two persons to be nominated by the New Zealand Technical School Teachers' Association and one by the Technical Education Association.

  4. The person for the time being holding the office of Commissioner of Apprenticeship.

  5. Three other persons, one of whom is to be nominated by the New Zealand Electrical Wire-men's Registration Board, one by the New Zealand Motor Trade Certification Board, and one by the Plumbers' Board of New Zealand.

  6. Additional members of whom one shall be nominated by each other authority which conducts examinations and issues certificates for the whole of New Zealand in connection with a particular trade or trades, and which the Board recommends should be represented on the Board for the time being.

The members of the Board, other than the Commissioner of Apprenticeship, are appointed by the Minister of Education for a term of three years. Provision is made for reappointments, removals from office, etc.

The functions of the Board are to make provision for the examination of persons practising or intending to practise any trade who desire from time to time to present themselves for examination, and, secondly, to grant or issue, either independently or in conjunction with any other examining body, diplomas or certificates to any such persons in recognition of proficiency in any trade, or in any art, science, or matter relating to any trade.

The Board may also (a) co-opt if necessary any person or persons for advice in connection with any trade; (b) make representations to the appropriate New Zealand apprenticeship committee in regard to the prerequisite education for apprentices wishing to enter any industry, or in regard to other educational matters affecting apprentices; (c) appoint, with approval of the Minister, advisory or technical committees to advise the Board on such matters within the scope of its powers and functions as are referred to them by the Board, and appoint any person to be a member of such a committee even if he is not a member of the Board; and (d) charge fees for entry for any examination.

Payments incurred for the expenses of the Board and for administration generally are paid from the proceeds from fees and otherwise, and where the amounts from such sources are insufficient, the deficiency is met from the annual vote for the Department of Education.

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION — The following table shows the expenditure (after recoveries have been deducted) from public funds on each branch or service of education for the three years ended 31 March 1959, 1960, and 1961.

 Expenditure Year Ended 31 March
195919601961
Expenditure from vote, education£££
   General3,217,1343,310,3443,516,288
   Buildings, land, furniture and equipment9,300,75810,617,16011,281,173
   Primary education11,442,18412,140,56513,334,300
   Post-primary education5,787,1826,371,5617,439,881
   Higher education2,066,6392,188,2573,018,105
   Training of teachers2,004,5932,180,0562,488,802
   Maori schools494,139521,187561,438
   Education of the blind74,252181,338107,718
   Special schools171,159182,107201,377
   Child welfare742,796834,731900,295
   Miscellaneous grants365,189344,813377,434
   National Library Service262,511295,512326,536
   Totals, vote Education35,928,53639,167,63143,553,347

The foregoing figures do not include revenue received by universities from endowments, fees, etc., which are available for educational purposes.

The following figures show Government expenditure on education during the period 1950–51 to 1960–61.

Year Ended 31 MarchExpenditure from Public FundsExpenditure as Percentage of National IncomeExpenditure per Head of Mean Population

* Provisional.

 £(000)per cent£s.
195115,0302.5717
195217,6492.890
195321,3383.21012
195424,0473.31113
195525,4093.2121
195628,5193.4135
195731,6363.6148
195834,0363.7153
195935,9293.71513
196039,1683.71614
196143,5533.9*185

Education Buildings — The increases in school population have led to an expansion of the school building programme. The following numbers of additional classrooms were completed in recent years. The figures do not include classrooms provided in replacement of obsolete accommodation.

 PrimaryPost-primary
1955548259
1956494367
1957491358
1958468301
1959473339
1960423463

The need to expand the school building programme has resulted in a number of measures being taken in recent years to increase the supply of classrooms.

An emergency measure introduced in 1946 was the provision of prefabricated buildings. Increasing use was made of these buildings until the year 1952, after which improved building resources allowed a gradual increase in the proportion of permanent building.

A further important step in the efforts to meet rapidly increasing rolls was the use of standard plans for both primary and post-primary schools. In 1951 a Dominion Basic Plan for primary schools was introduced, while, in the post-primary field, three standard designs were evolved; and a number of new schools were built to each of the plans over the period 1953 to 1956.

The year 1955 saw the application in New Zealand of new principles being followed overseas in the design of primary and post-primary schools. The resulting designs gave improved teaching facilities and amenities at a lower cost. The first primary schools planned on the “block” principle opened in 1955, and the first post-primary school in 1957. These planning principles are now being developed further in two-storied post-primary schools.

In view of the need for plans which meet more closely the particular needs of individual districts, a scheme has now been operating for several years in primary school building which aims at providing speed and economy in the erection of buildings while, at the same time, giving education boards increased responsibility in the planning and building of schools and an incentive to use local architectural and planning skill in the fullest possible way. Education boards are free under this scheme to plan and build within the limits or “white lines” imposed on the one hand by a building code which lays down minimum requirements for each type of building, and on the other by the ceiling placed by the Government on the amount of money which it is prepared to allocate to any particular project.

Pre-school Education — Children below the age of five years are not enrolled in the State primary schools. They may be enrolled, however, at free kindergartens controlled by local free kindergarten associations which are voluntary bodies formed for the purpose, or at nursery play centres controlled by nursery play centre associations.

Since 1942 the Government has made grants available to kindergarten students in training, and in 1949 accepted responsibility for the cost of sites and buildings for training centres. The salaries of kindergarten teachers and full-time training centre staff have, since 1948, been paid by the Department of Education, and grants are available towards the fees of part-time lecturers in the training centres. Subsidies of £2 for £1 on voluntary contributions raised for the purchase of land, buildings, and initial equipment are paid by the Government.

Nursery play centre associations receive from the Government a small annual maintenance grant in respect of nursery play centres which meet a required standard of equipment, and a small establishment grant towards initial costs is paid to new centres.

At the end of 1960 there were 15,168 children enrolled at 200 free kindergartens (7,877 for morning sessions and 7,291 for those held in the afternoon). In 1959 the corresponding figures were 14,807 and 196 respectively. In 1960 there were 141 recognised nursery play centres for 4,391 children.

PRIMARY SCHOOLS — The primary-school system at the end of 1960 consisted of 2,051 public schools (including district high schools and intermediate schools or departments), 156 Maori schools, 335 registered private primary schools (which included 9 Maori private church schools), and three lower departments of secondary schools.

Lower departments of secondary schools may be run for pupils who have not passed Form II, provided that no part of the cost of instruction or of the maintenance of the department is met from public moneys. At the end of 1960 the total number of pupils in the three departments of secondary schools was 110 with four teachers.

The curriculum of the primary school, as set out in the syllabus of instruction, includes character training, English, arithmetic, geography and history, arts and crafts (including needlework), nature study, physical education (including swimming), health education, and music. Teachers are advised on the teaching of nature study, physical education, and arts and crafts by itinerant specialists. At the Forms I and II levels woodwork and metalwork instruction is given to boys at manual-training centres, and girls are taught domestic subjects, including cookery and hygiene.

The syllabus as a whole has been revised in recent years. Textbooks are issued free to pupils in all schools, both State and private. A series of basic primer readers and a considerable amount of equipment for primer classes are also provided by the Government.

Public (State) Schools — The figures set out in the following table refer to all pupils in public primary schools and intermediate schools and departments. Pupils in secondary departments of district high schools are not included.

YearNumber of Schools (Including Intermediate Schools and Departments)Pupils at End of YearAverage of Mean Weekly RollAverage Attendance over YearAverage Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll
19561,951335,433322,139298,10092.5
19571,964348,940334,357311,52393.2
19581,998364,181346,654323,64893.3
19592,010373,807356,877330,31392.6
19602,028378,927359,580335,88593.4

While the number of schools has not increased greatly, mainly owing to the consolidation of small rural schools, the total rolls have increased by 116,000 since 1950. The changes which have taken place in the size of schools may be seen from the following table.

Number of Public Schools19501960Increase (+) or Decrease (-)
Roll 70 and under1,159880−279
Roll 71 to 350505716+211
Roll 351 and over244432+188
Totals1,9082,028+120

In each of the education districts are located inspectors of primary schools who form part of the staff of the Department of Education. The total number of primary-school inspectors at 31 March 1961 was 75, allocated as follows: Auckland, 17; South Auckland, 12; Hawke's Bay, 6; Taranaki, 4; Wanganui, 5; Wellington, 10; Nelson, 3; Canterbury, 11; Otago, 4; Southland, 3. These figures exclude one chief inspector and four inspectors in the Head Office of the Department.

The following table relates to pupils on the rolls of the public primary schools and Forms I and II only of intermediate schools at 1 July in each of the years shown.

Age in Years1958: Total Pupils1959: Total Pupils1960Percentage of Total Pupils
BoysGirlsTotal Pupils195819591960
5 and under 641,82843,26822,94821,52644,47412.212.312.4
6 and under 742,73042,93322,88621,80844,69412.512.212.5
7 and under 841,55242,68121,92920,93942,86812.112.112.0
8 and under 941,55541,60722,04420,56842,61212.111.811.9
9 and under 1041,06741,51221,23820,32141,55912.011.811.6
10 and under 1141,43241,00420,99220,20641,19812.111.711.5
11 and under 1241,07340,79820,85219,72640,57812.011.611.3
12 and under 1333,35539,91920,84619,60540,4519.811.311.3
13 and under 1414,71415,3359,9017,00516,9064.34.44.8
14 and under 152,7612,5751,5197752,2940.80.70.6
15 and under 16217192126942200.10.10.1
16 and over4754272350
Totals342,331351,878185,308172,596357,904100.0100.0100.0

In 1960 a total of 26,837 pupils (13,660 boys and 13,177 girls) left public primary schools as compared with 24,465 pupils (12,311 boys and 12,334 girls) in 1959. Of those leaving in 1960, 26,230, or 97.7 per cent, had completed a course in Form II. The effect of the raising of the school leaving age in 1944 is reflected in the numbers who proceeded to full-time post-primary schooling. Of those leaving in 1960, 97.8 per cent (boys, 97.5 per cent, girls 98.2 per cent) went on to post-primary schools, as compared with 76 per cent (boys, 74 per cent, girls, 78 per cent) in 1943. Of the pupils who left, intermediate schools and departments in 1960, 98.7 per cent went on to post-primary schools.

The next table gives the number of public primary schools in each education district as at 30 September 1960, classified according to roll numbers. The number of intermediate schools and departments is also shown.

Roll NumbersEducation DistrictTotal Number of Schools
AucklandSouth AucklandTaranakiWanganuiHawke's BayWellingtonNelsonCanterburyOtagoSouthland
1-815118
9-2422181441423413462020270
25-3078312121052171196
31-3566445441691169
36-7060703833343412714045437
71-80955428294149
81-1103547815131310271313194
111-12064723243132
121-15020326710138114111
151-1603341132118
161-1901521555104135790
191-2006324121120
201-2301575453164454
231-240153211
241-27010102137266148
271-2802215
281-310881318133137
311-3201131118
321-350853254262239
351-36022121210
361-3901310323613344
391-40011111319
401-430972187265249
431-44021317
441-4701364129236147
471-48023319
481-5101221346 32238
511-52034121112
521-55078111542130
551-560321118
561-590751217225
591-600212132112
601-630461126323
631-6403115
641-670234211
671-6801113
681-71042410
711-72011
721-7501124
751-760-
761-79011125
841-87011
871-88011
881-91011
Normal schools2112118
Intermediate schools and departments1993367254159
Totals343319120164181224703051641382,028

In addition there are three public schools in the Chatham Islands and 20 special schools for handicapped children.

Primary Schools for Maoris — Some 67 per cent of the Maori children in New Zealand are educated in the public schools, 26.6 per cent at Maori schools, and 6.4 per cent at registered private schools (including those at Maori private church schools). At 1 July 1960 there were 30,513 attending public schools out of a total of 42,611 Maori children receiving primary education in New Zealand. The long-term policy, endorsed by representatives of the Maori people themselves, is gradually to transfer the Maori schools now directly under the Department of Education to the control of the local education boards. However, transfers will take place only after full consultations with the local Maori people.

The language of instruction in the Maori schools is English, but the schools are not completely English in outlook, for Maori arts and crafts, songs, legend, and history are taught.

Methods of teaching are practical, and objectives closely related to the special needs of the Maori people. In many of the Maori schools, such equipment as woodwork rooms, cookery rooms, model cottages, baths, hot and cold showers, and laundries is supplied. Health education is featured in every Maori school.

The number of pupils on the rolls of the 156 Maori schools at 1 July 1960 was 13,187 (including 1,089 European children), while the total roll number of the 9 Maori private church schools was 689. In addition 2,301 Maori children were on the rolls of registered private primary schools.

The following table gives the principal statistics of Maori schools during the latest five years.

YearNumber of Schools at End of YearRoll at 1 JulyAverage Attendance, Whole YearAverage Attendance as Percentage of Weekly RollNumber of Teachers*
MaoriEuropeanMalesFemales

* Includes junior assistants (four males and 97 females in 1960).

195616312,4221,18411,13188.7251292
195716011,9901,09410,93088.4251294
195815712,0431,09211,37689.1239309
195915612,0631,09011,54786.0240309
196015612,0981,08911,61988.5252310

Five inspectors of schools attached to the Department of Education are engaged in the inspection of Maori schools, private church schools, and secondary schools for Maoris.

Intermediate Schools — Pupils on the rolls of the 51 intermediate schools and 8 intermediate departments at the end of 1960 numbered 31,504. The progress that is being made with the establishment of this type of school may be gauged from the fact that 18 years earlier (1942) the number of pupils was 7,299. Of all children in Forms I and II of public (primary and intermediate) schools at 1 July 1960, 38 per cent were enrolled at the intermediate schools. The average attendance during the year was 29,827. The ages of pupils on the roll at 1 July of each of the latest three years were as follows.

Age, in Years195819591960
BoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal
Under 1117324141496145241120197317
11 and under 124,1474,6858,8324,2094,7028,9114,4885,0709,558
12 and under 135,8515,39911,2507,1246,89514,0197,5647,12414,688
13 and under 142,8642,0914,9553,1442,1655,3093,6752,5876,262
14 and under 15494286780541298839484230714
15 and under 16482371533386503484
16 and over3259413325
Totals13,58012,72726,30715,17614,24229,41816,38415,24431,628

Private Schools — No private school may be established unless application is first made to the Department of Education for registration. Certain standards of efficiency and suitability of staff, premises, equipment, and curriculum have to be fulfilled as a condition of registration. In general, the instruction afforded must be as efficient as in a State school of the same class.

The following table contains the principal statistics of private primary schools for each of the last five years. The figures include Maori private church schools.

YearNumber of SchoolsRoll at End of YearAverage Yearly AttendanceTeachers
BoysGirlsTotalMalesFemalesTotal
195631823,81724,61748,43443,0351611,0701,231
195732324,43825,20649,64444,8831871,1511,338
195832425,07425,98951,06347,0321801,1361,316
195933726,83026,60153,43148,2771991,2051,404
196033527,08127,11754,16849,7881791,2451,424

The majority of the schools included in the preceding table are Roman Catholic Church schools, of which there were 273 at the end of 1960 with 47,435 pupils (23,889 boys and 23,546 girls) and 1,138 teachers (92 males and 1,046 females). The average attendance was 43,582. The remaining private schools comprised 52 church schools of other denominations with 232 teachers and 5,812 pupils, and 10 undenominational schools with 54 teachers and 921 pupils.

POST-PRIMARY SCHOOLS — One of the most striking features in the development of New Zealand education is the marked increase in the proportion of pupils who proceed to some form of post-primary education at the conclusion of the primary course. The raising of the school leaving age to 15 years from 1944 stimulated the movement towards secondary education for all. Every child completing the work of Form II becomes entitled to free post-primary education. Extension of a free place beyond the age of 19 years is allowable in special cases approved by the Director of Education. The post-primary syllabus is based on a common core, consisting of English, social studies, general science, elementary mathematics, music, arts and crafts, and physical education, to be followed by a degree of specialisation within a wide range of subjects that may be taken to the School Certificate stage. All types of post-primary schools are required to give to all pupils during the first two years of their post-primary course a minimum number of units of instruction in the common core subjects.

Post-primary schools are either public (State) or private. The following table shows the number and types of post-primary schools in existence during each of the latest five years.

YearState Secondary SchoolsCombined SchoolsSecondary Departments of District High SchoolsTechnical High SchoolsMaori Secondary SchoolsEndowed and Private Secondary SchoolsTotal
1956667113361191324
1957807113331191335
1958897111341193345
1959917106351194350
1960102796411197354

A combined school is an amalgamation of a secondary and a technical school under a single governing body. District high schools are public primary schools with a secondary “top” and the basic course is academic, as in the normal secondary school. Where staffing and equipment allow, special courses are provided in agriculture, commercial work, and domestic science. Technical schools are described later in this section. State secondary schools and combined schools are controlled by boards of governors, and district high schools by the education boards.

The inspection of State post-primary schools is carried out by inspectors of post-primary schools attached to the Department of Education. There were (in 1961) 36 inspectors, one chief inspector of post-primary schools, and one superintendent of technical education.

The number of pupils at the end of each of the latest five years is shown in the following table. No account is taken of lower departments of secondary schools, and in the case of district high schools only the secondary departments are included.

YearState Secondary SchoolsCombined SchoolsDistrict High SchoolsTechnical High SchoolsMaori Secondary SchoolsPrivate Secondary SchoolsCorrespondence SchoolTotal
195637,1705,0908,61819,06983214,55344285,774
195741,9635,1788,82317,49683414,90443589,633
195846,3645,1098,72017,40675515,80243994,595
195952,4415,1908,23618,29774216,496496101,898
196059,0625,3727,54220,78192717,757467111,908

The foregoing table does not include part-time students attending technical classes (48,227 in July 1960), students receiving part-time tuition from the Correspondence School (1,811 in July 1960), and students receiving part-time instruction from the Technical Correspondence School (4,807 in July 1960).

The numbers of each sex attending post-primary schools at the end of 1960 were: State secondary schools, 30,168 boys and 28,894 girls; combined schools, 2,969 and 2,403; secondary departments of district high schools, 3,564 and 3,978; technical schools, 11,952 and 8,829; Maori secondary schools, 570 and 357; endowed and registered private secondary schools, 8,570 and 9,187; and full-time at Correspondence School, 204 and 263.

The following table shows the number of pupils at State secondary schools and combined schools taking the different courses available. (This table as at 1 July in each of the latest five years may be compared with the similar table for technical schools later.)

Course19561957195819591960
Industrial4,7456,0306,9968,1349,026
Commercial and general33,68437,27140,77645,69751,959
Domestic4,0844,4214,4934,6985,060
Agricultural1,6421,7911,7431,8031,893
Fine arts277183146267347
Totals44,43249,69654,15460,59968,285

Technical Schools — The technical schools fall roughly into two types: (a) those in the small centres, which provide for all the post-primary needs and are distinguishable from secondary schools only by having in general a rather more strongly developed practical side; and (b) the large technical schools in the main centres, in which there is less evidence of the generalised academic curriculum, since this is adequately provided by the city secondary schools.

However, even in the latter type most of the courses in the day schools are still designedly pre vocational and not genuinely “technical” in character. A more recent tendency in the largest centres is for technical schools of the second type to split up into two schools, one a local technical high school, and the other a polytechnic or senior technical school providing technical classes or courses of a special or advanced character and serving a wider regional area. Technical schools are normally controlled either by a board of managers or by the education board of the district acting in a similar capacity.

There were 41 technical schools in 1960. The following table shows the number of pupils taking the different courses available (as at 1 July in each of the latest five years).

Course19561957195819591960
Industrial7,0126,3245,8676,1817,207
Commercial and general9,8038,9559,4219,89211,692
Domestic2,9382,5322,3842,4452,561
Agricultural1,3101,2231,1211,1671,095
Fine arts135197191184161
Totals21,19819,23118,98419,86922,716

Technical Classes — The number of centres at which technical classes for part-time day and evening students are provided was 195 in 1960.

The total of individual students including apprentices attending day classes in 1960 was 54,845, including 6,618 part-time students at 1 July on the rolls of the Correspondence and Technical Correspondence Schools, but excluding 1,133 students who were also full-time day pupils at primary and secondary schools.

Technical Correspondence School — In July 1946 the Department took over the responsibility for the study courses previously conducted by the Army Educational and Welfare Service. A Technical Correspondence School was established in Wellington to develop these courses for men in the armed services, and also to provide correspondence instruction in vocational and technical subjects for apprentices and advanced students unable to attend technical schools or classes.

The number of students on the roll at 1 July 1960 was 4,807. There were 87 full-time teachers, besides the Principal, on the staff at 30 September 1960.

Probable Destination of Public Post-primary Pupils — An indication of the vocations intended to be followed by pupils leaving public post-primary schools during 1960 is contained in the next table. Of the totals, 6.8 per cent of boys and 3.1 per cent of girls intended to proceed to full-time university studies, while a further 1.8 per cent of boys and 6.9 per cent of girls stated their intention of entering the teaching profession. Clerical occupations (including typing) claimed 11.3 per cent of boys and 32.9 per cent of girls; shops and warehouses, 8.3 per cent and 13.8 per cent; manual trades, 29.7 per cent and 3.5 per cent; farming, 18.7 per cent and 0.7 per cent; 0.4 per cent and 9.6 per cent intended to stay at home; various other occupations claimed 15.3 per cent and 22.0 per cent while 7.7 per cent and 7.5 per cent of boys and girls respectively did not know their future vocations at the time.

OccupationTotalsMaoris Included in Totals
BoysGirlsBoysGirls
University1,09247397
Teachers' college2941,0602037
Professional cadetship49262101
Health services431,4783120
Office work
    (a) Government or local authority7111,11346107
    (b) Industry and commerce1,1023,9181987
Shop and warehouse assistants1,3292,10131102
Skilled trades-
    (a) Government or local authority643617717
    (b) With private employers4,1194761737
Farming (including those engaged at their own homes)3,00111541017
Clothing workers28583356
Factory operatives51449791111
Domestic work and at home691,46417450
Armed forces (not included elsewhere)332153710
Other occupations1,03072424255
Not known1,2271,140217176
Totals16,02615,2801,4051,360

Duration of Stay at Public Post-primary School — The following table gives particulars of pupils who left public post-primary schools in 1960, classified according to years of attendance. The approximate average length of stay at the various types of school was: secondary school, 3 years; combined schools, 3 years 3 months; technical high and day schools, 2 years 7 months; secondary departments of district high schools, 2 years 6 months; all post-primary schools, 2 years 10 months.

Year of AttendanceSecondary Schools*Combined SchoolsTechnical High and Day SchoolsDistrict High SchoolsAll Schools
NumberPer CentNumberPer CentNumberPer CentNumberPer CentNumberPer Cent

* Includes Correspondence School (Secondary Department).

First1,3337.25764.5288710.4036413.392,6608.50
Second5,37829.2642425.233,36839.491,01537.3410,18532.53
Third5,76231.3552431.172,80932.9491333.5910,00831.97
Fourth3,77420.5439323.381,05612.3836913.585,59217.86
Fifth1,97810.7623213.803824.48531.952,6458.45
Sixth and over1540.84321.90260.3140.152160.69
Totals18,379100.001,681100.008,528100.002,718100.0031,306100.00

It has been mentioned earlier that, except in special circumstances, children are not permitted to leave school until they reach the age of 15 years, and it would appear that many pupils entering post-primary schools remain there only as long as they are required to, as approximately 41 per cent do not proceed beyond the second year of attendance. However, in 1948 the proportion not proceeding beyond the second year was approximately 50 per cent.

Secondary Schools for Maoris — At the end of 1960, 748 Maori pupils were receiving post-primary education at the 11 Maori secondary schools, 148 of the total being Government scholarship holders, and there were 62 scholarship holders enrolled in public post-primary schools. In addition, 179 European pupils received post-primary education at Maori secondary schools.

A further step forward in the provision of post-primary education for Maoris was the approval of the establishment of Maori district high schools. These schools, unlike the private denominational schools, are controlled by the Department of Education; they provide courses of a practical nature specially suited to the needs of the Maori pupils. There were 10 such schools at the end of 1960.

Secondary School Bursaries — Bursaries, of a maximum annual value of £40 and tenable for a period of up to two years, may be granted to pupils obliged to live away from home in order to take a Sixth Form course at a post-primary school (public or private) which is approved for accrediting purposes. In order to qualify, applicants must be under 18 years of age and must have passed either the School Certificate or the University Entrance Examinations or have been accredited for the latter.

Technical School Bursaries — Bursaries of a maximum value of £40 may be awarded to pupils who have completed at any post-primary school a two years' course preparatory to a specialised course in agriculture, fine arts, engineering, building construction, commerce, or home science which can be completed only at some technical school. The bursaries are tenable at post-primary schools approved for that purpose and may be held for a maximum of two years. Applicants must be under the age of 17 years at the commencement of the specialised course and must be obliged to live away from home in order to receive satisfactory instruction in the courses to be followed.

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE — Vocational guidance centres have been opened in the four main centres, and in Lower Hutt and Hamilton. The vocational guidance officers are, however, in close contact with the post-primary schools in other centres. The vocational guidance officers, acting in conjunction with headmasters and special careers teachers in the schools, offer their services at any point in the child's career where a choice has to be made, whether of school course or of vocation. When a child has made his choice of career the vocational guidance officer will if requested find suitable employment for him and endeavour to follow up his progress until he is finally and satisfactorily settled in his line of work.

The centres are in frequent touch with a number of voluntary agencies such as “Heritage”, Crippled Children Society, and lay tuberculosis associations.

For the year ended 31 December 1960 the total callers at the centres numbered 21,041. In addition, 14,388 pupils were interviewed individually in post-primary schools. Group interviews were carried out with 648 groups of children (numbering in the aggregate several thousands) interested in discussing particular vocations. Other activities, apart from attention to numerous inquiries by letter and the preparation of information sheets covering over 100 occupations, included 1,398 visits to schools, addresses at 227 meetings, and 466 follow-up visits to persons placed in employment.

RURAL EDUCATION: Consolidation of Schools — In order to give children in country districts the advantage of special equipment and more specialised teaching in larger schools, the consolidation of the smaller rural schools has been undertaken wherever practicable. The extent of this consolidation will be evident from the fact that, whereas in 1934 there were 2,532 public primary (excluding intermediate) schools, the number in 1960, despite a considerable increase in the school population in the intervening period, was 1,969.

Transport and Board — A natural consequence of consolidation was an increase in the numbers of pupils requiring some form of transport to enable them to attend school. In recent years school transport facilities have been steadily developed until now 18 per cent of the total school population receive assistance in one form or another. Most of these pupils are conveyed by buses under contract to education boards or operated by the Department of Education. Financial aid towards the cost of fares is given in some cases where the number of pupils is insufficient to warrant a special school bus service. In addition, free passes on the railway to the nearest public or private school are granted to eligible children living near a railway line but at some distance from a primary school, and the same privilege is enjoyed by pupils having to travel to attend secondary schools, combined schools, district high schools, and private secondary schools, as well as to part-time pupils travelling to attend technical schools or classes, and pupils attending manual-training centres.

In areas where there is no organised transport, capitation payments are made to parents for the conveyance of their children to school by car. Horseback allowances are also payable.

The expenditure on transport of pupils for the financial year 1960–61 was £1,787,715, as compared with £1,698,928 in 1959–60.

In certain cases, boarding allowances are granted to pupils living in areas where there are no available or convenient transport services to enable them to attend school. Boarding allowances are also granted to post-primary pupils to allow them to take, in other centres, certain specified courses not available at their local school.

The expenditure on boarding allowances of pupils attending schools for the last three years is given in the table below.

 1958–591959–601960–61
 £££
Public primary and intermediate7,3726,8147,488
Private primary8,4388,3959,182
State secondary70,71571,73576,737
Maori7,5178,1126,766
Private secondary50,87450,52853,061
Totals144,916145,584153,234

The next table gives particulars of the number of children transported to school and the number in receipt of boarding allowances as at 1 July 1960, according to the type of school attended. Totals for the two preceding years are also shown.

Type of SchoolNumber of Pupils on RollTotal Pupils Transported to SchoolNumber Receiving Boarding Allowance
Public primary schools326,27956,606220
Intermediate schools and departments31,6282,5307
Secondary departments of district high schools8,3614,68977
Secondary schools62,62914,8021,766
Combined schools5,656857652
Technical schools22,7167,415340
Maori schools13,1874,85538
Chatham Islands schools121876
Private primary schools52,7793,536213
Private post-primary schools19,2932,0042,305
Lower departments of secondary schools108910
Totals, 1960542,75797,3905,634
Totals, 1959323,77591,3895,422
Totals, 1958503,57194,7605,134

Correspondence School — Since 1922 correspondence classes have been conducted for the primary education of children in very remote areas and of those unable to attend school on account of lengthy illness or other causes. The usual subjects of the syllabus of instruction are taught at the school, and in addition pupils who require instruction which is usually available in a special class in a public school can receive instruction by correspondence. One of the features of the school is the provision of instruction in subjects involving practical work, such as needlework, woodwork, and the science subjects. A corporate school spirit is developed through the school badge and uniform, daily radio lessons, club activities, the publication of a school magazine, periodical exhibitions of work, and by parents' and ex-pupils' associations. The personal link between the pupil and the school is strengthened and the work of the school facilitated by a number of teachers from the school visiting pupils in their homes in the first term each year and, in two years, by round-the-year visiting by resident teachers. Residential schools are held in November each year to give pupils the opportunity of taking part in group activities and of intensive tutorial work in subjects not readily dealt with by correspondence.

Young persons in employment, including uncertificated teachers of small public schools and junior assistants in Maori schools, inmates of Department of Justice institutions, pupils of post-primary schools who require examination subjects which their own schools cannot provide, officers of Government Departments, and others who are unable to attend evening classes at post-primary schools, also receive tuition as part-time students of the Correspondence School.

At the end of 1959 there were 3,487 pupils on the roll of the Correspondence School, 1,144 being in the primary division and 467 full-time and 1,876 part-time students in the post-primary division. The staff of the school consists of the headmaster, deputy head teacher, 82 post-primary and 34 primary assistant teachers.

Agricultural Clubs — More particularly in rural schools, practical interest in agriculture has been stimulated by the widespread formation of boys' and girls' agricultural clubs. The pupils undertake projects in livestock rearing and crop growing which are adjudged annually on the club field day, usually held at the school or local centre.

The agricultural instructors and nature study specialists employed by the education boards play an important part in the formation of the clubs, and by giving technical advice do much to assure the successful completion of the various projects. The clubs receive active support from parents, teachers, and the farmers' organisations.

HEALTH SERVICES — Information on the medical and dental inspection of school children and the dental-clinic system is given in Section 5A (Public Health) of this Yearbook.

Free Issue of Milk — The milk-in-schools scheme, for the free issue of a half-pint daily ration of milk to children, commenced on 1 March 1937.

TEACHING PROFESSION: Training of Teachers — In 1960 there were seven teachers' training colleges (at Auckland, Ardmore, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin) available to students who desired to enter the teaching profession, and at the end of 1960 there were 5,105 students in training. This number includes 1,421 holders of post-primary teacher studentships (Division U) who are attached to training colleges while attending university as full-time students as part of their training for teaching, and who are therefore an integral part of the training colleges. Included in the remainder, were 3,121 “Division A” students undertaking training for primary teaching and 231 “Division C” students undertaking training for post-primary teaching. The minimum academic qualification for admission to Division A is the School Certificate, but approximately two-thirds of these students have an Endorsed School Certificate or University Entrance. Nearly all “Division C” students are university graduates at the time of admission.

The following table shows the number of students in these two groups in December of each of the years 1956–1960.

YearDivision ADivision CTotals
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
19567001,703911162,610
19577001,8961051272,828
19587312,1191011323,083
19597752,2751041193,273
19608522,2691071243,352

The normal course of training for “Division A” students is a period of two years at a teachers' training college, followed by a further period of one year as a probationary assistant attached to a public school. Third-year studentships, which entitle holders to an extra year's training in lieu of a probationary year, are available to selected students who wish to specialise in nature study, music, physical education, or arts and crafts, or who wish to become speech therapists or teachers of the deaf. A limited number of selected students are permitted to spend most of the third year of training doing full-time study towards a university degree. For students of “Division C” the course is for one year. These students are university graduates who train for service in post-primary schools. To enable students to qualify to teach homecraft subjects, bursaries providing training at a teachers' training college and at a technical high school were instituted in 1943. There were 168 homecraft trainees in the Auckland and Dunedin Training Colleges in 1960. A further 59 trainees were being trained in 1960 as manual training instructors.

In order to meet future staffing requirements due to the rapidly increasing school population a special training scheme was started in September 1949 for selected trainees aged 21 years and over. The last of these courses opened in September 1959. On completion of the special training-college course these trainees were required to serve for one year as probationary assistants before being granted trained teachers' certificates. These trainees are not included in the figures in the tabulation of students at training colleges shown earlier, nor are some fee-paying students (Division B) of whom there were 12 in 1960.

Post-primary teachers' bursaries and physical education bursaries, although still awarded in some cases, have been largely replaced by post-primary teacher studentships. To be eligible for one of these awards an applicant must have reached the age of 16 years on 31 December of the year of application, and must at the time of application have qualified for entrance to the university, or hold some equivalent or higher qualification approved by the Director of Education. Students are attached to the training college in the appropriate university centre, and a senior lecturer, appointed to each training college, supervises the work of the students and assists them towards the completion of their university courses. Each student on accepting the award, signs an agreement that he will satisfy the stated conditions. One important condition is that if he does not achieve reasonable success in his university studies he will transfer to the “Division A” course at training college and there complete his training as a teacher.

The allowances payable are—

For the first and second year of the studentship, £260;

For the third and fourth year of the studentship, £360;

For the graduate training year — First step on the teachers' basic scale (£665 for men, £575 for women).

Tuition fees are paid in addition to the allowances. During the four years of the studentship a boarding allowance at the rate of £45 a year is paid if the student is required to live away from home.

In 1960, 630 post-primary teacher studentships were awarded and 559 were taken up. In addition, 34 holders of post-primary teachers' bursaries in 1959 qualified in 1960 to transfer to post-primary teacher studentships.

There were 35 holders of post-primary teachers' bursaries and 1,421 holders of post-primary teacher studentships attending university institutions in 1960.

Public Primary-school Teachers — The following table shows the number of teachers in public primary schools in the various education districts as at 30 September 1960, together with totals for 1959, 1958, and 1940.

 Sole TeachersHeads of SchoolsAssistant TeachersProbationary AssistantsTotal Number of TeachersPercentage of Male to Female Teachers
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
Education district—
   Auckland33229116701,088632312,37980.0
   South Auckland292692435747301671,67983.3
   Taranaki259029920885148385.1
   Wanganui572952172318305873493.2
   Hawke's Bay4631191982893861754113.6
   Wellington4271538348646361291,36973.3
   Nelson2145861051330300122.2
   Canterbury7932042424697431521,60487.8
   Otago38111642142972665761107.4
   Southland474861381771437503130.7
Intermediate schools and departments515423242533975173.1
Totals, 1960417221,519213,3264,8963261,01411,54193.9
Totals, 1959401201,494233,2534,70837188411,15497.9
Totals, 1958427351,492353,0494,50339485510,79098.8
Totals, 19406443639911478862,8902274386,58671.6

Between 1940 and 1960 the total number of teachers increased by 4,955, male teachers contributing 2,840 of this increase and female teachers 2,115. The average number of pupils per teacher (including probationary assistants) in all public primary schools was 30.0 in 1940, 31.7 in 1958, 29.6 in 1959, and 29.1 in 1960.

Post-primary-school Teachers — The following table indicates the number of full-time teachers employed in the post-primary schools mentioned. The principals are included except in the case of district high schools, the figures for which apply to assistants in the secondary department only.

YearSecondary SchoolsDistrict High SchoolsTechnical High SchoolsCombined SchoolsGrand Total
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
19561,032708352116758295140893,490
19571,206787369123715254141903,685
19581,334846358110730238147933,856
19591,51995933898760263155834,175
19601,6961,107295103884304163954,647

Male teachers employed in post-primary schools fell from 908 in 1940 to 707 in 1942, this decrease being almost entirely due to enlistment in the armed forces. The position was slightly improved in 1943, and each succeeding year has shown a further advance, the number in 1960 being 3,038, an increase of 2,130 as compared with 1940. The number of female teachers rose from 630 in 1940 to 838 in 1945, this increase being partially due to the employment of women during the war period in positions normally occupied by men. There was a fall to 795 in 1946, but the number at the end of 1960 (1,609) was 979 in excess of the number employed in 1940. Teachers employed in private post-primary schools and Maori secondary schools are not included in the figures. In 1960, 866 full-time teachers (431 male, 435 female) were employed in these schools.

FREE TEXTBOOKS IN SCHOOLS — Free textbooks were supplied to all primary and post-primary pupils in both State and private schools from the beginning of 1959. Under the free text-books scheme, the books remain the property of the school controlling authorities and are issued on loan to pupils. The school authorities have a wide discretion in their choice of suitable books.

AUDIO-VISUAL TEACHING AIDS — Regular broadcasting programmes for schools were initiated in 1931. A varied series of programmes linked with the curriculum are broadcast each school day from all main national stations. Special lessons are also broadcast each day for Correspondence School pupils.

Visual Aids — The National Film Library, a branch of the Department of Education, lends films and gramophone records free of charge to schools and to organisations having some educational purpose. Approximately 2,000 schools and 1,800 other organisations having some educational purpose have 16 mm sound projectors.

The Library contains more than 22,000 films with about 4,700 titles. Nearly 5,000 reels of film are issued each week, and of these 71 per cent go to schools or colleges.

Film strips are also available on free loan from the film-strip libraries in the offices of education boards. They can also be purchased for a nominal sum from the National Film Library. Nearly all schools are equipped with film-strip projectors.

A tape-copying service is also provided by the National Film Library for some 500 schools with tape recorders. Tapes submitted by the schools are transcribed from master tapes held by the National Film Library.

Museums — To assist schools to make the fullest use of the museums, an education officer is attached jointly to the museum and the teachers' training college in each of the four main centres. Cases of exhibits are circulated amongst schools where pupils are unable to make regular visits to a museum.

Publications — The School Journal, an illustrated paper, is published in four separate parts suitable for pupils in the various standard classes. Parts 1 and 2 are published six times in the year while Parts 3 and 4 for the senior classes appear four times a year. Primary School Bulletins, dealing with topics of New Zealand history, geography, and nature study, are published every year. These publications are prepared in the School Publications Branch of the Department of Education and issued free to all primary and intermediate schools, both State and private. Vernacular Journals are also issued to schools in Western Samoa, Cook, Niue, and Tokelau Islands.

Arithmetic textbooks for all classes in primary schools have been prepared and published over the last few years and a set of infant readers is in preparation.

A series of handbooks for teachers in primary schools dealing with English, social studies, and arts and crafts have been prepared in the School Publications Branch of the Department of Education, and are being issued free to primary schools, both State and private, on the basis of one copy per classroom. A further handbook on physical education is in preparation.

The Post-Primary School Bulletin is published 10 times a year and issued free to all public and private post-primary schools. It provides background reading for subjects of the revised curriculum, particularly in social studies, science, and literature.

The Education Gazette is published by the Department twice a month. It is a medium for the dissemination of official information and for the advertisement of vacancies. Copies are distributed to educational authorities and to State schools throughout New Zealand, and private schools receive one copy free of charge.

Education, a magazine for teachers, is published 10 times a year.

HIGHER EDUCATION: The University System — The system of higher education in New Zealand has evolved in recent years from a federal university with constituent colleges to a system of separate universities and university colleges of agriculture. From 1 January 1962, the University of New Zealand ceased to exist and its constituent institutions, the University of Auckland, the Victoria University of Wellington, the University of Canterbury, and the University of Otago became autonomous universities. In addition the two agricultural colleges which had been associated with the University of New Zealand became, on the dissolution of that body, university colleges of agriculture. One of these, Massey College, is now associated with the Victoria University of Wellington, and the other, Lincoln College, is a constituent College of the University of Canterbury.

The series of University Acts which in 1961 provided for the transition to the new basis for the operation of the universities and university colleges of agriculture in New Zealand, was the final step in a series of measures over a period of years towards the establishment of a system of separate universities in place of a federal university. Earlier steps in this direction included the vesting by the Senate of the University of New Zealand of the control of courses of study and the arrangement of examinations in the individual universities; the enactment of legislation in 1957 which changed the names of the university colleges to universities; and the passing of an Act in 1960 which established a new University Grants Committee with extended powers to advise the Government on the coordination and planning of university education on a national basis. The University Grants Committee determines the allocation of grants of money to be recommended by it for appropriation by Parliament to meet the needs of university education and research, and reviews the expenditure by the universities of money appropriated by Parliament.

In 1959 the Committee on New Zealand Universities was set up by the Government under the chairmanship of Sir David Hughes Parry, Q.C., of the University of London, to make recommendations on the long-term pattern of the development of the university system in New Zealand. The Committee's report was completed in December 1959 and provided a basis for the consideration of the future needs of the university system. The Committee agreed that devolution to a system of autonomous universities should proceed as quickly as possible, and the Senate of the University of New Zealand made recommendations to the Government that the Committee's recommendations should be implemented. The University Grants Committee Act 1960 was a preliminary measure to that end, and in 1961 a series of University Acts were passed which gave effect to the recommendations of the Committee on New Zealand Universities that the universities be made autonomous institutions.

The Universities Act 1961 provided for the dissolution of the University of New Zealand and the transfer of some of its functions, including the power to confer degrees and diplomas, to the individual universities, most of its remaining functions being vested in the University Grants Committee. The Act re-enacted, with minor modifications, the provisions of the University Grants Committee Act 1960 and also provided for a new Universities Entrance Board to maintain a common educational standard for admission to the universities. It contained provisions for the continuation of a Curriculum Committee to coordinate the development of courses for degrees and diplomas. The Curriculum Committee's main purpose is to maintain reasonable parity of academic standards and to safeguard the interests of students transferring from one university to another. Other sections of the Act enabled the University Grants Committee to award scholarships and distribute the Government grant for research.

Six further Acts relating to the four individual universities and the two university colleges of agriculture were substantially a re-enactment and consolidation of previous legislation, but, in addition to giving the universities power to confer their own degrees, they provided for a reconstitution of the governing councils. They also made provision for a new relationship between Massey College of Agriculture and the Victoria University of Wellington and between Lincoln College of Agriculture and the University of Canterbury which became necessary on the dissolution of the University of New Zealand. Finally, an amendment to the Law Practitioners' Act made provision for the special problems of legal education arising from the disappearance of the Senate of the University of New Zealand.

Each of the four autonomous universities, besides offering courses in the faculties of arts, science, commerce, law, and music, specialises in certain fields. The University of Otago has medical and dental schools, a school of mining and metallurgical engineering, a school of home science, and a school of physical education; the University of Canterbury has a school of engineering (mechanical, electrical, civil, and chemical), and a school of fine arts; the University of Auckland has a school of architecture, a school of fine arts, a school of engineering (mechanical, electrical, and civil), and a post-graduate department of obstetrics and gynaecology, and the Victoria University of Wellington has a school of public administration and a school of social science. The two university colleges of agriculture provide courses for students specialising in agricultural studies. In 1960, a branch of the Victoria University of Wellington was established at Palmerston North and a branch of the University of Auckland at Hamilton.

In 1960 there were 14,547 students actually in attendance at the four universities and the two agricultural colleges. Of these, 1,098 were graduates, 12,369 undergraduates, and 1,080 unmatriculated students. In addition, there were 1,262 students attached to the various universities, but exempt from lectures, and 715 students who were taking short courses at the agricultural colleges. Comparable figures for the five years quoted are given in the following table.

YearStudents Attending LecturesExempt StudentsTotal
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
19567,6542,54174713511,077
19578,2322,61777014211,761
19589,0152,90079517112,881
19599,9423,34892117714,388
196010,8803,6671,05221015,809

The following table gives particulars of students who were taking definite courses during 1960 and each of the preceding two years.

Course195819591960
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Agriculture—
   Intermediate714756326554357
   Degree1726178237324032012332
   Diploma46044644571447142613439
   Other7171864903737
Architecture—
   Degree125613114921511621163
   Diploma552576657170474
   Other553587527784286
Arts2,3831,8164,1992,4652,0824,5472,9722,4575,429
Commerce1,821921,9131,995862,0812,336702,406
Dentistry: Intermediate7227463636060
Dentistry167116816311641661167
Divinity482506246647855
Education: Diploma111351461185617415040190
Engineering: Intermediate4464464814814331434
Engineering540540634634736736
Fine Arts: Diploma7612620210914525493177270
Home Science—
   Intermediate4162015152020
   Degree282834343030
   Diploma111111127127145145
Horticulture1613291631910212
Journalism: Diploma31422
Law89637933914389521,039431,082
Medical Science4455819
Medicine: Intermediate286353212873532229043333
Medicine481465274975355049457551
Mining: Diploma5555
Music68112180731061794382125
Physical Education: Diploma275279324779376299
Public Administration: Diploma888877
Science1,2102811,4911,3963431,7391,7314282,159
Social Science: Diploma98171071711819
Other courses5366119296190217495
Totals9,7432,90512,64810,4973,27513,77211,8373,78415,621

Free University Education:Scholarships — The most important awards for those entering university are the 10 University Junior Scholarships and the 40 University National Scholarships. Both forms of scholarships are tenable for four years and provide full tuition fees, a scholarship allowance of £150 (junior) and £100 (national), plus an additional allowance of £80 (junior) and £80 (national) for students who have to live away from home. These scholarships, together with the Taranaki Scholarships and certain privately endowed scholarships, are awarded on the results of the Entrance Scholarships Examination conducted by the Universities Entrance Board.

Scholarships awarded during the degree course are the University Senior (£120 per annum) and John Tinline Scholarships (£90 per annum). The various universities and agricultural colleges also have private scholarships for which their own students may compete. The scholarships awarded at the end of the university course, which are listed in full in the university calendars, include the Rhodes Scholarships, the 1851 Exhibition Scholarships, the Post-graduate Scholarships in Arts and Science, the Travelling Scholarships in Commerce, Law, Engineering, Architecture, Medicine, and Dentistry, the Macmillan Brown Agricultural Scholarship, the Shirtcliffe Scholarships, the Gordon Watson Scholarship, the Shell Post-graduate Scholarship, the Michael Hiatt Baker Scholarship, the Rutherford Scholarships, the Oxford Studentship, and the National Research Scholarships. All these are tenable abroad. In addition the University Grants Committee has power to award post-graduate and travelling scholarships for the purpose of encouraging post-graduate study and research in New Zealand and elsewhere. Each university may also award one research scholarship, tenable in New Zealand.

Bursaries — The system of bursaries for students entering upon a university course which has been in operation for a number of years was changed as a result of a Government decision made at the end of 1961. The new system came into effect from the beginning of 1962 and replaced the former system of entrance bursaries, Higher School Certificate part-time bursaries, Higher School Certificate full-time bursaries; and Higher School Certificate boarding bursaries. The new bursaries are known as fees bursaries, fees and allowances bursaries, and masters' bursaries. In general, fees and fees and allowances bursaries are tenable for the minimum period, not exceeding five years, in which a student following a full-time course in each year could complete the recognised course taken under the bursary. There is provision for these bursaries to be extended for an additional year in any case where, in the opinion of the Director of Education, the personal circumstances of the bursar warrant such course. Masters' bursaries are tenable for one year only. Further particulars of these bursaries are as follows.

Fees Bursaries are awarded to students following part-time or full-time courses who have qualified for entrance to the university either by examination or accrediting. These bursaries provide for payment of tuition fees during their term.

Fees and Allowances Bursaries are awarded to students who hold the Higher School Certificate and are tenable for any recognised course at a university provided that the bursar undertakes a full-time course of study in each year of the bursary. Also, a student who during the first year of his tenure of a fees bursary has obtained passes in three units of a course for a degree of bachelor of arts, or bachelor of science, or equivalent passes in some other recognised course, may transfer to the second year of a fees and allowances bursary.

A fees and allowances bursary entitles the holder to payment of tuition fees plus allowances of £40 in the first year of the bursary, £60 in the second year of the bursary, £60 in the third year of the bursary, and £100 in the fourth year of the bursary and in any subsequent year.

The holder of a fees and allowances bursary who is obliged to live away from his home or his usual place of residence in order to attend a university affording tuition in the subjects appropriate to his course and year may also qualify for a boarding allowance of £80 a year.

Masters' Bursaries are awarded to students who have completed a bachelor's degree, in not more than one year in excess of the minimum period in which that degree could be completed by a student taking a full-time course each year. They must, however, intend in the next year or in the year following that year to take a full-time course leading to a master's degree. The holder of a master's bursary is entitled to tuition fees and an allowance of £100 and he may also, in the same way as a fees and allowances bursar, receive a boarding allowance of £80 a year if eligible.

All these bursaries are subject to strict rules as to suspension and cancellation. A student who in any year does not pass in a prescribed number of units will have his bursary suspended and it will not be reinstated unless in the following year he is credited with a prescribed number of passes. Only one such suspension is allowed and subsequent failure results in cancellation of the bursary.

Further details of the amounts payable and other qualifying conditions for the various classes of bursaries are available from vocational guidance centres and from the Head Office of the Department of Education, Wellington.

The Government offers for competition annually two bursaries to students wishing to attend the School of Social Science at the Victoria University of Wellington. Preference is given to candidates nominated by non-State organisations engaged in social work. These bursaries provide for full fees, a bursary allowance of £80, and a boarding allowance of £50 where appropriate.

The total number of University National, Entrance, and Higher School Certificate bursaries current in 1960 was 5,679.

Bursaries, etc., are also awarded annually by other Government Departments and include medical, dental, physiotherapy, and dietetic bursaries (Department of Health), national research scholarships and national research fellowships (Department of Scientific and Industrial Research), rehabilitation bursaries (Rehabilitation Board), coal-mining bursaries (Mines Department). Study awards are made to selected public servants to enable them to undertake university study. The Department of Education has a very generous system of studentships available for those intending ultimately to qualify as post-primary teachers.

From the table given below will be seen the number of students, including those taking short courses at agricultural colleges, who received free university education during each of the last five years.

YearJunior University, University National, and Taranaki ScholarshipsSenior University ScholarshipsUniversity National, Entrance, and H.S.C. BursariesTraining College StudentshipsOtherTotal
1956117243,9005251,1845,750
1957126214,1615421,4226,272
1958139234,3585901,8756,985
1959156295,2037562,0328,176
1960162375,6797222,3958,995

Holders of rehabilitation bursaries numbered 47 in 1956, 40 in 1957, 34 in 1958, 37 in 1959 and 42 in 1960.

University Colleges of Agriculture — There are two university colleges of agriculture specialising in higher agricultural education — Massey College, near Palmerston North, and Lincoln College, near Christchurch. The colleges are separately governed, though Massey College is associated with the Victoria University of Wellington and Lincoln College is a constituent College of the University of Canterbury The total number of students at Massey College in 1960 was 679 and at Canterbury 911. These numbers include 127 students at Massey and 588 at Lincoln College taking short courses.

Encouragement in the development of higher agricultural education is given through Government grants to the colleges, amounting to £301,227 in 1960–61. Various research projects at the colleges have been aided by expert assistance and grants from the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

COUNCIL FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH — In 1933 the Carnegie Corporation of New York set up a committee to report on the proposal to found in New Zealand a Council for Educational Research. This committee called a conference of representative educationists to consider the proposal and approached educational authorities for their cooperation. In view of the unanimous support given to the proposal, the committee recommended the foundation of the Council, and in November 1933 the Carnegie Corporation appropriated a substantial grant for the purpose, payable in five-yearly instalments, beginning in 1933–34. In 1938 the corporation extended the grant to cover a second five-year period, from 1940 to 1944.

When the corporation grants ceased in 1944 the Government passed legislation giving statutory existence to the Council, and since 1945 has made an annual grant to it. In 1953 the Government grant was raised from £3,000 to £4,000, and again raised to £6,000 in 1959. In 1960, the Government grant was approximately £7,000, and contributions from other sources exceeded £2,000. The Carnegie Corporation has continued to show an interest in the work of the Council, and from time to time has made smaller grants for specific purposes.

The Council has concentrated on New Zealand problems, and many of its publications (39 research reports and 18 shorter studies in education) consist of critical surveys on various aspects of New Zealand education and of accounts of outstanding experiments in school practice. The work done under the auspices of the Council has been carried out not only by its own permanent staff but also by part-time investigators.

In addition to its activities as a research organisation, the Council acts as a clearing house for information on educational matters.

The Council's activities are under the control of a permanent officer (the director), who is assisted by a staff of five. There are local institutes for educational research in Auckland, Wellington, Palmerston North, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

NEW ZEALAND COUNCIL FOR TECHNICAL EDUCATION — This Council was set up in 1958 following a conference of parties interested in technical education called by the Minister for the purpose of advising him on all matters pertaining to education and training for employment in industry and commerce. It was envisaged that the Council would encourage close relations between those concerned with technical education, industry and commerce. The Council was established with the following constitution:

  1. A Chairman appointed by the Minister;

  2. One member appointed by the Minister on the recommendation of each of the following bodies:

    1. Department of Education;

    2. Senate of the University of New Zealand;

    3. Associated Chambers of Commerce;

    4. New Zealand Manufacturers' Federation;

    5. New Zealand Employers' Federation;

    6. New Zealand Institution of Engineers:

  3. Two members appointed by the Minister on the recommendation of the Technical Education Association, one of whom shall be a principal;

  4. Two members appointed by the Minister on the recommendation of the Federation of Labour;

  5. The Commissioner of Apprenticeship;

  6. Such additional members, not exceeding five, whom the Minister may appoint for a limited period on the recommendation of the Council to represent regional and special interests;

  7. One member appointed on the recommendation of the Public Service Commission;

  8. Three members appointed on the direct nomination of the Minister. The functions of the Council are as follows:

  1. To advise the Minister of Education on matters pertaining to education and training for employment in industry and commerce;

  2. To make recommendations to the Minister of Education and to other interested bodies on topics—

    1. submitted for consideration by the Minister of Education;

    2. initiated by the Council;

    3. submitted to it by interested bodies or educational institutions:

  3. To foster close relations between technical education and industry and commerce and more particularly:

    1. to ascertain the needs of industry and commerce and of sections thereof for technical education;

    2. to promote coordination between technical education, industry and commerce, workers' organisations, and government departments in various ways; including research, exchange of staff, provision of visiting lecturers, loans and gifts of equipment, consulting service to industry, advanced lecture courses and seminars;

  4. To consider the coordination of the work of senior technical colleges and the technological activities of the universities;

  5. To advise on location of new or existing national courses.

The Council, which is an autonomous body responsible through its Chairman to the Minister of Education, has recently given consideration to the possible need to restate its functions in view of developments in the field of technical education.

MAORI EDUCATION FOUNDATION — The Maori Education Foundation Act 1961 established the Maori Education Foundation for the general purpose of promoting and encouraging the better education of Maoris and of providing financial assistance for that purpose. The Act provided for the constitution of a Board of Trustees of the Foundation consisting of a chairman appointed by the Governor-General; the Director of Education (deputy-chairman); the Secretary for Maori Affairs; the officer for Maori Education or some other officer of the Department of Education appointed by the Director of Education; and four Trustees appointed by the Governor-General, one a Maori member of Parliament appointed on the nomination of the other Maori members of Parliament, one appointed on the nomination of the Maori Council of Tribal Executives, one appointed on the nomination of the Dominion Executive of the Maori Women's Welfare League, and one appointed on the nomination of the Minister of Maori Affairs. The Government made an initial grant of £125,000 and the Minister of Finance may approve further grants and also subsidies on contributions to the Foundation of money, land, and other property. Some of the principal purposes for which the Board of Trustees was empowered to apply the income of the Foundation include the education and vocational training of Maoris; the granting of financial assistance or of equipment to schools and institutions at which Maoris are receiving education; the provision of bursaries to assist Maoris attending post-primary schools or any New Zealand or overseas university, agricultural college, or institution of similar status; the provision of post-graduate scholarships for Maoris holding university degrees or diplomas; and the making of special research or study grants to Maoris undertaking special research or study projects.

ADULT EDUCATION: National Council of Adult Education — The functions of the National Council of Adult Education are:

  1. To promote and foster adult education and the cultivation of the arts; and

  2. To make recommendations to the Minister of Education as to the amount of the annual grant to be made to the National Council of Adult Education out of moneys appropriated by Parliament for the purpose, and to receive, administer, and control the expenditure of such moneys granted.

The National Council has power to appoint staff and to impose conditions on grants made by it. The full-time executive officer of the Council, the National Secretary of Adult Education, is located in Wellington. The National Council comprises the Director of Education, the Director of Broadcasting, the Director of the National Library Service, the Chairman of the University Grants Committee, or their representatives; two members appointed by each of the four universities; one member appointed by the Dominion Council of the Workers' Educational Association; one member appointed by the Minister of Education to represent the Maori race; and up to two members appointed by the Council itself.

Regional Councils of Adult Education — Staff for field work in adult education is employed by the Councils of the four universities. Each University Council has the advice of a Regional Council of Adult Education, to which certain of the powers of the University Council are delegated. The four Regional Councils are differently constituted, but the 1947 Act requires that at least one-half of the members shall be persons appointed on the nomination of voluntary associations or organisations engaged or interested in adult education in the district. In each region the teaching staff consists of a director, “general purpose” tutors, and specialist tutors. The work supervised by the Regional Councils covers a wide range of interests — lecture courses, discussion courses, and various forms of assistance to specially organised groups or groups formed originally for other purposes, in both town and country. An important recent development has been the establishment of the Community Arts Service, which arranges for visits of exhibitions, musicians, and drama and ballet groups to country centres. The Regional Councils also organise short-term summer and winter schools in town and country.

Voluntary Agencies — The tutors, working under the direction of the Regional Councils of Adult Education, offer assistance to a large number of voluntary agencies such as parent-teacher associations, home and school societies, play centre associations, and groups concerned with drama, music, and art.

The Country Women's Coordinating Committee, representing both the Women's Division of Federated Farmers and the Women's Institutes, organises classes in rural areas and is supplied with tutors by the Regional Councils.

The Workers' Educational Association operates in conjunction with the universities and organises classes, mostly one-year classes, in the main cities and in a few of the larger towns. Tutors for these classes are provided by the Regional Councils of Adult Education. The Regional Councils also now conduct much of the country work formerly organised by the Workers' Educational Association. The Workers' Educational Association is financed by grants from the National Council of Adult Education and donations from local authorities, trade unions, and private individuals.

Education of New Settlers — The large number of new settlers who have come to New Zealand from European countries in recent years has led to the establishment of evening classes for teaching English and what may broadly be called civics. Several thousands of new settlers have now passed through these classes and many are now becoming naturalised New Zealand citizens. For those persons not in the position to attend classes, a correspondence course is provided. Special textbooks and other material have been prepared for use by teachers and students. The classes are normally held at technical colleges.

Community Centres — In 1938 an experimental community centre was established at Feilding under the supervision of two experienced educationists specially appointed to the staff of the Feilding Agricultural High School. Classes have been conducted in drama, child care, literature, art appreciation, and physical welfare, both at the centre and in outlying areas. In 1944 a community centre was opened in a suburb of Christchurch. Subsequently, experimental centres were opened in Westport, Wakari, Hawera, and in the coal-mining districts of the Buller. All these receive some assistance, directly or indirectly, from public funds. There are, however, many other community centre schemes supported by voluntary effort.

The Adult Education Act 1947 gave the Minister of Education power to establish or recognise community centres and to make grants to them.

SCHOOL LIBRARY SERVICE — This service, which is financed by the Department of Education and administered by the National Library Service, aims at giving children access to the best literature. Regular exchanges of children's and young people's books are sent on a circulating basis to 2,821 schools. The schools served are primary, both public and private, intermediate, and district high schools. Pupils of the Correspondence School also receive books regularly.

All schools, including post-primary schools, receive additional books on request. Some 469,903 requests were filled during the year ended 31 March 1961.

LIBRARY SCHOOL — The Library School of the National Library Service offers professional training to those holding university degrees or with equivalent education. Students receive allowances equal to those paid to students of teachers' training colleges. Facilities for training are offered to students sponsored by UNESCO and by countries participating in the Colombo Plan.

PACIFIC ISLANDS EDUCATION — The Department of Education acts in liaison with the Department of Island Territories to assist other administrations including those in Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, and Pitcairn Island with their educational problems.

As part of this assistance, the Department of Education recruits an average strength of 150 education officers and teachers, inspects them and protects their rights against their return to New Zealand. The Officer for Islands Education maintains a small staff including two inspectors, a scholarships officer, and two textbook writers to provide assistance in a large variety of ways. Apart from advisory visits to most of the islands, supplies of modern texts and apparatus are sent regularly by this Division. Several publications have been produced recently.

In addition, a very important function of the Division is to operate and supervise closely a scholarship system which enables 184 islands students to obtain in New Zealand schools, trade training centres, and universities, more advanced education than would otherwise be available to them. During the term of their scholarship these students are fully maintained by the Department of Island Territories. In 1960, approximately 230 other students from Fiji and Tonga, the British Solomon Islands Protectorate, and the Gilbert and Ellice Islands were supervised and assisted in obtaining the benefits of a more varied or advanced education than they could gain in the islands.

The following table shows the numbers of teachers and estimated numbers of pupils in the areas receiving some help from the Islands Education Division of the Department of Education for the year 1960.

TerritoryTeachersPupils
New ZealandLocalPrimarySecondaryTotal

* Indicates areas where New Zealand assists but has no administrative authority.

† Assumed independence in January 1962.

Fiji*722,44476,1825,43981,621
Western Samoa3655225,90252626,428
Cook Islands283524,7601904,950
Niue10811,217511,268
Tonga*969119,5354,12123,656
C.A.A. Nandi4122122
Tokelau Islands16501501
Totals1594,136128,21910,327138,546

CHILD WELFARE — The Child Welfare Act 1925 provided for the creation of a special branch of the Department of Education now known as the Child Welfare Division. The Act was passed to make better provision with respect to the maintenance, care, and control of children who are placed specially under the protection of the State, and to provide generally for the protection and training of indigent, neglected, and delinquent children. The powers conferred by the principal Act were further defined and extended by the Child Welfare Amendment Act 1927. The meaning of the expression “delinquent” was extended by a 1954 amendment to the principal Act.

An important section of the Act provided for the establishment of Children's Courts, to be presided over by Stipendiary Magistrates or Justices specially authorised to exercise jurisdiction in these Courts. Provision was made for the appointment of child welfare officers with wide responsibilities connected with the welfare of children. There were 193 men and women child welfare officers employed at 31 March 1961. The Act also provided for the appointment of honorary child welfare officers. These officers are people of integrity and local standing in their communities who are appointed annually by the Minister in charge of the Division. At 31 March 1961 there were 133 men and women serving in an honorary capacity.

Very wide discretionary powers are given to Children's Courts. Wherever practicable the hearings are conducted in premises apart from the Magistrate's Court, and no newspaper is permitted to publish either the names of children appearing before these Courts or any particulars that are likely to identify a child.

A child was originally defined for purposes of the Act as one under 16 years of age. This age was raised to 17 in 1927.

Children's Courts deal with cases of children brought either (a) on a complaint under the Child Welfare Act that a child is neglected, indigent, delinquent, not under proper control, or living in a detrimental environment or (b) charged with an offence. After hearing the complaint or the charge and in the light of the child welfare officer's report, the Court may, according to the needs of the case, commit the child to the care of the Superintendent of Child Welfare, or place him under supervision of a child welfare officer for a period (usually one year or two years) or discharge him with an admonition and, on occasion, an order for restitution or a fine.

A new approach to the problem of delinquency was the establishment throughout New Zealand in 1959 of a Juvenile Crime Prevention Section of the Police Department. The aim is to detect delinquency at an early stage and, by close cooperation between child welfare officers and specialist police officers, to deal with the less serious offenders without Court action. The police, after consultation with child welfare officers, decide whether or not there will be a prosecution. For those not being prosecuted appropriate action is taken, for example in the form of a warning from the Police or continuing informal supervision by child welfare officers. During the year ended 31 March 1961, 2,945 cases were dealt with under this scheme without prosecution.

The numbers of children appearing before the Children's Courts in the latest three years (ended 31 March) were as follows.

 195919601961
On “complaints” (under the Child Welfare Act)473528555
For offences (including offences against Acts, regulations, or bylaws)3,9043,567 4,0954,521
Totals4,3774,0955,076

On the basis of the total juvenile population at the time, the incidence of appearances for offences is shown as follows.

* Number of cases per 10,000 of the population aged seven to 17 years.

 195919601961
Total Court appearances for offences3,9043,5674,521
Rate*837791
Court appearances for all more serious offences (excluding offences against special Acts, regulations, or bylaws)2,4042,3002,703
Rate*514854

The decisions made in Children's Courts during the year ended 31 March 1961 are shown in the summary below.

DecisionYear Ended 31 March 1961
Committed to the care of the Child Welfare Superintendent624
Placed under supervision of child welfare officers1,679
Admonished and discharged with or without costs, restitution, or fine1,878
All other decisions895
Total5,076

Many of the children who are committed to the care of the Superintendent of Child Welfare and who are thereby under his guardianship are placed immediately in foster homes and either at school or in employment. Those who require special care and training which cannot be provided in the ordinary life of the community are placed in institutions administered by the Superintendent. Some few reside in private institutions and some are in boarding schools.

Of the total of 11,271 children under the control and supervision of the Child Welfare Superintendent and his officers at 31 March 1961, 3,387 were under the guardianship of the Superintendent. These 3,387 children were at that date placed as shown in the following summary.

 NumberPercentage of Total
Residing in individual private homes (foster homes, employers' or relatives' homes)2,68079.1
In institutions administered by the Child Welfare Division (including those temporarily admitted)44813.2
In mental hospitals1113.3
In residential schools and colleges (including schools for handicapped children)982.9
In hospitals, convalescent homes, etc.60.2
In children's homes (including orphanages, etc.)371.1
Attending university or teachers' training college70.2

For the children requiring institutional care and training the Child Welfare Division administers several different types of institution. The Girls' Training Centre at Burwood, Christchurch, and the Boys' Training Centre at Levin each provide for the more difficult or disturbed girls or boys. The centres are open institutions providing full educational facilities with qualified and trained teachers and also a wide range of vocational training. Another small institution at Featherston provides specially for Maori girls who, while not seriously difficult, require some training before placement in the community. Two small hostels for girls at Wellington and at Christchurch provide for those who, while in ordinary employment, require for the time being the conditions of supervision and care obtainable in a hostel. There are 11 receiving homes and boys' homes in the larger centres providing for temporary care and observation.

Children not requiring institutional care but presenting behaviour and personality problems beyond the capacity of most ordinary foster parents are provided for in “Family Homes”. These are private houses owned by the Division and occupied rent-free by specially selected married couples who agree to care for children on a long-term basis, as a condition of the tenancy. These homes are also used to provide transit accommodation in areas in which there is no receiving home or boys' home. There are 15 of these homes at present in operation throughout the country and more are planned.

Children placed by the Courts under supervision of child welfare officers are supervised in their own homes, except that in a few cases, with the approval of the parents or guardians, the child welfare officer arranges placement elsewhere — e.g., in employment. Magistrates have the authority to order that part or all of the period of supervision be spent in an institution. Most children placed under supervision respond well; where they do not they may appear before the Court again and be committed to the care of the Superintendent. There were 1,886 children under supervision at 31 March 1961.

Preventive cases, numbering 3,228 at 31 March 1961, consist of children who, without any Court appearance, are being supervised and assisted by child welfare officers under arrangements made voluntarily with the parents or guardians.

Child welfare officers undertake a wide variety of miscellaneous investigations and inquiries concerning the welfare of children. In the year ended 31 March 1961, 6,607 cases were handled. Cases may be referred by neighbours, police, teachers, employers, doctors, solicitors, etc., or by parents themselves who are seeking advice and guidance. Some of these cases will respond quickly to help. Others may need preventive oversight and guidance over several months or even two or three years. Financial help can be given in special cases. In a relatively small number of cases preventive help is not sufficient and Court action is the outcome of inquiries.

As provided for in the Child Welfare Act 1925, child welfare officers, on receiving from the Registrars notifications of ex-nuptial births, make confidential inquiries and assist the mother as necessary in making provision for her child.

Child welfare officers administer the provisions of the Infants Act 1908 by which children under six years of age living apart from their parents or guardians for more than seven consecutive days are required to be in licensed foster homes. At 31 March 1961, 864 such children were being supervised.

Under the Adoption Act 1955 a child welfare officer must give prior approval to the placement for adoption of a child under 15 years, or alternatively, the applicants must apply for an interim order of adoption from the Court. The Court is required to obtain a child welfare officer's report on such a placement before granting an order. A waiting period of at least six months is required, during which the placement is supervised by a child welfare officer, before a final order can be made.

The Division also has a measure of responsibility towards handicapped children generally, partly because of its role in assisting in the administration of residential schools for children who are deaf, mentally backward, or emotionally maladjusted. Child welfare officers, more especially in country areas, also assist in locating children who require special education, in advising parents or teachers concerning the facilities available, and in ensuring that the circumstances become known to appropriate agencies.

Inspection of children's homes operated by private organisations and administration of schemes of Government financial assistance to these homes is another important function of the Division. Financial assistance is given in the form of capitation payments for children in care and subsidies of up to 50 per cent on expenditure for extension or replacement of buildings or additions to facilities.

The Child Welfare Amendment Act 1958 provided for the making of regulations for the registration and licensing of “Child Care Centres” (e.g., day nurseries, creches, etc.). These regulations were made on 7 November 1960 and came into force on 1 March 1961.

Chapter 8. Section 8 JUSTICE

Table of Contents

LAW OF NEW ZEALAND — The law applied in the Courts of New Zealand has three principal sources — the common law of England, certain statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament enacted prior to 1947, and statutes of the New Zealand Parliament.

The initial law of New Zealand when it became a British colony was the law of England as it existed on 14 January 1840 — that is, the common law together with those statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament which were applicable to the circumstances of the colony at that date. Subsequent law consists of those enactments of the United Kingdom Parliament between 1840 and 1947 which extended expressly or by necessary implication to New Zealand, and the enactments of the New Zealand Legislature.

In interpreting the common law the Courts have been concerned to preserve uniformity with common law interpretation in England. This unity is ensured not only by the existence of the Privy Council as the final Court of appeal for New Zealand, but by the practice of the Judges of following English decisions even though they are in theory not bound by them.

The New Zealand Parliament is now the sole authority with inherent power to legislate for the country, and there are no constitutional restrictions on the law which it can pass. Before the adoption by New Zealand of the Statute of Westminster in 1947 the powers of Parliament were limited in two respects. First, there was a somewhat uncertain and ill-defined incapacity to make laws having extra-territorial application, and, secondly, there was an incapacity to make laws conflicting with a statute of the United Kingdom Parliament extending to New Zealand. Since 1947, however, both these limitations have disappeared, although the United Kingdom Parliament still has the power to make laws extending to New Zealand at the request and with the consent of the New Zealand Legislature.

REVISION OF LAW — In any progressive society the law requires alteration from time to time if it is to reflect the life of the community and adequately give effect to the needs of the people. As in other countries in modern times legislation is by far the most important means by which the law of New Zealand is adapted to changing circumstances. The responsibility of bringing before Parliament proposals for the revision of the common law and that part of the statute law not administered by other Departments of State is in the hands of the Attorney-General and Minister of Justice. In formulating these proposals the Attorney-General is assisted by the Department of Justice and by the Law Revision Committee, an informal advisory body first set up in 1937. In addition to the Attorney-General, who is chairman, the Committee (at the beginning of 1962) comprised a representative of the Parliamentary Opposition, the Permanent Heads of the principal legal Departments of State (the Solicitor-General, the Law Draftsman, and the Secretary for Justice), two representatives of the New Zealand Law Society, two representatives of the university faculties of law, and a former Solicitor-General.

The purpose of the Law Revision Committee is to bring into the work of reforming the law the principal groups, both inside and outside the ordinary Government machinery, which by their interest or expert knowledge can contribute in a special way to this task. The existence of the Law Revision Committee ensures that before proposals for the amendment of the law are put forward for Parliamentary approval they have been considered from many different points of view and have secured a substantial measure of informed support.

COURTS — The hierarchy of Courts in New Zealand comprises the Court of Appeal, the Supreme Court, and the Magistrates' Court.

As constituted by the Judicature Amendment Act 1957 the Court of Appeal consists of the Chief Justice by virtue of his office as head of the judiciary and of a President and two Judges of the Court of Appeal appointed by the Governor-General. An additional Judge or Judges of the Supreme Court may be nominated by the Chief Justice to sit on the Court of Appeal in any particular case where it is expedient. The Judges of the Court of Appeal are also Judges of the Supreme Court, but have seniority over all other Judges of that Court except the Chief Justice or the acting Chief Justice.

The Court of Appeal may from time to time appoint ordinary or special sittings and may make rules in respect of places and times for sittings and similar matters.

The Court of Appeal, unlike other Courts, exercises an appellate jurisdiction only. In addition to ordinary appeals from the Supreme Court, certain other proceedings in inferior Courts may, on an order from the Supreme Court, be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. It may be noted that the Court of Appeal also determines criminal appeals under the Criminal Appeal Act 1945 which is discussed later in this section.

All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final unless leave is granted to appeal to the Privy Council. This leave may be granted either by the Court of Appeal or by the Privy Council itself. The Privy Council thus remains the final Court of appeal in all civil cases and also occasionally hears appeals in special criminal cases.

The Supreme Court, which was first established by the Supreme Court Ordinance 1841, is now constituted under the Judicature Act 1908. The Members of the Court are a Chief Justice and 15 other Judges, the number being fixed by statute. An amendment in 1953 provides, however, that an additional Judge or Judges may be appointed whenever the Governor-General deems it necessary by reason of absence or anticipated absence of any of the Judges on leave prior to retirement, each appointment being a permanent one from the time when it is made. The fixing of the number of Judges, together with the provision that the salary of a Judge shall not be diminished during his term of office, is an important safeguard for the principle of judicial independence. Judges, who retire at 72, are appointed to hold office during good behaviour and may be removed only by the Queen upon an Address by the House of Representatives. The Governor-General may suspend a Judge upon a like Address.

Magistrates' Courts are now set up under the Magistrates' Courts Act 1947 and possess an extensive jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases. The jurisdiction of the Court is exercised by Stipendiary Magistrates, whose number is limited by statute to 40, there being 36 at present holding office. Justices of the Peace, however, still sit as a Magistrates' Court to hear a limited number of minor criminal charges.

Stipendiary Magistrates must have been qualified as barristers and solicitors of the Supreme Court for at least seven years. They are appointed by the Governor-General, and under the Magistrates' Courts Act 1947 may be removed by the Governor-General for inability or misbehaviour only. They retire at 68 years of age.

Apart from these Courts of general jurisdiction there are in New Zealand several Courts with specialist functions. These include the Court of Arbitration, which makes awards governing pay and working conditions in industry, and also makes general wage orders; the Compensation Court, which determines claims under the Workers' Compensation Act; the Land Valuation Court, which determines disputes over the valuation of land and hears claims for compensation when land is taken for public purposes; and the Maori Land Court and Maori Appellate Court, which have jurisdiction in respect of questions relating to Maori land.

JURIES — The institution of the jury is regulated in New Zealand by the Juries Act 1908. Subject to certain exceptions, every male British subject (other than a Maori) between 21 and 65 years resident within 15 miles of a Supreme Court centre is liable to serve on a jury. There is provision for Maoris to serve on juries in criminal cases where both the victim and the accused are Maoris and in civil cases where one of the parties is a Maori.

A new list of exempted persons was enacted by the Juries Amendment Act 1951, the principal change being the removal of most Government employees from the class of exempted persons.

The following is a summary of the persons now exempted from jury service:

Members of the Executive Council and of the House of Representatives; Judges of the Supreme Court and of the Compensation Court; Judges and Members of the Court of Arbitration and of the Land Valuation Court; Judges and Commissioners of the Maori Land Court; Magistrates; Visiting Prison Justices; Coroners; the Chairman of the Local Government Commission; the Chairman and Members of the Licensing Control Commission; Officers of Parliament; clergymen; persons wholly engaged in teaching and school inspectors; barristers and solicitors; medical practitioners and dentists; registered chemists; members of the armed forces; Police and traffic officers; pilots, masters, and crews of vessels; members of fire brigades; and certain officers of the Department of Justice, including those engaged in Court or prison work.

Provision was made by the Women Jurors Act 1942 for women to serve on juries. Women between the ages of 21 and 65 years who would be liable for jury service if they were men may have their names placed on the jury list, but there is no obligation for them to do so. In fact, very few women have volunteered for jury service.

Special juries are provided for in section 71 of the Juries Act. That section provides that in a civil action in the Supreme Court triable by jury either party may, by leave of the Court or a Judge thereof, procure trial by a special jury instead of a common jury. Except with the consent of all the parties, however, no action may be tried with a special jury unless in the opinion of the Court or a Judge difficult questions in relation to scientific, technical, business, or professional matters are likely to arise.

The Grand Jury was abolished in New Zealand by the Crimes Act 1961.

CIVIL JURISDICTION: Magistrates' Courts — From the beginning of settlement in New Zealand there has existed a speedy and inexpensive forum for determining everyday disputes between citizens. From 1846 to 1925 there were two types of Lower Court, as well as the Supreme Court. Resident Magistrates' Courts (from 1893 called Magistrates' Courts) dealt with the smallest claims, while larger minor claims were determined first by Courts of Requests, and from 1858 by District Courts.

The most important feature of this period was the gradual replacement of the three-tier structure by a two-tier structure as the jurisdiction of Magistrates' Courts became more extensive and the District Courts fell gradually into disuse. The jurisdiction of the Magistrates' Courts was considerably extended in 1893, but the main reason for the increasing importance of these Courts was the requirement, first introduced in 1913, that every Magistrate should be a qualified barrister and solicitor. In 1925 District Courts were formally abolished, leaving the Magistrates' Courts and the Supreme Court as the sole Courts with general jurisdiction.

Before 1947 the jurisdiction of Magistrates' Courts was limited (a) as to amount, the maximum sum which could be claimed being £300, and (b) as to remedies, which virtually limited jurisdiction to claims for debt or damages.

The Magistrates' Courts Act 1947 revised the whole framework of Magistrates' Courts procedure, which had been substantially unchanged for 80 years, and brought it into line with present-day jurisdiction and requirements. The jurisdiction of the Court was also widened and has been further increased by an amendment in 1961. It may now hear all claims up to £1,000, but if the parties agree in writing that the Court shall hear their case it has jurisdiction whatever the amount claimed. In the exercise of this jurisdiction it may now grant the same remedies, legal and equitable, as the Supreme Court.

The following table shows the number of plaints entered, cases disposed of, amounts sued for, and amounts for which judgment was recorded in the Magistrates' Courts during the latest 11 years.

YearPlaints EnteredCases Disposed of
NumberTotal Amount Sued forNumberTotal Amount ClaimedTotal Amount for Which Judgment Entered
  £ ££
195035,7471,209,98818,090553,021460,910
195138,9661,331,37520,111733,562588,300
195246,8361,701,96324,753880,840743,680
195353,2772,183,45229,8421,180,2751,014,240
195458,1562,496,38832,9321,288,5451,064,327
195566,0782,843,10938,4751,502,3981,318,362
195672,7463,066,94643,8721,859,0331,599,585
195779,0003,212,82046,4771,865,3311,575,680
195882,4933,182,05350,0941,819,1691,575,016
195980,8562,885,95951,3861,805,7101,570,604
196081,1853,147,66649,4991,476,1971,278,360

The average amount claimed in each plaint has risen from almost £34 in 1950 to over £38 in 1960.

Supreme Court — The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is twofold, original and appellate. It has by statute a general jurisdiction to administer the laws of New Zealand. One important aspect of this original jurisdiction is an inherent power to control inferior Courts and judicial tribunals through the writs of certiorari and prohibition. This is essentially a power to determine the limits of jurisdiction of other Courts and is to be distinguished from its appellate function by which the Supreme Court reviews a case which was properly heard and determined by a lower Court. An appeal to the Supreme Court lies only where it is provided for by statute. With certain exceptions, all cases determined in the Magistrates' Court are subject to appeal to the Supreme Court.

The next table shows the number of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the amounts for which judgments were recorded in the civil jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in the latest 11 years.

YearNumber of Actions CommencedCases TriedJudgments Recorded
With JuryWithout JuryNumberAmount
     £
19501,05990268202108,132
19511,13591224218169,440
19521,451125302242182,036
19531,435106282 232,733
19541,527130237 291,041
19551,614137198 255,513
19561,735146199 400,341
19571,817144206 354,528
19581,931153242 467,872
19592,136138240 585,891
19602,162138248 505,078

Court of Appeal — During the five years 1956 to 1960 there were 158 civil appeals, of which 52 were allowed, and also six cases removed to the Appeal Court, resulting in four judgments for the plaintiffs and two for the defendants.

CRIMINAL JURISDICTION: Magistrates' Courts — The criminal jurisdiction of Magistrates' Courts has gradually grown out of the general jurisdiction historically enjoyed in respect of minor offences by Justices of the Peace. The Court previously had power to deal with all summary cases -that is, cases where a statute provides that an offence shall be dealt with summarily — and with a few indictable offences. Since 1952, however, Magistrates have had jurisdiction, which is now given by the Summary Proceedings Act 1957, to deal with the majority of indictable offences. This Act gives a Magistrate jurisdiction over all crimes against property and all but the most grave of other crimes, such as treason, homicide, rape, and perjury. If the Magistrate deals summarily with an indictable offence, he may impose a sentence of imprisonment of up to three years or a fine of up to £200. A Magistrate may, however, decline to deal with an offence summarily, in which case the accused is committed for trial in the Supreme Court in the ordinary way. The accused person has, moreover, the right to claim jury trial if he is charged with any offence, indictable or summary, punishable by imprisonment for more than three months.

Justices of the Peace now hear only a small number of summary cases where the statute creating the offence provides that one Justice or two or more Justices are to have power to deal with it, or where jurisdiction is expressly conferred on Justices in a particular case. This is provided for in the Summary Proceedings Act and is a departure from the previous law, under which Justices had jurisdiction in all summary cases unless otherwise provided. The tendency is to have all but the most trivial criminal cases dealt with by Stipendiary Magistrates, although the extent to which this is practicable varies from district to district.

The following table shows the number of criminal charges dealt with in Magistrates' Courts in the latest 11 years. These figures and all the figures relating to Magistrates' Courts, Supreme Court, and prisons include Maoris; Children's Court cases are excluded and will be found under the section relating to juvenile offences.

YearNumberPer 1,000 of Mean Population
Against MalesAgainst FemalesTotalAgainst MalesAgainst FemalesTotal
195055,5362,91558,45158.183.0530.62
195160,1063,00263,10861.463.0932.40
195278,5363,66682,20278.263.6941.18
195385,8954,60690,50183.384.5244.17
195484,2003,97788,17779.933.8242.09
195582,2184,31786,53576.414.0640.46
195691,3145,26296,57683.184.85 
1957104,1425,655109,79792.775.0949.18
1958113,5066,804120,31098.725.9952.63
1959106,3606,622112,98290.595.7148.39
1960117,0617,735124,79697.986.5452.50

The great majority of these charges are, as may be expected, for comparatively minor offences, particularly against the traffic laws. Traffic offences alone accounted for more than two-thirds of the convictions in the Magistrates' Courts in 1960; of the 112,889 convictions, 79,279 were for traffic offences, while 4,868 were for offences against the liquor laws, and 4,715 for drunkenness.

The following table classifies the convictions in Magistrates' Courts into more common offences or groups of offences for the latest five years. The figures refer to total charges, with the corresponding number of distinct cases following the totals in each year.

Type of Offence19561957195819591960

* Counting only the principal offence in cases where a person is charged simultaneously with two or more offences.

Common assault889870956843979
Sexual offences405475518407376
Other offences against the person212199233176175
Theft3,1643,5374,4963,9973,919
Wilful damage568832908734977
Other offences against property (including forgery)4,0074,3715,2225,5085,561
Drunkenness (including drunk in charge, etc.)6,0165,9414,8864,5564,715
Application for prohibition order9701,005818696733
Offensive conduct or language, obstruction, etc., of police, and vagrancy1,9382,4112,1672,1642,412
Minor traffic offences50,18759,70771,45267,96077,400
Other offences against good order1,9831,0591,2219211,795
Breach of probation323298345356398
Unlawfully on licensed premises and other breaches of Licensing Act5,5695,9624,7814,2974,868
Failing to furnish return and making false return of land and income3,2714,0132,2531,7632,700
Failing to pay maintenance1,3601,5521,6401,6901,531
Deserting merchant ships519322286139145
Breaches of price control orders155576416856
Other offences5,8586,0366,5455,2804,149
Totals87,39498,647108,791101,655112,889
Distinct cases*71,80279,74187,74582,30793,273

The total convictions (112,889) for 1960 represent a rate of 47.49 per 1,000 of mean population. Comparing 1960 with the previous year, the larger increases according to types of offence were as follows:

      Common assault136
      Wilful damage243
      Drunkenness159
      Offensive conduct or language, obstruction, etc., of police, vagrancy248
      Minor traffic offences9,440
      Other offences against good order874
      Unlawfully on licensed premises and other breaches of Licensing Act571
      Failing to furnish return, and making false return of land and income937
Major decreases according to types of offence were as follows:
      Failing to pay maintenance159
      Breaches of price-control orders112
      Other offences1,131

The next table classifies the result of hearing and punishment inflicted on summary conviction for all cases during 1960.

Result of HearingOffences Against the PersonOffences Against PropertyOffences Against Good OrderOther OffencesTotal
Dismissed, withdrawn, or struck out5561,4914,1764,35210,575
Committed for trial or sentence28293430601,306
Admonished and discharged123226
Imprisonment4343,3839215075,245
Corrective training725213263
Detention in borstal institution, etc.291,13346581,266
Released on probation1202,111235492,515
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence10423914832523
Fined7522,51982,12210,31295,705
Convicted and discharged (or pay costs)848202,7717064,381
Suspended imprisonment (maintenance cases)1,3701,370
Miscellaneous8118101,621
Totals2,36812,88391,28418,261124,796
Distinct cases1,8875,79380,06813,953101,701

Traffic Offences — Traffic offences form so large a proportion of summary convictions that a further analysis is of interest. The most frequent traffic offences are breaches of parking regulations and excessive speed.

The following table analyses all traffic convictions dealt with in Magistrates' Courts for the latest five years.

Offence19561957195819591960
Negligently driving motor vehicle causing death3046362928
Drunk in charge of motor vehicle causing death1
Negligent driving causing injury2924333031
Drunk in charge of motor vehicle causing injury11
Failing to stop motor vehicle after accident involving bodily injury3622271824
Unlawfully converting vehicle to own use9328291,0881,1351,079
Drunk in charge of motor vehicle875957786711707
Drunk in charge of other vehicle181214106
Excessive speed in motor vehicle10,42211,61615,96316,59021,713
Negligent or dangerous driving of motor vehicle8,89811,60212,84911,43712,671
Negligent or dangerous driving of other vehicle12510877128126
Breaches of regulations for the lighting of vehicles2,4382,6272,7823,0922,604
Offences relating to the registration, etc., of motor vehicles4,5364,8956,0036,1055,781
Offences relating to driver's licence3,1673,6843,7763,7274,383
Breaches of parking regulations14,78816,85420,56318,02720,967
Other traffic offences5,8148,3239,4398,8549,155
Totals52,10861,60173,43769,89379,275
Convictions per 1,000 of mean population23.8727.5932.1329.9433.35

After the decrease in 1959 (the first since 1955), the year 1960 once more showed an increase in the number of convictions for traffic offences, being 9,382, or 13.4 per cent, higher than the 1959 figure. The largest increase was in the number of convictions for excessive speed in a motor vehicle, which was 5,123, or 30.9 per cent, more than 1959. Other major increases in convictions (with the percentage increases in parentheses) were recorded for the following: parking offences, 2,940 (16.3); negligent or dangerous driving of motor vehicle, 1,234 (10.8); and offences relating to drivers licence, 656 (17.6). It should be noted that the number of motor vehicles increased from 825,163 at 30 June 1959 to 856,868 at 30 June 1960.

The previous table excludes the more serious cases involving death or injury, which are sent forward to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence. In 1960, 53 such cases were sent forward and there were 21 sentences, comprising 15 for negligent or drunken driving causing death, and 4 for negligent or drunken driving causing injury, and 2 for failing to stop after accident involving injury.

Of the 79,275 convictions for traffic offences, 4,557 persons had their drivers' licences cancelled for varying lengths of time. These are given below, together with the figures for the previous year.

Period for which Licence Cancelled19591960
Under 3 months1,2071,556
3 months and under 6 months704900
6 months and under 1 year166201
1 year and under 2 years8571,043
2 years and under 3 years131200
3 years and under 4 years558547
4 years and under 5 years1113
5 years and over9297
Total cancellations3,7264,557

Drunkenness — The following table shows the number of convictions for drunkenness, together with the rate per 1,000 of mean population, for each of the latest five years.

YearConvictions for DrunkennessPer 1,000 of Mean Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
19565,7782386,0165.260.222.76
19575,7382035,9415.110.182.66
19584,6911954,8864.080.172.14
19594,4021544,5563.750.131.95
19604,5381774,7153.800.151.98

Repeated (or duplicate) convictions against the same person are included in the statistics shown in the preceding table, but the figures do not include cases of application for prohibition orders of which there were 733 in 1960, compared with 696 in 1959. The rates of convictions have been lower in the latest three years, with convictions of females following the same trend as convictions of males.

Supreme Court — Criminal cases in the Supreme Court are of two classes — those in which the accused person has pleaded guilty in the Lower Court and has been committed to the Supreme Court for sentence, and those actually tried in the Supreme Court.

The following table gives a summary of criminal cases dealt with in the Supreme Court during each of the latest five years. Frequently a series of charges is preferred against the one offender and this serves to explain the distinction between total cases and distinct persons.

YearTried in Supreme CourtSentences in Case of Committal for SentenceTotal Sentences
Indictments and InformationsConvictions
MFMFMFMFTotal
(a) Total Cases
1956531233041428358714601
195750625260162761553631567
19588092332313219354216558
19595784027414302557619595
19601,3015360335107471039749
(b) Distinct Persons
1956193131259701959204
195720216117969418613199
19582571214775021979206
1959262171461252219814212
1960354241961572326818286

Of the 378 distinct persons indicted during 1960, 211 were convicted and 152 acquitted, and “no bill” was returned or the prosecution was not otherwise proceeded with in the remaining 15 cases.

The next table summarises the offences of persons convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the latest five years.

YearTotal Convictions and SentencesDistinct Persons Convicted and Sentenced
Offences Against the PersonOffences Against PropertyForgery and Offences Against the CurrencyOther OffencesTotalOffences Against the PersonOffences Against PropertyForgery and Offences Against the CurrencyOther OffencesTotal
195619336863460110084317204
19571863491315679098110199
195820331217265589094616206
1959115421283159583104916212
19601705151648749118139524286

The table which follows shows the number of distinct persons sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the latest five years classified according to the principal types of offences.

Type of Offence19561957195819591960

* Includes persons charged with murder but convicted of manslaughter.

Murder11131
Attempted murder1112
Manslaughter*48786
Traffic offences involving death or injury5861421
Assaults and wounding2110172224
Sexual offences6458543459
Other offences against the person54415
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering3638474837
Theft, receiving, and fraud4452414886
Other offences against property486816
Forgery and uttering31695
Other offences1710161624
Totals204199206212286
Per 10,000 mean population0.930.890.900.911.22

Sentences imposed in the Supreme Court during each of the latest five years were as follows:

Sentence19561957195819591960

* Commuted to life imprisonment.

Probation (under Criminal Justice Act)2530261944
Ordered to come up for sentence1545
Discharged11212
Fined512171731
Imprisoned116118127137160
Corrective training88558
Borstal training19291016
Preventive detention2926141719
Death111*2*1*
Totals204199206212286

In 1941 the death sentence for murder was abolished, life imprisonment with hard labour being substituted therefor. It was restored in 1950 by the Capital Punishment Act but was again abolished by the Crimes Act 1961. The only crime for which the death penalty may be imposed is treason. On conviction for murder a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment is imposed.

Flogging and whipping were also abolished in 1941 and have not been restored.

CRIMINAL APPEALS — The law relating to criminal appeals was substantially changed by the Criminal Appeal Act 1945 and is now contained in the Crimes Act 1961. Both the prosecutor and the accused may appeal on a point of law. In addition, any person convicted on indictment or committed for sentence may appeal to the Court —

  1. Against his conviction on any ground involving a question of law.

  2. With the leave of the Court or on the certificate of the Judge who tried the case, on any ground involving a question of fact or on any other ground deemed sufficient by the Court.

  3. With the leave of the Court against the sentence passed unless it is one fixed by law.

The Court may quash the conviction, vary the sentence, or order the case to be retried in the Supreme Court.

The Act does not affect the Crown's prerogative of mercy, but contains a provision enabling the Governor-General to refer to the Court any application for the exercise of the prerogative.

OFFENCES BY WOMEN — Of the 124,796 criminal charges dealt with in the Magistrates' Court in 1960, 7,735, or 6.2 per cent, were preferred against females. This figure showed an increase on the 1959 total which was 6,622.

Most of the offences for which summary convictions are entered against women are of a trivial nature, such as minor breaches of traffic regulations.

Convictions for more serious offences during 1959 and 1960 included the following:

 19591960
Common assault2423
Drunkenness143160
Burglary1121
Breaking and entering715
Theft469429
Fraud and false pretences110106
Offensive conduct or language6151
Vagrancy9197

Supreme Court statistics also suggested that women in general are of a law-abiding disposition; 18 females (6.3 per cent of the total) were sentenced in 1960 for criminal offences.

Women received into prison under sentence during 1960 numbered 117. The principal offences concerned were: common assault, 4; procuring abortion and attempts, 4; burglary, 6; theft, 39; fraud and false pretences, 10; drunkenness, 4; vagrancy, 16; breach of probation, 5. The corresponding total in 1959 was 112, and the main offences were: theft, 33; vagrancy, 23; breach of probation, 6; fraud and false pretences, 9; common assault, 4; cruelty to children, 4; soliciting prostitution, 4.

OFFENCES BY MAORIS — As previously mentioned, Maoris are included in the statistical tables presented elsewhere in this section, the data given here being for purposes of comparison. According to the population estimate of 31 December 1960, 5.22 per cent of the total population of New Zealand aged 15 and over were Maoris.

It is not possible to classify Maoris and non-Maoris in Magistrates' Court summons cases, but an accurate classification can be arrived at in the case of arrests, and the following summary shows total charges for arrest cases in 1960. Figures for non-Maoris are quoted for comparative purposes.

Class of OffenceTotal Charges for Arrest Cases
RaceAgainst the PersonAgainst PropertyAgainst Good OrderOther Offences 
DrunkennessOtherMalesFemalesTotal
Maoris3442,2924186363453,7103254,035
Non-Maoris1,1457,8233,4743,14791515,68881616,504
Totals1,48910,1153,8923,7831,26019,3981,14120,539

Of the total number of arrests and convictions 19.6 per cent and 20.2 per cent respectively were Maoris.

The total number of Maoris convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court during the five years 1956 to 1960 was 193, or 17.4 percent of the total of 1,107. Of the 42 Maoris (including two females) sentenced during 1960, six were committed from Magistrates' Courts and 36 were tried and convicted in the Supreme Court. The following table shows the number of Maoris sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the last five years, together with the percentage of Maori offenders to total persons sentenced in each case.

YearOffences Against the PersonOffences Against Property*Total Offences
Sexual OffencesOther
Maoris SentencedPercentage of Total SentencesMaoris SentencedPercentage of Total SentencesMaoris SentencedPercentage of Total SentencesMaoris SentencedPercentage of Total Sentences

* Including forgery and uttering.

† Includes other offences.

19562335.9719.41213.84321.1
19571525.91031.299.13618.1
1958611.11027.81414.03115.0
1959617.61020.42421.24119.3
19601322.01322.01611.54214.7

During 1960, 779 distinct Maoris (including 45 females) were received into prison under sentence, this being 25.5 per cent of the total number of distinct committals. Corresponding figures for 1959 were 777 received under sentence (including 57 females), this being 26.3 per cent of the total of distinct committals. Of the 1,746 persons held in custody on 31 December 1959, Maoris comprised 523, or 29.9 per cent, of the total. (A corresponding figure is not available for 1960.)

JUVENILE OFFENDERS — Children's Courts were established in New Zealand under Part IV of the Child Welfare Act 1925, and are expressly designed to separate youthful offenders and children in need of protection from the atmosphere and associations of the regular Courts. All offences, except murder or manslaughter on the one hand, and certain traffic offences on the other, committed by children under 17 years are dealt with in Children's Courts, the procedure and rules of which differ widely from those of the ordinary Courts. In addition, when an offender between 17 and 18 years comes before a regular Court, the Court may order his case to be heard in the Children's Court.

To fulfil the object for which Children's Courts were set up, the legislation prescribes that as far as possible persons attending a Children's Court shall not be brought into contact with persons attending any other Court. Unless no other suitable room is available, sittings of the Children's Court are not held in a courtroom and, where a Children's Court is in the same building as any other Court, it does not sit when that other Court is in session. Proceedings in Children's Courts are not open to the public, and no report of them may be published except with the consent of the presiding Magistrate.

When a child was brought before a Children's Court and charged with any offence, the Court was formerly not required to hear the charge against him. The law was changed in 1948, and all charges must now be heard and determined. It is not necessary, however, to record a conviction even if the charge is proved, and in practice convictions are not entered. The Court has power without recording a conviction to impose any penalty or make any order as if a conviction had been recorded.

9*

The following table shows the number of cases dealt with in Children's Courts during each of the latest five years. It is shown in two ways; i.e., total charges (meaning each offence counted once irrespective of the number with which a person is charged at the one time); and distinct cases (meaning only one charge, the most serious, is counted, irrespective of the number a person is charged with at the time). All the Children's Court tables are shown in this way.

YearTotal ChargesDistinct Cases
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
19503,1854773,6621,7723642,136
19513,3155083,8231,8164052,221
19523,9104534,3632,1183452,463
19533,7755764,3512,1384162,554
19544,8515715,4222,4094222,831
19555,0266855,7112,7305483,278
19565,4205936,0132,9494953,444
19577,3068758,1813,7706464,416
19588,0841,0899,1734,3587455,103
19597,1588097,9673,5256404,165
19609,2971,06810,3654,8038065,609

Detailed statistics for Children's Court cases during each of the latest five years are as follows.

Type of Offence19561957195819591960

* Includes forgery and uttering.

NOTE — Distinct cases figures are included in those for total charges.

 Total Charges
Sexual offences839514311681
Assaults577210782131
Other offences against the person11123198
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering7041,1621,1981,3361,521
Theft, receiving, and fraud2,1762,7123,2002,6073,455
Unlawful conversion of vehicles580680864830980
Wilful damage419600668457673
Other offences against property*271337356156
Offences against good order1,0901,5651,7711,4822,160
Indigent or delinquent child579853785824940
Other offences287297333168260
Totals6,0138,1819,1737,96710,365
 Distinct Cases
Sexual offences65661128867
Assaults5157826696
Other offences against the person10112696
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering318441542582629
Theft, receiving, and fraud1,1091,3111,5611,1731,634
Unlawful conversion of vehicles217292294255390
Wilful damage200307360185291
Other offences against property*1119272550
Offences against good order7049561,1539371,449
Indigent or delinquent child565748710732830
Other offences194208236113167
Totals3,4444,4165,1034,1655,609

The cases held during 1960 resulted as follows:

 Total ChargesDistinct Cases
Dismissed or withdrawn633379
Admonished and discharged1,9521,238
Committed to care of Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education1,581770
Placed under supervision3,3731,618
Committed to an institution405108
Fined1,6401,156
Otherwise dealt with781340
Total cases10,3655,609

PROBATION — The present legislation on probation is contained in Part I of the Criminal Justice Act 1954. The Court may release on probation any offender guilty of an offence punishable by imprisonment either on indictment or summarily.

An offender may be released on probation for a period of not less than one year nor more than three years, and during this time he must observe certain statutory conditions governing his behaviour and must accept the supervision of a Probation Officer. The statutory conditions of probation relate to such matters as reporting to a Probation Officer, employment and residence, associates, and general behaviour. In addition, the Court may impose particular conditions designed to assist his rehabilitation and to prevent further crime. It may also impose a fine in addition to probation. At the end of his period of probation the offender is deemed to be a free man, but if at any time during the period he breaks any of the conditions on which probation has been granted to him, he may be brought back to Court and becomes liable to a term of imprisonment or to a fine. In addition, he may be sentenced for the original offence for which he was placed on probation.

The probation method has come to be accepted as an integral part of the penal system and is widely used in New Zealand. The following figures show the number of persons released on probation during each of the past 11 years.

YearNumber Admitted to Probation
19501,098
19511,071
19521,176
19531,098
19541,278
19551,429
19561,692
19571,749
19581,870
19591,804
19601,979

The next table gives the number of offenders in each age group placed on probation during 1960, together with the period of their probation.

Age, in YearsPeriod of ProbationTotal
1 Year15 Months18 Months2 Years3 Years

* Includes seven offenders placed on probation for 30 months.

Under 2019871635431941,105
20 and under 2512117418171448
25 and under 3049186226155
30 and under 4047216527160
40 and under 502419271374
50 and under 608167527
60 and under 704116
70 and over134
Totals45210291886*3401,979

Probation is a conditional suspension of imprisonment and provides the opportunity whereby the offender may, with the assistance and supervision of a Probation Officer, rehabilitate himself. The real purpose of probation is to prevent further offences, and it is more freely used in the case of first offenders and young offenders.

PRISONS: Historical Development — The historical development of prisons is summarised in the 1960 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

Administration — The object of imprisonment is the protection of society, and this may be achieved by the processes of deterrence and reformation. It is the duty of the prisons administration to exert every effort to divert the young and malleable offender from further crime and to attempt reformation in any case offering any hope of success. It is also necessary to balance the demands of reformative training and security. The interest of the community as well as of the offender demand that so far as possible the time spent in prison should be so used as to bring about the greatest likelihood that the prisoner will lead a law-abiding and socially purposeful life on his discharge.

The Criminal Justice Act 1954, which came into force on 1 January 1955, revised the penal system. The Act had a twofold purpose: the first, to provide every possible means of diverting the young or inexperienced offender from a life of crime, and the second, to protect the community against the hardened offender by keeping him away from society for a long period.

From the coming into force of the Act the sentences of detention which the courts may impose are as follows:

  1. Borstal training, which means detention in a borstal institution for an indefinite period not exceeding three years. The offender must be at least 17 years (in special cases 15) but under 21 years. The time of his release is decided by the Parole Board, which must consider his case from time to time. After his release he is on probation for 12 months.

  2. Detention in a detention centre, the term fixed by statute being three months. The offender must be at least 16 but under 21 years of age, and he may earn up to one month's remission of his sentence by good conduct. (The part of the Act relating to this type of punishment was brought into force for Courts in the North Island in June 1961.)

  3. Corrective training, which means detention in prison for corrective training for an indefinite period not exceeding three years. The offender must be at least 21 but under 30 years of age (in exceptional cases 35) and he must qualify for this sentence by the gravity of his offence or by the number of his previous convictions and the type of his previous sentences. The time of his release is decided by the Parole Board, which must consider his case from time to time. After his release he is on probation for 12 months.

  4. Imprisonment for a stated number of years or for life. If the sentence is for less than 12 months the Court may order that the offender be on probation for a period of up to 12 months from his release. If the sentence is for 12 months or more the offender will automatically be on probation on his release, the period of probation being for 12 months or for the unexpired term of his sentence, whichever is the greater. An offender sentenced to imprisonment for a fixed term may earn remission of up to one-quarter of his sentence.

  5. Preventive detention, which means detention in prison for an indefinite term to be decided by the Parole Board, but in any event not less than three years nor, except where the offender has qualified for preventive detention through certain sexual offences, more than 14 years. The offender must be 25 years of age or over and must have qualified for preventive detention by the number of his previous convictions and the type of his previous sentences. After serving three years of his sentence the offender may be released on probation on the recommendation of the Parole Board, provided the Board is of opinion that he is not likely to resume his criminal career. The period of probation in each case extends until the expiry of the full 14 years or for life, as the case may be.

Subject to the overall control of the Minister of Justice, the administration and general management of the prisons and the borstal institutions are the responsibility of the Secretary for Justice.

Classification — The key to successful prison work lies in understanding the individual prisoner, and in order to assist the prisons administration to this end Classification Boards have been established in the three main reception centres, Auckland Prison, Wellington Prison, and Paparua Prison, Christchurch.

Classification is still in an experimental stage, but it is intended that every man sentenced to imprisonment for a term of six months or more will come before a subcommittee of the Board -consisting of the superintendent, deputy superintendent, and welfare officer of the prison — which will determine whether or not it is necessary for the prisoner to be more fully examined. According to the circumstances of each case the subcommittee will either report finally to the administration or will call upon a psychologist, psychiatrist, vocational guidance officer, probation officer, or any other form of specialist service which may be of assistance in defining the offender's character and potential, and in advising upon the most hopeful form of treatment while he is in prison.

In New Zealand the total number of prisoners is not high. There is therefore little opportunity for special categories of prisons. The task of the Classification Board is to advise on the question of allocation of prisoners. Boards have no executive powers, but they furnish to the prisons administration a report on each prisoner whom they see and their recommendations are as far as possible carried out.

Measures Employed in Treatment — This section may conveniently be dealt with under five heads -vocational and non-vocational training; earnings; punishments; and after care.

Vocational Training — Every prisoner must assist by his labour to reduce the cost of his maintenance in custody; it is also necessary that he should develop the habit of hard and consistent work. In New Zealand all available prisoners are put to work on some form of constructive employment, whether it be industrial production in a secure institution or food production on a prison farm. In addition, and particularly for the younger offender, there are courses of trade training.

Non-vocational Training — If a prisoner is eventually to be released into the community, then it is important during his period of imprisonment to pay regard to every aspect of his life as a citizen. It is not enough merely to restrict his freedom and to train him to work; he must also be kept or made mentally and morally fit.

An increasing number and variety of evening activities are being introduced into the prisons, and the number of prisoners engaged on them is likewise increasing. Very real training benefit is derived from these activities, whether they be recreational, educational, cultural, individual, or collective.

There are full-time teachers in Auckland Prison and in Invercargill Borstal Institution, and part-time teachers in many other institutions. It is their task to seek to improve the general education of those prisoners who have been unable to reach the level of the present Form II or the old Standard VI, and also to assist those who are undertaking further education or technical courses through a Correspondence School. The interest shown in education is encouraging, since in many cases it fits a prisoner for better employment on his release and thereby helps to reduce the chances of his further offending.

Since 1945, when, as the Country Library Service, it made some provision for the Invercargill Borstal Institution, the National Library Service has year by year increased its assistance to prisons. At the present time all institutions receive at regular intervals a generous supply of well chosen books and, in addition, inmates are permitted a free use of the Library's Request Service.

Earnings — All prisoners are credited with earnings based on a system of marks assessed according to diligence and conduct. The present system has been in operation for several years and is proving beneficial. A portion of the earnings may be spent on tobacco, confectionery, and toilet necessities in a prison canteen, and this provides an incentive to good work and conduct. At the same time the loss of this privilege is a useful disciplinary measure.

Punishments — An inmate charged with one of the less serious offences against discipline appears before the Superintendent, who may impose a penalty or in his discretion refer the case to a Visiting Justice or to the Court. A Visiting Justice may deal with all cases of offences against discipline and must deal with those which are outside the jurisdiction of the Superintendent, unless he thinks they should be brought before the Court. His powers of punishment are wider than those of a Superintendent. The provisions as to offences and punishments are the same for both prisons and borstals.

After care — Offenders serving a sentence of borstal training, corrective training, preventive detention, or imprisonment for 12 months or more are released on probation. For a period of time they must be under the supervision of a Probation Officer, and, during any part of that period falling within the maximum period they could have been detained in an institution, are subject to recall if their behaviour on release is not satisfactory. This period of supervision has a dual purpose — it is the protection of the community against further offending and it is at the same time an aid to the prisoner to re-establish himself. The step from custody to freedom is a difficult one for prisoners, many of whom require assistance, advice, and discipline during this period.

An offender serving a sentence of imprisonment of less than 12 months is on probation after release if the sentencing Court so orders.

Parole Boards — The introduction of types of sentences designed to encourage the rehabilitation of an offender or to protect society against the hardened criminal, rather than merely to inflict punishment for an offence which has been committed, has created the need for a procedure to enable a person serving one of these sentences to be released as soon as he shows that he is fit to be returned to society.

This need is filled by the parole boards which have the responsibility of reviewing the cases of all persons sentenced to borstal training, corrective training, preventive detention, or life imprisonment, and of recommending, or in the case of borstal trainees directing, release on probation at the appropriate time.

There are at present four parole boards; the Prisons Parole Board, which deals with all offenders except those sentenced to borstal training, and three Borstal Parole Boards which between them have jurisdiction over all borstal trainees. Persons serving sentences of imprisonment other than life imprisonment do not normally have their cases considered by aboard but any particular case may be referred to the Prisons Parole Board in special circumstances.

Until 1961 there was only one board, called the Prisons Board in 1910 when it was established, and known as the Parole Board after 1954, when the Criminal Justice Act amended its jurisdiction to conform with the changes then made in the penal law. The provision for separate boards for the review of borstal cases was made by the Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1961.

The Prisons Parole Board consists of a Judge of the Supreme Court as Chairman, the Secretary for Justice, and at least one but not more than five other members, all except the Secretary for Justice being appointed by the Governor-General for three years and being eligible for reappointment.

Each Borstal Parole Board consists of a Magistrate as Chairman, the Secretary for Justice, the superintendent of the borstal institution in respect of which the particular board is appointed, and two residents of the locality in which that institution is situated. All the members except the Secretary for Justice and the superintendent are appointed by the Governor-General for three years and are eligible for reappointment.

Categories of persons whose cases were considered by the Parole Board during each of the latest five years were as follows.

YearBorstal DetentionCorrective TrainingImprisonment or Hard LabourHabitual Criminals or Preventive DetentionPersons on ParoleTotal
1956466254414311815
1957610195362912882
19588172474835111,158
19591,075198406741,384
19607812053797121,132

Of the cases coming before the Board in 1960, there were 390 recommendations made for release on probation and two persons on parole were favourably recommended for discharge.

STATISTICS OF PRISONERS — There are 14 institutions serving as prisons or borstals in New Zealand, and 11 police gaols. Any person serving a sentence of not more than eight days may be detained at any police station, which is deemed to be a prison for that period.

The prison population during the year 1960 is shown in the following table.

 MalesFemalesTotal
Persons in prison at 1 January 19601,657891,746
Receptions during the year (including multiple receptions of the same person, but excluding transfers)5,0262745,300
Discharges during the year (including multiple discharges of the same person, but excluding transfers)4,9522665,218
Persons in prison at 31 December 19601,731971,828
Daily average number of prisoners1,744961,840

Not all prisoners received were actually persons undergoing sentence on conviction for criminal offences. In 1960, 247 debtors were released after being detained or imprisoned for non-payment of debt following a Court order, 26 were classed as mental defectives and transferred to mental hospitals, while 1,502 persons were not returned to prison after release for hearing of the charge, being acquitted, fined, placed on probation, etc.

The following table analyses the ages and offences of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1960.

Age, in YearsOffences Against the PersonBurglary, Theft, and FraudConversion, Wilful Damage, etc.Vagrancy and DrunkennessOther OffencesTotal
Sexual OffencesAssaultsOther
Under 212348830510815163670
21 and under 25373972246339142551
25 and under 30232871653247135437
30 and under 403642923922134204686
40 and under 50301481077107153426
50 and under 601945728961232
60 and over7138251155
Totals175172461,1052344568693,057
Maoris (included above)5354103039882179779

The next table gives particulars of ages and length of sentence of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1960.

Age, in YearsLength of Sentence
Under 1 Month1 Month and Under 3 Months3 Months and Under 12 Months1 Year and Under 3 Years3 Years and Under 5 YearsOver 5 YearsOtherTotal

* Sentenced to death but commuted to life imprisonment.

Under 2168152583435611*670
21 and under 259616214094563551
25 and under 3011110911167363437
30 and under 4019215920991314686
40 and under 5011811413738712426
50 and under 607762602562232
60 and over16201233155
Totals678778727352495261*3,057

Of the total of distinct persons received into prison in 1960 no less than 75.1 per cent had been convicted for an offence on at least one previous occasion, and 32.7 per cent of these had been convicted more than six times.

The number of prisoners received to undergo sentence (imposed during the year) for criminal offences was 3,506 in 1960, but, deducting multiple receptions of the same prisoner, the number of distinct persons was 3,057 (2,940 males and 117 females). The corresponding figures for 1959 were 3,375, of which 2,955 were distinct persons (2,843 males and 112 females).

An analysis is given below of distinct persons received into prison according to nature of sentence imposed in 1958, 1959, and 1960.

Nature of Sentence195819591960
Imprisonment2,6482,5822,631
Corrective training645458
Borstal training330304350
Preventive detention131317
Death121
Totals3,0562,9553,057

The next table shows the number of persons in prison at 31 December in each of the latest 11 years.

At 31 DecemberPersons in JailProportion per 10,000 of Population as at 31 December
Undergoing SentenceOn Remand and Awaiting Trial, etc.TotalUndergoing SentenceTotal in Confinement
19501,043401,0835.415.62
19511,040361,0765.285.46
19521,083301,1135.355.50
19531,088271,1155.245.37
19541,196271,2235.655.77
19551,117371,1545.165.33
19561,362411,4036.176.35
19571,469441,5136.496.69
19581,636591,6957.067.32
19591,702441,7467.297.48
19601,770581,8287.457.69

The number of distinct persons received into prison under sentence of imprisonment during the latest 11 years, with the proportion per 10,000 of mean population, is given in the next table.

YearNumberPer 10,000 of Mean Population
19502,08010.90
19511,97510.14
19522,26811.36
19532,35411.49
19542,40411.48
19552,53111.83
19562,88613.22
19573,03713.60
19583,05613.37
19592,95512.83
19603,05712.86

POLICE — The Police in New Zealand are maintained wholly by the General Government. The law relating to the establishment and regulation of the Police is contained in the Police Act 1958, which consolidated and amended the Police Force Act 1947.

Organisation and Duties — A Commissioner and an Assistant Commissioner, with headquarters at Wellington, subject to the directions of the Minister of Police, have the general superintendence and control of the Police. New Zealand is divided into 15 districts, each under the charge of a Chief Superintendent, Superintendent, or Chief Inspector of Police, who is responsible for the maintenance of good order and the proper execution of police duty therein. Districts are divided into sub districts under the charge of Chief Inspectors, Inspectors, senior sergeants, sergeants, or constables, and cities and towns, where regular beat duty is performed, are divided into beats, patrolled by constables under the supervision of sergeants, and supplemented by mobile patrols.

In addition to the enforcement of the criminal law and the provisions of the Police Offences and the Official Secrets Acts, there are several statutes of a regulatory nature which the members of the Police are called upon to administer, wholly or partly, such as the Arms Act, Licensing Act, Gaming Act, Dangerous Drugs Act, Transport Act, Pawnbrokers Act, Secondhand Dealers Act, etc. They also undertake certain types of inquiries and other duties on behalf of other Departments of the Government Service.

Police in country districts in some cases hold such additional appointments as Registrars and Bailiffs of Magistrates' Courts, Probation Officers, Inspectors of Sea Fishing, and Kauri-gum Rangers.

Recruiting — In general, male recruits for the Police must be between the ages of 19 and 35 years, be not less than 5 ft 8 1/2 in. in height, and female recruits must be between the ages of 23 and 33 years, with a height of not less than 5 ft 5 in. Recruits must be the holders of a School Certificate or possess educational qualifications of equal or higher standard or alternatively pass a departmental pre-entry test. They must be of British nationality, of good character, smart, active, intelligent, and be passed as medically fit. The selection of recruits is made after exhaustive inquiries into the character, antecedents, and qualifications of the applicants. On appointment they undergo a three months' course of training at the Police Training School, Trentham, where they are drilled and receive comprehensive training in their powers and responsibilities as police officers, fitting them to deal with the situations which may be faced on duty.

Appointments to vacancies in the higher ranks are made from those members of the next lower rank who have qualified by examination, efficiency, and seniority for such promotion.

Members who show an aptitude for detective duty and detailed for service in the Criminal Investigation Branch, which is attached to each district headquarters and undertakes the investigation and detection of the more serious crimes.

Strength — The effective strength of the Police on 31 March 1961 was 2,471, there being an increase of 18 during the year. The total was made up as follows: Commissioner, Assistant Commissioner, 3 Chief Superintendents, 6 Superintendents, 19 Chief Inspectors, 29 Inspectors, 1 Temporary Inspector, 91 senior sergeants, 263 sergeants, 8 acting sergeants, 12 temporary sergeants, 1,996 constables, and 41 policewomen. In addition to the above, there were also 69 police cadets, 51 police surgeons, 5 matrons, and 1 district constable.

Women Police — At 31 March 1961 the women police consisted of 1 sergeant and 40 policewomen and these were stationed at Auckland, Hamilton, Napier, New Plymouth, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, Timaru, Dunedin, and Invercargill. Their duties are mainly the investigation of complaints in respect of women and children, and patrol duties in uniform. Some policewomen are employed in the Criminal Investigation Branch.

Chapter 9. Section 9 DEFENCE AND REHABILITATION

9 A — DEFENCE

CONTROL AND COORDINATION OF DEFENCE — In New Zealand control and coordination of defence activities are obtained through the Defence Council, the appointment of a Minister of Defence in charge of the three Services, and through a series of inter-service committees. Coordination is facilitated by the presence in the Prime Minister's Department of a Defence Secretariat serving the main policy-forming committees and performing some of the functions which in other countries are handled by Departments of Defence.

Defence Council — The Defence Council consists of the Prime Minister, the Minister of Defence, and other Ministers concerned with various aspects of national security. The Chiefs of the Naval, General, and Air Staffs, and the Secretaries of the Treasury and of External Affairs, attend meetings of the council in a consultative capacity. The purpose of the council is to keep defence policy and organisation constantly under review, including questions of cooperation on defence with other countries of the British Commonwealth and military questions arising as a result of New Zealand membership of the United Nations.

Chiefs of Staff Committee — The Chiefs of Staff Committee, comprising the Chiefs of the Naval, General, and Air Staffs, is responsible for advising the Government on defence policy and strategic questions. It is served by several inter-service committees dealing with various subjects such as strategic and operational plans, intelligence, and communications.

Principal Personnel Officers' Committee — This committee comprises the senior personnel officers of the three Services. This committee is responsible for personnel matters such as manpower, conditions of service (including pay), medical services, education, and welfare.

Principal Administrative Officers' Committee — This committee consists of the senior supply officers of the three Services and a Treasury representative. Their sphere of responsibility covers matters such as supply and maintenance, quartering, transportation, works, munitions, and equipment. This and the preceding committee are served by subordinate committees responsible for administrative planning, and in various specialist fields such as medical, recruiting, and the design and provisioning of clothing and other stores.

Cooperation With Other Countries — In order that contact might be maintained with other countries, New Zealand joint service liaison staffs are maintained in London, Canberra, and Washington. A New Zealand military liaison staff is located with the Commissioner for New Zealand in Singapore and is accredited also to the High Commissioner for New Zealand in Malaya. The head and deputy head of the New Zealand Joint Services Liaison Mission in Washington are accredited to the Canadian service authorities as military, naval, and air advisers to the High Commissioner for New Zealand in Ottawa. In 1957 a New Zealand military liaison officer was appointed to the Commonwealth Liaison Mission in Korea. The United Kingdom and Australia have service representatives in Wellington attached to the offices of their respective High Commissioners, and there are military attachés on the staff of the United States Embassy in Wellington.

Industrial War Potential — Planning in respect of the demands which, in war or on the threat of war, the services would make on industry is the task of the Joint War Production Committee, on which is represented the Departments of Industries and Commerce, Scientific and Industrial Research, and the Services.

Defence Science — Defence science activities in New Zealand are guided by an executive committee, comprising the Chiefs of Staff and the Secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, known as the Defence Science Policy Committee.

The Defence Science Policy Committee is served by appropriate technical subcommittees of service and scientific composition. It is aided by the Defence Science Advisory Committee consisting of non-Government scientists and experts. The Policy Committee with its supporting groups is known as the Defence Research Organisation.

Defence science activities are coordinated with Commonwealth requirements through the Commonwealth Advisory Committee on Defence Science or by direct negotiation with other Commonwealth Governments.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY FOR THE ARMED SERVICES — The principal statutes governing the armed services are as follows: Army, the New Zealand Army Act 1950 and its amendments, the Military Manoeuvres Act 1915; Navy, the Navy Act 1954 and its amendments, the Naval Discipline Act (U.K.), the Naval and Victualling Stores Act 1908; and Air Force, the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act 1950 and its amendments.

Two other Acts of general application, are the National Military Service Act 1961 and the Courts-Martial Appeals Act 1953. The latter provides for the establishment of a special Court of Appeal for the Navy, Army, and Air Force, to which persons convicted by a court martial may appeal against conviction.

The Court is to consist of an uneven number of Judges (not fewer than three), of whom one is a Judge of the Supreme Court and the others either Judges, barristers, or former Judges of the Supreme Court.

The Courts Martial Appeal Court is empowered to allow an appeal if it thinks that the finding of the court martial is unreasonable, or cannot be supported having regard to the evidence, or involves a wrong decision on a question of law, or that on any other ground there was a miscarriage of justice. The Court may dismiss any appeal if it considers that no substantial miscarriage of justice has actually occurred. When the Court allows an appeal it may direct either an acquittal or a new trial.

The Court may also substitute what it regards as another lawful conviction for the conviction appealed from, and it is empowered to substitute when necessary an appropriate sentence for the sentence of the court martial without increasing the sentence.

The decision of the Court on any appeal is to be final unless the Attorney-General grants a certificate that a point of law of exceptional public importance is involved, and that another appeal is desirable in the public interest, in which case it may be made to the Court of Appeal.

National Military Service Act 1961 — This Act, which repealed the National Service Registration Act 1958, follows very closely the lines of the Military Training Act 1949. The Minister of Labour may, by notice in the Gazette, require the registration of all male British subjects who are in a specified age group between 18 and 21 years. These persons may then be called upon to serve in the Army for (a) a period of whole-time service in camp not exceeding 14 weeks; (b) three years' part-time service during which training may be required for a total of 60 days; (c) three years in the Reserve.

In December 1961 youths born between 1 July 1941 and 30 June 1942 were required to register.

STRENGTH OF DEFENCE SERVICES — The following table gives the strengths of the regular forces of the three services together with any emergency force over the latest 11 years:

As at 31 MarchNavyArmyAir ForceTotal
19512,6694,4023,50010,571
19522,5255,9953,98512,505
19532,8236,5584,62414,005
19542,9155,9704,69113,576
19552,8094,5714,76312,143
19562,8324,3804,70111,913
19572,9263,9074,79011,623
19582,9984,4004,76912,167
19593,0074,2304,54711,784
19602,9195,3424,51012,771
19612,8534,9054,39012,148

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND NAVY — The Government in New Zealand has since the earliest days made provision for naval forces in its defence measures. Royal Naval vessels regularly visited New Zealand waters, but these were soon supplemented by a number of Government-owned vessels, the first of which was the Australia, a schooner purchased from India in 1842. In addition, in 1877 the New Zealand Government began regular financial contributions towards maintaining Royal Naval ships in New Zealand waters.

A Naval Defence Act was passed in 1913 to provide for the maintenance of a sea-going naval force and a training centre under the immediate control of the New Zealand Government. Unfortunately the First World War intervened, but in 1921 this policy was implemented and the naval forces became the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy. In 1941 these forces became the Royal New Zealand Navy.

Command and Administration — The command and administration of the Royal New Zealand Navy is carried out by the Naval Board. The Naval Board consists of the Chairman (the Minister of Defence), Chief of the Naval Staff and First Naval Member (a Rear Admiral), Second Naval Member and Member for Personnel (a Commodore), Third Naval Member and Member for Supply and Material (a Commodore), and Navy Secretary and Member for Finance (a senior public servant).

Role of the Royal New Zealand Navy — Through the collective defence arrangements made by New Zealand, e.g., under UN, SEATO, and ANZUS agreements, and within the Commonwealth, the Royal New Zealand Navy provides forces capable of integrating with the navies of friendly nations, These forces are also planned to provide a measure of defence for the home territories should the need arise.

One ship is permanently attached to the Commonwealth Far East Strategic Reserve and others could reinforce it at short notice. The normal peacetime duties are many and varied, and include flag-showing cruises to foreign ports and around New Zealand and its island territories; support for New Zealand Antarctic interests, surveying, fishery protection, and servicing weather stations. These are in addition to training both active service personnel and reserves for their wartime tasks.

State of the Navy — Her Majesty's New Zealand ships are at present:

* In reserve.

CruiserRoyalist}At least one cruiser or frigate is maintained on the Far East Station if required. The remaining ships in commission are normally employed within the New Zealand Naval Station.
Frigates (Whitby Class)Otago Taranaki
FrigatesRotoiti
 Pukaki
 Kartiere*
 Hawea*
Survey shipLachlan 
Ocean minesweepersStawell* 
 Kiama* 
 Inverell* 
 Echuca* 
Anti-submarine mine-sweeping vesselKiwi* 
Fleet auxiliaryTuiNaval and oceanographic research.
Motor launchesTwelveFishery protection. Training. Survey work. Harbour duties. RNZNVR Divisions.

Shore Establishments — Navy Office, Wellington, is the office of the New Zealand Naval Board and its associated naval and administrative staffs.

The Naval Base at Devonport, Auckland, consists of the office of the Commodore, Auckland, HMNZS Philomel (the naval barracks and training establishment), the Royal New Zealand Naval Hospital, and Dockyard.

The Dockyard (administered by a Captain Superintendent) includes the Naval Store Depot and is capable of refitting ships up to light cruisers.

HMNZS Tamaki is the new entry training establishment for the Navy and is situated at Motuihe Island, Auckland. HMNZS Irirangi is the wireless station for the New Zealand Naval Station and is situated at Waiouru in the centre of the North Island.

Personnel — Entry into the Royal New Zealand Navy is open to young men through the following channels:

BoysAges 15 years 3 months to 16 years 3 months.
Artificer apprenticesAges 15 years to 17 years 6 months.
YouthsAges 16 years 3 months to 17 years 6 months.
Adult entriesAges 17 years 6 months to 25 years (28 years for tradesmen).

With the exception of the artificer apprentices who carry out their initial training in Philomel before proceeding to the United Kingdom for trade training, all new entries receive their basic training in Tamaki. Technical and specialist training is, as far as possible, carried out in New Zealand, but where no facilities exist, ratings attend courses in naval establishments in Australia and the United Kingdom.

There are also two schemes for direct entry as officer cadets. Candidates between the ages of 15 years 6 months and 16 years 6 months are eligible for selection as cadet midshipmen; these cadets carry out three years' training at the Royal Australian Naval College, Jervis Bay, New South Wales, before proceeding to the United Kingdom for specialist technical training. To cater for the older age group, young men between the ages of 17 years 8 months and 19 years are eligible for selection as special entry cadets; these cadets proceed direct to the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, for a period of up to two and a half years. On leaving Dartmouth, officers of both types of entry undergo specialist training as acting sub-lieutenants for periods varying from 18 months to three years, after which they take appointments as trained officers in the Royal New Zealand Navy.

Suitable ratings who qualify educationally and professionally are eligible for promotion to officer rank, dependent on age and experience.

Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service — The Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service was first formed in 1942 as a wartime service. In 1949 the WRNZNS became a permanent part of the Royal New Zealand Navy. Employment of members of the WRNZNS is varied and includes duties as cooks, stewards, writers, shorthand typists, chart correctors, motor-transport drivers, and teleprinter operators. These duties are supplemented or amended as necessary to meet the requirements of the Navy.

Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve — There is a division of the Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve in each of the four main centres — Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. When the Military Training Act 1949 was introduced these divisions accepted the responsibility for training the Navy's compulsory naval reservists. In all they trained 1,992 men before it was decided in 1957 to cease compulsory training for the Navy. The divisions then reverted to their former purely volunteer role.

Strength of the Navy — The strength of the Navy as at 31 July 1961 is shown below:

 OfficersRatingsTotal
Regular Forces (including WRNZNS)2992,5392,838
Active reserves   
    Royal New Zealand Naval Reserve1212
    Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve118338456
Total (reserves)130338468
Inactive reserves   
    Royal New Zealand Naval Fleet Reserve1,4091,409
    Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Supplementary Reserve309309
    Royal New Zealand Naval Emergency Reserve536536
    Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Emergency Reserve1919
    Retired officers and pensioners253154407
    Compulsory naval reservists21,2301,232
    Royal Naval Volunteer Supplementary Reserve2121
    Royal Naval Special Reserve (National Service)55
Totals (inactive reserves)5853,3533,938

Naval Expenditure — During the year ended 31 March 1961 the sum of £9,194,763 was expended on the Royal New Zealand Navy. Of this sum £4,480,800 was expended from vote “Navy”, £4,378,201 from the Defence Fund, and the sum of £335,762 from vote “Defence Construction and Maintenance — Subdivision III — Navy”. The total expenditure for the previous financial year was £8,442,378.

THE ARMY — The New Zealand Army is raised, maintained, and organised under the authority of the New Zealand Army Act 1950.

The Army consists of the Regular Force, the Territorial Force, the Army Reserve, the Cadet Corps, and military forces raised in time of war or other like emergency.

The New Zealand Army comprises the following Corps:

Royal Regiment of New Zealand Artillery.

Royal New Zealand Armoured Corps.

Corps of Royal New Zealand Engineers.

Royal New Zealand Corps of Signals.

Royal New Zealand Infantry Corps.

New Zealand Special Air Service.

Royal New Zealand Army Service Corps.

Royal New Zealand Army Medical Corps.

Royal New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps.

Corps of Royal New Zealand Electrical and Mechanical Engineers.

Royal New Zealand Dental Corps.

Royal New Zealand Chaplains Department.

New Zealand Army Pay Corps.

New Zealand Army Legal Service.

Royal New Zealand Provost Corps.

New Zealand Army Education Corps.

Royal New Zealand Nursing Corps.

New Zealand Women's Royal Army Corps.

New Zealand Cadet Corps.

The New Zealand Army Act as far as possible places the officers and soldiers of the Regular and Territorial Forces on the same footing.

Command and Organisation — The Army Board consists of-

The Minister of Defence, as President; The Chief of the General Staff (First Military Member); The Adjutant-General (Second Military Member); The Quartermaster-General (Third Military Member); The Army Secretary; and a Territorial Officer (Associate Member).

The board is charged with the administration and, through the officers appointed for that purpose, the command of the Army.

The Army in peace is so organised, trained, and equipped that, in the event of war, it can undertake rapidly and efficiently the tasks which will fall to it.

The Army consists basically of:

  1. A static Regular Force.

  2. An operational Regular Formation.

  3. A Territorial Force.

The Static Regular Force — The static Regular Force commands, trains, and equips the Army as a whole, including the provision of cadres for the Territorial Force. The establishment of the static force is approximately 3,250 all ranks, assisted by service units of the operational Regular Formation.

The Operational Regular Formation — The operational Regular Force is designed to provide the major portion of an infantry brigade group prepared for overseas service. A battalion of this formation is deployed with the British Commonwealth Far East Strategic Reserve. In addition this formation assists in the training of the Territorial Force and the Cadet Corps. It is organised on standard British lines with a total establishment of 3,000 all ranks.

The Territorial Force — The Territorial Force is designed to provide additional formations should additional forces be required. It will also provide reserves of trained officers, N.C.O.s, and men as necessary to place the Army on a war footing.

The Territorial Force is organised as three brigade groups at reduced establishment. Its volunteer strength as at 30 September 1961 was 7,354 all ranks. The Review of Defence Policy 1961 provides for the Territorial Force to be brought up to its planned strength of 10,000 by selective National Service Scheme to commence in 1962.

In time of war or other like emergency the Governor-General may, by Proclamation, transfer the Army Reserve or any specified portion thereof to the Regular Force or to the Territorial Force, and declare the Territorial Force liable for continuous service within New Zealand or overseas during the continuance of such state of war or emergency.

The New Zealand Army Act also empowers the Governor-General to accept the offer of any officers or soldiers of the Territorial Force or the Army Reserve or of any other persons to render themselves liable, or to enlist in the Army, as the case may be, for service within or outside New Zealand.

Conditions of Service — Regular Force: All officers and soldiers of the Regular Force are liable for service within New Zealand and, with the exception of minors and the Home Service Section, overseas.

Enlistment in the Regular Force, which is voluntary, is until retiring age for officers, with provision for special short-term engagements, and for soldiers of the General Service Section as follows:

Men: Eight years, of which three, four, or five may be served on the Active List and the balance on the reserve. Re-engagement may be for a period to complete five, eight, or 12 years' service on the Active List or until retiring age. Reserve service after re-engagement will be for three years or until retiring age, whichever is the sooner.

Women: Three years, with re-engagement for one, two or three years or until retiring age.

TrainingRegular Force: Except in the case of special entries and Quartermaster officers commissioned from the ranks all Regular officers are commissioned on graduation from the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, England, the Royal Military College, Duntroon, Australia, or from the Officer Cadet School, Portsea, Australia.

Post-graduate and specialist training is received either in New Zealand or at overseas training establishments. Candidates for Staff College must pass the same entrance examinations as British Regular officers except for military law, and administration and morale, upon which candidates are examined by Army Headquarters, Wellington.

Promotion of long-service Regular officers to lieutenant, captain, and major is normally gained after two, six, and seven years' service respectively in the previous rank, provided that the prescribed promotion courses and examinations are passed and the officer is recommended for promotion to the next higher rank.

Regular soldiers are trained at the Army Schools, Corps Depots, and in Regular units in New Zealand. In certain cases special training is received at overseas training establishments. Before promotion, qualification is required at a unit test for corporal, a district course for sergeant, written examinations set and marked by Army Headquarters for staff sergeant, and a course at Army Schools for warrant officer.

Territorial Force — Officers and soldiers are required to carry out annually a minimum of 20 days' training to be classified as efficient. Of this training a minimum of 14 days must be annual camp training. In addition to this part-time training obligation, selective National Servicemen will be required to carry out a period of full-time training at the commencement of their service.

The maximum number of days annual part-time training, including attendance at courses, for which officers and soldiers can receive pay is: (a) commanding officers of units, 60 days; (b) other officers, 50 days; (c) non-commissioned officers, 50 days; and (d) privates, 40 days.

Before promotion to captain and major, officers are required to qualify at prescribed promotion courses and examinations, and before promotion to lieutenant-colonel at a promotion course.

Training EstablishmentsThe Army Schools: Headquarters, The Army Schools, commands and administers a group of Army schools situated at the one centre, which provide courses for all ranks of the Regular Force as well as for officers and specialist non-commissioned officers of the Territorial Force and New Zealand Cadet Corps.

The group consists of the Tactical School, Regular Force Depot, School of Army Administration, School of Artillery, Armoured School, School of Signals, School of Infantry, Royal New Zealand Army Service Corps School, Royal New Zealand Electrical and Mechanical Engineering School, the Regular Force Cadet Unit, and the Regular Force Cadet School.

The Regular Force Depot provides basic recruit and instructor courses for all arms of the Regular Force, including Regular Force Cadets.

The Regular Force Cadet School provides academic training for cadets between the ages of 16 and 18 years. Trade training of cadets is carried out at the appropriate corps school or depot.

Other training establishments, the School of Military Engineering, Medical Corps Depot, and the Army Ordnance School are situated apart from the central Army School organisation but fulfil similar functions. In addition, each military district from time to time holds courses for Territorial officers and soldiers, and for personnel of the New Zealand Cadet Corps.

New Zealand Army in Malaya — In accordance with New Zealand's undertaking to make a contribution to the British Commonwealth Strategic Reserve in Malaya, a small formation headquarters and an infantry battalion at lower establishment totalling 750 all ranks, are at present serving in South-East Asia. It is policy to change the battalion in Malaya at two-yearly intervals, the most recent change being at the end of 1961. Personnel of the formation headquarters are changed on an individual basis. The First Battalion, New Zealand Regiment, relieved the Second Battalion, New Zealand Regiment, in Malaya in November 1961.

New Zealand Cadet Corps — There are 192 secondary schools with Army cadet units. These units are designated by the name of the school. Service is voluntary and annual training approximates 30 hours. All units are basically infantry, but provision is made in the larger units for such specialist activities as Artillery Troops and Signal Platoons. All units can take part in certain Empire shooting competitions and have had marked success in this respect. The Earl Roberts trophy is currently held by the St. Andrew's College Cadet Unit, Christchurch. Courses for officers and non-commissioned officers are held at district training camps, and units may hold barracks annually.

Rifle Clubs and Associations — All rifle clubs and associations (including the parent body, the National Rifle Association of New Zealand) must be formally recognised by the Army Board. There are 103 rifle clubs and 18 rifle associations and sub associations in New Zealand.

The planning, construction, and maintenance of rifle ranges, and safety precautions to be observed in conducting rifle practices and competitions, are governed by orders issued by the Army Board.

Army Expenditure — The following table shows Army expenditure for the financial years 1959–60 and 1960–61.

 1959–601960–61
 £(000)£(000)
Vote: Army6,5857,269
Vote: Defence Construction and Maintenance1,0331,004
Defence Fund1,8752,025
 9,49310,298

Strength of the Army — The strength of the Army as at 30 September 1961 was as follows.

 OfficersSoldiersTotal
Regular Force (including force in Malaya, women, and personnel seconded from the British and Australian Armies)5704,8505,420
Territorial Force (Active)9446,4107,354
Reserve of Officers (Regimental List)154154
Reserve of Officers (General List)956956
Class A Reserve (Territorial Force)48,72748,727
Class B Reserve (Regular Force)829829

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND AIR FORCE — The Royal New Zealand Air Force had its inception in the New Zealand Permanent Air Force and the New Zealand Air Force (Territorial), established as part of the defence forces of the country in 1923. Permission to change the name of the NZPAF to Royal New Zealand Air Force was granted by His Majesty King George V in 1934. By the Air Force Act 1937, the RNZAF was constituted as a separate armed service, and its administration was vested in the newly formed Air Department. Until 1951 the administration of Air Force law was in accordance with RAF practice, but with the coming into force that year of the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act 1950 the provisions of the RAF code ceased to apply.

Command and Organisation — The force is raised, maintained, and organised under the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act 1950 and the amending Acts of 1954 and 1959, and consists of —

  1. The Regular Air Force.

  2. The Territorial Air Force.

  3. The Air Force Reserve.

  4. The Women's Royal New Zealand Air Force.

  5. The Air Training Corps.

It is administered by the Air Board, which consists of the Minister of Defence, as President; the Chief of the Air Staff; the Air Member for Personnel; the Air Member for Supply; the Assistant Chief of the Air Staff; and the Air Secretary, who is also the permanent head of the Air Department.

Command of the RNZAF is exercised by the Air Officer Commanding, who also holds the appointment of Chief of the Air Staff. RNZAF Headquarters is located in Wellington. There are seven stations in New Zealand, including Headquarters Unit, and one in Fiji. A small headquarters is established in London and liaison staffs are in Washington and Melbourne. Two squadrons are serving with the Far East Air Force in Singapore.

Role — The role of the RNZAF is to provide forces for the defence of New Zealand and her island and trust territories, for the defence of sea and air communications, and for deployment overseas as necessary to support the United Nations and to meet obligations to, and defence arrangements with, the Commonwealth and allied countries. In order to meet these commitments the RNZAF is organised to provide an operational force immediately available in an emergency. In addition, the RNZAF provides support for the search and rescue organisation in New Zealand and the South Pacific area.

Administration: Regular Air Force — Candidates for commissions in the General Duties Branch are drawn mainly from civil life and appointed to short-service commissions. Permanent commissions in the General Duties Branch are granted to limited numbers of men who are selected for training at the RAF and RAAF colleges at Cranwell and Point Cook respectively, and also to selected officers serving on short-service commissions.

Candidates for commissions in branches other than General Duties are drawn largely from the ranks. Some, with higher educational and specialist qualifications, are commissioned on joining the service. Commissions are either permanent or short-service; the latter carry an obligation for service with the Air Force Reserve.

Retiring ages for officers holding permanent commissions in the General Duties Branch are: squadron leader and below, 45 years; wing commander, 48 years; group captain and above, 53 years; while those for other branches are 49, 51, and 53 years respectively.

Service for airmen in the Regular Air Force is mainly through initial engagements of up to eight years on the active list, according to trade, with a reserve liability of four years in each case. Twelve-year engagements are granted to men who are selected for apprentice training. This training was formerly carried out at the RAF apprentice schools at Halton and Locking, but from 1960 has been provided by the RAAF apprentice schools at Wagga, New South Wales, and Canterbury, Victoria. Opportunities exist for re-engagement. To qualify for superannuation, it is necessary to complete a minimum period of 20 years' service before attaining the age of 55 years. For women, the initial term of service is normally for three years with no reserve obligation. Opportunities exist for re-engagement, and airwomen may qualify for superannuation.

Non-regular Air Force — The non-regular forces of the RNZAF consist of:

(a) The Territorial Air Force, (b) the Active Reserve, and (c) the General Reserve.

The Territorial Air Force is manned in specialist branches only. Some members serve full time, some train annually. The Active Reserve is manned by personnel who either have reserve obligations following service in the Regular Air Force, or who volunteer subsequent to the expiry of those obligations. They have an annual training liability. The General Reserve has no training obligation in time of peace.

The Air Training Corps provides a valuable source of recruits for the Regular Air Force and fosters airmindedness throughout the youth of New Zealand. Annual flying scholarships provide training at the Central Flying School for selected cadets.

Recruitment — Recruiting is effected through three area recruiting offices located at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, and through the Air Training Corps Office in Dunedin.

Operational Units — Operational units comprise a light bomber squadron and a medium-range transport squadron serving with the RAF in Singapore, a maritime squadron stationed in Fiji, a long-range transport squadron at Whenuapai, and a light bomber squadron based at Ohakea. These squadrons are supported by operational conversion units and a transport support unit.

Training Establishments:Flying Training — The training of all aircrew is undertaken at the Flying Training School at Wigram.

Ground Training — Boy entrants undergo an educational, general service, and basic training course for 12 months at the Boy Entrant School, Woodbourne. During this period boy entrants enlisted in non-technical trades are trained to specialist level, while those enlisted in technical trades complete training to a basic engineering level. All other recruits, both airmen and airwomen, receive initial general-service training at Wigram. Airmen technical recruits then go to No. 1 T.T.S., Hobsonville, for basic engineering training and graduate to No. 2 T.T.S., Wigram; No. 4 T.T.S., Woodbourne, or to the Photographic Training School, Ohakea, for specialist trade training. Recruits in administrative trades receive their trade training at No. 3 T.T.S., Wigram. After a period of employment on units, ranging from 12 months to two years, airmen and airwomen are given further training to an advanced level. The training of N.C.O.S, provosts, and general service instructors is conducted at General Service Training School, Wigram.

Officer Training — Officer training, other than that carried out by aircrew trainees as part of the F.T.S. course, is given at the Command and Staff School, Whenuapai, which embraces initial, intermediate, and staff college training.

Strength of the Air Force — The strength of the RNZAF at 31 March 1961 was —

Regular Air Force4,143
WRNZAF247
Territorial Air Force120
Active Reserve1,077
General Reserve7,400

Air Force Expenditure — The total expenditure of the Air Force for the year ended 31 March 1961 was £8,922,494. The comparable figure for 1959–60 was £10,068,690.

ARMED FORCES OVERSEAS — A brief summary of forces raised and employed overseas in the post-war period 1945–55 with the British Commonwealth Occupation in Japan, on service with the United Nations forces in Korea, and on garrison duties in Cyprus is given in the 1959 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

Malaya — The Prime Minister announced in early 1955 that it was intended to recruit an Army Special Air Service Squadron for jungle warfare in Malaya. This squadron left New Zealand in November 1955 and, after completing jungle and parachute training in the theatre, joined its parent unit early in 1956 in an operational role. Towards the end of 1957 this squadron was replaced by an infantry battalion. The New Zealand Unit is in addition to the Royal New Zealand Air Force contribution comprising No. 75 Bomber Squadron (which replaced No. 14 Squadron in 1958) and No. 41 Transport Squadron, together with occasional training visits by maritime reconnaissance aircraft. The Royal New Zealand Navy continues to maintain a frigate or a cruiser in the area.

STRENGTHS OF THE ARMED SERVICES IN WAR: South African War — Approximately 6,500 troops from New Zealand served in the South African War.

First World War, 1914–18 — A total of 124,211 persons (including 91,941 volunteers) were called up for overseas and home service prior to 12 November 1918. Of these 100,444 proceeded overseas. This total comprised 98,950 troops serving with the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces in the European, Mediterranean, or Samoan areas; 550 nurses; and 944 others (including 211 British Army reservists, 541 naval personnel, and 192 Royal Flying Corps personnel). In addition, it was known that 3,370 (not included above) left New Zealand and enlisted in British and Australian forces, while others (exact numbers unknown) are known to have joined Canadian and South African forces.

At Armistice date in November 1918 New Zealand had over 56,000 troops overseas, and a further 10,000 were ready to embark or in training.

The troops provided for overseas service represented nearly 10 per cent of the total population of New Zealand in 1914 and over 40 per cent of the male population between the ages of 20 and 45 years. These percentages do not take into account New Zealanders who served in the British or Australian naval or military forces.

Second World War, 1939–45 — Approximately 60,000 men volunteered for service in the New Zealand forces in the Second World War before conscription was introduced in July 1940.

The net intake of men to the armed forces — i.e., exclusive of transfers between the services and of re-entries — was 194,000, equivalent to 67 per cent of the male population between the ages of 18 and 45 years. In addition, approximately 10,000 women served in the forces.

A total of 104,988 Army personnel served overseas with the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force, and, of these, 99,343 (97,893 males and 1,450 females) left New Zealand on or before 15 August 1945, and 5,645 (5,491 males and 154 females) left New Zealand on or after 16 August 1945. (Some detailed tables are given on pages 269–271 of the 1956 issue of the Yearbook.)

The following table shows the approximate strength of each of the services from the outbreak of war in September 1939 at yearly intervals until August 1945, when hostilities ceased. The figures at July 1942 are also shown, as that month marked the peak for mobilisation, there being 151,073 men in the armed forces at that time, representing approximately 43 per cent of the male population of military age.

As at 31 MarchNavyArmyAir ForceAll ServicesTotalFemale Personnel (Included in Previous Columns)
In New ZealandOverseas
1939 (September)1,32018,0001,48620,39241420,806
19401,79129,3003,80827,6287,27134,89918
19413,57975,14810,21354,99733,94388,940202
19425,605109,38918,22882,20151,021133,2222,356
1942 (July)6,110124,77323,666104,49050,059154,5493,476
19437,657104,08733,77782,74062,781145,5217,302
194410,01872,66241,59555,03969,236124,2757,942
194510,41246,69835,00442,73149,38392,1145,609
1945 (August)10,46640,94231,57836,96246,02482,9864,632

The establishment of the Emergency Reserve Corps in August 1940, consisting of (1) the Home Guard, (2) the Emergency Precautions Services, and (3) the Women's War Service Auxiliary, provided for the effective utilisation of civilian personnel in the case of emergency. The Home Guard, which was constituted a part of the defence forces on 30 July 1941, reached its peak in April 1943 with a total strength of 124,194 men, while the total numbers involved in the Emergency Precautions Services at one stage reached 150,000. The New Zealand Naval Auxiliary Patrol Service commenced operations in December 1941, and attained its maximum strength of 463 ratings in August 1942. None of these figures is included in the table given.

CASUALTIES ON ACTIVE SERVICE — The following table gives particulars of casualties suffered on active service by members of the armed forces in the wars, etc., listed. For the Second World War the figures shown for Navy and Air Force include New Zealand personnel serving with the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force respectively. Deaths and injuries due to accidental causes while on active service are included in the figures of deaths and wounded respectively. The number shown as “missing” refers to the number so classified at the end of the period quoted.

 Deaths (Including Died as Prisoner of War)Wounded and InjuredPrisoners of WarWounded and Taken Prisoner of WarInternedMissingTotal

* At 4 August 1919 this total comprised 16,688 deaths, 41,315 wounded, and 1 missing.

South African War, 1899–1902228166-394
First World War, 1914–18 (up to 12 November 1918)       
    1 N.Z.E.F.16,30241,2623568458,004*
    Samoa22
    Nurses1313
Totals16,31741,2623568458,019
Second World War, 1939–45 (up to 31 December 1946)       
    Navy573170543800
    Army6,79315,3246,6441,2194630,026
    Air Force4,14925552032234,979
    Mercantile Marine110123233
Totals11,62515,7497,2181,2511494636,038
Jayforce (up to December 1948)1111
Korea (up to December 1954) —       
    Navy213
    Army37801118
Totals39811121
Malaya (up to September 1960)—       
    Army102131
    Air Force527
Totals152338

SUMMARY OF WARTIME ACTIVITIES OF ARMED FORCES — A condensed account of the wartime activities of the three armed services was given in the 1958 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

9 B — REHABILITATION

ADMINISTRATION — The Rehabilitation Act 1941 and its amendments made provision for the re-establishment in civil life of discharged servicemen, and an extensive programme was promoted by the Rehabilitation Board, the National Rehabilitation Council, and the Rehabilitation Department. Under the Emergency Forces Rehabilitation Act 1953 regulations have been made for the rehabilitation and protection of servicemen and dependants of servicemen who served overseas in connection with any emergency under the United Nations Charter or otherwise.

The Rehabilitation Board determines the nature and extent of the assistance that may be granted to any class of servicemen, and approves the granting of such assistance.

The board has the assistance of District Rehabilitation Committees, which keep in touch with discharged servicemen and act in an advisory capacity concerning rehabilitation matters in their respective districts. The number of committees at 31 March 1961 was nine.

On 1 April 1954 the Rehabilitation Department ceased to function as a separate Department and became a division of the Department of Internal Affairs, in the form of a board secretariat with regional representation at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch. From 1 January 1960 the Rehabilitation Division became part of the Social Security Department.

Rehabilitation Assistance — With the reduction in demand for rehabilitation benefits, the provision of initial rehabilitation assistance has been substantially completed in all fields except land settlement and housing, and decisions terminating the availability of various forms of assistance in so far as they apply to ex-servicemen of the Second World War have been made from time to time.

No time limits have been fixed in respect of the availability of any rehabilitation assistance for (a) children of deceased and totally incapacitated ex-servicemen, or (b) ex-servicemen whose rehabilitation may at any time be retarded or interrupted or become necessary from war disability. Appropriate forms of assistance for these groups will continue under such terms and conditions as may be considered appropriate by the Rehabilitation Board from time to time.

Ex-servicemen eligible under the Emergency Forces Rehabilitation Regulations, who require farm training or settlement, preferential allocation of a State rental house, educational or trade training assistance, or tools-of-trade loan are required to make their applications within 12 months of the date of their discharge from the emergency forces, or their return to New Zealand, whichever is the earlier. For housing and furniture loans and loans for establishment in business no time limit has been fixed in the meantime.

Special provisions exist to ensure that rehabilitation assistance will continue to be available to all ex-servicemen whose rehabilitation may at any time be interrupted or become necessary as a result of disability arising from service with emergency forces.

TRADE TRAINING — The “B” class scheme of training provides for contracts between employers and trainees and the board for engagement and training over suitable periods in the employer's own workshop. The wages are subsidised by the board at a gradually decreasing amount as the training progresses and the trainee's skill and productive value increases. With the closing down of the “A” class training centres, “B” class facilities are available to ex-servicemen not affected by time limits who wish to learn a skilled trade.

Certain trades such as boot repairing, watchmaking, jewellery manufacturing, etc., are particularly suited to the needs of disabled men, and, so far as is reasonably possible, training in such vocations is reserved for ex-servicemen suffering from major disabilities.

During the year ended 31 March 1961 “B” class training was completed by two ex-servicemen, and 9 were under training. The total trained under this scheme at 31 March 1961 was 4,312.

Arrangements similar to those in regard to trade training have been made for the training of ex-servicemen with suitable educational background as clerical workers, and in a number of professions such as law, accountancy, surveying, architecture, and journalism.

The “C” class training scheme caters for the resumption of apprenticeships interrupted by service.

DISABLED SERVICEMEN — Apart from the board's general forms of assistance which are available to these men, special training assistance continues to be provided on behalf of the board by the Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League and the Blinded Servicemen's Trust Board.

The league provides training in trades particularly suited to seriously disabled men, and the Rehabilitation Board is prepared to subsidise wages of any such disabled men whose disabilities make institutional treatment necessary or preferable to training within industry. This assistance is valuable for the ex-serviceman whose disability prevents him from following his normal occupation.

The league also provides employment under sheltered conditions for ex-servicemen whose disabilities make them unemployable in the ordinary industrial life of the community. Here again the Rehabilitation Board is prepared to assist by subsidising wages.

Since the league undertook this work on behalf of the Rehabilitation Board 533 men had completed their training by 31 March 1961. Nine men were receiving training at that date.

The Blinded Servicemen's Trust Board was constituted in 1945 to provide training facilities for the wholly or partially blinded ex-servicemen and to promote their welfare. Many men have attended the training centre, “St. Dunstan's”, for instruction in additional techniques and new methods. The bulk of training has now been accomplished, and the trust board's activity is mainly concentrated on after-care of some 60 men located throughout New Zealand and the coordination of assistance available through State and private channels.

FARM TRAINING AND SETTLEMENT — Provision is made for discharged servicemen from the emergency forces who were engaged continuously in farm employment before service. Eligible applicants are classified according to their ability.

Grade “A”: Experienced men qualified for immediate settlement on farms of their own.

Grade “B”: Partly experienced men in need of further training to fit them to take up and manage farms of their own.

Grade “C”: Inexperienced men considered suitable for training with the intention that they should ultimately be established on farms of their own.

Grade “D”: Not suitable for farm training or settlement.

The grading of applicants is the responsibility of Land Settlement Committees established under the Land Act 1948 and comprising the Commissioner of Crown Lands as Chairman and experienced private farmers and representatives of the State Advances Corporation or the Department of Maori Affairs. Twenty of these committees operate throughout the country.

The following table shows the number of ex-servicemen settled and the number of ex-servicemen graded “A” awaiting settlement as at 31 March 1961.

Class of SettlementNumber
Settled on single units by Rehabilitation Loans Committee8,727
Settled on land settlement blocks by Rehabilitation Loans Committee3,221
Settled on land settlement blocks, financial adjustments yet to be made231
Settled on single units and blocks through Maori Rehabilitation Finance Committee177
Settled without rehabilitation assistance on freehold, Crown, and private leasehold1,067
Maori ex-servicemen assisted by Department of Maori Affairs under Maori Land89
Total settled13,512
Number of “A” grade ex-servicemen awaiting settlement312

The area of land acquired for the settlement of ex-servicemen up to 31 March 1961 was 2,559,833 acres. This area does not include particulars relating to those who have purchased established farms on their own account with rehabilitation assistance. Further particulars are contained in Section 10B. Particulars of financial assistance will be found under a later heading.

EDUCATION — Educational facilities are provided by the Rehabilitation Board for ex-servicemen in the way of bursaries, payment of fees, book allowance, etc.

It should be noted that these forms of assistance are granted in relation to career training only and not for purely cultural studies. In deciding the type of bursary and the period for which assistance will be granted, factors such as interruption to study through service, length and type of service in the armed forces, relation to pre-service career, and prospects upon qualification and suitability for the particular course of study, are all taken into account.

During the year ended 31 March 1961 assistance was given to 17 ex-servicemen. Facilities had been granted in 54,427 cases up to 31 March 1961.

Education and Career Assistance to Children of Deceased or Totally Incapacitated Servicemen — In conjunction with the War Pensions Office, the Rehabilitation Board is also concerned with the education of the children of deceased servicemen whose deaths have been the result of war injuries, and of the children of ex-servicemen who through war disability are totally incapacitated for work. The responsibility for the education of these children through the primary and post-primary school stages is undertaken by the War Pensions Office. Assistance for education and career training after post-primary schooling is completed may be granted by the Rehabilitation Board, the assistance taking the form of tuition and examination fees and a contribution towards the cost of books. Where full-time study is approved, a subsistence allowance is payable, varying from £3 15s. per week to £5 5s. per week at the age of 21 years, with married male bursars being granted the same rate as ex-servicemen.

So that due encouragement is given to any children wishing to train for a worth-while trade or career the board will, where necessary, consider a payment to bring their wages up to £5 net per week where required to live away from home or £3 15s. per week when living at home. Those 21 years of age and over, whether living at or away from home while engaged in career occupations not covered by apprenticeships, may be considered for a grant sufficient to bring their net wages up to £5 10s. per week.

FINANCIAL — The following is a summary of loan limits and net interest rates applicable to the various types of loan granted by the Rehabilitation Board.

Type of LoanMaximum AmountRate of Interest

* Above these limits it is normal to ask this ex-serviceman to contribute on a pound-for-pound basis and, more recently, and in suitable cases, to ask for less than the pound-for-pound contribution.

† This limit applies with up to two children. The limit increases with the number of children to a maximum of £2,650 where there are five or more.

 £Per Cent
(a) Tools of trade50Free
(b) Furniture100Free
(c) Business5004
(d) Farms  
    Going concerns —  
      Dairy5,000*3
      Sheep6,250*3
    Stock and plant only —  
      Dairy1,5004
      Sheep or mixed2,5004
(e) Houses—  
    New2,5003
    Existing1,8003

In the case of business, farm, and housing loans the interest rate for the first year is reduced to 2 per cent per annum. Supplementary and suspensory interest-free loans are available in the case of housing loans in appropriate cases. Both classes of loan are on a percentage basis. Supplementary loans, which are interest free and repayable only in the event of the sale of the security, amount to 5 per cent of the reasonable cost with a maximum of £100 in the case of new houses, and for existing dwellings are 5 per cent of the approved value with a maximum of £90. Suspensory loans, also interest free, relate to new houses only and are cancelled after a period of seven years provided the owner fulfils the required occupancy conditions. They are limited to 10 per cent of the approved cost with a maximum of £200.

Interest-free loans have also been made available in a number of farm loans, and the Land Amendment Act 1950 extended the suspensory loan principle to cases where ex-servicemen are settled, under the Rehabilitation Act, on Crown land after 1 November 1950. The suspensory loan in such cases is for an amount not exceeding the difference between the 1942 value and the current market value. Such a loan will not be enforceable as long as the purchaser resides personally on the land and farms it for his own use and benefit and fulfils the conditions of any prior mortgage to the Crown or to the State Advances Corporation. Provided the purchaser fulfils these conditions the loan is discharged at the end of 10 years. These suspensory loans were introduced consequent upon the passing of the Servicemen's Settlement Act 1950, which provided that the value of land for the purposes of that Act was to be the current market value instead of the 1942 value.

Particulars of the various classes of loan authorised during the year ended 31 March 1961, and the totals to 31 March 1961, are as follows.

Class of LoanYear Ended 31 March 1961Totals to 31 March 1961
NumberAmountNumberAmount
  £ £
Purchase of farms, etc.751,258,40911,94873,611,472
Housing1,5653,569,33461,11392,002,181
Tools of trade1,48248,964
Furniture11611,43063,7515,979,541
Business22,21611,5257,531,227
Miscellaneous670132,057
Totals1,7584,841,389150,489179,305,442

Business Assistance for Ex-servicemen — In addition to the loan facilities available to assist ex-servicemen in purchasing existing businesses, or in establishing new businesses, special assistance has been given to ex-servicemen requiring licences for licensed industries and trades, and also in obtaining stock, plant, and equipment which may be in short supply or subject to control.

There had been 11,525 loans totalling £7,531,227 granted up to 31 March 1961. Of these two for £2,216 were granted in the latest year.

Housing — Assistance in this connection consists of a certain priority in the allocation of State rental houses, and provision of finance for the erection of new, and the purchase of existing dwellings.

The number of loan authorisations for the erection of new homes during the year ended 31 March 1961 was 1,033, making a total of 29,424 to 31 March 1961.

Loans for the purchase of existing dwellings were authorised in 532 cases in 1960–61, while the total up to the end of that period was 31,689.

Rehabilitation expenditure (including loan authorisations) for the year ended 31 March 1961, together with the totals to 31 March 1961, was as follows.

ItemTo 31 March 1960 From OutsetYear Ended 31 March 1961To 31 March 1961 From Outset
Educational facilities, including books, tuition fees, and subsistence allowance£ 1,785,911£ 13,306£ 1,799,217
Trade training —   
    Grants and loans to Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League341,60613,613355,219
    Land and buildings for trade-training schemes, Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League, etc.288,147288,147
    Private firms and Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League (includes subsidies to employers and separation allowances)1,585,0185,4321,590,450
    Trade-training centres operated by Rehabilitation Board5,860,2645,860,264
    Training of blinded ex-servicemen118,3633,100121,463
    Other expenditure234,724234,724
    8,428,12222,1458,450,267
Farm training and settlement (excluding loans) —   
    Farm training485,700485,700
    Pure of lands for settlement, development, and other expenses in connection therewith (excluding £26,010,042 recovered from Rehabilitation Loans Committee and shown under “Loans”)36,466,0591,371,52437,837,583
    36,951,7591,371,52438,323,283
Loans—   
    Interest concessions9,373,8471,232,00010,605,847
    Loans authorised (Maori Rehabilitation Finance Committee)3,088,476203,8063,292,282
    Loans authorised (Rehabilitation Loans Committee)174,463,8424,841,600179,305,442
    Reserve Fund contributions2,334,15754,8972,389,054
    Small Farms Act leases; losses and interest concessions55,327 55,327
    Suspensory loans (Maori Rehabilitation Finance Committee)134,4687,692142,160
    Suspensory loans (Rehabilitation Loans Committee)4,913,500116,8205,030,320
    Earthquake damage insurance633633
    194,364,2506,456,815200,821,065
Grants —   
    Rehabilitation allowances431,885431,885
    Special grants (including supplementary wage grants to children)108,08649108,135
    Special grants to Returned Services' Associations68,01145068,461
    Travelling expenses of ex-servicemen, including fares, furniture removals, and loss of earnings42,66942,669
    650,651499651,150
Other items9,7099,709
Totals242,190,4027,864,289250,054,691

MAORI REHABILITATION — The following table gives particulars of assistance afforded to Maori ex-servicemen up to 31 March 1961. Maoris are entitled to the same assistance under the same general conditions as Europeans, although special measures have been provided to meet their particular needs.

At 31 March 1961, 5,352 Maori ex-servicemen had been demobilised, of whom 3,951 had served overseas.

Type of AssistanceNumber of Ex-servicemenAmount Authorised
Loans- £
    Farm2281,441,592
    Housing1,3862,331,299
    Furniture1,544151,621
    Business243106,983
    Tools of trade632,053
    Miscellaneous628,212
Totals, loans3,5264,041,760
Educational assistance155
Trade training £
    “A” class673...
    “B” class66...
    “C” class8...
    “D” class72...
    “F” class3...
Total, trade training822...
Farm training277...
Total number assisted4,780...

In addition, 89 ex-servicemen have been settled on farms under the Maori Land Amendment Act 1936 and 35 ex-servicemen have received housing assistance under the Maori Housing Act 1935.

DEMOBILISATION — Demobilisations as recorded by the Rehabilitation Division total, to date, 216,715.

Chapter 10. Section 10 LAND TENURE, SETTLEMENT, VALUATION, ETC.

10 A — GENERAL

OCCUPATION OF LAND — The total area of New Zealand, excluding the island territories comprising Cook and associated islands and Tokelau Islands, but inclusive of the minor islands since these form parts of land districts, is 66,390,700 acres. Of this total, 44,018,897 acres were assessed in 1960 as being in occupation, including reserves and Maori lands leased, but excluding areas within borough boundaries, holdings of less than 10 acres in extent, and Maori land held on the communal system.

The number of holdings and percentages of total holdings in occupation, grouped according to size, as returned in each of the years 1946, 1949, 1952, and 1957 are given below. For these years statistics were collected for areas under 10 acres.

Area, in AcresNumber of HoldingsPercentage of Total
19461949195219571946194919521957
1 and under 1011,38011,46312,36311,76513.2013.1613.6913.90
10 and under 5014,01413,61113,71610,39616.2515.6315.1912.29
50 and under 10012,81212,96213,46011,93214.8614.8914.9114.10
100 and under 20016,69917,25018,10417,94919.3619.8120.0521.22
200 and under 3209,86210,08410,30810,28911.4411.5811.4212.16
320 and under 64010,39210,65311,08311,18412.0512.2312.2713.22
640 and under 1,0004,1544,2154,3824,3574.824.844.855.15
1,000 and under 5,0005,8825,8275,8665,7456.826.696.506.79
5,000 and under 10,0005565385355310.640.620.590.63
10,000 and under 20,0002872782762610.330.320.310.31
20,000 and under 50,0001451441431410.170.170.160.17
50,000 and over565152540.060.060.060.06
Totals86,23987,07690,28884,604100.00100.00100.00100.00

Although approximately 40 per cent of holdings in 1957 were less than 100 acres in extent, the total area of such holdings represented only a little under 3 per cent of the occupied land of New Zealand. A further 21 per cent of the holdings ranged between 100 and 200 acres, but the aggregate area of these amounted to less than 6 per cent of the total. At the other end of the scale it was found that 65 per cent of the occupied land was held in areas of 1,000 acres and upwards, although the number of such holdings was only a little under 8 per cent of the total. Holdings of 5,000 acres and upwards, of which there were 987 in 1957, accounted for 39 per cent of the total area of occupied land.

The total acreage of holdings in each group is given in the following table.

Area of Holdings, in Acres1946194919521957
acres
1 and under 1052,93853,05356,40150,871
10 and under 50356,797344,548346,400265,188
50 and under 100936,146949,958989,287882,805
100 and under 2002,338,3152,417,3422,536,2302,521,234
200 and under 3202,468,8172,527,4012,584,8762,579,161
320 and under 6404,697,2904,823,0685,011,0735,061,457
640 and under 1,0003,302,2243,349,9843,470,2573,452,809
1,000 and under 5,00011,498,50711,377,53911,367,37011,125,375
5,000 and under 10,0003,793,5913,661,1383,670,1823,592,587
10,000 and under 20,0004,012,3853,891,5863,870,9483,704,443
20,000 and under 50,0004,408,2094,457,0354,404,0014,326,151
50,000 and over5,214,7894,864,8474,912,6384,989,284
Totals43,080,00842,717,49943,219,70342,551,365

The following additional details not normally obtained in the annual farm production survey were collected under the special census of agriculture in 1950:

Holdings at 31 January 1950NumberPercentage of Total
Occupied by Maoris4,7055.21
Worked on share system2,6782.97
Lying entirely idle and unused2,3392.59

A classification of all holdings in 1950 according to the status of the occupier showed the following position:

Holdings at 31 January 1950NumberPercentage of Total
Status of occupier —  
Owner55,08861.01
    Lessee17,84419.77
    Manager2,5322.80
    Partner1,2421.38
    Shareworker2,3032.55
    Part owner, part lessee11,28112.49
Totals90,290100.00

Condition of Occupied Land — The land in occupation in New Zealand at 31 January 1960 was classified according to condition and use as follows.

 AcresPercentage of Total

* Includes areas also sown with grasses and clovers.

In principal cereal crops and crops for threshing*362,9800.82
In green, root, and other crops*806,3371.83
In fallow126,0220.29
In sown grasses and clovers  
    Cut for hay, seed, or silage1,142,8722.60
    Not cut for hay, seed, or silage17,200,63639.08
In orchards30,6750.07
In private gardens and grounds, etc.88,8940.20
In plantations944,0652.14
Total area in cultivation20,702,48147.03
Unimproved land23,316,41652.97
Total area in occupation44,018,897100.00

Information collected in 1960 in conjunction with the World Census of Agriculture showed that 36 per cent of the total area in occupation was stated as being capable of cultivation by ploughs or discs.

Land in cultivation (under crop and in pasture) forms the subject matter of Section 14 — Farming. An indication of the condition and geographical distribution of unimproved land is afforded by the following table, which relates to the position at 31 January 1960.

Land DistrictPhormium (New Zealand Flax)Tussock and Naturally Established Native GrassesFern, Scrub, and Second GrowthStanding Native BushBarren and Unproductive LandTotal, Unimproved Occupied Land
acres
North Auckland3,575107,539871,412263,17795,0231,340,726
South Auckland1,71762,3221,299,029687,679107,2062,157,953
Gisborne65116,171310,830178,13629,368634,570
Hawke's Bay55286,719341,21269,53842,198739,722
Taranaki614,295150,328193,13617,863365,683
Wellington7,923589,474672,635290,726126,6721,687,430
North Island13,3961,166,5203,645,4461,682,392418,3306,926,084
Marlborough5,8331,407,022278,281112,482225,5662,029,189
Nelson2,089200,676380,029190,72341,938815,455
Westland4,32343,758207,166214,841126,146596,234
Canterbury4,8973,931,458242,723113,033539,7954,831,906
Otago2,0315,054,486614,061250,702439,0496,360,329
Southland6,9561,231,629303,981147,45267,2011,757,219
South Island26,13411,869,0292,026,2411,029,2331,439,69516,390,332
New Zealand39,53013,035,5495,671,6872,711,6251,858,02523,316,416

Tenure of Occupied Lands — The area of land in occupation as at 31 January 1960, classified according to tenure, was as follows:

 Acres
Crown land (including leases and licences)18,256,493
Freehold (including all land held on deferred payment)22,335,285
Leased from private individuals (other than Maoris)1,368,505
Leased from public bodies573,121
Leased from Maoris1,485,493
Total occupied area44,018,897

RESERVES, DOMAINS, AND SCENIC RESERVES — These are areas which have been:

  1. Set apart by the Crown.

  2. Purchased by the Crown or by local authorities.

  3. Vested in the Crown or in local authorities by other Acts, such as the Land Subdivision in Counties Act 1946, Municipal Corporations Act 1954, etc.

The legislation governing these areas is the Reserves and Domains Act 1953, which provides for overall policy and management by the Minister of Lands with administration by the Department of Lands and Survey.

As a general rule the control and management of public reserves of a local nature, such as plantations and gravel reserves, are vested in the appropriate local authority, which may then use the area for the particular purpose for which it is set aside.

Day-to-day control of recreation reserves and domains is usually vested in locally elected boards of interested persons or in the local authority. Local interest is thereby sustained and the community encouraged to help itself with the development, control, and management of these areas so that they provide for the recreation needs of the district. There is ample provision in the legislation for sporting clubs and bodies to assist in development and control, with adequate safeguards for the protection of the rights of the general public to use and enjoy these areas. The legislation also allows suitable portions of these reserves to be set aside and developed for camping and similar purposes.

Scenic and historic reserves provide for the preservation of the more outstanding and attractive features of the natural landscape and sites of historic significance.

There is also provision for the creation of private scenic reserves and historic reserves. In these cases the owner retains ownership of the land, but the reservation ensures the conservation of the scenic and historic features. These reservations may be revoked at the owner's pleasure.

Other areas are set aside for the preservation of flora and fauna or as bird sanctuaries, such as those established on Little Barrier Island in the Hauraki Gulf, Cape Kidnappers at the south-eastern point of Hawke's Bay, the white heron colony near Okarito in Westland, and Kapiti Island off Paraparaumu on the south-west coast of the Wellington District.

NATIONAL PARKS — The National Parks Act 1952 codified the law relating to the establishment and control of New Zealand's national parks. Provision was made for the establishment of the National Parks Authority, representative of governmental, scientific, recreational, and cultural interests. The Authority's general functions are to advocate and adopt schemes for the protection of national parks and for their development on a national basis; to recommend the enlargement of existing parks and the setting apart of new areas; and generally control in the national interest the administrative policy affecting all national parks throughout the country.

Local control of individual parks is vested in park boards which are appointed by the Minister of Lands and are representative of users of the parks and those interested in their conservation.

Park boards administer the parks under their control, subject to the general policy and direction of the Authority, so as to secure to the public the fullest proper use and enjoyment of the parks consistent with the preservation of their natural features and the protection and well-being of their native flora and fauna. Boards have power to develop or authorise the development of parts of parks for specific recreation purposes; they may erect or authorise erection of mountain huts or ski tows; may erect or authorise the erection of hostels, accommodation houses, and other buildings and facilities; may develop or authorise the development of camping grounds and may charge or consent to charges for facilities provided. Provision is also made for the setting apart of wilderness areas, where development is restricted to foot tracks to ensure the preservation of the natural state.

At present there are nine national parks in New Zealand, these being (areas in acres in parentheses): Urewera (454,843), Tongariro (161,989), Egmont (81,676), Abel Tasman (43,474), Nelson Lakes (139,835), Arthur's Pass (239,153), Mount Cook (172,979), Westland (210,070), and Fiordland (3,023,069).

SUMMARY OF AREAS RESERVED — The following table of reservations may be of interest, the figures given relating to 31 March 1961.

Type of ReservationNo.Acres
Scenic and historic reserves941664,571
Public domains92960,448
National parks94,527,088
Reserves for preservation of flora and fauna, bird sanctuaries24443,690

WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES — The Wildlife Act 1953 provides for the constitution of wildlife sanctuaries, these being areas devoted primarily as habitat areas for wildlife where the maximum degree of protection can be afforded. Restrictions are imposed on entry into the sanctuaries and certain prohibitions dealing with killing or disturbance of wildlife are imposed. The former game sanctuaries are now termed wildlife refuges. Occupiers of any land in wildlife refuges can be authorised to carry out certain operations necessary for the normal use of land.

REGISTRATION OF LAND OWNERS — Practically all title to privately owned land and interests in land in New Zealand is held under the land transfer system administered under the Land Transfer Act 1952. This system was introduced into New Zealand by the Land Transfer Act 1870. While that Act retained some of the provisions and innovations of the Land Transfer Act 1860 which it repealed and superseded, it was largely based on the revolutionary Torrens system of registration of title devised for South Australia.

Under this land transfer system, which with certain modifications has operated in New Zealand since 1870, the title to land is not secured or effected by the mere execution of deeds or documents. Registration of a valid title is the fundamental principle, and it is only by such registration that title to land or any interest therein may pass or be obtained. The District Land Registrar appointed in and for each of the land registration districts is responsible for the registration in his district, and any person named in the register as taking an interest under a registered instrument acquires a practically indefeasible title.

No instrument or dealing may be registered unless it is in accordance with statute or general law or if forbidden by positive law. An increasing number of statutes and regulations expressly impose upon the District Land Registrar the duty and responsibility of ensuring that no instrument is registered or no interests in land are acquired in contravention of the statutory provisions and requirements regulating the aggregation and subdivision of land, the alienation of Crown land, Maori land, or public reserves, the dedication or constitution of roads, streets, and access ways, and many other matters involving Government policy.

The land transfer and deeds systems operated side by side until 1924 when the Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act 1924 was passed. This Act provided for Registrars to bring all the deeds system land in their districts under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act within a period of five years. Defects in title were accounted for by issuing “limited” titles which did not become State guaranteed until the defects had been remedied. In passing this legislation New Zealand moved ahead of all other countries using the Torrens system and is now in the fortunate position of being the only country which has a State-guaranteed system for virtually all of its privately owned land.

The land transfer system has proved so successful and has provided such a reliable record of dealings with land that over the last half century there has been an increasing tendency on the part of local authorities and other statutory bodies to use its facilities to give specific notice of obligations and restrictions attaching to land by virtue of their respective statutes. When national or district schemes of drainage, irrigation, water supply, or sewerage which result in improvement to tend are undertaken today, statutory authority is customarily given to charge part of the cost against the land. These charges are recorded against the titles concerned. While entries of this nature on the register were not envisaged in the original land transfer system they do ensure that a prospective purchaser, by inspection of the Register, can acquaint himself with all matters affecting the property. The land transfer registration system is also used extensively to ensure that other statutory restrictions governing the acquisition and subdivision of land and dealings with land are not contravened.

Special procedures are necessary for the registration of dealings with Crown land and Maori land and these are contained in the Land Act 1948, the Maori Affairs Act 1953, and the various related Acts respectively.

The demand for land for housing development has resulted in adaptations to the system. The normal procedures relating to subdivision title and finance have been streamlined and, as in most forms of substantial purchase today, provision made for payment by instalment. The State-sponsored group building schemes, the Housing Act 1955, and the housing provisions in the Municipal Corporations Act 1954 and the Counties Act 1956 have met this situation. Agreements for sale and purchase and occupation licences are registered today in great numbers in the same way as the traditional forms of dealing with land.

The Joint Family Homes Act which was passed in 1950 provides for settlements of land as “joint family homes” and increasing use is made of this procedure year by year. (See Section 19.)

The table following shows transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act.

Year Ended 31 MarchTown and Suburban PropertiesCountry PropertiesAll Properties: Total Consideration
NumberAreaConsiderationFreeholdTotal Freehold and Leasehold
NumberAreaConsiderationNumberConsideration
  Acres£(000) acres (000)£(000) £(000)£(000)
195149,88014,06361,5377,4191,16216,8868,05817,82379,360
195246,14512,08473,1659,6551,51434,01010,46435,965109,129
195339,32510,00865,4618,2851,34333,0509,05335,241100,702
195443,42710,92575,5038,4421,37136,5969,18838,915114,419
195546,97811,84088,7618,8041,72544,4609,59347,964136,725
195641,37810,36380,6847,1121,23737,3667,72240,256120,940
195738,0669,57875,6146,6771,20536,0897,26839,064114,678
195842,18310,39189,6417,7031,44046,1138,39050,060139,701
195941,85410,28385,2166,7961,07239,6197,29942,400127,616
196045,12510,99994,8667,2041,26344,5767,73047,859142,725
196152,23316,000119,8948,4031,71062,1769,17967,888187,782

Certificates of Title Issued — The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the latest eight years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal
195426,907
195525,356
195624,069
195722,948
195823,590
195925,521
196026,953
196129,337

The numbers of transfers shown in the table relate only to transfers of land on sale, i.e., they do not include transfers of land from trustees to beneficiaries or to new trustees, transfers of mortgages, easements, etc.

As a result of town and suburban properties being exempted from land sales control from 23 February 1950, the number of transactions increased by 50 per cent and the consideration more than doubled in the 1950–51 year. Since 1950–51, small fluctuations have occurred, with the exception of 1952–53 when there was a decrease in number of 6,820 (14.8 per cent) and in amount of £7,704,000 (10–5 per cent), and in 1960–61 when the number increased by 7,108 (15.8 per cent) and the amount by £25,028,000 (26 per cent).

With the introduction of the Servicemen's Settlement Act 1950, which came into force on 1 November 1950, country transfers increased substantially in both number and amount in 1950–51 and again in 1951–52. In subsequent years to 1959–60 country transfers were fairly stable in number and consideration except for temporary upsurges in 1954–55 and 1957–58. In the latest year, 1960–61, the number increased to 9,179, the highest since 1954–55, and the amount increased by 42 per cent to reach a record value of £67,888,000.

As all classes of properties are included, land transfer figures do not give a precise indication of any changes that may take place in property values. In the case of town and suburban properties, however, the numbers involved are probably sufficient to smooth out changes from year to year in the proportions of different classes of property included in the total. The average amount of consideration for town and suburban property, which increased each year for a decade, showed a drop in 1958–59, but increased by £66 in 1959–60 and £193 in 1960–61. The averages were £1,234 in 1950–51, £1,586 in 1951–52, £1,665 in 1952–53, £1,739 in 1953–54, £1,889 in 1954–55, £1,950 in 1955–56, £1,986 in 1956–57, £2,125 in 1957–58, £2,036 in 1958–59, £2,102 in 1959–60, and £2,295 in 1960–61.

Data, covering the latest five years, of average consideration per transaction of town and suburban properties are shown in the next table.

Year Ended 31 MarchUnder £1,000£1,000–£9,999£10,000–£24,999£25,000 and OverTotals
NumberConsiderationAverageNumberConsiderationAverageNumberConsiderationAverageNumberConsiderationAverageNumberConsiderationAverage
  ££ ££ ££ ££ ££
  (000)  (000)  (000)  (000)  (000) 
195716,7277,07742321,00961,2742,9172473,54014,332833,72444,86238,06675,6141,986
195817,5127,77544424,26772,8083,0003034,23213,9661014,82647,78542,18389,6412,125
195918,1318,39146323,36269,9072,9922904,07114,038712,84640,08241,85485,2162,036
196019,5549,66149425,14476,6003,0463454,77913,853823,82546,64845,12594,8662,102
196121,46111,10451730,08994,9523,1565427,63314,0831416,20544,00752,233119,8942,295

The following analysis shows, for 1960–61, transfers of country freehold properties classified by area groups. The average consideration per acre is also given for the two earlier years.

Size Group (Acres)NumberAreaConsiderationConsideration per Acre
1960–611960–611960–611960–611959–601958–59
  acres£(000)£££
Under 303,89124,42712,120496.15398.84377.64
30 and under 5046918,2022,489136.74115.28108.57
50 and under 1001,01272,8597,806107.1491.3282.82
100 and under 15075890,7087,37081.2556.3654.60
150 and under 250752145,9958,32056.9956.3654.60
250 and under 500799279,67710,71038.2934.4733.05
500 and over7221,078,01513,36112.3911.0413.47
Totals8,4031,709,88362,17636.3635.3036.97

Further particulars relating to transfers of country freehold properties are contained in the next table. As indicated previously, very diverse types of property are included in the figures, and the averages should not be taken for more than they purport to show. This is particularly so in the case of country properties, where the number of transactions is comparatively small.

Year Ended 31 MarchAverage Value per TransactionAverage Value per Acre
 ££
19502,3039.69
19512,27614.53
19523,52322.46
19533,98924.61
19544,33526.69
19555,05025.77
19565,25430.21
19575,40529.94
19585,98632.03
19595,83036.97
19606,18835.30
19617,39936.36

Monthly statistics of transfers on sale of land registered under the Land Transfer Act are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

LEGISLATION CONCERNING LAND SETTLEMENT AND SALE OF LAND — Legislation governing this aspect is found in the Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952 and the Marginal Lands Act 1950.

Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952 — This Act has the objectives of providing for the closer settlement of farm land, for the acquisition of farm land that is, or when subdivided and enveloped will be, capable of substantially increased production, and to prevent the undue aggregation of farm land.

The Act prevents, without the consent of the Land Valuation Court or Committee, the purchase of farm land by a trustee for any person under the age of 17 years, or the purchase by a company the members of which are less than 10 in number, and include persons under the age of 17 years or trustees for such persons.

Part I of the Act relates to the taking of farm land for settlement (including a lease or licence of Crown land or a lease of West Coast settlement land) and gives power to the Minister of Lands to do so if he is of the opinion that additional farm land is required for the settlement of landless discharged servicemen and others requiring land on which to establish themselves in farming, and that sufficient land cannot be acquired for that purpose by voluntary negotiation. In such a case, the Minister may, on the recommendation of the Land Settlement Board, take any farm land that is, in his opinion, suitable for settlement, and is, or when subdivided and developed will be, capable of substantially increased production.

Land is not to be taken from any owner unless he owns farm land in fee simple or on lease perpetually renewable or on lease in perpetuity which, in the aggregate, amounts to three or more economic farms or could provide for these by subdivision.

The owner also has the right to retain an area of land which is the equivalent of two economic farms (or which could by subdivision provide these) and also is sufficient to provide a separate economic farm for (a) each child of the owner under 21 years of age at the time, and (b) at the Minister's discretion, for each child of the owner over the age of 21 years who, at the time, is in the Minister's opinion likely to follow farming as a career. In every case the owner shall be entitled if he so desires to retain his homestead.

Objections to the taking of land may be made, and provision is made for the hearing of the objection by the Land Valuation Committee, or the Land Valuation Court, which may allow or disallow it either unconditionally or subject to such conditions as the Court thinks fit.

Provision is also made for the payment of compensation for any land or estate or interest in the land so taken. If the offer of compensation made by the Minister is not accepted the amount of compensation payable will be that prescribed by order of the Land Valuation Court, which shall be final as regards the amount awarded. Another provision deals with compensation in respect of mortgaged lands.

Part II deals with the control of sales and leases of farm land to prevent undue aggregation. The Act applies to sales of freehold farm land, to leases of farm land for terms of three years or more, to sales of the lessees' interest under leases granted under the West Coast Settlement Reserves Act 1892, and to transfers of Crown land which, under section 208 of the Land Act 1924, do not require the consent of the Land Settlement Board, as well as to options for such sales and leases.

The consent of the Land Valuation Court is required to such transactions unless the purchaser or lessee files a declaration with the District Land Registrar within one month of the date of the transaction to the effect that he owns no farm land, has no interest in any estate or trust owning farm land, has not since the passing of the Act transferred any farm land to any person as trustee for any person or created any trust in respect of any farm land, that he has entered into the transaction solely on his own behalf, and intends to reside personally on the land and farm it for his own benefit.

The matters to be considered by the Court or committee in determining whether undue aggregation would result include: (a) whether the form land already owned, leased, held, or occupied in fee simple or under any tenure of more than one year's duration, by the purchaser or lessee, is sufficient to support him, his wife, and any depend children in a reasonable manner and reasonable standard of comfort; (b) whether, having regard to land so held, etc., the acquisition of additional land could, judged by ordinary and reasonable standards, be considered excessive; (c) the nature of the use to which the purchaser proposes to devote the land and his ability to achieve that purpose; (d) whether the acquisition would be in or against the public interest; and (e) whether refusal of consent would result in unavoidable and substantial hardship to the vendor or lessor.

Marginal Lands Act 1950 — The objects of this Act, which came into force from 1 April 1951, are to assist farmers to restore, maintain, and increase production on marginal lands. The administration of the Act is the responsibility of the Minister of Lands and is carried out by the Department of Lands and Survey. Actual control is vested in the Marginal Lands Board. To assist it in the administration of the Act the Board has appointed Marginal Lands Committees in each land district. Each committee consists of three members — the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district, who is chairman, an officer of the Department of Agriculture, and one other person selected from a panel of farmers appointed for each committee. This panel is limited by the Act to five members, who are selected for their experience in the farming or management of marginal lands.

The Board is empowered to make loans for clearing, cultivation, grassing, fencing, drainage, irrigation, buildings, farm machinery, livestock, in fact for any purpose having for its object the successful development and farming of a property regarded as suitable for a loan.

It is the policy of the Board not to compete with existing lending institutions and before it will make an advance the applicant must satisfy the Board that finance cannot be obtained through normal business channels. The Board will not normally provide finance for the improvement of a property unless it is capable of being developed into an economic unit. The policy is to assist competent men to make their holdings economic rather than help farmers already substantially established to bring into production additional land which could be developed from their private resources or out of revenue.

Activity under the Act in the initial period was slow and farmers appeared cautious in availing themselves of the assistance offering, but as the operations and purposes of the Act became more widely known a greater number of applications for advances were received. The scheme has been successful in that the objective of increasing production from marginal country has been achieved. Although there have been a few mortgagors who have not produced the results expected, many farmers on difficult and unattractive properties have, with Marginal Lands Board assistance and with application and energy, established and maintained profitable production. Many have completed their development programmes and as a result have been able to convert their current account mortgages to instalment mortgages, repaying the advances over a term of years, while others have repaid their advances in full.

For the year ended 31 March 1961 the Board granted 78 loans totalling £391,807. In all, from the inception of the marginal lands scheme, 805 loans have been approved, amounting to £3,434,836. The present rates of interest payable on advances are:

Current account first mortgage5 per cent.
Current account second and subsequent mortgages5 1/2 per cent.
Instalment mortgage, first5 1/2 per cent, reducible to 5 per cent.
Instalment mortgage, second and subsequent mortgages6 per cent, reducible to 5 1/2 per cent.

SOIL CONSERVATION AND RIVERS CONTROL — The problem of damage by flooding and soil erosion, and of exhausted soils on hill country, deteriorating pastures, and increasing run-off led to the enactment of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941. This provided for the establishment of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, and catchment boards in problem districts. There are 13 catchment boards and four catchment commissions covering three-quarters of New Zealand.

River Control — New Zealand has a generous and well distributed rainfall exceeding 45 in. over about 70 per cent of the country, and has only a very small area with less than 25 in. In some districts, such as the West Coast of the South Island and the western central plateaus of the North Island, annual rainfall exceeds 100 in., with extremes over 200 in.

The topography and soils over most of the country generally favour high run-off, both on total annual flow and peak flood discharges. There are, however, some areas in the North Island where flood peaks are greatly reduced by porous pumice soils, while on some river systems natural lake storage in headwaters helps to control flooding. Severe storms are likely to occur at any season of the year and extreme falls have been experienced of 12 in. to 20 in. in 24 hours in certain areas. It is therefore not surprising that flood control is a major problem in New Zealand, with total run-off and peak flood discharges being among the highest in the world.

With the passing of the Act and the setting up of catchment boards with their specialist staff, great progress has been made with river control throughout the country. Action has naturally been focussed first on the major river valleys where there has been a history of severe flood damage and where the property owners have been able to meet their share of the cost. Schemes are now in hand, or planned, in the lower reaches of most of the major problem rivers. Schemes range from channel clearing, training, and bank protection, with partial flood protection up to 5–10-year frequency, to complete protection with stopbanks up to floods of 100–year frequency. Such schemes may involve expenditure up to £2,500,000, and subsidies vary generally from £1 for £1 to £3 for £1 or more depending on the capacity of the property owners to meet their share of the cost.

The policy of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council is to encourage soil conservation as complementary to river control. In the case of two large river schemes and several smaller schemes planning has included the whole catchment. As farmers become aware of the benefits of soil conservation work comprehensive planning for other river catchments will follow.

There are many rivers in New Zealand where major control schemes cannot be justified at the present time, but where a great many smaller individual works covering clearing, training works, bank protection, minor stop banking, and the like are being carried out. Such works primarily serve to hold the river in check and prevent serious deterioration until such time as more comprehensive planning can be justified. Type and cost of works have to be related to the financial capacity of the area. Subsidies are generally £2 for £1 but may be up to £3 for £1. Continuity of control and maintenance is of greatest importance in river work and the Council therefore encourages the planning of comprehensive schemes where rating districts are established to ensure the meeting of capital charges and adequate future maintenance.

Most of the major river-control works are carried out by catchment boards, the Waikato Valley Authority, Or river boards, but smaller works are also carried out by Ministry of Works, counties, and drainage boards.

Drainage — The high rainfall and run-off factors indicated above have created drainage problems in many areas, particularly in low-lying sections of valleys where river gradients are flat or in coastal areas. Drainage works are often carried out in conjunction with river-control schemes and include floodgates and pumping stations. Particularly in the North Island, there are large areas of peat swamps that pose a special problem of development because of shrinkage and necessity for water level control. These areas have been largely held and developed by the Lands and Survey Department.

Drainage work is generally more straightforward with quicker returns, and subsidies rarely exceed £1 for £1. Only community drains giving benefit to more than one owner qualify for subsidy. Drain maintenance is also subsidised to encourage a higher standard of maintenance, the subsidy usually being £1 for £2.

Drainage works are carried out primarily through catchment boards, Waikato Valley Authority, and a large number of drainage boards, but are also carried out by the Ministry of Works on behalf of the Lands and Survey Department and by counties. It is emphasised that drainage works must be properly coordinated with river works.

Soil Conservation — Soil erosion and flooding problems have their origin on the hill-country pastoral lands, especially where farming has forced grass to take over the protective functions of vigorous native forest, scrub, fern, and swamp vegetation. The changes in the vegetation brought about by developing farm resources have been reflected in drastic changes in the soil in the hill country. The protective, stabilising, and water-controlling combination of vigorous native vegetation, litter, and spongy soil has given way to a shallow-rooted, less protective carpet of grass on compacted, impervious, and often exhausted soils. The problem is one of restoring an erosion-resistant and water-absorbent combination of soil and vegetation with a satisfactory capacity to control water, which causes most soil erosion. Successful techniques which have been developed include spelling, control of burning and of animal pests, oversowing, topdressing, strict grazing control, the wider use of cattle, subdivisional fencing, stock water ponds, gully-control contour ploughing, terraces, grassed waterways, and spaced and close tree planting for stability.

To assist farmers directly to tackle their own problems subsidies are made on farmers' contributions. These are from £1 for £1 to £2 for £1 on tree planting for stability and wind breaks, materials for conservation fencing, contouring, or flood-control dams, and on gully-control planting and structures.

Land Capability and Catchment Control — Experience has proved that the American system of land classification for soil conservation purposes is very satisfactory. In this system an inventory is made of the physical factors of slope, soil type, climate, and soil erosion. Along with a knowledge of vegetation and farming experience a land capability map is prepared classifying the land into classes according to the way in which the land in each class can be used. The required soil conservation practices are also determined for each class.

From this basic classification of the land in a catchment more detailed surveys of individual farms provide the data necessary for detailed conservation farming plans. These plans are then discussed with the farmer and fitted into his capacity for implementing them over a period of years. Great care is taken to support the necessary special soil conservation practices with accepted good farm management practices. The conservation treatment and farm management practice can then be dovetailed with the river control and drainage plans for the lower catchment to provide the ultimate plan for catchment control. Allied operations of importance are soil conservation forestry, fire prevention, and animal pest destruction.

Plans have now been developed in this country to integrate farming practices with the physical limitations of the land in order to assure permanent production consistent with stability and permanence of the land and conservation of the rain that falls.

Agricultural Aviation — The Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council has an advisory committee on agricultural aviation, which since 1949–50 has sponsored new developments in aviation for conservation purposes. The promotion of aerial topdressing, aerial oversowing with grasses and clovers, dropping of fencing materials, and spreading of rabbit poison is enabling millions of acres of denuded and eroded high country to receive conservation treatment progressively. These aerial aids to farming, coupled with the wider adoption of provident management practices on the land, provide a practical soil conservation approach with great potentialities on the dominantly hilly problem lands.

Staffing and Finance — The Ministry of Works and Department of Agriculture provide the technical and administrative services required by the Council. The Council and the catchment boards have built up a team of specialist engineers and soil conservators, which ensures that investigations, planning, supervision, and execution of works are carried out to high standards.

An administrative rate of up to 1/12 d. in the pound on capital value over the district provides for the services of catchment boards, but special rates struck on a classification according to the benefit accruing provide the local contribution for actual works. In 1961 the appropriation for soil conservation and rivers control work was £1,700,000.

Works Completed — Soil conservation works completed in the period from 1952 to 1961 have included the planting of 4,433,000 trees, the terracing and grading of 377 miles of banks, and the erection of 449 miles of conservation fencing.

River and drainage works completed from 1948 to 1961 have included 3,946 miles of newly dug or reconstructed drains; 2,214 miles of river channel cleared; 137 miles of river diversion cuts; 730 miles of stopbanks erected; and 1,240 miles of banks protected.

The Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council has sponsored information services by way of publications, movie films, show displays, and radio broadcasts.

10 B — CROWN LAND

ADMINISTRATION — Crown land is administered under the authority of the Land Act 1948. The Minister of Lands is charged with the administration of the Land Act, and his executive officer is the Director-General of Lands, who is the Permanent Head of the Department of Lands and Survey.

New Zealand is divided into 12 land districts, the executive officer for each district being a Commissioner of Crown Lands. There is a central authority entitled the Land Settlement Board. This board consists of the Minister of Lands (Chairman), the Director-General of Lands (Deputy Chairman), the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture, the Valuer-General, a representative of the State Advances Corporation, the Director of Rehabilitation, the Assistant Director-General of Lands, the Fields Director of the Department of Lands and Survey, a representative of the New Zealand Returned Services' Association, and not more than two other persons to be appointed by the Governor-General.

The duties of the board are broadly defined in the Act as follows:

It shall be the duty of the board to carry out the provisions of this Act for the administration, management, development, alienation, settlement, protection, and care of Crown land; and to carry out all negotiations for the purchase of land by the Crown under this Act, and the performance and completion of all contracts of purchase so entered into by the Crown.

The Land Settlement Board is required to appoint one or more Land Settlement Committees for each land district, and 20 of these committees have been set up. Each committee consists of three members, including the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district as chairman. The board may also appoint as an associate member of any committee any person who in the opinion of the board possesses expert knowledge of advantage to the committee in the execution of its functions. The functions of these committees are not expressly set out in the Act, but the board has wide powers of delegating to committees any of its functions.

METHODS OF ACQUIRING CROWN LAND — Crown land is normally offered to the public at valuation and if necessary a ballot is conducted to decide the successful applicant, although in certain circumstances preferential allotment can be made. Any urban or commercial or industrial land may be offered for disposal by tender at a minimum price or rental value or by public auction at an upset price. Every applicant must be of the age of 17 years or upwards, and must apply for Crown land solely for his own use or benefit. Two or more persons may make application to purchase or take on lease or licence as joint tenants or tenants in common.

Crown land may be acquired on the following tenures:

  1. Farm land, urban land, commercial or industrial land-(a) On renewable lease; (b) for cash; (c) on deferred payments. A renewable lease is for a term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term and, except where otherwise provided for, with a right of acquiring the fee simple. The board may, however, determine that any specified land may be taken on renewable lease only, but without the right of acquiring the fee simple. The board may also determine that any specified commercial or industrial land may be taken on lease only, but without the right of acquiring the fee simple, for any term with or without a right of renewal, but so that the aggregate term, including renewals (if any), does not exceed 50 years.

  2. Pastoral land — (a) On pastoral lease for a term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term, but with no right of acquiring the fee simple; (b) on pastoral occupation licence for a term not exceeding 21 years, with no right of renewal or of acquiring the fee simple.

  3. Short tenancies for grazing or other purposes for a term not exceeding five years.

In some cases a holder of a lease or licence is required to effect within a certain specified period such improvements as the board determines. In most cases the lessee or licensee of any farm or pastoral land is required to commence to reside on the land within one year after the date of his licence.

SELECTIONS — The following table shows details of the various freehold selections during the year 1960–61, together with totals for 1959–60.

FreeholdNumber of SelectorsTotal Area SelectedPurchase Price
Crown lands- acres£
    Farm land26923,60288,127
    Urban land633273312,524
    Commercial or industrial land6137151,142
    Land freeholded: Land Subdivision in Counties Act361115,084
Totals, 1960–6199923,923566,877.
Totals, 1959–607716,221307,553

Corresponding details concerning selections made under leasehold tenures are given for similar periods.

Leases and LicencesNumber of SelectorsTotal Area SelectedAnnual RentalAnnual Instalments

* Areas and rentals not shown; licences on royalty basis only.

Crown lands-
    Renewable leases — acres££
      Farm8445,73610,931156
      Urban107233,687
    Pastoral leases210,789535
    Pastoral occupation licences394,766490
Deferred-payment licences-
      Farm6816,1566,587
      Urban1,20826051,281
      Commercial or industrial6051813,969
      Land Subdivision in Counties Act118288,128
    Special leases under section 67, Land Act258,04615,033
    Special leases under section 165, Land Act*34
    Special lease under section 166, Land Act*11
    Grazing and other tenancies, section 68 Land Act1,89890,38991,776
Totals3,608266,711122,45380,121
Endowment lands —
    Westport Harbour Board endowments128422
    Leases under section 169, Land Act3319
    Leases under section 48, Land Act541,8903,752
    Sundry endowment tenures22146136
Grand totals, 1960–613,699268,862126,37280,121
Grand totals, 1959–604,235282,751119,13490,114

LEASES AND LICENCES CURRENT AT 31 MARCH 1961 — The following table shows the total number of leases and licences current at 31 March 1961. This table is in two parts, the first (a), dealing with leases and licences issued under the Land Act 1948, and the second (b), with those issued under Acts other than the Land Act 1948 and still current at 31 March 1961.

TenureNumberAreaAnnual RentAnnual Instalment (Including Improvement Loading)

* Areas and rents not shown; licences on royalty basis only.

(a) Tenures Under the Land Act 1948
Crown lands —
  Renewable leases— acres££
    Farm4,7222,510,191419,51110,660
    Urban2,80894153,695424
    Commercial or industrial8017015,354136
Pastoral leases4036,500,44678,3501,545
Pastoral occupation licences47319,5102,927
Deferred-payment licences—
    Farm1,296464,445141,906
    Urban9,1322,303402,671
    Commercial or industrial3052,51275,979
Land Subdivision in Counties Act92121740,516
Special leases (section 67, Land Act)—
  Renewable —
    Farm16348,4315,075795
    Urban120341,202160
    Commercial or industrial153,8797,640228
Non-renewable —
    Farm5313,4033,454117
    Urban1412121
    Commercial or industrial108733,255
Licences for removal of minerals*197
Flax leases81,24699415
Communal grazing licences290636655
Miscellaneous licences4,885435,897106,237
Totals, Crown lands25,18110,304,630727,286675,607
Endowment lands —
  Leases under section 169, Land Act262,844428
  Leases under section 43, Land Act26216,56820,310
  Leases under section 47, Land Act887392
  Sundry tenures130219,2056,381
Totals, tenures under Land Act 194825,60710,543,334754,797675,607
(b) Tenures Under Acts Other Titan the Land Act 1948
Crown lands— acres££
   Renewable leases5,1481,467,440166,8942,933
   Leases under section 5, Discharged Soldiers' Settlement Amendment Act 1921–22236,2861,269
   Special tenure leases383140,34817,450241
   Leases in perpetuity6,4041,305,058153,08348
   Perpetual leases273,809170
   Mining district land occupation leases83817163
   Pastoral regulation licences (mining districts)569,521287
   Small grazing-run leases113358,38111,252
   Pastoral-run licences1431,580,90315,005
   Education reserves: Public Bodies' Leases Act31428,8824,93533
   Deferred-payment licences673150,28728,099
   Miscellaneous licences86536,7745,548
   Small farm leases2655785
Leases under Education Lands Act—
     Leases12923,4329,702189
     Temporary tenancies147732
Agreements sale and purchase —
     Waikato Land Settlement Scheme3494560
   Hanmer Crown leases501495
   Sundry leases3015710347
   Totals, Crown lands14,4845,111,167386,77332,150
Endowment lands —
     Westport Harbour Board Endowment57211,3592,829
     Thermal Springs licences5731242
     Sundry other endowments10341,2693,50419
Totals, tenures under Acts other than Land Act 194815,2165,163,826393,34832,169
Grand totals, all tenures40,82315,707,1601,148,145707,776

LEASES AND LICENCES FREEHOLDED — Over the past few years many Crown lessees have availed themselves of the provisions of the Land Act 1948 and have freeholded their leases, either for cash or on deferred-payment licence.

In 1960–61, 342 leases were freeholded, either for cash or on deferred payments. The area embraced by these leases was 55,988 acres, and the total purchase price £427,782, of which £281,112 was on deferred payments. These figures are an increase on those for 1959–60, when 298 leases over 39,970 acres were freeholded for a total of £367,654.

Leases and Licences FreeholdedNumberAreaPurchase Price
For cash— acres£
    Crown lands16923,579138,363
    Endowment lands428,307
On deferred payments—
    Crown lands16932,407281,112
Totals34255,988427,782

PURCHASE OF LAND FOR SETTLEMENT — The Land Act 1948 authorises the Land Settlement Board to purchase private land or the interest of any lessee or licensee in any Crown land or Maori land for the purposes of settlement as farming, urban, commercial and industrial, or pastoral land. The Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952 gives power to the Minister of Lands, under certain conditions, to take any farm land suitable for settlement where additional farm land is required for settlement of landless discharged servicemen and others requiring land on which to establish themselves in farming (see p. 292).

LAND DEVELOPMENT — The Land Settlement Board, constituted in 1941 to administer land policy and land development through the Department of Lands and Survey, has had the responsibility of developing, for the settlement of ex-servicemen of the Second World War, both Crown land and undeveloped private land purchased or acquired for the purpose. Initially all land developed was offered exclusively to ex-servicemen eligible for rehabilitation farming assistance, but with the commitment to settle ex-servicemen largely fulfilled, a civilian land settlement policy has been introduced. The few remaining ex-servicemen awaiting farms will still receive preference at ballots, but as few are applying, the great bulk of farms offered by the Land Settlement Board in future should go to civilians.

Development of land for settlement includes clearing, cultivation, grassing, fencing, erection of buildings, and installation of water supplies. To consolidate pastures and to control regrowth of scrub and weeds, the land is farmed as part of the development process. This helps to meet the cost of development and to ensure that, when the farms are disposed of, the new settlers will not experience stock troubles or reversion.

The following table contains particulars of land acquired for development and settlement during the year ended 31 March 1961, and from the establishment of the Land Settlement Board in 1941 to 31 March 1961; also shown are those areas made available for settlement and the balance on hand at the latter date. The figures do not include particulars relating to ex-servicemen who have been assisted by way of rehabilitation loans to purchase established farms on their own account. Further information concerning the settlement of ex-servicemen on the land will be found in Section 9B, Rehabilitation.

As the table shows, the bulk of the land has been purchased by voluntary negotiation or was formerly unoccupied Crown land which has been included in development blocks. All the land shown as acquired compulsorily was acquired between 1943 and 1953.

Nature of TransactionYear Ended 31 March 1961From Inception (1941) to 31 March 1961
AreaUnitsAreaUnits

* Includes adjustments in areas consequent on surveys and increase of two units in total disposals to civilians.

† Tentative figures only. Final subdivision and utilisation is decided as development is approaching completion.

ACQUISITIONS    
 acres acres 
(a) Purchased by voluntary negotiation63,35755†1,463,399†
(b) Compulsorily acquired (Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act 1943 and Servicemen's Settlement Act 1950)281,472
(c) Properties where ex-servicemen substituted under section 31 (3) (b), Servicemen's Settlement Act 195017,390
(d) Crown land made available77,49915†797,572*
Totals, acquisitions140,85670†2,559,8335,348*
DISPOSALS    
I To Grade “A” Ex-servicemen    
(a) Developed units (including substitutions)13,09033,339,4333,447
(b) Unimproved units--1,3145
 13,090331,340,747†3,452
II To Civilians    
(a) Developed units21,5534075,542217
(b) Unimproved units5,082339,77184
 26,63543115,313†301*
III Sundry Disposals    
(a) Transferred to Maori Affairs Department for settlement of Maori ex-servicemen--11,96330
(b) Adjacent owners, reserves, workers' homes unsuitable for settlement, etc.2,9592118,42515
 2,9592130,38845
Totals, disposals42,684781,586,4483,798
Land on hand planned for development in farm settlements--973,3851,550†

10 C — MAORI LANDS

DEFINITION OF MAORI LANDS — Before European settlement, all the land in the country was held by the various groups and tribes of the Maori people in accordance with their traditional customs and usages, and the land so held was described as Maori customary land. By the Treaty of Waitangi the exclusive right to purchase such land was reserved to the Crown. Practically all of the land which was formerly Maori customary land has now been converted to other forms of title by one or other of the following processes:

  1. Purchase or other acquisition by the Crown.

  2. The issue of a Crown grant to a Maori owner on the recommendation of the Maori Land Court.

  3. The issue of a freehold order by the Maori Land Court in favour of the Maori or Maoris found entitled upon an investigation of title. This process was used instead of process (b) after the introduction of the land transfer system into New Zealand.

Land which was included in titles issued under processes (b) and (c) above was described by the name of Maori freehold land.

Maori freehold land becomes Crown land if all interests in it are purchased or otherwise acquired by the Crown, or becomes European land by the following processes:

  1. If all interests in it are sold to or otherwise vested (including vesting by succession) in a person or persons each of whom is less than one-half Maori blood for a beneficial estate in fee simple.

  2. If the land (being solely owned) is declared to be European land by the Maori Appellate Court.

  3. If the Maori owner of solely owned land had been declared to be a European by Order in Council under provisions since repealed or has obtained an exemption order under section 433A of the Maori Affairs Act 1953.

Even though one of many Maori owners may sell, the land remains Maori land until all have disposed of their interest, or until the purchaser has had his interests partitioned off. The term “Maori” includes a half-caste, or a person intermediate in blood between a Maori and a half-caste.

Since 1954, by virtue of various provisions in the Maori Affairs Act 1953, emphasis has been placed on the need for the improvement of existing Maori land titles by the elimination of small fractional interests and the reduction in the number of owners. The idea behind this is to clear the way for the better use of the land in an attempt to keep Maori freehold land in the possession of the Maoris.

POWERS OF ALIENATION — The ordinary provisions as to alienation of Maori land do not affect the power to dispose of land by will, but a Maori cannot will to a European except it be a husband or wife or other relative of the person making the will. A Maori cannot dispose of customary land, whether by will or otherwise. No alienation of Maori land by a Maori has any effect until it is confirmed by the Maori Land Court.

The Court, before confirming an alienation, must satisfy itself, inter alia, that it is not contrary to the interests of the Maori alienating; that the consideration is adequate; that the purchase money or other consideration is paid or secured; and that the alienation is not otherwise prohibited by law. A lease of Maori land cannot be for a longer term than 50 years.

With regard to Maori freehold land, the Court during 1960–61 approved of new leases comprising 22,429 acres to Europeans and 25,472 acres to Maoris, the previous year's figures being 22,144 and 16,380 acres respectively. It confirmed transfers (apart from sales to the Crown) affecting 16,717 acres of freehold land to Europeans and 3,079 acres to Maoris in 1960–61, the corresponding 1959–60 figures being 54,215 and 4,583 acres respectively. During the year ended 31 March 1961 timber-cutting rights were confirmed by the Court in respect of 15,595 acres.

REMAINING LAND — The area of Maori land still held by Maoris in the North Island is estimated at 3,750,000 acres, and in the whole of New Zealand at 4,000,000 acres. In many cases the Maoris are utilising their land for pastoral and dairying purposes. Other lands are being farmed for them by the Maori Trustee. Extensive areas formerly managed for the Maori owners by the East Coast Commissioner, acting under statutory powers, have practically all been returned to the management of the owners, who are farming them under the system of incorporated owners provided by Part XXII of the Maori Affairs Act 1953.

BOARD OF MAORI AFFAIRS — The Board of Maori Affairs constituted under the Maori Affairs Act 1953 consists of the Minister of Maori Affairs, the Secretary for Maori Affairs, the Director-General of Lands, the Valuer-General, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture, the member of the Executive Council representing the Maori race or, if there is no such member, any member of the Executive Council appointed by the Governor-General to be a member of the Board, and three other members appointed by the Governor-General.

The functions of the Board include, inter alia, the following:

  1. The control of the development and settlement of Maori land or land owned or occupied by Maoris.

  2. The approval of investment and advances, and of certain expenditure from the Maori Trustee funds.

  3. The control of negotiations for the acquisition of Maori lands by the Crown.

  4. The control of expenditure on housing operations under the Maori Housing Act 1935, as amended in 1938.

MAORI LAND COURT — The Maori Land Court consists of a Chief Judge and such other Judges as the Governor-General may think fit to appoint. All powers of the Court may be exercised by a single Judge, but there are certain important powers vested exclusively in the Chief Judge. Commissioners are appointed who exercise such jurisdiction of a Judge as the Governor-General authorises. The chief matters within the jurisdiction of the Court are:

  1. The investigation of title to customary land, and transforming it into Maori freehold land.

  2. The exclusive power of partitioning land among the owners.

  3. The sanctioning of exchanges for other Maori land and European land.

  4. Granting probates of wills and effecting succession to the estates of Maoris.

  5. Making orders for the adoption of children.

  6. Appointing trustees for Maoris who are minors or under other disability.

  7. The incorporation of the owners of Maori land.

  8. Granting confirmation of alienation of Maori land.

  9. Assessing compensation for Maori land taken under the Public Works Act.

  10. Making awards under legislation similar to the Family Protection Act 1955.

The Maori Appellate Court consists of any two or more Judges of the Maori Land Court, provided that two Judges at least shall concur in every decision of the Court. With certain exceptions the Appellate Court determines appeals, whether on law or on fact, from all final orders of the Maori Land Court.

MAORI TRUSTEE — The Maori Trust Office was originally created to take over from the Public Trust Office the administration of certain Maori reserves and the administration of the estates of deceased Maoris and those under disability. The Maori Trust Office now forms part of the Department of Maori Affairs and is headed by the Maori Trustee, comparable in status and function with the Public Trustee. The control of most Maori Trustee activities has been decentralised by the delegation of wide powers to the District Officers of the Department of Maori Affairs, who deal primarily with all Maori Trustee matters in their districts. A detailed review of the functions and powers of the Maori Trustee is contained in parliamentary paper G. 9 of 1954.

The Maori Trustee may be appointed executor of the will of a deceased Maori or administrator of an intestate Maori estate. He may also be appointed trustee to manage the property of Maoris who are minors or suffer from some other legal disability, and is statutory trustee of the estates of Maori mental patients. The Maori Trust Office Regulations 1954 prescribe the rates of commission and fees chargeable by the Maori Trustee and the rates of interest payable in respect of moneys held by him in his Common Fund.

In addition to the administration of Maori reserves, situated mainly in Taranaki, and in Nelson, Greymouth, and other South Island localities, the Maori Trustee has the responsibility for the administration of large areas of Maori land elsewhere. Most of these lands are, like the Maori reserves, vested in the Maori Trustee, who is responsible for leasing them and distributing the proceeds to the owners. The two principal statutes under which the Maori Trustee acts in relation to the control and leasing of land are the Maori Vested Lands Administration Act 1954 and the Maori Reserved Land Act 1955. Another function is the collection and distribution to owners of rents from most other Maori land leased under Part XXIII of the Maori Affairs Act 1953.

The Maori Trustee has extensive lending powers used principally for the settlement and improvement of Maori land, for the establishment of Maoris in business, and for housing purposes. Most advances are made on the security of Maori land.

The following table is a summary of the assets and liabilities of the Maori Trustee as at 31 March 1960 and 1961.

ItemAs at 31 March
19601961
Assets—££
    Cash112,428194,379
    Investments—
      Government securities2,404,4762,553,283
      Local authority debentures142,410140,662
      Mortgages, charges, and advances on overdraft1,174,2381,164,946
    Land, buildings, and miscellaneous128,267125,829
Totals3,961,8194,179,099
Liabilities—
    Amounts held for beneficiaries and sundry depositors2,995,6653,157,728
    Reserves and Appropriation Account961,4851,012,689
    Sundry creditors, etc.4,6698,682
Totals3,961,8194,179,099

MAORI LAND DEVELOPMENT — Maori land development policy is directed to the settlement of Maori farmers on farms which will assure them of a reasonable standard of living based on today's costs and standards; to secure them the best possible tenure for the lands they farm; to assist them to develop the land and to teach them modern methods of farming. The means at the Department's disposal have permitted the development of approximately 10,000 acres of new land annually. In the year ended 30 June 1961 there were 10 farms settled.

The Lands and Survey Department has estimated that Maori land at 31 March 1955 totalled 4,072,398 acres. This total is broken down, very tentatively, by the Department of Maori Affairs into the following categories:

 Acres
Leased to Europeans750,000
Under control of the Department and the Maori Trustee (Part XXIV)445,230
     (This includes 210,000 acres being developed or suitable for development) 
Farmed by Maori trusts and incorporations1,477,770
Idle land suitable for development550,000
Idle land not suitable for development777,000
 4,000,000

The estimated area of Maori land suitable for settlement is thus limited to 760,000 acres (210,000 acres under departmental control and 550,000 acres of idle land).

Up to 30 June 1961 the Department had settled 2,224 Maoris on farms. If the use of the remaining 760,000 acres follows the usual pattern of one-third sheep farms and two-thirds dairy farms, only 3,910 more Maori farmers can be settled, i.e., 560 sheep farmers and 3,350 dairy farmers.

10 D — SURVEYS AND MAPS

INTRODUCTORY — The surveys of Crown lands, Maori lands, Land purchased under the former Settlements Acts and the Land Act 1948, lands acquired under the Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952, and lands acquired or taken for public works, are executed under the authority of the Minister of Lands, and are carried out by staff and contract surveyors registered by the Survey Board under the provisions of the Surveyors Act 1938. This Act provides that in order to undertake surveys all registered surveyors must hold annual practising certificates, issued by the secretary of the New Zealand Institute of Surveyors.

The surveys of private lands for the purpose of the Land Transfer Act 1952 are carried out by private surveyors similarly registered.

Statutory authority for the surveyor to enter upon any land and to place survey marks thereon is contained in several Acts, and the wilful destruction of these marks is subject to a severe penalty.

All surface surveys are made in accordance with regulations laid down and are subject to field check (if thought necessary) and to office examination prior to approval and deposit.

The standard of length is the chain of 22 Imperial yards divided into 100 links, and all linear measurements have to be expressed in terms thereof, and areas in acres, roods, and perches, with decimals of a perch. Standard comparison bands are available in each district office of the Department of Lands and Survey, as well as at the office of the Surveyor-General.

SURVEY SYSTEM — In the 1957 and earlier issues of the Yearbook there is described the survey system of minor triangulation adopted in 1876 to enable settlers to be given possession of definite pieces of land, with each section having for the purpose of record and title registration a complete identification by means of its number, the number of the block, and the name of the district.

In 1906 a geodetic triangulation to coordinate the local systems and to cover the whole country was commenced. This work was carried on intermittently over the years and the field work was eventually completed in 1946. Computations of the filed information were completed in 1949 when the Geodetic Datum 1949 was established.

Immediately on the outbreak of war the Army requested the Department of Lands and Survey to undertake the responsibility for the production of military maps. At the end of the war in 1945 half of the country had been mapped for military purposes.

It was fortunate that the geodetic control was sufficiently advanced to enable the topographical maps produced during the war period 1939–45 to be coordinated in terms of an overall military grid. This grid was a provisional one and due to this factor and the various expediencies which had to be adopted to produce the topographical data the maps published were issued as a provisional series.

STANDARD SURVEYS — In order to more adequately correlate and redefine old boundary marks for land-title purposes and to provide a permanent standard of reference for future surveys in cities and boroughs where land values are high, and on highways and on main arterial roads where modem road surfaces have eliminated survey marks, a precise survey is carried out, all intersections being referenced with permanent standard marks, normally iron tubes in concrete blocks protected by an iron cover.

These surveys are of two classes — (1) those in the cities and boroughs, being of standard of accuracy of 2 inches to the mile, the cost of which is borne partly by the local authority concerned and partly by the Department of Lands and Survey and (2) those carried out on highways and arterial roads to a lesser standard of accuracy, for the purpose of referencing survey marks lost or obliterated by road works and surfaces.

These standard traverses will in the future be correlated with precise levelling traverses, thus providing a standard level datum for engineering works.

PRECISE LEVELLING — Approximately 1,547 miles of precise levelling have been carried out for the purpose of correlating the level data of irrigation and drainage and other engineering works. This type of levelling has been carried out in accordance with international standards of accuracy — namely, 0.012 feet or 0.144 inches per mile.

These levels are at mean sea-level datum determined from the tidal records of the principal tidal stations or of tide gauges established specially for that purpose. The traverses are referenced at approximately 10-mile intervals by fundamental bench marks and at approximately 1-mile intervals by standard bench marks.

This work is being further extended to meet the requirements of national drainage, irrigation, hydro-electric, and river-control development, where related and coordinated levels in terms of a fixed datum are essential.

AERIAL SURVEY AND TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPPING — Prior to the Army demand for military maps the Department of Lands and Survey had in 1936 set up a small photogrammetric unit equipped with two small precision stereoscopes for delineating contours on vertical aerial photographs. An area had been photographed by the RNZAF in the Hawke's Bay district in 1935, and by 1939 the first topographical map of the national 1 mile to an inch series was produced. On the outbreak of the war an overall contract was entered into by the Army with a private operating company for a complete photographic coverage of New Zealand to be carried out in accordance with priorities fixed by the Department.

Gradually greater use was made of aerial photographs as a basis for topographical map production. The private company has continued to supply all the aerial photographic requirements of all Government Departments, orders for the supply of which are coordinated and issued by the Department of Lands and Survey. An up-to-date and well equipped photogrammetric branch is now capable of producing any type and scale of topographic map or plan including those used for road location and hydro design purposes.

Extensive use is made of the aerial photographs for other than purely mapping purposes. All types of land and engineering development, investigations into geological resources, afforestation, and town and rural planning are now based on data extracted from the aerial photographs. The Department is responsible for the maintenance of a complete library of aerial photographs, which are made available for all national purposes. All orders for photography required by any Department of State are coordinated and priorities for such photography fixed by a coordinating committee. At present the North Island has been completely photographed while two-thirds of the South Island has been covered.

The responsibility for the production of all aeronautical charts for RNZAF and civil aviation purposes is also a permanent function of the Department of Lands and Survey. Assistance is also given to the hydrographic branch of the Navy Department in the establishment of shore beacons for the control of the offshore hydrographic survey at present being carried out by the Navy Department.

There is an increasing demand for topographical maps of all scales for land development, forestry, engineering, geological and soil survey, and other governmental purposes. New cartographic techniques have revolutionised the production of better and more varied scales and types of maps. In consequence it can now be claimed that New Zealand has a mapping organisation that compares more than favourably with other overseas mapping agencies.

TIDAL SURVEY — The tidal work carried out by the Department at the commencement of the survey operations in New Zealand consisted of determinations of mean high-water mark (H.W.M.) for the purpose of defining the boundary of land abutting on tidal waters.

Later the adoption of mean sea level as the datum of reference for the heights shown on the maps of trigonometrical and precise levelling surveys led to a more accurate system of tidal observations being initiated; but it was not until 1909 that a complete tidal survey was inaugurated, at the request of the Admiralty, to include the predictions of the times and heights of high and low water of the ports of Auckland and Wellington in the Admiralty Tide Tables.

The tidal observations are made mainly by self-registering tide gauges, in which a curve is traced which shows the height of the water at any time above an arbitrary datum. This curve is decomposed, by a process devised by Lord Kelvin, and known as “harmonic analysis,” into its harmonic elements. These components are now computed for the ports of Auckland, New Plymouth, Wellington, Lyttelton, Dunedin, Bluff and Westport, and from them the predicted times and heights of high and low water are obtained by means of the tide predictor at the Tidal Institute, University of Liverpool, and published in advance in the New Zealand Nautical Almanac, the Admiralty Tide Tables, and several of the maritime publications of foreign nations.

The seven ports for which tide tables are prepared serve as standards of reference on which to base, by means of tidal difference, the times and heights of high and low water of all the other ports in New Zealand.

GEOGRAPHIC BOARD — The New Zealand Geographic Board, constituted under the provisions of the New Zealand Geographic Board Act 1946, is the official place-names authority.

The main function of the board is to adjudicate on matters pertaining to place and feature names in New Zealand. The board has authority to assign new names for localities, geographical features, post offices, railway stations, etc., and to alter existing names subject to the right of appeal vested in the general public and to the rights of local authorities concerning names within the areas administered by such local authorities.

The board together with three co-opted members also acts as the Antarctic Place Names Committee. This committee is the official New Zealand authority for approval of names in the Antarctic. Its activities are confined mainly to the Ross Dependency but liaison is maintained with the place-name authorities of other countries.

The membership of the board comprises the Surveyor-General, two representatives of the Maori race, a representative of the New Zealand Geographical Society, a representative of the Federated Mountain Clubs of New Zealand, and two members appointed on the recommendation of the Minister of Lands.

MISCELLANEOUS — The Department, in addition to the activities outlined in the preceding paragraphs, carries out many miscellaneous functions, among which are the drawing of maps and diagrams for special publications, the periodic preparation of maps for census and electoral purposes, the copying of maps and plans by photostat process, the preparation of aerial photograph mosaics and enlargements for departmental purposes, compilation of maps and data for town and regional planning purposes, the control and administration of the subdivision of land in counties required for housing, the preparation of special topographical maps for land settlement, engineering and scientific development, the preparation of maps for air navigation requirements, the production of all maps for the armed services, and many other cognate duties requiring the services of the surveyor or the draughtsman.

PUBLICATIONS — Reports: An annual report of the departmental activities is published as a parliamentary paper, C. 1A. At intervals a publication called The Records of the Survey is issued, the latest volume being numbered five. The publication of professional papers is now discontinued, these being incorporated in the Records.

MAPS — Map sales agencies are maintained at each of the district offices except Wellington and at the Head Office of the Department of Lands and Survey. In addition 244 private selling agents have been appointed throughout the country. All maps for sale are listed in the Catalogue of Maps published by the Department.

Maps are published and listed under the following headings:

(1) GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS MAPS — General Maps of New Zealand are small-scale maps of New Zealand and larger scale maps which are not included in the cadastral and topographical section of the catalogue.

Pacific Islands Maps are of islands within the territories of New Zealand, of Western Samoa, and Norfolk Island.

Miscellaneous Maps are maps which have been prepared for special purposes, and in general include those of interest to mountaineers and tourists. A wide range of maps is included in the Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand.

(2) CADASTRAL MAPS — The following series are published by the Department, these maps showing land title boundaries and land designations:

  1. Survey District Series — 1 inch to 1 mile.

  2. County Series — 1 inch to 1 mile.

  3. Town Maps Series — At various scales from 1 inch to 2 chains, to 1 inch to 10 chains.

(3) TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS — The following medium and large-scale maps are published:

  1. 1: 63,360 — 1 inch to 1 mile.

  2. 1: 25,000.

  3. 1: 15,840 — 1 inch to 20 chains.

  4. 1: 10,000 to 1: 20,000 — Street maps of towns.

  5. 5: 250,000.

  6. 1: 500,000.

The 1: 63,360 series now covers approximately 65 per cent of the country and embraces most of the settled areas. The 1: 25,000 series is as yet restricted to the closely settled areas at the main centres of population. The 1:15,840 series is confined to certain areas of undeveloped lands which are being developed as farmlands.

(4) MOSAIC MAPS — The sheet lines of the mosaic maps conform to the sheet lines of the 1:25,000 topographic series. The mosaic maps are gridded and show place names and are published at scale 1:15,840 (1 inch to 20 chains).

(5) AERONAUTICAL CHARTS — Aeronautical charts published include —

  1. Aerodrome approach and landing charts.

  2. Plotting charts at scales 1: 1,000,000 and 1: 3,000,000.

  3. Aeronautical charts 1: 500,000 and 1: 1,000,000.

10 E — VALUATION OF LAND

GENERAL — The necessity for fixing equitable land values arises in many of the relations of the General Government and local governing authorities with the individual. In particular they are required in connection with the following:

  1. The levying of land tax.

  2. The apportionment of rating levies over contributory local authorities.

  3. The levying of rates by local authorities.

  4. The advancing of money on mortgage by Government Departments and by trustees under the Trustee Act.

  5. The assessing of stamp, estate, and gift duties.

  6. The fixing of prices payable to the Crown or by the Crown for transfers of land.

SYSTEM AND PROCEDURE — The Government Valuation of Land Act 1896 set up a separate Government Department charged with the duty of assessing the values of real estate for taxation and other purposes of the General Government and for local rating purposes. The present law relating to the valuation of land is contained in the Valuation of Land Act 1951, and in the Land Valuation Court Act 1948.

The work of the Valuation Department is directed by the Valuer-General, the actual work of valuing being done by district valuers and assistant valuers. The duty of a valuer is to examine each property and to estimate to the best of his ability (1) the unimproved value of the land contained therein, (2) the value of the buildings (if any) or other improvements (if any) upon such land, and (3) the capital value of the property.

Valuers are enjoined not to strain after high values, nor to accept special prices paid for land in exceptional circumstances, but to determine the value neither above nor below the fair selling value in view of the many and diverse purposes for which the values are used.

Generally, under the New Zealand law, the increased value attaching to any piece of land which is due to the successful working of other lands in the district, or to State or local authority expenditure on public works, or to the general prosperity and development of the country, forms portion of the “unimproved value”.

“Improvements'” on land are defined, with certain provisos, as any work done or materials used on or for the benefit of the land by any owner or occupier resulting in an increase in the value of the land.

The “capital value” is the sum of the “unimproved value” plus the value of “improvements”.

THE VALUATION ROLL — The Valuation of Land Act 1951 directs the preparation of a valuation roll for each district over which a local authority has rating jurisdiction, setting forth in respect of each separate property the following particulars:

  1. The name of the owner of the land, and the nature of his estate or interest therein, together with the name of the beneficial owner in the case of land held in trust:

  2. The name of the occupier within the meaning of the Rating Act 1925:

  3. The situation, description, and area of the land:

  4. The nature and value of the improvements:

  5. The unimproved value of the land:

  6. The capital value of the land:

  7. Such other particulars as are prescribed.

Revision of Rolls — District valuation rolls are revised by the Valuer-General at intervals of not more than five years unless the Governor-General in Council directs otherwise.

Equalisation of Values — Naturally it is not generally possible to revalue all the constituent districts of a special purpose rating authority such as a catchment board in one year. With rising values, this sectional revaluation could lead to a greater proportion of the special purpose authority's rates falling on the newly revalued districts. To meet this situation the Valuation Equalisation Act was passed in 1957. The general purpose of this Act is to provide for an equitable adjustment of rates and of levies based on rateable values as between the several constituent districts comprising the district of an ad hoc local authority where those constituent districts have been revalued by the Valuer-General at different times.

The Supplementary Roll — There is, in addition to the district valuation roll for each district, a supplementary roll for that district. The supplementary roll may be used for the same purposes as the district roll except that it may not be used for the assessment of land tax or local rates. Generally, all special valuations of land made during the currency of a district roll for particular purposes — e.g., the granting of loans by Government Departments or trustees on the security of lands, the assessment of stamp, gift, and estate duties — are entered on the supplementary roll, but not on the district roll. There is generally a right of objection to such special valuations procedurally similar to the objections discussed under the next heading.

Objections to Valuations — When a district valuation roll is revised the Valuer-General addresses to each owner, and also to the owner concerned when any particular valuation in that roll is altered, a notice showing the new valuation and naming a date before which all objections (in writing) to the values must be lodged. In the case of a revision of a district roll the Valuer-General, any local authority, or any owner whose name appears on the roll, may object to any valuation thereon. Where a particular property only i? revalued, only the owner has a right of objection.

The Valuer-General refers any objections to his district valuers for reconsideration. He may then decide (1) of his own motion to refer the objection to the Land Valuation Court, (2) to alter the valuation to the extent claimed, (3) to alter the valuation to such extent as is agreed upon with the objector, or (4) to decline to alter the valuation. If his decision is either (2), (3), or (4), he serves notice of it on the objector, and on the owner if other than the objector. Either of these may notify the Valuer-General within 14 days that he desires the objection to be heard by the Land Valuation Court. If no such notice is received the Valuer-General's decision is deemed to be assented to, and the roll is amended, if necessary, to give effect to his decision.

LAND VALUATION COURT — The Land Valuation Court Act 1948 established the Land Valuation Court, which consists of three members appointed by the Governor-General in Council, one of whom is the Judge of the Court. In addition to its jurisdiction under the Valuation of Land Act the Court hears claims for compensation under the Public Works Act 1928 and determines values under the Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952.

The Act also established Land Valuation Committees which, in the exercise of their powers and functions, are subject to the general jurisdiction of the Court, A local authority may appoint a person, other than a member or paid officer of a local authority, to be an additional member of the Land Valuation Committee exercising its functions in the district of that local authority. This provision is limited to cases where objections to valuations of property situated in that local authority's district are being heard.

Except that the Judge of the Court may on the application of any party to proceedings, or of his own motion, state a case for the opinion of the Court of Appeal on a question of law, the decisions of the Land Valuation Court (either decisions of the Court itself or orders of the committees sealed by the Registrar) are final.

If any owner who has objected to a valuation made at a revision of a district roll is not satisfied with the value of the land as fixed by the Land Valuation Court's order, he may, within 14 days of the sealing of the order, give notice to the Valuer-General that he requires the capital value to be reduced to the value which he (the owner) considers to be the fair selling value as specified in his notice (but not less than the aggregate amount owing on mortgages or other charges on the land), or the land to be acquired on behalf of Her Majesty, or sold, at that value. There is also provision that if the Valuer-General is of the opinion that the value has been fixed by the Court at less than the capital value, he may within 14 days after the sealing of the Court's order require the owner to consent to what he (the Valuer-General) considers is the fair capital value, and, failing such consent being given within 30 days after notice is delivered, he may, with the approval of the Governor-General in Council, acquire the property at that value on behalf of Her Majesty.

VALUATIONS IN RELATION TO RATING — The district valuation roll so long as it continues in force is by law the roll from which the valuation roll of every local authority rating on the capital or on the unimproved value is framed.

The Urban Farm Land Rating Act 1932 provides for rating relief for farm lands subject to rates levied by borough (or city) councils, independent town councils, and county councils in respect of county towns. The Act provides that these local authorities may assess valuations for rating purposes for such farm lands lower than the values for the same lands appearing on the district valuation rolls. There are rights of objection to such valuations, either to a specially constituted Assessment Court where the valuations are to appear on a farm-land roll, or to a Magistrate if special rateable values are being assessed for the ordinary rating roll. The values are generally revised at five-yearly intervals.

A heritage of the days of independent valuations by local authorities is the provision by which they can rate on the annual (rental) values of properties within their areas, these values being assessed by the local authorities' own valuers. The annual value is defined as the rent at which a property would let from year to year reduced by 20 per cent in the case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and by 10 per cent in the case of land, but it may not be less than 5 per cent of the value of the fee simple. A new valuation roll in this regard is prepared either annually or triennially.

CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF LAND — The figures in the following table show valuations over a long period of years for the whole of New Zealand; they are gross values and include the value not only of rateable properties but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt from local rating.

At 31 MarchCapital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)
 £ (thousand)
187899,56762,574
1885113,271..
1888111,13875,497
1891122,22575,832
1897138,59184,401
1902154,81694,848
1905197,684122,937
1907236,645149,683
1909271,516172,760
1911293,117184,063
1913340,560212,963
1915371,077230,705
1916389,165241,322
1917405,466251,088
1918421,383260,922
1919445,533275,988
1920470,094290,880
1921518,584317,631
1922544,503329,174
1923553,404330,791
1924568,501333,870
1925587,350339,310
1926603,250341,048
1927618,264341,519
1928631,455335,217
1929655,907344,758
1930664,571338,887
1931667,911331,635
1932662,829321,799
1933653,708314,556
1934650,362309,770
1935637,604301,138
1936635,802295,696
1937632,230287,845
1938636,363282,326
1939652,899282,806
1940660,524278,881
1941673,118277,542
1942681,922276,885
1943684,181276,881
1944688,795277,039
1945697,366277,495
1946710,425279,214
1947746,412284,274
1948796,038291,617
1949889,268307,152
1950985,880324,465
19511,112,747349,160
19521,314,879394,228
19531,532,358449,814
19541,702,727487,125
19552,068,313579,128
19562,306,585644,410
19572,496,337697,540
19582,677,250751,129
19592,832,252805,299
19603,066,231889,821
19613,248,684952,831

The table shows a continuous decrease in land values from 1929 to 1943. Probably the lowest point in real values was reached about 1934, and the decreases shown after that year merely indicate that the new valuations being made were still at levels lower than the existing pre-depression figures. After 1943 land values were stabilised through the operation of the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act 1943, and the increases shown to 1950 mainly reflect the writing into new valuations of increases which had occurred prior to 1943.

The lifting of land sales control on urban properties from 23 February 1950 was reflected in the 1951 general revaluations of boroughs and cities. County revaluations did not, however, reflect the transition to a free market basis until the 1952 revaluations, the effect of the higher basis having been postponed 12 months as provided for by section 38 of the Statutes Amendment Act 1950.

The fact that land valuations are not continuously up to date has the effect in the preceding table of delaying the appearance of other than the steepest movements and of reducing their apparent magnitudes. Rural land values are generally conditioned by the prices received for exports of primary products, improved efficiency in farming methods, growth of population, improved internal transport, and other facilities, etc.

In the following table the gross values are analysed in more detail for the latest five years.

As at 31 MarchNumber* of Local AuthoritiesNorth IslandSouth IslandNew Zealand
Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)

* As constituted on 1 April.

£:(thousand)
Counties
1957122688,744199,839348,490125,5761,037,234325,415
1958121748,843216,519382,137139,1131,130,980355,632
1959121803,199233,712405,664148,4441,208,863382,155
1960121854,809245,950427,397154,9981,282,206400,949
1961121898,134258,858461,050174,4461,359,185433,304
Boroughs
19571431,054,113275,633395,28094,9951,449,394370,629
19581431,115,079293,589421,906100,5471,536,985394,136
19591431,167,280314,657446,487107,0921,613,767421,749
19601431,297,221364,848477,498122,6531,774,719487,501
19611431,381,388393,128498,088124,9451,879,476518,073
Independent Town Districts
1957177,4411,3072,2691899,7101,496
1958166,8171,1572,4672049,2841,361
1959167,0931,1902,5292059,6221,395
1960157,4331,2321,8731399,3061,371
1961157,9801,2952,04315810,0231,453
Grand Totals
1951..782,632235,253330,115113,9071,112,747349,160
1952..917,274265,854397,605128,3731,314,879394,228
1953..1,093,872313,896438,486135,9171,532,358449,814
1954..1,223,171342,660479,556144,4651,702,727487,125
1955..1,477,970405,183590,343173,9462,068,313579,128
1956..1,641,247446,658665,338197,7522,306,585644,410
1957..1,750,298476,779746,039220,7612,496,337697,540
1958..1,870,739511,266806,511239,8642,677,250751,129
1959..1,977,571549,558854,681255,7412,832,252805,299
1960..2,159,464612,030906,767277,7903,066,231889,821
1961..2,287,502653,281961,182299,5493,248,684952,831

RATEABLE VALUES — The values quoted earlier in this section relate to gross values (i.e., the value of all property, whether exempt from local rating or not). The following summary indicates rateable values for counties, boroughs, and independent town districts as at 31 March 1961.

Local Authority DistrictNorth IslandSouth IslandNew Zealand
Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)
£(thousand)
Counties809,997244,842425,435167,2611,235,432412,103
Boroughs1,232,672355,423447,032113,7811,674,704469,205
Town districts (independent)6,7631,0991,7881458,5511,245
Totals2,049,432601,365869,255281,1872,918,687882,552

The next table shows the percentage distribution of area and population as at 1 April 1961, and of rateable property values between the different types of local authority districts as at 31 March 1961.

Local Authority DistrictAreaPopulationRateable Property Values
Capital ValueUnimproved ValueValue of Improvements
Percentage Distribution
Counties99.535.742.346.740.4
Boroughs0.563.757.453.259.2
Town districts (independent)0.60.30.10.4
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

It will be observed that there is a closer correlation between value of improvements and population distribution than between unimproved values and population distribution, with capital values consequently taking up an intermediate position.

Particulars of values for each county, borough, and independent town district in considerable detail are contained in the Local Authorities Handbook, where similar data are also given for dependent town districts and for road districts.

VALUERS' REGISTRATION BOARD — The Valuers Act 1948 provides for the registration of land valuers and for some control of their work. There is a Registration Board under the chairmanship of the Valuer-General, which issues certificates for registration to all valuers and annual practising certificates to public valuers. The main objects of the Act are to secure a high standard of valuation work throughout the Dominion and to encourage competent valuers. There were 294 classified as rural valuers, 358 as urban valuers, and 63 as both rural and urban valuers at 31 December 1961.

Chapter 11. Section 11 TRANSPORT

11 A — SHIPPING AND TRADE OF PORTS

GENERAL — The Bay of Islands was the first New Zealand port used by commercial shipping, but port development soon followed in other northern harbours such as Hokianga, Mangonui, and Auckland. Wellington came later, followed by New Plymouth. With settlements becoming established in the South Island, shipping was next recorded at Nelson, Akaroa, and Port Chalmers. By 1853, when statistics were first compiled for New Zealand as a whole, 11 ports were receiving shipping direct from overseas. The number of ports in use by overseas vessels increased during the gold-rush period, but later decreased to a number which has not changed greatly during the past 50 years.

The following table, which enumerates entrances of ships direct from overseas, illustrates the changing pattern of overseas shipping since 1853, and indicates the great increase in the size of vessels during these years.

YearNumber of Ports EnteredNumber of VesselsTotal Tonnage of VesselsAverage Tonnage of Vessels
 No.No.tonstons
18531123865,504275
186014398140,276352
187023756273,151362
188019730395,675542
189020744662,769891
190015616854,6321,387
1910176091,389,0312,281
1920177442,062,3702,772
1930156002,297,1423,829
1940156012,834,4994,716
1950135972,688,2234,503
1960129724,500,8924,631
1961131,0384,953,9294,773

The early development of coastal shipping is not easy to trace. Coastal movements of vessels were first recorded in the statistics in 1873, and no distinction was made between the movements of purely coastal vessels and the coastal movements of overseas vessels. This position obtained until 1921.

The following table includes all inward movements of ships, i.e., direct entrances from overseas, coastal movements of overseas ships, and entrances of coastal vessels. This gives some idea of the development of the activities of the ports over the period.

YearPorts Included in RecordsInward Movements of Vessels

* In these years data were collected from some minor ports which were later omitted from the records.

18733014,029
18803017,615
18903017,860
19003021,478
19103127,304
19203420,156
193051*20,834
194046*18,343
19503814,393
19603513,373
19613513,899

The tonnage of total shipping at the ports is not available on a comparable basis over the whole period of this table.

The Customs Department records statistics of the number and tonnage of all vessels arriving in New Zealand ports direct from overseas, and of the departures of all vessels for overseas destinations. The Department of Statistics receives monthly from each port a statement of all shipping handled.

The figures given in this section include all registered merchant vessels trading at New Zealand ports: thus they exclude naval vessels when engaged in their normal duties, private launches, lighters engaged in loading or unloading vessels in roadsteads, trawlers, other fishing vessels, and pleasure craft.

OVERSEAS SHIPPING — In recording the statistics of overseas shipping only one entry and one clearance is counted for each voyage, viz, at the first port of call and at the port of final departure, regardless of the number of ports visited by the vessel while in New Zealand waters.

The following table gives the number and net tonnage of overseas vessels entering and clearing New Zealand ports during the last 11 years, distinguishing those entered and cleared “with cargo” (cargo manifest tonnages are also shown for these) from those “in ballast”.

YearWith CargoIn Ballast†Total
VesselsNet TonnageCargo Manifest Tonnage*VesselsNet TonnageVesselsNet Tonnage

* Direct comparisons of import and export tonnages are invalid since the former contain a much higher proportion of goods recorded in “measurement” tons than do the latter.

† “In ballast” means (a) inwards — “having no cargo for discharge in New Zealand”; (b) outwards — “having no cargo loaded in New Zealand”.

Entered
19515022,316,3443,641,66744236,4655462,552,809
19526522,759,9494,400,25452268,0817043,028,030
19536142,502,8563,617,49759264,7016732,767,557
19546872,882,3104,453,50664277,8227513,160,132
19557533,173,2114,858,36971353,3578243,526,568
19567203,022,7134,422,90560341,8357803,364,548
19577953,503,8754,560,463101436,0648963,939,939
19587943,445,5434,536,110135608,2259294,053,768
19597503,355,6483,989,897133671,4778834,027,125
19608183,800,2554,636,376154700,6379724,500,892
19618654,150,0154,951,635173803,9141,0384,953,929
Cleared
19513321,561,6421,129,629218986,3985502,548,040
19523881,774,6581,173,5773381,365,6387263,140,296
19534061,746,1571,175,0352701,057,8636762,804,020
19544271,800,3051,224,9783081,332,6297353,132,934
19554512,014,9521,328,1553491,435,5218003,450,473
19564642,017,8291,476,0963211,346,8927853,364,721
19575492,488,5061,516,7803461,451,3508953,939,856
19585542,495,8081,531,0333571,478,4849113,974,292
19595772,506,5931,791,1653261,608,1369034,114,729
19606102,643,6821,747,8973511,764,7439614,408,425
19616512,999,0251,848,8693801,924,3971,0314,923,422

Direction of Overseas Shipping — Particulars of the number and net tonnage of vessels entered and cleared between New Zealand and various countries during 1959 and 1960 are given in the following table.

Country19591960
EnteredClearedEnteredCleared
No.Net TonnageNo.Net TonnageNo.Net TonnageNo.Net Tonnage
United Kingdom130881,554144966,890123876,522125839,598
Aden316,367316,37328,453
Hong Kong811,753410,8891533,598717,775
Ceylon424,959520,376322,87717,070
India1153,023626,5181154,814623,207
Malaya318,143521,51916,937
Singapore1564,91421115,58227135,97726118,093
South Africa1465,5281669,025312,033
Canada20116,3641469,40621149,915772,876
Australia3601,432,3704001,494,8413921,511,7364361,649,682
Fiji2670,6653085,15643139,11936121,884
Gilbert and Ellice Islands837,1391049,978838,841630,694
Nauru Island29148,91322113,67532171,99731170,923
Belgium27,793312,68914,350
France1355,50313,0061473,974
Sweden830,624218,71926,462
Bahrain316,54016,538424,977636,276
Iran1585,2941275,878850,241426,406
Indonesia842,348850,14711,495527,725
Japan53120,28666148,56658122,10674162,508
Netherlands Antilles17108,3231060,4081275,70915106,392
United States of America55359,27055391,36486559,85555380,679
Other countries91314,95575332,776102416,621101517,827
Totals8834,027,1259034,114,7299724,500,8929614,408,425

In earlier years the tonnage of shipping entering from and clearing for the United Kingdom was higher than that for any other individual country. In 1954, however, shipping to and from Australia exceeded that recorded for the United Kingdom, and this has been the case for subsequent years also. The year 1954 was the first in which over 1,000,000 tons of shipping left New Zealand for an individual country. Shipping to Australia has been over that figure each year since then, and in 1956 and 1958 over 1,000,000 tons departed for the United Kingdom also.

The next table shows the net tonnage of shipping between New Zealand and certain principal countries for the six years 1955–60.

YearAustraliaUnited KingdomUnited States of AmericaCanadaPacific Islands
net tons
Entered
19551,046,2821,035,251199,666140,951342,638
1956966,502955,058188,06863,688365,335
19571,150,0461,028,742578,08831,865305,383
19581,405,602955,345304,144141,185422,736
19591,432,370881,554359,270116,364381,656
19601,511,736876,522559,855149,915493,516
Cleared
19551,173,515965,94572,325113,140399,789
19561,089,0371,061,118152,66165,430357,224
19571,222,762975,140507,49420,136390,863
19581,346,4411,016,060415,77495,303358,363
19591,494,841966,890391,36469,406382,653
19601,649,682839,598380,67972,876474,714

Ports of Arrival and Departure — The next table shows the extent to which various ports were made the first port of arrival or the last port of departure by overseas vessels during the last three years. The relative overseas trade of the various ports can be judged only by taking into account the coastwise visits of overseas vessels in the course of unloading and loading. This is shown in later tables.

PortEnteredCleared
195819591960195819591960
   net tons  
Auckland2,398,7962,414,2152,701,1201,592,0931,652,1831,812,543
Tauranga12,05243,94669,685258,098316,384360,149
Gisborne32174532416,99617,2226,266
Napier55,45164,78330,555137,916206,532241,192
Taranaki94,38993,35190,350151,018191,016186,340
Wanganui7683218947,253321573
Wellington983,507865,301997,032959,931874,792848,863
Picton1,89620,16223,01537818932,158
Nelson26,12822,73922,26518,88051,71251,026
Greymouth1,0732,66816,9631,297963385
Lyttelton322,649351,265349,318251,705302,917292,662
Timaru18,04124,88326,14344,88529,44239,532
Oamaru3213,806
Otago109,76789,70889,608378,016285,569332,917
Bluff28,93032,71783,620152,020185,487203,819
Totals4,053,7684,027,1254,500,8923,974,2924,114,7294,408,425

Outstanding in this table is the increase in tonnage of shipping making Tauranga the final port, of departure. This port has been greatly improved to facilitate export of the output of the new pulp and paper industries, and of pine logs.

As will be seen, in 1960, 82 per cent of overseas vessels (on a tonnage basis) arriving in New Zealand made Auckland or Wellington their first port of entry, and 60 per cent used one of these two ports as the final departure point.

Nationality of Overseas Shipping — The table following shows the nationality of vessels arriving in New Zealand during the years 1956–60.

Country of Registry19561957195819591960
   net tons (000)  
British Commonwealth —     
  United Kingdom2,0222,0462,1101,9332,239
  New Zealand484583550516484
  Other British Commonwealth247251242287243
   With cargo2,4432,5502,4792,3372,559
   In ballast309328423379407
    Totals, British Commonwealth countries2,7522,8782,9022,7162,966
    Percentage of total8273726766
Country of Registry19561957195819591960
 net tons (000)
Other —
  Norway192271306282272
  Sweden61474188101
  Netherlands54142116205324
  Panama848810410266
  United States of America46331364381394
  Remaining countries175183220253378
   Cargo5809549661,0181,242
   Ballast32108185293293
    Totals, other countries6121,0621,1511,3111,535
    Percentage of total1827283334
Grand totals3,3653,9404,0544,0274,501

The following table shows the changes that have taken place in recent years in the proportions of cargo carried to and from New Zealand in ships of different countries of registry. United Kingdom ships still carry the bulk of our external trade although the proportion of both the inward and outward cargo carried in vessels of this country of registry has tended to decrease over the period shown.

Country of Registry19561957195819591960
Per cent
Cargo Inward from Overseas
United Kingdom52.248.050.345.348.5
New Zealand17.120.217.818.716.9
Australia2.40.92.63.81.7
United States of America0.20.90.30.5
Norway10.113.215.013.711.2
Panama4.13.84.45.42.9
Denmark3.41.61.02.21.3
Netherlands2.84.63.83.06.3
Sweden3.42.21.64.14.6
Other countries4.34.63.53.56.1
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
Cargo Outward for Overseas
United Kingdom75.571.671.865.763.2
New Zealand16.016.616.515.718.2
Australia1.41.01.41.91.6
Japan2.23.65.49.68.2
Panama0.81.3
Other countries4.15.94.97.18.8
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

Passengers — The overseas passenger traffic is concentrated principally at Auckland and Wellington. Small numbers of overseas passengers, however, arrive at and leave from the other ports. The following table gives the numbers of passengers arriving at and departing from each port for the years 1956–60.

PortPassengers Arriving from OverseasPassengers Departing for Overseas
1956195719581959196019561957195819591960
Bay of Islands44
Auckland17,63820,64621,14020,62220,26413,76215,81817,75620,86520,306
Tauranga113—-13181530
Gisborne437197
Napier512261487591198691136
Taranaki692528424224405426
Wanganui1
Wellington20,36020,69319,56219,52316,75716,91013,79014,64615,32816,069
Picton18184482
Nelson26222101
Greymouth51
Lyttelton8567991,0711,151816160179204193262
Timaru122764616
Oamaru2
Otago4130563758130948966128
Bluff51211194045274358
Totals39,01542,26741,93541,47037,97431,10430,09232,88536,68937,499

TRADE OF PORTS — The following matters dealing with the trade of ports are now covered: shipping tonnages, cargo statistics, and transhipments.

Shipping Tonnages — This section deals with the tonnage recorded by the various ports in New Zealand and includes overseas and coastal shipping, irrespective of whether the former had been entered or cleared overseas or coastwise. Thus the coastal movements of overseas vessels are included, each overseas vessel being recorded as such at every port of call. In the earlier tables overseas vessels were recorded only at the first port of arrival and the final port of departure.

The movement of overseas and coastal vessels on the New Zealand coast is well illustrated in the following table, which gives the total number and tonnage of all calls made during each of the years 1951–61.

YearOverseas VesselsCoastal VesselsTotal
NumberNet TonnageNumberNet TonnageNumberNet Tonnage
19511,3976,131,36711,4223,806,25312,8199,937,620
19521,8207,640,41013,6224,621,96315,44212,262,373
19531,8417,257,77513,6964,451,46515,53711,709,240
19542,0498,332,10713,5024,782,20815,55113,114,315
19552,2009,189,06613,2394,740,26715,43913,929,333
19562,2689,752,76912,9844,855,29515,25214,608,064
19572,44310,304,91312,9274,827,71915,37015,132,632
19582,97711,879,34212,7354,793,36415,71216,672,706
19592,87512,699,65210,9994,972,52913,87417,672,181
19603,12413,548,76110,2494,978,14213,37318,526,903
19613,65216,177,08310,2475,035,74913,89921,212,832

Figures for recent years show substantial increases in the numbers and net tonnages of overseas vessels recorded at ports. These figures, which also reflect the increased number of ports visited by ships while on the New Zealand coast, have doubled since 1951. The average number of coastal calls that each overseas vessel made was 2.7 in 1957, 3.2 in 1958, 3.3 in 1959, 3.2 in 1960, and 3.5 in 1961.

The movements of coastal vessels, on the other hand, have declined since 1953, though net tonnages have steadily increased.

The following table shows for the three years 1958–60 the number and net tonnage of overseas vessels arriving at New Zealand ports, either direct or coastwise.

Port195819591960
NumberTonnageNumberTonnageNumberTonnage
Bay of Islands23102,2683120,89738148,077
Whangarei2066,4752174,6732693,244
Auckland7943,474,3097503,595,1057953,822,699
Onehunga61,39823783922
Raglan1321
Tauranga125348,884170478,067199558,365
Tolaga Bay1745
Gisborne34140,03727122,63032139,917
Napier178716,647192786,613217897,097
Taranaki129562,058151720,049160747,792
Wanganui4768397141,215
Wellington5892,532,0995162,670,7925562,636,523
Picton1033,166633,8591591,857
Nelson56139,63666172,43374187,961
Westport64,47362,37182,651
Greymouth2631,16132,446716,566
Jackson Bay2770
Lyttelton4181,609,1024061,706,0604281,818,435
Timaru116439,224101481,451107516,185
Oamaru610,40869,442
Otago3041,170,6112881,208,9342991,258,747
Bluff132495,873128512,160154609,738
Totals2,97711,879,3422,87512,699,6523,12413,548,761

Overseas vessels are shown to have called at 20 ports in 1958, 20 in 1959, and 19 in 1960. In the years 1936–38 approximately 24 New Zealand ports were visited by overseas vessels. The following table shows the percentages of inward overseas shipping tonnage recorded at the ports of Wellington, Auckland, and Lyttelton for the years 1956–60. In most years these three ports handle two-thirds of the total tonnage of overseas shipping.

Port19561957195819591960
per cent
Auckland27.830.929.228.328.2
Wellington22.422.021.321.019.5
Other North Island14.714.016.418.219.1
    North Island64.966.966.967.566.8
Lyttelton15.113.913.513.413.4
Other South Island20.019.219.619.119.8
    South Island35.133.133.132.533.2
New Zealand totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

The following table shows for the years 1958–60 the total shipping traffic handled inwards at the various ports. Overseas and coastal vessels calling at more than one port in the course of a single voyage have been recorded as entered at every port visited.

Port195819591960
NumberTonnageNumberTonnageNumberTonnage
Awanui15911,1081339,2061175,935
Mangonui544,513553,942584,074
Whangaroa703,871754,316451,914
Bay of Islands88105,925104125,297105150,072
Whangarei879239,654831225,677755232,471
Auckland5,6053,824,5683,6153,913,4173,4994,154,955
Onehunga9730,83012537,46812939,623
Raglan5117,4005414,8025215,081
Thames2485,5661943,5671883,020
Coromandel1333,5931043,6751154,119
Whitianga882,180902,011841,943
Tauranga266383,711313508,498336595,296
Whakatane and Ohiwa758,311485,484327,351
Kutarere343,679293,004
Opotiki99165522
Tokomaru Bay216,668154,808184,816
Tolaga Bay144,791113,438133,786
Gisborne176196,446177189,175228207,205
Napier326777,066362859,345405973,664
Taranaki235610,296270772,674262792,772
Patea889,333535,467121
Wanganui29690,52830396,71725688,866
Wellington2,3954,214,2662,3364,379,1782,1944,334,845
Picton333305,639326308,820303393,111
Wairau645,632675,695544,752
Nelson660251,431785306,948751313,273
Motueka20725,65722431,82321728,649
Westport157131,232148117,867143113,885
Greymouth11297,930122115,960116120,063
Jackson Bay2770
Kaiapoi774,457754,415
Lyttelton1,2712,887,4271,2903,017,9091,2743,123,597
Timaru412553,693407618,847407645,686
Oamaru10554,51110255,4258543,785
Otago4841,246,5254971,319,6285041,365,747
Bluff382537,598396572,257428702,766
Half-moon Bay11820,21213124,85712244,575
Totals15,71216,672,70613,87417,672,18113,37318,526,903

In 1960 Wellington ranked as the first port of New Zealand as regards aggregate tonnage of shipping entered, followed by Auckland, Lyttelton, Otago, Napier, Taranaki, Bluff, Timaru, and Tauranga, in that order.

The most noteworthy changes in the tonnage of shipping handled during the last three years were at Tauranga, where extra port development has taken place for the handling of timber and logs and the output of the new pulp and paper industries of the district, at Bay of Islands, where developments in 1957 enabled this port to be used by overseas vessels, and at Bluff, where new harbour facilities have recently been completed. Steadily increasing volumes continue to be recorded at Napier and Taranaki.

In the cases of Wellington, Lyttelton, and Picton, the figures are inflated by the recording of the regular inter-island steamer express services.

Cargo Statistics — The Department of Statistics collects from each port a monthly statement of the cargo handled. In this statement provision is made for analysis of the cargo under 38 commodity headings, for each of which is shown the quantity handled, both inwards and outwards, and the transhipments. Cargo statistics were first collected in 1922. The tables which follow are compiled from the data provided in these returns.

The following table gives a summary of the tonnage of cargo handled at all ports for the last eleven years.

YearInwards*TranshipmentsOutwards*Total Tonnage
CoastalOverseasCoastalOverseas

* Excluding transhipments.

† Transhipments included twice.

manifest tons
19511,649,4393,810,425152,8391,596,3871,166,1358,528,064
19521,971,9254,811,147207,2181,846,6161,328,21810,372,342
19531,975,4483,835,923174,2941,858,6081,253,3849,271,951
19542,120,7864,529,665170,8551,948,1951,277,57210,217,928
19552,155,5885,050,090204,3051,951,0141,389,65710,954,959
19562,148,7334,947,327190,1721,943,7841,555,59810,975,786
19572,252,6055,169,225174,1091,963,7101,610,98811,344,746
19582,259,4874,865,187148,2822,018,0761,664,98411,104,298
19592,179,6894,494,627127,6331,930,0031,912,67710,772,262
19602,282,9685,059,083109,9631,995,5781,932,78611,490,341
19612,433,1775,704,028157,5462,164,4911,983,15812,599,946

The next table shows for each port the total cargo inwards and outwards in 1960. The high proportion of transhipments in the case of Wellington is due to the central position of the port and the fact that much overseas cargo is transhipped from Wellington to South Island ports.

PortInwards*TranshipmentsOutwards*Total Tonnage
CoastalOverseasCoastalOverseas

* Excluding transhipments.

† Transhipments included twice.

manifest tons
Mangonui3,2023733,575
Bay of Islands3,2824,33712125,83833,578
Whangarei106,40059,237127,423293,060
Auckland567,4611,910,78538,214224,295511,0073,289,976
Onehunga61,7991,0731766,256129,162
Raglan18,4061,46419,870
Thames3,3793873,766
Tauranga25,924276,8323718,103321,666642,599
Whakatane (including Ohiwa)2,22410,24212,466
Tokomaru Bay3161,1961,512
Tolaga Bay1231,2161,339
Gisborne58,0183,0868114,05415,88591,205
Napier102,962218,2921,46117,791157,011498,978
Taranaki54,856261,0316,536138,005460,428
Patea344074
Wanganui117,20495610,176128,336
Wellington476,1041,118,84961,883461,400256,1352,436,254
Picton57,476568255,53812,029125,615
Wairau5,4125,22210,634
Nelson69,80037,95236772,57454,706235,766
Motueka6,296424,80231,106
Westport5,5505,367196,094207,011
Greymouth8,927169,81319,168197,908
Jackson Bay908908
Kaiapoi8,2819,01117,292
Lyttelton302,875650,0111,355313,511130,1541,399,261
Timaru42,37520,16174,52084,139221,195
Oamaru14,61922,39237,011
Otago105,645314,7006,54268,80586,680588,914
Bluff51,365175,84620,363119,455367,029
Half-moon Bay2,6531,8604,513
Totals2,282,9685,059,083109,9631,995,5781,932,78611,490,341

In any consideration of these statistics it is advisable to note that the term “ton” does not invariably denote a weight of 2,240 lb. It is practicable to obtain the actual weights involved for only a portion of the goods handled. In other cases close approximations are made by applying uniform formulae as to the number of bales, cases, sacks, etc., to the ton. A considerable portion of trading goods, however, is recorded in measurement tons, 40 cubic feet of space being regarded as the equivalent of a ton. As the practice is uniform, comparisons from year to year are not appreciably affected, nor are comparisons between ports, unless there is a radical difference in the class of trade carried on, in which case recourse should be had to consideration of items of trade. Since a much larger proportion of imports are in measurement tons, thus artificially swelling the figures, direct comparison of import cargo tonnage with export is invalid.

In the Section dealing with the export trade it is pointed out that pastoral products make up over 90 per cent of New Zealand's exports. The following table shows how the various ports participated in the handling of the main pastoral produce items in the outward overseas cargo during 1960. Although pastoral products constitute the bulk of New Zealand's exports on a value basis, a number of other types of commodities constitute an important part of the total outward overseas cargo. The table also shows the extent to which exporting ports participated in the handling of the major remaining items.

PortButterCheeseOther Milk ProductsFrozen MeatHides and SkinsTallowWool
manifest tons
Bay of Islands12,6972,3619,073597887179
Auckland126,44413,242108,65094,09616,28219,44944,671
Tauranga91525416
Gisborne4,0787,1665121,2792,519
Napier354,3144,9254,90142,872
Taranaki13,06854,2995,71343,5843,3344,1273,386
Wellington10,85014,97315,14467,71811,6618,58151,119
Picton6,19049406720
Nelson1988783,1491391,211349
Lyttelton34559535246,6138,5099,87427,578
Timaru70850,5553,8574,61721,215
Otago1281,97548532,9713,7755,82726,837
Bluff1464,9891,64665,2025,1447,10329,289
Totals167,95491,659135,269480,63158,78468,516250,750
PortFruit, FreshIron and Steel, etc.Paper, Newsprint, etc.Timber, SoftwoodWood PulpAll Other GoodsTotal
manifest tons
Bay of Islands4425,838
Auckland3,35921,4208588,95153,585511,007
Tauranga66,184178,01874,1092,170321,666
Gisborne33115,885
Napier26,5408,37415,082157,011
Taranaki10,494138,005
Wellington1,28515,04212,46457,297256,135
Picton9982,2391,42712,029
Nelson27,03555019,7961,40154,706
Greymouth19,16819,168
Jackson Bay908908
Lyttelton5188,85815443226,326130,154
Timaru3,18784,139
Otago7822187113,02686,680
Bluff4041415,391119,455
Totals60,51746,27667,198222,19474,109208,9291,932,786

Transhipments — Transhipments of cargo during 3960 totalled 109,963 tons, of which 61,883 tons were transhipped at Wellington. As was noted earlier, the central position of this port tends to increase the quantity of goods transhipped. Quantities of inwards overseas cargo, particularly motor spirit, kerosene, and mineral oils, are transhipped at Wellington for delivery to other ports, while significant, though reducing, quantities of New Zealand produce are carried to Wellington coastwise for transhipment there to overseas ships. The main contribution to transhipment at Wellington is the carriage of apples by coasters across from Nelson.

Transhipments fall into the following four classes:

Coastal to Coastal — Cargo which has been loaded in a vessel at one New Zealand port and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge at another New Zealand port.

Coastal to Overseas — Cargo which has been loaded in a vessel at a New Zealand port and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge at a port outside New Zealand.

Overseas to Coastal — Cargo which has come from overseas and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge at a New Zealand port.

Overseas to Overseas — Cargo which has come from overseas and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge outside New Zealand.

The first class represents purely coastal trade while goods in the last class do not enter New Zealand, but each of the others may be added to the appropriate figures of overseas trade shown previously, to ascertain the total tonnage of goods arriving from or departing for overseas. Thus the total inward tonnage from overseas in 1960 was 5,132,003, and the total outward tonnage going overseas 1,959,437. Comparative figures for 1959 were 4,558,535 and 1,962,785 tons respectively.

The following table shows for 1959 and 1960 the transhipment trade of each port affected.

PortCoastal to CoastalCoastal to OverseasOverseas to CoastalOverseas to OverseasTotal
1959196019591960195919601959196019591960
manifest tons
Auckland1,7641,9604,7223,95421,41427,8165,3094,48433,20938,214
Onehunga14171417
Tauranga33437
Gisborne8758187581
Napier95747121,2681461199531,461
Wellington4,1353,15843,57221,35734,80537,36882,51261,883
Picton22
Nelson6123042275563481,473367
Motueka44
Lyttelton1,303971,2841,256222,5891,355
Oamaru2222
Otago383257135,6036,2725,9866,542
Totals8,3065,90650,10826,65163,90872,9205,3114,486127,633109,963

The next table shows the various items of merchandise, etc., which comprised the transhipment trade in 1960.

ItemCoastal to CoastalCoastal to OverseasOverseas to CoastalOverseas to OverseasTotal
manifest tons
Beans and peas15113119247
Butter13536
Cement49812510
Cereal products675562184
Chaff, hay, and straw66
Cheese22
Coke2020
Fish8107115
Flour5656
Fruit preserved2711,615101,653
Fruit, fresh1216,356552416,924
Grain57413587
Hemp, linen flax, and phormium6060
Hides, skins, and pelts48181823
Iron and steel, pipes, etc.709612,03822412,428
Lime66
Machinery691123,3721133,666
Manures548866118821
Meat, frozen266389
Meat, preserved22
Milk products (other than butter and cheese)1066112
Motor vehicles, parts, and tyres56168155421,429
Oil, other mineral1,2917,801299,121
Paper, newsprint, etc.361,02491,069
Potatoes1067415195
Seeds78511027238
Sugar17118
Tallow2,0792,079
Timber, hardwoods316,2396,270
Timber, softwoods483,3693,417
Wine, spirits, ale, beer8648139795
Wood pulp38433471
Wool355,3175,352
All other goods2,5411,26233,9693,39041,162
Totals5,90626,65172,9204,486109,963

Shipping Between New Zealand and Island Dependencies — In the tables of overseas shipping no account is taken of ships moving between the main islands of New Zealand and the island dependencies of Cook Islands and Niue. These islands are constitutionally part of New Zealand, and shipping to or from them is not treated as overseas. The following table illustrates the extent of this shipping movement during the years 1956–60.

YearEntered New Zealand Ports from Cook Islands and Niue
With CargoIn Ballast
VesselsNet TonnageCargo (Manifest Tonnage)VesselsNet Tonnage
19561310,59611,494
19571813,6978,399176
19581620,68015,654310,152
19591210,11210,56015,741
196096,3746,118127
1956136,8356,479
1957179,3239,501176
19581211,37410,036180
195995,6796,005
19601216,53612,162

In most years all the departures to the islands are from Auckland. The 12 vessels bringing cargo from the islands in 1960 were all of New Zealand registry.

Shipping on Inland Waters — Although New Zealand is well supplied with rivers few can be used by shipping for other than short distances. There are no regular passenger or cargo services on any of the rivers. The only inland-water shipping of consequence is the service on Lake Wakatipu operated with the Earnslaw. This vessel is the property of the New Zealand Railways. Passengers and cargo are carried from Queenstown to other points on the shores of the lake. Farmers use this service for transporting livestock. The next table shows the operations of this service during the latest five years.

Year Ended 31 MarchPassengersLivestockTimberOther GoodsRevenueExpenditure
 No.No.super, ft. (000)tons££
195731,0638,6181914,38322,10126,594
195829,60210,2053264,78722,69927,173
195924,07810,2892044,33821,65127,479
196033,43010,9213063,82421,83828,994
196135,72613,9365063,86123,40332,625

Values of Exports and Imports by Ports — Tables showing the values of exports and imports through the various ports are included in Sections 22B and 22C respectively.

NEW ZEALAND SHIPPING REGISTER — The figures for vessels registered in New Zealand as at the end of each of the last 11 years are as follows.

YearSailing VesselsSteam and Motor VesselsTotals
VesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet Tonnage
1951433,7613,281460249,781128,622503253,542131,903
1952432,9202,492462246,819127,758505249,739130,250
1953402,0591,653463259,633133,882503261,692135,535
1954392,0421,643465253,387130,648504255,429132,291
1955371,8311,497476255,107131,090513256,938132,587
1956371,8311,497481258,924132,547518260,755134,044
1957361,8211,487490264,309134,669526266,130136,156
1958361,8211,487495271,179137,660531273,000139,147
1959412,3381,898490260,248131,409531262,586133,307
1960422,4712,031491243,008122,631533245,479124,662
1961422,4712,031503241,096120,992545243,567123,023

In the table which follows, the vessels on the New Zealand register at 31 December 1960 are classified into sailing, steam, and motor, and are listed for the various ports of registry.

Port of RegistrySailing VesselsSteam VesselsMotor Vessels
VesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet Tonnage
Auckland362,4121,987248,6664,10829646,38522,275
Napier1819449104,1961,896
Wellington659442762,96131,8716180,47642,750
Nelson176,4502,764
Lyttelton62,7981,021133,2351,555
Timaru1942488
Otago57,3143,6731417,2329,199
Bluff31,05642813478154
Totals422,4712,0316784,55642,038424158,45280,593

Auckland is the port of registry of the majority of the vessels forming New Zealand's “mosquito” fleet, the average net tonnage of the 356 vessels on the Auckland register being only 80 tons.

In the next table vessels registered in New Zealand at the end of 1960 have been classified according to whether employed in the coastal or the foreign trade. The totals given therein do not agree with those shown above, as vessels employed exclusively within “restricted limits” and pleasure craft are not included. The total number of vessels engaged in trading was 148, of an aggregate net tonnage of 114,860.

Size of VesselsEmployed in the Coastal Trade OnlyEmployed Partly in the Coastal and Partly in the Foreign TradeEmployed in the Foreign Trade Only
Number of VesselsNet TonnageNumber of VesselsNet TonnageNumber of VesselsNet Tonnage
Under 50 tons34597
50 and under 100 tons171,163
100 and under 200 tons172,311
200 and under 300 tons51,217
300 and under 400 tons207,156
400 and under 600 tons41,925
600 and under 800 tons17621632
800 and under 1,000 tons1807190943,630
1,000 and under 1,200 tons
1,200 and under 1,500 tons33,9601013,154
1,500 and under 2,000 tons11,6251529,227
2,000 tons and over39,7101136,075
Totals10631,23319094182,718

MARINE OFFICERS' CERTIFICATES — The examinations for masters, mates, and engineers serving in the Mercantile Marine are conducted by the Marine Department, the regulations relating to these examinations being based upon those of the United Kingdom Ministry of Transport with such modifications as are necessitated by local conditions. The Ministry of Transport recognises the following certificates only as of Commonwealth validity: extra master, master, first mate and second mate foreign-going ships, first- and second-class steam and motor engineers. It is a condition of such recognition that candidates must possess service qualifications and pass examinations similar and not inferior to those prescribed by the Ministry of Transport. Regulations provide for the examinations for masters and mates; in the year ended 31 December 1960 the total number of candidates examined for foreign-going certificates of Commonwealth validity was 76, of whom 37 obtained certificates. In addition, 100 candidates were examined for home-trade and local certificates, of whom 65 obtained certificates. Further regulations provide for the examinations for marine engineers. In the year ended 31 December 1960 the total number of candidates examined for foreign-going certificates (of Commonwealth validity), or parts thereof, was 167, of whom 27 gained certificates and 31 gained partial passes. A total of 215 candidates was examined for home-trade and local certificates, of whom 110 passed, while a further 46 candidates were examined for the engineering section for master of a restricted-limit motor ship not exceeding 10 register tons, of whom 36 passed.

SHIP SURVEY STATISTICS — The Marine Department carries out the survey of ships as required by the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, and during the period 1 January 1960 to 31 December 1960 certificates of survey were issued to the following categories of New Zealand ships:

Passenger ships engaged in international voyages6
Cargo steamships engaged in international voyages9
Cargo motorships engaged in international voyages24
Home-trade steamships7
Home-trade motorships65
Restricted-limits steamships24
Restricted-limits motorships273
Total408

In addition to the certificates of survey required under the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, the Department is required to issue certificates to vessels engaged in international voyages in accordance with the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1948, to which the New Zealand Government is a signatory. During the year ended 31 December 1960 there were 87 such certificates issued to New Zealand registered ships and 43 to overseas ships.

Special surveys additional to the above were made for seaworthiness after damage, for efficiency of equipment, and for tonnage measurement. These occasional surveys totalled 410.

LIGHTHOUSES — Along the New Zealand coast there are 90 coastal lights of various types. In 25 cases the lights are manually attended and the apparatus is classed as of the dioptric order — i.e., a central lamp sending its ray through a combination of surrounding lenses — while the remaining 65 coastal lights are automatic lights. The buildings housing the lights are of varying kinds, as necessitated by their respective situations.

Fog signals of the diaphone type are established on Tiritiri Matangi, at Pencarrow Head, Godley Head, and Taiaroa Head; while radio beacons have been established at Cape Reinga, East Cape, Portland Island, Cuvier Island, Mokohinau, Baring Head, Stephens Island, the Brothers Island Cape Campbell, Godley Head, Taiaroa Head, Dog Island, and Puysegur Point.

The most powerful light is that of Stephens Island, which, placed some 600 ft above high water, is visible at a distance of 32 nautical miles. Next in order come Cape Reinga (altitude 542 ft), visibility 31 miles; East Cape (505 ft), visible at 30 miles; Cape Brett (altitude 490 ft), visible at 29 miles; Cuvier Island (altitude 390 ft) and Mokohinau (altitude 400 ft), both of which have a visibility of 26 miles; Godley Head (altitude 317 ft) and Portland Island (altitude 300 ft), both visible at 24 miles. Thirteen other lights have a range of 20 miles or over, being Centre Island, Baring Head, and Akaroa, of 23 miles; Cape Palliser, Brothers, and Nugget Point, of 22 miles; Cape Foulwind, of 21 miles; Tiritiri Matangi, Cape Saunders, Channel Island, Marotiri, Taiaroa Head, and Gibson Point, 20 miles each. The remaining lights have visibilities of under 20 miles.

All manually attended coastal lighthouses are equipped with signalling lamps, the keepers being competent to transmit messages by lamp, or receive messages by flags or lamp. In addition, 11 of the principal lighthouses are equipped with radiotelephone systems of communication. Coastal lights — i.e., those outside the bounds of the various harbour authorities — are maintained by the Marine Department.

WRECKS — In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in New Zealand waters a Collector of Customs, Superintendent of Mercantile Marine, or other person empowered by the Minister of Marine, institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a Magistrate, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer from whose wrongful act or default damage has resulted.

Should any wreck occur on the coast, the Receiver of Wrecks for that district, usually an officer of the Customs, has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and property.

The numbers of shipping casualties reported to the Marine Department during the year ended 31 December 1960 are shown in the following table. It should be noted that figures list all casualties including small craft.

Type of ShipMiscellaneous, Berthing, Machinery Breakdown, etc.CollisionFireFounderingStrandingTotal
Passenger55
Cargo156321440
Fishing1315
Pleasure11
Totals208351551

11 B — RAILWAYS

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT — Railway history in New Zealand dates from the year 1860. In that year a contract was let for the construction of a line from Christchurch to Lyttelton, and the first portion of this line was opened on 1 December 1863. A line from Invercargill to Bluff Harbour was opened on 5 February 1867. The Provincial Council of Auckland in 1865 began the construction of a line from Auckland to Drury.

Although practically the whole of the railways are now State owned, some sections were built by private enterprise, notably the 83-mile line from Wellington to Longburn constructed by the Wellington and Manawatu Railway Co. Ltd. in 1882–86 and operated by the company until 1908.

By 31 March 1880, 1,182 miles of State-owned lines were open for traffic and by 31 March 1900 more than 2,100 route miles in 10 separate sections were in use. The 369-mile trunk line between Christchurch and Invercargill was completed for through traffic as early as 1879, but the 426-mile North Island main trunk railway between Auckland and Wellington was not completed until November 1908.

More recently, other main lines have been completed, linking up most of the hitherto isolated sections. Westland was connected with Canterbury via the 5 1/4-mile Otira Tunnel in 1923; Whangarei was connected to the main North Island system in 1924; Gisborne and Dargaville to the same system in 1942; and Westport was linked with the South Island system in 1943. In 1945 the Christchurch-Picton main line was completed.

The past decade has seen the building of new lines to serve the extensive man-made forests in the North Island. An 18-mile branch railway from Putaruru through Tokoroa to Kinleith was opened in 1952 and the 9-mile Kawerau branch and 36-mile Murupara branch were completed in 1957.

In 1957 the main highway between Blenheim and Nelson was deemed to be a notional railway connected at Blenheim to the South Island railway system. Standard rail rates apply on a continuous milage basis between Nelson and railway stations in the South Island.

Government railways in most instances have been constructed by the Ministry of Works and transferred to the Railways Department when completed. The gauge is 3 ft 6 in. Standard rails for heavy traffic main lines weigh 91 lb per lineal yard, and for secondary and branch lines 72 lb per yard. At present much of the track is laid to the standards adopted prior to 1950 — viz, 85 lb, 70 lb, and 55 lb rails. Sleepers, 2,400 to the mile, are principally of Australian hardwood, but substantial orders were placed in 1960 for pine sleepers from New Zealand mills.

Vast improvements have been made to existing railways during the past 60 years and many sections have been reconstructed at considerable expense to ease gradients, shorten distances, and reduce curvature. The Auckland-Westfield deviation, opened in 1930; the Wellington-Tawa deviation, brought into full use in July 1937; and the Turakina-Okoia deviation, opened in December 1947, are typical examples. Recent examples are the Rimutaka deviation and its 5 1/2-mile tunnel between Upper Hutt and Featherston, which was opened in November 1955 to eliminate the l-in-15 Rimutaka Incline used from 1878; and the Porirua-Plimmerton deviation and duplication completed in 1961.

The total route milage of railways vested in the Railways Department and open for traffic at 31 March 1961 was 3,333 — 1,646 miles in the North Island and 1,687 in the South Island. In addition, traffic was being worked by the Railways Department over a further 4 miles of railways owned by other Government Departments. Double line was provided on 156 route miles of track.

The Otira — Arthur's Pass section of line, including the Otira Tunnel, was electrified in 1923, the Christchurch-Lyttelton section in 1929, the Wellington-Johnsonville line in 1938, and the Wellington-Paekakariki section in 1940. The first part of electrified services between Wellington and the Hutt Valley was brought into operation in 1953, and the last stage of this project was completed in July 1955.

The introduction of main-line diesel-electric locomotives in 1952 was the beginning of a radical change in motive power operation in New Zealand. In 1961, 119 of these locomotives were is use. In addition 86 diesel-mechanical and 18 diesel-electric shunting locomotives had been purchased. Between 1955 and 1959, 35 new articulated diesel railcars were placed in service. Diesel traction was responsible for handling 42^ per cent of the traffic during the year 1960–61. The total fleet of 50 railcars ran approximately 46 per cent of the total passenger train milage.

Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service — An air freight service across Cook Strait was commenced in February 1947; information on its operation is given in Subsection 11D.

Cook Strait Vehicular Ferry Service — A ferry to carry road and rail vehicles, and passengers, is to be operated by the Railways Department between Wellington and Picton. The Aramoana (4,300 tons) is designed to carry a maximum of 34 railway wagons, or about 85 motorcars, on the vehicle deck and a further 30 motorcars in an upper deck garage. There will be all-weather accommodation in lounges and cabins for nearly 500 passengers, but it will be possible to carry up to 1,150 passengers to meet the demand in summer months. Regular sailings are expected to commence in September 1962.

ADMINISTRATION — In the year 1876 the railways that were operated by Provincial Governments passed into the control of the Public Works Department. In 1880 the opened lines were handed over to the Working Railways Department under a single management, but in 1889 a board of three Railway Commissioners was appointed. This was the form of management for five years, when a General Manager, responsible to the Minister of Railways, was appointed. Control by a General Manager continued until 1952, except for two short periods of board management, from 1925 to 1928, when a board of three members was appointed, and from 1931 to 1936, when the board consisted of five members.

Following a recommendation of a Royal Commission appointed on 3 March 1952 to inquire into and report upon all aspects of the New Zealand Government Railways, their future development, and sphere of operations, the Government established a Railways Commission. Five Directors were appointed from 12 January 1953. When the position of General Manager became vacant on 1 April 1955, the Government appointed a Director of the Railways Commission to the dual position of General Manager and Director. The Government Railways Amendment Act 1956 provided for the abolition of the Railways Commission on 1 April 1957, and reversion of control to the General Manager, who is responsible to the Minister of Railways.

COST OF CONSTRUCTION — The capital cost of State railways as at the end of each of the last five financial years is given below.

Item31 March 195731 March 195831 March 195931 March 196031 March 1961

* Together equal to £39,316 per mile of open line. Includes cost of rolling stock, buildings, and equipment as well as right of way and track.

£ (thousand)
Open for traffic—
    Railway lines and works81,88384,23789,89392,60895,781*
    Rolling stock29,79031,50933,69035,11035,259*
    Cook Strait ferry service261
    Other subsidiary services8,4289,72610,36010,75411,317
Totals120,101125,472133,943138,472142,618
Works under construction3,1173,191299298379
Grand totals123,218128,663134,242138,770142,997

So varied are the geographical features of New Zealand that a great disparity exists in the cost of constructing the individual sections of lines. Numerous mountain chains and rivers make railway construction in general both difficult and expensive. The Otira Tunnel is 5 miles 26 chains long, and the Rimutaka Tunnel is 5 miles 37 chains. The length of the longest bridge, over the Rakaia River, is 5,720 ft, and the largest viaduct, the Mohaka, 887 ft long and 318 ft above water level.

ROLLING STOCK — Information as to the rolling stock in use on the State railways as at 31 March 1961 is given in the following table.

Locomotives —

* In addition there are 5 small diesel-electric shunting locomotives in use in workshops and 97 diesel and petrol shunting tractors, both road and rail type, in use at stations.

Locomotives —  
    Steam (tender)407
    Steam (tank)70
    Electric28
    Diesel-electric107
    Diesel-electric shunting18
    Diesel-mechanical shunting86
Total716*
Passenger vehicles —
    Sleepers18
    First class93
    Second class664
    Composite7
    Railcars50
    Electric multiple units128
    Postal6
Total966
Wagons —Four WheeledBogie
    Horse boxes1446
    Cattle99487
    Sheep2,88722
    Frozen and chilled meat634768
    Cool, ventilated1,226
    Covered goods461450
    High side19,166260
    Low side1,326
    Platform21,168
    Brake vans9425
    Other2,931494
 29,6503,720
Total33,370

From 1901 to 1939 most of the locomotives and rolling stock were built in the railway workshops, but many steam locomotives and goods wagons were imported after the 1914–18 war. A number of electric locomotives, multiple-unit electric coaches, and railcars were also imported from England between 1923 and 1939.

After the 1939–45 war, construction of steam locomotives in railway workshops continued until 1950 in the North Island and until 1956 in the South Island. Construction of goods wagons has also continued in railway workshops, the annual output being dependent on the availability of staff and materials. Other requirements have been met by importations of locomotives, railcars, multiple-unit coaches, and goods wagons, mainly from the United Kingdom.

Since 1945, more than 13,000 goods and livestock wagons of modern design have been placed in service, together with several steam locomotives, 35 diesel railcars, 111 multiple-unit coaches, seven electric locomotives, and more than 200 diesel locomotives.

Dieselisation of locomotive power commenced in 1949 with the purchase of four 25-ton diesel-mechanical shunting locomotives. There are now 86 in service.

In 1959, eighteen 40-ton diesel-electric shunting locomotives were imported for heavy shunting duties and 20 more are on order from railway workshops.

The first diesel-electric locomotives for main line service were fifteen 51-ton (660 h.p.) locomotives imported in 1952. Twelve 78-ton (1,425 h.p.) locomotives received during 1961 bring the fleet to 119.

The latest diesel railcars, of which 5 were placed in service between 1955 and 1959, each weigh 56 tons unladen and seat 88 passengers. Designed for a top speed of 65 m.p.h. on level track, they are powered by two 210 h.p. diesel engines. With 15 railcars of earlier design, they provide fast passenger services covering a total of more than 7,000 miles daily spread over 12 main lines.

Standard main-line passenger cars are 56 ft in length, have chair seats, and are steam heated and electrically lit. They are steel sheathed and fitted with enclosed vestibules and gangways. Sleeping cars are provided with wash basins in each two-berth cabin, wall mirrors, reading lights, and plug-in sockets for electric razors.

Typical of the modern wagons now in use are steel high-side open wagons with a capacity of 15 tons; double-deck sheep wagons able to carry 80 sheep; 50-ft covered goods wagons for express goods trains; and high-capacity all-steel insulated wagons for frozen meat and chilled beef traffic. A new type of wagon, 42 1/2 ft long and 9 ft wide, for the Murupara-Kawerau log traffic, was specially designed for carrying a 26-ton bundle of logs loaded up to 12 ft above rail level. Deliveries of a new type of 14-ton capacity covered goods wagon designed for palletised goods traffic began in 1960, and special wagons have been introduced for the conveyance of cement in bulk and heated bitumen.

The proportions of railway traffic moved by the different types of motive power are shown in the following table. In recent years, diesel power has become steadily more important at the expense of steam.

In these traffic figures, the weight of motive power is excluded — except in the case of diesel railcars and multiple-unit electric trains.

Types of Trains1958–591959–601960–61
Gross Ton-miles (Million)Per CentGross Ton-miles (Million)Per CentGross Ton-miles (Million)Per Cent
Passenger trains —
    Steam locomotives329.244.0299.140.4307.240.3
    Diesel locomotives46.96.246.16.249.16.4
    Diesel railcars152.520.4170.423.0174.822.9
    Electric locomotives50.66.850.36.846.46.1
    Electric multiple unit169.622.6175.023.6185.124.3
Totals, passenger748.8100.0740.9100.0762.6100.0
Mixed and goods trains —
    Steam1,823.955.91,810.254.61,773.752.1
    Diesel1,365.041.81,427.443.11,551.245.6
    Electric76.52.376.32.377.92.3
Totals, mixed and goods3,265.4100.03,313.9100.03,402.8100.0
All trains —
    Steam locomotives2,153.153.62,109.352.02,080.950.0
    Diesel locomotives1,411.935.21,473.536.41,600.338.4
    Diesel railcars152.53.8170.44.2174.84.2
    Electric locomotives127.13.2126.63.1124.33.0
    Electric multiple unit169.64.2175.04.3185.14.4
Grand totals, gross ton-miles4,014.2100.04,054.8100.04,165.4100.0

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE — Gross revenue and expenditure on the railways (including subsidiary services) are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Loss

* Loss recovered from General Reserve.

 £££
195732,765,33633,034,709—269,373*
195834,442,76935,588,196—1,145,427*
195934,372,86435,137,305—764,441*
196034,936,91435,500,047—563,133*
196136,238,99836,301,757—62,759*

The expenditure figures do not include interest on capital (£5,557,331 in 1961). The chief items of expenditure for 1960–61 were wages, £21,874,850; locomotive fuel (including electricity), £1,889,442; stores and material, £4,236,456; depreciation and renewals, £4,961,317; and miscellaneous, £3,339,692.

A sum of £5,087,614 was set aside in 1960–61 for depreciation and track renewals, while expenditure from these funds amounted to £3,956,040. The amounts standing to the credit of the Depreciation and Renewals Accounts for 31 March 1961 were £14,947,946 and £195,352 respectively.

The revenue and expenditure for the last five years, distinguishing between railway operation and other items, are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Loss
Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.
£ (thousand)
195728,5074,25828,6944,340—187—82
195830,0104,43331,0644,525—1,054—91
195929,8234,55030,5054,632—682—82
196030,2714,66630,7584,742—487—76
196131,4294,81031,4894,813—60—3

The respective Island figures of revenue and expenditure for railway operation only (i.e., omitting subsidiary services) are given below for the 1960–61 year.

AreaRevenueExpenditureNet Revenue or LossRatio of Expenditure to Revenue
 £££Per Cent
North Island21,398,42019,471,2121,927,20891.0
South Island10,030,71812,017,413—1,986,695120.0
Totals31,429,13831,488,625—59,487100.2

The various subsidiary services conducted by the Railways Department, with the revenue and expenditure of each during the last two years, are shown below. Full working costs, including interest, are charged against these services, and the interest so charged is taken into miscellaneous receipts as revenue.

ServiceRevenueExpenditure
1959–601960–611959–601960–61
 £ (thousand)
Lake Wakatipu steamers22232933
Refreshment service356375398418
Bookstall service279283277276
Advertising service88897879
Departmental dwellings3793931,0371,072
Leases of bookstalls, etc.125126125116
Road services — Passengers and goods2,7482,8372,7972,819
Miscellaneous receipts669684
Totals4,6664,8104,7424,813

Revenue — In the following table the railway operating revenue is classified according to the class of traffic, etc., from which it was derived.

Year Ended 31 MarchPassenger FaresParcels, Luggage, and MailsGoods and LivestockLabour, Demurrage, etc.Total

* As from April 1959 revenue from checked and left luggage was included with passenger revenue; parcels and mail revenue was included with freight revenue.

£ (thousand)
19572,78964624,43164228,507
19582,77866525,84772030,010
19592,76965225,71069229,823
19602,798*26,78568830,271
19612,826*27,88871531,429

The revenue from passenger fares and luggage during the year 1960–61 represented an expenditure on railway travel of £1 3s. 9d. per head of mean population. The total railway operating revenue was equal to £13 3s. 9d. per head.

Expenditure — The operating expenditure under various heads is now given.

Year Ended 31 MarchMaintenance of Way and WorksMaintenance of Rolling StockLocomotive TransportationTraffic TransportationHead Office and General Charges*Total

* Including superannuation subsidy.

£ (thousand)
19577,4536,3565,6738,50970228,694
19588,7916,8625,7998,83877331,064
19598,6176,7925,5868,73977130,505
19608,2887,2205,5398,90180930,758
19618,3747,2325,5519,48884431,489

The increase in expenditure has been due chiefly to the greater milage run, and an increased wages bill, mainly the result of higher rates of pay and improved conditions of employment.

PASSENGER TRAFFIC — From about 1925 until 1933 there was a steady decline in the number of passenger journeys recorded. This was attributed to the development of motor competition and, after 1930, to the severe economic depression. As economic conditions improved from 1933 to 1939 there was an upward trend, and from 1939 to 1944 there was a sharp increase caused by the wartime movement of members of the armed forces, the curtailment of road services, and the restrictions placed on private motoring by rationing of petrol and shortage of rubber tyres.

In January 1944 train services had to be reduced drastically owing to shortage of coal. This fact, together with the large decline in armed forces traffic after the cessation of hostilities, caused the annual number of railway passenger journeys to recede considerably until the 1948–50 period, when restoration of a number of main line and suburban passenger train services became possible. Many branch-line and country main-line mixed-train services that had been discontinued were not restored, however, and the short-distance traffic that they carried was transferred permanently to road services.

Curtailment of main line and suburban services was again necessitated in 1951 because of shortage of coal arising from industrial disputes. Subsequent staff shortages prevented any large-scale restoration of services until more railcars could be introduced on main lines and until the Hutt Valley electrification scheme was nearing completion. Nevertheless, the number of passenger journeys per annum rose steadily from 1952 to 1957, reaching 25,377,170 in 1956–57. There was a decline to 24,816,639 in 1957–58, attributed partly to the continuing development of private-car competition and air services, and also to the exceptional series of floods and line blockages during the year, but a subsequent steady increase brought the number of journeys up to 26,233,430 in 1960–61.

Passenger train-miles run during 1960–61 totalled 5,751,289, and the total passenger revenue (including luggage) received represents 117.9d. per passenger train-mile, and £1,164 per mile of line operated by passenger services.

The number of passenger journeys in 1960–61 increased by 0.38 per cent, compared with the previous year.

The following table shows passenger journeys over the latest four years.

Type of Journey1957–581958–591959–601960–61
Non-suburban —
    Ordinary —
      Standard fares2,034,6571,907,4041,877,1251,893,439
      Reduced fares444,944463,919448,774416,911
    Season697,640693,902660,042645,913
Totals, Non-Suburban3,177,2413,065,2252,985,9412,956,263
Suburban —
    Ordinary5,288,9785,699,0185,919,2916,150,491
    Season16,350,42016,672,84017,229,24817,126,676
Totals, Suburban21,639,39822,371,85823,148,53923,277,167
Grand totals24,816,63925,437,08326,134,48026,233,430

The following table shows the revenue received from passenger journeys over the latest four years.

Type of Fare1957–58!958–591959–601960–61
Non-suburban —
    Ordinary —££££
      Standard fares1,729,6351,665,5151,637,6501,665,958
      Reduced fares152,196174,029181,005168,079
    Season48,19355,00842,76443,841
    Miscellaneous82,90779,983117,541119,223
Totals, Non-Suburban2,012,9311,974,5351,978,9601,997,101
Suburban —
    Ordinary262,373279,372288,264300,127
    Season502,625514,883530,600529,213
Totals, Suburban764,998794,255818,864829,340
Grand totals2,777,9292,768,7902,797,8242,826,441

GOODS TRAFFIC — The quantity of goods traffic carried by New Zealand Railways increased steadily year by year until 1929–30, but declined considerably during the depression until 1933. Since 1933 there has been a steady upward trend, with only occasional and brief recessions reflecting fluctuations in economic activity, so that over the 28 years to 1961, the tonnage of goods carried has almost doubled (from 5,490,686 tons to 10,830,033 tons), and the ton-milage has more than trebled (from 363.4 million to 1,204.7 million).

Revenue-earning ton-miles in 1960–61 (1,204.7 million) reached a record figure, being an increase of 2.91 per cent compared with 1959–60 traffic. The average distance that each ton of goods was hauled rose from 66 miles in 1932–33 to 111 miles in 1960–61.

The tonnage of goods handled increased by 286,936 tons, or 2.7 per cent.

The numbers of livestock carried for the last two years were as follows.

Item1959–601960–61Variation
    per cent
Cattle and horses806,767801,254—5,513—0.7
Calves574,927577,553+2,626+0.5
Sheep8,434,9038,040,459—394,444—4.7
Pigs440,928431,358—9,570—2.2
Totals10,257,5259,850,624—406,901—4.0
Equivalent tonnage657,121639,145—17,976—2.8
Revenue£1,976,806£1,943,218—£33,588—1.7

The following table gives interesting information concerning goods and livestock traffic and earnings for the year 1960–61.

CommodityTonnageRevenue
Tons CarriedPer Cent of TotalTons 1 MileAverage HaulTotalPer Cent of TotalPer TonPer Ton-mile
Products of Agriculture per cent(000)miles£per cent£s.d.d.
Grain and seeds272,2662.521,27578443,6561.611275.00
Meal107,8971.09,15385195,7410.711635.13
Fruit and vegetables52,9910.59,326176229,8140.84695.91
Root crops and fodder108,0441.013,759127232,3910.92304.05
Totals541,1985.053,513991,101,6024.02094.94
Animals and Other Products          
Cattle, calves and horses295,9582.732,223109773,3252.821235.76
Sheep and pigs343,1873.239,2391141,169,8934.23827.16
Meat, fresh and frozen454,6484.218,521411,033,0363.725513.39
Butter183,8511.717,18693492,0181.821366.87
Cheese117,1001.14,57439194,9610.7113310.23
Wool257,6202.425,797100866,2203.13738.06
Dairy by-products108,0591.09,12284258,2340.92796.79
Fat, hides and skins82,5310.85,68669234,1910.821699.88
Fish7,0311,44420535,1510.25005.84
Totals1,849,98517.1153,792835,057,02918.221487.89
Products of Mines          
Agricultural lime196,6051.815,08277217,4790.81213.46
Coal, New Zealand hard581,3745.445,40778685,8752.51373.63
Coal, New Zealand brown1,173,28910.8161,5101382,123,2947.611623.16
Road metal56,8380.56,135108108,8540.411844.26
Totals2,008,10618.5228,1341143,135,50211.311133.30
Products of Forests          
Timber, imported27,2590.32,1868065,4300.22807.18
Timber825,6647.6146,7841782,406,1908.621833.93
Logs and poles, New Zealand799,3017.328,67336306,4781.2 782.57
Firewood, posts, etc.28,4960.33,62012754,8910.211863.64
Totals1,680,72015.5181,2631082,832,98910.211393.75
Manufactures, etc.          
Benzine, gasoline, kerosene336,4413.135,473105979,0343.521826.62
Cement298,8242.853,756180888,0353.221953.96
Manures, phosphates etc.1,023,1289.497,426951,839,2196.611604.53
Totals1,658,39315.3186,6551133,706,28813.32494.77
Miscellaneous3,091,63128.6401,38013012,011,27343.031797.18
Grand totals10,830,033100.01,204,73711127,844,683100.021155.55

The next table shows the tonnage of goods carried, freight train-miles run, and net ton-miles run, together with the respective averages.

Year Ended 31 MarchTonnage CarriedFreight Train-milesTons 1 MileGross Revenue
Per TonPer Freight Train-milePer Ton-mile

* Revenue now includes parcels traffic.

   (000)£s.d.£s.d.d.
195710,324,6849,392,2451,136,07427421205.2
195810,331,9489,092,6351,150,5432100216105.4
195910,367,4788,836,8561,157,63629621835.3
196010,543,0978,762,6091,170,7142109*312*5.5*
196110,830,0339,022,0741,204,7372115*3110*5.5*

The following diagram illustrates the growth in the tonnage of goods and livestock carried over the last 80 years.

RAILWAYS

TONNAGE OF GOODS AND LIVESTOCK CARRIED

EACH SYMBOL * ONE MILLION TONS

A classification of goods traffic is now given.

Year Ended 31 MarchAgricultural and Pastoral ProduceAgricultural Lime and ManuresTimber and FirewoodCoalMotor Spirits and KeroseneOtherTotal
Agricultural ProduceDairy ProduceMeat, Fish, and LivestockWool
Tons (thousand)
19575253461,0582191,4711,1731,8333903,31010,325
19585633751,0402241,3181,2981,8553473,31210,332
19596213721,0632441,0991,4991,8813243,26410,367
19605694031,1302571,1871,5931,8103253,26910,543
19615414091,1012581,2201,6801,7553363,53010,830

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES — The average number of persons employed by the State railways throughout the year ended 31 March 1961 was 24,641. The staff is divided into two divisions — namely, the salaried division, and the general division — and is further classed in a number of branches, as shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchTrafficWay and WorksLocomotive RunningWorkshopsRoad ServicesOtherTotal
19577,9186,3803,5274,9071,5561,26425,552
19588,0256,8043,6015,0681,5311,30226,331
19597,8136,6573,5905,0751,5261,29025,951
19607,5716,4953,6135,0461,5161,27825,519
19617,3706,1983,5234,8241,4951,23124,641

A system of classification, first introduced in 1896 and revised at various times since, applies to railway employees. A Board is constituted to hear appeals of members against decisions in regard to promotion, loss of status, or breaches of discipline. The board consists of a Magistrate and two members of the Railways service, one appointed by the Minister of Railways and other elected by the members of the Department. The Government Railways Amendment Act 1944 provided for the establishment of a tribunal of three members whose principal functions are to prescribe scales of salaries and rates of wages for railway employees; conditions in regard to hours of work, overtime, etc.; and terms and conditions in regard to leave of absence, railway travel concessions, etc. This tribunal, known as the Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, is deemed to be a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908. The members, who must not be members of the Railways Department or of any of the railway employees' organisations, are appointed for a term of three years.

A superannuation fund in connection with the Railways service was established in 1903, but was merged with other State superannuation funds as from 1 April 1948. Information concerning this is given in Section 6C.

Paid sick leave was introduced for employees in the general division in September 1956. Previously only salaried division employees had been entitled to paid sick leave.

A New Zealand Government Railways Employees Welfare Society administered by the Department was established in 1958.

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS — During the year ended 31 March 1961, 25 persons were killed and 485 injured in all kinds of accidents associated with train working and movements of rolling stock. Comparative figures for the previous year were 24 killed and 428 injured. These figures do not include employees who were killed or injured whilst engaged on other duties, e.g., railway workshops.

Of the 25 persons meeting with fatal accidents in 1960–61, two were passengers and three were employees; of the remainder who were neither passengers nor employees three were killed in accidents on the line, 15 at level crossings, one in a shunting accident and one while trespassing. Of those injured, 51 were passengers, 356 employees (chiefly in minor accidents), and 78 were neither passengers nor employees. Of the 78 other persons, 49 were injured in crossing accidents.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS — There are a number of short private railways in New Zealand, principally lines serving collieries and sawmills. The most important is the 7-mile line of the Ohai Railway Board, extending from Wairio (north-west of Invercargill) to coal mines at Ohai and carrying a substantial coal traffic. The Whakatane Board Mills Ltd. in the North Island operates logging trains over the 15-mile Matahina Tramway from Matahina to Edgecumbe, thence by running rights over the Government railways for 4 miles to Awakeri and finally over their 6 1/2-mile line from Awakeri to the mill at Whakatane. At Portland, near Whangarei, Wilsons Portland Cement Co. Ltd., operates an extensive private railway system serving its works.

11 C — ROADS AND ROAD TRANSPORT

ROADS AND BRIDGES — The total milage of formed roads in New Zealand at 31 March 1960 was 56,893. Details are given in the following table.

Formed Roads and StreetsCountiesBoroughsTown DistrictsRoad DistrictsTotal
 miles
Sealed surfaces10,8433,77173514,692
Metal or gravel surfaces34,9731,00810710036,188
Unmetalled surfaces5,79516829216,013
Totals, formed roads51,6114,94720912656,893

The formation of roads in many parts has been attended with considerable expense and difficulties, arising from the configuration of the country and the abundance of rivers. As illustrating the latter aspect, the following table, showing the number and lengths of bridges incorporated in the roads system as at 31 March 1960, is of interest. Only bridges 25 ft or over in length have been taken into account, no official enumeration having been made of the innumerable culverts and short bridges. A perusal of the figures shown in this and the preceding table gives an average of slightly over 14 ft of bridging per mile of formed road.

Materials of which Bridge ConstructedCountiesBoroughsTown DistrictsRoad DistrictsTotals
No.Total LengthNo.Total LengthNo.Total LengthNo.Total LengthNo.Total Length

* Includes Bailey bridges erected as a temporary measure.

  ft ft ft ft ft
All concrete or stone2,253227,89917418,24363032,433246,445
Steel and concrete78580,2517710,730649786891,478
Steel, concrete, and timber*1,833167,034598,168412031051,899175,427
Timber3,704278,40111811,0046367104253,838290,197
Totals8,575753,58542848,145221,287135309,038803,547

ROADS ADMINISTRATION — The main statutes covering roads administration in New Zealand are the Public Works Act 1928, the Municipal Corporations Act 1954, the Counties Act 1956, and the National Roads Act 1953. Administration of the country's roading system is exercised by municipalities in respect of streets, by county councils in respect of county roads, and by the National Roads Board in respect of State highways. There are 7,060 miles of State highways.

By the National Roads Act a National Roads Board was established from 1 April 1954, and its functions are defined as follows:

  1. To administer the National Roads Fund in accordance with the provisions of the Act.

  2. To provide an advisory service in respect of the whole roading system of counties, boroughs, and town districts throughout New Zealand, and to report to the Government from time to time on the progress being made in providing a roading system adequate for needs arising from current developments in motor traffic.

  3. To advise the Government of any changes necessary in the legislation and regulations relating to the use of roads.

  4. To act as the final authority in disputes relating to road classifications.

  5. To advise the Government of changes necessary in the provision of finance for road construction and maintenance, particularly of changes considered advisable in the levying and collection of motor taxation, including exemptions therefrom.

  6. To assist and advise local authorities generally on roading matters and any special roading problems arising from development of industries, etc.

  7. To undertake at not more than five or less than three year intervals a comprehensive survey into the roading position in New Zealand, including standards, growth of traffic, adequacy, etc.

  8. To give effect to any special matter of roading policy communicated to it by the Government.

  9. To initiate and conduct research into roading problems in New Zealand.

  10. To collect information on roading developments in other countries and make this available to roading authorities in New Zealand.

  11. To undertake any other activity for the provision of a roading system adequate both for the needs of an efficient road transport system and for the benefit generally of motor-vehicle operators and the safety of the public in relation to motor traffic.

The composition of the National Roads Board is: (a) one member, to be appointed Chairman of the Board; (b) the person holding the appointment in the Ministry of Works as Director of Roading; (c) an officer of the Ministry of Works; (d) an officer of the Transport Department; (e) two nominees of the New Zealand Counties Association (Incorporated); (f) two nominees of the Municipal Association of New Zealand (Incorporated); (g) a representative of commercial road users; and (h) a representative of private motorists.

Roads Council Districts — New Zealand is divided into 21 roads districts, composed of local authorities grouped according to geographic situation and community interest.

For each roads district there is an advisory body, known as the District Roads Council, which is constituted to include the District Commissioner of Works, one representative of each constituent county and road district, one person to represent boroughs and independent town districts for each two members representing counties or road districts, a representative of commercial road users, a representative of private motorists, and a nominee of the Commissioner of Transport.

District Roads Councils function as advisory bodies, with the principal duties of recommending upon the maintenance and improvement programmes for State highways, and upon the yearly allocation of subsidies and grants from the National Roads Fund for local authority roading. They also make recommendations to the National Roads Board on standards and requirements for roads and highways in their particular districts, and on general matters affecting road users or road safety.

Finance — The National Roads Act 1953 provided for a National Roads Fund to be established within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund to be derived mainly from motor taxation together with an annual contribution from the Government. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modern standards and of subsidising the roading programmes of local authorities.

On the revenue side of the Fund's operations the Act reintroduced the principle of reserving motor taxation for roading purposes, and now provides for the apportionment of fixed minimum percentages thereof for expenditure on State highways, county roads, and municipal streets.

Details of the classes of revenue automatically paid into the Fund from 1 April 1954 are as follows:

  1. Fees and charges from registration and licensing of motor vehicles (section 34, Transport Act 1949), refer page 345 for present rates.

  2. Heavy traffic licence fees (section 59, Transport Act 1949), less cost of collection not exceeding 5 percent of the amount.

  3. Motor spirits tax and milage tax (Part IV of Transport Act 1949).

  4. Tyre tax (Customs Duties Tariff item 205 (b), Customs Acts Amendment Act 1934).

  5. Receipts from any source in respect of the construction, maintenance, or control of any highway.

  6. Receipts from transfers, sales, or hire of materials or plant or property of any kind or from executing works for other organisations.

  7. Any other moneys credited to the Fund.

Since April 1954 a tax on motor spirits of 1s. 3d. per gallon has been paid into the National Roads Fund. (Additional tax of 1s. per gallon imposed from 27 June 1958, and reduced to 2d. in 1960, has been paid to the Consolidated Fund.)

Expenditure from the Fund may be made without appropriation as follows:

  1. Payment of annual subsidies to local authorities for roading purposes.

  2. Payments by the Crown in respect of the construction, maintenance, and control of State highways.

  3. Compensation payable by the Crown for acquisition of land for a State highway.

  4. Compensation and damages payable by the Crown for accidents and injuries in relation to works the cost of which is chargeable to the Fund.

  5. Cost of purchase or hire of machinery or equipment.

  6. Cost of survey and other preparatory work for State highways.

  7. Cost of experimental work.

  8. Cost of administration by the Ministry of Works.

  9. Other expenses by the National Roads Board in exercise of its functions.

Prior to 1 April 1960 the highways system consisted of State highways (5,386 miles) and main highways (7,816 miles). On 1 April 1960 this system was replaced by a network of State highways totalling 7,060 miles. The figures of expenditure, etc., quoted herein for 1959–60 refer to the highways system as it existed up to 31 March 1960.

Following is a statement of receipts and expenditure of the National Roads Fund for the years ended 31 March 1960 and 1961.

 1959–601960–61
 ££
Receipts —  
    Petrol tax (net)15,248,67015,735,181
    Milage tax388,743499,599
    Tyre tax28,90043,677
    Fees and charges —  
      Registration and licence fees2,309,9062,416,365
      Heavy traffic fees2,486,0392,614,032
    Contribution from Consolidated Fund1,200,0001,000,000
    Miscellaneous receipts —  
      Repayments of plant purchases60,22239,241
      Repayments of advances to local authorities8,0727,463
      Rents28,60618,826
      Fees2,6464,740
      Sales of land and buildings4,90036,631
      Interest on plant purchases6,1873,301
      Interest on advances to local authorities1,5101,659
    Transfer of bridging material186,58642,433
    Bailey bridging hire21,5259,851
    Maintenance and construction of Government and county roads7,44221,321
    Interest on investments28,08321,833
    Miscellaneous5,13111,432
    Refunds of overpayments of rate subsidies to local authorities137,515
Total receipts22,023,16822,665,100
Expenditure —  
    Highways maintenance5,554,6594,117,771
    Highways construction10,513,0768,310,058
    Local authority roading subsidies and grants5,566,3559,806,770
    Maintenance Government and county roads146,752-
    Administration and general expenses —  
      Ministry of Works administration1,035,5531,093,930
      Abolition of toll gates410594
      Purchase of plant (local authority)6,49010,674
      Fees and travelling expenses6,2783,926
      Miscellaneous expenses21,16831,904
      Advances to local authorities3,000
    Bridging expenses —  
      Bailey bridging23,69057,902
      Other bridging16,370
    Unauthorised expenditure1,308404
Total expenditure22,895,10923,433,933
    Balance in Fund at end of year1,480,511711,678

In the following table are shown the amounts which have been expended on highways construction, renewal, or maintenance during the last five years. Maintenance figures include the cost of flood damage restoration when applicable.

Class of Expenditure1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61
 £££££
Construction and improvement8,503,7606,370,7507,298,2878,954,5347,384,304
Renewal of bridges1,857,4901,569,7771,484,6891,558,542925,754
Maintenance, repairs, etc.4,801,4354,681,9214,901,6425,554,6594,117,771
Totals15,162,68512,622,44813,684,61816,067,73512,427,829

An analysis of the actual expenditure on maintenance in each Island, as compared with the number of motor vehicles in each Island at 31 March of each of the last five years, appears in the following table, the percentages relating to New Zealand totals.

Item1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61
 Percentage of New Zealand Totals
North Island —     
    Maintenance expenditure67.7866.4165.4169.0468.08
    Motor vehicles67.1967.4167.3767.4667.47
South Island —     
    Maintenance expenditure32.2233.5934.5930.9631.92
    Motor vehicles32.8132.5932.6332.5432.53

The following table shows the milage of State highways in the North and South Islands at 31 March 1961, together with a classification as to the type of construction or surface.

IslandLength of Highways
Dustless SurfaceGravel or Macadam SurfaceTotal
  miles 
North Island2,7401,0273,767
South Island2,1881,1053,293
Total4,9282,1327,060

State Highways — The National Roads Act provides for the declaration of roads as State highways with the approval of the Minister of Works.

The National Roads Board has the sole power of construction, maintenance, and control of all State highways. These powers may be delegated, for any State highway or portion thereof, to the local authority in whose district the road is situated. Any construction or maintenance work that is not delegated by the Board to a local authority is carried out by or through the agency of the Commissioner of Works and the cost borne by the Fund. The Board may also delegate to the Ministry of Works its duties in connection with design, supervision, construction, or maintenance, or the administration of any specified State highway. No new construction works are to be commenced by the Board, however, without the prior consent of the Minister of Works.

For State highways, the whole cost of construction is to be met from the National Roads Fund.

Highway Standards — In order to qualify for highway subsidies local authorities are required to carry out works to a standard approved by the National Roads Board. Subsidies are not payable unless the approved standard is observed, although work of a higher standard may be undertaken provided that the additional expenditure involved is found by the local authorities concerned. From time to time the Board's standards are revised to meet the latest developments in highway practice and engineering design and also to cater for the requirements of increasing traffic. Roadmaking materials used in highway works are subject to standard tests, and during recent years advances have been made in the direction of framing standard specifications which allow of a wider use of certain local materials which formerly were not accepted.

Motorways — Legislation by means of the Public Works Amendment Act 1947, as amended by section 44 of the Public Works Amendment Act 1948, makes provision for the declaration of motorways. It is emphasised that motorways are not merely better all-purpose highways, but are limited as to access, and restricted as to class of traffic.

In addition to providing the most efficient and economic transport service, the main distinguishing features of a motorway are the control of access and the total elimination of ribbon development, both of which will go far to improve road safety and prevent obsolescence.

The total milage of motorways in use at 31 March 1961 was 32.43 miles. During 1960–61,10 motorway bridges, totalling 1,784 ft, were completed. Additional lengths are under construction at Auckland and Wellington. The figures quoted for motorways' milages and bridging are included in those shown under highways.

Activity During the Year Ended 31 March 1961 — During the year ended 31 March 1961, 118 miles of new sealing on highways were completed, giving an aggregate of 4,928 miles sealed, or 69.8 per cent of the total highway milage. In addition, improvements to existing sealed surfaces were effected on 676 miles of highways.

New bridging totalled 7,257 linear feet, compared with 13,406 linear feet in the previous year.

Local Authority Roading — Under the National Roads Amendment Act 1959 the National Roads Board pays from 1 April 1960 a subsidy at the rate of 15s. for each £1 that is spent by the local authority out of its own funds in the financial year on such programme of subsidised works as has been accepted for that financial year by the Board; the amount of subsidy is to be not less than 14 per cent of the Board's revenue in the case of boroughs and independent town districts, and not less than 30 per cent in the case of counties, dependent town districts, and road districts.

In addition to these statutory subsidies the Board may, so far as money available in the Fund permits, provide such additional finance as it thinks justified to a local authority having regard to its particular financial problems or special circumstances. Such additional aid is provided by way of grant.

In recognition of the urgency and importance of the country's bridge renewal problem, the Board decided that a more generous subsidy would be available to all local authorities for bridge replacement work, and such additional aid is provided by grants.

For the year ended 31 March 1961 the following amounts were paid to local authorities from the National Roads Fund for roading.

Local AuthoritySubsidyGrantsTotal
 £££
Municipalities2,398,000604,0003,002,000
County councils (including road boards)4,064,0002,741,0006,805,000
Totals6,462,0003,345,0009,807,000

The total amount paid to local authorities during 1960–61 exceeded that for the previous year by over £4 million. This was due. to the change of system from 1 April 1960, in particular the elimination of main highways, expenditure in respect of which was mainly paid to local authorities previously by way of highway subsidies. Some main highways are now State highways, but the majority have become local authority roads.

Loan Assistance — In special circumstances the Board may advance money by way of loan to local authorities to provide for the proportion of cost payable by a local authority in respect of a subsidised work. Such loans must be repaid by instalments extending over a period (not exceeding 10 years) to be agreed upon between the Board and the local authority, and interest is payable at a rate approved by the Minister of Finance.

The Board is also empowered to sell roadmaking machinery, plant, and equipment to local authorities on such terms as it thinks fit, including terms for the repayment of the purchase money by instalments extending over not more than four years, with interest on the unpaid balance at such rate as is fixed by the Board. Since this scheme was introduced by the Main Highways Board, plant, etc., has been purchased to the value of £1,099,562, of which sum £38,378 was outstanding at 31 March 1961. New advances made and repayments received during 1960–61 totalled £6,029 and £39,241 respectively.

Development Roading — In addition to the expenditure on reading from the National Roads Fund, moneys are provided annually by the Consolidated Fund (Vote Roads) for development road construction. Under this heading subsidies are paid to local authorities for the construction of new roads giving access to farm lands being brought into production. This Vote also finances access roading to lands being prepared for farm settlement by the Lands and Survey and Maori Affairs Departments, as well as certain new roading of a national development character such as the through road linking Paringa-Haast-Haast Pass.

New roads constructed for farm access are handed over to the care of local authorities, while national roading normally becomes the responsibility of the National Roads Board for maintenance as part of the State highway system.

Government roading expenditure from the Consolidated Fund (Vote Roads) for the year ended 31 March 1961 was approximately £937,000.

Overall Roading Expenditure — The following table shows the total expenditure on roading from all sources for the year ended 31 March 1961.

National Roads Fund —££
    State highways12,428,000 
    Subsidies, etc. — local roading9,807,000 
  22,235,000
Consolidated Fund (Vote Roads) 937,000
Local authority funds —  
    Municipalities5,803,000 
    County councils, etc.6,290,000 
  12,093,000
Total 35,265,000

REGISTRATION AND LICENSING OF MOTOR VEHICLES — The following scale of fees is operative from 1 July 1962: Registration fees are £1 for any tractor, trailer, or power cycle, and £2 for any other motor vehicle. Annual licence fees are as follows: Power cycles, £1; motor cycles, £2; motorcars and private station wagons, £3; motor vehicles designed to carry more than nine passengers, £5; motor vehicles of which the manufacturer's gross laden weight exceeds two tons, £5; traction engines, £7 10s.; motor vehicles not otherwise specified, £4; trailers (two or more axles), £5; trailers (other), £1 10s. Other fees include drivers' licences, 5s.; changes of ownership, 10s.; and dealers' licences (motor cycles, £2; any other motor vehicles, £3). All such fees, except those for drivers' licences which are payable to the local authorities, are credited to the National Roads Fund.

The Transport Act 1949 provides that the annual licence may take the form of new registration plates or be in such other form as prescribed by regulation. The Motor Vehicles (Registration and Licensing) Regulations 1949, replacing earlier emergency regulations, authorise the permanent alternative of a licensed label system instead of an annual change of registration plates. The charge for licence stickers is 6d., for each set of two number plates, 3s. 6d., and 1s. 9d. for a single plate for a trailer or motor cycle.

The following table shows the numbers of the various types of motor vehicles licensed as at 31 March in each of the last five years.

Type of VehicleLicensed as at 31 March
19571958195919601961
Cars425,018462,439480,381502,574523,847
Light trucks (i.e., 2 tons and under, laden)60,94650,47250,23549,72451,025
Heavy trucks (i.e., over 2 tons laden)60,52264,87367,46669,68673,382
Contract vehicles2,1662,2481,7301,6791,706
Omnibuses2,1742,1932,2682,3172,255
Public taxi cabs2,4382,4312,4422,4452,491
Rental cars1,9772,2002,2342,2252,423
Private taxi cabs246227184174158
Service coaches733708673628586
Trailers77,98883,41091,283100,855117,597
Vehicles exempted from payment of annual licence fees (other than exempted Government-owned vehicles)48,45950,81552,85257,22462,169
Government vehicles16,54316,68616,86216,68317,480
Motor cycles25,38926,08426,62426,87428,436
Power cycles5,7817,8139,5449,93710,854
Totals730,380772,599804,778843,025894,409
Dealers' cars3,0793,2753,2213,0543,135
Dealers' motor cycles197253200152145
Grand totals733,656776,127808,199846,231897,689

Motor vehicles exempted from the annual licence fee include a miscellaneous collection of machines such as farmers' motor vehicles used solely on the farm and only venturing on roads to proceed from one part of the farm to another, or from farm to garage for repair, etc., excavators, scoops, trench diggers, logging machinery, cranes, etc.

The rate of increase in the number of motor vehicles has exceeded the rate of increase in population. The following table shows the changes in relationship between the number of licensed vehicles and population as at 31 March in the latest 11 years.

As at 31 MarchNumber of Persons in Population per CarNumber of Persons in Population per Motor Vehicle (Excluding Trailers)
19517.74.7
19527.04.2
19536.64.0
19546.43.8
19555.93.7
19565.53.5
19575.23.4
19584.83.2
19594.83.2
19604.73.2
19614.63.1

The next table shows the estimated total consumption of motor spirits in New Zealand, together with the quantity consumed by motor vehicles, for each year during the period 1950 to 1961.

Calendar YearConsumption of Motor Spirits
By Motor Vehicles on Public RoadsTotal Consumption
million gallons
1950122.5145.8
1951139.4165.9
1952149.0182.7
1953160.5196.7
1954172.1213.0
1955185.0228.5
1956200.7244.6
1957207.0252.4
1958217.0263.7
1959218.5261.0
1960234.3280.4
1961245.4296.4

The following diagram illustrates the movement that has taken place in the number of motor vehicles licensed, and in the consumption of motor spirits by motor vehicles since 1933. The low consumption of motor spirits during the depression period, the effects of rationing during the war years, the post-war recovery, and the subsequent increases paralleling the greater number of vehicles licensed in later years, are clearly demonstrated.

MOTOR VEHICLES LICENSED AND MOTOR SPIRITS CONSUMPTION

The following table gives particulars of the numbers of motor vehicles newly registered during each of the last five financial years. It should be noted that if a vehicle is again brought into use after its registration has been cancelled, it is treated as a new registration.

Year Ended 31 MarchCarsMotor Cycles (Including Power Cycles)Commercial VehiclesTrailersTotal Registrations
195738,3485,10619,82114,27577,550
195841,1787,68217,95715,77182,588
195931,6447,75726,08515,70481,190
196030,9325,98024,29116,66777,870
196136,3856,64017,71129,18289,918

Since 1 April 1958 registrations of new vehicles and those vehicles previously registered only in another country are available separately. These particulars (which exclude re-registrations) are as follows:

Year Ended 31 MarchCarsMotor Cycles (Including Power Cycles)Commercial VehiclesTrailersTotal Registrations
195929,8726,14931,20667,227
196028,3383,46427,62059,422
196134,3764,74313,80821,15274,079

ROAD TRANSPORT — The Transport Act 1949 is the main legislation governing road transport and the operations of the Transport Department. The Traffic Regulations 1956, made pursuant to the Transport Act, set out the rules of the road, the requirements as to motor vehicle equipment, and the obligations of motor drivers and owners and pedestrians.

The Heavy Motor Vehicle Regulations 1955 fix, in respect of commercial vehicles of over 2 tons gross weight, heavy-traffic fees payable to local authorities for road-maintenance purposes, and also for classifying roads and providing other measures. Quarterly licence fees under the Heavy Motor Vehicle Regulations range from £2 3s. 4d. (not above 2 1/2 tons) to £97 15s. (30 tons), with £3 10s. for each additional ton or part thereof above 30, commencing from 1 June 1955. The fees for farmers' trucks range from £1 1s. 8d. to £92 1s. 8d. on a corresponding basis. No distinction is now made between passenger and goods vehicles, while the range of weight classes is considerably extended. Heavy-traffic fees, less the cost of collection, etc., were apportioned among the local authorities having control of roads within each heavy-traffic district, either as might be mutually agreed upon by such local authorities or, in default of such agreement, by the Minister of Transport, but from 1954 the fees (less collection costs as fixed by the Minister of Finance and not exceeding 5 per cent) are payable to the National Roads Fund.

The Motor Spirits Taxation Act 1927 imposed a duty of 4d. per gallon (raised in 1930 to 6d. per gallon; further subsequent increases were not connected with road taxation). From November 1953 the full duty was increased to 1s. 3d. per gallon, and this amount is paid into the National Roads Fund instead of only the first 6d. per gallon. An additional duty of 1s. per gallon (reduced to 8d. and then 4d. per gallon in 1959 and to 2d. per gallon in 1960) was imposed by the Customs Acts Amendment Act 1958 and this is payable to the Consolidated Fund.

There is also a tyre tax collected under the Customs Act and paid to the National Roads Fund.

TRANSPORT LICENSING — The Transport Act 1949 provides that passenger services, goods-services, and harbour-ferry services may only be carried on under licence granted under the Act.

The constitution of transport, goods-service, and harbour-ferry-service districts is provided for in the Act, together with the establishment of a licensing authority for each district. For the four metropolitan transport districts, the licensing authorities appointed are the Auckland Transport Board and the Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin City Councils respectively. Goods-service districts may be identical with a transport district or be a part of the latter. The Governor-General may also declare any specified harbour or harbours or parts thereof to be a harbour-ferry-service district.

The licensing authority for any transport district may also be declared to be the licensing authority for the goods-service district. The Act provides for the appointment of a licensing authority for each harbour-ferry district instead of the former practice under which the licensing authority for the transport district to which the harbour is contiguous was to be the licensing authority for the harbour-ferry district. The Minister may authorise any specified licensing authority to exercise jurisdiction in respect of licences which would otherwise come within the jurisdiction of some other licensing authority.

The licensing authority, other than a metropolitan authority, is to consist of either one or three persons as the Minister may determine, who are appointed for a term of up to three years' duration. Members are also eligible for reappointment. The sole member or the chairman (where the authority consists of three members) has the authority and privileges of a Magistrate in respect of proceedings.

The Act provides that any authority under the Act when dealing with an application or any other matter concerned with road transport or harbour-ferry services, is to have regard primarily to the public interest, the desirability of the service, and the needs of the district. More generally the authority is to have regard also to the following:

  1. The provision of modern transport facilities best suited according to the nature of the service to meet the needs of national production and living standards and of national defence.

  2. The fair and impartial regulation of all forms of public transport in order to develop and maintain transportation facilities adequate to meet the needs of New Zealand and of national and Commonwealth defence; and, for these purposes, to administer such facilities so as to recognise and preserve the inherent advantages of each form of transport; to promote safe, adequate, economic, and efficient service, and the fostering of sound economic conditions in transportation; to encourage the establishment and maintenance of reasonable transport charges without unjust discrimination, undue preference or advantage, or unfair or destructive practices; and to promote good working conditions for workers.

The Act protects Government railways against excessive or unfair competition by declaring the carriage of goods (whether for hire or reward or not) by means of a goods-service vehicle or combination of goods-service vehicles exceeding 2 1/2 tons gross laden weight to be a goods service, and therefore operable only under licence, where suitable rail facilities exist. Suitable rail facilities are defined as:

  1. In the case of fresh meat or fresh fish, 75 miles of open Government railway.

  2. In the case of logs, 50 miles of open Government railway or the Murupara-Kawerau railway.

  3. In the case of biscuits or confectionery, 50 miles of open Government railway.

  4. In any other case, 40 miles of open Government railway.

Where a farmer is carrying his own farming goods in a goods-service vehicle owned by him it is deemed a goods service if the gross laden weight exceeds 6 1/2 tons and if there is an available route that includes:

  1. In the case of fresh milk, fresh cream, fresh vegetables, fresh fruit, eggs, poultry, or fresh meat, 75 miles of open Government railway.

  2. In any other case, 40 miles of open Government railway.

These protective provisions do not apply —

  1. Where the route that includes the railway is longer by more than one-third than the shortest road route.

  2. Where the owner of the vehicle is the Crown.

  3. Where the vehicle is owned by a local authority or public body and the goods are carried within the district of the local authority or public body.

  4. To the carriage of livestock.

A transport licence is not required for: (1) the carriage to and from school of school children and their teachers only; (2) the carriage by a contract vehicle or a harbour ferry of a private party on a special occasion; (3) carriage of workmen to and from work by the Government or a public body, where the vehicle is not designed principally for the carriage of persons and such service has been approved by the Minister for this purpose; (4) carriage of newspapers, or in connection with funerals or repair and wreckage of vehicles which have met with mishap; (5) farmers carrying milk, cream, or whey to and from dairy factories for their neighbours where a licensed goods service is not available; (6) relieving or assisting inhabitants of a locality affected by flood, earthquake, or fire; (7) carriage of showman's goods, etc. by a vehicle owned by the showman; and (8) goods services otherwise exempted by Order in Council.

In considering applications for licences the licensing authority is to have regard to the extent to which any proposed service or improved service is necessary or desirable in the public interest, and the needs of the district concerned and the protection of public funds where the Minister of Railways holds a licence. If further consideration be then given, factors to be taken into account are existing services, financial ability of applicant to carry on the service, provision and maintenance of a reasonable standard of living and satisfactory working conditions in the transport industry, the manner in which a service has already been carried on, or the likelihood of satisfactorily carrying on a service, timetables and frequency of service, vehicles or ferries to be used, conditions of roads., routes and load restrictions, speeds, etc., and representations that may be made by various bodies, persons carrying on transport services and likely to be affected, and petitions of 25 or more adult persons of the locality concerned, etc.

Preference is to be given to applications by Government and local authority or other public body under certain conditions, chiefly where no existing services are available or where the proposal is for an extension of an existing service, or if the new service is wholly within the applicant's district in the case of a local authority, etc., or where there will be no competition with an existing service to the same locality by means of another route.

The licensing authority is to prescribe the terms and conditions of the licences such as class (continuous, seasonal, or temporary), commencement date, localities and routes, timetables, etc.

Additional requirements may be prescribed for taxicab licences to ensure the control of the service in the interests of efficiency and of the public — e.g., complying with roster of duties, joining an organisation for the purpose of obtaining telephone facilities, etc. There is no limitation on the period for which licences may be issued, and they may be transferred subject to certain conditions.

Certificates of fitness are required for each passenger service or goods-service vehicle and all trucks with gross laden weight exceeding two tons. Charges are to be fixed, in the case of a service owned by a public body, by that body itself, and in the case of any other service, by the Commissioner of Transport, there being a right of appeal to the Transport Charges Appeal Authority in either case.

The Transport Charges Appeal Authority, as in the case of the Transport Licensing Appeal Authority, also established under the Act, is to be either a Judge of the Supreme Court or the holder of any office under any Act who is entitled to the equivalent rights and tenure of office as a Judge of the Supreme Court.

Applications to fix road and harbour-ferry charges may be made by the holder of, or an applicant for, the licence; any other person whose interests are affected, being the holder of a licence, an applicant, the permanent head of a Government Department, a local authority, or a public body; any 25 or more adult residents of a locality in which the charges are or would be in force; all parties to a contract for the carriage of passengers or goods by any such services; and incorporated bodies whose members have a special interest in the type of transport concerned or whose principal objects are the protection of the interests of transport operators. The power to fix fares to be charged on any road passenger service carried on by the Minister of Railways to which Part III of the Government Railways Act 1949 applies, is expressly excluded from the jurisdiction of the charge-fixing bodies, but there is now right of appeal to the Charges Appeal Authority.

The principles to be observed in determining transport charges include: the promotion and maintenance of the economic stability of New Zealand; desirability of increasing national production by granting concessions on the carriage of producers' goods; desirability of providing special fares for all regular users of passenger services, and that children under four years be carried free, with children from the age of four years and under 15 years at half adult rates; desirability of maintaining a reasonable standard of living and satisfactory working conditions in the road-transport and harbour-ferry industries; and the maintenance of efficiency of the transport services to which the proceedings relate.

Included in the general provisions is one under which the owner of any motor vehicle licensed for passenger services or goods services and involved in an accident attended by serious injury to any person, or serious damage to the property of any person, shall notify the Commissioner of Transport within 48 hours of the occurrence.

Operations of Licensed Goods and Passenger Services — The following tables review the operations of licensed road transport services to which the preceding paragraphs relate. The first of these tables gives the estimated overall figures concerning licensed road goods services for each of the four latest years ended 31 March.

Road Goods Services1956–571957–581958–591959–60
Revenue £33,623,00036,054,00037,000,00040,000,000
Capital £22,229,00024,966,00027,000,00028,000,000
Total vehicle-miles224,000,000229,000,000234,000,000246,000,000
Number of goods service licences6,9877,1016,9446,817
Average revenue per vehicle-mile d.36.0637.8538.3738.97
Average number of miles per vehicle15,16014,91814,63215,113

The second table shows traffic data, revenue, and number of vehicles used by the road passenger services operating in New Zealand, and is inclusive of services in the four metropolitan transport districts, for each of the latest four years ended 31 March.

Road Passenger Services1956–571957–581958–591959–60
Traffic statistics —    
    Passengers carried153,219,147149,786,871154,570,063162,759,069
    Vehicle-miles68,558,88070,588,39370,031,64170,568,908
Total revenue £8,506,1538,990,0279,134,8009,673,695
Total revenue, per mile d.29.7830.5731.3032.89
Number of vehicles included3,4673,7033,6943,656

ROAD SAFETY — The New Zealand Road Safety Council, first set up in 1936 to advise the Government on matters of road safety, was reconstituted in 1947. Subcommittees have now been set up dealing with the following: the motor driver, motor vehicle, roads, traffic laws, traffic law enforcement, road accident statistics, road safety publicity, and child education in traffic. Since April 1953 local road safety committees have been formed to deal with local problems and make recommendations to the parent body. There are now 36 local organisations operating throughout New Zealand.

Publicity directed towards road safety is carried out per medium of the press, posters, screen slides, and radio, concentrating on simultaneous presentation, as far as possible, of specific aspects of the problem. Other means employed in furthering road safety consist of traffic instruction in schools, inspection of motor vehicles, and enforcement of traffic laws.

The Transport Act 1949, as amended in 1950 and 1955, contains several provisions designed to achieve greater safety on the roads. A maximum speed limit of 55 miles per hour is fixed, but lower limits are provided for special classes of vehicles — e.g., motor cycles with pillion riders, 40 miles per hour (30 miles per hour without safety helmets); heavy passenger vehicles, 45 miles per hour; vehicles drawing trailers, 40 miles per hour; and heavy goods vehicles, 35 miles per hour. A uniform speed limit of 30 miles per hour is fixed in boroughs, town districts, or other localities which have been declared to be closely populated localities by notice published by the Minister of Transport in the New Zealand Gazette. The Act also gives the Minister power to exempt any road in a particular borough or town district from the provisions of the maximum speed limit, and further exceptions are ambulances (fitted with a siren or bell) or police vehicles travelling on urgent duty, or fire engines proceeding to a fire. Limited-speed zones may now be defined and indicated by signs at the approaches to closely settled areas, and there a maximum speed-limit of 30 m.p.h. operates when adverse conditions prevail, such as poor visibility or heavy traffic.

Persons convicted on indictment of negligent or reckless driving, or driving while under the influence of drink or a drug to such an extent as to be incapable of having proper control of a motor vehicle, if injury or death to any person results from their actions, are liable to a maximum penalty of five years' imprisonment or a fine of £500. Where no person is injured or where the offence as above results in summary conviction, the maximum penalty is three months' imprisonment or a fine of £100. The terms of the compulsory disqualification for serious driving offences were materially extended by the Transport Amendment Act (No. 2) 1958. For driving while under the influence of drink to such an extent as to be incapable of having proper control of the vehicle the minimum disqualification from obtaining a licence, unless the Court thinks fit to order otherwise, is now three years for the first offence and 10 years for any subsequent offence. For negligent or reckless driving the minimum cancellation of licence is now one year. Application may be made to the Court to review the disqualification after six months except for intoxicated driving for which the period is 12 months and two years for a subsequent offence. The Act prescribes penalties for careless or inconsiderate driving, certain accident-promoting offences (3 months' disqualification), the drinking of intoxicants in a public vehicle, and makes compulsory the reporting to the police of all motor-vehicle accidents involving injury.

Included in the Traffic Regulations 1956 are the requirements to which motor drivers must conform and which are designed to promote the safety of those using the roads.

The following table shows the nature of the offences resulting in convictions during the latest four years ended 31 March.

Type of Offence1957–581958–591959–601960–61

* Includes 470 motor cyclists exceeding 30 miles per hour without safety helmets.

† Includes 632 motor cyclists exceeding 30 miles per hour without safety helmets.

‡ Includes 689 motor cyclists exceeding 30 miles per hour without safety helmets.

§ Includes 655 motor cyclists exceeding 30 miles per hour without safety helmets.

(a) Road traffic offences —    
    Intoxicated in charge262190180202
    Negligent driving27333821
    Driving in a dangerous manner273252175172
    Dangerous speed152154118106
    Careless or inconsiderate driving805730929881
    Exceeding 30 m.p.h.3,1644,0294,7384,534
    Overtaking offences191294355561
    Failing to keep left406450443494
    Failing to yield right of way308342314368
    Driver's licence offences8958791,0091,109
    Licensing and registration offences551729970874
    Lighting offences8221,0431,120886
    Defective brakes106152130144
    No warrant of fitness1,3751,6952,2042,242
    Loading offences13488116104
    Exceeding 50 m.p.h.5638791,0421,082
    Cycling offences418394859929
    Failing to dip68699788
    Failing to give right of way to pedestrians961109796
    Exceeding 40 m.p.h. with pillion passenger239260293253
    L plate offences354410401323
    Crossing railway line46547056
    Compulsory stop621759865825
    Parking4,3885,6215,0796,600
    Miscellaneous1,143*l,5811,9461,839§
(b) Heavy motor-vehicle offences —    
    Exceeding heavy-traffic licence398610568600
    Exceeding axle load6331,1091,1791,123
    No heavy-traffic licence497543550490
    Speeding662918962946
    Miscellaneous45356669
(c) Transport licensing offences —    
    Unlicensed goods service168238171165
    Breach of goods service licence186312250219
    Unlicensed passenger service2611
    Breach of passenger service licence2513
    No certificate of fitness201230201224
    No vehicle authority37462647
    Drivers' hours breaches1116
    Overloading18888562
    Rental vehicle offences45597578
    Miscellaneous transport offences29266275
(d) Miscellaneous offences under miscellaneous Acts and regulations12163574
Totals20,34325,44927,82628,970

The above table covers only the offences reported by officers of the Transport Department.

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS ON ROADS — Motor-vehicle accidents involving death or personal injury are required by law to be reported to the police. For the year ended 31 December 1960, 8,844 such accidents, resulting in 374 fatalities and in injuries to 12,443 other people, were reported. Comparative figures for 1959 and 1958 years were (1958 figures being given in parentheses): number of accidents, 8,265 (8,194); fatalities, 349 (379); persons injured, 11,703 (11,408). The increase in the traffic flow over the last few years, caused largely by the increased number of vehicles on the road, has been an important factor in the increase in motor accidents. New Zealand has one of the lowest motor accident death rates (based on deaths per 10,000 licensed motor vehicles), the figure for 1960 being 5.02. Details of the number and nature of road accidents for the latest five calendar years, which have been compiled by the Transport Department, are as follows.

Number of AccidentsNature of Accident
19561957195819591960
Collisions —     
    Between two or more motor vehicles2,8613,2863,4673,5323,886
    Between motor vehicle and bicycle1,1661,3151,3311,2591,279
    Between motor vehicle and pedestrian1,1651,2361,2941,3101,346
    Between motor vehicle and fixed object503660654642735
    Between motor vehicle and animal or horse vehicle5446545352
    Between motor vehicle and railway train5540495642
    Between motor vehicle and tram19108813
    Multiple and other collisions240234188221226
Totals, collisions6,0636,8277,0457,0817,579
Non-collisions —     
    Drove off road193246228264244
    Went over bank308323295291330
    Overturned on roadway359401461475510
    Person fell from vehicle90122132116138
    Other2929333843
Totals, non-collisions9791,1211,1491,1841,265
Total accidents7,0427,9488,1948,2658,844

Particulars of fatal motor-vehicle accidents included in the foregoing table are now given. It should be noted that the figures relate to the number of accidents and not to the number of deaths, which, as stated above, numbered 374 in 1960.

Nature of AccidentNumber of Fatal Accidents
19561957195819591960
Collisions, motor vehicle with —     
    Pedestrian8089879089
    Motor vehicle7499937782
    Train119101013
    Bicycle2041372630
    Horse vehicle or animal11
    Other4045474748
Otherwise8071726379
Totals306355346313341

Statistics of deaths resulting from motor-vehicle accidents are available for many years from vital statistics, these figures being discussed briefly in Section 4c.

The next table gives an analysis by percentages of the more important causes of accidents involving motor vehicles during the year ended 31 December 1960.

CauseAccidents Where Motorists Considered ResponsibleAccidents Where Pedestrians Considered ResponsibleAccidents Where Cyclists Considered ResponsibleAll Miscellaneous Causes
 per cent
Failure to yield right of way2616
Failure to keep left97
Driver/rider inattentive1428
Excessive speed12
Intoxicated3
Overtaking faults6
Following another vehicle too closely4
Pedestrian crossing roadway heedless of traffic55
Pedestrian emerging from behind vehicle or object15
Pedestrian stepping into roadway without due care14
Pedestrian intoxicated6
Pedestrian confused by traffic2
Pedestrian failing to keep to side of road where no footpath2
Turning suddenly314
Failure to give proper signal3
Reckless emergence from another road5
Door opened in moving vehicle10
Animals on roadway12
Door of vehicle opened in path of other party8
Road surface slippery from weather conditions10
Excessive depth of loose metal9
Weather conditions11
Sundry causes2362740
Totals100100100100

On week days, from Monday to Friday inclusive, the worst hourly period for motor accidents was from 5 p.m. to 6 p.m., on Saturdays from 6 p.m. to 7 p.m., and on Sundays from 5 p.m. to 6 p.m. More accidents occur on Saturday than on any other day of the week.

The following table shows motor accident death and injury rates in 1960 for New Zealand in comparison with other countries.

CountryPersons KilledPersons InjuredKilled per 10,000 VehiclesKilled per 100,000 PopulationInjured per 10,000 VehiclesInjured per 100,000 Population
New Zealand37412,4435.0215.73167523
Australia2,40658,5608.7623.65213576
Great Britain6,970340,5817.6113.68372668
United States of America38,2001,400,0005.1721.22189778

URBAN TRANSPORT OPERATED BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES — In recent years the use of motor-bus and trolley-bus services has increased and electric tramways have become a small sector of the urban passenger services. Only one electric tramway system serving a city area continues to run, this being in Wellington.

The data provided in this section cover the whole of the urban passenger transport services operated by local authorities in the respective periods. These consist of: (1) Motor-bus services only; (2) combined trolley-bus and motor-bus services; (3) combined tram, trolley-bus and motor-bus services.

No account is taken in this section of the various motor-bus services operated by the New Zealand Government Railways or by any private enterprise.

Systems Comprising Motor-bus Services Only — In the following tables information is given on the operations of those municipal services which consist entirely of motor-buses.

ServiceYear Ended 31 March
195919601961
Number of Passengers Carried
Gisborne816,547784,065786,534
Palmerston North1,510,8811,490,0621,500,530
Eastbourne1,275,2601,240,0791,209,077
Christchurch20,861,51421,425,46021,614,700
Timaru1,271,5031,347,2531,324,845
Invercargill2,363,7462,489,6182,481,191
Totals28,099,45128,776,53728,916,877
Average Number of Passengers per Mile Run
Gisborne4.274.104.53
Palmerston North4.454.564.74
Eastbourne2.132.252.12
Christchurch4.864.854.84
Timaru5.855.235.11
Invercargill4.855.025.05
 4.594.614.61
 Revenue
 £££
Gisborne25,63827,02128,316
Palmerston North35,30637,01240,473
Eastbourne78,06676,58177,984
Christchurch569,349585,232597,313
Timaru32,15036,03039,252
Invercargill47,22350,55950,571
Totals787,732812,435833,909
 Expenditure
 £££
Gisborne26,63125,94127,678
Palmerston North50,55543,65845,572
Eastbourne69,24470,39973,748
Christchurch726,997739,088755,333
Timaru39,01040,20939,094
Invercargill72,15869,49179,095
Totals984,595988,7861,020,520
 Number of Buses in Use
Gisborne1099
Palmerston North151515
Eastbourne222222
Christchurch167155155
Timaru171717
Invercargill191920
Totals250237238
 Seating Capacity
Gisborne317291302
Palmerston North518467461
Eastbourne775775778
Christchurch6,6806,2006,200
Timaru641647647
Invercargill708707744
Totals9,6399,0879,132
 Miles Run During Year
Gisborne191,025191,376173,737
Palmerston North339,858327,065316,337
Eastbourne597,368551,505569,924
Christchurch4,289,1894,414,2624,464,456
Timaru217,282257,745259,034
Invercargill487,384496,001491,623
Totals6,122,1066,237,9546,275,111
ServiceAverage Fare per PassengerRevenue per MileExpenditure per Mile
195919601961195919601961195919601961
 d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.
Gisborne7.197.948.3032.2133.8939.1233.4632.5338.23
Palmerston North5.345.686.2024.9327.1630.7135.7032.0434.57
Eastbourne14.4414.4415.0131.3633.3332.8427.8230.6431.06
Christchurch6.446.436.5131.8631.8232.1140.6840.1840.61
Timaru5.896.186.9535.5133.5536.3743.0937.4436.22
Invercargill4.694.764.7423.2524.4624.6935.5333.6238.61
Totals6.596.626.7730.8831.2631.8938.6038.0439.03

Systems Comprising Combined Trolley-bus and Motor-bus Services — New Plymouth has operated a service of this type since disposing of electric trams in July 1954, Dunedin since the cessation of electric trams in March 1957, and Auckland since December 1956.

Route Milage — Lengths of routes in use at 31 March 1961 are given below.

ServiceTrolley-bus RoutesMotor-bus Routes
 mchmch
Auckland66359330
New Plymouth3291939
Dunedin25204235

The following tables set out details of the operations of these authorities during the last three years.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of VehiclesSeating CapacityNumber of Miles RunTotal Passengers CarriedPassengers per Mile Run
Trolley BusesMotor BusesTrolley BusesMotor BusesTrolley BusesMotor Buses
    Auckland   
19591152494,89510,6942,745,0505,537,89353,473,4816.46
19601332435,72710,5083,537,1384,767,37953,374,0006.43
19611332355,72710,2323,686,3744,475,09651,774,9496.34
    New Plymouth   
195941716868186,281430,6183,312,6366.41
196041716868187,142449,9053,415,3816.36
196141716868183,936445,2903,333,3126.30
    Dunedin   
195974372,9601,2431,603,864769,47818,792,3367.92
196075403,0001,3771,464,439776,48118,555,9498.28
196175393,0001,3651,374,673748,74717,341,9548.17
    Totals   
19591933038,02312,6184,435,1956,737,98975,578,4536.76
19602123008,89512,5665,088,7195,993,76575,345,3306.80
19612122918,89512,7785,144,9835,669,13372,450,2156.70
Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueAverage Fare per PassengerRevenue per Mile RunExpenditureExpenditure per Mile Run
Passenger FaresTotal (Including “Other”)Operating ExpensesCapital ChargesTotal (Including “Other”)
 ££d.d.£££d.
    Auckland    
19591,655,3031,677,7077.4348.611,364,598308,4371,773,92151.40
19601,664,5661,686,7197.4848.751,386,956311,2861,755,75850.74
19611,670,3421,694,7377.7449.841,411,807336,5291,748,33651.41
    New Plymouth    
195963,90465,5684.6330.4464,5988,32572,92333.86
196065,47669,3974.6031.0173,0768,13181,20736.29
196167,66069,2944.8731.4269,9878,13678,12335.43
    Dunedin    
1959410,001417,6855.2442.24377,982109,112487,09449.26
1960401,414415,4595.1944.50369,37998,633468,01250.12
1961383,661393,6325.3144.49375,460108,980484,44054.75
    Totals    
19592,129,2082,160,9606.7646.421,807,178425,8742,333,93850.13
19602,131,4562,171,5756.7947.011,829,411418,0502,304,97749.92
19612,121,6632,157,6637.0347.891,857,254453,6452,310,89951.29

Systems Comprising Combined Electric Tramways, Trolley-bus and Motor-bus Services — Wellington has now the only electric tramway in New Zealand, and also the only cable tram service which runs from the centre of the city to Kelburn. Electric tramways reached the peak of milage of track in use in 1929 when 170 miles of line were operated by the various local authorities. A steady decline in the milage of track in use took place until 1950 when 158 miles of line were used. From that year onwards the change has been more rapid. At the same time there has been a steady expansion in the milage of the trolley-bus routes and a more rapid growth of motor-bus routes.

In Wellington there were at 31 March 1961, 13 miles 68 chains of tram route, 24 miles 46 chains of trolley-bus route, and 55 miles 41 chains of motor-bus route being operated.

The following is a summary of the operations of this service. Details cover the combined tramway, trolley-bus and motor-bus service in Wellington.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
195919601961
Passengers carriedNo.37,563,07337,101,17436,095,026
Passengers per mile runNo.8.558.298.27
Passenger fares£871,271967,727973,856
Average fare per passengerd.5.576.266.48
Total revenue£895,039990,831997,522
Revenue per mile rund.48.8753.1154.86
Total expenditure£1,069,1291,108,8021,128,473
Expenditure per mile rund.58.3859.4359.07
Number of vehicles —    
    Tramcars and trailersNo.898966
    Trolley busesNo.696981
    Motor busesNo.112112112
Seating capacity —    
    Tramcars and trailersNo.3,0773,0771,922
    Trolley busesNo.2,8982,8983,402
    Motor busesNo.4,3054,3054,305
Miles run —    
    Tramcars and trailersNo.1,355,9711,352,0211,137,005
    Trolley busesNo.1,315,8121,317,2051,442,390
    Motor busesNo.1,723,2941,808,4921,784,645

The following is a summary of the operations of all local authority transport undertakings.

Item195919601961
Passengers carriedNo.141,240,977141,223,041137,462,118
Miles runNo.21,690,36721,798,15621,453,267
Average passengers per mile runNo.6.516.486.41
Passenger fares£3,772,5563,893,0253,910,638
Average fare per passengerd.6.416.626.83
Revenue£3,843,7313,974,8413,989,094
Revenue per mile rund.42.5343.7644.63
Expenditure£4,387,6624,402,5654,405,463
Expenditure per mile rund.48.5548.4749.28

II D — CIVIL AVIATION

ADMINISTRATION — Civil aviation in New Zealand is administered by the Civil Aviation Administration, which is a semi-autonomous branch of the Air Department. This latter Department was constituted by the Air Department Act 1937. The Civil Aviation Act 1948 provides for the statutory appointment of a Director of Civil Aviation who is charged with the administration of the Civil Aviation Regulations 1953. The Administration is subject in other matters, primarily finance and airline policy, to the overall direction of the Permanent Head of the Department (the Air Secretary).

The organisational structure of the Civil Aviation Administration provides for a head office in Wellington and three New Zealand regions centred at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, together with a Pacific region administered from Nandi, Fiji. The Head Office structure consists of three technical divisions — Operations, Airworthiness, and Airways — an Administration Branch and the Air Transport and External Relations Branch. The Administration is responsible broadly for the safety of flying within New Zealand and the South Pacific region, which is controlled by the Civil Aviation Regulations 1953, this being done in accordance with the provisions laid down by the International Civil Aviation Organisation. In addition, the other major responsibilities of the Administration are the planning, provision and maintenance of ground facilities and services for civil aviation, and advising the Government in respect of air transport policy and international negotiations in the field of air transport.

The established staff of the Civil Aviation Administration as at 31 March 1961 exceeded 1,000. The greater proportion of staff employed consisted of technical staff in the field, comprising air traffic services (170), radio engineers and technicians (186), and communications staff (209).

FACILITIES PROVIDED — Various facilities for air navigation are provided by the Civil Aviation Administration. Radio navigational aids of different kinds are installed at the more important airfields in New Zealand and in the south-west Pacific, as well as en route aids at various points along the internal airways.

In addition, the Civil Aviation Administration has a number of aeradio stations in New Zealand providing air to ground, ground to air, and ground point-to-point communication facilities, plus communication centres located at Auckland, Christchurch, and Wellington.

The air traffic control system comprises control towers situated at the important aerodromes with area control centres situated at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch. In addition, communication facilities are provided at aerodromes in the Cook Islands, Fiji, and Western Samoa. In Fiji an air traffic control service is also maintained by the Civil Aviation Administration.

The Civil Aviation Administration is responsible, in collaboration with the Ministry of Works, for airport planning. The Ministry usually undertakes the actual construction and maintenance, although this is sometimes done by the local authority. At other than minor aerodromes in New Zealand and the south-vest Pacific crash/fire facilities are provided by the Civil Aviation Administration.

The Civil Aviation Charges Regulations 1954 prescribe the rates of dues payable by operators for the use of airways and airport facilities provided or maintained by the Crown. Different rates are prescribed in respect of international and domestic operators, and a distinction is made in respect of air transport and other domestic operations. No charges, other than those prescribed by regulations, are to be made for the use of aerodromes or connected facilities without the approval of the Minister in Charge of Civil Aviation.

The administration of Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group and Campbell Island, on which weather-reporting stations are located, is another responsibility of the Civil Aviation Administration.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE — The net Government expenditure on civil aviation in New Zealand and its island territories in 1960–61 was £2,034,632, compared with £2,174,743 in 1959–60.

Prior to 1 April 1957 New Zealand, as administering authority for the South Pacific Air Transport Council, provided for the establishment and maintenance costs of the International Airport at Nandi, Fiji. Approximately two-thirds of this expenditure was recoverable from other member Governments. From 1 April 1957, under revised accounting arrangements, the major member Governments (United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand) now make advance payments to a Pool Trust Account from which all costs are met. New Zealand now meets one-fifth of the cost and is no longer required to provide the initial finance.

AIR SERVICES LICENSING — Licensing of air services in New Zealand is vested in the Air Services Licensing Authority which was constituted by the Air Services Licensing Act of 1951. This Authority consists of one chairman and three members appointed by the Crown, and its principal functions are to hear and determine applications for the granting, renewal, or transfer of air service licences. An air service (including aerial topdressing) may not be commenced or carried on without a licence granted under the Act except that any aero club affiliated to the Royal New Zealand Aero Club (Inc.) may carry club members in club-owned or hired aircraft without such a licence.

For the year 1960–61, 50 applications were received in respect of air service licences, and the following table shows the decisions of the Authority.

CategoryDecision by AuthorityTotal Applications Received
New Licence IssuedTemporary Licence IssuedExisting Licence AmendedApplication DeclinedApplication Withdrawn or Adjourned
Topdressing36122427
Scheduled services11114
Non-scheduled services2471519
Totals6112031050

During the year five appeals against the Authority's decisions were lodged with the Air Services Licensing Appeal Authority: two were allowed, one allowed in part, and two disallowed.

NEW ZEALAND NATIONAL AIRWAYS CORPORATION — The operation of the internal air services is no longer under the complete control of the National Airways Corporation, as provision was made for other operators to run services under the Air Services Licensing Act 1951 previously mentioned. However, the bulk of the internal scheduled services are still operated by the Corporation. Information concerning the establishment of the National Airways Corporation and its duties and functions may be found on pages 329–330 of the 1951–52 Yearbook.

The Corporation's operating revenue figures for the year ended 31 March 1961, together with those for the two preceding years, are as follows.

 1958–591959–601960–61
 £££
Passenger fares2,944,2693,500,5754,106,610
Excess baggage33,80737,64639,347
Freight454,800528,171675,442
Mail130,956140,645149,838
Charters62,73765,60670,679
Incidental revenue70,86975,96676,212
Totals3,697,4384,348,6095,118,128

Operating expenditure in 1960–61 totalled £4,820,175 (including depreciation on equipment), as compared with £4,185,636 in 1959–60 and £3,480,694 in 1958–59.

An operating profit of £297,953 for the year 1960–61 was recorded and, after adding interest on investments, deducting interest on capital loans, and allowing £125,342 as provision for taxation, a net profit of £51,483 remained. The corresponding net profit for 1959–60 was £23,179.

Notwithstanding the Air Services Licensing Act 1951, the Corporation is still charged by the National Airways Act 1945 “to satisfy the need for air services within New Zealand”. The Corporation has therefore sought constantly to improve the standard and scope of its service whilst keeping fares at a low level. The Corporation has not therefore sought high profits. The expansion achieved during recent years is indicated by the increase in revenue passenger miles on scheduled services from 146 million in 1958–59 to 169 million in 1959–60 to 185 million in 1960–61.

FLYING OPERATIONS: Domestic Scheduled Services — Scheduled air transport operations over specific routes were first commenced in New Zealand in December 1934, on the route Inch-bonnie — Hokitika — Franz Josef Glacier, on the West Coast of the South Island. Subsequent extensions of services up to the outbreak of war in September 1939 had covered almost the whole of New Zealand. During 1946 and 1947 the New Zealand National Airways Corporation absorbed all then existing scheduled commercial services, and by adding to the fleet of aircraft was able to commence new services.

In February 1953 a scheduled service between Christchurch and Oamaru via Ashburton and Timaru was commenced by South Island Airways Ltd., followed by a Christchurch to Nelson service during 1954. In April 1956 these services were taken over by a new company, Trans Island Airways Ltd. The Christchurch-Oamaru service ceased in June 1957 and the Christchurch-Nelson service ceased in March 1959. Bay of Plenty Airways Ltd. came into existence in July 1958, taking over the non-scheduled operations of Tauranga Air Services Ltd. Their Wellington service commenced in September 1959.

In December 1960 a new company, South Pacific Airlines of New Zealand Ltd., commenced timetable operations with two modified DC 3 aircraft, serving smaller centres not previously having a regular air service. This airline has added a further three modified DC 3 aircraft and fully scheduled operations are being undertaken largely consistent with the company's initial service to smaller centres, but also offering competition on some routes previously operated only by the National Airways Corporation.

At 30 September 1961 domestic scheduled services were being operated on the following routes:

Terminating Points of RoutesIntermediate StopsRoute MilesScheduled Frequency
New Zealand National Airways Corporation
Week Day Services
Auckland-ChristchurchWellington5052 return flights and 1 flight north daily
Auckland-ChristchurchNil4792 return flights daily
Auckland-WellingtonNil2842 return flights daily and 1 flight south daily
Wellington-ChristchurchNil2181 return flight daily except Monday and Friday and one flight south daily — 2 return flights Monday and Friday
Wellington-DunedinNil3861 return flight daily
Wellington-InvercargillChristchurch, Dunedin5231 return flight daily
Wellington-Invercargill-Christchurch5071 return flight daily
Christchurch-DunedinNil1984 return flights daily
Christchurch-InvercargillDunedin2051 return flight daily
Christchurch-TimaruNil922 return flights daily
Auckland-WellingtonTauranga, Gisborne, Napier Palmerston North4831 return flight daily
Auckland-NapierNil2221 return flight daily
Auckland-GisborneTauranga2261 return flight daily
Wellington-GisborneNapier2521 return flight daily
Auckland-Palmerston NorthNew Plymouth2801 return flight daily
Auckland-WellingtonNew Plymouth2981 return flight daily
Auckland-WellingtonWanganui3191 return flight daily
Auckland-WellingtonHamilton, Wanganui3251 return flight daily
Auckland-WellingtonHamilton, Palmerston North3094 return flights weekly
Hamilton-WellingtonPalmerston North2561 return flight daily
Hamilton-WellingtonNil2431 return flight daily
Auckland-ChristchurchPalmerston North, Nelson5492 return flights weekly
Christchurch-Palmerston NorthNil2701 return flight daily
Christchurch-WellingtonBlenheim2011 return flight daily
Auckland-KaitaiaKaikohe1421 return flight daily
Auckland-WhangareiNil724 return flights daily
Wellington-BlenheimNil724 return flights daily
Wellington-NelsonNil965 return flights daily
Nelson-WestportNil951 return flight daily
Westport-HokitikaNil753 return flights weekly
Freight Services
Wellington-ChristchurchNil2183 return flights daily
Christchurch-AucklandWellington, Palmerston North, Hamilton, New Plymouth6098 return flights weekly and others as required
Auckland-ChristchurchGisborne, Napier, Wellington6616 return flights weekly and others as required
Christchurch-DunedinNil1984 return flights weekly and others as required
Sunday Services
Auckland-ChristchurchWellington5052 return flights
Auckland-ChristchurchNil4792 return flights
Auckland-WellingtonNil2841 return flight
Wellington-ChristchurchNil2182 return flights
Wellington-InvercargillChristchurch5071 flight south
Christchurch-DunedinNil1984 return flights
Invercargill-ChristchurchNil2891 flight north
Christchurch-TimaruNil921 return flight
Wellington-BlenheimNil723 return flights
Wellington-NelsonNil963 return flights
Auckland-ChristchurchPalmerston North, Nelson5491 return flight
Auckland-NapierNil2221 return flight
Auckland-GisborneTauranga2261 return flight
Wellington-GisborneNapier2521 return flight
Wellington-NapierPalmerston North1731 return flight
Auckland-WellingtonNew Plymouth, Wanganui3351 return flight
Wellington-HamiltonNil2431 return flight
Wellington-HamiltonPalmerston North2561 return flight
West Coast Airways Ltd.
Hokitika-HaastFranz Josef, Fox, as required1255 return flights weekly
Straits Air Freight Express Ltd.
Wellington-Nelson (freight)Nil961Daily as required
Wellington-Blenheim (freight)Nil72
Ray of Plenty Airways Ltd.
Auckland-TaurangaNil1041 flight north weekly
Auckland-RotoruaTauranga1366 return flights weekly
Auckland-RotoruaNil1256 return flights weekly
Tauranga-WellingtonRotorua2355 return flights weekly
Tauranga-RotoruaNil326 return flights weekly
Tauranga-WhakataneNil4816 return flights weekly
Auckland-WhakataneTauranga1525 return flights weekly
South Pacific Airlines of New Zealand Ltd.
Auckland-ChristchurchMatamata, Hamilton, New Plymouth, Nelson5362 return flights weekly and 1 flight north weekly
Auckland-ChristchurchMatamata, Hamilton, New Plymouth, Nelson, Blenheim5712 flights south weekly
Auckland-ChristchurchHamilton, Napier, Masterton, Wellington, Blenheim5972 return flights weekly and 1 flight north weekly
Auckland-ChristchurchMatamata, Napier, Masterton, Wellington, Blenheim5991 flight south weekly
Auckland-ChristchurchNelson4751 flight north weekly
Christchurch-InvercargillTimaru, Oamaru, Alexandra3243 return flights weekly

At 30 September 1961 the aircraft used in the operation of services on the above routes were:

Aero Commander 6801
Bristol 1705
Cessna 1801
DH 89 Dominie4
Douglas DC 321
Douglas DC 3 (Freighter)5
Fokker Friendship6
Vickers Viscount 8074
Total47

Two further Fokker Friendships were on order and one additional Bristol Freighter was being obtained.

The following table gives the summarised results of the operations of scheduled commercial air services during the last 11 years. Statistics for the New Zealand Railways Freight Service, operated by Straits Air Freight Express Ltd. since 1 April 1951, are excluded and the timetable operations of South Pacific Airlines of New Zealand are included.

Year Ended 31 MarchHours FlownMiles Flown (000)PassengersFreight lb (000)*Mail lb (000)Passenger-miles (000)Freight Ton-miles (000)Mail Ton-miles

* Includes excess baggage.

† Includes excess baggage ton-miles.

195134,0664,369238,4055,72491759,745659128,923
195237,1914,818303,04810,8811,78278,3521,351238,507
195337,0494,740312,3097,8351,12479,5121,010146,457
195444,0475,504369,40810,4911,74089,9571,366174,132
195546,9465,831387,36515,5951,02493,8901,977183,686
195649,5726,276428,49419,0701,157104,4022,397218,878
195753,0166,815476,77919,0171,229118,6592,419250,218
195854,3097,107513,69420,8541,757130,2662,811277,286
195955,3567,481556,54521,3291,808146,3922,990278,639
196054,7767,614650,81222,4921,993169,9363,165312,656
196160,7968,539744,02530,0052,225189,5944,077355,090

CIVIL AVIATION

SCHEDULED COMMERCIAL AIR SERVICE

Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service — The New Zealand Railways Air Freight Service was commenced officially in February 1947 following a number of special inter-island freight flights which had been carried out by the Royal New Zealand Air Force at the request of the Railways Department to meet a shipping emergency. With the introduction of the Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Services, delays caused by lack of shipping space and industrial troubles were somewhat alleviated. The service was conducted by the RNZAF, operating Dakota aircraft, until June 1947, when the service was handed over to the New Zealand National Airways Corporation, which continued to operate with Dakotas.

In 1950 the Railways Department decided to allow private enterprise the opportunity of tendering for the contract, to run the service, and the successful tenderer was Straits Air Freight Express Ltd., which took over on 1 April 1951. The service is at present being maintained by four Bristol Freighter aircraft on a daily basis, the number of trips varying according to the amount of cargo offering.

In order to handle the increasing traffic, two additional Bristol Freighter aircraft have been obtained and it is expected that in 1962 five aircraft will be regularly employed.

Traffic statistics for this freight service for the last 11 years are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchTrips FlownHours FlownMiles FlownFreight lb (000)Freight Ton-miles (000)Passengers
19514,2972,781320,51431,2931,046
19524,5412,461335,71449,6711,644
19532,9131,412213,45933,8791,106113
19543,9371,954293,89240,4981,360598
19554,8852,487364,07650,1451,668858
19565,4112,683398,54753,9141,780986
19576,1073,033453,91254,3641,7971,308
19587,4153,826554,68867,8572,2401,660
19598,5634,365642,66676,2802,5271,437
19609,5094,465628,11387,6122,5661,225
196111,8534,864635,078112,7712,6931,231

Non-scheduled Air Services — During March 1961, 12 companies and 18 aero clubs were providing timetable, charter, taxi, scenic, and joyriding services. The RNZAF, using Sunderland flying boats, flew 6 flights to the Chatham Islands during the year. The following is a traffic summary of these services for the years ended 31 March 1960 and 31 March 1961.

 1959–601960–61
Commercial CompaniesAero ClubsTotalCommercial CompaniesAero ClubsTotal
Number of flights16,3635,21621,57918,6546,13124,785
Hours flown9,5773,49313,07010,3284,55614,884
Miles flown1,120,310360,5691,480,8791,143,501487,7601,631,261
Passengers carried39,77010,56250,33245,30612,43157,737
Freight carried (tons)3,670273,6972,713142,727

Aerial Work Operations — The Royal New Zealand Air Force undertook extensive trials in the dropping of fertiliser from the air in 1948 at the request of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, which was interested in aerial topdressing as a means of improving hill pastures and checking and preventing soil erosion. The RNZAF experiments were successful and as a result the interest of the farming community was aroused and private firms began operating commercially in 1949.

The industry grew rapidly and is now an accepted feature of the national economy. More than half the fertiliser sown in the country is applied from the air and, in the year ended 31 March 1961, nearly 600,000 tons of fertiliser was distributed in this way.

Aerial application of insecticides and weedkillers developed rapidly between 1955 and 1960 and has now stabilised with an annual distribution of 1,500,000 gallons of spray.

Other aerial work includes photography, seed sowing, and the dropping of rabbit and opossum poison, supplies, and fencing materials.

Progress of agricultural aviation in this country was shown at an International Agricultural Aviation Show held at Palmerston North in November 1956. This was the first show of its kind in the world and some 200 aircraft demonstrated the aerial farming techniques developed in New Zealand.

In June 1960 Civil Aviation Administration introduced the Chemical Rating, a technical qualification which is now mandatory for pilots engaged in the application of all agricultural chemicals except fertilisers. Many agricultural chemicals are highly toxic and the Chemical Rating ensures that pilots are familiar with their properties and the correct application techniques.

A summary of aerial work operations for the year ended 31 March 1961 follows.

Topdressing — 
    Hours flown73,225
    Fertiliser distributed (tons)592,808
    Seed sown with fertiliser (tons)268
    Area treated (acres)5,241,540
Seed sowing — 
    Hours flown953
    Seed sown (tons)647
    Area treated (acres)76,230
Rabbit poisoning — 
    Hours flown2,650
    Bait distributed (tons)4,120
Fencing materials — 
    Hours flown224
    Materials dropped (tons)713
Spraying — 
    Hours flown3,831
    Weedkiller and insecticide distributed (gallons)1,569,306
Aerial photography and survey — 
    Hours flown1,188
Supply dropping — 
    Hours flown337
    Materials dropped (tons)175
Miscellaneous — 
    Hours flown1,499
    Materials dropped (tons)347
    Number of aerial-work operators59
    Number of aerial-work aircraft owned262

International Services — The services formerly carried out by British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines between Australia and North America were taken over by Australia in 1954 and integrated with the Kangaroo services now operated by Qantas Empire Airways, which continues in partnership with British Overseas Airways Corporation and Air India on the Kangaroo route.

Tasman Empire Airways Ltd. — Tasman Empire Airways Ltd. was formed to operate a trans-Tasman air service. The share capital was subscribed by the Governments of the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, the share proportions being 20, 30, and 50 per cent respectively. Later it became equally owned by Australia and New Zealand, and then wholly by New Zealand from 1 April 1961.

On 30 April 1940 the Auckland-Sydney service commenced. In June 1950 the company took over the Auckland-Suva service from New Zealand National Airways Corporation. The Wellington-Sydney service was inaugurated on 3 October 1950 and the Christchurch-Melbourne service on 28 June 1951. With the withdrawal of the Short Solent flying boats from the trans-Tasman routes, the Wellington-Sydney service was discontinued in June 1954 and a new service from Christchurch to Sydney using Douglas DC 6 aircraft was commenced in the following month. The same type of aircraft were also employed on the Auckland-Fiji route as from June 1954.

The first Lockheed Electra turboprop aircraft was brought into use on the trans-Tasman service in December 1959, and by March 1960 all TEAL services between Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji had been converted to Electras. The company's fleet now consists of three of these aircraft.

A winter service linking Auckland and Brisbane was instituted in 1959 and has become a regular feature of TEAL's winter operations. In July 1960 TEAL commenced a direct Wellington-Sydney service.

The Coral Route to Tahiti via Suva and Aitutaki was inaugurated in December 1951 with a frequency of one return trip monthly. This was increased to one return trip fortnightly in May 1952. In October 1952 Apia in Western Samoa was added to the route, and in August 1953 a service to Tonga was inaugurated. This Suva-Tonga service was discontinued in June 1957. TEAL changed from flying boats to land planes on its Coral Route services late in 1960.

DC 6s were used initially, but in March 1961 they were succeeded by Lockheed Electras. The service was originally direct from Nandi in Fiji to Faa'a Airport at Papeete, Tahiti; an intermediate stop at Tafuna, Eastern Samoa, has been included since September 1961.

The service to Norfolk Island, formerly conducted by the New Zealand National Airways Corporation, was taken over by Tasman Empire Airways Ltd. from 1 November 1955. Aircraft used are DC 4s chartered from Qantas Empire Airways Ltd.

The following routes were operating at 30 October 1961.

Route No.RouteRoute MilesScheduled Frequency Up to:
1Auckland-Sydney1,3338 return flights weekly
2Auckland-Brisbane1,4121 return flight weekly
3Auckland-Melbourne1,6291 return flight weekly
4Auckland-Nandi1,3262 return flights weekly
5Auckland-Norfolk Island6602 return flights monthly
6Wellington-Sydney1,3856 return flights weekly
7Christchurch-Sydney1,3211 return flight weekly
8Christchurch-Melbourne1,4951 return flight weekly
9Christchurch-Nandi (via Auckland)1,8031 return flight weekly
10Nandi — Pago Pago (American Samoa)8211 return flight weekly
 Pago Pago — Papeete (Tahiti)1,417

Revenue traffic statistics for the years ended 31 March 1960 and 31 March 1961 are given below.

Item1959–60*1960–61

* Revised

Hours flown10,27911,731
Miles flown2,701,6253,424,834
Passengers84,130115,109
Passenger-miles115,271,442158,272,292
Available seat-miles152,685,187222,311,441
Passenger load factor (per cent)75.5071.19
Cargo — (lb)  
    Freight1,418,6832,218,351
    Excess baggage118,163170,334
    Mail1,054,4371,301,468
Ton-miles flown —  
    Passenger10,418,97914,148,411
    Excess baggage72,451105,308
    Freight863,8981,381,246
    Mail631,423785,662
Total ton-miles11,986,75116,420,627
Available capacity ton-miles17,965,18127,039,750
Overall load factor (per cent)66.7260.78

The following is a summary of traffic statistics for Tasman Empire Airways Ltd. for the latest five years, and includes services flown by other airlines under charter to the company.

Year Ended 31 MarchHours FlownMiles Flown (000)PassengersFreight* lb (000)Mail lb (000)Passenger-miles (000)Freight Ton-miles (000)Mail Ton-miles (000)

* Includes excess baggage.

† Includes excess baggage ton-miles.

‡ Revised.

19578,3962,04462,1681,13184383,609659506
19588,7122,10361,9081,18492283,687706554
19599,9582,46569,7211,03690994,827621534
196010,2792,70284,1301,5371,054115,271936631
196111,7313,425115,1092,3891,301158,2721,487786

Pan American World Airways, Inc. — On 6 June 1946 this airline recommenced services between Auckland and the United States of America. Stops on the route are now Fiji, American Samoa, Canton Island, and Honolulu.

Canadian Pacific Air Lines — Under the terms of the Air Transport Agreement of 1950 between New Zealand and Canada, Canadian Pacific Air Lines was selected as the Canadian airline to operate across the Pacific to New Zealand. The service was commenced in January 1952. At present there is a weekly return service between Auckland and Vancouver via Fiji, Canton Island and Honolulu. Douglas DC 6B aircraft are used between Auckland and Honolulu with DC 8s serving the remainder of the route.

Transports Aériens Intercontinentaux — On 5 February 1957 this French company commenced a weekly service linking Auckland with Noumea in New Caledonia. This service is at present operated by Douglas DC 4 aircraft and connects with TAI's weekly DC 8 service to Paris via Sydney, Darwin, Djakarta, Saigon, Bangkok, Karachi, Tehran, and Rome.

Total Traffic Statistics for Overseas Airlines (CPAL, PAWA, and TAI) — Total traffic statistics for Canadian Pacific Air Lines, Pan American World Airways, and Transports Aériens Intercontinentaux to and from New Zealand for the year ended 31 March 1961 are given below, together with the total for 1959–60.

ItemYear Ended March 1961Total 1960–61Total 1959-60
CPALPAWATAI

* Revised.

Traffic entering New Zealand —     
    Passengers1,0903,3229705,3824,006
    Freight (lb)142,079*172,09114,174328,344*242,757*
    Mail (lb)5,50773,5492,73881,79473,683
Traffic leaving New Zealand —     
    Passengers1,0242,6441,1074,7753,395
    Freight (lb)32,70599,69317,961150,359156,729*
    Mail (lb)5,33419,6504,52129,50517,699

Entrances and Clearances of Aircraft in the Overseas Trade — The following figures supplied by the Customs Department give the number of aircraft entering New Zealand classified by the countries from which they arrived, and aircraft departing by the countries to which they departed, during the last two calendar years. Air freight carried is also shown.

Country from Which Arrived or to Which DepartedEntrancesClearances
NumberAir Freight (lb)NumberAir Freight (lb)
19601961196019611960196119601961
United Kingdom1342216
Hong Kong1
Canada6497121,869111,889599213,69522,783
New Caledonia216,2722739,780
Fiji211258181,313174,791221265102,96992,821
Norfolk Island293310,54412,056273137,20238,793
Australia8951,1781,276,8751,313,4049041,165099,143748,105
Singapore1
Society Islands61,4985314
France533116,78910,840533318,02056,930
Netherlands41352,2333
United States of America94102154,326166,76689102124,22958,363
Totals1,3521,7311,761,7931,799,9651,3561,720995,2581,057,889

AERO CLUBS — Practical interest in aviation was greatly stimulated by the first trans-Tasman flight of Kingsford-Smith and Ulm in 1928, and to this flight the aero-club movement largely owes its inception. The steady progress made by the movement has been in a great measure due to the scheme initiated by the Government of subsidising a limited number of light aeroplane clubs.

As from 1 April 1955 a revised scheme of financial assistance to aero clubs was in operation. This scheme was reviewed in 1957, in 1960 and in 1961, and then operated as follows: In respect of pilots trained and qualifying for a private pilot licence, the Government refunded to the pilot himself one-half of the cost of the training, up to an assessed standard rate of £3 per hour, with a maximum of £60. A payment of 2s. an hour flown on training and solo hire was made to clubs. During the year ended 31 March 1961 financial assistance to aero clubs and to pilots amounted to £27,898, compared with £23,640 in the previous year. At March 1961 there were 34 aero clubs affiliated to the Royal New Zealand Aero Club.

The next table gives a summary of the training activities of aero clubs for the latest five years.

Year Ended 31 MarchClubs OperatingMembershipAircraft in UseHours FlownAb Initio Pupils Under Training
AssociateFlyingDualSolo
1957332,7913,23910611,33827,309774
1958353,3693,75810910,76930,497720
1959363,5564,00610810,36529,355734
1960363,5184,10710611,49127,713844
1961373,6134,39711713,55634,7941,010

LICENCES — A summary of licences and certificates current at 31 March 1961 is given below.

Flight Crew (ICAO) Type —Number at 31 March 1961
    Pilot licences — 
      Student Pilot1,571
      Private Pilot1,371
      Commercial Pilot512
      Airline Transport Pilot173
    Pilot Licence Ratings — 
      Instructor197
      Instrument279
      Compass16
      Chemical88
    Navigator Licences — 
      Flight Navigator41
    Licences to Operate Radio Equipment in Aircraft — 
      Flight Radio Operator5
      Flight Radiotelephone Operator1,170
    Flight Engineer Licences — 
      Flight Engineer26
Other Licences, Certificates, etc. — 
    Aircraft Maintenance Engineer Licences343
Aircraft — 
    Certificates of Registration691
Aerodromes — 
    Public Licences37
Air Service Certificates43

Chapter 12. Section 12 COMMUNICATIONS

12 A — POST OFFICE

INTRODUCTORY — Post Office history in New Zealand began in 1831 when the Postmaster-General for New South Wales commissioned a resident of Kororareka in the Bay of Islands to make up and receive mails.

With the arrival of Governor Hobson in 1840 the first post office proper was set up at Kororareka (now Russell). The same year saw the establishment of offices at other settlements in the north and at Port Nicholson (Wellington), and the beginnings of overland mail routes.

By 1858 seventy-three post offices had been opened to provide communications services for the scattered settlers. In that year a Post Office Act was passed making the Post Office an independent Department of State. The Post Office had previously operated under the control of the Customs Department.

The system of communication by telegraph was inaugurated in the 1860s. A separate Department, the Telegraph Department, was created by Act of Parliament in 1865 to take responsibility for the erecting of telegraph lines, the opening of morse telegraph offices, and the laying and maintaining of lines of communication under Cook Strait to connect the telegraph lines of the North and South Islands. This Act vested the control of communication by electric telegraph in the new Department.

During 1881 the first New Zealand telephone exchanges were opened at Christchurch and Auckland. An amendment to the Electric Telegraph Act of 1875 had been passed in September 1880 extending the power of the Government, through the Telegraph Department, to control all electric communication by telephone and making it unlawful for any but the approved authority to establish telephone lines without express permission.

The telegraph and postal services were amalgamated at the beginning of 1881. The Postmaster-General became Minister of Telegraphs, and the Post and Telegraph Department was created to replace the two previous authorities. Under the Post Office Act 1959, which came into operation on 1 January 1960, the name of the Department became the Post Office, and the Minister's title became Postmaster-General.

Through its control of electric communications the Post Office has extended its functions to include communications by radio. In addition to administering New Zealand's radio regulations, the Post Office transmitting and receiving stations bring New Zealand into the world radio communications network. The overseas radiotelephone service was inaugurated with the Australian link in 1930 and since then New Zealand has extended its radiotelephone communication to most countries in the world. A further development in radio communication brought a radio-photograph service with Australia and the United Kingdom in 1947.

POSTAL BUSINESS — At 31 March 1961 there were 1,442 post offices in New Zealand. In addition, there were 187 offices at which telephone business only was transacted.

The following table shows the numbers of articles posted in the latest five years.

Year Ended 31 MarchLetters, Lettercards, and PostcardsAccounts, Circulars, Newspapers, Packets, etc.ParcelsTotal Articles Posted
million
1957192.0213.47.0412.4
1958202.3229.46.9438.6
1959204.7234.67.2446.4
1960210.3246.67.4464.3
1961224.1262.87.8494.8

Compared with the year ended 31 March 1960, letters, lettercards, and postcards posted during the year ended 31 March 1961 showed an increase of 13.7 million (6.1 per cent); and accounts, circulars, etc., an increase of 16.2 million (6.6 per cent). Parcel postings increased by 469,766 (6.4 per cent) during the year.

The average numbers of letters, etc., posted in New Zealand per head of population during the year ended 31 March 1961 were: letters, lettercards, and postcards, 92.7; accounts, circulars, newspapers, packets, etc., 110.5; parcels, 3.2.

During the 1960–61 year, 699,509 lb of letters and 225,049 parcels were posted by inland air mails, and 276,425 lb of letters, 99,446 lb of newspapers and packets, etc., and 52,011 lb of parcels were posted by overseas air mail.

RURAL MAIL DELIVERY — The rural delivery system enables country residents to obtain postal notes, money orders, and stamps, to register correspondence, and to collect or post their mail in boxes at or near their gates. The deliveries are generally performed by contractors who handle the mail in conjunction with the carriage of goods, and thus the rural-mail delivery is in many areas the medium by which residents obtain their newspapers, bread, parcels, etc. The growth of this scheme can be gauged from the following figures: 1921, 8,700; 1940, 32,382; 1947, 40,689; and in March 1961, 72,753 boxholders.

AIR MAILS: Inland — On 16 March 1936 the first regular air-mail services linking up larger centres of population were established between Palmerston North and Dunedin, and between Nelson, Blenheim, and Wellington. As air services increased in frequency and extent the air-mail facilities were correspondingly expanded. The present network extends from Kaitaia to Invercargill.

The rate of postage for inland air-mail correspondence is 4d. for the first half-ounce and 2d. each additional half-ounce. For parcels up to 28 lb the rates range from 2s. 9d. to 15s. 3d.

The numbers of letters and parcels carried by air in New Zealand during the latest 11 years are shown hereunder.

Year Ended 31 MarchLettersParcels

* Abnormal increase due to interruption of surface connections owing to industrial dispute.

195114,206,00099,575
195219,089,800*217,726*
195314,577,960150,680
195414,590,360151,222,
195518,981,400168,521
195620,676,560167,486
195722,357,000161,599
195824,596,000184,185
195924,592,000185,100
196026,542,000197,827
196127,980,360225,049

Overseas:Trans-Tasman Air Services — The first flight of the regular trans-Tasman service linking Auckland and Sydney took place on 30 April 1940, connection being made at Sydney with the Empire service to London. The existing service provides for flights from New Zealand (Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch) and Australia (Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane) with a frequency overall of at least one flight each day.

New Zealand — United Kingdom Air Service — This service is now operating daily between Sydney and London, the transit time New Zealand to the United Kingdom being normally two to three days.

Trans-Pacific Services — The trans-Pacific service operating between New Zealand and North America commenced on 20 July 1940. Air lines now operate six trips each week to San Francisco, and there is also a service between Auckland and Vancouver.

Regional Pacific Services — Services from New Zealand to Norfolk Island, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, and the Cook Islands have operated in the post-war period. On 16 September 1960, following a changeover from flying boats to land-based planes, the Suva-Apia-Aitutaki-Papeete service was rerouted to serve Nandi-Papeete direct, mails for Apia being conveyed by an American airline from Nandi (Fiji) to Pago Pago (U.S. Samoa) and thence to Apia by a local airline.

New Zealand — France Service — On 8 February 1957 a service New Zealand — France was commenced by a French air line. In 1960 the service was rerouted France — New Caledonia — Fiji — French Polynesia. A connection between New Caledonia and New Zealand is provided by a feeder service between Noumea and Auckland.

OVERSEAS PARCEL POST — Particulars of overseas parcels received and dispatched in each of the latest five years are contained in the following table.

YearOverseas Parcels ReceivedOverseas Parcels Dispatched
NumberWeightCustoms DutyNumberWeight
  lb£ lb
1957447,4714,027,239890,545146,6071,136,428
1958464,7004,182,300812,495158,7001,428,300
1959399,5003,595,000582,875156,1001,404,900
1960410,4563,694,100492,388160,7971,447,200
1961440,2433,962,187726,857181,3471,632,123

NEWSPAPERS — In March 1961 there were 328 publications on the Post Office Register of Newspapers. Of these 44 are published daily, 13 being morning papers and 31 evening papers. Nine appear three times per week, 18 twice per week, 72 weekly, 28 fortnightly, 155 monthly, and two at irregular intervals; many of these are magazines rather than newspapers as popularly understood.

MONEY ORDER AND POSTAL NOTE SERVICES — Details of these services are now given. Money Orders — New Zealand has reciprocal money-order agreements with all British Commonwealth countries and also with the United States of America, the Republic of Ireland, and Tonga. Money orders may also be issued in New Zealand for payment in any other country with which the United Kingdom has exchanges of money orders.

For payment within New Zealand the maximum amount for a single order is £100, but there is no limit to the amount which may be remitted. The commission is computed on each individual order. Commission on inland money orders is 7d. for the first £10 and 3d. for each additional £5 or part thereof. A money order may be transmitted by telegraph for the additional telegraph charge of 1s. 9d.

For money orders issued for payment overseas there is a limit for most countries of £40 for a single order, but for some countries the limit is £10. There are two special rates of commission, one rate applying to Australia (and countries advised through Australia), Fiji, Norfolk Island, and Tonga, and the other rate to all other countries.

During 1960, 1,485,473 money orders were issued in New Zealand for a total of £24,515,301, and of that total 56,881 orders of a value of £268,351 were issued for payment overseas. Money orders issued overseas for payment in New Zealand in 1960 numbered 22,894 and totalled in value £131,857.

The analysis of the overseas money-order business for 1960 is now given.

Country of Issue or PaymentOrders Issued in New Zealand for Payment OverseasOrders Issued Overseas for Payment in New Zealand
NumberValueNumberValue

* No service to New Zealand.

  £ £
Australia33,94161,60311,94533,113
Canada3231,8321,5406,676
Ceylon775810
Fiji97421,2531,4695,894
Hong Kong54584971
India7787,266**
Republic of Ireland8039,19272473
Norfolk Island14122750339
Pakistan2582,587**
South Africa2392,0393072,430
Tonga423861,38926,685
United Kingdom17,959156,8784,78749,029
United States of America1,3624,4291,3187,137
Totals56,881268,35122,894131,857

The following table gives particulars of all money orders issued and paid during each of the years specified. The figures include overseas money-order business which is given in the preceding table.

Year Ended 31 DecemberNumber of Offices at End of YearMoney Orders IssuedMoney Orders Paid
NumberValueCommissionNumberValue
   ££ £
19569911,382,63326,300,38751,8471,325,57926,061,638
19579981,339,26724,906,95953,3001,292,70124,775,472
19581,0201,352,50925,039,09654,4611,316,27724,897,000
19591,0351,403,93324,043,78955,5371,365,99023,742,422
19601,0471,485,47324,515,30158,7631,440,49724,341,108

Postal Notes — Postal notes in 40 denominations ranging from 1s. to £1 and for £2 are issued in New Zealand for payment within New Zealand, Niue, the Cook Islands, and Western Samoa. The poundage payable is as follows: 1s. to 2s. 6d., 2d.; 3s. to 7s. 6d., 3d.; 8s. to 15s., 4d.; 15s. 6d. to £1, 5d.; and for £2, 6d.

Postal notes are negotiable, and their period of validity is unlimited. They are, therefore, a popular medium for making small inland remittances by post, and during the year ended 31 March 1961, 2,614,004 postal notes valued at £1,446,913 were purchased by the public.

Information regarding the issue and payment of postal notes is given below.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Offices at End of YearPostal Notes IssuedPostal Notes Paid
NumberValue*CommissionNumberValue

* Value figures are inclusive of commission shown in next column.

   ££ £
19571,1122,230,3811,071,95435,5022,215,7071,071,953
19581,1142,175,7751,135,58037,5692,208,9301,132,981
19591,1332,239,9011,230,20140,4962,254,6151,230,201
19601,1522,368,7741,336,72844,0052,378,9761,323,481
19611,1602,614,0041,446,91347,8312,607,9041,445,887

British Postal Orders — These are both issued and paid in New Zealand. Denominations sold in this country are 6d., 1s., 1s. 6d., 2s., 2s. 6d., 3s., 5s., 10s., 15s., and 20s. The commission payable ranges from 2d. to 6d.

As these orders are payable in several British Commonwealth countries they are a popular medium for making small postal remittances to overseas countries, particularly the United Kingdom.

During the year ended 31 March 1961 the Post Office sold 1,121,918 British postal orders valued at £775,463, and paid 89,243 orders valued at £115,996.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK — Details on the Post Office Savings Bank are given in Section 29, Banking and Currency.

TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE SERVICES — Up to 31 March 1961 a total sum of £73,590,234 had been expended on telegraph construction, including the construction of telephone exchanges. The amount expended during the financial year 1960–61 was £5,770,802.

Details of telegraph and telephone services for each of the last five financial years are now given.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Paid Telegrams and Toll Messages Forwarded During the YearRevenue (Including Miscellaneous Receipts)Total Value of Business
Telegraph and TollTelephone Exchange
 million£££
195747.05,694,9727,217,10712,912,079
195850.06,205,8588,166,09314,371,951
195951.76,410,3128,769,03915,179,351
196055.56,951,0969,780,10916,731,205
196160.07,635,43610,320,26017,955,696

The number of telegrams forwarded annually exceeds 8.0 million, while the number of toll communications exceeds 50 million.

The charge for ordinary telegrams on weekdays is 1s. 3d. for six words or less, and 1d. for each additional word. The charge for letter-telegrams, which are delivered by post on the morning following the day of lodgment, is a flat rate of 1s. 9d. for 22 words, and 1d. for each additional two words. On Sundays and departmental holidays the rate for ordinary telegrams is 2s. for six words or less, and 1 1/2d. for each additional word, the total charge being taken to the next penny where necessary. An additional charge of 1s. is made for an urgent telegram, irrespective of the number of words contained in the message.

There is an additional charge of 3d. on each telegram lodged by telephone.

A greetings telegram service was introduced on 1 June 1960. For an additional charge of 1s., telegrams are delivered on decorative stationery. In the first year, 240,000 such telegrams were sent.

The delivery of telegrams, especially in the larger cities, continues to have its problems because of the difficulties in the recruitment of staff for this work. To meet these difficulties the telephoning of telegrams was resorted to some years ago. The system provides also for the phoning in of telegrams for dispatch. Approximately 50 per cent of telegrams are now handled by telephone.

Machine-printing telegraphs operating at 45 words per minute were introduced on 5 December 1921. In 1929 a teleprinter circuit, working at a speed of 66 words per minute, commenced operation, and at 31 March 1961 there were 127 offices with teleprinter circuits.

The first voice-frequency telegraph system-of three high-speed channels between Wellington and Christchurch — was installed in 1938. Since then a network embracing all the larger provincial towns has been developed. At 31 March 1961 there were 696 channels and more are to be provided in the near future.

A leased teleprinter service for business organisations was begun in 1951. There are now 88 organisations leasing 44,235 miles of telegraph circuit. Annual revenue from this source at 31 March 1961 was £252,248.

Until 1951 daily newspapers received their outside news over the public telegraph system but in that year their national organisation leased an extensive teleprinter network so that the news could be transmitted direct from Wellington into the various newspaper offices. Newspapers participating in this arrangement number 37.

TELEPHONE-EXCHANGE SERVICE — At 31 March 1961 there were 501 telephone exchanges in New Zealand serving a total of 744,797 connections. Of these exchanges 297 were manually operated, serving 208,399 connections, or 28 per cent of the total, and 204 were automatic, serving 536,398 connections, or 72 per cent of the total.

The following table indicates the growth of the New Zealand telephone-exchange service (the figures are as at 31 March of each year shown).

Item195319541955195619571958195919601961

* Represents separate instruments connected to main telephone system.

Exchanges381397405411440459478493501
Subscribers' main stations307,453330,825359,674386,732409,740434,804459,869491,773532,560
Service stations3,5963,7553,6873,7133,8583,9484,0734,2814,475
Toll stations1,6911,6591,6331,6051,5671,5311,5071,4901,467
Public call stations2,2232,3412,4502,5452,6752,8032,9123,0583,231
Extension stations106,591114,193125,463136,658147,872159,646170,777183,399201,145
Private telephone lines3,6323,5163,3863,2482,6272,4922,2042,0201,919
    Telephone station totals*425,186456,289496,293534,501568,339605,224641,342686,021744,797
Number installed during year33,56036,15542,73841,01140,15243,74445,36653,60365,918
Number of waiting applicants54,94643,30333,34433,86235,33034,50132,08728,71127,152

The total number of telephone stations shows an increase of 319,611, or 75 per cent, during the period covered by the table, the net gain for each of the last five years being 33,838, 36,885, 36,118, 44,679, and 58,776 respectively. The increase in subscribers' main stations during the same period amounted to 225,107, or approximately 73 per cent, while extension stations show an increase of 94,554, or 89 per cent.

The “party” line system of telephone service is extensively used, particularly by those whose premises are situated at a distance from an exchange. In March 1961 the number of “party” lines was 54,816, serving a total of 181,781 stations.

According to the latest comparative data available (January 1960), compiled by the Chief Statistician of the American Telephone and Telegraph Co., New Zealand ranks fifth in the number of telephones per 100 of population, the leading countries being the United States of America (39.51), Sweden (35.30), Canada (30.85), Switzerland (29.65), New Zealand (28.95), and Denmark (22.17).

The first public call stations (coin-in-the-slot telephones) erected in New Zealand were installed at Wellington in August 1910, and 1,471 such instruments were in use at 31 March 1961. The revenue from local calls from slot telephones during the year ended 31 March 1961 was £174,530. In addition, there were 1,760 multi-coin slot telephones in use, the first of which was installed at Christchurch in October 1938. These instruments take penny, sixpenny, and shilling coins, and are used for effecting both local and toll calls and for telegrams.

The capital expenditure on the equipment, etc., of the telephone exchanges up to 31 March 1961 was £57,783,206.

The following table shows the classification of telephone exchanges and the annual rental rates for different classes of connection.

Class of ExchangeClass of ConnectionAnnual Rate Within Base-rate Area
BusinessResidential
  £s.d.£s.d.
Class I (All exchanges with more than 10,000 subscribers)Individual31001600
      (Typical exchanges are Auckland, Christchurch, Dunedin, Hamilton, Invercargill, Palmerston North, and Wellington)2-party231501400
3-party210013100
4-party185012150
5-party151001150
6-10 party141001050
Class II (Exchanges with 3,001–10,000 paying subscribers)Individual27001600
2-party21001400
(Typical exchanges are Blenheim, Gisborne, Napier, Levin, and Timaru)3-party200013100
4-party1710012150
5-party15001150
6-10 party14001050
Class III (Automatic exchanges with 201–3,000 paying subscribers)Individual230014100
2-party1910012100
(Typical exchanges are Alexandra, Greymouth, Marton, and Titahi Bay)3-party18001200
4-party161001150
5-party14001000
6-10 party1300950
Class IV (Other exchanges affording continuous service)Individual210013100
(Typical exchanges are Hokitika, Paekakariki, Picton, and Queenstown)2-party1710011100
3-party16001100
4-party15001050
5-party12150950
6-10 party12008100
Class V (Exchanges observing restricted hours of service)Individual180012100
(Typical exchanges are Kawhia, Lawrence, Mangaweka, and Wanaka)2-party155010100
3-party14 1001000 
4-party1400950
5-party12008100
6-10 party11100800

For stations located outside the boundary of the base-rate area of an exchange a milage rate is added to the general base-rate-area rental, depending on the distance by line measurement from the base-rate boundary to the respective subscriber's station.

TOLL SERVICE — Toll rates for distances up to 30 miles range from 5d. to 1s. 0 1/2d. for each three minutes or fraction. They are the same day and night. For distances over 30 miles, the rates range from 1s. 7d. to a maximum of 8s. for three minutes' conversation. These rates are increased by approximately one-third of the relative initial rate for each minute exceeding three. Between 6 p.m. and 8 a.m. on weekdays, and between midnight and 6 a.m. on Sundays and departmental holidays, the rates for calls over 40 miles are reduced and vary from 1s. 9d. to 6s. 1d. for three minutes' conversation, with a proportionate increase for each additional minute.

The charge for an urgent call is double the rate for an ordinary call.

OVERSEAS CABLE SERVICES — Telegraphic communication overseas was first established between New Zealand and Australia by means of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company's cable from Wakapuaka (Nelson) to Sydney in 1876, this cable being duplicated in 1890. Subsequent developments were the opening in 1902 of the Pacific cable between Auckland and Canada via Norfolk Island, Suva, and Fanning Island, with a connection linking Norfolk Island to Brisbane; the laying of a cable direct between Auckland and Sydney in 1912; shifting of terminals from Wakapuaka to Wellington in 1917; laying a cable direct between Auckland and Suva in 1923, and duplicating the Suva-Canada cable in 1927. In 1929 a merger of British cable and wireless companies resulted in the overseas cable services being brought under the control of one authority (the private company of Cable and Wireless Ltd., with headquarters in London), following which one cable between Wellington and Sydney was abandoned, part of it being lifted for reuse, and the route of the other was altered to terminate at Auckland instead of Wellington. One of the two direct Auckland-Sydney cables later became faulty and has not been repaired, leaving only one direct cable link between Auckland and Sydney. Following upon a conference of representatives of Commonwealth Governments (including New Zealand) held in London in 1945, the Commonwealth's external telecommunications systems were brought under Government control and, in accordance with the Commonwealth Telegraphs Agreement 1948, the New Zealand Post Office purchased the assets of Cable and Wireless Ltd., in New Zealand, and took over the operation of the overseas cable services.

RADIO COMMUNICATION: Government Stations — The first wireless-telegraph station in New Zealand for communicating with ships at sea was opened at Wellington on 26 July 1911.

An event of major importance in the development of New Zealand's external telecommunication services was the opening of the Himatangi radio transmitting station in November 1953 thus providing for direct New Zealand — United Kingdom radiotelephone and radiotelegraph circuits. The receiving station complementary to the Himatangi transmitting station is Makara Radio.

The principal stations under the control of the New Zealand Government are at Awarua, Wellington, and Auckland on the New Zealand mainland, at Rarotonga and Niue in the Cook Islands, and at the Chatham Islands. Smaller stations are established at certain lighthouses on the New Zealand coast and also on a number of adjacent islands. Marine radio beacons are operated at the lighthouses at Cape Reinga, Cuvier Island, Mokohinau Island, East Cape, Portland Island, Stephens Island, Baring Head, Cape Campbell, The Brothers, Godley Head, Taiaroa Head, Dog Island, and Puysegur Point.

Communication is effected with outer islands in the Cook Group by Rarotonga Radio through small feeder stations at Aitutaki, Atiu, Mangaia, Manihiki, Manuae, Mauke, Mitiaro, Nassau, Palmerston, Penrhyn, Pukapuka, and Rakahanga. Small stations at Aleipata, Atafu, Fagamalo, Mulifanua, Sataua, Satupaitea, Fakaofo, Nukunono, Salailua, and Tuasivi communicate with Apia Radio. Niue communicates with Apia Radio, Rarotonga Radio, and Wellington Radio.

By means of the radio stations at Wellington, Apia, Rarotonga, and Niue, communication is maintained between New Zealand and the Pacific islands, the last three stations mentioned having direct communication with New Zealand. Direct communication is also available with Chatham Islands, Papeete (Tahiti), Nukualofa (Tonga), Noumea (New Caledonia), London, Sydney, and San Francisco.

Particulars of the radio business, exclusive of free (service) messages, transacted by the New Zealand coast stations during the latest five years are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchForwardedReceived
MessagesWordsPost Office RevenueMessagesWordsPost Office Revenue
   £  £
195745,725960,19712,016102,1752,033,23120,820
195847,9091,042,20014,340108,3392,528,41124,826
195947,9701,007,84913,801108,1442,400,23024,937
196050,2101,128,23514,544111,4112,493,74826,140
196155,7261,222,44915,543119,1652,564,24427,600

Facilities exist for the dispatch of radiotelegrams to vessels at sea, and special rates operate for vessels registered in New Zealand and Australia.

Other Radio Services — Telephone communication by radio is now available to 70 countries, as well as to Ross Dependency (Scott Base), Raoul Island, Chatham Islands, Campbell Island, and H.M. New Zealand and Australian warships in New Zealand waters and in the Tasman Sea. There has also been a remarkable expansion of the Post Office very-high-frequency radiotelephone service for mobile units first introduced in 1948. It is now operating in 22 centres for a total of 3,891 mobile units. Ambulance services, fire boards, traffic officers, taxi companies, veterinary services, and motor-transport companies are the principle users of the service. Radiotelephone services continue to provide essential service for isolated communities which cannot reasonably be reached by landline — e.g., isolated settlers, alpine huts, etc. There is also a free radio-medical service for ships at sea and for lighthouses on the New Zealand coast for use in emergency cases.

Private Stations — Private radio stations are governed by the New Zealand Radio Regulations 1953.

The licences for broadcast receiving stations (i.e., ordinary radio licences) authorise reception from broadcasting stations, and may be obtained at any savings bank office on payment of the prescribed fee. Further reference to these licences will be found in Section 12B, Radio and Television Broadcasting.

Licences for amateur stations are intended to provide facilities for experimental transmission to those interested in radio science, and are issued only to holders of amateur operators' certificates.

Eight radio firms and four educational institutions have been given authority to conduct experimental television transmissions for the purposes of studying the techniques involved and for investigating equipment developments in this new field of radio.

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS — The receipts and payments of the Post Office for the latest two financial years are now shown.

Receipts1959–601960–61

* Net figure — i.e., receipts less payments.

 ££
Postages6,157,0586,641,657
Money-order and postal-note commission98,249105,745
Private box and bag rents and rural-delivery fees170,300160,321
Miscellaneous receipts3,236,4493,455,901
Telegrams990,5321,060,156
Tolls5,620,2366,238,474
Telephone-exchange rentals8,580,6529,050,810
Overseas telecommunications367,912*449,728*
Totals25,221,38827,162,792
Payments1959–601960–61
 ££
Salaries14,677,43915,790,757
Overtime2,090,8782,527,953
Conveyance of mails—  
    Overseas688,456779,791
    Inland1,350,8571,362,472
Maintenance and renewal of telecommunications system612,297646,549
Motor services, workshops, tools and plant1,038,5321,160,967
Post Office buildings517,091535,828
Miscellaneous1,576,8261,739,469
Interest on capital liability2,654,4872,898,767
Sick-benefit Fund34,89439,592
Government Superannuation Fund subsidy402,750417,328
 25,644,50727,899,473
        Less transfers to vote — Telecommunications Development2,174,5272,251,662
Totals23,469,98025,647,811

Receipts and payments for the latest 11 years are shown by the following figures:

Year Ended 31 MarchReceiptsPayments
 ££
195111,324,13711,186,126
195213,081,27613,850,574
195313,705,43314,766,186
195415,991,90815,578,311
195517,995,30816,252,648
195619,071,22217,228,465
195720,545,53019,293,577
195822,740,77721,422,077
195923,370,20621,663,683
196025,221,38823,469,980
196127,162,79225,647,811

WORK PERFORMED FOR OTHER DEPARTMENTS — In addition to its natural functions, the Post Office performs a large amount of work for other Government Departments, its widespread organisation being of inestimable value in this respect. Among the principal activities in this connection are the receipt and payment of moneys on behalf of the various Departments, the more important of which are enumerated below.

Receipts — For the following Departments: Social Security (arrears of social security charge on income), Agriculture (inspection fees, etc.), Education (child-welfare receipts and examination fees, etc.), Health, Inland Revenue (land tax and income tax, including social security income tax under PAYE system), Lands and Survey, National Roads Board (special milage tax on motor vehicles), Public Trust Office, State Advances Corporation (State rents, loan and interest repayments), Electricity (Southland, Waimea, and Buller electric-power receipts), Transport, Tourist and Publicity (Mamaku, Atiamuri, Reporoa, and Ngongotaha power receipts), Valuation, Customs (collection of Customs duty and sales tax), Treasury (Government Superannuation and National Provident Fund receipts).

Payments — Departments of Social Security (social security benefits and war pensions, etc.), Health (refunds of medical expenses), Army, Air, Education (boarding-out orders), Labour (subsidised wage payments and military training medical examination payments), Maori Affairs (Maori trust payments), National Roads Board (refunds of duty on motor spirits), Public Trust Office, Police (witness warrants), Treasury (Government Superannuation payments and miscellaneous payments for other Departments), Ministry of Works, and for Reserve Bank (interest warrants and coupons).

Other services performed by the Post Office are the control of the licensing of, and the issue of licences in respect of, motor vehicles and radio apparatus, provision of advice and service on radio matters to the Marine Department and the Civil Aviation Administration of the Air Department, and provision of a fleet of motor vehicles in the larger centres for hire by other Departments. In some of the smaller centres postmasters act as Registrars of Births, Deaths, and Marriages, Registrars of Electors, and agents for the State Advances Corporation.

Other activities, not strictly departmental, include the receipt of motor vehicles insurance (third-party risks) premiums under the Transport Act 1949, the issue of fishing and game licences on behalf of acclimatisation societies, organising and collecting investments in respect of national savings, organising and selling health stamps, and collecting revenue for such outside bodies as the New Zealand Poultry Board, the New Zealand Trade Certification Board, the Armed Forces Canteen Council, and the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation.

STAFF — The large volume and varied nature of the business of the Post Office entails the employment of a large staff. The Department is administered by the Postmaster-General, with the Director-General as executive head. The staff at 31 March 1961 was as follows: Permanent, 17,643, temporary, 6,322, non-classified, 415, total, 24,380. In addition there were 792 country postmasters and telephonists who acted as such in conjunction with other pursuits. There were also 37 officers of the Railways Department who acted as postmasters.

VEHICLES — The Post Office fleet consists of 2,654 vehicles — 1,942 trucks and vans, 692 cars, and 20 motor scooters. Of this fleet, 419 vehicles are used for hire to other Departments, 1,714 for engineering construction work, and 521 on postal, telegram delivery, and other general work.

12 B — RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING

INTRODUCTION — Before 1924 interest in radio broadcasting was confined mainly to that small section of the public engaged in the experimental transmission and reception of radio signals. As early as 1921 a system of “provisional permits” was adopted by the Post Office (then the Post and Telegraph Department) by which approved persons were permitted to erect and operate radio transmitting or receiving stations. In January 1923 regulations were gazetted which, on the approval of the District Radio Inspector and the Post Office, provided for the issue of operating licences to applicants furnishing a testimonial of personal character from a reputable citizen and paying the prescribed annual licence fee (5s. in the case of an amateur receiving station). So attractive were the prospects for experiment and entertainment in this field that there were 2,830 licensed amateur receiving stations by 31 March 1924.

By contrast the number of private low-powered broadcasting stations erected and operated was much lower, the development of this type of station being retarded chiefly through lack of funds. To ease the plight of broadcasting station operators and at the same time ensure reasonable performance standards, regulations taking effect from 1 April 1925 were gazetted increasing the annual receiving licence fee to £1 10s. and providing, amongst other things, for subsidy payments to broadcasting stations. These regulations also empowered the Minister of Telegraphs to contract with others to provide a broadcasting service in terms of a station in each of the four main centres. Details of the power and duration of transmission of these stations, a minimum of 12 hours weekly, excluding Sunday, and provision of a silent night each week, were also set out in the regulations.

Radio-broadcasting Company — The initial development of broadcasting on a Dominion-wide basis was confirmed by the agreement of the Radio-broadcasting Company of New Zealand on 1 August 1925 to establish and maintain an efficient broadcasting service for a definite period. The company purchased existing stations in the four main centres and began operation of its new stations at Auckland and Christchurch in August — September 1926. Stations at Wellington and Dunedin followed soon after. By the end of 1931 the number of receiving licences in the country had risen to about 70,000.

New Zealand Broadcasting Board — With the expiry of the Radio-broadcasting Company's contract in January 1932, control of the broadcasting service, under the Broadcasting Act 1931, was vested in the New Zealand Broadcasting Board. Existing plant was purchased from the company for the sum of £58,646, this sum being advanced by way of a loan from the Post Office.

One of the first actions of the Broadcasting Board was the setting up of a Commission to investigate broadcast coverage. As a result, the location of the four main station transmitters was changed and their power increased to improve reception throughout the country.

New Zealand Broadcasting Service — The Broadcasting Act 1936 abolished the New Zealand Broadcasting Board and vested control of the newly constituted National Broadcasting Service in a Minister of the Crown. Administration of the service was placed in the hands of a Director of Broadcasting, appointed by the Governor-General in Council. Permanent officers previously employed by the board became officers of the Public Service from 1 July 1936.

By the 1936 Act the Minister of Broadcasting was empowered also to establish and operate commercial radio stations broadcasting advertising matter. The Broadcasting Amendment Act 1937 provided for the establishment of a National Commercial Broadcasting Service which existed separately until it was abolished under section 4 of the Statutes Amendment Act 1943. On 26 August 1943 the two services were combined under the Director of Broadcasting.

The Broadcasting Amendment Act 1960 provided for the establishment of a television service to be operated by the Minister in Charge of Broadcasting in association with the existing broadcasting service.

NEW ZEALAND BROADCASTING CORPORATION — The Broadcasting Corporation Act 1961 repealed all previous legislation and established a Corporation of three members empowered from 1 April 1962 to take over and operate the existing service. Apart from this the Act provides that the Corporation may, after considering the services already available in any locality, call for applications and grant warrants for the establishment and operation of private broadcasting and television stations. The Corporation will exercise a continuing function of supervising and controlling programmes broadcast by any stations so licensed. The chairman of the Corporation is Dr F. J. Llewellyn, who is also chairman of the University Grants Committee.

RADIO — At the time of establishment of the Corporation there were in New Zealand 37 medium-wave broadcasting stations and two short-wave transmitters of Radio New Zealand, the latter having 19 assigned frequencies. Two of the medium-wave stations (2XM and 4XD) are privately owned and operate with the assistance of a subsidy from the Broadcasting Account. Of those remaining, 19 stations — shown with an asterisk in the following list — broadcast advertising material. No advertising is broadcast on Sundays or on Christmas Day, Good Friday, or Anzac Day. Station 2YA maintains a daily 24-hour service apart from a shut-down once a week between the hours of 11.20 p.m. Sunday and 5 a.m. Monday. A complete list of medium-wave stations follows.

MEDIUM-WAVE STATIONS
Call Sign and Location of StudioRadiated PowerFrequencyNormal Hours of Transmission per Week

* Broadcasts advertising material.

† Operates for the period that 2YA is broadcasting proceedings of the House of Representatives.

 kilowattskilocycleshmin
1XN, Whangarei*2.0097011330
1YA, Auckland20.0076012120
1YC, Auckland10.00880420
1ZB, Auckland*10.001,0701260
1YD, Auckland*2.501,250480
1ZD, Tauranga*10.001,000350
1XH, Hamilton*2.001,3101260
1YW, Hamilton0.751,14012120
1YZ, Rotorua10.0080010830
1ZC, Rotorua*0.501,520590
2XG, Gisborne*2.001,01011330
2XM, Gisborne0.091,180180
2XP, New Plymouth*2.001,37011330
2YZ, Napier5.0086010830
2ZC, Napier*2.501,2801260
2XA, Wanganui*2.001,20011330
2ZA, Palmerston North*2.009401260
2XB, Masterton*2.50840890
2YA, Wellington100.0057016340
2YC, Wellington60.00660420
2YX, Wellington1.001,400
2ZB, Wellington*20.009801260
2YD, Wellington*2.501,130210
2XN, Nelson*2.001,34011330
3YW, Westport2.001,46011530
3YZ, Greymouth10.0092011530
3YA, Christchurch20.0069012120
3YC, Christchurch10.00960420
3ZB, Christchurch*10.001,1001260
3XC, Timaru*2.001,16011330
4YX, Alexandra2.006401220
4YA, Dunedin20.0078012120
4YC, Dunedin10.00900420
4ZB, Dunedin*10.001,0401260
4XD, Dunedin0.061,430140
4YZ, Invercargill5.0072011420
4ZA, Invercargill*10.008201260

Of the two short-wave transmitters employed by Radio New Zealand, each has a power of 7.50 kilowatts, and frequencies used are in the 6, 9, 11, 15, and 17 megacycle bands. Frequencies are adjusted throughout the day as well as seasonally to give best reception in the target areas, 15.28, and 11.78 megacycles being commonly used for daily transmissions of the home service programme, and the additional one of 6.08 megacycles being employed for transmissions of special evening programmes to the Pacific islands and Australia. Broadcasting hours amount to 15 1/2 hours daily to the Pacific islands and 12 1/2 hours daily to Australia.

Coverage of Medium-wave Service — The basic function of medium-wave stations in the programme coverage of New Zealand is as follows:

  1. Stations 1YA, 2YA, 3YA, 4YA, 1YZ, 2YZ, 3YZ, and 4YZ broadcast non-advertising programmes to listeners throughout the country.

  2. Stations 1YC, 2YC, 3YC 4YC and 2YX provide alternative non-advertising programmes to those of the YA and YZ stations in (a) but with slightly less extensive coverage.

  3. Stations 1ZB, 2ZB, 3ZB, 4ZB, 1XH, 2ZC, 2ZA, 4ZA, 1YD, 2YD, 1ZD, 1ZC, and 2XB present advertising programmes mainly of a light character, coverage being comparable with stations listed in (a).

  4. Stations 1XN, 2XG, 2XP, 2XA, 2XN, and 3XC serve the immediate locality of the centres in which they operate and present advertising and non-advertising programmes during specified hours. Within their coverage range these stations give alternative programmes to those provided by stations listed in (a), (b), and (c).

  5. Stations 1YW, 3YW, and 4YX are satellite stations rebroadcasting for local reception the programmes of more distant stations with which they are linked. Two similar stations are under construction at Kaitaia and Kaikohe.

Coverage of Short-wave Service — Radio New Zealand broadcasts to the Pacific islands a daily home-service programme from 5 a.m. to 5.45 p.m. on one frequency and a special evening programme from 6 p.m. to 8.45 p.m. on two frequencies. Its transmission to Australia comprises a daily home-service programme from 8 a.m. to 5.45 p.m. on one frequency and a special evening programme from 9 p.m. to 11.45 p.m. on two frequencies. In addition to its large radio audience throughout the Pacific, Radio New Zealand has listeners as far distant as the United Kingdom, Sweden, France, the United States, and Japan. Radio New Zealand programmes illustrate many different aspects of life in this country.

National Programmes — An analysis of the combined programmes of the national non-commercial stations for a particular week in March 1961 showed that of the total broadcasting hours, 19.25 per cent was devoted to serious music, 47.90 per cent to light music, 1.31 per cent to modern dance music, 8.20 per cent to plays, short stories, serials, and variety, 1.26 per cent to sports commentaries and results, 8.60 per cent to talks, documentaries, and children's educational programmes, 2.59 per cent to news and commentaries, 3.96 per cent to church and devotional services, and 1.93 per cent to children's programmes.

All proceedings of the House of Representatives are broadcast from Station 2YA. During broadcasts of Parliament the scheduled programmes of Station 2YA are broadcast by Station 2YC, and those of Station 2YC transmitted by Station 2YX.

Time signals from the New Zealand Time Service are broadcast every day from Station 2YA or 2YC. The signals take the form of a series of six “dots” at intervals of one second, the last “dot” denoting the exact minute. Fuller details of this time service may be obtained from the article published in Section 40 (Miscellaneous) of this Yearbook.

Commercial Programmes — An analysis of the combined programmes of the commercial stations for a particular week in March 1961 showed that of the total broadcasting hours, 69.54 per cent was devoted to music, 13.77 per cent to serial features, 2.78 per cent to variety and quiz programmes, 1.79 per cent to sports commentaries and results, 6.67 per cent to women's sessions, and 5.45 per cent to all other spoken programmes.

A brief historical outline of the commercial stations is given in the 1961 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

TELEVISION — The relatively high cost of establishing television in New Zealand has been the main reason for the delay in providing this service. Few countries of such a small population are so isolated and beyond the reach of the stimuli and assistance which arise from telecasts in a neighbouring country, with opportunities for sharing programmes, relays, and so on. In addition, the hilly terrain in some parts of the country presents difficulties in the attainment of a comprehensive coverage.

However, in August 1958 the Postmaster-General and the Minister of Broadcasting jointly announced that, on a recommendation of the Inter-departmental Committee on Television (established in 1949) and with the advice of the New Zealand Radio and Television Manufacturers Federation, it had been decided to establish the 625 line system as the standard for any television service in New Zealand.

In October 1958 approval was given to purchase equipment to enable technical investigations to be made on such matters as the likely coverage of TV transmitters, the determination of suitable transmitter sites, the provision of a TV coverage plan, and the relative suitability of different operating frequencies. Channel 2 Auckland (vision 55.25 megacycles per second, sound 60.75 megacycles per second), which was originally opened in 1959 as an experimental television station, began its regular programme service on 1 June 1960 with a weekly two-hour transmission. By November 1960 the hours of telecasting had increased to two and a half each evening, Monday to Friday. On 1 January 1961 telecasting on seven nights a week began.

Television stations were established in Christchurch and Wellington in 1961, and in Dunedin in 1962, and there are plans for the provision of a service to other centres by means of repeater transmission stations.

Details of television broadcasting stations in operation at the four main centres are as follows.

TELEVISION STATIONS
Call Sign and Location of StudioRadiated PowerFrequencyNormal hours of Transmission per Week
VisionSoundVisionSound
 kilowattsmegacycleshrmin
AK TV 2, Auckland10.02.055.2560.75280
WN TV 1 Wellington10.02.045.2550.75280
CH TV 3, Christchurch10.02.062.25 67.75280 
DN TV 2, Dunedin1.00.2555.2560.75280

The hours of telecasting are from 6.30 p.m. to 10.30 p.m. each evening from Monday to Saturday, and from 6 p.m. to 10 p.m. on Sunday. Advertising content is included on Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday evenings and from 8.30 p.m. to 10.30 p.m. on Wednesday, all other programmes being non-commercial.

NATIONAL ORCHESTRA — Formed in 1946, the National Orchestra is widely known for the high standard of its public concerts as well as its performances over the air. Distinguished soloists from other countries and choral groups appear regularly with the Orchestra, and free concerts for school children are an established part of its tour programme.

NEW ZEALAND LISTENER — Programmes of all radio and television stations are published in the weekly journal, the New Zealand Listener, first issued on 30 June 1939.

Financial Statistics — The following tables show the financial results of the principal activities of the New Zealand Broadcasting Service for the latest four financial years.

Item1957–581958–591959–601960–61

* Includes television, £12,256.

NOTE — Minus sign (—) indicates an excess of expenditure over revenue.

Non-commercial Activities    
National stations —££££
    Expenditure on programmes185,477190,991182,725213,730
    General administrative and running expenses566,112567,331587,571647,879
    Post Office charges for licence fee collection108,179109,150111,932115,819
    Depreciation124,886130,223135,504119,372
    984,654997,6951,017,7321,096,800
    Less recovery from commercial stations for provision of technical facilities and services116,737129,003128,080* 138,944
    Net expenditure867,917868,692889,652957,856
    Revenue881,904895,601922,989954,953
    Balance of revenue over expenditure13,98726,90933,337— 2,903
National Orchestra and concert presentation —    
    Net expenditure127,085129,306160,541144,474
      Less concert proceeds32,00940,80268,50237,506
    Balance of expenditure95,07688,50492,039106,968
      Total deficit non-commercial activities81,08961,59558,702109,871
Commercial Activities    
Commercial stations—    
    Expenditure on programmes126,177147,656141,616147,784
    General administrative and running expenses779,239848,456928,8501,036,282
    Charge from national for provision of technical facilities and services116,737129,003128,080126,688
    Net expenditure1,022,1531,125,1151,198,5461,310,754
    Revenue1,320,0981,486,1521,646,3161,767,018
    Net surplus before tax297,945361,037447,770456,264
New Zealand Listener    
    Printing, publishing, and distribution costs80,34775,47673,82375,485
    General administrative and running expenses39,26938,17538,16840,524
    Net expenditure119,616113,651111,991116,009
    Revenue123,545116,793118,207118,664
    Net surplus before tax3,9293,1426,2162,655
Total net surplus before tax301,874364,179453,986458,919
Provision for taxation154,188179,594225,345205,493
Net surplus after tax147,686184,585228,641253,426
Television —    
    Expenditure on programmes29,811
    General administrative and running expenses1,8543,02259,457
    Post Office charges for licence fee collection2,299
    Provision of technical facilities and services27312,256
Net expenditure1,8543,295103,823
Revenue33,408
Net deficit1,8543,29570,415
Summary    
Commercial surplus147,686184,585228,641253,426
Television deficit1,8543,29570,415
Non-commercial activities deficit81,08961,59558,702109,871
Net surplus for Service66,597121,136166,64473,140

In the table for national stations the amount recovered from commercial activities on account of provision of technical services provides for Head Office engineering overhead and services, allowance for depreciation on assets in use commercially, and share of the costs of interference suppression and frequency measurement.

There have been two principal sources of revenue, radio and television-licence fees and sales of station time (advertising). While licence fee revenue is credited to the accounts of the non-commercial stations and sales revenue to those of the commercial stations, a common fund is in fact operated, all revenue being available for the general purpose of broadcasting. However, the commercial surplus is subject to taxation without any set-off from the deficit arising from the non-commercial activities.

Revenue from licence fees and from sale of station time for the latest four financial years is shown in the following table.

Item1957–581958–591959–601960–61
 ££££
Radio-licence fees828,439835,949857,053886,915
TV-licence fees32,489
Sale of station time1,217,1791,374,1501,526,5861,643,391
Totals2,045,6182,210,0992,383,6392,562,795

Licence Statistics — The growth in the number of radio-receiving licences is apparent from the following table. Free licences, which are referred to later, are included in the figures. The licence fee for a receiving station, which from 1 April 1935 had been £1 5s. a year, was increased to £1 10s. a year from 1 January 1954.

At 31 MarchAucklandWellingtonCanterburyOtagoNew Zealand TotalsLicences per Hundred of Population
1950155,797155,58578,28659,679449,34723.86
1951160,743160,97380,79560,907463,41823.89
1952165,838167,47183,92462,300479,53324.11
1953173,008169,91885,41563,515491,85624.14
1954178,499171,93887,01864,301501,75624.18
1955183,812173,83687,75363,542508,94323.88
1956188,775176,13687,58564,296516,79223.76
1957191,138175,63888,17764,825519,77823.40
1958206,755184,85390,27967,420549,30724.14
1959215,242189,16393,68269,077567,16424.38
1960219,918193,19793,94470,344577,40324.36
1961224,491193,62597,49271,437587,04524.32

A summary of radio licences in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1961 follows.

DistrictReceiving LicencesRadio DealersPrivate ExperimentalOtherTotal Licences
AmateurResearch
Auckland224,4911,1361,0547147226,799
Wellington193,6259571,1316432195,809
Canterbury97,492420503162498,455
Otago71,437380297232072,157
Totals587,0452,8932,985174123593,220

A summary of television licences in force in New Zealand at 31 December 1961 follows. The licence fee is £6 10s. a year.

DistrictOrdinary LicencesNumber of Sets Covered by Hirers' LicencesTotal Number of Licensed Sets
Auckland11,96639012,356
Wellington2,7991122,911
South Island3,568773,645
Totals18,33357918,912

A licence issued for a receiving station situated in a family residence is sufficient in respect of all receivers in that residence other than those owned and used by subtenants or lodgers occupying part of the premises in the residence.

Free licences are issued to blind persons and institutions for the blind, as well as to public hospitals and orphan and other charitable institutions where radio or television receivers are used for the benefit of patients or inmates. Free licence privileges are also extended to the operation of radio or television sets in schools for educational broadcast purposes. The total number of free licences issued for each of the last five years, at 31 March, was: 1957, 2,836; 1958, 2,874; 1959, 2,932; 1960, 2,992, and 1961, 3,134.

A penalty is attached to the operating of unlicensed radio or television apparatus. Requirements with respect to licences are set out in the Radio Regulations 1953.

12 C — NEWSPAPERS, LIBRARIES, CINEMAS

NEWSPAPERS — There are eight daily newspapers in the four main metropolitan areas with a total circulation of 665,000. In the smaller cities and provincial towns there are 34 daily newspapers with a total circulation of 261,000. Other-than-dailies increase the circulation to an aggregate of 1,125,000. In addition, there are two national weekly newspapers circulating over 340,000 copies.

When circulation figures for daily newspapers are related to population figures, it is found that New Zealand has 387 copies per 1,000 inhabitants. The latest comparative figures for other countries include United Kingdom, 573; Australia, 381; Canada, 244; United States, 347; U.S.S.R., 107; Sweden, 462; Norway, 374; Denmark, 376; and France, 244. (Source: UNESCO Statistics of Newspapers and Other Periodicals 1959.)

Statistics compiled from various sources disclose that from 1840 to 1940 altogether 468 newspapers (of all categories) were established in New Zealand. The acceleration of motor transport had a speedy and decisive effect on the small-town press. Many local papers which, by publishing once, twice, or three times a week, had been serving adequately the needs of a district and backblocks were unable to survive when the city papers were able to reach remote settlements within a few hours of publication, offering to country dwellers such superior attractions as daily publication, full services of New Zealand and world news, sporting news, and attractive magazine features. Under the steady pressure of competition, mergers were effected in a number of provincial towns to reduce the quota of papers, generally to a single daily.

The circulation of all periodicals is not known, but for 111 periodicals (not including two national weeklies earlier classified as newspapers) the circulation is 1,563,000. (These statistics are compiled from information gathered by the Association of New Zealand Advertisers.)

The total number of magazines, reviews, journals, and periodicals published (but not necessarily all sold) in 1959–60 was 16,478,000.

Advertising — The advertising revenue of newspapers and periodicals is shown in the following table, along with the selling value of the newspapers and periodicals at the factory door.

Type of PublicationAdvertising RevenueSelling Value
1958–591959–601958–591959–60
 ££££
Newspapers, daily7,202,2367,786,2792,531,5482,635,983
Newspapers other than daily636,493690,389949,7081,022,230
Magazines, reviews, journals, and periodicals175,789187,803324,249344,027

LIBRARIES — New Zealand is fairly well served with libraries and the book stocks and circulation figures compare favourably with those of other English-speaking nations. In most centres the local authority maintains a public library.

Under the auspices of the New Zealand Library Association, a well developed system of inter-library cooperation has been developed, particularly in the use of resources by means of interlibrary loans.

National Library Service — The establishment of a National Library Service by the Minister of Education in 1945 followed a recommendation by the New Zealand Library Association. The National Library Service has four divisions — the Country Library Service, the School Library Service, the National Library Centre, and the Library School.

Country Library Service — Bulk loans of books are made free of charge to libraries controlled by local authorities, both borough and county, which operate a free library service locally and maintain it at a reasonable standard of efficiency. To towns where the population is less than 15,000, loans are made from book vans, special subject collections are sent, and thousands of books are supplied in response to requests for information and for individual titles. Libraries in towns with a greater population, excluding the four main centres, receive assistance under certain conditions. Outside the boundaries of boroughs and town districts, groups of people may have books at the rate of £3 for 50 changed three times a year to form their own small local libraries. Seven specially equipped vans, each carrying 1,600 — 2,000 books, including novels and books on many subjects, travel over the whole territory. Visits are arranged to allow libraries of boroughs and country groups to make their own exchanges every four months. In between visits, books are sent by post from the headquarters and district offices to libraries requesting them. Hampers of books are sent to isolated groups of readers who cannot be reached by van.

The Country Library Service, founded in 1938 under the control of the Minister of Education, has been extended through district offices in Hamilton, Palmerston North, and Christchurch for closer contact with participating libraries. Librarians are encouraged to visit the offices to see the range of books available and to discuss problems of administration. On visits of book vans, field librarians help to keep librarians in touch with developments in service. During times of reorganisation, assistance in staffing is given. In this way local authorities are helped and encouraged to meet the minimum standards for public libraries participating in the Country Library Service.

Free public libraries which extend their service to general hospitals in their area receive special collections of books for the use of patients. A library service is given to lighthouses, and a service to Ministry of Works, Electricity Department, and New Zealand Forest Service camps has been given since 1949. Tuberculosis patients in sanatoria and in tuberculosis wards of general hospitals are served from a special collection of books built up to meet their particular needs. Psychiatric hospitals receive collections of books which are exchanged regularly. Prisons and borstal institutions receive books and change them on the four-monthly visits of the travelling book vans.

The number of libraries obtaining books from the Country Library Service on 31 March 1961 was as follows: free libraries, 118; subscription libraries, 882; groups, 31; Ministry of Works, Electricity Department, and New Zealand Forest Service camps, 59; tuberculosis sanatoria, 10; psychiatric hospitals, 13; hospitals, 24; prisons and borstal institutions, 15.

School Library Service — The School Library Service, established in 1941, is responsible for providing a wide and varied choice of books of high imaginative quality or technical excellence for children at all levels of ability and stages of development, and arranging for their distribution and circulation to schools. It thus supplements the library resources of individual schools from its large pool stocks of books.

Services at present available can be broadly defined as: (i) general exchanges of books; (ii) an information and request service; (iii) assistance to schools in organising their books for use; and (iv) the provision of book lists.

By constant scanning of the output of printed material, by long-term buying plans, and by the regular publication of book lists, the service has set standards of book selection and coverage, and brings to the notice of those concerned the worth-while books appropriate for their purpose.

National Library Centre — The National Library Centre's main functions, developed in conjunction with the Book Resources Committee of the New Zealand Library Association, are concerned with the national system of interlibrary loan and various associated bibliographical projects. The National Union Catalogue, now containing over half a million entries, is a record of the whereabouts in New Zealand libraries of the country's holdings of non-fiction. Work on the retrospective completion of the union catalogue, apart from current maintenance, is still continuing. The Union List of Serials available also in published form, is a similar record of the serials, including periodicals, held in the major libraries in the country. The Centre maintains a retrospective and current National Bibliography of all New Zealand publications and a central cataloguing procedure for current publications. The headquarters collection of the service, maintained by the Centre as a national lending collection, now amounts to about 170,000 volumes. The Centre in conjunction with the New Zealand Library Association endeavours to ensure the availability in the country of a least one copy of all books of consequence in the English language. In the case of expensive sets there are ways of ensuring in marginal cases that only one is acquired and alternatively attempts are made to obtain one set or copy of out of print material necessary for research. The Centre acts also as the purchasing agent for Government Departments operating within the Public Account.

Library School — The New Zealand Library School offers a professional course to those holding university degrees or with equivalent education leading respectively to the diploma or the certificate of the New Zealand Library School. The course lasts from March to November. The possession of either qualification, followed by three years' satisfactory work in libraries, entitles a librarian to apply for the Associateship of the New Zealand Library Association. The school was established in 1946, and 281 students had been given professional training by the end of 1961. Students receive allowances equal to those paid to students of teachers' training colleges. Since 1952, Part Two of the New Zealand Library Association's General Training Course has been carried out by a five weeks' course at the school. Facilities for training are offered to students sponsored by UNESCO and by countries participating in the Colombo Plan.

Beginning in 1960, the New Zealand Library School has published numbers in its Bibliographical Series, Studies in Library Administration, and a Bulletin.

In 1961 a study group was convened by the school on free and rental policy in public libraries, and the papers prepared, together with a report of the meeting, have also been published by the school.

Census of Libraries, 1959 — The quinquennial census of libraries was taken for the year ended 31 March 1959. The census covered a total of 286 libraries comprising three national libraries, 21 university libraries (including the libraries of other institutions of higher education), 98 special libraries, and 164 public libraries. This census differed from the previous one taken in 1954 when only public libraries were included.

There is no comprehensive national library in New Zealand, but the three libraries listed as national libraries — the General Assembly Library, the Alexander Turnbull Library, and the National Library Service — perform most of the functions of a national library.

The university libraries (including other institutions of higher education) comprised the libraries of the four universities with six libraries in close association, the libraries of six teachers' training colleges, the libraries of the two university colleges of agriculture, together with one library closely associated, and the libraries of two theological colleges.

The special libraries were, for the purpose of this census, divided into (a) libraries of learned societies, etc., and of commercial interests and (b) libraries of Government Departments. There were 22 libraries in the former category and 76 in the latter.

Public libraries (those controlled or largely supported by a local authority) showed an increase of 26 over the 1954 census — 164 as against 138.

The following are summarised tables of the results of the 1959 census. Full details have been published in a separate report dealing with this subject, prepared by the Department of Statistics.

NATIONAL, UNIVERSITY, AND SPECIAL LIBRARIES — BOOK STOCK AND CIRCULATION
Class of LibraryNumber of LibrariesBook Stock at 31 March 1959Circulation During Year
BooksSerialsPamphletsTotalItems Lent Outside the Library*Items Lent to Other Libraries*Items Borrowed From Other Libraries*

* Items include books, serials, and pamphlets.

† Total does not balance as in some instances information was incomplete.

National libraries3983,76627,00880,2481,091,02231,286120,2785,173
University libraries21406,97291,92691,403818,189296,5095,2755,418
Special libraries —        
    Learned societies, etc.22113,69552,51425,872225,94332,8811,2191,175
    Government Departments76361,162321,774424,1931,110,004348,9586,97417,801
Totals, special libraries98474,857374,288450,0651,335,947381,8398,19318,976
Grand totals1221,865,595493,222621,7163,245,158709,634133,74629,567
PUBLIC LIBRARIES — BOOK STOCK AT 31 MARCH 1959
Public Libraries in Areas With a Population of—Number of LibrariesOwn StockFor Reference Only (Included in Own Stock)Country Library Service Stock
AdultJuniorTotalAdultJunior
Pay CollectionFree FictionFree Non-fictionFictionNon-fiction

* Total does not balance as one library gave total only.

50,000 and over21104,204307,107545,692107,71046,8321,111,54556,6251,18916,102
20,000 and under 50,0001139,014107,712180,61154,84220,472402,65122,3055,78310,516
10,000 and under 20,0001234,71635,43061,08426,9075,150163,2872,72017,8647,698
3,000 and under 10,00050109,84691,82857,64735,5245,860311,705*3,57828,67610,652
Under 3,0007081,66590,34035,34717,4773,322228,1512,80031,0258,300
Totals164369,445632,417880,381242,46081,6362,217,339*88,08884,53753,268
PUBLIC LIBRARIES — BOOKS: CIRCULATION AND USE
Public Libraries in Areas With a Population of —Number of LibrariesOwn StockCountry Library Service StockInter-library Loans
AdultJuniorTotalAdultJuniorLent to Other LibrariesBorrowed From Other Libraries
Pay CollectionFree FictionFree Non-fictionPeriodicals

* Total docs not balance as in some instances information was incomplete.

50,000 and over211,748,5681,466,6141,137,945422,4981,265,9766,041,6014,890115,2641,9765,196
20,000 and under 50,00011730,2661,269,168514,918130,228708,7163,353,29627,77341,7984624,208
10,000 and over 20,00012666,002436,404358,67686,178400,3071,947,56760,84939,357236,584
3,000 and under 10,000501,065,150583,767372,76962,189381,4842,465,359142,58185,7423259,325
Under 3,00070704,312338,997123,11521,887159,8291,353,864*161,99358,0581837,467
Totals1644,914,2984,094,9502,507,423722,9802,916,31215,161,687*398,086340,2192,96932,780
NATIONAL, UNIVERSITY, AND SPECIAL LIBRARIES — FINANCE FOR YEAR ENDED 31 MARCH 1959
Class of LibraryNumber of LibrariesReceiptsExpenditure
Grants from controlling AuthorityOther ReceiptsTotal ReceiptsSalaries and WagesBooks and PeriodicalsOther Library MaterialOther Operating ExpensesCapital ExpensesValue by Gift and ExchangeTotal Expenditure
  ££££££££££
National libraries3158,6511,485160,136112,09256,4981,6448,097 8,330186,661
University libraries2171,2649,00580,26969,64854,6602,05412,12229,8998,990177,373
Special libraries —           
    Learned societies, etc.2217,2344,96122,1959,6669,6972792,5471,8074,90828,904
    Government Departments7661,27326,26587,53885,62754,4404669,956..10,041160,530
Totals, special libraries9878,50731,226109,73395,29364,13774512,5031,80714,949189,434
Grand totals122308,42241,716350,138277,033175,2954,44332,72231,70632,269553,468
PUBLIC LIBRARIES — FINANCE FOR YEAR ENDED 31 MARCH 1959
Libraries in Areas With a Population of—Number of LibrariesAmount Levied for Library PurposesReceiptsExpenditure
Grants from Controlling AuthorityOther ReceiptsTotal ReceiptsSalaries and WagesBooks and PeriodicalsOther Operating ExpensesTotal Operating ExpensesSpecial Works and Capital ExpenditureTotal Expenditure
  ££££££££££
50,000 and over21282,679291,66178,180369,841172,38280,30190,353343,03625,614368,650
20,000 and under 50,0001132,83063,04844,922107,97057,63232,47217,760107,8644,935112,799
10,000 and under 20,0001231,71243,77319,80263,57531,35819,01612,76063,1343,07566,209
3,000 and under 10,0005029,66476,14534,194110,33936,71027,18412,65376,54734,223110,770
Under 3,0007013,25522,58123,25445,83518,35716,4206,58841,3653,10744,472
Totals164390,140497,208200,352697,560316,439175,393140,114631,94670,954702,900

International Statistics on Libraries — The following tables compiled from published UNESCO statistics show New Zealand's position in relation to other English-speaking countries as regards library resources, borrowers and book circulation. (Source: Statistics on Libraries, UNESCO, 1959.)

NATIONAL, UNIVERSITY, AND SPECIAL LIBRARIES
CountryPopulation (Million)YearType of DataLibrary Category
NationalUniversitySpecial

* Estimated.

† In 1949.

‡ in 1955.

§ Books and pamphlets only. This library's holdings total 35,332,000 documents.

New Zealand2.31959Libraries32198
   Volumes (000)1,0918181,336
Australia9.01954Libraries111350*
   Volumes (000)4001,319..
Canada14.81953Libraries1268332
   Volumes (000)..7,6304,232
South Africa12.91952Libraries224..
   Volumes (000)598975..
United Kingdom51.21956Libraries8458858*
   Volumes (000)9,64819,19013,654*
United States of America168.21956Libraries11,832..
   Volumes (000)10,776§125,000..
PUBLIC LIBRARIES
CountryPopulation (Million)YearNumber of LibrariesBook Stock, Number of VolumesBorrowersCirculation, Number of Volumes

* Estimated.

† For 100 libraries only.

‡ Number of public library systems operating 31,957 service points.

    (000)(000)(000)
New Zealand2.319591642,21749215,162
Australia9.01954320*3,340*..5,264
Canada14.819537658,4051,672..
South Africa12.919523333,29832510,230
United Kingdom51.2195657363,40013,570398,730
United States of America168.219567,500157,22425,361348,606

CINEMAS — Statistics relating to cinemas are normally collected every alternate year. These statistics relate only to cinemas, and do not purport to show employees, revenue, and expenditure of the motion-picture industry as a whole. In particular, the full revenue and expenditure in connection with screen advertising, and also head office expenses of controlling companies (including such items as interest on debentures and mortgage charges), unless recovered from exhibitors, are not recorded in the statistics. The item “Rent” under “Theatre expenditure” does not represent the rental value of all theatres, but only the rent paid where theatres were leased or rented.

The following statistics for the last three collections cover the operations of all classes of cinemas — viz, (a) those operating six days per week; (b) those operating on odd days per week; (c) circuit, or itinerant operators.

Item1956–571958–591960–61
Cinemas —
    Screening six days per week206206217
    Screening odd days per week332298294
    Circuit404334
Totals578547545
Cinemas according to seating accommodation —
    Other than circuits—
        Under 2001058992
        200 and under 500215206206
        500 and under 1,000179170179
        1,000 and under 1,500292825
        Over 1,50010119
Circuit cinemas404334
Totals578547545
Seating accommodation (all cinemas) 1956–571958–591960–61
    Seats, under 2s. (excluding amusement tax)No.70,84663,86757,135
    Seats, 2s. and under 3s. (excluding amusement tax)No.149,281144,656147,866
    Seats, 3s. and under 4s. (excluding amusement tax)No.32,24734,19535,484
    Seats, 4s. and over (excluding amusement tax)No.12,05114,96516,722
TotalsNo.264,425257,683257,207
Number of paid admissionsNo.(000)37,59638,20840,632
Average admission charge (including amusement tax)d.28.630.531.9
Admissions per head of populationNo.17.116.617.0
Number of performances for yearNo.153,262155,273162,006
Average attendance per performanceNo.245246251
Average seating capacity per hallNo.457471472
Average number of screenings per week—
    Cinemas—
        Screening six days per weekNo.10.711.011.3
        Screening odd days per weekNo.2.12.22.2
        CircuitNo.0.91.31.0
Persons engaged
    Full time — MalesNo.594550547
                        FemalesNo.449444441
    Part time — MalesNo.9871,0831,107
                        FemalesNo.1,4621,5241,651
TotalsNo.3,4923,6013,746
Item1956–571958–591960–61
Revenue£(000)
    Admission receipts (including amusement tax)4,4834,8505,396
    Screen advertising132135150
    Other receipts114119112
Totals4,7295,1045,658
Expenditure—
    Salaries and wages1,0091,0811,201
    Film hire1,1861,3191,450
    Advertising273324344
    Amusement tax370425476
    Rent350361368
    Repairs and maintenance192180222
    Depreciation135161162
    Other expenses532517688
Totals4,0474,3684,910

The number of cinemas covered in the 1960–61 survey was 545, just two less than the number covered in the previous survey of 1958–59. Cinema attendances had increased by 1960–61 to 40.6 million, over 2.4 million more than in 1958–59, and the average admissions per head of population rose from 16.6 to 17.0 during the same period. Paid admissions totalled 29.7 million in the North Island during 1960–61, representing an increase over the previous figures of 1.5 million, or 5.5 per cent. In the South Island, admissions increased by 0.9 million in the latest year (8.8 per cent). The average number of admissions per head of population for the North Island was 17.6 compared with 17.5 in 1958–59, while in the South Island, figures rose from 14.0 in 1958–59 to 15.0 in 1960–61.

The following table gives figures of cinema attendances and takings from 1938–39 (the first year these statistics were collected) to the latest collection.

YearAdmissionsGross Admission TakingsAmusement TaxNet Admission TakingsAverage Admission PriceAdmissions Per Head of Population
 (000)£££d.No.
1938–3929,8091,893,61746,8381,846,77915.218.5
1939–4031,1712,009,66253,7831,955,87915.519.1
1940–4131,4922,107,44358,1462,049,29716.119.3
1941–4231,2182,133,52369,7992,063,72416.419.1
1942–4334,0342,421,05887,6092,333,44917.120.8
1943–4438,2572,803,086121,1692,681,91717.623.4
1944–4535,5202,588,111110,2412,477,87017.521.3
1945–4636,9662,817,646131,1992,686,44718.321.6
1947–4834,0782,634,730123,0342,511,69618.618.9
1949–5036,3532,789,696135,6842,654,01218.419.3
1951–5236,3423,131,550205,4672,926,08320.718.6
1953–5437,3683,679,540300,4443,379,09623.618.1
1956–5737,5964,482,651369,9584,112,69328.617.1
1958–5938,2084,850,483425,4344,425,04930.516.6
1960–6140,6325,395,899476,2304,919,66931.917.0

Cinema Attendance in Principal Countries — The table below shows the number of admissions per head per year in those countries with the highest rates of attendance. These figures are taken from the United Nations Statistical Yearbook.

CountryYearNumber of Admissions
Total (Million)Per Head
Austria195812217.4
New Zealand19614117.0
Russia (U.S.S.R.)19583,39216.2
Israel19593216.1
Republic of Ireland19584616.0
Germany, Eastern195827315.8
Hong Kong19523415.1
Italy-195873015.0
United Kingdom195875414.5
Australia195613714.5
Germany, Fed. Rep. of195875013.8
Czechoslovakia195818313.6
Hungary195813113.2
United States of America19582,20012.5
Japan19581,12712.3
Bulgaria19588911.5
Belgium195710311.4
Denmark19585011.1
Canada195717710.7
Spain195430010.4
Norway1958359.7
Sweden1958709.4
France19583928.8

Classification by Statistical Areas — The following two tables show some of the principal statistics of cinemas for 1960–61 by statistical areas. It will be noticed that admissions in North Island districts are higher per person than in the South Island, with the notable exception of Westland. In total, attendances in the North Island represented 17.6 visits a year to the cinema for every member of the population as against 15.0 visits in the South Island. The popularity of the cinema is most pronounced on the West Coast. Admissions per person in the Westland statistical area were 20.9, far exceeding those of other districts, and approximately 23 per cent higher than the average attendance for New Zealand.

Statistical AreaPopulation 1 April 1961Number of CinemasSeating AccommodationPaid AdmissionsAverage Admission ChargeAdmissions per head of PopulationGross Admission Takings

* Based on mean population in this case.

 No.No.No. of Seats(000)d.No.£
Northland86,3913611,0241,12527.813.0130,105
Central Auckland514,5079454,8949,68635.418.81,428,608
South Auckland—
    Bay of Plenty349,62410038,9095,65128.716.2676,090
East Coast46,478135,69884727.318.296,202
Taranaki99,7742912,9501,59028.515.9188,762
Hawke's Bay114,4702310,6171,90629.716.6236,202
Wellington473,5418149,1738,90031.618.81,169,940
Marlborough27,74872,84340230.714.551,313
Nelson62,967228,07092827.814.7107,562
Westland24,841124,77051927.820.960,216
Canterbury344,5976329,2445,19734.415.1745,808
Otago176,3254119,2302,52832.814.3345,914
Southland93,721249,7851,35328.214.4159,177
Totals2,414,984545257,20740,63231.917.0*5,395,899
Statistical AreaAmusement TaxNet Admission TakingsFilm HireFilm Hire as a Proportion of Net Admission TakingsNumber of Performances for YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Seating Capacity per Hall
 £££Per CentNo.No.No.
Northland10,525139,58032,04626.86,431175306
Central Auckland127,7931,300,815393,77030.335,196275584
South Auckland—
    Bay of Plenty56,625619,465159,10025.725,627221389
East Coast7,83688,36626,66630.23,673231438
Taranaki16,289172,47349,07828.57,332217447
Hawke's Bay20,712215,49069,06732.17,762246462
Wellington103,1931,066,747318,39429.833,444266607
Marlborough4,38546,92810,53622.51,854217406
Nelson8,78998,77330,48130.94,309215367
Westland5,30454,91214,78826.92,388217398
Canterbury69,638676,170208,55130.819,001273464
Otago31,634314,28091,94429.39,489266469
Southland13,507145,67045,29531.15,500246408
Totals476,2304,919,6691,449,71629.5162,006251472

Classification by Urban Areas — Statistics have been prepared for the principal urban areas for the latest year and are shown in the next table. The Hutt urban area has been included with Wellington for the purposes of these statistics.

This table shows that admissions per head of population are nearly 21 per cent higher in Wellington and Auckland than the two South Island urban areas of Christchurch and Dunedin. On the other hand, average admission charges are higher in the South Island, as is the average attendance per performance.

Seating accommodation of cinemas as a proportion of population shows Wellington to have one cinema seat for each 9.5 persons. Auckland comes next with one seat for every 9.7 persons, then Dunedin with one seat for 10.5 persons, while Christchurch seems relatively low with only one seat for every 14.6 persons.

Urban AreasPopulation 18 April 1961Number of CinemasSeating AccommodationPaid AdmissionsAdmissions per SeatAverage Admission ChangeAdmissions per Head of PopulationGross Admission Takings
 (000)No.No. of Seats(000)No.d.No.£
Auckland448.46046,4419,14719735.820.41,365,001
Wellington (including Hutt)249.53926,2935,29520133.721.2742,683
Christchurch220.52115,0803,78025136.517.1575,288
Dunedin105.0129,9531,79018035.117.1262,122
Totals1,023.413297,76720,01220535.319.62,945,094
Urban AreasAmusement TaxNet Admissions TakingsFilm HireFilm Hire as Proportion of Net Admission TakingsNumber of Performances for YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceProportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
 £££Per CentNo.No.No.Per Cent
Auckland123,3431,241,658376,74130.331,07529494231.2
Wellington (including Hutt)68,491674,192201,72229.918,57128585633.3
Christchurch55,331519,957166,49032.011,61932582239.5
Dunedin24,580237,54273,31930.95,8043081,07628.6
Totals271,7452,673,349818,27230.667,06929890932.8

Classification of Cinemas — The following table shows the classification of cinemas according to number of screening days per week and of circuit operators.

ScreeningNumber of CinemasSeating AccommodationPaid AdmissionsAdmissions per ScatAverage Admission ChargeGross Admission Takings

* Seven circuits.

 No.No. of Seats(000)No.d.£
Six days per week217171,19835,75520932.94,900,094
Odd days per week29480,1724,7345924.4481,611
Circuit34*5,8371432523.814,194
Totals545257,20740,63215831.95,395,899
ScreeningAmusement TaxNet Admission TakingsFilm HireFilm Hire as a Proportion of Net Admission Takings
 £££Per Cent
Six days per week441,9444,458,1501,312,88129.4
Odd days per week33,534448,077132,52529.6
Circuit75213,4424,31032.1
Totals476,2304,919,6691,449,71629.5
ScreeningPersons EngagedNumber of Performances for YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceProportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
Full TimeTime Part
FemaleMaleMaleFemale
 No.No.No.No.No.No.No.Per Cent
Six days per week5134355371,311127,26128185832.8
Odd days per week30655633433,05914336339.4
Circuit4 1461,6868518446.2
Totals5474411,1071,651162,00625175033.5

Chapter 13. Section 13 GENERAL PRODUCTION

Table of Contents

Estimates of the value, and of movements in the volume, of physical production have been made in New Zealand for many years, considerably antedating the technique of national income estimates. The latter, of course, take into account the value of the tertiary services of transport, commerce, administration, social services, etc., as well as physical production; the earlier series were concerned only with the last named. The estimates of physical production in this section are based in the main on the production data which appear in the seven sections following.

GROSS FARMING INCOME — Farming occupies such an important position in the economic structure of New Zealand that statistical information relating to farm production is vested with special interest. Statistics of quantitative farm production and prices received by farmers constitute the basic data used in the computation of estimates of aggregate receipts from sales of farm produce. Such charges as sales commissions and producer boards' levies, forming part of the value of the finished products but not of returns to the farmers, are excluded. The figures do not purport to show the aggregate net income from farming after all expenses of farm operations have been met. They are intended to afford an indication of the income available to farmers as a whole to meet current expenses of farm operation, living costs, interest payments, and all other costs.

A series such as this periodically requires considerable revision of method to take advantage, of new techniques of compilation and new sources of information becoming available. Some sources of information also cease from time to time. A general revision was carried out prior to publication of the 1955 Yearbook and the series was reworked back to 1938–39 on the new basis. Figures for years before 1938–39, appearing in earlier issues of the Yearbook, have not been revised in this way, but these are still regarded as reasonably comparable with current figures. In addition to this general revision, minor amendments are made from time to time.

Except in the cases indicated in the next paragraph, no attempt has been made to exclude from the scope of the compilations that portion of marketable farm produce which may be consumed on the farm. Similarly, that portion of farm produce which is sold to other farmers as material for further farm production is in general included. For example, the value of production of grass seeds is included under the heading “Agricultural”, although — except for exports — almost the whole of this crop is used for the sowing or renewal of pasture lands. An exception, however, occurs in the case of inter-farm sales of livestock, whether the animals are for breeding or fattening, as no data are available on which to base an estimate of the aggregate annual value of such sales. With this exception, the totals shown for all farm produce thus represent the total income (including receipts from sales to other farmers), plus certain allowances for farm produce used on the farm. On the other hand, products of kitchen gardens and of other activities more intimately associated with the home than with the farm do not come within the ambit of this inquiry.

Production of green-fodder crops, turnips, and mangolds is not included. The view taken is that production of these crops is a normal and essential part of farm routine to be regarded more in the nature of a farm cost than as production of a salable commodity. Consequently, the unknown — but, it As believed, very small — proportion sold of the total production of this class of farm produce is omitted from the totals shown. It is arbitrarily assumed that 20 per cent both of grasses and clovers cut for hay, and of oats cut for chaff or hay, come within the scope of this inquiry, the remainder being omitted for reasons similar to those advanced in the case of green fodder, etc.

The division into the three groups — (1) Agricultural, (2) Pastoral, and (3) Dairying, Poultry, and Bees — has been made entirely on the basis of the nature of the produce. The values of all livestock slaughtered, including bobby calves, cull cows from dairy herds, and pigs, are included in the pastoral group.

The principal items included in the agricultural group are wheat, oats, and other grain crops, grass seeds, potatoes, onions, tobacco, linen flax, orchard produce, and produce of market gardens, nurseries, hop gardens, etc. Transport charges from farm to market and commission on sales are, as far as possible, excluded.

The items included in the pastoral group are wool production, livestock slaughterings, and changes in numbers of livestock on farms.

Shorn wool production is valued at the average prices realised at sales or appraisals held during each season, the aggregate arrived at representing the value of wool produced in each season at average sale or appraisal prices ruling during that season. No adjustments are made to cover the unknown increase or decrease in the total ultimate return from the season's production, arising from higher or lower prices realised for wool carried over and sold in a subsequent season. Deductions have been made to cover the cost of transport of wool to selling centres; the Wool Board levy; brokers' commissions and other charges for receiving into store, cataloguing etc.; and for such services as binning, re classing, and skirting when performed by brokers.

The value of livestock slaughtered has been assessed on the basis of live values at freezing works, and as such includes the returns from wool on slaughtered animals and from by-products. Deductions are made to cover the cost of transport from farm to works, saleyards, etc., and of commission on sales of livestock. The value of store stock or young lambs sold by one farmer to another is counted only once — that is, when sold for slaughtering as fat stock. In the 1955 revisions, referred to earlier, slaughterings during years ended 30 June were substituted for the figures for years ended 31 March as used hitherto.

The largest individual item included in the dairying, etc., group is the payout to suppliers by butter, cheese, and dried milk, etc., factories during each, of the dairy seasons shown. This is on a farm-gate basis, an estimated allowance for the cost of milk transport to cheese factories being deducted. An estimate of the value of human consumption of raw milk at farm-gate prices is also included, together with the value of butter produced on farms for home use or for sale. The available data permit of only a rough estimate of the value of poultry products, which, with bee products, are included in this group mainly for purposes of convenience.

The following table shows the figures of gross farming; income (in £(N.Z.) million) for the past 10 production seasons and at intervals back to 1938–39, which is as far back as the main series of recent revisions were carried. The total effect of the changes in method was not great in the earlier years shown, so that comparisons between these figures and those for still earlier seasons given in previous issues of the Yearbook are by no means invalidated. The table also shows the relative contributions of the three groups in each year, in the form of percentages of the total of all farm production.

Production YearAgriculturalPastoralDairying, Poultry, and BeesAll Farm Produce
ValuePer CentValuePer CentValuePer CentValuePer Cent

* Revised.

† Provisional.

 £(m) £(m) £(m) £(m) 
1938–398.31230.94431.04470.1100
1943–4414.41638.84533.63986.7100
1948–4919.61369.04758.240146.7100
1951–5223.511112.95182.538218.9100
1952–5324.49143.35593.736261.5100
1953–5427.010153.95692.034272.9100
1954–5527.410161.95792.233281.5100
1955–5627.410153.55596.835277.7100
1956–5726.19182.35999.032307.4100
1957–5825.99169.457102.034297.3100
1958–5925.89162.75893.833282.3100
1959–60*31010173.256103.234307.4100
1960-6131.110180.85898.032309.9100

The changes in gross farming income and its component groups are shown in the following diagram.

In the course of the compilation of the indices of the volume of total physical production given later in this section, index numbers have been compiled showing the movements in volume of farm production. For the compilation of these index numbers a computation has been made for each season showing what the aggregate annual value would have been had 1938–39 prices been constant throughout the period. From the resultant aggregates, index numbers have been compiled which measure the movements in the volume of production; for, since prices were assumed to be constant, volume is the only variable factor in the aggregates. The coverage of the pastoral production series includes allowances for changes in the numbers of livestock on farms.

In the following table index numbers of value and volume on the base: 1938–39 (= 100) are given, and these give a clearer idea of the extent of year-to-year changes.

Production YearAgriculturalPastoralDairying, etc.All Farm Produce
ValueVolumeValueVolumeValueVolumeValueVolume

* Revised.

† Provisional.

1938–39100100100100100100100100
1943–4417314812610610896124106
1948–49236156223113188113209118
1951–52283148365124266123312126
1952–53294143464130302130373132
1953–54325155498136297123389132
1954–55330150524141297125402135
1955–56330148497143312130396138
1956–57314158590146319130439*140
1957–58312153548160329138424149
1958–59311156527174303137403156
1959–60*373171561173333136439156
1960–61375172585185316139442163

Over most of the period reviewed in this table the general upward movement in prices has resulted in the value series outstripping the volume series. In some recent years, however, falling prices have caused a decrease in value in spite of the continued rise in volume. This has not occurred in the latest year, but even so, the increase in value is negligible in comparison with the considerable increase in volumes. Wool prices have been a major factor affecting the pastoral and all farm produce value series, their influence being clearly seen in the indices. Over the 22-year period the annual increase in the volume series has been 2.2 per cent compound.

FARM PRODUCTION: EXPORTS AND NEW ZEALAND CONSUMPTION — Estimates of the relative importance of exports and of consumption within New Zealand in the disposal of farm produce have been compiled by utilising the statistics of gross farming income in conjunction with statistics of trade in farm products.

In the paragraphs covering the statistics of gross farming income it is explained that these estimates were framed on the basis of “on the farm” values in order that they might indicate the gross receipts by the farmer, after making provision for transport charges and other expenses incurred in the marketing of produce.

In compiling the statistics of the relative importance of the New Zealand market and of export markets for farm products the value of exports has been assessed at the “farm” value of the commodities concerned, and not at the f.o.b. declared value for export. This adjustment has been made in order to ensure that both sets of statistics from which the comparison is made are on the same value basis. It will be realised, then, that the figures given in this statement indicate the proportions of total gross returns to farmers arising from farm products exported and from consumption of such products within New Zealand.

The figures of the return to farmers in respect of New Zealand consumption of farm produce have been obtained by deducting exports from total production. In these compilations exports of milk products have been converted to a butterfat equivalent, the returns to farmers being computed on the basis of butterfat payout; while the slaughterings represented by exports of meat products have been taken as the basis on which to estimate farmers' receipts from exports of meat. In instances where statistics of stocks are available adjustment has been made for the carryover from one season to another. It has been assumed that stocks of wool, frozen meat, and butter and cheese carried over are held for export, and that other stocks are subsequently consumed within New Zealand.

Since the estimates of New Zealand consumption are the residual element in the process of compilation, any lack of correspondence between the statistics of production and of trade will affect the accuracy of these estimates. Statistics of production relate to the production year for each commodity, or group of commodities, coming within the scope of this investigation. As the production years do not cover identical 12-monthly periods, the aggregate of production of farm produce includes statistics for a number of yearly periods ending in different months. Exports during any one year do not consist entirely of commodities produced within the same 12-monthly period to which the export statistics relate. The value of changes in number of livestock on farms is, on account of the complexities otherwise involved, wholly applied to the residual New Zealand consumption figure. The effect of these various factors is, however, minimised by taking averages for five seasons.

The following table shows for quinquennial periods, the proportions of gross farming income arising from exports of farm produce and from consumption of such produce within New Zealand.

Gross Farming Income1931–32 to 1935–361936–37 to 1940–411941–42 to 1945–461946–47 to 1950–511951–52 to 1955–561956–57 to 1960–61
Agricultural —per cent
    From exports12918121513
    From New Zealand consumption889182 888587 
Totals100100100100100100
Pastoral—
    From exports788186848482
    From New Zealand consumption221914161618
Totals100100100100100100
Dairying, poultry, and bees—
    From exports726865696460
    From New Zealand consumption283235313640
Totals100100100100100100
All farm produce—
From exports666767717068
From New Zealand consumption343333293032
Totals100100100100100100

VALUE OF PRODUCTION — Complete statistics covering all phases of production are not available, and in compiling the following statistics estimates of production have been made in several cases where direct data are not obtainable. Since statistical information as to production in each of the major productive activities is readily available, the items for which estimates must be made are, with the exception of one group of commodities, relatively unimportant. Although the value of products made in the home — e.g., home-made clothing, jams, kitchen-garden products, etc. — must, in the aggregate, account for a considerable annual value, it is impossible to estimate with any reasonable degree of accuracy the value of such production, which is, on this account, omitted from the statistics of the value of production.

It should be noted that production of material commodities only is taken into consideration in these statistics.

The general principle followed in assessing values has been to value products as near as possible to the actual point of production. For example, livestock is valued at “on the hoof” prices, while values at the factory are used in the case of factory products. In some few cases, however, reliable data as to values at or near the point of production cannot be obtained; and in these cases export valuations, wholesale-price quotations, or estimates of cost of labour involved have been used in assessing values. Although absolute uniformity of treatment in the basis of valuation as between different commodities has not been possible, the basis of valuation gives comparable aggregate values for the period covered. The statistics thus afford a fairly accurate indication of fluctuations in the value of production from year to year, although the absolute figures for any individual year must be regarded as an approximation only.

Since the basis of valuation is, in general, at the point of production, transport costs are only partly represented in the values shown, while the accretions to the value of commodities caused by the services of retailers and other distributors of finished product;, are not included in the statistics. Commissions and levies forming part of the value of finished farm products, but not of the returns to the farmers, are excluded from the gross farming income series appearing on the preceding pages, but are not excluded from the value of production figures. It should perhaps be mentioned that butter and cheese are valued at the internal prices paid out to producers under the stabilisation schemes for the dairy industry, including any distributions of surpluses on realisations made by the Dairy Production and Marketing Board, not at overseas market realisation prices, while the values of livestock slaughtered for export include any deficiency payments made under the Meat Export Prices Act. Shorn wool is valued (as described under Gross Farming Income) at the average prices realised at sales for each season. This includes the value of wool purchased by the Wool Commission, as such purchases are included (once only and not when re-offered for sale by the Commission) in computing these average prices.

In classifying the value of production into the principal groups duplication has generally been avoided, products of one group which constitute the raw material of another group being counted once only. For example, the major portion of agricultural products, being animal fodder crops utilised in livestock production, are excluded, since livestock and livestock products are included in either the Pastoral or the Dairying, etc., group. However, no deductions have been made for some major inputs into the primary industry groups — e.g., of fertilisers into farming.

Products have been classified into the groups to which they most logically belong from a production point of view, butter and cheese, for example, being classified under Dairying, etc., and not as factory products. The figure shown under the heading “Factory” is the aggregate value added to materials by the process of manufacture, excluding industries which are already included in other groups (e.g., butter and cheese making, meat freezing, fish curing, and sawmilling). As a result of the inclusion of industries processing farm products in the appropriate farming subgroups as well as for reasons already stated, the values for these subgroups and for the farming group shown in this series naturally differ from the corresponding values in the gross farming income series. The total value of output of factory industries is included under “Factory” in cases where the materials are produced in New Zealand and are not already included as production in some other group.

1955 and later revisions in the Gross Farming Income series, mentioned earlier in this section, nee new stated corresponding revisions in the farming groups in this series. These revised estimates (for 1938–39, 1943–44, 1948–49, and for each year from 1951–52 onwards) are quoted in the following table, in terms of New Zealand currency. Since comparisons between the old and the revised series are of limited validity the figures for years prior to 1938–39 which appeared in the 1954 and earlier issues of the Yearbook are not reproduced here. It has not appeared worthwhile attempting to carry the revisions back any further, the old series up to 1937–38 being quite valid measures of movements up to that date. As mentioned in connection with Gross Farming Income, global estimates such as these, are, from their nature, subject to amendment from time to time as additional data on production become available and improvements are made in technique.

VALUE OF PRODUCTION
YearAgriculturalPastoralDairying, Poultry, and BeesTotal, Farming GroupsMiningFisheriesForestryFactory*Building and MiscellaneousTotals (All Groups)

* Excluding factory industries included in other groups.

† Revised.

‡ Provisional.

£ (million)
1938–398.337.533.379.14.40.64.030.514.7133.3
1943–4414.448.136.298.75.70.75.349.415.9175.7
1948–4919.684.462.7166.76.91.210.577.027.8290.1
1951–5223.5136.890.9251.29.31.515.5112.341.4431.2
1952–5324.4167.5103.0294.911.01.815.5115.943.0482.1
1953–5427.0180.0101.1308.111.02.117.3131.248.9518.6
1954–5527.4191.4100.4319.213.72.419.5151.458.9565.1
1955–5627.5185.6105.4318.516.62.721.0163.559.3581.6
1956–5726.4215.7107.9350.018.92.921.1169.5601 622.5
1957–5826.0203.0111.7340.718.62.922.8188.267.3640.5
1958–5926.3197.2102.9326.419.02.924.1201.767.4641.5
1959–6030.2219.5114.1363.819.22.926.5218.374.0704.7
1960–6131.2216.7109.4357.320.53.127.7244.385.0737.9

Taken together the farming groups outweigh all others so that the all-groups aggregate reflects largely the movements in these groups. Prices of primary products, particularly of wool, have been major factors influencing movements in the all-groups aggregate in recent years. However, in spite of the falling prices for these products in 1957–58 and 1958–1959, the all-groups figure continued to rise, on account of the increases in factory production. The recovery of farm prices in 1959–60 caused farming to contribute the greater part of the rise in overall value for that year. For the latest year the renewed decline in farm prices has resulted in a small decrease in value for that sector, but the accelerated rise in the factory group has lessened the effect of this on the rate of increase in the all-groups total.

VOLUME OF PRODUCTION — The method of computation of the volume series is somewhat involved and is based on figures of physical volume of output where available (as for practically all farm, mining, forestry, and fishery production). Quantity figures — either of products or of materials used — are available for most factory industries and form the basis of the volume estimates. In cases where these are not available estimates of volume are assessed from the figures of added value, assuming price and cost movements similar to the measured movements in allied industries.

Information as to the number of houses erected, classified according to size, is available for certain years. From a consideration of these data, value figures for other classes of building activity for the same years have been converted into equivalent house or room units, and composite totals of actual and equivalent units used in computing the index number of volume of total production for these years. For other years, for which size classifications of houses erected are not available, the composite total for the last year in which the information was available has been projected forward by the movement in the total value of building permits issued, deflated by the movement in the average value of newly constructed State rental houses of similar size and type. The volume of Government civil construction is assessed from a consideration of the numbers of men engaged, with allowances for changes in working hours and increasing mechanisation.

Items not included in the computations, mainly factories too small for the regular annual collection of factory production statistics, and non-Government civil construction, are not considered to have a significant effect on year-to-year movements in total physical production.

The following table gives figures of value, and index numbers of value and volume of production, for the principal headings.

VALUE AND VOLUME OF PRODUCTION
Base of index numbers: 1938–39 (= 100)
YearFarmFactory*Total (Including Other)
ValueIndex of VolumeValueIndex of VolumeValueIndex of Volume
TotalIndexTotalIndexTotalIndex

* Excluding factory industries included in other groups.

† Revised from previous year.

‡ Provisional.

 £(m)  £(m)  £(m)  
1938–3979.110010030.5100100133.3100100
1943–4498.712510649.4162129175.7132109
1948–49166.721111877.0252167290.1218130
1951–52251.2318126112.3368196431.2323144
1952–53294.9373132115.9380196482.1362147
1953–54308.1390132131.2430211518.6389152
1954–55319.2404135151.4496235565.1424164
1955–56318.5403138163.5536250581.6436169
1956–57350.0442140169.5556253622.5467171
1957–58340.7431149188.2617273640.5480183
1958–59326.4413156201.7661287641.5481191
1959–60363.8460156218.3716302704.7529197
1960–61357.3452164244.3801334737.9554212

A measure of relative national productivity is afforded by the next table, which gives figures and index numbers of value and volume of production in total and per head of population.

VALUE AND VOLUME OF PRODUCTION
YearMean Population Year Ended 30 JuneValue of ProductionVolume of Production
TotalPer HeadIndex Numbers 1938–39 (=100)Index Numbers 1938–39 (= 100)
TotalPer HeadTotalPer Head

* Revised from previous year.

† Provisional.

 (000)£(m)£    
1938–391,617133.382.4100100100100
1943–441,641175.7107.1132130109108
1948–491,853290.1156.6218190130113
1951–521,970431.2218.9323266144118
1952–532,023482.1238.3362289147118
1953–542,073518.6250.2389304152119
1954–552,117565.1266.9424324164125
1955–562,161581.6269.1436327169127
1956–572,206622.5*282.2*467342171125
1957–582,259640.5283.5480344183131
1958–592,311641.5*277.5*481337191*133
1959–60*2,356704.7299.1529363197135
1960–612,400737.9307.5554373212143

Reference should also be made to New Productivity and Volume of Production Indexes, a supplement to the March 1962 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Chapter 14. Section 14 FARMING

14 A — GENERAL

SOILS AND LAND USE — Soil is the product of its environment — of the rock waste which is the parent material, of the climate under which it weathers, of the kind of topography upon which it is situated, of the vegetation under which it develops, and of the length of time during which it has been developing. In New Zealand, the wide variety of conditions under which the many kinds of rock are transformed into soil results in a complex pattern. Yet it is a complexity showing regularities and relationships that enable the soils to be grouped and classified. The conditions that control soil formation tend also to govern the kind of land use. Thus a close relationship between soils and land use arises in two ways — from characteristics inherent in the soils themselves and from environmental factors such as the climate and topography. Maps showing the pattern of soils and of land use are published in A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand (1959). Soils are shown in two divisions: (a) zonal soils, and (b) intrazonal and azonal soils; and descriptions of the location, properties, and productive capacities of the different soil types in New Zealand are now given.

Zonal Soils — If the soils formed from unusual parent materials, e.g., volcanic ash, and those occupying special sites, such as steep slopes and swampy hollows, are set aside, a simple pattern of zonal soils is revealed. It consists of the brown-grey earths of the semi-arid areas where the rainfall is less than about 20 inches a year; the yellow-grey earths of subhumid areas where the rainfall is approximately 20–40 inches a year; the northern, central and southern, and high-country yellow-brown earths respectively of the humid regions where the rainfall is well distributed and is greater than approximately 40 inches a year; and the podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols where an acid litter of decomposing vegetation and high rainfall result in excessive leaching. Zonal soils comprise 18 million of the country's 66 million acres.

The brown-grey earths (1 1/2 m; 1/2 m acres*) occupy the dry inter-montane basins of Central Otago and the Mackenzie Plains where rainfall is insufficient for plant requirements for most of the year. They are generally rich in plant nutrients and are weakly acid to alkaline, in places with salty patches. Many of them are stony. Their chief need is more water but irrigation must be practised with care to avoid waterlogging or spreading salts. They produce fine wool and store sheep and, where irrigated, fat lambs; lucerne is grown and, in favoured spots, stone fruits and brassica and other seed crops.

The yellow-grey earths (2 1/2 m; 1/4 m acres) are the seasonally dry soils of southern Otago, Canterbury, Wairarapa, Hawke's Bay, and Manawatu, where rainfall is inadequate for plant growth for a third to half of the year. They are moderately to weakly acid, and the older soils have a thick hard silt-pan in the subsoil. Fat-lamb farming is the principal use with mixed arable farming on the drier soils and some dairying on the moister soils. Stony soils related to the yellow-grey earths (1 1/2 m acres) cover much of Canterbury Plains; they are used for sheep farming including fat lambs; with irrigation, they carry over four ewes per acre and grow cereal and pasture seed crops.

The rainfall of the yellow-brown earths is usually adequate for plant growth for most of the year. The high-country yellow-brown earths (1/2 m; 1 m acres) of the cold upland basins east of the Southern Alps are developed under tussock at high elevations. They have yellow friable subsoils and are moderately acid and strongly leached. Where oversown with clovers they respond to molybdenised superphosphate and sulphur. They are used mostly for wool production and some store sheep. The southern and central yellow-brown earths (2 m; 4 1/2 m acres) of the cool and mild districts like Southland and Wellington were formed under forest and have nutty subsoils. When sown to pasture with lime and superphosphate (in places molybdenised), they are used for dairying and fat lambs on the rolling land, and for wool production, store stock, and some fat lambs on the more hilly slopes.

* Where two areas are given in parentheses after particular types of soil they refer to easy and hilly land respectively, and are usually expressed in millions of acres.

Cattle are also run to help control pasture growth and prevent its reversion to scrub and fern. The associated podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols (140,000; 200,000 acres) are best developed in Southland. They are formed under rimu-kamahi forest and are very strongly leached with grey acid structureless topsoils and with iron pans in the subsoils in places. They are being brought into pasture for sheep and cattle grazing. Waterlogged counterparts of these soils, the gley podzols or “pakihi soils” (3/4; m; 100,000 acres) occur in Westland where the rainfall is 100 inches or so per year. They have structureless subsoils and their chief problem is one of drainage to remove the excess water. They are difficult to utilise once the forest has been removed. The northern yellow-brown earths (1/2 m; 3/4 m acres), formed under mixed forest in the warm moist climate of North Auckland, are mostly heavy clays. The more fertile soils are moderately acid but support good pastures when top-dressed with lime and phosphate, in places molybdenised; the rolling land is used for dairying and fat Iambs, the hills for sheep and cattle grazing. The less fertile soils support fair pastures when top-dressed with lime and superphosphate; on the easier land many dairy- and fat-lamb farms are situated, but pastures on the hill country are less easy to maintain.

The northern podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols (1/2 m; 300,000 acres) have thin grey structureless topsoils overlying a grey siliceous horizon, and are strongly acid and very low in plant nutrients. Where formed under kauri they are known as “gumlands”. In places, especially where the soils are sandy, farming should be approached with caution because subsoil pans of humus and iron impede drainage; otherwise with fertilisers the soils can be made to support good dairy pastures.

Intrazonal and Azonal Soils — The intrazonal soils include the soils from less-common parent materials and those influenced by high ground water; and the azonal soils are youthful owing to recent renewal by sedimentation, volcanic eruptions, or erosion.

Rendzina and other lime-rich soils, mostly from limestones, occur both in subhumid areas (100,000 acres) such as near Oamaru, in North Canterbury, and in Hawke's Bay, and in the humid areas (1/4 m acres) particularly North Auckland. They are fertile, with deep, dark granular topsoils. In the drier areas, they are used for intensive arable farming and sheep farming and, near Oamaru, for poultry farming; in the humid areas, for dairying and fat lambs.

The yellow-brown sands (3/4 m acres), from coastal sand drifts of various ages, occur on sandhills which dry out excessively in summer and on sand plains where ground water approaches the surface in winter. The drier soils are used for grazing; the soils with moister subsoils, after fertilising with phosphate and potash, are used for sheep farming and dairying. Where the subsoils are loose, blowing is a problem.

The yellow-brown pumice soils (2 m; 2 m acres) of central North Island are formed mostly of two volcanic ash showers that fell 800 and 1,700 years ago. Their topsoils are mostly sands or sandy loams, and the subsoils pumice sands and gravels. Because the cattle and sheep became bush sick these areas were difficult to farm for many years and large areas were planted in exotic forests. However, the ailment is now overcome by topdressing with cobaltised superphosphate and, except where droughty, the soils can be converted into good farmland. In addition to phosphate they need consolidation and, after continued use, potash topdressing. The yellow-brown loams (4 m acres) are derived mostly from fine-textured ashes erupted by volcanoes in central North Island and by Mount Egmont and occur around the margin of the younger pumice soils. They are very friable loamy soils, respond well to superphosphate topdressing, and give slight to good responses to lime; potash responses are expected to increase with continued use. The soils are used mainly for dairying and fat-lamb production. The red and brown loams and brown granular clays (1 1/4 m acres) are formed from basalts and andesites and are rich in iron and aluminium. They are friable soils with strong structure and a marked power to fix phosphates. The younger, more fertile soils (1/2 m; 1/4 m acres) respond to superphosphate and lime, those from basalt also respond to potash; they are used for dairying, fat-lamb production, and sheep grazing, and in places for market gardens and orchards. The older soils have lower natural fertility and include the strongly acid granular soils and the moderately acid ironstone soils; they carry fair pastures when topdressed with lime, phosphate, and potash and, on the acid soils, with molybdenised superphosphate.

The organic soils (1/2 m acres) are peaty and occur mostly in the Auckland district. Where mellow and fertile they can be farmed satisfactorily, but the peats of acid bogs require special treatment. The gley soils (3/4 m acres) are formed under the influence of groundwater which causes the formation of grey subsoils commonly mottled with rust colours. They, too, occur mostly in the Auckland district, and when drained are used for dairying and fat-lamb production.

Recent soils from alluvium (1 1/2 m acres) are formed from flood sediments on river flats. For the most part they are fertile, deep loams, but some are gravelly with excessive drainage. They are used mainly for fat lambs and dairying; also, in drier areas, for cereals, pasture and vegetable seed crops, pulse crops for canning, pip and stone fruits, small fruits, and tobacco.

Recent soils from volcanic ash (1 3/4 m acres) occur mostly around the active volcanoes of Ngauruhoe and Ruapehu, and also around Mount Tarawera. Where they cover the pumice soils their cobalt content offsets the deficiency in the pumice.

Steepland soils occupy about half the area of New Zealand, being most extensive on the axial ranges, and in north-west Nelson and east Taranaki. Although showing characters related to the zone where they occur they are for the most part shallow and their subsoils vary widely in fertility according to the underlying rock. They are relatively unstable and are periodically renewed by erosion. When the plant cover is disturbed by man the erosion is accelerated and the results affect not only the hillsides but also the rivers and river flats. Areas occupied by these soils are: steepland brown-grey earths, 1/2 m acres; steepland yellow-grey earths, 1/2 m acres; high-country steepland yellow-brown earths, 4 1/2 m acres; other steepland yellow-brown earths, 14 m acres (including 2 m with high natural fertility); and podzolised steepland soils, 6 3/4 m acres. The podzolised steepland soils are largely in forest, and occur mainly in western Nelson, Westland, and western Southland, at altitudes from 5,000 ft in the north to 3,000 ft in the south. Above these levels there are 2 3/4 m acres of poor wet soils largely in subalpine scrub and tussock, and grading up to the alpine barrens (3 3/4 m acres) at elevations where vegetation is sparse or absent and much bare rock and ice are present.

New Approach to Land Use — The rapid increase in knowledge of the soils of New Zealand has brought about a change in approach to land use. In the early thirties the use of land was still guided by the art of judging its capabilities from external appearances and a general knowledge of farming and local conditions. This method had its successes but in places failed badly, for example, in parts of the country, pastures could not be maintained and farm land was abandoned. The need for solving such problems led to the improvement in ways of recognising and mapping the soils so that their properties and uses could be determined. Today, land use is guided for the most part by the capabilities of the soil type as revealed by investigation. The reliability of predictions made in this way has stimulated the rapid conversion of large areas of “problem” land into good farms and has raised land use to a new pitch of efficiency. It reflects the modern swing from farming as a traditional art to farming as an up-to-date science.

Land Utilisation — The broad grouping of land use for farm and other purposes is shown in the following table; more details on particular uses are given in this and subsequent subsections, and Section 10 on Land Tenure.

 Acres (million)
Occupied farm land
    Improved grassland18.4 
    Tussock and other native grassland13.0 
Total grassland 31.4
    Land in field crops, gardens, and orchards1.4 
    Plantations0.9 
    Land in fern, scrub, and second growth5.7 
    Standing bush2.7 
    Barren and unproductive land1.9 
Total other occupied farm land 12.6
Total occupied farm land 44.0
Land in cities and boroughs 0.4
National parks, reserves, and domains 5.1
State forest land 9.8
Other land, including waste land such as mountains, bare rock, water surfaces, roads, etc. 7.1
Total land 66.4

NATURE OF FARMING — The natural tussock grassland, which occurs mainly on the hilly and mountainous country to the east of the Main Divide of the South Island, is used for extensive pastoral farming, where the main product is wool and in some instances store sheep, while on the less steep country, particularly in the North Island where there is surface-sown grassland, both store sheep and cattle are additional products. The third type of grassland, that sown after ploughing, is found on the flat and gently undulating country of both Islands and is used mainly for the production of meat and dairy produce. Here farmers have exploited the use of certified strains of grasses and clovers, phosphatic fertilisers, lime and trace elements. However, with the advent of mechanisation, and, more particularly, the use of aircraft for topdressing hill pastures, considerable areas of surface-sown grassland have been topdressed in recent years. This treatment of country otherwise inaccessible to normal topdressing methods, coupled with oversowing of grass, is resulting in considerable improvement to hill pasture, with a consequent increase in carrying capacity and production.

Most farming districts have been reticulated with electricity, which is being put to a variety of uses on the farm, but by far the most important is that of providing power for milking machinery. For instance, in the dairying districts of the North Island there are approximately 83,000 electric motors over a quarter horsepower, which is 68 per cent of the total number used on farms in New Zealand. About 97 per cent of the dairy cows in New Zealand are machine milked.

The North Island — Many parts of the North Island have proved very suitable for dairying because of the temperate climate, a fairly high rainfall well distributed over the year, and land reasonably flat and of average to good quality. Approximately 87 per cent of the total dairy stock in the country are grazed on the flat and undulating land of North Auckland, South Auckland, Taranaki, and Wellington Land Districts. Pastures of high feeding value form the basis of the industry. The main winter supplementary feed is hay and silage made from the surplus spring and early summer growth of the pastures. The area saved for this purpose in these dairying districts comprises approximately 63 per cent of the total area saved in New Zealand. In most of the dairying areas fat-lamb raising is associated with dairying, particularly in the Waikato and the Bay of Plenty.

Various forms of sheep farming are carried on throughout the Island, but it is most concentrated on the eastern section from the Wairarapa, through Hawke's Bay, to the hill country north of Gisborne.

The South Island — Sheep farming is carried on in practically all parts of the Island. On the tussock grasslands, particularly on the higher parts, extensive sheep farming is practised. Merino and half-bred flocks predominate, with emphasis on the production of fine wool. Because of the comparatively severe climate — hot, dry summers and cold winters with occasional heavy snow-storms — there is a considerable risk of heavy sheep losses. On the easier hill country, in addition to returns from wool, a considerable portion of the revenue comes from the sale of store sheep, which are purchased by the farmers on the plains and undulating country for fattening and for flock-replacement purposes.

On the plains and downlands of Canterbury and in parts of Marlborough, Otago, and Southland, where the climate and soils are suitable, arable mixed farming is a feature. Approximately 89 per cent of New Zealand's wheat, oats, and barley acreage is in these districts. Associated with cereal production is fat-lamb raising, for sheep and lambs are fattened on the majority of these farms. Because of the dry summers and relatively severe winters considerable areas (approximately three-quarters of the New Zealand acreage) of rape, kale, turnips, and swedes are grown for summer and winter supplementary feed.

Dairying is very localised and is concentrated near the cities to cater for whole-milk requirements. Districts where herds are run for dairy-factory supply are the plains areas of Southland; parts of Nelson and Westland; and Banks Peninsula, in Canterbury.

CLASSIFICATION OF HOLDINGS BY PRINCIPAL FARMING ENTERPRISES — The collection of farm production statistics in 1950 was carried out as New Zealand's part of the World Census of Agriculture. Detailed information was published separately in the report on the New Zealand Census of Farm Production, 1949–50. Similarly a report is being prepared for publication on the New Zealand Census of Farm Production, 1959–60.

For purposes of fuller analysis of the New Zealand results than is customarily given in Statistical Area (previously Land District) tables, counties with some affinity as to farming types, etc., have been regrouped to form what have been designated “Regional Areas”, and certain tables given in Sections 14B and 14C of this volume are set out on (his basis. The following sets out in detail the content of these regional areas.

Regional AreaCounties Included (as at 1950)
NorthlandMangonui, Whangaroa, Hokianga, Bay of Islands, Whangarei, Hobson, Otamatea, Rodney, Waitemata, Eden.
South AucklandManukau, Franklin, Raglan.
Waikato and Hauraki LowlandsWaikato, Waipa, Otorohanga, Hauraki Plains, Piako, Matamata.
Cape ColvilleGreat Barrier, Coromandel, Thames, Ohinemuri.
Central PlateauTauranga, Rotorua, Taupo, Whakatane.
Western UplandsKawhia, Waitomo, Taumarunui, Ohura, Whangamomona, Clifton, Kaitieke, Waimarino.
TaranakiTaranaki, Inglewood, Egmont, Stratford, Eltham, Waimate West, Hawera.
East CapeOpotiki, Matakaoa, Waiapu, Uawa, Waikohu, Cook,
Hawke's BayWairoa, Hawke's Bay, Waipawa, Waipukurau, Patangata.
RangitikeiPatea, Waitotara, Wanganui, Rangitikei, Kiwitea, Pohangina.
ManawatuDannevirke, Woodville, Oroua, Manawatu, Kairanga, Horowhenua, Pahiatua.
CastlepointWeber, Akitio, Castlepoint.
WairarapaEketahuna, Mauriceville, Masterton, Wairarapa South.
FeatherstonHutt, Makara, Featherston.
NelsonWaimea, Takaka, Collingwood, Buller, Murchison, Inangahua.
MarlboroughSounds, Marlborough, Awatere, Kaikoura.
WestlandGrey, Westland.
North CanterburyAmuri, Cheviot, Waipara.
FoothillsAshley, Oxford, Tawera, Selwyn.
Canterbury PlainsKowai, Rangiora, Eyre, Malvern, Paparua, Springs, Ellesmere.
ChristchurchWaimairi, Heathcote, Halswell.
Banks PeninsulaMount Herbert, Akaroa, Wairewa.
MackenzieMackenzie.
South CanterburyAshburton, Geraldine, Levels, Waimate, Waitaki.
OtagoWaihemo, Waikouaiti, Peninsula, Taieri, Tuapeka.
Central OtagoManiatoto, Vincent, Lake.
SouthernBruce, Clutha, Southland, Wallace.
RemainderChatham Islands, Stewart Island.

Since 1950 there have been changes in county structure which have affected the boundaries of regional areas and these will be taken into account when the classification of holdings is revised.

A type classification of farm holdings was also brought into use in 1949–50, and figures as to the number of holdings of various principal types of farming enterprises in the several regional areas (each Island separately) are here presented.

Regional AreaPredominant EnterpriseTotal
Sheep FarmingDairy FarmingBeef Cattle RaisingMixed FarmingArable Copping (Including Grass-seed Production)Horticulture (Including Market Gardens)Poultry KeepingGrazing AreasResidentialOther* and UnspecifiedIdle and Unused

* Including horse raising, 473; plantations, 272; pig raising, 217; timber cutting, 75; and phormium tenax CN.Z. flax), 22.

† In regional area statements, 95 holdings in the Chatham Islands are included in the South Island totals.

Northland7857,31333058868821980487442267012,171
South Auckland7563,5048617229413089317101785,374
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands8776,936823717528293165113688,675
Cape Colville128849334234955432681,290
Central Plateau2842,2664419921136931131141203,309
Western Uplands1,3951,149602913537117276773,068
Taranaki4393,9742217353714417882184,946
East Cape9451,10825107931288110635456533,056
Hawke's Bay1,9877393558966547119941861504,368
Rangitikei1,8201,263291829433010230648283,716
Manawatu1,4132,9904125281856216026857395,268
Castlepoint27423112178326
Wairarapa636661525191017328830101,533
Featherston354489812641435010129501,183
  Totals, North Island12,09333,2648014272922,4227612,2403,4251,2211,33758,283
Nelson5291,014757751806361923682112163,575
Marlborough74039397317696313716456521,827
Westland13740815?713750111731491,114
North Canterbury59639350796642651610912
Foothills3388315389313640842122803
Canterbury Plains426727141618096989153415152343,049
Christchurch382711017755467875354119401,623
Banks Peninsula271193945255524495622
Mackenzie28713131621622812380
South Canterbury2,23288531542948213277378744166666,482
Otago93855834762918076144227102862,450
Cent-al Otago661833186616871189128681,311
Southern3,9081,8368422115137434365771861867,665
Remainder743711371556194
    Totals, South Island11,1756,5064401,3072,4942,1936911,7343,3031,1621,00232,007
    Totals, New Zealand23,26839,7701,2411,7342,7864,6151,4523,9746,7282,3832,33990,290

DAIRY PRODUCTION — The total butterfat production “at the pail” during the 1960–61 dairy season is estimated to have amounted to 556–7 million lb, an increase of 10 million lb, or 1.8 per cent, on the 1959–60 figure of 546.7 million lb.

The quantity of butterfat processed by dairy factories in 1960–61 is estimated at 487.4 million lb, compared with 478.7 million lb processed by factories during 1959–60.

Variations over the last 10 years in total butterfat production, including estimates for butterfat in milk and cream sold for human consumption, used and lost on farms, etc., are shown hereunder. The table also gives the number of dairy cows recorded as in milk, on farms of 1 acre or more outside borough boundaries, and estimates of the average butterfat production per cow “at the pail”, which are derived by the New Zealand Dairy Production and Marketing Board from data concerning tested herds.

YearTotal ButterfatDairy Cows in MilkAverage Production per CowYearTotal ButterfatDairy Cows in MilkAverage Production per Cow

* Relates to holdings of 10 acres and over, whereas figures for earlier years relate to holdings of one acre and over.

 Million lb(000)lb Million lb(000)lb
1951–525011,9062621956–575241,998266
1952–535351,9622731957–585581,967285
1953–544971,9992511958–595571,931293
1954–555071,9952563959–605471,887*286
1955–56530 2691960–61557 285

The next table shows the estimated production and utilisation of butterfat during each of the last five seasons. (Source: New Zealand Dairy Production and Marketing Board).

Utilisation1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61

* Includes small quantities of creamery fat used in whey buttermaking.

† Including residual fat in skim-milk from home separation.

 million lb
Creamery buttermaking*367.2397.5403.5384.3387.4
Cheesemaking84.185.676.983.98.90
Whole-milk products6.26.16.58.18.3
Total457.5489.2486.9476.3484.7
Residual fat in skim-milk products1.82.22.52.42.7
Total processed by dairy factories459.3491.4489.4478.7487.4
Consumed as milk, cream, or ice cream44.345.747.248.349.6
Farm butter0.20.20.20.20.2
Fed to stock15.115.014.614.113.9
Wastage5.25.55.55.45.5
Total production “at pail”524.2557.8556.9546.7556.7

Changes in the usage of butterfat in dairy factories over recent years are indicated by the percentages in the following table.

 Percentage of Total Butterfat
1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61
Butterfat received into factories from farms and used for—
    Buttermaking80.381.382.980.779.9
    Cheesemaking18.417.515.817.618.4
Whole milk products1.31.21.31.71.7
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

Creamery butter production during 1960–61 amounted to 209,892 tons, being an increase of 1,909 tons, or 0.9 per cent, on the previous season's total of 207,983 tons. Whey butter manufacture amounted to 3,257 tons, an increase of 153 tons, or 4.9 per cent, on the previous year's total of 3,104 tons. Cheese manufacture totalled 98,496 tons, an increase of 5,168 tons, or 5.5 per cent, on the previous season's total of 93,328 tons.

Of the other dairy products, the only commodity to decline in 1960–61 from the previous year's output was skim-milk powder which dropped by 6,558 tons, or 13.3 per cent, to 42,805 tons. The remaining products increased in production, buttermilk powder by 1,180 tons to 17,104 tons (an increase of 7.4 per cent), while casein production for 1960–61 at 30,589 tons was 3,513 tons more than the previous record figure of 27,076 tons in 1958–59 and 6,038 tons higher than the 1959–60 season. The output of condensed and powdered whole milk for 1960–61 was 16,660 tons, 107 tons (0.6 per cent) higher than for 1959–60.

Production by dairy factories during the last five seasons is set out in the following table.

Product1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61
 tons (000)
Creamery butter198.2215.1218.6208.0209.9
Whey butter3.03.02.93.13.3
Cheese94.696.685.393.398.5
Condensed and powdered whole milk15.513.613.816.616.7
Skim-milk powder50.646.140.649.442.8
Buttermilk powder14.115.816.515.917.1
Casein13.822.527.124.630.6

The following diagram shows the progress of the dairy industry over a long period of years.

The New Zealand Dairy Production and Marketing Board, which combines the former New Zealand Dairy Board and the former New Zealand Dairy Products Marketing Commission, was set up under statute in 1961 and is comprised of 13 members. It is empowered to deal with the quality improvement (e.g., the testing for production, the development of artificial breeding, and research and experimental work) of dairy stock and pigs or the produce derived from them. The Act further empowers the Board to promote and organise the circulation of information relating to the bobby calf and pig industries; it can promote consumption of dairy or pig products through advertising and can regulate and control the marketing of bobby calves and veils.

The Board's production and administration section is financed by a levy on dairy produce. It shares with the Government the management and finance of the Dairy Research Institute, and, with the Government, the New Zealand Meat Producers Board, and the New Zealand Wool Board, the control of the Veterinary Services Council.

The Board is also represented on the Dairy Products Prices Authority, the Dairy Industry Loans Council, the Meat Producers Board, the Pig Producers Council, the Bobby Calf Pools Central Executive, the Dairy Factory Managers Registration Board, and on a committee which examines improvements in manufacture.

The Dairy Industry Act 1908 with its amendments, regulates the production, collection, treatment, preparation, and manufacture, under proper sanitary conditions, of dairy produce — i.e., milk, cream, butter, cheese, and any other product of milk or cream — intended for sale for human consumption within New Zealand or for export.

Inspectors are empowered to inspect premises used for the production or manufacture of dairy produce. Any defects affecting the cleanliness and sanitation of the premises, or of the plant, machinery, and apparatus used in connection therewith, may be ordered to be remedied to the satisfaction of the inspector, and until so remedied their use in the production of dairy produce may be forbidden. Inspectors are authorised to condemn any dairy produce considered unfit for human consumption, and the sale of unwholesome milk or other dairy produce is prohibited.

Dairy produce intended for export must be sound and wholesome in all respects, and must comply with the requirements of the Act as to inspection, grading, and marking. The export of butter containing more than 16 per cent of water or less than 80 per cent of butterfat is prohibited. The export of cheese of which the water-free substance consists of less than 50 per cent of fats wholly derived from milk is also illegal.

The Cooperative Dairy Companies Act 1949 provides for the registration of cooperative dairy companies.

MEAT PRODUCTION AND DISPOSAL — Meat production for the seasons ended September 1959, 1960, and 1961 shows the total carcass weight of meat to be 731,300, 752,800, and 757,700 tons respectively. The following table shows in summary form production and disposal of meat for the years 1955–56 to 1959–60. Carcass meat is shown at bone-in weight.

 1955–561956–571957–581958–59*1959–60

* Revised.

 tons (thousands)
Production
Beef236.5240.2244.9211.322.8
Veal24.826.323.422.823.4
Mutton141.0125.7121.4168.4169.3
Lamb210.7209.7231.4255.3271.7
Pig meat—
    Porker14.314.012.819.517.5
    Baconer23.320.623.118.919.9
    Chopper2.82.62.22.82.7
Total carcass meat653.4639.1659.1699.0717.2
Edible offal28.430.828.632.335.5
Total production681.7669.9687.7731.3752.8
Disposal
Exports and ships' stores439.0428.8441.8485.5491.9
For canning18.314.28.77.711.3
Local consumption224.4226.9237.1238.1249.6
Total production681.7669.9687.7731.3752.8

Meat consumed in New Zealand during 1959–60 represented approximately 33.3 per cent of total production. The total consumption per head at 237.3 lb, was an increase of 8.2 lb per head on the previous year. The figures in the next table give actual consumption during the years ended 30 September, by classes of meat.

ProductTotal ConsumptionConsumption per Head of Population
1957–581958–59*1959–601957–581958–59*1959–60

* Revised.

  tons (000)  lb 
Beef107.996.096.6106.492.691.4
Veal6.96.16.66.85.96.2
Mutton67.579.286.066.576.381.4
Lamb9.912.315.19.811.914.3
Pig meat —
    Porker10.414.314.710.313.813.9
    Baconer18.117.818.317.817.217.3
    Chopper2.22.22.42.22.02.3
Total carcass meat222.9227.9239.6219.8219.7226.8
Edible offal8.39.811.18.19.410.5
Grand totals 231.2237.7250.7227.9229.1237.3 

Details of sources of supply for local consumption in 1959–60 are given in the following table. Figures for meat export works include those for a few bacon works. In the case of local abattoirs and rural slaughterhouses, edible offal has been estimated at 4 per cent of total carcass weight excluding pig meats.

ProductLocal AbattoirsMeat Export WorksRural SlaughterhousesFarmsTotal
 tons
Beef59,80927,8667,7531,17296,600
Veal3,5632,637672986,565
Mutton36,07430,9034,28714,76486,028
Lamb4,1449,1971551,57915,075
Pig meat —
    Porker7,5516,05762546814,701
    Baconer2,52915,762  18,291
    Chopper6771,712  2,389
  Total carcass meat114,34794,13412,88718,281239,649
Edible offal4,1456,43549011,070 
Totals118,492100,56913,37718,281250,719

The following table shows the numbers of the different classes of livestock slaughtered for food during each of the last 11 September years. The figures are for total killings — i.e., they include export works, abattoirs, rural slaughterhouses, and an allowance for killings on farms.

LIVESTOCK SLAUGHTERINGS
Year Ended 30 SeptemberSheepLambsCattleCalvesPigs
Carcasses (000)
19514,43311,6946921,311707
19525,92912,4157431,311685
19535,63212,3006521,236740
19545,46713,3247801,330760
19555,73313,9929001,435778
19565,88614,8071,0001,406816
19575,30114,3391,0471,407751
19585,08115,8831,1061,314768
19597,45918,3559621,222883
19607,35619,2839561,234863
19617,28919,8469951,299839

Meat intended for export from New Zealand is slaughtered at meat export slaughterhouses, of which 36 are at present operating. They are licensed annually under the provisions of the Meat Act 1939 and regulations thereunder, which also authorise officers of the Department of Agriculture to carry out inspection of all meat whether for export or for local consumption.

The supervision of grading of meat for export is one of the responsibilities of the New Zealand Meat Producers Board. Grading at each freezing works is carried out, after slaughtering and dressing, by graders employed by the concern operating the freezing works. Supervising graders of the Meat Producers Board are allotted to each group of works to ensure uniformity of grading.

To supply meat for the larger urban centres there are at present 41 abattoirs operating, the larger ones being organised on the same lines as meat export works, and the supply is augmented by meat drawn from export works. At rural slaughterhouses meat is killed for consumption in small country towns and rural districts. Many farmers, particularly on sheep farms, kill their own meat.

To regulate and control the marketing of bobby calves, Bobby Calf Committees were established in 1938 and are now governed by the Bobby Calf Marketing Regulations 1955 under the control of the Dairy Board.

WOOL PRODUCTION — Although about fifth in order in actual size of flocks, New Zealand holds third place in the world as a producer of wool, and second place as an exporter. New Zealand specialises in the production and export of crossbred wool. With the exception of a small annual consumption by local mills the whole of the wool produced in New Zealand is exported. The quantity on a greasy basis used by local mills in the post-war period until 1957–58 ranged between 11,000,000 lb and 13,500,000 lb, rising to 14,500,000 lb in 1958–59, 15,600,000 lb in 1959–60, and 17,100,000 lb in 1960–61.

The following table shows for the last 11 seasons the total wool production (greasy basis), the movement in the average price per pound of wool (greasy basis), and the estimated total value of wool production (obtained by valuing the production estimate at the overall, price per lb of greasy wool sold at auction).

Season Ended 30 JuneTotal Wool Production (Greasy Basis)Average Price per Pound (Greasy Basis)Estimated Value of Total Wool Production
 lb(m)d.£(m)
195139087.84142.7
195240740.1968.2
195341846.1980.4
195442650.2589.2
195545549.6794.2
195646246.1988.9
195749154.76112.0
195849641.1685.1
195954036.0781.2
196057744.65107.3
196158840.3498.8

On account of lack of information on changes in stocks of wool on farms, the above figures of production should not be taken as precise measures of actual production in each season.

An analysis of wool sold at New Zealand auctions, according to quality groups, is given in the following table.

Quality Group1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61
BalesPercentage of Total SalesBalesPercentage of Total SalesBalesPercentage of Total SalesBalesPercentage of Total SalesBalesPercentage of Total Sales
60–64's and up19,1741.715,4201.413,6671.115,2731.311,3800.9
60's11,8341.311,6681.110,4720.911,2600.910,0180.8
58–60's, 58's, and 56–58's101,7979.595,3858.789,2697.495,2707.878,2716.3
50–56's and 56's131,04112.5125,35011.4116,5839.7123,83110.2109,1688.7
52's73,6077065,1685.950,2034.255,6594.646,8063.7
50's158,76915.0145,35713.2147,95912.3155,34212.7149,19611.9
48–50's167,43116.0151,70013.8187,04915.6176,42514.5150,25512.0
46–50's and 48's289,88327.5326,25829.7377,68731.5387,32231.8448,91635.9
46–48's82,7087.8111,24110.1150,53812.6143,60211.8165,79813.3
46's and lower19,4191.751,4264.756,9094.754,8104.579,1666.3
Totals1,055,663100.01,098,973100.01,200,336100.01,218,794100.01,248,974100.0

The Wool Industry Act 1944 provided for the establishment of the New Zealand Wool Board, replacing the New Zealand Wool Council established under the Wool Industry Promotion Act 1936. The Board's principal concern is the promotion of the wool industry, particularly in regard to markets, scientific and industrial research in relation to wool and sheep with a view to improvement in quality and quantity, and the discovery of new or improved methods of utilisation. Specific matters in relation to which the Board may be called upon to exercise certain functions are the production, handling, pooling, appraising, storage, distribution, marketing, and disposal of wool. The Board is empowered to act in combination or association with other bodies established outside New Zealand functioning on similar lines, such as the International Wool Secretariat and the Wool Bureau, and with the New Zealand Meat Producers Board and the New Zealand Dairy Board. It is also represented on the Wool Commission established by the Wool Commission Act 1951. To provide funds for the Board to carry out its functions the Wool Industry Act authorises a levy on all wool produced in New Zealand, the rate of the levy to be fixed each season by the Board. Under the Wool Commission Act, payment of this levy is at present suspended, the expenses of the Board and of the Commission being met, half from a charge imposed by regulation under that Act on all wool exported or used in New Zealand, and half from accumulated funds of the Commission. The charge is at present 5s. per bale, having been raised from 4s. in October 1961.

In December 1960 there was set up the Wool Research Organisation of New Zealand supported by the Wool Board and the Government (through the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research). The main object of the organisation is to promote and conduct research into the properties of wool, but it will also study problems of handling, storage, transport, marketing, and related matters.

References to the activities of the Wool Commission set up under the Wool Commission Act 1951 are to be found in Section 21.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE — The Department of Agriculture has existed as a separate Department since 1892 and has been instrumental in building up farm production. The principal functions of the Department, as set out in the Department of Agriculture Act 1953, are (a) to promote and encourage the development of all phases of the agricultural, pastoral, and horticultural industries in New Zealand, including the stock, poultry, fruit, vegetable, flax (Phormium tenax), tobacco, hops, and honey production industries, with a view to maintaining and improving the quality of the products derived from those industries and increasing the production of those products; (b) to promote and encourage the marketing and sale of those products.

Under the control of the Minister of Agriculture, the Department of Agriculture provides a service of which the main object is the advancement of the interests of primary production. Under a Director-General of Agriculture there are Divisional Directors of Animal Industry, Dairy, Farm Advisory, Horticulture, and Administration as well as the Directors of the Ruakura and Wallaceville Research Stations, since 1960 directly responsible to the Director-General.

While the service is primarily educative, the Department administers a number of Acts and regulations. Under the Animal Industry Division all meat killed at meat export slaughterhouses and abattoirs is inspected by qualified officers, and periodical inspections are carried out at registered rural slaughterhouses.

All meat intended for local consumption is graded by the inspection staff. The Division is responsible for the control of infectious diseases of livestock, and vaccination and testing are carried out to prevent and eradicate certain serious stock diseases. Special attention is given to herds supplying milk for human consumption. The danger of insecticide residues being absorbed by grazing animals and lodging in animal fat or being found in milk products has resulted in regulations being issued to control the use of such insecticides. Livestock husbandry forms an essential part of the extension service provided by this Division.

All stock exported and imported is examined by the Division's veterinarians. Special instruction and advice are given in poultry keeping, swine husbandry, and wool growing and handling. Among other activities the Division is concerned with the control of noxious weeds and, with the Rabbit Destruction Council through district rabbit boards, in the eradication of rabbits. It also conducts a wool-testing service. A poultry demonstration plant is located at Upper Hutt.

The Port Agriculture Inspection Service was established in 1960 to take over both plant and animal quarantine work. Officers of this service handle all aspects of agricultural import work at major ports and airports.

Work at Ruakura has been concerned to a large extent with animal nutrition under conditions of grassland farming, and Wallaceville with disease and diagnostic work. An additional diagnostic station is now established at Taieri, near Dunedin. Associated with Ruakura are the hill country research station at Whatawhata, near Hamilton, and the substation at Manutuke, near Gisborne.

Instruction in the manufacture of butter, cheese, milk powder, and casein is given by the Dairy Division. Dairy produce is inspected and graded before shipment and a close supervision is exercised over butter and cheese at all stages of manufacture. Dairy farm premises are inspected, and the Division is responsible for the registration of town milk supply premises. It also provides technical advice on the administration of market milk treatment. The Division has laboratories at Auckland and Wallaceville which provide a. comprehensive examination of dairy products as a background to its control of dairy produce quality. The Division is responsible for the registration and licensing of dairy factories, approval of their design, general suitability, and economic justification.

The Farm Advisory Division is concerned with research and advisory work in soil management, crop and pasture production, and farm management. A field staff of farm advisory officers acts as a link between the research stations and the farmers and also carries out cooperative field trials and demonstrations on farmers' properties. The Division has special sections devoted to seed certification and crops, field experimental work, pastures, soil conservation, farm management and economics, rural sociology and home economics, and farm engineering and machinery. Soil testing and assistance with farm drainage work are both undertaken on a fee-paying basis. The Division controls the following stations: Seed Testing Station, Palmerston North; Rukuhia Soil Research Station, Hamilton; Experimental Area, Marton; Phormium plantation, Moutoa; Flock House Farm of Instruction, Bulls; Winchmore Irrigation Station, Ashburton; and Invermay Agricultural Research Station, Mosgiel; and the following soil-conservation demonstration farms and areas: Waerenga-o-kuri, Tangoio, Makara, Cannock, Wither Hills, Moutere Hills, Adair, Tara Hills, Mid-Dome, Lake Cameron, and Wairakei.

The Horticulture Division provides an advisory service to fruitgrowers, market gardeners, nurserymen, flower growers, and beekeepers. Its officers inspect market gardens, nurseries, and apiaries for disease, and grade pip fruit for export and home consumption. At Te Kauwhata Experimental Station investigations are carried out into grape and wine production, and at Levin Research Station into berry fruit and vegetable production. In 1961 a horticultural laboratory was established in Levin, the objects being to create a diagnostic section for plant pests and diseases detected at ports of entry or on post-quarantine material. This service will play an important part in the identification and eradication of new plant diseases, and the specialist staff will be able to assist field officers handling disease and other problems.

The Department's Editorial Section is responsible for the production each month of the Journal of Agriculture, which has a very wide circulation amongst farmers. In addition, a large number of bulletins on special subjects are produced, most of which are available free of charge.

The Department is also concerned with many of the issues relating to the marketing of primary products, both overseas and within New Zealand, as well as with general economic problems affecting farming industries as a whole.

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH — Under the supervision of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research the Department devotes a large part of its activities to the promotion of agricultural research relating to most phases of agriculture.

The Soil Bureau has already made a survey of New Zealand soils which provides basic information on their most suitable use for agricultural and other purposes. It also undertakes research on the relationship of soil to problems of agriculture, horticulture, and forestry.

Microbiologists at the Bureau are making a survey of all soil micro-organisms and have isolated a fungus which has been found to be the cause of facial eczema disease in sheep. This discovery should not only facilitate control of this serious disease but also suggest a new method of approach to many animal nutrition and health problems.

The Crop Research Division is concerned with producing new and improved varieties of field and vegetable crops suited for local conditions. Special attention is given to the development of disease resistance.

The Hop and Tobacco Research Stations, both of which are subsidised by the industry, investigate problems relating to the growing of these two crops, while the Fruit Research Division performs a similar function for the whole fruit industry.

The work of the Grasslands Division is directed towards improving the productivity of our pastures by breeding improved varieties of grasses and clovers and investigating the factors affecting their growth.

Closely associated with the Grasslands Division is the Plant Chemistry Division, which undertakes research on plant nutrition and metabolism with special reference to the relationship between pasture quality and animal health and nutrition. The latter Division has developed an effective means of controlling bloat by using emulsified oils.

Farmers, fruitgrowers, and gardeners are assisted by the Plant Diseases Division, which investigates all types of plant diseases, with the object of bringing them under control. The Entomology Division studies New Zealand insects with special reference to those, such as grass grub, which attack agricultural crops. The Animal Ecology Division investigates the ecology of introduced mammals, such as the rabbit, with the object of discovering more effective methods of control.

The Wheat Research Institute, which like the Tobacco and Hop Research Stations is subsidised by industry, aims at improving the milling and baking qualities of the wheats produced in this country. A moisture-testing service helps farmers to determine when wheat crops are ready for harvesting.

The work of the Botany Division and the Applied Mathematics Laboratory has only an indirect bearing on agriculture. The Botany Division's function is to study all plant life in New Zealand, and in doing so it provides basic information of use to other divisions of the Department. The Applied Mathematics Laboratory assists other divisions by advising on the design of experiments so that these yield the maximum information.

Closely associated with the Department arc a number of research associations and institutes which undertake research work of importance to agriculture. The Fertilizer Manufacturers' Research Association concerns itself with problems relating to the production, distribution, and use of fertilisers, the Wool Industries' Research Institute studies all aspects of wool manufacture, the Meat Research Institute studies problems affecting the meat industry, while the Dairy Research Institute investigates the production of milk in relation to feeding, breeding, and management of dairy animals and the manufacture of dairy products. It also investigates the building, design, and efficiency of dairy' machinery.

The Value of Agricultural Research — The value of research to agriculture, which is not easy to assess in monetary terms, is reflected in the development of improved and higher yielding varieties of plants, in their more effective handling, and in the control of pests and diseases.

A soil survey of the whole of New Zealand has been completed, and the problems of mineral deficiency diseases such as bush sickness and dopiness have been solved. Tobacco research has resulted in the area devoted to this crop being doubled, simultaneously with the doubling of the yield per acre, and the industry has become one of the most prosperous of the rural industries. The Hop Research Station has recently developed two new hop varieties of excellent quality and high yield, and with effective resistance to the serious disease, root rot. Effective control has been secured over a wide range of plant diseases. Ball smut and loose smut of cereals have almost disappeared, dry rot of brassicas has materially lessened, and blast of stone fruit has been controlled. A system of certifying spray materials effective against a wide range of diseases of horticultural and garden crops has been devised. A most effective culture to promote lucerne growth has been found and maintained. Numerous serious insect pests have been brought under control, and the diamond-back moth, white butterfly, and codling moth are not the menace they formerly were; subterranean caterpillar also has been checked and, more recently, grass grub, the most costly insect of all, has capitulated to the newer chemical insecticides.

The work of the Grasslands and Crop Research Divisions has resulted in the development and expansion of a profitable farm-seeds industry. Research into the breeding of new strains of pasture plants, and into the utilisation and management of pastures, has done much to enable New Zealand to lead the world in grassland farming, and raise its per-acre yield of meat and dairy produce. Research leading to successful pasture establishment on pumice soils of the central North Island has greatly increased production in this area. Rape and turnip seed, hitherto imported from overseas, are now produced locally and exported, as the result of breeding and selection work done by the Crop Research Division, which, in addition, has improved the quality of oats, barley, lupins, carrots, and lucerne.

Of particular interest are two new high-yielding varieties of potato — Tahi and Rua — developed by the Division to withstand wind, drought, and competition from weeds.

The Division has bred a new high-yielding, good quality variety of pea — Onward — which is also resistant to wilt.

The Wheat Research Institute, in collaboration with the Crop Research Division, has been responsible for improvement in wheat, flour, and bread quality by breeding several new varieties of wheat specially suited for local conditions. The latest variety developed, Aotea, has shown an increase in yield of more than 20 percent over Cross 7, which was itself an improved variety developed 20 years previously. This advance in yield has been achieved without loss of baking quality. During the 1959–60 season-only three years after its introduction — Aotea wheat comprised more than 85 per cent of the total wheat crop. The Institute has also devised methods of utilising sprouted wheat and of controlling the vitamin B content of flour.

Corky pit of apples and other deficiency diseases of fruit have been overcome, and investigations in transport have vastly improved the quality of fruit arriving in the United Kingdom.

PASTURE GRASSES — Researches and experiments in regard to pasture grasses are regular features of the activities of both the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. These experiments, which extend right on to individual farms throughout New Zealand, and are conducted in cooperation with the farmers themselves, are wide in their application, and cover all the major phases of pasture management, dealing in particular with such items as pasture mixtures, suitability as to soil types, methods of establishment and management, the efficient use of fertilisers, etc. The results are made available per medium of the Journal of Agriculture and such allied publications, as well as by special pamphlets which are distributed without charge. The farmer is thus enabled to avail himself of, and profit by, highly specialised knowledge and experience. In addition, a constant endeavour is being made not only to improve existing strains by such measures as seed certification and the provision of pedigree seed, but also to evolve new strains. At the beginning of the year 1960 there were 18,549,787 acres under artificially sown grasses (including 1,142,872 acres cut for seed, hay, or silage during the season), and in addition 13,035,549 acres of occupied land still remained in tussock or naturally established native grasses, making a total of 31,585,336 acres of grassland being farmed.

The following table shows the respective areas occupied by artificially sown grasses and by tussock and other naturally established native grasses during the five years specified.

YearArtificially Sown Pasture GrassesTussock and Other Naturally Established Native GrassesTotal Area Under Grass*
Cut for Seed, Hay, or SilageNot Cut for Seed, Hay, or Silage

* Includes lucerne.

† Includes approximately 220,000 acres also sown with crops.

 acres
1956–571,332,89216,559,48613,253,57131,145,949
1957–581,220,48316,782,34713,206,70131,209,531
1958–591,201,62016,833,87113,186,26131,221,752
1959–601,142,87217,406,91513,035,54931,585,336

TOPDRESSING (PASTURE LANDS) — An important characteristic of grassland farming is the use of an annual or semi-annual topdressing of artificial fertilisers. The chief fertiliser is superphosphate, which is manufactured in New Zealand from imported materials. Agricultural lime, produced locally, is also used in considerable quantities.

The farmer is protected in the buying of his fertilisers by the Fertilisers Act 1927. In the registering of a fertiliser the name, the brand under which it is sold, the percentage of fertiliser ingredients, and the analysis have all to be stated.

Topdressing in New Zealand is carried out mainly on sheep- and cattle-grazing areas, including, of course, dairy farms; the North Island, which contains 88 per cent of the total cattle, accounted in 1959–60 for 74 per cent of the area topdressed.

The following table gives particulars of areas of grassland topdressed during the latest four years.

YearGrassland Area Topdressed
With Artificial Fertiliser OnlyWith Lime OnlyWith Both Artificial Fertiliser and LimeTotal Grassland Topdressed

* From and including 1959–60 figures relate to holdings of 10 acres and over, whereas figures for earlier years relate to holdings of 1 acre and over.

acres
1956–577,191,188520,9511,457,8139,169,952
1957–587,309,985514,3411,433,3389,257,664
1958–597,174,256450,5911,177,3038,801,950
1959–60*7,140,228421,9081,335,1718,897,307

The productive capacity of fertiliser manufacturing plants has been increased in recent years with the establishment of four new works. The fall in the use of fertilisers in 1958–59 was attributable to a reduction in farm incomes.

The activities of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research in the treatment of experimental plots from the various aspects of soil and crop requirements, and the subsequent data published thereon, have been an important factor in conveying to the farmer the many advantages to be derived from the scientific treatment of pastures.

While topdressing in the past was practically confined to sown grasses on the flat and gently undulating country, the application of fertilisers to the surface-sown hill-country pastures in increasing quantities from aircraft has followed from the development of commercial aerial topdressing operations since 1949. Further information in this connection is contained in Section 11D.

SUBSIDIES, GRANTS, ETC. — For many years a number of grants and subsidies have been paid to the farming industry from public funds. In addition, agricultural and pastoral production is assisted financially by grants to the agricultural colleges.

Subsidies reached their peak during the war and immediate post-war years, details of which are available in earlier issues of the Yearbook. In more recent years there has been a considerable curtailment of this type of assistance to farmers.

The following table shows the payments during the latest three years.

Subsidy, Grant, etc.1958–591959–601960–61
 £££
Carriage of lime325,306327,21044,126
Stock Act: compensation127,113300,433284,018
Compensation for loss of production, ex gratia payments for hardship from compulsory tuberculosis test67,85461,31975,312
Meat Act: compensation15,55614,77614,668
Subsidies to rabbit boards508,496498,444530,499
Grants to rabbit boards180,000140,000115,000
Cow-testing organisations26,58326,42626,583
Destruction of kea105238203
Veterinary Services Council50,00050,00050,000
Nassella Tussock Act: subsidies to boards69,17468,59969,550
Noxious Weeds Act: subsidies to county councils and road boards37,91237,99741,495
Compensation for scrapie disease5,0003,0002,000
Emergency expenditure to assist primary producers23,82731,43820,147

Comment on some of the more important items is necessary to explain their origin and significance.

Lime Subsidies — The transport of lime has been subsidised for many years to encourage its wider use.

Lime usage reached a peak of 1,535,000 tons in 1954, but receded to 1,174,000 tons in 1957, 1,046,000 tons in 1958,1,011,379 tons in 1959, and 878,795 tons in 1960 (calendar years). Factors in the decline include the growing use of the trace element molybdenum in partial substitution for heavy liming in some areas as a means of facilitating availability of phosphate to plants, the ready availability of phosphate fertilisers at reasonable prices and a more judicious usage of lime according to proved soil needs.

In regard to the carriage of lime there was an agreement between the farmers' organisations and the Government that certain proportions of the subsidy paid could be recovered from the various stabilisation or reserve accounts of the farming industry. The cost was borne by the Meat Industry Account (70 per cent), Dairy Industry Account (15 per cent), and Consolidated Fund (15 per cent), being apportioned between the export and locally consumed portions of farm produce. As a result, however, of the exhaustion of the Dairy Industry Account no recovery was made from the Dairy Industry Account for its 15 per cent share of 1957–58 and 1958–59 costs, the Government paying both its share and the Dairy Board's share. In 1959 the Dairy Board and the Meat Producers Board informed the Government that they were discontinuing their contributions to the subsidy. The system which had operated from 1947 therefore ceased on 30 November 1959.

Since 30 November 1959 a subsidy on lime transport has been paid to farmers applying lime to newly developed land which is lime responsive, has not previously been limed, and which is cultivated and sown for the first time; or, if it cannot be cultivated, which receives its first dressing of lime. Farmers meet full transport costs and are entitled to claim a refund from the Department of Agriculture, at the same rates as applied up to 30 November 1959.

Rabbit Boards — In the post-war years a determined effort has been made to rid the country of rabbits which were lowering the carrying capacity of farmland and causing a loss of production running into many million pounds in value annually. Rabbit-infested areas were brought under rabbit board control. In 1948 there were 47 boards in the South Island and 61 in the North Island covering 18 million acres. By 1960 there were 148 South Island and 62 North Island boards covering 37 million acres. Rabbit board rates paid by some 40,000 farms are subsidised by the Government, which also makes grants to rabbit boards. Good progress has been made towards the eradication of the rabbit and this goal is now in sight in many areas. Rabbit boards may undertake opossum and wallaby control.

Other Items — Most of the remaining subsidies represent attempts to deal with specific problems of disease and pest control which are of importance to the whole community but the handling of which would impose a serious burden on individuals or small groups. Under this heading come such items as compensation for diseased stock under the Meat Act and the Stock Act, and destruction of kea, etc. Subsidies of this nature are mostly charges against the vote of the Department of Agriculture. They are not recoverable except in the case of compensation paid for diseased stock under the Stock Act, where a partial recovery is obtained by the sale of by-products from condemned stock in certain cases.

FARM MACHINERY — The results of a full census of farm machinery taken in 1950 have been published in earlier volumes of the Yearbook.

The following table gives details of farm machinery for those items where a comparison is available for the years 1947, 1950, 1952, 1957, and 1960. The 1960 figures relate to holdings of 10 acres and over, whereas figures for earlier years relate to holdings of I acre and over.

Type of Machine19471950195219571960

* This item covers only those machines actually used for threshing wheat or oats during the year specified.

† Estimates, 1953, 52,495; 1954, 55,623; 1955, 62,137; 1958, 73,499; 1959, 75,291.

‡ Stationary shearing machine plants only.

§ Electric motors of over one-quarter horsepower only.

Milking machines32,59636,36837,56338,76436,721
Cream separators48,19454,421....30,608
Shearing machines—
    Plants14,56418,79120,81026,59228,922
    Stands33,90740,53644,472..61,637
Agricultural tractors21,15634,91845,73471,45678,415
Rotary hoes and garden tractors1,6463,0934,380....
Electric motors82,721110,683123,439139,080122,758§
Internal-combustion engines23,10929,92629,052....
Threshing machines*1,6411,9001,965....

The figures show a continuation of the trend towards more intensive mechanisation of farm work that has been in evidence over a considerable period.

Milking Machines — Information concerning milking machines on farms was first collected in 1919, in which year there were 7,577 plants recorded. Since that year the use of milking machines has expanded rapidly. Of the 1,905,534 cows in milk on 31 January 1952, 1,799,375, or 94 per cent, were on holdings employing milking machines. In 1951 the corresponding percentage was 94 and in 1942, 87.

Agricultural Tractors — During the 20 years from 1940 to 1960 the number of agricultural tractors employed on farms rose from 11,728 to 73,415. These figures do not include rotary hoes or garden tractors, which showed an increase from 813 in 1942 to 4,380 in 1952.

The number of holdings on which tractors were located in 1952 was 38,434 out of a total of 90,288. The 6,046 cases in 1952, in which there were more than one tractor on the farm, were made up as follows: two tractors, 5,110; three, 720; four, 157; five or more, 59.

The classes of tractors on farm holdings of 10 acres and over outside borough boundaries are given in the following table.

 As at 31 January 1960
Diesel oil — CrawlerNumberPercentage of Total
        20 h.p. and over6,6128.43
        Under 20 h.p.2030.26
    Wheel—
        20 h.p. and over12,89216.44
        Under 20 h.p.7230.92
Total, diesel oil20,43026.05
Petrol or kerosene — Crawler—
        20 h.p. and over4,7386.04
        Under 20 h.p.1,6962.16
    Wheel—
        20 h.p. and over39,78550.74
        Under 20 h.p.11,76615.01
Total, petrol or kerosene57,98573.95
Total, tractors78,415100.00

Header Harvesters — There has been a rapid expansion in the use of header harvesters since their introduction to New Zealand in 1930. The number of header harvesters on holdings of 10 acres over outside borough boundaries as at 31 January 1960 was 4,746.

14 B — CROPS

GENERAL — Crops grown in New Zealand are in general able to meet domestic needs for agricultural products, apart from tropical and subtropical products such as tea, sugar, cotton, etc., though a substantial proportion of wheat requirements is imported.

Local requirements of all the important fruits and berries grown in temperate zones are met by New Zealand orchard production. Citrus fruits are grown in the subtropical northern portion of the North Island, and grapes are also cultivated in certain localities with a favourable climate. In addition to meeting local demand, there is a substantial export trade in apples and pears.

Home gardens supply a considerable proportion of family requirements of vegetables, but there is a substantial area planted in market gardens, both inside and outside borough boundaries, to meet the needs of a growing population. Potato production is normally adequate but has occasionally to be supplemented by imports. The production of onions has been largely sufficient for local requirements of recent years. Minor quantities of onions are occasionally imported from the Northern Hemisphere.

Animals can be grazed in open pasture for the full 12 months of the year, but the winter growth of grass, except in certain favoured localities, requires to be supplemented in order to keep stock in good condition during the colder months, and in some districts supplementary fodders are necessary in the drier summer months. The supply of supplementary fodders is adequate both in quantity and in quality, so that New Zealand imports stock food to a very minor extent only.

Hay and silage crops are grown almost exclusively on the farms where they are consumed, though some districts specialise in the growing of certain other supplementary fodder crops. The bulk of the supplementary fodders other than grass and clover hay, and silage, is grown in the South Island, since the colder climate necessitates more extensive supplementary feeding than in the North Island.

The renewal and extension of pastures require the annual supply of very considerable quantities of grass seeds, which are now grown almost entirely in New Zealand. There is a small import of certain classes of seeds, but this is almost negligible in relation to requirements; on the other hand, an appreciable export trade in some species of grass seeds has been developed.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION — Grain growing is localised to a considerable extent, the Canterbury land district, with its fertile plains, supplying in 1959–60, 63 per cent of New Zealand's wheat yield, 41 per cent of the oats threshed, and 72 per cent of the barley yield. Maize growing is largely confined to certain portions of the East Coast (notably Cook County) and South Auckland -Bay of Plenty areas. The growing of peas for threshing is carried out extensively in Canterbury, and to a lesser extent in Marlborough, Wellington, and Otago, Canterbury alone producing over half of the total yield. In the season 1959–60, 60 per cent of the area closed off for production of grass seed was in the Canterbury district.

The Canterbury district also produces a large proportion of the commercial potato crop, followed by Wellington, while the growing of potatoes for the early market is of importance in a few relatively frost-free areas, particularly Pukekohe, near Auckland. The Pukekohe district also provides that city with a considerable portion of its vegetable requirements as well as being the main onion-growing area of the Island. Wellington draws most of its vegetable supplies from the Otaki and Levin districts, while Ohakune, in the centre of the North Island, with climate and soils suitable for the production of cabbages and broccoli, supplies both cities with these vegetables. Further large areas are utilised for these purposes in the Hastings district of Hawke's Bay, which is also the largest contributor of canned or processed vegetables.

In the South Island market gardening is carried on near the cities, and on the rich soils near Christchurch some 2,000 acres are devoted to this purpose; also to the immediate south of Oamaru and on the Taieri Plains just south of Dunedin there are other areas aggregating 1,000 acres. Nelson also produces considerable quantities of fresh and processed vegetables, most of which are marketed in Wellington.

Commercial orchards in New Zealand are largely confined to certain areas suited by climatic and soil conditions. The Nelson and Hawke's Bay districts are famed for their apple and pear orchards, a high percentage of the crops from these districts normally being exported. Central Otago is well suited to the growing of stone fruits, notably apricots. Hawke's Bay and Nelson are also noted for their peach production. In certain particularly warm areas of the North Island with suitable soils citrus fruits are grown, the principal areas being Kerikeri, in Northland; Tauranga, in the Bay of Plenty; and Gisborne.

Grape growing is of importance in Auckland and Hawke's Bay, and to a lesser extent in South Auckland. Tobacco growing is confined to the Nelson district, hop growing also being concentrated in this area.

A detailed analysis of arable cropping farms in 1949–50 was undertaken as part of the World Census of Agriculture. The following table, compiled from the results of this analysis, shows the number of arable cropping farms in each regional area. The dominance of the South Island, with 90 per cent of the farms of this type, is clearly shown.

Regional Area*Principally Arable CroppingArable CroppingSpecial Cropping UnitsGrass Seed ProductionOther Arable HoldingsTotal Number of Arable Holdings
With SheepWith DairyingWith BeefWith Horse RaisingWith PoultryWith HorticultureWith Mixed Farming

* For details of counties included sec page 407.

    North Island
Northland718
South Auckland112
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands11
Cape Colville
Central Plateau6219
Western Uplands1 1
Taranaki
East Cape687365493
Hawke's Bay6232111120596
Rangitikei119233129
Manawatu1622132228
Castlepoint
Wairarapa111121319
Featherston3126
Totals1862317161138307292
    South Island
Nelson2432512551
Marlborough5840732233013176
Westland
North Canterbury135057479
Foothills263171211289
Canterbury Plains31728158269081532809
Christchurch52463422275
Banks Peninsula21115
Mackenzie3711416
South Canterbury249451561311544227948
Otago128133229
Central Otago213128466
Southern2425424848151
Totals801932142539526415219992,494
New Zealand totals98795515963156277232491062,786

STATISTICS — Detailed statistics of crops are contained in the Report on the Farm Production Statistics of New Zealand issued annually by the Department of Statistics. It should be noted that, unless otherwise stated, the statistics quoted in this subsection for years up to and including 1958–59 relate to holdings of 1 acre and over situated outside borough boundaries. Commencing with the year 1959–60 a change was made in the coverage so that it included only holdings of 10 acres and over situated outside borough boundaries.

BUSHEL WEIGHTS — For statistical and other purposes it is at times necessary to convert bushel units to a weight basis. For New Zealand produce and fruit, conversion is effected by using the following weights per bushel for the commodities mentioned.

ProduceWeight of BushelFruitWeight of Bushel
 lb lb
Wheat60Apples40
Oats40Pears38
Barley50Quinces40
Maize56Peaches42
Peas60Nectarines42
Ryecorn56Apricots42
Beans65Plums42
Grass seed20Cherries42
  Oranges42–43
  Lemons (uncured)42

AREA UNDER CULTIVATION — A general summary of the areas under cultivation during each of the last 11 years is given in the following table. The statistics quoted in this and other tables in this subsection relate to holdings of 1 acre or upwards outside borough boundaries up to the year 1958–59. From 1959–60 the coverage was changed to holdings of 10 acres and upwards outside borough boundaries. (The effect of this change on comparability is not great. In 1956–57 although some 13 per cent of holdings outside boroughs were 1 and under 10 acres, in nearly all items the percentage in this group was less than 1 per cent. Exceptions were market gardens, orchards, nurseries, and potato and onion cropping.)

YearPasture Land*Field CropsPlantationsOrchardsLying FallowOther Cultivated LandTotal Cultivated Land

* Excluding areas of grasses and clovers cut for seed, hay, or silage, which have been included in field crops.

† Includes market gardens and nurseries (previously in “Other Cultivated Land”).

acres
1950–5117,042,3472,061,429902,16419,722114,536111,03220,251,230
1951–5216,797,3442,062,910915,83519,973143,367109,59820,049,027
1952–5316,574,4392,131,170949,53321,464173,626111,36419,961,596
1953–5416,573,0042,060,678967,66621,246144,328111,98619,878,908
1954–5516,557,8192,141,623962,59221,998161,201116,13619,961,369
1955–56..............
1956–5716,346,7492,427,189915,13219,944163,60497,01719,969,635
1957–5816,561,6882,296,429906,21920,518173,378100,08620,058,318
1958–5916,614,0712,344,175921,86420,292138,05499,12320,137,579
1959–6017,200,6362,312,189944,06530,675126,02288,89420,702,481

In the following pages statistics of the principal crops are quoted with explanatory comment. In addition to summary tables, covering in each instance a range of related items, important individual crops are discussed under separate headings.

PRINCIPAL FIELD CROPS — The following table shows the areas under each of the principal field crops for the years stated.

Crop1954–551956–571957–581958–591959–60

* Including turnips and rape mixed.

† Excluding wheat, oats, barley, maize, and peas fed off.

‡ Included under “other crops”.

§ Rape, kale, and chou moellier only.

 acres
Wheat108,61768,31586,254135,583166,317
Oats101,742136,31987,26093,59580,563
Barley52,29169,20675,34263,58773,061
Maize8,26710,43911,39812,13414,669
Peas for threshing29,50624,75931,87626,08028,370
Linseed7,741
Linen flax304685774761699
Potatoes21,37322,51924,04723,79621,410
Turnips and swedes*504,728443,952429,386444,210436,738
Mangolds2,052
Onions1,6161,3631,3991,3051,275
Tobacco3,104
Green fodder306,258269,919§277,748§288,311§297,317§
Grasses, clovers, and lucerne for seed189,187274,643209,669173,438133,516
Grasses and clovers for hay or silage691,662920,341865,699891,634870,098
Lucerne for hay or silage93,958137,908145,115136,548139,258
Other crops19,21746,82150,46253,19348,898
Totals2,141,6232,427,1892,296,4292,344,1752,312,189

The figures quoted in the foregoing table in respect of wheat, oats, barley, maize, and peas relate to the total areas under these crops for grain or fodder. A considerable portion of the area under cereal crops, particularly oats, is cut for chaff, hay, or silage, or is fed off. In regard to peas it should be noted that additional areas of this crop for domestic consumption in the form of green peas are included under market gardens and crops for processing.

GRAIN AND SEED CROPS — Details of areas for threshing, total yields, and yields per acre of the principal grain and seed crops during recent years are set out in the following table.

YearWheatOatsBarleyMaizePeas

* Estimated.

Areas for Threshing
 acresacresacresacresacres
1951–5289,95545,56146,0646,44924,379
1952–53127,22549,08755,3345,97327,265
1953–54113,81320,52968,4794,06230,889
1954–55103,98931,16441,6743,15429,506
1955–5668,47942,16849,195 25,239
1956–5765,74356,49659,7765,48624,759
1957–5883,93629,98165,8816,34631,876
1958–59132,91334,01153,6206,61226,080
1959–60163,15833,52462,4978,33828,370
1960–61*165,00039,00062,0008,00026,000
Total Yields
 bushelsbushelsbushelsbushelsbushels
1951–523,890,1672,469,5302,182,175381,835730,288
1952–534,525,2982,385,1292,139,886349,194614,417
1953–544,783,227945,3863,335,399259,248953,749
1954–554,113,4441,602,0581,991,875201,913885,432
1955–562,658,4281,947,4042,031,526..634,846
1956–572,950,2732,888,3102,854,592313,486845,644
1957–583,727,1171,460,1493,552,229302,6181,046,847
1958–596,038,8221,575,7552,661,090378,908829,852
1959–608,700,1991,825,1043,136,837702,668923,810
1960–61*8,250,0002,028,0003,286,000....
Yields per Acre
 bushelsbushelsbushelsbushelsbushels
1951–5243.2554.2047.3759.2129.96
1952–5335.5748.5938.6758.4622.54
1953–5442.0346.0548.7163.8230.88
1954–5539.5651.4147.8064.0230.01
1955–5638.8246.1841.30..25.15
1956–5744.8851.1247.7557.1434.16
1957–5844.4048.7053.9247.6932.84
1958–5945.4346.3349.6357.3131.82
1959–6053.3254.4450.1984.2732.56
1960–61*50.0052.0053.00....

WHEAT — With a view to reducing imports of wheat, the Wheat Research Institute and the Crop Research Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research have been endeavouring to encourage the growing in New Zealand of better-quality varieties suitable for modern mechanised bakeries. Tests of flour from commercial crops have confirmed the outstanding baking quality of Hilgendorf wheat released in 1947. In an endeavour to encourage the growing of this variety, and so help to bring about an improvement in flour and bread quality, a premium of Is. per bushel was payable to farmers on all crops of Hilgendorf wheat handled by the Wheat Committee. The premium was further increased to 2s. per bushel from the 1957–58 season, which produced a temporary increase in the proportion of Hilgendorf grown.

Wheat production dropped away between 1955 and 1958. With an immediate target of 150,000 acres the Government increased the price of wheat grown in the South Island by 2s. a bushel and in the North Island by 6d. a bushel from the 1958–59 season. Current prices are 13s. 6d. a bushel in the South Island and 14s. 6 1/2d. in the North Island. The introduction of these prices was an attempt to reduce the steadily increasing wheat imports which over the three years ended 1958 averaged 10,080,000 bushels annually.

As a result of the increase in the overall price of wheat, combined with the release of the high yielding varieties Arawa and Aotea, and also the drop in the fat-lamb prices, the acreage threshed increased from 83,936 acres in 1957–58 to 132,913 acres in 1958–59, and 163,158 acres in 1959–60. It is estimated that 165,000 acres were threshed in the 1960–61 season.

The following diagram shows the fluctuations that have occurred in the area sown in wheat during the last 32 seasons, together with the total yield and the average yield per acre.

Wheat Committee — Control of the importation of wheat and flour and of the distribution of both imported and locally produced wheat rests with the Wheat Committee. The operations of this Committee, which consists of representatives of flourmillers, wheat growers, and bakers, with the Minister of Industries and Commerce as Chairman, and his nominee from the Department of Industries and Commerce as Deputy Chairman, are governed by the Board of Trade (Wheat and Flour) Regulations.

All New Zealand milling wheat is purchased from farmers by the Wheat Committee through the agency of the grain merchants acting as brokers for the Committee. The Committee is responsible for the importation of any wheat and flour and the distribution of imported poultry wheat in the North Island; in the South Island poultry wheat is not controlled. Its functions also include arrangements for the processing of wheat and the sale of flour to merchants, bakers, pastrycooks, grocers, and others.

The annual consumption of wheat in New Zealand approximates 14 million bushels-some 9 million bushels being required for flour, and the balance for poultry food and seed. Over the five seasons ending with 1959–60 the annual local production of wheat has averaged 4,814,968 bushels, while imports over the five years ended 1960 averaged 8,850,000 bushels annually.

Varieties of Wheat — The choice of wheat varieties for sowing is influenced by their suitability to local conditions of climate, soil type, etc. Wheat growers receive valuable guidance regarding suitable varieties as the result of research work and field trials undertaken by the Crop Research Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the Wheat Research Institute, and the Department of Agriculture. A survey of varieties of wheat grown for threshing was carried out in 1960. This survey related to wheat sown in 1959 and harvested in 1960 and showed the following results.

VarietyArea (Acres)YieldAverage Yield per Acre (Bushels)
BushelsPercentage of Total Production

* Area of wheat threshed in survey by varieties; total area threshed was 163,158 acres.

Aotea118,6606,404,89179.0153.98
Arawa14,961808,8379.9854.07
Cross 75,585283,8113.5050.82
Gabo3,507177,7022.1950.67
Hilgendorf2,72193,0301.1534.19
Tainui2,311107,5051.3346.52
Other varieties4,748230,4152.8448.53
Totals152,493*8,106,191100.0053.16

OATS — The area under oats declined steadily after the Second World War, the greatest decrease being in oats for chaff, hay, and silage. This decline resulted largely from the replacement of horses by tractors. During the five years 1944–45 to 1948–49 the average area under oats for all purposes was 192,834 acres, and of this figure the proportion for chaff, etc., was 41.5 per cent, whereas for the five years 1950–51 to 1954–55 the comparable figures were 111,598 acres and 29.4 per cent. Taking the same two 5-yearly periods the average area under oats for chaff, etc., has declined by 59 per cent.

Varieties of Oats Threshed — A survey covering the season 1959–60 gave the following results:

VarietyArea (Acres)YieldAverage Yield per Acre (Bushels)
BushelsPercentage of Total Production

* Area of oats threshed in survey by varieties; total area threshed was 33,524 acres.

Onward14,142909,14857.7664.29
Algerian3,835143,4699.1137.41
Grey Winter3,703138,9698.8337.53
Dun1,65158,7253.7335.57
Black1,41972,4534.6051.06
Abundance58224,9951.5942.95
Milford48032,2272.0567.14
Achilles37516,7991.0744.80
Other varieties3,125177,30611.2656.74
Totals29,312*1,574,091100.0053.70

More than half a million bushels of oats are milled each year, to produce some 2,000 tons of rolled oats, 3,000 tons of proprietary oaten foods, and 1,000 tons of oatmeal.

BARLEY — Prior to 1945 considerable quantities of barley were imported, mainly for use as stock food. In recent years domestic production has been sufficient. In the nine seasons 1950–51 to 1958–59 the average area of barley sown was 64,000 acres, of which 54,000 acres were harvested for grain, most of the remainder being used for green feed. Of the 2 1/2 million bushels harvested, about 55 per cent was used for malting and 40 per cent for stock food.

The area harvested in 1959–60 was 62,497 acres, and in 1960–61 it was estimated to be approximately the same.

Varieties grown in the 1959–60 season were as set out below.

VarietyArea (Acres)YieldAverage Yield per Acre (Bushels)
BushelsPercentage of Total Production

* Area of barley threshed in survey by varieties; total area threshed was 62,497 acres.

Research28,5041,444,46051.4550.68
Kenia21,8011,103,95339.3350.64
Other varieties5,252258,7119.2249.26
Totals55,557*2,807,124100.0050.53

PEAS — The area of peas for threshing has fallen considerably since the peak of 50,000 acres averaged over the three seasons 1946–47 to 1948–49, the average area for the five years 1955–56 to 1959–60 being 27,265 acres. There have been fluctuations in the export figures for this commodity. In 1949 nearly 850,000 bushels were exported, whereas by 1953 the amount had fallen to approximately 370,000 bushels. Over the five years 1956 to 1960 exports averaged 505,000 bushels annually.

Varieties of peas grown in the 1959–60 season were as under.

VarietyArea (Acres)YieldAverage Yield per Acre (Bushels)
BushelsPercentage of Total Production

* Area of peas threshed in survey by varieties; total area threshed was 28,370 acres.

Garden varieties11,147355,51643.5431.89
Field varieties—
    Blue Boiling1,22537,4974.5930.61
    Maple11,188381,81946.7634.13
    White1,47441,7615.1128.33
Total25,034*816,593100.0032.62

The foregoing figures exclude green peas grown for market or processing (e.g., canning and quick freezing). There has been an increasing use of quick-frozen peas since they were introduced to the New Zealand market a few years ago, and apart from a large local consumption of these and canned peas New Zealand also exports large quantities of both commodities. A peak quantity of 9,685,000 lb of canned peas was exported in 1956, the bulk of which went to the United Kingdom. There has since been a decline in the exports of this commodity, the figures for the last three years being: 1958, 6,209,0001b; 1959, 3,530,000 lb; and 1960, 2,287,000 lb. Also 27,961 cwt of frozen peas were exported in 1960 and 30,000 cwt in 1959. No earlier export figures for frozen peas are available.

POTATOES — The production of potatoes is usually adequate to meet the home market.

Under the Potato Growing Industry Act 1950 a Potato Board was established consisting of seven members, three of whom are representative of the growers on an elective basis, three nominated by the New Zealand Grain, Seed, and Produce Merchants' Federation (Incorporated), and one an officer of the Public Service acting in an advisory capacity.

The principal functions of the Board are to ensure that adequate supplies of main-crop potatoes are available for consumption in New Zealand, and for that purpose to enter into contracts with growers for the growing of main-crop potatoes. The Act provides that the Board may impose a levy not exceeding 30s. per ton on main-crop potatoes sold by growers, the proceeds of which are to be applied by the Board in payment of charges, etc., for which it may become liable in the exercise of its functions.

The Board undertakes to compensate contract growers for any declared unsold number one grade contract produce held by growers at the end of the season. For the 1961–62 season the rate involved varies according to varieties from £11 to £14 per ton in the South Island and £13 to £16 per ton in the North Island. These rates are £1 per ton lower than for the 1960–61 season. Because of an excellent crop in 1960–61 approximately 5,000 tons of potatoes were exported to Australia, and the Potato Board will also pay out a considerable sum in respect of surpluses.

Figures for area and yield of potatoes for the latest four years are as follows.

YearAreaTotal YieldYield per Acre

* Not strictly comparable with previous years due to a change in coverage from 1 acre and over outside borough boundaries to 10 acres and over outside borough boundaries. (In 1956–57 potato areas and yields in the 1 and under 10 acre group represented 4 per cent of the total.)

 acrestonstons
1956–5722,519145,2476.45
1957–5824,047157,1056.53
1958–5923,796149,9266.30
1959–60*21,410156,8077.32

The estimated area for 1960–61 was 20,000 acres.

ONIONS — Areas in, and yields of, onions for the latest four years arc as follows.

YearAreaTotal YieldYield per Acre

* Not strictly comparable with previous years due to a change in coverage from 1 acre and over outside borough boundaries to 10 acres and over outside borough boundaries. (In 1956–57 areas in onions in the 1 and under 10 acre group represented 9 per cent of the total.)

 acrestonstons
1956–571,36313,5739.96
1957–581,39913,3639.55
1958–591,30511,9599.16
1959–60*1,27515,24211.95

In earlier years the production of onions was rarely sufficient to supply domestic requirements. As onions are a semiperishable commodity it was found convenient to export in the flush of the New Zealand season, and to obtain supplies from overseas later in the year. However, a considerable improvement has been effected in the keeping qualities of the varieties grown, and insignificant quantities of onions have been imported into New Zealand for some years, while over the five years 1956 to 1960 exports averaged over 2,400 tons annually.

LINSEED — The area under this crop has fluctuated considerably over a long period. The highest level of 24,437 acres was reached in 1951–52. Reduced world prices, among other factors, led to a sharp contraction in the area planted in the 1953–54 season, only 2,822 acres being sown. This area gave a yield of 29,022 cwt of seed at an average of 10–28 cwt per acre. There was a partial recovery in the 1954–55 season, when 7,741 acres were harvested for a total yield of 77,588 cwt. Because of falling overseas prices the sole processing plant for linseed oil at Dunedin closed down at the end of 1954, but reopened again in 1957 in order to conserve overseas funds. In the processing of linseed, the linseed oil is extracted while the residue provides a valuable concentrate for stock feeding. A small quantity of unprocessed linseed is also used for this purpose.

SUPPLEMENTARY FODDER CROPS — Although grass is the main crop of the farmer in New Zealand, at certain periods during the year the pastures need supplementing in order to maintain stock in a satisfactory condition. In mid winter the grass is at a low stage of productivity generally, while under dry summer conditions it loses part of its nutritive value. During these periods it is necessary that some extra feed should be provided, and this is usually done either by cutting the grass for hay or silage when there is an ample surplus on the pastures during the flush of the growing season, or by the provision of green fodder or root crops.

The following table gives detailed figures of the areas of the supplementary fodder crops available during the years 1952–53 to 1959–60.

YearChaff, Hay, or SilageGreen FodderRoot and Other Crops for Feeding to StockTotal Area of Fodder Crops
Cereal CropsGrasses and Clovers, Including LucerneCereal CropsOther Crops

* Separate figures not available; these two items totalled 97,704 acres in 1952–53, 96,778 acres in 1956–57, 74,110 acres in 1957–58, 77,743 acres in 1958–59, and 67,093 acres in 1959–60.

† Rape, kale, and chou moellier only.

‡ Swedes, turnips, and turnips and rape only.

§ Excludes small areas of other minor fodder crops.

 acres
1952–53*877,140*277,012429,2051,681,061
1953–5423,089769,62045,181309,643478,3821,625,915
1954–5534,126785,62056,810306,258508,6031,691,417
1955–56..1,001,371........
1956–57*1,058,249*269,919§443,9521,868,898§
1957–58*1,010,814*277,748429,3861,792,058§
1958–59*1,028,182*288,311444,2101,838,446§
1959–60*1,009,356*297,317436,7381,810,504§

In 1959–60 grasses and clovers cut for hay or silage totalled 870,098 acres and lucerne 139,258 acres. Oats was the only cereal crop utilised in any quantity for this purpose. Oats also was the principal cereal crop fed off to stock. The area of oats cut for chaff, hay, or silage or fed off amounted to 47,039 acres. The principal green-fodder crops apart from oats are rape (147,400 acres) and chou moellier including kale (149,917 acres). Swedes and turnips are the principal root crops grown in New Zealand, the total area sown in these crops in 1959–60 being 436,738 acres (including 40,767 acres of turnips and rape mixed).

GRASS SEED — The total area of grasses, clovers, and lucerne cut for seed during the 1959–60 season was 133,516 acres, as against 173,438 acres in 1958–59. Canterbury, Otago, and Southland land districts between them provided 81 per cent of the area cut for seed.

The areas of grass, clover, and lucerne crops harvested for seed, distinguishing the principal varieties, during each of the latest four years for which figures are available, are given in the table following. (1955–56 and 1959–60 figures are not available.)

Crop1954–551956–571957–581958–59
Ryegrass—acres
    Perennial50,80479,76641,96040,651
    Italian8,1209,2306,0106,635
    Short rotation (H1)21,61725,11815,70717,532
Cocksfoot7,1457,9239,13910,826
Chewings fescue9,9885,9283,9313,693
Crested dogstail6,43911,1468,4576,631
Red clover (including cowgrass)20,19727,79627,38019,281
White clover49,48684,46665,89744,061
Other grasses and clovers15,39123,27031,18824,128

Quantities (in dressed weights) of grass and clover seeds treated by machine dressing plants for the latest two years are given below.

Type of SeedUnitQuantity (Year Ended 31 October)
19591960
Ryegrass—
    Perennialbush739,3181,008,817
    Short rotation (H1)bush303,857319,230
    Italian (including W. Wolths)bush79,64780,815
Cocksfootlb1,097,0801,430,150
Chewings fescuelb313,818243,072
Crested dogstaillb643,5521,000,794
Brown toplb235,608201,811
Timothylb747,1821,178,085
White cloverlb2,992,9454,576,066
Suckling cloverlb116,367157,101
Suckling white mixturelb177,472327,848
Cowgrass (including broad red clover)lb1,449,802793,661
Montgomery red cloverlb843,5351,197,605
Lucernelb382,022524,090
Other grasses and cloverslb47,174107,267

Large quantities of grass and clover seed have been exported during recent years, especially to the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America. Details of the volume and value of exports during recent years will be found in Section 22B of this issue.

HORTICULTURE — In 1949–50 a special farming type classification as part of the World Census of Agriculture showed the following breakup by regional areas of those farms where 75 per cent or more of the farm enterprise was devoted to horticulture or, if a mixed farm, where 50 per cent or more was given to horticultural production. Although the North Island had 52 per cent of these enterprises the South Island predominated on an acreage basis with 74 per cent.

The following table shows the number of horticultural enterprises by regional areas in 1949–50.

Regional AreaOrchardsVineyardsPrincipally Market GardensSmall FruitsNurseriesApicultureOther Horticultural HoldingsTotal Horticultural Enterprises*

* Excluding boroughs.

Northland3713875143310147688
South Auckland97224224325294
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands168818161875
Cape Colville10522423
Central Plateau1232294845211
Western Uplands2 2225435
Taranaki71223235
East Cape257491838128
Hawke's Bay314122089131187654
Rangitikei8173111343
Manawatu51138321215185
Wairarapa161210
Featherston221822641
Nelson22427532111461806
Marlborough2327453796
Westland121013
North Canterbury336
Foothills282131
Canterbury Plains934458969
Christchurch47362273575546
Banks Peninsula8121425
Mackenzie112
South Canterbury167551121247213
Otago88321513428180
Central Otago118126428168
Southern172916237
Remainder11
Totals1,449771,4501832361321,0884,615

GARDENS AND PLANTATIONS — The acreages for market gardens, plantations, etc., for the latest four years are given below. Forest Service plantations are covered by these figures. It should be noted that the statistics relate only to holdings of 1 acre or more outside boroughs up to and including 1958–59 and holdings of 10 acres and over outside boroughs from 1959–60. In the case of market gardens, nurseries, and private gardens the 1959–60 figures are not comparable with earlier years for this reason. In 1956–57 the area of market gardens in the 1 and under 10 acre group represented 19 per cent of the total acreage; in the case of nurseries the percentage was 21 per cent and for private gardens 5 per cent. Plantations were scarcely affected, being well under 1 per cent. Figures include berry-fruit gardens. The table has been compiled from farm production statistics.

YearMarket Gardens*NurseriesPrivate Gardens, etc.Plantations

* Excluding crops for processing.

† Separate figure not available; market gardens, nurseries, and orchards, 30,675 acres.

acres
1956–5713,5292,80580,683915,132
1957–5813,5652,90983,612906,219
1958–5913,3282,98482,811921,864
1959–6088,894944,065

Market Gardens — The Vegetables Levy Act 1957 provides for the collection of a levy from vegetable growers in respect of the sale of certain vegetables in order to provide funds for the benefit generally of vegetable growers. All vegetables except potatoes are covered by the Act. The Department of Agriculture estimates that approximately 2,400 growers were gardening an area of approximately 29,000 acres in 1960. Processing firms are estimated to have used produce from approximately half the total acreage to meet the mounting local and export demand for processed vegetable products.

Commercial berry-fruit gardens are surveyed every five years by the Department of Agriculture, the last such survey being in 1960. The areas then being grown were raspberries, 498 acres; strawberries, 300 acres; black currants, 51 acres; gooseberries, 48 acres; boysenberries, 25 acres; and loganberries, 13 acres. The production of berry fruits in the 1960–61 season were raspberries, 969 tons; strawberries, 1,125 tons; black currants, 100 tons; gooseberries, 108 tons; boysenberries, 40 tons; and loganberries, 45 tons. The greatest concentration of gardens is in Canterbury, near Christchurch, and at Waimate, with a combined total of 281 acres. Raspberries account for most of the 188 acres in the Nelson Province. The mixed-berry gardens of the Wairarapa total 112 acres. In the vicinity of Auckland city some 79 acres of strawberries are grown. Other major centres of berry-fruit growing are Central Otago, 68 acres; Manawatu, 57 acres; and Hawke's Bay, 59 acres. Gooseberries are little grown commercially except in the Wairarapa (39 acres). These estimates include those grown in boroughs. The only berry fruit for which there is an organised marketing scheme is the raspberry, for which local marketing committees have been established in Nelson (since 1940) and in Canterbury and Otago (since 1950), while a Central Council of Raspberry Growers was created by the Raspberry Marketing Regulations 1950 to coordinate marketing by the three district committees.

Nurseries — Since 1939, owners or occupiers of nurseries raising for sale certain specific trees, shrubs, and plants have been required to register their nurseries before being permitted to sell trees or plants. The number of nurseries so registered at 31 December 1961 totalled 486 and these covered 1,470 acres.

Home Garden Production — Home garden production, on which a question was asked for the first time at the 1956 Census, is dealt with in the next table.

Proportion of RequirementsPotatoes GrownOther Vegetables Grown
Number of HouseholdsPer Cent of Total SpecifiedNumber of HouseholdsPer Cent of Total Specified
All48,0848.7345,4988.27
Three-quarter24,2934.4154,3959.88
One-half46,2518.4069,90112.70
One-quarter56,86610.3356,60430.29
Under one-quarter101,28818.40107,32919.50
Nil273,81149.73216,63039.36
Not specified12,459-.12,695
Totals563,052100.00563,052100.00

Of the specified cases 49.73 per cent of householders did not grow potatoes and 39.36 per cent did not grow other types of vegetables.

Of the total households where a return was made 62 per cent kept a garden and 38 per cent had no garden. Where only 37 per cent of dwellings with one occupant returned “yes”, this rose sharply to 59 per cent of households with two occupants. The proportions answering “yes” to this question increased continuously from two to six occupants, and declined from seven occupants onwards.

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY — Because of New Zealand's geographic position the climate is varied and favours the production of a wide variety of fruits. Apples and pears are the main fruits, the principal growing areas being Nelson and Hawke's Bay. Peach and plum orchards are distributed over Nelson, Hawke's Bay, Central Otago, and near Auckland. Central Otago, with its hot summers and severe winters, produces the greater part of the English plums, apricots, and cherries. The coastal strip from North Auckland, through the Bay of Plenty, to Gisborne is sufficiently mild for the production of citrus and other subtropical fruits such as passionfruit, tree tomatoes, and Chinese gooseberries.

The area in holdings of 1 acre and over outside borough boundaries returned as under fruit trees was given as 20,292 acres at 31 January 1959.

The Orchard Levy Act 1953 provides for the levying in each year by the New Zealand Fruitgrowers' Federation of an amount not exceeding £2 10s. on occupiers of orchards containing no fewer than 120 fruit trees. This levy (at present £1 10s.) is used as required in assisting and developing the organisation of producers in the industry.

During 1958 the Department of Agriculture made the second comprehensive field survey of fruit trees in commercial orchards. (It is proposed to continue to carry out similar surveys every five years.) This survey covered all orchards with 100 or more deciduous fruit trees, over 50 citrus trees, or over half an acre in berry fruits, grapes, subtropical fruits, and mixed orchards of half an acre and over. The Horticulture Division of the Department of Agriculture has supplied the following numbers of fruit trees of principal kinds in commercial orchards based on 1958 survey figures: apple, 1,087,116; pear, 144,701; quince, 6,073; peach, 306,902; nectarine, 32,235; apricot, 121,426; plum, 104,744; cherry, 19,091; lemon, 41,235; orange, 40,616; grapefruit, 48,651; mandarin, 13,213; tangelos, 1,037.

A survey by the Department of Agriculture in 1960 of all vineyards containing at least half an acre of vines covered 168 vineyards. The total area in grapes was estimated at 958 acres, comprising 863 acres in wine grapes, 72 acres in outdoor table grapes, and 23 acres devoted to grape-juice production. Vineyards were mainly in Auckland (425 acres), Hawke's Bay (387 acres), Waikato (63 acres), Gisborne (45 acres), Northland (21 acres), Thames (10 acres), Bay of Plenty (3 acres), and South Island (4 acres). In 1960 there were 158 licensed wine makers and production was estimated at 918,300 gallons of grape wine, 9,250 gallons of grape-juice beverage, 40,160 gallons of fruit wine, and 2,000 gallons of cider. Grape-wine production consisted of 143,450 gallons of unfortified table wines and 775,850 gallons of fortified wines. The estimated area in glasshouse vineries in 1960 was 439,000 square feet, which produced 200 tons of dessert grapes. The main centres of glasshouse grape growing were Auckland, 215,100 square feet; Canterbury, 54,150 square feet; Manawatu, 53,700 square feet; and Oamaru, 43,700 square feet.

Apples and Pears — A summary of the activities of the New Zealand Apple and Pear Board appears in Section 21.

Quantities of apples and pears marketed in New Zealand by the Board in the last five seasons are given below. These figures exclude direct sales from fruitgrowers to the public.

SeasonApplesPearsTotal
 bushel cases
19571,388,478349,1191,737,597
19581,605,086365,8451,970,931
19591,525,400447,6001,973,000
19601,461,100356,6001,817,700
19611,680,000478,3002,158,300

The following table shows the quantities of the main varieties of apples and pears marketed in New Zealand by the Apple and Pear Marketing Board and exported to the United Kingdom and elsewhere during the 1960–61 season, together with the total estimated production of each variety. Factories are given authority to purchase fruit for processing direct from the growers.

VarietyMarketed in New Zealand by the Apple and Pear BoardExported to United KingdomExported to Other CountriesEstimated Total Production*

* Estimated by Horticulture Division, Department of Agriculture.

Apples—bushel cases
    Sturmer Pippin319,400404,113165,6231,026,700
    Delicious267,20081,058139,544544,000
    Jonathan191,000175,903121,326509,300
    Granny Smith205,50090,784103,413525,500
    Cox's Orange Pippin99,100137,479966283,100
    Ballarat Seedling38,30041,83326,790176,200
    Golden Delicious100,30064,45242,406244,100
    Gravenstein140,600178,900
    Dougherty39,00061,9794,108127,100
    Rome Beauty67,6009,9715,43898,400
    Others212,00075,39831,594374,700
Totals, apples1,680,0001,142,970641,2084,088,000
Pears—
    William's Bon Chretien113,90020,418253,300
    Winter Cole161,20052,3141,340226,200
    Winter Nelis76,30019,784903102,600
    Others126,90049,0873,202227,800
Totals, pears478,300141,6035,445809,900

Stone Fruits — The 1958 survey by the Department of Agriculture revealed that nearly one-third of the total of 307,000 peach trees were in Hawke's Bay, and that, of the balance, some 76,000 peach trees were in the Auckland district. The estimated production of peaches and nectarines in 1959–60 was estimated by the Department of Agriculture as follows: For market, 604,000 bushels; for canning, 152,000 bushels; and for jam, 8,000 bushels. Production and disposal of other stone fruits for 1959–60 were estimated as follows.

DisposalApricotsPlumsCherries
 bushels
For market154,000164,00016,000
For canning43,0002,000
For jam19,00010,000
Total production216,000176,00016,000

Citrus and Subtropical Fruits — Estimated quantities of citrus fruits marketed in New Zealand by the Citrus Marketing Authority, together with direct sales to the public by citrus growers, are given in the following table.

YearGrapefruitLemons*Sweet OrangesMandarins and Other Citrus Fruits

* Figures for lemons relate to packed 3/4 bushel cases.

† Provisional.

bushels
195792,000105,60012,9003,600
1958130,50089,00014,8003,400
1959138,900119,20013,9004,500
1960150,700128,90018,1005,700
1961140,400120,80020,6007,700

Reference to the Citrus Marketing Authority is to be found in Section 21.

Estimated production figures for other subtropical fruits for 1960 are: tree tomatoes, over 1,000 tons; passionfruit, 73 tons; Chinese gooseberries, over 600 tons. Feijoas are not an important crop in New Zealand and annual estimates of the production of these fruits have been discontinued. The estimate for 1958 for this crop was 39 tons.

HOPS — Practically the whole of the hop gardens are located in Waimea county. Production per acre usually ranges between 1,200 lb and 1,500 lb. Production in the 1960–61 season was 830,157 lb, compared with 898,600 lb in the previous year. In 1960–61, 33,865 lb of the current crop and also 11,000 lb of the 1959 crop were exported. The area planted in hops in 1960–61 was 580 acres.

A Hop Marketing Committee of six members (one Government and five producer) was established by the Hop Marketing Regulations 1939 to regulate and control the marketing either locally or overseas of all hops produced in New Zealand and to assist the industry generally.

TOBACCO — After the establishment of the Tobacco Board in 1936 production rose from 1,197,161 lb in 1935–36 to 5,436,314 lb in 1950–51. Reduced plantings since then have been largely offset by higher yields. Commercial tobacco growing is confined to those to whom licences are issued by the Tobacco Board established under the Tobacco Growing Industry Act 1935 to control the industry. Most of the tobacco produced is flue-cured, producing a yellow-leaf tobacco which is largely used for the manufacture of cigarettes, the balance, air-cured, being used mainly in the manufacture of smoking mixtures and pipe tobacco. Some 6,526,053 lb of raw tobacco leaf was imported for the calendar year 1960.

The following particulars relating to tobacco production have been taken from the annual report of the New Zealand Tobacco Board. It should be noted that the figures relate to the total commercial tobacco production and not merely to holdings of 10 acres or over situated outside borough boundaries.

SeasonNumber of GrowersArea PlantedProductionEstimated Value of Crop
  acreslb£(000)
1956–574163,1384,463,976922
1957–584113,2654,650,711962
1958–594373,5345,606,9511,157
1959–604683,7507,075,5771,537
1960–615494,1516,777,4001,467

The production figures represent the weight of the leaf purchased from growers before redrying. Flue-cured leaf accounted for 96.74 per cent and air-dried leaf for 3.26 per cent of the 1960–61 crop.

Mechanisation of the industry on the growing side continues to increase. Picking and tying, however, are still done by hand, although a tobacco-harvesting machine imported from the United States of America has been highly successful.

PHORMIUM TENAX — Certain areas in various parts of New Zealand are covered by natural stands of Phormium tenax (New Zealand flax), once used by the Maoris for many purposes and one of the earliest of this country's exports. Only a small proportion of the natural area is millable but this, together with an estimated planted area of about 3,000 acres, produces some 5,000 tons of fibre and tow. The industry provides at least one-third of the local requirements of woolpacks while large supplies of rope were produced during the war. Prior to the war the export trade diminished on account of competition from Manila hemp and Mexican sisal, and has been discontinued in recent years.

LINEN FLAX — Under the stimulus of wartime shortages linen-flax areas in New Zealand, which commenced with 403 acres in 1939–40, grew to a peak of 21,067 acres in 1942–43, but by 1953–54 only 1,886 acres were being grown. In 1955 the Linen Flax Corporation decided to concentrate operations in the Geraldine district and much smaller acreages have since been grown.

Areas for the last five seasons are: 1956–57, 685 acres; 1957–58, 774 acres; 1958–59, 761 acres; 1959–60, 699 acres; and 1960–61, 526 acres. The 1960 harvest yielded 1,688 tons of straw.

Production from the single factory still operated by the Linen Flax Corporation has been as follows:

 1957195819591960
 tons
Straw processed5531,2331,5261,481
Scutched fibre54128156168
Seed49131169151
Tow26575434
Linmeal3788105102

There is a strong demand for all linen fibre produced in New Zealand from a local manufacturer of twine who uses this kind of fibre in the making of twine for closing bags and bales and for rolling meat, and for other purposes which require a twine made from a strong durable fibre.

SEED CERTIFICATION — Commencing with the certification of seed potatoes and seed wheal in 1928, the Department of Agriculture has extended its activities in this direction to include such crops as perennial ryegrass, Italian ryegrass, short rotation (H1) ryegrass, cocksfoot, timothy, browntop, Phalaris tuberosa, white clover, cowgrass (broad red clover), Montgomery red clover, subterranean clover, oats, barley, ryecorn, sweet blue lupins, onions, chou moellier, rape, kale, turnip, and swede seeds. The scheme was introduced to provide the buyer of certified seeds with a guarantee that the produce of such seeds would be true to type and free from seed-borne diseases. Selected strains are multiplied under the Department's certification scheme through the stages of certified “Pedigree” seed and certified “Mother” seed to certified “Standard” or “Permanent Pasture” seed. These seeds are sold through the usual commercial channels.

14 C — LIVESTOCK

SUMMARY OF LIVESTOCK — Detailed statistics of livestock are contained in the Report on the Farm Production Statistics of New Zealand issued annually by the Department of Statistics. This publication also contains the summary tables appearing in parliamentary paper H. 23, which is devoted exclusively to a statistical analysis of the annual sheep returns. It should be noted that, unless otherwise stated, the statistics quoted in the tables in this subsection for years up to and including 1958–59 relate to holdings of 1 acre and over situated outside borough boundaries. Commencing with the year 1959–60 a change was made in the coverage to holdings of 10 acres and over situated outside borough boundaries.

From the 1952–53 to the 1954–55 seasons farming statistics were based on a sample survey (ratio 1 : 7). In 1956 the opportunity was taken to collect the 1955–56 statistics in conjunction with the population census conducted on 17 April 1956. The 1956 farm census was designed to give information on certain major items only from a very abbreviated questionnaire and also to provide the basis for a change in the type of sample to that of an area-unit sample. The area-unit sample was selected for farms of under 2,000 acres, and all farms of 2,000 acres and over were automatically added to the sample. Certain of the data usually published are not available in such detail for 1955–56.

The numbers of livestock of various kinds at each of the latest four annual enumerations available were as shown in the following table, while figures over a longer period are shown in the Statistical Summary at the back of the Yearbook. Horses, dairy cows in milk, total cattle, sows, and total pigs are as at 31 January; sheep shorn, lambs shorn, and lambs tailed are for the season ending in the year stated; breeding ewes and total sheep are as at 30 June.

Livestock1957195819591960

* Includes those in boroughs and on holdings under 1 acre.

Cattle (including dairy cows)5,808,6355,885,5845,973,3525,991,938
    Dairy cows in milk1,997,8191,966,5471,931,1121,886,672
Sheep (including lambs)*42,382,00846,025,93046,876,22247,133,557
    Breeding ewes*28,899,47030,875,70431,816,09332,632,784
    Lambs tailed during season25,496,27527,798,98130,574,83231,116,535
    Lambs shorn during season9,022,4249,873,47210,795,83611,179,887
    Sheep shorn during season37,868,86839,769,52342,106,63744,010,092
Pigs (total)602,469627,812691,568660,261
    Breeding sows83,90587,92592,97087,824
Horses129,309123,261122,957104,995

The next table shows the percentage distribution of the various kinds of livestock in each land district and Island. The figures reveal that the dairying and beef-production industries are both largely concentrated in the North Island, which has 88 per cent of the total cattle and 91 per cent of the dairy stock. Localising the dairying industry still further, it is found that over half the milking cows of New Zealand are in the area comprised of the land districts of North and South Auckland. Taranaki and Wellington are practically equally important as regards the number of cows in milk; between them they account for nearly one-quarter of the total.

Taking the number of beef breeding cows two years' old and over as a guide to beef production, South Auckland and Wellington land districts easily lead with two-fifths of the New Zealand total between them. Hawke's Bay is next, followed by Gisborne and North Auckland in that order. These five districts together depasture 82 per cent of breeding cows reserved for beef production.

Pig farming is largely an adjunct of dairy farming, and consequently the distribution closely follows that of dairy cattle. Thus North and South Auckland land districts account for 61 per cent of the pig population and Wellington for 12 per cent. Taranaki, however, which is mainly a cheese-producing district, has 13.6 per cent of New Zealand's milking cows, but only 10.8 per cent of the pigs, while Nelson, Westland, and Canterbury, which together have only 5.5 per cent of the cows in milk, have 9.1 per cent of the pig population.

Sheep farming is more evenly distributed between the North and South Islands. The land districts of major importance are Wellington, Canterbury, South Auckland, Hawke's Bay, Otago, and Southland, in that order, these six districts accounting for 84 per cent of the total sheep population in 1960.

Land DistrictDairy Cows, Two Years Old and Over (in Milk)Beef Breeding Cows, Two Years Old and OverTotal CattleBreeding SowsTotal PigsTotal HorsesSheep Shorn*Lambs Shorn*Lambs Tailed*

* Sheep shorn, lambs shorn, and lambs tailed during 1960–61, remaining particulars for stock at 31 January 1961.

per cent
North Auckland22.4111.1216.7026.3926.3813.684.846.834.24
South Auckland40.1422.7731.2835.0134.1820.2113.1020.4713.02
Gisborne1.9113.176.582.362.189.634.748.293.55
Hawke's Bay2.2115.989.032.212.099.3811.6818.8411.14
Taranaki13.612.548.009.7910.824.622.313.742.36
Wellington10.8619.2916.2512.7612.0516.5517.6528.2516.70
    North Island91.1484.8787.8488.5287.7074.0754.3286.4251.01
Marlborough0.631.561061.111.161.632.661.26203
Nelson1.771.021.422.873.241.461.190.700.97
Westland0.760.920.901.061.280.730.280.200.33
Canterbury2.944.824.004.344.5410.2017.105.0318.83
Otago1.273.462.331.151.116.8912.192.6711.79
Southland1.493.352.450.950.975.0212.263.7215.04
    South Island8.8615.1312.1611.4812.3025.9345.6813.5848.99

SHEEP — In recent years each annual count has revealed increased numbers of both breeding ewes and total sheep and the percentage increase has been substantial. Over the decade from 30 June 1951 to 30 June 1961 the total number of sheep increased by 39–4 per cent.

At 30 June 1961 the number of breeding ewes was 33,582,897 and of total sheep 48,485,292. These totals were 2.9 per cent greater than those of the previous year.

It is interesting to note the increasing proportion of breeding ewes to total sheep. Forty years ago 49 per cent of the total flock numbers were breeding ewes. This proportion had risen to 61.75 per cent by 1937, and to 63.47 per cent by 1947. The proportions as at 30 June 1959, 1960, and 1961, were 67.87 per cent, 69.23 per cent, and 69.26 per cent respectively. These changes in the composition of flocks provide the basis of the greatly increased sheep numbers now being recorded.

The special farming type classification made in 1949–50 as part of the World Census of Agriculture shows the following break up by regional areas of those farms where 50 per cent or more of the farm enterprise was given over to sheep. Of all the farm types this classification shows the most equal balance between the North and South Islands, though the diversification of sheep farming with other agricultural pursuits is very evident in the South Island.

The following table shows the number of sheep farms in 1949–50 by regional areas.

Regional Area*Principally SheepSheepOther Sheep HoldingsTotal Sheep Farms
With Beef StockWith Dry Dairy StockWith Dairy StockWith CroppingWith PoultryWith HorticultureWith Mixed Farming
No.Area

* For list of counties included sec page 407.

           acres
Northland4422821234114785699,643
South Auckland5421302350101756464,330
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands648977042 11135877399,398
Cape Colville8515185122128117,496
Central Plateau166593413111284265,071
Western Uplands980297485711111,3951,442,304
Taranaki26527793014312439234,952
East Cape58227211366512759451,751,473
Hawke's Bay1,6191571887221149331,9872,098,902
Rangitikei1,528782211430114241,8201,616,668
Manawatu1,14939471191723551,413709,578
Castlepoint256810274396,046
Wairarapa530223394335636628,843
Featherston293141123112354515,160
Nelson4043425787134529446,117
Marlborough5681842373130237401,785,507
Westland65641241137197,646
North Canterbury4054109364205961,323,947
Foothills231221638133153381,045,148
Canterbury Plains222351712923216426268,438
Christchurch3111233822,422
Banks Peninsula2161821832192271178,298
Mackenzie2304523114102871,476,035
South Canterbury1,24283127559214212562,2323,350,892
Otago6968480364373349381,640,281
Central Otago565115403423106613,789,679
Southern2,853708309160313521523,9083,368,001
Remainder7474177,371
Totals, Number16,8871,7314281,3391,24549291,15140923,268 
Acreage (000)24,6212,98115149374120241,080298 30,410

In the following table total sheep distribution is shown by Islands, the figures including sheep in boroughs.

YearNorth IslandSouth IslandTotal Sheep at 30 June
NumberPer Cent of TotalNumberPer Cent of TotalNumber
195723,094,70954.4919,287,29945.5142,382,008
195825,047,81554.4220,978,11545.5846,025,930
195925,885,74655.2220,990,47644.7846,876,222
196026,264,19755.7220,869,36044.2847,133,557

A similar table showing breeding ewe distribution by Islands is now given.

YearNorth IslandSouth IslandTotal Breeding Ewes at 30 June
NumberPer Cent of TotalNumberPer Cent of TotalNumber
195715,484,10953.5713,415,36146.4328,899,470
195816,421,13253.1814,454,57246.8230,875,704
195917,168,06753.9614,648,02646.0431,816,093
196017,703,74054.2514,929,04445.7532,632,784

The following table shows the number of rams, wethers, breeding ewes, dry ewes, and ram, wether, and ewe hoggets in New Zealand for the latest eight years, together with a broad classification into stud and other groups for the years 1952 and 1957. Figures are at 30 June. The statistics of breeds of sheep are collected at five-yearly intervals.

YearRamsWethersBreeding EwesDry EwesHoggetsTotal
RamWetherEwe

* Change in classification.

Totals
1953639,5502,660,76823,781,376444,624176,0862,690,4205,800,11136,192,935
1954669,0962,719,58924,850,530428,757192,9472,815,1076,334,92838,010,954
1955702,3062,558,62126,186,358479,130199,9602,562,8286,428,09739,117,300
1956729,1652,495,28427,015,612477,271206,6942,712,8506,618,61240,255,488
1957770,7392,261,99428,899,470430,539234,2962,786,0056,998,96542,382,008
1958805,4612,600,58030,875,704445,850269,3793,092,9487,936,00846,025,930
1959836,5612,438,09931,816,093494,574278,1322,880,2178,132,54646,876,222
1960860,4612,324,06432,632,784508,518270,4592,545,0477,992,22447,133,557
Stud Sheep (Entered in Flock Book)
195212,828331,1805,937118,675129,810598,430
195717,045440,6625,503153,037167,532783,779
Sheep of a Distinctive Breed but Not Entered in Flock Book
1952*587,5452,393,10517,804,304356,55442,4071,997,0314,482,90027,663,846
1957720,3301,969,95424,698,756352,03672,1642,336,0206,095,52336,244,783
Crossbred Sheep
1952*31,713586,0514,827,85688,2436,320592,906988,9057,121,994
195733,364292,0403,760,05273,0009,095449,985735,9105,353,446

The 1957 classification of breeds shows that of the 42,382,008 sheep in New Zealand 30,264,335 (71.41 per cent) were Romneys and 5,353,446 (12.63 per cent) were crossbreds. The remainder were principally half bred 2,577,090, Corriedale 2,128,832, Merino 1,021,159, and Southdown 786,040.

The average size of the flocks was 1,092 in 1957,1,148 in 1958,1,141 in 1959, and 1,140 in 1960. There has been little change in average flock size over the past three years. A classification according to size for the last four years shows the following position.

Size of Flocks1957195819591960
1 and under 1004,1804,0714,5684,753
100 and under 2002,9402,8883,0503,079
200 and under 5006,6006,6516,6696,602
500 and under 1,0009,1368,9349,0238,965
1,000 and under 1,5007,0347,3837,4227,555
1,500 and under 2,0003,8404,3554,4384,457
2,000 and under 2,5001,9962,2642,2972,252
2,500 and under 5,0002,4422,8492,9202,973
5,000 and under 7,500396451463429
7,500 and under 10,000110128121140
10,000 and under 20,000107110111116
20,000 and over13141919
Total flocks38,79440,09841,10141,340

CATTLE — The total number of cattle in 1960 was 5,991,938, as against 5,973,352 in 1959.

Dairy stock—1960
    Cows and heifers, two years old and over—
        Cows in milk during season1,886,672
        Heifers not yet in milk71,342
        Cows not in milk during season, but intended to be used again for dairying30,739
    Heifers—
        One and under two years old413,547
        Under one year old477,088
    Bulls and bull calves intended for dairy breeding93,388
Totals, dairy stock2,972,776
Beef stock—
    Breeding cows and heifers, two years old and over1,143,925
    Cows, two years old and over, not used for breeding84,258
    Heifers—
        One and under two years old313,610
        Under one year old388,548
    Steers and bulls of all ages1,088,821
Totals, beef stock3,019,162
Totals, cattle5,991,938

The following table shows the number of holdings with dairy cows in milk, grouped according to size of herd in milk, for the three last five-yearly intervals for which such information is available. The figures relate to holdings of 1 acre and over situated outside borough boundaries.

YearHoldingsTotal Holdings With 10 or more Cows in Milk
With 10–19 CowsWith 20–29 CowsWith 30–39 CowsWith 40–49 CowsWith 50–59 CowsWith 60–69 CowsWith 70–79 CowsWith 80–89 CowsWith 90–99 CowsWith 100 and Over
19475,1355,4995,9474,8763,5222,7621,9461,3148141,89133,706
19524,3684,5365,5275,2454,4383,6652,5121,7261,1052,53235,654
19573,4773,5634,5494,8354,5894,3053,0712,0231,3513,09434,857

Analysing those farm holdings where 50 per cent or more of the enterprise is devoted to dairying, the North Island predominates with 84 per cent of dairy farms. The following table shows the number of dairy farms in 1949–50 by regional areas.

Regional AreaPrincipally DairyingDairyingDry Dairy Cows and Heifers OnlyOther Dairy HoldingsTotal Dairy Farms
With SheepWith CroppingWith Beef StockWith PoultryWith PigsWith BeesWith HorticultureWith Mixed Farming
No.Area
             acres
Northland6,8151542358142375514877,3131,485,711
South Auckland3,16511214335192613183,504395,319
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands6,544193472073911846,936967,162
Cape Colville787271412126849192,907
Central Plateau2,0656511811123403932,266439,416
Western Uplands907184255301331,149284,159
Taranaki3,713771171512312343,974514,993
East Cape915651344328381821,108150,572
Hawke's Bay594781196111218973987,371
Rangitikei1,02418781534171311,263181,504
Manawatu2,7161786111019193642,990335,070
Castlepoint1571235,403
Wairarapa556725711163661117,093
Featherston42241551312489131,792
Nelson81799445730351121,014277,251
Marlborough32430513195639375,858
Westland345199163178408177,268
North Canterbury3231111392,625
Foothills50126614318313,908
Canterbury Plains52619911212115111372775,155
Christchurch223519133344627120,697
Banks Peninsula1453611241319336,125
Mackenzie8311131,612
South Canterbury635755723914423981088572,107
Otago439581011212179955870,880
Central Otago68811418311,777
Southern1,29542325111112701151,836295,814
Remainder3 3138
Totals, Number35,1482,23022859309165181685887649339,770 
Acreage (000)5,190805242821231122247418 6,420

A similar analysis for beef-cattle farms shows that the North Island contributed 65 per cent of the New Zealand total for this type of farming. The following table shows the number of beef-cattle farms in 1949–50 by regional areas.

Regional AreaPrincipally Beef CattleBeef CattleOther Beef-cattle HoldingsTotal Beef-cattle Farms
With SheepWith DairyingWith Arable CroppingWith Mixed FarmingNumberArea

* Not available separately. Areas are included in the total.

        acres
Northland245673411330184,825
South Auckland69102148622,133
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands716148220,956
Cape Colville2431233320,249
Central Plateau3011124461,313
Western Uplands4413216027,844
Taranaki16114222,287
East Cape15912528,458
Hawke's Bay2873520,483
Rangitikei2241112911,599
Manawatu363114111,181
Castlepoint11*
Wairarapa552,352
Featherston883,692
Nelson638 7539,130
Marlborough819462,507
Westland1084434159398,477
North Canterbury33212,855
Foothills11*
Canterbury Plains14143,676
Christchurch91101,294
Banks Peninsula7294,569
Mackenzie11*
South Canterbury2911315,946
Otago2741113416,663
Central Otago213106,677
Southland59202218431,688
Remainder77539
Totals, Number95221517218371,241 
Acreage1,389,252286,1586,15337412,80210,565 1,705, 304

Most of the leading breeds of the cattle of Great Britain are represented in New Zealand by herds bred on sound lines. Provision was made in the 1950 Census of Agriculture for the collection of breeds of cattle. Details of breeds were given on pages 488 and 489 of the 1954 issue of the Yearbook. Dairy stock in New Zealand in 1950 was predominantly of Jersey breed (84.7 per cent), while the beef stock breeds were mainly Polled Angus (66.7 per cent), Hereford (21.9 per cent), and Shorthorn (7.1 per cent).

PIGS — The 1960 figure of 660,261 pigs showed a decline of 4.5 per cent compared with the 1959 figure and 17.6 per cent compared with the peak figure of 800,802 in 1936.

At 31 JanuaryPigs Under Six Months' OldPigs Six Months and Under One Year OldBoars One Year Old and OverSows One Year Old and OverTotal Pigs
1955434,400142,24615,74488,969681,359
1957518,56483,905602,469
1958539,88787,925627,812
1959598,59892,970691,568
1960572,43787,824660,261

Particulars as to pig breeds collected in 1950 showed that the principal distinctive breeds were Berkshire (6.6 per cent) and Tamworth (5.5 per cent), but over 80 per cent of the pigs in New Zealand were classified as crossbreds.

HORSES — The following table includes the latest information available of the number of horses in each class shown, excluding horses in boroughs.

Class19511957195819591960

* Not collected separately.

Draught and three-quarter draught65,90132,46328,75828,469*
Spring cart (including half-draught)22,541
Hacks and light working horses75,31872,96470,87871,440*
Thoroughbred and other horses20,21223,88223,62523,048*
Total horses183,972129,309123,261122,957104,995

Since 1911, when the peak number of 404,000 was recorded, there has been a steady decline in the number of horses in New Zealand. The greater part of the decrease has occurred in horses of the heavy type and has been accompanied by a marked increase in the use of mechanical traction for farm work, the number of agricultural tractors on farms in 1952 being 46,000 as compared with 14,000 in 1942. By 1959 the number of heavy-type horses had fallen to 28,500 while tractors had increased to 75,300. Hacks and light working horses have decreased to a much lesser extent over the period.

DOGS — A count of dogs registered during the 1961 registration year showed that there were 207,327 dogs registered in counties, of which 136,556 were in the North Island and 70,771 in the South Island. The total number of dogs registered in boroughs was 43,816, in town districts 910, and in road districts 468. Unregistered dogs and those up to six months old are not included in these figures.

POULTRY — The following table shows the numbers recorded at the censuses 1921–56. All references to Fowls ducks, etc., are intended to cover both male and female birds.

CensusNumber of Households Keeping Fowls, Ducks, Geese, or TurkeysTotal Number of Fowls, Ducks, Geese, or TurkeysFowlsDucksGeeseTurkeys

* Excluding Maori flocks.

† Including Maori flocks (107,361 birds in 1936).

April 1921*145,9933,991,0093,491,567379,98846,23473,220
April 1926*158,8563,781,1453,308,384352,03043,87976,852
March 1936166,3544,019,0763,488,516377,79166,66786,102
September 1945159,3334,470,3664,070,683319,93841,90337,862
April 1951180,7234,199,5903,829,481260,65958,47450,976
April 1956192,7364,485,5714,160,424210,71860,93853,491

The comparability of the foregoing figures is affected by two important considerations, the first being that the 1951 and 1956 figures include only birds aged four months or over, while the 1945 figures cover birds of all ages. At earlier censuses the question was for the number of birds — no reference being made to age. The second factor is that the census of 1945 was taken in the spring, whereas the other censuses were taken in the autumn.

Poultry farming is regarded as a definite branch of the farming industry. Those keeping poultry may be classified under three groups, namely — commercial poultry farmers, sideline poultry producers, and household poultry keepers. As might be anticipated, the last-named group is by far the largest. 192,736 households were recorded by the 1956 census as keeping poultry and this figure shows an increase of 6.6 per cent as compared with the 1951 census. Taking only fowls into consideration, 173,802, or 91.4 per cent, of the households keeping poultry had less than 25 birds.

Sideline poultry producers are those with flocks of over 100 birds but less than 1,000. On average they range from 300 to 600 bird flocks. These flocks are usually kept by people as a sideline to augment their incomes received from other daily employment. In 1956 there were 521 flocks of over 1,000 birds forming the basic commercial units of the poultry industry. Of these, 402 ranged from 1,000 to 1,999, 79 from 2,000 to 2,999, 25 from 3,000 to 3,999, and 15 exceeded 4,000. The vast majority of household poultry keepers and sideline producers depend upon commercial poultry farms for annual replacement stock. Again the commercial and sideline groups sell their eggs through licensed egg floors and are therefore mainly responsible for supplying eggs to retail shops in the cities and larger towns. Egg production has been steadily increasing, sales through licensed distributors rising from 15,990,090 dozen in 1958–59 to 18,431,847 dozen in 1959–60 and to 23,242,000 dozen in 1960–61. It is estimated that approximately 40 to 45 per cent of the total egg production passes through these channels.

Poultry farming is confined largely to egg production, but units are now being established for the production of table poultry, and attention paid to the production of “broilers” or 3 to 3£ 1/2 live weight chicken. Until recently, table poultry was almost entirely a by-product of commercial egg production.

Commercial poultry farms are distributed over both Islands, the largest numbers being concentrated around Auckland, Christchurch, and Oamaru. Duck-egg farming is carried on only to a limited extent and is centred mainly around Auckland. The poultry industry does not cater for overseas markets, though limited quantities of frozen egg pulp, surplus to local requirements, are exported.

Until about 1950, White Leghorns were almost the only breed used for commercial egg production but crossbred birds are now by far the most popular birds for egg production. The pure breeds mated to produce these crossbreds are White Leghorns, Australorps, and Rhode Island Reds.

Khaki Campbell and Runner ducks are mainly used for egg production, while Khaki Campbell, Muscovy, and some Pekin ducks are marketed as table birds. There is little organised turkey production, but one or two commercial turkey farms have come into being since the war.

There is a definite trend towards specialisation among commercial producers in the poultry industry. Whereas it has been common practice in the past for many commercial producers to carry out breeding, egg production, and the sale of young growing pullets, there is at present a move towards specialising in any one of these aspects of poultry farming. Thus, many commercial egg producers no longer attempt to breed replacement stock but buy day-old pullets each year to replenish their flocks. Recently serious consideration has been given by the larger specialist poultry breeders to modern breeding methods based upon present-day knowledge of poultry genetics. A group of poultry breeders are at present employing the services of a consultant geneticist to evaluate the results obtained with their breeding flock and to advise on poultry-breeding procedure. Finally, a limited number of commercial poultry producers are specialising in rearing day-old chicks for sale as perching pullets to householders and sideline producers. These specialist pullet reasers normally carry no birds for egg production or breeding.

Poultry Control — The Poultry Act 1924 and the Poultry Amendment Act 1961 provide for the control of poultry diseases and the sanitary conditions under which incubators are operated and where eggs for human consumption are held on poultry farms. Provision can also be made under these Acts to control the grading, packing, and handling of table poultry for consumption in New Zealand and the killing, processing, and packing of table poultry for export. Every owner of poultry is required to report to the nearest office of the Department of Agriculture any outbreak or suspected outbreak of disease in a flock and to comply with the directions of an inspector (usually a poultry instructor or veterinarian) for the control of the outbreak. It is an offence to offer diseased poultry for sale.

In order to provide finance for the organisation and development of the poultry industry, the Poultry-runs Registration Act was passed in 1933 and a poultry board constituted of two Government and four producer members. The Act makes compulsory the annual registration of every poultry run, which is defined as land used for the keeping of not less than 25 head of poultry (hens and ducks not less than six months old) and the production of eggs for sale. The fee payable annually is 2s. 6d. if the flock is in excess of 24 but does not exceed 100 head. For each additional hundred (or part thereof) an additional 2s. 6d. is payable.

Reference to the field covered by the Egg Marketing Authority is given in Section 21 of this Yearbook.

BEES — The rich pasture lands of New Zealand and some bush areas are particularly favourable for apiculture and the production of high-grade honey for the local and export markets.

Production for the year ended 31 March 1961 was estimated at 5,400 tons of honey and 189,000 lb of commercial beeswax, approximately 400 tons of honey and 14,000 lb of beeswax less than the previous season.

Over the past five seasons the annual export of honey has averaged 1,919,176 lb. There is wide variation in the production of honey due to climatic changes from season to season. As only surpluses are exported this causes variations in the quantity exported each year.

Exports of honey for the latest four years ended 31 December are given below.

YearQuantity lbValue £
19572,085,374133,368
19582,980,069173,734
19591,493,43980,594
1960944,96454,003

Registrations under the Apiaries Act show that at 31 May 1961 there were 4,722 beekeepers with a total of 11,867 apiaries and 179,953 established hives. Sixty per cent of hives and 56 per cent of apiaries were in the North Island. Following is a summary of these registrations showing beekeepers in groups according to the number of hives kept.

Group1–5 Hives6–29 Hives30–250 Hives251 Hives and OverTotal
Beekeepers3,2968223762284,722
Apiaries3,3671,0901,8215,58911,867
Hives established7,1789,53832,945130,292179,953

Under the Apiaries Act 1927 stringent regulations have been enacted in order to control foul-brood, bee moths, and other diseases of bees. Beekeepers are required to register all apiaries of one or more hives, and it is an offence to keep bees in an unregistered apiary. Only frame hives may be used, box hives being prohibited.

The introduction into New Zealand of bees, and used appliances for the keeping of bees and the harvesting of their products, is prohibited save with the prior consent of the Minister of Agriculture. The consent of the Minister in regard to used appliances is restricted to such appliances as are necessary to serve as containers for bees so introduced.

In view of the greatly increased amount of crop spraying for weed and pest control it has been necessary to bring down regulations prohibiting the application to cruciferous and leguminous field crops of sprays and dusts that are toxic to bees at any time during the period between 1 September in any year and 31 March in the following year when the crop is in flower, except with a permit issued by the Department of Agriculture.

Reference to the activities of the Honey Marketing Authority is given in Section 21 of this issue.

Chapter 15. Section 15 FORESTRY

Table of Contents

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION — New Zealand, except in certain limited areas*, possesses a climate favourable to forest growth, and in ancient times the land was almost entirely forest clad. Volcanic action in the central North Island, decreasing rainfall in the east of both islands, and cultivation and use of fire by the Maoris substantially reduced the forest area; nevertheless, the first white settlers found a land which may have been two-thirds covered by dense forest.

In the early days of settlement the demand for timber was met by exploitation of the kauri forests of the far north. These forests were almost completely destroyed by logging and subsequent burning of the cut-over areas. Wide areas of podocarp-broadleaf forest in both islands were cleared, often without extraction of timber, to make way for farms. Although Acts of Parliament passed in the 1870s and 1880s made provision for the setting aside of forest reserves, there was little interest in conservation, and land-clearing operations extended well beyond the limits now considered desirable in the public interest. Towards the end of the century the need to conserve the forests of the high mountain watersheds was recognised. National parks, scenic and “climatic” reserves amounting to about 2 million acres, in all constituting 3.1 per cent of the land area of New Zealand, had been set aside as “permanent forest” by the early 1900s.

In 1909, in addition to this “permanent forest”, there were more than 7 million acres of privately owned forest (including forest on Maori land) and nearly 8 million acres of Crown-owned forest. The whole of these latter areas was open to exploitation and the forest was being rapidly destroyed in the production of the annual cut of some 400 million board feet of timber. Although some “State forests” had been proclaimed, the name did not, as now, imply forest preservation, and the State forests were subject to the same lifting of reservations and the same destruction as other forests on Crown land. Milled areas were either sold for settlement or replanted with exotics.

It was at that time universally believed that the indigenous timber trees were too slow growing to have any place in schemes of forest management for continuous yield, that New Zealand's millable indigenous forests would be exhausted some time in the 1940s, and that future timber supplies must come from imports and from the exotic plantations which the State had been steadily establishing since 1898. In 1913 a Royal Commission on Forestry recommended extension of the permanent forests of the mountainous regions by nearly 2 million acres. However, it sanctioned the continued destruction of the indigenous milling forest on the ground that no land should be permitted to remain under forest if it could be “occupied and resided upon in reasonably limited areas”. The Commission recommended greatly increased State plantings of exotics (especially radiata pine and eucalypts) to provide for future needs, but the rate of planting remained the same (about 2,000 acres a year) until the 1920s.

The First World War brought a timber famine and high prices. Awakened public opinion, alarmed at the prospect of the exhaustion of indigenous timber supplies within a generation, demanded a new approach to the question of forestry. The full impact of the recommendations made by overseas professional foresters who had from time to time reported on the forests at the request of the Government was at last felt. In 1919 the Commissioner of State Forests formulated a policy of permanent dedication to forest management of all Crown forested lands valuable chiefly for forestry and timber production, and of extended State planting to provide supplementary timber supplies.

In 1920 a new administrative agency, the State Forest Service, was created to carry out this policy. At its head, as Director of Forestry, was placed a highly trained and experienced forester. Professional forestry officers were appointed, and henceforward the forests were to be managed on scientific principles.

* The exceptions are: land above 4,000–5,000 ft (North Island), above 3,500–4,500 ft (South Island), and above 1,000–1,500 ft (Stewart Island), and parts of the eastern South Island.

In the period 1923–36 State planting was greatly expanded, 376,000 acres being planted with exotics. In the same period afforestation companies created 297,000 acres of exotic forest. This activity was designed to provide exotic forests whose produce would offset the forthcoming acute shortage of native timber. The resulting forests are characterised by lack of variety in age. and species (88 per cent of commercial plantings were radiata pine), by large areas which are poorly stocked, owing to unsuitable siting and the use of inferior strains, and by lack of silvicultural tending. Although these characteristics render them extremely susceptible to insect and fungal attack, New Zealand's exotic forests have not been devastated by epidemics; but as the trees mature the danger increases. The Forest Service recognises these facts, and the policy since 1937 has been to plant at a slower rate (several thousand acres each year), to establish a wider range of species, to use the best seed, and to pay attention to correct siting and tending. A Forest Biology Survey has been established to operate a sentinel service for the detection of incipient insect or fungal epidemics.

Owing to the ever-present threat of disease in the exotic plantations, the Forest Service is preserving, as a safeguard, as much as possible of the indigenous forests which, by reason of their adaptation to the country and their tremendously varied composition, are much less vulnerable.

The indigenous forests are still, despite the greatly increased use of exotic timber, being depleted at the rate of some 30,000 acres a year to provide some 300,000,000 board feet of timber annually. However, as public acceptance of exotic timbers becomes more complete, it will be possible to reduce the output of indigenous timber to a level at which cutting is more in line with conservation policy.

NATIONAL FOREST POLICY — The aim of the Forest Service is to manage the national forest estate in such a way that it will provide the greatest possible economic and social benefits for the people of New Zealand. These benefits include the production of timber, paper pulp, and other forest products; the prevention of erosion and the regulation of stream flow; and the provision of scenic and recreational resources.

The national forest policy requires (a) the conservation of the indigenous forests for perpetual (though of necessity limited) timber production, for soil protection, and for recreation; and (b) the extension of the exotic forests to maintain the pulp and paper industry, and to make possible, by providing additional timber supplies, the conservation of the indigenous forests.

The rapid expansion of the pulp and paper industry and the declining cut of indigenous timber will result in much wider utilisation based on exotic forests. It is inevitable that the yield of these forests will be fully taken up much sooner than has formerly been calculated. It is also certain that forest products, particularly pulp and paper, will form a substantial part of the country's overseas trade. More use will have to be made of suitable tree-growing country, and the exotic forests, both State and private must be expanded considerably. The aim is to plant a million acres by the end of the century.

FOREST RESOURCES: Forest Produce Supplies — The salient features of the supply situation are:

  1. The National Forest Survey has shown that of the remaining indigenous forest some 1800,000 acres contain timber merchantable by today's standards. It has been estimated that the amount is 3,100 million cubic feet, representing 19,800 million board feet of sawn timber. In addition, there are about 945,000 acres of exotic forests.

  2. The indigenous forests, from which 20 years ago 86 per cent of rough-sawn timber supplies were obtained, at present supply approximately 45 per cent. In 20 years' time they are expected to provide about 14 per cent. In the distant future the amount of produce obtained from them will depend upon the successful introduction of management practices.

  3. It can be expected that a high proportion of the exotic forests will be worked on a sustained-yield basis. Besides supplying 55 per cent of the rough-sawn timber cut at present, they yield in addition 43 million cubic feet of pulp logs, veneer logs and smallwood.

  4. Imports of timber have varied from 30 to 60 million board feet during the past 10 years. They are composed of special-purpose timbers — large-dimension Oregon pine for structural use. joinery timbers, and Australian hardwood poles and sleepers.

  5. While supplies of produce from indigenous forests will decrease in the future, the area in exotic forests and the produce from them will increase. Timbers from exotic species could also in time largely replace imported timber and, provided the increase in forest area is sufficient, will provide a substantial amount of produce for export.

Extent of Forested Land — All readily accessible native forests have now been cleared, and forested land is reduced to about a quarter of the total land area. Nevertheless, this portion represents a very large area as the following table of land categories shows.

Type of LandArea, in AcresPercentage of Total Land Area
Forested land15,396,00023.2
Non-forested land50,103,00075.5
Minor islands205,0000.3
Water area687,0001.0
Total land area (including water surfaces)66,391,000100.0

The best use of the 15,400,000 acres of forested land will be decided, within the framework of the forest policy already outlined, by the location, tenure, and economic value of its component parts. It falls into three descriptive classes.

Classification of Forests — More than three-quarters is not merchantable forest and is termed “other land classed as forest”. This is mainly Crown-owned, indigenous forest, and, because it covers much of the remoter mountainous and high-rainfall country, its primary function is that of soil protection and water regulation. Nevertheless, it includes considerable areas of potentially productive forest land which could, in the distant future, be placed under production management. Such management would always be subordinate to the protective functions of this class of forest.

Some 5 per cent of the forested area may be classed as “potentially merchantable” forest — forest which, owing to inaccessibility, has not yet been exploited but would be merchantable if such factors as demand and transport become favourable. “Potentially merchantable” forests also lie mainly on Crown land, and are entirely indigenous.

“Fully merchantable” forests are more diverse in tenure and composition than either of the other two classes already mentioned because they include almost all the planted (exotic) forests, of which nearly half arc owned privately or by local authorities. Fully merchantable indigenous forests have receded well in advance of close settlement, and the largest areas are now on Crown lands and Maori lands in regions (especially on the West Coast of the South Island) little suited to other forms of land use. The distribution of merchantable exotic forests has been influenced mainly by the availability of cheap, undeveloped land hi the period (1900 to 1935) when most of these forests were established. Hence there is a preponderance of exotic forest (State owned and private) on the volcanic plateau of the North Island.

The distribution by area of these three classes of forested land in 1955 is shown by the following table.

Class of ForestState ForestCommunal ForestPrivate ForestTotal ForestPercentage of Total Forest Area
(a) Merchantable—acres (thousand)
        Indigenous1,5345792,11313.8
        Exotic465374129145.9
Totals1,999379913,02719.7
(b) Potentially merchantable
        Indigenous7001018015.2
        Exotic
Totals7001018015.2
(c) Other land classed as forest
        Indigenous8,9062,65011,55675.0
        Exotic12120.1
Totals8,9182,65011,56875.1
(d) Grand totals
        Indigenous11,1403,33014,47094.0
        Exotic477374129266.0
Total forest area11,617373,74215,396100.0

NOTES

  1. State forest includes all forest under the control of the State through the New Zealand Forest Service or other Government Departments.

  2. Communal forest includes all forest under the control of local (i.e., public) authorities other than the State.

  3. Maori forest is included under private forest.

  4. Areas of communal and private forests are approximate only.

Botanical Composition of Forests — The indigenous forests of New Zealand may be grouped very broadly into two main formations, mixed temperate evergreen forest and southern-beech forest. The former is a mixed community of many species of broad-leaved trees and conifers, and the latter a pure community of one or more of the species of southern beech (Nothofagus).

In general terms, the mixed temperate evergreen forests are the forests of the north and of the warm, wet lowlands and lower mountain slopes. Their upper altitudinal limit becomes gradually lower from north to south. The beech forests are the forests of the south, of the high mountains and of the drier lowlands. But the beech species are absent from many localities, e.g., Stewart Island and Mt. Egmont, where their presence might be expected. There are also extensive areas, especially in the north-west and south-west of the South Island, and on the mountain ranges of the North Island, where the two types mingle to form forests of very varied composition.

Most of the mixed forest has been cut over for timber and cleared for farming purposes, whereas the southern-beech forest, because of the difficult topography and the poor soils on which it most frequently grows, is largely intact. The following description gives in more detail the distribution and the present state of the main forest communities.

Kauri forest (mixed temperate evergreen forest in which kauri is the dominant species) once occupied much of the area north of a line joining Port Waikato to Tauranga, but, except for limited reservations and small pockets, it has disappeared. The main secondary tree species are taraire and tawa. Mixed podocarp forest (the principal podocarp is rimu; the important secondary ones, totara, matai, and miro) was found at all latitudes in the three main islands. The heaviest commercial stands were on flat or near-flat sites; in steeper country timber trees thinned out and secondary species became more plentiful. The remaining forest of this type consists of pockets which will be worked for a few decades to come, some large areas on steep country, such as the Urewera, which can be classed mainly as protection forest, and fairly extensive forests in the centre of the North Island and on the West Coast of the South Island which contain most of the remaining indigenous-softwood supplies. The main species of broad-leaved trees in these forests are kamahi, tawa, and rata. Kahikatca forest occupied low-lying swampy river silts, but this has almost disappeared to make way for farming.

Bog forests, whose dominant trees are smaller podocarps of the silver-pine group, occupy limited areas mainly in the central North Island and on the West Coast of the South Island. They have largely been cut over, at least once, for posts and sleepers.

Although most southern-beech forests can be classified as protection forests, there remain large areas in more accessible regions which have been cut over and are regenerating, or which have not yet been cut over and will be reserved for sustained-yield management. Where southern-beech forest is present in the more accessible areas of the North Island and northern Marlborough-Nelson, the species are hard beech (Nothofagus truncata) and black beech (N. solandri). Red beech (N. fusca) abounds in the less accessible upper areas, where it is usually accompanied by the silver beech (N. menziesii), the main tree at high altitudes. In rather dry places mountain beech (N. cliffortioides) replaces silver beech. On the eastern slopes of the Southern Alps there was once a belt of mountain-beech forest, but all except pockets of this has been burnt. On the western side of the Alps, beech forest is absent from the Taramakau River southwards for one hundred miles. In western Otago and western Southland silver beech is the main forest tree, with fair areas of mountain beech and small pockets of red beech. At the lower elevations silver beech is extensively milled and much of the forest has disappeared.

Important forest trees at high elevations, not already mentioned, are kaikawaka (Libocedrus bidwillii) and thin-bark totara (Podocarpus hallii).

In the undisturbed indigenous vegetation there were limited transition areas between tussock grassland and forest proper that carried manuka (Leptospermum scoparium and L. ericoides), and sometimes bracken fern (Pteridium esculentum). With the destruction of much tussock grassland and forest, these belts have extended, and manuka has even occupied extensive areas of destroyed forest remote from any original manuka stands. These stands are important because they are often a stage in succession back to mature forest. Manuka is also a very useful fuel.

Much land now classified as forest consists of a second growth of broad-leaved shrubs and trees which have come in after milling operations or on abandoned farm land.

Exotic plantations over 10 acres in extent now total some 930,000 acres, besides which there is a large total acreage of smaller farm woodlots and shelter belts. These areas of exotic species already provide nearly half of the country's timber requirements, and before many more years have passed must supply most of it. In some poorly forested districts shelter belts now provide a large part of the local timber supply.

Most of the larger exotic plantations are in the central North Island region. They were established with radiata pine (Pinus radiata) between the years 1925 and 1935. Other plantations are scattered throughout the country, although there are still some timberless districts with few plantations, notably Taranaki, Poverty Bay and the east coast, and South Canterbury.

NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION: Forest Authority — The administration of State forests and afforestation activities was for many years under the control of the Department of Lands and Survey. But in 1918 the office of Commissioner of State Forests was separated from that of Minister of Lands, and in 1919 a forestry sub department was formed. In 1920 the State Forest Service was established as a separate Department of State, which was given statutory recognition and administration authority by the Forests Act 1921–22. The Forests Act 1949 consolidated previous legislation and changed the title of the Minister from Commissioner of State Forests to Minister of Forests, and that of the State Forest Service to the New Zealand Forest Service. The Act provides for the appointment of a Minister of Forests, a Director-General of Forests, Conservators of Forests, and other officers. The Minister may delegate such of his powers as he thinks fit. The Act prescribes that the Forest Service shall have under the direction of the Minister exclusive responsibility in carrying out all matters of forest policy affecting State forest land and shall have exclusive control and management of:

  1. All State forest land, whether for the production of timber or other forest produce, or for the protection of the land with a view to water conservation or soil stabilisation, or for ensuring the balanced use of the land, or for scientific purposes, or for recreational or amenity purposes not prejudicial to forestry;

  2. The establishment, culture, and maintenance of forests on State forest land, and the harvesting, utilisation, transport, sale, or other disposal of forest produce from State forest land;

  3. The granting of licences, leases, permits, and other rights and authorities under the Act;

  4. The enforcement of the conditions of licences, leases, permits, and other rights and authorities granted under the Act or any enactment repealed;

  5. The collection and recovery of all purchase moneys, rents, fees, royalties, charges, and revenues of the Service; and

  6. Generally the exercise of all powers, authorities, and duties conferred or imposed on the Minister or the Forest Service by the Act.

Central control of the Forest Service is exercised by the Director-General of Forests from the head office in Wellington. A Conservator of Forests, who is the local representative of the Director-General, controls each of the seven conservancies into which New Zealand is divided. Forest Rangers, responsible to the Conservators, have charge of districts, which are subdivisions of the conservancies. Each district contains one or more managed forests.

Slate Forests - State forests are administered under the authority of the Forests Act 1949. The powers conferred by this Act to deal with forest produce are subject to the provisions of the Coal Mines Act 1925, the Mining Act 1926, and the Petroleum Act 1937. Section 23 of the Mining Amendment Act 1934 provides for the payment to the Crown of compensation for damage resulting from mining operations to any land vested in the Crown. Such compensation in respect of State forests may be claimed by the Minister of Forests from time to time as damage is caused.

The Minister of Forests also administers the Waitangi Endowment under powers set out in the Waitangi Endowment Act 1932–33.

Mining Privileges and Coal-mining Rights — Under the Coal Mines Act 1925 and the Mining Act 1926 a mining privilege or coal-mining right over State forest land may not be granted except with the consent in writing of the Minister of Forests and subject to such conditions as he may impose. Notwithstanding anything in the Mining Act 1926 or in any licence, lease, title, right, privilege, or other authority under those Acts granted after the Forests Act 1949 came into force, no person may cut or remove any timber or other forest produce on or from State forest land except in accordance with the provisions of the Forests Act 1949.

Regulations — The Forests Act 1949 authorises the appointment by regulation of committees to advise the Minister of Forests on specified matters. Regulations issued under this authority are the Timber Production Advisory Committee Regulations 1949, the Sirex Advisory Committee Regulations 1950, the Forest and Fire Publicity Committee Regulations 1952, and the Waipoua Forest Sanctuary Advisory Committee Regulations 1952.

Other regulations in force are the Sawmill Registration Regulations 1952, the Timber Regulations 1948, the Forest Service Fees and Charges Regulations 2953, and the Forest Produce Import and Export Regulations 1956.

Noxious Animals Act 1956 — This Act transfers to the Forest Service the responsibility for controlling and eradicating noxious wild animals, and confers on the Minister of Forests the appropriate powers. These activities were formerly carried out by the Wildlife Branch of the Department of Internal Affairs under the Wildlife Act 1953; but the Forest Service, being responsible for the welfare of the forests and having a greater knowledge of their needs, is now considered to be the more appropriate authority.

The Opossum Regulations 1953 continue in force as if they had been made under the Noxious Animals Act 1956, and are now administered by the Forest Service.

Fire Prevention and Control-The Forest and Rural Fires Act 1955 and the Fire Services Act 1949 provide for fire prevention and control throughout New Zealand.

The Forest and Rural Fires Act 1955 makes each county council a fire authority for the county area under its control, and provides for the setting up of rural fire districts each administered by a committee, or by the Minister of Forests, as fire authority. The Minister of Forests is the fire authority also for almost all unoccupied Crown-owned land outside rural fire districts, while the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council is the fire authority for soil-conservation districts. Rural fire districts, soil-conservation districts, most unoccupied Crown-owned land, and urban fire districts are excluded from the control of county councils. Regulations in force under this Act are the Rural Fire Committee Regulations 1949 and the Forest and Rural Fires Regulations 1956, which replace the regulations of 1951.

The Fire Services Act 1949 provides for the protection of urban districts.

FOREST MANAGEMENT: Objectives — In the field of production forestry, as distinct from protection forestry, the management activities of the Forest Service are directed towards two ends:

  1. To protect, conserve, and, if possible, perpetuate the remaining indigenous forests of the country.

  2. To create an exotic estate large enough and sufficiently diverse to supply the future needs of New Zealand in timber and other forest produce, and to provide an exportable surplus.

Indigenous-forest Management — Conservation measures in indigenous production forests involve regulation and restriction of the permissible annual cut, protection against fire, a careful watch for trespass and the prosecution of offenders caught, rigid insistence on close utilisation, both of forests and forest products, and finally block sales of carefully measured and appraised standing timber. Of these measures the last one is particularly important. The system of block sales introduced by the Forest Service in 1921 is in sharp contrast to the previous method of “royalty payment off the saw”. The present system encourages close utilisation since the sawmiller is required to pay for all timber measured; the previous one encouraged unnecessary waste both in the forests themselves and in the subsequent milling processes. It is estimated that through this administrative reform the Forest Service has succeeded in conserving some 700,000,000 board feet of timber which would otherwise have been left to rot in the forests or been thrown away in slab heaps. A large part of the indigenous-forest officers' work is in the routine administration of the block sale system, i.e., in the careful measurement and appraisal of trees for sale and in the periodic and equally careful inspection of milling operations to ensure that waste is not taking place.

Of equal importance to this policy of “conservation through close utilisation” is that of rationing the cut of indigenous timbers so that the remaining supplies, particularly of high-quality wood, are spread out over as long a period as possible instead of being used up in a very short time. To this end the Forest Service formulates working plans for all major State forests and through them regulates, both by individual forests and by districts, the amount of timber that may be cut annually. So far as may be practicable, consideration is given to the essential timber requirements of a district and to the extent to which these requirements can be met by the substitution of exotic timbers.

At the same time the possibility of ultimately regenerating podocarp forests and bringing them into a productive state is far from being overlooked. Research into the ecology of the natural forest associations and into the silvicultural characteristics of the individual species is being pursued. Past work has shown the importance of preserving a forest climate, which means that clear felling or any condition that allows exposure and desiccation, must be avoided. In consequence, felling in narrow strips has been introduced in commercial logging in Westland, and trials by the Forest Service of other forms of partial felling are planned. Protection from fire and grazing after logging are standard measures which encourage development of natural second-growth associations which should in time act as nurse crops for podocarp seedlings.

Parallel to the policy of rationing the cut is that of making long-term log and timber sales. This has the effect of giving stability to sawmilling industries and to the communities dependent upon them. In one or two places further stability is being sought by the practice of interplanting logged areas with exotic species (mainly Douglas fir and western red cedar), combined where possible with the planting of adjacent areas of open country. By this means a sustained yield, part exotic and part indigenous, can be achieved, and the sawmilling industries and communities can look forward to a life in perpetuity.

The kauri forests, now only remnants of the vast forests from which timber was first felled in quantity in New Zealand, are owned principally by the State. The remaining kauri stands show promise of being amenable to sound forestry management. Bleeding for gum, which damaged many trees in the past, is forbidden. The annual cut is strictly rationed. Wherever kauri is felled a portion of the growing stock in young vigorous trees is left as a reserve. Young pole stands are silviculturally treated to free them from competition and improve growth. Natural regeneration is assisted and encouraged, and planting extends the species on to lands which have not held kauri for generations. A small but regular cut of this valuable species is assured, and forests for the future are being established and cultivated.

The prospects of improving and perpetuating the beech forests of New Zealand on a sustained-yield basis are good. Both the major species, red and silver beech, when given the right conditions, will regenerate freely; both grow sufficiently rapidly to grow on a medium-length rotation (100–130 years); and both show their optimum development on sites that are unsuitable for agriculture. There are many large areas of virgin forest still intact, and, in the case of red beech, extensive stands of pole forest which have originated as a result of fire, wind throw, or mining activities. Against these favourable circumstances must be set the presence in many localities of red deer, whose browsing may check or even prevent effective regeneration.

Recreation in Forests — As the population increases and as the cleared land becomes more firmly occupied by agricultural interests, so does the call on the recreational resources of the forests become greater. Weekend hunters head for the forest to shoot deer and pigs; fishermen frequent the streams; trampers wander along the many tracks; and alpinists climb through the forest to the heights above. The Forest Service caters for this demand in popular forests by establishing regular patrols, clearing and maintaining tracks, making camping sites and fireplaces, and (with the help of tramping and alpine clubs) building and maintaining huts and erecting bridges.

Exotic-forest Management — The establishment of State exotic forests dates from 1896 when an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island and at Rotorua in the North Island. Planting commenced in 1898, and proceeded at a slow rate until 1922, by which time 47,000 acres had been established. The formation of the New Zealand Forest Service as a separate Department of State in the early twenties coincided approximately with an afforestation boom, and in the period 1923–36 no less than 376,000 acres were planted. Since then plantings have again been on a modest scale and over the last few years have averaged only some 7,000 acres a year.

In the earlier years the areas selected for planting were often chosen with little consideration for the suitability of the site for tree growing or for the proximity of the forests to existing and future markets. As a result there have been some partial or complete failures, and the geographical distribution of the forests leaves much to be desired. These faults are now being corrected by the establishment of new forests in timber-hungry districts and by the careful selection of areas where the climate, soil, and topography are all favourable to tree growth.

The original plantations contained a great variety of species, most of the common timber trees of Europe being represented as well as many from America and Australia, particularly eucalypts and North American conifers. In general, except locally and on very good sites, the European hardwoods such as ash, oak, and sycamore were failures; and of the multitude of eucalypts tried, only a few proved suited to New Zealand conditions. The standard European softwood, Scots pine, was a complete failure, as were many of the American pines, firs, and spruces. Norway spruce promised well for some years, but was finally wiped out by insect attack. Austrian pine was planted extensively in the earlier years and developed into very poor stands; much later, similar results were obtained from extensive plantings of the scopulorum variety of ponderosa pine, and even worse results from the wide-scale and indiscriminate attempts to establish Californian redwood. The successes, however, were no less numerous than the failures, and before long it became fairly obvious which would be the most suitable and profitable species. Pride of place went to radiata pine, which showed the ability to grow rapidly on a wide range of sites and to produce fine stands of timber. It became, and still is, the major exotic conifer of New Zealand. Other major species, planted according to site, arc Douglas fir, Corsican pine, and ponderosa pine. Of recent years the southern pines — loblolly, slash, and long-leaf pines- have found a place in the more northerly forests. Minor species planted on a restricted scale are larch, lodgepole, strobus, and patula pines, Japanese cedar, Lawson cypress, macrocarpa, and western red cedar.

The estimated species distribution in State and private plantations at 31 March 1961 was:

SpeciesAcres (000)Percentage
Radiata pine58061
Ponderosa pine9010
Corsican pine627
Douglas fir515
Others and mixtures16417
Totals947100

In spite of failures New Zealand now has a large and valuable exotic-forest estate which is providing approximately one-half of the annual sawn-wood requirements and, in addition, is supporting a large and growing pulp and paper industry. Qualitatively the forests leave much to be desired. Their various shortcomings, due largely to past mistakes, now present problems which will tax the ingenuity of the forestry profession to the utmost. Specifically, management of the State exotic forests is rendered difficult and complex by reason of:

  1. The Bad Age-class Distribution: Sixty-five per cent of the total radiata pine area was planted in one 10-year period. In the absence of tending this will result in a corresponding peak in production of mature timber, leading to utilisation difficulties. The position is much the same with the other major species.

  2. The High Proportion of Radiata Pine: Some 44 per cent of the total area is in radiata pine, but the proportion in some individual forests and in some districts is much higher. A greater diversity of species would enable a wider range of forest products to be supplied and would lessen the risk of insect or fungal attack on an epidemic scale.

  3. The Considerable Areas of Low Productivity: The maximum value from the soil is not being obtained in areas which are occupied by poor species such as P. ponderosa var. scopulorum, Austrian pine, some races of lodgepole pine, eucalypts, etc. Their replacement by more valuable species must be undertaken.

  4. The Low Stocking of Many Areas: Two causes are responsible-the practice during the boom afforestation period of planting at a wide initial spacing, and the failure during the same period to plant up gaps in the original establishment. The resultant trees are often open grown and branchy, and are producing firewood and pulping material rather than sawlogs.

  5. Lack of Tending: Large areas formed before the Second World War have received little treatment since planting. Low pruning has been carried out over several thousand acres, but thinning has been badly neglected. As a result, the final-crop trees of many forests are failing to produce the quantity and the quality of wood they are capable of.

For these reasons management activities in State exotic forests are directed towards getting a better distribution of age classes in the next rotation, which entails felling some stands before they are mature and leaving others to be carried on to over-maturity, towards converting areas of low productivity to well stocked stands of more valuable species, and above all towards catching up with arrears of thinning. At the same time all these activities must be integrated with utilisation projects so that the demand for forest products can be met and forest industries can have continuity of supply; and they must be so planned as to fit into long-term schemes for sustained-yield operation. Working plans, which when approved have ministerial authority, are prepared for all exotic forests, with the object of coordinating all these operations for a term of five to 10 years. They also embody long-term plans of 20 to 30 years or even longer.

Large-scale clear felling in State exotic forests began in 1939 and has been confined almost entirely to radiata pine. Natural regeneration has frequently followed logging, and second-rotation crops have been established.

Production from State exotic forests is now over 42,000,000 cubic feet annually and is increasing rapidly. Sawlogs account for the greater part of this yield, but many other types of forest produce are included, notably pulpwood, posts, poles, mining timber, fencing materials, and firewood. This diversity of produce permits the utilisation of trees of widely varying dimensions, a very necessary condition in operations designed to improve the quality of maturing timber stands. In particular the growing sales of small logs to the Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. for the production of chemical and groundwood pulp permits the clearing of much produce previously wasted as unsalable.

Soil Conservation and Water Regulation — Through its ownership and control of some 6,000,000 acres of protection forest the Forest Service is deeply involved in the vital national question of conserving soil and water resources. Ever since its inception the Forest Service has insisted that maintenance of an adequate vegetative cover on steep country is the only means of preventing accelerated soil erosion and one of the main means of regulating stream flow. Engineering work in the lower reaches of rivers is essential to reclaim swamps and to prevent flooding of alluvial flats, but these must be protected by adequate measures in the headwaters and catchments of rivers. Soil erosion, which both denudes the catchments and aggrades the rivers, can be prevented only by a continuous cover of vegetation.

Guided by these convictions, the policy of the Forest Service in soil-conservation measures is clear cut. It is simply to initiate or encourage any action which would conserve or improve the existing cover, and to prevent or discourage any action which would have the reverse effect. This policy dictates the management activities of all State forests where soil erosion is an important consideration; it is advocated by the Forest Service as the correct policy for all types of eroded land, irrespective of land tenure.

The forest-management activities undertaken in protection forests are protection from fire, prohibition and control of grazing, limitation of sawmilling activities, reservation of secondary species in some logging operations, control of animal pests, and, in some cases, artificial re-establishment. Of these, the most important are fire prevention and suppression and the control of introduced animal pests.

Forest-protection work is coordinated through the Department's representation on the Soil Conservation Council and on the 13 catchment boards now operating throughout the country, through the secondment of a professional forest officer to the staff of the Soil Conservation Council, and through the activities of the local land-use committees (representing the Departments of Agriculture and Lands and Survey and the Forest Service) which recommend the optimum land-use policy for marginal or doubtful areas.

Stabilisation of Sand Dunes - Sand-dune fixation is under the joint control of the Department of Lands and Survey and the New Zealand Forest Service. The objective is twofold: the stabilisation of dunes for the protection of agricultural and pastoral land, and the establishment of production forests. The Forest Service plants marram grass, sows lupin, and later establishes trees on certain protective zones and on areas that have no agricultural or pastoral potential. Four schemes are in operation — at Woodhill, Waiuku, Waitarere, and Santoft — the total gross area of which is 46,338 acres. About 12,000 acres of trees have been planted. Much of the area permanently fixed with trees will become productive forest in years to come.

Protection of Forests and Timber: Protection Against Fire — The fire-protection policy of the Forest Service follows from the premise that fire is the greatest single menace to forests and protection vegetation in New Zealand; within a few hours fire can undo the work of decades in building up a soil and vegetation balance.

The fire risk in New Zealand cannot be measured by comparing the generally adequate and well distributed rainfall experienced in most districts with conditions in countries where droughts are frequent and severe and the summers normally hotter and drier. New Zealand is a mountainous country and the characteristic high winds and strong sunshine will dry out the forest vegetation on exposed situations even in the heavy rainfall areas in a remarkably short time.

Although widespread dangerous fire conditions occur only infrequently there are few seasons during which there are not dry spells or near droughts in some part or other of the country, and very high fire hazards develop.

The peculiar feature of many New Zealand forest species in being extremely exacting in their requirements for regeneration to take place is of special significance. Forest fires in most countries mean the loss of a crop; in New Zealand a severely burnt forest usually means a destroyed forest. Even the beech species, which will regenerate freely under favourable conditions, can only do so after a severe fire under circumstances which are often quite fortuitous in character. Virgin mixed temperate forests admittedly do not burn readily during normal seasons, but the greater proportion of the remaining forests of this type have been logged for the commercial species. As cut-over forests they are very inflammable, and when burnt become waste lands.

The consequences of the relatively small fires which occur all over the country every normal season are as serious in the long run as the spectacularly large fires common in some countries. The losses are cumulative because most of our forest species lack the powers to recuperate from fire damage.

The existing areas of protective vegetation on the headwaters of the main rivers are inadequate for the purposes of soil and water conservation. Unless these protective areas are themselves protected and allowed to extend, abnormal flooding with costly river-control schemes will continue to be a heavy drain on the resources of the country.

The fire-protection organisation of the Forest Service operates over the whole of New Zealand, covering State forests, forests on other Crown lands, scenic reserves, and national parks. The organisation has also the responsibility of securing coordination and uniformity in the administration of the Forest and Rural Fires Act by other fire authorities.

An efficient fire-fighting service is maintained wherever the Department has fire-fighting responsibilities, according to the needs of each district. This reaches its highest level of organisation in the larger exotic forests, where standard Forest Service lookout cabins equipped with fire finders, radio, and telephones are located. Trained fire-fighting crews with modern equipment can be brought into action at a minute's notice and controlled through a radio network. Aerial patrols operate during each fire season in the important Rotorua area.

The provision of a fire-hazard prediction and warning service is an essential function of the fire-protection organisation. There is a nation-wide network of “fire-weather” and radio stations, and the fire-hazard situation in any part of the country is known at the Head Office of the Forest Service in Wellington each day during the fire season (October to April) within an hour of the weather observations being taken at the stations. This enables appropriate action, such as advice to fire authorities and broadcasting of warnings, to be taken.

The legislative provisions for fire protection are outlined earlier.

Protection Against Noxious Animals- Under the authority of the Noxious Animals Act 1956 the Forest Service is responsible for the control of deer, goats, wallabies, chamois, pigs, thar, and other introduced wild animals on all lands where the damage they cause significantly affects the economic welfare of the country. Responsibility for the control of opossums and wallabies on pastoral lands has, by amendment to the Rabbits Act 1955, passed to rabbit boards. On State forest and unoccupied Crown land the Forest Service deals with opossum and wallaby control.

The widespread populations of many of these animals have a serious effect on the regeneration of forest trees and of ground-cover vegetation both in forests and on the alpine meadows above the mountain forests. The natural forest floor of ferns, mosses, and shrubs has been extensively damaged by such ground-browsing animals as deer and goats, while simultaneously the upper storey is being adversely affected by the canopy-feeding opossum. These changes have led to a much accelerated water run-off with consequent soil erosion, root exposure, river-bed aggradation, and flooding. Damage resulting from the impact of noxious animals on protection forest and in contiguous alpine areas, while not as devastating as that from fire, is continuous and much more widespread.

Damage by deer and opossums in commercial exotic forests over the past few years has made it necessary to extend control measures into these forests.

Though hundreds of thousands of noxious animals are destroyed each year and though modern facilities, such as the dropping of supplies by parachute to field parties in remote and mountainous regions, are made use of, the task of control is arduous and dangerous, and overall progress is slow.

Noxious-animal advisory committees have been established to assist in coordinating various public interests and to encourage the sportsman and private hunter to take a more active part in the control of noxious animals. Mass-killing methods more effective than killing with the rifle are necessary and the possibilities of employing these are being investigated.

Control of Insects and Fungi — Sound silvicultural practices are the first line of defence, rendering trees less vulnerable to attack.

Biological control over insect pests is exerted by their natural enemies, insect or fungal parasites. Introduced species frequently come into the country without their natural enemies; part of the work of the biologist is to breed and liberate the latter.

Chemical control is an emergency measure to deal with outbreaks. It includes spraying of affected forests from aeroplanes, chemical treatment of nursery soils, and the dipping of timber to prevent attack by bark beetles and fungi.

Observers of the Forest Biology Survey maintain a constant watch on the exotic forests and on woodlots and shelter belts, and it is planned to extend this surveillance to the indigenous forests. The observers send thousands of representative collections of insects and fungi to the Biology Survey laboratory at the Forest Research Institute, Rotorua, where the material is identified and studied. Thus any incipient epidemics can be detected in time for effective control measures to be taken; and much information is accumulated which helps to elucidate the relationships between the organisms and the forests.

Timber Inspection and Quarantine — In keeping with current world trends, the Forest Service has developed an efficient quarantine service which covers all timber entering or leaving New Zealand.

In the past, this country has enjoyed comparative freedom from introduced insect pests, but the ever increasing tempo of international trade has multiplied the chances of accidental importation of harmful insects. Timber quarantine as practised in New Zealand embraces all imported timbers (including sawn, hewn, and natural-round produce), ship's dunnage, and imported cases and crates. These are inspected, and if necessary are treated to destroy harmful insects.

The same care is given to export timber, which must be completely free of insect attack before export is permitted.

RESEARCH — The complexity of the many indigenous-forest and exotic-forest problems requires the maintenance of an organisation to ensure the continuity and coordination of research effort. Since 1947 all forestry and forest-products research (including research on noxious animals) administered by the Forest Service has been undertaken or coordinated by the Forest Research Institute, Rotorua. In addition, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the universities, and private industrial organisations undertake research into certain aspects of forestry and forest products.

The scope of research in progress at the Forest Research Institute can be illustrated by reference to the work of its six branches.

Silviculture —(a) Development of national arboreta and herbaria of forest vegetation.

(b) Intensive ecological studies of indigenous and exotic forests, to develop silvicultural systems as a basis for sustained-yield management. Forest-soils investigations with particular reference to long-term changes in pumice soils, and to the effect of fertilisers on soils: the improvement of nursery techniques through weed control and chemical treatment.

(c) Studies of growth and financial yield of the more important exotic conifers, under different thinning and pruning regimes.

(d) Research into methods and species for the rehabilitation of logged indigenous forests.

Forest Management- (a) The compilation of volume tables for standing forests and logs; yield tables for exotic species; studies of conversion factors and log scaling; the investigation of assessment techniques.

(b) The maintenance of permanent sample plots in commercial forests.

(c) The conduct of a national survey of exotic forests to make possible sound management of the present resource and realistic planning for the future.

Forest Pathology - Studies of all factors affecting the health of forest trees and the maintenance of She forest-biology survey to provide an early-warning system of insect and fungal epidemics.

Forest Tree Improvement — Research on the origin and quality of seeds; provenance and species trials; selection and breeding of improved strains of trees; and the establishment of seed orchards.

Protection Forestry —(a) Through the Forest and Range Experiment Stations at Rangiorra and Napier, the branch conducts research into the present condition of, and trends in, protection forests and the mountain-range country associated with them (subalpine scrub, alpine grasslands, etc.).

(b) Aspects of forest/animal interaction are studied to form a basis for the control of noxious animals. Animal populations and control measures are investigated in conjunction with the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and the Department of Agriculture.

Forest Products — Research is based on the physical and mechanical evaluation of the timbers, both indigenous and exotic, which must gradually replace the widely used indigenous softwoods and imported forest products. Studies of wood use, preservation, and seasoning provide bases for standard specifications and codes of practice, while investigations of wood extractives, carried out in cooperation with the Division of Forest Products of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (Melbourne) and with the New Zealand universities, attempt to explain the reasons for durability and to interpret phylogenetic relationships. The effects of provenance and silvicultural treatment on wood quality are also examined.

TRAINING IN FORESTRY — The Forest Service recruits rangers and professional officers as technical trainees at the age of 17 to 19 years. They work for one year in the forests, after which future forest rangers attend a ranger school for two years. Those selected as forester trainees are assisted in obtaining a B.Sc. degree leading to postgraduate study at an overseas forestry school. Others selected as administrative trainees study for qualifications in arts or commerce.

To build up a permanent and efficient skilled-labour force, the Forest Service now recruits each year about 80 youths 15 to 17 years of age. These junior woodsmen receive a two-year course of basic training in the practical skills of forestry at one of the two woodsman schools at Kaingaroa and Golden Downs, followed by a third year of advanced training given in small groups in selected forests. In 1959 a scheme for the training of hunters for the control of noxious animals was inaugurated. Those selected attend a course at hunter-training schools in the Nelson Conservancy followed by field training under experienced hunters. The Forestry Training Centre at Rotorua regularly offers the timber industry courses in timber grading, timber inspection, and other forestry operations. A continuous series of courses is provided for Forest Service staff on all phases of Forest Service activity.

The Government also offers bursaries to help science graduates not in its employ to qualify at recognised overseas forestry schools. Other scholarships for study or for research are available from a private fund.

PRIVATE FORESTRY: Extension Services- Private planting commenced as early as 1855 and for some years afterwards was encouraged by grants of land or money. In 1916 the State commenced selling trees to private planters at very cheap rates and then assisted further by appointing extension-forestry officers. In 1931, after strong representations from the Horticultural Trades Association, the sale of trees was discontinued and extension-forestry work became part of the duties of Forest Service field staff. Recently, discussions with the association resulted in a plan of cooperation between the State and the trade for the supply of planting stock in bulk lots. The sale of cheap trees, coupled with a revival of interest through the activities of farm-forestry associations newly established throughout the country, has resulted in an increase in extension-forestry work.

Forest Taxation — Since 1949 some measure of tax relief has been afforded to farmers who own plantations. Expenditure incurred in planting, protecting, and maintaining shelter belts and woodlots has since that year been allowed to be charged against income for tax purposes. At the same time income from the intermittent sale of farm trees could, on application to the Commissioner of Taxes, be spread over a period of five years in order to mitigate the effects of the higher graduated tax. In 1960 the timber value of trees growing on a deceased's estate was exempted from death duties. This exemption removes the fear of a crippling burden on the estate and the possibility of the forced sale of a perhaps immature plantation.

Private Forest Estate — Forest holdings other than State have been reported to aggregate, in 1957, 462,000 acres in the following ownership categories: afforestation companies, 311,000 acres; local authorities, 30,000 acres; and private persons (mostly farmers); 121,000 acres.

It is doubtful whether the plantings since 1957 have done much more than replace the acres of mature timber felled each year for utilisation purposes, so that the present acreage is probably not much higher than that quoted above.

Afforestation companies boomed in the 1923–30 period, when huge areas, mostly of radiata pine, were planted. Utilisation, which has been in operation for some time now, is endeavouring to bring this short-period establishment into a normal series of age gradations and the area cut over is already being regenerated.

FINANCE OF STATE ACTIVITIES — Indigenous forests from which timber is sold are revenue producing. Exotic forests become revenue producing as they come to maturity and, indeed, a few of the older exotic forests have already reached this stage. Overall, at present more money is being spent on the establishment and tending of forests than is obtained in revenue.

Expenditure by way of general administration of forestry is met in full from the Consolidated Fund, as distinct from the development of State forests for subsequent management, which is financed from the Public Works account.

Sources of finance are shown in the following table.

Source1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61
 £(000)
Consolidated Fund expenditure2,4362,6022,7472,9513,268
    Less receipts1,0651,1171,2311,4481,633
        Required from Consolidated Fund1,3711,4851,5161,5031,635
Public Works Account expenditure2,4982,1521,7691,9803,066
    Less receipts1,6011,6391,7801,8442,051
Loan moneys required897513Cr. 111361,015
Net finance required from Government funds2,2681,9981,5051,6392,650

FOREST UTILISATION: Production of Sawn Timber — Sawn timber is produced from two entirely distinct but nevertheless complementary resources-the indigenous forests and the exotic forests. From the days of the first European settlement the indigenous forests have been subjected to destructive cutting, and, because of the long cycle of reproduction, must from a commercial viewpoint be regarded as largely a wasting asset. Consequently, as far as the indigenous forest is concerned, the sawmilling industry has had to follow a constantly receding forest edge — with the inevitable result that the industry has never been able to achieve any real measure of stability. Thus the production of indigenous timber has been based traditionally on rather primitive mills with poor living conditions for the workers; the forest could not be worked on a continuous cycle that would permit a sawmill to operate successfully on a permanent basis; hence there was no incentive to undertake more than the minimum of capital expenditure.

Up to about 1935 almost the whole output of sawn timber was produced in this way. The usual sawing equipment was a circular breaking-down saw for Hitching the logs and a breast-bench circular resaw. The characteristics of the product may be summed up by saying that, although the quality of the timber itself was probably equal to any in the world, the sawing was inaccurate. The mills in general had a low cutting capacity and the annual sawn output per mill seldom exceeded 2,000,000 board feet. Up to the Second World War the total yearly production of sawn timber in normal years fluctuated around the level of 300,000,000 board feet.

In the 1930s significant changes began to develop. On the one hand the easy abundance of indigenous timber had gone, while on the other hand certain forests of exotic species which had been established about the beginning of the century had reached an age when cutting could commence. These exotic forests put on rapid growth, and the primary and original aim has been their management for sustained yield to provide permanency in forest industries and stability for modern communities based on them. In 1930 the production of exotic species was only 10,000,000 board feet, but by 1939 it had risen to 42,000,000 board feet. However, almost all of this production came from farm shelter belts and woodlots and was sawn in the same type of primitive mill as that characteristic of the indigenous forest. The product was used almost entirely for rough temporary work and box making, as there was still ample indigenous timber for all more demanding needs.

At the end of the 1930s the first great step was taken to change sawmilling from a primitive, shiftless industry to a stable industry based on permanent, well constructed capital installations with modern equipment and good living and working conditions. The Forest Service established a modern sawmill of Swedish design at Waipa, near Rotorua, and subsequently established another mill of this type at Conical Hill, near Tapanui (Southland). These mills were designed to serve as demonstration units and to enable the Forest Service to pioneer sawing, seasoning, grading, and merchandising techniques for the logs and timber yielded by the exotic forests. While such mills involve a large capital investment, they are permanent, have a high output with low unit costs, and yield accurately sawn timber. Several mills similar in type, with high-speed gang frames and large handsaws, have been constructed since the Second World War by private enterprise.

The production of exotic timber is expanding rapidly, ' and it is being increasingly accepted for general building purposes, especially framing, and for a wide range of other uses. By far the most important of the exotic timber species is radiata pine, which accounts for about 95 per cent of the total cut of exotics; larch, eucalypts, Douglas fir, and a few other species are produced only on a minor scale. Less than half the country's timber requirements now come from the indigenous forests, and this proportion must inevitably fall as cutting is gradually reduced to the point where a small sustained yield of indigenous timber can be maintained.

Logging methods, too, have been changing from the traditional use of steam haulers and bush tramways, linking bush with mill, to tractor logging and motor-truck haulage of logs. The latter method permits the working of scattered and lightly stocked stands of indigenous timber. Roads, too, are an essential feature of exotic forests for fire protection and forest management as well as for log haulage, and tractors are favoured for their dual role of roading and extraction.

The table below gives the production of rough-sawn timber from 1921 onwards.

Year Ended 31 MarchSoftwoodsHardwoodsGrand Total
IndigenousExoticTotalIndigenousExoticTotal
board feet (million)
192129010300718308
1926335734210111353
19312081322199230
1936249342831010293
1941277543311112343
19462269732319322345
195130119049232436528
195627530558043346626
195727428155638341597
195828327856132436597
195928731460132436637
196030335165436440694
196128739267832436714

NOTE — Quantities have been rounded to the nearest million board feet. (Board feet are units of 12 in. by 12 in. by 1 in.) In some cases this rounding off results in a total disagreeing slightly with the total individual items shown in the table.

The growth of exotic-timber production compared with the relatively steady production of indigenous timber is shown in the following diagram.

The following table gives details of timber production by species for the past five years.

SpeciesYear Ended 31 March
19571958195919601961
 board feet (million)
Rimu and miro212219220232220
Matai3333353632
Totara1011131353
Kahikatea1718182021
Tawa1613151917
Beech1915141412
Other indigenous56554
Totals, indigenous312314319339319
Exotic pines273268303334374
Douglas fir5671312
Eucalypts33333
Other exotic67556
Totals, exotic285282318355395
Totals (all species)597597637694714

The Pulp and Paper Industry — The New Zealand pulp and paper industry is now equipped for the substantial utilisation of the big exotic forests on the volcanic plateau of the North Island. There are five plants, three of which are integrated with sawmilling. The integrated plants are pulping radiata pine logs from their own or from State exotic forests. There is no pulping of indigenous species.

The basic products of the industry are mechanical and chemical pulp, which are converted into such products as newsprint, kraft and other paper, paperboard, and fibreboard.

The following table gives the production of pulp in New Zealand since 1939–40.

Year Ended 31 MarchWood Pulp
ChemicalMechanical
 tons
1940217
194515,434
195021,438
195543,20429,568
1957115,42375,897
1958118,63690,801
1959131,357103,512
1960140,057102,715
1961152,009109,399

NOTE — Mechanical pulp includes ground-wood pulp and defibrated pulp.

All mechanical pulp is used in the manufacture of paper, paperboard, and fibreboard, but there is a deliberate surplus of chemical pulp for export. (See table later on Trade in Pulp and Paper.)

Production figures of pulp products in New Zealand since 1939–40 are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchNewsprintOther PaperPaperboardFibreboard
 tons
19406,2536,620
19456,33514,2846,862
19507,11114,67613,526
195522,49417,77920,591
19569,00028,15420,22521,340
195752,70030,83824,73221,415
195864,70037,99828,28221,000
195975,30043,86432,48423,030
196076,10049,16836,41724,830
196189,30052,79639,16325,533

The rise of production of pulp and pulp products is clearly shown in the following diagram.

Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. — This company was formed in 1952 to utilise timber from the Kaingaroa State Forest. Practical encouragement and financial backing were given by the New Zealand Government, which is represented on the board of directors. The company's plant is at Kawerau, Bay of Plenty. The pulp and paper mill came into operation late in 1955 and the sawmill early in 1956. The annual rated capacity of the sawmill is 36 million board feet of sawn timber in one shift, while the capacity of the pulp and paper plant is 95,000 tons of newsprint, 60,000 tons of chemical pulp, and 65,000 tons of mechanical pulp. The company has announced a further expansion (the installation of a second paper machine and ancillary plant, to be completed in 1962), which will increase the annual newsprint capacity to 200,000 tons. In 1959 the Bowater Group obtained an interest in the Tasman Pulp and Paper Co., taking over the management and development of the mill and the world sales of all its products.

A subsidiary, the Kaingaroa Logging Co., whose headquarters is at Murupara, was formed to handle the log supply for the Tasman mills. Its directorate represents both Government and Tasman interests.

For details of the history of the Murupara scheme see the 1958 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

New Zealand Forest Products Ltd. — This public company is already utilising over 30,000,000 cubic feet of timber a year from its own 176,000 acres of radiata pine forest. Plant capacity is 38,500 tons of kraft paper, 91,000 tons of kraft pulp, and 80,000,000 board feet of sawn timber per annum. In addition, the company is equipped to convert 10,000,000 board feet of timber into wooden cases and to produce 50,000,000 square feet of veneer, 33,000 tons of fibreboard, and 25,000,000 multi-wall paper bags. Approximately half the annual increment of the company's forest is at present being utilised, and a programme of vigorous expansion is taking place, including the installation of a third paper machine and a second fibreboard mill. The integrated pulp mill, kraft-paper mill, and sawmill is located at Kinleith, near Tokoroa, while the fibreboard, muhiwall paper bags, and wooden cases are manufactured in Auckland.

Whakatane Board Mills Ltd., which is now a subsidiary of New Zealand Forest Products, operates two paperboard machines, with an annual production capacity of 38,000 tons. The company manufactures its own mechanical and semi-chemical pulp, and is self-sufficient for more than 90 per cent of its raw materials.

The company owns its own radiata-pine forest at Matahina and hauls the logs 23 miles to the mill over its private railway line. An associated company, Whakatane Timber Mills Ltd., has its modern sawmill located near the board mill to take the larger logs from the forest.

Caxton Paper Mills Ltd., owns a mill making tissue and various lightweight papers adjacent to the Tasman Pulp and Paper Co's plant at Kawerau. The mill has a production of between eight and nine thousand tons annually. It draws pulp, water, and steam supplies from the Tasman company.

The Mataura mill of New Zealand Paper Mills Ltd. has been in operation for more than 80 years. Its three machines produce a wide range of papers from fine tissues to heavy krafts, as well as paper felt, pressings, and manilas for special trade requirements. The mill is powered by its own hydroelectric and steam-turbo generating plants, and uses New Zealand made sulphate pulp, imported sulphite pulp, and waste paper. Annual production capacity is 8,000 tons of kraft and other papers.

Plywood and Veneer Manufacture — Five factories are engaged in the manufacture of plywood, and the total output for the year ended 31 March 1960, when reduced to a uniform basis of 3/16 in. thickness, was 43,100,000 square feet. Three other plants produce veneer only. Total production of veneer in the industry in 1959–60 was 169,200,000 square feet (1/16 in. basis).

For the most part logs from the indigenous forests form the basis of the plywood and veneer industry, though the peeling of exotic species, particularly radiata pine, shows a good deal of promise and is increasing steadily in importance. Now that the indigenous forests have become depleted, the production of peeler logs for veneer and plywood manufacture is regarded by the Forest Service as having a first claim on the State forests; hence in its own logging activities the Forest Service aims at producing the maximum amount of peeler logs, and has recently also adopted a policy of requiring sawmillers purchasing State indigenous forest to reserve logs suitable for peeling and divert them to the veneer factories.

Species of logs used and quantities of plywood and veneer produced are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchVolume of Logs UsedValue of Logs UsedProduction
RimuMataiKahikateaRadiata PineOtherTotalPlywoodVeneer
 cubic feet (thousand)£million square feet
1956856107167341331,504328,95135.7..
195788596163488891,721380,06237.8..
195898999121477611,747412,55738.8..
1959973951175111031,799468,37640.0149.7
19601,055891685601241,996513,20843.1169.2

Production of Round and Split Produce — Considerable quantities of native timbers have been required in the past to meet the needs for mining, fencing timbers, and firewood, and for a proportion of sleeper, pole, and bridge-timber requirements. Thinnings and small-diameter logs from exotic forests are now making useful contributions towards satisfying those needs, and ensure the operation of preservative-treating plants.

Wood Preservation — Apart from plants treating round produce, for ground-contact use, with creosote and oil-soluble preservatives, the more recent establishment of plants for treatment of sawn timber with water-soluble preservatives has permitted far greater use in buildings of the non-durable grades and species from both indigenous and exotic forests.

On a per-head basis New Zealand is now by far the world's largest producer of preservative-treated timber for building purposes. House construction has traditionally been based on the use of heartwood of the indigenous softwoods, this having excellent durability, strength, and stability. Where sapwood of these timbers was used extensively, insect borers have been troublesome. Peculiar emphasis on the significance of borer attack led to the progressive adoption of preservative treatment of such wood, as its use became more general owing to the depletion of indigenous resources. The further diminution in supply of both heartwood and sapwood indigenous softwoods has in turn stimulated the use of exotic conifers for which preservative treatment against both decay and insect attack is justifiable and technically easy.

Much controversy arose regarding the effectiveness of various preservatives and types of treatment and the extent to which treated timbers should be used in a building. This controversy retarded development in new methods of timber preservation and, in order to resolve the conflicting opinions, the Government in September 1955 issued the Timber Preservation Regulations, under which was set up the Timber Preservation Authority. The main functions of this Authority are to decide what shall be authorised preservative treatments and to establish and administer such inspectorial and advisory service as is necessary to ensure that treatments are in accordance with its authorisations. Eleven organisations, including five Government Departments, are represented on the Authority and the inspection is done on behalf of the Authority by the New Zealand Forest Service. The Authority has adjudicated on and approved of a number of specifications and methods for timber preservation. New methods of wood preservation are continually being investigated and approvals issued of satisfactory formulations and processes.

Collection of statistics on wood preservation was introduced in 1955 and the following table shows the importance of this industry.

YearOpen TankDiffusion Impregnation*Pressure ImpregnationTotal

* Mainly boron.

board feet (thousand)
1954–55536,98461,48468,520
1955–567,30781,96789,274
1956–578,82983,79292,621
1957–58521,63783,522105,163
1958–5947,18796,584143,770
1959–603070,889105,837176,756
1960–611294,895120,007214,914

In addition to the above, 2,157,000 cubic feet of roundwood, such as poles and fencing materials, was treated by the open-tank method, by diffusion, and by pressure impregnation in 1960–61.

Employment Statistics — The following table shows the number of employees and working proprietors in the forest industries at 15 October in the years stated. (Source: Labour and Employment Gazette, Department of Labour.)

At 15 OctoberForestryLoggingSawmillingPulp and Paper IndustryOtherTotal

* Included in Other.

19461,8071,760*1,86815,04920,484
19502,1332,202*2,22218,07424,631
19552,2072,8426,3283,57313,67928,629
19562,4902,8546,2364,13813,52929,247
19572,4462,6805,9344,12913,63328,822
19582,5642,7386,2214,52014,12430,167
19592,8862,7026,1394,80314,36930,899
19602,9452,5636,4315,16014,89731,996

NOTES

  1. “Forestry” includes silviculture, nurseries, etc.

  2. “Logging” includes Telling, cutting, and haulage.

  3. “Pulp and Paper Industry” includes manufacture of pulp and conversion of pulp into paper, paperboard, fibreboard, and paper products (excluding stationery).

  4. “Other” includes plywood and veneer manufacture, timber merchanting, and other wood-using industries.

OVERSEAS TRADE — New Zealand is self-sufficient in timber resources as far as quantity is concerned, but has always found it necessary to import strong, hard, and durable Australian hardwoods for railway sleepers, poles, cross-arms, wharf, bridge, and constructional timbers, etc. In addition there has been a traditional demand for Douglas fir, redwood, and western red cedar from North America for structural uses and exterior joinery. Other imports are normally limited to Japanese oak for the furniture trade and to small quantities of other species for specialty purposes.

While exports of indigenous timbers in recent years have virtually ceased owing to the conservation of these timbers for home consumption, there is a growing trade with Australia in radiata pine. Trade with Japan in pine logs is a recent development. In 1958, 1.5 million cubic feet of logs were exported increasing to 5.0 million cubic feet in 1959 and 4.3 million cubic feet in 1960.

Tables giving details of the external trade in timber now follow. The value of imports is the current domestic value in the country of origin; the value of exports is free on board at the port of shipment.

TIMBER IMPORTS BY CATEGORIES
Calendar YearSawn TimberSleepersLogs and PolesTotal, All Timber
Australian HardwoodsNorth American softwoodsOakOtherTotal

* Douglas fir, redwood and cedar.

board feet (million)
19568.013.11.66.028.712.25.746.5
195710.719.51.67.038.719.55.463.6
195810.014.93.15.032.912.14.949.8
19595.513.31.53.623.95.44.233.5
19609.216.51.54.331.57.65.344.4

NOTE — Figures have been adjusted to include items not given in board feet in published statistics.

IMPORTS OF TIMBER: COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN
Calendar YearAustraliaCanadaUnited States of AmericaJapanOther CountriesTotal
board feet (million)
195625.810.42.81.85.746.5
195735.317.12.51.77.163.6
195826.29.05.93.25.549.8
195914.45.18.31.74.033.5
196021.05.311.32.14.844.5
£ (thousand)
19561,2584561341482372,233
19571,9347291541132493,180
19581,2923772492192092,346
19596642533281131321,490
19609042935211561752,049
TIMBER EXPORTS BY CATEGORIES
Calendar YearIndigenous TimberRadiata PineOther ExoticsTotal ExoticsTotal, All Sawn TimberLogs
SawnCases
 board feet (million)cubic feet (million)
195630.9 3.60.134.634.7
195727.22.10.629.929.9
19580.433.44.91.339.640.11.1
19590.341.34.54.950.851.05.0
19600.440.63.63.047.247.64.3

NOTE — Small quantities of roundwood are included in the exports.

EXPORTS OF TIMBER: DESTINATION
Calendar YearAustraliaPacific IslandsOther CountriesTotals
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantity 1ValueQuantityValue
 bd. ft.
(million)
£(000)bd. ft.
(million)
£(000)bd. ft.
(million)
£(000)bd. ft.
(million)
£(000)
195632.59472.111334.71,059
195728.58211.4740.1130.0896
195835.71,0574.424613.713453.71,438
195946.91,4454.122260.2537111.22,204
196044.11,3503.418352.256199.72,094

NOTE — Logs are included (volume expressed in board feet).

Total production of the pulp and paper industry will almost fully meet New Zealand's requirements, limit imports of these products, and leave a considerable surplus for export of some of the major products such as newsprint and sulphate pulp.

The following tables give New Zealand's external trade in pulp and paper for the latest five years.

EXTERNAL TRADE IN PULP AND PAPER
Calendar YearWood PulpFibreboardPaper and Paperboard
NewsprintPaperboardOther PaperTotal

* In 1,000 square feet.

† Includes all other paper exported, but not manufactures of paper and paperboard; values include items for which no quantities are given. Basis for valuation: free on board at port of shipment.

Imports tons
19563,6377,186*39,8763,86825,32269,066
19576,8355,775*32,7594,36825,93963,066
19588,5461,195*24,1523,35030,36857,870
19598,78855*19,5783,01432,45055,042
196012,056435*31,5693,48127,31962,369
Value £(thousand)
19561951071,8234333,4275,683
1957316871,9134483,6686,029
1958381151,3814294,3706,180
195932611,1143774,3525,843
196051151,7044543,9676,125
Exports tons
195647,3552,010*25,7402,21110328,054
195764,994737*35,9071,8691,18338,959
195868,9631,133*41,7371,0961,60144,434
195976,8261,952*43,6621,9022,33847,901
196070,07494849,4131,8824,05155,346
Value £(thousand)
19562,002381,545138121,695
19572,626132,1701351352,439
19582,725192,632811732,885
19592,921322,7161182453,080
19602,809173,0801233433,546

FOREST TREES AND TIMBERS — A brief description of the principal forest trees with their distribution and the uses and strength of their timber was given on pages 577–585 of the 1957 Yearbook, and in earlier issues. Detailed information is contained in publications of the New Zealand Forest Service, including Forest Trees and Timbers of New Zealand (Entrican, Hinds, and Reid); Exotic Forest Trees in New Zealand (Weston); The National Forest Survey of New Zealand, 1955, Vol. I: The Indigenous Forest Resources of New Zealand (Masters, Holloway, and McKelvey); The Physical and Mechanical Properties of the Principal Indigenous Woods of New Zealand (Entrican, Ward, and Reid); New Zealand Building Timbers (Reid); and the annual reports of the Forest Service and Forest Research Institute.

Chapter 16. Section 16 FISHERIES

Table of Contents

GENERAL — The principal characteristics of New Zealand's fisheries are the great length of the coastline, extensive natural harbours, numerous sheltered bays, and narrow continental shelf. Off its more northerly coasts, which come within the influence of the south equatorial current, a rich variety of subtropical fish is found, as exemplified by such species as the flying fish, the sunfish, the swordfish, and several shark species. On the other hand, its southern coasts, washed by the Antarctic drift, are the natural haunt of the fur-bearing seal, and yield varieties of fish which are characteristic of cold-water conditions.

Of the many kinds of excellent edible fishes the most important are the snapper (Chrysophrys auratus), which is the principal species in the catch (mainly by trawl) in the north-western part of the South Island, the west coast of the North Island, and the east coast of the North Island to just south of East Cape; next in importance is tarakihi (Cheilodactylus macropterus), which is taken mainly by trawlers working off the east coast of the North Island and in smaller quantities off the coasts of the South Island. The groper or hapuku (Polyprion oxygeneios) is caught on lines in the deeper water from North Cape to Stewart Island, but principally in Cook Strait and on the rocky parts of the east coast of the South Island, while the blue cod (Parapercis colias) is the staple line-caught product of the southern line fisheries, particularly about Foveaux Strait, Stewart Island, and at Chatham Islands.

The flounder and sole (Pleuronectidae) occur in the more shallow and sheltered waters.

The most productive grounds are in relatively shallow water, and, except for groper and ling fished for by means of deep long lines, most of the fishing is carried on at depths of less than 80 fathoms. Depths of over 100 fathoms occur at a comparatively short distance from the coast, and up to the present it is not known to what extent these deeper waters may be productive of marketable fishes. The principal methods of fishing are long-lining for groper (hapuku), ling, hake, kingfish, and snapper; hand-lining for blue cod; trawling and Danish seining, by which flounders, snapper, tarakihi, gurnard, John Dory, and a variety of other fish are taken. In bays and estuaries set-nets are used for flounders, snapper, and mullet, and seines are also employed principally for the capture of flat fish and snapper.

The fishing industry — that is, “the taking of fish and shell fish for sale” — came wholly under the control of the Marine Department by virtue of the Fisheries Amendment Act 1945, which provides that any boat used in fishing for purposes of sale must be registered, and that the owner of such a boat must be the holder of a licence authorising the boat to be so used.

The principal regulations dealing with fisheries are set out hereunder. Two comprehensive series are the Fisheries (General) Regulations 1950 and the Fresh Water Fisheries Regulations 1951. Under the latter are issued a number of modification notices which deal with particular aspects -e.g., permissible length of different classes of fish to be taken — while the various acclimatisation societies' rules are issued under the authority of these regulations. The Sea Fisheries (Boats and Licences) Regulations 1951, the Oyster Fishing Regulations 1946, and the Whitebait Fishing Regulations 1951 are directly relevant to the fishing industry. Other regulations include the Seal Fisheries Regulations 1946, the Quinnat Salmon Regulations 1940, the Fish-pass Regulations 1947, and the Toheroa Regulations 1955.

STATISTICS OF FISHERIES — As at 31 December 1960 there were 1,358 licensed fishing boats. Of these boats 549 earned more than £1,000,128 earned more than £500 but less than £1,000, and 681 earned less than £500 during the 12 months ended 31 December 1960.

The estimated total quantity and value of the principal classes of fishery products marketed in the years 1959 and 1960 were as follows.

ProductUnitQuantityValue
1959196019591960
    ££
Wet fishcwt517,917542,5061,543,0211,675,330
Whitebait (West Coast, South Island only)cwt2,7661,011113,59039,631
Oysters (dredged)sacks99,488125,133198,976262,769
Oysters (rock)sacks4,5414,28215,58914,695
Musselssacks36,24737,98226,42228,621
Crayfishcwt78,92573,904665,166708,775
Whale oiltons2,7302,540159,750163,580
Fish liverslb308,130308,37623,95224,050
Total value2,746,4662,917,451

In the most important group, “wet fish” (i.e., all the ordinary fishes caught by all the methods of fishing), the annual totals for the successive years were as follows.

YearTotal QuantityTotal Value
 cwt£
1943–44294,445489,268
1944308,237522,954
1945331,773558,404
1946380,321660,096
1947438,300802,496
1948446,265838,334
1949449,903864,332
1950440,179918,052
1951408,365949,551
1952408,8581,079,099
1953435,4971,200,038
1954414,1221,195,568
1955435,3351,299,494
1956450,8901,356,556
1957498,3021,503,914
1958494,1731,586,300
1959517,9171,543,021
1960542,5061,675,330

Kind or Class of Wet Fish Caught — The following table shows the quantity and value of each kind of “wet fish” caught during 1959 and 1960.

Snapper was again the principal “wet fish” taken in 1960 and exceeded tarakihi by 43,031 cwt. The snapper catch was 9,344 cwt and tarakihi 13,213 cwt above the 1959 catch. Tarakihi and snapper comprised 50.57 per cent of the total “wet fish” landed in 1960.

Kinds or Class of FishQuantityValue
19591960195019601959196019591960
 cwtper cent£per cent
Snapper155,860156,77930.1028.89404,734410,79826.2424.52
Tarakihi121,338117,61723.4321.68303,947302,32919.6818.05
Gurnard36,13646,5966.988.5853,55274,4623.474.44
Trevally31,25839,7176.037.3240,17049,7982.602.97
Blue cod34,97435,0336.766.4587,71299,4505.815.94
Hapuku25,79524,0654.984.43152,965150,1149.918.96
Elephant fish22,59522,9084.364.2291,243111,1125.916.63
Sole17,08121,3793.293.94119,267146,5227.738.75
Flounder17,13319,2483.313.54147,764171,9179.5710.39
Pioke8,74810,1511.711.8721,32828,9741.381.73
Moki5,6746,2911091.1513,16215,3580.850.92
Shark5,9876,0631.161.119,55713,6940.610.82
John Dory5,3355,7601.031.0615,59917,2721.021.03
Ling4,6625,1670.900.9514,93116,5920.960.99
Red cod2,6314,4530.510.825,2689,1240.340.54
Barracouta4,4614,3520.860.805,3935,2170.350.31
Mullet4,7994,1930.930.7714,06612,1370.910.72
Hake2,4242,0600.470.3710,1738,1870.650.49
Whiptail1,5101,6780.290.302,0562,3200.140.14
Kingfish6001,5830.110.291,8706,0160.110.36
Butterfish1,9801,5320.380.2811,0849,2330.710.55
Warehou2,7401,3920.530.256,3013,0890.400.18
Mixed rounds5941,2780.110.231,3002,8610.080.17
Kahawai9331,0080.180.181,2021,1850.070.07
Monkfish8378170.160.151,9431,9360.120.12
Brill5054500.090.083,3853,1550.220.19
Herring4622120.090.031,0574520.060.03
Sardine1281580.020.025507260.030.04
Mackerel551330.010.02611380.01
Garfish851210.020.023804990.020.03
Parore2681200.050.023351600.020.01
Skate216900.050.012091050.01
Trumpeter55640.010.012793270.020.02
Conger eel11151622
Perch19143728
Whiting351012
Maomao1741059
Creamfish79
Bonita11
Totals517,917542,506100.00100.001,543,0211,675,330100.00100.00

Methods of Capture — A table showing the total quantity of “wet fish” caught in 1960 by each of the common methods of fishing is shown below, with the figures for 1959 included for comparison.

Method of FishingQuantityValue
19591960195919601959196019591960
 cwtper cent£per cent
Trawl363,083390,71070.1072.021,000,1881,113,68564.8266.48
Danish31,75530,4776.135.6273,14070,7524.744.22
Long and hand lines89,26986,15917.2415.88311,320318,51620.1819.01
Set and drag nets33,81035,1606.536.48158,373172,37710.2610.29
Totals517,917542,506100.00100.001,543,0211,675,330100.00100.00

The steam trawlers landed a total catch of 23,688 cwt (4.36 per cent), while motor trawlers landed 367,022 cwt (67.66 per cent).

Landings at the Ports — Ports where the total landed catch was in excess of 10,000 cwt are shown in order of importance in the table below. The percentage of the grand total is also included.

PortQuantityValue
19591960195919601959196019591960
 cwtper cent£per cent
Auckland131,546127,29925.3923.28287,253287,86618.6117.18
Wellington44,63848,2578.618.89152,175161,3899.849.63
Timaru43,82144,2468.158.15158,126189,73910.2311.32
Napier28,98836,7225.596.7779,00698,2995.114.24
Gisborne31,21736,2146.026.6768,16176,0724.415.87
Manukau24,90234,4214.806.3453,34468,6293.454.15
Tauranga25,31325,7124.884.7560,36961,3533.913.66
Nelson16,78519,6013.243.6156,42452,5783.653.14
Chatham Islands23,86618,7154.603.4535,98727,5322.321.84
Lyttelton19,41718,4173.743.3968,27775,5614.414.57
Bluff10,57316,5322.043.0542,87968,1832.774.13
Port Chalmers12,43515,8842.402.9360,32884,0813.905.01
Thames14,21814,9172.742.7548,06253,5223.103.19

The total quantity of fish landed at these ports was 456,937 cwt. which is 84 per cent of the grand total.

EXPORTS — The total value offish and shellfish exported during 1960 was £1,453,421.

A table showing the principal classes of fishery products exported during each of the latest three years is set out below.

 UnitQuantityValue
195819591960195819591960
     £££
Oysters, frozencwt2106
Mussels, etc.cwt9697821,1801,160991
Fish, frozencwt47,15758,23568,379428,600493,309549,563
Crayfish, frozen, including craytailscwt23,30121,20025,210811,195739,547883,570
Fish, smoked, dried, etc.cwt2263611772,4374,0911,857
Fish and shellfish, cannedlb58,61130,15635,95415,28214,40517,334
Total values1,258,6941,252,5121,453,421

Fish-liver Oil — The quantity of fish livers processed during 1960 was 308,376 lb, 246 lb more than in 1959. The total oil produced was 16,775 gallons, an increase of 13 gallons on the 1959 production.

The 1960 exports of oil were 11,207 gallons, compared with 6,452 gallons in 1959.

The total weight of livers processed and the quantity of oil produced in each of the latest five years were as follows.

YearWeight of Livers TreatedQuantity of Oil Produced
lbgallons
1956370,92020,409
1957258,07314,485
1958348,63818,303
1959308,13016,762
1960308,37616,775

OYSTER BEDS — The principal oyster beds around the coast of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South and Stewart Islands, and the rock-oyster beds on the east and west coasts of the Auckland peninsula.

In South Island waters a close season is observed from 1 October to 14 February, and in North Island waters from 1 November to 30 April in each year. The taking of oysters is governed by the Oyster-fishing Regulations 1946, and vessels operating commercially are subject to the Sea-fisheries (Boats and Licences) Regulations 1951. During the 1960 season 125,133 sacks of oysters were dredged from Foveaux Strait, compared with 99,488 in 1959.

The rock-oyster beds of Auckland were worked for many years under a variety of systems, but, owing to stripping of the beds, close seasons had frequently to be proclaimed. From 1908 the picking and wholesale marketing of rock oysters from the North Island beds was undertaken by the State, private picking being prohibited. In 1958 a change was made in the marketing procedure, and sales to the public through the oyster depot were discontinued. The total supply of oysters is now allocated direct to the trade in an endeavour to achieve wider distribution through the retail fish shops.

Oyster-cultivation work is being systematically carried on by the Marine Department in the Hauraki Gulf, in the Bay of Islands, and in the Kaipara district.

Rock oysters picked by the State in 1960 totalled 4,282 sacks, compared with 4,541 sacks in 1959.

CRAYFISH — Marine crayfish occur off many parts of the New Zealand coast. Part of the catch of crayfish is sold in local markets for domestic consumption, part is exported as frozen crayfish tails and whole crays, while a small quantity is canned.

With the development of the export of frozen crayfish tails to the United States of America and the high price received for this product, the increase in the catch of crayfish was phenomenal, until 1956, but some grounds are showing a reduced return for the gear worked. The catch of crayfish over the latest five years is as follows.

YearQuantityValue
cwt£
1956128,609964,134
195799,178800,638
195887,351728,637
195978,925665,166
196073,904708,775

WHALING — The 1960 total catch was 361 whales, all humpbacks. Both the Cook Strait and Hauraki Gulf stations were in operation. In the Cook Strait area the season started on 14 May and closed on 26 July. The Hauraki Gulf season was from 25 May to 3 August.

SEALS — The taking of seals in New Zealand waters has been on a restricted scale during the last 50 years, these animals being placed on the protected list in 1894. No sealing was then allowed until 1913, when there was an open season, but with certain restrictions. From 1916 a close season was observed until 1922, when the taking of seals was again permitted, but only till 1924, since when a close season was observed until 1946.

A short restricted open season was permitted during 1946 by the Seal Fisheries Regulations 1946, but a close season is again being observed.

BIG-GAME FISHING — Swordfish (striped and black marlin, and occasionally broadbill), mako shark, and other big-game fish occur principally off the east coast of the Auckland Provincial District, and attract both New Zealand and visiting big-game fishermen. The principal centres for this sport are Whangaroa, Russell (Bay of Islands), Whitianga (Mercury Bay), and Tauranga, where specially designed and equipped launches in charge of experienced men may be hired. The season lasts from December to May, the best months usually being February and March. The world's record black marlin swordfish (976 lb) was caught off the Bay of Islands in February 1926.

To preserve this very important fishery the Fisheries (General) Regulations 1947, superseded by the regulations of similar title issued in 1950, were gazetted prohibiting the taking of these fish by other than rod and line, and stipulating that the line was not to be heavier than No. 39 linen thread line. In addition, a limit bag of not more than four fish per boat per day has been imposed.

In the 1960 season (from November 1959 to June 1960), big-game fish caught included 27 black marlin, 305 striped marlin, 14 blue marlin, 216 mako shark, and 151 other species. Figures for the 1959 season recorded 12 black marlin, 375 striped marlin, 1 blue marlin, 206 mako shark, and 49 other species.

WHITEBAIT — A fishery that is peculiar to New Zealand with regard both to the product and to the methods of operation, and carried on from July to November in the tidal reaches of many rivers, is the whitebait fishery. The most productive fishing grounds are near the mouths of the rivers of the West Coast of the South Island and in the lower reaches of the Waikato River. Normally the whitebait fishery gives employment to over 300 regular fishermen, and a greater number of part-time fishers, and, over a period of years, produced an average of approximately 3,000 cwt of whitebait. As a result of reasonably good seasons over a period of years, and with improved transport from the more remote rivers, in which aeroplanes have played an important part, a substantial whitebait industry has been developed, particularly on the West Coast of the South Island.

FRESH-WATER FISHERIES — Descriptions of native and acclimatised fishes have been given in the 1957 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

With the exception of the Rotorua Acclimatisation District in the thermal lakes region and the Southern Lakes District in the South Island, which are under the control of the Department of Internal Affairs, the local administration and management of fresh-water fisheries are in the hands of acclimatisation societies.

The Freshwater Fisheries Regulations 1951 contain provisions of general application with regard to limit bag, size limit, baits and lures, duration of season, etc., for Acclimatisation Districts. Such general regulations apply unless modification notices for particular districts are issued varying these limits.

A fishing licence, for which the fee for the season (opens 1 October and continues for seven months) is £2, enables the holder to fish for acclimatised fish in any part of New Zealand except the Rotorua Acclimatisation District (which includes the Taupo Trout Fishing District) and the Southern Lakes Acclimatisation District. For fishing in the Rotorua area and the Southern Lakes District the local licence fees are £2 10s. and £1 10s. respectively for all male adults, but in the Taupo area of the Rotorua Acclimatisation District, which is the most popular of all New Zealand angling resorts, the licence fees for each season are £3 10s. for male adults and £2 for females and males under 17 years, weekly licences are 15s. and 7s. 6d. respectively, and daily licences 5s. in all cases. For all acclimatisation districts there is a reduced scale of licence fees for female and juvenile anglers. Monthly, weekly, and daily licences are also available, while half-season, weekend, and single-river licences are optional in some districts. The open season for Lakes Taupo and Rotorua extends from 1 July to 30 June (a 12-month season).

The Fisheries Amendment Act 1953 provides for the establishment of fisheries experimental waters by Order in Council. In such cases the fresh-water regulations applicable may be declared not to apply or to apply, subject to modifications. Under this authority, Lake Opouri was declared a fisheries experimental water in 1957.

The same amendment also enables the Governor-General under certain conditions to dispense with a close season for trout and salmon in any one or more years or to fix a close season of less than five months' duration for all or part of the waters of the district concerned. Special regulations providing for winter fishing for trout at Lake Tutira, Hawke's Bay; and for perch at Lake Ratapiko, Taranaki; and Lakes Pauri, Kowhata, and Wiritoa, Wanganui, were issued in 1960.

Chapter 17. Section 17 MINERALS AND MINERAL PRODUCTION

Table of Contents

MINERAL PRODUCTION — New Zealand's mineral resources are limited, particularly as regards metallic ores.

For many years following the first discovery of gold at Coromandel in 1852, and later in the South Island, gold mining was of great importance to New Zealand's economy. From an output of 10,437 oz in 1857, gold production reached a peak of 735,376 oz, then valued at £2,844,157, in 1866. Since then a steady decline has resulted in gold production amounting to only 33,326 oz in 1960.

Coal has for many years been New Zealand's most important mineral, the value of production being £8,470,000 in 1960.

With New Zealand's increasing agricultural and industrial needs, quarrying has grown in importance over the past 20 years, production in 1960 being valued at over £9 million. By far the largest contributor to non-metallic production is sand, rock, gravel, and aggregate for building purposes and road making, while limestone-quarrying is also an important industry.

The following table shows the production of metals and minerals during 1959 and 1960 from mines and quarries.

Mineral19591960
QuantityValueQuantityValue
 Fuels£ £
Coal2,809,594 tons7,910,0003,012,043 tons8,470,153
Petroleum (crude)189,000 gal    7,800191,800 gal    7,990
Natural gas5,457,300 cu. ft.1,4985,311,500 cu. ft1,395
 Metals   
Gold36,758 oz    460,30833,326 oz    418,480
Silver4,873 oz    1,5391,353 oz    392
Iron ore1,505 tons7,4491,999 tons8,772
Manganese ore101 tons783120 tons930
Tungsten ore9 tons4,4758 tons3,800
 Non-metallics   
 tons tons 
Asbestos57227,48028414,585
Bentonite2,14929,2422,16529,081
Clay for bricks, tiles, etc.279,988141,806332,742198,772
Clay for pottery, fillers, etc.6,68423,4886,043 6,24316,783
Diatomite7,27872,7776,24370,750
Dimension stone for building9,97246,21628,16277,828
Dolomite3,16518,9903,39021,188
Limestone for agriculture1,011,8791,046,916885,949839,205
Limestone for industry53,06346,03345,55637,659
Limestone, marl, silica sand, etc., for cement1,111,872337,4921,090,983354,334
Magnesite7955,247
Perlite (manufactured value)3789,60034810,336
Pumice28,39513,25043,93216,350
Rock for harbour work1,242,903534,4691,480,091590,284
Salt20,300275,30017,020256,505
Sand, rock, gravel, etc., for building aggregate2,831,7622,090,6953,367,9422,404,534
Sand, rock, gravel, etc., for roads and ballast10,618,6645,050,51212,663,0845,633,526
Sand for industry95,29955,57193,07850,527
Serpentine107,063146,759141,979239,714
Silica sand46,63796,26762,536115,944
 18,456,71519,895,064

COAL — Coal in New Zealand has for many years been mined in certain well defined areas, outside which no coal is known to exist in any significant quantities. The major coalfields, with the class of coal found in each, are —

Bituminous Coal (Coking): Greymouth, Westport (Buller Coalfield), Reefton (Garvey Creek).

Sub-bituminous Coal (Non-coking): Waikato (including North Taranaki), Otago (Kaitangata), Southland (Ohai), Reefton.

Lignite (Non-coking Low Grade): Southland (Mataura).

Minor coalfields from which coal is being mined, but which cannot be expected to provide an important contribution to coal resources, are —

Sub-bituminous Coal: Nelson (Puponga, Westhaven), Murchison.

Lignite: Canterbury (numerous small deposits), Otago, Charleston (Westport).

Adapted from A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand.

Coal Utilisation and Research — Coal utilisation and research is guided by three committees. They are:

Coal Resources Committee — Two officers of the Mines Department with the Director and such other officers of Geological Survey as may be deemed appropriate.

Coal Mining Research Committee - The Assistant Under-Secretary of Mines, Assistant Secretary of Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Chief Inspector of Coal Mines, and a research officer of the School of Mines, University of Otago. This committee is under the aegis of the Mines Department.

Coal Utilisation Committee — Deputy Secretary of Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (Chairman), Under-Secretary of Mines, Directors of Dominion Laboratory and Auckland Industrial Development Laboratory, Dean of the Canterbury School of Engineering, a representative of the Electricity Department, and representatives of coal wholesalers and retailers, and of the gas industry.

A technical subcommittee comprises officers of the Dominion Laboratory, Auckland Industrial Development Laboratory, Dairy Research Institute, and Mines Department. This committee and subcommittee are under the aegis of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

It is expected that the reorganised committees will be better equipped to deal with the many problems facing the coal industry and to ensure as far as practicable that the fullest and most efficient use is made of our native fuel and power resources.

Inter-Departmental Committee on Fuel-This committee, which was set up in 1954, continues to do valuable work in ensuring the use of local fuels in Government and other public buildings and institutions where it is reasonable and practicable to do so.

Coal Advisory Services Association (Inc.) — The coal-mine owners and the coal merchants have established and support financially the Coal Advisory Services Association (Inc.). Its main objects are to:

  1. Promote the use of coal and to provide a consumer service for coal users.

  2. Advance the study and understanding of coal utilisation techniques.

  3. Disseminate and publicise information on coal and its use.

Fuel Technology Service — The Mines Department has established a fuel technology service to advise industrial and domestic consumers in the efficient use of coal.

Legislation — The law relating to coal mining is contained in the Mining Act 1926, the Coal Mines Act 1925, and the Coal Act 1948, and their amendments. The Quarries Amendment Act 1951 removed opencast coal workings from the provisions of the Coal Mines Act and brought them within the scope of the Quarries Act 1944.

Survey of Coal Resources — In recent years the investigation of coal resources has been carried on in three phases: (i) mainly geological and chemical activities; (ii) detailed topographical surveys and shallow prospecting by means of cuts, pits, and hand drilling; (iii) investigations by deep-core drilling.

A fresh estimate of the coal resources of New Zealand was prepared in 1959 based on information obtained by the Mines Department and the Geological Survey. The classification accepted -"measured," “indicated,” and “inferred” — is that used by the United States Bureau of Mines and also accepted in the Commonwealth Mineral Resources Survey issued by the British Commonwealth of Nations Scientific Liaison Offices, London. These terms are simply defined as follows.

  1. “Measured coal” is coal for which tonnage is computed from dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, workings, and drill holes and for which the grade is computed from the results of detailed sampling. The sites for inspection, sampling, and measurements are so closely spaced and the geologic character is defined so well that the size, shape, and content are well established. The computed tonnage and grade are judged to be accurate within limits, and no such limit is judged to differ from the computed tonnage or grade by more than 20 per cent.

  2. “Indicated coal” is coal for which tonnage and grade are computed partly from specific measurements, samples, or production data and partly from projection for a reasonable distance on geologic evidence. The sites available for inspection, measurement, and sampling are too widely or otherwise inappropriately spaced to outline the coal completely or to establish its grade throughout.

  3. “Inferred coal” is coal for which quantitative estimates are based largely on broad knowledge of the geological character of the deposit and for which there are few, if any, samples of measurements. The estimates are based on an assumed continuity or repetition for which there is geologic evidence; this evidence may include comparison with deposits of similar type. Bodies that are completely concealed may be included if there is specific geologic evidence of their presence.

These clearly and specifically defined terms have wide international acceptance. The table below sets out the estimated coal resources of New Zealand.

LocalityMeasuredIndicatedInferred
 tons
Bituminous
Buller29,600,00018,800,00015,000,000
Murchison110,000660,0001,300,000
Garvey Creek175,0003,000,0005,000,000
Greymouth11,000,00015,000,00030,000,000
 40,885,00037,460,00051,300,000
 Sub-bituminous
Northland100,000500,0003,000,000
Maramarua19,000,00036,000,00024,000,000
Huntly25,800,00099,170,00072,000,000
Kawhia260,000470,0006,000,000
Mangapehi1,800,000600,0003,300,000
Tatu (including Ohura)3,400,0001,100,00012,000,000
Waitewhena400,000900,00011,000,000
Mokau60,000,000
Nelson60,000130,0001,000,000
Buller Gorge100,0002,000,0008,000,000
Reefton1,670,0003,940,0008,000,000
Fletcher Creek3,000,000
Punakaiki2,000,000
Kaitangata1,920,000500,000500,000
Ohai7,720,0008,400,00090,000,000
Orepuki1,000,000
 62,230,000153,710,000304,800,000
 Lignite
Charleston6,000,0002,000,0008,000,000
Canterbury250,00020,000,000
North Otago250,0002,000,000
Central Otago250,00015,000,000
Green Island250,0003,000,000
Kaitangata3,300,00020,900,00075,000,000
Pomahaka60,000,000
Mataura Valley5,400,00020,200,000216,000,000
 15,700,00043,100,000399,000,000
 Summary: Measured118,815,000 tons 
 Indicated234,270,000 tons 
 Inferred  755,100,000 tons 
 Grand total1,108,185,000 tons 

Since 1954 many estimates have been revised in the light of information gained from drilling, prospecting, and surveying. While 1959 aggregate figures do not differ materially from those adopted in 1954, there has been some alteration in classification as the result of closer examination in the several areas concerned. This, of course, must be a continuing process.

Summary of Operations — The following table summarises coal-mining operations.

YearOutput (tons)Persons Ordinarily EmployedLives Lost by Accidents in or about Collieries
SurfaceUndergroundTotalsPer Million Tons ProducedPer Thousand Persons EmployedLives Lost
Prior to 1956135,742,679..........602
19562,627,7161,5143,0344,5481.520.884
19572,612,4631,6413,0164,6570.760.432
19582,720,0341,6623,0844,7464.402.5212
19592,809,5941,6172,9224,5391.420.904
19603,012,0431,5372,7644,3010.660.472
Totals149,524,529626

Underground Mines — The following table gives particulars of the operations of underground mining during the last five years.

Calendar YearOutput (tons)Men Employed UndergroundTons per Man UndergroundMen Employed on SurfaceTons per Man on Pay Roll
19561,830,7263,0346031,194433
19571,875,0413,0166211,236440
19581,930,3013,0846261,168454
19591,921,3762,9226581,102477
19601,892,0302,7646851,070493

Of late years the output per hewer shift has risen, and there has been an appreciable overall increase in output per man on pay roll.

There were 107 underground mines in operation in 1960, and of these 23 operated by the State produced 1,307,648 tons of coal. Production from individual State mines is set out in the Mines Statement, parliamentary paper C. 2.

Opencast Mines — Production of coal from opencast mines in 1960 amounted to 1,120,013 tons, which was 231,795 tons more than the production in 1959. The proportion of the total production of coal obtained from opencast mines amounted to 37.2 per cent.

There were 57 opencast mines in operation in 1960, and of these 14 operated by the State produced 334,655 tons. All of these State mines have come into production since the beginning of 1944. The progress of opencast mining during the last five years is illustrated by the following table.

YearOutput (tons)Men EmployedTons per Man Employed
1956796,9903202,490
1957737,4224051,820
1958789,7334941,599
1959888,2185151,725
19601,120,0134672,398

Derived Products — Low-temperature carbonisation works, using the Lurgi process, established at Rotowaro, 70 miles south of Auckland, in 1931, produced during 1960, 15,082 tons of carbonettes, 245,310 gallons of tar and oil, and 2,086 tons of char from 28,616 tons of slack coal, which was part of the output of a group of local mines.

The Sockburn plant, near Christchurch, produced 22,942 gallons of tar and 5,468 tons of coke during 1960.

Coal Consumption — The approximate distribution of coal consumption during each of the five years 1956–60 is shown in the following table. The total quantity is based on actual production in each year plus imports and minus exports (including bunker coal for overseas vessels). Where the information is available, adjustments have been made for stocks on hand at the beginning and end of the year.

 19561957195819591960

* Includes hospitals, hotels, etc.

tons
Railways311,000269,000238,000227,000219,000
Coastal shipping32,00028,00025,00014,00012,000
Gasworks261,000256,000271,000276,000277,000
Factories*1,493,0001,519,0001,633,0001,767,0001,957,000
Households540,000550,000550,000540,000540,000
Total consumption2,637,0002,622,0002,717,0002,824,0003,005,000

Mercer Power Station — Of the greatest importance to the coal industry has been the building of the coal-fired steam-generating station at Mercer. This station, of 180,000 kW capacity, if working at full capacity, can burn up to 800,000 tons of coal per annum. One-third of the coal used is from the Huntly coalfield plus some additional coal from mines elsewhere.

The remaining two-thirds is being provided from the Maramarua coalfield about 7 miles distant from the station. Initially it is expected that most of the Maramarua quota will, of necessity, be supplied from opencast development, but it may be necessary within 10 years to develop underground mines to conserve opencast coal in this district.

These proportions will ensure continuity of production and employment at Huntly, and at the same time ensure that the better-quality Huntly coals are not used up at a greatly accelerated rate for the one power undertaking.

State Coal Mines — The purchase of coal mines by the State in 1940, together with subsequent purchases, left only three large private mines in production. A proposal to purchase all coal in the ground, including unworked coal, by the Coal Act 1948, was reversed by a change of Government, when the Act was repealed.

During 1960 there were 36 State coal mines in operation and the average number of persons employed was 3,329.

Financial — Sales of coal, etc., through the medium of the depots totalled 1,437,819 tons (value £6,417,618) for the year ended 31 December 1959. This compares with 1,403,839 tons (value £6,127,438) for the year ended 31 December 1959.

The operating loss for the year was £764,261, and with interest of £414,178 on loan capital the total loss was £1,178,439.

As interest could not be paid it was remitted under section 15 of the New Zealand Loans Act 1953.

Reserves were increased by £56,031 and now stand at £784,190. Accumulated losses however are now £1,988,299, so that in effect the reserves have been used up.

Capital expenditure for the year was £377,851. Depreciation was £469,380 and fixed assets were reduced by £91,529 to £5,823,194.

Accidents - The number of compensatable accidents at State coal mines for the year ended 31 December 1960 was 1,948, compared with 1,910 the previous year.

Coal Mining Districts' Welfare and Research Fund — This fund, into which is paid a levy at the rate of 9d. per ton on coal other than lignite and 7 1/2 d. per ton on lignite, is used for coal-miners' relief, provision of amenities, establishment and maintenance of rescue stations, research, and generally for the benefit of the industry.

Information concerning monetary benefits for miners incapacitated by miner's phthisis or any other occupational disease or heart disease contracted while working as a miner in New Zealand appears in Section 6A-Social Security.

IRON ORES — The two main sources of iron available in New Zealand are the iron-ore deposits of the Onekaka region, Golden Bay, in the Nelson Provincial District, and the ironsands which are largely concentrated on the beaches of Taranaki, though not limited to that district.

As a result of a systematic prospecting programme of tunnelling and boring carried out by the State during the years 1938 to 1942, the ore reserves of the Onekaka deposits are estimated at 9,500,000 tons, assaying 40 per cent iron.

Although the whole of New Zealand's iron-bearing sands have not been surveyed, there is no doubt that the total quantity is enormous. As a result of prospecting operations by the State the titaniferous ironsands in the vicinity of Patea have been estimated as amounting to 45,500,000 tons, assaying 21 per cent, soluble iron, which, by magnetic separation, would yield 14,500,000 tons of concentrates assaying 53 per cent soluble iron. Preliminary investigations at Wanganui and at Waitara have shown great quantities of sand but of lower iron content, while deposits at Mokau, Awakino, and Manukau still await investigation.

Many attempts have been made to smelt Taranaki ironsand, but commercial success has not so far attended any of these efforts. Difficulty has been experienced owing to the fineness of the sand and also to the presence of titanic acid. In 1949 large-scale tests on the smelting of ironsands by means of an electric furnace and the use of char obtained from sub-bituminous coal were carried out at Onekaka under the supervision of overseas experts. The tests showed that pig iron suitable for conversion to steel could be obtained from Taranaki ironsands by these means. There has recently been developed a laboratory process of smelting that promises to lead to the establishment of an economic method of smelting, and the Government is proceeding with the investigational work envisaged with the passing of the Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959.

There has been a small annual production of iron ore from the Onekaka deposits and certain small deposits in the North Auckland district, for use in gas purification, the preparation of stock licks, and in the brickmaking industry.

Production in 1960 was 1,999 tons.

URANIUM AND THORIUM — While the existence in minute amount of uranium- and thorium-bearing minerals in beach sands and alluvial deposits had been known for some years, it was not until 1955 that their occurrence in solid formation was discovered. The first discovery was made in a lode traversing the Hawk Crag Breccia at Batty Creek in the Buller Gorge. Following on this discovery prospecting of an area of Hawk Crag Breccia on the north side of the Buller River has revealed the presence of bedded mineralised horizons in the breccia containing uranium-bearing minerals and these horizons have been traced over considerable distances, the horizons proved to underlie extensive areas and the deposits to be of potential value. These deposits occur in steep, broken country which is heavily covered with bush, the area is subject to heavy rainfall and access is difficult, all of which was combined to make investigation work difficult until an access road was completed. Prospecting work, however, has been disappointing and ore has not been found rich enough to be worked economically at present price levels. Similar mineralised horizons have been found to exist in Hawk Crag Breccia situated in the headwaters of Bullock Creek and of the Porarari River in the Punakaiki area. Other areas containing Hawk Crag Breccia, particularly the area south of the Buller River, are known to contain similar mineralisation. Float boulders containing thorium minerals were located near the Haast River, South Westland, in 1955, but have not been traced to their source.

The Atomic Energy Amendment Act 1957 amended the Atomic Energy Act 1945 by adding several new provisions designed to encourage the search for and production of uranium or other substances which may be used for the production of atomic energy. Rewards may be granted by the Minister of Mines for the discovery of uranium, thorium, plutonium, neptunium, or other prescribed substances. Prospectors must obtain a miner's right or a mineral prospecting warrant. No mining for any of the minerals is permissible except under a mineral licence.

GOLD — The gold-mining industry, which in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand, declined in importance with the exhaustion of the more accessible alluvial-gold deposits and of ore from the zones of enrichment. Annual production is now almost confined to three dredges, one of which, Arahura, closed down September 1961.

The following table gives particulars of the estimated gold content of gold/silver/bullion production for the last three years.

Type of MiningQuantityValue
195819591960195819591960
 ozozoz£££
Quartz mining2589533423,10911,3884,287
Alluvial mining82570048610,0478,3755,691
Dredge mining23,89835,10532,498299,912440,545408,502
Totals24,98136,75833,326313,068460,308418,480

SILVER — Nearly the whole of the locally produced silver exported from New Zealand was obtained from the refinement of bullion from the quartz mines of the Hauraki goldfields, where gold and silver were found alloyed. A small quantity of silver is won in the process of gold dredging.

TUNGSTEN — The principal ore of tungsten in New Zealand is scheelite, though a little wolfram is found in Otago and Stewart Island, but not in economic quantities.

The scheelite-bearing quartz-veins are generally small and broken, while the scheelite is most erratically distributed in the veins, with the greatest concentration of scheelite situated close to the surface or at shallow depth. Access and transport present difficulties, and production costs are relatively high. Owing to the price of tungsten ores continuing at a low level, scheelite mining is now on a much reduced scale.

In 1960, 8 1/2 tons of scheelite were produced as compared with 9 tons in 1959. Production was confined to the Glenorchy field in Otago.

COPPER — Ores of copper are found in New Zealand in no fewer than 32 known localities, but during the last 70 years attempts at their successful exploitation have been unprofitable.

It is estimated that the total production of copper to the end of 1952 amounted to 6,404 tons, valued at £124,302. There has been no production of copper ore in New Zealand since 1952.

MANGANESE — Manganese ores are found in many localities, chiefly in the older sedimentary rocks. Of recent years there has been some production from deposits at Bombay, Moumoukai, and Otau, all in the Auckland district. Deposits are, however, generally small and shallow and capable of producing only limited tonnages of ore. Production from Otau in 1960 totalled 120 tons, compared with 101 tons in 1959.

MERCURY — Cinnabar, the principal ore of mercury, is widely distributed in New Zealand, but only in a few localities is it found in quantities of economic importance. The most promising deposits of mercury ore in New Zealand are those of the Puhipuhi district, where for many years efforts were made to place the production of the metal on a commercial basis. During the war these efforts were revived and production recommenced, the ore being obtained by opencast mining and the mercury recovered in a modern treatment plant with a capacity of 50 tons of ore per day. Owing to the drastic slump in the price and the need for additional earth-moving equipment, operations were discontinued in 1945.

ANTIMONY — Small quantities of antimony ore have been won from deposits in the South Island, but there has been no production since 1953.

TIN — Cassiterite in the form of “stream tin” occurs in small deposits near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island, and these have been worked to some extent.

PLATINUM — Platinum occurs in several places, associated generally with gold in gravel, but quantities produced have been insignificant, and production has now ceased.

PETROLEUM — Indications of the presence of petroleum are found on the surface in North Auckland, at Moturoa near New Plymouth and elsewhere in Taranaki, over wide areas on the eastern coast of the North Island, and in the South Island at Kotuku, near Murchison, and in the Cheviot district. After the passing of the Petroleum Act 1937 considerable interest was displayed by some of the major oil organisations, and practically all the potential oil-bearing lands in New Zealand were held under petroleum-prospecting licences.

Under the Petroleum Act 1937 there are 174 petroleum prospecting and mining licences, covering an area of 27,007 square miles, current in New Zealand. These licences are distributed as follows:

DistrictNo. of LicencesArea Square Miles
Auckland141,219
Taranaki-Wellington457,616
Gisborne — Hawke's Bay — Wellington7513,176
Marlborough5560
Nelson-Westland10867
Canterbury193,145
Otago3197
Southland3227
Totals17427,007

Although there are a number of licence holders, only two large concerns are operating-in Taranaki and in the Gisborne — Hawke's Bay area. These concerns, operating in areas prospected between 1937 and 1944, have carried out extensive geological and geophysical programmes.

As a result of these investigations, drilling was decided upon. One well was drilled to a depth of 13,040 ft at Kapuni in Taranaki, and wet gas was encountered in the structure explored by the well. The full significance of the gas has not yet been assessed, and it is proposed to continue with further geophysical work and the drilling of another well. Drilling is also taking place at Mangahewa, a few miles south of Waitara.

During 1960 drilling took place at Mangaone, north of Wairoa, but the well was abandoned at 5,085 ft. Drilling has been transferred to Ruakituri in the same district.

Although other licensees have not carried out the extensive geological and geophysical programmes conducted in Taranaki and on the East Coast, a considerable amount of prospecting work has been done and some wells drilled.

For many years small quantities of petroleum have been produced at New Plymouth. The company operating in this area is currently producing approximately 200,000 gallons of crude oil from four wells at Moturoa. In addition, about 600,000 cubic feet of natural gas, chiefly methane, is supplied to the New Plymouth Gas Co. for domestic and industrial use.

Production for 1960 was 191,800 gallons of crude oil, from which was obtained:

 Gallons
Motor spirit44,835
Distillate12,835
Power kerosene38,460
Diesel oil35,880
Residual oil50,175
Total182,185

By the Petroleum Amendment Act 1955, the Minister is required to specify at the time of the grant of the prospecting licence, the conditions on which a mining licence will be granted in exchange for a prospecting licence, and the conditions to which both will be subject; at the time of exchange the licensee has the right to specify the land desired to be in the mining licence. After consultation with the licensee, the Minister is empowered to direct the latter to refine the oil products in New Zealand, provided it can be done economically, and that the products are required in New Zealand.

The total production of crude petroleum to 31 December 1960 is estimated at 6,447,000 gallons.

BENTONITE — The most promising deposits of this mineral occur at Porangahau, in the Hawke's Bay district, and at Mangatu, near Gisborne. Bentonite is mainly used in the preparation of foundry moulding-sands and drilling muds, but the mineral has many other uses. The quantity of bentonite produced in 1960 was 2,165 tons of a value of £29,081.

PERLITE — During 1960, 348 tons of perlite were obtained from deposits at Atiamuri and processed at Wellington. The estimated value was £10,336.

ASBESTOS — Chrysotile asbestos occurs at several points in the massive serpentines of Nelson and Otago, but the only deposits of importance so far located are those of Upper Takaka in the Nelson district. In 1955 production of asbestos was resumed after a temporary cessation. The quantity of asbestos produced in 1960 was 284 tons valued at £14,585.

KAURI GUM — Production of kauri gum has been at a comparatively low level in recent years. During 1959, 81 tons of kauri gum, valued at £13,085, were exported, and in 1960, 143 tons valued at £17,854.

PHOSPHATE — The occurrence of phosphate has been reported from many localities in New Zealand, but so far the deposits of Clarendon and Milburn have proved to be the only ones of economic importance but the more favourable sections of the deposits have been exhausted.

SERPENTINE — Serpentine, which in the South Island forms vast rock masses in Nelson and Otago, and which occurs in smaller amounts in the North Island, is now of value to the fertiliser industry in the preparation of serpentine superphosphate. Production at first was mainly confined to the smaller occurrences in North Auckland owing to ease of access and transport, but production is now made from much larger deposits at Piopio, near Te Kuiti, in the North Island, and near Mossburn, in the South Island. To the end of 1960, 1,379,866 tons of serpentine had been mined, including 141,979 tons in 1960.

GREENSTONE — The mineral nephrite, the “pounamu” of the Maori, a deep-green semi-transparent mineral with dark opaque patches, more popularly known as one of the varieties of “greenstone”, occurs as rounded segregations in the talc or talc-serpentine rocks of the Griffin Range of north Westland. The principal supply was obtained from the gravels of the Arahura and Taramakau Rivers, and from gold-sluicing claims of the Kumara district. Some of this has been cut and polished in New Zealand for personal and other small ornaments; the remainder has been exported. With the decline in sluicing operations this mineral has been in short supply.

SALT-At Lake Grassmere, in Marlborough, salt is being produced by the solar evaporation of sea water. The low rainfall, long hours of sunlight, and the wind conditions make this locality the most suitable one in New Zealand for this purpose. Salt harvested in 1952 totalled 700 tons valued at £8,750. Owing to unfavourable weather conditions there was no production in 1953, but in 1954, 1,500 tons valued at £18,750 were produced. In 1955 the harvest was 3,000 tons valued at £45,900, in 1956 it was 10,400 tons valued at £135,200, in 1957 it was 11,200 tons valued at £151,200, in 1958 it was 7,650 tons valued at £107,100, in 1959 it was 20,300 tons valued at £275,300, and in 1960 it was 17,020 tons valued at £256,500.

BUILDING AND ORNAMENTAL STONES — New Zealand possesses a great variety of handsome and durable building stones scattered throughout both Islands. Their distribution is described in the 1958 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

STATE ADD TO MINING — State aid to mining in New Zealand is given in several forms—viz, (1) geological survey and bulletins; (2) financial aid to prospecting; (3) schools of mines; (4) subsidised roads to mining fields; (5) research by the Dominion Laboratory.

Geological Survey — imperative to long-term assessment of New Zealand's mineral resources is an understanding of the country's geology. In New Zealand almost all Government geological work is carried out by the New Zealand Geological Survey, a scientific institution founded in 1865, which since 1926 has been a branch of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Mines, Works, and other Government Departments consult the Geological Survey on geological problems, and do not themselves maintain a geological staff.

The Survey's principal work is to prepare geological maps of New Zealand and to determine the country's geological structure and geological history. Along with this, the Survey studies and helps assess the country's mineral deposits and underground water resources, and gives advice on geological problems encountered in State and private civil engineering projects such as the construction of hydro-electric dams, bridges, tunnels, roads, and building foundations.

The Geological Survey has in the past done most of its regional geological mapping on a scale of one mile to the inch, about one-third of the country so far being covered by maps on this scale. Most of these maps have been issued in groups with a text describing the geology and mineral resources of the regions concerned. Paleontological bulletins are also issued. To speed the geological mapping of the country, the Survey in 1956 embarked on a programme to map the whole country on a less detailed scale by 1964. These new maps (scale of 1:250,000) are known informally as the “Four Mile” series. They each carry about 3,000 words of descriptive text in their margins; there will be 28 of them altogether. Two were published in 1959, three in 1960, and three in 1961. One-mile maps and bulletins will continue to be issued at intervals for areas of special economic or scientific importance. Geological mapping has also been carried out in New Zealand's island territories and in the Ross Dependency.

Mineral Resources Surveys — As well as its systematic geological exploration of the country, the Geological Survey makes detailed study of areas with mineral deposits of present or potential economic value. Field studies are made by the geologists, and laboratory examination of ores by the petrology specialists. Chemical analysis is usually done by the Dominion Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Petrology Section makes free identifications of rocks and minerals forwarded by Mines Department, prospectors, and others.

Metallic Minerals-In earlier years when gold was of major importance the Survey reported on most of the goldfields, several bulletins being published. Deposits of ores of iron, copper, tungsten, manganese, chrome, and other metals have also been investigated over the years. Much field and laboratory work has been done since 1955 on the uranium deposits of the Buller Gorge and other West Coast districts (see 1959 Yearbook, pages 583–4, for details). Recently the Survey has helped with prospecting of North Auckland bauxite and ironsand deposits on the west coast of the North Island. Coal — Coal is still New Zealand's most important mineral, and mapping the coalfields in detail has been one of the Survey's major undertakings in economic geology. Preliminary assessment of the geology and coal quantities of some coalfields was made by the Survey earlier this century, but in 1936, after the setting up of a coal survey committee, intensive study was made of all New Zealand coalfields. Work has proceeded in cooperation with Mines Department and with the Dominion Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, where thousands of analyses of New Zealand coals have been made. Detailed maps and bulletins on Greymouth, Reefton, and Kaitangata coalfields have been published, while those for the Waikato and Ohai fields will be the next to be issued. Although the mapping of the coalfields is largely complete, Survey geologists continue to help with a large number of day-to-day problems in the coalfields.

Oil -The Government does not undertake oil exploration. Oil companies however draw on Survey maps and bulletins for basic information about the country's stratigraphy and geological structure which enables them to narrow down areas deserving more detailed examination. Close and mutually beneficial cooperation has usually developed between Survey geologists and paleontologists and those of oil companies. Copies of oil company reports and maps are deposited with the Government at the close of operations. The Geological Survey is the national repository of collections of rocks, fossils, and drill cores collected by the oil companies.

Paleontological and stratigraphic information supplied by the Survey helped the search for oil in Taranaki, which was rewarded recently by the discovery of a large reservoir of natural gas; of particular importance were the collections of fossils and drill cores held from earlier Taranaki oil-exploration bores. These greatly helped prediction of the type, age, and thickness of strata the drills would penetrate.

Other Non-metallic Minerals and Rock Products — So far as is possible with the staff available, the Survey advises Ministry of Works and local authority engineers, contractors, and other users on where rock materials for road metal, aggregate, building stone, sand, etc., can be obtained. Marl, limestone, and pozzolana for cement manufacture, perlite, bentonite, clays, talc, mica, magnesite are other non-metallic minerals in whose utilisation the Survey has played a part.

Limestone suitable for agricultural use is abundant in some parts of New Zealand and scarce in others. Limestone investigations are an important part of the Survey's mineral work. Central North Island supplies of serpentine rock for the manufacture of serpentine superphosphate are nearly exhausted, and Survey officers have assisted mining companies by reporting on serpentine deposits in the North Cape area and in Nelson.

Chapter 18. Section 18 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

Table of Contents

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT — The function of the early manufacturing industries in New Zealand was to supply locally the immediate needs of the small scattered communities for food, clothing, building materials, and home furnishings and to provide shipping with ropes, spars, and repairs. These handicraft activities grew into factories as the settlements expanded and as there developed more opportunities for the organisation and specialisation of labour, and for the more complex processing of domestic or imported raw materials. Flour mills, flax mills, ropewalks, and sawmills appeared in the early eighteen forties followed by breweries, brick kilns, cooperages in the mid forties and, later in that decade, lime kilns, ship and boat yards, soap and candle works, and tanneries.

By 1867, the first year in which statistics of factory production were collected in conjunction with, the population census, manufacturing establishments included grain mills, breweries, biscuit factories, a bone-manure works, brick and tile yards and potteries, candle and soap works, coach-building workshops, fellmongeries, tanneries, wool-scouring works, flax works, aerated water and cordial factories, iron and brass foundries, lime kilns, malt kilns, engineering workshops, a patent slip, a petroleum works, rope and cordage works, sawmills, sash and door factories, ship and boat yards, and a woollen mill. The factories of this period were still primarily concerned with the satisfaction of the needs of the limited local markets.

The development boom of the eighteen seventies, the rapid rise in population, and the better communications between internal markets encouraged further factory expansion. There was to some extent a natural protection from overseas competition in the high freight rates on imports. Other factors which assisted in this expansion were the admission of certain raw materials free of duty, the imposition of a tariff on some finished goods, and the granting of bounties by central and provincial governments for new factories. These were followed by protection by way of a tariff in 1888 as a specific policy when the home market was shrinking and capital and labour were beginning to leave the colony. Footwear and clothing factories, machinery makers, and metal workers were protected by this tariff. A wider protective Customs tariff was imposed in 1895. During the depressed years of the eighteen eighties low wage costs enabled some New Zealand manufacturers to export their products, but this was partly attributable also to the special suitability of some New Zealand products, such as farm implements, to the needs of other developing communities overseas.

The first shipment of refrigerated meat in 1882 opened the way for the establishment and growth of the meat-freezing and butter and cheese industries. Ten years after this first shipment, 21 meat-freezing works and 104 butter and cheese factories had been established.

The recovery from the long depression, the resumption of large-scale immigration at the beginning of the present century, the spectacular development of meat-freezing and dairy factories, and the breaking in of new land, especially in the North Island, all contributed to the revival of a strong internal demand which stimulated manufacturing growth.

Auckland early established itself as the predominant manufacturing province in New Zealand, but in the general prosperity following the gold boom of the sixties there was a spectacular increase in manufacturing activity in Otago, which led Auckland until the nineties. Canterbury was the next most important manufacturing province. Today, Auckland, Wellington, and Canterbury are ahead of Otago.

With the rising population and increased export income during the first decade of this century, manufacturing continued to expand at a steady rate. The growth continued to be concentrated on industries processing farm products for export and those supplying the more simple goods, housing materials and equipment, repairs and supplies for farmers. In this period the electrical, wire-work, sheet-metal, and motor-vehicle industries had their beginnings.

Developments in the nineteen twenties included the expansion of the vehicle industry (particularly motor and cycle works), the sawmills, and the metal-working, furnishings, and apparel industries. These developments carried forward the tendency for industries processing farm products to be less dominating in value of production and employment compared with other types of industry.

During the depression of the nineteen thirties the volume of output of factories as a whole declined with the contraction of New Zealand's export income and the drop in internal demand. While prices fell the output of factories processing farm products rose, but not sufficiently to offset the loss in volume from other manufacturing industries. The rapid drop in purchasing power caused the farmer to produce more, but the impact of the depression on the factories processing “non-farm” materials meant a heavy reduction in the output of consumer goods, building materials, and agricultural and dairy machinery and implements. By 1934–35, however, the volume of factory production had been restored to the 1929–30 level.

Industry emerged from the depression in much the same pattern as before — apart from the metal-working and vehicle factories which had improved their position significantly.

The recovery of manufacturing after the depression was primarily the result of better export prices, more public development, and an expansionist monetary policy, all of which resulted in the re-engagement of most of the unemployed.

There had been little time for any protective effect of exchange control and import selection to stimulate industrial expansion between the date they were introduced (December 1938) and the outbreak of war in September 1939. It was the war and its shortages which changed the manufacturing pattern and gave great impetus to industrial development. The engineering and apparel industries, which contributed so much to war needs, made the greatest progress.

The factories expanded in response to the need to replace imports that the United Kingdom and other countries could no longer supply; to make uniforms, weapons, and equipment for the armed forces and to supply New Zealand and allied troops with preserved foodstuffs and many other kinds of provisions and ordnance.

One protective effect of the war and post-war periods and their restricted supply of imports was that domestic industry was often enabled to attain its optimum (New Zealand) output quickly without a difficult competitive struggle with imports.

The pattern of New Zealand industry changed again from 1949–50 with the exemption from import control of many items. Industrial production as a whole continued to increase, but this was a time of readjustment and, within this general rising trend, some firms closed down or ceased production of certain lines, others sustained a fall in production or did not expand to the extent they otherwise would have done. As a whole, factory expansion was sustained by a high level of internal demand, by a widening of the range of products and, to some extent, by the restriction of imports for a short period of exchange control. In this period the food group increased its volume relatively slowly (its output depending largely on the level of farm production), the leather industry production fell (as a result of competition from imports and synthetics), while footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods also increased slowly, more or less in line with population growth. Spectacular increases in production came from new developments in the pulp and paper and the rubber industries. But it was the engineering factories that contributed most (as in past years) to the growth of manufacturing since 1949–50. The expansion in this field was stimulated especially by mechanisation on farms, the high level of investment in New Zealand, the demand for consumer durables, and the increased imports of motor vehicles.

The growth in production has been assisted by increases in manpower engaged and capital used. Since the end of the Second World War there has been a considerable amount of factory building and new machinery installed — for new industries as well as for the extension and improvement of existing industries. A measure of the increase in capital employed is that the value of land and buildings, plant, and machinery at the end of the production year for each person engaged was £436 in 1945–46, £633 in 1950–51, rising to £1,149 in 1956–57, £1,161 in 1957–58, £1,220 in 1958–59, and £1,300 in 1959–60.

The greater use of machinery for manufacturing during the last 20 years is illustrated also by the continuing rise in the average horsepower for each person engaged in manufacturing. In 1935–36 the average was 2.86; in 1945–46, 2.97; in 1955–56, 4.42; in 1958–59, 4.65; and in 1959–60, 4.78. This expansion has been helped by the growth in electric power generation and by the greater use of the individual drive technique. In the production year 1959–60 the use of electric motors in factories accounted for 94 per cent of the total rated horsepower for all types of engines employed in factories. The number and horsepower of steam, petrol, oil, and other non-electrical engines has declined absolutely as well as relatively.

Industrial progress has been rapid, but manufacturing in New Zealand is still organised on a relatively small scale. In 1959–60, 61 per cent of the factories employed 10 persons or less, a reflection of the fact that, partly as a result of geographical configuration, many factories still supply small local markets. Although these small factories are numerous, they accounted for only 13 per cent of the total value of factory output. There were only 121 factories (about 1.4 per cent of the total) in 1959–60 where the number of persons engaged exceeded 200, but these factories accounted for nearly 33 per cent of total value of output. Some were engaged in processing goods for export (32 were meat-freezing works).

Manufacturing plays a vital part in employment. In April 1961 about 26 per cent of the total labour force was employed in manufacturing industries. Of these, females comprised 25 per cent of the persons so engaged.

The Industrial Efficiency Act of 1936 was passed “to promote the economic welfare of New Zealand by providing for the promotion of new industries in the most economic form and by so regulating the general organisation, development, and operation of industries that a greater measure of industrial efficiency will be secured”. The provisions of the Act were used more especially to rationalise some of the distributive industries, and to prevent redundancy in some manufacturing industries, where the size of the market for their products would not permit the economic operation of more than a few units. This Act was repealed in 1956, but the licensing of certain industries was continued under the Industries and Commerce Act 1956 and the Licensed Industries Regulations 1957. The industries concerned were the manufacture of pulp, paper, and board, and multi-walled paper bags; paua shell for sale; and pneumatic rubber tyres and tubes for motor vehicles, but the regulations were revoked in July 1960, and these industries are now no longer subject to industrial licensing.

In the latter part of 1957 and in early 1958 the terms of trade changed substantially to New Zealand's disadvantage and a serious depletion of overseas reserves resulted from the effects of heavy importing in 1957 and the fall in price of our main export commodities. To reduce overseas expenditure and arrest this drain on the reserves New Zealand reintroduced comprehensive import controls, which became effective on 1 January 1958. An improvement in the terms of trade in 1959 and 1960 allowed some relaxation in import restrictions, but a further fall in export prices and a higher volume of imports forced the Government to revert in 1961 to stricter import control.

Because of the present and future importance of manufacturing industries in the employment of a rapidly increasing labour force and the necessity for these industries to expand their output of goods and to produce new goods in substitution of imports, imported materials for industry received considerable priority. Thus, it is estimated that materials and plant and equipment for manufacturing comprise directly about 51 per cent of total imports. It therefore seems desirable for manufacturing output to expand in depth as well as in breadth by increasing the New Zealand content of a range of manufactured goods. This would involve manufacturing in a number of industries being taken back to more basic stages rather than being, for example, the mere assembly of imported components; making greater use of New Zealand's already available raw materials, such as wool and timber; developing if possible any potential raw materials hitherto unexploited, such as iron ore.

Manufacturing industries responded admirably to the twin spurs of necessity and Government encouragement. Despite reduced imports and reduced internal demand in 1958, the volume of production rose by 5.5 per cent between 1957–58 and 1958–59. In addition to significant increases in output by existing industries such as woollen mills, clothing and footwear factories, the pulp and paper industry, rubber factories, and electrical machinery and appliances factories, a number of new industries were established and many new products made. These include the manufacture of steel drums, fork-lift trucks, water jet engines, forage harvesters and other agricultural machinery, launderers' washing machines and tumbler dryers, axminster carpets, wallpapers, kerosene heaters, household electric appliances, motor-vehicle components, soluble coffee, and glucose and dextrose.

In 1959–60 another rise of 4.4 per cent in the volume of production took place. Some significant increases took place in the textile, pulp and paper, leather, and timber industries. The volume of production rose again by 7 per cent in 1960–61. Of particular importance in 1961 were the opening of a factory to make most of New Zealand's needs of wire rope and another to roil aluminium sheet and foil. These two enterprises will alone have the capacity to save about £650,000 a year in overseas funds.

In 1961, the previous trend continued and plans were laid for the manufacture of high-speed twist drills, vinyl tiles, roll-up flooring, various rubber and plastic products, precision formed nuts, narrow fabrics, carpet yarn and dyeing, beer cans, engine bearings, battery separators, stainless steel castings, and expanded production of motor-vehicle tyres, plywood, woollen yarn, and bricks and refractories.

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT CONFERENCE — The Industrial Development Conference held in June 1960 was a forum to obtain the views of representatives from all sections of New Zealand's economic life on the question of development. Representatives from manufacturing, farming, commerce, the employers, trade unions, and many other organisations were present at the conference. Many aspects of development were considered, more especially external economic influences, the better use of resources — both natural and human — and the problem of raising productivity.

DEVELOPMENTS PLANNED — There are plans for a number of “heavy” industries which, when established, will greatly affect the pattern of manufacture in New Zealand. These are now set out.

Oil Refinery — In May 1959 the Shell Co. of New Zealand Ltd. announced its plans to build an oil refinery in New Zealand. Capital cost will be about £20 million, of which 40 per cent will be subscribed in New Zealand, the balance being invested by the Shell Co. and the other five oil companies operating in New Zealand. It is expected that production will begin in 1964 and that the output will be 1.88 million tons a year.

Because of the unusual pattern of demand for petroleum products in New Zealand — almost 50 per cent being for motor spirits and aviation gasoline — it is proposed to import enriched crude oil instead of the normal crude oil. This will enable the pattern of demand to be met at a lower initial capital cost than would otherwise be the case. The refinery will, however, be sufficiently flexible to use various types of crude oil and will be capable of expansion. Labour required will be about 350 persons. The refinery is being built at Marsden Point, Whangarei.

Merchant Bar Mill — A mill has been established in Auckland to make steel products from steel scrap collected in New Zealand. The mill has an output capacity of 50,000 tons a year on a one-shift basis and of 120,000 tons a year on a three-shift basis. A range of merchant bar products — rounds, angles, flats, and squares — are being produced.

Capital required was £3.6 million and about 60 percent of the equity capital is held in New Zealand. Some 250 people are being employed.

Aluminium Fabricating Industry — A United Kingdom subsidiary of a major Canadian aluminium-producing company is establishing an aluminium-fabricating plant in New Zealand to make various aluminium products from imported ingots. Employing about 250 skilled men, the plant will have an initial production capacity of 5,000 tons a year of aluminium sheet and foil products and 2,000 tons of aluminium wire and cable for electrical transmission lines. The capital cost will be approximately £2 million. Exchange savings are estimated at about £400,000 a year. The company has commenced production of corrugated aluminium sheet from imported aluminium strip.

Aluminium Smelting — On 19 November 1960 it was announced that Consolidated Zinc Co. Pty. Ltd. had decided to proceed with the establishment of an aluminium-smelting works based on the power potential of the Lake Manapouri — Te Anau area. This vast industrial undertaking to produce for world markets is planned to come into operation in 1966. The capital cost of the industry, which will provide employment for 6,000 people, will be between £100 million and £200 million. Kaiser Aluminium and Chemical Corporation has joined with Consolidated Zinc Co. Pty. Ltd. as an equal partner in the venture.

Iron and Steel Industry — The Government announced in May 1959 its intention to set up a company to investigate the feasibility of an iron and steel industry using New Zealand ironsands as its raw material. As a result of this decision the New Zealand Steel Investigating Co. Ltd. was registered on 3 October 1960. The Government holds all but six of the 250,000 £1 shares in the company. Each of the six directors of the company — three prominent business men and three public servants — holds one share.

Ironsands prospecting commenced with drilling at Raglan in November 1960 and the company is proceeding with investigations into other material resources — such as coal and electricity — and with investigations into the economic aspect of an iron and steel industry. Sample quantities of ironsands have been sent to the United States of America, United Kingdom, and Norway for experiment under regular production conditions. It is hoped that the company's investigations will be completed during 1962.

Copper Fabricating — A New Zealand company owned by two overseas concerns intends to establish a copper and brass rolling mill involving capital of £2 million. (There will be provision for New Zealand participation to the extent of at least one-quarter of the capital at a later stage.) The company will produce nearly all New Zealand's requirements of copper and brass tube, plate, sheet, and strip, and will save £700,000 annually in overseas exchange. The factory will employ about 250 persons. Together with the steel rolling mill and the aluminium-fabricating plant, the concern will help to fill a gap in the country's metal-processing industry.

Window Glass — A New Zealand company is establishing a window glass manufacturing industry at Whangarei to produce most of the country's requirements of such glass. Technical assistance is being obtained from overseas. The project will involve capital of £500,000, and there will be an annual saving in overseas funds of about £400,000. The raw materials will come from domestic sources. The factory's staff will number approximately 130 and production is expected to commence in mid-1962.

Pulp and Paper — There is increasing production of pulp and paper products. One manufacturer has installed a second papermaking machine and plans the installation of two more machines. A second newsprint machine is to be installed by another company. Other companies are expanding their production of paper, building board, and packaging materials. Manufacture of wallpaper is also being increased substantially. Capital involved in recent and projected development of paper and allied production exceeds £14 million.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH FOR INDUSTRY — There is a growing recognition in this country of the importance of scientific research in industry. In the major manufacturing countries some of the larger concerns are able to undertake their own research, but the stage of development of manufacturing in New Zealand is such that some form of assistance from Government research organisations is necessary.

A number of branches of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research carry out research and a limited amount of service work for manufacturing industry.

The Dominion Laboratory, in addition to doing testing work for other Government Departments, undertakes research on natural products and minerals. Typical examples are the pozzolanic materials, pumice and diatomite, which have proved suitable for replacement of cement in big concrete works such as hydro dams. One of the projects of great value to industry was the design of an automatic gravity-feed stoker which handles non-coking coals much more efficiently than do ordinary underfeed stokers.

The Dominion Physical Laboratory does research and investigational work on physical and engineering problems. One of the laboratory's recent projects of interest to the building industry and particularly to structural engineers has been the development of an analogue computer which will enable an assessment to be made of the forces to which proposed buildings are likely to be subjected by earthquakes.

In the development of electric power from geothermal steam these two laboratories worked in close collaboration with the Geological Survey and the Geophysics Division in providing the Ministry of Works with basic information required in the construction of the power station at Wairakei. Work by geologists and geophysicists indicated where boreholes should be dug, physicists advised on how to measure and control the pressure of the steam, while chemists showed how to clean the steam and prevent it from rusting the pipes. This station is today providing electric power for both primary and secondary industries in the North Island.

In all the branches of the Department already mentioned assistance to secondary industry constitutes only part of the work, but there is one branch, the Auckland Industrial Development Laboratories (DIAL), which was specifically set up to provide a research service for industry. The policy of DIAL is to undertake only such work as industry cannot do, and it is the aim to assist manufacturers themselves to obtain the facilities to carry out such work.

In Christchurch a somewhat similar organisation, which originated as a branch of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, now operates as the Canterbury University industrial Development Department.

RESEARCH ASSOCIATIONS — Working in close collaboration with the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research are a number of cooperative research associations in which contributions from a particular industry are subsidised by the Government on a pound-for-pound basis. The idea of cooperative research was introduced in the United Kingdom towards the end of the First World War, and considerable success followed the formation of numerous research associations, which were encouraged and supported financially by the Government in the interests of national welfare. The same need existed in New Zealand during the Second World War. Industries were expanding through the war effort, and the Manufacturers Research Committee was set up in 1944 for the purpose of promoting research in New Zealand's manufacturing industries. Provision was also made for certain existing units of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research to be formed into incorporated research associations. Of the seven associations now operating as autonomous bodies, three are concerned with the problems of primary industry and four with those of secondary industry.

The New Zealand Leather and Shoe Research Association (Inc.) undertakes research problems on behalf of fellmongers, hide processors, tanners, and shoe manufacturers.

The New Zealand Pottery and Ceramics Research Association, originally set up in 1945 to assist the development of the white wares section of the clay industry, was in 1951 extended to cover the whole field of clay industries by including manufacturers of heavy clay products such as bricks, roofing tiles, field tiles, and refractories.

The Research Institute of Launderers, Drycleaners, and Dyers of New Zealand was established in 1947 to cater for commercial concerns engaged in laundering, drycleaning, and dyeing, manufacturers of laundry and drycleaning machinery and materials, and manufacturers, importers, and distributors of textiles.

The New Zealand Wool Industries Research Institute, established in 1937 as a unit of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and incorporated in 1945, is now concerned with research relating to all aspects of wool manufacturing from the raw wool to finished cloth.

The Manufacturers Research Committee encourages the application of science in the development, extension, and modernisation of existing industries, and the establishment of further research associations. Industries too small to justify the formation of such associations may form an industrial research group. Under this scheme, firms in an industry cooperate on a programme of research carried out by a scientist in an appropriate Government laboratory.

SCOPE OF STATISTICS — Statistics of factory production were collected in New Zealand from 1867 to 1916 in conjunction with the population census; but, commencing with the year 1918–19, the collection became an annual one, the results being published in the Report on the Industrial Production Statistics of New Zealand.

Since the year 1951–52 factories have been classified according to the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification, and as a result some of the individual industry statistics will not now compare with previously published figures. However, where possible, information for individual industries has been reclassified for the two previous years, and grand totals have been brought into line with the new classification from the beginning of the series. Apart from transfers within the framework of this series of factory production statistics, the adoption of the New Zealand Standard Classification has meant the elimination from the series altogether of three important industries. These relate to the logging operations of sawmillers, previously included in sawmilling, and the generation and supply of gas and electricity, accounting in all for the activities of approximately 10,000 persons. Information on the generation and supply of gas and electricity is still the subject of an annual inquiry, but the results are no longer included in the series on factory production. Separate and detailed statistics for these industries are recorded in Section 20 of this Yearbook.

The statistics of factory production collected annually by the Department of Statistics embrace the activities of factories coming within the Manufacturing Division of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification of all Economic Activities, which is an adaptation of the United Nations International Standard Industrial Classification. The classification covers registered factories employing at least two persons (including the working proprietor) engaged in the manufacture, repair, or treatment of articles. Important factories not covered in this survey which, however, come within this section of the Standard Classification are:

1. Bakeries. 2. Cake and pastry kitchens. 3. Boot repairers. 4. Watch repairers. 5. Bespoke tailors, dressmakers, milliners. 6. Abattoirs. 7. Railway and tramway workshops. 8. Naval dockyard. 9. All one-man factories.

The exclusion of the foregoing from the scope of the statistical inquiry, and also of all persons engaged in factories in a purely distributive capacity, reduces the total manufacturing labour force from that quoted by the Department of Labour (216,800 — average of October 1959 and April 1960 surveys) to the figure recorded in these statistics for 1959–60 — 172,106. However, the proportion of factory production covered in this inquiry is much greater than the ratio implied by the above-mentioned totals, in that practically all of the establishments of any considerable size are included.

The year covered by these statistics is generally the year ending 31 March, but concerns are permitted to furnish returns covering their financial year most closely corresponding to this period. In the case of the important semi-primary industries — butter, cheese, and other milk products, and meat freezing and preserving — the years correspond with the production seasons ending in June and September respectively.

GENERAL SUMMARY — The statistics in the following table illustrate the growth of New Zealand's factory production to its present standing. Where figures are not available, leaders have been inserted. Throughout this table the logging industry and gas and electricity supply are excluded.

YearNumber of EstablishmentsPersons* EngagedSalaries* and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsOther Expenses of ProductionValue of OutputAdded ValueValue of Land and Buildings, Plant and Machinery

* For the year 1915–16 and earlier years, figures refer to productive employees only.

† Estimates based on results of sample survey carried out during that year.

  No.£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
1877–781,09310,604..........2,382
1880–811,43013,922..........2,701
1885–861,83319,653......6,458..4,069
1890–912,15223,7611,657....8,558..4,335
1895–962,36125,3971,7483,562..9,26457034,777
1900–013,05938,6512,8117,716..16,4858,7696,546
1905–063,38145,1983,59313,290..21,6108,3209,537
1910–113,42142,1424,35318,738..28,5699,83111,989
1915–163,65744,6735,31729,850..41,92412,07315,799
1918–193,38553,0627,64638,291..53,80615,51519,144
1920–213,89462,97211,75353,009..75,48922,47925,696
1925–264,64370,21214,14951,3037,26278,46827,16532,420
1930–315,04770,62513,88545,3148,44871,72126,40734,496
1933–344,88365,96110,72943,5137,53865,90822,39531,965
1934–355,12672,09511,69448,8358,16373,32024,48532,415
1935–365,39178,70113,09156,8598,66583,76626,90733,175
1936–375,58487,82216,29667,4969,77899,37931,88334,386
1937–385,78093,53418,70371,7509,808106,50234,75236,308
1938–396,00293,63819,92771,1739,316106,60835,43538,597
1939–406,19899,34921,89380,21010,345120,32440,11441,020
1940–416,252104,78424,30693,01311,203137,39944,38642,165
1941–426,225108,27526,81396,48212,047145,60849,12643,752
1942–435,985106,17929,427101,90012,541155,77953,87944,674
1943–446,062109,22131,398107,02713,626164,83757,81045,984
1944–456,340113,53434,197116,47614,556178,58662,11048,765
1945–466,847118,88637,910117,05915,312183,54266,48351,781
1946–477,498124,92541,488131,34817,279205,64974,30155,775
1947–487,822130,50447,940174,84520,077259,18184,33663,316
1948–497,852132,42751,402195,05321,955286,39691,34373,585
1949–507,815133,24556,231215,00924,140317,343102,33477,993
1950–518,113138,43565,005266,88528,867380,200113,31687,617
1951–528,546144,35275,029290,73131,940430,984140,25297,522
1952–538,511143,16478,483318,94935,258463,940144,992109,100
1953–548,377146,48886,621332,82540,263495,213162,339122,269
1954–558,366153,57598,413365,29947,853550,618185,318138,274
1955–568,515158,238107,939384,79456,541585,942201,148168,573
1956–578,488156,752110,948394,98859,902602,041207,053180,123
1957–588,529162,985119,989417,91866,052644,929227,011189,287
1958–598,565168,742128,278418,64770,321659,455240,807205,886
1959–608,550172,106136,176439,08872,963705,617266,529223,727
1960–618,734181,346150,475469,70378,998756,800287,097249,305

NOTE — Further figures for the year 1960–61 are given in the Latest Statistical Information Section at the back of this Yearbook.

Production totals for 1959–60 rose by 4.4 per cent in volume of output over the previous year. The annual increases in volume of output for the two previous years were 7.2 per cent in 1957–58 and 5.5 per cent in 1958–59. Production of three groups of industries dropped in volume in 1959–60, namely, footwear and apparel (—3.7 per cent), leather and leather products (—4.1 per cent), and rubber products (—0.6 per cent). In five groups the volume index rose by over 10 per cent compared with the previous year — printing and publishing, 12.8 per cent; chemicals and chemical products, 11.9 per cent; non-metallic mineral products, 10.9 per cent; textiles, 10.8 per cent; and tobacco manufactures, 10.5 per cent. In the several groups without individual volume indexes, employment and added value figures indicate a substantial increase in volume for the following groups — basic metal-manufacturers, metal products, machinery, and miscellaneous products.

In the 8,550 establishments recorded in 1959–60 the number of persons engaged was 172,106, an increase of 3,364, or 2.0 per cent, over the 8,565 establishments from which returns were obtained in 1958–59. The amount of salaries and wages paid increased by £7.9 million, or by 6.2 per cent, and wage earners worked 22,724,082 hours of overtime, an increase of 999,841 hours, or 4.6 per cent. Cost of materials used rose by £20.4 million, or by 4.9 per cent; value of output increased by £46.2 million, or by 7.0 per cent; and added value increased by £25.7 million, or by 10.7 per cent.

The following table gives the main statistics by provincial districts for the year 1959–60.

Provincial DistrictNumber of EstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsValue of OutputAdded Value
TotalPercentage of Total
  No.£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)per cent
Auckland3,47273,64758,406199,147317,256118,10944.57
Hawke's Bay3886,4415,19320,06129,4819,4203.53
Taranaki3545,6414,63125,54334,3478,8043.30
Wellington1,80235,38128,41588,372142,85854,48620.19
Marlborough901,0568132,0903,5141,4240.53
Nelson2402,7242,0745,3509,6194,2681.60
Westland971,1408941,8273,5991,7720.67
Canterbury1,22728,14321,47154,53793,92039,38314.78
Otago —
    Otago portion54312,6699,49525,08543,46318,3796.90
    Southland portion3375,2644,78417,07627,55910,4833.93
Totals8,550172,106136,176439,088705,617266,529100.00

Further analyses by industrial groups of the figures shown in this table will be found in the appropriate contexts in the following pages.

In the next table the statistics for the year 1959–60 are reclassified by employment districts of the Department of Labour, which provide a more comprehensive locality classification of manufacturing strength. The fairest guide to actual volume of production is the last column in the table on “Added Value”. This shows Auckland district's dominance in the manufacturing field; its production being more than the total for the South Island.

Employment DistrictNumber of FactoriesPerson EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsValue of OutputAdded Value
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesTotalPercentage of Total
  No.No.£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000) 
Whangarei2222,6072172,0469513,12517,8884,7631.78
Auckland2,14836,21916,61233,2067,811117,672194,22976,55728.72
Hamilton5356,4909405,62840734,92447,25512,3314.63
Paeroa1211,3123321,0811358,97311,3772,4030.90
Tauranga1191,108189898775,4497,5772,1290.80
Rotorua2195,6944245,69220415,42633,33717,9116.72
Gisborne1201,3593721,1291643,8436,1702,3270.87
Napier1671,7624961,4982086,3069,7633,4571.30
Hastings1643,1356302,89330212,26017,7015,4402.04
New Plymouth3394,1288173,60132722,30629,8187,5132.82
Wanganui2372,8988372,59636110,64416,1235,4792.05
Palmerston North4474,8291,6414,17971020,52030,2699,7493.66
Masterton1441,7093211,4641336,8899,9173,0281.14
Lower Hutt3247,7672,7437,6521,38833,50752,05618,5506.96
Wellington7108,8064,7168,3852,37321,27940,46119,1827.20
Totals, North Island6,01689,82331,28781,95014,696333,123523,942190,81971.59
Blenheim90846210718952,0903,5141,4240.54
Nelson1741,8913501,5481464,4598,0733,6141.36
Greymouth1561,3422331,1381002,6785,0512,3730.89
Christchurch1,01317,4056,99415,1803,18643,21677,01933,80412.68
Ashburton67966227880922,8284,4891,6610.62
Timaru1542,2243751,9931768,53412,5053,9721.49
Oamaru58975210850883,3765,3611,9850.75
Dunedin4858,4373,0477,2201,33721,70938,10316,3946.15
Invercargill3374,8514134,60018417,07627,55910,4833.93
Totals, South Island2,53438,93712,05934,1265,404105,965181,67575,71028.41
Totals, New Zealand8,550128,70043,346116,07620,100439,088705,617266,529100.00

A further summary of the operations of factories is given below for the three latest years.

Item1957–581958–591959–60
Number of establishments 8,5298,5658,550
Persons engagedNo.162,985168,742172,106
Production costs
    Salaries, wages£119,989,253128,278,259136,175,840
    Materials£417,918,274418,647,288439,087,799
    Other expenses£66,052,01570,320,61072,963,276
Totals£603,959,542617,246,157648,226,915
Value of output£644,928,872659,454,543705,616,999
Manufacturers' surplus£40,969,33042,208,38657,390,084
Value added in manufacture£227,010,598240,807,255266,529,200
Overtime worked by wage earnershrs.20,431,80921,724,24122,724,082
Volume index for industry: Base 1956–57 (= 1000) 107211301180
Premises and plant—
    Value at end of year—
        Land and buildings£112,758,584123,629,077136,549,586
        Plant and machinery£76,528,49282,257,29087,177,462
    Capital expenditure during year—
        Land and buildings£9,420,30811,184,62410,364,662
        Plant and machinery£13,801,68716,653,92116,574,857

The following table gives a summary of some of the principal production statistics for the year 1959–60 classified by individual industries. Totals for the industrial groups to which these industries belong are also shown.

IndustryNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Persons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidValue of OutputValue Added in Manufacture
    Food Manufacturing Industries  £££
Meat freezing and preserving3616,84117,581,413116,988,73931,758,534
Ham and bacon curing461,064903,0767,842,6831,725,961
Sausage casings10176150,669669,988213,591
Processed cheese36033,144515,853129,118
Ice cream34546384,6142,304,9721,120,009
Butter and cheese2603,0612,717,17481,276,8815,275,950
Milk products other than butter and cheese1041,5631,415,24612,523,9724,630,240
Fruit and vegetable preserving372,0961,528,3947,538,4982,997,563
Fish preserving64830,066208,50254,847
Grain milling44866660,5485,433,7781,609,598
Biscuits91,157803,5963,793,3581,764,826
Cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery431,8061,123,8105,828,3732,418,228
Feeds for animals and fowls37334276,1133,182,134676,598
Food preparations n.e.i.571,4661,160,89810,699,6413,479,637
Totals72631,08428,768,761258,807,37257,854,700
      Beverage Industries
Winemaking31121111,387711,724383,401
Brewing of ale and stout181,1961,115,7047,238,6363,969,649
Malting4115104,1691,020,571342,532
Aerated waters and cordials67667499,5552,059,3131,126,031
Totals1202,0991,830,81511,030,2445,821,613
      Tobacco Manufactures
Tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes61,244796,2237,645,5402,034,794
Manufacture of Textiles
Woolscouring21469432,25314,661,546937,893
Woollen milling203,2222,214,7326,992,8443,866,128
Other spinning and weaving mills141,218909,3144,089,2491,912,408
Hosiery and other knitting mills854,5222,823,04210,135,1565,133,542
Phormium flax1613287,985289,182168,138
Linen flax14027,97859,14940,812
Textiles n.e.i.21421376,1372,075,6361,022,586
Totals17810,0246,871,44138,302,76213,081,507
IndustryNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Persons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidValue of OutputValue Added in Manufacture
Manufacture of Footwear, Other Wearing Apparel, and Made-up Textiles  £££
Leather gloves and apparel1012364,349212,06096,338
Men's and boys' outerwear1653,9512,086,5666,627,1682,733,194
Women's and girls' outerwear3085,3012,710,7488,317,6013,914,114
Underclothing421,613866,7003,679,4041,253,738
Hats, caps, and millinery52960509,3871,405,539741,549
Corsetry231,077573,1901,642,728896,434
Neckties7176106,116422,802211,484
Shirts and pyjamas521,817893,6443,062,1291,212,676
Wearing apparel n.e.i.1133,8382,024,9767,016,4232,870,281
Fur coats and necklets27170111,333279,472167,479
Footwear (other than rubber)1214,9453,303,6469,653,5194,927,119
Canvas goods40438284,7781,011,558456,925
Made-up textiles (other than wearing apparel)56680372,1581,841,818730,700
Totals1,01625,08913,907,59145,172,22120,212,031
Manufactures of Wood and Cork (Except Manufacture of Furniture)
Sawmills4556,2795,425,75020,876,77911,424,943
Planing mills1491,8781,453,9009,124,8632,794,571
Joinery3653,4182,802,8089,387,2194,477,044
Wooden containers44610504,3752,542,618933,704
Plywood and veneer8630533,3132,399,2971,183,820
Wood products n.e.i.46394303,5731,032,043569,821
Totals1,06713,20911,023,71945,362,81921,383,903
      Manufacture of Furniture and Fixtures
Furniture4434,1353,223,6699,378,4404,642,267
Mattress manufacture33590437,5752,058,390833,470
Venetian blinds24235186,133981,726346,859
Totals5004,9603,847,37712,418,5565,822,596
    Manufacture of Paper and Paper Products
Pulp, paper, and paperboard62,1712,429,20817,101,30811,716,233
Cardboard boxes, cartons, and paper bags541,8771,441,5158,339,9852,985,990
Paper products n.e.i.431,265890,4905,776,4432,028,370
Totals1035,3134,761,21331,217,73616,730,593
Printing, Publishing, and Allied Ends.
Printing and publishing935,4634,731,74114,531,6519,504,008
Job and general printing2894,8713,824,46810,681,1816,453,259
Service industries for printing trade40498463,592965,898772,353
Totals42210,8329,019,80126,178,73016,729,620
IndustryNumber or EstablishmentsNumber of Persons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidValue of OutputValue Added in Manufacture
Manufacture of Leather and Leather Products (Except Footwear)  £££
Tanning11675543,1632,829,784993,471
Fellmongery78361,162767,092174,396
Leather goods74867520,1601,585,138829,436
Totals921,6251,124,4855,182,0141,997,303
Manufacture of Rubber Products
Motor tyres and tubes3799919,1374,738,7412,439,983
Rubber goods (other than motor tyres and tubes)231,4751,247,3394,491,0062,426,236
Vulcanising and tyre retreading60598527,3612,299,6711,285,133
Totals862,8722,693,83711,529,4186,151,352
    Manufacture of Chemicals and Chemical Products
Chemical fertilisers121,3691,195,09410,943,3303,801,166
Vegetable and animal oils and fats40448414,7122,377,8671,061,175
Ink811684,622475,650234,211
Soap and candle14458376,9083,074,8211,456,400
Paint and varnish28940846,0716,295,8372,080,719
Pharmaceuticals, toilet goods, and cosmetics42881551,8203,743,0851,515,393
Chemical products n.e.i.751,3841,089,0286,980,1272,887,805
Totals2195,5964,558,25533,890,71713,036,869
    Manufacture of Products of Petroleum and Coal
Petroleum and coal products12186170,0861,885,348481,302
Bituminous paving and roofing materials30235207,7011,530,959586,712
Totals42421377,7873,416,3071,068,014
Manufacture of Non-metallic Mineral Products (Except Products of Petroleum and Coal)
Structural clay products451,034916,0332,245,0232,049,660
Pottery, china, and earthenware7707490,256982,357810,941
Cement6843763,1345,121,3083,981,332
Glass and glass products531,197988,1853,502,6552,254,942
Concrete products2712,2191,864,8336,696,6813,765,371
Lime69303252,6171,186,027847,899
Fibrous plaster68400311,538875,889451,745
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.8508496,8223,115,5501,204,475
Totals5277,2116,083,41823,725,49015,366,365
IndustryNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Persons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidValue of OutputValue Added in Manufacture
Basic Metal Industries  £££
Basic metal industries811,020916,5884,228,0181,785,559
Manufacture of Metal Products (Except Machinery and Transport Equipment)     
Sheet-metal working1584,0553,369,81312,836,5646,257,240
Wire working41577488,3092,294,337998,170
Nail making6133106,199959,702199,283
Electroplating and metal polishing45436393,616810,623633,919
Metal products n.e.i.1793,7023,309,01911,800,9515,840,717
Totals4298,9037,666,95628,702,17713,929,329
Manufacture, Assembly, and Repair of Machinery (Except Electrical Machinery)     
Agricultural and pastoral machinery69812634,1494,787,5791,290,783
Machinery n.e.i.4449,0577,862,69824,930,15012,537,138
Totals5139,8698,496,84729,717,72913,827,921
Manufacture of Electrical Machinery, Apparatus, Appliances, and Supplies     
Range making71,021805,3922,195,8611,186,430
Radio assembly and manufacture251,296879,9464,113,1391,404,612
Electrical machinery, appliances n.e.i.1102,3941,826,3768,793,3183,797,471
Totals1424,7113,511,71415,102,3186,388,513
Manufacture of Transport Equipment     
Boat building and ship repairing551,083925,9822,053,0041,218,487
Motor-vehicle assembly132,3572,087,54421,257,4354,840,670
Motor-body building691,135910,7072,399,0641,348,423
Repairs to motor vehicles1,84115,19511,175,01033,132,99717,204,021
Aircraft maintenance and repair161,5981,393,0712,869,7452,212,036
Perambulators14179122,321347,379180,669
Transport equipment n.e.i.23652548,5821,822,9971,055,646
Totals2,03122,19917,163,21763,882,62128,059,952
      Miscellaneous Manufacturing Industries     
Optical, surgical, and dental, etc., equipment26172137,002394,484212,406
Jewellery61565396,6391,019,817597,727
Brushes and brooms15444289,3881,038,475508,751
Toys and sports goods23453299,7191,014,296505,072
Manufacturing industries n.e.i.1252,1911,633,0476,637,1383,422,710
Totals2503,8252,755,79510,104,2105,246,666
Grand totals8,550172,106136,175,840705,616,999266,529,200

ESTABLISHMENTS AND EMPLOYEES — The increases in the number of factories in the immediate post-war years were the highest recorded annually and compare with the percentage increases recorded after the First World War. Factors which operated after both wars included the re-establishment of businesses closed down during the war period, and the opening of new businesses by returned servicemen. In more recent years the shortage of labour in the principal centres has resulted in branch factories and workrooms being opened in secondary towns to tap the labour resources in those areas. The peak was reached in 1951–52 when 8,547 factories were included in the survey. This number after a slight contraction in 1953–54 and 1954–55 has remained fairly stable and stands at 8,550 in 1959–60. Employment on the other hand has increased by 19 per cent since 1951–52, at an annual average increase of approximately 3,469 persons.

The following table shows the number of factories in each provincial district for the three latest years.

Provincial DistrictNumber of Factories
1957–581958–591959–60
Auckland3,3823,4463,472
Hawke's Bay375383388
Taranaki371361354
Wellington1,8191,8031,802
Marlborough1009690
Nelson256253240
Westland959597
Canterbury1,2331,2341,227
Otago—
    Otago portion562550543
    Southland portion336344337
Totals8,5298,5658,550

An analysis of the 1959–60 totals by industrial groups appears in the next table.

Industry GroupAucklandHawke's BayTaranakiWellingtonMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoTotal
Otago PortionSouthland Portion
 Number of Factories 1959–60
Food2482911411913224934737726
Beverages50147201631081120
Tobacco manufactures2136
Textiles5681491632196178
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods468241825835216561121,016
Wood and cork products (except furniture)418634615717714613761511,067
Furniture and fittings2062791224122802315500
Paper and paper products501271573103
Printing and publishing, etc.16314912048561299422
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)433118194492
Rubber products39231912154186
Chemicals and chemical products8367662431173219
Petroleum and coal products1513118442
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.1814218946146863842527
Basic metal manufactures352191184281
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)20311698142622814429
Machinery (except electrical)2082717107794802628513
Electrical machinery and appliances54645307142
Transport equipment843108903752875222381431092,031
Miscellaneous products10713752114713250
Totals3,4723883541,80290240971,2275433378,550

The number of factories and persons engaged are shown together in the following table, classified by industrial groups. Persons engaged include proprietors actively participating in their own businesses but exclude all persons engaged in selling and distribution. Figures for persons engaged refer to the average number over the whole year.

Industry GroupNumber of FactoriesNumber of Persons Engaged
1957–581958–591959–601957–581958–591959–60
Food74972672629,83530,78531,084
Beverages1201161202,3222,1982,099
Tobacco manufactures7661,1841,2801,244
Textiles1791841788,6719,55710,024
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,0581,0691,01625,47426,02725,089
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,1101,1141,06712,40112,78513,209
Furniture and fittings5245105005,1124,9844,960
Paper and paper products1031001034,8585,1915,313
Printing, publishing, etc.40540942210,10210,40810,832
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)9394921,4651,6111,625
Rubber products8589862,8052,9112,872
Chemicals and chemical products2162182195,0765,2225,596
Petroleum and coal products424242375404421
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.5475395276,5416,8257,211
Basic metal manufactures8480818509241,020
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)3894034297,9028,3068,903
Machinery (except electrical)5054955138,9639,4149,869
Electrical machinery and appliances1351351424,0814,4214,711
Transport equipment1,9542,0052,03121,99422,04522,199
Miscellaneous products2242312502,9743,4443,825
Totals8,5298,5658,550162,985168,742172,106

Persons engaged are shown in the table below for the year 1959–60 classified into working proprietors, managerial and clerical staff, and wage earners.

Industry GroupWorking Proprietors, Managers, Clerical StaffWage-earning EmployeesAll Persons Engaged
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesTotal
Food3,1161,08123,2543,63326,3704,71431,084
Beverages3011291,5641051,8652342,099
Tobacco manufactures84473737404577871,244
Textiles5673114,6154,5315,1824,84210,024
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,4601,0614,49918,0695,95919,13025,089
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,76528711,01813912,78342613,209
Furniture and fittings6991873,6624124,3615994,960
Paper and paper products5521953,2991,2673,8511,4625,313
Printing, publishing etc.1,3538706,9761,6338,3292,50310,832
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)180618884961,0685571,625
Rubber products3471302,0083872,3555172,872
Chemicals and chemical products8554103,3669654,2211,3755,596
Petroleum and coal products86312851937150421
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.9042075,6914096,5956167,211
Basic metal manufactures1583681016968521,020
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,1193366,7786707,8971,0068,903
Machinery (except electrical)1,5304067,7641699,2945759,869
Electrical machinery and appliances4592132,9821,0573,4411,2704,711
Transport equipment3,6401,01817,34319820,9831,21622,199
Miscellaneous products4181781,9921,2372,4101,4153,825
Totals19,5937,194109,16736,152128,76043,346172,106

Further information is given in the following table on persons engaged in 1959–60. Totals in each industrial group are shown by provincial districts.

Industry GroupAucklandHawke's BayTaranakiWellingtonMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoTotal
Otago PortionSouthland Portion
Food11,7692,5742,2434,394298692314,3942,5572,13231,084
Beverages96511963365105229265203282,099
Tobacco manufactures1111909431,244
Textiles2,700201402,0884463,0141,8636810,024
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods12,0754096645,483159561744,6071,33912325,089
Wood and cork products (except furniture)7,0144175491,552706234091,38059260313,209
Furniture and fittings2,36125868937166398313141034,960
Paper and paper products3,744248352582272255,313
Printing, publishing, etc.3,9554012583,23759165731,58385624510,832
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)796177165394199471,625
Rubber products8462320582691,3542752,872
Chemicals and chemical products2,0021552231,86732366445351025,596
Petroleum and coal products2196131114824421
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.3,41521292872332061541,4085103097,211
Basic metal manufactures37520618222044381,020
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)4,66388461,99155941,1457941088,903
Machinery (except electrical)4,5603783841,9117950651,5855882699,869
Electrical machinery and appliances1,530951,5231,1164474,711
Transport equipment8,7458367245,2162346611873,3161,39188922,199
Miscellaneous products1,80238411,12751455971603,825
Totals73,6476,4415,64135,3811,0562,7241,14028,14312,6695,264172,106

The distribution of the sexes among the persons engaged shows a considerable preponderance of males. In the five years prior to the Second World War the proportion of female employees in factories was steady at approximately 25 per cent. After rising rapidly to a peak of 31.5 per cent in 1942–43 as a result of additional women being recruited for factory work and men being called for military service, the proportion then fell equally rapidly back to the pre-war figure. At present this percentage is 25.2.

In the smaller districts there are few industries employing female labour to any great extent; but the male preponderance is considerably smaller in the four main districts, where female labour is in great demand mainly on account of the importance of the clothing and textile industries. The greater number of females in manufacturing industries are engaged in four classes: food; footwear and other wearing apparel; textiles; and printing, publishing, etc. In 1959–60 these classes accounted for 72 per cent of all females in factories. In two classes only did the number of females exceed the number of males — viz, tobacco manufactures, where there were 172 females to every 100 males, and footwear and other wearing apparel, etc., where there were 321 females per 100 males. The lower table on the previous page shows the average number of males and females engaged according to industry groups for the year 1959–60.

Further information is available in the table below on the extent to which females were engaged in factories in New Zealand for 1959–60. This table gives by provincial districts the number of males per 100 females engaged, and the total persons engaged per 1,000 of population.

Provincial DistrictMalesFemalesTotalNumber of Males per 100 FemalesTotal Population at 1 April 1960Total Persons Engaged per 1,000 of Population
Auckland54,58419,06373,647286972,06176
Hawke's Bay5,1841,2576,441412110,90058
Taranaki4,8028395,641572100,10056
Wellington25,25310,12835,381249459,40077
Marlborough8462101,05640328,40037
Nelson2,3224022,72457874,20037
Westland9461941,14048818,70061
Canterbury20,5607,58328,143271336,70584
Otago—
    Otago portion9,4123,25712,669289176,20072
    Southland portion4,8514135,2641,17593,50056
Totals128,76043,346172,1062972,370,16673

A classification of the establishments, according to the number of persons engaged, is given at five-yearly intervals from 1929–30 onwards. Figures for the two latest years are added. Since 1951–52 the series no longer includes certain sectors of production previously included — principal omissions being the logging activities of sawmills and the operations of gas and electric supply stations.

YearFactories With Persons Engaged Numbering —Total
10 or Under11–2021–5051–100Over 100
 Number of Factories
1929–303,4768005911641375,168
1934–353,7257644961431425,270
1939–404,2189577722121836,342
1944–454,1391,0468332701976,485
1949–504,9931,4091,1063122078,027
1954–555,3501,4731,0203102138,366
1958–595,3161,6031,0893132448,565
1959–605,2421,6211,1083122678,550
 Number of Persons Engaged
1929–3015,47411,78517,97711,65825,96782,861
1934–3514,90111,32115,3099,71628,11179,358
1939–4017,21214,04823,31614,73739,409108,722
1944–4518,38215,54725,78718,80943,889122,414
1949–5024,48120,60834,38621,30443,530144,309
1954–5527,20621,43231,65021,80851,479153,575
1958–5927,35523,50133,81922,09561,972168,742
1959–6026,92623,75534,10521,66665,654172,106

The classification according to the number of persons engaged shows clearly that, judged by the standards of highly industrialised communities, the average size of the industrial unit in New Zealand is small. Factories employing 10 persons or under accounted for 61.3 per cent of the total number of factories in 1959–60.

A further break-up by employment groups, this time by industrial classes, is shown in the following table, which gives both the number of establishments and persons engaged in each industrial group for the year 1959–60.

Industry GroupEstablishments (E) Persons (P)Factories With Persons Engaged Numbering —Total
Under 66 to 1011 to 2021 to 5051 to 100101 to 200Over 200
FoodE184178178101301441726
 P6441,3712,6413,1462,0781,95219,25231,084
BeveragesE53262112422120
 P1542003063703242375082,099
Tobacco manufacturesE1126
 P67831909041,244
TextilesE25254539171413178
 P911936641,2431,1771,8844,77210,024
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goodsE168188282271722691,016
 P6011,4844,1978,3034,9943,3292,18125,089
Wood and cork products (except furniture)E36632924310813531,067
 P1,2762,5363,5323,1968646941,11113,209
Furniture and fittingsE245123724992500
 P7229341,0931,4875991254,960
Paper and pulp productsE161516341084103
 P591142441,1007161,1591,9215,313
Printing, publishing, etc.E13698855925910422
 P4597621,2741,8211,8071,0923,61710,832
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)E341916147292
 P1021492263935242311,625
Rubber productsE2532101021686
 P972391413071201891,7792,872
Chemicals and chemical productsE644733451614219
 P2113654541,4431,1102,0135,596
Petroleum and coal productsE18109542
 P5769134161421
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.E2821117639856527
 P8888511,0921,2045397121,9257,211
Basic metal manufacturesE26291861181
 P98230261183541941,020
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)E139104885823134429
 P4917811,2641,8541,5711,8011,1418,903
Machinery (except electrical)E202119877016118513
 P6979041,2952,2371,1051,4912,1409,869
Electrical machinery and appliancesE392720301484142
 P1352043099611,0221,0889924,711
Transport equipmentE97859329012433492,031
 P3,4674,4924,1443,6562,2065843,65022,199
Miscellaneous productsE112573232116250
 P3894104849737737963,825
TotalsE3,1122,1301,6211,1083121461218,550
 P10,63816,28823,75534,10521,66619,76145,893172,106

SALARIES AND WAGES — The figures relating to the amounts paid as salaries and wages include amounts paid as bonuses and for overtime, also amounts drawn in lieu of salary by working proprietors. The amounts received by male and female employees (inclusive of all groups — executive, clerical, and wage earning), and the average amount received per employee of each sex, as recorded in the last five collections, are set out below.

YearMalesFemalesBoth Sexes
TotalAverageTotalAverageTotalAverage
 ££££££
1955–5691,851,51577716,087,203402107,938,718682
1956–5794,765,08880416,182,436416110,947,524708
1957–58102,240,30483917,748,949431119,989,253736
1958–59108,776,93786619,501,322452128,278,259760
1959–60116,076,16090120,099,680464136,175,840791

The averages shown relate to all persons engaged, irrespective of age, industry, status, and personal occupation, and year-to-year comparisons may also be affected by changes in any of these factors. The figures do, however, give an indication of the increased earnings of factory workers in recent years, the average for males having risen by 52.5 per cent and for females by 46.4 per cent since 1951–52.

The amount of salaries and wages paid in each industrial group and in all industries during the last three years is given hereunder.

Industry GroupSalaries and Wages Paid
1957–581958–591959–60
 £(000)
Food24,97126,92028,769
Beverages1,8821,8571,831
Tobacco manufactures736801796
Textiles5,4146,2246,871
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods13,11514,13413,908
Wood and cork products (except furniture)9,63610,31111,024
Furniture and fittings3,6753,7143,847
Paper and pulp products4,0774,3624,761
Printing, publishing, etc.7,8868,3169,020
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)9901,1281,124
Rubber products2,5482,6722,694
Chemicals and chemical products3,9124,1254,558
Petroleum and coal products320350378
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.5,2025,5496,083
Basic metal manufactures724808917
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)6,3776,9667,667
Machinery (except electrical)7,2087,8298,497
Electrical machinery and appliances2,8483,1893,512
Transport equipment16,49116,62117,163
Miscellaneous products1,9802,4002,756
Totals119,989128,278136,176

In the following table an analysis is made of the 1959–60 totals according to provincial districts in which the industries were carried on.

Industry GroupAucklandHawke's BayTaranakiWellingtonMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoTotal
Otago PortionSouthland Portion

* To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in those for Miscellaneous products.

† Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

 Salaries and Wages Paid 1959–60
 £(000)
Food10,4732,2882,2434,184277503254,2492,1722,35428,769
Beverages84410145345*4224227173*1,831
Tobacco manufactures***796
Textiles1,847163*1,506*242,0171,238506,871
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods6,7741923073,11081**2,6056775913,908
Wood and cork products (except furniture)6,0903394111,222504953591,10745749411,024
Furniture and fittings1,90520048745*44*598213763,847
Paper and paper products3,571*706*1751311614,761
Printing, publishing, etc.3,2462932182,89349131601,2466901949,020
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)56013*119*229173271,124
Rubber products815*16596**1,20624*2,694
Chemicals and chemical products1,5801601801,592**485407904,558
Petroleum and coal products197**1094315378
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.2,86517774766262071581,0984432706,083
Basic metal manufactures339*167*17836*917
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)4,07987371,663*49*963684977,667
Machinery (except electrical)4,0383233101,6936038431,2924632378,497
Electrical machinery and appliances1,080721,2107963543,512
Transport equipment6,7345964944,3421764741322,5401,03564017,163
Miscellaneous products1,3711872471,44794669441710936 2,756
Totals58,4065,1934,63128,4158132,07489421,4719,4954,784136,176

A further analysis of salaries and wages paid is given in the table below for 1959–60, and shows the amounts paid to working proprietors, managers, clerical staff, and those paid to other employees, i.e., wage earners. As mentioned earlier, drawings in lieu of salaries are included for proprietors actively engaged in the business. Males and females are distinguished throughout.

Industry GroupWorking Proprietors, Managers, Clerical StaffWage-earning EmployeesAll Persons Engaged
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesTotal
 Salaries and Wages Paid 1959–60
 £(000)
Food3,62055422,9481,64726,5682,20128,769
Beverages354661,355551,7091221,831
Tobacco manufactures11425305352419377796
Textiles7291723,8052,1654,5352,3376,871
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,8226623,5837,8415,4048,50313,908
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,9671398,8526610,81920511,024
Furniture and fittings809922,7631833,5722753,847
Paper and paper products7861123,2785854,0646974,761
Printing, publishing, etc.1,6034576,1947667,7971,2239,020
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)211306572278682571,124
Rubber products449671,9941842,4432512,694
Chemicals and chemical products1,0552322,8474243,9036554,558
Petroleum and coal products10618245935127378
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.1,0361134,7621725,7982856,083
Basic metal manufactures21621673788928917
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,4091825,7213567,1305377,667
Machinery (except electrical)1,8332086,365918,1973008,497
Electrical machinery and appliances5561142,3804612,9365753,512
Transport equipment3,77147912,80510816,57658817,163
Miscellaneous products5491011,5515552,1006562,756
Totals22,9953,84493,08116,256116,07620,100136,176

The following statement shows the average earnings of males and females for the past 10 years and, although the basis of the calculations changed in the year 1951–52 the figures shown below should compare reasonably well

YearProprietors Actively EngagedManagers, OverseersAccountants, ClerksWage-earning EmployeesTotals
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 Average Salary or Wage
 ££££££££££
1950–51531399797499511296514281535286
1951–52596459871525576330566311591317
1952–53628436922568626354593324621331
1953–54746497995590688388640344672353
1954–557995431,072655733411697373730382
1955–568405971,127683794436741392777402
1956–578915621,179723822457764404804416
1957–589196211,241744848477797419839431
1958–599556691,298752880491821441866452
1959–601,0026521,359793926514853450901464

MOTIVE POWER — A supply of cheap motive power is a material element in industrial development. New Zealand industries were formerly handicapped in this respect, long railway hauls and, in some instances, sea carriage being involved in the transport of coal from the mines to the factories. The development of the country's electric power resources (as described in Section 20A) has been a potent factor in industrial growth, especially as the rates compare very favourably with those in other more highly industrialised countries. (The overall price for a unit retailed in 1959–60 was 1.37d. with much lower rates for industrial supply in the urban areas.) Despite the fact that since the outbreak of the Second World War shortage of electricity generating capacity has from time to time led to restrictions on the use of electric current, manufacturing production has not been materially affected. These restrictions have been lifted since July 1956 in the South Island and since the end of 1958 in the North Island.

The following table shows the number and aggregate horsepower of each class of engine used in factories in the years 1929–30, 1939–40, 1949–50, and the latest year available.

Class of Engine1929–301939–401949–501959–60

* Included in “other”.

ElectricNo.15,01532,01386,227165,797
 h.p.131,163213,237399,925770,213
SteamNo.1,3681,012*407
 h.p.52,98049,769*18,379
Petrol and light oilNo.  *709
 h.p.262382*14,276
Heavy oilNo.3,6859,546*265
 h.p.  *16,403
OtherNo.3921661,729115
 h.p.14,5674,81356,1883,611
TotalsNo.17,03733,57387,956167,293
 h.p.202,395277,365456,113822,882

The figures relating to horsepower represent the rated horsepower of engines ordinarily in use for driving factory plant. Steam boilers and engines for generating electric power in own works are excluded.

The following table shows the types and rated horsepower of engines ordinarily in use in the various industries during 1959–60.

Industry GroupRated Horsepower of Engines in Use
ElectricSteamPetrol and Light OilHeavy OilOtherTotal
Food188,5188,2761,1071,706217199,824
Beverages12,940205793113,255
Tobacco manufactures1,5951,595
Textiles31,069931368032,116
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods15,493115155215115,979
Wood and cork products (except furniture)116,8277,2927,0489,8111,594142,572
Furniture and fittings15,5904615,600
Paper and paper products109,15232028015320110,087
Printing, publishing, etc.18,6957241,97178021,477
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)6,372100262 286,762
Rubber products22,5101722,527
Chemicals and chemical products40,1034078218633441,751
Petroleum and coal products3,4584232743,831
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.73,5415901,0881,84414677,209
Basic metal manufactures5,66716255,708
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)27,01519347904127,512
Machinery (except electrical)32,92681,0984292434,485
Electrical machinery and appliances9,4699,469
Transport equipment30,313531,5351804232,123
Miscellaneous products8,96010309,000
Totals770,21318,37914,27616,4033,611822,882

CONSUMPTION OF COAL — During the year 1959–60, 1,027,427 tons of New Zealand coal were used in industries covered by the statistics of factory production. Comparable figures for the two previous years were: 1958–59, 1,070,670 tons, and 1957–58, 1,053,204 tons. It is important to note that the new series of factory production statistics no longer includes the activities of the gas-making industry and electric generation and supply stations. These two industries for the year 1959–60 used 276,045 tons and 446,027 tons of coal respectively.

The following table shows for the year 1959–60 the consumption of coal by industrial groups.

Industry GroupTons of Coal Used
Food507,007
Beverages17,193
Tobacco manufactures300
Textiles52,839
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods2,376
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,023
Furniture and fittings118
Paper and paper products126,040
Printing, publishing, etc.301
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)7,013
Rubber products18,501
Chemicals and chemical products27,125
Petroleum and coal products39,598
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.222,765
Basic metal manufactures195
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,875
Machinery (except electrical)728
Electrical machinery and appliances1,117
Transport equipment661
Miscellaneous products652
Total1,027,427

Approximately 83.3 per cent of the amount of coal used is accounted for in three groups: food, paper and paper products, and non-metallic mineral products n.e.i. Individual industries using more than 10,000 tons of coal in 1959–60 are as follows.

IndustryTons
Milk products other than butter and cheese200,829
Cement160,718
Meat freezing and preserving154,875
Pulp, paper and paperboard125,611
Butter and cheese100,621
Structural clay products43,378
Petroleum and coal products39,038
Woollen milling28,385
Food preparations n.e.i.26,403
Brewing of ale and stout14,035
Vegetable and animal oils and fats12,570
Hosiery and knitting mills12,328
Lime10,574
Rubber goods other than tyres and tubes10,041

MATERIALS — The value of materials used does not afford a very satisfactory basis of comparison as between one industry or industrial group and another, for the reason that the changes wrought during the process of manufacture vary considerably in degree. An example of the wide differences which may occur in the ratio of cost of materials to value of goods produced will be seen in the food group and the wood and cork products (except furniture) group. The values shown for materials used include the cost of containers and packing but exclude fuel costs.

Totals for the latest year show that the cost of materials used in food manufacture was £200,952,672, and the goods produced were valued at £258,807,372, while the materials used in the manufacture of wood and cork products cost £23,978,916 and finished goods produced were valued at £45,362,819.

The cost of materials used in each industrial group and in all industries for each of the latest three years was as follows.

Industry GroupCost of Materials Used
1957–581958–591959–60
 £(000)
Food200,619195,021200,953
Beverages5,6225,2675,209
Tobacco manufactures4,9055,2035,611
Textiles20,22020,29525,221
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods24,07026,07824,960
Wood and cork products (except furniture)20,05522,09323,979
Furniture and fittings6,3186,3026,596
Paper and paper products12,24313,92614,487
Printing, publishing, etc.8,1708,5809,449
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)2,5452,8033,185
Rubber products5,4255,4765,378
Chemicals and chemical products18,76118,95520,854
Petroleum and coal products2,0912,2912,348
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.7,2327,5248,359
Basic metal manufactures1,9252,0342,442
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)12,58713,73114,773
Machinery (except electrical)16,06314,08715,890
Electrical machinery and appliances7,2548,3518,714
Transport equipment38,23836,15935,823
Miscellaneous products3,5754,4724,858
Totals417,918418,647439,088

An analysis by provincial districts of the cost of materials used for the year 1959–60 is given below.

Industry GroupAucklandHawke's BayTaranakiWellingtonMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoTotal
Otago PortionSouthland Portion

* To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in those for Miscellaneous products.

† Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

 Cost of Materials Used 1959–60
 £(000)
Food95,53510,63620,40626,0221,3882,78254220,30211,51411,827200,953
Beverages2,69822569615*68421,048416*5,209
Tobacco manufactures***5,611
Textiles6,6583,564*5,053*446,2812,82876925,221
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods11,9083906535,847194**4,5881,08310824,960
Wood and cork products (except furniture)13,8718647632,852951,1116942,01487284523,979
Furniture and fittings3,350257621,263*50*1,0404441126,596
Paper and paper products10,284*2,476*76232951014,487
Printing, publishing, etc.3,9342311412,6612670241,4707391539,449
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1,57074*186*4505903023,185
Rubber products1,550*271,171**2,50161*5,378
Chemicals and chemical products7,7519021,3716,944**1,4581,72851820,854
Petroleum and coal products1,108**973165502,348
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.4,4132241051,155302611291,1056073308,359
Basic metal manufactures1,235*375*18820*2,442
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)7,922180933,552*65*1,6101,14420114,773
Machinery (except electrical)7,7495714533,5167143322,38077430015,890
Electrical machinery and appliances3,0691252,8832,2214158,714
Transport equipment11,65078668715,0042096272034,2651,3221,06435,823
Miscellaneous products2,8901,0337125,8237723015669114836 4,858
Totals199,14720,06125,54388,3722,0905,3501,82754,53725,08517,076439,088

A large proportion of the total cost of materials is accounted for by the food group, which includes the semi-primary industries dealing with meat freezing and preserving and the manufacture of butter, cheese, and other milk products. In the latest year, for example, the cost of materials used by this group, £200,952,672, represented 46 per cent of the total cost of materials used by all industries, £439,087,799. For this reason, variations in the prices received for primary produce have a very marked effect on this total.

PRODUCTS — The value of products is based upon the valuation of goods at the factory door. It is the selling value at the factory to customers of all goods made or processed during the year after deducting all costs of selling and distribution.

In making use of the gross value of products it must be borne in mind that the figures include the value of raw materials operated upon, which value normally constitutes approximately two-thirds of the value of products. Where the products of one industry — for example, sawmilling — are treated again in other industries, such as furniture making, joinery, etc., part of the value of the timber shown as products of the former industry appears again as the materials of the latter industry and enters into the value of furniture and joinery made. Duplication of this kind is found in many industries.

The following tables show the gross value of products for each industrial group and for all industries for the last three years available.

Industry GroupProducts
1957–581958–591959–60
 £(000)
Food246,190241,906258,807
Beverages11,14911,23211,030
Tobacco manufactures6,7307,1847,646
Textiles30,02231,67338,303
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods42,72446,57245,172
Wood and cork products (except furniture)38,64841,72445,363
Furniture and fittings11,82311,88712,419
Paper and paper products27,05429,55631,218
Printing, publishing, etc.22,89523,95126,179
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)4,1104,6365,182
Rubber products10,90011,47011,529
Chemicals and chemical products28,91429,82233,891
Petroleum and coal products2,9363,2483,416
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.20,67821,53323,725
Basic metal manufactures3,2993,6344,228
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)23,75225,94828,702
Machinery (except electrical)28,17926,65929,718
Electrical machinery and appliances12,55614,35715,102
Transport equipment65,26563,39263,883
Miscellaneous products7,1049,07010,104
Totals644,929659,455705,617

A similar analysis by provincial districts, but limited to the year 1959–60, is now given.

Industry GroupAucklandHawke's BayTaranakiWellingtonMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoTotal
Otago PortionSouthland Portion

* To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in those for Miscellaneous products.

† Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

 Products 1959–60
 £(000)
Food116,47214,57524,77534,4321,9083,69359228,63016,17217,560258,807
Beverages5,1325071671,722*1781122,0981,013*11,030
Tobacco manufactures***7,646
Textiles10,6143,883*7,984*889,6905,09187538,303
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods21,8846821,17510,371311**8,2082,00319745,172
Wood and cork products (except furniture)26,2571,5241,4914,9951862,0191,4803,9301,7221,75945,363
Furniture and fittings6,2365571222,381*110*1,94780422112,419
Paper and paper products24,420*3,899*1,19262089931,218
Printing, publishing, etc.10,1378065137,8101282931173,8042,05052426,179
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)2,600102*374*8348603925,182
Rubber products3,349*672,507**5,336120*11,529
Chemicals and chemical products12,4331,4062,00311,476**2,6312,71383033,891
Petroleum and coal products1,672**1,286272903,416
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.11,8645812382,629771,2754873,3692,1161,08823,725
Basic metal manufactures1,934*686*49186*4,228
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)15,0523231597,009*151*3,3012,32036828,702
Machinery (except electrical)14,3831,0769316,301158102994,3861,58669529,718
Electrical machinery and appliances5,0762234,9823,89292915,102
Transport equipment22,0621,7191,49123,0934621,3084128,4462,8592,03263,883
Miscellaneous products5,6811,5181,2148,9212844033001,465311119 10,104
Totals317,25629,48134,347142,8583,5149,6193,59993,92043,46327,559705,617

ADDED VALUE — As indicated under the heading of “Products”, the value of products is not always a satisfactory measure of either the absolute or the relative importance of a given industry, for the reason that only part of this value is actually created by the manufacturing processes carried on in the industry itself. In many cases by far the larger portion of the value of products represents the value of the materials used. From a manufacturing standpoint, the best measure of the importance of an industry is the value created by the manufacturing operations carried on within the industry. This value is obtained in New Zealand by deducting the cost of materials used from the gross value of the products, and is referred to as the “added value”.

The tables given herewith show the added value for each industrial group and for all industries for each of the last three years available, with an analysis of the 1959–60 totals according to the provincial districts in which the industries were carried on.

Industry GroupAdded Value
1957–581958–591959–60
 £(000)
Food45,57146,88557,855
Beverages5,5275,9655,822
Tobacco manufactures1,8251,9812,035
Textiles9,80211,37813,082
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods18,65420,49420,212
Wood and cork products (except furniture)18,59319,63121,384
Furniture and fittings5,5055,5865,823
Paper and paper products14,81215,63116,731
Printing, publishing, etc.14,72615,37116,730
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1,5651,8331,997
Rubber products5,4755,9936,151
Chemicals and chemical products10,15310,86713,037
Petroleum and coal products8459571,068
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.13,44614,00915,366
Basic metal manufactures1,3741,6001,786
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)11,16512,21713,929
Machinery (except electrical)12,11612,57213,828
Electrical machinery and appliances5,3026,0076,389
Transport equipment27,02727,23328,060
Miscellaneous products3,5294,5985,247
Totals227,011240,807266,529

The analysis for 1959–60 by provincial districts now follows.

Industry GroupAucklandHawke's BayTaranakiWellingtonMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoTotal
Otago PortionSouthland Portion

* To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in Miscellaneous products.

† Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

 Added Value 1959–60
 £(000)
Food20,9363,9404,3698,410520911508,3284,6585,73357,855
Beverages2,434282981,107*110701,050598*5,822
Tobacco manufactures***2,035
Textiles3,955319*2,931*443,4092,26310713,082
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods9,9752935214,524117**3,6199208920,212
Wood and cork products (except furniture)12,3866607282,144919087871,91784991421,384
Furniture and fittings2,885299601,118*60*9073591095,823
Paper and paper products14,136*1,423*43029138916,731
Printing, publishing, etc.6,2035743725,149101222932,3331,31137116,730
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1,03028*189*384270891,997
Rubber products1,799*401,336**2,83559*6,151
Chemicals and chemical products4,6825046334,532**1,17398531213,037
Petroleum and coal products564**313107391,068
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.7,4513571331,474471,0143592,2651,50975815,366
Basic metal manufactures699*311*30466*1,786
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)7,130143663,456*86*1,6911,17516713,929
Machinery (except electrical)6,6335054782,7858860672,00681239413,828
Electrical machinery and appliances2,007982,0991,6715146,389
Transport equipment10,4129338048,0892536812034,1801,53696828,060
Miscellaneous products2,7914855023,09820717414377516382 5,247
Totals118,1099,4208,80454,4861,4244,2681,77239,38318,37910,483266,529

A further table is shown below giving details of added value by industry groups and the main employment districts of the Department of Labour. This compilation is a comparatively new one in the factory production series and serves to pinpoint the main areas of manufacture far better than does the classification by provincial districts shown in the previous table. (The first table on page 497 also gives information by employment districts.)

Industry GroupAucklandLower HuttWellingtonOther North Island DistrictsChristchurchDunedinOther South Island DistrictsTotal for New ZealandPercentage of Total

* Included in Miscellaneous.

 Added value 1959–60
 £(000)
Food12,7971,5731,23522,0505,7753,67710,74857,85521.71
Beverages1,7871015581,4759315983715,8222.18
Tobacco manufactures****2,0350.76
Textiles3,7179375602,0402,4051,9291,49313,0824.91
Footwear, clothing9,0807912,5572,8863,57791241020,2127.58
Wood manufactures2,83447837712,2301,6267353,10521,3848.02
Furniture and fittings2,6634213549268733582285,8232.18
Paper and paper products3,90040059410,92143029138916,9246.35
Printing, publishing5,0172184,1112,7582,1021,2701,06016,5376.20
Leather and products1,0194210093375270991,9970.75
Rubber products1,5421,050785482,82859466,1512.31
Chemicals and products3,9522,4571,4832,4591,14896357513,0374.89
Petroleum, coal products464812261511053931,0680.40
Non-metallic mineral products4,3485163284,2221,8571,3822,71315,3665.77
Basic metal products65913610750027366451,7860.67
Metal products6,9011,4561,3241,1141,6431,16832313,9295.23
Machinery5,2097931,0133,3861,81168693113,8285.19
Electrical products1,8075421,4873671,671514..6,3892.40
Transport6,3094,6821,6347,6123,6061,313290328,06010.53
Miscellaneous2,5531,8781,056791768163745,2471.97
Totals, added value76,55718,55019,18276,53033,80416,39425,512266,529100.00
Percentage of New Zealand Total28.736.967.2028.7112.686.159.57100.00

A final table on added value has been compiled which classifies factories into several added value groupings, giving a general picture of size distribution.

Added Value GroupsEstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of Materials UsedValue of OutputAdded Value
TotalPer Person Engaged
£NumberNumber£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000) 
Under 5,0002,1977,1724,9698,33615,4177,081987
5,000–9,9992,15914,00510,01220,06735,65515,5871,113
10,000–19,9991,92322,49016,39341,92369,31627,3931,218
20,000–49,9991,41232,89123,94679,468122,96943,5011,323
50,000–99,99945621,19315,89275,673107,00731,3341,479
100,000–499,99932539,85031,32084,737148,83164,0941,608
500,000 and over7834,50533,645128,884206,42177,5372,247
Totals8,550172,106136,176439,088705,617266,5291,549

The development of factory production in New Zealand from 1930–31 onward is clearly portrayed in the following diagram, which also shows the relationship between cost of materials, added value, and value of output.

EXPENSES OF OPERATION — Total operating costs of factory production for the year 1959–60 amounted to £648,226,915, of which salaries and wages accounted for £136,175,840, cost of materials for £439,087,799, and other expenses for £72,963,276, while value of output totalled £705,616,999.

The table below shows the principal items comprised in the figure for expenses of operation, other than salaries and wages and cost of materials, by industry groups for the year 1959–60.

Industry GroupCoalElectricityCoke, Gas, Oils, etc.InsuranceInterest on Loans, etc.DepreciationRentRepairs and MaintenanceOtherTotal
 £(000)
Food2,3371,6253677874953,4903323,0903,74716,271
Beverages9097576686690443086472,085
Tobacco manufactures2111228271261052354622
Textiles24722166163153698918441,0353,517
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods13219461612035255634351,4933,659
Wood and cork products (except furniture)54671365373501,2821201,2712,0976,265
Furniture and fittings1788104641641211103651,015
Paper and paper products5299123482795292,089869951,6807,447
Printing, publishing, etc.2167471441359061753872,0504,013
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)303053421653276111403
Rubber products91164757727394332045781,643
Chemicals and chemical products1352401091942181,210706631,1774,016
Petroleum and coal products4253617867864150378
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.1,1945184412031971,306621,1221,0636,106
Basic metal manufactures146562325681560151446
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)81991081681835211793981,2533,018
Machinery (except electrical)51841142022084991623511,3373,061
Electrical machinery and appliances6137757371237551487281,529
Transport equipment53491113882461,0705246842,8456,222
Miscellaneous products4991968552441151984471,249
Totals4,7085,7882,2353,7163,30015,6532,79711,45923,30772,963

CAPITAL INVESTED AND ASSETS — Information as to the amount of capital invested in manufacturing industries was collected for some years, but the figures obtained were found to be unsatisfactory. The chief factors militating against the collection of reliable information have been the methods of accounting in use in many of the smaller establishments, and the difficulty of apportioning capital where an establishment is only partly manufacturing.

A more satisfactory indication of the capital investment in a manufacturing industry is obtained from figures of manufacturers' fixed assets. Not only are the figures more reliable than those for capital invested, but they do not suffer from the understatement of capital (from the economic viewpoint) which occurs in those cases where the factory premises, or, in some few cases, even the plant, is not owned by the manufacturer, but is rented. In these cases an estimate of the value of the rented asset has been obtained by capitalising the annual rental shown. Approximations in the figures for fixed assets are also made where one building houses two or more factories carrying on different industries, necessitating an apportionment as between the industries. In most instances, too, fixed assets are stated at their book value, and this may be an overstatement due to insufficient allowance having been made for depreciation, obsolescence, etc., or an understatement owing to appreciated site value, excessive allowance for depreciation, or currency depreciation resulting in the assets being understated in terms of their present earning capacity or replacement cost. It is necessary to bear in mind these limitations to the accuracy of the figures of fixed assets appearing in the following table, which shows the values of these assets for each of the last three years together with an analysis by principal industries for 1959–60. For the year 1959–60 information is also shown by industry groups of the amounts expended during the year by way of capital additions and alterations, together with totals for all industries for the two previous years. These latter amounts cannot be taken as the total capital expended by New Zealand manufacturers during the year, as they do not include capital expenditure of firms not yet in production.

Industry GroupCapital Additions and Alterations During the YearValue at End of Year (Including Estimated Value of Rented Assets)
Land and BuildingsPlant and MachineryTotalLand and BuildingsPlant and MachineryTotal
Totals—££££££
    1957–589,420,30813,801,68723,221,995112,758,58476,528,492189,287,076
    1958–5911,184,62416,653,92127,838,545123,629,07782,257,290205,886,367
1959–60—
    Food3,290,4313,580,2006,870,63134,332,65421,816,53756,149,191
    Beverages499,9611,008,9131,508,8744,848,5653,721,9158,570,480
    Tobacco manufactures13,302190,994204,296714,178710,0171,424,195
    Textiles440,6771,135,2331,575,9104,855,6204,123,3518,978,971
    Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods385,195593,289978,4849,950,7513,506,68813,457,439
    Wood and cork products (except furniture)565,104924,3761,489,4808,118,0447,048,70915,166,753
    Furniture and fittings154,968174,767329,7353,223,750976,7704,200,520
    Paper and paper products626,0781,619,9272,246,0057,614,87010,236,69417,851,564
    Printing, publishing, etc.587,8761,083,3621,671,2387,805,5476,031,39513,836,942
    Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)46,80974,988121,797816,377336,6551,153,032
    Rubber products107,277345,524452,8011,964,3491,608,1423,572,491
    Chemicals and chemical products561,282651,9951,213,2778,160,0845,160,34813,320,432
    Petroleum and coal products47,577161,118208,695460,079436,051896,130
    Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.736,6972,029,2402,765,9377,048,7117,866,10614,914,817
    Basic metal manufactures56,82586,981143,806780,918488,8481,269,766
    Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)427,777714,4361,142,2136,233,9533,070,3869,304,339
    Machinery (except electrical)360,657589,683950,3405,772,1503,080,3338,852,483
    Electrical machinery and appliances289,422290,962580,3842,698,1801,083,7053,781,885
    Transport equipment1,040,292927,4801,967,77218,440,8794,587,29523,028,174
    Miscellaneous products126,455391,389517,8442,709,9271,287,5173,997,444
Totals, 1959–6010,364,66216,574,85726,939,519136,549,58687,177,462223,727,048

MANUFACTURERS' STOCKS — A quarterly survey of manufacturers' stocks has been conducted by the Department of Statistics since 1957. The survey is carried out on a sample basis, the selection representing approximately 10 per cent of all the factories covered by the annual census of factory production. The number of establishments included in the sample is approximately 900 and their combined stocks as returned in the annual survey at March 1957 represented 67 per cent by value of total manufacturers' stocks.

The following table compares in summary form the results of the quarterly surveys from 31 March 1959 to 31 March 1961. In presenting the results, the chief seasonal industries — meat processing and dairy products manufacture — have been segregated to assist in the interpretation of movements in stock holdings. The heading “Materials” includes work in progress, fuel, and miscellaneous supplies.

 Total StocksMovement in Stocks at Annual IntervalsPercentage Movement in Stocks at Annual Intervals
Finished GoodsMaterialsTotalFinished GoodsMaterialsTotalFinished GoodsMaterialsTotal
Including Primary Produce Processing Industries£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)per centper centper cent
    31 March 195945,25981,430126,689−1,019+6,748+5,729− 2.20+9.04+4.74
    30 June 195949,72578,495128,220+3,350+1,421+4,771+7.22+1.84+3.86
    30 September 195945,44577,803123,248+3,710+520+4,230+8.89+0.67+3.55
    31 December 195948,36376,746125,109+3,140−1,681+1,458+6.94−2.14+1.18
    31 March 196053,24782,317135,564+7,988+887+8,875+17.65+1.09+7.01
    30 June 196050,13480,125130,258+408+1,630+2,038+0.82+2.08+1.59
    30 September 196044,54580,012124,557− 900+2,210+1,309−1.98+2.84+1.06
    31 December 196053,02379,730132,753+4,660+2,984+7,644+9.64+3.89+6.12
    31 March 196152,28490,811143,095− 962+8,494+7,531− 1.81+10.32+5.56
Excluding Primary Produce Processing Industries         
    31 March 195924,18876,529100,718+642+6,534+7,177+2.73+9.33+7.67
    30 June 195926,76074,115100,875+2,123+1,443+3,567+8.62+1.99+3.67
    30 September 195928,04873,115101,162+1,855+962+2,817+7.08+1.33+2.86
    31 December 195926,89071,94198,831+2,423−1,595+828+9.90− 2.17+0.85
    31 March 196026,80876,819103,627+2,619+290+2,910+10.83+0.38+2.89
    30 June 196027,33675,460102,796+576+1,346+1,922+2.15+1.82+1.91
    30 September 196029,16475,164104,327+1,116+2,049+3,165+3.98+2.80+3.13
    31 December 196028,24774,628102,875+1,357+2,687+4,044+5.04+3.74+4.09
    31 March 196127,94984,742112,691+1,141+7,923+9,063+4.25+10.31+8.75

More detailed information on stocks is given in the next table showing by industry groups comparative stock figures at the end of March for the years 1960 and 1961.

Industry GroupStocks at 31 MarchIncrease or Decrease in Stocks at 31 March 1960 to March 1961
19601961
Finished GoodsMaterialsTotalFinished GoodsMaterialsTotalFinished GoodsMaterialsTotal
Primary Produce Processing Industries£(000)
    Meat freezing, ham, bacon, and casings19,6683,78923,45717,2374,09521,331−2,432+306−2,126
    Dairy6,7711,7098,4807,0991,9749,073+ 329+265+594
Totals26,4395,49831,93724,3366,06930,405−2,103+571−1,532
Other food4,4047,43311,8374,0648,56412,628– 340+1,131+791
Beverages1,3561,4742,8301,6261,5683,194+ 270+94+364
Tobacco manufactures..5,7235,723..5,7415,741..+18+18
Textiles2,0875,3117,3972,1805,9188,097+93+607+700
Footwear, clothing2,6627,2769,9382,2337,7329,965−429+456+28
Wood manufactures3,0934,0047,0973,7874,4418,228+695+437+1,132
Furniture and fittings4042,0932,4964372,2052,642+34+112+146
Paper and products1,6064,4246,0301,5154,8126,327—91+388+298
Printing, publishing2924,3964,6883024,5874,889+10+192+201
Leather and products2477039502188251,043−28+121+93
Rubber products1,0351,8772,9121,1032,1123,215+68+235+303
Chemicals and products2,9935,7038,6963,1795,7298,908+186+26+212
Petroleum, coal products7932440397373470+18+49+67
Non-metallic mineral products1,3242,7984,1221,4932,9854,478+169+187+356
Basic metal products8769378086752838−1+59+58
Metal products9364,8585,7949156,0526,967−21+1,194+1,173
Machinery1,5645,6537,2171,7705,8987,667+205+245+450
Electrical products8874,0914,9789194,7905,709+32+699+730
Transport9566,2717,2279807,5118,492+24+1,240+1,264
Miscellaneous7961,7162,5121,0442,1473,191+248+431+679
Totals26,80876,819103,62727,94984,742112,691+1,141+7,923+9,063
Grand totals, all factory industries53,24782,317135,56452,28490,811143,095−962+8,494+7,531

ORGANISATION OF INDUSTRY — New Zealand's industrial progress has been fairly rapid, but industry is as yet organised on a relatively small scale.

The law in New Zealand restricts the membership of a partnership to not more than 25 persons, a private company to not fewer than two or more than 25 persons, and a public company to not fewer than seven persons. Cooperation is characteristic of certain industries engaged in the processing of primary products, mainly butter and cheese manufacturing.

Information as to the character of organisation of the establishments engaged in factory production during 1959–60 is given in the following table.

Character of OrganisationNumber of EstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of Materials Used or Operated UponValue of Manufactures or ProductsAdded Value
TotalPer Establishment
  Number£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£
Individual8804,3192,9484,7069,3014,5955,222
Private firm or partnership4882,6891,9623,4376,6873,2496,658
Public registered company83855,88447,022139,705242,003102,298122,074
Private registered company5,855101,65777,734205,846348,960143,11424,443
Municipal and Government1032,8312,3561,9235,5163,59334,885
Cooperative and miscellaneous3864,7264,15583,47193,1509,67925,076
Totals8,550172,106136,176439,088705,617266,52931,173

As would be expected, the average size of establishments operated by public registered companies is larger than in any other type of industrial organisation, the added value per unit being nearly five times as high as that for private registered companies. Private companies, however, occupy a very high place, both numerically and in the share they contribute to the total added value created in New Zealand factories (53.7 per cent in 1959–60, as compared with 38.4 per cent in the case of public companies).

Since 1951–52, the first years of the new series, private and public registered companies have increased their combined share of added value from 87.8 per cent to 92.1 per cent. The separate share of public companies increased from 34.7 per cent to 38.4 per cent, and that of private companies from 53.1 per cent to 53.7 per cent. All other types of organisations listed recorded declines in their share of added value over this period.

VALUE AND VOLUME INDICES OF FACTORY PRODUCTION — Below is a table giving index numbers of added value, value of output, and volume of production based on the year 1938–39. This table commences with the year 1928–29 and runs through to 1950–51, at which stage- a new series was commenced.

Production YearIndex Numbers of —
Value Added in ManufactureValue of OutputVolume of Production
Base: 1938–39 (=100)
1928–29807971
1929–30837974
1930–31756869
1931–32625860
1932–33605863
1933–34645365
1934–35706974
1935–36777981
1936–37909392
1937–38999997
1938–39100100100
1939–40113113110
1940–41125129114
1941–42137136116
1942–43151145120
1943–44162154125
1944–45173166129
1945–46185171131
1946–47205191140
1947–48233238151
1948–49252263155
1949–50285290164
1950–51311345172

With the reclassification in 1951–52 a new series of index numbers was commenced and these are shown below. It should be realised in comparing the two series of index numbers that the latter excludes the activities of three important industries. These relate to the logging operations of saw-millers, previously included in the sawmilling industry, and the generation and supply of gas and electricity, accounting in all for the activities of approximately 10,000 persons. However, the effect of the exclusion of these industries entirely from the new series is not great, as the two series in the overlapping period record very similar movements.

Production YearIndex Numbers of —
Value Added in ManufactureValue of OutputVolume of Production
Base: 1956–57 (=100)
1950–51556375
1951–52687281
1952–53707780
1953–54788285
1954–55909294
1955–56979799
1956–57100100100
1957–58110107107
1958–59116110113
1959–60129117118

The table which follows sets out, by industry groups, index numbers of value of output, added value, and volume of output for the three latest years. It is not possible to arrive at volume of production index numbers for all the groups, for technical reasons, and consequently some have been omitted, but the total index number for the year is calculated in such a way as to include the groups which cannot be assessed separately.

INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE AND VOLUME OF FACTORY PRODUCTION
Base: 1956–57 (=1000)
Industry GroupValue of OutputValue Added in ManufactureVolume of Production
1957–581958–591959–601957–581958–591959–601957–581958–591959–60

* Indices not available for the groups, but allowed for in compiling total index.

Food104310241096105410871383106111211156
Beverages10761084106411141202117310489931002
Tobacco manufactures110811831259109111841216110811481268
Textiles99310471267114213251524111412871426
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods108211801144108611941177105311481106
Wood and cork products (except furniture)10591143124310701129123098710531103
Furniture and fittings114011461197110711231170***
Paper and paper products121213241398124013081401122013061402
Printing, publishing, etc.10971147125411061155125710571093122
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)100511331267103812161324101511721124
Rubber products103210861091108911921223109811441137
Chemicals and chemical products107011031254110911461375104710401163
Petroleum and coal products121713461416112512741422***
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.111611621280112011671280107811211243
Basic metal manufactures97010751251103512061346***
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)113712421374109912031371***
Machinery (except electrical)108010211139108811291242***
Electrical machinery and appliances117413431412117013261410115312931348
Transport equipment108610551063108710951128***
Miscellaneous products119915311705117515311747***
Totals107110951172109611631287107211301180

OVERTIME — Details of overtime worked in factories by wage-earning employees are summarised in the tables given, which show, by industry groups, the hours worked during the latest three years. The averages given are calculated on the basis of the total number of wage earners engaged irrespective of the number who actually worked overtime.

Industry GroupTotal Overtime Hours Worked by Wage Earners (Both Male and Female)
1957–581958–591959–60
Food6,385,2307,243,6567,606,757
Beverages531,347496,345360,096
Tobacco manufactures202,765182,433181,693
Textiles717,444934,8401,024,139
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods740,032796,343673,986
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,418,2091,434,3811,425,646
Furniture and fittings476,858490,997469,302
Paper and paper products709,348845,942929,117
Printing, publishing, etc.816,120890,2701,016,453
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)124,576166,025162,775
Rubber products426,446395,908330,582
Chemicals and chemical products803,396763,275838,883
Petroleum and coal products39,18242,38555,693
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.1,399,7191,330,6931,512,817
Basic metal manufactures134,154172,052174,993
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,382,2431,478,3521,629,909
Machinery (except electrical)1,335,5091,447,8891,629,394
Electrical machinery and appliances453,324464,190483,557
Transport equipment2,114,2801,830,8981,865,677
Miscellaneous products221,627317,360352,613
Totals20,431,80921,724,24122,724,082

The next table shows, by industry groups, the hours of overtime worked during 1959–60 by males and females separately.

Industry GroupTotal Overtime Hours Worked by Wage EarnersAverage Overtime Hours Worked by All Wage Earners
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
Food7,217,765388,992310.4107.1
Beverages350,5729,524224.290.7
Tobacco manufactures87,01594,678233.3127.9
Textiles820,632203,507177.844.9
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods330,949343,03773.619.0
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,421,6653,981129.028.6
Furniture and fittings452,28917,013123.541.3
Paper and paper products842,12386,994255.368.7
Printing, publishing, etc.900,520115,933129.171.0
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)144,21218,563162.437.4
Rubber products316,93613,646157.835.3
Chemicals and chemical products799,06639,817237.441.3
Petroleum and coal products52,6713,022184.8159.1
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.1,444,77168,046253.9166.4
Basic metal manufactures174,287706215.244.1
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,549,33480,575228.6120.3
Machinery (except electrical)1,611,24418,150207.5107.4
Electrical machinery and appliances441,68041,877148.139.6
Transport equipment1,850,26715,410106.777.8
Miscellaneous products300,91551,698151.141.8
Totals21,108,9131,615,169193.444.7

SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS — The following table, by assembling data from previous pages, affords an analysis of production costs in 1959–60, together with the value of products for each industry group and for all industries. In addition, by virtue of the complete details collected annually of the cost structure of goods produced in manufacturing industries, it is possible to give information on the surplus available to manufacturers prior to payment of dividends, taxation, and other appropriations. The only exception occurs in the case of cooperative dairy companies, which do not purchase milk and cream in the way that other manufacturers purchase raw materials. They collect the milk and cream from their shareholders, process it, and pay out to these shareholders the whole of the profits of the sales of the products, less amounts paid to reserves. Manufacturing surplus shown by these companies is therefore confined to the amount of these transfers to reserves and any undistributed profits.

In quite a number of cases, articles produced are transferred at cost to separate selling departments and warehouses, or to retail stores run by the same company or establishment. Where this is apparent, the company concerned is asked to substitute a commercial value for its production. The same procedure holds where a company controls more than one factory, and transfers the products of one to the other for further processing. It must be recognised that estimated values have to be accepted in many transactions of this type.

Industry GroupProduction CostsValue of ProductsManufacturing Surplus
Salaries and WagesCost of All Materials UsedOther Expenses of OperationTotal
 £(000)
Food28,769200,95316,271245,992258,80712,815
Beverages1,8315,2092,0859,12511,0301,905
Tobacco manufactures7965,6116227,0297,646617
Textiles6,87125,2213,51735,60938,3032,693
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods13,90824,9603,65942,52745,1722,645
Wood and cork products (except furniture)11,02423,9796,26541,26745,3634,095
Furniture and fittings3,8476,5961,01511,45912,419960
Paper and paper products4,76114,4877,44726,69531,2184,523
Printing, publishing, etc.9,0209,4494,01322,48226,1793,697
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1,1243,1854034,7125,182470
Rubber products2,6945,3781,6439,71511,5291,814
Chemicals and chemical products4,55820,8544,01629,42833,8914,463
Petroleum and coal products3782,3483783,1043,416312
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.6,0838,3596,10620,54923,7253,177
Basic metal manufactures9172,4424463,8054,228423
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)7,66714,7733,01825,45828,7023,245
Machinery (except electrical)8,49715,8903,06127,44729,7182,271
Electrical machinery and appliances3,5128,7141,52913,75515,1021,348
Transport equipment17,16335,8236,22259,20763,8834,675
Miscellaneous products2,7564,8581,2498,86310,1041,242
Totals136,176439,08872,963648,227705,61757,390

LIST OF CERTAIN COMMODITIES PRODUCED IN RECENT YEARS — The following is a list of certain commodities produced in New Zealand during the years 1957–58 to 1960–61.

Commodity1957–581958–591959–601960–61
ToastersNo.28,55933,64031,59252,365
IronsNo.8,93919,87234,77458,920
Jugs and kettlesNo.55,74447,16953,12256,099
RadiatorsNo.35,12951,11747,24585,981
Vacuum cleanersNo.34,78438,21037,28045,931
Washing machinesNo.36,59735,86638,08048,164
Refrigerators (home and commercial and freezers)No.63,02550,91849,62456,286
Electric rangesNo.29,13034,80632,96937,710
Electric rangettesNo.4,3794,2863,7564,140
RadiosNo.106,304127,632120,867138,255
Women's fully fashioned nylon hosedoz. prs.453,332444,931418,992436,739
Men's half hosedoz. prs.256,928316,083314,311306,256
BlanketsPairs151,872167,827204,620215,261
Floor coverings (textile top coverings)sq. yd.1,827,7352,343,8232,564,1353,576,530
Mattresses—
    Innerspring—
        SingleNo.33,59637,96448,14256,108
        DoubleNo.24,16725,11624,19225,426
    Soft filled—
        SingleNo.84,67273,42873,73975,300
        DoubleNo.23,49721,89616,96316,627
        InfantsNo.16,41014,93711,84810,326
Venetian blindssq. ft.4,172,7703,661,8193,628,5553,769,896
Newspapers produced—
    Dailiesthousand282,133290,052290,462298,704
    Other than dailiesthousand45,49746,47450,53950,734
Hot-water bottlesNo.194,191292,897354,632213,162
Soap—
    Toiletton2,8803,2973,3453,433
    Barton5,1805,0655,1975,236
    Powder and flaketon10,99012,68914,36114,752
Paints—
    Ready mixed—
        Oil and alkyd-vehicle typegal1,824,7871,860,5551,907,7622,024,367
        Enamelsgal721,587738,757788,730719,616
Toothpastecwt8,7419,3408,9179,635
Furniture and floor polishcwt24,71220,77122,07720,621
Shoe polishes and cleanerscwt3,7883,3853,4414,146
Water heaters—
    Under 10 gallonsNo.15,56912,82011,68713,643
    10 gallons and overNo.36,34435,72537,63537,004
Sinks: stainless steelNo.30,87345,36838,62249,232
Sink tops: stainless steelNo.16,93416,35219,81520,264
WheelbarrowsNo.14,11913,25615,34017,233
Lawnmowers (hand and power)No.65,49859,88953,84558,107
Prams, pushchairs, strollers—
    Cane (inc. dolls')No.12,9089,6538,5958,410
    Other than caneNo.22,50924,45629,75632,317
ToothbrushesNo.1,914,6242,082,9601,863,2162,341,008

DETAILS OF CERTAIN PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES — The principal statistics regarding leading factory industries for the last three years available are set out in the following pages. Fuller details are given in the annual Report on the Industrial Production Statistics.

STATISTICS OF PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES
 1957–581958–591959–60

* Includes products of establishments classified in other industries.

Meat Freezing and Preserving
Number of establishments 353436
Persons engagedNo.15,64116,45616,841
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£14,699,55916,170,28517,581,413
    Materials£86,068,48186,926,85785,230,205
    Other expenses£5,994,1016,447,6426,712,754
Totals£106,762,141109,544,784109,524,372
Value of output£108,188,448109,380,386116,988,739
Value added in manufacture£22,119,96722,453,52931,758,534
Overtime worked by wage earnersh3,916,6624,667,4025,045,574
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 105411351188
Principal products—
    Meat—
        Lamb carcassesNo.15,479,24017,835,44818,843,574
 cwt4,533,6974,967,5445,333,230
        Mutton carcassesNo.2,773,6944,233,0534,283,921
 cwt1,240,1091,929,8261,939,192
        Boned muttoncwt65,741165,575158,179
        Mutton and lamb piecescwt28,62755,51745,109
        Beef quarters, shipped bone incwt1,173,9101,022,1271,231,465
        Beef quarters, without bonecwt40,49769,89148,121
        Boneless beefcwt1,345,3451,152,869966,386
        Bobby vealcwt184,434167,275170,397
        Other vealcwt65,01182,16375,842
        Porkcwt424,495472,762434,075
        Edible offalscwt507,585559,994658,620
    By-products—
        Runners (not processed)No.4,493,2094,551,1994,050,813
        Casingsbundles3,927,4544,669,9534,361,634
        Woolly sheepskinsNo.166,448181,246178,857
        PeltsNo.19,200,86823,318,67624,212,949
        Cow hidesNo.560,518488,072454,715
        Ox and bull hidesNo.276,178245,185265,621
        Bobby calf hidesNo.1,225,2471,124,6481,135,274
        Other calf hidesNo.45,60054,31956,471
        Woollb52,897,37861,741,66462,300,584
    Boiling-down products—
        Tallowcwt1,048,3751,145,7981,133,809
        Neatsfoot oilgal115,808137,346161,459
        Manurescwt712,564740,545692,825
        Livermealcwt40,99629,83815,476
        Meatmealcwt335,691398,011410,943
    Canned and other preserved meats, pastes, extracts, and miscellaneous canningscwt109,30598,833112,764
Ham and Bacon Curing
Number of establishments 444646
Persons engagedNo.9771,0151,064
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£776,098804,636903,076
    Materials£5,352,7395,576,0836,116,722
    Other expenses£355,640377,134419,275
Totals£6,484,4776,757,8537,439,073
Value of output£6,906,9647,179,0877,842,683
Value added in manufacture£1,554,2251,603,0041,725,961
Overtime worked by wage earnersh154,421182,071197,137
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 101210951111
Pigs dealt with—
    CarcassesNo.407,338431,487440,936
    Cost£4,127,4824,066,1904,591,760
Principal products—
    Ham and baconcwt303,011325,491319,145
    Frozen porkcwt28,17932,58339,513
    Small goodscwt174,408176,083181,924
    Lard (edible)cwt12,87512,69512,608
Butter, Cheese, and Other Milk Products
Number of establishments—
    Butter and cheeseNo.277252260
    Other milk productsNo.104108104
Persons engagedNo.4,8174,5864,624
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£3,856,4853,948,1574,132,420
    Materials£83,920,45277,215,88683,894,663
    Other expenses£4,834,7404,784,3554,720,212
Totals£92,611,67785,948,39892,747,295
Value of output£93,502,31886,350,59193,800,853
Value added in manufacture£9,581,8669,134,7059,906,190
Overtime worked by wage earnersh842,112810,606987,659
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 107210681054
Butterfat used—
    For creamery butterlb(000)397,689403,660381,652
    For cheesemakinglb(000)85,67079,42384,256
    For whey butler making—
        Recoveries from own wheylb(000)3,0163,1753,218
        Whey fat purchasedlb(000)2,4611,9962,317
        Second grade creamery butterfatlb(000)12791118
            Total for whey butterlb(000)5,6045,2625,653
    For other manufacturing or for separation for cream saleslb(000)7,3556,9468,568
Principal products—
    Creamery butterton214,930218,322207,694
    Whey butterton3,0252,8613,100
    Cheese-ton96,48385,26493,119
    Condensed and powdered whole milkton13,46613,82417,429
    Skim-milk powderton46,21440,55149,303
    Buttermilk powderton15,87016,52916,242
    Caseinton22,92427,25524,453
Ice Cream
Number of establishments 434134
Persons engagedNo.525538546
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£352,958364,369384,614
    Materials£982,3801,058,1121,184,963
    Other expenses£399,271386,869398,060
Totals£1,734,6091,809,3501,967,637
Value of output£2,011,6402,155,1642,304,972
Value added in manufacture£1,029,2601,097,0521,120,009
Overtime worked by wage earnersh34,74435,86542,739
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 95010261131
Main materials used—
    Milkgal505,589571,477476,050
    Creamgal37,67756,57251,040
    Ice-cream mixturecwt50,96956,85168,634
    Buttercwt11,16512,50815,408
    Skim-milk powdercwt13,65213,28915,223
    Sugarcwt27,16229,41735,184
Products—
    Bulk ice-creamgal2,231,6632,411,1852,553,924
    Ice cream, cartoned, wrapped, chocolate-coated, etc.gal1,896,8942,073,5402,379,085
    Iced lolliesgal472,882562,665616,121
Grain Milling
Number of establishments 454644
Persons engagedNo.805852866
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£587,826615,408660,548
    Materials£3,380,4703,499,3903,824,180
    Other expenses£452,800521,909559,289
Totals£4,421,0964,636,7075,044,017
Value of output£4,680,7804,915,6615,433,778
Value added in manufacture£1,300,3101,416,2711,609,598
Overtime worked by wage earnersh97,890107,063108,414
Volume index. Base: 1956— 57 (= 1000) 103410711135
Main materials used—
    Wheatbushel8,748,2929,046,0969,583,811
    Oatsbushel588,384506,479608,640
Principal products—
    Flourshort ton191,397200,386209,233
    Wholemeal, wheatmealshort ton8,5579,2237,929
    Bran and pollardshort ton54,99557,79559,959
Breakfast cereals—
        Oatmeal, rolled oatsshort ton5,9695,5406,185
        Other (including cereals in biscuit and flake form)*short ton7,1877,8257,968
 1957–581958–591959–60

* Includes production by establishments classified in other industries.

† In addition, in 1957–58, 99,256 gallons; in 1958–59, 72,566 gallons; and in 1959–60, 94,630 gallons were recorded by establishments classified in other industries.

Biscuits
Number of establishments 999
Persons engagedNo.1,2231,2021,157
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£761,489776,509803,596
    Materials£1,869,8921,953,4242,028,532
    Other expenses£529,132509,676495,477
Totals£3,160,5133,239,6093,327,605
Value of output£3,462,5073,601,1263,793,358
Value added in manufacture£1,592,6151,647,7021,764,826
Overtime worked by wage earnersh216,766241,537278,178
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 101410401066
Main materials used—
    Flourshort ton10,69510,79211,359
    Sugarton3,5454,0374,009
    Chocolatecwt5,3035,3957,352
    Margarine, lard, confectionery fatcwt53,64556,76559,692
Biscuits manufacturedton16,28916,65917,213
Cocoa, Chocolate, and Sugar Confectionery
Number of establishments 424143
Persons engagedNo.1,8111,7791,806
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£1,050,0321,069,9071,123,810
    Materials£3,146,8453,268,4523,410,145
    Other expenses£630,576610,269625,927
Totals£4,827,4534,948,6285,159,882
Value of output£5,265,1475,578,1485,828,373
Value added in manufacture£2,118,3022,309,6962,418,228
Overtime worked by wage earnersh162,993165,303171,312
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 103010571114
Main materials used—
    Sugarton9,5619,89010,013
    Cocoa beanscwt42,04044,69548,491
    Cocoa buttercwt8,8378,17410,859
    Glucosecwt63,63463,85469,675
Confectionery manufactured—
    Chocolate and chocolate-coatedton6,9006,9697,318
    Sugarton9,8559,88910,536
Fruit and Vegetable Preserving
Number of establishments 383737
Persons engagedNo.2,0242,2812,096
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£1,390,8151,585,2041,528,394
    Materials£4,501,5854,845,0584,540,935
    Other expenses£963,7411,127,6171,147,864
Totals£6,856,1417,557,8797,217,193
Value of output£7,236,9097,893,9037,538,498
Value added in manufacture£2,735,3243,048,8452,997,563
Overtime worked by wage earnersh682,586770,865517,772
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 128613821328
Main materials used—
    Fruitton11,93012,40111,552
    Vegetables and tomatoeston34,13040,10342,523
    Sugarton4,8735,2185,209
Principal products—
    Canned fruitcwt103,907123,225158,957
    Canned beans in saucecwt47,51852,97854,281
    Canned peascwt170,374138,15598,191
    Canned green beanscwt36,12532,1063,880
    Other canned vegetables (not tomatoes)cwt46,74453,33929,186
    Tomato soupgal374,650370,744383,485
    Pickles and sauces*gal651,585696,741716,074
    Jams, jellies, and conservescwt81,67181,39785,432
    Canned spaghetti in saucecwt58,41159,54456,283
    Canned tomatoes (whole and halves)cwt11,72916,80634,370
    Quick-frozen vegetables—
        Peascwt140,012126,387157,228
        Beanscwt23,71634,84626,949
        Othercwt22,45719,14227,027
Breweries
Number of establishments 252418
Persons engagedNo.1,3591,2451,196
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£1,185,7591,147,5081,115,704
    Materials£3,852,1873,422,2333,268,987
    Other expenses£1,338,5611,443,1461,463,175
Totals£6,376,5076,012,8875,847,866
Value of output£7,550,9357,454,6527,238,636
Value added in manufacture£3,698,7484,032,4193,969,649
Overtime worked by wage earnersh433,553399,261256,663
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 1053976972
Main materials used—
    Maltbushel1,468,2881,325,4921,280,740
    Hopscwt7,0626,6486,661
    Sugarcwt89,81589,041106,137
Beer produced for salegal50,772,72947,484,15147,570,486
Stout produced for salegal482,639310,766261,917
Aerated Waters and Cordials
Number of establishments 716867
Persons engagedNo.707706667
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£484,978503,231499,555
    Materials£757,821789,533933,282
    Other expenses£346,128382,771362,702
Totals£1,588,9271,675,5351,795,539
Value of output£1,956,8582,019,1652,059,313
Value added in manufacture£1,199,0371,229,6321,126,031
Overtime worked by wage earnersh42,99958,21465,052
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 106410601079
Main materials used—
    Sugarton4,7624,8235,025
    Essential oils and essenceslb163,212304,899338,508
    Fruit extracts and juicesgal76,64264,34371,751
Aerated waters madegal7,121,6937,039,9087,302,085
Cordials madegal417,922409,000406,042
 1957–581958–591959–60

* Revised.

Tobacco, Cigars, and Cigarettes
Number of establishments 766
Persons engagedNo.1,1841,2801,244
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£736,006801,250796,223
    Materials£4,905,0425,203,2645,610,746
    Other expenses£505,072597,417621,912
Totals£6,146,1206,601,9317,028,881
Value of output£6,729,8207,184,0247,645,540
Value added in manufacture£1,824,7781,980,7602,034,794
Overtime worked by wage earnersh202,765182,433181,693
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 110811481268
Tobacco leaf used in manufacturelb10,618,60810,951,04311,543,885
Cigarettes mademillion2,1502,4282,653
Tobacco madelb5,024,1145,019,9335,208,450
Woollen Milling
Number of establishments 202120
Persons engagedNo.2,6273,0513,222
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£1,608,3931,933,3712,214,732
    Materials£2,654,5233,086,7863,126,716
    Other expenses£804,147928,1401,003,567
Totals£5,067,0635,948,2976,345,015
Value of output£5,365,7486,338,1886,992,844
Value added in manufacture£2,711,2253,251,4023,866,128
Overtime worked by wage earnersh258,789388,056450,082
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 113513481531
Main materials used—
    Wool fibres—
        Greasy and slipe woollb7,347,1528,956,0119,879,605
        Scoured woollb441,419331,666410,404
        Tops, noilslb816,7781,045,9981,177,547
        Woollen and worsted yarnlb114,180207,871165,055
    Non-wool fibres—
        Artificial and syntheticlb568,107441,217542,706
        Otherlb2,80212,0905,280
Principal products—
    Woollen clothyd, 54 in.1,002,7281,286,6631,496,623
    Worsted clothyd, 54 in.1,050,3811,320,4361,166,587
    Flannelyd, 54 in.284,959290,021368,825
    Blanketspairs151,872167,827204,620
    RugsNo.49,76255,68559,058
    Yarn produced for sale or transfer—
        Fingeringlb401,289536,930984,497
        Machine knittinglb1,739,3132,319,1742,445,257
Hosiery and Other Knitting Mills
Number of establishments 868985
Persons engagedNo.4,0854,4354,522
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£2,321,5092,669,9562,823,042
    Materials£4,464,7575,245,7465,001,614
    Other expenses£1,116,3181,145,6411,226,207
Totals£7,902,5849,061,3439,050,863
Value of output£8,513,0549,862,26110,135,156
Value added in manufacture£4,048,2974,616,5155,133,542
Overtime worked by wage earnersh179,940213,582195,066
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 112913281419
Clothing
Number of establishments 788800762
Persons engagedNo.19,36519,70618,733
Production costs —
    Salaries, wages£9,428,19810,076,2079,771,327
    Materials£18,229,44219,601,19918,340,324
    Other expenses£2,233,7242,453,2462,383,252
Totals£29,891,36432,130,65230,494,903
Value of output£31,453,61733,913,08932,173,794
Value added in manufacture£13,224,17514,311,89013,833,470
Overtime worked by wage earnersh403,883413,345336,218
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 104611251085
Footwear
Number of establishments 121128121
Persons engagedNo.4,7734,9374,945
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£2,916,5773,251,8273,303,646
    Materials£3,953,9724,504,1834,726,400
    Other expenses£796,485901,0851,009,351
Totals£7,667,0348,657,0959,039,397
Value of output£8,047,1279,221,1679,653,519
Value added in manufacture£4,093,1554,716,9844,927,119
Overtime worked by wage earnersh280,262331,008286,510
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 108412291180
Main materials used—
    Upper leathersq., ft.8,865,5649,281,7319,256,724
    Sole leatherlb3,703,1863,229,2422,698,304
    Feltsq. yd.128,91087,71191,294
Principal products—
    Men's and boys' boots and shoespair924,0431,030,443920,429
    Women's and girls' shoespair2,096,0932,288,9672,166,652
    Sandals (all kinds)pair768,6041,032,5121,118,457
    Slippers, leather and felt, etc.pair1,471,5811,606,5531,479,913
Sawmills
Number of establishments 501486455
Persons engaged− No.5,8835,9846,279
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£4,645,7594,953,9095,425,750
    Materials£7,900,3408,604,0979,451,836
    Other expenses£3,950,9204,015,6854,103,120
Totals£16,497,01917,573,69118,980,706
Value of output£17,739,72418,895,49220,876,779
Value added in manufacture£9,839,38410,291,39511,424,943
Overtime worked by wage earnersh592,621614,704558,832
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)101510821164
Rough-sawn timber producedthousand ft b.m.593,628632,584680,711
Planing Mills
Number of establishments 146151149
Persons engagedNo.1,7981,8101,878
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£1,309,9971,361,7931,453,900
    Materials£5,479,4225,733,5676,330,292
    Other expenses£654,012681,309681,491
Totals£7,443,4317,776,6698,465,683
Value of output£8,101,5978,368,2189,124,863
Value added in manufacture£2,622,1752,634,6512,794,571
Overtime worked by wage earnersh202,936192,203201,697
Rough-sawn timber used in manufacturethousand ft b.m.115,161120,033*128,311
Dressed timber produced—
    Floorboardsthousand ft b.m.31,28328,77932,612
    Weatherboardsthousand ft b.m.20,57124,12623,141
    Otherthousand ft b.m.49,02650,12455,605
Joinery work done£1,236,3711,273,4071,239,702
Joinery
Number of establishments 360377365
Persons engagedNo.3,2373,4043,418
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£2,539,4712,729,0532,802,808
    Materials£4,142,9094,836,6674,910,175
    Other expenses£674,134750,340780,096
Totals£7,356,5148,316,0608,493,079
Value of output£8,144,7299,160,8529,387,219
Value added in manufacture£4,001,8204,324,1854,477,044
Overtime worked by wage earnersh444,915441,675476,825
Timber used in manufacturethousand ft b.m.55,63662,24364,175
Dressed timber produced—
    Floorboardsthousand ft b.m.3,6113,8454,113
    Weatherboardsthousand ft b.m.1,6852,3702,834
    Otherthousand ft b.m.4,0974,0273,608
Joinery and other woodwork£7,597,8798,513,1098,710,059
Furniture
Number of establishments 461452443
Persons engagedNo.4,2864,1964,135
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£3,087,3523,127,0283,223,669
    Materials£4,319,0734,442,4884,736,173
    Other expenses£670,296729,245763,695
Totals£8,076,7218,298,7618,723,537
Value of output£8,762,0818,923,7739,378,440
Value added in manufacture£4,443,0084,481,2854,642,267
Overtime worked by wage earnersh413,813419,514397,145
Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard
Number of establishments 676
Persons engagedNo.2,0772,0912,171
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£2,233,6532,205,4352,429,208
    Materials£4,572,7514,911,8845,385,075
    Other expenses£6,989,1086,998,4866,208,735
Totals£13,795,51214,115,80514,023,018
Value of output£15,378,08416,004,81417,101,308
Value added in manufacture£10,805,33311,092,93011,716,233
Overtime worked by wage earnersh399,953406,788481,844
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 121212631388
Principal products—
    Newsprintton74,71172,66784,294
    Other paperton38,87243,85747,471
    Paperboardton30,91833,24437,761
    Fibreboardsq. yd. (000)7,5367,8038,157
    Wood pulp for saleton79,84683,89486,426
Cardboard Boxes, Cartons, and Paper Bags
Number of establishments 515154
Persons engagedNo.1,6381,9081,877
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£1,086,9201,334,3171,441,515
    Materials£4,537,6135,480,8675,353,995
    Other expenses£603,510662,759811,996
Totals£6,228,0437,477,9437,607,506
Value of output£6,813,0218,148,2918,339,985
Value added in manufacture£2,275,4082,667,4242,985,990
Overtime worked by wage earnersh195,915330,881333,480
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 126314571429
Paper used in manufactureton8,7869,51210,470
Cardboard used in manufactureton34,61941,04637,976
Cardboard boxes, cartons, made£4,985,7936,150,2446,052,163
Paper bags, made£1,326,2271,409,3991,527,024
Printing and Publishing
Number of establishments 959593
Persons engagedNo.5,1465,2705,463
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£4,160,9854,392,3174,731,741
    Materials£4,492,2294,639,0875,027,643
    Other expenses£2,123,6452,251,8322,432,420
Totals£10,776,85911,283,23612,191,804
Value of output£13,139,34913,491,79514,531,651
Value added in manufacture£8,647,1208,852,7089,504,008
Overtime worked by wage earnersh308,848354,734448,223
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 104110581151
Newsprint usedton50,88251,60956,587
Other paper usedton3,0483,2733,399
Job and General Printing
Number of establishments 275276289
Persons engagedNo.4,5184,6644,871
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£3,353,2353,509,6463,824,468
    Materials£3,536,2783,776,4374,227,922
    Other expenses£1,291,6761,389,8871,437,941
Totals£8,181,1898,675,9709,490,331
Value of output£9,026,6869,649,86510,681,181
Value added in manufacture£5,490,4085,873,4286,453,259
Overtime worked by wage earnersh464,623487,311508,511
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 107911791336
Newsprint usedton9401,0761,519
Other paper usedton12,55513,66614,643
Cardboard usedton4,0933,7454,716
Tanning
Number of establishments121211 
Persons engagedNo.651689675
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£496,201559,567543,163
    Materials£1,317,3791,602,8371,836,313
    Other expenses£204,911212,543211,297
Totals£2,018,4912,374,9472,590,773
Value of output£2,123,6012,495,1802,829,784
Value added in manufacture£806,222892,343993,471
Overtime worked by wage earnersh86,053113,038111,145
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 9691109987
Main materials used—
    Cattle hidesNo.289,924273,009259,756
    Yearling and calf hidesNo.96,062240,259181,262
    PeltsNo.219,587432,240429,854
    SheepskinsNo.35,05933,50082,729
    Crust-tanned skinsNo.254,773333,352331,194
    Goat skinsNo...143,751113,265
Principal products—
    Leather—
        Hides—
            Bendslb2,047,3611,884,2881,490,245
            Shoulderslb1,002,361964,772744,315
            Bellieslb1,079,094970,071793,107
            Chrome and other sidessq. ft.7,194,7527,324,3086,636,056
        Yearlingsq. ft.833,6281,933,2801,707,443
        Calfsq. ft.459,357
        Sheep—
            Basilssq. ft.116,20785,409107,402
            Roanssq. ft.564,770771,640686,531
            Chamoisdoz6,9499,01010,185
            Woolly skinssq. ft.158,230200,185218,767
            Persianssq. ft.856,6001,192,741923,388
        Goat skinssq. ft.544,212639,553708,417
Rubberware
Number of establishments262826 
Persons engagedNo.2,2272,3392,274
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£2,089,4202,177,6612,166,476
    Materials£4,463,5304,532,4804,363,528
    Other expenses£1,260,4511,374,2751,293,752
Totals£7,813,4018,084,4167,823,756
Value of output£8,874,4849,373,2299,229,747
Value added in manufacture£4,410,9544,840,7494,866,219
Overtime worked by wage earnersh355,262321,516240,296
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 109511401099
Main materials used—
    Natural rubberlb(000)11,98212,30911,245
    Synthetic rubberlb(000)4,1264,6194,811
    Latexgal432,712355,548359,761
Principal products—
    Motor tyresNo.692,022662,293617,314
    Motor tubesNo.349,885451,571397,428
    Camelbacklb3,819,7214,490,2964,178,730
    Milking rubberware£1,138,3701,213,1021,039,824
    Bicycle tyres and tubes
    Battery containers
    Rubber and canvas footwear
Chemical Fertilisers
Number of establishments 91112
Persons engagedNo.1,2311,2401,369
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£1,078,0021,071,1441,195,094
    Materials£7,244,3596,184,9387,142,164
    Other expenses£1,138,5511,421,0131,605,016
Totals£9,460,9128,677,0959,942,274
Value of output£10,108,4579,051,62010,943,330
Value added in manufacture£2,864,0982,866,6823,801,166
Overtime worked by wage earnersh410,749338,933390,493
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 9728731066
Main materials used—
    Rock phosphateton507,841455,163530,622
    Serpentine rockton98,31289,319115,596
    Sulphurton98,97391,468106,770
    Carbonate of limeton11,31912,58614,193
    Nitrate of sodaton3,8882,9152,446
    Potashton27,89931,77351,838
Principal products—
    Serpentine superphosphate and mixtureston370,598231,122335,328
    Basic and reverted superphosphate and mixtureston36,53630,76338,128
    Straight superphosphate and mixtureston568,833466,184436,212
    Aerial superphosphate and mixtureston147,175234,691
    Other (including ground rock)ton6,28033,577
    Superphosphate content of aboveton843,139767,197906,685
Soap and Candle Manufacture
Number of establishments 141414
Persons engagedNo.474467458
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£369,966375,712376,908
    Materials£1,444,1481,589,0541,618,421
    Other expenses£341,786366,398378,709
Totals£2,155,9002,331,1642,374,038
Value of output£2,453,0542,761,3003,074,821
Value added in manufacture£1,008,9061,172,2461,456,400
Overtime worked by wage earnersh51,29264,10556,748
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 101311191207
Main materials used—
    Tallowton10,49111,46812,678
    Other oilston1,0551,1371,193
    Caustic sodaton1,7252,0212,006
    Soda ashton2,7302,9733,433
Principal products—
    Soap—
        Toiletton2,8803,2973,345
        Barton5,1805,9655,197
        Powder and flakeston10,99012,99014,361
    Candleston165284105
    Sandsoapton572466399
 1957–581958–591959–60
Paint and Varnish
Number of establishments 272828
Persons engagedNo.885916940
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£688,535768,396846,071
    Materials£3,799,0253,957,0924,215,118
    Other expenses£453,431486,896491,115
Totals£4,940,9915,212,3845,552,304
Value of output£5,398,3115,847,6066,295,837
Value added in manufacture£1,599,2861,890,5142,080,719
Overtime worked by wage earnersh118,993122,618142,264
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 105210941170
Main materials used—
    White leadcwt20,87318,21315,953
    Other pigments and extenderscwt184,914192,542196,639
    Linseed oilgal493,591503,955408,229
    Solventsgal1,561,4411,673,6901,674,172
    Gums and resinscwt71,88373,51484,099
Principal products—
    Ready mixed paintsgal(000)2,0412,1532,244
    Varnishes (for sale)gal(000)140128118
    Enamels, lacquersgal(000)9339561,045
Pharmaceuticals, Toilet Goods, and Cosmetics*
Number of establishments 414042
Persons engagedNo.729782881
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£434,219478,754551,820
    Materials£1,741,1341,952,5972,227,692
    Other expenses£264,060236,734272,096
Totals£2,439,4132,668,0853,051,608
Value of output£3,014,3753,193,9233,743,085
Value added in manufacture£1,273,2411,211,3261,515,393
Overtime worked by wage earnersh22,68322,43822,419
Principal products—
    Pharmaceutical products£1,520,0971,671,2431,790,201
    Toilet preparations and cosmetics—
        Dentifrices£353,152359,015385,906
        Cosmetic creams and lotions£152,698162,059186,450
        Hair dressings£398,405419,863480,206
        Powder, face and talcum£192,085200,399220,311
        Lipstick£65,56586,938119,130

* Principal products shown for this industry include the production of establishments classified in other industries.

Structural Clay Products
Number of establishments 484845
Persons engagedNo.1,0281,0351,034
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£816,461866,570916,033
    Materials£158,973184,812195,363
    Other expenses£823,269899,504846,291
Totals£1,798,7031,950,8861,957,687
Value of output—£2,033,2422,166,8472,245,023
Value added in manufacture£1,874,2691,982,0352,049,660
Overtime worked by wage earnersh231,182242,749261,598
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 102810291068
Clay used—
    Purchasedton13,44417,43915,633
    From own quarryton288,137319,086317,883
Principal products—
    FirebricksNo.3,029,1353,205,1173,411,036
    Building bricksNo.49,294,42952,176,88550,871,576
    Roofing tilesNo.1,047,9001,195,00069,500
    Salt-glazed pipes—
        Above 6 in.No.14,8399,4758,308
        6 in. and belowNo.2,352,3712,280,9102,759,301
    Field tiles and fittingsNo.10,164,0869,710,62410,064,946
Pottery, China, and Earthenware
Number of establishments 677
Persons engagedNo.455607707
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£296,379385,868490,256
    Materials£114,781136,175171,416
    Other expenses£208,234248,887244,541
Totals£619,394770,930906,213
Value of output£665,363835,513982,357
Value added in manufacture£550,582699,338810,941
Overtime worked by wage earnersh66,10671,241129,948
Principal products—
    Insulators and refractory insulator elements£224,836255,584253,640
    Crockery, artware and novelties, stoneware£250,516374,759498,335
    Other earthenware including sanitaryware£148,761154,486165,563
Cement
Number of establishments 566
Persons engagedNo.704734843
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£679,584697,717763,134
    Materials£1,150,9671,061,9871,139,976
    Other expenses£2,377,3992,375,2112,504,521
Totals£4,207,9504,134,9154,407,631
Value of output£5,170,9125,022,5615,121,308
Value added in manufacture£4,019,9453,960,5743,981,332
Overtime worked by wage earnersh419,421298,933293,536
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 115211471239
Principal materials—
    Limestoneton375,663377,677470,965
    Clay, marl, cement rockton666,994679,606624,495
    Gypsumton19,21520,44420,189
Cement madeton543,967542,110575,381
 1957–581958–591959–60

* Revised.

† Not available.

Concrete Products
Number of establishments 288272271
Persons engagedNo.2,1832,1272,219
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£1,715,8011,725,3511,864,833
    Materials£2,840,2292,723,8162,931,310
    Other expenses£775,527821,885875,164
Totals£5,331,5575,271,0525,671,307
Value of output£6,190,2916,074,5716,696,681
Value added in manufacture£3,350,0623,350,7553,765,371
Overtime worked by wage earnersh306,955356,574407,179
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)109110951202 
Materials used—
    Portland cementton83,93283,38989,591
    Sand, shingleyd355,591379,486456,614
    Reinforcington12,70310,85012,014
    Pumiceyd28,611*24,794*28,559
Principal products—
    Roofing tilesNo.9,546,2659,354,99911,364,131
    Fencing postsNo.3,201,5632,528,0922,540,010
    Housing bricks and blocksNo.7,289,4678,773,984*10,549,676
    Pipeston106,916112,011125,440
Plywood and Veneer
Number of establishments 888
Persons engagedNo.538567630
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£427,475471,483533,313
    Materials£704,244850,3251,215,477
    Other expenses£270,332324,218322,546
Totals£1,402,0511,646,0262,071,336
Value of output£1,566,6111,881,9692,399,297
Value added in manufacture£862,3671,031,6441,183,820
Overtime worked by wage earnersh47,99759,32767,053
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)100911441254 
Species of logs used—
    Rimuft (H. Dahl)9,318,8849,175,6349,947,820
    Mataift (H. Dahl)932,818897,612839,156
    Kahikateaft (H. Dahl)1,142,2061,098,6571,584,186
    Radiata pineft (H. Dahl)4,498,7324,817,6905,278,058
    Otherft (H. Dahl)571,4001,032,0371,163,218
Veneer produced (1/16 in. basis)sq. ft.149,661,129169,232,352
Plywood made (3/16 in. basis)sq. ft.38,769,09139,960,41443,089,461
 1957–581958–591959–60

* Principal products shown for these industries include the production of establishments classified in other industries.

† Not available.

‡Revised.

Range Making*
Number of establishments 777
Persons engagedNo.9121,0481,021
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£639,975760,503805,392
    Materials£891,1171,053,0871,009,431
    Other expenses£239,179280,070283,203
Totals£1,770,2712,093,6602,098,026
Value of output£1,904,4112,265,9742,195,861
Value added in manufacture£1,013,2941,212,8871,186,430
Overtime worked by wage earnersh107,629111,867114,030
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 108212911279
Iron and steel usedton4,3665,1205,081
Principal products—
    Domestic gas rangesNo.3,990
    Domestic electric rangesNo.29,13034,80632,969
    Domestic electric rangettesNo.4,3794,2863,756
    Domestic coal rangesNo.3,6243,7023,407
Radio Assembly and Manufacture*
Number of establishments 222225
Persons engagedNo.1,0321,1321,296
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£677,291767,639879,946
    Materials£2,136,8042,718,2392,708,527
    Other expenses£224,399258,402338,900
Totals£3,038,4943,744,2803,927,373
Value of output£3,248,6223,946,4434,113,139
Value added in manufacture£1,111,8181,228,2041,404,612
Overtime worked by wage earnersh97,86192,657105,911
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 120913971388
Principal products—
    Radios—
        CarNo.21,25620,42816,917
        PortableNo.10,92222,76035,824
        TableNo.41,66249,61743,814
        ConsoleNo.174
    Radiograms—
        PortableNo.3,8551,6801,911
        TableNo.1,1521,770
        ConsoleNo.28,43527,00020,314
        Recorder-gramNo.4,625317
    Television setsNo.1,209
Motor-vehicle Assembly
Number of establishments 131313
Persons engagedNo.3,2062,5032,357
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£2,910,5802,279,8482,087,544
    Materials£22,607,06518,615,43716,416,765
    Other expenses£1,018,097938,143947,206
Totals£26,535,74221,833,42819,451,515
Value of output£28,975,26323,892,23321,257,435
Value added in manufacture£6,368,1985,276,7964,840,670
Overtime worked by wage earnersh729,162427,839341,603
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)1071862740 
Vehicles assembled—
    CarsNo.36,16826,10324,434
    BusesNo.117152337
    VansNo.1,3802,5573,096
    TrucksNo.5,2915,4932,722
Motor-body Building
Number of establishments 747769
Persons engagedNo.1,1631,1631,135
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£869,685880,022910,707
    Materials£941,9741,017,0841,050,641
    Other expenses£227,740228,078228,406
Totals£2,039,3992,125,1842,189,754
Value of output£2,204,7952,284,4582,399,064
Value added in manufacture£1,262,8211,267,3741,348,423
Overtime worked by wage earnersh101,766120,401115,523
Main materials—
    Timberft. b.m.1,275,0311,062,631907,073
    Plywoodsq. ft.346,651324,860378,733
    Paints and oilsgal27,97426,16730,594
Motor bodies built—
    BusesNo.185162174
    VansNo.213265267
    Trucks—
        CabsNo.511390270
        TraysNo.1,038721498
    CaravansNo.202372417
Motor Repairs
Number of establishments1,7551,8081,841 
Persons engagedNo.14,34414,93115,195
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£10,076,10710,609,48711,175,010
    Materials£12,683,68714,404,18115,928,976
    Other expenses£3,293,6273,604,4573,803,044
Totals£26,053,42128,618,12530,907,030
Value of output£28,251,68430,754,80333,132,997
Value added in manufacture£15,567,99716,350,62217,204,021
Overtime worked by wage earnersh749,025725,477746,579
Sheet-metal Working
Number of establishments 155151158
Persons engagedNo.3,5313,7334,055
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£2,817,0973,052,1083,369,813
    Materials£5,371,6226,018,1926,579,324
    Other expenses£1,144,5671,214,3081,355,558
Totals£9,333,28610,284,60811,304,695
Value of output£10,276,05311,364,96812,836,564
Value added in manufacture£4,904,4315,346,7766,257,240
Overtime worked by wage earnersh612,266594,639660,143
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)107911331339 
Metal Products n.e.i.
Number of establishments152168179 
Persons engagedNo.3,3823,5453,702
Production costs—
    Salaries and wages£2,751,8303,026,0873,309,019
    Materials£5,080,1785,439,7165,960,234
    Other expenses£1,043,5831,077,1411,241,500
Totals£8,875,5919,542,94410,510,753
Value of output£9,878,36710,704,56711,800,951
Value added in manufacture£4,798,1895,264,8515,840,717
Overtime worked by wage earnersh566,401669,600750,508
Agricultural and Pastoral Machinery
Number of establishments867369 
Persons engagedNo.1,038868812
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£763,508655,682634,149
    Materials£4,322,1552,208,3323,496,796
    Other expenses£272,779226,824215,050
Totals£5,358,4423,090,8384,345,995
Value of output£5,739,2973,271,8204,787,579
Value added in manufacture£1,417,1421,063,4881,290,783
Overtime worked by wage earnersh85,29671,57272,534
Machinery n.e.i.
Number of establishments 419422444
Persons engagedNo.7,9258,5469,057
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£6,444,2117,173,3817,862,698
    Materials£11,741,06011,878,91712,393,012
    Other expenses£2,390,0642,583,2232,845,495
Totals£20,575,33521,635,52123,101,205
Value of output£22,439,68223,387,29624,930,150
Value added in manufacture£10,698,62211,508,37912,537,138
Overtime worked by wage earnersh1,250,2131,376,3171,556,860

Chapter 19. Section 19 BUILDING AND HOUSING

Table of Contents

GENERAL — To meet the housing needs of a growing population there has been a steady, long-term increase in the building of houses and flats. The requirements of expanding industry and trade have led to extensive construction of factories, shops, warehouses, and officer. The erection of more multi-storey buildings in central city areas has been a feature in building construction in recent years.

In the post-war years building and construction activity has absorbed a growing proportion of the labour force, and there has been an even greater increase in the cost of buildings erected. The values of buildings according to permits issued in 1946 was £20.7 million, in 1951 £48.8 million, in 1956 £90.2 million, and in 1961 £134.7 million. The permit values for houses and flats at corresponding dates were as follows: 1946, £13.9 million; 1951, £32.7 million; 1956, £51.5 million; and 1961, £72.5 million. It should be noted that building controls introduced as a wartime measure were not finally removed until December 1956.

The number of houses and flats constructed each year has risen from 16,100 to a peak of 23,500 between 1953 and 1961. The rate of house building in relation to population is higher than in most countries. Approximately 89 per cent of the dwellings completed in the year ended 31 March 1961 were privately built, the balance being erected by Government agencies.

Government Encouragement — The impetus of post-war housing levelled off in the early 1950s and led the Government in 1953 to call a National Housing Conference. This conference, which was attended by organisations and persons associated with housing, surveyed the general housing situation and investigated ways and means of implementing the Government's housing policy of promoting the building of more houses at a reasonable cost. Every aspect of housing was discussed, and the action taken on resolutions adopted by the conference helped to effect the expansion in house building to the present level. The conference assessed the extent of the housing shortage and set a number of 206,000 houses in 10 years as a target to overcome the shortage and provide for the increase in population expected from both natural increase and immigration. A National Housing Council was also set up.

A noteworthy development in house building which has resulted was the introduction at the end of 1953 of the group-building scheme. This scheme was designed to give builders continuity of work, reduce non-productive time, and assist builders in administration and supervision by enabling them to build houses for sale in groups. Plans and specifications are checked by the State Advances Corporation, which also inspects the work and gives an undertaking to take over at approved prices a specified number of any unsold houses. At 31 March 1961 the total number of houses erected under the scheme had reached 14,232, with a further 802 under construction.

Since 1937 the State, using the services of private contractors, has been building rental dwellings. At 31 March 1961 over 58,300 of these houses and flats had been built and, since 1950, 15,787 of them had been sold to the occupiers. About 2,000 of these dwellings are now built each year and let to applicants in difficult housing circumstances with an income of not more than £805 a year. Some 400 houses are also built by the State each year for the accommodation of Government employees.

It has been the policy of the National Housing Council to encourage the holding of Parades of Homes in all major centres throughout the country. Since 1954 forty-four Parades of Homes have been held, and these exhibitions have proved very popular. The principal objects of a Parade of Homes are to show the latest developments in low- and moderate-cost housing, to encourage home ownership and stimulate public interest in the building of houses, and to permit builders, manufacturers, and others concerned in house building to display their products. The scheme is probably unique to New Zealand, offering as it does an opportunity to the public of inspecting a group of new houses erected by local builders in open competition.

The building of flats to achieve higher density housing has been stimulated by the introduction of a system of company ownership of flats. An individual can buy a block of shares, the ownership of which entitles him to permanent occupation of a particular flat in a block of flats.

Government Capital Assistance on New Housing—The following table gives the Government's total capital assistance on new housing in the years ended 31 March 1960 and 1961, and includes both direct expenditure by Government Departments and money advanced by way of mortgages and loans by State lending institutions. Expenditure on new housing by hospital boards, education boards, etc., is not included.

 1959–601960–61
 £(000)
Land purchase and development, State house construction, etc.11,01610,114
Expenditure by Housing Division for other Departments1,1421,592
Department of Maori Affairs1,7222,038
Department of Lands and Survey276302
Ministry of Works construction workers' houses2029
State Advances and rehabilitation loans paid out for new urban houses including suspensory loans24,28329,896
State Advances and rehabilitation loans paid out for new rural houses including suspensory loans310220
State Advances loans paid to local authorities for rural housing, pensioners' housing, etc.425574
Department of Health subsidies paid to local authorities for pensioners' flats203208
Capitalisation of family benefits3,2905,800
Totals42,68750,773

Role of Local Authorities — In addition to the activities briefly outlined earlier, the housing policy of the Government includes the provision of loans to local authorities at 3 1/2 per cent per annum to enable them to undertake the erection of accommodation for pensioners or persons in comparable circumstances. Since 1950 there has been a generous Government subsidy for pensioners' housing, and it now is half the net capital cost, with a maximum of £850 for a two-person unit and £800 for a one-person unit. At 31 March 1961 Government subsidies of £1,063,259 had been granted to local authorities and also loans of £1,309,620. Local authorities were providing accommodation for 2,127 elderly persons. (These subsidies are separate from those granted to religious and relief organisations — see Section 5A.)

The Rural Housing Act 1939, and subsequent amendments thereto, provide facilities for the granting of financial assistance to farmers requiring new houses for themselves or their employees, or desiring to improve their existing houses. The county councils have been charged with the duty of investigating the loan applications, and provided they are satisfied with the security, etc., they have authority to approve a loan. Loans are made by the State Advances Corporation to local authorities bearing interest at 4 1/4 per cent (rate charged by the county to the farmer borrowers is 4 3/4 per cent), and are repayable on the amortisation system over terms of up to 35 years. Advances for the erection of a house under this scheme may be up to £2,500, including any suspensory loan benefits (described in Section 30B) available to applicants who comply with the conditions laid down. At 31 March 1961, £1,620,898 (in respect of 1,035 houses) had been uplifted by county councils.

Borough councils are authorised under the Municipal Corporations Act to provide loans for housing purposes up to a limit of £2,525; to subdivide for such purposes any land vested in a council and not held by it in trust for any particular purpose other than housing; and to sell or lease allotments for housing purposes. Local authorities may also apply to the Local Authorities Loans Board for blanket authorities for the purchase of land for subdivision for housing purposes. Local authorities are being encouraged to play a more prominent part in the housing of their citizens.

Under the Housing Improvement Act 1945 local authorities can take action to rebuild decadent central city areas.

HOUSING FINANCE — Among other policy changes made at the end of 1953, a mortgage guarantee scheme was provided whereby the State Advances Corporation guaranteed financial institutions repayment by the borrower of the difference between the normal housing loan and 90 per cent of the valuation of a new house, the maximum loan under this scheme being £2,500. By an amendment in 1961 to the State Advances Act 1934–35, the scheme was extended to provide guarantees to financial institutions lending on used houses of up to 85 per cent of valuation with a maximum loan of £3,000.

In July 1957 the Government announced the commencement of a home lay-by scheme in the Post Office Savings Bank. A subsidy, known as a suspensory free deposit, of £5 per £100 up to a limit of £50 is credited to each home lay-by account when the money is used to acquire a home to be occupied by the depositor. There is no limit to the amount which can be deposited but the maximum amount in any one year on which the subsidy can be credited is £250. The effect of the scheme is that a person who deposits £250 each year in a home lay-by account for four years will qualify for the maximum subsidy of £50, in addition to the normal savings bank interest. Deposits of £100 a year for 10 years can also earn the maximum subsidy.

Increases have been announced from time to time in the maximum loans which may be advanced by the State Advances Corporation. In September 1957 the maximum loan on the normal two-thirds basis was raised from £2,250 to £2,500, while special loans were increased from £2,000 to £2,400 according to the size of the family. In the following year with the introduction of building loans at 3 per cent interest the special loans were granted up to £2,650 for applicants with large families. A further extension in loan limits was made in 1961 to applicants owning a suitable unencumbered freehold section who are now able to borrow up to 100 per cent of the cost of the house with a maximum loan of £2,700.

State Advances Corporation building loans with interest rebated to 3 per cent are granted to families where the income of the breadwinner is not more than £1,000 a year, plus £50 for each dependent child, but excluding family benefit and war disability pension. The amount of loan approved is determined by the circumstances of the applicant and size of family, but would not exceed £2,650, or £2,700 where an unencumbered freehold section is owned. The standard lending rate of interest for normal and special loans not eligible for the rebate is 5 per cent. Large numbers of borrowers have been attracted by State Advances loans at 3 per cent interest, as the ruling rate for first mortgages charged by private lending institutions averages about 6 per cent. For the year ended 31 March 1961 the State Advances Corporation authorised loans valued at £31.8 million for new urban dwellings, of which £24.5 million was at the 3 per cent rate. In the last full year prior to the introduction of the rebated loans the total sum authorised by the Corporation amounted to £16.1 million.

The Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1958 provides for payment in a lump sum of the social security family benefit, the capitalised benefit to be applied towards the provision of a family home or for essential alterations or for repayment of encumbrances on a family home. The scheme became operative on 1 April 1959 for approved cases. Benefits in respect of any number of children may be capitalised, provided the aggregate advance does not exceed £1,000. Family benefit capitalisation advances totalling £12.3 million were authorised in the first two years of the scheme by the State Advances Corporation to applicants holding eligibility certificates issued by the Social Security Commission.

Further information on housing finance is contained in Section 30B — State Advances Corporation.

Trends in Average Costs — The following table is of interest in that it illustrates trends in the cost of building activity over a period with general characteristics of rising costs.

 Cost at End of Year
193919451950195519601961
 ££££££
State rental house (976 square feet)1,0611,4792,1722,5822,7642,784
Buildings (reinforced concrete): For similar size and type10,00015,70025,10028,80032,10032,600

BUILDING MATERIALS — Most materials with the major exception of steel and galvanized iron are made in New Zealand and current production is meeting demand. Although supplies of imported materials are restricted under the system of import licensing, building operations have not been hampered by lack of supplies. Expansion still continues in the quantity and range of materials and fittings manufactured in New Zealand.

The following materials called for special comment at the end of 1961:

Portland Cement — Overall production had continued to increase and supplies were adequate. The industry has considerable reserve capacity to meet any foreseeable increase in demand.

Bricks — Overall supplies were adequate but local shortages of particular types still persisted. The industry is manufacturing a wider variety of shapes and sizes than in previous years.

Concrete Blocks — Since the installation of the first concrete block-making machine in Hornby, Christchurch, in 1951, this industry has consistently raised its output to the point where annual production of the nine units now established is closely comparable, on a volume basis, with that of the brick industry.

Ceramic Tiles — During 1960 imports increased while domestic production was limited in range, but domestic production had recently increased and the higher rate of imports that had been evident over the previous two years was no longer necessary.

Sanitary Earthenware — Demand for this product remained high although the domestic manufacturer had increased production. Capacity was further increased during 1961 to enable a higher proportion of the demand to be satisfied from domestic sources.

Plaster of Paris — The sole factory had been in Auckland but a second factory was planned to commence production at Christchurch in January 1962. Erection of this factory was delayed while possible atmospheric pollution problems were being resolved. Production from this factory will reduce New Zealand's dependence on imported supplies.

Plaster Coreboard — There were three factories situated at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, and the production from these was adequate to meet all demands.

Vinyl Tiles — The Auckland factory which began the manufacture of vinyl floor tiles in 1960 was in full production and was meeting a substantial part of the demand for floor coverings of this type.

Timber — Timber production reached an all-time record, but the increase was in the exotic section of the industry while indigenous production declined. As indigenous bush reserves become exhausted more reliance on exotic production will be inevitable. Although production of timber was high, imports were still necessary for some purposes for which New Zealand timbers were not suitable or were not in sufficient supply, e.g., hardwoods, and joinery, weatherboard, and furniture timbers.

Plywood — Although production again increased, demand remained high and it was necessary to import specialty plywood, e.g., for the manufacture of radio cabinets. Peeler logs were again imported to supplement the range and quantity available from New Zealand forests.

Veneers — Most veneers produced in New Zealand were being used in the manufacture of plywood and domestic supplies of veneers marketed as such were supplemented by imports of fancy grades.

Fibreglass — Production of fibreglass commenced early in 1961. The grade of fibreglass being produced was used for insulation purposes exclusively. Apart from building insulation, fibreglass insulation has a wide variety of uses, e.g., in domestic appliances such as refrigerators or in steam pipe lagging.

Availability of Principal Building Materials — The following tables show the availability of the principal building materials in the years quoted. The first of the two tables relates to the production of principal building materials.

PRODUCTION OF PRINCIPAL BUILDING MATERIALS
Year Ended 31 MarchRough-sawn TimberDressed Timber (from Rough-sawn)Building Sheet*PlywoodWall-boardPaints, etc.
PaintsVarnishesEnamels, Lacquers

* Asbestos-cement and cement sheet.

† Includes fibrous plasterboard.

 ft. b.m. (million)sq. ft. (million)gal (thousand)
1951527.692.223.231.188.71,208179688
1952575.2112.623.832.9102.51,203174807
1953573.0104.525.030.8106.11,093151800
1954572.2113.726.530.9121.81,316162861
1955616.0119.431.232.7124.51,620132990
1956625.8121.128.435.7132.01,6771151,098
1957596.9110.126.237.8125.11,969110854
1958596.8105.728.138.8125.52,041140933
1959636.8119.328.740.0141.22,153128956
1960693.8128.431.643.1153.12,2441181,045
1961714.1144.433.848.0170.82,414115984
Year Ended 31 MarchRoofing TilesBricks and BlocksDrainpipes, Salt Glazed, 6 in. and BelowCement
ClayConcreteBuilding Bricks, ClayConcrete
BricksBlocks
 No. (million)tons (000)
19513.514.938.1......204.4
19522.614.937.20.81.31.83238.6
19532.816.440.60.91.71.87274.6
19542.713.341.60.32.92.05288.2
19552.413.648.00.44.02.20361.8
19562.212.448.10.35.52.37422.7
19571.810.243.80.55.72.39472.1
1958109.549.30.66.72.35544.0
19591.29.452.20.68.42.28542.1
19600111.450.90.51012.76575 4
19610111056.40.612.52.88619.6

To complete the review, the second table deals with imports of these materials.

IMPORTS OF PRINCIPAL BUILDING MATERIALS
Year Ended 31 DecemberTimber, SawnBuilding Sheet*PlywoodWallboardLinseed OilCommon Window Glass

* Asbestos-cement and cement sheet.

 ft (b.m.)
(million)
sq. ft.
(000)
sq. ft.
(000)
sq. ft.
(000)
gal
(000)
sq. ft.
(000)
195121.39,3241,57611,8396377,427
195238.85,9032,31720,30138012,779
195320.44104201,910349,278
195428.23179182,34655310,138
195538.56214,88615,95796112,616
195628.72334,09416,44266813,903
195738.72783,84713,5076739,752
195832.9668494,40353712,727
195923.9173517132913,110
196031.5551,87343524214,700
196137.4302,1349856713,859
Year Ended 31 DecemberPlaster of ParisGypsumAsbestos CrudeCementGalvanised-iron-SheetAluminium Sheet
CorrugatedFlat
cwt (000)
1951141.2304.347.02,868.113112250
1952365.2702.094.92,466.321716376
1953222.0610.236.53,863.840414515
1954330.8788.369.03,727.164529319
1955425.9781.281.22,695.079925433
1956354.4714.055.7926.150922926
1957334.8948.325.574.093824232
1958292.11,171.978.360.863634747
1959220.11,153.284.039.766123243
1960290.81,307.390.264.065522458
1961328.31,530.5103.875.589935344

CENSUS INFORMATION: Total Dwellings — Preliminary figures from the 1961 census are now given with comparative figures from the 1956 census.

 Census 1956Census 1961
All occupied dwellings572,759644,120
    Average number of occupants per dwelling3.793.74
Uninhabited dwellings—
    Occupants temporarily away10,94412,687
    Untenanted dwellings12,61419,857
    Baches (weekend or summer dwellings)19,89926,518
Totals, uninhabited43,45759,062
Dwellings in course of erection10,46211,011

In the above summary “all occupied dwellings” includes all types occupied on census night, i.e., in addition to houses and flats it includes hotels, hospitals, camps, tents, caravans, etc.

Unoccupied dwellings are restricted to buildings intended for human habitation, e.g., houses, flats, cottages, etc., and the category omits unoccupied caravans, tents, etc.; it also excludes unoccupied dwellings which are both deserted and dilapidated.

Nature of Dwelling — The following table shows the nature of dwellings at the censuses at 1951 and 1956.

Nature of DwellingNumbersPercentage of Total Inhabited
1951195619511956
A. Inhabited dwellings—
    Permanent private dwellings—
        Private house, not partly sublet437,078495,63286.5686.53
        Private house, partly sublet1,2253,6840.240.64
        Flat35,02141,6696.947.28
        Combined shop and dwelling, rooms attached to offices, etc.8,0407,6861.591.34
        Bach, hut12,39314,3402.452.50
        Other255410.05001
Totals494,012563,05297.8398.30
    Temporary dwellings—
        Mobile residences1,6751,5800.330.28
        Other8333440.160 06
Totals2,5081,9240.490.34
    Non-private dwellings—
        Hotels, boardinghouses, etc.6,3546,0711.261.06
        Public and private hospitals5154900.100.09
        Camps5505670.110.10
        Other (including not specified)1,0486550.210.11
Totals8,4677,7831.681.36
Grand totals, inhabited dwellings504,987572,759100.00100.00
B. Uninhabited dwellings—
    Occupants temporarily away9,30710,944......
    Untenanted dwellings7,74712,614 ......
    Baches (weekend or summer dwellings)15,61519,899......
Totals32,66943,457......
C. Building—
    Dwellings in course of erection9,59710,462......

The average number of occupants per private dwelling was 3.61 in 1951 and 3.58 in 1956.

Between 1951 and 1956 the number of inhabited permanent private dwellings increased by 69,040, or 14 per cent, while the population increased by 12.1 per cent, and there were also substantially more uninhabited dwellings in 1956. The 1961 census revealed a similar pattern for the years 1956 to 1961.

Tenure of Dwelling — The following table classifies the inhabited permanent private dwellings according to tenure.

Tenure19511956
NumbersPer Cent of Total SpecifiedNumbersPer Cent of Total Specified
Renting or leasing148,67930.25144,72125.80
Free dwelling provided with job31,5026.4134,2706.11
Loaned without payment9,1221.869,2241.65
Buying on time payment or with table mortgage94,62519.25130,94723.35
With fiat mortgage56,29611.4572,76012.97
Unspecified mortgage cases2790.065530.10
Owned without mortgage150,98530.72168,38330.02
Not specified2,524&2,194&
Total494,012100.00563,052100.00

The proportion of “owned” dwellings to the total specified cases increased by almost 5 per cent between 1951 and 1956, the greater part of this increase (4.1 per cent) being in those classified as “buying on time payment or with table mortgage”. The proportion of “rented” dwellings decreased by 4.45 per cent.

Amenities of Dwellings — The next two tables present the various amenities in permanent private dwellings in 1956 and show whether they were used solely by the occupants of a dwelling or shared by occupants of other dwellings.

AmenityNot SharedSharedNilNot SpecifiedTotal
Piped water472,5698,67278,1803,631563,052
Hot water service487,6769,29165,206879563,052
Bath or shower517,01913,49431,646893563,052
Flush toilet442,06513,456106,698833563,052
Refrigerator301,5653,281256,6501,556563,052
Washing machine316,5115,356239,3671,818563,052

Of the specified cases, 54.3 per cent of houses had the sole or shared use of refrigerators and 57.3 per cent had the sole or shared use of washing machines. Almost 14 per cent of dwellings did not have piped water.

Means of CookingNumberPer Cent of Total Specified
Electric range, stove318,81056.88
Electric cooker, stovette, rangette, plate, ring, etc.2,8310.51
Gas range, stove88,81815.85
Gas cooker, stovette, ring, etc.4110.07
Coal, wood, coke, range —108,29119.32
Oil range, stove5910.10
Oil, other, including primus stove2360.04
Electric range and gas range4,5230.81
Electric range and coal, wood, coke, range25,4604.54
Gas range and coal, wood, coke range8,2961.48
Other, including open fire, primus (not stove), camp oven, etc.2,2460.40
Not specified2,539...
Total563,052100.00

Considering only cases where one means of cooking is used, the electric range held pride of place, being used in 56.88 per cent of inhabited dwellings; the next place being held by the coal, wood, or coke range which was used in 19.32 per cent of inhabited dwellings. Including cases where alternatives are also installed, it will be noted that 62.23 per cent of the dwellings in New Zealand were equipped with an electric range. When this question was first asked (1945 census), the position was that in 37.66 per cent of the dwellings a coal, wood, or coke range was used and in 29.95 per cent an electric range. It should be remembered that the 1945 figures do not include Maori dwellings.

Materials of Outer Walls — The following table gives an analysis showing the materials of which the outer walls of inhabited permanent private dwellings were constructed.

Material of Outer WallsNumber of Dwellings
19511956
Wood374,566411,370
Stone1,0861,121
Concrete, including concrete blocks14,46517,869
Concrete and wood1,3751,087
Brick, including hollow brick34,56147,420
Brick and wood3,6803,332
Brick and other material2,9393,401
Wood and iron5,2703,721
Wood and proprietary wallboard2,4072,369
Iron5,3573,862
Asbestos1,5432,011
Proprietary wallboards of asbestos type19,00226,250
Roughcast on wood lath and plaster5,31323,999
Roughcast not otherwise defined8,2093,945
Other materials5,4323,922
Not specified8,8077,373
Totals494,012563,052

Although the number of houses with outer walls of wood increased by almost 37,000 between the 1951 and 1956 censuses, as a percentage of all inhabited permanent private dwellings they decreased from 75.8 to 73.1.

Houses with outer walls constructed of concrete, brick, proprietary wallboards of asbestos type, and roughcast increased both in number and as a percentage of the total, thus continuing the trend established between the 1945 and 1951 censuses.

MAORI HOUSING — In addition to the facilities of the State Advances Corporation, financial assistance towards the erection of houses, including the purchase of building sites, additions, repairs to existing dwellings, and for the purchase of houses, is available to Maoris under the Maori Housing Act 1935, the lending authority being the Board of Maori Affairs. Section 18 of the Maori Housing Amendment Act 1938 provided for the Special Housing Fund to be set up. The use of this fund as a reserve enables the Board of Maori Affairs to cater for families who are unable to meet the full repayments normally required.

In addition to providing loans, the Department, through its building organisation, arranges for construction of the houses in many cases. Private building contractors are used where the applicant is able to arrange for construction by these means. The Department has available a comprehensive plan service covering varying bedroom types to meet the special needs of the Maori people. In determining its building programme the Department endeavours to ensure that the most needy cases are given priority.

The extended loan limits, rebated interest rate, and capitalisation of family benefit are available to Maoris on similar conditions as apply to Europeans. Where the applicant does not qualify for the special interest concession, loans are granted at an interest rate of 4 7/8 per cent, suspensory interest-free loans also being available in such cases, subject to usual conditions.

Special “pools” of State rental houses are established in some of the larger towns and cities to help meet the housing needs of Maori families. The quota of houses available to these special “pools” is based on the number of urgent Maori applications held in relation to European applications, and allocations to eligible Maori families are made by special allocation committees which have been set up.

The following summary shows the number of new houses built, the number of houses purchased, and the number of renovations and additions to houses, etc., from inception of the building organisation of the Department to 31 March 1959, 1960, and 1961.

 Total to 31 March
195919601961
Houses erected6,8887,5118,211
Houses purchased465468473
Other building work (including erection of other buildings, renovations, and additions to houses and other buildings)4,4724,6504,831

In addition to the above, there were 182 houses in course of erection at 31 March 1961.

STATE HOUSE CONSTRUCTION — A programme of building State rental houses and flats was commenced in March 1937. These are for letting (and subsequent purchase if the occupier wishes) to people in the moderate income group according to need. Since 1950 there has been an income bar (at present £805 per annum) on applicants for tenancies of State rental units, increased slightly in respect of special classes of accommodation.

A Housing Construction Branch of the State Advances Corporation was set up in September 1936. In 1944 this branch was merged with the Public Works Department and became the Housing Division of what is now the Ministry of Works. The Housing Division acquires and develops sites for houses and flats and arranges contracts for their construction. These activities are covered by the Housing Act 1955.

The totals of State rental units completed and handed over for occupation year by year since 1949–50 are shown in the following table.

YearNumber of UnitsCumulative Total
1949–503,38832,267
1950–513,36535,632
1951–522,11837,750
1952–532,12439,874
1953–542,78142,655
1954–552,89245,547
1955–562,25847,805
1956–572,74650,551
1957–581,85352,404
1958–591,64754,051
1959–602,12856,179
1960–612,14858,327

Flats and Multi-unit Dwellings — In compliance with Government policy, aiming at higher density housing in the interests of conserving land and at the same time arresting urban sprawl, the State has continued to build increasing numbers of multi-unit dwellings, mainly two and four units, also a number of three-storey blocks of flats each comprising 12 units. The number of multi units built by the Housing Division for State rental purposes up to 31 March 1961 was 10,413 two-unit dwellings, 291 three-unit dwellings, and 2,255 four- to eight-unit blocks. In addition, the Housing Division built 868 multi-storey flats and 1,031 pensioners' flats, also for State rental purposes.

State Services Housing — State services houses are houses built for Government Departments and the Armed Forces. The total number of such houses erected by the Division to 31 March 1961 was 8,468. This includes houses built at the site of major construction jobs such as electric power schemes.

Finance — The cost of the State housing programme, including the acquisition and development of land, is financed from the Housing Construction vote in the Public Works Account, i.e., out of national development loan moneys.

The following table shows the annual expenditure from the Housing Construction vote.

Year Ended 31 MarchState HousingState ServicesLand Purchase and DevelopmentAdministration and GeneralTotal
£ (thousand)
19516,5911,5671,2344629,854
19524,3851,0351,1524407,012
19536,5281,1261,6394619,754
19547,5747761,74451410,608
19556,1177461,9515369,351
19565,8081,0443,02652210,399
19576,552612,7865559,955
19584,816562,6955708,138
19594,8165263,1135998,602
19607,186303,20159811,016
19616,215463,20864510,114

The next table shows the annual total expenditure by the Housing Division in the last five years.

YearVote, “Housing Construction”Vote, “Murupara Development”On Behalf of Other Departments (Charged Direct)Total
Construction, Land Purchase and Development, AdministrationLand Development, Murupara*On Behalf of Other DepartmentsTotal

* Previously charged to vote, “Murupara Development”.

† Expenditure on behalf of other Departments charged meantime to vote, “Housing Construction”.

£ (thousand)
1956–579,894619,9555491,32911,832
1957–588,082568,1381421,1919,471
1958–598,55818268,6021,50310,105
1959–6010,974123011,0161,14212,158
1960–6110,06354610,1141,59211,706

Room Content of Units (State Houses and State Services Housing) — The types of units according to the number of bedrooms in units built during 1959–60 as compared with the previous year, also the totals to date, are shown in the following table.

 1959–601960–61Totals to Date
Number of UnitsPercentage of TotalNumber of UnitsPercentage of TotalNumber of UnitsPercentage of Total
One bedroom or bed-sitting room873.6753.03,8235.7
Two bedrooms2158.930312.121,46032 2
Three bedrooms1,90378.81,93277.137,11255.5
Four or more bedrooms2108.71947.84,4006.6
Totals2,415100.02,504100.066,795100.0

Sheathing Materials Used (State Homes and State Services Housing) — The sheathing materials used in the units built during 1960–61 as compared with the previous year, also the total to date, is as follows.

Material1959–601960–61Total to Date
Weatherboard1,2481,71339,542
Brick22730112,236
Concrete2041553,644
Other sheathing73633511,373
Totals2,4152,50466,795

Land Acquisition — During 1960–61 a total of 574 developed unit sites was purchased as a charge against the Housing Construction vote, also some 1,160 acres of undeveloped land estimated ultimately to yield 3,500 unit sites. About three-fifths of these sections are intended for State rental units and two-fifths for the group building scheme sponsored by the Government.

State Rental Housing Tender Prices — The following table shows typical tender prices being accepted in the four main centres at the end of the last 11 financial years for similar types of three-bedroom State rental houses of equivalent floor space. In each case the house is a typical single unit on a flat section, built in weatherboards with a tiled roof. The price includes drainage, fencing, paths, toolshed, revolving clothes line, and letterbox. The cost of the section is not included. The figures in parentheses represent the cost per square foot.

YearAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedin
 £s. d.£s. d.£s. d.£s. d.
1950–512,490(47  2)2,357(46  2)2,170(42  8)2,388(44  6)
1951–522,705(50  1)2,613(48  2)2,324(44 10)2,482(47 10)
1952–532,762(51  9)2,618(49 10)2,348(45  0)2,570(50  1)
1953–542,809(53  9)2,762(50  1)2,406(47  4)2,576(50  2)
1954–552,890(55  4)2,896(53  0)2,600(48  4)2,634(48  0)
1955–563,062(58  4)2,964(56  8)2,710(51  7)3,001(57  2)
1956–573,085(58  9)3,007(57  3)2,557(48  8)3,054(58  2)
1957–583,051(58  2)3,002(57  2)2,545(48  6)3,031(57  9)
1958–593,009(57  4)3,022(57  7)2,538(48  4)2,952(56  3)
1959–603,109(59  2)3,034(57  9)2,681(51  1)3,067(58  5)
1960–613,169(60  5)3,067(58  5)2,750(52  5)3,109(59  3)

BUILDING PERMITS: Annual Statistics — Building permit statistics for cities, boroughs, and town districts have been compiled since 1921–22, while the scope of the collection was extended in 1937–38 so that all local authorities in New Zealand, including rural counties, were included. The annual statistics are compiled from returns from local authorities, Government Departments, hospital and education boards.

The returns from local authorities that operate a building-permit system cover all private and local authority building subject to permit, and to enable a complete picture of building activity to be shown, construction by Government Departments, hospital and education boards is included, even though permits are not actually taken out.

In using these figures as a guide to short-period fluctuations in building activity, it should be noted that the value shown represents in the majority of instances, the total contract price or estimated cost of the building. A permit for a large building may involve work spread over several years, whereas in the permit statistics the value is shown entirely for the year or month in which the permit is issued. This qualification applies with greater force to the monthly than the annual statistics, and applies more particularly to large buildings than to houses and small blocks of flats.

A further point worth considering, is that the value placed on a building is usually less than the actual cost. This applies particularly to large new buildings which take a considerable time to complete. In these cases the final cost, owing to wage increases, rising costs of materials, etc., may be greater than originally estimated. This increase is not reflected in building permit figures and should be borne in mind when use is being made of these statistics.

Building Permits in Urban and Rural Districts Combined—The following table gives a summary for New Zealand of building permits (including State building operations) for the years ended 31 March 1960 and 1961.

 1959–601960–61
New Houses and Flats: NumberNew Houses and Flats: ValueTotal, All Buildings: ValueNew Houses and Flats: NumberNew Houses and Flats: ValueTotal, All Buildings: Value
  £(000)£(000) £(000)£(000)
Urban districts18,43753,19793,03119,18357,604110,611
Rural districts5,14113,14220,9815,21414,87224,101
Totals, New Zealand23,57866,339114,01324,39772,476134,712

Although statistics of building activity have been collected since 1921–22 for urban districts, as stated above, the collection of rural statistics was not commenced until 1937–38. In many cases, in earlier years, for rural districts estimates only were supplied, while in some instances no data whatever could be obtained. From 1947–48 to 1955–56, however, the Building Controller's authorisations were used where counties could not supply information. This source is no longer available following the abolition of building controls, but in the few cases where counties do not now issue building permits, the local authorities make an estimate.

The following table shows a summary of New Zealand building activity for the latest 11 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchPermits Issued for New Houses and FlatsTotal Value, All New Houses and FlatsTotal Value, All Buildings
PrivateGovernmentTotal
    £ (000)£ (000)
195114,5513,29817,84932,72848,770
195214,2972,81417,11136,45759,243
195312,6073,61016,21737,27861,128
195414,0253,43217,45741,73669,500
195517,4203,44320,86352,76793,405
195616,2343,27019,50451,48690,173
195715,6942,66018,35449,21489,388
195816,9851,97018,95552,504101,767
195918,1212,44720,56857,014101,466
196020,5273,05123,57866,339114,013
196121,6482,74924,39772,476134,712

The following diagram illustrates building-permit figures relating to New Zealand totals since 1938–39.

Building Permits in Urban Districts — In the next table, figures are given under two headings, one showing the totals for all urban districts covered in the particular year, and the second showing the totals for only cities, boroughs, and town districts. Data in respect of rural building will be found later in this section.

Year Ended 31 MarchAll Urban Districts CoveredCities, Boroughs, and Town Districts
Number of New Private Houses and FlatsValue of New Houses and FlatsValue of Other New BuildingsTotal Value, All Buildings (Including Alterations and Additions)Number of New Private Houses and FlatsValue of New Houses and FlatsValue of Other New BuildingsTotal Value, AH Buildings (Including Alterations and Additions)
  £(000)£(000)£(000) £(000)£(000)£(000)
195111,37922,9914,68935,0319,51019,3554,43530,660
195212,44327,7638,85646,2799,18821,4577,96438,118
195311,70028,0459,03747,1808,83622,0368,04439,341
195412,59631,52410,98153,9739,59424,80310,22345,476
195515,44340,24220,48574,59012,06432,19918,89463,870
195614,16238,51216,38270,15710,76730,08414,98559,166
195713,44537,17117,06269,00910,10228,43715,24057,278
195813,77239,25423,19079,43810,11329,31021,01466,103
195915,59044,50117,97880,30911,27832,64516,42464,968
196018,43753,19719,34493,03113,86340,13616,83975,462
196119,18357,60421,306110,61114,47543,94619,24791,799

Statistics of houses and flats treat each flat as one unit. During the year ended 31 March 1961, 355 blocks of flats, totalling 1,309 individual units, were commenced in urban districts.

The following table shows details for the last 10 years of blocks of flats included in the numbers of permits for houses and flats issued for cities, boroughs, and town districts.

Year Ended 31 MarchCities, Boroughs, and Town Districts
BlocksNumber of Flats
195264223
195354207
195473189
1955141615
1956118515
1957167558
1958278953
1959262929
19603571,365
19613341,252

These figures cover only buildings erected as new blocks of flats. Where flats have been created by conversion of existing buildings, the values of such conversions are included in alterations and additions. However, as this class of work has become more prevalent in recent years it was decided to collect information on the number of flats being created in such a manner, the first data being for the year ended 31 March 1955 for urban districts.

The following table shows the numbers of permits for the last five years for flats to be created by conversion of existing buildings.

Year Ended 31 MarchNew Zealand TotalAll Urban DistrictsCities, Boroughs, and Town Districts
1957682655651
1958711700685
1959810792778
1960899883862
1961860845837

The statistics quoted in the preceding paragraphs relate only to the main types of building activity. More detailed statistics are included in the annual report on Population, Migration, and Buildings Statistics compiled by the Department of Statistics.

In 1960–61 the number of permits for houses and flats in urban districts showed an increase of 746, or 4.04 per cent over 1959–60.

The value of permits for houses and flats in 1960–61 rose by £4,506,662, or 8.47 per cent, over the preceding year. The average permit value in 1960–61 was £2,971, as against £2,885 in 1959–60 and £2,854 in 1958–59.

There were 2,749 Government houses and flats (2,268 in urban and 481 in rural districts) commenced in 1960–61 compared with 3,051 (2,728 in urban and 323 in rural districts) in 1959–60. The value of the houses and flats commenced in 1960–61. was £8,376,199 as against £9,155,132 in 1959–60.

For new buildings other than houses or flats, together with alterations and additions, the value of permits issued showed a substantial increase of £13,172,860, or 33.07 per cent, on the 1959–60 figure.

The following table arranges urban local authorities with building values of over £500,000 in 1960–61 in descending order.

 £(000)
Auckland city8,218
Wellington city8,181
Christchurch city6,816
Waitemata county5,171
Waimairi county3,828
Hamilton city3,739
Manukau county3,558
Lower Hutt city3,539
Dunedin city3,430
Hutt county2,438
Invercargill city2,299
Mount Wellington borough2,286
Palmerston North city2,197
Wanganui city1,957
Manurewa boroughl,757
New Plymouth city1,728
Rotorua borough1,674
Otahuhu borough1,621
Makara county1,534
Napier city1,520
Whangarei borough1,347
Gisborne city1,310
Hastings city1,300
Masterton borough1,289
Upper Hutt borough1,283
Takapuna city1,251
Paparua county1,250
Mount Roskill borough1,248
Papatoetoe borough1,147
Timaru city1,112
Nelson city1,070
One Tree Hill borough999
Tauranga borough997
Papakura borough753
Ashburton borough726
Levin borough682
Onehunga borough678
Northcote borough675
Howick borough666
Kawerau borough623
Mount Maunganui borough620
Oamaru borough615
Thames borough603
Henderson borough591
Birkenhead borough570
East Coast Bays borough563
New Lynn borough506
Taieri county505

Building Permits in Rural Districts — The collection of data from counties was inaugurated in the year ended 31 March 1938. For some years building statistics had been obtained from the counties of Hutt, Makara, Waimairi, and Heathcote, and the road district of Eden County, and these were included in urban building statistics. As from 1 April 1951 the counties of Waitemata, Manukau, Paparua, Peninsula, and Taieri, previously included in rural districts, were added to the urban building statistics. The great majority of the population in these counties is urban, and they were included in order to obtain more complete statistics of building activity for the urban, areas of Auckland, Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

The tabulation for rural districts was therefore confined to the remaining counties and Waiheke Island. Most rural districts were able to supply the information required. Previously this was limited in scope, but since 1955–56 this has been returned in full the same as for urban districts. In the few instances where counties do not operate a building-permit system estimates of building activity have been accepted.

Data are available for all Government building in rural districts and have been included in the total for rural building.

Excluding the nine counties which are included in urban districts, the total value of rural building in 1960–61 amounted to £24,101,143, an increase of £3,119,833 as compared with the 1959–60 figures for the same districts. The number of new dwellings was 5,214, an increase of 73 on the preceding year.

The following table arranges rural local authorities with building values of over £500,000 in 1960–61 in descending order.

County£(000)
Southland1,487
Waipa1,306
Waikato1,158
Tauranga1,100
Matamata1,034
Rotorua967
Hawke's Bay891
Whakatane890
Rangitikei664
Horowhenua648
Otorohanga630
Taupo558
Franklin544
Wallace535

The total value of building for the nine counties included in the total for urban districts in 1960–61 was £18,811,683, and the number of new houses and flats 4,708. The comparable value for 1959–60 was £17,569,600, and the number of new houses and flats 4,574.

Other Government Building Operations — In 1960–61 Government building commenced, other than houses and flats, totalled £8,197,821 in value. The comparable figure for 1959–60 was £6,233,465. Buildings erected by or for hospital or education boards are not included in these figures but are included in the total building statistics quoted previously. For the year ended 31 March 1961 the value of building commenced for hospital boards amounted to £4,156,786, while that commenced for education boards was valued at £3,845,456. The comparable figures for 1959–60 were: hospital boards £2,982,433; education boards £4,040,161.

Monthly Permit Statistics — While the annual statistics of building permits issued afford an indication of year-to-year changes in the value and volume of building activity, short-period movements in building activity are of considerable interest, particularly in times of rapid economic change. With the purpose of providing information as to current changes in building activity, monthly statistics of building permits are collected from the larger centres.

While these returns cover approximately 64 per cent of the total population, they represent approximately 80 per cent of the total New Zealand building activity.

BUILDING PERMITS IN LARGER CENTRES
MonthNew BuildingsAlterations to Existing BuildingsTotal
Houses and FlatsTotalNo.ValueNo.Value
No.ValueNo.Value
  £(000) £(000) £(000) £(000)
  1960
January1,0243,0121,1044,8041,4941,2342,5986,038
February1,4264,1311,5415,1322,0631,1963,6046,328
March1,7635,1741,9417,5252,8232,8894,76410,414
April1,2163,6271,3335,0152,3291,2233,6626,238
May1,6834,8681,7666,3952,9102,3804,6768,775
June1,3173,9471,3884,9012,5562,6873,9447,588
July1,3884,0571,4804,9842,4463,6253,9268,609
August1,6204,8421,7287,0832,7072,6874,4359,770
September1,5894,8211,6915,6582,5562,6154,227272
October1,3764,1711,4728,0442,4052,2133,87710,256
November1,5534,7151,6636,8662,5622,0154,2258,881
December1,1033,4331,1884,2742,1051,9763,2936,250
  1961
January1,0523,2351,1364,4001,4882,6802,6247,080
February1,3274,0621,4105,7622,1141,5473,5247,309
March1,5274,7901,6216,4622,9542,8404,5759,301
April1,1233,5301,2075,1812,3242,0743,5317,256
May1,7075,2531,8338,0253,0702,8204,90310,845
June1,3174,1691,4165,9942,5062,3113,9228,304
July1,3474,1561,4325,1882,4002,1093,8327,297
August1,4874,6521,5815,9962,6872,5684,2688,564
September1,3294,1781,4185,3572,4141,8973,8327,255
October1,3584,2921,4395,3292,4541,9853,8937,314
November1,3914,3961,4655,5142,5352,6364,0008,150
December9472,9781,0103,8272,0481,3633,0585,190

HOUSES AND FLATS COMPLETED — Local authorities which supply building-permit figures also give particulars of new houses and flats which were completed in their districts.

Statistics of completed houses and flats include any new flats which are created by the conversion of existing buildings, details of which are shown previously. Some difficulty is encountered in obtaining accurate figures for completions from a few local authorities, and in some cases estimates have been made, either by the local authorities concerned, or by the Department of Statistics. While it is therefore believed these figures are reasonably accurate, and enable a comparison to be made of year-to-year changes, it is the practice of the Department to round completed figures to the nearest hundred. All houses and flats completed by the Government are included.

The results of this collection of statistics for the latest five years are given in the following table.

District1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61
Urban districts14,30013,70014,80016,90018,800
Rural districts4,9004,9004,8004,7004,700
Totals19,20018,60019,60021,60023,500

The number of houses and flats completed in 1960–61 was the highest recorded since the inception of this collection in 1948–49, being 1,900 higher than the previous record figure of 21,600 in 1959–60.

JOINT FAMILY HOMES — The Joint Family Homes Act 1950, including amendments, aims at promoting a sense of dual ownership under which the family home will belong not to the husband or wife separately, but to both of them jointly so as to pass to the survivor on the death of one of them. The Act makes it possible for a husband and his wife, or either of them, being solvent and owning land, whether freehold or leasehold, to settle the land on the husband and wife as a joint family home, provided they actually reside and have their home in a dwellinghouse erected on the land, and use it exclusively or principally as a home for themselves and the members of their household. No one can register more than one home as a family home. Registration is cancelled when the land is sold or when both husband and wife have died or have ceased permanently to reside and have their home on the land. The benefits of registration are considerable. Once the home is registered the husband and wife have equal rights in connection with ownership and possession while they are both living. On the death of either of them the joint family home becomes the property of the survivor. To encourage the adoption of the scheme provision is made that the settled home shall be protected against the claims of creditors to the extent of £2,000, and an amount of £3,000 will not come into the calculation made for the purpose of the assessment of death and succession duties when it passes on the death of one joint tenant to the survivor. The settled home is also protected from gift duty and stamp duty on the creation of the settlement.

Joint family homes under the Joint Family Homes Act 1950 registered for the latest eight years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchHomes Settled
19544,808
19554,477
19565,363
19575,655
19586,262
19597,052
196011,195
196116,368

Recent increases up till 1959 were due largely to the gradual relaxing of restrictions on settlement which originally applied. The Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act passed in 1959 caused a very substantial increase due mainly to the condition attaching to capitalisation of the benefits that the home, if not in the sole name of the beneficiary, be settled as a joint family home.

TENANCY—The Tenancy Act 1955 is the enactment governing tenancy and rents. This Act is administered by the Department of Labour. The provisions of the Act in so far as business premises are concerned will expire in November 1964.

Fair Rents — Under the Tenancy Amendment Act 1961, the fair rent of dwellinghouses may be based on the capital value as shown in the current district valuation roll, provided that for three years the fair rent so fixed may not exceed by more than £1 10s. the fair rent which could have been fixed immediately before the Amendment was passed. The maximum interest rate which may be applied to the value of the premises in assigning the fair rent has been fixed by the Tenancy Regulations 1956 at 5 per cent. Where, however, there is a mortgage on the premises at a higher rate of interest, such rate of interest may be applied to as much of the value of the premises as is represented by the mortgage.

A landlord or a tenant is enabled to apply to the Court to fix the fair rent, or the parties may agree on a rent and submit this for the approval of a Rents Officer.

A landlord or a tenant may apply to a Rents Officer to assess the fair rent. Notice of his assessment is given to both parties, stating that it will become the fair rent as if fixed by the Court unless application is made within 21 days by either party to the Court to fix the fair rent. This procedure enables either party to have the fair rent assessed without cost.

The rent of commercial properties may be based on the present-day values; the 1955 Act did not alter the law in this respect.

The provisions as to rent restriction of tenancies (inclusive of subtenancies) relates to dwelling-houses and to properties, except that the definition of the term “property” excludes farm lands and licensed hotels and camp sites (let for periods not exceeding six weeks). The definition of the term “rent” includes money's worth. The Court for fixing the fair rent is the Magistrate's Court, with a right of appeal to the Supreme Court where the fair rent exceeds an annual rental of £525.

The following exemptions from the operation of the Act are contained in the Tenancy Act 1955: all new dwellinghouses and business premises erected after the date of commencement of the Act (21 October 1955), as well as the existing exemptions of blocks of flats and buildings converted into self-contained flats after 12 November 1953; new tenancies of dwellinghouses not let during the three months prior to the date of commencement of the Act; dwellinghouses let for periods of six weeks or less; properties let after October 1955 for terms of not less than four years; and all tenancy agreements with new tenants entered into after the passing of the Tenancy Amendment Act 1961.

A section extends to all premises the provision which prevents the basic rent from being affected by including furniture in the tenancy. As far as a “fair rent” is concerned, the Court can fix the fair rent payable by the landlord where he is himself a tenant. A fair rent fixed for a dwellinghouse or property continues in force until a subsequent order takes effect.

A section relating to fines, premiums, etc., prohibits a landlord or outgoing tenant from receiving from a new tenant any consideration other than:

  1. In the case of a dwellinghouse, the rent:

  2. In the case of either a dwellinghouse or property, the price of any chattels not exceeding the fair selling value, or the replacement cost of stock in trade.

The time within which excess payments of rents may be recovered from the landlord by the tenant or deducted from current rent is 12 months.

Recovery of Possession — In the following cases those provisions containing the restrictions on recovery of possession cease to apply — namely, a dwellinghouse let to a worker by his employer; a dwellinghouse or urban property let on behalf of a mental patient; where a tenant has sublet the whole of the dwellinghouse, provided that the subletting is not due to the temporary absence of the tenant for not more than a year; and to a tenancy of any urban property transferred either directly or by subtenancies, after the expiration of six months from the date of the transfer of the tenancy unless the landlord consents or the Court orders that those provisions shall continue. The Act also includes in the list of exemptions leases of properties for more than five years.

Exemption from the restrictions on recovery of possession from a tenant is provided for where, in the case of the letting of any dwellinghouse or property, the landlord and the tenant by agreement in writing dated not earlier than 1 March 1950, and incorporating the terms and conditions of the tenancy, have agreed that Part IV and sections 45, 46, and 47 of the Tenancy Act or the corresponding portions of the former 1948 Act shall not apply. The agreement has to be approved in writing by a Rents Officer, and a copy of the agreement deposited with the latter before the date of commencement of the tenancy. As new tenancies are now exempt from the Act this provision will have no further application. The Tenancy Amendment Act 1961, however, provides that premises subject to such an agreement existing at the date of the passing of the Act will be exempt from the Act in three years or upon a Rents Officer certifying that the tenant left of his own volition. Landlords under these agreements may, however, obtain an increase in rent based on the full current roll valuation without the £1 10s. limitation on increases in rent previously referred to.

The Act provides for recovery of possession on the following grounds:

  • Failure to pay rent or to comply with other conditions of the tenancy:

  • Failure to take reasonable care of premises or the tenant has committed waste:

  • Tenant is guilty of conduct that is a nuisance or annoyance to adjoining or neighbouring occupiers. Where application on this ground has not been successful, the Court may order the cessation of restrictions after six months, unless the landlord's conduct has contributed to the circumstances complained of. The order may be revoked within five months on the ground that the circumstances had been improved:

  • and (e) For a dwelling or a property, that the premises are reasonably required by the landlord or joint landlords for his or their own occupation:

  • (dd)In the case of a dwellinghouse, that the premises are reasonably required for occupation by a son or daughter or son-in-law or daughter-in-law of the landlord.

  • and (g) For a dwelling or a property, that the landlord is a trustee, and the premises are required by the beneficiaries under the trust for their own occupation:

  • and (i) For a dwelling or a property, that an agreement for its sale has been made and that the premises are required by the purchaser for his occupation:

  • For a dwelling forming part of the same building as the one occupied by the landlord, that the premises are reasonably required for the aged parents of the landlord or, where the landlord is an aged parent, for the son or daughter to live with the landlord:

  • In the case of a dwellinghouse that forms part of the same building as a dwellinghouse occupied by the landlord, that the landlord or wife or husband of the landlord is aged or infirm and that the premises are reasonably required for occupation by a person or persons who are to look after the aged or infirm person.

  • For a dwelling, that the premises are required for occupation by any person in (or intended to be in) the regular employment of the landlord:

  • The tenant, by subletting the premises, or part thereof, is making a profit which, compared with the rent paid, is unreasonable:

  • For a property, that possession is required only of a part of the premises in excess of the reasonable requirements of the tenant:

  • For a dwelling, that the premises are not reasonably required for occupation as such by the tenant:

  • That the estate or interest of the landlord in the premises will have expired or been determined not later than three months after the date of the application for the order:

  • That the premises are required for demolition or reconstruction or for removal to another site:

  • That the landlord is an administrator of the estate of the deceased former landlord, and the premises are required for sale for the purpose of distributing the estate:

  • That suitable alternative accommodation is available for the tenant or will be available for him when the order takes effect.

Suitable alternative accommodation has to be provided or greater hardship established before orders can be made in respect of applications on grounds (d), (dd), (e), (f), (g), (k), (o), listed above. Suitable alternative accommodation is also required for grounds (h), (i), (p), or (q).

In any Court proceedings on ground (r) the onus of proving that the accommodation offered is suitable is placed on the applicant for the order. In any proceedings except on ground (r), where the Court is satisfied that any alternative accommodation is or will be available for the tenant, that accommodation shall be deemed to be suitable unless the Court is satisfied that it is inadequate for the needs of the tenant, or is of unreasonably low standard, or is for any special reason unsuitable for the tenant.

Neither alternative accommodation nor greater hardship provisions apply, although relative hardship is taken into account, for cases (i) where the landlord of a dwelling has been such for a period of three years prior to application date, or if in receipt of an age benefit and has also been a landlord for two years, (ii) where the landlord of property has given one year's notice, and has been such for two years prior to the notice, although the Court may adjourn proceedings for up to six months if it considers that it is just and equitable to do so, or when possession is claimed under grounds (dd) and the landlord has served on the tenant not less than three months' notice of his intention to make application on this ground.

Relative hardship is still taken into account for the remaining grounds, with the following exceptions: The alternative accommodation, greater hardship, or relative hardship requirements do not apply where a dwelling is required by the landlord for his own occupation if (i) he is 60 years of age, or if a woman, she is 55 years, (ii) he has given six months' notice, (iii) he has been the landlord for three years immediately prior to the notice, and (iv) he did not have adequate and suitable living accommodation in premises owned by him. Relative hardship is not required to be established for applications on ground (q) listed earlier.

The Act also provides that the landlord or other person represented as requiring possession of premises for his own occupation is restricted from letting or selling the premises for a period of two years, unless an authorising order is obtained from the Magistrate's Court.

Other conditions of the Act give the landlord of a dwellinghouse or property a right to apply for an order for the recovery of excess land for building purposes, or for sale for that purpose or for the purposes of his business, or for an order authorising him to convert a dwellinghouse into flats, one to be let to the existing tenant with appropriate adjustment of rent payable and subject to the Act to the same extent as the old tenancy, and also make it an offence for a landlord to evict a tenant without an order of a Court or the tenant's consent; extend protection of tenancy in case of death to members of the deceased's family; preserve a tenancy for the wife or husband of the tenant in cases of separation or desertion; prescribe conditions implied in tenancies; require receipts to be given for rent payments; make it an offence for a landlord to deprive a tenant of his amenities, as by cutting off electric power, gas, or water; and deal with the case of unauthorised occupiers.

The Destitute Persons Amendment Acts 1951 and 1953 contain provisions relating to the power of a Magistrate, in making a separation or guardianship order, to vest the tenancy of a dwelling-house in any person, either complainant or defendant, and giving the landlord the right to apply for cancellation or variation of such a vesting order.

Regulations made under the Emergency Forces Rehabilitation Act 1953, replacing earlier legislation, govern the protection against eviction granted to servicemen who serve in any of the forces raised to meet an emergency arising out of the obligation undertaken by New Zealand in the Charter of the United Nations.

Chapter 20. Section 20 ELECTRIC POWER AND GAS

20 A—ELECTRIC POWER: GENERATION AND SUPPLY

GENERAL — Electric power distributed for public use in New Zealand has been generated principally by water power, most of the fuel plants in operation previously being now maintained for standby purposes and to meet peak loads. This is not the case with Wairakei geothermal steam station and Meremere coal-fired steam station, both of which commenced generating late in 1958, and operate at a high-load factor. During the year ended 31 March 1961 a total of 6,823,043,000 kWh was generated by public utilities, of which 5,511,508,000 kWh (81 per cent) was generated by water power, 1,311,184,000 kWh by steam engines, and 351,000 kWh by oil engines. A further 11,501,000 kWh was purchased by public supply authorities from generating stations operated by industrial establishments and fed into the supply system, making a total of 6,834,544,000 kWh available for distribution. By far the major portion of the generation is undertaken by Government-owned plants, which, in the period under review, generated 5,193,435,000 kWh by the use of water power, 1,311,184,000 kWh by use of steam power, and 1,100 kWh by use of oil engines.

During and following the Second World War the quantity of power was not sufficient to satisfy requirements and restrictions on the use of power were necessary, but by the end of 1958 it was possible to lift all restrictions.

The following table shows the annual and daily average quantities of electricity generated for public supply over the latest 11 years. Index numbers are on base 1954 (= 100).

Year Ended 31 MarchNorth IslandSouth IslandNew Zealand
Total QuantityDaily AverageIndex No.Total QuantityDaily AverageIndex No.Total QuantityDaily AverageIndex No.
 (000) kWh (000) kWh (000) kWh 
19512,054,6965,629741,042,0002,855823,096,6968,48477
19522,335,7026,382841,126,6003,078883,462,3029,46086
19532,391,8276,553871,187,2003,253933,579,0279,80689
19542,758,1327,5571001,271,3593,4831004,029,49111,040100
19553,066,9708,4031111,316,2553,6061044,383,22512,009109
19563,323,8889,0821201,424,4463,8921124,748,33412,974118
19573,540,0889,6991281,427,2743,9101124,967,36213,609123
19583,955,78210,8381431,688,3674,6261335,644,14915,463140
19593,892,37710,6641411,785,0354,8911405,677,41215,555141
19604,419,55812,0751601,941,1245,3041526,360,68217,379157
19614,759,92213,0411732,074,6225,6841636,834,54418,725170

LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND — The provisions of earlier Acts were consolidated in 1928 in the Public Works Act, placing all hydro-electric development under the control of the Public Works Department, and authorising that Department, in certain circumstances, to delegate the right to use water power for the generation of electricity. Amended regulations concerning delegation of this right were published in 1934, and in 1945 the Electricity Act was passed, creating the State Hydroelectric Department, which under this Act took over the control of hydro-electric development previously exercised by the Public Works Department. With the passing of the Electricity Amendment Act 1958 the official name of the Department became New Zealand Electricity Department as from 23 September 1958, and the Minister in charge became the holder of the major portfolio of Minister of Electricity.

The Electric Power Boards Amendment Act 1952 was passed with the object of maintaining existing gas supplies as far as possible in order to reduce added demands for electric power. In 1955 the Electricity and Gas Coordination Committee was set up, by an Act of the same name, and, following its report, all but three of the 34 gas undertakings then operating were declared essential in the national interest. The report was tabled in Parliament, and as a result there was passed the Electricity and Gas Coordination Act 1956, which empowered electrical supply authorities to acquire essential gas undertakings. In 1958 the Gas Industry Act, which revoked the 1956 Act, set up the New Zealand Gas Council which administers the Gas Industry Account from which subsidies and grants are paid. The Council advises the Government on matters relating to the preservation and expansion of the gas industry.

DEVELOPMENT OF WATER POWER: North Island-The Waihi Gold Mining Co. Ltd. constructed the first large hydro-electric scheme at Horahora, which supplied power for the operation of a quartz battery at Waikino and the mine at Waihi, supply commencing in 1913. This station was purchased by the Government in 1919, and its capacity of 6,300 kW was increased to 10,300 kW in 1925, work being commenced on the Arapuni station (also on the Waikato River) at about the same time. These two stations were linked when Arapuni came into operation (with one unit) in 1929, but Arapuni was closed down between 1930 and 1932 as a result of damage caused by an earth movement. By 1946 Arapuni had eight units operating, while construction work was in progress at Karapiro (commenced 1940) and Maraetai (commenced 1945). Karapiro station came into operation in 1947–48 with three units, each of 30,000 kW, the Horahora station ceasing generation prior to its site being submerged by the newly formed Karapiro lake. This artificial lake is 14 miles long and extends up river to Arapuni. Late in 1952 the Maraetai station was brought into operation and by May 1954, the installation of the fifth machine brought Maraetai to its full rating of 180,000 kW. Construction on Whakamaru commenced in 1949; the station was commissioned with two machines in May 1956 and completed in December 1956 with four machines rated at 100,000 kW. Atiamuri station was begun in 1953 and the first machine was commissioned in November 1958, reaching its originally planned capacity of 63,000 kW from three machines in May 1959; an additional machine is being installed for peak-load purposes.

During 1961 three machines were commissioned at Ohakuri bringing into operation this new station; by June the capacity was 84,000 kW with a further machine being installed. The new hydro station at Waipapa was also completed with three machines totalling 51,000 kW in November 1961.

Arapuni, Karapiro, Maraetai, Whakamaru, Atiamuri, Ohakuri and Waipapa power stations have been constructed on the Waikato River and the station being built at Aratiatia is scheduled for completion in 1964 with a capacity of 90,000 kW. Work on the duplication of Maraetai powerhouse was suspended by the Government in 1961. The stations make use of the greater part of the fall of the Waikato River from Lake Taupo to Cambridge. This river constitutes the principal power source in the North Island, having, in its course of 200 miles from Lake Taupo, a total fall of 1,170 ft and a final discharge of over 10,000 cusecs. The rate of flow from Lake Taupo is controlled by works constructed in 1941 to conserve the water previously lost in the heavy spring and summer run-off.

The Mangahao station, of 19,200 kW capacity, was actually the first station constructed in the North Island by the Government. It is situated in the Tararua Ranges, and commenced supply to the surrounding area at the end of 1924.

After the Mangahao station was completed a commencement was made in 1926 on the development of the Waikaremoana scheme, which consists of three stations, Kaitawa, Tuai, and Piripaua. The first station completed, Tuai, commenced supply in 1929 with a capacity of 32,000 kW, increased in 1939 to 52,000 kW; Piripaua station (40,000 kW) was completed in 1943; and Kaitawa station (32,000 kW) in 1948. The three stations are within a distance of 5 miles, and the power generated by each is collected and transmitted from Tuai, the centre station.

The Waikato, Mangahao, and Waikaremoana stations are linked and operate as one system. Connections also exist with all the larger non-Government generating stations (steam and hydro) and steam plants maintained by the Government. To transmit power for distribution from the new stations on the Waikato, a 220,000-volt system has been added to the existing network of 110,000-and 50,000-volt transmission lines and interconnected substations. From Whakamaru collecting station, electricity is now transmitted to the new major substations at Otahuhu in the north and Bunnythorpe and Haywards in the south.

South Island — The Lake Coleridge station was commenced in the year following the passing of the Aid to Water Power Works Act 1910 and completed in 1915. This was the first station wholly designed and constructed by the Government. Its initial capacity was 4,500 kW, but by 1930 this was increased to 34,500 kW. The next station, Waitaki, commenced in 1928, came into use in 1935, and with the commissioning of its fifth machine in March 1949 was developed to its originally designed capacity of 75,000 kW. This was later increased by the addition of two further units which came into operation in May and June 1954. With a total capacity of 105,000 kW Waitaki is the next largest station to Roxburgh operating in the South Island. Further use of the Waitaki River is to be made at Black Jack's Point, where Benmore station of 540,000 kW capacity is being constructed and is scheduled for first operation in 1965. Control works were built at Lakes Pukaki and Tekapo, to ensure an adequate water supply to Waitaki stations during the winter, and a single unit of 25,200 kW, incorporated in the control works at Lake Tekapo, was commissioned in May 1951. Another single unit, also of 25,200 kW, was installed in 1945 at Highbank to make use of the surplus water available in winter from the Rangitata irrigation race.

In 1936 the Government took over the Southland Electric Power Board's system, including the generating station at Lake Monowai, and in 1938 acquired from the Grey Electric Power Board the Arnold station at Kaimata.

Construction of the Cobb River station, with a capacity of 12,000 kW, was commenced by a private company, but the project was taken over and completed by the Government. Supply from this station, which has now been expanded in capacity to 32,000 kW, commenced in 1944.

The Roxburgh station on the Clutha River will ultimately have a capacity of 320,000 kW. First operation of this station was in July 1956, and by December 1956 four machines with a capacity of 160,000 kW were commissioned. Two further machines were commissioned in 1961 and the last two are being installed. Investigation and access roading work was carried on at Lake Rotoroa in connection with the proposed Braeburn scheme of about 60,000 kW capacity. The Government, however, announced in 1955 that instead of building Braeburn in the meantime it would go ahead with 220 kV transmission from Islington to provide further supply to the Nelson-Marlborough area.

A grid system similar to that in the North Island was established in 1939, when the Lake Monowai, Arnold, Lake Coleridge, and Waitaki stations were linked. A 220,000-volt line was constructed from Roxburgh to a major substation at Islington to bring the power from Roxburgh From Islington a 220,000-volt line was extended to Kikiwa in the Nelson Provincial District and completed in 1958. This linked the Nelson-Marlborough area with the main South Island network.

THERMAL STATIONS — In the North Island a steam station at King's Wharf, Auckland, and one at Evans Bay, Wellington, with a combined capacity of 49,000 kW are now used only for peak-load and emergency purposes. Two small diesel plants in the South Island with a total capacity of 8,110 kW are now rarely used. In order to provide additional power in the North Island, a coal-fired steam station has been constructed near Mercer, on the Waikato River. Meremere station, as it is called, was commenced in 19:36 and first commissioned with two machines in August 1958 and completed in 1960 with six machines rated at 180,000 kW. Coal to feed the boilers is obtained from Huntly mines and is also brought by aerial cableway across the swamps from opencast mines at Maramarua.

GEOTHERMAL STEAM — At Wairakei station, a few miles north of Taupo, geothermal steam is being harnessed for the generation, of electricity and the first machine in the initial 69,000 kW development commenced generating in November 1958. Bores which are 4, 6, or 8 in. in diameter have been drilled to depths varying between 570 ft and 4,000 ft. With closed bores, well-head pressures vary between 50 and 500 lb per sq. in. High-pressure valves are required to control the output from the bores. The quantity of steam discharged from the bores varies considerably, and a large quantity of water is ejected with the steam. The steam contains a trace of gas, mostly carbon dioxide; and in the water about three parts in a thousand are dissolved solids.

Steam is collected from a number of wells after being separated from the water that is ejected with it and piped to the power station through steel mains. From the mains the steam passes through high-pressure, intermediate-pressure, and low-pressure turbo-alternators, after which it is condensed to water and discharged into the Waikato River. The initial development of 69,000 kW from seven turbo-alternators is known as Stage I, and all the plant is housed in a building known as Station A. Stage II development was authorised by Government in September 1957 and will bring the station capacity up to 151,400 kW. Some of the plant for Stage II will be housed in space left for the purpose in Station A, but most of it will be located in a new building to be known as Station B. This building will also provide space for a projected further development, which could bring the total capacity up to 250,000.280,000 kW. At the end of 1961 the installed capacity at Wairakei was 80,070 kW.

With Stage II an experimental pilot plant for converting some of the hot water from the wells into steam at a lower pressure is being installed. The steam will be produced by piping the hot water to the station at a high pressure and spraying it into “flash” tanks where, due to a drop in pressure, it will be “flashed” into steam and fed into the low-pressure steam mains “and thence to the turbines.

COOK STRAIT SUBMARINE POWER CABLE—The Government announced in March 1956 that it had been decided to proceed immediately with a detailed investigation into the practicability of linking the power systems of the North and South Islands by a submarine cable across Cook Strait. The interconnection by a direct-current cable designed for 600,000 kW capacity was investigated and a trial length of cable which was laid in Cook Strait in May 1958 was lifted in March 1960 and returned to the manufacturers in England for inspection. An overseas firm of consultants furnished an independent report in 1959 for Government consideration. The report stated that the installation of submarine power cables across Cook Strait would be difficult but the project was feasible. In March 1961 the Government decided to proceed with the project.

BASIS OF FORWARD PLANNING—In March 1957 a Combined Committee, consisting of two members of the State Hydro-electric Department (now the Electricity Department), two members of Ministry of Works, and six members from engineers actively serving with the electrical supply authorities, reported to the Government advising how the increasing demand could be met. In June 1957 the Government announced that the report was approved in principle as a basic plan for the comprehensive and orderly development of a power system to meet the full needs of the country, the programme being estimated to cost some £235 million in the 13 years from 1958 onwards. The committee's report was published. In August 1958 a statement was presented to Parliament reviewing the position and introducing modifications to the plan, and it was then announced that a permanent departmental committee was to be set up to report annually on the whole matter of power planning, and that another committee with representatives of the New Zealand Electricity Department, the Government Statistician, and of electrical supply authorities would be appointed to report annually on future power requirements; the first reports of these committees were presented to Parliament in September 1959. The committee to review power requirements considered estimates from the supply authorities and estimates from the Government Statistician before recommending schedules for the use of the Planning Committee. The Planning Committee, under the Chairmanship of the Minister of Electricity, with representatives of the New Zealand Electricity Department, Ministry of Works, and Treasury accepted the schedules from the power needs committee and recommended that, in addition to the works in hand, the Matahina scheme on the Rangitaiki River should be approved as preferable to the Kaituna scheme. Further planning for the future could not be completed in the absence of the consultant's report on the inter-Island connection by submarine cable.

In December 1960 the Planning Committee was reconstituted along the lines of the previous Combined Committee, but with only three engineering representatives of the supply authorities, and this Committee reported in March 1961 on future power needs. Following consideration of this report the Government decided to adopt a seven-year programme of electricity generation at in estimated cost of £45 million. This involves the construction of an inter-connecting transmission system between the North and South Island power systems to come into operation in 1965, the construction of Aviemore power station (200,000 kW) on the Waitaki River to come into service in 1968, and the construction of Kopuriki power station on the Rangitaiki River to come into service in 1968. The interconnecting system involves the installation of submarine power cables across Cook Strait, the construction of an overhead 500 kV d.c. transmission line from Benmore to the southern side of Cook Strait, and from the northern side to Hay wards; and the installation of a.c./d.c./a.c. converting plant and equipment at Benmore and Haywards substation.

To finance the huge outlay involved in electricity development the New Zealand Electricity Department drew up a plan which involved decreasing dependence on loan moneys, thus reducing the interest bill as well as stabilising the price. Legislation was passed in 1957 which made the Department no longer liable for income tax, provided that interest formerly capitalised be charged to revenue, and allows for revenue to provide a direct contribution towards capital requirements. This last provision was deferred until October 1961.

GOVERNMENT STATIONS — The following table covers all Government plants in operation and those under construction or for which contracts for machinery have been let, and shows the installed capacity and ultimate installed capacity, together with the static head.

Name of StationInstalled Capacity at 31 March 1962Ultimate Installed CapacityStatic Head (ft)
Number of UnitskWkVANumber of UnitskWkVA

* Under construction.

            Hydro
Arapuni8157,800180,0008157,800180,000175
Karapiro390,000100,000390,000100,000100
Maraetai5180,000200,00010360,000400,000200
Whakamaru4100,000111,0004100,000111,000124
Atiamuri363,00070,000484,00093,33382
Waipapa351,00056,667351,00056,66754
Ohakuri4112,000124,4444112,000124,444115
Aratiatia*390,000100,000109
Matahina*270,00077,778195
Mangahao519,20024,000519,20024,000896
Waikaremoana—       
    Kaitawa232,00038,000232,00038,000443
    Tuai352,00062,200352,00062,200676
    Piripaua240,00044,400240,00044,400370
Cobb River632,00037,222632,00037,2221,876
Arnold23,0603,60023,0603,60042
Lake Coleridge934,50040,640934,50040,640490
Highbank125,20028,000125,20028,000330
Waitaki7105,000116,6667105,000116,66670
Benmore*6540,000675,000305
Lake Tekapo125,20028,000125,20028,00080–105
Roxburgh7280,000311,1118320,000355,555150
Monowai36,0007,05036,0007,050154
            Thermal
Meremere6180,000211,7646180,000211,764
Evans Bay422,00027,500
King's Wharf427,00033,800
Stoke62,3502,93762,3502,937
Dobson45,7607,20045,7607,200
            Geothermal
Wairakei991,245101,420
Totals1091,736,3151,967,621    

ELECTRIC POWER BOARDS — The Counties Act and Municipal Corporations Act passed in 1886 empowered county authorities and municipal corporations to arrange for the supply of electricity in the areas under their control, and until 1918 no provision was made for the constitution of bodies to attend solely to electric supply matters. The authority given to counties was more limited than that given to municipalities and, as their districts were comparatively sparsely settled, they were unable, for financial reasons, to provide the same electrical facilities as those enjoyed by the towns. It was estimated by the Public Works Department that in March 1919 about 90 per cent of the people using electricity lived in the cities and larger boroughs, while probably less than 1 per cent lived in country areas. To enable the country districts to be supplied with electricity it was evident that some other form of administration was necessary, and the Electric Power Boards Act 1918 was designed to cope with this problem. The Act permitted two or more districts to combine as an electric power district, and to establish a board for the purpose of dealing exclusively with electric supply matters within the new district. Electric power boards consist of members representing the constituent districts, and possess rating powers. Previous legislation was consolidated and amended in the Electric Power Boards Act 1925 and subsequent amendments.

While this development made power available to more people outside the towns, the supply to remote areas still presented difficulties because of the high cost of reticulation in comparison with the revenue from power sold. It was later agreed by the supply authorities that a council should be set up with power to make a levy of 1/4 per cent on the gross revenue of all supply authorities and Government-owned electrical undertakings, and to employ these funds in the form of subsidies to meet the cost of reticulation in remote areas. In 1961 legislation was passed to permit the application of a levy of up to 1/2 per cent of the gross revenue. The Rural Reticulation Council was set up under the Electricity Act 1945, and up to 31 March 1961 had approved subsidies on 7,055 route-miles of line, to supply some 12,090 consumers. At this date 6,014 miles of line were completed and 9,759 consumers connected. The total capital expenditure was estimated at £5,270,493 and the annual subsidy approved amounted to £237,335.

The average capital cost of reticulation by power boards prior to the passing of the Act was £60 per customer, this reticulation excluding sparsely populated areas in which unreasonably large guarantees would be required. The extension of supply to these sparsely populated areas, as approved by the Rural Electrical Reticulation Council, is now being carried out at an average cost of £440 per consumer.

An Act of 1930 established an association of electric power boards and other electric supply authorities under the title of the Electric Power Boards and Supply Authorities Association of New Zealand, this title being changed by the Statutes Amendment Act 1951 to the Electrical Supply Authorities Association of New Zealand. The licensed areas under the control of the boards and other authorities at 1 April 1961 totalled approximately 89,142 square miles, with a population of 2,403,289 people or 99.5 per cent of the total population of New Zealand.

Of the 43 electric power boards actively functioning at 31 March 1961, 14 have generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 20,465 kW. There are also 37 municipal electric supply authorities, 13 of them having generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 57,173 kW, and two companies both operating generating stations of a total rated capacity of 1,164 kW.

In February 1959 a Commission of Inquiry was appointed to inquire into the organisation and efficiency of the distribution of electricity, the retail charges therefor, and other relevant matters, and reported in December 1959. The report is obtainable from the Government Printer.

REVIEW OF OPERATIONS: Government Establishments — The following table gives details of the operations of Government establishments generating and distributing electricity during the years 1958–59, 1959–60, and 1960–61. It includes Southland electric power supply, operated by the New Zealand Electricity Department.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
198919601961
EstablishmentsNo.192122
Persons engagedNo.2,5052,7472,772
Salaries and wages paid£2,160,5382,470,5772,575,707
ConsumersNo.19,92420,65321,321
Prime movers—
    Hydrob.h.p.1,564,9001,594,9001,674,900
    Thermalb.h.p.245,139417,499433,139
Totalsb.h.p.1,810,0392,012,3992,108,039
Generators (capacity)—    
    A.C.kW1,281,0701,430,9651,486,965
kVA1,457,6581,628,4561,690,756
Revenue—
    Sales of power—
        Retail£1,462,6431,529,8871,613,572
        Bulk and interchange£13,863,93115,476,05716,577,507
        Other£114,057119,978134,353
Total revenue£15,440,63117,125,92218,325,432
Expenditure—
    Power purchased (including interchange)£231,230220,252227,194
    Generating costs£2,422,9892,496,9532,981,854
    Transmission and distribution costs£1,318,5661,232,0181,164,613
    Management and general£1,005,3711,072,4141,108,675
    Capital charges£9,638,78310,945,23011,891,356
Total expenditure£14,616,93915,966,86717,373,692
Capital outlay—
    Total expenditure to date£181,941,695199,433,353217,668,789
    Expenditure during year£17,436,69417,491,65818,235,436
Generation—
    Hydro(000) kWh4,971,8955,185,3385,193,435
    Steam(000) kWh391,090864,7071,311,184
    Oil(000) kWh68211
Totals(000) kWh5,363,0536,050,0666,504,620
Retail sales(000) kWh306,077317,231341,816

Electric Power Boards — This table gives similar information concerning generation and distribution by electric power boards.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
195919601961
EstablishmentsNo.434443
Persons engagedNo.3,0603,4183,398
Salaries and wages paid£2,616,6913,019,1643,153,366
ConsumersNo.503,060522,296544,077
Prime movers—
    Hydrob.h.p.22,39825,26825,327
    Thermalb.h.p.4,6904,9304,930
Totalsb.h.p.27,08830,19830,257
Generators (capacity)—
    A.C.kW18,76520,46520,465
kVA24,77024,89524,828
Revenue—
    Sales of power—
        Retail£17,590,13719,503,23720,561,176
        Bulk and interchange£1,029,1391,118,8321,173,863
        Other (including rates)£317,979346,925399,361
Total revenue£18,937,25520,968,99422,134,400
Expenditure—
    Power purchased (including interchange)£10,285,21211,553,08212,421,442
    Generating costs£46,58649,45954,452
    Transmission and distribution costs£2,197,3972,391,4822,463,686
    Management and general£1,433,1781,524,4671,616,018
    Capital charges£3,265,1953,435,8783,653,020
Total expenditure£17,227,56818,954,36820,208,618
Capital outlay—
    Total expenditure to date£50,649,33157,309,72661,606,491
    Expenditure during year£3,460,1586,660,3954,296,765
Generation—
    Hydro(000) kWh90,77892,09694,073
    Oil(000) kWh745616
Totals(000) kWh90,85292,15294,089
Retail sales(000) kWh2,939,8783,340,2713,628,511

All Establishments — The next table sets out the same information in respect of all establishments engaged in the generation and distribution of power. These consisted at 31 March 1961 of 22 Government establishments, 2 limited liability companies, 43 electric power boards, 10 city councils, 20 borough councils, 5 county councils, and 2 town boards.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
195919601961
EstablishmentsNo.102103104
Persons engagedNo.7,0647,7847,822
Salaries and wages paid£6,004,9716,854,6067,192,222
ConsumersNo.777,462802,927831,924
Prime movers—
    Hydrob.h.p.1,670,7981,699,0081,781,497
    Thermalb.h.p.255,065426,695442,335
Totalsb.h.p.1,925,8632,125,7032,223,832
Generators (capacity) –
    A.C.kW1,359,9761,509,3751,565,767
KVA1,554,1121,724,4991,787,075
Revenue -
    Sales of power -
        Retail£27,317,30430,031,50831,722,325
        Bulk£14,972,61116,666,16517,825,936
        Other (including rates)£571,400581,242684,977
Total revenue£42,861,31547,278,91550,233,238
Expenditure—
    Bulk power purchased (within industry)£14,972,61116,666,16517,825,936
    Power purchased (outside sources)£57,10265,57855,043
    Generating costs£2,587,1242,701,0153,137,098
    Transmission and distribution costs£4,704,2084,854,8874,922,963
    Management and general£3,028,1633,150,5723,343,428
    Capital charges£13,919,84615,456,44316,760,822
Total expenditure£39,269,05442,894,66046,045,290
Capital outlay-
    Total expenditure to date£251,703,892278,517,506302,803,151
    Expenditure during year£22,363,24026,813,61424,285,645
Generation -
    Hydro(000) kWh5,273,6115,483,1665,511,508
    Steam(000) kWh401,770876,3021,322,685
    Oil(000) kWh2,0311,214352
Totals(000) kWh5,677,4126,360,6826,834,545
Generation per head of mean populationkWh2,4652,7122,837
Retail sales(000) kWh4,702,1005,273,9325,683,547

Employment — The foregoing tables include only those employees whose salaries and wages are paid directly out of revenue from the sale of electric power. Further details concerning the number of these employees and the salaries and wages paid to them are given in the following table covering the year ended 31 March 1961.

Category of StaffPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages Paid
MalesFemalesTotalTo MalesTo FemalesTotal
 No.No.No.£££
Administrative, engineering, and clerical staff1,8526772,5292,102,661364,4652,467,126
Employees engaged in operation and maintenance5,1831105,2934,669,80255,2944,725,096
Totals7,0357877,8226,772,463419,7597,192,222

Capital Expenditure — The following table gives capital expenditure during 1960–61 and total capital outlay to 31 March 1961.

 Expenditure During YearTotal Capital Outlay to 31 March 1961
Generating system —££
    Head works, pipelines, etc.10,582,11196,065,338
    Powerhouse, buildings, cottages, etc.3,051,17324,183,187
    Generating plant and machinery, etc.1,339,98434,611,979
Transmission and distribution lines, substations, land and houses7,208,247109,465,887
Street lighting64,1191,462,316
Office and store buildings, workshops, garages, houses, service buildings613,8547,206,862
Loose tools, meters, instruments, furniture, trucks, motorcars, equipment689,5638,251,805
Miscellaneous (cost of raising loans, loan conversion premiums, surveys, preliminary expenses, interest during construction)579,86713,764,682
Stock and materials (including trading department stocks)252,4497,599,932
Other items not capable of inclusion above—32,770191,463
Total capital outlay24,348,597302,803,151

Additions to the capital value of all electrical systems during 1960–61 totalled £24,529,508, while deductions, i.e. sales and amounts written off, amounted to £178,911. The previous table shows for each item the net expenditure only during the year.

General Balance Sheet as at 31 March 1961 — The next table summarises the balance sheet at 31 March 1961 for all establishments.

LiabilitiesAssets
 ££ £
Capital raised —  Total capital outlay302,803,151
    Original amount of current loans252,070,584 Sundry' debtors8,528,110
        Less amounts repaid31,386,171 Other assets—
            Balance owing on 31 March 1961 220,684,413    Cash and trading bank balances3,345,653
Temporary loans 421,498    State Advances stock, balances at POSB, National Savings71,180
Sundry creditors —  New Zealand Government stock5,536,413
    Bank overdraft 382,392Local authority stock667,369
    Other 6,841,297Public Trust and National Provident Fund5,043,393
Reserves —  Other2,699,860
    Loan repayment reserve 33,285,881  
    Capital expenditure out of revenue 17,984,658  
    Sinking fund reserve 1,842,864  
    Depreciation reserve 28,877,389  
    Renewal fund reserve 1,203,645  
    General and other reserves 12,249,564  
    Surplus in Appropriation Account 4,921,528  
 Total328,695,129Total328,695,129

Power — The following table sets out the number of units generated and their disposal. The excess generation of certain local factories, which is bought in for public supply, is given in the column “Other Sources”.

Year Ended 31 MarchGenerated for Public SupplySold RetailNon-productive
N.Z. Electricity DepartmentSupply AuthoritiesOther SourcesTotal
 thousand kWh
19574,693,153258,44915,7604,967,3624,064,292903,070
19585,334,553297,43012,1665,644,1494,653,002991,147
19595,363,053303,67910,6805,677,4124,702,100975,312
19606,050,066299,02011,5966,360,6825,273,9321,086,750
19616,504,620318,42311,5016,834,5445,683,5471,150,997

Analysis of Units Retailed — The following table gives a classification of power retailed according to the various purposes for which it was sold. In this table “Domestic” includes domestic water-heating units, and “Commercial” both commercial and dairy water-heating units.

Year Ended 31 MarchDomesticCommercial and IndustrialStreet LightingTramwaysElectric RailwaysOther PurposesTotal
thousand kWh
19572,366,7071,624,56725,51324,46922,8931434,064,292
19582,750,4331,827,74229,36722,04223,2022164,653,002
19592,741,0701,884,59032,00920,95222,9705094,702,100
19603,122,1732,066,78339,05422,37623,2942525,273,932
19613,359,7552,234,89743,35822,22123,3165,683,547

The following diagram portrays the growth in the use of electric power, and shows also the principal purposes for which the power was employed.

Revenue — Revenue is derived chiefly from the sale of power, and in 1960–61 this source was 97.3 per cent of the total. The following table sets out the revenue from all sources (excluding bulk sales) for the years 1956–57 to 1960–61.

Year Ended 31 MarchSale of Power (Retail)Profits from TradingMiscellaneousInterestTotal*

* Excluding revenue from interchange of power.

† 1958 miscellaneous figure includes interest.

 £££££
195719,034,91990,638513,68825,47619,664,721
195821,602,797109,850541,33122,253,978
195927,317,304118,007617,18328,052,494
196030,031,508121,337617,33730,770,182
196131,722,325129,870720,71132,572,906

Expenditure — Of the total expenditure of £28,219,354 (excluding cost of interchange of power in bulk) recorded in the year ended 31 March 1961, 71.2 per cent represented overhead costs (comprising management expenses and capital charges), while operating expenses of prime costs stood at 28.8 percent.

Power may be sold more than once in bulk before reaching the retailing authority, and in these tables the revenue from such interchange of power between authorities is set off against the cost, the net figure for cost of power purchased representing the cost to the industry of purchases from outside sources. In this connection mention may be made of certain contracts existing between the Government and some local authorities, whereby the latter are required to maintain their plants and to operate them, whenever called upon, to supplement the State electricity supply. The units so generated, often by fuel plants, are purchased by the Government and resold, in most cases to the generating authority, for distribution.

The table following gives an analysis of expenditure.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
1958195919601961

* Does not include the interchange of power between supply authorities.

 ££££
Operating Expenditure
Cost of power purchased*20,23657,10265,57855,043
Cost of generation925,216830,760943,048948,471
Fuel1,328,0351,507,2901,341,5771,719,426
Repairs and stores223,712249,074416,390469,201
Cost of transmission and distribution4,130,0714,597,0334,741,6444,835,826
Public (street) lighting102,848107,175113,24387,137
Totals6,730,1187,348,4347,621,4808,115,104
Miscellaneous Expenditure
Cost of management2,701,0392,916,9583,029,1353,213,423
Losses from trading6,6305,5035,2636,725
Other expenditure and insurance79,653105,702116,174123,280
Totals2,787,3223,028,1633,150,5723,343,428
Capital Charges (Including Taxation)
Interest5,648,4917,688,1078,392,6879,128,372
Sinking fund435,4321,425,340438,511474,590
Renewals651,043769,439762,920798,931
Depreciation2,129,7222,577,8833,188,7663,433,154
Loan repayment1,305,9291,459,0772,673,5592,925,975
Totals10,170,61713,919,84615,456,44316,760,822
Grand totals19,688,05724,296,44326,228,49528,219,354

The distribution of the expenditure per unit sold retail is given hereunder.

 Year Ended 31 March
1958195919601961
 d.d.d.d.
Operating expenses0.3470.3750.3470.343
Miscellaneous expenses0.1440.1550.1430.141
Capital charges0.5250.7100.7040.708
Totals1.0161.2401.1941.192

20 B — GAS GENERATION AND SUPPLY

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT — The gas industry was amongst the first industrial enterprises founded in New Zealand. The first gasworks was erected in the year 1862 at Auckland when the European population of that town was about 25,000, and the total European population of New Zealand was only some 100,000 persons; the Christchurch and Dunedin works commenced supply in 1863; with the addition of the Wellington establishment in 1869 there was then a gasworks in each of the four main centres. Subsequent growth of the industry was rapid, and in 1916 there were 56 establishments engaged in generation and supply of gas to the public. This was the peak year so far as the number of establishments is concerned.

Since this date the number of works in use has declined steadily, although the output of gas actually increased and a much larger number of consumers is supplied now than in the year 1916. Electricity first came into general use for lighting; it gradually supplanted gas for this purpose from 1919 onwards, and, as new appliances were introduced, continued successfully to compete with gas in heating and cooking. Plants in the larger towns and cities have been able to carry on successfully, but the works serving smaller towns have found it increasingly hard to cope with rising costs and to meet competition from electricity, so much so that a number have either sold out or closed down, leaving 32 works still operating in 1961.

As a part of the general stabilisation policy during the war, the Government instituted a system of subsidies to gasworks to enable them to meet rising costs without unduly increasing the price of gas to the consumer. These subsidies were paid from 1943 onwards to individual works as required, each case being considered separately. The subsidies were withdrawn in 1950, the price of gas to consumers being raised to meet the additional cost of gas making consequent on this withdrawal. Further increases in operating costs, wages, and coal prices in 1951 led to a restoration of subsidies to the gas industry in the form of a subsidy to all gasworks of 2s. per 1,000 cu. ft. of gas sold. Financial assistance in the form of loans was also offered to works for the purpose of carrying out work necessary to restore the efficiency of gas making and storage plant, and it was considered that at the end of two years the industry would be in a strong enough position for the subsidy to be withdrawn. This has not proved to be the case, and the subsidy is still in force. From October 1959 this subsidy was reduced to 1s. 8d., except for works on the West Coast and the oil plant at Hastings. L, addition, a new subsidy covering freight charges on coal was given to 18 undertakings. The annual average prices of gas in the four main centres during the period 1910–11 to 1960–61 are shown in the following table.

AVERAGE PRICE OF GAS TO CONSUMER PER 1,000 CUBIC FEET
YearAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedin
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
1910–11445455410
1929–30706117063
1939–40726165511
1949–508106106962
1959–6013510681075
1960–611401169071

The decline of the gas industry was viewed with concern by the Government and the authorities which are required to supply the country with electric power, because of the additional demand for electricity which must follow any reduction of the gas supply. In order to conserve the contribution by the gasworks to the national sources of power, an Electricity and Gas Coordination Committee was set up in 1955 and commenced its work in January 1956, at which time 34 gas undertakings were in operation. The Committee considered that all but three smaller undertakings were essential in the national interest. On 5 September 1956 the Committee reported to the Minister making recommendations concerning the future operation of essential undertakings and in respect of the acquisition of such undertakings by the local electricity supply authority.

The Electricity and Gas Coordination Act 1956 established an Electricity and Gas Coordination Board to advise the Minister on the coordination of the electricity and gas industries. Following a report from the Board regarding the difficulties to be overcome in effecting local mergers, legislation was passed in 1958 setting up a Gas Council in place of the Board. The main functions of the new Council are to advise the Government and the industry regarding the preservation and expansion of gas supplies, and to operate the Gas Industry Account, from which subsidies, grants, and loans may be made to assist the industry.

RECENT STATISTICS — Statistics for the years 1958–59 to 1960–61 are set out in the table which follows.

Item1958–591959–601960–61

* Includes revaluation in certain cases.

† Including natural gas.

‡Revised.

WorksNo.333332
Premises and plant —
    Value at end of year —
        Land and buildings£865,9071,113,348*1,113,548
        Plant and machinery£5,349,7945,534,8575,910,784
    Capital expenditure during year —
        Land and buildings£34,49612,11524,390
        Plant and machinery£252,210339,330637,468
Persons engagedNo.1,5601,5571,487
Salaries and wages paid£1,262,3701,322,2511,322,120
Coal used —
    Quantitytons271,005276,045277,100
    Cost£1,620,7841,663,0171,708,383
Cost of purifying and other materials£77,05582,31779,938
Other expenses (other than salaries and wages and materials)£903,7701,071,2611,022,182
Total expenditure£3,863,9794,138,8464,132,623
Total revenue£3,892,7824,101,6884,202,984
ConsumersNo.170,995168,737163,213
Gas generatedcu. ft. (000)5,520,3775,663,9435,696,130
Gas sold retail —
    Quantitycu. ft. (000)4,379,8934,540,4484,612,357
    Value£2,981,0113,076,0183,189,529
Average price of gas to consumer per 1,000 cu. ft 11s. 7d.11s. 7d.11s. 11d.

There follows an analysis of the 1960–61 statistics, these being dissected by locality of gasworks (North and South Island) and character of organisation. It will be seen that 66.45 per cent of the total quantity of gas was generated in the North Island and 33.55 per cent in the South Island, while proportions generated by registered companies and municipal authorities were 71.09 per cent and 28.91 per cent respectively.

ItemRegistered CompaniesMunicipal AuthoritiesTotalRegistered CompaniesMunicipal AuthoritiesTotal

* Depreciated values.

† Undepreciated. Depreciation funds amounted to £33,077.

‡Undepreciated. Depreciation funds amounted to £120,581.

  North IslandSouth Island
WorksNo.7101731215
Value of land and buildings£(000)738*11485287*175262
Value of machinery and plant£(000)2,148*1,5843,732689*1,4902,179
Capital additions during year —
    Land and buildings£(000)121022..22
    Machinery and plant£(000)2753531039288327
Persons engaged —
    MalesNo.741214955201222423
    FemalesNo.70138319726
TotalsNo.8112271,038220229449
Salaries and wages paid—
    To males£(000)664206870181216397
    To females£(000)385438311
Totals£(000)702211913189220409
Motive power —
    Engines in useNo.22310432772182254
    Total horsepowerh.p.3,4435634,0069159681,883
Materials used—
    Coaltons(000)13843181494796
 £(000)8742921,166257285542
    Oilgal(000)950129611370371
 £(000)43149..2627
Products —
    Gas generated‡cu. ft. (m)3,1016843,7859499631,911
    Gas sold retailcu. ft.(m)2,3975872,9848327951,628
 £(000)1,5764011,977383398780
    Coketons(000)32941231336
 £(000)2388732511784201
    Targal(000)1,1493261,4754875161,003
 £(000)130331636045105
    Other residuals£(000)37643628
Total expenditure£(000)2,1966942,8905706731,243
Total revenue£(000)2,2956052,9006466581,303
ConsumersNo.82,76625,081107,84719,29136,07555,366

Chapter 21. Section 21 MARKETING

21A — MARKETING OF PRIMARY PRODUCE

GENERAL MARKETING SITUATION: Meat — Most meat produced in the world is used for domestic consumption, and only about 6 per cent of world output enters into international trade. About three-quarters of all meat exports come from five countries. In order of importance these are New Zealand, Denmark, Argentina, Australia, and the Netherlands. The import trade is dominated by the United Kingdom, which takes about two-thirds of the total exports. Next in importance as importers are the United States of America, and the Western European countries such as Italy, Western Germany, and France.

Beef and veal comprise about half the world exports, with Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand the main exporters. In recent years, exports of pig meats (mostly by European countries) and mutton and lamb (mostly by New Zealand and Australia) have increased, while exports of beef have declined. New Zealand faces a problem of disposing of a rapidly increasing quantity of sheep meats in world markets. The United Kingdom has been a sheep-rearing country for centuries, and her people have developed a taste for mutton and lamb. In other likely markets the taste must to some extent be cultivated.

The population of the United Kingdom is increasing only slowly, and although there has been increased consumption per head in recent years it seems that the capacity of the country to consume greater quantities of meat is slowing down. At the same time the United Kingdom Government is encouraging home production by a system of guaranteed agricultural prices.

Though the United Kingdom is traditionally New Zealand's export market for meat and must remain so in the foreseeable future, there has been for some years a growing realisation of the need for supplementary markets. Efforts made during the past few years to develop alternative markets have had some success.

In the past the main markets outside the United Kingdom for New Zealand's meat have been the countries of Western Europe, but in recent years exports to these areas have declined, as these countries have intensified protection of their agricultural industries. Market opportunities may also be affected by the formation of the European Economic Community, comprising Belgium, France, Italy, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, and Western Germany, and also by the European Free Trade Area of the Seven, comprising United Kingdom, Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, and Switzerland.

Canada and the United States of America have been developed into important supplementary markets for lamb, and sales of mutton to Japan, Greece, and other markets outside the United Kingdom have increased substantially.

A reduction in size of beef herds in the United States of America following a drought and low prices in 1955–56 led to a demand for imported beef by that country. In 1958 New Zealand became a leading exporter of beef to the United States with shipments totalling about 91,000 tons, mostly boneless. In 1958 Canada also bought 4,100 tons of New Zealand beef and veal, with the result that 76 per cent of New Zealand's 1957–58 beef exports went to North American markets. In 1958–59, however, there was a drop in shipments to both the United States and Canada, partly because there was less beef for export and partly from competition from a greater supply of Australian beef following an amendment to the United Kingdom — Australian long-term agreement on meat which permitted Australia to divert a larger proportion of her production to markets outside the United Kingdom. Shipments of beef to the United States declined by 15,000 tons in 1959–60 but increased sales were made to other markets.

Exports of New Zealand meat to the United States form only a very small proportion of national consumption but can be expected to continue with the trade contacts that have been developed, and the availability of refrigerated shipping. In recent years packers have modernised their plants and trained staff to prepare the beef, inspect it, and pack it in heavy cardboard cartons lined with polythene.

The following table shows the main destination of exports of frozen and chilled beef and veal for the four latest years.

Country of Import195819591960*

* Provisional.

 tons£(000)tons£(000)tons£(000)
United Kingdom12,8701,6897,3581,18220,3733,217
United States84,03020,92368,52918,07256,32214,543
Japan2,7713081,3072103,582560
Other countries16,0993,14811,6592,71918,3951,161
Totals115,77026,06888,85322,18398,67219,481

Imports into the United States of some classes of fresh, chilled or frozen meat are shown in the following table. (Source: Commonwealth Economic Committee.)

Country of ExportBeef and VealMutton and Lamb
195819591960195819591960
 tons (thousand)
New Zealand837059364
Australia8956471716
Canada241091....
Republic of Ireland132324
Mexico282217
Other countries4111512..
Total imports159232187122520
United States production6,4806,5127,068307329343

Wool — New Zealand is one of the largest exporters of wool in the world but marketing presents few difficulties. Most of the wool is auctioned in New Zealand and buyers come from interested countries to make their purchases of wool. A small percentage of wool produced is shipped to England for sale on the London market. Prices fluctuate according to the demand for wool, but the present market requirements are such that the Wool Commission has not had to buy in very much wool under its minimum price scheme, and even then has had to hold it only temporarily. The threat of competition from synthetic materials is such that the International Wool Secretariat is actively promoting advertising, merchandising, and research. World wool production and wool utilisation have in recent years been approximately in balance and there has been no pressure on supplies.

Dairy Produce — For the sale of dairy products New Zealand is very largely dependent on the United Kingdom market, which is practically the only open market of any size for butter and cheese. In 1958 the total production of butter by 30 of the main producing countries of the world amounted to 3.9 million tons. In the same year world exports by 20 of the leading exporters amounted to about 550,000 tons, that is, only about 14 per cent of world production entered into international trade. Of this quantity, 410,000 tons (75 per cent) came on to the United Kingdom market. These figures show that relatively small changes in demand-supply relationships in individual countries can have a most disturbing effect on the United Kingdom market.

Some countries have adopted agricultural income and price support policies to maintain and stabilise farming incomes. Only industrialised countries with a relatively low proportion of their national income derived from agriculture can continue support measures on a large scale. International trade is adversely affected in several ways. To maintain prices at support levels many countries have restricted imports of agricultural products, so that entry into markets, in which New Zealand's exports could effectively compete, has often been denied. High support prices and consequent high domestic prices discourage consumption and often lead to the accumulation of supplies which are surplus to domestic requirements. Surpluses generated in this manner are frequently disposed of in other markets at prices well below the cost of production. New Zealand's position in the United Kingdom market was adversely affected in 1958 when some European countries dumped on the market such quantities that there were serious falls in prices.

Since 1958 price reductions in some European countries have to some extent stimulated consumption in them, but not a great deal of progress has been made in the reduction of subsidised dairy production that leads to dumping. It is essential for New Zealand to maintain strong and consistent pressure in international councils so that these measures are furthered. There were indications in 1960 that O.E.E.C. countries were prepared to exercise restraints to ensure a normal flow of supplies to the United Kingdom market, but dumping by a number of countries led to a serious fall in prices early in 1961. Discussions extending over a number of months in GATT and other international bodies were aimed at finding a remedy to the situation. Some alleviation of New Zealand's position was afforded in November 1961 when the British Government asked all countries currently supplying butter to Britain to agree to limit their shipments to the quantities proposed by GATT up to 31 March 1962. Countries which did not agree to limit their exports would be subject to the imposition of anti-dumping duties. This decision led to the first upward movement in the price for New Zealand butter, which had remained at a low figure for many months.

New Zealand is moving towards the development of more supplementary markets for dairy produce, although quantities of the major products, that can thus be disposed of are relatively small compared with the United Kingdom, New Zealand's long-standing market. Major industrial countries where income levels and food-consumption habits could provide important markets have adopted trading policies aimed at restricting imports of foodstuffs to protect their agriculture. The extent of these restrictions is partly dependent upon seasonal conditions, e.g., if seasonal conditions are favourable the restrictions are tightened.

TRADE AGREEMENTS — The United Kingdom has always been New Zealand's main export market for primary produce. New Zealand's trading relations with the United Kingdom are governed by a number of formal commitments. Under the Ottawa Agreement of 1932 New Zealand undertook to maintain a preferential tariff on imports from the United Kingdom, while the United Kingdom for its part was obliged to grant duty-free entry for practically all New Zealand products and maintain specified duties on some foreign products of interest to New Zealand. The United Kingdom also undertook to place quota restrictions on foreign meats.

On butter the foreign tariff rate, and therefore the margin of preference, fixed in 1932 was 15s. a hundredweight (at which comparatively low rate it still remains); on cheese the tariff preference is 15 per cent; on meat there is no preference on mutton and lamb, and a negligible tariff preference exists on beef coupled with a foreign quota on meat which was designed to ensure an expanding share of the United Kingdom's market; while on wool there has never been a preference.

During the trade talks in the United Kingdom in April-May 1957 the question of a review of the Ottawa Agreement was raised, and following discussions which took place in New Zealand early in 1958 on the occasion of the visit of the United Kingdom Prime Minister it was agreed desirable to review the provisions of the Ottawa Agreement which had remained substantially unaltered since 1932. Negotiations were opened by a New Zealand official delegation in London on 17 April 1958, and the new agreement came into force on 25 November 1958.

The agreement gave new flexibility to New Zealand's international trading and negotiating position. The levels of preferences in favour of the United Kingdom of the 1932 Agreement could be modified but the basic principle was retained to ensure that the close and mutually beneficial economic partnership between the United Kingdom and New Zealand would continue. Recognising that, because of changed conditions, the balance of advantage under the 1932 Trade Agreement had moved against New Zealand, the United Kingdom Government agreed to New Zealand having the right to reduce the 20-per-cent margin of preference on British goods. (See Section 22D — Customs Tariff and Revenue.)

The greater flexibility which will result will assist in reducing the cost of imports, and also enable other markets for an increasing volume of exports to be maintained and developed. New Zealand must be able to produce exports at competitive prices and to do this it is essential that plant and raw material used in production be imported on the most favourable basis. Provision has also been made for New Zealand to resort to a limited measure of bilateral trading with third countries, without causing serious harm to the trade of the United Kingdom.

In the new agreement all existing rights and preferences for New Zealand goods entering the United Kingdom market are preserved. These include the 1957 supplementary agreement providing for annual consultations on the agricultural production and marketing policies of the two countries, as well as the 10-year right of entry to the United Kingdom market, without restriction as to quantity, of butter, cheese, skim and buttermilk powders, casein, and chilled and frozen pork. The 15-year right of entry for New Zealand meat, agreed to in 1952 outside the 1932 pact, remains in force.

Under the agreement the United Kingdom and New Zealand Governments recognise that each other's trade may be materially injured by competition from dumped or subsidised exports from third countries. If, after consultation, it is established that such injury is being caused or threatened, each Government will consider remedial action consistent with its own laws and its international obligations.

A revised trade agreement had earlier been negotiated between the United Kingdom and Australia.

A treaty establishing the European Economic Community entered into force on 1 January 1958. Under the terms of this treaty, the six member countries, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands will, over a transitional period of 12 to 15 years, eliminate tariffs and other restrictions to trade within the Community. At the same time the tariffs on goods entering each member country from outside the Community will be adjusted until all the six countries have a common external tariff. If the Community adopts a common agricultural policy aimed at self sufficiency in foodstuffs, New Zealand's limited access to the agricultural markets of the Six could be even more restricted.

The establishment of the European Economic Community was followed by revived negotiations concerning a European free trade area embracing 17 countries, including the Six. The proposals for a free trade area involved the gradual abolition of tariffs and other restrictions on trade within the area, but each member would retain its own individual tariff on imports from outside the area. Negotiations broke down for a Free Trade Area of the 17 nations but there has since been formed a Free Trade Area of the Seven (United Kingdom, Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, and Switzerland). One of the primary objectives of this smaller Free Trade Area was to link in some way its activities with the Six. The Free Trade Area of the Seven has special rules regarding agricultural products.

During 1961 there loomed the prospect of the United Kingdom's joining the European Economic Community. This raised the threat of tariffs, levies, and quotas on New Zealand's dairy produce and meat going into the United Kingdom market. Strong representations were made to the British Government and Britain stated that she would not feel able to join the European Economic Community unless special arrangements could be secured to protect vital interests of New Zealand and other Commonwealth countries. See special article in Appendix (d) of this Yearbook.

UNITED KINGDOM MARKET: Dairy Produce — New Zealand's important position in the supply of butter, cheese, and milk powder to the United Kingdom market is illustrated in the following table, showing imports into the United Kingdom, by country of export. In the case of butter, domestic production in the United Kingdom is relatively small in comparison with total supplies, amounting to only 37,000 tons in 1960. Domestic cheese supplies, on the other hand, are comparatively large, the total for 1960 being 109,000 tons, while domestic output of milk powder in 1960 was 96,000 tons. (Source: Commonwealth Economic Committee.)

Country of ExportButterCheeseMilk Powder
19381959196019611938195919601961193819591960
 tons (thousand)
New Zealand -1301631441568276778074735
Australia906458591213151522511
Canada26349881
Denmark118959894110101022
Netherlands -361417161014985165
Other countries100598898714141441311
            Total imports476401405423146136133135810464
            United Kingdom production201437494388109112..5696

For the 1960–61 season almost 94 per cent of New Zealand's total exports of butter and almost 89 per cent of the total exports of cheese went to the United Kingdom.

The following table shows the comparative figures for consumption of butter and margarine in the United Kingdom. (Source: Commonwealth Economic Committee.)

Product19381957195819591960
 Ib per head
Butter24.117.520.218.518.0
Margarine10.015.113.415.014.5

Meat — The following table shows the imports of meat into the United Kingdom from the principal countries, by country of export. (Source: Commonwealth Economic Committee.)

Country (of Export)Mutton and LambBeef and VealAll Meats*
19381959196019381959196019591960

* Including pig-meat and offal.

 tons (thousand)
New Zealand18429530852721322347
Australia95363111511065163109
Argentina452431354211204258253
Denmark..257293
Other countries221014682864357435
Totals3463653845893563541,3571,437
United Kingdom production2112462246047188171,7401,782

The important part played by New Zealand in the supply of meat to the United Kingdom is shown in the above table, this country being one of the leading suppliers, accounting in 1960 for 80 per cent of the mutton and lamb and 24 per cent of total meat products. Corresponding figures for 1959 were 81 per cent and 24 per cent respectively.

It should be noted that over half of the meat consumed in the United Kingdom is now obtained from domestic supplies.

As the United Kingdom takes the great bulk of the mutton and lamb exported from New Zealand it is interesting to note the extent to which New Zealand contributes to this market in comparison with other countries. In the calendar year 1938 New Zealand supplied 63 per cent of the total frozen mutton imported into the United Kingdom and 50 per cent of the total imports of frozen lamb. Australia, the next largest supplier in 1938, contributed 23 per cent of mutton imports and 29 per cent of lamb imports, while Argentina, which ranked third on the list, supplied 6 per cent and 15 per cent respectively. That New Zealand has more than maintained her position in this connection in the post-war years is evidenced by the figures for 1960, when New Zealand supplied 80 per cent of frozen mutton and lamb imported into the United Kingdom, whereas Australia and Argentina each supplied 8 per cent.

New Zealand's frozen beef competes under difficulties with chilled and fresh beef from countries nearer the United Kingdom, with the consequence that the New Zealand share of the United Kingdom's beef imports has been relatively small; in addition in recent years a market for boneless packaged beef has been developed in North America, particularly in the United States, and supplies have been diverted there. In 1960 New Zealand supplied approximately 6 per cent of the United Kingdom's total imports of beef, as compared with 7 per cent in 1938.

New Zealand pork is shipped almost exclusively to the United Kingdom, but the quantity is relatively small and is declining.

In international trade, exports of bacon far exceed those of other pig products, with the United Kingdom normally absorbing most of the exports of other countries. Although New Zealand supplies a substantial proportion of the imports of frozen and chilled pork into the United Kingdom, her contributions of bacon are negligible.

THE ORGANISATION OF MARKETING — In a country such as New Zealand which is very dependent upon overseas trade, the efficient organisation of marketing of primary produce takes on a special importance. Since the gradual abandonment of the principles of laissez faire from the First World War onwards, great changes have taken place, and developments have been described in detail in earlier issues of the Yearbook.

Broadly speaking, the policy of controlled marketing of primary products has exhibited five phases:

  1. In the early 1920's the producer organisations made moves to rationalise the organisation of marketing.

  2. The next stage was for the State to trade directly, buying products outright, bearing losses and retaining profits. the Primary Products Marketing Act 1936 established the Marketing Department, which confined its pre-war operations to dairy produce.

  3. This was followed, after the outbreak of the Second World War and the establishment of bulk purchase, by the formation of financial pool accounts for each industry, the profits, subject to the general policy of stabilisation, being paid out to the suppliers, and any reserves held for the benefit of the industry. During the war the United Kingdom Government was the sole purchaser of imported foodstuffs, and the Marketing Department the authority in New Zealand responsible for the bulk purchase and shipment of dairy produce, meat, wool, and tallow.

  4. The fourth phase was the direction of policy by boards and committees with the assumption of executive and not, as previously, merely advisory powers. Each body continued to use the marketing organisation for assembly, storage, transport, distribution, and accounting which the Marketing Department had built up, these services being made available at cost.

  5. The fifth phase has been the progressive transfer to various boards or authorities representative of the industry concerned (with Government representation to protect consumer interests) of the responsibility and authority for the effective marketing of their own products, or the return to private enterprise with the boards assuming mainly their former pre-war functions.

Marketing Authorities, Specific and General — Progressively from 1947 onwards primary producer organisations have assumed control of the marketing of their produce. The major statutes under which specific marketing authorities operate are the Dairy Production and Marketing Board Act 1961, the Meat Export Control Act 1921–22 and the Amendment Act of 1956 (for the Meat Producers Board), and the Meat Export Prices Act 1955, the Wool Commission Act 1951, the Milk Act 1944, and the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1948.

In addition to the specific statutes authorising the industry body concerned to carry out marketing functions for certain major commodities — e.g., dairy produce, meat, potatoes, apples and pears, milk-an Act passed in 1953, entitled the Primary Products Marketing Act 1953, authorised the setting up of other marketing authorities by Orders in Council on the recommendation of the Minister of Agriculture. The Minister was required to be satisfied that a large majority of the producers in the industry concerned desired to have an authority established, and provision was made for the protection of consumer interests by the appointment of experienced Government representatives to such authorities. Other protection measures included provision foe consultation between the Minister and the various boards or authorities, empowering the Minister to give directions on matters of Government trade policy, the presentation of annual reports to Parliament by each body, and Government audit of their accounts.

Orders in Council have been gazetted entitled the Citrus Marketing Regulations 1953, the Egg Marketing Regulations 1953, and the Honey Marketing Regulations 1953, all three being confirmed and validated by the Primary Products Marketing Confirmation Act 1953.

Summary of Developments — Developments in the marketing of particular products are now summarised.

Dairy Produce — By the Dairy Products Marketing Commission Act 1947 the functions of the Marketing Department as regards butter and cheese for export (later extended to cover the control of all dairy produce for export) were transferred to the New Zealand Dairy Products Marketing Commission. By the same Act the control and regulation of butter and cheese for local consumption were also transferred to the Commission. Under the Dairy Production and Marketing Board Act 1961, which came into force on 1 September 1961, the functions of the Commission were assumed by the New Zealand Dairy Production and Marketing Board.

The Dairy Production and Marketing Board acquires and markets all New Zealand butter and cheese intended for export, controls the export of other dairy products, and regulates the marketing of butter and cheese in New Zealand. In selling the industry's exportable surplus of milk powder and casein, the Board is guided by an advisory committee for each product. The Board owns in the United Kingdom a company, Milk Products (N.Z.) Ltd., through which all New Zealand milk powder sold in the United Kingdom is distributed. It also owns Empire Dairies Ltd., which acts as one of the 17 first-hand agents through which New Zealand butter and cheese are distributed in Britain. The Board carries out extensive advertising and publicity of New Zealand produce in the United Kingdom.

Meat — By arrangement with the Government in early 1948, the Meat Producers Board (which was formed in 1922 under the Meat Export Control Act 1921–22) resumed the regulation of shipping and physical handling of meat and became responsible for the purchase of meat for export and the payment to the freezing companies for such meat. In negotiation of prices, etc., for the sale of meat and meat products overseas the representatives of the Board acted as advisers in association with the representatives of the New Zealand Government, and for the 1953–54 season's prices the Meat Producers Board was authorised to conduct the price negotiations with the United Kingdom Ministry of Food. The United Kingdom Government agreed to this procedure subject to the New Zealand Government vouching for the accuracy of any cost statistics used by the Board's representatives. Meat destined for local consumption is not dealt with by the Meat Producers Board. With the end of the bulk purchase agreements in September 1954, the export trade in meat reverted to a trader-to-trader basis. Provision was made by the Meat Export Prices Act 1955, however, for the determination annually by the Meat Export Prices Committee of minimum prices for meat exported from New Zealand. The farmer sells his stock to a works or exporter and is paid by the works or exporter, who in turn is reimbursed by the Meat Producers Board for any deficiency payment.

Under the Meat Export Control Amendment Act 1959 the Meat Producers Board may purchase meat for sale outside New Zealand to promote the sale of meat in other countries, provided such action establishes new markets.

To encourage the further exploitation of new markets, a company was formed in 1960 on the initiative of the Meat Producers Board. The capital is provided by the New Zealand owned freezing companies, but these companies and the Meat Producers Board appoint an equal number of directors. The company will ensure that new markets are adequately supplied and that reasonable pricing policies are followed.

Wool — The minimum-price system created by the Joint Organisation for the disposal of war surplus stocks of wool was operated in New Zealand by the Wool Disposal Commission, which was prepared to buy, at minimum reserve prices, wool from current clips offered at public auction but in respect of which prices failed to reach the reserve fixed. By the Wool Commission Act 1951 the Wool Disposal Commission was abolished and a Wool Commission authorised, with the principal function of assuring minimum prices for greasy, scoured, and growers' slipe wool in accordance with the table of minimum prices (effective only after agreement with the Minister), for New Zealand wool sold in New Zealand or the United Kingdom at auction sales approved by the Commission. The Wool Disposal Account was abolished and its moneys, together with those standing to the credit of the Wool Industry Deposit Account, were transferred to the Wool Commission Account which was established by the Act. The marketing of wool is carried out by public auction. Although the Wool Commission Act makes provision for a charge to be made on all wool sold or exported in order to cover the administration costs of the Commission, in fact no such charge has ever been levied. The annual interest earnings on the Commission's investments, together with profits from the resale of wool bought in at floor price, have met all costs and, in addition, have been sufficient to augment the original capital. The Commission, acting on behalf of the Wool Board, collects a levy, which for the 1961–62 season was at the rate of 5s. a bale, and this levy is paid over in its entirety to the Wool Board for its research and promotional activities. Since 1954 the Commission has from its funds made a supplementary payment to the Board each year of an amount equal to that levied on growers direct and this has meant that the levy on growers for Wool Board purposes has, since 1954, been at half the rate that otherwise would have applied.

Apples and Pears — Apples and pears are purchased from growers by the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board. This Board was set up in 1948, in terms of the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1948, to take over direction of the acquisition and marketing of the apple and pear harvest. It administers a guaranteed price scheme based on the cost of production of apples and pears. This price is a New Zealand average, and within it prices to growers vary for the different varieties, grades, and sizes. In this case the Board does not itself declare the average price to be paid for apples and pears, its powers being limited in this respect to making recommendations to the Minister of Agriculture, who declares the cost of production. This cost of production has, since the passing of an amending Act in 1954, become the average price to be paid for apples and pears for the season concerned. The Board is charged with the duty of recovering from the market these prices together with the costs of marketing. It determines the wholesale prices at which fruit is sold by authorised wholesalers to retailers. If in any season the total receipts from sales of fruit by the Board exceed the amount which the Board is required to pay to growers in accordance with the declared average price, the surplus, after deduction of costs and expenses incurred by the Board, is apportioned between a reserve fund and the growers. Until the reserve fund reached £1,000,000 the whole of the annual profit was paid into it. From then until the fund reached £1,250,000 the profit was distributed in the proportion of 25 per cent to the growers and 75 per cent to the fund. This amount having been reached, the profit is now allocated equally between the two. If sales in any season realise less than the amount the Board is required to pay, the deficiency is met from the reserve find. All apples and pears are not purchased by the Board, the Act making provision for certain private sales by growers in accordance with regulations issued thereunder. The Board was able to declare a bonus to fruitgrowers for five seasons from 1953–54, the average amounts paid out per case being for 1954, 4.09d.; for 1955, 2.37d.; for 1956, 3.98d.; for 1957, 14.07d.; and for 1958, 4.92d. In 1959 a loss of £433,963 was incurred by the Board, and in 1960, though a profit of £304,443 was made by the Board, it was agreed with the growers that no bonus would be paid. In the 1961 season the Board incurred a loss of £134,804.

The Apple and Pear Board at first did not employ its own staff, except for secretarial and investigational duties, the physical functions in assembly, distribution, and marketing being carried out by the Marketing Department as the agent of the Board. However the Board set up its own marketing organisation and took over direct control as from 1 December 1953.

With the exceptions listed below, all fruit must be offered to the Board, and accepted by it if it comes within the scope of the New Zealand Grown Fruit Regulations 1952, which set standard grades with which the packed fruit must conform.

Officers of the Department of Agriculture inspect the fruit, and if it complies with the required standards the fruit becomes the property of the Board.

The exceptions under which fruit is not required to be offered to the Board are:

  1. Growers, with permission of the Board, may sell direct to consumers in lots of not more than two cases, or to retailers in specified localities. In the latter case the Board may prescribe conditions as to quantities, varieties, standards, etc., of fruit sold:

  2. Manufacturers may be licensed by the Board to purchase their requirements direct from growers (although in some cases the Board itself purchases fruit and resells it to the factory). In such cases, also, the Board may make conditions as above:

  3. Growers may also be permitted by the Board to sell at municipal markets established under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954. The Board is not obliged to accept fruit from a grower while he holds a permit to sell at such a market.

The Board decides what proportion of the fruit is to remain in New Zealand and what proportion is to be exported, and arranges for the storage and release of varieties according to their condition and keeping capacity, in order to make fruit available for as long a period as possible during the year. As at 1 December 1953 the Board purchased from the Government the greater part of the facilities then in use for the handling of the crop. They included cool stores and ancillary equipment. Since then, however, the reserve fund, which has been built up from profits derived almost solely from exports, has been invested in a chain of modern cool stores and mechanical equipment designed for the improved handling of fruit.

A Committee of Inquiry into the sale of apples and pears on the local market reported to Parliament on 4 October 1961 — see parliamentary paper H. 29A.

Potatoes — Commencing during the war period, the Marketing Department let contracts to ensure an adequate supply of main-crop potatoes for local consumption. The last such contracts were let for the 1950–51 season.

The Potato Board, with equal representation of growers and merchants, was established by the Potato Growing Industry Act 1950. Its principal function is to ensure that an adequate supply of main-crop potatoes shall be available for consumption. Its powers include the making of contracts between growers and the Board, and the appointment of wholesalers authorised to purchase from growers and to sell potatoes in respect of which contracts have been made with the Board. The Board replaced the Potato Advisory Committee of the Marketing Department from November 1950. In June 1956 the Government announced that it would guarantee the overdraft of the Potato Board to enable the Board to guarantee a certain schedule of minimum prices to contract growers for any potatoes unsold at the end of the season. The purpose is to encourage the growing of an adequate supply of potatoes.

Milk — The Milk Act 1944 set up a Central Milk Council under whose general direction were established local milk authorities of various types according to conditions. The Marketing Department, and later the Department of Agriculture, acted as the administrative agent of the Council. It also administered the National Milk Scheme under which local supply associations of farmers contracted to supply the requirements in given areas at prices fixed from time to time by agreement between the industry representatives and the Government. The scheme controlled prices and allowances for processing and distribution at all stages from the farm gate to the consumer. The Milk Amendment Act 1953, however, further implemented the policy of divorcing marketing of primary products from direct Government control. It provided for the setting up of the New Zealand Milk Board to replace the Central Milk Council, with powers considerably greater than those of the Council, and for this reason one extra Government member was appointed to the Board. The Board has its own officers and operates the National Milk Scheme and treatment stations owned by the Crown, and engages in other activities for the purpose of ensuring an adequate supply and efficient distribution of milk.

The Central Milk Council Account was also replaced by the Milk Industry Account. While subsidies are payable from the Consolidated Fund, the Board may make a levy on milk for the purpose of providing for its operations if the Minister of Agriculture approves.

Retail prices are fixed by price order. The price for the milk to the; producer is fixed by the Government after consultation with the Milk Board. Intermediate margins, such as those for chilling and bottling milk and to vendors for its delivery, are fixed by the Government on the recommendation of the Board. The total cost at the present time exceeds the amount paid by the consumers, the balance being met by subsidy. It is the function of the Milk Board to administer the whole town milk scheme on behalf of the Government which, however, retains a direct interest by virtue of the substantial sum still paid in subsidy.

Eggs — The marketing of eggs and egg products was formerly controlled by the National Egg Marketing Committee, set up under regulations issued in 1951 and amended in 1952. Private firms in various towns and cities were licensed by the Minister of Marketing to receive and sell eggs on commission and to manufacture and sell egg pulp. The prices paid to the poultrykeepers were those fixed from time to time by the Minister on the Committee's recommendation, while the wholesale and retail selling prices to the public were fixed by price order. It was the responsibility of the Committee to obtain from the market the average cost of production for the producer. It operated by adjusting prices, by deciding the proportion of eggs for pulping, and by instituting economies in marketing; it also administered funds collected from the producers by means of levies on feed and eggs, applying these towards meeting administrative costs and marketing expenses.

The Egg Marketing Authority Regulations 1953 transferred to the Egg Marketing Authority the power to regulate and control the marketing and distribution of eggs and egg pulp in substantially the same manner and extent as those powers were exercisable by the Minister and the Department of Agriculture under the Egg Marketing Regulations 1951.

The Egg Marketing Authority consists of seven members — four producer members of the New Zealand Poultry Board and three Government representatives.

The principal function of the Authority is to regulate and control the marketing and distribution of eggs and egg pulp in New Zealand and elsewhere in accordance with the regulations, to ensure as far as possible sufficient supplies of eggs and their equitable distribution in the general interests of producers and consumers.

The New Zealand Egg Marketing Authority, as the successor with autonomous powers to the National Egg Marketing Committee, operates principally through licensed distributors in the various districts who, on commission, receive and resell eggs, or, as directed by the Authority, manufacture egg pulp for the use of bakers and pastrycooks. The poultry industry does not enjoy a full guaranteed price from the Government, but, within limits fixed by the assessed costs of production, is free to recover these costs from the market. A subsidy, at present at the rate of 4d. per dozen, is paid by the Government in respect of eggs received at authorised egg floors (as the licensed distributors are known).

Imported Citrus Fruits and Bananas — The control and distribution of bananas and imported citrus fruits were placed in the hands of the Internal Marketing Division in 1938, pineapples being added in 1940. Since the beginning of 1951, however, the importation and marketing of imported citrus fruits, bananas, and pineapples have been taken over by a registered company, Fruit Distributors Ltd., representing trade interests.

New Zealand Lemons and Oranges — The Citrus Marketing Authority Regulations 1953 provided the Citrus Marketing Authority with the principal task of selling fresh lemons, either directly or through agents, throughout New Zealand at prices related to cost of production, and to process unmarketable but otherwise sound fruit into by-products, such as fruit juice and lemon peel. The Authority has a membership of five, four of whom are nominees of the New Zealand Citrus Council and represent the producers, and one appointed by the Minister of Agriculture representing the consumers.

The Citrus Marketing Authority is now empowered to control the assembly and distribution of New Zealand lemons, including the variety known as the Meyer lemon which was hitherto exempt from regulation, and also New Zealand grown sweet oranges. The entire output of packed lemons, which now comes under the jurisdiction of the Authority, is sold at agreed prices to Fruit Distributors Ltd. The Authority has taken over the processing and packing facilities at Kerikeri, Auckland, and Tauranga, and most of the staff previously associated with this work.

Honey — A Honey Export Control Board was set up in 1924, the powers of which were assumed by the Minister of Marketing in 1938. In the same year regulations were made to provide for a levy at the rate of 1/2d. per pound on honey sold by beekeepers within New Zealand, subject to certain small exceptions. At a later date regulations under the Marketing Acts set up the Honey Marketing Committee which at first was advisory in nature, but some years later was given virtually executive powers. The Honey Marketing Authority Regulations 1953, made under the Primary Products Marketing Act 1953, amalgamated all the foregoing provisions and provided for a Honey Marketing Authority, which undertakes the task of packing and marketing honey within New Zealand and for export, and operates the blending plant in Auckland. The levy referred to was continued at the rate of 1d. per pound on all honey sold locally and the funds paid into the Honey Industry Account, which is administered by the authority for the benefit of the industry in general. The greater part of the funds hitherto obtained from this levy has been applied to equalising the return received by those whose honey has been exported by the Authority with the return from honey sold on the local market.

The Authority comprises four members elected by beekeepers, and one member appointed by the Government to watch the interests of the consumer.

PRICES OF PRIMARY PRODUCTS: Wool — Statistics of greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand (compiled from information supplied by the New Zealand Wool Commission) are shown in the following tables. The first table gives total quantities and values as recorded at sales, no attempt being made to allow for variations in quality or in the relative quantities of the various types of wool sold from season to season. Besides price movements, therefore, the average value per pound of wool sold shown in this table includes variations on account of these additional factors. Under the Wool Commission Act 1951 the Wool Commission is authorised to prepare a table of minimum prices for various classes of wool, which becomes effective by agreement with the Minister of Agriculture. Where wool is sold at less than the minimum price at an approved sale, the Commission may supplement the sale price so as to increase it to the minimum price, or, alternatively, may buy such wool at a price not greater than the minimum price.

WEIGHT, SALE VALUE, AND AVERAGE VALUE PER POUND OF GREASY WOOL SOLD AT AUCTION
SeasonWeight of Greasy Wool SoldSale ValueValue per PoundAverage Minimum Floor Price per Pound of Greasy Wool

* Reserve price.

 lb (000)£(000)d.d.
1948–49287,21130,88225.8116.98*
1949–50297,88647,13837.9816.98*
1950–51293,737107,50987.8419.10*
1951–52314,89652,73440.1924.00
1952–53311,90260,02246.1924.00
1953–54317,09366,39250.2526.00
1954–55338,60870,08449.6726.00
1955–56341,57665,73546.1930.00
1956–57356,23781,28354.7630.00
1957–58370,40763,52041.1633.00
1938–59406,26161,06436.0733.00
1959–60409,19976,12144.6533.00
1960–61420,94170,75340.3433.00
1961–62417,88768,31239.2333.00

In the next table details of a wool price index on base 1949–50 (= 1000) are given. This index has been compiled in an attempt to eliminate all but the price factor in movements of average wool values. A description of the make-up of this index is given in the March 1952 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

SeasonPrice per Pound on Floor, Greasy*Index Numbers Base: 1949–50 (= 1000)

* Average of selected types.

† Based on price on floor, clean.

 d. 
1950–5187.472299
1951–5241.591088
1952–5347.071219
1953–5450.831310
1954–5549.981286
1955–5646.981208
1956–5756.151430
1957–5842.721089
1958–5937.59962
1959–6046.051179
1960–6142.291082
1961–6241.361062

Dairy Produce — A contributory factor to the drop in dairy produce realisations in the United Kingdom for the 1956–57 and 1957–58 seasons was the dumping of large quantities of butter on the British market by Finland, Sweden, the Republic of Ireland, and Argentina. These countries and others charged their own people very high prices, dumped their surplus on the British market and subsidised their dairy farmers. For 1957 the total imports into the United Kingdom were 365,300 tons, of which 61,100 tons came from the countries which were found to be indulging in export subsidisation Dumped butter had the effect of depressing the market, and the price received for New Zealand butter was considerably less than the amount required to meet the guaranteed price.

In February 1958 representations were made by the New Zealand Government to the United Kingdom Government because it was considered that the serious fall in butter and cheese prices during the previous nine months which had contributed to the deterioration in the position of New Zealand's balance of payments was largely attributable to the unfair trading practices adopted by a number of countries. A formal request was made to the Board of Trade in London to impose anti-dumping or countervailing duties under the Customs Duties (Dumping and Subsidies) Act 1957 on butter imported into the United Kingdom from Finland, the Republic of Ireland, Sweden, and Argentina. In May 1958 the President of the Board of Trade announced that the Government agreed that exports from the four countries were subsidised and that there had been material injury to the New Zealand dairy industry. It had therefore asked Finland and Sweden to eliminate the practice of subsidisation or to keep their exports within agreed limits. In the event of non-compliance the United Kingdom Government stated its intention to impose countervailing duties. Finland and Sweden agreed to limit their exports. The United Kingdom considered that the position in respect of the Republic of Ireland would be satisfactory and that the level of imports from Argentina in 1958 would not be sufficiently large as to justify action in the meantime.

In announcing the United Kingdom Government's decision, the President of the Board of Trade stated that it had been decided that imports of butter from Poland should also be limited and that the open licence for imports of butter from Eastern Europe generally and from Belgium was being withdrawn.

The measures introduced by the United Kingdom Government were, no doubt, an important factor contributing to the improvement in the price of butter which took place in the second half of 1958.

In December 1958, however, the United Kingdom Government decided to uplift the quota restrictions previously imposed and withdrew its requests to Sweden and Finland to limit their exports and informed the Republic of Ireland that arrangements with it could lapse. The United Kingdom Government stated that if at any future time the imports of dumped or subsidised butter from any country should assume such proportions as to cause or threaten material injury to the New Zealand producers, application could again be made by New Zealand under the Customs Duties (Dumping and Subsidies) Act, and an assurance was given that any application would be dealt with expeditiously.

Largely as a result of an exceptionally dry summer in Europe in 1959, which reduced dairy production and resulted in depleted stocks in the United Kingdom, the price of New Zealand butter rose remarkably during the year to reach a peak of 410s. per hundredweight in October 1959. Early in 1960 the price dropped quickly following a loss of some trade to margarine and greater shipments from Europe due to a good production season.

There were indications in 1960 that European countries had adopted some change of outlook so far as the flooding of the United Kingdom market with surplus butter was concerned, and would tend to encourage greater sales on their home markets, but disposals of surpluses in 1961 again upset the market. Consumption in the United Kingdom increased, but stocks built up as Continental countries disposed of embarrassing butter surpluses, and the price of New Zealand butter dropped to 250s. per hundredweight. New Zealand raised the matter with GATT and discussions were held within the framework of GATT in April and June 1961 and again in September, the British Government having sought this latter meeting after the lodging of an anti-dumping application by New Zealand. In November 1961, when Britain asked all exporting countries to limit their supplies to the quantities proposed by GATT to 31 March 1962, the price for New Zealand butter rose to 260s. per hundredweight almost immediately, and shortly after to 285s.

Cheese supplies on the United Kingdom market were short also in 1959, and the price of cheese reached the relatively high level of 300s. per hundredweight in October 1959. Prices for cheese also dropped early in 1960 and did not recover in 1961.

The following table shows the average weekly sterling price for New Zealand butter ex-store for each month in the past four years, along with the average weekly sales on the London market during the same period. (Source: Dairy Production and Marketing Board.)

MonthButter
(Finest and First Grades) Average Price per Cwt(All Grades) Weekly Averages Sales
1958195919601961196219581959196019611962
 s.s.s.s.s.tonstonstonstonstons
January2562904032692852,1732,7252,6102,3042,586
February2412903542582852,6752,7972,5533,1812,328
March2332903342502852,6503,6912,4263,6933,198
April2072902922502854,4703,9882,9763,5173,202
May2063002902502853,4263,4712,5693,4003,438
June2073282922503013,6463,1253,1643,2673,185
July220352310250 4,2742,9492,5982,706 
August235373304250 3,5323,0131,9242,572 
September235392282250 3,2753,0972,6343,302 
October241399290250 4,2013,1152,2123,139 
November266410287260 5,1253,4442,0933,167 
December283410280281 3,8652,8482,7313,231 
  Annual average231343307256 3,6153,1802,5493,128 

The next table gives similar information for the London sales of New Zealand cheese. (Source: Dairy Production and Marketing Board.)

MonthCheese
(Finest and First Grades, White) Average Price per Cwt (Crated)(All Grades) Weekly Average Sales
1958195919601961196219581959196019611962
 s.s.s.s.s.tonstonstonstonstons
January1302902902302302,2371,5531,0641,3091,404
February1362902512302302,8401,5551,4021,6871,460
March1512902302302301,2811,1571,5851,3511,433
April1492902302302302,2062,3271,8081,7601,643
May1502902302302301,8411,4891,5851,2161,490
June1592902302302302,2841,5242,2281,4901,325
July180290230230 2,2651,2491,2871,445 
August184290230230 1,1521,4101,0941,369 
September185290230230 2,6801,1621,9061,654 
October207295230230 1,7681,0441,4401,649 
November290300230230 1,1968991,0901,520 
December290300230230 1,1711,2361,3101,452 
  Annual average177294237230 1,8681,3831,4741,498 

The next table gives the comparative f.o.b. and ex-store London prices in relation to the basic or guaranteed price.

YearProductBasic Price d. per lbf.o.b.* Equivalent s. per cwtPrice Equivalent Ex-store London s. per cwt

* f.o.b. = free on board, i.e., loaded at a New Zealand port.

† The ex-store price includes insurance and freight to London, unloading and storing charges, and commission on sales.

1957–58Butter36.25310345
 Cheese39.25173209
1958–59Butter32277315
 Cheese35159194
1959–60Butter32279313
 Cheese38171205
1960–61Butter32277314
 Cheese38171210
1961–62Butter32277313
 Cheese38172214

The movements in prices and sales of butter on the United Kingdom market are shown in the following diagram.

The movements in prices and sales of cheese on the United Kingdom market are shown in the following diagram.

Guaranteed Prices for Dairy Produce — Guaranteed prices for butter and cheese were introduced by the Government on 1 August 1936 to give stability to the dairy industry, and the Primary Products Marketing Act 1936 set out the principles which underlay the fixing of the prices. (See the 1961 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.) Under the Dairy Products Marketing Commission Act 1947 the Commission was given authority to fix the guaranteed price, and another principle was added, namely, the promotion of the general economic stability of New Zealand.

The Dairy Products Marketing Commission Amendment Act 1956, which came into force on 1 August 1957, made miscellaneous amendments to the Dairy Products Marketing Commission Act 1947. It reconstituted the Dairy Products Marketing Commission, established a Dairy Products Prices Authority and a Dairy Industry Loans Council, and provided for the disposal of any annual surplus received from the sale of butter and cheese.

(Under the Dairy Production and Marketing Board Act 1961, which came into force on 1 September 1961, the Dairy Board and the Dairy Products Marketing Commission were amalgamated in a new body named the Dairy Production and Marketing Board, which consists of two Government and 11 producer members. The Dairy Products Prices Authority and the Dairy Industry Loans Council were retained under the new legislation but with changed constitutions.)

Under the Dairy Products Marketing Commission Amendment Act 1956 it was required that the Dairy Products Prices Authority should, in fixing prices for butter, pay regard to the necessity of maintaining the stability and efficiency of the dairy industry, the cost of production, the amount being realised for butter and cheese, the ruling level of prices for farm products other than dairy produce, the estimated cost of marketing, any recommendations made by the Dairy Board, and other relevant matters. The price for cheese was fixed by the Authority after considering the cost of the production of cheese as compared with the cost of production of butter, and the desirability of ensuring that dairy produce will be produced in such quantity and in such proportions as will be of the greatest benefit to the dairy industry.

The 1956 amendment to the principal Act made a number of significant changes, the most important being the reduced emphasis on costs of production, the deletion of all reference to the dairy farmer's standard of living, and the inclusion of the provision that the price for any one season shall not be less than 95 per cent of the maximum for the previous season. No change was made in the sections of the 1947 Act which laid down the Government's responsibility to underwrite the price. The 1956 amendment included provision for the further building up of industry reserves. Section 12 laid down that, if the season's operations result in the accumulation of a surplus, the first call upon this surplus would, unless the Dairy Board agreed otherwise, be a payment to suppliers to bring the payout up to the level of the assessed costs of production. Provision was made in the same section for the building up of reserves, after this had been done. It was stated that after the price of butter and cheese had been equalised with the costs of production, “If the amount of the excess … has not been expended … the balance remaining, or so much of that balance as the authority thinks fit shall be expended or used for the benefit of the dairy industry in such manner as the Authority, after consultation with the Dairy Board, thinks fit, having regard to — (a) any recommendations made by the Dairy Board, and (b) the amount, if any, standing to the credit of the Dairy Industry Account”.

At the beginning of the 1957–58 season agreement was reached by the Minister of Agriculture and the Dairy Board as to the basic cost of production of butterfat, the figure being 38.25d. The Authority later fixed the price of butterfat for the year at 36.25d., this being 95 per cent of the former figure in terms of the price for butter.

The dairy industry reserve funds were exhausted during the 1957–58 season principally because the general world oversupply of butter and the dumping of large quantities by European countries on the United Kingdom market resulted in realisations being far below the basic price. In April 1958 the London price for finest butter was as low as 206s. a hundredweight, whereas the guaranteed price equivalent was 345s. a hundredweight. By July 1958, following action taken by the United Kingdom Government against the practice of dumping, the price had recovered to only 235s. a hundredweight (2s. 1d. per pound) although it was considered that the price might reach 2s. 9d. per pound by the end of the year.

In these circumstances the legislative restriction limiting any reduction in the guaranteed price to 5 per cent of that of the previous season became impractical. Following discussions between representatives of the industry and the Government it was announced at the end of August 1958 that sufficient assistance would be provided to enable dairy farmers producing butterfat for butter to receive a price of approximately 32d. per pound of butterfat. Assistance would take the form of a loan to the industry and would be repaid as soon as market realisations allowed this to be done. The fixed price for butter at 29.6895d. per pound represented a reduction of 10.4 per cent on the previous season's price. The Dairy Products Marketing Commission Amendment Act 1958 provided the necessary authority for this change by suspending for the 1958–59 season the application of the section in the 1956 Act which laid down the criteria to be observed in fixing the price including the provision that it must be not less than 95 per cent of that fixed for the previous season. The Dairy Products Prices Authority later fixed the basic price for butterfat for butter at 32d. per pound, and for butterfat for cheese at 35d. per pound.

For the 1959–60 season the basic price for butterfat for butter remained at 32d. per pound, but the basic price of butterfat for cheese was increased to 38d. per pound.

In his Budget statement at the end of June 1958 the Minister of Finance announced that up to £5 million would be provided by way of loan for assistance to the dairy industry, as a deficit for the season of up to £12 million was expected at the time.

Of the amount of £5 million, an advance of £0.2 million was made, and then £4.8 million was paid to the credit of the Dairy Industry Account by the Government in March 1959. At that time butter was still being sold in London below the basic price equivalent in New Zealand and the overseas market situation was still uncertain and a further addition to the deficit could have been incurred.

With the marked improvement in overseas prices after this date there was a surplus in the 1958–59 trading, and the £5 million advance was not required to finance that year's operations. It was repaid in April 1960.

The Dairy Products Marketing Commission Act 1947, as amended in 1956, provided that, unless the Dairy Board otherwise agreed, a surplus in any one trading year should be paid out to producers up to the assessed cost of production for that year (the trading period was defined by the Act as the 12 months ending 31 May). As early as July 1959 it had become clear that the industry's account for the year ending 31 May 1960 was likely to show a surplus. An understanding was reached between the industry and the Government that half of any such surplus would be paid to the producers and half would be retained in the Dairy Industry Account. An amount of £6,951,000 was paid to dairy companies under this arrangement. There was a loss on trading for the year ended 31 May 1961. The Government made an advance of £3 million to the industry on 30 March 1961.

Under the Dairy Production and Marketing Board Act 1961 prices for butter are fixed by the Dairy Products Prices Authority after taking into account the following matters:

  1. The necessity in the public interest of maintaining the stability and efficiency of the dairy industry.

  2. The amount which butter and cheese acquired by the Commission is realising and the market prospects for the coming year.

  3. The state of the Dairy Industry Account, the Dairy Industry Reserve Account, and the Dairy Industry Capital Account.

  4. Any submissions made by the Dairy Production and Marketing Board.

  5. Any other matters deemed relevant.

The price fixed for butter in any season must not vary by more than 5 per cent from the maximum price fixed for the previous season.

The price for cheese is determined by the Authority, having regard to (a) the cost of manufacturing cheese as compared with the cost of manufacturing butter, (b) the desirability of ensuring that dairy produce will be produced in such quantity and in such proportions as will be of the greatest benefit to the dairy industry.

The Authority must consult with the Minister before it fixes any prices.

In a normal trading year not more than 50 per cent of any surplus will be distributed to dairy companies and the balance placed in reserve. (If the existing deficit in the account is greater than the trading surplus the amount distributed to dairy companies may not exceed 25 per cent of the trading surplus.)

The fixed prices in pence per pound of butter and cheese for export paid to dairy factories are now given.

Season Ended 31 JulyCreamery Butter (Finest Grade 93–93 1/2 pt)Whey Butter (First Grade)Cheese (First Grade 92–92 1/2 pt)

* Equivalent, on a product basis, of additional amounts paid to dairy companies. For details refer to appropriate annual reports of New Zealand Dairy Products Marketing Commission.

† These additional amounts are surplus payments, as authorised by the Dairy Products Marketing Commission Amendment Act 1956.

‡Increase in the differential payment in favour of cheese.

  pence per lb 
   (net weight)
1936–3712.562511.56257.0625
1937–3813.660012.66007.7500
1938–3914.890013.89008.4200
1939–4014.890013.89008.4200
1940–4114.890013.89008.4200
1941–4214.890013.89008.4200
1942–4315.390013.89008.7300
1943.4415.390013.89008.7300
0.8690*0.2390*0.4661*
1944–4515.390013.89008.7300
2.6702*0.2990*1.4743*
1945–4615.390013.89008.7300
3.5441*0.3376*1.8976*
1946–47
    1 August — 31 October15.390013.89008.7300
4.6374*0.3786*2.5020*
    1 November — 31 July15.390013.89008.7300
6.0468*0.3786*3.2024*
1947–4823.852022.852013.0620
1948–49
    1 August — 31 May24.598023.598013.5260
    1 June — 31 July25.743724.743714.0486
1949–50
    1 August — 30 April25.869424.869414.2457
    1 May — 31 July26.467425.467414.5265
1950–51
    1 August — 14 February27.158926.158914.9522
    15 February — 31 July28.579126.158915.6580
1951–5230.806629.252117.0000
0.6160*0.3061*
1952–5332.537231.618118.1000
1.1294*0.5612*
1953–54
    1 August — 14 September32.537231.618118.1747
1.1294*0.5612*
    15 September — 31 July34.353232.908619.1380
1.1294*0.5612*
1954–55
    1 August — 30 November33.942532.497918.7437
    1 December — 31 July34.496932.497919.0204
1955–5633.264931.264918.3600
0.5749*0.2857*
0.8163*
1956–5734.135532.135519.2673
   (gross weight)
1957–5833.149131.149118.5335
1958–5929.689527.689516.9622
1959–6029.795027.795018.3196
3.6225*1.7598*
1960–6129.72927.72918.308
1961.6229.69927.69918.452

Produce of other grades incurs differential premiums or penalties according to grading points. Differentials used since the introduction of guaranteed purchase prices are as follows.

CREAMERY BUTTER
Grade1936–37 to 1957–581958–59 and 1959–601960–61 and 1961–62
  pence per lb 
Finest 94 points and over+0.125+0.1875+0.2
Finest 93–93 1/2 points (basic)
First 92–92 1/2 points−0.0625−0.1875−0.2
First 90–91 1/2 points−0.25−0.5625−0.75
Second grade−0.75−2.0−2.0
Third grade (from 1955–56)−6.0−6.0−6.0
CHEESE
Grade1936–37 to 1950–511951–52 to 1954–551955–56 to 1959–601960–61 and 1961–62
 pence per lb
Finest 94 points and over+0.15625+0.3125+0.3125+ 1.25
Finest 93–93 1/2 points+0.125+0.215+0.215+1.0
First 92–92 1/2 (basic)
First 91–91 1/2 points−0.0625−0.0625−0.0625−0.25
Second 88–90 1/2 points-0.25−0.725−1.075−1.25
Second 87 and under−1.2−3.75−3.75

The prices quoted in the table on page 598 were designed to enable efficient dairy companies to pay to suppliers the following amounts in pence per pound of butterfat used for butter or cheese manufacture. Also given is the average payout per pound of butterfat supplied for seasons up to 1948–49, and average net revenue for later seasons.

SeasonPrice per Pound of Butterfat Used for—
Butter-making (Basic Price)Cheese-making (Basic Price)Butter-making (Average Payout or Net Revenue)Cheese-making (Average Payout or Net Revenue)

* Plus .625d. additional payments made separately from purchase prices.

† Plus .700d. surplus payments at end of season.

‡ Plus 4.3995d. surplus payments at end of season.

§ An additional 2d. per pound of butterfat was paid in 1955–56 to factories on all butterfat used for cheesemaking during the season.

 pence per lb
1946–4723.39125.39123.30225.624
1947–4825.90727.90726.22927.945
1948–49—
    August 1948 to May 194926.75128.75127.36929.190
    June 1949 and July 194928.14630.146
1949–50 —
    August 1949 to April 195028.24430.24428.72030.785
May 1950 to July 195028.97230.972
1950–51 —
    August 1950 to 14 February 195129.67831.67830.56832.425
    15 February 1951 to July 195131.40733.407
1951–5233.65536.15534.10636.764
1952–5335.670*38.670*35.916*38.958*
1953–54 —
    August 1953 to 14 September 195335.834*38.834*37.610*40.554*
    15 September 1953 to July 195437.984*40.984*
1954–55 —
    August 1954 to 30 November 195437.34939.83137.73240.133
    1 December 1954 to July 195537.96140.240
1955–5636.45938.459§36.54738.730§
1956–5737.54840.54837.47940.887
1957–5836.25039.25036.32239.822
1958–5932.00035.00032.35235.271
1959–6032.00038.00032.34638.259
1960–6132.00038.00032.35838.554
1961–6232.00038.000  

In addition to the basic price payments, payouts were made from realisations of the sale of butter and cheese in the 1951–52, 1952–53, and 1953–54 seasons, in accordance with the agreement by which the full proceeds received from the sale of these commodities up to the end of the 1954–55 season were to be used for the benefit of suppliers and/or dairy companies.

There was no surplus distribution in 1954–55, the Commission in fact incurring a loss of £2,000,000. In 1955–56 payments were made to cheese companies, thus increasing the differential as mentioned later. At the end of the 1955–56 season an additional payment of 0.7d. per pound of butterfat was made.

With the decline in butter prices during 1956 and the heavy falls for both butter and cheese during 1957 and into 1958, the funds in the Dairy Industry Account, amounting to £27 million at the start of the 1956–57 season, were exhausted during 1958. After the completion of sales of butter and cheese produced in the 1957–58 season the account was in debit to an amount of £7,349,485, but the sales of the 1958–59 production at higher prices brought about a recovery in the account. A surplus payment of 4.3995d. per pound of butterfat received and used in the manufacture of butter and cheese for the period 1 August 1959 to 31 May 1960 was made to dairy companies in August 1960.

At the conclusion of the 1960–61 season there was a net deficit of £7,491,850. The gross deficit of £8,645,444 on sales of butter, which was only partially offset by a gross surplus of £2,324,066 on cheese and by commission on sales of milk powder and casein, was an indication of the extent to which New Zealand's interests had been injured during the season by butter dumping on the United Kingdom market.

The price differential of butterfat for manufacture of cheese over that for manufacture of butter was 2d. a pound during 1937–38 to 1950–51, 2 1/2d. for 1951–52, 3d. for 1952–53 and 1953–54, 2 1/2d. for 1954–55, and, as shown in the previous table, was first fixed at 2d. for 1955–56. By subsequent announcements during the season this was increased to 4d., the additional 2d. being distributed, not by increasing the basic price for cheese, but by paying to factories 2d. per pound on all butterfat used by them in the manufacture of cheese during the season. For 1956–57, 1957–58 and 1958–59 the price differential was 3d., but for 1959–60 it was increased to 6d. to maintain the volume of cheese production, remained at this figure for 1960–61 and 1961–62 and was reduced to 5d. for 1962–63.

There is an assumption implicit in the basic price scheme that the payout to butter factory suppliers is for cream at the farm and the payout to cheese factory suppliers is for whole milk delivered to the factory. Where a factory receives whole milk and makes butter, the residual skim milk can be manufactured into any of several products, the main ones being skim-milk powders and casein. The only possible products of a cheese factory additional to those covered by the guaranteed price for cheese are products of separated whey and are of relatively insignificant value. Because of the existence of the price differential of butterfat for manufacture of cheese over that for manufacture of butter, factories with the necessary equipment generally make butter and skim-milk powder or butter and casein only where the combined returns are likely to be at least equal to the return from cheese.

Meat — The Imported Meat Trade Association in the United Kingdom compiles weekly London wholesale meat prices, the basis of quotation from the beginning of March 1958 being “ex-hooks to retailers at Smithfield market”. The next table gives prices at the end of the last week in the month from March 1959. Two-thirds of the value of all exports of frozen and chilled meat are generally accounted for by lamb, and the two first-quality weight grades quoted in the table usually account for approximately 5 per cent and 40 to 50 per cent respectively of all lamb carcasses exported. Beef accounts for one-fifth of the total exports of frozen and chilled meat (by value), but mutton comprises only about 5 per cent of the total value of frozen-meat exports. With the reduction of regular supplies of quarter beef to the United Kingdom, price quotations have been infrequent since the beginning of 1958. There was a substantial drop in the London prices for mutton and lamb during 1959. The principal cause of the fall in prices was the heavy increase in production of mutton and lamb from United Kingdom farms, the home output being some 25 per cent greater than the previous year. The increase in domestic production was based on a rise of breeding ewe population, under the stimulus of a substantial Government subsidy, but was added to by an inrush of domestic supply in August and September following the extremely dry summer in the United Kingdom. An additional factor contributing to over-supply of the market was an increase in imports, including additional lamb carcasses from New Zealand as a result of the steady rise in sheep population.

In 1960 imported lamb and mutton prices in the United Kingdom improved considerably, but towards the end of the year lamb values again took a downward turn, which continued during 1961. United Kingdom domestic production of lamb and mutton showed still further increases during 1961 and this, combined with larger stocks of imported lamb held in United. Kingdom stores, had the effect of keeping lamb prices at the lower levels.

 Lamb (First Quality)MuttonBeef
WetherEweChilled OxFrozen Ox (First Quality)
28 lb and under29 to 36 lb49 to 56 lb57 to 64 lb49 to 56 lb57 to 64 lbHindsForesHindsFores
All Weights161 to 200 lb145 to 200 lb

* Nominal; figures so marked have, in the absence of actual quotes, been carried forward from earlier weeks in the same month, or derived from movements in the prices of supplies from other sources, e.g., Argentinian chilled beef and Australian frozen beef, assuming the normal price margins.

End of last week in—pence per lb
    1959—March22 1/221 -221210 1/2–11109 1/2–10........
                  June20 1/2–2120 1/2–211312 1/287 1/2........
                  September19 1/2–2018 -18 1/211 1/2–1211 -11 1/29 1/29........
                  December2725 -2610 -10 1/29 1/2–108 -8 1/27 1/2....22 -22 1/2 17 1/2–18 
    1960—March24 -2522 -2314 1/2*13*11 -11 1/210....2520 -20 1/2
                  June28 1/2–2927 1/2–2815 1/214 1/29 1/2–108 -8 1/225 -27 1/214 -1523 -24 
                  September2724 1/2–25 1/215 1/21411 1/210....25 -2618 -18 1/2
                  December23 1/2–2422 -23 1/214 -14 1/213 -13 1/211 1/2–1210 1/2....21 -21 1/2 
    1961—January22 -22 1/221 -22 1/212 -1311 1/2–1211 1/2–1210 -10 1/2....20 -21..
                  February19 1/2–20 1/219 -2011 1/2–121110 1/2–119 1/2–10....19 1/215–15 1/2
                  March22 1/2–2321 1/2–2212 1/21212 -1311 -11 1/2....21 -2215 1/2–16 1/2
                  April21 -2220 -21....12 1/211....21 3/4*16 -16 1/2
                  May20 1/2–2119 -20141311 1/29 1/2–1024 -25..23 -2516 1/2–18*
                  June20 -20 1/217 -1812 -12 1/210 1/2–1110822 -26*13 1/2*20 -21 1/2 
                  July19 1/2–20 1/217 1/2–1811 -11 1/21097 -7 1/225 -27*13 1/2–14*20 -20 1/2*12 1/2–13*
                  August20 1/217 1/2–18119 1/2–1097 1/2–8....22 —24..
                  September23 1/2–242011 1/2-1210 1/2–1110 1/29 -9 1/223 -26*..23–2414*
                  October24 1/2–25 1/221 -21 1/211 1/2–1210 1/2–1110 1/210....23 -24..
                  November23 -23 1/219 -2010 1/2–1110 1/210 -10 1/210......15
                  December2421 1/2–2210 1/2–1110 1/21010........
1962—January22 1/2–23 1/222 -22 1/211 1/2–1211 -11 1/210 1/2–1110 1/2........
                  February20 -20 1/220 -2111 1/2–1211 -11 1/211 1/210 1/2–1128 -29....15 1/2–16
                  March2120 1/2–2112 1/211 1/2–1111 1/211......15 1/2–16

Opening Schedule Prices — Under the stabilised prices and costs procedures operative up to the 1947–48 season, the fat stock schedule prices at which meat operators purchased from producers were fixed. In the two seasons following, while the opening schedules for each season were fixed in consultations between the Government, the Meat Producers Board, and the meat operators, subsequent movements during each season due to wool growth and fluctuations in prices of byproducts were the responsibility of the meat operators. Since the beginning of the 1950–51 season the fixing of the schedule prices has been wholly in the control of the operators. The Meat Producers Board keeps a close watch on the prices being received for the meat and all by-products and on processing costs to ensure that the schedule prices give a just and equitable return to producers.

The opening schedules for the 1952–53 to 1961–62 seasons are given below.

ItemSeason
1952–531953–541954–551955–561956–571957–581958–591959–601960–611961–62

* For 1952–53 the price is given for 720 lb and under, for 1953–54 the average price relates to carcasses of up to 880 lb, and from 1954–55 to 1957–58 the price refers to carcasses of up to 800 lb.

† 1/2d. per pound less paid for weight 49 lb-56 lb.

Price of Lamb, Wether, and Ewe Million, in Pence per Pound
Lambs —
    Downs (29–36 lb)18 3/419 3/4272423262013 1/220 1/216 3/4
    Canterbury (29–36 lb)19 1/220 1/4132016 1/4
    Crossbred (29–36 lb)1919 3/413 1/220 1/216 3/4
    Seconds (29–36 lb) (N.I.)18 1/4192623 1/222251912 1/219 1/215 3/4
Wethers —
    Primes (48 lb and under) —
        North Island1112 1/214 3/416 1/415 3/41411 3/4611 1/28
        South Island10 1/211 5/814 1/215 1/21513 1/4115 1/410 3/47 1/4
    Seconds (48 lb and under) —
        North Island9 1/810 3/411 3/413 1/412 3/411 3/49 3/45 1/210 1/27
        South Island8 5/89 1/211 1/212 1/2121194 3/49 3/46 1/4
Ewes (48 lb and under) (N.I.)5 3/47 1/26 1/48 3/48 5/867 3/446 1/46
Price in Shillings and Pence, per 100 lb of Beef (N.I.)
Quarter beef, North Island —
    Ox, chiller beef (680 lb and under)..1270140012008009501300135014001150
    Ox—
        G.A.Q. (680 lb and under)*10001040124011006008001300135014001150
        F.A.Q. (all weights)886920107610005507501176117612261026
    Heifer—
        G.A.Q. (680 lb and under)*10001040124011005507261226127613261076
        F.A.Q. (600 lb and under)88692010761000500700117611761150950
    Cow, G.A.Q. (all weights)7507301000900500650100011001100950
    Boner beef (cow)7506008508007008261400120011001000

Minimum Prices for Export Meat — The institution of a system of minimum prices for meat exported from New Zealand was provided for by the Meat Export Prices Act 1955. A Meat Export Prices Committee was established, and consists of two members of the Meat Board, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture, and a Chairman nominated by agreement between the Government and the producers. A schedule of minimum prices is fixed at the beginning of the season. Regard must be paid by the Committee to the average of the prices received for each class of meat during the preceding three seasons, the ruling level of minimum prices, and the Committee may have regard to the market trend and future prospects for the sale of meat, prices ruling for other farm products, and the general level of costs, prices, and wages in New Zealand. The following table gives the minimum prices which apply for the year ending 30 September 1962.

Class of MeatGrade of MeatMinimum Price per Pound f.o.b.
  d.
LambPrime down cross 29–36 lb15
Wether muttonPrime 49–56 lb9
Ewe muttonPrime 49–56 lb5 3/4
Chilled beefOx 680 lb and under14 3/4
Ox and heifer quarter beefG.A.Q.: 680 lb and under13
Quarter cow beefG.A.Q.: 600 lb and under10
Boner cow, ox, and heiferAll weights, boned-out value12
Boner bull
Veal (sides or quarters)Under 280 lb11
PorkersPrime 60–80 lb16
BaconersPrime 111–160 lb14
For 1962–63 the prices remain the same, except for lamb (14 3/4d.), wether mutton (8 3/4d.), and mutton (4 3/4d.).

Deficiency Payments — Payments are made from the Meat Industry Reserve Account when the f.o.b. equivalents of the prices paid to farmers fall below the minimum price determined for any class of meat in the week to which the schedule relates. For the season ended 30 September 1956, deficiency payments were declared for beef from the end of March onwards, expenditure amounting to £367,169 at an average of 1.1d. per pound of killings in that period; no payments were necessary in other classes of meat. Deficiency payments continued into the succeeding production season but at diminishing rates until early in February 1957, when prices for all classes of meat were above the minimum levels, and the payments in the 1956–57 season amounted to only £111,975. In the 1957–58 season there were no payments under the scheme. Some payments were made in the 1958–59 season and the amount involved was £79,000. For the 1959–60 season the total amount involved in deficiency payments was £930,000, of which £380,000 was paid on lambs. No deficiency payments were necessary during the 1960–61 season, but some payments have been made in the 1961–62 season.

FARM INDUSTRY RESERVES — Although the details of wartime bulk-purchase agreements are now of historical interest only, it was during the period of bulk purchase that the present farm industry reserves were built up. Following the introduction of the Government stabilisation scheme in December 1942, agreement was reached between the Government and farmers' organisations in May 1943 regarding the stabilisation of meat and dairy prices. It was agreed that other than those increases necessary to meet higher costs of production, all increases in overseas realisations would be paid into a special fund which would be used in subsequent years for the benefit of the industry concerned. A meat pool account was already in existence, having been created to assist those producers who were affected by restrictions imposed on the export of particular classes of meat as a result of the shipping shortage. Subsidies designed to keep down farm production costs were also paid out of these funds. The wool reserve account was created in a somewhat different fashion, arising in the main from the profits derived from the sale of wartime surplus stocks, and in part from a levy on all wool sold at auctions.

The following table shows the balances remaining in the various farm industry reserves during the period quoted.

Balances as at 31 JulyDairy Produce AccountMeat Industry Reserve Account*Wool Capital AccountWool Contributory Charge‡Wool Retention Moneys

* As at 30 September from 1948.

† Profits from disposal of wool stocks taken over by Wool Disposal Commission at the end of the war.

‡This was a levy on all wool sold at auction.

§No balance remained in wool retention accounts after 31 January 1957.

| This amount was reduced by the payment to dairy companies of £6,951,000 shortly after the end of the season under the agreement that half the surplus earned during the trading year ended 31 May 1960 would be paid out to producers.

 £(thousand)
1942750
19431,884
19444,0754,317
19454,8419,159
19464,89612,202
19476,83218,2225,046 Dr.1,165
194812,66325,6291,047 Dr.2,593
194915,33129,5365,182 Cr.4,205
195018,45035,33712,933 Cr.5,563
195123,03737,25619,608 Cr.6,16732,755
   Wool Commission Account (30 June) 
195224,55740,42926,67328,093
195325,52840,45027,63021,801
195425,12739,55128,38816,174
195524,53040,27728,23010,226
195627,14640,68128,9913,798§
195713,91341,29229,751
1958− 7,34942,22830,523
19592,13243,21831,268
19608,670|43,44432,507
1961− 5,55644,81333,318

21 B — DOMESTIC TRADE

INTRODUCTORY — Statistics of domestic trade in New Zealand commenced with the Census of Distribution in 1953. This census was followed by a continuing sample survey covering retail trading, commencing in March 1954. The field covered by distribution statistics was extended in October 1955 by the inauguration of a restricted survey covering quarterly statistics of consumer credit. A further Census of Distribution was taken in 1958, which, in the main, closely followed the lines of the first census of this nature. Detailed tables were later published in a volume entitled Census of Distribution 1958.

With the completion of the 1958 Census of Distribution a new quarterly sample survey of retail trading was commenced in June 1959. A continuing quarterly survey of wholesale trading was commenced in September 1960.

Census of Distribution 1958 — For the second Census of Distribution taken in 1958, the period for which the information was requested, and to which most of it related, was the year ended 31 March 1958.

In general the 1958 census followed the same plan as that of the earlier census. In 1958, however, milk vendors and chartered clubs (the latter in respect of sales of liquor and tobacco and cigarettes) were included. Some revised classifications were also introduced so that (for instance) some firms coded as general stores in 1953 were classed as grocers in 1958 where the store had 60 per cent or more of its annual turnover in groceries. In 1953 stock and station agents (so stated) were classified as wholesale, but in 1958 such stores were classified according to the dominant method of selling as specified by the firm concerned.

In 1958 the method of selling was obtained under six headings, cash, charge account, hire-purchase, budget account (limited credit account, store currency account, etc.), cash-order coupons, and other instalment (including layby). Two questions, those relating to capital invested and periodicity of stocktaking, were excluded from the 1958 inquiry, which, however, included one completely new question — on the use of “self-service” units — applied exclusively to those businesses handling groceries.

The following tables give results of the Census of Distribution 1958 in a summarised form.

Retail Establishments — Of the 26,876 retail stores covered by the census, 18,502, or 68.8 per cent, were situated in the North Island, and 8,374, or 31.2 per cent, in the South Island.

The following table shows details by provincial districts. The figures quoted in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

Provincial DistrictPopulation at 31 March 1958Number of StoresPurchases During 1957–58Sales or Turnover During 1957–58Stocks at Close of Year (March 1958)
 (000) £(000)£(000)£(000)
Auckland921.910,804180,048231,80836,352
 (40.6)(40.2)(38.5)(38.7)(37.4)
Hawke's Bay106.41,33323,86930,1565,071
 (4.7)(5.0)(5.1)(5.0)(5.2)
Taranaki97.01,10420,96126,1414,243
 (4.3)(4.1)(4.5)(4.4)(4.4)
Wellington442.05,26195,249122,87220,502
 (19.5)(19.6)(20.4)(20.5)(21.1)
Marlborough27.33145,0716,4411,105
 (1.2)(1.2)(1.1)(1.1)(1.1)
Nelson72.788512,95816,5452,667
 (3.2)(3.3)(2.8)(2.7)(2.7)
Westland18.73244,0935,268866
 (0.8)(1.2)(0.9)(0.9)(0.9)
Canterbury322.53,64467,00486,04114,152
 (14.2)(13.5)(14.3)(14.4)(14.6)
Otago —     
    Otago portion172.12,17635,67845,3927,549
 (7.6)(8.1)(7.6)(7.6)(7.8)
    Southland portion89.81,03122,48728,1144,647
 (3.9)(3.8)(4.8)(4.7)(4.8)
Totals2,270.426,876467,418598,77897,154
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

In 1958 the principal centres of population (urban areas) included 55.2 per cent of New Zealand's people, but contained 60.8 per cent of all retail stores, with 65.8 per cent of total sales or turnover.

The following table shows details by urban and rural areas. The figures in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

Location GroupPopulation at 31 March 1958Number of StoresSales or Turnover During 1957–58Stocks at Close of Yea (March 1958)

* Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin.

† Hamilton, Gisborne, Napier, Hastings, New Plymouth, Palmerston North, Wanganui, Nelson, Timaru, Invercargill.

‡Boroughs outside urban areas with population over 4,000.

 (000) £(000)£(000)
Main urban areas* (including Hutt Urban Area)940.511,795274,69643,158
 (41.4)(43.9)(45.9)(44.4)
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt Urban Area)313.74,540119,46220,221
 (13.8)(16.9)(20.0)(20.8)
Smaller centres‡164.53,32382,25214,394
 (7.3)(12.4)(13.7)(14.8)
Other urban159.73,56467,03911,620
 (7.0)(13.2)(11.2)(12.0)
Rural692.03,65455,3297,761
 (30.5)(13.6)(9.2)(8.0)
Totals2,270.426,876598,77897,154
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

Just over half the total number of retail stores were in the food and drink group — grocers, butchers, dairies, hotels, etc. This group accounted for only 34 per cent of the turnover, however, the average turnover per store being £15,000. As against this, the automotive group, which accounts for only 4 per cent of all retail stores, handled 11 per cent of the turnover, with an average turnover of £61,200 per store.

The following table shows details by store-type groups.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 15 April 1958Total Labour Force on 15 April 1958Average Labour Force per StoreSalaries and Wages Paid During 1957–58Sales or Turnover During 1957–58Average Sales or Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceStocks at Close of Year (March 1958)
MalesFemalesTotal
       £(000)£(000)££(000)
Food and drink13,46415,90110,82326,72445,0533.315,366201,7714,47912,189
Apparel3,8513,5637,67811,24114,9983.96,14665,3964,36021,215
Furniture1,3394,3441,6555,9997,1175.34,11738,6845,4358,979
Automotive1,0324,5397455,2846,197603,71663,11610,1857,376
Hardware7742,8019893,7904,4885.82,71330,5746,8126,726
Chemicals (chemist, etc.)8861,2731,1332,4063,1813.61,47712,4973,9292,714
Department, variety, and general stores6895,4878,98014,46715,01821.87,59269,7564,64514,047
Miscellaneous4,84110,3995,47415,87320,6374.310,382116,9845,66923,908
Totals, all retail stores26,87648,30737,47785,784116,6894.351,509598,7785,13197,154

The following table shows details by turnover size groups.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 15 April 1958Total Labour Force on 15 April 1958Salaries and Wages Paid During 1957–58Sales or Turnover During 1957–58Stocks at Close of Year (March 1958)
MalesFemalesTotal
£                 £     £(000)£(000)£(000)
Under 5,0005,2256081,5342,1428,79577815,9133,121
5,000–9,9997,1652,7894,3077,09616,5303,20952,6767,874
10,000— 19,9997,7707,3367,98415,32024,9128,293110,34416,590
20,000— 49,9994,78712,9418,11921,06025,44613,358141,56422,154
50,000–99,9991,0997,5493,66111,21011,7967,46675,66612,472
100,000–249,9996157,7724,34512,11712,3338,09391,97016,304
250,000–499,9991524,3722,3786,7506,7784,34751,4768,621
500,000 and over634,9405,14910,08910,0995,96559,16910,018
  Totals, all retail stores26,87648,30737,47785,784116,68951,509598,77897,154

Just under 44 per cent of retail stores were returned as being under individual ownership, while 35 per cent were shown as operated by private registered companies, 15 per cent by partnerships, and 4 per cent by public registered companies.

The following table shows details by type of organisation. The figures quoted in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

Type of OrganisationNumber of StoresTurnover During 1957–58Stocks at Close of Year (March 1958)
  £(000)£(000)
Private registered companies9,486300,51955,828
 (35.3)(50.2)(57.5)
Public registered companies1,099116,54120,503
 (4.1)(19.5)(21.1)
Individual ownership11,759109,51612,470
 (43.8)(18.3)(12.8)
Partnership4,04251,2225,467
 (15.0)(8.5)(5.6)
Other49020,9802,886
 (1.8)(3.5)(3.0)
Totals26,876598,77897,154
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

The number of multiple stores engaged in retail trading represented only 10 per cent of the total stores, but accounted for 28 per cent of the total turnover. A multiple store was so termed where the store was one of a group of four or more under common ownership.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresSales or Turnover During 1957–58Stocks at
Start of Year (April 1957)Close of Year (March 1958)
 Multiple Stores   
  £(000)£(000)£(000)
Food and drink1,09831,1131,6341,707
Apparel33910,2852,8293,082
Furniture1678,0171,3201,468
Automotive356,8748331,047
Hardware719,6921,6841,748
Chemicals (chemist, etc.)23687130137
Department, variety, and general stores22038,2476,9237,013
Miscellaneous76464,92112,13812,795
Totals2,717169,83627,49128,997
 Other Stores   
Food and drink12,366170,6589,25010,482
Apparel3,51255,11117,00418,133
Furniture1,17230,6676,5967,511
Automotive99756,2425,5736,329
Hardware70320,8824,6474,978
Chemicals (chemist, etc.)86311,8102,2172,577
Department, variety, and general stores46931,5096,3007,034
Miscellaneous4,07752,06310,54711,113
Totals24,159428,94262,13468,157

The following table shows the disposition of the different methods of selling by store-type group and by location group. The figures quoted in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

 Turnover (1957–58) in the Form of—Total Sales or Turnover (1957–58)
CashCharge AccountHire PurchaseBudget Store Credit, etc.Cash-order CouponsOther Instalments
Store-type Groups £(000)
Food and drink167,99033,7774201,771
 (47.9)(16.2)(0.1)(33.7)
Apparel53,8979,1312003771481,64365,396
 (15.4)(4.4)(0.6)(32.0)(63.8)(54.4)(10.9)
Furniture12,07515,68810,505891131638,684
 (3.4)(7.5)(30.2)(7.5)(4.7)(10.5)(6.5)
Automotive25,68523,98113,36628263,116
 (7.3)(11.5)(38.4)(0.9)(2.7)(10.5)
Hardware7,82922,52619812030,574
 (2.2)(10.8)(0.6)(0.4)(0.7)(5.1)
Chemicals (chemist, etc.)10,4112,0482611112,497
 (3.0)(1.0)(0.1)(0.1)(0.4)(2.1)
Department, variety, and general stores34,76529,6763,8266005183869,756
 (9.9)(14.2)(11.0)(50.9)(22.0)(27.7)(11.7)
Miscellaneous38,19971,8926,65611219106116,984
 (10.9)(34.4)(19.1)(9.5)(8.2)(3.5)(19.5)
Totals, all retail stores350,851208,71934,7771,1792323,020598,778
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)
Location Group. £(000)
Main urban areas (including Hutt Urban Area)176,23674,33520,7498512202,305274,696
 (50.2)(35.6)(59.6)(72.2)(94.8)(76.3)(45.9)
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt Urban Area)65,64645,7807,4791629386119,462
 (18.7)(21.9)(21.5)(13.7)(3.9)(12.8)(20.0)
Smaller centres43,00234,7164,30044118982,252
 (12.3)(16.6)(12.4)(3.7)(0.4)(6.3)(13.7)
Other urban35,95429,1421,73089212267,039
 (10.2)(14.0)(5.0)(7.6)(0.9)(4.0)(11.2)
Rural30,01324,746519331855,329
 (8.6)(11.9)(1.5)(2.8)(0.6)(9.2)
Totals, all retail stores350,851208,71934,7771,1792323,020598,778
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

The following table shows, by the store-type group, average turnover and average labour force per establishment, turnover per unit of labour force and per head of population, and the approximate number of times stock was turned over per annum.

Store-type GroupAverage Sales or Turnover per EstablishmentAverage Labour Force per EstablishmentSales or Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceSales or Turnover per Head of PopulationNumber of Times Stock Turned Over per Annum
 £ ££ 
Food and drink14,9863.34,47988.8716.6
Apparel16,9823.94,36028.803.1
Furniture -28,8905.35,43517.044.3
Automotive61,1596.010,18527.808.6
Hardware -39,5015.86,81213.474.5
Chemicals -14,1053.63,9295.504.6
Miscellaneous33,7696.45,23782.254.9
Totals, all retail stores22,2794.35,131263.736.2

The 1958 Census of Distribution schedule included a question directed exclusively to those businesses handling groceries, inquiring whether or not the business was conducted as a self-service unit, using a check-out point. The following table shows the results of this inquiry by turnover-size groups. It will be noted that the percentage of self-service units rose progressively with the increase in turnover size until in the highest group, that comprising stores with an annual turnover of £50,000 or over, 72.2 per cent of stores handling groceries operated self-service units.

Turnover SizeWith Self service UnitsWithout Self-service UnitsPercentage of Self-service Units to Total Stores
Number of StoresSales or Turnover During 1957–58Value of StocksNumber of StoresSales or Turnover During 1957–58Value of Stocks
Start of YearClose of YearStart of YearClose of Year
£                 £ £(000)£(000)£(000) £(000)£(000)£(000) 
Under 5,000257911202729241101328.4
5,000 to 9,99910079471927375,66955760911.9
10,000 to 19,9994306,5025716461,49021,4681,9322,13822.4
20,000 to 29,9992676,59752458253912,9211,1871,29033.1
30,000 to 39,9991214,0993083501434,83642147845.8
40,000 to 49,999602,652175210351,50317218763.2
50,000 and over523,638343379201,62716519072.2
Totals1,05524,3612,0032,2793,23648,9484,5445,02424.6

Wholesale Establishments — The total of 2,595 wholesale stores included in the tables accounted for a turnover of £433,296,000, or an average turnover of £167,000 per store.

The principal centres of population (urban areas) contained 87.4 per cent of wholesale stores with 94.5 per cent of total turnover. Auckland and Wellington (including Hutt) urban areas together accounted for 46.9 per cent of stores and 60.7 per cent of turnover.

The following table shows the distribution of wholesale trading by provincial districts and by main location groups. The figures in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

 Population at 31 March 1958Number of StoresPurchases During 1957–58Sales or Turnover During 1957–58Stocks at Close of Year (March 1958)
 (000) £(000)£(000)£(000)
Provincial Districts
Auckland921.9979130,751157,20523,199
 (40.6)(37.7)(36.3)(36.3)(36.3)
Hawke's Bay106.41018,1149,6481,380
 (4.7)(3.9)(2.3)(2.2)(2.2)
Taranaki97.0635,2726,368854
 (4.3)(2.4)(1.5)(1.5)(1.3)
Wellington442.0650123,665146,99521,834
 (19.5)(25.1)(34.3)(33.9)(34.1)
Marlborough27.3221,8942,099297
 (1.2)(0.8)(0.5)(0.5)(0.5)
Nelson72.7503,2614,278484
 (3.2)(1.9)(0.9)(1.0)(0.7)
Westland18.7171,1651,404129
 (0.8)(0.7)(0.3)(0.3)(0.2)
Canterbury322.544054,50266,44610,348
 (14.2)(17.0)(15.1)(15.4)(16.2)
Otago —     
    Otago portion172.119323,60029,1814,242
 (7.6)(7.4)(6.5)(6.7)(6.6)
    Southland portion89.8808,1459,6721,216
 (3.9)(3.1)(2.3)(2.2)(1.9)
Totals, all Wholesale stores2,270.42,595360,369433,29663,983
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)
Location Groups
Main urban areas (including Hutt Urban Area)940.51,771291,287151,71554,261
 (41.4)(68.2)(80.8)(81.2)(84.8)
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt Urban Area)313.749748,52557,6557,126
 (13.8)(19.2)(13.5)(13.3)(11.1)
Smaller centres, other urban and rural1,016.232720,55723,9262,596
 (44.8)(12.6)(5.7)(5.5)(4.1)
Totals, all wholesale stores2,270.12,595360,369433,29663,983
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

The following tables show details of wholesale establishments by store-type groups.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 13 April 1958Total Labour Force on 15 April 1958
MalesFemalesTotal
Food and drink6226,4631,8718,3348,803
Apparel2891,6291,9553,5843,774
Furniture1469652611,2261,333
Automotive1943,0407093,7493,801
Hardware2883,4077814,1884,376
General merchants2024,2401,3205,5605,619
Miscellaneous8547,6252,88310,50810,888
Total, all wholesale stores2,59527,3699,78037,14938,483
Store-type GroupAverage Labour Force per StoreSalaries and Wages Paid During 1957–58Sales or Turnover During 1957–58Average Sales of Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceStocks at Close of Year (March 1958)
  £(000)£(000)££(000)
Food and drink14.26,060104,83811,9896,881
Apparel13.12,27920,4677,8086,470
Furniture9.190915,04511,3803,143
Automotive19.63,84388,83015,3997,558
Hardware14.83,05138,3518,0699,189
General merchants27.84,05970,86712,8899,817
Miscellaneous12.77,853116,49810,70022,386
Total, all wholesale stores14.827,054433,39611,25963,983

A classification by size of turnover shows that stores with under £20,000 turnover numbered 680 (26.2 per cent), but accounted for only £6,661,000, or 1.5 per cent of turnover. At the other end of the scale a total turnover of £216,203,000 (49.9 per cent) was accounted for by only 183 stores (7.1 per cent) which had a turnover of £500,000 or more.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 15 April 1958Total Labour Force on 15 April 1958Salaries and Wages Paid During 1957–58Sales or Turnover During 1957–58Stocks at Close of Year (March 1958)
MalesFemalesTotal
£                 £     £(000)£(000)£(000)
Under 5,000160688014833463476103
5,000- 0,0002123841854697183661,866307
10,000- 10,0003087458001,2431,4787378,588784
20,000- 40,0008872,8601,1833,5833,8183,44818,6033,684
80,000- 900004603,0189783,9968,1613,61733,7338,838
100,000-200,0004688,8231,6987,3187,3535,44873,80018,648
200,000-200,000871,3614391,7901,8141,33333,7373,488
300,000-300,000972,0017622,7633,7672,07333,1075,855
400,000-400,000663,0638873,8003,8111,81538,3834,350
500,000 and over1839,9113,81213,43313,8889,773316,30537,008
Total, all wholesale stores2,59527,3609,78037,14938,48337,054433,39663,983

Service Establishments — Only a selected group of services was included in the Census of Distribution 1958. These were grouped in three broad divisions, personal, business and community, and other services.

Nine-tenths of service establishments provided services only while in the remainder some secondary form of trading was carried on.

Services covered by the census totalled 2,702 establishments of which 1,888, or 69.9 per cent, were in the North Island and 814, or 30.1 per cent, in the South Island.

The principal centres of population (urban areas) contained 67.3 per cent of service establishments, with 83.5 per cent of the total turnover of such establishments.

The following table gives details of numbers and location of those services covered by the census.

 Personal ServicesBusiness and Community ServicesOther ServicesTotal
Number of establishmentsNo.1,6403537092,702
Sales or turnover during 1957–58£(000)9,0886,3362,57718,001
Location of establishments—     
    Main urban areas (including Hutt Urban Area)No.7592223251,306
    Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt Urban Area)No.32664123513
    Smaller centresNo.2334489366
    Other urbanNo.24217104363
    RuralNo.80668154
Paid employees on 15 April 1958 —     
    MalesNo.2,5366385413,715
    FemalesNo.4,605467665,138
        TotalsNo.7,1411,1056078,853
Total labour force on 15 April 1958No.8,9031,4531,38111,737
Salaries and wages paid during 1957–58£(000)3,4669483924,806

Service establishments are further analysed in the following table.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Paid Employees on 15 April 1958Total Labour Force 15 April 1958Salaries and Wages During 1957–58Sales or Turnover During 1957–58
MalesFemalesTotal
£                 £     £(000)£(000)
Under 1,0005919526169815370
1,000–2,9991,0571406207601,9662651,902
3,000–4,9993882494727211,1503301,482
5,000–9,9993425766301,2061,5836352,361
10,000–19,9991836906271,3171,4727972,487
20,000–49,999919041,3002,2042,2551,1152,800
50,000–99,999304664959619885722,093
100,000 and over206819421,6231,6251,0774,506
Totals2,7023,7155,1388,85311,7374,80618,001

Special Analyses — Special analyses were taken out to show total retail trading by retail and service establishments and, at the same time, details were also obtained of total services provided.

The following table shows details of retail trading as above by commodity groups.

Commodity GroupSales or Turnover During 1957–58
AmountPer Cent of Total
 £(000) 
Groceries and small goods (including butter, bacon, etc.)78,72313.2
Meat and fish (uncooked)33,3675.6
Fruit and vegetables17,7113.0
Other foods (baked and cooked foods, meals, etc.)17,9693.0
Milk, ice-cream, confectionery, soft drinks24,7904.2
Beer, wine, and spirits36,6896.2
Tobacco, cigarettes, and tobacconists' sundries16,6332.8
Chemists' goods, toiletries, cosmetics (including dispensing)14,2982.4
Clothing, drapery, dress piece goods76,59412.9
Footwear13,1282.2
Furniture, bedding, floor coverings, soft furnishings and household textiles29,3874.9
Musical instruments (including radios)7,6891.3
Household appliances and electrical goods20,0083.4
Domestic hardware, china, and glassware14,6742.5
Builders' hardware and materials (excluding timber, bricks, and roofing tiles)26,1834.4
Books, stationery, and newspapers14,6242.4
Motor vehicles, parts, accessories (excluding petrol and oil)64,49910.8
Bicycles, parts and accessories1,9150.3
Coal, coke, and firewood3,9220.6
Fertilisers and manures11,5101.9
Florists' goods8750.1
Grain, seed, and fodder12,4032.1
Jewellery (including watches, clocks, and precious stones)4,5270.8
Leather, luggage, and harness1,5820.3
Agricultural machinery13,0302.2
Office machinery3,8460.6
Other machinery8,0351.3
Paint, glass, and wallpaper5,2820.9
Photographic supplies and equipment1,2490.2
Plumbing equipment and piping9680.2
Professional and scientific equipment2,3670.4
Rubber goods5790.1
Sewing machines and accessories1,5700.3
Sports goods (including toys and games)4,1670.7
Seeds, plants, and garden supplies2,1860.4
Other goods8,3031.4
Totals, retail commodities595,282100.0

The following table shows details of total services provided by retail and service establishments.

Type of ServiceNumber of Establishments Handling Service SpecifiedSales or Turnover During 1957–58
Personal service provided by establishments classified as — £(000)
    Service establishments1,6408,882
    Retail stores8261,160
Totals, personal services2,46610,042
Community and business services provided by establishments classified as —  
    Service establishments3536,301
    Retail stores11691
Totals, community and business services4696,392
Other services provided by establishments classified as —  
    Service establishments7092,197
    Retail stores1,4122,866
Totals, other services2,1215,063
Grand totals, all services5,05621,497

The following table shows a commodity analysis of wholesale trading.

Commodity GroupSales or Turnover During 1957–58
AmountPer Cent of Total
 £(000) 
Groceries and small goods (including butter, bacon, etc.)64,34014.8
Meat and fish (uncooked)8,5292.0
Fruit and vegetables21,9825.1
Other food (bread, cakes, pastry, etc.)6,1461.4
Milk, ice cream, confectionery, soft drinks13,6303.1
Beer, wine, and spirits17,4754.0
Tobacco, cigarettes, and tobacconists sundries26,2916.1
Chemists' goods, toiletries, cosmetics15,1843.5
Clothing, drapery, and piece goods31,6777.3
Footwear4,7101.1
Furniture, bedding, floor coverings, soft furnishings, and household textiles11,4722.6
Musical instruments (including radios)3,2630.8
Household appliances and electrical goods21,9915.1
Domestic hardware, china, and glassware9,0892.1
Builders' hardware and materials (excluding timber, bricks, and roofing tiles)17,7484.1
Books, stationery, and newspapers6,2901.4
Motor vehicles, parts, accessories (excluding petrol and oil)58,82013.6
Coal, coke, and firewood4,4851.0
Fertilisers, manures, grain, seed, and fodder13,7313.2
Jewellery (including watches, clocks, and precious stones)2,4600.6
Leather, luggage, and harness2,6700.6
Agricultural machinery5,9251.4
Other machinery20,1424.6
Paint, glass, and wallpaper6,5171.5
Photographic supplies and equipment2,6180.6
Plumbing equipment and piping5,9311.4
Rubber goods (excluding tyres and tubes)1,5730.4
Seeds, plants, and garden supplies1,3540.3
Sports goods (including toys and games)3,4870.8
Other23,7665.5
Totals, wholesale commodities433,296100.0

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF RETAIL TRADING — Following the Census of Distribution in 1953 a continuing quarterly sample survey of retail trade was inaugurated. The first inquiry related to trade during the three-monthly period ended 31 March 1954, and the survey was continued at three-monthly intervals up to and including the quarter ended 31 March 1959.

Commencing with the quarter ended 30 June 1959, quarterly retail trade statistics have been compiled using a new sample that comprises stores selected on account of their location and of a type known as an area-unit cluster sample. The 1958 Census of Distribution provided a base for this sample, a detailed description of which was given in a supplement to the November 1959 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

The sample excludes certain type j of retail stores which were included in the Census of Distribution 1958; these store types are hotels, chartered clubs, wine and spirit merchants, milk vendors, and the complete automotive group. Besides the above exclusions, for purposes of the sample survey some changes in the grouping of store types were made. In the following table comparable census figures are given together with statistics of turnover, based on sample results, for the quarters ended 30 September 1961 and 31 December 1961. The composition of the store-type groups can be readily seen.

Store Type and GroupingSales or Turnover
Year Ended 31 March 1958 (Census Figures)Quarter Ended
30 September 196131 December 1961
 £(000)£(000)£(000)
Butcher, poulterer, etc. 31,9599,5939,660
Grocer 73,30922,56724,642
Other food and drink —    
    Baker, pastrycook, etc. —7,919   
Confectioner1,436   
    Dairy, milk bar16,004   
    Fish, fish and chip shop2,883   
    Fruiterer, greengrocer14,142   
    Restaurant, cafeteria, tearoom8,139   
    Other food and drink442   
Total, other food and drink 50,96516,47618,450
Footwear 10,0562,8843,680
Other apparel —    
    Draper, etc.41,700   
    Men's and boys' clothier12,396   
    Other apparel1,244   
Total, other apparel 55,34014,71018,180
Furniture and soft furnishings 22,0716,6687,585
Household appliances, electrical goods, radios, etc.—    
    Household appliances, radios, etc.16,613   
    Electrical goods2,529   
    Music store3,370   
    Sewing machine dealer1,580   
Total, household appliances, electrical goods, radios, etc. 24,0927,3418,456
Hardware, builders' hardware, paints, etc. —    
    Hardware, builders' hardware, etc.23,980   
    Paints and varnishes4,997   
    Other hardware1,597   
Total, hardware, builders' hardware, paints, etc. 30,5748,4469,344
Chemist12,1904,4545,187 
General, department, and variety 69,75619,10524,970
Other—    
    Bookseller, newsagent, stationer12,330   
    Coal and wood merchant3,499   
    Florist837   
    Jeweller4,747   
    Pawnbroker, secondhand dealer1,609   
    Seedsman, nurseryman4,081   
    Tobacconist6,026   
    Toys, novelties, etc.1,238   
    Other chemicals307   
    Stock and station agents42,021   
    Miscellaneous33,117   
Total, other 109,81232,45236,572
Totals, New Zealand 490,124144,696166,726

Information for later quarters will be found in the section on Latest Statistical Information.

It will be noticed that total turnover for retail stores for the year ended 31 March 1958, as shown above, £490,124,000, differs from the figure, £598,778,000, in respect of all retail trading as quoted on a preceding page. The sample does not purport to cover all aspects of retail trading, but covers all store types with the exception of the exclusions already specified.

The sample survey from which quarterly estimates are obtained is designed to provide satisfactory accuracy in store-type figures at national level and in regional figures at the all-store-type level. To obtain the same accuracy in regional figures for each store type it would be necessary to make the sample very much larger and a great deal of the saving in trouble and cost which the sample gives would be lost. Of the regional figures for each store type it can be said that, in general, they give quite a good indication of the value of trading, but that in this case successive quarterly figures are unreliable as an indication of trends.

The following table gives details of value of sales or turnover by store-type groups for each of six geographical regions for the quarters ended 30 June, 30 September, and 31 December 1961.

VALUE OF SALES OR TURNOVER
Store-type GroupNorth IslandSouth IslandTotals, New Zealand
Auckland Urban AreaWellington and Hutt Urban AreasRemainder of North IslandTotals, North IslandChristchurch Urban AreaDunedin Urban AreaRemainder of South IslandTotals, South Island
£ (thousand)
Quarter Ended 30 June 1961
Butcher, poulterer, etc.2,0341,1583,1086,3008345671,2752,6768,976
Grocer4,1382,8008,22815,1662,1541,0453,4126,61121,777
Other food and drink4,1541,8525,62511,6311,4656021,9984,06515,696
Footwear7124271,3522,4913931634771,0333,524
Other apparel3,1872,1226,94412,2531,4078482,7895,04417,297
Furniture and soft furnishings1,5749502,5095,0336483219221,8916,924
Household appliances electrical goods, radios, etc.1,0281,0622,4084,4987442319361,9116,409
Hardware, builders' hardware, paints, etc.1,1661,3013,4875,9549163941,0242,3348,288
Chemist9734561,6703,0993941855581,1374,236
General, department, and variety4,5272,1437,37714,0472,6739573,3927,02221,069
Other4,7883,39813,69121,8772,7691,6965,97910,44432,321
Totals28,28117,66956,399102,34914,3977,09922,76244,168146,517
Quarter Ended 30 September 1961
Butcher, poulterer, etc.2,1661,2483,3606,7748735911,3552,8199,593
Grocer4,3192,9548,46015,7332,2661,1463,4226,83422,567
Other food and drink4,3181,9605,87312,1511,6106112,1044,32516,476
Footwear6123691,0161,9973601453828872,884
Other apparel2,7771,9275,84310,5471,2577302,1764,16314,710
Furniture and soft furnishings1,4788772,4644,8196512809181,8496,668
Household appliances electrical goods, radios, etc.1,2991,1132,8385,2508622429872,0917,341
Hardware, builders' hardware, paints, etc.1,1211,3523,6236,0969653731,0122,3508,446
Chemist1,0164701,7753,2614072005861,1934,454
General, department, and variety4,0081,9516,92512,8842,4999172,8056,22119,105
Other4,5653,45413,97221,9912,6761,8865,89910,46132,452
Totals27,67917,67556,149101,50314,4267,12121,64643,193144,696
Quarter Ended 31 December 1961
Butcher, poulterer, etc.2,3781,3033,2326,9138845671,2962,7479,660
Grocer4,7263,1279,34117,1942,5011,2523,6957,44824,642
Other food and drink4,6062,1866,88713,6791,7826762,3134,77118,450
Footwear7325031,3232,5584151965111,1223,680
Other apparel3,5682,3527,05812,9791,5848152,8025,20118,180
Furniture and soft furnishings1,5469152,6305,0917653891,3402,4947,585
Household appliances, electrical goods, radios, etc.1,2871,2293,5426,0588333161,2492,3988,456
Hardware, builders' hardware, paints, etc.1,2581,3844,0676,7091,0353891,2112,6359,344
Chemist1,1865762,0193,7814702396971,4065,187
General, department and variety5,3982,6438,80016,8413,2441,2203,6658,12924,970
Other5,2734,12315,45824,8542,8872,0136,81811,71836,572
Totals31,95820,34264,357116,65716,4008,07225,59750,069166,726

The information in the preceding table has been regrouped in the following table to give statistics of commodity sales.

SALES OR TURNOVER BY COMMODITIES
Commodity GroupQuarter Ended
30 June 196130 September 196131 December 1961
 £ (thousand)
Groceries and small goods (including butter, bacon, etc.)23,98424,65526,626
Meat, fish, fruit, and vegetables14,70415,84617,050
Other foods (baked and cooked foods, meals, etc.)5,8285,8476,054
Milk, ice cream, confectionery, soft drinks, etc.5,0845,0005,837
Tobacco, cigarettes, and tobacconists' sundries5,9506,0026,692
Chemists' goods, toiletries, cosmetics (including dispensing)5,0215,2586,377
Clothing, drapery, dress piece goods25,18121,20626,892
Footwear4,6163,7784,883
Furniture, bedding, floor coverings, soft furnishings, and household textiles8,4478,3639,215
Musical instruments (including radios)2,2572,9402,796
Household appliances and electrical goods5,8685,6707,612
Domestic hardware, china and glassware3,9863,8305,266
Builders' hardware and materials (excluding timber, bricks and roofing tiles)6,9856,7076,838
Books, stationery, etc.4,0143,9074,872
Other commodities24,59225,68729,716
Total sales or turnover146,517144,696166,726

Retail Stocks — The following table shows stock values as at 30 June, 30 September, and 31 December 1960 and 1961.

Store-type GroupValue of Stocks
As at 30 JuneAs at 30 SeptemberAs at 31 December
196019611960196119601961
 £ (thousand)
Butcher, poulterer, etc.388395361376327385
Grocer8,3748,5418,4258,7848,4178,795
Other food and drink2,2882,3702,3012,4362,4062,602
Footwear4,4544,5324,4834,7494,4204,599
Other apparel20,70622,10121,92523,52821,19122,272
Furniture and soft furnishings5,9696,9306,1827,1286,1666,848
Household appliances, electrical goods, radios, etc.5,1085,8935,6066,4305,5196,296
Hardware, builders' hardware, paints, etc.6,9077,7167,0547,7717,2057,574
Chemist2,9383,1802,9013,2022,8853,244
General, department, and variety15,65017,85017,12320,20317,35818,641
Other24,98527,77926,16429,68625,92328,620
Totals97,767107,287102,525114,293101,817109,876

Statistics for Earlier Quarters — The growth in the number of stores causes considerable difficulty in the field of statistical collection if the retail trading of such new stores is to be adequately allowed for in the quarterly surveys. Whereas the compilation procedures used in conjunction with the area-unit sample automatically allow for the retail trade of new stores, the old sample failed to do this. The old sample, therefore, yielded statistics which accurately described the retail trade of established stores but understated that for new stores.

A number of alterations in the grouping and coverage of store types in the survey, of which details have already been given, were also made with the introduction of the new sample. For this reason, together with the understatement of turnover of new stores in the old survey, there was a need for revised statistics of sales turnover with which the statistics for the new sample could be directly related. Such revised statistics extending back to the March 1954 quarter are given in the next table.

QUARTERLY SALES OR TURNOVER — STORE-TYPE GROUPS
Quarter EndedTurnover for Store-type Group
Butcher, poulterer, etc.GrocerOther Food and DrinkFootwearOther ApparelFurniture and Soft FurnishingsHousehold Appliances, Electrical Goods, Radios, etc.Hardware, Builders' Hardware, Paints, etc.ChemistGeneral, Department, and VarietyOtherAll Groups
£ (thousand)
1954—
    Mar6,21614,92310,9181,75310,1253,8684,1425,7521,98713,35020,71093,744
    Jun6,79314,98210,6252,18912,9484,7084,7646,9092,03114,98221,960102,891
    Sep7,01315,57410,5431,86911,4964,8094,9506,9512,13214,37322,595102,305
    Dec7,23217,21911,8642,49014,4345,3546,1917,6622,47718,10327,130120,156
1955—
    Mar6,85615,27811,0931,87310,7764,0794,9536,4702,10314,49422,831100,806
    Jun7,13515,50910,9882,26913,3304,9165,1697,4102,25715,44423,637108,064
    Sep7,51216,26211,5081,96112,2424,8135,2127,3522,46815,59423,240108,164
    Dec7,47917,46212,6702,53414,9905,2306,5647,5702,82318,35728,210123,889
1956—
    Mar7,04016,24211,7841,99911,5404,1344,9646,8872,39414,78523,083104,852
    Jun7,35016,63911,8042,34113,5534,9394,6527,1042,52815,89624,359111,165
    Sep7,43417,05412,2102,02811,8975,0764,9967,0962,50115,27124,567110,139
    Dec7,65918,65713,3842,65414,7785,6397,0817,5832,88818,78029,594128,697
1957—
    Mar7,23416,89512,3212,09211,2764,2475,5026,9012,60515,32225,309109,704
    Jun7,82017,65412,2592,60314,8765,3485,0147,4142,87916,85125,557118,275
    Sep8,12118,01812,2732,19012,4755,5585,4957,6422,93916,18826,386117,285
    Dec8,44719,39413,7122,84515,5536,2147,6727,9363,42520,07131,469136,738
1958—
    Mar7,57118,24312,7212,41812,4364,9515,9117,5822,94716,64626,400117,826
    Jun8,19118,53612,4852,68515,6476,0555,9188,1902,98418,46027,997127,148
    Sep8,38618,53612,7122,30412,9495,3935,0918,0192,96816,87326,840120,071
    Dec8,45520,33313,8572,86815,3405,7776,2988,8123,47920,31030,189135,709
1959—
    Mar7,55218,32112,6572,29011,4534,4094,5186,9632,91015,73324,000110,806
    Jun8,43318,98:13,1112,77714,8985,1464,9707,3393,18918,15526,619123,618
    Sep8,72519,45613,7342,34612,6485,4025,2917,3023,26717,41427,729123,314
    Dec8,96821,46815,1513,06415,9306,4346,5988,4233,92022,22032,880145,056
1960—
    Mar8,14919,78814,8542,51512,9425,2075,3827,3903,39617,72932,078129,430
    Jun8,62020,41514,8833,21116,2386,2725,6787,7083,55119,56729,819135,962
    Sep9,13921,51715,6162,84014,1606,5106,4528,2343,84918,87731,093138,287
    Dec9,26223,31717,1953,65117,8997,6307,1679,0364,44623,91736,249159,769
1961—
    Mar8,72021,43716,4222,89014,1356,2525,9078,2754,04418,92833,401140,411
    Jun8,97621,77715,6963,52417,2976,9246,4098,2884,23621,06932,321146,517
    Sep9,59322,56716,4762,88414,7106,6687,3418,4464,45419,10532,452144,696
    Dec9,66024,64218,4503,68018,1807,5858,4569,3445,18724,97036,572166,726

The information in the preceding table has been regrouped in the following table to give statistics of commodity sales.

QUARTERLY SALES OR TURNOVER — COMMODITY GROUPS
Quarter EndedGroceries and Small Goods (Including Butter, Bacon, etc.)Meat, Fish, Fruit, and VegetablesOther Foods (Baked and Cooked Foods, Meals, etc.)Milk, Ice Cream, Confectionery, Soft Drinks, etc.Tobacco, Cigarettes, and Tobacconists' SundriesChemists' Goods, Toiletries, Cosmetics (Including Dispensing)Clothing, Drapery, Dress Piece GoodsFootwear
 £ (million)
1954—Mar16.210.03.83.83.42.413.82.3
Jun16.210.73.73.43.62.417.82.9
Sep16.911.13.83.23.72.615.82.4
Dec18.811.64.04.04.12.919.83.2
1955—Mar16.310.83.74.13.52.515.22.4
Jun16.51104.03.73.62.718.42.9
Sep17.311.64.23.83.73.016.82.5
Dec18.912.14.44.14.03.420.53.3
1956—Mar17.311.04.14.13.52.91602.6
Jun17.811.64.23.83.63.018.73.0
Sep18.512.04.33.73.73.016.52.6
Dec20.212.64.64.44.13.420.33.5
1957—Mar18.111.74.14.43.53.115.62.7
Jun18.912.34.53.93.73.420.43.4
Sep19.412.84.53.83.83.517.22.9
Dec21.113.74.84.34.24.021.53.7
1958—Mar19.312.34.34.63.73.417.43.2
Jun19.612.94.44.13.93.521.53.5
Sep19.813.54.4404.23.517.83.0
Dec21.814.24.44.44.64.121.03.8
1959—Mar19.012.33.94.54.23.415.93.0
Jun20.913.54.74.34.93.922.03.7
Sep22.014.24.94.35.24.018.73.1
Dec24.115.35.15.15.84.923.84.1
1960—Mar22.013.95.05.15.54.019.13.4
Jun22.314.25.44.85.64.223.64.2
Sep23.615.35.64.85.84.520.73.7
Dec25.716.45.85.66.35.526.44.8
1961—Mar23.615.25.55.55.94.720.63.8
Jun24.014.75.85.16.05.025.24.6
Sep24.715.85.85.06.05.321.23.8
Dec26.617.16.15.86.76.426.94.9
Quarter EndedFurniture, Bedding Floor Coverings, Soft Furnishing, and Household TextilesMusical Instruments (Including Radios)Household Appliances and Electrical GoodsDomestic Hardware, China, and GlasswareBuilders' Hardware and Materials (Excluding Timber, Bricks and Roofing Tiles.)Books Stationery, etc.other CommoditiesTotal sales or Turnover
£(million)
1954—Mar5.21.13.62.65.03.117.693.7
Jun6.21.44.33.0603.018.3102.9
Sep6.41.54.53.05.92.818.6102.3
Dec7.11.65.53.76.43.923.7120.2
1955—Mar5.61.34.22.95.53.219.7100.8
Jun6.31.54.43.16.52.920.6108.1
Sep6.61.54.53.26.32.820.4108.2
Dec6.81.75.83.86.33.825.0123.9
1956—Mar5.61.34.33.15.93.419.8104.9
Jun6.51.64.23.26.23.120.8111.2
Sep6.71.74.23.15.63.121.4110.1
Dec7.31.96.03.96.34.126.2128.7
1957—Mar5.71.54.53.15.93.622.1109.7
Jun7.11.94.23.36.53.321.6118.3
Sep7.41.84.43.46.73.322.6117.3
Dec8.12.2614.26.64.228.0136.7
1958—Mar6.71.74.83.76.43.822.5117.8
Jun8.22.1503.97.23.424.0127.1
Sep7.31.74.33.66.93.123.0120.1
Dec7.61.85.24.37.34.426.9135.7
1959—Mar5.91.33.83.35.83.621.0110.8
Jun7.0204.23.46.23.419.3123.6
Sep7.12.04.63.46.23.420.5123.3
Dec8.02.76.44.76.44.624.1145.1
1960—Mar6.72.14.93.55.83.624.9129.4
Jun8.12.34.93.76.23.522.8136.0
Sep8.12.65.63.96.63.723.8138.3
Dec9.22.66.95.16.44.928.3159.8
1961—Mar7.52.15.34.06.73.926.3140.4
Jun8.42.35.94.07.04.024.6146.5
Sep8.42.95.73.86.73.925.7144.7
Dec9.22.87.65.36.84.929.7166.7

Retail Trading Statistics Corrected for Seasonal Fluctuations and for Price and Population Changes — In common with other economic time series, statistics of retail trading reflect the effects of a variety of influences. It is sometimes helpful in analysis if the actual figures are first adjusted to remove the effects of certain known factors, thereby making clearer the effects of other influences.

To facilitate direct comparisons between any or all quarterly figures seasonally corrected values of retail trade turnover have been prepared. To do this the actual figure for each quarter was expressed as a ratio to the estimated trend value for that quarter (the trend values being calculated as appropriately centred moving averages). Several ratios were thus obtained for each calendar quarter, of which the median was taken as the typical one. After adjusting the four typical quarterly ratios so that their annual product was unity the adjusted ratios were divided into the actual figures for the appropriate quarters to obtain a seasonally corrected series.

Over the period covered by the retail trade survey there has been a rise in the general price level so that part of the increase in the survey figures has been the result purely of this price change and does not represent an increase in the real volume of sales. A special price index has been prepared for the purpose of deflating the retail sales figures to give a series in pounds of constant purchasing power -i.e., the adjusted series shows the changes in the real volume of retail sales. The principal source of the prices used for this index are the commodity prices used in the Consumers' Price Index The prices have been appropriately weighted and the whole index expressed on the base: year ended 31 March 1958 (= 1000), so that application of the index to the original figures, both before and after seasonal correction, gives series in constant 1957–58 pounds.

Finally, a further adjustment has been made to express the series in terms of turnover per head of population in recognition of the fact that part of the expansion of retail turnover is due to population growth.

The results of these calculations and adjustments are shown in the following table.

QUARTERLY SALES OR TURNOVER — ALL STORE TYPES
Quarter EndedTotal Sales or Turnover
In Current £sIn Constant 1957–58 £s
As RecordedSeasonally CorrectedBefore Seasonal CorrectionSeasonally Corrected
ValueIndex Number*ValueIndex Number*

* Base: Average quarterly values during the year ended March 1958 (= 1000).

 £(m)£(m) £(m)£(m) 
1954—March93.7100.281999.6106.5871
            June102.9103.9850107.2108.2885
            September102.3105.6863107.1110.6904
            December120.2107.9882125.4112.7922
1955—March100.8107.78811050112.2917
            June108.1109.1892111.7112.8922
            September108.2111.6913111.3114.9939
            December123.9111.3910128.1115.1941
1956—March104.9112.0916108.1115.5944
            June111.2112.2917113.6114.7938
            September1101113.7930110.7114.2934
            December128.7115.6945129.7116.5953
1957—March109.7117.2958112.1119.8980
            June118.3119.4976119.3120.5985
            September117.3121.1990117.4121.2991
            December136.7122.81004136.3122.51002
1958—March117.8125.91029117.0125.01022
            June127.1128.41050125.4126.61035
            September120.1123.91013116.0119.7979
            December135.7121.9997130.3117.0957
1959—March110.8118.4968106.5113.8930
            June123.6124.81020118.8119.9980
            September123.3127.31041117.6121.4993
            December145.1130.31065138.5124.41017
1960—March129.4138.31131123.5131.91078
            June136.0137.31123129.4130.71069
            September138.3142.71167130.5134.71101
            December159.8143.51173149.7134.51100
1961—March140.4150.01226132.4141.51157
            June146.5147.91209138.0139.31139
            September144.7149.41222135.0139.31139
            December166.7149.81225154.9139.11137
Quarter EndedTurnover per Head of Population
In Current £sIn Constant 1957–58 £s
As RecordedSeasonally CorrectedBefore Seasonal CorrectionSeasonally Corrected
ValueIndex Number*ValueIndex Number*

* Base: Average quarterly values during the year ended March 1958 (= 1000).

 ££ ££ 
1954—March45.048.188347.951.2940
            June49.249.791351.351.8951
            September48.850.392451.152.7968
            December56.951.193859.453.4981
1955—March47.450.793149.452.8970
            June50.751.193852.452.9972
            September50.552.195752.053.6984
            December57.551.694859.453.4981
1956—March48.351.694849.853.2977
            June51.151.694852.252.7968
            September50.452.095550.752.3961
            December58.552.696659053.0973
1957—March49.552.997250.654.1994
            June53.253.798653.654.1994
            September52.454.199452.554.2995
            December60.754.5100160.554.4999
1958—March51.955.5101951.655.11012
            June55.856.3103455.055.61021
            September52.554.199450.752.3961
            December58.852.997256.550.7931
1959—March47.751.093745.949.0900
            June53.153.698451.051.5946
            September52.854.5100150.352.0955
            December61.755.4101758.952.9972
1960—March54.758.5107452.255.81025
            June57.357.9106354.655.11012
            September58.2600110254.956.71041
            December66.760.0110262.556.21032
1961—March58.362.3114455.058.71078
            June60.661.2112457.157.71060
            September59.561.4112855.557.31052
            December68.061.1112263.256.71041

The information in the two preceding tables is presented graphically in the following diagram.

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF WHOLESALE TRADING — A quarterly survey of wholesale trading was commenced in September 1960.

Certain store types, which by nature of their business have a low ratio of stock to total turnover, have been omitted from the survey, which otherwise covers all businesses dominantly wholesale. For the excluded firms the value of closing stock recorded in the Census of Distribution 1958 was £3,266,000 (comprising food and drink store-type group £2,714,000, apparel £132,000, and miscellaneous £420,000), representing only 5.1 per cent of the total value of all stock recorded by wholesale businesses in the census.

The following table shows, by store-type group, values of stocks held by wholesalers on 31 March 1959 and 1960, and at quarterly intervals from 30 September up to and including 31 December 1961.

Store-type GroupValue of Stocks as at
31 March 195931 March 196030 September 196031 December 196031 March 196130 June 196130 September 196131 December 1961
 £ (thousand)
Food and drink4,7104,9855,0915,0925,0465,3525,3874,954
Apparel6,2335,9325,7295,6776,0716,1936,1005,926
Furniture2,3492,4932,4942,3192,9823,1083,3153,055
Automotive7,3067,2887,8217,4828,0549,0949,3398,187
Hardware8,7269,3739,3799,61410,30510,97011,06210,248
Chemicals3,2893,3693,6053,5783,6213,8864,1834,055
General merchants8,8719,0259,5719,37510,1939,91710,4349,862
Miscellaneous20,95021,00322,07323,25524,48125,54426,85325,741
Totals62,43463,46865,76366,39270,75374,06476,67372,028

The following table shows, by store-type group, for stores covered by the survey, values of sales or turnover by wholesalers at quarterly intervals, commencing with the quarter ended 30 September 1960 up to and including the quarter ended 31 December 1961.

Store-type GroupValue of Sales or Turnover for Quarter Ended
30 September 196031 December 196031 March 196130 June 196130 September 196131 December 1961
 £ (thousand)
Food and drink15,01616,29114,45615,59716,11818,105
Apparel10,0159,4639,22210,06210,0109,089
Furniture5,3945,4074,2955,3945,8845,207
Automotive15,53214,62313,22115,57816,86416,928
Hardware11,74511,32811,30012,51012,35311,553
Chemicals6,3215,2825,5135,8085,8115,452
General merchants18,40221,11418,20219,56319,62520,309
Miscellaneous31,16831,94333,04030,11534,00633,133
Totals113,593115,451109,249114,627120,671119,776

SURVEY OF CONSUMER CREDIT — A restricted survey covering consumer credit transactions was commenced in October 1955. The totals recorded in this restricted survey are of course incomplete on account of the limited coverage, and care has been exercised to avoid duplication on account of the transfer or assignment of business to finance corporations. Despite the limitations in coverage and the resultant considerable understatement, it is considered that the statistics record accurately trends, etc., associated with trading over the period reviewed.

Turnover — The following analysis of turnover is restricted to selected wholesale and retail stores and comprises the statistics of 49 firms.

PeriodCashCash OrderCharge AccountsInstalment or LaybyHire PurchaseTotals
£ (thousand)
Calendar year —
    195316,7367713,12183110,14240,907
    195419,3516015,0111,06712,62448,113
    195520,1775416,7951,04312,14850,217
    195619,7764717,2591,18212,17450,438
    195721,3013818,2581,34613,51654,459
    195820,4123318,5961,59213,32253,955
    195918,9893017,0081,58713,13350,747
    196022,9532821,8201,39016,10262,293
    196123,1352323,4611,39215,29163,302
Quarter ended —
    1960–31 Dec6,70496,4133484,91718,391
    1961–31 Mar5,12055,8373303,76615,058
          30 Jun5,97666,0083423,88216,214
          30 Sep5,52545,4863383,38814,741
          31 Dec6,51486,1303824,25517,289

An analysis of turnover in 1937–38 gave the following proportionate distribution under the main headings — cash 38 per cent, charge accounts 29 per cent, and hire purchase 32 per cent. Similar proportions for the calendar year 1961 were 37 per cent, 37 per cent, and 24 per cent respectively.

The high proportion of hire-purchase trading in relation to total turnover in the financial year 1937–38 was due to the predominance of motor vehicle sales financed in this way.

An analysis of the method of selling for the 26,876 retail stores included in the Census of Distribution for the year ended 31 March 1958 gave the following proportionate distribution — cash 59 per cent, charge accounts 35 per cent, and hire purchase 6 per cent.

Hire-purchase Trading — Statistics of hire-purchase trading are obtained from both merchandising firms and finance corporations. However, not all organisations approached are able to analyse their hire-purchase trading in a manner suitable for inclusion in the following tables. Comparisons made are based on available figures, but a separate grouping of organisations is used for each analysis.

Sales of plant and machinery under hire-purchase arrangements are very small in the aggregate and are confined to relatively few firms. Separate figures are not at present being published covering this type of business.

Regulations covering hire-purchase trading specifying, inter alia, minimum deposits, maximum loan values, and maximum periods of credit, were gazetted on 22 July 1955. These were replaced on 14 October 1955 by new regulations containing certain modifications. An amendment to these regulations, dated 11 April 1956, provided for a much smaller deposit and correspondingly increased loan value in respect of certain specific items of household goods. New regulations which came into force on 1 August 1957 exempted all goods (other than motor vehicles) from hire-purchase regulation, but from June 1958 a minimum deposit of 10 per cent was required, and the maximum credit period was 18 months. A further amendment on 23 December 1958 reduced the minimum deposit required on certain household goods to 7 1/2 per cent and increased the maximum credit period to two years. On 10 July 1959 hire-purchase controls were removed from all goods other than motorcars and motor cycles. For new motorcars, the minimum deposit of 50 per cent and the maximum repayment period of 18 months was retained. For motorcars which had travelled more than 5,000 miles, the minimum deposit was reduced to 33 1/3 per cent and the maximum period of credit extended to 24 months. This latter provision also applied to motor cycles, whether new or secondhand. On 17 April 1961 amended regulations increased the minimum deposit on new motorcars to 66 2/3 percent, and reduced the maximum repayment period to 12 months, while the minimum deposit for secondhand cars was increased to 50 per cent and the maximum repayment period reduced to 18 months; a minimum deposit of 5 per cent was required on furniture and furnishings and of 10* per cent on other consumer goods, the maximum period of credit being 18 months (2 years from 3 May 1962).

* Reduced to 5 per cent on 3 May 1962.

For those organisations in the restricted survey which were able to supply the necessary background data the percentage of the cash payments to the total value of goods sold is shown in the subdivisions of the following table. These analyses include data from finance corporations as well as from merchandising firms.

PeriodTotal Value of Goods Sold on Hire-purchaseDetails of PurchasePercentage in Cash to Total Value of Goods Sold
Cash PaymentsAmount Financed Under Hire-purchase Agreements
 £(000)£(000)£(000) 
Motor Vehicles
Financial year 1937–382,4659271,53837.6
Calendar year —    
    19532,3319901,34142.5
    19542,9511,2851,66643.5
    19553,5631,7701,79349.7
    19563,4451,7771,66851.6
    19573,6391,8301,80950.3
    19583,1531,5951,55850.6
    19593,1811,5891,59250.0
    19604,1661,8412,32544.2
    19613,9741,9022,07247.9
Quarter ended —    
    1960–31 December1,17448968541.7
    1961–31 March81837044845.2
          30 June1,02645357344.2
          30 September1,00149950249.9
          31 December1,12958054951.4
Household and Personal Goods
Financial year 1937.388119271911.3
Calendar year —    
    19533,0484142,63413.6
    19543,6915123,17913.9
    19553,7736053,16816.0
    19563,8556983,15718.1
    19574,4766243,85213.9
    19584,3836003,78313.7
    19594,7855514,23411.5
    19605,6165795,03710.3
    19614,8855194,36610.6
Quarter ended—    
    1960–31 December1,7601631,5979.3
    1961–31 March1,2501081,1428.6
          30 June1,1901401,05011.8
          30 September1,1351201,01510.6
          31 December1,3101511,15911.5

NOTE — The values quoted in the above tables are exclusive of insurance and hiring charges.

The total amount owing under hire purchase to all merchandising firms and finance corporations included in the restricted survey is not available, but according to the data supplied by 49 of these organisations the amount owing to them under hire-purchase agreements on 31 December 1961 was £14,633,000. Comparisons with previous periods are shown in the following table.

As at—Amount Owing Under Hire-purchase AgreementsPercentage of Payments Overdue

* Estimated.

 £(000) 
End of financial year 1937–384,560*5.08
    1953–31 December7,7964.14
    1954–31 December9,9643.80
    1955–31 December9,6633.70
    1956–31 December9,6003.76
    1957–31 December11,2644.23
    1958–31 December10,8304.48
    1959–31 December11,7804.32
    1960–31 December14,8273.80
    1961–31 March14,8214.01
          30 June14,7374.38
          30 September14,3513.83
          31 December14,6334.09

The preceding information is based on a restricted survey which is confined to the larger retail firms and institutions financing hire purchase and similar trading.

Chapter 22. Section 22 EXTERNAL TRADE

22 A — GENERAL

GENERAL — Throughout its short history New Zealand has been dependent on overseas trade for its development and progress. Early trade was principally with Australia. In the 1840s the foundations of the agricultural industries were laid. Sheep had already been introduced and the first shipment of wool was exported to Hobart in 1839. Dairying was established, grain and potatoes were cultivated, and kauri gum was dug from the ground in the far north. In 1853, when the population of New Zealand, exclusive of Maoris, was only 32,000, trade data were first compiled for New Zealand as a whole. The values of the main exports were: timber, £93,000; wool, £67,000; potatoes, £30,000; whale oil, £22,000; kauri gum, £16,000; and grain, £19,000. At this time Australia was settling into its “gold rush” period, and the demands of the rapidly increasing Australian population created an opportunity for increased exports from New Zealand, and quantities of butter and cheese were shipped across the Tasman. A rapid change then took place in the pattern of the trade. In 1855 the principal items were wool (25 per cent of total value), grain (22 per cent), and potatoes (25 per cent). By 1860 wool accounted for 76 per cent of total exports, and with the opening of the goldfields in 1861 wool and gold together accounted for 93 per cent of exports in that year.

During this period the imports far exceeded exports, being about double in value, and consisted mainly of capital goods for the development of new industries, together with clothing and foodstuffs to sustain the growing numbers of new settlers. The borrowing policy initiated by Vogel in 1870 for an extensive public works programme had the immediate effect of increasing imports and later gave an indirect impetus to exports.

The introduction of refrigeration in 1882 further changed the pattern of the export trade, making possible the shipment of perishable foodstuffs to more distant markets. This had a marked effect on New Zealand's trade with the United Kingdom. In 1870 only 52 per cent of the exports went to the United Kingdom; by 1880 the proportion had increased to 75 per cent. Australia, which had been New Zealand's main trading partner in the early years, was receiving only 21 per cent of the exports by 1880 and 15 per cent by 1890.

In recent years the United Kingdom's share of New Zealand's export trade has gradually been declining. In 1950 the United Kingdom took 66 per cent of New Zealand's exports. A decade later its share had fallen to 53 per cent. The decline in the United Kingdom's share of New Zealand's trade has come about largely through the diversion of beef supplies to other markets, particularly the United States. Proportionally the United Kingdom is also taking a smaller share of the growing wool exports.

However, the United Kingdom remains New Zealand's best export market by far, taking almost all New Zealand's lamb, cheese, and butter, and about one-third of the wool. The preservation of New Zealand's position in the United Kingdom market remains an overriding objective of New Zealand's external policy.

Any analysis of the direction of New Zealand's external trade illustrates the importance of the United Kingdom both as a source supplier for import requirements and as the main market for our major exports.

The following table shows the changing pattern of external trade.

YearUnited KingdomAustraliaUnited States of AmericaOther Countries

* Provisional.

Per Cent
Exports
186070273
187052462
1880752122
1890751564
1900771463
191084934
1920745165
1930803512
194088345
19506631021
1960*5341330
Per Cent
Imports
1860564211
1870583615
1880563149
18906717610
190061171012
19106214816
192048171817
19304781827
194047161225
19506012721
1960*44181028

So far as our export markets are concerned New Zealand has until recently enjoyed unrestricted access to the United Kingdom, but increased competition is being met from United Kingdom producers and other supplying countries. Perhaps the most important development in recent years has been the expansion of British agriculture fostered by Government subsidies. Consequently, New Zealand's chief competitor in the supply of some primary products is the United Kingdom farmer. The move toward economic integration in Europe has also had some adverse effect on the United Kingdom market for our primary produce. In addition however, to this competition on the United Kingdom market from other primary producing countries and from home production, New Zealand butter has had to face competition from blended butter and margarine. Because the market became over-supplied during the European summer of 1961, United Kingdom placed quotas on countries supplying butter. These quotas, initially for a period of six months, were extended for a further year to 31 March 1963.

As a result, New Zealand has found it necessary in recent years to develop supplementary markets, but in doing so has had to face the quantitative restrictions which these potential markets have imposed on agricultural products. Nevertheless, there has been a marked expansion of New Zealand's overseas markets in recent years notably in the United States, France, Western Germany, and Japan.

Since the Second World War New Zealand's external trade has expanded considerably and its importance to the New Zealand economy can be appreciated when it is realised that in the last nine years exports f.o.b. and imports c.i.f. have both exceeded 25 per cent of the gross national product. Moreover, the value per head of New Zealand's overseas trade is one of the highest for any country in the world, particularly if re-exports are excluded.

Except for the growth of trade in pulp and paper products, which have assumed importance in recent years, the composition of New Zealand's exports today does not vary greatly from that of pre-war years. About 90 per cent of the total value of exports is still derived from wool, meat, and dairy produce. Except for a period during the Second World War, wool has always been competed for at auction by a number of countries. New markets have been developed for meat; and since the end of bulk purchase by the United Kingdom there has been a considerable switch of meat to markets outside the United Kingdom; in fact in 1960 meat went to 60 countries. The main market for beef is now the United States of America, where imports in boneless packaged form have increased in recent years.

Good export prospects are held for the products of the rapidly expanding exotic timber industry. The industry is paying careful attention to the requirements of the Australian market in the way of quality, grading, and packaging of timber, principally radiata pine. Associated with the timber trade is the recent production of pulp and paper. Paper products — particularly newsprint, kraft paper, and pulp — have been added to the range of New Zealand's exports, the main market being Australia. Other traditional items such as hides and skins, tallow, sausage casings, seeds, fresh fruit, and fish have, in general, retained their relative position over recent years.

Attention is being given to the development of exports of New Zealand manufactured goods, and, although the trade is still small, there has been some expansion. Trade missions have surveyed market prospects for a variety of goods of a kind which are, or could be, made in New Zealand.

A Trade Promotion Council was set up in March 1962 as a coordinating and advisory agency in a concerted continuous New Zealand trade drive. The Council will advise in the exploration of new or potential markets including trade surveys and missions, the coordination of promotional schemes, trade fairs and publicity; and the improvement of facilities, both within New Zealand and overseas, which may assist exporters.

The distribution of New Zealand's overseas trade by broad groupings during the latest 11 years is given in the following table.

YearUnited KingdomOther Commonwealth CountriesEuropean CountriesOther Countries

* Provisional.

Per Cent
Proportions of Export Trade
195066.446.2715.7011.59
195157.577.4020.7914.24
195265.336.7212.7015.25
195367.216.0916.1810.52
195466.986.8318.158.04
195565.597.2219.507.69
195664.587.3719.039.02
195758.797.9821.3511.88
195855.788.7916.8818.55
195956.567.9316.3619.15
1960*53.138.7719.9518.15
Proportions of Import Trade
195060.0622.544.0613.34
195153.5924.736.8414.84
195254.9121.269.4114.42
195356.4524.927.8810.75
195456.6323.937.7111.73
195554.9923.718.5712.73
195653.7325.078.4712.73
195751.3826.998.7212.91
195852.5327.088.9911.40
195947.2928.639.3514.73
1960*43.5229.689.6917.11

The direction of external trade is shown graphically in the following diagram.

TRADE PER HEAD — The next table shows the value of exports, imports, and total trade per head of mean population. Values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency.

YearExportsImportsTotal Trade
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
1939351211271146343
19404509274172410
19414176278268158
194249116291727988
19434318952181096177
19444619747899484
194548352911177146
1946571163619794111
194771195650813701
1948801156313914452
1949781395860136199
19509650753417184
1951127819684223165
1952120103114181123592
19531152579172194197
19541161311101150218811
1955121451173923882
195612725107112234137
19571231771174824123
19581098111101111220010
1959125158871610213126
19601275410518923341

When compared with the value of trade per head of population in other countries, the New Zealand figures take a leading place. There are difficulties in the way of making precise comparisons with the values of trade in other countries, mainly on account of differing methods of valuation used. In the following table, however, New Zealand's position is shown in comparison with some of the main trading countries. The source, in respect of data for other countries, is a United Nations publication providing data on trade values using the c.i.f. basis for the valuation of imports. For comparative purposes the c.i.f. basis has been used to value New Zealand imports, and therefore the figure given below as a value for New Zealand trade per head of population exceeds that given in the last table.

VALUE OF TOTAL TRADE PER HEAD OF MEAN POPULATION 1960
CountryTotal External Trade per Head
 £(Stg.)
Netherlands Antilles2,478
Singapore539
Iceland317
Belgium302
Switzerland278
Netherlands266
Sweden260
Denmark256
Trinidad and Tobago249
New Zealand246
Norway233
Canada225
Hong Kong206
Finland164
United Kingdom153
Australia150
German Federal Republic144
Sarawak142
Ireland, Republic of134
Austria128
Israel121
Cyprus104
France103
Lebanon86
Malaya86
Jamaica85
United States of America69
South Africa63
Italy61
Costa Rica60

VISIBLE BALANCE OF TRADE — In the following table the valuation of imports used is c.d.v. plus 10 per cent (which is the valuation on which customs duties are paid), up to 1951, and c.i.f. for the subsequent years.

YearVisible Excess of Exports

* Excess of imports.

† Provisional.

 £(000)
194927,247
195025,809
195141,594
1952−35,655*
195343,680
1954−1,354*
1955−27,845*
19569,068
1957−20,529*
1958−34,904*
195962,241
196021,744

Visible trade is not the only factor to be taken into account in considering the balance of payments between countries. Debt services, capital transfers, charitable and other personal remittances, freight payments, insurances, tourist expenditure, and the like, are vitally important factors which frequently reverse a credit visible balance of trade into a debit balance of payments (see Section 25B). A statement of New Zealand's overseas exchange transactions is given later in this section.

TRADE STATISTICS — The statistics of the external trade of New Zealand given in this section (comprising the three subsections) do not include the Cook Islands and Niue, which, though constitutionally part of New Zealand, are treated separately for trade statistics purposes. More detailed data relative to the external trade of the territories comprising the New Zealand currency area are given in the following publications:

Statistical Report on the External Trade of New Zealand, in two volumes Exports and Imports published annually by the Customs Department.

Report on and Analysis of the External Trade Statistics of New Zealand, published annually by the Department of Statistics.

Reports on the Cook, Nine, and Tokelau Islands, New Zealand parliamentary paper A. 3.

Some information is also included in Section 38 of this Yearbook dealing with Island Territories.

New Zealand adopted the Standard International Trade Classification as from 1 January 1955, and from the same date this classification was put into effect for recording the external trade of the Cook Islands and Niue.

In the subsections dealing with exports and imports, information is given regarding the nature of the transactions which are included in the trade statistics, there being particular inclusions and exclusions which require to be considered when using the figures.

Of considerable consequence in the use of external trade statistics are the methods used in valuing the commodities comprising the trade. In New Zealand it has always been the practice to record exports at free-on-board (f.o.b.) values, except during the Second World War when a departure from this procedure was effected in respect of wool exports. Wool was valued for export at the appraisal prices and, as the prices later realised were higher than the appraisal prices, and New Zealand shared in this profit, export values for the years concerned were understated. On the other hand, the export values recorded for meat and dairy produce during the Second World War and in the years following up to 1954 were generally accurate, while for earlier and later years they can only be regarded as approximations. During the period mentioned almost all meat and dairy produce exported was sold f.o.b. at firm prices to the United Kingdom Ministry of Food under bulk contracts. Under the free marketing conditions of earlier and later years most meat and dairy produce exports have been consigned for sale on overseas markets, and necessarily valued, on export, at the f.o.b. equivalents of the prices ruling at that time in the markets to which consigned. Price changes in these markets before the actual sale of the produce could be quite substantial.

Up to the end of 1951 imports were recorded on the basis of their value for Customs purposes, this being their current domestic value (c.d.v.) in the country of export at the time of shipment, plus 10 per cent. For several years the limitations of this basis of valuation for economic studies, particularly those relating to balances of trade and of payments, had been apparent. There was a tendency generally to regard the Customs value of imports as being equivalent to at least a conventional c.i.f. value (cost including freight and insurance). In fact the Customs value of some bulky low-unit-cost items such as fertilisers fell short of the actual c.i.f. cost by amounts ranging up to 50 per cent or more. The domestic and export price levels in the exporting country may differ on account of price controls, subsidies, etc., while external packing, railway freights, etc., generally tend to raise the f.o.b. cost of goods above the current domestic price. For some few types of commodities the 10 per cent allowance is more than adequate to cover insurance and freight charges. For a larger proportion of imports, particularly those where the value relative to weight or bulk is low, the allowance is inadequate to cover these costs.

As from 1 January 1952 a change was made in that imports were recorded in the trade statistics without the additional 10 per cent required for duty purposes, i.e., at current domestic value, generally, as indicated above, equivalent to but not identical with the f.o.b. cost. Provision was also made to record statistical class totals and the grand total of imports on the c.i.f. basis. Since the introduction of the Standard International Trade Classification in 1955, division totals have replaced class totals for presentation on the c.i.f. basis. A description of the changed classification appears later in this Section.

The proportional difference between the two figures of valuation now made available — viz, c.d.v. and c.i.f. — will vary from period to period depending on (1) the make-up of imports in the different periods, (2) differential changes in import prices and in freight rates, (3) differences between domestic and export prices in the exporting countries, and (4) price fluctuations between dates of purchase and of shipping. The relatively high freight rates and insurance charges in wartime resulted in c.i.f. costs rising considerably above Customs values. The high charter freights of 1951–52 had a similar effect. In all the tables imports are now shown at c.d.v., unless otherwise specified in respect of particular tables.

Monthly summaries of the principal items of exports and imports are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. The exports recorded relate to goods on vessels which have cleared their final port of call in New Zealand during the period.

The trade figures for imports are compiled from the import entries, either for home consumption or into bonded warehouse, passed by the Customs Department. Under the system in use it is possible for an importer to pay the duty involved, if any, and have the import entry passed very shortly after he receives the shipping documents; this enables him to take delivery of the goods on arrival. Thus the import may be recorded before the carrying vessel has reached New Zealand. Generally, however, the import entries are not passed until the goods are available for discharge from the wharf. On the other hand, it may sometimes occur that goods may have been unloaded and in the custody of a harbour board for some time before the importer has the entry passed (and the import is recorded) and takes delivery.

New Zealand trade statistics are compiled on a calendar year basis. Special tables are, however, prepared to show the values of trade during years ended 31 March and 30 June. The Government financial year ends on 31 March, and external trade tables drawn up for that period show the relationship between the trade transactions and the public accounts for the year. In New Zealand the farm production year fits reasonably well to the year ended 30 June, and trade statistics compiled for years ended 30 June accordingly include the export values of approximately a whole season's production from the pastoral and agricultural industries.

In the following table are given the values of the export and import trade for years ending 31 December, 31 March, and 30 June. The movement of specie is not included in these figures.

YearExports f.o.b.Imports
c.d.vc.i.f.
£(thousand)
Year Ended 31 December
1949147,281109,121..
1950183,752143,585..
1951248,127187,758..
1952240,561229,447276,215
1953235,860163,613192,180
1954244,466213,155245,820
1955259,289250,661287,134
1956277,483234,779268,415
1957276,569261,738297,098
1958250,173252,800285,077
1959293,659205,076231,417
1960302,508251,811280,764
Year Ended 31 March
1950154,603122,569..
1951197,173138,508..
1952248,820224,456..
1953238,413198,713240,725
1954242,817173,308201,915
1955235,008226,769259,773
1956278,776245,692281,455
1957275,634236,875270,374
1958275,452267,034303,438
1959250,179233,454263,087
1960313,755216,787243,909
1961280,032269,307299,796
Year Ended 30 June
1950162,040127,953..
1951207,708149,911..
1952254,000247,548..
1953244,123171,592208,224
1954241,829182,080210,130
1955239,747241,639277,211
1956270,663241,782276,848
1957277,603243,229276,681
1958272,023268,280305,203
1959260,734217,262244,640
1960314,768227,206254,585
1961280,608289,979323,240

The following table shows for the year 1960 the values of merchandise exports to, and imports from, each of the principal countries trading with New Zealand. Exports are valued f.o.b. New Zealand ports, and imports at current domestic value in country of purchase and in country of origin. The New Zealand trade statistics will yield different results, in respect of its trade with any given country, from those obtained from the trade statistics of that country, since in the latter New Zealand's exports will in most cases be valued c.i.f. in the given country and New Zealand's imports f.o.b. in that country.

These systems, however, are not universally used, and the methods of valuation in any particular country with whose trade statistics any comparison is attempted must be considered separately.

TRADE BY COUNTRIES, 1960*
CountryExportsImports
New Zealand ProduceTotalBy Country of OriginBy Country of Purchase

* Provisional.

Commonwealth Countries —£(thousand)
    United Kingdom159,814160,257109,596110,781
    Cyprus999494
    Aden1717531534
    Bahrain441,3081,189
    North Borneo332121
    Brunei1
    Ceylon4614612,3912,390
    Malaya4284282,1722,169
    Singapore4834901,2432,371
    Hong Kong4764811,9632,123
    India1,0271,0295,6385,547
    Kuwait17
    Pakistan3737140137
    Sarawak11253283
    Ghana1616590561
    Kenya and Uganda121121479457
    Rhodesia-Nyasaland Federation9999142141
    Mauritius181934
    Seychelles....
    Tanganyika99365335
    South Africa7977971,6501,572
    Bahamas7878
    Barbados22622611
    Bermuda1931931010
    British Guiana67671411
    Canada3,6353,6457,9457,514
    Jamaica1,5641,564181170
    Leeward and Windward Islands737332
    Trinidad and Tobago1,0861,0863641
    Australia12,49613,47745,36646,209
    Fiji8841,080479574
    Gilbert and Ellice Islands2427170170
    Nauru5867727728
    Papua451914
    Tonga2603048384
    Western Samoa719791576578
    Other Commonwealth countries5762146132
Totals, Commonwealth countries185,244187,040184,335186,948
Other Countries —    
    Republic of Ireland244244136125
    Austria44391367
    Belgium-Luxemburg7,6727,6742,3112,247
    Bulgaria19619611
    Czechoslovakia1,7451,745439429
    Denmark516516410406
    Finland194194367358
    France20,31420,3202,0911,957
    Germany, East13213210398
    German Federal Republic10,60810,6337,7687,528
    Greece38438433
    Italy7,5487,5521,8451,744
    Netherlands4,1534,1793,3533,359
    Norway109109678656
    Poland2,3762,37655
    Portugal534534168162
    Rumania....
    Russia (U.S.S.R.)2,5112,5114210
    Spain1717163128
    Sweden8108111,9871,937
    Switzerland28292,3332,179
    Turkey36363926
    Yugoslavia22022042
    Burma13813811
    China2,3352,335433229
    Indonesia882,3491,264
    Iran772,0422,021
    Iraq25142
    Israel992421
    Japan8,8898,8937,1847,096
    Philippines6156158273
    Saudi Arabia....985985
    Thailand54546262
    Algeria5..
    Ethiopia....4036
    Egypt25625642
    Morocco9931
    Mozambique626211
    Brazil8136
    Chile444443
    Haiti1212
    Mexico116116200179
    Netherlands Antilles261274925925
    Panama Canal Zone38381
    Panama Republic291291..4
    Peru628628240240
    United States of America38,24738,48026,20226,038
    Venezuela4984981,2421,222
    American Samoa136136
    Guam6767
    Hawaii1,0741,0782930
    French Oceania....242242
    Society Islands12214999
    Antarctic Regions..98
    Remaining countries235242359333
Totals, other countries114,462114,91567,47664,863
    Ships' stores86554
Grand totals299,791302,508251,811251,811

The next table shows the values of New Zealand's trade with several groupings of countries during the last six years.

YearExports (Excluding Ships' Stores)ImportsExports (Excluding Ships' Stores)Imports
According to Country of OriginAccording to Country of PurchaseAccording to Country of OriginAccording to Country of Purchase

* Belgium, Luxemburg, France, German Federal Republic, Italy, and Netherlands.

† United Kingdom, Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, and Switzerland.

£(thousand)
 Sterling AreaDollar Area
1955184,348189,051192,08120,36229,72028,651
1956195,372178,870181,53324,44024,21723,734
1957179,963198,648200,92927,64727,32126,658
1958157,239195,444197,64542,07223,33022,554
1959186,065151,017152,42948,20622,00321,536
1960183,850176,528179,55945,06735,97335,324
 EEC Countries*EFTA Countries
195541,86314,77714,109171,116143,740146,202
195644,16614,21713,751180,197131,068133,977
195750,57815,64815,153163,562140,760142,145
195835,42216,02015,746140,842138,436139,064
195942,32712,90912,629167,364102,406102,936
196050,35817,36816,834162,260115,562116,487

OVERSEAS EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS — Since the institution of exchange control in New Zealand it is possible through the records of the Reserve Bank, which administers exchange control, to give a detailed statement of the overseas exchange transactions of the country.

The first table shows, in summary form, figures relating to overseas exchange transactions for the last 11 years, for the quarter ended December 1958 and for each of the quarters of the three latest years. The figures relate to the whole of the New Zealand currency area, which includes the island territories and included Western Samoa up to the end of 1961.

 ReceiptsPaymentsSurplus (+) or Deficit (—
ExportsTotal (Including Other)ImportsGovernment Debt and Other ServicesOther PaymentsTotal
PrivateGovernment
 £N.Z.(thousand)
Calendar year —
    1951254,135276,134201,29318,91611,07828,790260,077+ 16,057
    1952216,133245,362200,06030,2908,21330,240268,803−23,441
    1953243,469266,318170,47327,06414,31528,297240,149+26,169
    1954221,154271,284217,64720,21217,22232,800287,880−16,596
    1955253,081294,105246,36220,68217,78635,812320,642−26,537
    1956282,112324,333229,68027,09812,85645,827315,462+ 8,871
    1957284,592328,584268,06830,50718,01244,175360,762−32,178
    1958273,822358,717240,04634,27720,55850,687345,568+ 13,149
    1959305,948343,825206,23622,73631,98860,983321,943+ 21,881
    1960299,939345,656255,84622,95828,81065,490373,104−27,448
    1961295,350387,123272,47924,39435,45371,429403,755−16,632
Quarter ended—
    1958—Dec61,96396,20661,3619,1938,12412,63391,310+ 4,895
    1959—Mar75,24184,04544,8614,6334,64311,49465,631+ 18,414
          Jun88,44798,07848,8116,2754,44622,35281,884+ 16,194
          Sep71,08080,95251,1236,4378,75413,11079,424+ 1,527
          Dec71,18080,75161,4415,39114,14514,02895,004−14,253
1960—Mar83,51293,29255,7326,1309,34613,80085,008+ 8,284
          Jun95,308104,50958,9204,4464,09617,63385,095+ 19,414
          Sep63,06374,10566,8934,9985,21516,60493,710−19,605
          Dec58,05673,75074,3017,38410,15317,453109,291−35,541
1961—Mar80,06992,53274,5747,9565,42516,296104,252−11,720
          Jun92,822111,50571,7465,2066,01619,246102,216+ 9,290
          Sep62,123100,54769,3525,42717,67118,147110,598−10,052
          Dec60,33682,54056,8065,8046,34217,73886,689− 4,151

The next table, also drawn from Reserve Bank statistics, gives summarised overseas exchange transactions with the United Kingdom and with the principal currency areas for recent periods.

The figures for export receipts and import payments recorded in these tables differ from the corresponding external trade figures as a result of (1) the different territorial coverage of the two sets of figures, (2) the lack of uniformity in the basis of valuation, particularly in imports, (3) the inclusion in the trade figures of “no-remittance” imports and similar movements of goods with no corresponding monetary transactions, and (4) the actual movements of goods and the corresponding monetary transactions occurring in different recording periods.

The table following brings out New Zealand's heavy annual deficit on transactions (particularly “invisibles”) with the sterling area, mainly United Kingdom and Australia, which is offset by a surplus on transactions with other currency areas.

The nature of the “invisibles” is apparent in the table on page 638.

Transactions With19601961
Six Months Jan-JunSix Months Jul-DecSix Months Jan-JunSix Months Jul-Dec
United Kingdom —£N.Z.(million)
    Receipts —
        Exports90.668.888.462.0
        Total100.883.0110.295.9
    Payments —
        Imports74.986.694.578.4
        Total99.1115.8120.6106.8
    Surplus (+) or deficit (—) —
        On current transactions+ 0.2−33.4−20.7−31.0
        On all transactions -+ 1.6−32.9−10.4−10.9
Sterling area (including United Kingdom) —
    Receipts —
        Exports100.977.499.171.0
        Total117.5100.8126.9110.5
    Payments —
        Imports97.0114.0121.7103.6
        Total131.6154.6160.3143.7
    Surplus (+) or deficit (—) —
        On current transactions−14.8−53.8−43.0−53.1
        On all transactions−14.2−53.8−33.4−33.2
Dollar area —
    Receipts
        Exports29.420.528.824.5
        Total31.423.331.645.0
    Payments—
        Imports18.325.523.320.7
        Total26.932.029.838.2
    Surplus (+) or deficit (—) on all transactions+4.4−8.8+ 1.8+6.8
European Economic Community countries and territories —
    Receipts —
        Exports34.015.728.017.7
        Total34.316.028.318.0
    Payments—
        Imports5.36.97.47.0
        Total6.28.18.38.1
    Surplus (+) or deficit (—) on all transactions+ 28.1+7.8+20.0+9.9
Grand totals (including other foreign countries)
    Receipts —
        Exports178.8121.2172.9122.5
        Total197.8147.9204.0183.1
    Payments —
        Imports125.2154.6159.6137.5
        Total170.1203.0206.5197.3
    Surplus (+) or deficit (—) on all transactions+27.7−55.2−2.4−14.2
ItemYear Ended 31 December
19601961
ReceiptsPaymentsReceiptsPayments
 £N.Z.(thousand)
Merchandise —
    Exports300,038295,413
    Licensed imports237,933242,815
    Decontrolled imports13,63225,173
    Government imports22,95824,394
    Other imports4,4474,659
Totals, merchandise300,038278,970295,413297,041
Transport —
    Freights, fares, ships' charters5,91113,4116,05513,594
Travel —
    Private and business (exclusive of fares)3,58912,9003,93814,932
Insurance —
    Insurance, reinsurance, other transfers1,6502,8801,0412,953
International investment income —
    Interest, dividends, and other private investment income6,64010,6895,09412,437
    Interest on Government and local authority loans —5,4175,308
Totals, international investment income6,64016,1075,09417,745
Government transactions —    
    Current expenditure by New Zealand Government overseas9,6599,063
    Current receipts by New Zealand Government and expenditure by other Governments in New Zealand2,6632,125
Totals, Government transactions2,6639,6592,1259,063
Miscellaneous current transactions —    
    Commissions, royalties, rebates, etc.1,3273,0921,4983,627
    Films and entertainments1,2201,224
Unilateral transfers (migrants' transfers, personal remittances, charitable, legacies, etc.)7,73810,9218,42611,119
Expenses of business firms1,0554,8089985,293
Other current transactions8411,3681,0731,611
Totals, miscellaneous current transactions10,96121,40811,99522,874
    Totals, current transactions331,451355,334325,662378,201
Capital transfers —    
    Private8,4454,71110,3546,378
    Government5,66412,42051,02819,175
    Local authority6391
Totals, capital transfers14,10917,77061,38225,554
Totals, capital transactions14,10917,77061,38225,554
Unidentified9679
Grand totals345,656373,104387,123403,755

INDEX NUMBERS OF VOLUME OF EXTERNAL TRADE — The series for exports of New Zealand produce are linked chain series. Up to the year 1949 the exports of each year were revalued at the unit values of the immediately preceding year and the aggregate so obtained (after imputing to the 2 per cent of items, for which quantities and consequently unit values were not available, price movements similar to the priced items) was compared with the recorded value in that (preceding) year. Each year's index was, therefore, a Laspeyre type index on base previous year. From 1950 on, aggregates were also calculated for immediately preceding years at the unit values of the latest year, which, compared with the recorded value in the latest year, gave a Paasche type index. The final index for the year was then obtained as the geometric mean of these two — i.e., a Fisher “Ideal” index — and in the table the successive annual movements are linked. The quarterly indices are similarly calculated on base previous year, but only a limited number of the more important commodity headings are used in the calculation. When the final indices for the year become available the quarterly indices are adjusted to accord with these; consequently, the indices for quarters are provisional.

The series for total exports includes an allowance for re-exports of imported goods. Since these are normally approximately 1 per cent of total exports and only became significant during the war years, the approximate volume movements are obtained by “deflating” the recorded values by the import price index as the best indicator available of price movements for these commodities. The two indices, exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports, are then combined by weighting by their relative values in 1960, which is the base period for the current series. The series on this base show some slight alterations from those published in earlier issues of the Yearbook.

The import volume index up to 1946 was calculated by revaluing each year's imports at 1937 unit values, assuming comparable price movements in the unpriced items as in the priced items. Thereafter a change was made to the calculation of each year on base previous year and the linking of these annual movements. Anterior year weights were used up to 1949 to give a Laspeyre type index. From 1950 on, a Fisher “Ideal” index has been obtained as the geometric mean of both anterior year and current year weighted indices. The quarterly indices, too, are calculated on base previous year, and, like the export series, are provisional until the calculation of the annual index. Currently, the items for which quantities are recorded (and consequently unit values obtained) represent approximately two-thirds of the total value of imports. Price movements are imputed to the remaining third on the basis of the price movements of items in the same statistical groupings.

The total exports and imports series are combined into the total trade series by weighting by their relative values in 1960, being the base period for the current combined series. Index numbers of volume of external trade for the latest eleven years are given below on the base: 1960 (= 1000). The figures given in this table cover calendar years only, but quarterly figures are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics and in the annual Report on and Analysis of External Trade Statistics. This also gives longer term series for calendar years and series for March and June years.

VOLUME INDEX NUMBERS OF EXTERNAL TRADE
Base: 1960 (= 1000)
Calendar YearExportsImportsTotal Trade
New Zealand ProduceTotal Exports
Dairy ProduceMeatWoolTotal
1950888708748759758732746
1951950611598673673816742
19521101852829884883915898
19531017746740794795691745
1954860846746794794913851
19559398457948338331051940
19561021893802884884958920
19579508498278798781034953
195810689128759379361003968
19591164937101110241024835933
19601000100010001000100010001000

IMPORT AND EXPORT PRICES AND TERMS OF TRADE — Descriptions of the index numbers of export and import prices compiled in New Zealand and of the terms of trade are given in Section 23, together with the index numbers.

MOVEMENT OF SPECIE — There is no mint in New Zealand and all new coin is imported from the Royal Mint in England. In Section 29 dealing with Banking and Currency is a description of the coinage in use in New Zealand. The movement of specie to and from New Zealand is recorded in the trade statistics, but the value is not included in the totals of merchandise exports and imports. All records of specie are at face value.

The following table shows exports and imports of specie stated at face value for each of the 11 years 1950–1960.

YearSpecie ImportedSpecie ExportedExcess of Specie Imports (+) or Exports (—)

* Provisional.

 £££
1950169,823514,455−344,632
1951250,108280,150− 30,042
195284,56726,943+ 57,624
1953107,1067,929+ 99,177
195421,3607,573+ 13,787
195543,72613,255+ 30,471
195612,0272,463+ 9,564
195748,93115,026+ 33,905
195897,577161,547− 63,970
195954,86438,823+ 16,041
1960*56,67936,984+ 19,695

IMPORT AND EXPORT CONTROL AND EXCHANGE ALLOCATION — A decline in overseas assets commenced during 1936–37 and continued steadily until 28 November 1938, when the net overseas assets of the New Zealand banking system stood at under £(N.Z.)8 million. This figure can be compared with an average of £(N.Z.)29 million in 1936.

To ensure that overseas debt services would be met and sufficient funds be available for essential imports, the Import Control Regulations 1938 and the Export Licences Regulations 1938 were issued by Orders in Council dated 5 December 1938. The Import Control Regulations were confirmed as valid by the Customs Acts Amendment Act 1939. The Import Control Regulations prohibited the import of goods except under a licence or an exemption (e.g., Government imports). The Export Licences Regulations provided (with minor exceptions) that an export licence must be obtained before goods could be exported. In addition the requirement of an export permit was introduced by the Export Prohibition Emergency Regulations 1939, which have since been replaced by the Export Prohibition Regulations 1953.

Export Control — Three classes of export licences are provided for, viz, particular, general, and purchaser's. The particular licence applies to an occasional shipment, the general licence is issued to exporters who make regular or frequent shipments, while the purchaser's licence applies to those cases where goods have been purchased in New Zealand for export and credits have been established from overseas funds (e.g., wool purchases). A condition of the issue of any export licence is that the overseas exchange earned must be sold to a New Zealand bank for New Zealand currency.

Whereas the purpose of the Export Licences Regulations is to ensure that all foreign exchange earned is sold to the New Zealand banking system, the aim of the Export Prohibition Regulations 1953 is to control the export of essential goods in short supply, of goods on which subsidies have been granted, and of goods shipped to strategic destinations.

Import Selection — The administration of the Import Control Regulations of 1938 is carried out by means of Import Licensing Schedules. The first four Schedules were for six-monthly periods and the first three were confidential to Government Departments. Since 1941 the Schedules have been issued for calendar years, with occasional extensions into the following year.

The items in the Import Licensing Schedules were originally divided into: basic items for which licences were allocated according to the applicant's import history in a base year; items subject to individual consideration (C); and items for which no licences were available (D). In the case of basic items there were differentiations between the sources of supply, with emphasis on sterling area countries, and several hard-currency countries were excluded from the allocation of basic licences.

Import licences are issued by the Customs Department which is advised by the Department of Industries and Commerce on the import of materials and machinery for existing or planned New Zealand manufacturing industries and on the import of goods of a kind made in New Zealand.

In the 1949 Schedule provision was made for token licences to allow old-established business connections with United Kingdom exporters to be maintained on a small scale in cases where no allocation for such items had been made. The amount of token licences was a percentage of 1938 imports from the United Kingdom.

In May 1950 the Government set up an Import Advisory Committee for the purpose of examining the import licensing system and recommending improvements in its administration. The activities of the committee resulted in the extension of import licences on sterling area countries to all non-scheduled countries commencing with the 1951 Schedule. Scheduled countries are those countries enumerated in the annual Import Licensing Schedule for which only individual licences, limited to the specific country, are issued.

The list of scheduled countries incorporated in the Import Licensing Schedule was reduced from time to time until by 1956 it comprised only the countries in the dollar area, Japan, and Korea.

Apart from the scheduled countries there was full equity from the import licensing point of view between all countries, thus enabling traders to buy from the best source within the non-scheduled countries.

The Import Advisory Committee, which was constituted the Board of Trade under the Board of Trade Act 1950 as from 1 December 1950, recommended to the Government a number of new departures from the usual set-up of the Import Schedule. The innovations were: the freeing of a large number of items from licensing if the goods were imported from non-scheduled countries; the introduction of world exemption items (“EE”); and the introduction of two categories of modified “D” items. These two categories were “SD” items which provided for licences for goods of a specific kind not made in New Zealand although similar and possibly competitive kinds may be manufactured in New Zealand; and “OD” items (opened “D”) which provided for limited imports of goods (especially clothing) of a kind manufactured in New Zealand to give the consumer a greater variety of goods and to introduce some overseas competition in price and quality in fields previously reserved for domestic industries.

In May 1950, as a further liberalisation of import licensing, the Government made provision for the issue of no-remittance licences which could be financed out of the applicant's own overseas funds. As no limit was placed on the nature or extent of imports that could be made, nor of the funds to be used, abuses soon became apparent and it was necessary to amend the scheme. A limitation was placed on the type of overseas funds which could be used and the amended scheme applied in general only to imports required by private individuals for their own use and not for purposes of resale.

A relaxation of New Zealand's import policy towards Japan was introduced in 1954 and this was continued in subsequent years until in 1958 a trade agreement was completed removing Japan from the list of scheduled countries.

As the sterling area's gold and dollar reserves improved the policy for imports from the dollar area was relaxed. The dollar countries also benefited from the increase in the number of exemption items.

The 1958 Import Licensing Schedule was initially released in August 1957 but, because of New Zealand's balance of payments crisis, the Government found it necessary to withdraw this Schedule and issue a new one which restored import control on virtually all private imports, the main exceptions being passengers' effects and official supplies for diplomatic representatives. The new 1958 Schedule operated from 1 January 1958. Provision was made for goods that had been ordered under items previously exempt and shipped from the country of export to New Zealand not later than 31 December 1957. However, all licences for 1958 imports issued up to that time were revoked and licences were issued in accordance with the new Schedule. Any goods imported against the old 1958 licence and shipped to New Zealand from the country of export not later than 31 December 1957 were a charge against the new licences. All goods ordered overseas but not shipped before 1 January 1958, whether formerly exempt or not, were subject to the new 1958 allocation and importers were required to ensure that provision for them was made under their new licences.

An important change in the new Schedule was that it included all tariff items. The allocations for items were based on 1956 imports but some items were given a “B” category (or “B” plus percentage classification) and these allocations were related to the old 1958 Schedule provision. Other categories were the “C” (individual consideration) and “D” (no allocation), but the “E” (exempt) and “EE” (world exempt) categories were cancelled. It was also necessary to withdraw the scheme for token imports. However, a new category “A” was introduced under which licences were granted for imports from non-scheduled countries up to the full value sought.

Because of the further deterioration of New Zealand's balance of payments, the 1959 Schedule provided for lower imports than in 1958. One feature of the Schedule was the reintroduction of “global” licences, which could be used for imports from any source, for all items except a limited number designated “M”. Licences for “M” items were available for non-scheduled countries only. However, it was later decided to issue licences for scheduled countries on the same basis as that which applied to the same goods from other countries.

Towards the end of 1958 there was a considerable improvement in the overseas prices received for New Zealand's exports. This rise continued in 1959 and enabled the Government to make additional funds available for imports. Two major relaxations in April 1959 and June 1959 greatly extended the 1959 provision for imports.

The improvement in New Zealand's overseas reserves was reflected in the 1960 Import Licensing Schedule. The 1960 Schedule provided for a much higher value of imports than in 1959 and introduced several new features in licensing procedures. These new departures were aimed at giving the maximum flexibility to importers while retaining those minimum restrictions which were necessary for the effective protection of the balance of payments.

The 1960 Schedule had an increased number of basic allocations, a total of 401 items being in this category. The basis was mainly the value of 1959 licences, although in several cases other bases were used. Many items which were previously considered individual were made basic to let the importer know his entitlement as soon as possible, so eliminating delays in dealing with applications for licences.

The exemption of items from import licensing was reintroduced. Although the number of items is not large, their import value amounts to a considerable sum. The items are: raw sugar, crude oil, motor spirits, certain bulk oils (kerosene and lubricating oils), explosives, crude sulphur in bulk, and manures. These items were particularly suited for exemption as they are essential, of major value, and are imported by relatively few firms so that actual and likely expenditure can be readily ascertained.

The token licence provision which had been cancelled because of the critical circumstances at the beginning of 1958 was reintroduced in a new form. Over a wide range of items, for which no other allocation had been made, token licences were available for imports from any source to the extent of 10 per cent of the value of imports of the same goods from any source in 1956. For a few items which were severely restricted in 1956 the basis was 100 per cent of the value of 1956 licences. The token licence procedure permitted overseas suppliers and their New Zealand customers to maintain trading contact; it also introduced variety and kept overseas standards before manufacturers and consumers.

The most important new features of the Schedule were the replacement licence (“R”) scheme and the industry group scheme. The replacement scheme permitted an importer to obtain his genuine import needs of an item. (In 1960 an importer was entitled to an initial licence representing 50 per cent of the value of his normal 1959 licence for the “R” items. Further licences were issued up to the ceiling of 150 per cent in replacement of the value of actual imports made under his 1960 licence.) The “R” system applied also to new importers.

The application of “global” licences introduced in the 1959 Schedule was extended in 1960 so that the only goods remaining subject to the “M” limitation were motor vehicles (excluding spare parts). For this item the allocation for “scheduled” countries is the same as for “non-scheduled” countries.

The 1961 Import Licensing Schedule, released in September 1960, provided for another easing of the import licensing allocations. The number of “Replacement” (“R”) and “A” items — that is, items for which licences were issued as applied for — was increased and the initial entitlement to “R” licences raised from 50 to 100 per cent. The number of “R” items stood at 206 and that of “A” items at 63. It was estimated that 55 per cent of private imports was either exempt from import licensing or subject to the “R” or “A” allocations which made licences available to regular or prospective new importers.

A fall in export receipts, particularly from dairy produce, and a large increase in private imports forced the Government to adopt more restrictive measures in 1961. In April 1961 the replacement (“R”) scheme was suspended and the goods previously classed “R” were reclassified either as “C” (individual consideration) or “D” (no allocation provided). For goods shipped before 13 April 1961 under an “R” licence or an “R” entitlement, special replacement licences were authorised. Similar provisions applied to cases of orders placed and confirmed before 13 April 1961. The previous provision allowing new importers to obtain licences under the “R” scheme was withdrawn. The “A” category (licences granted to the extent applied for) was abolished in June 1961.

The qualifying date for the use of overseas funds for personal imports, mainly of motorcars, was advanced from 18 November 1953 to 31 December 1958.

In June 1961 two major decisions were taken to reduce imports to the level of lower export earnings. The 1961 licences were spread over an 18 months' period to 30 June 1962 and a limited Supplementary Schedule was introduced for the first half of 1962 to cover urgent needs beyond the 1961 entitlements. The Supplementary Schedule provided for a reduction of £50 million on current import levels.

While the exempt items of the 1961 Schedule were continued in the Supplementary Schedule, the “A” and “R” category remained cancelled, token licences were eliminated, and the number of items without allocation (“D”) or subject to individual consideration (“C”) was greatly increased.

Where importers had received 1961 licences for items previously designated “R” in the 1961 Schedule to a value greater than 100 per cent of 1960 licences, provision was made for the excess to be deducted from any entitlement for such goods appearing in the 1961 Supplementary Schedule.

Import Licensing Schedules now apply to the 12 months ending 30 June, the first Schedule applying to the period from 1 July 1962 to 30 June 1963. This Schedule issued in March 1962 provided for private imports at a level of about £250 million and represented a considerable easing in relation to the supplementary period in the first half of 1962. The Government announced that it was prepared to borrow overseas to maintain imports at the announced level if it became necessary. In general the provision made for essential raw-material imports was expected to allow manufacturers to maintain actual usage at a level consistent with that for 1960. The Schedule was based on the form of the new Customs Tariff which came into force on 1 July 1962. A new “A” category was introduced to ensure continuity of supply while avoiding any undue build-up of stocks for a limited number of licence items. The token licence scheme was discontinued.

For imports exempt from licensing (raw sugar, crude oil, motor spirits, certain bulk oils, explosives, crude sulphur in bulk, and manure) trading banks do not have to refer to the Reserve Bank for an exchange allocation.

Section 29 on Banking and Currency contains detailed information on the exchange allocation system.

BOARD OF TRADE — In May 1950 an Import Advisory Committee was established to examine questions relating to import control and associated matters and to make recommendations thereon to the Minister of Customs. The committee comprised a chairman and three members. As a result of the committee's recommendations, many items were exempted from import licensing on non-scheduled countries and a number of reforms were made in the import licensing system.

In December 1950 the Board of Trade Act 1950 was passed. This Act provided for the establishment of a Board of Trade to consist of not more than four members. From 1950 until November 1957 the membership of the Board comprised a chairman and two other members, each of whom had been a member of the Import Advisory Committee. A fourth member was appointed to the Board in November 1957. Since July 1959, however, the Board has consisted of a chairman and two members. Members are appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Customs for a term of three years and may from time to time be reappointed. The Board has the powers of a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908, and may hold public inquiries and summon persons to give evidence.

The Board's principal function is to make recommendations, within the scope of the legislation, to the Minister of Customs, but it may also, when requested by the Minister of Customs, make recommendations to other Ministers. The advisory functions of the Board include the economic aspects of such matters as the rates of customs duties and the general effect of the operation of the Tariff; the maintenance and expansion of existing industries and the development of new industries; the administration of the licensing of imports and the licensing of exports (except in relation to agricultural or pastoral products) and applications and appeals relating thereto; international trade agreements and conferences; and the marketing and distribution of products and the obtaining of raw materials and other goods for use in industry, except as may be specially provided in any other Act in respect of any particular industry or product.

As a result of the Board's recommendations, many additional items, covering a wide field, were removed from import licensing, and control was also relaxed on some other items. Prior to making its recommendations, the Board considered whether additional tariff protection was required and in some cases the tariff was increased.

An important part of the functions of the Import Advisory Committee, and then of the Board of Trade in relation to import licensing, concerned motor vehicles.

On 21 March 1956 Government informed the Board that it should undertake a general review of the Customs Tariff in place of the individual industry-by-industry inquiries and that, until completed, this would be the Board's major work. For the duration of the review, the then Comptroller of Customs would be associated with the Board. The terms of reference for the general review were as follows: “To inquire into the Customs Tariff of New Zealand and to recommend for consideration of the Government any alterations therein having regard to existing trade agreements to which New Zealand is a party; to the general financial, economic, and industrial conditions in, and requirements of, New Zealand; and to the interests of the primary and manufacturing industries, and of consumers.”

The Board was occupied principally on the review throughout the remainder of 1956 and 1957, its report being made on 29 November 1957. Changes made in the Customs Tariff in July 1960, and a completely new Tariff which came into force on 1 July 1962, generally reflected the recommendations of the Board in that report, not only as to rates of duty but also as to abolition of primage duty and surtax and the charging of duty on current domestic value without the addition of 10 per cent. The new Tariff is classified according to the revised Standard International Trade Classification.

In July 1958 the Board, on the request of Government, undertook an investigation into the supply of building materials used in New Zealand, with a view principally to reducing the quantity and value of imports of these materials, to encouraging the use of locally produced materials, and to reducing the costs of building.

From 1958 to 1961, following appropriate inquiries, the Board has made recommendations to the Minister of Customs upon a number of Tariff matters, the availability of supplies of motor vehicle spare parts, and upon the practicability of instituting a system of recording forward commitments of exchange for imports. In addition the Board has examined and made recommendations on import licensing appeals and on certain import licensing allocations which have been referred to it by the Minister of Customs.

The Tariff and Development Board Act 1961 provides for replacement of the Board of Trade by a Tariff and Development Board. The new Board is to consist of not less than four and not more than six members including a chairman and deputy chairman. The Board has the functions, when so requested by the Minister of Customs or the Minister of Industries and Commerce or the Minister of Overseas Trade, to inquire into and report on any of the following matters, with such recommendations as it thinks fit:

  1. The desirability of new, increased, or reduced Customs duties, or of exemptions from such duties:

  2. The general effect of the operation of the Tariff on the trade and commerce and the farming, manufacturing, and distributing industries of New Zealand and also on the interests of consumers:

  3. The desirability of providing or continuing to provide assistance, whether by means of subsidies, grants, bounties, Tariff concessions or preferences, or otherwise, for the protection and encouragement of any New Zealand industry or for the development of New Zealand's overseas trade:

  4. The relationship between the rates of Customs duties on raw materials and those on finished or partly finished products:

  5. Any matter relating to the licensing of imports, including any appeal against a decision to decline, in whole or in part, any application for an import licence:

  6. Any matter relating to the application of Customs duty under any item of the Tariff, or to the granting of concessions as provided for in the Tariff or in the Customs Acts:

  7. Any other matter affecting the protection or development of industry or the development of overseas trade, whether by means of the Tariff or otherwise.

The Board may also from time to time, of its own motion, inquire into and make recommendations to any of the said Ministers on any matter of policy specified above.

TRADE COMMISSIONER SERVICE — Facilities for the promotion of overseas trade are provided by the Department of Industries and Commerce through the service of Trade Commissioners, who are stationed in 15 posts-Accra, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, London, Melbourne, Montreal, New Delhi, New York, San Francisco, Singapore, Sydney, Tokyo, Trinidad, Vancouver, and Washington. While this representation is modest in comparison with other countries, it reflects the country's growing interest in the desirability of diversifying export markets. This is further exemplified by the fact that eight posts have been established in the last six years: New York and Singapore in 1956, Trinidad in 1958, San Francisco and Kuala Lumpur in 1959, Hong Kong in 1960, and Accra and Vancouver in 1962. In addition, TEAL, New Zealand's international airline, agreed at the end of 1961 to its managers in Fiji and Tahiti acting as trade correspondents of the Department of Industries and Commerce. In most cases Trade Commissioners have appropriate diplomatic or consular status in the countries to which they are accredited.

While the selling of goods in overseas markets is basically the responsibility of New Zealand exporters, the Trade Commissioner can be of considerable help in conducting market surveys and supplying information on import and exchange restrictions, Customs duty, sales tax, normal sources of supply (local production and imported), marketing methods, freight rates, statutory or customary requirements for packing, labelling, etc., and reliable importers in his territory. He may also assist New Zealand importers to locate new sources of supply of essential commodities. New Zealand businessmen travelling overseas may be saved much time and trouble by enlisting the services of the Trade Commissioner, whose knowledge of local conditions and whose connections with businessmen and Government officials in his territory enable him to give valuable advice. His task is made easier if he is given adequate notice of the visit.

The Trade Commissioner keeps a careful witch on the pattern of New Zealand trade with his territory and reports on significant changes. Where imports from New Zealand are affected, for example, by a new interpretation of an agricultural inspection regulation, or by the imposition of import restrictions, the Trade Commissioner is often called upon to make representations at the official level.

Trade Commissioners are also engaged in numerous other activities, some of which are: representing New Zealand at international conferences, reporting on economic and industrial developments in their territories, acting on behalf of Government Departments in the procurement of stores, payment of accounts, etc., and maintaining liaison where they are stationed with business and Government circles.

Business men may write for information direct to the New Zealand Trade Commissioner in the country concerned but, where convenient, it is preferred that requests be made through the Secretary, Department of Industries and Commerce, Wellington, who is often able to give preliminary advice and assistance.

Overseas representatives are listed in Section 41, Official.

22 B — EXPORTS

GENERAL — In New Zealand the Customs Department requires for every package exported a declared statement of the contents, value, and destination, and the export statistics are compiled from the analysis and totals of these statements.

Exports are valued in New Zealand currency “free on board at the port of shipment”, except re-exports ex bonded warehouse or under drawback of duty, which are recorded at the original import values. Where goods are not sold till arrival at their destination, values are assessed at current prices at time of shipment. Meat and dairy-produce exports are valued like other commodities, on the basis of overseas realisation, not on the basis of the prices payable to producers under the internal purchasing procedures. Wool acquired under the wartime appraisal scheme and subsequently exported to be auctioned overseas was valued on export at appraisal prices, not ruling prices at the time of export.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as practicable, but it is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in the country of destination. The trade records distinguish between exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports of imported goods.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXPORTS — The table following gives merchandise exports (i.e., excluding specie) for the latest 11 years for the four main commodity groups.

YearDairy ProduceMeatWoolHides, Skins, and PeltsTotal Merchandise Exports*

* Including other commodities, among them uncoined gold and silver.

† Provisional.

£(thousand)
195054,61232,30274,6539,996183,752
195163,32431,302128,17612,862248,127
195279,85650,44581,9989,949240,561
195377,68447,82684,59810,692235,860
195466,79859,55688,43710,449244,466
195570,42368,19093,8879,223259,289
195682,22371,07991,53210,606277,483
195766,29270,706105,95910,117276,569
195858,50279,51880,0378,317250,173
195988,51476,86989,64313,254293,659
196078,85381,168102,32013,291302,508

The commodity groups shown above normally account for more than 90 per cent of the total value of merchandise exports.

The relative importance of dairy produce, meat, and wool as the main individual constituents of New Zealand's export trade has varied considerably, as is seen from the figures in the preceding table. In the preceding subsection is set out a table of volume index numbers for these commodities. A table showing the export price index numbers and terms of trade is given in Section 23, Prices.

New Zealand's reliance upon grassland farming for her exports is brought out by the figures in the next table showing total exports of pastoral products and the percentage which they represent of the total exports of New Zealand produce.

EXPORTS OF PASTORAL PRODUCTS
YearValuePercentage*

* Of total exports of New Zealand produce.

† Provisional.

 £(000) 
193953,74493.6
194069,05794.6
194162,23893.0
194274,36192.3
194361,02986.9
194458,94882.2
194568,11287.0
194689,58289.3
1947120,34294.2
1948137,75094.0
1949138,70295.0
1950174,39995.7
1951239,13797.1
1952228,17995.7
1953223,74695.8
1954229,20494.6
1955246,09395.7
1956259,66794.4
1957257,67693.9
1958231,28393.3
1959273,27193.9
1960280,63993.6

Of exports other than pastoral the principal ones of economic significance are: frozen fish and crayfish tails and fish-liver oils; timber, mainly of exotic species, both sawn and in logs, and timber manufactures such as wood pulp and paper; fresh apples, canned and frozen vegetables, peas, and grass and clover seed. The export of scrap metal, which has been of importance in recent years, has been prohibited since January 1961.

Quantity figures of exports of the principal items of New Zealand produce are next given for the years 1958 to 1960, while the Statistical Summary, towards the end of the book, shows the figures for some of the more important commodities for the last 50 years. For some purposes, especially for comparisons between recent and more remote years, quantities are preferable to values, since the latter are affected by price variations.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)195819591960*

* Provisional.

Mining products —    
    Coal(ton)5807,14018,200
    Pumice(cwt)21,63222,96819,900
    Gold(oz)19,39230,33326,000
    Scheelite(ton)1114..
    Cement(cwt)1401,355
Fishery products —    
    Fish, fresh and frozen(cwt)47,08458,23568,400
    Fish, other(cwt)597729600
    Crayfish(cwt)23,30121,20025,200
    Whale oil(gal)445,725264,892905,800
    Fish oils and fish-liver oils(gal)10,4377,7639,100
Forest products —    
    Kauri gum(ton)18081100
    Timber —    
        Logs, radiata pine(cu. ft.)1,137,7125,012,7155,568,200
        Sawn(sup. ft.)35,194,07046,542,86443,956,900
        For cases in shooks(sup. ft.)4,881,4964,540,2413,617,800
    Wood pulp(ton)68,96376,82670,100
    Newsprint(cwt)834,743873,244988,300
    Building board(sq. ft.)1,133,0001,952,162948,100
    Plywood(sq. ft.)17,45335,98536,000
Pastoral products—    
    Butter(cwt)3,507,8443,859,5643,141,000
    Casein(cwt)401,286583,603540,100
    Cheese(cwt)1,788,5541,669,0441,588,200
    Milk, dried and condensed(cwt)1,060,6101,407,5881,206,300
    Sugar of milk(cwt)59,83893,43981,100
    Eggs—    
        In shell(doz)48,64655,83464,500
        Not in shell(lb)3,072385,7451,373,300
    Honey(lb)2,980,0691,493,439945,000
    Meat, frozen and chilled(cwt)8,108,0108,694,7809,340,400
    Meat, canned(cwt)68,86463,99172,000
    Meat extract(lb)369,233312,335339,300
    Other preserved meat(cwt)14,04014,5769,500
    Sausage casings(lb)7,371,6449,094,2689,410,000
    Liver meal(cwt)34,68238,78324,100
    Cattle hides(number)904,102880,424807,100
    Horse hides(number)9,6699,2945,500
    Calf skins(number)1,015,100963,1221,028,700
    Deer skins(number)53,68359,04653,200
    Opossum skins(number)291,290321,047446,400
    Sheep skins and pelts(number)20,593,51825,867,92227,223,900
    Hair(cwt)768594
    Wool(lb)456,927,692528,664,167521,487,000
    Inedible offals (including dried blood)(cwt)130,571142,844201,500
    Lard(cwt)14,13717,10215,400
    Edible tallow(cwt)225,801227,894203,400
    Edible stearine(cwt)13,67811,55120,100
    Inedible tallow(ton)39,97042,16449,100
    Neatsfoot oil(gal)90,986127,228115,800
    Live cattle(number)1,4621,025
    Live sheep(number)8341,366100
    Live horses(number)354451500
Agricultural products—    
    Apples(lb)68,992,96070,483,88075,835,900
    Pears(lb)4,144,4956,270,360970,200
    Hops(lb)90,12133249,500
    Potatoes(ton)2,7862,7002,900
    Onions(ton)1,9693,0382,700
    Canned vegetables(lb)6,619,7054,379,671987,000
    Frozen vegetables(cwt)37,17841,90235,700
    Peas, food(cental)142,851149,731175,500
    Peas, seed(cental)177,337151,700152,200
    Seeds, grass and clover(cwt)148,23091,221128,300
    Linen flax(cwt)1334181,800
Miscellaneous—    
    Biscuits(cwt)3,0401,6011,400
    Ale, beer, stout(gal)256,553170,682177,600
    Sugar(cwt)3,1232,0462,700
    Cigarettes(lb)16,61617,90618,000
    Cut tobacco(lb)212,048252,224253,000
    Textile waste(lb)1,983,7312,415,6862,085,100
    Soaps(lb)1,416,6421,425,0171,632,500
    Scrap metal(ton)64,74955,89959,400
    Chamois leather(sq. ft)221,938227,016220,900

The values of the principal exports are given in the following table.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)195819591960*

* Provisional.

Mining products—£££
    Coal3,51128,32679,000
    Pumice11,69812,24211,900
    Gold232,364364,479311,400
    Scheelite2,7613,1295,900
    Cement106925
Fishery products—   
    Fish, fresh and frozen428,097493,309549,600
    Fish, other16,45419,68220,300
    Fish soups and other products1,163937600
    Crayfish811,195739,533883,600
    Whale oil110,04763,942222,400
    Fish oils and fish-liver oils42,41844,38234,000
Forest products—   
    Kauri gum20,88513,08517,900
    Timber—   
        Logs, radiata pine133,462535,450558,700
        Sawn1,032,1311,424,1101,343,000
        For cases in shooks272,636245,653191,800
    Wood pulp2,725,0192,920,7282,808,900
    Newsprint2,631,8552,716,4893,080,200
    Other paper and paper board253,298363,475198,500
    Building board19,11932,48916,700
    Plywood1,0712,0592,300
Pastoral products—   
    Butter38,850,36255,807,90150,135,000
    Casein3,109,6334,402,8304,214,000
    Cheese12,401,60922,103,10818,557,700
    Milk, dried and condensed3,806,1825,728,9785,532,300
    Sugar of milk322,467457,891397,500
    Other dairy produce11,46613,53816,500
    Eggs—   
        In shell12,00111,67213,600
        Not in shell50035,339118,900
    Honey173,73480,59454,000
    Meat, frozen and chilled73,489,81871,250,49676,166,700
    Meat, canned1,257,9251,248,2941,265,400
    Meat extract114,99963,125103,200
    Other preserved meat173,424174,912148,500
    Sausage casings4,481,6494,131,9243,484,400
    Liver meal83,297132,15663,100
    Cattle hides2,148,8503,162,7712,455,800
    Horse hides17,80825,49014,600
    Calf skins843,6031,304,829912,300
    Deer skins45,53461,69961,200
    Opossum skins94,474117,767163,900
    Sheep skins and pelts5,085,4508,457,2719,528,800
    Hair20,36613,620
    Wool80,036,77789,643,287102,319,900
    Inedible offals (including dried blood)417,408556,625851,800
    Lard84,40798,25187,900
    Edible tallow784,579790,922566,000
    Edible stearine54,42445,95358,700
    Inedible tallow2,628,9252,492,1442,355,100
    Neatsfoot oil32,83750,62951,700
    Live cattle108,70132,8381,800
    Live sheep49,58625,67729,600
    Live horses273,856301,953430,300
Agricultural products—   
    Apples2,159,0912,204,5562,371,800
    Pears130,249196,42431,100
    Hops22,60711211,200
    Potatoes62,97066,90977,500
    Onions47,43099,89093,300
    Canned vegetables315,335216,38553,400
    Frozen vegetables311,533399,600279,500
    Peas, food301,712306,030331,300
    Peas, seed525,793426,409445,300
    Seeds, grass and clover1,517,710988,2711,679,400
    Other seeds44,94445,79233,600
    Linen flax6002,0875,400
Miscellaneous—   
    Biscuits29,65819,73820,400
    Ale, beer, stout82,37060,67363,500
    Sugar10,8436,8748,600
    Soups826947100
    Infant and invalid food (cereal)27,43919,14657,500
    Cigarettes17,18417,76018,800
    Cut tobacco57,31390,528126,500
    Textile waste139,109178,888152,600
    Soaps51,94153,28859,900
    Scrap metal897,738695,025819,600
    Dairy machinery71,43888,89499,200
    Chamois leather23,73228,79226,600
    Vitamins and concentrates30,14019,1852,200
    Washing machines25,9808,14719,900
Other New Zealand produce1,312,5311,908,8092,406,500
Totals, New Zealand produce247,984,217290,998,067299,791,400

In the two preceding tables commodities are grouped according to the sector of origin. However, for general statistical purposes New Zealand has, since 1955, used the Standard International Trade Classification when classifying the import and export trade of New Zealand. In the following tables the export trade is classified into the sections and divisions of this international classification.

The next table gives such information for the years 1958–60.

Exports — Section and Division195819591960*

* Provisional

Section 0. Food£(thousand)
    Div. 00 Live animals chiefly for food1606152
    Div. 01 Meat and meat preparations79,51976,86981,168
    Div. 02 Dairy produce, eggs, and honey55,25783,78274,429
    Div. 03 Fish and fish preparations1,2601,2561,454
    Div. 04 Cereals and cereal preparations654784
    Div. 05 Fruits and vegetables3,4013,5303,426
    Div. 06 Sugar and sugar preparations340472411
    Div. 07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof427
    Div. 08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including unmilled cereals)197350275
    Div. 09 Miscellaneous food preparations935929684
Totals, Section 0141,138167,297161,990
Section 1. Beverages and Tobacco   
    Div. 11 Beverages1098894
    Div. 12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures100134168
Totals, Section 1209222262
Section 2. Crude Materials, Inedible, Except Fuels   
    Div. 21 Hides, skins, and fur skins, undressed8,31813,25413,291
    Div. 22 Oil seeds, oil nuts, and kernels136
    Div. 23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed
    Div. 24 Wood, lumber, and cork1,1661,9601,902
    Div. 25 Pulp and waste paper2,7352,9432,855
    Div. 26 Textile fibres (not manufactured into yarn, thread, or fabrics and waste)80,22789,926102,565
    Div. 27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals, excluding coal, petroleum, and precious stones809724
    Div. 28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap900698826
    Div. 29 Animal and vegetable crude materials, inedible, n.e.i.2,6462,0763,195
Totals, Section 296,072110,967124,664
Section 3. Mineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related Materials   
    Div. 31 Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials821840674
    Totals, Section 3821840674
Section 4. Animal and Vegetable Oils and Fats   
    Div. 41 Animal and vegetable oils (not essential oils), fats, greases, and derivatives2,8872,7202,752
Totals, Section 42,8872,7202,752
Section 5. Chemicals   
    Div. 51 Chemical elements and compounds5384120
    Div. 52 Mineral tar and crude chemicals from coal, petroleum, and natural gas1
    Div. 53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials303535
    Div. 54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products959473
    Div. 55 Essential oils and perfume materials, toilet, polishing, and cleansing preparations616473
    Div. 56 Fertilisers, manufactured326
    Div. 59 Explosives and miscellaneous chemical materials and products3,2514,6034,409
Totals, Section 53,4944,8814,717
Section 6. Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by Material   
    Div. 61 Leather, leather manufactures n.e.i., and dressed furs489870
    Div. 62 Rubber manufactures n.e.i.91123138
    Div. 63 Wood and cork manufactures (excluding furniture)305294217
    Div. 64 Paper, paperboard, and manufactures thereof2,9923,2123,625
    Div. 65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, and related products6581113
    Div. 66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures n.e.i.253335
    Div. 67 Silver, platinum, gems, and jewellery6154
    Div. 68 Base metals52179189
    Div. 69 Manufactures of metal416583599
Totals, Section 63,9994,6194,990
Section 7. Machinery and Transport Equipment   
    Div. 71 Machinery other than electric416591526
    Div. 72 Electric machinery, apparatus, and appliances138174171
    Div. 73 Transport equipment230372611
Totals, Section 77831,1361,308
Section 8. Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles   
    Div. 81 Prefabricated buildings, sanitary, plumbing, heating and lighting fixtures, and fittings9717
    Div. 82 Furniture and fixtures7129
    Div. 83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar articles344
    Div. 84 Clothing72540
    Div. 85 Footwear326
    Div. 86 Professional, scientific, and controlling instruments; photographic and optical goods, watches, and clocks555856
    Div. 89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles n.e.i.103123151
Totals, Section 8188232283
Section 9. Miscellaneous Transactions and Commodities n.e.i.   
    Div. 92 Live animals, not for food278307462
    Div. 93 Returned goods and special transactions7328
    Div. 95 Unclassified goods under £10 in value637065
    Div. 99 Gold233365311
Totals, Section 9582744866
Grand totals, merchandise exports250,173293,659302,508

DESTINATION OF NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS — Since the 1850s the United Kingdom has been New Zealand's principal trading partner, replacing Australia, which took the bulk of the trade in the early days of settlement. The proportion of our exports going to the United Kingdom market in the years prior to the Second World War was between 70 and 80 per cent of the total value of all exports. With the growing diversification of our markets in recent years the proportion of New Zealand's exports going to this market has fallen and by 1960 represented only 53 per cent of the total value of all exports.

Trade with the Commonwealth countries has always greatly exceeded that with foreign countries. During recent years, however, there has been a decline in the proportion of the export trade going to Commonwealth countries, occasioned mainly by the export of wool to European countries and meat to the United States of America. In 1948 Commonwealth countries took 80 per cent of the total exports. By 1960 this proportion had fallen to 62 per cent.

In recent years trade has been recorded with over 100 countries each year.

The principal destinations of New Zealand's exports of merchandise (including re-exports) during the last 21 years are given in the table below. The nomenclature used in this and subsequent tables in regard to the countries of destination refers generally to status and territories in the years indicated and not necessarily to the present position.

YearUnited KingdomCanadaAustraliaFranceGerman Federal RepublicUnited States of AmericaOther Countries*Total Merchandise Exports

* Including ships' stores.

† Provisional.

 £(thousand)
194064,1291,7092,1597172,8262,20173,741
194152,3962,8222,4005,1914,67167,479
194260,4713,6172,7185,9908,48981,285
194346,3684,5352,8496,38511,72571,863
194455,4271,9403,0935,06312,26577,787
194558,6432,2514,195477,9858,51081,631
194670,9242,8033,6313,4651,6399,7169,124101,302
194798,6983,0604,0964,447788,17410,866129,420
1948107,9152,9913,9548,3082,7257,27314,655147,821
1949107,7062,1963,7487,6582,9945,49217,488147,281
1950121,6853,5574,7798,0775,93918,38721,327183,752
1951142,3628,5655,11317,8548,83628,85936,538248,127
1952156,4855,2123,93010,5595,22727,26731,880240,561
1953158,0472,9584,65515,6846,08418,37930,053235,860
1954163,3002,9976,44514,67510,49113,89632,663244,466
1955169,6574,2306,69215,28712,68815,10035,635259,289
1956178,7564,0268,43116,76110,40319,50839,598277,483
1957162,1314,43510,11321,69712,26021,73044,203276,569
1958139,1054,06610,26614,6807,02836,44938,579250,173
1959165,6573,05410,94417,2439,69343,05744,011293,659
1960160,2573,64513,47720,32010,63338,48055,696302,508

The statistics quoted in the foregoing table indicate the destination of New Zealand exports as recorded by the Customs Department. In some instances the ultimate destination of exports is not known at the time of export, such goods being entered as exported to the country to which they are being shipped. This applies more particularly to wool, considerable quantities of which are shipped to the United Kingdom, and, in normal times subsequently re-exported to the Continent. It should be observed, however, that in all instances where the final destination is known at the time of export, the exports are credited to that destination in the New Zealand trade statistics. It is possible, of course, that the destination of goods may be changed while in transit; and this, in fact, happens occasionally. In such cases the actual destination will be different from that to which the goods have been credited in the statistics; however it is quite impossible to keep a record of all movements of this nature.

A further point of some importance is the fact that an appreciable quantity of wool is exported on an “optional” basis — United Kingdom, option Continent. In these cases, however, subsequent information is received by the Customs Department as to the actual destination of the goods, and the entries are amended.

It will be realised, therefore, that the actual final destinations of New Zealand exports may vary appreciably from the classification shown in the table. For these reasons it is probable that exports to Continental countries are normally somewhat higher than the figures indicate; conversely, exports to the United Kingdom for retention in that country are lower than the totals quoted in the table.

In the following table figures are given for the value of New Zealand's export trade to European countries during the period 1956–60, together with figures to show the importance of wool as the chief commodity in the trade.

Country19561957195819591960*

* Provisional.

 £££££
Austria16,70348,9307,92232,4334,000
Belgium and Luxemburg5,726,0166,317,6414,501,7045,203,8857,674,000
Bulgaria163,18613,531166,106139,842196,000
Czechoslovakia1,775,771972,666987,7741,366,7571,745,000
Denmark438,685536,852526,152396,216516,000
Finland126,70362,64866,189175,639194,000
France16,761,13221,696,76214,679,70417,243,00320,320,000
German Federal Republic10,403,37912,259,6757,027,6079,692,77910,633,000
Germany, East1623,435132,000
Greece757,872225,701389,818322,340384,000
Hungary49111,35410094
Italy6,657,8126,217,7556,230,5256,007,5717,552,000
Netherlands4,617,4454,086,4872,982,4404,179,4324,179,000
Norway51,99153,30760,947158,781109,000
Poland2,209,6952,988,9842,527,5261,263,9882,376,000
Portugal77,344203,778384,668382,056534,000
Rumania93,10622,528
Russia (U.S.S.R.)2,048,6882,680,694687,816152,2792,511,000
Spain21,1817,6786,75680,53217,000
Sweden708,206511,182700,996697,393811,000
Switzerland147,96577,03155,92440,09229,000
Turkey25137,9392,46236,000
Yugoslavia10,92668,78381,334239,423220,000
Totals52,814,48459,041,43942,232,47547,780,43260,172,000
 Per Cent
Percentage of total New Zealand exports taken by European countries (value basis)19.0321.3516.8816.2719.89
 Value (£)
Value of wool exported to European countries39,152,90749,875,45534,815,61536,388,91649,217,160
 Per Cent
Percentage of wool exports to total exports to European countries (value basis)74.1384.4882.4476.1681.79
Percentage of total New Zealand wool exports taken by European countries (value basis)42.7847.0743.5040.5948.10

The table which follows shows for each of the last 11 years the percentage of total exports (excluding specie and ships' stores) taken by each of the principal countries trading with New Zealand.

Country19501951195219531954195519561957195819591960*

* Provisional.

 Per Cent
British Commonwealth—
    United Kingdom66.4457.5765.3367.2166.9865.5964.5858.7955.7856.5653.13
    India0.420.390.630.410.520.740.550.580.300.230.34
    Pakistan0.110.060.080.190.020.010.030.010.020.01
    Canada1.943.502.181.261.231.641.451.611.631.041.21
    Australia2.612.071.641.982.642.593.053.674.123.744.36
    Other1.191.382.192.252.422.242.322.092.732.902.85
Totals72.7164.9772.0573.3073.8172.8171.9566.7764.5764.4961.90
European Economic Community—
    Netherlands1.871.320.851.041.671.751.671.481.201.431.39
    Belgium and Luxemburg1.612.121.251.481.401.792.072.291.811.782.54
    France4.417.224.416.676.025.916.067.875.895.896.74
    German Federal Republic3.243.572.182.594.304.913.764.452.823.313.53
    Italy1.041.561.822.101.751.832.412.252.502.052.50
Totals12.1715.7910.5113.8815.1416.1915.9718.3414.2214.4616.70
Other countries—
    Poland0.852.961.241.540.931.040.801.081.010.430.79
    Russia (U.S.S.R.)0.560.501.210.840.740.970.280.050.83
    Egypt0.080.140.060.060.060.140.240.030.130.060.08
    Japan0.541.551.461.330.520.770.972.842.212.282.95
    United States of America10.0411.6711.387.825.705.847.057.8814.6114.7012.76
    Remaining countries3.052.423.302.072.632.372.282.092.973.533.99
Totals15.1219.2417.4412.8211.0511.0012.0814.8921.2121.0521.40

Exports to Each Country, 1958–60 — The table following shows exports (including re-exports, but excluding specie) according to the countries of destination. Reference should be made to remarks made earlier regarding re-exports of New Zealand produce from the United Kingdom.

Country195819591960*

* Provisional.

British Commonwealth Countries, Protected States, and Trust Territories£££
Europe—   
    United Kingdom139,105,325165,657,255160,257,000
    Cyprus4,8362,7779,000
    Gibraltar1,763
    Malta44225
Totals139,111,968165,660,257160,266,000
Asia—   
    Aden5,59512,77517,000
    Bahrain10,3404,000
    North Borneo2,1551,7233,000
    Ceylon177,036284,027461,000
    Hong Kong205,111390,368481,000
    India736,202686,6941,029,000
    Malaya319,280334,999428,000
    Pakistan35,97745,15837,000
    Singapore356,815454,972490,000
    Other6883,41118,000
Totals1,849,1992,214,1272,968,000
Africa   
    Gambia and Sierra Leone
    Ghana1,5481,15316,000
    Kenya and Uganda22,99940,082121,000
    Mauritius34,30947,06519,000
    Nigeria1,66454035,000
    Rhodesia-Nyasaland Federation257,996137,58999,000
    South Africa676,743922,426797,000
    Other1,5402,40811,000
Totals996,7991,151,2631,098,000
America—   
    Bahamas74,556132,81978,000
    Barbados276,429279,303226,000
    Bermuda147,764213,033193,000
    British Guiana75,800110,37467,000
    British Honduras4,8775,3264,000
    Canada4,065,9573,054,1913,645,000
    Falkland Islands3464211,000
    Jamaica1,232,1771,588,5881,564,000
    Leeward and Windward Islands67,37557,52773,000
    Trinidad and Tobago766,2011,180,6541,086,000
Totals6,711,4826,622,2366,937,000
Pacific—   
    Australia10,266,09710,944,00313,477,000
    Fiji1,039,9171,149,6661,080,000
    Gilbert and Ellice Islands43,93614,43027,000
    Nauru Island39,59052,96167,000
    New Hebrides4,2644,3754,000
    Norfolk Island13,1804,5455,000
    Papua and New Guinea2,0993,7805,000
    Pitcairn Island1,5361,8132,000
    Solomon Islands2,3311,2176,000
    Tonga190,238222,788304,000
    Western Samoa755,274823,145791,000
    Other2,0165421,000
Totals12,360,47813,223,26515,769,000
Antarctic—   
    Ross Dependency6,0391,000
Totals, British Commonwealth countries etc.161,035,965188,871,148187,039,000
Other Countries   
Europe—   
    Austria7,92232,4334,000
    Belgium and Luxemburg4,501,7045,203,8857,674,000
    Bulgaria166,106139,842196,000
    Czechoslovakia987,7741,366,7571,745,000
    Denmark526,152396,216516,000
    Finland66,189175,639194,000
    France and Monaco14,679,70417,243,00320,320,000
    Germany, East3,435132,000
    German Federal Republic7,027,6079,692,77910,633,000
    Greece389,818322,340384,000
    Hungary10094
    Ireland, Republic of166,724144,770244,000
    Italy and San Marino6,230,5256,007,5717,552,000
    Netherlands2,982,4404,179,4324,179,000
    Norway60,947158,781109,000
    Poland2,527,5261,263,9882,376,000
    Portugal384,668382,056534,000
    Rumania22,528
    Russia (U.S.S.R.)687,816152,2792,511,000
    Spain6,75680,53217,000
    Sweden700,996697,393811,000
    Switzerland and Liechtenstein55,92440,09229,000
    Turkey137,9392,46236,000
    Yugoslavia81,334239,423220,000
Totals42,399,19947,925,20260,416,000
Asia—   
    Burma104,624107,124138,000
    China977,9842,489,9062,335,000
    Formosa2,8355,55012,000
    Indonesia50,9403,0338,000
    Iraq1,6651002,000
    Israel151,8271,9279,000
    Japan5,513,9266,685,0418,893,000
    Korea, Republic of2,302
    Lebanon2,3384,2423,000
    Philippines212,363273,137615,000
    Saudi Arabia10,844415
    Syria9,2298,29624,000
    Thailand32,12338,23954,000
    Other582172,000
Totals7,070,4989,619,89412,265,000
Africa—   
    Algeria1,6427,509
    Congo5321,5141,000
    Egypt322,475172,888256,000
    Liberia1,506
    Morocco68,7859,000
    Mozambique51,72441,31362,000
    Sudan10,1055,3789,000
    Other5,000
Totals456,769228,602342,000
America—   
    Argentina2,4832712,000
    Brazil1,000——
    Chile9,46015,5004,000
    Colombia4,5955,0153,000
    Haiti9,44921,81312,000
    Mexico110,592116,878116,000
    Netherlands Antilles290,120271,489274,000
    Panama Republic224,972272,545291,000
    Panama Canal Zone118,15875,40538,000
    Peru94,940730,182628,000
    United States of America36,448,94843,057,37838,480,000
    Uruguay1,6026,8811,000
    Venezuela14,545201,040498,000
    Other1,2904,66013,000
Totals37,331,15444,780,05740,360,000
Pacific—   
    Guam18,10965,27667,000
    Hawaii720,465912,8251,078,000
    New Caledonia1,2372,5462,000
    Society Islands96,926169,702149,000
    French Oceania9,196792
    American Samoa121,007145,489136,000
    U.S. Pacific Trust Territories1,000
Totals966,9401,296,6301,434,000
Antarctic—   
    Foreign Antarctica141,242161,04798,000
Totals, other countries88,365,802104,011,432114,915,000
Ships' stores771,038776,074554,000
Totals, all merchandise exports250,172,805293,658,654302,508,000

Destination of Main Exports — The table which follows shows quantities and values of the principal exports of New Zealand produce sent to various destinations during the years 1958 and 1959. Details for each country to which goods are exported are shown in all cases where the trade was £10,000 or more in either of the two years included in the table.

Country to Which Exported19581959
QuantityValueQuantityValue
Wool (Greasy, Slipe, and Scoured)
 lb£lb£
United Kingdom171,115,37530,130,615178,675,88930,718,006
South Africa714,714147,900860,964187,644
India1,377,879276,778769,621152,024
Canada3,065,008626,0833,654,903668,788
Australia4,744,744795,9184,922,673846,320
Republic of Ireland203,23534,964335,33656,002
Belgium25,093,3563,905,04427,651,4614,352,053
Bulgaria778,254166,106788,219139,842
Rumania91,06222,528
Norway156,80038,58784,49418,876
Denmark2,077,205463,3271,517,748327,971
Finland112,84622,506208,22140,062
Poland11,412,6262,527,5265,739,0671,081,715
Portugal2,165,756368,0802,219,055364,241
German Federal Republic26,838,7585,110,28134,615,7226,111,435
Netherlands10,110,7891,703,65612,732,1302,153,916
France84,767,53214,128,51293,330,39315,457,811
Sweden2,389,970579,0482,433,548526,418
Switzerland129,08530,430116,59622,537
Italy21,851,1913,871,47825,829,8824,238,817
Czechoslovakia5,109,085987,6437,367,3231,337,843
Greece863,447196,031299,44258,240
Russia (U.S.S.R.)3,313,151687,816737,665152,279
Egypt1,189,949271,263669,646136,624
Morocco75,44813,373
Japan15,883,6683,056,98419,920,3513,380,110
China4,796,848929,74111,967,5262,246,921
Mexico576,852110,592567,811115,128
United States of America55,803,0388,813,26490,578,14414,735,062
Other countries120,02120,70370,33716,602
Totals456,927,69280,036,777528,664,16789,643,287
Frozen and Chilled Beef and Veal
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom257,3951,689,380147,1501,182,035
Malaya and Singapore1,71917,15636656
Bermuda1,75432,9161,51835,390
Bahamas4,52951,0195,88174,005
Barbados21,204160,40110,86093,202
Jamaica19,018142,45413,148122,130
Trinidad and Tobago21,434223,67217,190187,993
Canada81,959863,92867,903760,656
Fiji1,29620,5251,01217,301
Tonga9039,96183310,062
Western Samoa1,61916,2882,66929,882
Belgium1,81114,3061,0039,115
France2,04413,0602582,228
German Federal Republic8,05060,75315,684130,971
Greece5,07233,3021,72913,441
Italy35,482299,1262,71824,363
Netherlands7,71057,8284,83751,840
Panama Canal Zone8,32274,2115,34954,946
Israel23,945145,439
Philippines9,23193,5262,65626,514
Japan55,422307,78726,133209,875
Netherlands Antilles20,143206,29613,641163,139
United States of America1,680,59720,922,9411,370,57518,071,881
Venezuela11,973148,950
Guam1,62515,2075,56956,136
Hawaii38,468542,85339,305606,700
Society Islands1132,21227,571
American Samoa2,10922,8423,44243,589
Other countries2,52930,5881,77728,851
Totals2,315,39126,067,7781,777,06122,183,422
Frozen Lamb and Mutton
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom5,045,14440,380,9845,974,62041,161,316
Singapore7167,0032,96121,771
Barbados1,21511,5318416,465
Jamaica3,20422,5174,39525,612
Trinidad and Tobago5,11240,2128,77757,454
Bermuda3,25145,1392,61232,393
Canada141,3671,146,38355,557373,371
Fiji8,99650,57510,51853,526
Western Samoa3,55122,5275,29329,679
Belgium1,5175,3094,45814,341
Czechoslovakia9,84428,668
Greece44,160157,61697,346241,451
Netherlands8,32426,4349,29824,988
German Federal Republic2,0077,75924,92376,584
Sweden5,60633,545
Turkey37,174137,939
Japan2091,64765,208220,735
Saudi Arabia61810,84440411
Peru29,24987,091
United States of America67,987539,685110,837899,286
Hawaii3,91038,1034,25342,458
Other countries7,60558,02411,93077,439
Totals5,391,67342,743,7766,432,96043,475,039
Frozen Pork
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom57,000561,57480,791742,911
Aden5695,5891,17012,716
Hong Kong1,40315,2415,64760,011
Singapore2,60028,3055,89863,653
Canada1,32118,199
Jamaica2,38925,0532,41722,207
Trinidad and Tobago7,61484,93613,149138,175
Netherlands Antilles5485,9431,35515,172
Australia79410,3836,06575,347
Hawaii6117,3281,31914,767
Fiji1,05711,3081,27014,306
Belgium6,30668,2046,20760,397
Other countries96711,4351,50316,614
Totals83,179853,498126,7911,236,276
Other Frozen Meat
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom265,4713,475,478291,2103,863,499
Singapore1,56213,1008479,572
Fiji2,69531,8162,69231,706
Canada6667,28857013,022
Jamaica8,31353,78012,47094,417
Trinidad and Tobago5,76142,3817,01452,047
German Federal Republic3,01116,2173,95425,476
Australia2,75827,6641,0848,107
Western Samoa2,62216,1443,01822,024
Italy9,01025,6677,96320,642
Netherlands1,23912,9088,97658,761
Netherlands Antilles1,54115,0861,83518,061
Japan5,04024,5551,7108,825
Peru3,65910,404
United States of America2,34918,4243,18858,688
Hawaii1,57614,3351,35414,733
Other countries4,15329,9236,42445,775
Totals317,7673,824,766357,9684,355,759
Canned Meat
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom39,528769,69837,979767,668
Jamaica6,99992,4644,49469,185
Fiji4,76085,7733,87071,840
Tonga2,42843,1222,96353,041
Gilbert and Ellice Islands1,79729,3001723,900
Nauru84714,2571,61733,247
Western Samoa5,23996,7705,188106,678
German Federal Republic2,12035,996
Society Islands3,38957,7813,28158,018
American Samoa2,14040,6661,45631,352
Other countries1,73728,09485117,369
Totals68,8641,257,92563,9911,248,294
Butter
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom3,356,48836,777,9213,506,98150,012,894
Hong Kong10,749127,94611,517162,878
Ceylon3,28941,0676,64796,378
Singapore5,00460,6626,51899,413
Rhodesia-Nyasaland Federation4,65761,020466
South Africa35,000489,190
British Guiana1,50918,6561,70927,329
Bermuda4,25951,1327,477115,633
Bahamas94610,8163,04046,430
Barbados1,64823,2823,21052,077
Jamaica31,127423,31644,722754,471
Trinidad and Tobago12,547148,16916,128251,112
Leeward and Windward Islands1,42617,13175212,274
Fiji5,39683,8626,670115,935
Tonga90613,7681,01915,849
Western Samoa1,49822,6531,85428,950
France59,9971,153,443
German Federal Republic65,8791,013,329
Italy21,059274,1911402,032
Philippines3,38241,0226,87299,806
Haiti7899,3621,37921,709
Netherlands Antilles4,11654,3273,85963,748
Panama Canal Zone2,32332,80389314,856
Panama Republic15,650218,31616,299257,537
Peru3,85963,68832,247517,609
United States of America9,327172,6377,563160,455
Hawaii2,51854,5057,676164,322
Other countries3,37248,1103,51258,176
Totals3,507,84438,850,3623,859,56455,807,901
Cheese
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom1,671,45911,308,3211,561,55020,859,799
South Africa9,21565,6072,32530,231
British Guiana4,17432,0553,05836,859
Barbados4,81144,3096,11274,272
Bermuda6796,69882011,282
Jamaica15,748183,38316,866221,712
Leeward and Windward Islands2,42227,7792,44430,380
Trinidad and Tobago12,864112,34717,036215,794
Australia4,03861,0333,87267,454
German Federal Republic26,274225,82612,133147,580
Japan4513,6511,23713,203
United States of America32,184287,25138,507355,461
Other countries4,23543,3493,08439,081
Totals1,788,55412,401,6091,669,04422,103,108
Milk (Dried, Condensed, etc.)
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom743,0292,448,1551,027,6943,905,497
Ceylon5,10233,59614,63694,458
India58,607226,82467,672311,522
Singapore34,950165,40329,445126,760
Malaya38,401248,46526,521200,258
Hong Kong8264,8471,71612,880
Pakistan5,44519,6739,24038,844
South Africa5,29118,6611,3804,493
Mauritius8,93432,4038,67236,153
Barbados1,8977,9573,60014,355
Trinidad and Tobago11,40749,79226,404184,963
Jamaica32,436118,22454,307193,569
Fiji9,18066,0119,27968,917
Western Samoa2,32618,3963,20225,445
German Federal Republic2,0007,02039,365149,644
Netherlands39,399131,81412,00047,162
Japan22,66063,2061,0004,000
Philippines3,74111,35111,57565,546
Peru3,90712,52328,449101,380
United States of America15,56845,6389,10828,328
Hawaii4,37513,4415,22517,094
Society Islands2,77517,6863,12319,468
Other countries8,35445,09613,97578,242
Totals1,060,6103,806,1821,407,5885,728,978
Edible Tallow
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom83,111275,493158,303545,768
India39,794132,38738,973134,419
Singapore3,56313,1695,03217,960
Australia72,338268,720
Netherlands5,27817,4794,84416,559
Burma2,7189,9643,58812,508
Egypt5,59120,3608,26132,015
Japan5,51519,4912,1337,898
Other countries7,89327,5166,76023,795
Totals225,801784,579227,894790,922
Inedible Tallow
 tons£tons£
United Kingdom13,936894,27220,9361,206,477
Ceylon1,31693,04099868,143
India44131,25341029,300
Singapore24514,90145525,686
Malaya67946,44748027,719
Kenya and Uganda24114,23622012,691
Pakistan19713,764151,074
South Africa6,131392,0473,005158,414
Rhodesia-Nyasaland Federation2,847183,6252,090118,822
British Guiana1298,96749435,828
Jamaica1,650113,91565442,510
Trinidad and Tobago82249,8501,55084,634
Australia71249,078
Fiji32322,33134221,598
Finland32622,10626916,314
Italy35724,474
Netherlands55930,242271,092
Mozambique71043,57261335,267
Burma1,34392,6401,23882,954
China19013,2423,626213,303
Japan6,205433,7914,049265,489
Thailand38825,55239225,323
Sudan14510,105785,378
Other countries785,47522314,128
Totals39,9702,628,92542,1642,492,144
Cattle Hides
 No.£No.£
United Kingdom97,355248,17195,887385,759
Canada6,00412,3869,23723,627
Australia12,48533,9898,81634,295
Finland3,4029,6647,52631,646
German Federal Republic324,525779,145206,048730,718
Italy267,524581,459133,044463,114
Netherlands42,999100,92450,065181,114
Norway8,25022,13229,871132,148
Poland56,652182,273
Portugal5,82812,2692,0004,140
Yugoslavia30,17876,68455,941238,276
Japan74,026198,659206,243694,582
Morocco20,91547,754
United States of America2,6175,8096,45717,635
Venezuela5,00021,431
Other countries7,99419,8057,63722,013
Totals904,1022,148,850880,4243,162,771
Calf Skins
 No.£No.£
United Kingdom101,60978,95561,64377,651
Canada10,00011,00032,00042,756
Belgium57,08145,696
France39,39832,04240,63057,490
German Federal Republic146,158119,01697,328123,618
Netherlands225,143185,771317,788441,800
Italy324,096273,730180,533268,863
United States of America105,71592,236225,860283,017
Other countries5,9005,1577,3409,634
Totals1,015,100843,603963,1221,304,829
Sheep Skins (With Wool)
 No.£No.£
United Kingdom152,900116,567147,954126,300
Belgium35,17943,20181,61797,858
France542,160329,777753,310423,840
Italy131,08084,803134,43684,851
Netherlands47,86022,29451,62324,149
Portugal4,1244,1089,93213,554
Spain68,84580,522
Other countries1,2116792,2511,673
Totals914,514601,4291,249,968852,747
Sheep Skins (Without Wool)
 No.£No.£
United Kingdom3,691,923993,8213,432,0281,281,178
Canada48,0009,07586,78419,600
Australia160,85931,464816366
Belgium759,532259,2041,168,265476,632
Denmark90,75617,623
Finland62,61610,97859,93416,916
France145,68028,782154,86836,974
German Federal Republic216,40367,791366,690141,889
Italy143,36946,292260,94887,910
Netherlands1,219,439373,2631,340,609534,257
Sweden192,40441,728239,19066,852
United States of America12,942,1612,602,82917,494,0224,937,942
Other countries5,8621,17113,8004,008
Totals19,679,0044,484,02124,617,9547,604,524
Sausage Casings
 lb£lb£
United Kingdom3,803,6072,605,9584,951,7602,445,074
Canada1,475,9701,209,7931,604,4991,009,668
Australia41,66113,8825,8142,462
Denmark20,12518,09422,97715,869
German Federal Republic302,35371,495488,431102,043
United States of America1,711,242559,5092,011,936551,278
Other countries16,6862,9188,8515,530
Totals7,371,6444,481,6499,094,2684,131,924
Casein
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom113,475881,723123,619934,011
India3,80229,4342,14315,882
Canada8,00061,9002,80019,700
German Federal Republic12,89994,31454,311401,250
Italy74,836559,85892,089703,730
Netherlands11,81176,68337,683273,135
Japan47,981410,38567,379512,630
United States of America127,544987,744200,7141,520,434
Other countries9387,5922,86522,058
Totals401,2863,109,633583,6034,402,830
Apples (Fresh)
 lb£lb£
United Kingdom54,651,5201,707,85246,590,6001,455,668
Malaya362,72011,335457,00014,282
Canada6,4002011,036,72032,398
Belgium2,648,44082,6754,386,400137,076
Finland2,262,36070,699
France1,225,00038,281
German Federal Republic5,811,560181,5726,235,520194,877
Netherlands1,592,20049,7573,592,000112,251
Sweden805,12025,1602,387,40074,606
United States of America136,0004,2501,245,12038,911
Venezuela405,00012,500700,00021,875
Hawaii573,40017,919629,56019,674
Other countries775,60027,589961,20032,239
Totals68,992,9602,159,09170,483,8802,204,556
Seeds (Grass and Clover)
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom57,770674,66035,224429,808
Canada3,15454,81791916,037
Australia46,688402,92332,009309,868
Republic of Ireland10,536101,2705,99662,602
Belgium2,00221,1824066,475
France10,08271,7264,67855,930
German Federal Republic4,19073,1945568,052
Italy1,68614,4221,20614,865
Netherlands1,97127,2841,96516,269
Chile4779,44164110,707
United States of America8,67254,4266,09342,745
Other countries1,00212,3711,52814,913
Totals148,2301,517,71691,221988,271
Peas (Food)
 cental£cental£
United Kingdom121,171256,261126,426258,265
Belgium8,18416,7034,2148,925
United States of America7,86817,5758,27217,481
Other countries5,62811,17310,81921,359
Totals142,851301,712149,731306,030
Peas (Seed)
 lb£lb£
United Kingdom10,336,197294,2928,117,991224,195
Australia6,714,434212,2186,703,427191,574
Other countries683,10519,283348,61210,640
Totals17,733,736525,79315,170,030426,409
Wood Pulp
 tons£tons£
United Kingdom17,817593,49515,162463,440
India542,066
Australia48,3662,036,89960,3252,423,095
China1,04132,913
Philippines1,50654,2251,33934,193
Other countries1795,421
Totals68,9632,725,01976,8262,920,728
Timber (Sawn and Hewn)
 sup. ft.£sup. ft.£
Australia35,137,6151,029,48246,372,5281,417,687
Other countries56,4552,649170,3366,423
Totals35,194,0701,032,13146,542,8641,424,110
Timber (for Cases, in Shooks)
 sup. ft.£sup. ft.£
Australia547,42027,845534,78526,947
Tonga56,8062,500
Western Samoa4,230,050239,5743,851,724211,303
Other countries47,2202,717153,7327,403
Totals4,881,496272,6364,540,241245,653
Fish (Other than Canned)
 cwt£cwt£
Australia46,192424,00455,461482,961
United States of America22,831793,15320,668717,949
Hawaii38915,52437715,668
Other countries1,29210,1373,38921,541
Totals70,7041,242,81879,8951,238,119
Newsprint
 cwt£cwt£
Malaya4001,05918,04548,529
Australia833,6512,627,944851,8972,658,471
Other countries6922,8523,3029,489
Totals834,7432,631,855873,2442,716,489

EXPORTS BY PORTS — The following table shows for the years 1954–59 the value of total exports according to the ports at which they were actually placed on board the overseas vessels.

While, in the case of imports, goods received through parcels post are allocated according to ports of entry, similar treatment is not possible in the case of exports. The total of goods exported by parcels post is accordingly shown under the heading “Parcels Post” until 1956 but outward postal parcels are not now recorded in the export statistics.

Port195419551956195719581959

* Parcels post has not been included in New Zealand export statistics after 1956.

 ££££££
Auckland76,196,67889,281,66889,810,88380,495,98576,976,535105,005,868
Tauranga1,331,3391,613,9783,874,8695,273,9186,217,9027,724,847
Gisborne3,545,7933,334,3952,883,0183,187,2253,158,7032,902,219
Napier22,214,54325,991,46924,685,20223,999,74321,475,23523,716,523
Taranaki13,362,42014,599,26416,996,72216,366,48116,265,40024,416,885
Wanganui4422975641,335673100
Wellington54,434,53245,320,40455,158,85155,739,84947,355,49445,975,878
Picton21,93061,80668,07123,17890,321249,166
Nelson906,4551,157,4291,591,9251,832,1281,909,2181,824,458
Greymouth145,434176,405204,168250,376192,814344,107
Lyttelton22,751,85521,832,93724,833,21226,893,22022,744,02223,175,616
Timaru13,095,20014,422,41815,674,91716,245,82115,213,94515,717,367
Oamaru9,0346,85522810,060
Otago15,034,17718,102,58617,269,45319,330,24515,290,21718,724,527
Bluff21,281,94823,259,81324,271,87026,929,27622,772,26623,881,093
Parcels post*134,426127,000159,105
Totals244,466,206259,288,724277,482,830276,569,008250,172,805293,658,654

Auckland occupies a commanding position in the export trade of New Zealand, usually about one-third of all exports being dispatched from that port. Wellington occupies second place, usually with approximately one-fifth of the trade. As will be seen from the above table, the order of the other ports varies from year to year. The steady increase in the value of exports through Tauranga is attributed to the pulp, paper, and timber industries of the district.

EXPORTS FOR YEARS ENDED 30 JUNE — As indicated in the early part of this section, farm products account for an extremely high proportion of exports from New Zealand. The farm-production export season fits much more closely to a June year than to a calendar year. The flush of the dairy-production season is spread over the months of October to March, while the whole harvest season, and most of the wool-selling season, occur in the early months of the calendar year. By 30 June in normal times the great bulk of the season's farm produce destined for export is shipped, except held-over wool and a certain amount of dairy produce and frozen meat kept in cool store to equalise shipments. It is desirable, therefore, for some purposes to tabulate New Zealand exports for the years ending in June instead of December.

QUANTITIES OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE EXPORTED FOR YEARS ENDED 30 JUNE 1959–61
Commodity1958–591959–601960–61*

* Provisional.

Mining products—
    Coal(ton)7,7183,74425,500
    Gold(oz)19,71431,43428,700
Fishery products—
    Fish(cwt)73,10990,73678,300
Forest products—
    Kauri gum(ton)114115100
    Logs, radiata pine(cu. ft.)2,279,5116,146,4806,244,300
    Timber, sawn(sup. ft.)37,971,16449,474,17436,277,600
    Timber, for cases, in shooks(sup. ft.)4,495,6334,584,2633,098,300
    Wood pulp(ton)73,45175,61360,400
    Newsprint(cwt)812,544965,0301,002,400
Pastoral products—
    Butter(cwt)3,455,7683,611,6353,094,600
    Casein(cwt)535,901543,517494,900
    Cheese(cwt)1,635,6741,776,6751,579,200
    Milk, dried(cwt)1,139,9011,207,0131,053,900
    Milk, preserved(cwt)35,78340,04442,200
    Sugar of milk(cwt)79,61592,31163,700
    Eggs, not in shell(lb)2,490875,6611,164,500
    Honey(lb)1,994,4701,115,259817,000
    Beef, chilled(cwt)10,95218,87219,300
    Beef, frozen(cwt)1,891,8161,691,6571,708,800
    Lamb, frozen (whole carcasses)(cwt)4,658,6414,951,2665,463,000
    Mutton, frozen (whole carcasses)(cwt)1,116,8631,434,3251,525,500
    Pork, frozen(cwt)115,85993,81661,300
    Veal, frozen(cwt)185,746179,875202,500
    Other frozen meat(cwt)456,404513,841600,300
    Meat, canned(cwt)53,32573,42861,300
    Meat extract(lb)349,384233,554279,900
    Sausage casings(lb)8,270,2179,584,0469,429,500
    Liver meal(cwt)43,31319,79636,200
    Inedible offals(cwt)138,841166,314234,000
    Calf skins(number)965,816955,543901,700
    Cattle hides(number)905,454853,387724,300
    Opossum skins(number)300,843345,740362,300
    Sheep skins, with wool(number)1,069,1621,297,6641,115,600
    Sheep skins, without wool(number)23,561,66024,954,21625,646,400
    Woollb (000)515,582527,766513,410
    Edible tallow(cwt)240,287209,373207,200
    Inedible tallow(ton)41,82545,02049,300
Agricultural products—
    Apples(lb)72,298,72881,614,08057,930,800
    Hops(lb)90,13324049,700
    Potatoes(ton)2,8393,2043,600
    Onions(ton)3,3092,6684,300
    Canned vegetables(lb)4,092,8133,199,4361,795,700
    Frozen vegetables(cwt)49,84631,78431,200
    Peas(cental)337,444298,221272,900
    Seeds, grass and clover(cwt)114,736114,771143,300
    Linen flax and tow(cwt)551
VALUES OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE EXPORTED YEARS ENDED 30 JUNE 1959–61
Commodity1958–591959–601960–61*

* Provisional.

Mining products£££
    Coal31,81416,303111,300
    Gold236,496377,886345,400
Fishery products—
    Fish1,315,8791,290,1151,317,400
Forest products—
    Kauri gum14,42116,73613,600
    Logs, radiata pine253,197660,831696,100
    Timber, sawn1,134,3711,520,4191,086,900
    Timber, for cases, in shooks248,821245,095159,600
    Wood pulp2,846,7292,924,8232,479,400
    Newsprint2,546,6343,012,8773,076,700
Pastoral products—
    Butter38,699,17161,339,91541,501,200
    Casein4,047,0894,200,9463,811,600
    Cheese17,124,43223,342,19816,202,500
    Milk, dried4,050,2265,463,7474,558,400
    Milk, preserved209,010239,341238,900
    Sugar of milk404,458452,591313,800
    Other dairy products12,06316,30517,000
    Eggs, not in shell41177,439102,500
    Honey108,22863,04446,900
    Beef, chilled116,634186,659191,900
    Beef, frozen23,339,28019,501,18019,943,500
    Lamb, frozen (whole carcasses)39,299,05737,752,59243,422,900
    Mutton, frozen (whole carcasses)4,030,9213,766,0704,503,100
    Pork, frozen1,155,989937,236683,100
    Veal, frozen2,355,1512,187,8142,515,300
    Other frozen meat5,135,0385,309,6256,120,500
    Meat, canned1,030,5351,365,7481,102,800
    Meat extract85,61253,61189,500
    Sausage casings4,343,4523,765,0633,647,600
    Liver meal127,13663,64092,100
    Inedible offals472,978640,126897,600
    Calf skins868,3751,318,874736,400
    Cattle hides2,269,1903,240,7362,068,600
    Opossum skins94,762133,222132,500
    Sheep skins, with wool595,9151,029,620788,100
    Sheep skins, without wool6,521,6238,545,6487,924,500
    Other hides and skins155,504248,081203,800
    Wool80,281,366103,771,63694,313,000
    Edible tallow845,434638,212627,200
    Inedible tallow2,680,9652,259,1292,447,400
Agricultural products—
    Apples2,260,9242,551,7571,823,200
    Hops22,6118311,300
    Potatoes66,65477,40592,700
    Onions88,49997,695120,100
    Canned vegetables204,418154,29991,800
    Frozen vegetables478,489241,226275,500
    Peas846,203700,373685,400
    Linen flax and tow2,747
    Seeds, grass and clover1,345,9591,248,0781,812,600
Other New Zealand produce4,059,4055,090,0514,377,100
Totals, New Zealand produce258,464,276312,136,100277,820,300

RE-EXPORTS — Until recent years the forwarding trade of New Zealand has never been of great significance. In most years, ships' and international aircraft stores, in which aviation spirit and bunker and lubricating oils loom largely, make up between a quarter and a third of the total re-exports. The balance is made up principally of miscellaneous stores sent to the Pacific Islands and goods returned to the United Kingdom and Australia. Munitions and war stores comprised the bulk of the large totals for the later war years.

Particulars of re-exports over a period of 21 years are contained in the next table. Specie is not included in the figures.

 £ £ £

* Provisional.

1940767,59719471,703,23519542,093,328
1941532,47719481,354,85619552,138,869
1942739,06319491,194,46319562,383,620
19431,627,90019501,420,14019572,263,821
19446,105,14819511,732,95519582,188,588
19453,114,74719522,141,98019592,660,587
1946994,61219532,386,3911960*2,717,000

The destination of this re-export trade for the latest three years is shown in the following table.

Country195819591960*

* Provisional.

 £££
United Kingdom335,812584,323443,122
Hong Kong5,4027,9075,296
India3,8641,0732,040
Malaya4463,945116
Singapore7,45231,4887,239
South Africa6,3123,762633
Canada5,61424,2779,089
Australia523,064566,511981,009
Fiji170,358230,219195,895
Gilbert and Ellice Islands4,5483,3612,671
Nauru Island15,3509,1088,765
Norfolk Island8,2901,137957
Papua and New Guinea3721,531956
Solomon Islands5651651,123
Tonga18,44214,86344,218
Western Samoa60,70358,61872,235
German Federal Republic28,74643,71725,475
Belgium5884,0112,302
France2,3482,3846,314
Sweden9255,6241,002
Switzerland1,1562,642671
Netherlands14,08045,70826,213
Indonesia47,832200260
Japan5344,1313,830
United States of America93,944119,833233,006
Society Islands53225,55527,026
Foreign Antarctic regions141,242161,04798,014
Other countries15,26815,46149,382
Ships' stores674,799687,986468,167
Totals (excluding specie)2,188,5882,660,5872,717,026

GOODS SHIPPED TO COOK ISLANDS AND NIUE — Trade with the Cook and associated Pacific Islands is not regarded as external to New Zealand, but merely as interchange between different parts of the country, and it is therefore not included in the account of the external trade. The trade of these islands with other countries is also omitted from New Zealand trade statistics. Separate returns are made of the transactions between New Zealand and these islands, and the values of goods shipped to the islands are summarised below.

YearExportsYearExports

* Provisional.

 £ £
1949278,4711955587,650
1950210,0661956565,936
1951525,1001957656,516
1952478,2901958750,673
1953490,4401959648,959
1954559,7751960*747,000

Further particulars regarding the trade of the islands will be found in Section 38, Island Territories.

22 C — IMPORTS

GENERAL — Statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed at the Customs. The basis of valuation is usually c.d.v. (current domestic value in the country of export at time of shipment). However in certain tables the value c.i.f. (cost including insurance and freight) is also given. Import values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency, and import totals are exclusive of specie, except where the contrary is expressly stated.

Reference should be made to Section 22A for details of the systems of valuation of imports as now used in these tables. Section 22A also gives a summary of import totals for recent years and index numbers of the volume of import trade.

IMPORT CONTROL — Reference to import control is made in Section 22A.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS — The table following, classifying imports by broad divisions, is based on a grouping of the divisions given in the subsequent table. It illustrates the great variety of imports which New Zealand receives in exchange for its few basic exports.

Calendar YearImports (c.d.v.)
Food, Beverages, and TobaccoMineral FuelsChemicals, Including Manufactured FertilisersBase Metals and Manufactures of MetalMachinery and Transport EquipmentTextiles, Clothing, and FootwearTotal*

* Including divisions not listed.

† Provisional.

£(thousand)
195121,43910,74310,15120,08646,22643,607187,758
195223,71515,07412,16634,15566,67235,157229,447
195319,74113,0678,09722,87147,00723,573163,613
195424,82914,96413,23727,13561,48935,272213,155
195526,22616,55115,80135,16575,45637,299250,661
195625,23718,96915,51632,58367,27533,518234,779
195727,55521,87917,52138,63774,64237,638261,738
195824,76919,95220,70338,58871,23836,786252,800
195919,28918,49916,72532,36754,96728,168205,076
196020,13220,82719,93739,10571,80135,560251,811

In Section 22A is a description of the change made in the classification of New Zealand trade for statistical purposes as from 1 January 1955, when the Standard International Trade Classification was brought into use.

The following table shows the values of import trade for the years 1959 and 1960 according to the sections and divisions of the Standard International Trade Classification. Both c.d.v. and c.i.f. bases of valuation are shown.

Section and Division19591960*
c.d.v.c.i.f.c.d.v.c.i.f.

* Provisional.

Sect. 0. Food£(thousand)
    Div. 00 Live animals chiefly for food —27344770
    Div. 01 Meat and meat preparations306313223230
    Div. 02 Dairy produce, eggs, and honey121566
    Div. 03 Fish and fish preparations516558904992
    Div. 04 Cereals and cereal preparations4,7255,7043,6414,310
    Div. 05 Fruits and vegetables3,4095,0834,0495,825
    Div. 06 Sugar and sugar preparations3,0413,4513,0553,504
    Div. 07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof3,7044,9284,1435,198
    Div. 08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including un-milled cereals)69951621
    Div. 09 Miscellaneous food preparations72769092
Totals, Section 015,88120,25716,17420,248
Sect. 1. Beverages and Tobacco    
    Div. 11 Beverages1,3981,6412,0982,478
    Div. 12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures2,0112,2971,8592,045
Totals, Section 13,4093,9383,9574,524
Sect. 2. Crude Materials, Inedible, Except Fuels    
    Div. 21 Hides, skins, and fur skins, undressed54585964
    Div. 22 Oil seeds, oil nuts, and kernels438477566648
    Div. 23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed1,7501,9742,6472,893
    Div. 24 Wood, lumber, and cork1,4932,2382,0513,106
    Div. 25 Pulp and waste paper326441511605
    Div. 26 Textile fibres (not manufactured into yarn, thread, or fabrics, and waste)1,0991,2281,4651,642
    Div. 27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals, excluding coal, petroleum, and precious stones2,7935,4243,4086,846
    Div. 28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap12141820
    Div. 29 Animal and vegetable crude materials, inedible, n.e.i.704785859956
Totals, Section 28,66912,63911,58616,781
Sect. 3, Mineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related Materials    
    Div. 31 Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials18,49923,69620,82725,778
Totals, Section 318,49923,69620,82725,778
Sect. 4. Animal and Vegetable Oils and Fats    
    Div. 41 Animal and vegetable oils (not essential oils), fats, greases, and derivatives622702468538
Totals, Section 4622702468538
Sect. 5. Chemicals    
    Div. 51 Chemical elements and compounds4,3714,9984,9825,785
    Div. 52 Mineral tar and crude chemicals from coal, petroleum, and natural gas9317991163
    Div. 53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials1,2431,3281,6771,778
    Div. 54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products3,7643,6714,3254,091
    Div. 55 Essential oils and perfume materials, toilet, polishing, and cleansing preparations414419468473
    Div. 56 Fertilisers, manufactured1,2251,6971,4211,981
    Div. 59 Explosives and miscellaneous chemical materials and products5,6155,8496,9727,150
Totals, Section 516,72518,14119,93721,421
Sect. 6. Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by Material    
    Div. 61 Leather, leather manufactures n.e.i., and dressed furs8178051,0811,120
    Div. 62 Rubber manufactures n.e.i.1,5931,5101,7621,661
    Div. 63 Wood and cork manufactures (excluding furniture)431546524650
    Div. 64 Paper, paperboard, and manufactures thereof6,1467,0456,4467,415
    Div. 65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, and related products26,81129,21633,82436,595
    Div. 66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures n.e.i.3,5054,0064,1114,713
    Div. 67 Silver, platinum, gems, and jewellery417424755775
    Div. 68 Base metals22,43925,10927,27430,163
    Div. 69 Manufactures of metal9,92810,54311,83112,222
Totals, Section 672,08979,20487,60795,314
Sect. 7. Machinery and Transport Equipment    
    Div. 71 Machinery other than electric25,19626,19835,88137,677
    Div. 72 Electric machinery, apparatus, and appliances13,61413,94815,61815,772
    Div. 73 Transport equipment16,15818,12320,30222,489
Totals, Section 754,96858,26971,80175,938
Sect. 8. Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles    
    Div. 81 Prefabricated buildings, sanitary, plumbing, heating and lighting fixtures, and fittings474526624695
    Div. 82 Furniture and fixtures6873105108
    Div. 83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar articles331112
    Div. 84 Clothing1,0471,1291,2911,400
    Div. 85 Footwear311343445484
    Div. 86 Professional, scientific, and controlling instruments; photographic and optical goods, watches, and clocks4,0833,7115,5805,178
    Div. 89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles n.e.i.7,1157,6079,93410,663
Totals, Section 813,10113,39217,99018,540
Sect. 9. Miscellaneous Transactions and Commodities n.e.i.    
    Div. 92 Live animals, not for food6630160127
    Div. 93 Returned goods and special transactions85819392
    95 Unclassified goods under £20 in value9131,0181,1321,385
    Div. 99 Gold51507980
Totals, Section 91,1151,1791,4641,684
Grand totals, merchandise imports205,076231,417251,811280,764

The next classification presented is that according to the purpose or use of commodities, particulars being given for the years 1947, 1957, 1958, and 1959. It should be mentioned that the absence of essential information in regard to actual purpose or use of a number of commodities has created certain difficulties, necessitating the employment of arbitrary decisions in some instances. Where certain commodities are used for more than one purpose it has not been possible to segregate the portion applicable to each. In such cases the whole import has been assessed according to the principal use of the article or commodity in New Zealand. The basis of valuation is c.d.v.

Class of Merchandise1947195719581959
 £(thousand)
Producers' materials —    
    Building and construction5,01311,7259,3997,713
    Farm2,5194,6914,3764,044
Manufacturing —    
    Food7,12212,75011,9659,237
    Beverages2395901,111981
    Tobacco1,1091,6812,1081,978
    Textiles (apparel or household goods)20,34622,99924,79320,610
    Other20,43857,96664,73853,938
Fuels and lubricants6,42121,00219,22017,790
Auxiliary aids to production3,4734,2784,1243,484
Producers' equipment —    
    Farm2,1407,6406,1303,702
    Commerce and industry16,60240,48941,14133,371
Transport equipment—    
    Railway1,4264,9645,6552,472
    Road12,79920,64516,75213,040
    Other2861,4731,1821,778
Consumers' goods—    
    Food2,5526,8055,4064,207
    Beverages3,0685,7664,5803,764
    Tobacco1,9801,03253961
    Clothing and accessories4,7175,2024,1111,845
    Household equipment6,83511,8419,4285,771
    Other8,29116,42614,11912,126
Unclassified1,2641,7731,9243,165
Totals, merchandise imports128,641261,738252,800205,076

In the next table particulars are given of New Zealand's import trade for the years 1947, 1957, 1958, and 1959, according to the stage of production or degree of manufacture of commodities, the divisions used being “crude”, “simply transformed”, and “more elaborately transformed”. The basis of valuation is c.d.v.

Degree of Manufacture1947195719581959

* Including unclassified items.

Producers' materials —£(thousand)
    Crude8,92915,51216,20514,517
    Simply transformed12,89738,20838,95332,089
    More elaborately transformed34,96058,68363,33351,895
Fuels and lubricants —    
    Crude1,8145012
    Simply transformed4,60720,95219,21917,788
    More elaborately transformed
Auxiliary aids to production —    
    Crude
    Simply transformed
    More elaborately transformed3,4734,2784,1243,484
Producers' equipment —    
    Crude89406629
    Simply transformed88710889553
    More elaborately transformed18,56647,37946,31636,491
Transport equipment —    
    Crude
    Simply transformed5762,6972,3061,112
    More elaborately transformed13,93524,38621,28216,177
Consumers' goods —    
    Crude3,8326,0935,7435,218
    Simply transformed250588456274
    More elaborately transformed24,62540,39131,98422,281
Total merchandise imports*    
    Crude14,66421,69522,01819,768
    Simply transformed18,41863,15561,82351,816
    More elaborately transformed95,559176,888168,960133,491
Totals, all merchandise*128,641261,738252,800205,076

An indication of the changes that have occurred during the same period is contained in the next table, which gives the figures for each of the divisions as percentages of total imports.

Degree of Manufacture1947195719581959
Producers' materials —Per Cent
    Crude6.95.96.47.1
    Simply transformed10.014.615.415.6
    More elaborately transformed27.222.425.125.3
Fuels and lubricants —    
    Crude1.4
    Simply transformed3.68.07.68.7
    More elaborately transformed
Auxiliary aids to production —    
    Crude
    Simply transformed
    More elaborately transformed2.71.61.61.7
Degree of Manufacture1947195719581959

* Including unclassified items.

Producers' equipment —Per Cent
    Crude
    Simply transformed0.30.40.3
    More elaborately transformed14.418.118.317.8
Transport equipment    
    Crude
    Simply transformed0.41.00.90.5
    More elaborately transformed10.89.38.47.9
Consumers' goods —    
    Crude3.02.32.32.5
    Simply transformed0.20.20.20.1
    More elaborately transformed19.115.412.710.9
Total merchandise imports*    
    Crude11.48.38.79.6
    Simply transformed14.324.124.525.3
    More elaborately transformed74.367.666.865.1
Totals, all merchandise*100.0100.0100.0100.0

While there has been no marked change in the proportions of various classes of goods imported in the last few years, the above percentages indicate a tendency for proportions of “crude” and “simply transformed” to increase at the expense of “more elaborately transformed”.

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE — The United Kingdom has been the chief supplier of New Zealand imports since the eighties of last century. Prior to that the main supply was from Australia. In the years following the Second World War, the proportion of the import trade received from the United Kingdom rose from 47.8 per cent in 1946 to a maximum of 60.1 per cent in 1950. Since 1950 there has been an overall decline, and in 1960 only 43.5 per cent of imports came from that source. The trade with Australia from 1950 to 1956 was between 10 and 14 per cent of the total. In 1957 and 1958, however, it rose to 17 per cent, and in 1959 and 1960 to 18 per cent.

The principal changes in the direction of the import trade are illustrated in the table in Section 22A giving the percentages received from the United Kingdom, other Commonwealth countries, European, and other countries. It will be seen that European countries are now playing a greater part in providing New Zealand's import requirements.

The table which follows shows imports (valuation c.d.v.) during the latest 11 years from the United Kingdom, other British Commonwealth countries, and other countries.

YearCountry where PurchasedCountry of OriginTotal Merchandise Imports
United KingdomOther British Commonwealth CountriesOther CountriesUnited KingdomOther British Commonwealth CountriesOther Countries

* Provisional.

£(thousand)
195087,58333,25422,74786,24132,35324,990143,584
1951102,80447,94637,007100,62046,43040,709187,758
1952129,21350,85649,378125,99148,73454,722229,447
195393,49641,62128,49692,35240,76830,493163,613
1954122,01052,02739,118120,71451,00241,439213,155
1955140,54059,78750,335137,83159,45353,377250,661
1956129,22658,49047,063126,14458,85849,777234,779
1957136,62370,75954,357134,48870,64056,610261,738
1958133,68569,66149,455132,80468,45451,543252,800
195997,70559,37247,99996,97158,72549,300205,076
1960*110,78176,16764,863109,59674,73967,476251,811

The next table shows in more detail the principal countries from which New Zealand draws its imports, figures on the basis of country of origin being given for the years 1958 to 1960 on a c.d.v. basis of valuations.

Country195819591960*

* Provisional.

British Commonwealth Countries, Protected States, and Trust Territories   
Europe —£££(000)
    United Kingdom132,803,80496,970,987109,596
    Cyprus59,94668,74094
    Malta14,71013,21726
Asia —   
    Aden Colony and Aden Protectorate80,021383,143531
    Bahrain939,751978,6971,308
    North Borneo31,22923,52821
    Sarawak45,05623,259253
    Ceylon2,202,9912,206,4402,391
    Malaya1,823,9411,791,2962,172
    Hong Kong956,972806,0451,963
    India5,985,8804,307,7845,638
    Kuwait152,614
    Pakistan72,115147,619140
    Singapore1,152,244869,0331,243
Africa —   
    Seychelles69,16915
    Gambia and Sierra Leone757
    Ghana513,192535,001590
    Nigeria8,1028,39521
    Kenya and Uganda365,738363,092479
    Rhodesia-Nyasaland Federation109,24898,622142
    Mauritius26,5358,2933
    Swaziland, Bechuanaland, Basutoland525
    Tanganyika Territory307,641204,161365
    South Africa1,175,2321,077,9661,650
    Zanzibar4,7641,7293
    Other30461
America —   
    Bermuda11,55310
    British Guiana7,4877,50214
    Jamaica226,680109,929181
    Trinidad and Tobago136,118111,06736
    Canada5,925,1794,801,6487,945
    Other2,8492,9994
Pacific —   
    Australia43,679,69737,103,57845,366
    Fiji1,217,700987,693479
    Gilbert and Ellice Islands90,731159,291170
    Nauru Island538,497514,761727
    New Zealand (re-imports)82,22585,49695
    Tonga28,98264,70083
    Western Samoa550,527667,307576
    Other10,28638,71219
Totals, British Commonwealth countries201,257,347155,695,662184,335
Other Countries   
Europe —   
    Austria429,695328,913391
    Belgium and Luxemburg1,939,1591,513,1472,311
    Czechoslovakia446,254263,910439
    Denmark369,778305,168410
    Finland110,12998,184367
    France1,825,9141,303,6892,091
    German Federal Republic7,612,9676,194,3047,768
    Germany, East125,77895,069103
    Greece19,2662,8153
    Republic of Ireland42,676122,347136
    Italy1,502,3331,465,9561,845
    Netherlands3,139,8722,431,6563,353
    Norway832,065685,969678
    Poland13,97010,5245
    Portugal261,175159,185168
    Russia (U.S.S.R.)64,37543,74642
    Spain215,973138,367163
    Sweden1,982,7272,325,5741,987
    Switzerland1,756,4121,629,9192,333
    Turkey57,60149,25939
    Yugoslavia11,3231,6734
    Other8,3507,90616
Asia —   
    Burma4,7897131
    China437,697418,586433
    Formosa13,3849,76512
    Indonesia3,094,2132,134,7882,349
    Iran1,347,2781,673,1202,042
    Iraq106,22173,62551
    Japan2,832,1523,584,1217,184
    Philippines62,88857,17382
    Saudi Arabia663,2531,356,061985
    Thailand29,67540,79762
    Other9,4866,70229
Africa —   
    Algeria4,79219,7885
    Congo5,3792,6689
    Ethiopia41,20127,20440
    Egypt1,3292,4114
    Tunisia123
    Sudan24,32118,25126
    Other14,1887,93716
America —   
    Argentina8,6472,8928
    Brazil60,29554,60281
    Chile64,38726,83744
    Ecuador5,1412,4082
    Mexico48,335212,390200
    Netherlands Antilles1,996,2533,024,370925
    Peru319,528299,521240
    United States of America17,173,17116,739,22826,202
    Venezuela110,841166,6121,242
    Other2,38415,501270
Pacific Islands —   
    French Oceania281,154207,820242
    Other12,90417,15238
Totals, other countries51,543,07849,380,44667,476
Totals, all countries252,800,425205,076,108251,811

The following table shows for the latest 11 years the percentage of the value on basis of the country of origin of total imports (excluding specie) received into New Zealand.

Country19501951195219531954195519561957195819591960
 Per Cent
United Kingdom60.0653.5954.9156.4556.6354.9953.7351.3852.5347.2943.52
Bahrain1.071.001.171.771.141.141.360.350.370.480.52
Ceylon1.261.840.591.191.241.000.950.980.871.080.95
India1.413.211.021.101.281.291.471.902.372.102.24
Pakistan0.020.040.010.020.020.020.040.020.020.070.06
Malaya and Singapore0.931.970.781.872.261.771.351.231.181.300.86
South Africa0.620.830.550.660.580.380.430.460.460.530.66
Canada2.262.983.521.402.063.342.672.532.342.343.16
Australia12.0550.2910.6214.4512.9012.1614.1917.2617.2818.0918.02
Fiji0.710.541.020.840.860.690.620.550.480.480.19
Other British Commonwealth countries2.212.031.961.621.591.9317.991.711.712.163.02
Totals, British Commonwealth countries82.6078.3276.1581.3780.5678.7178.8078.3779.6175.9273.20
Belgium0.741.462.090.910.790.940.900.770.770.740.92
France0.771.131.581.200.830.770.830.680.720.640.83
German Federal Republic0.140.700.991.202.052.742.812.993.013.023.08
Netherlands0.380.590.990.701.080.960.890.941.241.191.33
Italy0.170.460.650.530.540.480.630.610.590.710.73
Sweden0.780.921.361.210.780.900.780.970.781.130.79
Switzerland0.250.470.450.540.660.630.660.710.690.790.93
Iran2.311.270.090.350.670.540.530.820.81
Japan0.301.181.640.240.501.010.950.851.121.752.85
Indonesia2.131.952.131.681.141.852.692.181.221.040.93
Netherlands Antilles0.130.550.091.090.380.170.630.791.470.37
United States of America7.299.389.267.428.208.507.587.856.798.1610.41
Other countries2.142.042.072.911.781.781.641.912.142.622.82
Totals, other countries17.4021.6823.8518.6319.4421.2921.2021.6320.3924.0826.80

Origin of Principal Imports — The table which follows shows details of commodity imports, by country of origin, where the trade with any country is of the value of £10,000 or over for any of the years 1957 to 1959. C.d.v. basis of valuation is used.

Country of Origin195719581959
Canned Fish
£(000)
United Kingdom996561
South Africa1493
Canada619387245
Norway13312271
Japan938953
Other countries121011
Totals970682444
Canned Fruit
£(000)
United Kingdom22182
Ceylon2863
Malaya153127117
Kenya and Uganda283011
South Africa28529589
Australia479149204
Other countries19207
Totals1,014645433
Dried Fruits
£(000)
South Africa385111
Australia9041,044880
Iran256249
Iraq11610674
Spain9292
Turkey192125
United States of America253227125
Other countries621
Totals1,3701,5421,166
Bananas
£(000)
Fiji1399423
Tonga421852
Western Samoa100274303
Ecuador17
Other countries1
Totals298387377
Oranges
£(000)
Cyprus5666
South Africa603141
Jamaica14512472
Australia521442411
United States of America5119117
Totals777672707
Peanuts
£(000)
Rhodesia-Nyasaland Federation6115
Tanganyika122321
South Africa14712594
China29176
India38
Indonesia1341
Other countries1661
Totals223186167
Country of Origin195719581959
Wheat
£(000)
Australia6,0595,8164,347
Raw Sugar
£(000)
Australia2,8832,6541,897
Fiji1,239910884
Indonesia143
Total4,2663,5642,781
Cocoa Beans (Raw)
£(000)
Ghana256467495
Western Samoa3022799
Other countries4
Totals290695594
Coffee Beans (Raw)
£(000)
India9163
Kenya and Uganda130210195
Tanganyika365354
Papua6938
Indonesia21263
Ethiopia111713
Brazil41010
Costa Rica11
Other countries131714
Totals230358339
Tea
£(000)
Ceylon2,3852,0552,018
India304282217
Indonesia285625
Other countries17124
Totals2,7342,4052,264
Beverage Spirits
£(000)
United Kingdom1,8621,4371,101
Jamaica463313
Australia386033
France23516892
Netherlands362224
Other countries391912
Totals2,2561,7391,275
Cigarettes
£(000)   
United Kingdom78530530
Australia71127
Switzerland168
Other countries641
Totals87844430
Tobacco
£(000)
United Kingdom2092
Rhodesia-Nyasalfland Federation58586
Canada61924
Netherlands1110
United States of America,6631,9981,846
Other countries11723
Totals1,7162,1281,980
Wool
£(000)
United Kingdom1159779
Australia418405396
Other countries422
Totals538504477
Kapok
£(000)
Ceylon7121
India242610
China2513
Indonesia1278941
Thailand4913
Other countries687
Totals16916984
Hat Hoods
£(000)
United Kingdom9210683
Australia15138
Czechoslovakia414521
France183723
Italy10111175
China192524
Formosa9118
Japan1866
Other countries312916
Totals344383264
Hosiery
£(000)
United Kingdom42520020
Other countries134
Totals43820521
Gloves
£(000)
United Kingdom13211365
Malta191413
Hong Kong544834
France1064
German Federal Republic757954
Other countries20167
Totals310275177
Country of Origin195719581959
Infants' Wear
£(000)
United Kingdom439475314
Hong Kong745135
Other countries1387
Totals526534356
Footwear
£(000)
United Kingdom880845255
Hong Kong25447
India262013
Malaya and Singapore222610
Australia10512
Italy1982
Netherlands35309
Other countries7113
Totals1,024989311
Made-up Sheets, Tablecloths, Table Napkins, and Towels
£(000)
United Kingdom1,107877785
Hong Kong484027
India754955
Canada176
Czechoslovakia404928
German Federal Republic221517
Netherlands21159
Japan4129124
Other countries293429
Totals1,4001,1081,079
Cheese Bandages and Meat Wraps
£(000)
United Kingdom944734740
Hong Kong3760108
India317453
Other countries1
Totals1,012869902
Woven Cotton Piece Goods
£(000)
United Kingdom5,5225,5934,127
Hong Kong101226249
India922736930
Canada182713
Australia484862
Austria354248
Belgium and Luxemburg139147158
Czechoslovakia7589103
France766182
German Federal Republic250459315
Italy705477
Netherlands84137189
Spain132627
Sweden6811
Switzerland194216173
China1434
Japan7751,2741,472
United States of America527253225
Other countries10910
Totals8,8659,4198,307
Rayon Piece Goods
£(000)
United Kingdom1,8901,8881,204
Australia243829
Austria71210
Belgium and Luxemburg22148
France828862
German Federal Republic414313242
Germany, East211936
Italy819398
Netherlands1129792
Spain2512
Switzerland658951
Japan365286366
United States of America347365345
Other countries141511
Totals3,4463,3232,566
Nylon Piece Goods
£(000)
United Kingdom511481267
Australia152124
Austria171218
France471615
German Federal Republic9168
Italy378174
Switzerland294444
Japan803475
United States of America1738478
Other countries19121
Totals937802605
Woollen Piece Goods
£(000)
United Kingdom2,9012,8411,881
Australia684136
Belgium and Luxemburg286452
German Federal Republic211810
Italy413024
Japan16
Other countries171120
Totals3,0763,0062,039
Jute and Hessian Piece Goods
£(000)
United Kingdom1239842
India561438401
Other countries1310
Totals686539453
Bags, Sacks, and Woolpacks
£(000)
India1,4881,3301,031
Pakistan80
Other countries1955
Totals1,5071,3351,116
Woollen Carpets (Rolls, Squares, and Rugs)
£(000)
United Kingdom1,8771,634318
India36406
Australia11111
Czechoslovakia4101
Other countries1682
Totals1,9441,703328
Country of Origin195719581959
Linoleum and Congoleum
£(000)
United Kingdom946612753
Australia1976
India1921
Other countries10111
Totals994622772
Cotton Threads
£(000)
United Kingdom613683685
Australia274237
United States of America2431
Other countries113
Totals643729756
Cotton Yarn
£(000)
United Kingdom533694607
Hong Kong17117
Australia475223
Other countries368
Totals583770755
Synthetic Yarn
£(000)
United Kingdom5791,051889
France11146
German Federal Republic4136
Netherlands415749
Norway41844
Switzerland11211
United States of America504249
Other countries41219
Totals6951,2201,073
Wool Yarn
£(000)
United Kingdom1,5101,6211,213
Australia527337
Other countries2
Totals1,5621,6931,251
Motor and Aviation Spirit
£(000)
Aden63580338
Bahrain743780716
India9982,3811,076
Malaya and Singapore949731636
Australia1,2073,2172,175
Indonesia3,6001,6601,176
Iran1,132713836
Saudi Arabia557294538
Netherlands Antilles1,4351,6272,612
Peru24133
Venezuela123
United States of America57212039
Totals11,82911,62910,398
Kerosene
£(000)
Bahrain164317
Malaya and Singapore311277
Indonesia293227302
Iran537212
Saudi Arabia34
Netherlands Antilles2218
Australia25
Other countries7
Totals394417452
Diesel and Fuel Oils
£(000)
Aden6645
Bahrain145112228
India15
Kuwait153
Malaya and Singapore24525147
Australia4,2072,9582,539
Indonesia1,157728293
Iran190419753
Saudi Arabia93335818
Netherlands Antilles204334231
Peru543294163
Venezuela83
Other countries1
Totals6,8665,5155,270
Lubricating Oils
£(000)
United Kingdom529628676
Canada1113855
Australia81628
United States of America1,043693632
Venezuela342743
Other countries131710
Totals1,6391,5191,444
Linseed Oil
£(000)
United Kingdom254205164
India191010
Canada114
Australia23135
Netherlands341712
Argentina2322
Other countries31
Totals356259196
Gypsum
£(000)
Australia6695112
Other countries12
Totals6797112
Cement
£(000)
United Kingdom343523
United States of America1026
Other countries465
Totals484234
Country of Origin195719581959
Iron and Steel — Pipes, Tubes, and Fittings
£(000)
United Kingdom1,6341,8321,420
South Africa221414
Canada48156
Australia387458614
Belgium2732
France136
German Federal Republic1065335
Netherlands28101
Sweden1654
United States of America6545122
Other countries91113
Totals2,3302,4572,260
Iron and Steel — Plate, Sheet, Hoop, and Strip
£(000)
United Kingdom4,0794,4203,616
Canada170170145
Australia4,8484,1994,029
Belgium and Luxemburg495033
France29168
German Federal Republic13147
United States of America17415870
Other countries1210
Totals9,3649,0157,956
Iron and Steel — Wire (excepting Barbed Wire)
£(000)
United Kingdom1,3261,598653
Australia8521,4441,288
Belgium and Luxemburg4719982
France2187
German Federal Republic1833
United States of America132
Other countries22
Totals2,2573,2662,035
Iron and Steel — Bars, Rods, Billets, Bloom, and Pig
£(000)
United Kingdom2,6692,136865
Hong Kong3722
Canada685328
Australia5671,2271,439
South Africa259
Belgium and Luxemburg16118563
France644021
German Federal Republic892341
Republic of Ireland17890
Netherlands121
United States of America8192
Other countries12126
Totals3,7433,7322,637
Iron and Steel — Angles, Tees, Girders, and Channels
£(000)
United Kingdom1,0861,287553
Australia323448613
Belgium and Luxemburg133293
France2362
German Federal Republic21151
Netherlands2018
United States of America22235
Other countries45
Totals1,6311,8301,177
Aluminium and Alloys
£(000)
United Kingdom9591,3861,279
Canada153221132
Australia527489
Belgium11
German Federal Republic72940
Netherlands262672
United States of America65579
Other countries654
Totals1,2701,7991,635
Copper
£(000)
United Kingdom1,7631,6811,775
Canada188312250
Australia505609388
France63
Other countries744
Totals2,4622,6062,482
Tin
£(000)
United Kingdom203147
Malaya and Singapore238242233
Australia241511
Other countries34
Totals285288295
Artificers' Tools
£(000)
United Kingdom794542632
Canada224184167
Australia14282143
German Federal Republic161117136
Italy3712
Sweden313240
United States of America331194216
Japan4318
Other countries141419
Totals1,7051,1751,383
Ball and Similar Bearings
£(000)
United Kingdom286452350
Canada11126
Austria81117
German Federal Republic92422
Italy31510
Sweden597151
United States of America11411181
Other countries71321
Totals497709558
Electric Motors and Parts
£(000)
United Kingdom8671,057926
Canada111011
Australia394027
German Federal Republic92013
Sweden353834
United States of America51518
Other countries1413
Totals9661,1851,042
Country of Origin195719581959
Insulated Cable and Wire
£(000)
United Kingdom2,4992,3871,246
South Africa1251143
Australia112341127
Republic of Ireland815
Netherlands59220128
Sweden8853
United States of America1121
Other countries93
Totals2,7903,0141,666
Telegraphy and Telephony Apparatus
£(000)
United Kingdom2,0422,7482,252
Australia1126634
Netherlands1847
Sweden81186
Switzerland214
United States of America323549
Other countries182922
Totals2,3032,9022,385
Radio and Radar Apparatus
£(000)
United Kingdom457406596
Australia13886155
German Federal Republic434648
Netherlands152211220
Japan3563
United States of America1659069
Other countries121713
Totals9718601,163
Transformers and Converters
£(000)
United Kingdom498723345
Canada1114
Australia91134
Austria41
German Federal Republic491692
Italy1317155
Sweden2712937
Switzerland672525
Other countries3117
Totals7081,087719
Tractors end Parts
£(000)
United Kingdom3,3973,0241,707
Australia424850
German Federal Republic352725
Italy44130
United States of America2,3321,3281,152
Other countries11163
Totals5,8214,4842,968
Domestic Baths
£(000)
United Kingdom1967938
Other countries
Totals1967938
Sewing Machines
£(000)
United Kingdom364275152
German Federal Republic579726
Italy1014254
Sweden1195636
Switzerland179166100
Japan3916947
United States of America1048162
Other countries584
Totals969893482
Raw, Synthetic, and Reclaimed Rubber
£(000)
United Kingdom383567
Ceylon112523
Malaya and Singapore1,2971,3491,385
Western Samoa114
Canada7391101
United States of America192364167
Other countries56
Totals1,6261,8681,750
Sawn Timber
£(000)
North Borneo6911
Malaya and Singapore15010957
Hong Kong133
Ghana264438
Canada728377253
Australia575507283
British Guiana211
Japan113219116
United States of America155249329
Other countries22319
Totals1,8101,5481,096
Plate and Sheet Glass
£(000)
United Kingdom478600538
Belgium and Luxemburg252329364
France202220
German Federal Republic123266
United States of America1569
Other countries152428
Totals7941,0141,025
Table Chinaware
£(000)
United Kingdom757713486
Australia15148
German Federal Republic423326
Japan2772
Other countries302516
Totals846792608
Table Glassware and Tumblers
£(000)
United Kingdom1224747
Belgium1142
Czechoslovakia23269
German Federal Republic251411
Japan428
Other countries181217
Totals20310594
Country of Origin195719581959
Newsprint
£(000)
United Kingdom1,060699680
Canada830666417
Norway1749
Other countries6118
Totals1,9131,3811,114
Other Printing Paper
£(000)
United Kingdom810997984
Canada122115106
Australia154293278
Austria112618
Finland12176
German Federal Republic131520
Netherlands181514
Norway144164189
Sweden125206198
United States of America322533
Other countries156
Totals1,4431,8771,851
Writing Paper
£(000)
United Kingdom219201233
Canada1475
Australia13982125
Norway263438
Sweden1395
Other countries523
Totals417335409
Books, Magazines, Newspapers, and Music
£(000)
United Kingdom1,9722,1391,999
Australia1,0908871,000
German Federal Republic91010
Netherlands201322
Japan222637
United States of America312263349
Other countries394029
Totals3,4643,3783,447
Timepieces and Parts
£(000)
United Kingdom14511096
German Federal Republic273176145
Switzerland423261201
Other countries141310
Totals855559452
Common Salt
£(000)
United Kingdom282299256
Australia6290100
Other countries4411
Totals348394366
Crude Sulphur
£(000)
Mexico5039199
United States of America870593623
Other countries223
Totals923634824
Rock Phosphate
£(000)
Gilbert and Ellice Islands17491159
Nauru Island624538515
French Oceania109281208
Totals907910882
Basic Slag
£(000)
Belgium and Luxemburg300315192
Japan71
Other countries1
Totals371316192
Chloride (Muriate) of Potash
£(000)
France177337208
German Federal Republic56105225
Germany, East1212
United States of America170104300
Other countries—2 
Totals415549735
Aircraft and Parts
£(000)
United Kingdom188186195
Australia151038
United States of America583420735
Other countries8314
Totals793620982
Bicycles
£(000)
United Kingdom327247242
Czechoslovakia1101
Other countries11
Totals329257244
Motor Cycles
£(000)
United Kingdom868236
Austria21264
Czechoslovakia4111
German Federal Republic12157
Other countries715
Totals13013552
Country of Origin195719581959
Motorcars
£(000)
United Kingdom10,8788,1776,832
Canada747664415
Australia1,661686745
Czechoslovakia57318
France17516821
German Federal Republic643414305
Italy675013
United States of America1361369
Totals14,36610,3258,348
Buses, Lorries, Trucks, and Vans
£(000)
United Kingdom3,1213,2442,519
Australia360414261
German Federal Republic12021958
United States of America7950'34
Other countries31
Totals3,6803,9302,873
Motor-vehicle Parts
£(000)
United Kingdom1,9061,7071,581
Canada938758
Australia246262238
France11127
German Federal Republic919467
United States of America239168154
Other countries577
Totals2,5912,3372,112
Railway and Tramway Vehicles and Parts
£(000)
United Kingdom1,1752,069947
Australia72562882
Italy533
Switzerland10
United States of America4413047
Other countries265
Totals1,9572,8851,083
Railway and Tramway Rails and Rail Accessories
£(000)
United Kingdom1,2761,395576
Australia69273234
Belgium812
Italy1331
United States of America28625
Other countries11
Totals1,6401,683859
Pneumatic Tyres and Tubes (over 1 3/4 in. Diameter)
£(000)
United Kingdom368394351
South Africa133735
Canada614176
Australia142938
German Federal Republic182937
United States of America124122101
Other countries795
Totals606662643
Musical Instruments, Parts, and Gramophone Records
£(000)
United Kingdom1,2151,019470
Australia2216721
Austria6132
Czechoslovakia1285
France15143
German Federal Republic1248449
Italy926419
Netherlands8129540
Norway512
Japan15810
United States of America252526
Other countries20127
Totals1,8311,621652
Thermosetting and Thermoplastic Resins
£(000)
United Kingdom8901,815803
Canada402621
Australia97121129
German Federal Republic153174168
Netherlands446947
United States of America489741501
Other countries4615
Totals1,7182,9531,683
Agricultural Machinery (Cultivating)
£(000)
United Kingdom18215998
Canada1151
Australia12710671
Other countries11711
Totals331277181
Agricultural Machinery (Harvesting Threshing, etc.)
£(000)
United Kingdom792554244
Canada5545
Australia558236
German Federal Republic172123100
France111036
Netherlands66452
Sweden684137
United States of America567328300
Other countries58
Totals1,7851,193767
Agricultural Machinery (Dairying)
£(000)
United Kingdom525546
Australia26234
Denmark5125
German Federal Republic43106
France10274
Sweden314940
United States of America15103
Other countries31
Totals180177129
Builders' Hardware
£(000)
United Kingdom446411319
Australia1629671
United States of America8115
Other countries1386
Totals629525401
Country of Origin195719581959
Metal-working Machinery
£(000)
United Kingdom1,102766858
Canada8617
Australia351375405
Austria1311
Denmark10611
France1242
German Federal Republic158132123
Italy4413
Sweden343028
Switzerland8511
United States of America165147186
Other countries15911
Totals1,8681,4871,677
Woodworking Machinery
£(000)
United Kingdom208193172
Canada239171172
Australia411519
German Federal Republic644237
Sweden321632
Switzerland14181
United States of America302178282
Other countries18713
Totals918640727
Paper-mill and Pulp-mill Machinery
£(000)
United Kingdom257275655
Canada153024
Sweden151211
Norway9412
Netherlands112
United States of America2351116
Other countries3314
Totals322375945
Earth-moving and Road-making Machinery
£(000)
United Kingdom1,4081,302733
South Africa21114
Australia1999277
Belgium261140
German Federal Republic18126
United States of America772540364
Other countries14520
Totals 2,6731,9621,254 
Antiseptics
£(000)
United Kingdom228379132
Hong Kong10133
Australia4163151
Switzerland413829
United States of America322749
Other countries61721
Totals358538386
Inorganic Colours
£(000)
United Kingdom559841552
Australia449451
German Federal Republic7614796
Japan162238
United States of America1168
Other countries61213
Totals7111,122758
Medicinal Preparations (Including Proprietary Medicines
£(000)
United Kingdom1,0531,075965
South Africa162222
Australia173319340
German Federal Republic153228
Netherlands161416
Switzerland559599
United States of America322450
Other countries12149
Totals1,3721,5951,530
Weedkillers and Scrubkillers
£(000)
United Kingdom8612174
Australia34816176
Belgium211
German Federal Republic178133188
Switzerland25
China61
United States of America4610468
Other countries617
Totals660538509
Photographic Films
£(000)
United Kingdom324218209
Australia395553656
Belgium394340
German Federal Republic559770
Italy161415
United States of America202319
Other countries81510
Totals8579631,018
Jewellery and Imitation Jewellery
£(000)
United Kingdom1969633
Hong Kong1742
Australia45154
Austria634210
Czechoslovakia21178
German Federal Republic21010823
Other countries221711
Totals57329990
Railway Sleepers
£(000)
Australia1,057623253
Totals1,057623253
Sports Goods and Materials for their Manufacture
£(000)
United Kingdom346283269
Pakistan261412
Australia806061
France221816
German Federal Republic594235
Italy1198
Norway12107
Sweden12116
Japan361931
United States of America242213
Other countries302622
Totals659514481

QUANTITIES OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS IMPORTED — The following table shows the quantity imported, during each of the years 1958 to 1960, of a large number of the principal items.

ItemUnit of Quantity195819591960*

* Provisional.

† Liquid gallons (000) up to 1959, proof gallons (000) thereafter.

Canned fishlb (000)4,6903,0965,005
Fruit —    
    Canned ——lb (000)12,2928,36411,929
    Driedlb (000)24,11117,67319,967
    Fresh —    
        Bananaslb (000)72,02071,15375,201
        Orangeslb (000)25,64827,05629,727
Grain and pulse —    
    Wheatbush (000)9,9928,0875,912
    Maizena and cornflourlb (000)3,8422,1372,230
    Rice (other than rice flour and ground rice)cwt(000)66.557.751.4
Nuts, ediblelb (000)1,4179911,865
Desiccated coconutlb (000)2,0863,1792,515
Jams, jellies, and preserveslb (000)326128
Confectionerylb (000)981165337
Sugarcwt(000)2,8452,2942,169
Tealb (000)16,42615,39515,894
Coffee, rawlb (000)2,5052,6684,093
Cocoa beans, rawlb (000)5,1006,2367,332
Cigaretteslb (000)74144134
Tobaccolb (000)7,4807,5466,510
Spirits (beverages)1,097810937
Wineliq. gal. (000)149135221
Cotton and linen piece goods —    
    Cheese bandages and meat wrapslb (000)3,3303,6224,246
    Knittedlb (000)143121264
    Wovensq. yd. (000)67,25963,97476,918
Wool piece goodssq. yd. (000)5,3513,7413,999
Silk, rayon and synthetic fibre piece goods —    
    Wovensq. yd. (000)18,98117,24222,250
    Knittedlb (000)787376457
Yarns —    
    Cottonlb (000)2,8333,1083,087
    Silk, rayon, and syntheticlb (000)2,5602,5952,929
    Woollb (000)2,2722,0232,549
Bags, sacks, wool packsdoz (000)1,5391,7041,014
Carpets and carpeting —    
    Of wool or containing wool —    
        In rollssq. yd. (000)1,071170230
        In squaressq. yd. (000)20377109
    Of other textile materialssq. yd. (000)20247122
Linoleum, etc.sq. yd. (000)2,3842,8613,744
Footwear —    
    Children'sdoz pairs (000)113.553.962.8
    Adults'doz pairs (000)22.93.46.9
Hosiery —    
    Full lengthdoz pairs (000)33.57.425.6
    Half and three-quarter hosedoz pairs (000)24.60.43.8
Glovesdoz pairs (000)103.172.7128.0
Hat hoods, felt, unblockeddoz (000)104.877.185.4
Mowers and harvestersNo.3,5262,3211,714
Cream separatorsNo.879517260
Electrical —    
    Storage batteriesNo.13,6498,02510,346
    Wireless valvesNo. (000)1,0621,0031,185
Electric motors —    
    Under 1 b.h.p.No.133,336132,934193,899
    1 b.h.p. and overNo.15,22212,55118,340
Sparking plugsNo.2,1741,4402,350
TypewritersNo.8,7547,73011,552
Sewing machines, domesticNo.34,81418,79352,036
Iron and steel —    
    Bar, rod, billet, bloom, pigcwt (000)1,8191,3611,780
    Angle, tee, channel, girdercwt (000)856592731
    Plate and sheetcwt (000)2,5092,2422,563
    Pipes, tubes, and fittingscwt (000)597572683
    Wirecwt (000)1,2167681,111
Coppercwt (000)174.3156.1187.6
Brass and muntzcwt (000)18.113.613.9
Leadcwt (000)104.567.086.9
Tincwt (000)8.17.67.6
Cordage of metalcwt (000)102.676.296.9
BicyclesNo.30,10828,59848,250
MotorcyclesNo.1,4325571,431
MotorcarsNo.29,05826,30732,409
Lorries, trucks, etc.No.8,4516,6778,121
TractorsNo.6,4143,5357,108
Tyres (excluding bicycle)No. (000)076282
Mineral oils —    
    Motor spiritsgal (000)243,925248,611276,551
    Lubricating oilgal (000)8,2828,50511,071
    Kerosenegal (000)10,02510,15511,413
    Crude petroleum, fuel oils, etc.gal (000)164,488150,448168,411
Chemicals —    
    Acidscwt (000)30.020.827.9
    Calcium carbidecwt (000)50.150.535.5
    Sulphurtons65,19588,182133,245
    Saltcwt (000)961930887
    Caustic sodacwt (000)75.967.574.5
    Carbonate of sodacwt (000)251.6249.7321.8
Manures —    
    Nitrate of sodatons2,9951,8292,971
    Phosphatictons530,300495,117640,399
    Potashtons55,23475,81786,073
    Sulphate of ammoniatons5,3415,8227,736
Timber, sawnsup. ft. (000)32,87623,93531,527
Glass, plate and sheetsq. ft. (000)16,25216,25919,736
Linseed oilgal (000)537329242
Plaster-of-pariscwt (000)292.1220.1290.8
Gypsumcwt (000)1,171.91,153.21,307.3
Asbestos, crudecwt (000)78.384.090.2
Cementcwt (000)60.839.964.3
Pulp and paper building boardsq. ft. (000)1,19655435
Printing papercwt (000)776.4689.4914.5
Other papercwt (000)106.3138.488.9
Cardboard, etc.cwt (000)67.060.369.6
Rubbercwt (000)209.9165.1251.7
Paraffin waxlb (000)3,2893,4182,874
Wood and paper pulptons8,5468,78812,056
Plywoodsq. ft. (000)1,3818482,304

Imports by Ports — New Zealand has 15 ports of entry for Customs purposes — seven in the North Island and eight in the South Island. The following table gives the total value of imports of merchandise for the several ports of entry during each of the latest five years. The value of overseas cargo landed at other ports is included with the appropriate port of entry. Basis of valuation is c.d.v.

Port19551956195719581959
 £ (thousand)
Auckland100,18091,391105,184101,72782,714
Tauranga1311951,1061,4071,967
Gisborne449403470402332
Napier3,5783,3123,2443,9172,984
Taranaki3,1143,1314,1143,4482,883
Wanganui6916386966391,638
Wellington85,75380,54785,80282,37965,589
Picton14414614513083
Nelson8028871,2701,3811,050
Greymouth157263555585308
Lyttelton34,32534,06437,87636,60529,266
Timaru1,4641,5111,9781,2861,208
Oamaru122114235227221
Otago16,51814,81615,06014,18211,344
Bluff3,2333,3604,0044,4853,489
Totals250,661234,779261,738252,800205,076

Almost three-quarters of the total imports usually come in by way of Auckland or Wellington. Lyttelton and Otago occupy third and fourth places in importance. Following these, however, the relative importance of the ports varies from year to year.

It should be mentioned that imports by air have been credited to the port in whose district the airport is located. Thus goods which came in through Whenuapai were included in the Auckland figures, imports through Wellington Airport and Ohakea in the Wellington figures, and through Harewood in the Lyttelton figures.

GOODS SHIPPED FROM COOK AND ASSOCIATED ISLANDS — Trade with the Cook and associated islands is not included in the export and import totals for New Zealand, but is shown separately in official publications. These islands are constitutionally part of New Zealand and the carriage of goods between them and the main islands of New Zealand is not really external trade, but is merely the transport of goods from one part of the country to another. The following table shows the movement of goods from these islands to the main islands of New Zealand. Particulars of the trade of the islands with other countries will be found in the section dealing with Island Territories.

YearValue of Goods from Cook Islands

* Provisional.

 £
1949171,314
1950161,705
1951192,398
1952245,883
1953287,002
1954286,418
1955283,443
1956298,273
1957289,545
1958297,071
1959343,007
1960*323,600

The principal goods brought to New Zealand from the Cook and associated islands and their values in recent years are as follows.

Item1956195719581959
Fruits, fresh —££££
    Oranges44,35764,63774,377109,509
    Tomatoes54,56454,78636,87044,023
    Mandarins9,8366,54410,75316,100
    Bananas1,5062,771485259
    Other21,93712,07911,3858,957
Copra, coconut oil and meal137,609100,51897,43499,584
Apparel23,93440,02843,64944,697
Vegetables1,7582,9958,14310,931
Wickerware8521,0002,8732,601
All other items1,9204,18711,1026,346
Totals298,273289,545297,071343,007

22 D — CUSTOMS TARIFF AND REVENUE

THE TARIFF — Briefly the Customs tariff, apart from the obtaining of revenue, has for its objects the following:

  1. The development of New Zealand industries.

  2. The maintenance and extension of markets for New Zealand produce.

  3. The encouragement of intra-Commonwealth trade.

When New Zealand's first Customs Ordinance was proclaimed in 1841 the intention was to raise revenue and to some extent to give preference to goods of British origin. The tariff changes of 1851 and 1864 widened the scope of the tariff but retained its revenue aspects, though at this time the duties were mainly specific rather than ad valorem. In 1888 ad valorem rates became more general and the rate of duty was raised to 20 per cent, which was double the amount charged in earlier years.

The prevailing economic philosophy was, of course, that of free trade, and in New Zealand's case it was underlined by the fact that Parliament predominantly represented the farming community. Even so, the depression of the eighties had so affected some of New Zealand's manufacturing industries that protection by tariffs became practical politics in 1888. The tariff revision of 1895 was aimed at protecting a small range of industries, and at the same time it eliminated the duties on many items which entered into the cost of living of those residing in urban areas. These tendencies were continued in 1900 and 1907 and 1921, with British preferences becoming more evident.

In 1921 provision was made for an extra rate of duty on goods from countries with a depreciated rate of exchange. This was the first occasion when the legislature tried to cope with twentieth century economic conditions which threatened to cut across tariffs designed to give protection to industries which were supposed to develop in a manner normal to the nineteenth century. The 1921 tariff also made provision for anti-dumping duties — another attempt to meet so-called abnormal practices. The depreciated currency duties ranged from 2 1/2 to 20 per cent; the dumping duty was not to exceed the difference between the sale price and the current domestic value.

The 1927 tariff revision extended further British preferences and increased the number of duties imposed for protection purposes. Further important items, if of British origin, were also placed on the free list. In 1930 surtaxes on dutiable goods were imposed for revenue purposes and the general tariff rate was increased by about 5 per cent. In 1931 a primage of 3 per cent was charged on imports (except in specified cases) which were otherwise free of duty.

In the meantime there had been a change in United Kingdom trade policy, which had tended to become one of protection rather than one of free trade.

As a result of the changing conditions the Ottawa Conference was called. The outcome of this conference was the Ottawa Agreement of 1932, the effect of which was to give further preference to British goods and to inhibit the use of the tariff by New Zealand for purely protective purposes.

In 1934 a Tariff Commission submitted a report which in the main adhered to the already established principle of British preference, and actually reduced the protection for New Zealand industries in more cases than it provided protection. The adoption of this report by the Customs Acts Amendment Act 1934 resulted in a wide range of items being made dutiable for revenue purposes, while a small group of items with a low to moderate duty gave limited protection against goods of British origin. Thus New Zealand's tariff remained an expression of the fact that New Zealand placed its economic emphasis on primary production, the market for which was mainly in the United Kingdom.

This tariff remained practically unchanged until 1960, although extended in its scope by subsequent trade agreements. In 1960 some amendments were made.

An agreement signed in Wellington in August 1959 between New Zealand and the United Kingdom made provision for the minimum margin of preference of 20 per cent accorded to British goods under the Ottawa Agreement to be reduced.

In recent years a number of changes in the tariff have resulted from public inquiries conducted by the Board of Trade, and the Board in November 1957 completed a comprehensive review of the whole structure and incidence of the tariff and reported to Government.

On 1 July 1962 a revised tariff was introduced. It involves a common nomenclature for tariff and statistical purposes based on the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised). The Board of Trade recommendations of 1957 were translated into S.I.T.C. form and other procedural problems overcome. The Customs Acts Amendment Act 1961 is the legal authority for the new tariff.

The basis of Customs taxation is principally ad valorem, but specific duties are applied to some lines, including several of the principal revenue items such as alcoholic beverages, tobacco, tea, sugar, and motor spirits.

The rates of Customs and excise duty in force in New Zealand are set out in the publication entitled The Customs Tariff of New Zealand. This publication, as well as the ancillary publication The Explanatory Notes to the Customs Tariff, is available from the Government Printer, Wellington.

As the rates of duty on goods vary according to their country of origin as well as their classification, the tariff is printed in “multi-column” form listing rates of duty under the British preferential tariff, agreements with Australia and Canada, the most-favoured-nation tariff (under which goods from countries adhering to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade are admitted), and the general tariff.

CUSTOMS DUTIES — It is impossible to give here an account of the range of duties payable on all of the numerous tariff items, but the duties as at the beginning of July 1962 on some of the principal commodities in general use are given. The history of previous rates of duty was given in the 1961 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

Tea — Tea in bulk of British origin is exempt from all duty and the rates on foreign tea are most-favoured-nation, 1d., general tariff, 2d. per pound.

Sugar — The duty on sugar of 22 colour or over (Dutch Standard) is l 1/2d. per pound; on other sugar it is 1d. per pound. Raw sugar imported for refining at Auckland enters free of duty under bond, an excise duty of 1d. per pound being levied on the refined products.

Tobacco — Customs duties on tobacco are at the following rates. Cigarettes not exceeding 2 1/2 lb per 1,000: British preferential tariff and most-favoured-nation tariff, 76s. per 1,000; general tariff, 78s. 3d. per 1,000. Cigarettes exceeding 2 1/2 lb per 1,000 pay 30s. 8d. per pound under the British preferential and most-favoured-nation tariffs, and 31s. 8d. per pound under the general tariff. Cigars and cheroots pay 23s. per pound under the British preferential tariff, 25s. per pound under the most-favoured-nation tariff, and 27s. per pound under the general tariff. In each case these rates of duty on cigars are plus 12 1/2 per cent plus 6s. per pound. Unmanufactured tobacco imported for manufacturing in a bonded tobacco factory into cigarettes, tobacco, or snuff pays 3s. 4d. per pound under all three tariffs. The excise duties on tobacco, etc., made in New Zealand are shown later under Excise Duties.

Alcoholic Beverages — Cordials, bitters, liqueurs, and spirits containing more than 40 per cent of proof spirit pay 120s. per proof gallon under the British preferential tariff, while the rates of duty payable under the most-favoured-nation and general tariffs range from 120s. per proof gallon for gin and brandy to 126s. per proof gallon for rum. Whisky pays 120s. per proof gallon under the British preferential tariff and 123s. under the general tariff. Champagne and other sparkling wines pay 15s. per gallon under the British preferential tariff and the Australian Agreement, and 22s. 6d. under the general tariff. Those from South Africa pay 14s. 3d. per gallon. Under the most-favoured-nation tariff champagne pays 15s. per gallon and other sparkling wines 19s. 6d. The duty on vermouth (containing over 40 per cent proof spirit) is 60s. per gallon under the British preferential tariff and 63s. per gallon under the general tariff. There is a wide range of duties on other wines depending on percentage of proof spirit and country of origin. The duty on imported beer is 6s. 6d. per gallon under the British preferential tariff and 8s. 6d. per gallon under the general tariff. Under both tariffs an additional 2d. per gallon is charged for each unit of original gravity exceeding 1036.

Motor Vehicles — Motor vehicles imported in an unassembled or completely knocked-down condition pay 6 1/4 per cent duty under the British preferential tariff, 45 per cent under the most-favoured-nation tariff, and 65 per cent under the general tariff. Under the Canadian Trade Agreement motor vehicles imported unassembled from Canada pay from 13 3/4 per cent to 45 per cent, depending on the percentage of Canadian materials and labour involved. Motor vehicles imported in an assembled condition pay 20 per cent duty under the British preferential tariff, 55 per cent under the most-favoured-nation tariff, and 75 per cent under the general tariff. Vehicles from Canada pay from 33 1/2 per cent to 55 per cent. Motor cycles, autocycles, and scooters pay 12 1/2 per cent under the British preferential tariff, 32 1/2 per cent under the most-favoured-nation tariff, and 50 per cent under the general tariff.

Motor Spirits — Under the Motor Spirits Duty Act 1961 the rate of duty on motor spirits is 1s. 5 3/4d. per gallon, and is payable by wholesale distributors under a procedure similar to that used for the collection of sales tax. Of this amount, 1s. 3 3/4d. is paid to the credit of the National Roads Fund and 2d. to the Consolidated Fund; the latter amount remains from the duty of Is. per gallon imposed in 1958.

IMPORT CONTROL — Import licensing applies to virtually all private imports and is explained in Section 22A.

EXCISE DUTIES:Beer — As from 22 August 1947 the excise duty on beer became 3s. per gallon where the specific gravity of the worts used did not exceed 1,036, increased by 1d. for every unit of specific gravity above 1,036. From 27 June 1958 the excise duty on beer was increased to 6s. a gallon where the specific gravity does not exceed 1,036, advancing by 2d. for every unit of specific gravity above 1,036. The specific gravity of distilled water at 60°F is taken as 1,000, and the specific gravity of the worts is determined in relation thereto.

Tobacco — From 27 June 1958 the excise duty on tobacco was increased to the following amounts: tobacco, cut, 22s. 9d. per pound; tobacco, plug, 22s. 9d. per pound; cigars and snuff, 12s. per pound; cigarettes not exceeding 2 1/2 lb weight for 1,000, 70s. per 1,000; cigarettes exceeding 2 1/2 lb per 1,000, 28s. per pound. From 22 July 1960 the duty was reduced, on both cut and plug tobaccos, by 2s. 6d. per pound, on cigarettes not exceeding 2 1/2 lb weight for 1,000, by 6s. per 1,000, and on other cigarettes, by 2s. 4d. per pound. An excise duty of 1/2d. is levied on each 60 cigarette tubes or papers or the equivalent thereof.

Sugar — There is an excise duty of 1d. per pound on sugar manufactured in New Zealand.

Alcohol — Excise duties were formerly levied direct on certain manufactures the preparation of which involved the use of a considerable proportion of spirits. In lieu of excise duty on the finished manufactured article, however, a special schedule of duties has been provided since 1921 on imported alcohol used in manufacturing these articles in licensed warehouses. The present rates are: on alcohol used in the manufacture of: perfumed spirits, 36s. per proof gallon; toilet preparations, 34s.; culinary and flavouring essences, 20s.; medicinal preparations containing more than 50 per cent of proof spirit, 4s. 6d. per proof gallon. In similar medicinal preparations containing not more than 50 per cent, the alcohol used is duty free.

CUSTOMS REVENUE — In the earlier years of New Zealand's history the revenue derived from Customs and excise duties represented a greater proportion of the total revenue from taxation than it has in recent years when it has generally been less than one-fifth of total taxation. The figures for the last 11 years are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal TaxationCustoms and Excise Duties
AmountPercentage of Total Taxation
 £(000)£(000)per cent
1951157,94728,63618.13
1952200,55037,87318.88
1953199,77132,74016.39
1954206,80232,17715.56
1955234,76634,17714.56
1956244,82936,63314.96
1957252,85235,69114.12
1958244,88239,00315.93
1959305,24351,29016.80
1960297,28856,79019.10
1961334,46358,21417.43

The figures for Customs and excise duties are exclusive of tyre tax and the highways proportion (6d. per gallon) of the motor-spirits tax up to and including 1953–54, two classes of taxes collected through the Customs and paid to the Consolidated Fund in the years quoted. From 1954–55 to 1957–58 all these receipts were paid into the National Roads Fund, and were therefore excluded from Customs duties. Such taxation is, however, included in total taxation. From 27 June 1958 the increased duty on motor spirits was paid into the Consolidated Fund and this portion of the motor-spirits tax collected is included in the 1959 and 1960 totals of Customs and excise duties as well as being included in the total taxation figures.

The Customs and excise duties received during the latest four financial years available are shown in more detail in the next table. Tyre tax and a portion (approximately 1s. 3 3/4d. per gallon) of the motor-spirits taxation, although levied on imports and collected through the Customs, have been excluded because they are credited to the National Roads Fund. The balance of the motor-spirits taxation is included in the figures for the latest three years.

Item1957–581958–591959–601960–61
Customs duties —£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
    Wines and spirits3,7983,6884,5145,791
    Cigars, cigarettes, snuff, and tobacco2,3921,7251,3161,495
    Other duties, including primage and surtax18,06022,69322,12220,213
Totals, Customs duties24,25028,10627,95227,499
Excise duties —
    Alcohol used in perfumed spirit, etc., in New Zealand42404751
    Cigarette papers and tubes80798382
    Tobacco, cigars, cigarettes, snuff, New Zealand manufactured6,68510,84214,34815,055
    Beer, New Zealand7,02011,25813,35114,529
    Sugar9269651,009998
Totals, excise duties14,75323,18428,83830,715
Grand totals, Customs and excise duties39,00351,29056,79058,214
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Revenue per head of population —
    From Customs duties10151112471118411104
    From excise duties611510191251012173
Totals1774226424422477

PREFERENCE AND RECIPROCITY — The following are the classes of goods which are deemed to be the produce or manufacture of countries which are entitled to be entered for duty at British preferential rates:

  1. Goods wholly the produce of such countries.

  2. Goods wholly manufactured in such countries from unmanufactured raw material and/or from one or more of the imported partly manufactured raw materials which are enumerated in the regulations.

  3. Goods partially manufactured in such countries, provided that the final process of manufacture has been performed in such countries, and also that the expenditure in material produced in such countries and/or labour performed within such countries in each and every article is not less than one-half of the factory or works cost of such article in its finished state.

The conditions applying to British Commonwealth countries, the products of which are admissible under the British preferential tariff pursuant to agreements made by New Zealand with such countries, may be varied to suit the provisions of such agreements.

Tea to be free of duty must have been grown in some part of the British Commonwealth, and the final process of manufacture must also have been performed in some country of the British Commonwealth.

Under the reciprocal trade agreements with Australia and Canada discussed hereunder, the duties on certain items are sometimes higher than the corresponding duties under the British preferential tariff and in a few cases lower.

Reciprocity With United Kingdom — Under the Ottawa Agreement New Zealand undertook to preserve the existing margins of preference on United Kingdom goods where the margin of preference did not exceed 20 per cent, and where the margin exceeded that figure not to reduce it below 20 per cent without the consent of the Government of the United Kingdom.

In 1958 New Zealand sought new arrangements with the United Kingdom and on 25 November 1958 the two Governments signed Heads of Agreement. This provided the basis for a new agreement to give New Zealand the right to reduce the margins of preference applied to United Kingdom goods entering New Zealand to 5 per cent on certain imports essential for industry, to 7 1/2 per cent on an extensive list of welfare and producer goods, and to 10 per cent on all other goods. The formal text of the new New Zealand — United Kingdom Trade Agreement was signed in Wellington on 12 August 1959.

The following table shows the merchandise trade with the United Kingdom for the latest five years.

YearMerchandise ImportsMerchandise Exports to United Kingdom
From United KingdomOf United Kingdom Origin
 £(000)£(000)£(000)
1956129,226126,144178,756
1957136,023134,488162,131
1958133,685132,804139,105
195997,77597,041165,657
1960110,781109,596160,257

Reciprocity With Australia — An agreement, completed in April 1933 and confirmed by the Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act of that year, came into operation on 1 December 1933, and remains in force until terminated by either party.

Under the agreement each country grants to the goods of the other the benefits of its British preferential tariff, except with regard to certain classes of goods, enumerated in the Schedules to the agreement, on which special rates are fixed.

The agreement provides for lower duties than those prescribed under Australia's British preferential tariff on many classes of New Zealand products entering Australia, including fresh and frozen fish and fish pastes; dried peas; fresh, smoked, and preserved meats; onions; lucerne seed; wine; furs; hats; caps; floor rugs; various agricultural and dairying implements; whale oil; casein; sugar of milk; and timber.

Minor modifications have been made to the Schedules of the agreement from time to time, but they remain substantially the same as originally negotiated.

Merchandise trade between New Zealand and Australia during the latest five years has been as follows.

YearMerchandise ImportsMerchandise Exports to Australia
From AustraliaOf Australian Origin
 £(000)£(000)£(000)
195633,76533,3058,431
195745,65345,18510,113
195844,34243,68010,266
195937,81237,14010,944
196046,20945,36613,477

The setting up of an Australian — New Zealand Consultative Committee on Trade was agreed on by the Australian and New Zealand Governments in August 1960.

Reciprocity With Canada — Reciprocal trade arrangements between Canada and New Zealand are governed by an agreement negotiated in 1932, and this agreement remains in force until terminated by either party.

Under the terms of the agreement sausage casings, hides and skins, wool, apples, seeds, kauri gum, and phormium fibre are amongst the New Zealand products admitted free of duty. Certain other items such as butter, cheese, mutton, and lamb are admitted at rates of duty lower than the British preferential tariff.

Merchandise trade with Canada (including Newfoundland) during the latest five years is shown in the following table.

YearMerchandise ImportsMerchandise Exports to Canada
From CanadaOf Canadian Origin
 £(000)£(000)£(000)
19566,2986,2584,026
19576,5906,6344,435
19585,8485,9254,066
19594,7064,7383,054
19607,5147,9453,645

Reciprocity With the Federation of Malaya — A trade agreement between the Federation of Malaya and New Zealand was signed in February 1961 by which each country will accord preferential rates of duty to the other for an initial period of three years. Both countries agreed to guarantee minimum margins of tariff preference which apply to certain important items in each other's trade.

Other Trade Arrangements — New Zealand is also a party to certain commercial treaties, conventions, or arrangements with countries outside the Commonwealth. In some earlier cases New Zealand automatically became a party to arrangements concluded by the United Kingdom; in others she became a party by signifying her willingness to adhere to such arrangements. Other arrangements again resulted from direct negotiations between New Zealand and the countries concerned. In practice many of these arrangements (which generally provided for reciprocal most-favoured-nation tariff treatment) are superseded by New Zealand's accession to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. However, some remain separately in force, and, in addition to those countries which are contracting parties to the General Agreement, New Zealand grants most-favoured-nation tariff treatment to Argentina, China, Egypt, Liberia, Spain, Yugoslavia, Somalia, Cambodia, and Tunisia.

Most-favoured-nation tariff treatment on certain items is extended to Switzerland as a result of a trade arrangement between Switzerland and New Zealand dating from 1938, under which New Zealand receives real most-favoured-nation tariff treatment and a guaranteed import quota for apples and pears. Since 1957 the arrangement has been extended also to Liechtenstein.

A trade agreement with Japan came into force on 9 September 1958 and remained in force for a period of three years. The agreement provided for reciprocal most-favoured-nation tariff treatment. Japan was removed from the list of scheduled countries for import licensing purposes and New Zealand was given the opportunity to compete for the Japanese allocation of exchange for imports of major interest to New Zealand. The agreement also included a clause safeguarding New Zealand industry from serious injury caused or threatened to be caused by excessive imports from Japan. The trade agreement was modified in March 1962. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade will now apply to trade between Japan and New Zealand, and the new arrangement provides a basis of consultation for the quick settlement of any difficulties which might arise in the trade between the two countries.

A short-term trade agreement was concluded with the United States of America in March 1962, the main advantage to New Zealand being an assurance of continued duty-free access for carpet-type wools.

The Federal Republic of Germany and New Zealand concluded a trade agreement in April 1959. The agreement is designed to facilitate as far as possible the exchange of goods and services between the two countries. New Zealand is granted quotas on certain primary products while for some others New Zealand will be considered as a source of supply for imports into Germany under the import programme. The agreement was concluded following international discussions under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade on problems arising out of the Federal Republic's import restrictions. The circumstances under which the negotiations with the Federal Republic were initiated were thus somewhat different from the usual, and because of this New Zealand is not required under the agreement to make any special arrangements regarding German exports. As contracting parties to the General Agreement the two countries already granted each other most-favoured-nation tariff treatment.

Following South Africa's withdrawal from the Commonwealth, goods being the produce or manufacture of South Africa ceased to qualify for admission into New Zealand under the British preferential tariff. The existing tariff rates on certain items (certain preserved fish, dried and fresh fruits, wines, and ostrich feathers) which were negotiated with South Africa in GATT have been maintained. In respect of all other goods, however, the rate of duty applicable under the most-favoured-nation tariff or (where there is no most-favoured-nation tariff) under the General Tariff applies.

GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT) — Tariff negotiations took place in Geneva in 1947, and the concessions given by each participating country were embodied in schedules to a General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. The tariff negotiations themselves were bilateral but all the concessions were applied multilaterally, so that New Zealand receives the benefit of reductions made by all participants, and, conversely, New Zealand's concessions apply to all the other countries which took part. Concessions are of two kinds — actual reductions of duties and bindings of duties against increase. The Agreement, which provides for concessions under both the British preferential and most-favoured-nation tariffs, was applied provisionally by New Zealand on 26 July 1948.

The foreign countries to whose products the concessional rates (i.e., the most-favoured-nation rates) of duty apply by virtue of their membership in GATT are: Austria, Burma, Belgium (including overseas territories), Brazil, Chile, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Dominican Republic, German Federal Republic, Finland, France (including overseas territories), Greece, Haiti, Italy, Japan, Luxemburg, Netherlands (including overseas territories), Nicaragua, Norway, Peru, Republic of the United States of Indonesia, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sweden, Turkey, United States of America, Uruguay.

The following Commonwealth countries are members of GATT: Australia, Canada, Ceylon, Ghana, India, Malaya, Nigeria, Pakistan, Rhodesia and Nyasaland.

While the reduction of tariffs and other barriers to trade has been the principal aim of the General Agreement it has also provided an internationally accepted code of rules in world trade, and its regular sessions have been useful as a forum for the discussion and settlement of international trade problems and disputes.

Developments have tended to whittle away most of the trading advantages which countries relying heavily on agricultural exports reasonably expected to get from GATT membership. There has been a growing disparity between the benefits accruing under GATT to the industrialised countries and the far less tangible advantages it provides for primary producing countries like New Zealand. This has been due primarily to the growing use of quantitative restrictions on agricultural products by most of the large industrialised countries as an aspect of their policies of agricultural protectionism.

INTERNATIONAL WHEAT AGREEMENT — The first International Wheat Agreement was negotiated in March 1949 and, with minor amendments, was renewed in 1953 and 1956. Following conferences from January to March 1959 the 1956 Agreement, which was due to expire on 31 July 1959, was replaced by a new agreement which differs on some major points from its predecessors.

The objectives of the International Wheat Agreement are to assure supplies of wheat to importing countries and markets for wheat to exporting countries at equitable and stable prices. Under the terms of the 1956 Agreement New Zealand guaranteed to import 160,000 metric tons (5,878,994 bushels) of wheat annually. The guarantee to purchase became operative only when the price was at the minimum laid down in the agreement, and a similar guarantee to sell by exporters operated only when the price reached the maximum under the agreement. The maximum and minimum prices were $2.00 and $1.50 based on Manitoba, Northern No. 1 wheat, in bulk, in store, Fort William/Port Arthur.

In the agreement, which came into force on 1 August 1959, New Zealand, as a signatory, had a contractual obligation to purchase 90 per cent of its imports under the agreement while the price was between the maximum and minimum prices. The maximum price for the basic wheat was reduced to $1.90. but the minimum remained at $1.50. At the maximum price importers are released from their obligation to purchase, while exporters are required to supply the average of each importer's purchases over the first five of the previous six years.

In January 1962 the United Nations convened an international conference in Geneva at which was negotiated a new wheat agreement for three years, which came into force on 1 August 1962. The agreement is similar to the previous one but the price limit has increased by 12 1/2 cents a bushel. New Zealand has retained its 90 per cent undertaking.

INTERNATIONAL SUGAR AGREEMENT — A new International Sugar Agreement, replacing the agreement negotiated in 1953, came into effect on 1 January 1959. The 1953 Agreement had marked the end of several unsuccessful attempts over a long period from before 1939 to secure international collaboration in sugar matters.

The main objectives of the agreement, which differs little from the previous one, are similar to those of the International Wheat Agreement-to assure supplies of sugar to importing countries and markets for sugar to exporting countries at equitable and stable prices.

Unlike the International Wheat Agreement, participating importing countries do not undertake to purchase a specified percentage of sugar from the participating exporting countries, but they are restricted in the quantities they may purchase from non-participating exporting countries. Exporting countries are restricted in the quantities they may offer on the “free market” and are allocated specific quantities or “basic export tonnages”.

The agreement was negotiated at conferences held at Geneva in October 1958 under the auspices of the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations Organisation. Although it terminates on 31 December 1963, provision was made for a review of the price range and of basic export tonnages after three years. Accordingly, a conference was held in Geneva in September and again in December 1961, but there was failure to agree on export quotas for 1962. It was decided to continue the agreement without quota provisions for 1962 and 1963. Should circumstances warrant it, the International Sugar Council will take the necessary steps for the conference to be resumed. In any event, the Council will consult governments on the convening of a United Nations Conference in 1963 to negotiate a new International Sugar Agreement.

New Zealand's annual requirements of raw sugar are approximately 115,000 tons, imported in recent years mainly from Australia and Fiji. Of this quantity, 75,000 tons are purchased annually from Commonwealth sources under a special arrangement.

Chapter 23. Section 23 PRICES

Table of Contents

PRICE TRIBUNAL — The Control of Prices Act 1947 consolidated the powers and functions formerly exercised mainly under Emergency Regulations issued during the course of the Second World War. It defined the general duties and functions of the Price Tribunal as the fixing of prices for goods and services, the investigation of complaints with respect to prices, maintenance of a survey of the prices of goods or services, the institution of legal proceedings for offences in relation to prices, and the taking of such other steps as in its opinion might be necessary to prevent profiteering or the exploitation of the public. It provided that, except in special circumstances, the sittings of the Tribunal should be open to the public.

The Price Tribunal has power to:

  1. Make price orders fixing, in such manner as it thinks fit, the actual or the maximum or the minimum price for any goods sold in a specified market and under specified conditions. Price orders are published in the New Zealand Gazette, and must generally be displayed in any shop where the goods to which they relate are sold.

  2. Authorise selling prices, which may be of general or special application.

Since the passing of the Act the Tribunal has, in the case of many commodities, issued price orders which prescribe that maximum prices are to be calculated by adding specified percentages to costs. In other cases, where there has been a general cost increase resulting from the reduction or removal of subsidies, the raising of freight charges, or a wage increase prescribed by a general order of the Court of Arbitration, the position has sometimes been met by the issue of general price adjustment orders under which most manufacturers have been permitted 10 recover by means of price increases the whole or a specified part of such increased costs.

Since 1948 a policy of progressive decontrol has been followed: lists of items freed from direct price fixation (although remaining subject to profiteering and other provisions of the Act) were published from time to time, but all goods and services not specifically exempted in this manner remained subject to control. However, in accordance with powers provided under the 1953 amendment to the Act, a noteworthy change in the system of control became effective on the gazetting of the Control of Prices (Positive List) Notice 1955 on 14 March 1955. The system of general control with specified exemptions was thereby replaced by the control of specified items only — all goods or services not on the Positive List being decontrolled. The many additional items subsequently decontrolled outdated the Positive List issued on 14 March 1955, and it was replaced by a new Positive List gazetted on 14 March 1957. Since then further items have been exempted and two, namely, honey and meat, were placed under control again. However, as from 1 December 1961 meat was decontrolled. Accommodation charges in both licensed and private hotels, find all liquor charges were exempted from price control as from 8 December 1961. The latest new Positive List was gazetted on 21 December 1961.

The Control of Prices Amendment Act 1953 also made provision for the delegation of pricing powers to the Secretary of Industries and Commerce, subject to a right of appeal to the Tribunal.

A further amendment to the Act in October 1956 transferred from the Price Tribunal to the Minister the function of exempting goods or services from price fixation.

In order to promote mutual confidence and understanding, as well as to advise on matters of procedure and administration, an Advisory Committee was established in 1951. Other Advisory Committees were established to deal with pricing problems affecting particular industries. In each case the Committee consisted of representatives of the business community, and met under the chairmanship of a senior officer of the Department of Industries and Commerce.

It should be observed that certain prices controlled under other legislation do not come within the scope of the Control of Prices Act 1947. For example, the maximum price of motor spirits is fixed by Order in Council (on the recommendation of the Minister of Industries and Commerce) under the Motor Spirits (Regulation of Prices) Act 1933; while, in certain circumstances, the Tenancy Act 1955 provides for the fixation, on application, of rents by a Magistrate's Court or by a Rents Officer of the Department of Labour. As a further illustration the Transport Amendment Act 1950 provides for the fixation of passenger fares and freight charges on services, other than those operated by local authorities, by the Commissioner of Transport, subject to a right of appeal to a Transport Charges Appeal Authority.

Although the earlier legislation providing for an Economic Stabilisation Commission was repeated in the Economic Stabilisation Act of 1948, there have been no appointed members of the Commission since 1950, following a steady trend since 1947 towards loosening the restraints which had been accepted as part of the fuller wartime stabilisation programme. Fuller references to stabilisation measures are contained in the 1960 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

TRADE PRACTICES ACT 1958 — The Trade Practices Act 1958 provides machinery for the registration and investigation of certain trade practices and provides means whereby trade practices found to be contrary to the public interest may be regulated. A Trade Practices and Prices Commission was established in terms of section 3 of the Act, which provides for members of the Price Tribunal automatically to become members of the Commission, for the president of the Price Tribunal to become chairman of the Commission, and for the Governor-General, on the recommendation of the Minister of Industries and Commerce, from time to time to appoint additional members to the Commission who will automatically become members of the Price Tribunal also. A Commissioner of Trade Practices and Prices was also appointed. The functions of the Commission are to inquire into trade practices for the purpose of ascertaining whether any such practices are contrary to the public interest and to make orders requiring the amendment, discontinuance, or prohibiting the repetition of any such practices which it finds to be contrary to the public interest. There is a right of appeal to a Trade Practices Appeal Authority.

Agreements or arrangements must be registered where they come within the categories listed in section 19 (2) of the Trade Practices Act. This subsection contains some 16 clauses and aims at covering a wide range of trading agreements which, by reason of price maintenance, limitation of sales outlets, zoning, ring tendering, or through any of the other means mentioned, may operate in a manner inimical to public interest.

The Act came into force on 3 October 1958, and agreements or arrangements then in existence were required to be registered within three months of that date. The number of agreements which had been registered at 31 March 1961 was 818.

The Trade Practices and Prices Commission has held 11 public hearings. The goods and services covered were glazing contracts, wire mattresses, phonograph records, aerated waters, wire netting, hairdressing charges, pricing by master grocers' organisations, refusal by a trade association to admit a new member, funeral charges, electric lamps, and booksellers.

The Trade Practices Appeal Authority has dealt with appeals on the subjects of wire netting, hairdressing charges, and grocery prices (on several occasions).

For the most part the outcome of the inquiries was that the trade practices ceased. The Appeal Authority allowed the appeal in respect of two out of four grocers' associations, and the Commission declined to make an order in regard to the refusal by the trade association to admit a new member.

On electric lamps the Commission did not agree that the public would be better off in the long run if the fixed pricing procedure was forbidden and exercised its discretion in favour of the industry. However, the Commission required the scheme of preferential discounts to be abandoned and the savings passed on to the consumer.

On the booksellers' inquiry the Commission found that the whole purpose of the agreement was to reduce competition and it had been effective in doing so. Accordingly the booksellers were ordered to discontinue the practice and not to revive it in any form.

The Trade Practices Act has been examined in the light of a useful period of operation, and the Trade Practices Amendment Act 1961 has been enacted. The salient features of the Amendment Act are that the title of the Commissioner is changed to Examiner; that compulsory registration of all agreements relating to trade practices is no longer required; and that the wording of section 18 has been altered to remove any misgivings that the Commission prejudged the case before holding an inquiry.

CONSUMER COUNCIL — A Consumer Council, whose functions are to protect and promote the interest of consumers of goods and services, was established under section 8 of the Finance Act 1959. The chairman and members of the Council were appointed by the Minister of Industries and Commerce, who also approved the membership of four district consumer committees on a regional basis corresponding with New Zealand's four university districts. The district committees work in close liaison with the parent body, the Consumer Council.

A conference was held in September 1959 to enlist the support of those organisations interested in consumer welfare. Citizens may become associate members of Consumer Service on payment of a fee of 10s. a year, which entitles them to receive copies of a quarterly magazine, information broadsheets, newsletters, and other assistance from the organisation. By April 1961, 18,500 persons had joined Consumer Service. Those associate members who wish to take a more active part in the work of the Service may become members of local consumers' associations which have been formed in several centres.

MONETARY AND ECONOMIC COUNCIL — A Monetary and Economic Council has been established under the Monetary and Economic Council Act 1961 to report on the extent to which stability in prices and other economic objectives are being achieved.

PRICE STATISTICS — Actual prices of many goods and services at various levels are collected periodically by the Department of Statistics. The fields covered are retail prices, wholesale prices, export prices, import prices, share prices, and wool prices. In the case of retail and wholesale prices, direct inquiry is made, export and import prices (or strictly, unit values) being mainly derived from trade statistics, share prices from records of the stock exchanges, and wool prices from the New Zealand Wool Commission. In addition, average prices of many materials and products of manufacture are available from the statistics of industrial production. Some retail prices are given in the following table, and a wider coverage is published in the annual Report on Prices, Wages, and Labour Statistics; the chief use made of the prices collected, however, is in the compilation of price index numbers. These are, fundamentally, weighted averages of price ratios, the weighting being so arranged that the index numbers give a general indication of price movements in the field covered. The usual technique employs fixed weights with, however, provision for revision of the weighting pattern at suitable intervals.

Retail Prices — New Zealand retail prices (weighted average prices over 21 towns) at 15 November 1961 of a number of the commodities which enter into the Consumers' Price Index are shown hereunder.

ItemUnitPrice
  £s.d
Milk, fresh deliveredpint004.65
Butterlb020
Cheese, mildlb020.75
Bread28 oz loaf007.54
Flour25 lb bag066.36
Oatmeal5 lb bag052.47
Ricelb009.75
Sugar6 lb038.36
Honey1 lb carton023.33
Eggs (in carton)dozen0411.07
Tealb0610
Cocoa1/2 lb packet028.78
Coffee, pure, ground, looselb082.65
Jam, raspberry28 oz tin055.90
Salt5 lb bag021.83
Baked beans16 oz tin019.22
Tomato sauce10 oz bottle021.94
Tomato soup11 oz tin011.92
Milk powder, full cream2 1/2 lb tin079.52
Aerated water10 oz bottle007.94
Chocolate3 oz tablet013
Ice creampint block019.37
Appleslb012.44
Orangeslb013.98
Cabbagelb007.83
Carrotslb0011.59
Peaches, canned30 oz tin041.61
Peas, fresh, frozen10 oz packet024
Onionslb013.68
Potatoes, main croplb004.86
Beef—    
    Sirloinlb034.77
    Prime ribslb0210.05
    Rump steaklb044.15
    Blade steaklb031.26
    Mincelb029.22
    Corned silversidelb031.42
Mutton —    
    Leg, shank endlb026.33
    Forequarterlb014.65
    Chops, middle loinlb023.92
Pork —    
    Leglb035.96
    Loin chopslb038.18
Tripelb012.19
Sheep's liverlb030.12
Sheep's tongueeach006.38
Sausages, beeflb0110.49
Ham, cooked, slicedlb081.35
Bacon, sidelb0410.98
Tarakihi, filletslb030.50
Groper (Hapuku), pieceslb033.62
Sole or flounder, guttedlb033.23
Smoked fishlb031.45
Herrings, canned14 oz tin024.49
Men's —    
    Suit, ready madeeach2275
    Sports coat, ready madeeach12311
    Overcoat, woollen gabardineeach1448
    Overcoat, oilskineach922
    Trousers, workingpair156
Trousers, sportspair569
Shirt, negligeeach1186
Shirt, workingeach104
    Singlet, all wooleach11211
    Singlet, cotton, athleticeach0710
    Pullover, all wooleach11210
    Pyjamas, flannelettepair1109
    Socks, wool and nylonpair0108 1/2
    Hat, fur felteach2120
    Bathing costume, all wooleach11411
    Handkerchiefeach026
Boys' —    
    Sports coat, ready madeeach4178
    Trousers, shorts, tweedpair1157
    Raincoat, proofed cottoneach4186
    Shirt, grey flanneleach177
    Pullover, all wooleach1166
    3/4 hose, schoolpair0107 1/2
    School capeach0159 1/2
Women's —    
    Costume coat and skirt, ready madeeach18121
    Raincoat, woollen gabardineeach1554
    Skirt, worstedeach51211
    Cardigan, all wooleach3151
    Household frock, cotton printeach1163
    Stockings, fully fashioned nylonpair0108
    Stockings, fully fashioned pure silk, heavyweightpair0155 1/2
    Underslip, nyloneach2107
    Vest, silk and wooleachd135 1/2
    Panties, interlockpair089
    Nightdress, lockniteach1146
    Nightdress, Winceyetteeach1133
    Corseteach4311
    Brassiereeach150
Girls' —    
    Gym frock, sergeeach3160
    Blazer, all wooleach346
    Blouse, cotton, long sleeveseach0191 1/2
    Pyjamas, Winceyettepair151
    Bloomers, interlockpair061
    Stockings, lislepair0124 1/2
    Sockettes, stretch nylonpair068 1/2
    Beret, schooleach083 1/2
Infants' —    
    Nursery squaresdoz2108
    Baby wool1 oz029 1/2
Piece goods —    
    Wool-cotton mixtureyard097 1/2
    Velour coatingyard1108
    Figure printyard079 1/2
    Opaque nylonyard0129 1/2
    Rayonyard085
Wool, hand knitting1 oz027
Drapery —    
    Blankets, singlepair71110
    Sheets, singlepair282
    Towel, turkisheach099 1/2
    Tea towel, lineneach050 1/2
Men's —    
    Boots, heavypair454
    Shoes, heavypair379
    Shoes, lightpair4164
    Sandshoespair01310 1/2
    Slippers, leatherpair2210
    Shoe repairspair107
Boys' —    
    Football bootspair2149
    Shoes, heavypair2131
    Sandalspair11110
    Gumbootspair1140
    Shoe repairspair01510 1/2
Women's —    
    Shoes, heavypair442
    Shoes, lightpair487
    Slippers, feltpair147
    Shoe repairspair0148 1/2
Girls' —    
    Shoes, schoolpair237
    Shoes, lightpair277
    Shoe repairspair0114
Infants' —    
    Shoes, glace kidpair1310
Bedstead and rails, 4 ft. 6 in.each8127
Tallboy, four-drawereach1142
Mattress, 4 ft. 6 in. wireeach612
Mattress, 4 ft. 6 in. kapokeach1197
Mattress, 4 ft. 6 in. foam rubbereach26162
Pillow, 2 lb kapokeach0162 1/2
Child's coteach8114
Dining table, drawleafeach141211
Dining chaireach451
Sideboard, leadlighteach2460
Kitchen tableeach4411
Kitchen chaireach1115
Suite, upholsteredeach6017
Linoleum, inlaidyard11211
Carpet, Axminster, 27 in.yard2911
Feltex, marbled, 5 ft.yard293
Hammer, carpenter'seach1710
Spade, gardeneach1179
Forkeach178
Axe, 4 lbeach11811
Broom, hair and fibreeach0199 1/2
Mop, white cottoneach093 1/2
Scrubbing brusheach045 1/2
Bucket, galvanised, 12 in.each0104
Electric-light bulb, 60 watteach019
Pressure cooker, 10 1/4 pinteach7157
Saucepan, aluminium, 8 in.each145
Pie dish, enamel, 11 in.each081
Cup and saucer, tea size1/2 doz1411
Plate, 10 in.1/2 doz1511
Preserving jars, glass, quart sizedoz0153
Knives, table, stainless4 doz245
Forks, table, E.P.N.S. A11/2 doz1197
Doormat, coireach0119 1/2
Soap, laundry2.8 lb bar036
Soap powderstandard packet020
Detergentpacket018 1/2
Starch1 lb packet021
Kerosene26 oz bottle013 1/2
Boot polishmedium tin013
Household cleaning pastetin026
Toilet paperroll010
Lunch wrap75 ft. in centre023 1/2
Torch battery, dry celleach  11 1/2
Coal, domestic1/4 ton232
Cokecwt0124 1/2
Firewood (pine)bag057 1/2
Electric current (excluding water heating)1st 140 kWh0156 1/2
Electric current (including water heating)1st 380 kWh1122
Gas (cooking)-1600 cub. ft.127
Refrigeratoreach99100
Washing machineeach64154
Vacuum cleanereach2676
Radio receiving seteach19910
Electric radiatoreach5196
Electric jugeach323
Electric toastereach426
Electric ironeach4196
Electric razoreach9176
Lawnmower, hand typeeach7116
Sewing machineeach55100
Bicycle, men's sports roadstereach24156
Bicycle, tyreeach0185
Bicycle, tubeeach088
Perambulatoreach191510
Paint, lead, final coatgallon tin307
Wallpaper, Englishroll0114 1/2
Tennis racqueteach300
Tennis ballspair063
Meccano seteach250
Teddy beareach281
Attache case, fibreeach0176
Watch, wristlet, men'seach81210
Watch, repair feeeach1103
Alarm clockeach1116
Leather satcheleach1193
Cinema admissionseat030
Football admissionseat019 1/2
Football subscriptioneach0137
Golf green feeseach039
Library subscriptionper book008
Radio licenceeach1100
Dry cleaning, men's suitper suit0104
Laundering, sheeteach0011
Hair cut, meneach037
Hair cut, womeneach043 1/2
Hair seteach083
Permanent waveeach2100
Optician..603
Dental extractioneach107
Dental fillingeach01510 1/2
Denturesset24136
Medical (excess over Social Security) —    
    Consultation fee..0100
    Specialist's fee..136
    Private general hospitalper day1155
Union dues (annual subscription)per member1149
Face powder, block typeeach036
Vanishing cream2 oz jar0311
Lipstickeach046
Baby talcum powdertin024
Bobby pinscard of 10006
Toothbrusheach020
Toothpastelarge tube029
Toilet soapsmall cake008
Hair creamjar0311
Razor bladespacket of 10034
Aspirinpacket of 25019
Antiseptic healing creamtin030
Disinfectantbottle029
Popular bookeach036
Dictionaryeach066
Writing padeach016
Envelopespacket of 180010
Camera filmeach029
Developing and printing filmper film054
Tobacco2 oz046
Cigarettespacket of 10013
Petrolgallon034

International Comparisons — The two tables next following provide comparisons of retail and wholesale prices respectively between New Zealand and certain other countries. All the prices, which relate generally to the month of September 1961, have been converted into New Zealand currency. In the first table prices shown for the United States of America are exclusive of sales tax.

COMPARISON OF RETAIL PRICES OF BASIC FOODSTUFFS
ItemUnitNew Zealand (Average 21 Towns) September 1961Australia (Sydney) September 1961South Africa (Cape Town) September 1961Great Britain (London) September 1961Canada (Dominion Average) September 1961United States of America (Average 46 Large Cities) September 1961

* 1 3/4 lb.

† At price for 3 lb lots.

‡ Loose.

§ September Quarter, 1961.

| Sirloin.

¶ Cooking quality.

Source:

Australia: Commonwealth Statistician.

South Africa: Bureau of Census and Statistics.

Great Britain: New Zealand High Commissioner.

Canada: Dominion Bureau of Statistics.

U.S.A.: Monthly Labor Review.

  s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
Bread2 lb07 1/212 3/40103/4011 1/2*23211 3/4
Flour25 lb66 1/2156 1/21010 3/4121 3/4158 1/41911 1/4
Tealb61052 3/4796584 1/4.. 
Coffeelb82 3/4..787252 1/452 3/4 
Sugarlb07 3/408 3/405 1/20807 1/4010
Milk (fresh)quart09 1/416 1/2121517 3/423 1/4
Butterlb20310 1/2362849 1/255 1/2
Cheeselb20 3/4211 1/2211264552
Baconlb410 1/2511 1/242 1/236 1/2610 3/454 1/4
Pruneslb32..2821..211 3/4
Canned peaches30 oz tin41 1/227 3/42726 3/433 1/224
Beef, rib roastlb28 1/232§27 3/4|30511 3/458
Mutton, leglb2618§30 1/431050 1/2411 1/4
Pork —             
    Leglb36 1/442 1/4§32 1/440....
    Chopslb38 1/241 1/2§334851 1/265 1/4
Margarinelb18 27 3/421192320 3/4
COMPARISON OF WHOLESALE PRICES OF CERTAIN COMMODITIES
ItemUnitNew Zealand, August 1961*South Africa, May 1961Great Britain, September 1961Canada, September 1961United States of America, September 1961

* Priced once each quarter.

† Price excluding tax (including tax the price ranges from 1s. 5d. to 1s. 9 3/4d. according to the State).

Source:

South Africa: Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.

Great Britain: The Economist — Intelligence Unit.

Canada: Prices and Price Indexes — Dominion Bureau of Statistics.

U.S.A.: Survey of Current Business.

  £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Wheatbushel013601610 3/40102 3/40125 3/40170
Oatsbushel086..067079 3/4060 3/4
Flourton131703820376546424087
Sugarcwt3452893622130389
Butterlb0110 1/2032022 3/4045044 3/4
Cheeselb018 1/2026020 3/4..0211 1/2
Motor spiritsgallon0211 3/4..041..0010 3/4

RETAIL PRICES INDEX NUMBERS — An historical survey of retail prices in New Zealand will be found on pages 1007–1016 of the 1947–49 Yearbook, including an account of the various series of official index numbers of retail prices in New Zealand which had been current up to 1949, while pages 998–1003 of the same volume provide a brief description of the original Consumers' Price Index initiated in that year. For fuller details, however, reference should be made to the Special Supplement to the October-November 1949 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics entitled “Retail Prices in New Zealand with Special Reference to the Consumers' Price Index”. This index was completely revised in 1955–56 and a full description of the revision was published as a special supplement to the November 1956 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics under the title “Consumers' Price Index, 1955 Revision”. Extracts from that publication were also reprinted as an appendix to the 1957 Yearbook (pages 1214–37). For the complete regimen however (i.e., the schedule of items included along with comparative weights) as well as for a continuation up to 1955 of the historical survey of retail prices, direct reference should be made to the 1956 special supplement.

Consumers' Price Index — A brief summary of the salient features of the index is as follows:

  1. The basic formula used is that of Laspeyres in its aggregative form.

  2. The index relates primarily to urban dwellers living as families.

  3. About 85 per cent of personal expenditure is covered.

  4. The number of items regularly priced is 375.

  5. The base is: 1952–53 consumption costed at 1955 prices.

  6. Sources of group and commodity weights were (1) the Census of Distribution 1952–53; (2) an analysis of household budgets collected privately in 1952–53; and (3) an extension of regularly compiled statistics of consumable goods. Where considered desirable the base weight assigned to selected items is broadened to allow for expenditure on kindred items not selected for pricing.

  7. Prices are collected by field officers in 23 towns, including two combined areas.

  8. A scientific sample of rented houses and fiats has been selected.

  9. Special techniques are employed for costs of owner-occupiers, for prices of seasonal fruits and vegetables, and for transport charges.

  10. Index numbers are compiled for all food and its subgroups at monthly intervals, and for all other groups and subgroups at quarterly intervals.

  11. Individual town index numbers are published for 21 towns, showing each town both on a common base and on its own base.

  12. To provide a continuous series the prerevision all-groups index has been recalculated on a 1955 base.

Costs of the following items are, for various reasons, outside the scope of the index: hotel accommodation, licensed and private; long-distance rail and bus transport; all sea and air transport; legal fees, commissions on sales, etc.; gambling; church and charitable donations; private and boarding school fees; music, elocution, dancing, etc., tuition fees; instalment credit interest and similar financial charges; personal accident insurance; funeral directors' charges; photographers' charges; wages of domestic servants, jobbing gardeners, etc.; fees to chiropractors, herbalists, chiropodists, etc.; sundry licences (marriage, dog, etc.); direct taxation; savings, including amortisations of capital debts, investments, and life insurance; spirits and wine; jewellery and florists' goods; durable goods other than replacements; private holiday transport; cost of removal to another locality.

In general the index assumes a constant pattern of expenditure for all towns, whether large cities or provincial centres, whether with warm or cool climates, etc. In transportation, however, the index compromises by setting up a constant base expenditure on transport for all towns, but allowing a varying dissection between the various modes of transport from town to town, according to local circumstances. Consequently there are no true “each on all” indices for transportation, but “each on each” indices can be used to produce “all on all” indices. (“Each on all” means an index for an individual town which uses as base the average for all towns, etc.)

Long-term Linked Series — The table immediately following provides a long-term linked series of retail price (all groups) index numbers combining the present Consumers' Price Index with its predecessors back to 1907, the whole being placed on a uniform base, i.e., the calendar year 1955.

RETAIL PRICES INDEX NUMBERS (ALL GROUPS)
LONG-TERM LINKED SERIES
Base: Calendar year 1955 (= 1000)
YearIndex Number
1907308
1908309
1909305
1910308
1911306
1912315
1913322
1914332
1915357
1916382
1917415
1918449
1919482
1920538
1921546
1922503
1923507
1924520
1925530
1926533
1927529
1928531
1929530
1930518
1931479
1932443
1933420
1934427
1935442
1936456
1937488
1938502
1939523
1940547
1941567
1942586
1943599
1944610
1945618
1946623
1947643
1948694
1949706
1950745
1951828
1952892
1953933
1954976
19551000
19561035
19571057
19581104
19591146
19601154
19611175

The following diagram shows the movement in retail prices index numbers over the period 1907–61, the data being drawn from the figures given in the preceding table (long-term linked series).

Consumers' Price Index Numbers — The tables which now follow relate to the current Consumers' Price Index only.

The first table supplies all-groups index numbers and index numbers of individual groups and subgroups for 21 towns combined in respect of the calendar years 1955–61 and for each of the four quarters of the years 1956–61. The group and subgroup weights are also shown as percentages of the base expenditure.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX — QUARTERLY INDEX NUMBERS (ALL GROUPS)
TWENTY-ONE TOWNS COMBINED
Base: Weighted average twenty-one towns, 1955 (= 1000)
 FoodHousingHousehold OperationApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Groups—       
    Percentages of base expenditure12.2615.4010.6015.438.7617.55100.00
Calendar year—       
    19551000100010001000100010001000
    1956105710551013999101610301035
    19571054111810381005107610551057
    19581071117910741022116011601104
    19591077123610941041124012731146
    19601092128611071063121312321154
    19611102134411181086121612521175
Quarter ended—       
    1956—31 March1015103210071001100910091013
            30 June104310481011998101510231027
            30 September1092106110161000101510421049
            31 December107810791018998102610461049
    1957—31 March102510981033998106910471041
            30 June1057111210351001107710561056
            30 September1066112410381009107610581063
            31 December1069113810441011108310611068
    1958—31 March1057115510491012109510631069
            30 June1069116910741019111410651080
            30 September1072118910861025120612641130
            31 December1085120310881031122612501137
    1959—31 March1075122010901030123412631139
            30 June1070123110901038123912741142
            30 September1078124110971045124413041154
            31 December1086125111011050124412501150
    1960—31 March1071126611081056122312371145
            30 June1068128111071061122312391147
            30 September1102129211051064120512261157
            31 December1128130411071069120212281168
    1961—31 March1098131811091074120412351163
            30 June1082132811131086121612391163
            30 September1111134311191090122212651181
            31 December1118138811291095122512691193
CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX — QUARTERLY INDEX NUMBERS (ALL GROUPS)
 FoodHousingHousehold Operation
Meat and FishFruits, Vegetables, and EggsOther FoodsRentHome OwnershipFuel and LightHome FurnishingsDomestic Supplies and Services
Subgroups—        
    Percentages of base expenditure8.248.0315.994.6610.743.204.702.70
Calendar year—        
    195510001000100010001000100010001000
    19569951231100210481058101510101016
    195710541105102910981126104210221059
    195811521067103011431195110410551073
    195911711073103111971253112910731091
    196011761109104112321309112810881114
    196111811126105013001363113311031125
Quarter ended—        
    1956—        
        31 March10081045100410241036101010031012
        30 June986119199710451050101210081014
        30 September9891375100210511065101710141017
        31 December9951312100310731082102210151020
    1957—        
        31 March9921091101010891101103910151056
        30 June10281141102910971118104310161057
        30 September10801098104211031133104310231059
        31 December11151088103511031153104410331065
    1958—        
        31 March11011066102911161172104410421067
        30 June11511061103011251187110810521071
        30 September11731047103211621202113210601076
        31 December11831094103011671218113310641079
    1959—        
        31 March11811059102911861235113410661079
        30 June11601058102911961247113310661083
        30 September11631083103112021258112810771093
        31 December11811091103412031272112010831109
    1960—        
        31 March11671042103712141289113310881113
        30 June11441045104012301303113010891114
        30 September11751149104112421314112410861114
        31 December12201201104412421331112410911114
    1961—        
        31 March11851112104712501347112910901118
        30 June11651063105012591357113010991118
        30 September11711167105112841368113111101121
        31 December12051161105214061381114411121143
CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX — QUARTERLY INDEX NUMBERS (ALL GROUPS)
 ApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
ClothingFootwearPublic TransportPrivate TransportTobacco and AlcoholOther SuppliesOther Services
Subgroups—        
    Percentages of base expenditure13.062.372.486.288.534.904.12100.00
Calendar year        
    195510001000100010001000100010001000
    19569921039100710201010103510661035
    19579921078112210581014106411311057
    195810051115114011681196108311801104
    195910181164117512661396110612161146
    196010301242120312171285113012451154
    196110511282121812161272115313281175
Quarter ended—        
    1956—        
        31 March996101099910131000101810161013
        30 June9911039100810171013103110341027
        30 September9931039100810181013103911041049
        31 December9891048101310311013105111081049
    1957—        
        31 March9881054111310521013105111101041
        30 June9881076111310631014106411321056
        30 September9951090112210581014107011361063
        31 December9961092114010601014107111471068
    1958—        
        31 March9961099114010771014107711471069
        30 June10031108114011031014107911541080
        30 September10071123114012321394108512081130
        31 December10131130114212591361108912121137
    1959—        
        31 March10121129114312701384109312151139
        30 June10191141117112661406110612021142
        30 September10191183118612671458111012141154
        31 December10231203119912611335111612351150
    1960—        
        31 March10271215120112311298112312451145
        30 June10281243120112311298113012451147
        30 September10301251120612051272113012461157
        31 December10341260120412011272113812451168
    1961—        
        31 March10391266120412031272114112711163
        30 June10521276121112171271115412711163
        30 September10541287122412211272115713801181
        31 December10581300123412221273116113881193

In the table which follows, annual figures for the food group are shown for all index towns combined in respect to the years 1955–61 and each of the 15 months ended December 1961.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX — MONTHLY INDEX NUMBERS (FOOD), TWENTY-ONE TOWNS COMBINED
Base: Weighted average twenty-one towns, 1955 (= 1000)
PeriodMeat and FishFruits, Vegetables, and EggsOther FoodsAll Food
Calendar Year —    
    19551000100010001000
    1956955123110021057
    19571054110510291054
    19581152106710301071
    19591171107310311077
    19601176110910411092
    19611181112610501102
Month —    
    1960 — October1215116910431118
                November1230125010451144
                December1216118410441123
    1961 — January1197114610461110
                February1184111010471098
                March1172107910471087
                April1175106810491086
                May1165105710501081
                June1156106510501081
                July1157112310511096
                August1164123810511126
                September1191114110511109
                October1213110810511107
                November1216118510511127
                December1185118910531121

The following tables distinguish individual towns and groupings of towns, but the subgroup indices are omitted; the periods covered are the calendar years 1955, 1960, and 1961 and the separate quarters of 1961. Attention is called, however, to the two-fold method of presentation: in the first place current prices in each town are compared with prices in the same town during the base period; in the second, current prices in each town are compared with average prices over all the 21 towns in the base period.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX — GROUP INDEX NUMBERS FOR INDIVIDUAL TOWNS AND GROUPINGS OF TOWNS
Base: Weighted average each town, and grouping, separately, 1955 (= 1000)
TownFoodHousing
AnnualAnnualFirst QuarterSecond QuarterThird QuarterFourth QuarterAnnualAnnualAnnualFirst QuarterSecond QuarterThird QuarterFourth QuarterAnnual
19551960196119611961196119611955196019611961196119611961
Auckland10001103111610941127113611181000127513081315133713961339
Wellington-Hutt10001088108310711102111210921000129513341342135213991357
Christchurch10001112112711031128112311201000129313301340135514031357
Dunedin10001088110110941127113011131000127112901299130813371308
      Four chief centres10001099110810901121112711111000128313171325134113911344
Hamilton10001063104910381069107610571000131913491358138714301381
Gisborne10001088109510641088111810911000131413521362137814111376
Napier-Hastings10001079107410691092112110891000127513001316132613681328
New Plymouth10001076108510641090110410861000130413211368138014221373
Wanganui10001079108310721090110010861000130013251335134113761344
Palmerston North10001065106110631088108610751000128413151326134113451332
Nelson10001092110810951110111311061000126812971308132113621322
Timaru10001099111110891109111211051000132213331356136714211370
Invercargill10001102109510781099110910951000126012961292130313371307
    Nine provincial towns10001079107810661090110110841000129413211335135013851348
Whangarei10001078109810731094112110971000129413401346135313901357
Tauranga10001091109810711102110810951000132513811392138614251396
Rotorua10001074108010851099111210941000127512911301130813491312
Masterton10001078108210791096110810911000127312971309133813571325
Blenheim10001093109311051120111611081000133113791387139514371400
Greymouth10001085109810771108110710981000123412471256126413191272
Ashburton10001086108210791117111310971000131213301339135014001355
Oamaru10001088109210791098111110951000127012971315132413651325
      Eight other towns10001083109110791103111210961000128413141324133313741336
      Twenty-one towns combined10001092109810821111111811021000128613181328134313881344
TownHousehold OperationApparel
AnnualAnnualFirst QuarterSecond QuarterThird QuarterFourth QuarterAnnualAnnualAnnualFirst QuarterSecond QuarterThird QuarterFourth QuarterAnnual
19551960196119611961196119611955196019611961196119611961
Auckland10001102109711051110111311061000104210491066106810681063
Wellington-Hutt10001115112311251136114111311000106510831093109611111096
Christchurch10001103110811141116115211221000107610861099110211171101
Dunedin10001128115411551156117411601000108811011107110911031105
        Four chief centres10001108111211171123113511221000105910711084108610921083
Hamilton10001105110411061112111911101000108310941104110511121104
Gisborne10001120109110921096109910951000108210941104111111231108
Napier-Hastings10001114111611221130113611261000105010611081108010921078
New Plymouth10001113111611181125112811221000107010761083108510901083
Wanganui10001073107610781097110510891000108910991109112411261115
Palmerston North10001104110611101118112311141000107710941104110911081104
Nelson10001098108410881092109610901000105610701079110011031088
Timaru10001124113311381138115311401000104510551059106510951069
Invercargill10001098109210921097110810971000105810711089109110771082
    Nine provincial towns10001105110411071114112011111000106910801092109711021093
Whangarei10001085109110991103111111011000104510601078107910811075
Tauranga10001087108710911094109810921000109011001082108610851088
Rotorua10001125112611291129113411301000108911131129113611501132
Masterton10001101110211011109112011081000106710771087109910931089
Blenheim10001068107310751077110610831000105310601067106710581063
Greymouth10001115111611201124114711271000105710761084108210891083
Ashburton10001084108410861089110810921000103910611068107410921074
Oamaru10001105110411091110112811131000108410921105110811221107
        Eight other towns10001099110111051108112111091000106610811089109310981090
        Twenty-one towns combined10001107110911131119112911181000106310741086109010951086
TownTransportationMiscellaneous
AnnualAnnualFirst QuarterSecond QuarterThird QuarterFourth QuarterAnnualAnnualAnnualFirst QuarterSecond QuarterThird QuarterFourth QuarterAnnual
19551960196119611961196119611955196019611961196119611961
Auckland10001229122312311236124212331000123112311233125612591245
Wellington-Hutt10001233122412321247125512391000123112421247127212721258
Christchurch10001190118011901193119411891000122312201225126112721245
Dunedin10001208120012301236123812261000124512421243126812741257
      Four chief centres10001220121212231230123512251000123112331236126312661250
Hamilton10001206119612081211121112071000123112311233125612591245
Gisborne10001196118411961200120011951000122612371242126712671253
Napier-Hastings10001196117911921195119511901000122612371243127312771257
New Plymouth10001203119312041208120812031000123612461251127612761262
Wanganui10001204119312041208120812031000123512461252127712771263
Palmerston North10001215120112131216121712121000123512461252127612761263
Nelson10001208119712081211121112071000123212291234127012781253
Timaru10001211119912111214121512101000123412311235127112781254
Invercargill10001191117812011206120811981000124612431244126812751257
    Nine provincial towns10001204119112041208120812031000123312391243127012731256
Whangarei10001210119812091212121212081000124012401242126512681254
Tauranga10001209119512081212121212071000123512361238126112631249
Rotorua10001182117!11811185118511801000124012411243126612681254
Masterton10001203119012031207120712021000123912461252127712771263
Blenheim10001190117611881191119111871000123712341238127512831257
Greymouth10001173116211731182118311751000123212291234127012781253
Ashburton10001213119912131216121712111000123212301234127112791253
Oamaru10001223121112241228122912231000124512421243126812741257
      Eight other towns10001198118511971202120211961000123712371241126912731255
      Twenty-one towns combined10001213120412161222122512161000123212351239126512691252
Base: Weighted average twenty-one towns, 1955 (= 1000)
TownFoodHousing
AnnualAnnualFirst QuarterSecond QuarterThird QuarterFourth QuarterAnnualAnnualAnnualFirst QuarterSecond QuarterThird QuarterFourth QuarterAnnual
19551960196119611961196119611955196019611961196119611961
Auckland9981102111410921125113411161018129813311338136114211363
Wellington-Hutt10121102109610841116112611051047135513961405141514641420
Christchurch9901101111610931117111211091000129313301340135514031357
Dunedin977106310761069110111051088984125112701279128813161288
      Four chief centres9981097110610881118112411091018130613401349136514161367
Hamilton1023108810741062109410981082958126412921300132913701323
Gisborne997108510921061108411151088952125012871296131213431309
Napier-Hastings958103410281024104610741043940119812221237124612861248
New Plymouth987106310721050107610901072972126812851330134213821335
Wanganui1014109410981086110511151101932121112351244125012821253
Palmerston North1019108510811083110911061095984126312941305131913231310
Nelson985107510911078109310961089997126412931304131713581318
Timaru987108510961074109410971090970128212931315132613781328
Invercargill10131116110910911113112311091006126813041300131113451315
    Nine provincial towns999107810771065108911001083966125012761290130513391303
Whangarei1044112511471120114211711145981126913141320132713631331
Tauranga10281122112911011133113911261014134314011411140514451416
Rotorua1043112011271132114611601141982125112671277128413241288
Masterton1005108410871084110211141097981124912721283131313311300
Blenheim974106510641077109110871080966128513321339134713881351
Greymouth1007109311061085111611151106975120312161224123212861239
Ashburton1004109110871083112111171102944123812561264127413221279
Oamaru983107010741061108010921077940119312181236124512831245
        Eight other towns1017110111091097112111301114977125412831293130213411305
        Twenty-one towns combined10001092109810821111111811021000128613181328134313881344
TownHousehold OperationApparel
AnnualAnnualFirst QuarterSecond QuarterThird QuarterFourth QuarterAnnualAnnualAnnualFirst QuarterSecond QuarterThird QuarterFourth QuarterAnnual
19551960196119611961196119611955196019611961196119611961
Auckland10051108110311111116111911121032107510831100110211021097
Wellington-Hutt994110811151118112911341124985104910671076107910951079
Christchurch988109110951101110311381109971104410541067107010851069
Dunedin937105610811082108311001086999108711001107110811021104
        Four chief centres9911099110211071113112411121004106410751088109110971088
Hamilton975107810771079108410911083975105610671077107810841076
Gisborne1114124812161217122112241220998107910921102110911211106
Napier-Hastings1049116911711177118611921182997104710571077107610881075
New Plymouth1005111811221123113011331127989105810631071107310781071
Wanganui1022109710991102112111291113993108210921102111611181107
Palmerston North1021112711291133114211461138997107510911101110611051101
Nelson1006110610911095109911031097985104010541062108310861071
Timaru9731094110211081107112211101016106210721076108211131086
Invercargill10281129112311241128114011291011107010831101110310891094
    Nine provincial towns1017112411221125113311391130994106210741085109010951086
Whangarei10201107111311211126113311231009105510701088108910911084
Tauranga925100510051009101110151010993108310921075107810771080
Rotorua1033116111631166116611711167946103010521068107410881071
Masterton10361141114211111149116011481000106710771087109910931089
Blenheim10351106111111131115114611211060111611231130113011211126
Greymouth976108910891093109811201100988104510631071106910761070
Ashburton1070116011591162116511851168984102210441050105610741056
Oamaru1047115711561161116311811165972105410621074107710901076
        Eight other towns1011111211141118112111341122990105610711079108210871080
        Twenty-one towns combined10001107110911131119112911181000106310741086109010951086
TownTransportationMiscellaneous
AnnualAnnualFirst QuarterSecond QuarterThird QuarterFourth QuarterAnnualAnnualAnnualFirst QuarterSecond QuarterThird QuarterFourth QuarterAnnual
19551960196119611961196119611955196019611961196119611961
Auckland10001229122312311236124212331002123412341236125912611247
Wellington-Hutt1000123312241232124712551239998122912401245127012701256
Christchurch10001190118011901193119411891006123112281232126912801252
Dunedin1000120812001230123612381226988123012281229125312591242
        Four chief centres10001220121212231230123512251000123112331237126312671250
Hamilton10001206119612081211121112071002123412341236125912611247
Gisborne1000119611841196120012001195998122412341240126512651251
Napier-Hastings1000119611791192119511951190998122412351241127112741255
New Plymouth1000120311931204120812081203999123412441249127412741260
Wanganui1000120411931204120812081203998123312441250127412741261
Palmerston North1000121512011213121612171212998123312441250127412741260
Nelson10001208119712081211121112071006124012371241127812861260
Timaru10001211119912111214121512101004123912361240127612831259
Invercargill1000119111781201120612081198988123112281229125312591242
    Nine provincial towns1000120411911204120812081203999123212371242126912711255
Whangarei10001210119812091212121212081002124312431245126812701257
Tauranga10001209119512081212121212071002123812381240126312661252
Rotorua10001182117111811185118511801002124312431245126812711257
Masterton1000120311901203120712071202988123712441250127412741261
Blenheim10001190117611881191119111871006124412411246128312901265
Greymouth10001173116211731182118311751006124012371241127812861260
Ashburton10001213119912131216121712111006124012371242127912861261
Oamaru1000122312111224122812291223988123012271228125212591242
        Eight other towns10001198118511971202120211961002124012391243127112751257
        Twenty-one towns combined10001213120412161222122512161000123212351239126512691252
TownAll Groups
Base: Weighted Average Each Town, and Grouping, Separately, 1955 (= 1000)Base: Weighted Average Twenty-one Towns Base 1955 (= 1000)
AnnualAnnualFirst QuarterSecond QuarterThird QuarterFourth QuarterAnnualAnnualAnnualFirst QuarterSecond QuarterThird QuarterFourth QuarterAnnual
 19551960196119611961196119611955196019611961196119611961
Auckland10001153116311611181119411751008116311721171119012031184
Wellington-Hutt10001158116711681187120111811008116711761177119612111190
Christchurch1000116011711170118712021183992115111621161117811921173
Dunedin1000115911691172119011971182981113711471151116711751160
        Four chief centres10001156116611661185119811791002115911681168118712001181
Hamilton1000115111511152117211821164995114511461146116611761158
Gisborne10001157116511601176119311731003116111681163117911961177
Napier-Hastings1000114411491155117111891166981112311271134114911671144
New Plymouth1000115311611164118011921174990114211491153116911801163
Wanganui1000115111581160117611851169995114511521154117011791164
Palmerston North10001147115411601177117711671005115311591166118311831173
Nelson1000114911581159117711861170994114311511152116911791163
Timaru1000116111671166118211991178991115111571156117211881168
Invercargill10001152115411531167117611631008116011631162117611851172
    Nine provincial towns1000115111561158117511851168995114511501153116911801163
Whangarei10001145116111581171118711691015116311781176118912051187
Tauranga1000116311741166118111891181002116611771169118411921180
Rotorua10001150115811651176118911721006115811651172118311971179
Masterton10001147115411581176118311681002115011561161117811851170
Blenheim1000115411611169118211901176999115311601169118111901175
Greymouth1000114111481146116511781159995113511421140115911721153
Ashburton1000114811511154117611891168999114711501153117511881167
Oamaru1000115611601162117511911172984113711421144115711721154
        Eight other towns10001150115811591174118611691002115211601161117611881171
        Twenty-one towns combined10001154116311631181119311751000115411631163118111931175

WHOLESALE PRICES — Wholesale Prices Index numbers have been available in New Zealand since 1920, when index numbers covering prices of a range of commodities for the years 1891 to 1919 were published on a base equating the average of the five years 1909–13 to 1000. This series was revised in 1925, the revision being carried back to 1913, and again in 1937, when the base was changed to 1926–30 (= 1000). In this latter index commodities were classified by their physical characteristics and priced, as far as possible, in their least processed state.

Revision of Wholesale Prices Index — In 1959 a full-scale revision of the Wholesale Prices Index was completed, a description of this revision being published as a special supplement to the October 1959 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics under the title “Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices”. A brief summary of the salient features of this revision appears in the 1960 Yearbook (pages 992–994).

The index is not a single wholesale prices index, but a series of price index numbers related to broad groupings of the inter-industry transactions distinguished in the Department's input-output tables for the New Zealand economy.* Thus each of the index numbers relates to a group of commodity transactions occurring at certain price-levels between defined sectors in the economy. Capital goods as well as goods for current consumption or usage are represented in the various commodity flows.

Wholesale Prices Index Numbers — The table which follows is divided into two parts; the first covers “input” prices and the second “output” prices. Within the first part of the table there is a break-up into goods for industrial use (analysed by sector destinations), for consumption, and for export. In each flow imported goods are distinguished from locally produced goods. In this part of the table all prices are inclusive of sales tax and excise duties and net of subsidies; the prices for exports are overseas market prices brought to an f.o.b. basis, i.e., their “input” prices to other countries.

* See Report on the Inter-industry Study of the New Zealand Economy for the Year 1954–55, Department of Statistics, Wellington, 1959.

In the second part of the table the broad producing sectors are distinguished. Here the prices of their outputs are used. They are taken before the addition of sales tax and excise duties or the deduction of subsidies. The prices for export meat and dairy products are those payable to producers under the different stabilisation and minimum export-meat-prices schemes.

The primary produce processing industries group comprises the two major industries, meat export works and dairy factories, processing farm products mainly for export.

The expression base for the index is the calendar year 1958, and the table shows the index numbers in respect of the calendar years 1958–61 and each of the four quarters of 1959, 1960 and 1961.

WHOLESALE PRICES INDEX
Base: 1958 (= 1000)
Index Numbers of Commodity Prices by Sectors of Destination*
PeriodPrices Paid for Commodities Used by —All Commodities
Domestic IndustryConsumersDomestic Industry and ConsumersOther Countries (Exported)
ImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotal
Calendar year —
    19581000100010001000100010001000100010001000100010001000
    1959101599810041055103410391025101110151141102510391035
    19601008101810151019102810261010102210181139101010471038
    19611012100510081025103410321015101510151023101510171016
Quarter ended —
    1959 — 31 March10139879951059103210381024100210091079102410191020
                  30 June10189899981059102210311028100010081106102810231024
                  30 September1016102010191061104710501027102910291197102710651056
                  31 December101299810021043103710381020101110141183102010481041
    1960 — 31 March1005101410111027101810201010101510141216101010591047
                  30 June1008102510201024101710191012102310191146101210491040
                  30 September1008101610131010103010261008102110171124100810431034
                  31 December1009101810151016104710401011102810231070101110371030
    1961 — 31 March1009100510061019102310221012101110111052101210201018
                  30 June1013101110121021102310221015101510151035101510191018
                  30 September101110121012102510421038101510221020986101510141015
                  31 December101499410001034104910461019101310141018101910141015
PeriodPrices Paid for Commodities Used by Domestic Industry
Primary IndustriesPrimary Produce Processing IndustriesOther Manufacturing Industries
ImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotal
FarmingAll Other IndustriesOther Manufacturing IndustriesAll Other Industries

* The prices used in this part of the table are those payable by the using or consuming sectors, i.e., including indirect taxation and net after subsidies; the export prices are f.o.b. equivalent of overseas market prices.

Calendar year —
    195810001000100010001000100010001000100010001000
    1959996927101097210219789801008101310301014
    196098695810149851007100510051006102410661025
    19611012948101698610459409431006102610691026
Quarter ended —
    1959 — 31 March1009947101198310399559581001997993998
                  30 June1003944101198110289519531012101710001011
                  30 September99391510109661015103510341010101610851029
                  31 December978903100995810029739741006102210401018
    1960 — 31 March9689211017966967101310121005102210531021
                  30 June97293710159731013103710361009102710671027
                  30 September99698010139969939819811006102310811028
                  31 December10099961011100410549889901003102310651023
    1961 — 31 March1019978101499910909449491001102610621021
                  30 June1014974101699710479549571009102610771030
                  30 September1007944101898410209519531005102710911031
                  31 December1008899101596310259119151008102610491022
PeriodPrices Paid for Commodities Used by Domestic Industry
Building and ConstructionTransport and CommunicationOther Industries
ImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotal
Calendar year —
    1958100010001000100010001000100010001000
    1959103210151021103810391039101610171017
    196010421030103498710421002100310271020
    19611052105610549801051999100910421033
Quarter ended —
    1959 — 31 March103310121020104010311038101510201019
                  30 June102610141018104210311039101710161017
                  30 September103010141019104310461044101610171017
                  31 December103810221028102910481034101410151015
    1960 — 31 March10381025103099210511008100510181015
                  30 June10371027103198910511006100310231018
                  30 September104510311036985103299899910311023
                  31 December1047103410399811034995100510341026
    1961 — 31 March1052104810509731035990100610251020
                  30 June1051105610549751039993100710281022
                  30 September10521058105698210591003101110511040
                  31 December10511061105799010721013101210641049
Index Numbers of Commodity Prices by Sector of Origin
PeriodPrices Received for Commodities Produced in New Zealand
Output ofUsed by
FarmingOther Primary IndustriesPrimary Produce Processing IndustriesOther Manufacturing IndustriesPublic UtilitiesAll Domestic Industry§Industry and ConsumersOther Countries (Exported)

* The prices used in this part of the table are those payable by the using or consuming sectors, i.e., including indirect taxation and net after subsidies; the export prices are f.o.b. equivalent of overseas market prices.

† Includes wholesale and retail trade, banking and finance, public utilities, and services.

‡The prices used in this part of the table are those receivable by producers, i.e., before addition of indirect taxation or deduction of consumer or user subsidies; prices for dairy produce and meat are those payable to producers under the schemes to stabilise returns from year to year.

§Comprises the outputs of the five sectors mentioned in this part of the table.

Calendar year —
    195810001000100010001000100010001000
    195910101005100010101041100910011036
    196010431052103710251035103410201079
    196199711139411038104410091014992
Quarter ended —
    1959 — 31 March96699698910021045990990990
                  30 June9801008972100510459929881009
                  30 September10691007102410171039103510191087
                  31 December10251011101410181035102010081058
    1960 — 31 March10471024107310221037104010131129
                  30 June10531059106510241036104210211113
                  30 September10341059102410261034102910201059
                  31 December1037106698810281033102510271016
    1961 — 31 March1005106795910331038101210101017
                  30 June1004111394910371038101210141006
                  30 September100211359101041103810071021961
                  31 December97711359431039106110061012986

Long-term Linked Series — Since the index incorporates a major change in construction method, linking to obtain a long-term series is not very satisfactory. Nevertheless, some such link will be required occasionally in making longer-term surveys of price movements. Accordingly, in the table which follows, the previous index, converted to base 1958 (= 1000), has been linked to the component “Commodities used by Domestic Industry and Consumers”. The subdivisions “Imported” and “Home Produced” commodities have similarly been linked. When using these linked series it should be borne in mind that the price sources and weighting pattern of the current index are quite different from its predecessors.

WHOLESALE PRICES INDEX NUMBERS — LONG-TERM LINKED SERIES
Base: Calendar year 1958 (= 1000)
YearImportedHome ProducedTotal
1913268254263
1914270274271
1915274319292
1916312331320
1917379360372
1918481389444
1919504407465
1920626455557
1921555463518
1922461392433
1923412393405
1924406407406
1925400410404
1926375393382
1927352380363
1928344385361
1929341385358
1930335370349
1931328326327
1932326307319
1933345301327
1934341310329
1935342335340
1936342344343
1937371370371
1938375378376
1939379403389
1940448412434
1941503436476
1942552456514
1943609461549
1944629472565
1945638481575
1946636489577
1947650523598
1948730574667
1949714586662
1950758667721
1951883777840
1952996842933
1953947891924
1954904932915
1955920935926
1956944985960
1957968977972
1958100010001000
1959102510111015
1960101010221018
1961101510151015

EXPORT PRICES — The Export Prices Index was revised in 1961. The methods used in compiling the index, in particular the system of fixed and integrated commodity/destination weights introduced in 1954, were retained, hut the weights were recalculated. The 1959 exports, being the latest then available, were analysed in detail to obtain the percentage weight for each priced commodity/destination, unpriced commodities being allotted to or apportioned over related commodities. Where necessary the figures were modified to take account of later trends or of unusual circumstances reflected in the statistics, e.g., the temporary diversion of almost all beef exports to the United States of America owing to the relatively high prices in that market. These weights were then translated into a new set at 1960 prices, making the weighting base for the index (modified) 1959 quantities at 1960 prices.

The principal changes in the revised weights reflect: (a) the relatively greater production increases in meat and wool than in dairy produce over recent years; (b) the development of the United States of America as the major market for beef exports; (c) the decline in the proportions of the total exports of wool, pelts, and skins consigned to the United Kingdom; and (d) the growth of the forest products industry.

As with the 1954 revision, the wool prices used are derived from the clean, on-floor prices used in the Wool Price Index brought to an f.o.b. basis. When the bulk purchasing of dairy produce by the British Government ended in 1955, the unit values for dairy produce exported to the United Kingdom obtained from the export statistics (and based on the contract prices) were replaced by realised selling prices brought to an f.o.b. basis, supplied by courtesy of the Dairy Production and Marketing Board. These are suitably lagged so as to represent the prices realised for the produce exported during the calendar period for which the index is being prepared. Meat exporting is conducted by numerous private operators, so that with the cessation of bulk purchasing by Britain in 1954 there was no central organisation capable of reporting realised selling prices, and the unit values from the export statistics had to be accepted as the best “prices” available. This source is also used for the “prices” of other commodities. With the exception, therefore, of dairy produce consigned to the United Kingdom the prices for those goods which are consigned for sale in overseas markets represent generally the ruling prices in those markets at time of export rather than the realised prices on sale.

A description of earlier indices may be found in the 1960 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

In the following table are given export price index numbers for calendar years and for years ended 30 June.

EXPORT PRICES — INDEX NUMBERS
Base: Export prices during 1960 (= 1000)
PeriodButterCheeseAll Dairy ProduceMeatWoolMeat, Wool, and By-productsAll Pastoral and Dairy Produce
Calendar year —
    1950981720911627134510581010
    19511070770992695163412801186
    195211428401062811918891947
    195312129041124880110610231057
    195412328801123950111610521075
    1955126993111421080111310841103
    19561035120410801056109910761077
    19579557038921097121311481064
    19588218478431046857929901
    19591212121512019709229521033
    19601000100010001000100010001000
    1961875966905943950949936
Year ended 30 June —
    1950946708882603871783815
    19511047750965650199814231274
    195211038011025758948915951
    19531185886110384310629831023
    195412349181140908114110531082
    1955119480310621037112110761072
    19561231112411791070105410571098
    195798710009941054124811481098
    19587986507701059953990918
    1959971116110291030843921956
    1960119611021159953103110081058
    1961898982927990948965954
PeriodAll FoodsAll Non-foodsAll Groups
To United KingdomTo Other CountriesTo All Countries
Calendar year —     
    1950784130691012041003
    19518591614105714331177
    1952958932941961947
    195310181102103710901053
    195410461109107110761073
    195511131088113410371102
    195610691082108910421075
    19579851162104210951059
    1958936854922858902
    1959109993710689511030
    196010001000100010001000
    1961927953927954939
Year ended 30 June —     
    1950761884786870813
    19518241861110715891260
    195291210079201021952
    19539921056100810431019
    195410371132106311091078
    195510511097108010511071
    195611281045113010141093
    195710211195108311211095
    1958901938910934917
    19591031853999864955
    196010671036106410341054
    1961959953952961956

The fact that the calendar year does not coincide with the farm production year is especially significant in New Zealand, since the great bulk of export goods is farm produce. For a number of purposes the portion of the foregoing tables relative to years ended 30 June is the more important, in that the figures relate to the farming year.

The next table shows export prices index numbers for all pastoral and dairy produce groups and for all groups combined in respect of each year from 1914 to 1960.

Base: Export Prices during 1960 (= 1000)
YearIndex Numbers
All Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll Groups Combined

* Upward trend in 1949 marked by appreciation in August 1948 of New Zealand pound to parity with sterling.

1914283283
1915323321
1916384380
1917431430
1918438438
1919466463
1920475472
1921451449
1922349353
1923417416
1924466462
1925491486
1926396396
1927394393
1928439435
1929421419
1930327329
1930247253
1932224230
1933222230
1934277283
1935268276
1936310315
1937366369
1938336342
1939328335
1940381386
1941389396
1942401406
1943418423
1944440446
1945476481
1946521526
1947659661
1948733734
1949711710*
195010101003
195111861177
1952947947
195310571053
195410751073
195511031102
195610771075
195710641059
1958901902
195910331030
196010001000
1961936939

The brisk demand for New Zealand wool displayed after the resumption of auction sales in September 1946, and greatly heightened during 1950 and the early part of 1951, resulted in the peak index numbers reached in 1951. Since then wool prices have fallen away, and low prices for dairy produce in recent years have combined to reduce the index.

IMPORT PRICES — Since 1949 the Import Prices Index has been derived from chained Fisher “Ideal” indexes. In this method two price indexes are calculated for each year on base previous year, one using the quantitative weighting pattern of the previous year and the other the quantitative weighting pattern of the latest year. The geometric mean of these two becomes the definitive index for the year, on base previous year, and is linked on to the index for that year on some earlier expression base. In the revision made in 1961 this method has been retained. A major change made at the 1961 review is that as from 1959 the price index is designed to reflect changes in the true c.i.f. cost of imports. Previously the calculations were based solely on the current domestic values of imports in the countries of origin as verified by the Customs Department. Over a half of the total tonnage of imports is made up of fertilisers and mineral oils and fuels, with a low value per unit of weight, for which freights constitute a substantial proportion of the total c.i.f. cost. In a further range of items from salt, wheat, sugar, fresh fruits, and timber to iron and steel, pulp and paper, freights make up a significant proportion of the total c.i.f. cost. Consequently differential changes in prices and freight rates can result in current domestic valuation changes being only a poor indication of c.i.f. cost movements. For technical reasons the Customs Department is not able to record c.i.f. costs at the statistical item level, but c.i.f. costs as well as current domestic valuations are available at the level of the 54 major divisions. By measuring current domestic valuation price changes at the item level, and adjusting for changes in c.d.v. and c.i.f. valuation ratios at the divisional level, the index will now show more accurately than in the past, changes in the true cost of imports to the New Zealand economy.

The year 1959 has now been adopted as the standard expression base. The following table shows the series for past years converted to this base, and supersedes the previously published series.

IMPORT PRICES — INDEX NUMBERS
Base: 1959 (= 1000)
YearIndex Number
1926435
1927416
1928393
1929386
1930382
1931356
1932337
1933346
1934341
1935336
1936335
1937355
1938356
1939357
1940411
1941457
1942501
1943555
1944581
1945592
1946661
1947787
1948803
1949731
1950801
1951938
19521024
1953965
1954952
1955972
1956997
19571030
19581025
19591000
19601012

TERMS OF TRADE — The terms of trade is the expression of the ratio of export prices to import prices, i.e., an index of the purchasing power (in units of imports) of a fixed quantity of exports. In the table that follows terms of trade are expressed on base 1957 (= 100). However, an index above or below 100 means only that terms of trade are more or less favourable than in 1957. The choice of 100 is made for arithmetical convenience, not to indicate that 1957 was a normal or standard year. For the purposes of this table both import prices and export prices indices have also been converted to a 1957 base.

The table below shows index numbers of import prices and of export prices and terms of trade for major commodity groups and total exports.

INDEX NUMBERS OF IMPORT AND EXPORT PRICES AND TERMS OF TRADE
All Countries — Base: 1957 (= 100)
YearImport PricesButterCheeseMeatWoolAll Exports
Export PriceTerms of TradeExport PriceTerms of TradeExport PriceTerms of TradeExport PriceTerms of TradeExport PriceTerms of Trade
195078103132102132577411114395122
1951911121231101206370135148111122
195299120120119120747476768990
1953941271351291378086919799106
195492129140125136879492100101110
195594133141132140981049297104110
195697108112171177961009194102105
1957100100100100100100100100100100100
195810086861201219596717185SS
1959971271311731788891767897100
196098105107142145919382849496

SHARE PRICES — Changes in the market value of shares listed on the Stock Exchange give a very sensitive indication of changes in business conditions generally. A series of index numbers of share prices on base 1926 (= 1000) was instituted in 1932. This series was revised in 1941 when the base was changed to 1938.

Revision of Share Prices Index — In 1961 a revision of the Share Prices Index was completed, a description of this revision being published as a special supplement to the March 1961 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics under the title of Share Prices Index — 1960 Revision. The series of monthly and annual share price index numbers have been reviewed and a new series on base year 1960 (= 1000) commenced. Like their predecessors the new series are designed to reflect changes in the aggregate value of holdings of parcels of ordinary shares in representative selections of companies listed on the New Zealand Stock Exchanges and trading in New Zealand. The changes introduced in the new series were mainly necessitated by the industrial and financial developments since the last revision in 1941.

In order to give adequate representation to varied economic activities the revised index makes use of the ordinary share prices of 66 companies. This number is not static as circumstances may suggest the desirability of including or excluding particular companies. The companies are classified into three groups and 14 subgroups. In selecting the companies to be included the frequency with which shares are traded was used as a criterion as well as the value of the New Zealand shareholding. Within the subgroups the weights of the different companies are determined by the New Zealand shareholding, and appropriate methods take account of capital changes in the companies concerned.

The weights used to combine the subgroup indexes to obtain the group and all-groups indexes are fixed and are based on the aggregate value in 1960 of the total New Zealand shareholdings in all the exchange-listed companies which qualified for representation in the index.

Share Price Index Numbers — The table which follows shows index numbers for each month in 1961 and calendar year averages for 1960 and 1961 for the three groups and all groups.

SHARE PRICES — GROUP INDEX NUMBERS
Base: 1960 (= 1000)
PeriodIndustrialDistributionFinanceAll Groups
Calendar Year—    
    19601000100010001000
    1961990930944968
Month —    
    1961—Jan1043102610011029
                Feb10329949691009
                Mar10359749651006
                Apr10309749901010
                May10399789821014
                Jun1005941934975
                Jul964875914937
                Aug975896923948
                Sep976906925951
                Oct911868883897
                Nov942867920925
                Dec925862919914

A table showing the annual averages to the end of each quarter of 1961 for the 14 subgroups, three groups, and all-groups follows.

SHARE PRICES INDEX — SUBGROUP AND GROUP INDEX NUMBERS
Base: 1960 (= 1000)
GroupYear Ended
31 December 196031 March 196130 June 196130 September 196131 December 1961
Industrial —     
    Frozen meat10001065108410461000
    Other foods100010211028997960
    Beverage industries100010401041997950
    Textiles and apparel1000102710331008970
    Wood, pulp, paper10001058110211131107
    Leather, rubber, chemicals100010241030996962
    Construction and materials1000102010301010980
    Other industrial1000102910331009987
All industrial1000103510471022990
Distribution —     
    Chain stores1000991950910879
    Department stores1000103610431007976
    Other distribution100010281027984932
All distribution100010221015974930
Finance —     
    Banks1000975951913893
    Loan and agency1000103110411000948
    Insurance100010051006980957
All finance100010051004972944
All groups1000102510301001968

Long-term Linked Series — To enable longer-term comparisons, including the new series, the older group and all-groups series have been converted to base 1960 (= 1000) and are presented in the following table. It was thought reasonable to link the old finance group with the new finance group. There is, however, no old series comparable with the distribution group of the new series.

SHARE PRICES INDEX NUMBERS — LONG-TERM LINKED SERIES
Base: 1960 (= 1000)
YearIndustrialFinanceAll Groups
1926376404398
1927352399386
1928363414399
1929397423418
1930345365362
1931279293291
1932276271276
1933333309322
1934412349378
1935456356400
1936444332380
1937444339384
1938413318359
1939396301342
1940423311359
1941422313360
1942415323363
1943478378422
1944516415460
1945531445484
1946567509534
1947597540564
1948591512546
1949566498527
1950620571592
1951647645646
1952526540534
1953503556533
1954561652612
1955599689650
1956608719670
1957680770731
1958659716691
1959749809783
 IndustrialDistributionFinanceAll Groups
19601000100010001000
1961990930944968

The fluctuations in share prices since 1926 are clearly shown in the accompanying diagram, which is based on the foregoing index numbers.

SUMMARY OF PRICE MOVEMENTS — A comparative table of index numbers of various related prices series from the year 1926 onward is as follows. All index numbers are quoted on a New Zealand currency basis, and on the base: 1955 (= 1000).

YearBase: 1955 (= 1000)
Import PricesExport PricesWholesale Prices*Retail PricesShare Prices (All Groups)
Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll GroupsImportedHome ProducedTotalFoodAll Groups

* The two component series have been individually linked.

† Provisional.

1926448359359407421413455533613
1927428357357383406392435529594
1928404398395374412390445531615
1929397382380370412387449530644
1930393296299364396377432518557
1931366224230356349353375479448
1932347203209354328344344443426
1933356201209374323354325420496
1934351251257371332356343427582
1935346243250372359367370442615
1936345281286372368370386456585
1937365332335403396401424488592
1938366305310407404406439502553
1939367297304412431420466523527
1940423345350487441468477547553
1941470353359547466514489567554
1942515364368600488555500586559
1943571379384662493593503599650
1944598399405684505611511610708
1945609432436694515621510618745
1946680472477692523623511623822
1947810597600706560646543643869
1948826665666793614720613694841
1949752645644776627715630706812
1950824916910823714779692745911
195196510751068960831907796828994
1952105385985910829011008876892822
19539939589561029953998929933820
1954979975974983998989977976942
1955100010001000100010001000100010001000
19561026976975102610541038105710351032
19571060965961105210461050105410571126
19581055817819108710701080107111041064
19591029937935111410821097107711461205
19601041907907109810941100109211541540
1961 849852110310861097110211751490

A further comparative table, of various price index numbers from the year 1937 onwards, is presented below. Both March year and June year index numbers are included.

YearBase: Calendar Year 1955 (= 1000)
Import Prices (All Groups)Export Prices (All Groups)Wholesale Prices*Retail PricesShare Prices (All Groups)
ImportedHome ProducedTotalFoodAll Groups

* The two component series have been individually linked.

† Provisional.

Year Ended 31 March
1937....375375376395462581
1938....409401406432493588
1939....406408407443505541
1940....423436428472528537
1941....508444483478550549
1942....553475522493570551
1943....618490566501589581
1944....671500602505602669
1945....686505612510612712
1946....697514623511620766
1947....685532623513624838
1948....732576668565659867
1949....792620722617698831
1950770..780634721635709827
19518421096848754809718763946
195210088871005856944822851954
1953104087010779081008889901803
19549929721013968995944945847
19559819839831005993985983966
19561004100910069981004100710051011
19571036970103510521042105910421040
19581061923105410571056106310641143
19591051828110210811092107511221051
19601030956111010851098107611481294
1961 888109910921100109911591578
1962  110410851095110511841453
Year Ended 30 June
1937..328384383383404471581
1938..319410404407437497580
1939..304405413408447509531
1940..344440440441476533545
1941..355525448494481556544
1942..368566481532494574552
1943..379635493577501593607
1944..396677502606508605686
1945..429688506615511615718
1946..448699517626511621789
1947..553682538623515625855
1948..665758594691589675857
1949..639789621720619700820
1950787738790653734648717850
19518701143881781841744784973
195210388641038873971845869909
1953101792510649211006899910796
19549879781000983993962958879
19559859729881006996991988982
19561016992101110091011101610121022
19571045994104310561048106310491063
19581057832105510561056106610701125
19591043867111610841099107511371068
19601045956110510911101107611491391
19611043868110010901099110311631586

Chapter 24. Section 24 CONSUMPTION OF COMMODITIES

Table of Contents

Statistics of consumption cannot be compiled with absolute accuracy, owing to the impossibility of obtaining exact comparability in component statistics of production, exports, and imports. There are several deficiencies in the statistical data at present available, the most serious being occasioned by the lack of statistics illustrating the distribution among individuals of the annual flow of commodities entering into consumption. Nevertheless, a sufficient degree of comparability can normally be attained to permit of the compilation of statistics of overall consumption with a reasonable approach to accuracy.

VALUE OF GOODS AVAILABLE FOR USE — Statistics of the value of production, of exports, and of imports have been compiled regularly for many years. From these statistics an estimate of the annual value of goods, including both capital and consumption goods, available for use in New Zealand can be made, the value of exports being deducted from that of production, and the value of imports added to the residuum. The result of this computation gives a close approach to the value of all goods available for use in the country. Following revisions and corrections in the value of production estimates consequent corrections are made in this series.

The following descriptive notes under the respective headings will serve to indicate the nature and scope of the figures of production, exports, and imports used in this section.

Production — The series of value and volume of production figures as quoted in Section 13 of this Yearbook form the basis of the tables which follow. The figures relate to the production year, which, in most cases, approximates closely to the year ended 30 June.

Exports — The official export figures (f.o.b.) for the years ended 30 June have been adjusted to exclude charges incurred between the stages of production and export.

Since the value of production figures are on the basis of prices received by producers, adjustments have necessarily been made to the export value figures (which are based on overseas realisations) for credits to, or drawings from, the primary produce stabilisation accounts.

Adjustments have also been made for changes in stocks awaiting shipment, so that the export figures quoted in this section represent the segment of production in any year exported, or ultimately destined for export. This applies to the volume as well as the value series.

Various adjustments were also made to the figures for the war years to ensure the exclusion from the domestic market supplies of goods supplied to the New Zealand and allied forces, etc.

Imports — For the period up to 1948–49 the official import figures (Customs values) for the years ended 30 June, excluding ordnance, have been adjusted to take into account additional freight and insurance charges above the nominal 10 per cent allowed in the official figures. For the years 1949–50 to 1951–52 some information on actual c.i.f. (cost including insurance and freight) values of imports was available to help in making assessments of value on this basis. From 1952–53 onwards the official Customs c.i.f. values have been used.

Further adjustments have been made for the realisation on certain war assets.

Unfortunately, comprehensive statistics of merchandise stocks are not available, so that the figures illustrate goods available for use and not necessarily goods actually used during each of the years.

The following table gives the position in regard to value of goods, but care should be exercised in interpreting the table in view of the upward trend in unit values over the period covered by the table. Some overstatement of the value of goods available for use in 1948–49 may have occurred through the adjustment of the value of the New Zealand pound to parity with sterling as from 20 August 1948. Figures are given for the years 1938–39, 1943–44 and 1948–49, and for each of the latest 12 years.

Year Ended 30 JuneProduced in New ZealandImportedAll Goods Available for Use in New Zealand
TotalExportedAvailable for Use in New ZealandTotalPer Head
TotalPer Head

* Revised from figures shown in previous years.

† Provisional.

VALUES
 £(m.)£(m.)£(m.)££(m.)£(m.)£
1939133.358.075.346.659.1134.483.1
1944175.789.386.452.661.8148.290.3
1949290.1120.9169.291.3116.5285.7154.2
1950343.8137.2206.6109.3149.4356.0188.3
1951469.0233.3235.7122.3174.8410.5213.0
1952431.2194.9236.3119.9293.3529.6268.8
1953482.1231.0251.1124.1208.2459.3227.1
1954518.6229.2289.4139.6210.1499.5240.9
1955565.1240.7324.4153.3277.2601.6284.2
1956581.6264.1317.5146.9276.8594.3275.0
1957*622.5276.8345.7156.7777.7623.4282.6
1958640.5286.6353.9156.6305.2659.1291.7
1959*641.5238.0403.5174.6244.6648.1280.4
1960704.7301.1403.6171.3254.6658.2279.3
1961737.9276.9461.0192.1323.2784.2326.8
VALUE INDEX NUMBERS: BASE 1938–39 (= 100)
1939100100100100100100100
1944132154115113105110109
1949218208225196197213186
1950258237274235253265227
1951352402313262296305256
1952323336314257496394323
1953362398333266352342273
1954389395384300355372290
1955424415431329469448342
1956436455422315468442331
1957467477459336470464340
1958480494470336516490351
1959*481410536375414482337
1960529519536368431490336
1961554477612412547583393

AGGREGATE VOLUME OF GOODS AVAILABLE FOR USE — Index numbers of volume of total production, based in most cases on figures of actual physical production, and index numbers of volume of exports and of imports, form the basis on which figures indicating the volume of goods available for New Zealand use are estimated. Attention is drawn to the notes on adjustments, etc., applied under the various headings and explained under the preceding title. Quarterly index numbers of volume of exports, easily assembled into June year aggregates, have been compiled since 1951. For earlier years the quantitative figures of exports, readily available from the official statistics and confined to a relatively small number of items, made it a comparatively simple matter to compile index numbers of volume for years ending with the month of June. For many years a similar position did not hold in the case of imports, as they are far more diversified in nature, and import volume index numbers were available only for calendar years. Using quarterly import price index numbers obtained by interpolation from the annual series, quarterly figures of values of imports up to and including 1948 have been deflated to pounds of constant value and then expressed as index numbers and reconciled with the calendar year volume index numbers. These quarterly figures, together with the quarterly volume of imports index numbers compiled regularly since 1949, have been readily aggregated into years ending 30 June. By the use of quantitative figures of production, exports, and imports, reasonably accurate figures of movements in volume may be ascertained, and figures arrived at indicating the volume of goods available for New Zealand use. The aggregates used in the process are based on unit values ruling in 1938–39 and are shown in the table following for the same years as in the preceding table. This year some revision of the figures for back years has become necessary owing to revision to the regular series of export and import volume index numbers, referred to elsewhere in this volume.

(On basis of unit values ruling in 1938–39)
Year Ended 30 JuneProducedExportsImportsAvailable for Use

* Revised from figures shown in previous years.

† Provisional.

£(million)
1939133.358.059.1134.4
1944145.676.238.7108.1
1949173.070.259.3162.1
1951187.866.576.3197.6
1952192.271.2*106.9227.9*
1953196.275.0*74.1195.3*
1954203.370.5*82.0214.8*
1955218.571.7*109.5*256.3*
1956225.579.9*105.6*251.2*
1957228.378.6*102.8*252.5*
1958244.286.5*113.4*271.1*
1959254.1*87.5*92.8*259.4*
1960262.590.996.9268.5

The next table gives volume index numbers corresponding to these values.

INDEX NUMBERS OF VOLUME OF GOODS: BASE 1938–39 (= 100)
Year Ended 30 JuneProduced in New ZealandImportedAll Goods Available for Use in New Zealand
TotalExportedAvailable for Use in New Zealand  
TotalPer Head  
 TotalPer Head

* Revised from figures shown in previous years.

† Provisional.

1939100100100100100100100
19441091319291658079
1949130121137119100121105
1951141114161135129147123
1952144123*161*132*181170*139*
1953147129*161*129*125145*116*
1954152121*176*138*139160*125*
1955164123*195*149*185*191*146*
1956169138*193*145*179*187*140*
1957171135*199*146*174*188138
1958183149*209*150*192*202*144
1959191*151*221*155*157*193*135*
1960197156228156164200137

It should be emphasised that the tables cover capital as well as consumer goods; consequently the headings “available for use in New Zealand” include not only commodities entering into current consumption, but also such items as additions to merchandise stocks, to factory plant and buildings, to farm capital stock, etc.

Following the low levels of the war years the volume of goods available for use began to rise from 1945–46, the level of 1938–39 being passed by total goods available in 1946–47, and by goods available per head in 1947–48. The rising trend continued fairly strongly until 1954–55, since when movement has been somewhat irregular, with total goods available tending over-all to continue to rise slightly, and little discernible trend either way in goods available per head.

Year-to-year fluctuations have tended to reflect variations in volume of imports rather than of retained domestic production. In the last two years shown however, the table indicates increased local production making up for reduced imports to some extent.

In conjunction with the previous table, it is interesting to consider the proportions of New Zealand produced goods and of imported goods in the total quantum of goods entering into use. Over the period for which the break-up is available, locally produced goods supplied 61 per cent and imported goods 39 per cent of the total.

Comparisons in this respect for individual years are given hereunder.

YearLocally Produced per centImported per cent

* Revised

1938–395644
1939–406535
1940–417129
1941–427228
1942–437129
1943–446436
1944–456634
1945–467030
1946–476634
1947–485941
1948–496337
1949–506139
1950–516139
1951–525347
1952–5362*38*
1953–5462*38*
1954–555743
1955–5658*42*
1956–5759*41*
1957–5858*42*
1958–5964*36*
1959–606436

While strict accuracy cannot be claimed for these figures — particularly in respect of single years -they afford a useful indication of trends. The policy of import restriction introduced in December 1938, and the dictates of a war economy, were responsible for the relatively low proportion of imported goods to total goods available evident from 1939–40 to 1946–47. The percentages for imports clearly reflect the progressive lifting of import controls from 1950 onwards, the introduction of exchange control in 1952, its abolition at the end of 1954, and the reimposition of import restrictions in 1958.

CONSUMPTION OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE — While the statistical data discussed in the foregoing pages afford an indication of movements in the aggregate value and volume of consumption, considerable interest attaches to the statistics for individual commodities of importance. Estimates of the consumption of a selection of individual commodities are given in the following paragraphs. No indication of the distribution of consumption of these commodities among individual classes of consumers is available; but with full employment and the absence of real poverty in New Zealand it is beyond question that the per head rates of consumption of various commodities shown later are truly representative of general living standards.

The proportion of the total production that is consumed in New Zealand and the proportion which is exported, of the main food products in which an export trade is maintained, are shown in the next table, giving aggregate percentages over the three-year period 1958–61.

 Consumed in New ZealandExported
 per centper cent
Butter21.278.8
Cheese7.492.6
Beef and veal43.856.2
Mutton49.450.6
Lamb5.394.7
Pig meat87.412.6

Local (New Zealand) consumption of all meats combined, during this same three-year period, amounted to 33 per cent of total meat production.

PER HEAD QUANTITIES OF PRINCIPAL FOODSTUFFS AVAILABLE FOR CONSUMPTION — Estimates of annual consumption per head of population have been made for the principal items of foodstuffs for recent years and for a pre-war period, mostly the average of 1934–38. Basic statistical data are rather scanty in the case of some items, particularly fresh vegetables, and the estimates may be subject to correction as further information becomes available.

Dairy Produce — Measured in terms of butterfat content, it is estimated that 26.2 per cent of total dairy production in 1960–61 was used for local human consumption. A further 4.0 per cent was accounted for by stock feeding, wastage, changes in stocks, etc., leaving 69.8 per cent for export in the form of butter, cheese, processed milk and casein. Estimated figures of annual consumption levels for individual items of dairy produce, pre-war and for recent periods, are given below.

 Pre-war1958–591959–601960–61
Whole milk (pint)220.0324.2328.0329.4
Cream (pint)6.93.94.04.0
Ice cream (pint)3.215.616.818.8
Cheese (lb)4.56.56.66.6
Butter (lb)41.243.243.343.3
Processed milk (lb)4.714.716.717.5

In the following comparison of butter and cheese consumption in various countries the figures for countries other than New Zealand have been taken from the publication Dairy Produce, issued by the Intelligence Branch of the Commonwealth Economic Committee.

BUTTER AND CHEESE CONSUMPTION PER HEAD
CountryButterCheese
1938 or 1938–391959 or 19601938 or 1938–391959 or 1960
 lblblblb
United Kingdom24.118.58.99.3
Sweden24.122.512.814.1
Denmark18.323.614.116.5
Netherlands12.39.017.017.4
United States of America16.68.05.98.0
Canada31.918.13.66.9
Republic of Ireland32.241.80.82.3
Australia (1959–60)32.626.84.36.9
New Zealand (1960–61)42.843.34.56.6

In considering New Zealand's relatively high consumption of butter it should be noted that the use of margarine as a spread, common in some countries, is unknown in New Zealand.

Meats — In estimating the average annual consumption of meats an allowance has been made in the case of each item for killings on farms and for condemnations. The consumption levels for the various items are as follows, the weights in each case being on a bone-in dressed-carcass basis.

 Pre-war1959–601960–61
Beef (lb)112.091.490.0
Veal (lb)7.56.26.6
Mutton (lb)60.081.478.7
Lamb (lb)6.514.314.4
Pork, including chopper meat (lb)9.016.213.9
Ham and bacon (lb)17.017.319.0
Edible offal (lb)9.010.59.3

Vegetables and Fruits — Estimates under this heading have been made, particularly in the case of vegetables, with considerable difficulty owing to a number of factors, not the least being the fact that domestic garden production must of necessity be taken into account. Where there is no evidence as to changes in consumption habits, the estimates for both pre-war and the later years shown have been treated as on an equality. The estimates include, at fresh weights, New Zealand produced fruits and vegetables canned for local consumption; imports of canned produce are excluded. Consumption levels for individual items are estimated as follows.

 Pre-war19591960
Potatoes (lb)120113117
Kumeras (lb)7.57.57.5
Cabbages and leaf greens (lb)30–3530–3530–35
Carrots (lb)10–1510–1510–15
Tomatoes (lb)202122
Apples (lb)453936
Pears and quinces (lb)6119
Stone fruits (lb)102122
Citrus fruits (lb)231819
Bananas (lb)212930
Pineapples (lb)10.10.6

Canned Fruit and Vegetables — Total consumption of canned fruits and vegetables per head is estimated as:

 Pre-war19591960
Canned fruit (Ib)10 to 119.611.7
Canned tomatoes, including sauces and soups (lb)..4.85.1
Canned vegetables (lb)1.611.17.8

These figures are inclusive of New Zealand produced canned fruit and vegetables already accounted for as fresh fruit under the preceding heading. Consumptions of (net) imports of these commodities are estimated as:

 Pre-war19591960
Canned fruit (lb)7.63.64.8
Canned tomatoes, including sauces and soups (lb)..0.3..

Before the war approximately 70 to 80 per cent of canned fruit requirements were imported and consisted mainly of pineapples, peaches, and apricots. The war considerably upset this trade, but there was a marked recovery from 1947. There has also been some progress in the local canning of fruit, but consumption per head of all canned fruit is still only at about pre-war level.

The consumption of canned vegetables, owing in some measure to the striking wartime expansion of the industry, is now at a high level, although lately falling off somewhat in favour of quick-frozen vegetables. Before the war there were some imports of peas and beans, but most requirements are now met from local production. The largest development in production has been in canned green peas, of which, in some recent years, the greater part has been exported. In 1960 however only one-fifth of the production was exported.

Quick-frozen Fruit and Vegetables — There has been a remarkable development in the quick-frozen foods industry in recent years with some frozen peas now being exported. Consumption per head in New Zealand for the latest three years for which figures are available is estimated as:

 195819591960
Fruits (lb)0.10.20.1
Vegetables (lb) —   
    Peas6.24.76.1
    Beans1.01.71.2
    Other0.60.30.9

Other Foodstuffs — Estimated annual consumption levels for other items of foodstuffs are given hereunder.

 Pre-war1958–591959–60

* Cocoa powder equivalent of imports for all purposes, including chocolate manufacture.

Poultry (lb)3.93.54.0
Fish-edible portion, excluding processed imports (lb)11.011.010.0
Shellfish — edible portion (lb)0.91.72.4
Eggs (dozen)20.024.025.0
Honey (lb)2.13.04.7
Refined sugar (lb)104.093.092.0
Dried peas and beans (lb)1.63.03.0
Flour, wheaten (lb)185.0181.0182.0
Oatmeal, oaten products (lb)10.55.15.0
Rice (lb)5.32.82.4
Tea (lb)6.86.56.7
Cocoa (lb)*1.81.61.8
Coffee (lb)0.31.21.8

Beer, Wine, Spirits, and Tobacco — As the consumption of these items is particularly susceptible to economic conditions, the depression and immediate post-depression years have been avoided in ascertaining pre-war consumption. In interpreting the big increase in beer consumption from pre-war years it should not be overlooked that as a war measure the alcoholic strength of beer was, in 1942, reduced by about one-quarter, and it is possible that, on account of this, consumption was higher than it would otherwise have been. Although this restriction was removed at the end of 1948 the additional duty on beer exceeding the reduced strength has had much the same effect as the former restriction in limiting the production of stronger beers.

Domestic wine production has increased during recent years and now accounts for over 80 per cent of total consumption of wines. Total consumption per head is estimated at:

 Pre-war19591960

* Provisional.

Beer (gallons)10.819.722.0
Grape wine (gallons)0.200.41*0.46*
Spirits (proof gallons)0.260.27*0.37*
Tobacco (lb)3.94.75.3

Comparison With Other Countries — In considering the question of supplies of foodstuffs in various countries the food balance sheets prepared at the instigation of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation present information on a comparable basis. The table which follows presents in summarised form statistics appearing in the Organisation's Production Yearbook, and in the United Nations Statistical Yearbook. The data quoted are expressed in kilogrammes per person per year, except that for each country a total figure is given showing calories per person per day, and the percentage thereof derived from livestock products (meat, poultry, eggs, fish, milk, butter, cheese, slaughter fats, marine oils). The total calories figure includes also foodstuffs not specifically mentioned in the table.

A table such as this necessarily includes data of an approximate nature, but is of value as an overall picture of food consumption and availability in the various countries.

CountryCerealsPotatoes, etc.SugarPulses and NutsMeatMilk and Milk Products*Fats and OilsCalories
FatProteinPer DayPercentage of Animal Origin

* Excluding butter.

† Including butter.

‡ Negligible.

§ Percentages for earlier post-war years in these cases.

| Includes present territory of Pakistan.

Kilogrammes per person per Year
AustraliaPre-war1014953212065163,30040
 1958–59885351411776163,21042
CanadaPre-war93604366287193,02039
 1959–6071634557789193,15043§
New ZealandPre-war875048310988173,26048
 196087574251101111203,49051
United KingdomPre-war95824256755213,11038
 1959–6084885067177223,29039§
Republic of IrelandPre-war1311953825559143,40035
 195911514543460911223,57043§
South AfricaPre-war15616212383332,34019
 195914020415433362,58021§
United States of AmericaPre-war91674477287213,28038
 195966474169489213,13041§
ArgentinaPre-war106662721075592,78036
 19591208531310044163,04036§
DenmarkPre-war941205057588273,45035
 1959–60791284747399273,34041§
FrancePre-war1241432485545162,880..
 1959–601071003277467172,940..
NetherlandsPre-war1071162953878212,84032
 1959–6086904044489252,97029§
SwedenPre-war95122443491110183,12038
 1959–6075993945299212,92042
IndiaPre-war|139813223322*1,9508
 1958–591431214302324*2,0806§
JapanPre-war1584613..312,0505
 195915166141861142,2108§

SUBSIDIES — During the war and post-war period the Government implemented a policy of stabilising internal price levels at the level of those prevailing in December 1942. For the effective operation of this policy a system of Government subsidies was essential. An account of the use and extent of subsidies paid in 1942–43 and from 1947–48 to 1951–52 was given in parliamentary paper B.5 of 1952.

The table following shows the total cost of the foregoing subsidies and in addition the cost of the subsidy paid on the transport of citrus fruit, for the five latest financial years.

Subsidy ItemsYear Ended 31 March
19581959196019611962

* Subsidy ceased 1 April 1959.

 £ (thousand)
Butter, milk, and eggs8,8497,9717,66110,7618,634
Bread and flour3,6004,5004,5004,0004,250
Gas479466440590495
Transport of citrus fruit23***
Total subsidies12,93012,94012,60115,35113,379

The general position is that stabilisation subsidies increased up to 1947 as import prices and wages rose. The full increase in costs above basic level (mainly 15 December 1942) was not always covered by subsidy. In most cases a part of the increased cost had to be borne by the industry concerned, either at the source of the increased cost or at some later stage in the distribution of the goods and services.

In 1947 the Government decided to review the position. The number of commodities on which subsidy was paid had grown too large for administrative ease. Also to have continued subsidies at the previous rate would have raised the estimated expenditure to £19.6 million, which would have imposed a severe strain on the public finances. Further, a great many of the costs met by subsidy were permanent. Accordingly many farm subsidies, which on an annual basis cost approximately £4.2 million, were removed, and compensating adjustments were made in the prices of farm products. Of the other subsidies, all the smaller and less important ones were abolished, in part or in full. There were also increases in the price of shipping and railway freights and fares, tea, sugar, and many other commodities. On an annual basis these subsidies would have cost about £8 million.

In spite of the removal in 1947 of total subsidies of over £12 million a year, the cost of the remaining subsidies had risen to a level of over £17 million a year by 1950. The Government therefore removed subsidies in May 1950 amounting to £12 million a year. The subsidies on coal and tea were discontinued (apart from certain special payments), and subsidies on flour, bread, milk, butter, and eggs were reduced substantially. In September 1951 the retail prices of butter, bread, flour, and gas were substantially reduced, the subsidies on these commodities being adjusted accordingly. By mid-1952 subsidy expenditure was running at the annual rate of £17.5 million. Following upon the general wage order of November 1953 the position was again reviewed. It was decided that the maintenance by subsidy of price levels previously subsisting would have entailed too great a burden on the public funds, and accordingly the prices of subsidised items, particularly bread, butter, and milk, were allowed to rise. Nevertheless these items still carry heavy subsidies, as is indicated in the following table, which shows the amount of subsidy paid on the main commodities in April 1962.

 s.d. 
Butter 8per lb
Milk 4.3per quart
Bread 4.18per 2 lb loaf
Flour48.29per 25 lb bag
Gas111per 1,000 cubic feet sold
Eggs 4per dozen

Chapter 25. Section 25 NATIONAL ACCOUNTS

25 A — NATIONAL INCOME AND EXPENDITURE

INTRODUCTORY — National accounting can be described as the preparation of a comprehensive statistical statement about the economic activity of a country. One of its main objectives is to measure the overall value of production in a country's economy. The system of accounts presents the interrelationships as well as the magnitudes of the major economic flows of the country in terms of the consolidated transactions of the principal sectors.

The principal aggregate is that of “National Income”, which, in general terms, measures the total value of all incomes (before deduction of taxation) earned by the residents of New Zealand in producing the current output of goods and services.

Income can be earned in a variety of ways, and accrues to individuals according to the manner in which they participate in current production. Salary and wage payments represent the return to labour for services rendered, and include in this concept supplementary income in kind such as board and keep provided by the employer.

Rental value of owner-occupied houses is a non-monetary item representing the imputed net rent (before payment of rates, but after deductions for depreciation, mortgage interest, insurance, and repairs and maintenance) of all owner-occupied houses (except farm houses).

Other personal income (excluding company dividends) represents the aggregate income of professional men, farmers, and individual traders, as well as income other than salary and wages received by salary and wage earners — e.g., rent, interest, etc. Included under this heading as current income are changes in balances of primary-produce stabilisation accounts, and moneys retained under authority of the Wool Proceeds Retention Act 1950.

Company income represents the total income (distributed and undistributed) of companies. This means that dividends distributed to individuals are included under this heading, and not as personal income.

Apart from these incomes which result from current productive activities on the part of individuals receiving them, there are other incomes of a “non-productive” nature in the form of social security benefits, pensions, and interest on public debt. These transfer incomes, as they are called, do not arise from the current production of goods and services and must therefore be excluded from the national income. They do, however, form part of the intermediate concept of private income, which represents the aggregate of earned incomes and unearned transfer incomes received by or accruing to persons. Private income includes as income accruing, but not actually received, undistributed incomes of companies. The deduction of direct taxation gives the concept of private disposable income. Capital receipts-e.g., from deceased persons' estates, repayment of debt, etc.-are, however, excluded both from private income and national income.

In general, only incomes arising from the production of goods and services destined for the market form part of the national income; it follows, therefore, that the services of housewives, or the produce of home gardens are excluded. On the other hand, farm produce consumed on farms is part of the national income.

The addition to private income of Government and local-authority trading profits and the deduction of transfer incomes, as detailed above, gives the concept of net national income at factor cost or, more briefly, national income. This may be defined as the income (before tax) earned by or accruing to the factors of production, in or only temporarily absent from New Zealand, in producing the current output of goods and services of all kinds. The further addition of indirect taxes (net of subsidies) is necessary to bring the national income to market price valuation.

Gross national product is obtained by adding depreciation allowances to national income at market prices, and represents the value of current output before deduction of allowances for depreciation and obsolescence, and is equal on the expenditure side to gross national expenditure.

The following table shows the principal of the above aggregates and the manner in which they are derived one from the other for the years 1938–39 to 1960–61.

PRINCIPAL INCOME AGGREGATES
Year Ended 31 MarchPrivate IncomePlusLess Transfer IncomesNational Income at Factor CostPlus Indirect TaxationLess SubsidiesNational Income at Market PricesPlus Depreciation AllowancesGross National Product
Public Authority Trading IncomeLump Sum Payments from United Kingdom GovernmentSocial Security Benefits and PensionsInterest on Public Debt Paid in New Zealand

* Provisional.

£ (million)
1938–39200.29.2− 7.5− 7.0194.920.6− 0.6214.917.0231.9
1939–40215.711.13.0−11.2− 7.5211.121.0− 0.5231.618.0249.6
1940–41235.012.53.0−12.3− 7.8230.422.3− 1.6251.118.0269.1
1941–42256.614.13.0−12.7− 8.4252.623.2− 2.7273.118.0291.1
1942–43294.917.13.0−14.0− 9.4291.628.0− 3.3316.3190335.3
1943–44331.818.23.0−15.5—11.3326.231.8− 3.1354.920.0374.9
1944–45339.515.05.0−17.2−12.9329.434.0− 4.6358.821.0379.8
1945–46360.515.85.0−20.6−13.8346.937.3− 6.6377.622.0399.6
1946–47397.315.35.0−34.4−15.1368.143.0−11.8399.326.0425.3
1947–48446.414.15.0−37.2−15.3413.053.0−13.6452.429.0481.4
1948–49464.512.7−39.0−15.5422.746.1−11.5457.332.0489.3
1949–50526.214.6−42.2−16.2482.449.8−14.6517.635.0552.6
1950–51659.517.0−47.1−17.0612.455.6− 9.4658.639.0697.6
1951–52675.620.1−53.0−17.4625.371.0−16.1680.243.0723.2
1952–53709.819.3−53.7−17.1658.367.0−150710.348.0758.3
1953–54786.524.8−57.7−18.3735.367.5−15.5787.351.0838.3
1954–55853.530.2−61.3−20.2802.280.7−13.4869.560.0929.5
1955–56897.132.0−64.4−20.9843.885.3−12.4916.765.0981.7
1956–57945.130.5−66.3−23.4885.984.1−13.3956.772.01,028.7
1957–58993.632.6−70.0−26.3929.991.2−13.61,007.577.01,084.5
1958–591,033.237.0−80.1−28.4961.7104.1−13.51,052.383.01,135.3
1959–601,131.241.1−99.0−29.71,043.6108.4−12.81,139.291.01,230.2
1960–61*1,207.145.4−106.5−3201,114.0112.7−15.31,211.498.01,309.4

Estimates of gross national product from 1932–33 to 1937–38 are as follows:

 1932–331933–341934–351935–361936–371937–38
Gross national product — £ (million)113.7127.0135.6155.4192.3211.9

These estimates are based upon former computations of aggregate private income, with suitable adjustments to bring them into line with present-day concepts.

The various aggregates are conventionally measured in New Zealand over periods of one year, ending 31 March. Monetary values in all cases are given in New Zealand currency without adjustment for price changes between individual years. Full details of the methods used and a description of the items in the following tables are given in the Report on the Official Estimates of National Income and Expenditure for the Year 1960–61, obtainable from the Government Printer, Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch.

NATIONAL INCOME AND EXPENDITURE — It is necessary to point out that the estimates of national expenditure should be used with some caution, owing to the fact that not all of the items of expenditure can be estimated directly. On the other hand it is well to realise that, whatever inherent error there may exist in the absolute values of individual expenditure items, year-to-year changes are likely to be much more accurate, simply because the method of estimation remains the same.

The method adopted by necessity does not permit a check to be made on the present national income aggregates, in which no allowances have been made for any possible understatement of incomes shown in the taxation returns on which the estimates are based. Neither do these aggregates take into account “negative” incomes nor losses of previous years allowed as a set-off against current profits for taxation purposes. Any understatement of the gross product total arising from these omissions will therefore be reflected in a similar understatement of personal consumption which is shown as a residual item in the break up of national expenditure (refer table on page 742). Direct estimates are made of expenditure on Government-provided goods and services, gross capital formation in New Zealand by private and Government sectors, and the balance of overseas payments on current account (sometimes termed net overseas investment or net lending abroad).

After ascertaining personal consumption in the manner outlined above, it becomes possible to make an estimate of private savings. By deducting personal expenditure and direct taxation from aggregate private income, another residual is obtained — viz, private savings (refer table on page 746). Being a residual item it will, of course, contain certain minor errors of estimation inherent in the aggregates from which it is derived. It will be free, however, from the major apparent error which is caused by the understatement of incomes through tax evasion; this is due to the fact that the underestimate is cancelled out by being included both in the minuend and subtrahend, and the residual is consequently not affected.

The various tables are given and their derivation and composition discussed later, but before presenting this detail it is of interest to examine the relationships existing between some of the more important aggregates. The following table gives the principal of these.

PRINCIPAL AGGREGATES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS
  1938–391943–441956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61*

* Provisional.

† Current expenditure by the General Government and local authorities on the provision of goods and services.

National income£m.1953268869309621,0441,114
Gross national product£m.2323751,0291,0851,1351,2301,309
Personal expenditure on consumer goods and services£m.162178670723744769876
    As percentage of gross national product 70476567666367
Gross capital formation in New Zealand£m.3928228250246257289
    As percentage of gross national product 1772223222122
Public authority current expenditure on goods and services£m.32161139147153163174
    As percentage of gross national product 14431414131313
Private income£m.200332945994103311311207
Private savings£m.147890986815284
As percentage of private income 72310107137

After five years of continuous deficits on external account, there was realised in 1959–60 the highest balance of payments surplus ever achieved, viz, £35 million; the picture changed just as abruptly in 1960–61 to a record deficit of £55 million. This amounted to a deterioration in the external account by £90 million compared with the previous year's improvement of £59 million.

Swings of this magnitude are the result of significant shifts in the pattern of domestic demand, more particularly in personal consumption, capital formation, and in savings. While 1959–60 was characterised by restraint in all categories of final demand and a high level of personal savings, in the latest year the growth in personal consumption and private capital formation considerably outstripped the growth in the gross national product (6.4 per cent). The increase in personal consumption from £769 million to £876 million (an increase of £107 million or 13.9 per cent) was in value the most important factor in the balance of payments swing, private capital formation increasing from £145 million to £171 million (17.9 per cent increase) showed the highest relative increase. Demand by the public sector remained, however, within the boundaries set by the economy as a whole. Capital formation of public authorities rose from £112 million to £118 million (5.4 per cent) and public authorities' current expenditure from £163 million to £174 million (6.7 per cent).

Related to gross national product, personal consumption attained a ratio of 66.9 per cent, against 62.5 per cent in the preceding year, and total capital formation 22.1 per cent against the previous 20.9 per cent.

The high rate of personal consumption combined with a rise in the rate of direct tax withdrawals (from 18.6 to 20.5 per cent of private income) led to a considerable reduction in private savings, namely from £152 million to £84 million. As these figures include undistributed profits of companies' which showed an upward trend (£37 million to £42 million), the decline in personal savings is accentuated still further (£115 million to £42 million). In 1959–60 private savings were 13.4 per cent of private income; a year later 6.9 per cent.

The following short table illustrates the relationships of personal expenditure, direct taxation, and private savings to private income.

ItemIn Percentages of Private Income
1957–581958–591959–601960–61
Personal expenditure on goods and services72.772.068.072.6
Direct taxation17.421.418.620.5
Private savings9.96.613.46.9
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0

It may be useful to recapitulate recent trends by relating the most important elements of domestic demand to gross national product, the principal source from which they are met. Percentages which obtained in the immediately preceding year (1959–60) are stated in parenthesis. Personal consumption expenditure was 66.9 per cent (62.5), private capital formation 13.1 per cent (11.8), public authority current expenditure 13.3 per cent (13.3), and capital formation of public authorities 9.0 per cent (9.1). In the public sector, Government current expenditure was at a level of 10.3 per cent (10.4) and Government capital formation 5.7 per cent (5.7). The above figures show that the recent upsurge in domestic demand was centred entirely in the private sector. Within the public sector, demand on the gross product was slightly more accentuated from the local authority than from the central Government side. The picture also shows that the relative dampening-down policy in Government capital formation, which has been in evidence for some years past, has also been continued in the latest year

Considering the distribution of national income factor shares, salary and wage payments increased by 7.8 per cent (from £591 million to £637 million), company profits before dividend distribution by 16.9 per cent (from £118 million to £138 million), and other income of persons — largely net profits of unincorporated business, farmers, interest, and net rents — by 0.4 per cent (from £283 million to £284 million). Within the latter group, net cash profits of farmers increased from £141 million to £144 million; these totals include, however, a surplus of stabilisation account transactions of £9 million in 1959–60 and a loss under the same heading of £5 million in the latest year. Adjusted for profits and losses of stabilisation accounts, the farming industry's results yielded an income of £150 million in the preceding year and an income of £139 million in 1960–61 — an overall decline of 7.3 per cent.

The four tables on pages 742–746 give the complete details of the various aggregates already mentioned and the manner in which they are derived from the accounts covering the different sectors of the economy.

National Income and Expenditure — This table gives the composition of the gross national product and the manner in which it has been expended — i.e., gross national expenditure. As mentioned previously, personal expenditure on consumer goods and services is obtained as a residual item in this table, all other aggregates being obtained by direct assessment.

Private Income and Outlay — This table gives in detail the break-up of private income into the various factor incomes and, on the expenditure side, the manner in which these incomes are spent on personal expenditure on consumer goods and services, paid in direct taxation, or saved. A break-up of other personal income is given for each of the years shown except 1943–44, when this detail was not available. The total of personal consumption derived from the preceding table is carried forward to this table, and this time private savings are obtained as a residual item. The limitations of these two residual items have already been mentioned, and for the reasons given care should be taken in their use.

Revenue Account of Public Authorities — The Government sector is discussed in more detail later in this Section, but this table gives a consolidated statement of General Government and local authority revenue and expenditure, showing as a balance that portion of the revenue which was utilised for capital investment in the case of a surplus, or the call on private savings made necessary by a deficit.

Combined Capital Account — This account indicates the manner in which finance for capital formation has been made available — (a) from private savings, (b) from revenue surpluses of public authorities, and (c) from amounts set aside as depreciation allowances from income. Gross capital formation represents the construction in New Zealand or purchase from overseas of durable capital assets by the private, General Government, and local authority sectors, plus net investment in stocks by trading concerns. The net change in overseas assets is the same as the item net overseas investment shown in the table on page 742 and is an estimate of the change in our overseas investment consequent on the movement in the balance of payments en current account.

These four tables, then, give a comprehensive picture in broad terms of the changing pattern of New Zealand's economy over a period of 23 years which has included the dislocating effects of a major war. One important point to consider when examining the tables, however, is that all the figures are at prices current during the period and consequently are inflated to a greater or less extent by price movements over the period.

The following the four tables mentioned.

NATIONAL INCOME AND EXPENDITURE
March YearSalary and Wage PaymentsPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesRental Value, Owner-occupied HousesOther Personal IncomeCompany IncomePublic Authority Trading IncomeLump Sum Payments from United Kingdom GovernmentLess Public Debt Interest Paid in New ZealandNational Income at Factor CostPlus Indirect TaxationLess SubsidiesNational Income at Market PricesPlus Depreciation AllowancesGross National Product
INCOME £ (million)
1938–391111655209−719521− 121517232
1943–441415897236183−1132632− 335520375
1946–4718781011048155− 1536843−1239926425
1947–4821061112953145−1541353−1445229481
1948–492275121344813−1642346−1245732489
1949–502505131595815−1648250−1551835553
1950–512796132437117−1761256− 965939698
1951–523288151928020−1762571−1668043723
1952–5334811162047819−1765867−1571048758
1953–5438412182249025−1873568−1678751838
1954–5543112202329730−2080281−1387060930
1955–5646812222369432−2184485−1291765982
1956–5749512242509831−2388684−13957721,029
1957–58534132524610633−2693091−141,008771,085
1958–59558122724810937−28962104−141,052831,135
1959–60591132828311841−301,044108−131,139911,230
1960–61*637142928413845−321,114113−151,211981,309
March YearPersonal Expenditure on Consumer Goods and ServicesPublic Authority Current Expenditure on Goods and ServicesGross Capital Formation in New ZealandChanges in StockNet Investment OverseasGross National Expenditure
PrivatePublic Authority

* Provisional.

EXPENDITURE £ (million)
1938–391623217225− 6232
1943–44178161141412− 4375
1946–472575437272129425
1947–4829263443256− 6481
1948–49350645039−195489
1949–50359715847144553
1950–514167776504930698
1951–5247595935337−30723
1952–534691081007313− 5758
1953–5453311410579−2128838
1954–556071161358229−39930
1955–566441261319319−31982
1956–5767013912610210−181,029
1957–5872314714310716−511,085
1958–5974415314010616−241,135
1959–607691631451126351,230
1960–61*87617417111825−551,309

The graph which follows demonstrates the use to which resources available in New Zealand were put during selected years. The numerical values for this graph are derived from the expenditure part of the preceding account, and total resources available in New Zealand are equivalent to gross national product plus deficit or minus surplus on current balance of payments accounts.

PRIVATE INCOME AND OUTLAY
March YearSalary and Wage PaymentsPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesSocial Security Benefits and PensionsRental Value of Owner-occupied HousesOther Personal IncomeCompany Income Before DistributionPrivate Income (Before Tax)
Professional OccupationsCommerce, Trade, or BusinessFarmingSurplus of Primary Produce Stabilisation AccountsChange in Balances in Wool Retention MoneysInterest, Rent, etc.Other

* Provisional.

INCOME £ (million)
1938–391111865926− 215220200
1943–44141581697236332
1946–4718783410921471216548397
1947–48210637111124601216653446
1948–49227539121225641116648465
1949–50250542131427841116758526
1950–51279647141633118173318871660
1951–523288531518381056−3181080676
1952–5334811541619411164−6191178710
1953–5438412581821461301−6201290787
1954–5543112612022511321−6201297854
1955–5646812642223531285−6201394897
1956–574951266242458144− 5−6211498945
1957–585341370252562143−202115106994
1958–595581280272561124122151091,033
1959–605911399282767141923161181,131
1960–61*63714107292874144− 525181381,207
March YearPersonal Expenditure on Consumer Goods and ServicesDirect TaxationPrivate SavingsPrivate Outlay
Undistributed Profits of CompaniesOther Private Savings

* Provisional.

OUTLAY £ (million)
1938–391622414200
1943–441787678332
1946–47257781646397
1947–48292782155446
1948–4935094912465
1949–50359951854526
1950–5141611326105660
1951–524751422534676
1952–534691461976710
1953–545331542971787
1954–556071692850854
1955–566441742158897
1956–576701852565945
1957–587231732375994
1958–5974422131371,033
1959–60769210371151,131
1960–61*87624742421,207

The following diagram presents the distribution of private outlay (shown in the second part of the preceding table) in graphical form.

REVENUE ACCOUNT OF PUBLIC AUTHORITIES (GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND LOCAL AUTHORITIES)

March YearTaxationTrading IncomeLess Direct Taxes Paid by Public Authority Trading UndertakingsLump Sum Payments From United Kingdom GovernmentTotal Revenue
DirectIndirect
REVENUE £ (million)
1938–3924219..54
1943–44773218−13128
1946–47794315−15142
1947–48795314−15150
1948–49954613−1152
1949–50975015−2160
1950–511155617−2186
1951–521447120−2233
1952–531486719−2232
1953–541566825−2246
1954–551718130−3279
1955–561778532−3291
1956–571888431−3300
1957–581759133−2296
1958–5922410437−3362
1959–6021310841−3359
1960–61*25011345−3405
March YearCurrent Expenditure on Goods and ServicesTransfer IncomeSubsidiesBalance of Revenue Over ExpenditureTotal Expenditure Plus or Minus Revenue Balances
Social Security Benefits and PensionsInterest on Public Debt Paid in New Zealand

* Provisional.

EXPENDITURE £(million)
1938–3932871754
1943–4416116113−62128
1946–475434151226142
1947–486337151421150
1948–496439161223152
1949–507142161516160
1950–51774717935186
1951–529553171652233
1952–5310854171539232
1953–5411458181640246
1954–5511661201369279
1955–5612664211267291
1956–5713966231358300
1957–5814770261440296
1958–5915380281487362
1959–6016399301355359
1960–61*174107321577405
COMBINED CAPITAL ACCOUNT
March YearPrivate SavingsRevenue Balances of Public AuthoritiesDepreciation AllowancesTotal Savings
PrivateGovernment Trading UndertakingsLocal Authorities Trading Undertakings
SAVINGS £(million)
1938–391471738
1943–4478−622036
1946–47622626114
1947–48762129126
1948–4921233275
1949–50721635123
1950–511313539205
1951–52595243153
1952–53953948181
1953–54100404551191
1954–5578695262207
1955–5679675672212
1956–5790586372220
1957–5898406782215
1958–5968877292238
1959–601525578103298
1960–61*847784113259
March YearGross Capital Formation in New ZealandChanges in StocksNet Investment OverseasTotal Investments
PrivateGeneral GovernmentLocal Authorities

* Provisional.

INVESTMENTS £ (million)
1938–39171665− 638
1943–441410412− 436
1946–47372162129114
1947–484425756− 6126
1948–4950318−19575
1949–5058389144123
1950–517640104930205
1951–5293401337−30153
1952–53100541913− 5181
1953–541055722−2128191
1954–55135582429−39207
1955–56131642919−31212
1956–57126693310−18220
1957–58143703716−51215
1958–59140673916−24238
1959–601457042635298
1960–61*171744425−55259

THE PUBLIC AUTHORITY SECTOR — The Revenue account of public authorities shown on page 745 is a consolidation and simplification of a separate and more detailed General Government Revenue Account on pages 748 and 749 and the local authorities Revenue Account on page 750. The Consolidated Account eliminates all transfers between the two levels of Government and aggregates the respective totals of economically significant flows.

The publication The Accounts of the Government Sector 1957–58 to 1960–61 contains an integrated Government account which will ultimately replace the account presented herein. There are certain differences between the two which are due to differences in coverage, concepts employed in analysis, and improved methods. The new account is a preferable description of Government transactions, being more complete and exact. In the meantime, it cannot be used here for several important reasons. The new account is available for a limited number of years and as yet it has not been possible to revise earlier years. Furthermore, the national accounting concepts employed in the new Government account have not been extended to the rest of the national accounts and its introduction into the present system would cause incompatibilities in the various flows between the Government and private sector. Finally, the organisational work of obtaining primary information for the new account -it should be remembered that some Departments had to reorganise their own reporting systems in order to make the necessary information available — has not improved sufficiently to obtain the data in time for inclusion in national income and expenditure estimates.

It is for these reasons that the existing presentation has been retained for the time being. Although the account on pages 748–749 is incomplete, its present advantage is that it can be speedily compiled.

(a) General Government — The Revenue Account of the General Government has been obtained by an analysis of the various accounts within the Public Account. In the case of trading Department operations, which are treated separately, profits only are brought into the main account as a revenue item. Expenditure has been taken “net” in all cases, sundry departmental receipts being set off against departmental expenditure. The account covers only current revenue items and therefore excludes capital receipts and payments of all kinds, thus accounting in part for the differences between the details given here and those given in the published statement of the Public Accounts in parliamentary paper B. 1. [Pt. I]. In order that the difference between these two sets of figures may be appreciated a reconciliation statement is given at the end of this section.

Government current expenditure on goods and services (item 6, page 749 and part of an item on page 742) increased from £127.5 million in 1959–60 to £135.2 million in 1960–61, an increase of 60 per cent. A better measure of the significance of current Government expenditure either for a single year or a period of years is to show its relationship to the gross national expenditure as a whole. In these terms this expenditure in 1959–60 was 10.4 per cent of the gross national product and it fell slightly to 10.3 per cent a year later; 10.3 percent is also the average of the 15-year post-war span.

Although all Government transfer expenditure — social security cash benefits and pensions, interest on public debt and subsidies — is also paid from the Government's taxation revenue and trading profits, it is not part of Government final consumption. It only becomes final consumption in the hands of recipients and in the case of subsidies can be looked upon as an offset to indirect taxation which reduces prices to consumers. For this reason the best measure of transfers is the national income itself on which they are a charge and which they redistribute.

Social security cash benefits, the most important item of the transfer group, increased from £99.0 million to £106.5 million or by 7.6 per cent. This constitutes an increase from 9.5 to 9.6 per cent of national income, 8.3 per cent being the 15-year post-war average.

Subsidies are of a much lesser importance than social security benefits both absolutely and relatively. The subsidy bill was £12.8 million in 1959–60 and increased to £15.3 million in 1960–61 or from 1.2 to 1.4 per cent of national income. Interest on Government debt paid in New Zealand (interest paid overseas being treated as a factor payment to non-residents and is included in current expenditure totals) increased from £23.2 million to £24.8 million, amounting to 2.2 per cent of national income in both years; this is still somewhat less than the 2.4 per cent for the last prewar year.

Transfers to local authorities is a flow which can be most usefully measured against current Government revenue from taxation and trading profits as it represents a shift from local to national taxation. In 1960–61 £33.9 million was transferred to local authorities against £30.1 million in the preceding year or a decrease from 9.3 to 9.2 per cent of Government revenue.

The balance of revenue over expenditure is the Government's surplus on current transactions and is, together with the depreciation provisions of Government trading undertakings, available for capital formation, lending, and debt retirement. Its magnitude changes appreciably from year to year both absolutely and in relation to total current revenue and is the result of short-term changes in fiscal and economic policies pursued by the administration. Year to year changes in the Government's surplus are, however, complementary to changes (in the opposite direction) in private savings. This is of course, merely a reflection of the fact that changes in taxation policies are a major cause of the redistribution of total savings as between the private and Government sector. From a long-term point of view, however, it is important to observe the changes in Government fiscal policy from prewar to present days: in 1938–39, 4.8 per cent of the Government's revenue was saved, but in 1960–61 the figure stood at 14.2 per cent.

GENERAL GOVERNMENT — REVENUE ACCOUNT
 1938–391955–561956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61*

* Provisional.

† Includes social security income tax and also £2.4 million received as social security charge on 1957–58 income.

1. Taxation
        (a) Direct—REVENUE £ (million)
                    Income tax9.390.798.177.8109.4175.9131.5
                    Social security taxation5.559.961.666.380.675.4
                    Land tax1.11.21.41.31.41.51.8
                    Death duties1.88.58.39.010.412.316.7
                    Other0.1
Totals17.8160.3169.4154.4201.9189.8225.4
        (b) Indirect—
                    Sales tax3.623.422.324.225.824.223.7
                    Customs and excise duties11.736.635.739.041.646.655.2
                    Motor vehicles taxation3.117.518.419.728.728.923.8
                    Other1.76.97.07.67.47.89.2
Totals20.084.583.490.5103.4107.5111.9
2.                             Totals, all taxation37.8244.8252.9244.9305.2297.3337.3
3. Trading income5.824.222.923.827.030033.7
4. Less direct taxation paid by trading Departments−0.2−3.0−3.0−2.2−2.5−2.8−2.9
Totals5.621.219.921.624.527.230.8
5.                             TOTAL REVENUE43.4266.0272.8266.5329.7324.5368.1
 1938–391955–561956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61*

* Provisional.

† Includes contribution under Colombo Plan in each year.

‡See page 750 for reconciliation with surplus as shown in public accounts.

6. Current Expenditure on Goods and ServicesEXPENDITURE £ (million)
            (a) General administration2.215.215.616.417.718.018.5
            (b) Interest on General Government debt paid overseas6.83.33.43.74.65.65.2
            (c) Law and order0.82.02.53.23.13.43.9
            (d) Development of primary and secondary industries0.77.19.19.59.910.311.3
                Social services—
            (e) Health0.85.45.96.67.07.78.0
            (f) Education4.221.223.125.727.929.933.6
            (g) Non-monetary social security benefits15.516.817.118.719.921.1
            (h) Other social services3.31.41.61.61.61.82.0
            (i) Defence2.125.026.124.925.727.828.4
            (j) Rehabilitation1.01.00.80.80.81.2
            (k) Maintenance of public works and services2.32.43.13.32.92.32.0
Totals23.299.5108.2112.8119.9127.5135.2
Transfer Income
7. (a) Monetary social security benefits and pensions7.564.466.370.080.195.199.6
        (b) Family benefit advances3.96.9
8. Interest on General Government debt paid in New Zealand4.717.719.421.622.723.224.8
Totals12.282.185.691.6102.8122.2131.3
9. Transfers to Local Authorities
            (a) Hospital boards0.910.712.915.415.817.219.6
            (b) Other4.49.711.011.112.012.914.3
Totals5.320.423.926.527.830.133.9
10. Subsidies
            (a) Shipping and transport..........0.10.1
            (b) Primary production0.4
            (c) Foodstuffs0.210.912.412.512.512.214.8
            (d) Miscellaneous..0.50.10.50.50.50.4
            (e) Housing suspensory loans..1.00.90.60.5....
Totals0.612.413.313.613.512.815.3
11.                             TOTAL EXPENDITURE41.3214.4231.0244.5264.0292.6315.7
12. Balance of revenue over expenditure2.151.641.822.065.731.952.4
13. TOTAL EXPENDITURE PLUS REVENUE BALANCES43.4266.0272.8266.5329.7324.5368.1

(b) Local Authorities — The Revenue Account of local authorities is in all respects similar to that of the General Government and has been obtained by an analysis of the accounts of all local authorities, including hospital boards. The limitations in the scope of local government activities as compared with those of the General Government do not call for a detailed analysis of expenditure items and therefore current expenditure on the provision of goods and services by local authorities is shown as a single total.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES — REVENUE ACCOUNT
 1938–391955–561956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61*

* Provisional.

REVENUE £(million)
14. Taxation —
            (a) Direct: Rates6.216.718.620.421.722.924.2
            (b) Indirect: Licence fees0.60.70.70.70.70.90.8
Totals6.817.419.321.122.423.825.0
15. Trading income3.47.87.68.810.011.111.7
16. Transfers from General Government5.320.423.926.527.830.133.9
17.                             TOTAL REVENUE15.545.650.856.460.265.070.6
EXPENDITURE £(million)
18. Current expenditure on goods and services8.526.930.833.933.335.938.7
19. Interest on local authority debt paid in New Zealand2.33.24.04.75.76.57.2
20.                             TOTAL EXPENDITURE10.830.134.838.639.042.445.9
21. Balance of revenue over expenditure4.715.516.017.821.222.624.7
22. TOTAL EXPENDITURE PLUS REVENUE BALANCES15.545.650.856.460.265.070.6

(c) Reconciliation Statement — The reconciliation given below indicates the fundamental differences between the analysis of the public accounts made for national-income purposes and that published in parliamentary paper B. 1 [Pt. I].

RECONCILIATION BETWEEN BALANCE OF REVENUE OVER EXPENDITURE PER NATIONAL INCOME ACCOUNTS, AND COMBINED SURPLUS CONSOLIDATED FUND, SOCIAL SECURITY FUND, NATIONAL ROADS FUND, AND GAS INDUSTRY ACCOUNT, 1960–61 (PROVISIONAL)

 £(m.)
Balance of revenue over current expenditure, per National. Income Accounts (table on page 749)52.4
    Less
        Amortisation of debt charged to Consolidated Fund− 9.8
        Transfers to other accounts−22.5
        Capital expenditure charged to Consolidated Fund and National Roads Fund−23.3
        Net pre-payments of death duties (Deposits Account)− 2.8
    Plus
        Current expenditure charged to Defence Fund9.0
    Adjustment for Trading Income
        Less profits of trading undertakings−33.7
        Plus transfers of profits to Consolidated Fund23.5
Total− 7.2
Consolidated Fund surplus 1960–610.4
Social Security Fund deficit 1960–61− 6.9
National Roads Fund deficit 1960–61− 0.8
Gas Industry Account surplus 1960–610.1
        Total deficit of Consolidated Fund, Social Security Fund, National Roads Fund, and Gas Industry Account as shown in the Public Accounts B. 1. [Pt. I] 1960–61− 7.2

For the reconciliation for earlier years between the balances of revenue over expenditure and the Budget surpluses (or deficits), reference should be made to the previous issues of the Yearbook.

The preceding reconciliation provides an illustration of the differences between the balance (surpluses or deficits) arrived at in official publications of Government accounts, such as parliamentary paper B. 1 [Pt. I] and the revenue balance used for national accounts, which is the expression of Government saving and by the same token the value of the Government's contribution to the capital account of the economy. This latter idea is expressed by the introduction of the Government revenue balance into the savings and investment account of the economy as a whole as shown on page 746.

The principal difference between the two accounts is in the treatment of capital items, transfers, and trading profits and this is apparent from the reconciliation steps described earlier. The main accounts in the Public Account do not segregate capital expenditures, debt repayments, and transfers, from other current transactions; profits of various trading undertakings are entered only to the extent that they are transferred, and whether the total or only a part of profits is transferred, the transfer usually takes place in the following year and not in the year when profits are earned. The Government revenue account as shown on page 748 does, however, segregate capital and current expenditure and takes in profits at the time of accrual rather than at time of transfer. No allowance is made for depreciation of physical assets other than those used in activities of an enterprise character and the account does not include imputations for the net rental value of buildings and land used.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PRIVATE INCOME — A detailed survey of private income and outlay has already been given (refer table on pages 743–744) for the years 1938–39, 1943–44, and 1946–47 to 1960–61. An analysis of private income, in less comprehensive form, is given below for the years 1938–39 to 1960–61. Group totals are shown in value form, as percentages of private income, and as index numbers on base 1938–39 (= 100).

PRIVATE INCOME
YearSalary and Wage PaymentsPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesSocial Security Benefits and PensionsRental Value, Owner-occupied HousesOther Personal Income (Excluding Company Dividends)Company Income (Before Distribution)Private Income

* Provisional.

† Includes changes in primary-produce stabilisation accounts and wool retention moneys.

£ (million)
1938–39111.30.97.56.454.519.6200.2
1939–40110.82.911:26.759.424.7215.7
1940–41117.815.612.37.458.323.6235.0
1941–42120.825.512.77.762.327.6256.6
1942–43126.846.014.08.167.232.8294.9
1943–44140.658.315.58.672.436.4331.8
1944–45147.148.517.28.979.937.9339.5
1945–46162039.420.69.487.441.7360.5
1946–47186.58.234.410.1110.247.9397.3
1947–48210.16.437.210.9129.152.7446.4
1948–49227.24.539.011.6133.948.3464.5
1949–50250.14.642.212.7158.8−57.8526.2
1950–51278.55.947.113.6243.371.1659.5
1951–52327.88.453.014.8191.580.1675.6
1952–53348.010.653.716.3203.677.6709.8
1953–54384.411.957.718.4223.790.4786.5
1954–55431.112.161.319.8231.897.4853.5
1955–56468.412.064.421.7236.494.2897.1
1956–57495.112.166.323.7249.598.4945.1
1957–58534.212.970025.2245.6105.7993.6
1958–59557.912.280.126.6247.6108.81,033.2
1959–60590.612.999.027.6283.2117.91,131.2
1960–61*636.613.5106.528.9284.1137.51,207.1
YearSalary and Wage PaymentsPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesSocial Security Benefits and PensionsRental Value, Owner-occupied HousesOther Personal Income (Excluding Company Dividends)Company Income (Before Distribution)Private Income

* Provisional.

† Includes changes in primary-produce stabilisation accounts and wool retention moneys.

As Percentage of Private Income
1938–3955.60.43.73.227.29.8100.0
1939–4051.41.35.23.127.511.5500.0
1940–4150.16.65.23.124.810.0100.0
1941–4247.19.94.93.024.310.8100.0
1942–4343.015.64.72.722.811.1100.0
1943–4442.417.64.72.621.811.0100.0
1944–4543.314.35.12.623.511.2100.0
1945–4644.910.95.72.624.211.6100.0
1946–4746.92.18.72.527.712.1100.0
1947–4847.11.48.32.428.911.8100.0
1948–4948.9108.42.528.810.4100.0
1949–5047.50.98.02.430.211.0100.0
1950–5142.20.97.12.136.910.8100.0
1953–5248.51.27.82.228.311.9100.0
1952–5349.01.57.62.328.710.9100.0
1953–5448.91.57.32.328.411.5100.0
1954–5550.51.47.22.327.211.4100.0
1955–5652.21.37.22.426.410.5100.0
1956–5752.41.37.02.526.410.4100.0
1957–5853.81.37.02.524.710.6100.0
1958–5954.01.27.82.624.010.5100.0
1959–6052.21.18.82.425010.4100.0
1960–61*52.71.18.82.423.511.4100.0
As Index Numbers (1938–39 = 100)
1938–39100100100100100100
1939–40100149305109126108
1940–41106164116107120117
1941–42109169120114141128
1942–43114187127123167147
1943–44126207134133186166
1944–45132229139147193170
1945–46146275147160213180
1946–47168459158202244198
1947–48189496170237269223
1948–49204520181246246232
1949–50225563198291295263
1950–51250628213446363329
1951–52295707231351409337
1952–53313716255374396355
1953–54345769288410461393
1954–55387817309425497426
1955–56421859339434481448
1956–57445884370458502472
1957–58480933394451539496
1958–595011068416454555516
1959–605311320431520602565
1960–61*5721420452521702603

The following tables are presented for the purpose of showing various relationships between direct and indirect taxation on one hand and private income on the other. The tables on this and following pages give a tabular description of the incidence of direct taxation on various classes of income and the relationships of disposable (after tax) incomes to each other and their changes over time.

PRIVATE INCOME AND TOTAL TAXATION
March YearPrivate IncomeDirect TaxationIndirect TaxationLess SubsidiesTotal Taxation Less SubsidiesTotal Taxation Less Subsidies as a Percentage of Private Income

* Provisional.

† Excluding direct taxes paid by Government trading departments.

 £ (million)per cent
1938–39200.223.820.6− 0.643.821.9
1939–40215.730.521.0− 0.551.023.6
1940–41235.045.622.3− 1.666.328.2
1941–42256.651.423.2− 2.771.928.0
1942–43294.966.428.0− 3.391.130.9
1943–44331.875.531.8− 3.1104.231.4
1944–45339.581.234.0− 4.6110.632.6
1945–46360.584.937.3− 6.6115.632.1
1946–47397.378.243.0−11.8109.427.5
1947–48446.477.453.0−13.6116.826.2
1948–49464.593.546.1−11.5128.127.6
1949–50526.295.649.8−14.6130.824.9
1950–51659.5113.155.6− 9.4159.324.2
1951–52675.6142.071.0−16.1196.929.1
1952–53709.8345.767.0−15.0197.727.9
1953–54786.5153.667.5−15.5205.626.1
1954–55853.5168.480.7−13.4235.727.6
1955–56897.1174.085.3−12.4246.927.5
1956–57945.1185.084.1−13.3255.827.1
1957–58993.6172.691.2−13.6250.225.2
1958–591,033.2221.1104.1−13.5311.730.2
1959–601,131.2209.9108.4−12.8305.527.0
1960–61*1,207.1246.7112.7−15.3344.128.5
PRIVATE INCOME AND INCIDENCE OF DIRECT TAXATION
March YearSalary and Wage PaymentsPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesSocial Security Benefits and PensionsOther Personal Income (Including Rental Value of Owner-occupied Houses)Company Income (Before Distribution)Total

* Provisional.

† Excludes direct taxes on Government trading profits.

PRIVATE INCOME £ (million)
1938–39111.30.97.560.919.6200.2
1939–40110.82.911.266.124.7215.7
1940–41117.815.612.365.723.6235.0
1941–42120.825.512.770.027.6256.6
1942–43126.846.014.075.332.8294.9
1943–44140.658.315.581.036.4331.8
1944–45147.148.517.288.837.9339.5
1945–46162.039.420.696.841.7360.5
1946–47186.58.234.4120.347.9397.3
1947–48210.16.437.2140.052.7446.4
1948–49227.24.539.0145.548.3464.5
1949–50250.14.642.2171.557.8526.2
1950–51278.55.947.1256.971.1659.5
1951–52327.88.453.0206.380.1675.6
1952–53348.010.653.7219.977.6709.8
1953–54384.411.957.7242.190.4786.5
1954–55431.112.161.3251.697.4853.5
1955–56468.412.064.4258.194.2897.1
1956–57495.112.166.3273.298.4945.1
1957–58534.212.970.0270.8105.7993.6
1958–59557.912.280.1274.2108.81,033.2
1959–60590.612.999.0310.8117.91,131.2
1960–61*636.613.5106.5313.0137.51,207.1
DIRECT TAXES £(million)
1938–394.9....11.97.023.8
1939–408.0....13.39.230.5
1940–4112.50.8..18.813.545.6
1941–4215.61.1..20.714.051.4
1942–4319.53.2..24.119.666.4
1943–4423.43.5..25.922.775.5
1944–4524.33.8..26.426.781.2
1945–4626.63.3..29.625.484.9
1946–4723.81.2..29.224.078.2
1947–4823.60.4..30.922.577.4
1948–4924.70.5..37.830.593.5
1949–5026.50.5..39.529.195.6
1950–5132.50.5..48.032.1113.1
1951–5236.00.6..65.939.5142.0
1952–5343.90.8..60.140.9145.7
1953–5446.40.8..65.540.9153.6
1954–5549.91.0..71.546.0168.4
1955–5652.21.0..70.850.0174.0
1956–5761.51.0..72.050.5185.0
1957–5846.71.1..73.751.1172.6
1958–5966.81.3..100.152.9221.1
1959–6073.01.5..82.353.1209.9
1960–61*73.41.5..109.262.6246.7
March YearSalary and Wage PaymentsPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesSocial Security Benefits and PensionsOther Personal Income (Including Rental Value of Owner-occupied Houses)Company Income (Before Distribution)Total

* Provisional.

DISPOSABLE INCOME £(million)
1938–39106.40.97.549.112.5176.4
1939–40102.82.911.252.815.5185.2
1940–41105.314.812.346.910.1189.4
1941–42105.224.412.749.313.6205.2
1942–43107.342.814.051.213.2228.5
1943–44117.254.815.555.113.7256.3
1944–45122.844.717.262.411.2258.3
1945–46135.436.120.667.216.3275.6
1946–47162.77.034.491.123.9319.1
1947–48186.56.037.2109.130.2369.0
1948–49202.54.039.0107.717.8371.0
1949–50223.64.142.2132028.7430.6
1950–51246.05.447.1208.939.0546.4
1951–52291.87.853.0140.440.6533.6
1952–53304.19.853.7159.836.7564.1
1953–54338.011.157.7176.649.5632.9
1954–55381.211.161.3180.151.4685.1
1955–56416.211.064.4187.344.2723.1
1956–57433.611.166.3201.247.9760.1
1957–58487.511.870.0197.154.6821.0
1958.59491.110.980.1174.155.9812.1
1959.60517.611.499.0228.564.8921.3
1960–61*563.212.0106.5203.874.9960.4
PRIVATE DISPOSABLE INCOME
March YearSalary and Wage PaymentsPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesSocial Security Benefits and PensionsOther Personal Income (Including Rental Value of Owner-occupied Houses)Company Income (Before Distribution)Private Disposable Income

* Provisional.

AS PERCENTAGE OF PRIVATE DISPOSABLE INCOME
1938–3960.30.54.327.87.1100.0
1939–4055.51.66.028.58.4100.0
1940–4155.67.86.524.85.3100.0
1941–4251.311.96.224.06.6100.0
1942–4347.018.76.122.45.8100.0
1943–4445.721.46.021.55.3100.0
1944–4547.517.36.724.24.3100.0
1945–4649.113.17.524.45.9100.0
1946–4751.02.210.828.57.5100.0
1947–4850.51.610.129.68.2100.0
1948–4954.61.110.529.04.8100.0
1949–5051.91.09.830.76.7100.0
1950–5145.01.08.638.27.1100.0
1951–5254.71.59.926.37.6100.0
1952–5353.91.79.528.36.5100.0
1953–5453.41.89.127.97.8100.0
1954–5555.61.68.926.37.5100.0
1955–5657.61.58.925.96.1100.0
1956–5757.01.58.726.56.3100.0
1957–5859.41.48.524.06.7100.0
1958–5960.51.39.921.46.9100.0
1959–6056.21.210.724.87.0100.0
1960–61*58.61.211.121.27.8100.0
AS INDEX NUMBERS (1938–39 = 100)
1938–39100100100100100
1939–4097149108124105
1940–41991649681107
1941–4299169100109;16
1942–43101187104106130
1943–44110207112110145
1944–4511522912790146
1945–46127275137130156
1946–47153459186191181
1947–48175496222242209
1948–49190520219142210
1949–50210563269230244
1950–51231628425312310
1951–52274707286323302
1952–53286716325294320
1953–54318769360396359
1954–55358817367411388
1955–56391859381354410
1956–57408884410383431
1957–58458933401437465
1958–594621068355447460
1959–604861320465518522
1960–61*5291420415599544

THE ACCOUNTS OF THE GOVERNMENT SECTOR — The accounts of the Government sector as set out in the preceding pages 747–748, have now been complemented by the publication The Accounts of the Government Sector 1957–58 to 1960–61 issued as a special supplement to the report on the Official Estimates of National Income and Expenditure for the Year 1960–61 and available from the Government Printer. The publication of these new accounts is the first stage in a major revision of the national accounts, but until this revision is completed it will not be possible to integrate the new accounts of the Government sector into the overall national accounting structure.

The accounts of the Government sector present the first comprehensive and consistently classified statement of all central Government transactions. In preparing these accounts coverage has been extended to all Government accounting units, and all transactions have been classified according to a consistent economic analysis of receipts and payments. As it stands, the new system of accounts is a valuable addition to the material available to the public and to the policy maker on Government finance. The bulk of Government accounting material hitherto available has been of a detailed nature designed to permit parliamentary and audit control of various departmental expenditures. Although this detailed presentation is essential for these purposes, it has had the undesirable effect of obscuring the broad pattern of Government operations.

The assumption by Governments of overall responsibility for the health of the national economy has created a need for a presentation of Government accounts in a form which reveals the broad types of financial flows through which the Government can influence the growth and stability of the economy. Although most of the main items included in such flows as direct taxation, subsidies, and Government transfer payments are easily obtainable by any person familiar with the public accounts, it has not been possible to obtain total figures for any of these flows. The accounts of the Government sector enable such a view to be obtained.

In addition to providing improved measures of the current account transactions as recorded in the General Government — Revenue Account, the new accounts include a full analysis of the Government's capital transactions. Details of Government lending and borrowing are classified according to changes in claims on, and in liabilities to, local authorities, the private sector, and the rest of the world.

A major problem encountered in the preparation of the new accounts has been the elimination of numerous transfers between the many separate Government accounting units. The existence of these interaccount transfers has made it difficult for the public to understand the net effect of Government transactions. For example, public attention is frequently drawn to changes in the public debt, which is usually regarded as measuring changes in Government borrowing from non-government sources. In fact the Government is one of the main holders of New Zealand Government securities and what appear as changes in the public debt may in fact reflect no more than the transfer of Government money from one Government account to another.

It is hoped that the new Government accounts by eliminating all such internal transactions and by classifying transactions in a consistent manner will, in addition to assisting those concerned with policy, improve general understanding of the nature of Government transactions.

25 B — BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

INTRODUCTORY — The link between external economic transactions and the domestic economy is given by the net balance between all credits (exports and other current receipts) and all debits (imports and other current payments) and is called the balance of payments on current account. Irrespective of whether this balance is a surplus or a deficit, it results in a corresponding movement in the country's claims on or liabilities to residents of all other countries; a deficit on current account will increase this country's liabilities and decrease its claims on overseas residents, and a surplus will have the opposite effect. These capital movements can be summarised under the term of “net overseas investment”. This may be positive or negative depending upon whether there is a surplus or a deficit on current account.

It is this net capital balance, net overseas investment (denoted with a minus sign in the case of a current deficit), which appears in the aggregative national income estimates. A current surplus or net overseas investment means in this context that a certain portion of the gross national product has been expended on or disposed of — in the same way as other portions of the gross national product are expended on private consumption, Government consumption, or the formation of new physical capital assets — to create a financial claim on non-residents. It should be noted that in this instance only the net balance is integrated into a system of national accounts.

Apart from its place within the framework of national accounting, a balance of payments account, as a record of economic transactions with other countries, is an important set of economic statistics on its own merits. As an independent presentation it shows in detail various types of payments and receipts, it concerns itself with transactions by currency areas, presents its capital account on a gross basis in order that various classes of capital movements can be studied in isolation, and so forth.

The present series of balance of payments estimates is largely based on the principles set out in the Balance of Payments Manual prepared and published by the International Monetary Fund, and is in conformity with the methods used in most overseas countries. The statement is divided into a current account and capital account, which are described below. It will be seen that the balances on both accounts are, by definition, of the same magnitude; the capital account shows how the surplus or deficit on current account was financed. For a more detailed description of statistical concepts and methods used in preparing balance of payments estimates, refer to the Report on the Official Estimates of Balance of Payments for the Year 1960–61 obtainable from the Government Printer.

Current Account — In very general terms, the current account shows the results of the year's trading with other countries when services as well as goods are included; and a credit balance in this account indicates that more has been sold to other countries than has been bought from them, thus increasing their indebtedness to New Zealand or reducing New Zealand indebtedness to them.

More strictly defined, the current account records all transactions other than those representing changes in the international creditor-debtor position. Every attempt is made to record transactions on a gross credit-debit basis rather than on the basis of net settlements. The current account includes both credits and debits in respect of merchandise, services (invisibles), as well as transfers (donations), and movements in non-monetary gold which, in essence, represent net addition to gold reserves. The difference between current credits and current debits is the balance of payments surplus (deficit) on current account; it is the measure of the extent to which a country does or does not live within its current income. It is the most significant datum emerging from a balance of payments compilation.

Capital Account — The capital account records all known changes in claims on, or liabilities to, the rest of the world. Of the items comprising the capital account, the category of net overseas assets -the overseas exchange holdings of New Zealand's banking system-is most widely known and appreciated. Its importance lies in the fact that it records changes in overseas liquid resources which by their nature can be made immediately available for purposes of imports, public debt repayments, capital investments, etc. But within the confines of the balance of payments capital account the movement in net overseas assets is only one of several other capital movements with which it forms an integral part; it is the combination of all these capital changes which must be studied in order to understand the financing of the current surplus or deficit.

Attention is drawn to the item “Other short-term capital movements, including errors and omissions”, which is a balancing residual in the capital account. Apart from certain inevitable errors of estimation and omissions due to incomplete information available, the above-mentioned item gives a valuable pointer to year-to-year changes in “leads and lags” of short-term commercial credit (time extensions or restrictions in credit facilities to New Zealand exporters or importers by overseas buyers or sellers) and other capital movements not explained elsewhere.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS AND EXCHANGE RECORD — There are several very important differences between a balance of payments statement and the statistics of overseas receipts and payments which are included in an exchange record, e.g.:

  1. The former attempts to show all economic transactions between residents of one country and residents of other countries, whereas the exchange record shows only transactions involving remittances.

  2. The import and export figures in the balance of payments are based on trade (Customs) statistics, which enable goods to be valued at a definite and uniform valuation boundary -viz., f.o.b. country of export; the exchange record, on the other hand, records remittances for imports and exports whenever these are made and without adhering to any valuation boundary (f.o.b. or c.i.f.). The result is a difference both in timing and valuation between the two statements.

  3. Whereas exchange statistics record net settlements resulting from a number of possible contra-entries or offsets, the balance of payments shows these transactions as far as possible on a gross basis.

Other differences arise from the fact that the balance of payments is constructed on a basis of country of purchase for imports and country of destination for exports, country of residence of remittor or remittee, and nationality in the case of shipping companies, whereas the record of exchange transactions is based on the country of monetary settlement.

GENERAL — The balance of payments is a record of economic transactions between residents and non-residents.

Residents are all persons living permanently in New Zealand (or for a period exceeding 12 months), subsidiaries and branches of overseas companies being treated as residents, while subsidiaries and branches of New Zealand companies operating overseas are regarded as residents of the country of their business.

In order to simplify the rather complex operations of overseas shipping companies, the shipping transactions of their branches in New Zealand (such as their receipts of freights, port disbursements, administrative expenses in New Zealand) are regarded as transactions of non-residents, by way of exception to the general rule stated above; on the other hand, their investment activity is included in the data on New Zealand branches of overseas companies (page 777) and conforms to the general rule.

GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISION — The regional break-up of the balance of payments is on a geographical, as distinct from a currency basis. This means that it is not the currency in which any economic transaction is settled but the residence of New Zealand's immediate partner in the transaction which determines in which regional column the transaction is recorded. Any exception to this rule is due to statistical necessity — insufficiency of basic data, etc. — rather than choice.

The New Zealand figures include transactions of New Zealand's dependent island territories and Western Samoa.

The following geographical division of areas other than United Kingdom has been chosen in order to group together countries whose mutual trading or currency arrangements are of particular economic interest.

Other Sterling Countries — Other Commonwealth countries (excluding Canada) and their trustee, and dependent territories; the colonies, protectorates, and trustee territories, etc. of the United Kingdom; the Republic of Ireland, Burma, Iceland, Jordan and Libya.

Dollar Countries — The United States of America, Canada, all the Central American republics, Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, the Philippine Islands, and Liberia.

EEC Countries — These are the six members of the European Economic Community which formed a common market in 1958 — Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxemburg, France, Italy, and the German Federal Republic, together with their dependent overseas territories.

Other OEEC Countries — The remaining members of the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation — Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Switzerland, Portugal, Spain, Austria, Greece, and Turkey, together with any dependent overseas territories.

Other Countries — All countries not included in any other group.

ACCOUNTING PERIOD — All estimates are for financial years ending 31 March.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS 1960–61 -The results of the 1960–61 balance of payments estimates are now given.

Current Account — This account may be discussed under several headings.

Merchandise Transactions — In the year ended 31 March 1961 New Zealand overseas transactions on current account resulted in a balance of payments deficit of £55.5 million. This was a deterioration of over £91 million on the previous year's surplus of £35.9 million. Both the latest year's deficit and the previous year's surplus were the largest ever recorded.

The principal cause of this sharp reversal is to be found in changes in the levels of commodity trade, recorded as part of the current account. This shows that exports for the latest year declined from £310.6 million in 1959.60 to £285.0 million in 1960–61, while imports increased from £218.2 million to £272.6 million, a deterioration of £80 million through merchandise transactions. Before the contribution of invisible transactions to the current deficit is analysed, it is interesting to consider the changes in the merchandise account with the various trade areas. The following table provides a picture of the changes in net commodity trade.

YearUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesDollar CountriesEEC CountriesOther OEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
£N.Z. (million)
Balance of Exports Over Imports
1959–6066.3−36.624.533.9−3.17.692.5
1960–6124.4−45.97.725.0−3.24.512.4
Deterioration in Balance of Commodity Trade During Period
 41.99.316.88.90.13.180.1

It is seen from the table that New Zealand's trade relations (commodity trade balances measured in money values) suffered most in relation to trade with the United Kingdom and dollar countries. Net trade with the EEC area (known as the Common Market) also altered to New Zealand's disadvantage, but the significant point emerges that New Zealand had a greater surplus (£25.0 million) with this area than with any other.

The following table provides a picture of relative changes in trade, exports and imports separately, with each area.

The table shows that exports declined by 8 per cent in 1960–61, the largest fall being with the United Kingdom. There was also a fall in exports to the EEC and dollar countries, while the remaining three areas show small increases.

There was an overall rise in imports of £54.4 million, or of almost 25 per cent above the previous year's level. All areas contributed to this. On a percentage basis, the highest increases were from the dollar and EEC countries, 59 and 29 per cent respectively.

Looking at the decline of exports (£25.6 million) from the point of view of commodity composition, the principal decreases were dairy produce, £21.6 million, wool, £2.7 million, and other exports, £5.2 million. These decreases were partly offset by an increase of £3.9 million in exports of meat.

CHANGES IN TRADE BY AREAS
ItemUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesDollar CountriesEEC CountriesOther OEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
£N.Z.(million)
Exports
    1959–60169.821.548.749.82.718.3310.6
    1960–61149.523.346.145.52.917.8285.0
                Change−20.31.8−2.6−4.30.2−0.5−25.6
1960–61 as percentage of 1959–608810895911079792
£N.Z.(million)
Imports
    1959–60103.558.124.216.05.810.7218.2
    1960–61125.169.238.420.66.113.3272.6
                Chance21.611.114.24.60.32.654.4
1960–61 as percentage of 1959–60121119159129105124125

Invisible Transactions — The small surplus of £12.4 million on merchandise transactions was, however, offset and many times exceeded by the loss on invisible transactions of £67.9 million. The most significant changes occurred on the payments side of the account.

Three items warrant special attention, i.e., transportation charges, travel expenditure, and the cost of servicing overseas investment. Transportation payments (mainly import freights and marine insurance) increased from £27.1 million to £32.4 million. Payments to resident shipping operators carrying imports are excluded from these totals. It is not an unexpected result in view of the high volume of imports carried.

The expenditure by New Zealand residents on overseas tourist and business travel reached a record figure of £14.0 million, exceeding the previous year's figure by £4.3 million. This was mainly due to greater numbers of travellers overseas, but higher per-traveller expenditures were also a contributing factor. It should be pointed out however that the above is not the total cost of travel as approximately £3.5 million of passenger fares were paid in New Zealand and are included under the heading of transportation.

The cost of servicing overseas investments, in the form of profits of overseas companies, dividends, interest, and rents paid to individuals residing overseas and interest paid by Government and official institutions increased by £4.8 million to £24.5 million. The largest component of this figure is income from direct investment in New Zealand by overseas companies. It consists of remitted and reinvested profits of New Zealand subsidiaries and branches of overseas companies. Payments made to the individual areas in decreasing order of magnitude were: United Kingdom, £8.0 million; other sterling countries, £4.6 million; dollar countries, £2.9 million; OEEC, £0.2 million; EEC, £0.1 million; giving a total of £15.8 million. This total is the highest in the series published by the Department of Statistics and exceeds the previous year's figure by £4.5 million, or by almost 40 per cent.

Invisible transactions on the credit side of the current account do not warrant lengthy analysis. These are relatively steady from year to year. One noticeable feature of the 1960–61 account is the comparatively small figure (£0.7 million) of income from direct investment from other sterling countries. Usually the largest contribution to direct investment income comes from this area. The reason for the latest year's low figure is due to some heavy losses suffered in Australia.

Travel receipts from non-residents have increased from £3.3 million to £3.8 million. Income from investment overseas by New Zealand residents has increased by 40 per cent, reaching a figure of £2.2 million. Both flows are, however, still comparatively small.

The increase in transportation receipts is reflected in an increase in New Zealand port disbursements by overseas shipping companies consequent on higher commodity traffic. Losses on invisible transactions with the six trading areas are shown in the following table.

NET DEFICITS ON INVISIBLE TRANSACTIONS
YearUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesDollar CountriesEEC CountriesOther OEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
£N.Z. (million)
1959–6027.713.58.62.73.60.556.0
1960–6137.414.27.44.83.60.668.0
Increase or decrease (—)9.70.7−1.22.1--0.111.4

The £11.4 million increase in losses on invisibles was mainly with the United Kingdom. Higher transportation, travel, and investment income payments were again the most important influences.

The small decrease with the dollar area is to be attributed to a variety of factors, the principal being smaller net transportation and investment income bills.

Capital Account — The main item in the capital account, cash and exchange reserves of the banks, declined by £44.1 million, a fall not exceeded in any previous year and in keeping with the magnitude of the deficit itself. The draw on liquid funds was further augmented by the Government's realisation of United Kingdom Treasury bills to the value of £5.0 million. Against this, some of the liquid funds so realised were used to discharge long-term Government liabilities by £10.1 million. Public debt domiciled in the United Kingdom, to the value of £6.3 million, was amortised and an instalment of £0.5 million was repaid to the Export-Import Bank (U.S.A.) on account of a loan drawn in 1956–57. In addition £3.3 million of London-domiciled Government securities were transferred to the New Zealand register.

Outside exchange reserves, the inflow on account of private direct investment was the next most important single block of capital movements. At £14.4 million, private direct investment in New Zealand reached a level only surpassed in 1955–56 (£15.1 million) and was very much in excess of the relatively low figure attained in the preceding year (£5.9 million). The area, origin, and size of inflow was rather erratic; investment capital from the United Kingdom was the principal factor in the recent upsurge while the direct investment capital inflow from the second most important source — other sterling countries — in fact suffered a decline. Overall, the movements in private direct investment capital exhibited the same pattern as observed for some years past, viz, its reciprocity in size and direction of movement with that of the balance of payments outcome. Although both the final balance of payments result and the size and direction of direct investment capital have a common factor — imports of plant and merchandise for investment purposes — this common factor can only have a marginal effect on the balance of payments result itself. The indirect relationship between the two has to be sought for in wider economic considerations. The following graph illustrates the position.

SUMMARY TABLES, CURRENT AND CAPITAL ACCOUNTS — The following table summarises current transactions with all countries. The figures shown in the credit, debit, and net balance columns are the same as those appearing in the “Total, all Countries” columns in the current account tables on pages 764–773.

Current Account1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61
£N.Z. (thousand)
Credits
Exports f.o.b.272,900268,550261,550310,600284,950
Non-monetary gold----------
Transportation9,80011,40011,05011,95013,100
Travel3,1503,5502,9503,3003,800
Insurance4001,050200450600
International investment income7,5506,8005,9007,5007,750
    Income from direct investment1,8001,4501,4502,2501,400
    Other private investment1,9502,0501,9501,4502,150
    Government and official institutions3,8003,3002,5003,8004,200
Government transactions —1,7502,5501,5502,2501,950
    Foreign Government expenditure8007006001,2501,400
    New Zealand Government receipts9501,8509501,000550
Miscellaneous receipts4,8506,0005,0504,7005,800
Transfers7,8508,6507,3507,5507,800
    Personal remittances and other donations and transfers3,8003,9003,8004,1004,250
    Migrants' funds2,4003,3502,4502,2502,200
    Legacies1,6501,4001,1001,2001,350
Total credits308,250308,550295,600348,300325,750
Current Account1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61

* 1955–56 Colombo Plan only.

Minus (—) sign denotes excess of imports over exports or payments over receipts.

£N.Z. (thousand)
Debits
Imports f.o.b.244,250273,200233,900218,150272,550
Non-monetary gold..........
Transportation29,80031,80028,60027,10032,400
Travel6,7006,8507,8009,65013,950
Insurance9001,0001,2001,4501,100
International investment income—17,80016,85020,00019,65024,450
    Income from direct investment11,65011,00012,95011,25015,750
    Other private investment2,5502,0002,3002,7003,400
    Government and official institutions3,4003,7004,6005,5505,250
    Local authority interest20015015015050
Government transactions —5,2008,4506,2007,2007,400
    New Zealand Government expenditure5,2008,4506,2007,2007,400
Miscellaneous payments10,70010,75011,55015,10014,150
Films9009001,1001,2001,150
Transfers—10,05010,35010,85012,90014,150
    Government transfers and contribution to Colombo Plan*2,1002,0502,1501,7002,050
    Personal remittances and other donations and transfers3,6503,6503,3504,5505,100
    Migrants' funds2,9003,0004,0504,8505,100
    Legacies1,4001,6501,3001,8001,900
Total debits326,300360,150321,200312,400381,300
Net Balance
Merchandise transactions f.o.b.28,650− 4,65027,65092,45012,400
Non-monetary gold..........
Transportation−20,000−20,400−17,550−15,150−19,300
Travel− 3,550− 3,300− 4,850− 6,350−10,150
Insurance− 50050− 1,000− 1,000− 500
International investment income−10,250−10,050−14,100−12,150−16,700
Government transactions− 3,450− 5,900− 4,650− 4,950− 5,450
Miscellaneous receipts and payments− 5,850− 4,750− 6,500−10,400− 8,350
Films− 900− 900− 1,100− 1,200− 1,150
Transfers− 2,200− 2,700− 3,500− 5,350− 6,350
Balance on current account−18,050−51,600−25,60035,900−55,550

The next table repeats the balance of payments current account on a net basis (by offsetting credits against debits in respect of corresponding groups of items) and by areas.

Current Account (Net)United KingdomOther Sterling CountriesDollar CountriesEEC CountriesOther OEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal All Countries
£N.Z. (thousand)
1956–57
Merchandise transactions34,350−39,80010033,65030028,650
Non-monetary gold
Transportation−15,200− 750− 1,000- 2,050−1,000−20,000
Travel− 3,000− 45050- 100− 50− 3,550
Insurance− 300− 200------− 500
International investment income− 7,350− 350− 2,80020050−10,250
Government transactions− 2,550− 1,400400150− 50− 3,450
Miscellaneous− 2,500− 850− 2,000- 450− 50− 5,850
Films− 150− 150− 600----− 900
Transfers1,450− 2,550--- 500− 600− 2,200
Balance on current account4,750−46,500− 5,85030,900−1,400−18,050
1957–58
Merchandise transactions7,750−43,8001,60025,4004,350− 4,650
Non-monetary gold
Transportation— 17,200900− 900- 1,900−1,300−20,400
Travel− 3,000− 20050- 100− 50− 3,300
Insurance− 200300− 50----50
International investment income− 5,950− 450− 3,85050150−10,050
Government transactions− 4,650− 1,25050150− 100− 5,900
Miscellaneous− 2,050− 900− 1,400- 350− 50− 4,750
Films− 150− 100− 650----− 900
Transfers1,550− 2,300− 50- 450− 450− 1,700
Balance on current account−23,900−47,800− 5,30022,8002,550−51,600
1958–59
Merchandise transactions29,400−42,40025,05014,2001,40027,650
Non-monetary gold
Transportation— 14,000850− 900- 2,900− 600−17,550
Travel− 3,400− 1,200− 50- 150− 50− 4,850
Insurance− 800− 150− 10050− 1,000
International investment income− 8,100− 1,750− 4,100- 25050−14,100
Government transactions− 1,650− 2,800− 100100− 200− 4,650
Miscellaneous− 3,450− 700− 1,750- 550− 50− 6,500
Films− 250− 150− 700....− 1,100
Transfers300− 2,95050- 450− 450− 3,500
Balance on current account− 1,950−51,25017,40010,050100−25,600
1959–60
Merchandise transactions66,250−36,60024,50033,850−3,1007,55092,450
Non-monetary gold
Transportation− 9,200− 350− 1,500− 1,500−2,550− 50−15,150
Travel− 4,200− 1,750− 50− 150− 100− 100− 6,350
Insurance− 750− 200− 50....− 1,000
International investment income− 5,650− 2,250− 3,950− 150− 250100−12,150
Government transactions− 2,850− 2,350250100− 15050− 4,950
Miscellaneous− 4,350− 2,800− 2,200− 800− 250..−10,400
Films− 300− 100− 800....− 1,200
Transfers− 400− 3,650− 300− 200− 300− 500− 5,350
Balance on current account38,550−50,05015,90031,150−6,7007,05035,900
1960–61
Merchandise transactions24,400−45,9007,65024,950−3,2004,50012,400
Non-monetary gold
Transportation−13,500900− 800− 3,400−2,55050−19,300
Travel− 6,200− 3,000− 400− 300− 100− 150−10,150
Insurance− 900450− 50....− 500
International investment income− 9,750− 3,150− 3,500− 150− 250100−16,700
Government transactions− 2,450− 3,450150150..150− 5,450
Miscellaneous− 3,400− 2,050− 1,900− 750− 200− 50− 8,350
Films− 250− 100− 800....− 1,150
Transfers− 900− 3,800− 150− 300− 450− 750− 6,350
Balance on current account−12,950−60,10020020,200−6,7503,850−55,550

Minus (—) sign denotes excess of imports over exports or payments ever receipts.

The consolidated capital account shown below summarises capital transactions with all countries; it consists of the “Total, All Countries” column of the capital account tables on pages 769–773, but some of the items are presented in simplified form (by adding or offsetting capital movements where these have occurred in respect of equally defined items).

Capital Account1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61
£N.Z. (thousand)
Increase in Assets
Long term capital (private)
    New Zealand direct investment overseas1,5501,2507502,1501,400
    Other long-term capital movements−1,050− 2,550....
Long term capital (Government)—
    Government investments− 80030010012,350
    Other− 200
Long term capital (Official and banking institutions) —
    New Zealand Wool Commission100100100150450
    Wool credit to Francs−1,250− 3,750
Short term capital (Government) —
    Government cash balances--300− 350−1,250100
    Other1,400− 4003,2003,850−5,000
Short term capital and monetary gold (Official and banking institutions) —
    Net overseas assets4,650−39,60025,05022,700−44,050
    Monetary gold----------
Other short term capital movements including errors and omissions3,6003,3004,250
Total increase in assets4,600−40,75028,85043,250−43,050
£N.Z. (thousand)
Increase in Liabilities
Long term capital (private) —
    Overseas direct investment in New Zealand9,85012,65012,8505,95014,400
    Other long term capital movements----4,0007,2008,050
Long term capital (Government)—
    Public debt9,350− 1,10038,300−5,100−10,050
    Local authority debt− 500−1,100− 500
    Other− 200− 200− 150− 200100
Short term capital (Government) —
    Other than cash balances
Other short term capital movements, including errors and omissions3,650550
Total increase in liabilities22,65010,85054,4507,35012,500
Net Balance
Balance on capital account−18,050−51,600−25,60035,900−55,550
Minus sign (—) denotes a decrease in assets or liabilities.

MERCHANDISE TRANSACTIONS: Exports — The source of export figures is Customs information on total exports (exclusive of ships' stores) at f.o.b. valuation; exports from New Zealand to Western Samoa have been excluded from Customs figures, but exports from Western Samoa and Cook Islands to other countries have been added to New Zealand totals. The remaining adjustments are for items which are either entirely omitted from Customs statistics (relief supplies, ships and aircraft sold and leaving under their own power), items where the valuation requires correction, e.g., parcel post, or items which are accounted for elsewhere in the balance of payments (export of gold).

Imports — The basic import figures also originate in Customs statistics. New Zealand imports from Western Samoa have been excluded from the Customs figures, but imports into Cook Islands and Western Samoa from other countries have been added. Besides additions for aircraft and ships arriving in New Zealand under their own power, there is a deduction for the notional import values of commercial films; remittances of film rentals which express more exactly the cost of films to this country are substituted for the latter.

It is necessary to comment here on the valuation method adopted for imports. Balance of payments accounts treat freight and marine insurance payments on imports — as far as they are made to nonresidents — as invisible payments. As a result, merchandise transactions are shown on a f.o.b. valuation basis for imports and exports alike. This method of treatment has many advantages, and international comparability of merchandise movements is one of them.

There is, however, no provision in New Zealand statistics for a f.o.b. valuation of imports; imports are valued either on the basis of “current domestic value” or c.i.f. Evidence suggests that f.o.b. values are, on the average, higher than current domestic values as defined by the Customs Department. Packing and transport charges from warehouse to port in exporting countries and buying commissions would account for the greater portion of the difference. This difference has been estimated from all the data at present available and added to c.d.v. Customs figures.

DIRECTION OF TRADE — The following table showing exports and imports by areas as percentages of the total reveals the direction of New Zealand's trade for financial years.

YearUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesDollar CountriesOEEC CountriesOther OEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
Per Cent
Exports f.o.b.
1950–5164.53.612.514.15.3100.0
1951–5257.74.617.216.34.2100.0
1952–5368.64.612.211.53.1100.0
1953–5467.35.48.615.03.7100.0
1954–5566.45.97.816.23.7100.0
1955–5664.65.78.916.44.4100.0
1956–5761.66.28.819.53.9100.0
1957–5857.67.110.518.86.0100.0
1958–5957.47.117.713.93.9100.0
1959–6055.29.414.814.40.85.4100.0
1960–6153.010.715.514.20.95.7100.0
Imports f.o.b.
1950–5160.020.69.94.74.9100.0
1951–5254.619.912.78.24.7100.0
1952–5354.119.612.99.04.4100.0
1953–5457.923.19.06.93.0100.0
1954–5558.120.59.78.92.8100.0
1955–5655.621.211.88.23.2100.0
1956–5754.823.29.88.04.2100.0
1957–5853.823.09.79.24.3100.0
1958–5951.626.09.19.53.8100.0
1959–6049.326.511.46.13.03.7100.0
1960–6148.624.913.26.82.63.9100.0

REGIONAL ACCOUNTS — The tables on the following pages give detailed figures relating to the overall current and capital accounts in the balance of payments as well as particulars for each of the main countries and currency regions. The accounts are presented for the financial years 1958–59 to 1960–61, and each year's account is divided into current credits (gross), current debits (gross), and the capital account.

Current Credits — The item non-monetary gold represents the purchase by the Reserve Bank of gold produced in this country. Transportation represents mainly port disbursements (exclusive of bunkers and provedoring) of overseas shipping companies operating in New Zealand; their establishment expenses, however, are included in miscellaneous receipts. The regional break-up of travel receipts is subject to revision; at present it is still shown on the basis of currency received rather than residence (nationality) of traveller. The all-countries total is, however, not affected. International investment income consists of net (after overseas taxes) earnings of New Zealand companies operating overseas, irrespective of whether these have been remitted to New Zealand or reinvested overseas.

Current Debits — Transportation consists mainly of freight and marine insurance on imports paid to non-resident shipping companies and port disbursements by New Zealand companies overseas and charters. Travel is exclusive of fares paid in New Zealand, which are included in the transportation account. International investment income is based on total earnings of overseas companies operating in New Zealand, irrespective of whether these are remitted or re-invested in New Zealand. (Refer also to table on page 775 — Summary of Overseas Direct Investment in New Zealand.) The item “Films” represents film rentals of commercial films exhibited in New Zealand. Transfers is the general term for donations or transactions where there is no quid pro quo; the item in the tables consists both of monetary payments as shown in the exchange record and Government and private supplies in kind, such as the estimated value of gift parcels, relief supplies, etc. Migrants' funds and legacies are included in the same group because, from a country's point of view, there is no “consideration” in the ordinary meaning of the word.

Capital Account — As mentioned in the introductory notes, it is the purpose of the capital account to explain how the current surplus or deficit has been financed or, in other words, what changes have occurred to various overseas assets and liabilities (long term, short term, gold reserves) to account for the balance on current account. The tables are largely self-explanatory, but one or two points require mention. The item “Net overseas assets” (of official and banking institutions) is shown in the column of the United Kingdom, although this is not strictly correct. Gross overseas assets and gross overseas liabilities of the Reserve Bank and trading banks arising out of New Zealand business are to a small extent owned or due in currencies other than sterling. At present it has been found impossible to separate movements in other than net sterling assets, but the resulting error is believed to be not very significant. There is another point in connection with this item which should be explained: Net overseas assets are shown here under the description of “Short-term capital and monetary gold — official and banking institutions”. It is well known, of course, that a portion of what is commonly known as sterling exchange is held in the form of investments in United Kingdom stock or short-dated United Kingdom Government paper; these are purchased or sold according to whether there is need for liquidity or not. It is largely a matter of interpretation whether these investments should be treated as short term or long term. The treatment accorded to the item in the table is largely one of convenience.

Attention is drawn to the items “Other short-term capital movements (including errors and omissions)” and “Multilateral transfers”. At the present stage it is impossible to separate the two items on an area-by-area basis, and they are bracketed together. They are shown in one figure in the regional columns, and are merely the residual between the balance on capital account for each area and the capital items which are estimated and shown separately in the same area column.

In the way in which these are shown in the regional columns, they represent (a) short-term capital movements between each respective area and New Zealand, (b) multilateral transfers, i.e., the differences between current account transactions between New Zealand residents and the residents of the respective areas and the movement of financial assets or liabilities in the same area. To give an example, a difference of this kind would arise in the following instance: New Zealand imports of oil from, say, Indonesia may be settled by a remittance to the United Kingdom. While the current account between New Zealand and Indonesia (included in the regional column “Other countries”) would show a debit in that column, the decrease in our overseas assets (from which the payment is made) is shown in the column for the United Kingdom. The purpose of the multilateral transfer entry is to credit the capital account of the United Kingdom, and debit the capital account of the “Other countries” column, in order to compensate the divergent movement in the current and capital accounts.

Because all multilateral transfers, as included in the area column, necessarily cancel each other out, the entry for multilateral transfers in the “Total, All Countries” column is nil; the amount shown in this column represents other short-term capital movements (including errors and omissions) only. Although this entry is a residual balancing item, it is believed to be a fair indicator of movements in short-term commercial credit such as would be caused by timing changes in payments for exports and imports (a shift towards shorter-dated or longer-dated bills or any other change in credit facilities in respect of imports or exports).

REGIONAL BALANCE OF PAYMENTS 1958–59
A. CURRENT ACCOUNT
ItemUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesDollar CountriesOEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
£N.Z. (thousand)
Credits
Exports f.o.b.150,10018,45046,35036,45010,250261,550
Non-monetary gold
Transportation8,3502,400100..20011,050
Travel1,0001,500450....2,950
Insurance150....50..200
International investment income—      
    Income from direct investment4001,450−500501,450
    Other private investment income8001,1501,950
    Interest on investments of Government and official institutions2,5002,500
Government transactions —      
    Expenditure by foreign governments in New Zealand5020020010050600
    New Zealand Government current receipts from overseas200650100950
Miscellaneous receipts2,9001,5005001505,050
Transfers —      
    Personal remittances and other donations and transfers2,3009504501003,800
    Immigrants' funds1,550700150502,450
    Legacies7003001001,100
Total credits171,00029,25047,90036,90010,550295,600
Debits
Imports f.o.b.120,70060,85021,30022,2508,850233,900
Transportation22,3501,5501,0002,90080028,600
Travel4,4002,700500150507,800
Insurance950150100....1,200
International investment income —      
    Income from direct investment in New Zealand5,6004,0503,15015012,950
    Other private investment income1,7503001501002,300
    Interest on Government debt4,3003004,600
    Interest on local authority debt150150
Government transactions —      
    Current Government expenditure1,9003,6504002506,200
Miscellaneous payments6,3502,2002,2507005011,550
Films2501507001,100
Transfers —      
    Government transfers and contribution to Colombo Plan2501,3001002003002,150
    Personal remittances and other donations and transfers1,4501,4001002501503,350
    Emigrants' funds1,8001,7004001504,050
    Legacies750500501,300
Total debits172,95080,50030,50026,85010,450321,200
Balance on current account (minus sign (—) denotes deficit)−1,950−51,25017,40010,050100−25,600
ItemUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesDollar Countries
Increase inIncrease inIncrease in
AssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilities
£N.Z. (thousand)
Long-term capital (private) —      
    Overseas direct investment in New Zealand8,2003,550600
    New Zealand direct investment overseas− 200950− 50
    Other long-term capital movements− 1,650− 3502502,450− 100350
Long-term capital (Government) —      
    Government investments100
    Public debt18,70019,600
    Local authority debt− 1,100
    Other− 150
Long-term capital (official and banking institutions) —      
    New Zealand Wool Commission100
Short-term capital (Government) —      
    Government cash balances− 2,350− 2002,200
    Other3,200
Short-term capital and monetary gold (official and banking institutions) —      
    Net overseas assets25,050
    Monetary gold      
Other short-term capital movements, including errors and omissions65046,35035,750
Multilateral transfers
Balance on capital account-1,950-51,25017,400
ItemOEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
Increase inIncrease inIncrease in
AssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilities
£N.Z. (thousand)
Long-term capital (private) —      
    Overseas direct investment in New Zealand50012,850
    New Zealand direct investment overseas50750
    Other long-term capital movements50− 1,5502,450
Long-term capital (Government) —      
    Government investments100
    Public debt38,300
    Local authority debt− 1,100
    Other− 150
Long-term capital (official and banking institutions) —      
    New Zealand Wool Commission100
Short-term capital (Government) —      
    Government cash balances− 350
    Other3,200
Short-term capital and monetary gold (official and banking institutions) —      
    Net overseas assets25,050
    Monetary gold
Other short-term capital movements, including errors and omissions10,60050-550
Multilateral transfers
Balance on capital account10,050100-25,600

Minus sign (—) denotes decrease.

REGIONAL BALANCE OF PAYMENTS 1959–60
A. CURRENT ACCOUNT
ItemUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesDollar CountriesEEC CountriesOther OEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries

* Includes a small amount from companies in EEC countries.

£ N.Z. (thousand)
Credits
Exports f.o.b.169,75021,45048,65049,8002,70018,250310,600
Non-monetary gold
Transportation9,0502,450200....25011,950
Travel1,0001,60065050....3,300
Insurance450..........450
International investment income—       
    Income from direct investment overseas5001,850− 200....100*2,250
    Other private investment income450850150......1,450
    Interest on investments of Government and official institutions3,800....3,800
Government transactions - 
    Expenditure by foreign governments in New Zealand150400550100501,250
    New Zealand Government current receipts from overseas50750200......1,000
Miscellaneous receipts2,5001,250700501001004,700
Transfers —       
    Personal remittances and other donations and transfers2,5501,000450100....4,100
    Immigrants' funds1,30075015050....2,250
    Legacies85020010050....1,200
Total credits192,40032,55051,60050,2002,80018,750348,300
Debits
Imports f.o.b.103,50058,05024,15015,9505,80010,700218,150
Transportation18,2502,8001,7001,5002,55030027,100
Travel5,2003,3507002001001009,650
Insurance1,20020050......1,450
International investment income —       
    Income from direct investment in New Zealand4,0504,2002,700100200..11,250
    Other private investment income1,6007502505050..2,700
    Interest on Government debt4,600..9505,550
    Interest on local authority debt150150
Government transactions —       
    Current Government expenditure3,0503,5005001507,200
Miscellaneous payments6,8504,0502,90085035010015,100
Films300100800......1,200
Transfers —       
    Government transfers and contribution to Colombo Plan250850100150503001,700
    Personal remittances and other donations and transfers1,8501,9502001502002004,550
    Emigrants' funds2,0502,20045010050..4,850
    Legacies950600250......1,800
Total debits153,85082,60035,70019,0509,50011,700312,400
Balance on current account (minus sign (—) denotes deficit)38,550−50,05015,90031,150−6,7007,05035,900
B. CAPITAL ACCOUNT
ItemUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesDollar Countries
Increase inIncrease inIncrease in
AssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilities
£N.Z. (thousand)
Long-term capital (private) —      
    Overseas direct investment in New Zealand− 3507,400− 1,400
    New Zealand direct investment overseas1,1501,00050
    Other long-term capital movements− 2,0001,550− 250300−502,950
Long-term capital (Government)—      
    Government investments2,2005010,100
    Public Debt− 500− 4,600
    Local authority debt− 500
    Other− 50− 150
Long-term capital (official and banking institutions) —      
    New Zealand Wool Commission150
Short-term capital (Government) —      
    Government cash balances− 60050− 600
    Other3,850
Short-term capital and monetary gold (official and banking institutions) —      
    Net overseas assets22,700
    Monetary gold
Other short-term capital movements, including errors and omissions11,300-43,1503,400
Multilateral transfers
Balance on capital account38,550-50,05015,900
ItemEEC CountriesOther OEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
Increase inIncrease inIncrease inIncrease in
AssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilities
£N.Z.(thousand)
Long-term capital (private) —
    Overseas direct investment in New Zealand2001505,950
    New Zealand direct investment overseas502,150
    Other long-term capital movements............−2,4004,800
Long-term capital (Government) —
    Government investments12,350 
    Public debt−5,100 
    Local authority debt− 500 
    Other− 200
Long-term capital (official and banking institutions) —
    New Zealand Wool Commission150  
Short-term capital (Government) —
    Government cash balances−1,250
    Other3,850
Short-term capital and monetary gold (official and banking institutions) —
    Net overseas assets22,700
    Monetary gold
Other short-term capital movements, including errors and omissions31,3506,5507,0003,300
Multilateral transfers —  
Balance on capital account31,150-6,7007,05035,900

Minus sign (—) denotes decrease.

REGIONAL BALANCE OF PAYMENTS 1960–61
A. CURRENT ACCOUNT
ItemUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesDollar CountriesEEC CountriesOther OEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
£N.Z. (thousand)
Credits
Exports f.o.b.149,45023,25046,05045,5002,90017,800284,950
Non-monetary gold
Transportation9,2502,650600505050013,100
Travel1,1001,850850......3,800
Insurance100500........600
International investment income —
    Income from direct investment600650501001,400
    Other private investment income5501,0505502,150
    Interest on investments of Government and official institutions4,2004,200
Government transactions —
    Expenditure by foreign governments in New Zealand2005504001501001,400
    New Zealand Government current receipts from overseas10020020050550
Miscellaneous receipts2,4002,1001,050100501005,800
Transfers —
    Personal remittances and other donations and transfers2,5001,100550100....4,250
    Immigrants' funds1,20075020050....2,200
    Legacies95025010050....1,350
Total credits172,60034,90050,55046,0503,00018,650325,750
Debits
Imports f.o.b.125,05069,15038,40020,5506,10013,300272,550
Transportation22,7501,7501,4003,4502,60045032,400
Travel7,3004,8501,25030010015013,950
Insurance1,0005050......1,100
International investment income —
    Income from direct investment in New Zealand7,9504,5502,900100250..15,750
    Other private investment income2,600300400100..3,400
    Interest on Government debt4,500..750....5,250
    Interest on local authority debt50......50
Government transactions —
    Current Government expenditure2,7504,200450......7,400
Miscellaneous payments5,8004,1502,95085025015014,150
Films250100800......1,150
Transfers —
    Government transfers and contribution to Colombo Plan2501,0501501501003502,050
    Personal remittances and other donations and transfers1,9501,9502502503004005,100
    Emigrants' funds2,3002,25040010050..5,100
    Legacies1,050650200......1,900
Total debits185,55095,00050,35025,8509,75014,800381,300
Balance on current account (minus sign (—) denotes deficit)−12,950−60,10020020,200−6,7503,850−55,550
REGIONAL BALANCE OF PAYMENTS 1960–61—continued
B. CAPITAL ACCOUNT
ItemUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesDollar Countries
Increase inIncrease inIncrease in
AssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilities
£N.Z. (thousand)
Long-term capital (private) —      
    Overseas direct investment in New Zealand7,6505,65050
    New Zealand direct investment overseas300700300
    Other long-term capital movements−2,9503,000−4501,750−100−150
Long-term capital (Government) —      
    Government investments− 450−100550
    Public debt−9,600−450
    Local authority debt
    Other−200150− 50
Long-term capital (official and banking institutions) —      
    New Zealand Wool Commission450
Short-term capital (Government) —      
    Government cash balances5050
    Other−5,000
Short-term capital and monetary gold (official and banking institutions) —      
    Net overseas assets−44,050
    Monetary gold
Other short-term capital movements, including errors and omissions39,950-52,7501,150
Multilateral transfers
Balance on capital account-12,950-60,100200
ItemEEC CountriesOEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
Increase inIncrease inIncrease inIncrease in
AssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilities

Minus sign (—) denotes decrease.

* Includes a small amount due to EEC countries.

£N.Z. (thousand)
Long-term capital private) —
    Overseas direct investment in New Zealand50060014,400
    New Zealand direct investment overseas....100*1,400
    Other long-term capital movements..−50........−3,5004,550
Long-term capital (Government)
    Government investments..
    Public debt−10,050
    Local authority debt
    Other−200100
Long-term capital (official and banking institutions) —
    New Zealand Wool Commission450
Short-term capital (Government) —
    Government cash balances100
    Other−5,000
Short-term capital and monetary gold (official and banking institutions) —
    Net overseas assets−44,050
    Monetary gold
Other short-term capital movements, including errors and omissions20,650-6,1503,7504,250
Multilateral transfers  
Balance on capital account20,200-6,7503,350-55,550

The following diagram shows New Zealand's balance of payments by monetary areas for the five years 1956–57 to 1960–61.

SURVEY OF COMPANIES WITH OVERSEAS AFFILIATIONS — The picture of international capital movements would be incomplete without the consideration of investment flows originating with private commercial firms. While such investment takes place in response to usual economic motivations, its effect on a country's balance of payments differs in no respect from other capital movements, such as Government lending or borrowing abroad, investment or repatriation of assets from abroad by private individuals, etc.

The type of investment referred to here is that defined as direct private investment. Subsidiaries under control of an overseas company, branches of overseas companies, companies where the majority of shareholders reside overseas, or any other companies where overseas shareholders exercise a controlling interest, fall under this category. The question of control is decided in some cases on the strength of the parent company's holdings (a 25 per cent holding of the subsidiary's ordinary share capital is deemed as the qualifying minimum), in others on the actual circumstances of the case. The same criteria apply for direct investment by New Zealand companies and residents overseas.

Direct investment flows assume various forms: they may be by remittances of cash, the provision of plant, machinery, or goods without corresponding payments, charging up of services rendered by the parent company, the reinvestment in New Zealand of undistributed profits, or the partial remittance only of declared dividends and branch earnings. The inclusion of undistributed profits may require some explanation: the non-remittance abroad of the whole of the current year's earnings, or any portion of them involves, where no statutory constraints exist on remittances of current profits, a decision to invest which is in every respect equal to a decision to bring additional investment capital into the country. By treating, as already mentioned previously, total New Zealand earnings of subsidiaries and branches as a current account debit or payment to the rest of the world, the unremitted portions of such earnings are treated as an inflow of investment capital which, together with other forms of investment capital (cash, goods, services), make up the total of the private direct investment item in the capital account.

The information tabulated in the following tables is based on an annual survey of companies with overseas affiliations in which the companies report on the distribution of paid-up capital and its changes, dividends and dividend remittances, intercompany accounts with the parent company or affiliated company, and head office accounts in the case of branches.

It should be noted that investment figures given in the following three tables are in terms of annual changes at current prices. The total worth of direct investment assets is extremely difficult to establish in view of the fact that book values may bear little relationship to what such investments would realise on sale; annual changes on the other hand are capable of precise expression, and define exactly their relationship to other capital movements.

Overseas Private Direct Investment in New Zealand — Data on overall private direct investment in New Zealand are shown in the following table. The figures are totals reflecting investment changes in firms resident in New Zealand and controlled from overseas irrespective of their legal organisation. They include therefore subsidiaries incorporated in New Zealand, companies incorporated in New Zealand which have a majority of shareholders resident overseas or are controlled by overseas residents, and New Zealand branches of overseas companies.

The figures shown in the country or regional area columns refer to the country of incorporation of the New Zealand firm's parent company, head office, or associate company from which the investment flow originates, or the country of residence of individual shareholders who either individually or collectively hold a majority interest in the New Zealand company or who exercise de facto control.

Form of Investment IncreaseUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesDoliar CountriesEEC CountriesOther OEEC CountriesTotal, All Countries

Minus sign (-) denotes decrease.

* Provisional.

† Includes a small increase in holdings by companies of other countries.

‡Includes a small decrease due to companies in other countries.

£N.Z. (thousand)
1956–57
Holdings of paid-up capital3,080590501403,860
Net branch assets and intercompany indebtedness9501,9304507302,160
Undistributed profits2,3901,030340803,840
Total increase in investment4,5203,5508409509,860
1957–58      
Holdings of paid-up capital1,650502301,930
Net branch assets and intercompany indebtedness7,270680−1,4602,1708,660
Undistributed profits6101,070340202,040
Total increase in investment9,5301,800— 8902,19012,630
1958–59
Holdings of paid-up capital87068030301,610
Net branch assets and intercompany indebtedness5,9401,3102304307,910
Undistributed profits1,4001,550330403,320
Total increase in investment8,2103,54059050012,840
1959-60
Holdings of paid-up capital4,3201,23078010706,410
Net branch assets and intercompany indebtedness−5,4604,850−2,330150−40−2,830
Undistributed profits7701,320160201002,370
Total increase in investment−3707,400−1,3901801305,950
1960–61*
Holdings of paid-up capital2,6901,0704030303,860
Net branch assets and intercompany indebtedness3,6402,990− 3104004407,160
Undistributed profits1,3001,600300501503,400
Total increase in investment7,6305,6603048062014,420

The graph now presented shows changes in the overseas direct investment in New Zealand for the five years 1956–57 to 1960–61.

Investment in New Zealand Subsidiaries of Overseas Companies — The table following provides information on subsidiaries only; the figures shown here form part of the totals in the preceding table. The parent company's or associate company's country of incorporation or residence determines the country or regional area column.

Form of Investment IncreaseUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesDollar CountriesEEC CountriesOther OEEC CountriesTotal, All Countries
£N.Z. (thousand)
1956–57
Holdings of paid-up capital3,080590501403,860
Intercompany indebtedness−2,710340400170−1,800
Undistributed profits2,3901,030340803,840
Total increase in investment2,7601,9607903905,900
1957–58
Holdings of paid-up capital1,650502301,930
Intercompany indebtedness3,980630−1,190−403,380
Undistributed profits6101,070340202,040
Total increase in investment6,2401,750− 620−207,350
Form of Investment IncreaseUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesDollar CountriesEEC CountriesOther OEEC CountriesTotal, All Countries

Minus sign (-) denotes decrease.

* Provisional.

† Includes a small increase in holdings by companies of other countries.

‡Includes a small decrease due to companies in other countries.

£N.Z. (thousand)
1958–59
Holdings of paid-up capital87068030301,610
Intercompany indebtedness2,930−360−90902,570
Undistributed profits1,4001,550330403,320
Total increase in investment5,2001,8702701607,500
1959–60
Holdings of paid-up capital4,3201,23078010706,410
Intercompany indebtedness−3,6503,510−1,630150−20−1,640
Undistributed profits7701,320160201002,370
Total increase in investment1,4406,060− 6901801507,140
1960–61*
Holdings of paid-up capital2,6901,0704030303,860
Intercompany indebtedness1,3101,900− 7804001402,970
Undistributed profits1,3001,600300501503,400
Total increase in investment5,3004,570− 44048032010,230

New Zealand Branches of Overseas Companies — Net (after tax) earnings and remittances of such earnings and annual increases in investments by overseas companies in their New Zealand branches are described in the table which follows. Net branch earnings, together with dividends declared and undistributed profits of subsidiaries, account for the whole of “Income from direct investment in New Zealand” as shown amongst the debit items of the current balance of payments. The difference between net (after tax) earnings and remittances of such earnings is part of the third item in the following table (increase in net branch assets and other investments) and is a capital item; and is part of the net branch assets shown on page 775 and part of the direct investment in New Zealand in the main capital account.

ItemUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesDollar CountriesEEC CountriesOther OEEC CountriesTotal, All Countries

* Provisional.

£N.Z. (thousand)
1956–57
Net earnings of branches (after tax)3,00074030103,780
Net earnings remitted1,20038090101,680
Increase in net branch assets and other investments1,7601,590505603,960
1957–58
Net earnings of branches (after tax)3,1501,10090204,360
Net earnings remitted1,280620110102,020
Increase in net branch assets and other investments3,29050−2702,2105,280
1958–59
Net earnings of branches (after tax)2,6001,670390104,670
Net earnings remitted1,300980170102,460
Increase in net branch assets and other investments3,0101,6703203405,340
1959-60
Net earnings of branches (after tax)1,6701,62019050203,550
Net earnings remitted1,190900120..102,220
Increase in net branch assets and other investments−1,8101,349−700..− 20−1,190
1960–61*
Net earnings of branches (after tax)4,3501,53023050406,200
Net earnings remitted1,780990180..402,970
Increase in net branch assets and other investments2,3301,090470..3004,190

Investment by New Zealand Companies Overseas — The following table presents the converse picture of those immediately preceding, viz, direct investment income and capital investment by New Zealand companies in their overseas subsidiaries and branches. The net earnings (after overseas taxation) series is again repeated in the item “Income from direct investment overseas” on the credit side of the current balance of payments account, and the combined figure for investment in subsidiaries and branches is transferred to each country (regional) area column in the capital account (item “New Zealand direct investment overseas”).

ItemUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesDollar CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries

* Provisional.

† Includes small amounts in respect of companies in EEC and other countries.

£N.Z.(thousand)
1956–57
Net earnings (after overseas taxation)4601,280− 40901,790
Investment —
    Subsidiaries450− 30− 2040440
    Branches430520401101,100
Total increase in investment880490201501,540
1957–58
Net earnings (after overseas taxation)4801,310−5001701,460
Investment —
    Subsidiaries− 30130− 5040
    Branches− 701,200− 301201,220
Total increase in investment−1001,320− 801201,260
1958–59
Net earnings (after overseas taxation)4001,470−480501,440
Investment —
    Subsidiaries− 3020− 30− 40
    Branches−17091060800
Total increase in investment−200930− 3060760
1959–60
Net earnings (after overseas taxation)5201,850−180902,280
Investment -
    Subsidiaries410− 130− 40240
    Branches7401,12010401,910
Total increase in investment1,150990− 30402,150
1960–61*     
Net earnings (after overseas taxation)600660− 101201,370
Investment —
    Subsidiaries1608030270
    Branches140610290801,120
Total increase in investment300690320801,390

25 C — INTER-INDUSTRY STUDIES AND SECTOR ACCOUNTS

In recent years two inter-industry studies of the New Zealand economy for the years 1952–53 and 1954–55 have been completed. Details of the 1954–55 study together with amended figures for 1952–53 were given in the 1959 and 1960 Yearbooks. Readers interested in the technical details of this particular aspect of social accounts are referred to the Report on the Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy in 1952–53 a special supplement to the February 1957 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics, and the Report on the Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy for the year 1954–55 issued as a separate volume in 1959.

Chapter 26. Section 26 GENERAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

26 A — REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE

GENERAL — The legislation relating to the custody, administration, and audit of the public moneys and securities is contained in the Public Revenues Act 1953. All public moneys are paid into or are payable to either one account at the Reserve Bank called the “Public Account” or to certain other accounts which are outside the Public Account (refer to text following).

The statistical material presented in the ensuing pages relates solely to those accounts or funds included within the framework of the Public Account. (However, a consolidated review of Government receipts and expenditure on current account appears in the section on National Income and Expenditure. This review has accordingly taken into consideration the net surpluses or deficits of trading and other accounts not within the Public Account. This analysis has now been supplemented for the years 1956–57 to 1960–61 by a more comprehensive economic classification of the accounts of the Government Sector, copies of which are available from the Government Printer.)

Financial Year — The financial year commences on 1 April and ends on 31 March. The receipts of any financial year represent the money received into the Public Account at the bank at Wellington within the year, together with that received into the Public Account at London, of which advice is received in time for inclusion in the accounts for the year. The payments represent the money paid (a) at the Treasury within the year, (b) by imprestees, of which accounts are received at the Treasury within the year, and (c) at London, of which advice is received in time for inclusion. The Public Account, formerly held at the Bank of New Zealand, was taken over by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand from 1 August 1934.

At the end of each financial year the Appropriation Act of that year lapses, but the Minister of Finance is authorised for a period of three months from the commencement of the next financial year to pay money in respect of any service, provided that the amount does not exceed the unexpended balance voted for that purpose in the previous year, together with an amount equal to one-fourth of such vote.

The normal practice has been for Parliament to meet at the end of June in each year and to vote supplies from month to month until the estimated expenditure for the year has been approved and the annual Appropriation Act is passed. Where a later session of Parliament is foreseen, a temporary amendment to the provisions set out in the preceding paragraph is made. In the event of a mid-session adjournment, supplies in anticipation of the Appropriation Act may be voted for more than one month.

Where provision has been made for expenditure in the nature of a grant or for a purpose that does not normally recur, but the expenditure cannot be made during the financial year, the Minister of Finance may direct that the unexpended balance shall be transferred to a separate fund or account. In such a case the amount is held there until payment is required, when the amount may be expended without further appropriation.

Audit of Expenditure — In the audit of expenditure both the pre-audit and post-audit systems are in operation. Pre-audit is applied to vouchers in respect of payments on account of officers claiming more than one month's salary at any time; interest, loan transactions, and return of deposits; unauthorised expenditure; or expenditure chargeable against the accounts of local authorities. Post-audit is applied to all other payments.

Vouchers must be certified as correct by the proper officer, and forwarded by him to the head of his Department for approval. Vouchers subject to pre-audit are then forwarded to the Audit Office, and on being found correct are sent on to the Treasury to be entered on requisitions for payment. Vouchers subject to post-audit are transmitted by the head of the Department direct to the Treasury. Payment is made by the Treasury, and the claim is afterwards submitted for audit.

Section 20 of the Public Revenues Act 1953 enables the Controller and Auditor-General to determine, within reasonable limits, the extent of the audit of the Public Accounts.

Income and Expenditure — A number of departmental balance sheets and statements of accounts showing the cost of the various Departments and services on a commercial basis, as distinct from cash payments out of appropriations, referred to at the beginning of this subsection, are published annually in the annual report of the Department concerned.

ACCOUNTS AND FUNDS OUTSIDE THE PUBLIC ACCOUNT — In addition to those moneys payable into the Public Account, money paid into the following accounts is also deemed to be public money — Broadcasting Account (up to 31 March 1962), Government Accident Insurance Account, Government Insurance Account, Government Superannuation Fund Account, Housing Account, Maori Trustee's Account, Meat Industry Account, Post Office Account, National Provident Fund Account, Public Trustee's Account, State Fire Insurance Account, and such other accounts as from time to time are declared to be such by Order in Council.

Transactions in connection with the majority of these accounts are given in the various sections of the Yearbook dealing with the relevant activity.

ACCOUNTS AND FUNDS WITHIN THE PUBLIC ACCOUNT — The records of the Public Account in the books of the Treasury consist of a number of ledger accounts for the special subsidiary funds or accounts, and a number of other accounts established by statute or kept by Treasury under authority of the Public Revenues Act. In these accounts are recorded for each separate fund or account the receipts, payments, and cash balance so that the bank balance in the Public Account is apportioned among the funds and accounts, and balanced itemised statements of the receipts and payments for each of the funds or accounts are prepared for publication.

The use of the terms “fund” and “account” implying some significant distinction is hardly justified. The use of the term “Social Security Fund,” for example, does not imply any technical accounting distinction between the Social Security Fund and the Public Works Account or the other accounts within the Public Account.

The following accounts and funds were included in the Public Account at 1 April 1961: Consolidated Fund, Public Works Account, Social Security Fund, Defence Fund, Deposits Account, Earthquake and War Damage Fund, Electric Supply Account, Land Settlement Account, Loans Redemption Account, National Development Loans Account, Reserve Fund, State Coal Mines Account, Working Railways Account, National Roads Fund, and Gas Industry Account.

Particulars of some of the more important accounts are contained in the following pages, while others are dealt with in the appropriate sections of this volume. The Deposits Account represents only lodgments or withdrawals of (mainly) non-Government moneys. The Loans Redemption Account is dealt with in the subsection on indebtedness.

The figures shown under the various headings of this subsection are on the basis of receipts and payments. In some sections devoted to the operations of various Departments and activities, the figures are given on an income and expenditure basis and accordingly differ to some extent from those appearing here.

SUMMARY OF PUBLIC ACCOUNT FOR 1959–60 AND 1960–61 — The source of the following table is parliamentary paper B. 6, 1961. (NOTE — Whereas the tables on pages 782 to 785 exclude duty on motor spirits refunded under the Transport Amendment Act 1958, the following table includes these amounts.)

ReceiptsYear Ended 31 MarchExpenditureYear Ended 31 March
 19601961 19601961

* Includes advance to the dairy industry £3.0 million.

† Includes repayment of £5 million advanced to the dairy industry in 1958–59.

‡ Includes transfers made under other expenditure headings.

§ Includes transfers made under other expenditure headings.

| Includes investment transaction £2.1 million.

¶ Includes £16.0 million invested in New York and London offset by realisation of investments totalling £0.5 million.

£(million)
Consolidated Fund and Social Security Fund
Taxation receipts —  Expenditure —  
    Income tax175.9131.5    Social security109.2117.4
    Social security tax75.4    Other social services76.685.8
    Customs duty43.443.7    Defence19.220.3
    Beer duty13.314.5    Administration, etc.31.130.4
    Sales tax24.223.7    Stabilisation12.615.4
    Stamp, racing, and estate duties19.822.6    Maintenance of works, etc.12.313.3
    Other taxation1.92.1    Development of industry18.622.2*
        Total taxation, subtotals278.5313.5    Interest and management of public debt29.130.5
Other receipts —    Subtotals308.7335.3
    Interest15.016.4Transfer from Consolidated Fund to -  
    Profits from trading undertakings3.44.7    Loans Redemption Account9.319.8
    Departmental receipts20.526.5    Public Works Account6.5
       Reserve Fund5.0
       National Roads Fund1.21.0
            Total Consolidated Fund and Social Security Fund receipts317.4361.1            Total Consolidated Fund and Social Security Fund expenditure319.2367.6
Other Accounts Within the Public Account
Transfers from Consolidated Fund to -‡  Miscellaneous expenditure —  
    Loans Redemption Account9.319.8    National Roads Fund23.524.1
    Public Works Account§0.57.0    Defence Fund9.68.9
    Reserve Fund5.0    Subtotals33.133.0
    National Roads Fund1.21.0   
        Subtotals11.032.8Works and other capital expenditure —  
Miscellaneous receipts —      Expenditure from Public Works Account for —  
    Highways taxation20.821.7        Housing11.010.1
    Sinking Fund contributions, etc.4.44.7        Forest development2.03.1
    Miscellaneous capital receipts4.64.3        Public buildings3.03.8
    Excess receipts of trading accounts, etc., within the Public Account10.75.3    Railway construction0.1
        Subtotals40.536.0Transfers from National Development Loans Account for —  
Receipts from borrowing and sale of investments —      Electric supply16.013.0
    Borrowing in New Zealand —      Land settlement3.22.8
        Public and departmental31.035.8    State coal mines1.00.3
        Post Office Savings Bank20.025.6    Railways4.54.0
            Total borrowing, subtotals51.061.4    Post Office6.06.0
       State Advances Corporation16.624.1
       Other0.51.6
           Subtotals63.868.9
   Repayment of loans —  
       In New Zealand15.116.8
       Overseas4.66.8
           Subtotals19.723.6
   Net purchase of miscellaneous investments —  
       In New Zealand2.90.4
       Overseas15.5−6.4
           Subtotals18.46.0
   Balancing items —  
       Reserve Bank: Sale (-) of Government securities−15.0
       Increase (+) or decrease (-) in cash balances in the Public Account−19.3+4.2
           Subtotals−34.3+4.2
Totals419.9491.3Totals419.9491.3

THE CONSOLIDATED FUND — The Consolidated Fund, the principal account in the Public Account, covers the ordinary revenue and expenditure of the General Government — i.e., apart from capital items, commercial and special undertakings, advances, etc. In earlier years its operations afforded an excellent comparison of State revenue and expenditure from year to year, but successive changes in system have largely destroyed the comparability of the figures. All tax receipts are shown here with the exception of the social security tax* and, from April 1954, National Roads Fund taxation. Taxation receipts as a whole are the subject of the succeeding subsection. In addition, the Consolidated Fund is the focal point of the earnings of a number of State-owned undertakings as it records the receipts of interest, profits, and dividends from them.

Figures of receipts and payments of the Consolidated Fund over a long period of years will be found in the Statistical Summary near the end of this volume and receipts and payments for 1961–62 are given in the Latest Statistical Information. For the years prior to 1937–38 they are there presented on the old or net basis — i.e., certain interest and other payments, since treated as receipts, were treated as credits in reduction of expenditure. For later years the figures are on a gross basis.

A summary of receipts, payments, current surpluses, and net balance carried forward is contained in the following table, together with the amounts utilised in each year from the surplus of the preceding year.

Year Ended 31 MarchReceiptsPaymentsSurplusNet Balance Carried Forward at End of YearTransfers of Previous Year's Surplus to Other Accounts During Year Quoted

* To War Emergency Account.

† To Public Works Account.

‡Utilised for payment of family bonus.

§To National Development Loans Account.

|Deficit.

¶Excludes £933,000 in 1958–59, £2,326,000 in 1959–60, and £992,969 in 1960–61 of duty on motor spirits refunded under the Transport Amendment Act 1958; this comprises refunds to persons entitled to exemption from the additional payment of Customs duty from 27 June 1958.

* *Includes social security income tax and also £2,420,000 in 1959–60 and £2,224,000 in 1960–61 social security charge on 1957–58 income.

£(thousand)
1951143,757135,5048,25315,3944,308
1952180,788168,15312,63619,7763,079
5,174*
1953177,822174,5153,30710,4484,000§
8,636
1954182,319180,5161,8038,9443,307
1955191,216184,3766,84013,9811,803
1956197,433193,2824,15111,2926,840
1957206,276202,9513,32610,4664,151
1958193,580193,736−155|6,9863,326
1959240,377239,9554227,407
1960314,848* *314,2176318,038
1961284,354* *283,9583968,434

* In 1959–60 this was included in the Consolidated Fund under “Income tax”, and Social Security Fund receipts were derived wholly by way of transfer.

Receipts — Details of receipts of the Consolidated Fund are given in the next table. The bulk of taxation as credited to the Consolidated Fund, but it should be noted that other taxation is received into the National Roads Fund and the Social Security Fund. In 1959–60 social security taxation was credited to the Consolidated Fund and the total amount necessary for administering the Social Security Act was appropriated out of the Consolidated Fund. Full details of taxation receipts are contained in Section 26B.

Source1958–591959–601960–61

* See footnote

† Includes social security income tax and also £2,420,000 social security charge on 1957–58 income.

‡Includes £2,224,000 received as social security charge on 1957–58 incomes.

¶ on p. 782.

Taxation —£(thousand)
    Customs39,099*41,090*42,692*
    Beer duty11,25813,35014,529
    Sales tax25,75124,24123,744
    Film-hire tax169166179
    Milage tax8219060
    Racing taxation4,1354,1554,840
    Stamp duties3,0583,4704,163
    Death (including gift) duties10,42612,33513,823
    Land tax1,4481,5261,817
    Income tax109,406175,923131,530
Interest on capital liability -
    Electric supply6,0306,5597,105
    Housing account1,4771,5401,621
    Housing construction139157179
    Post Office2,4362,6542,899
    Land settlement1,7001,7001,850
    Maori land development, etc.387431478
    National Airways Corporation7495122
    State Advances Corporation348
Interest on other public moneys1,5421,8401,701
Profits on trading undertakings3,7483,3554,741
Departmental receipts18,01420,07025,931
Totals240,377*314,848*284,354*

Payments — Payments from the Consolidated Fund are divided into two main groups, according to whether they are made under permanent or under annual appropriation. The latter heading covers the payments under the various departmental votes, while the former covers interest on and amortisation of the public debt, and payments under numerous special Acts.

Payments under the main heads of permanent appropriation and each head of annual appropriation were as follows.

Head1958–591959–601960–61

* See footnote

¶ on page 782.

 £(thousand)
Permanent appropriations —
    Civil List176194201
    Debt services —
        Interest27,27728,75930,085
        Administration and management1,299333450
        Amortisation8,8449,3439,830
    Advance to Dairy Production and Marketing Board3,000
    Superannuation (subsidy and contribution)4,8524,9715,381
    Miscellaneous575*952*694*
Totals, permanent appropriations43,025*44,553*49,642*
Annual appropriations —
    Legislative265269284
    Prime Minister's Office222426
    External Affairs2,2932,6652,765
    Finance —
        Treasury398524566
        Stabilisation12,94012,60115,351
        Customs621643691
        Inland Revenue1,8241,9922,138
        Audit233251268
Totals, finance16,01516,01219,014
    General administration —
        Public Service Commission137152164
        Internal Affairs2,7142,2042,286
        Island Territories9521,5341,692
        Printing and Stationery1,4091,6091,678
        Marine664748915
        Labour2,0211,8191,614
        Maori Affairs9921,0541,107
        Valuation424432469
        Statistics227226278
Totals, general administration9,5419,77810,202
    Law and order —
        Justice1,9762,2242,695
        Crown Law303950
        Police3,0313,2983,455
Totals, law and order5,0365,5626,200
    Defence
        Navy3,9204,3264,481
        Army5,9436,5857,270
        Air6,1406,2146,294
        Defence construction and maintenance1,7902,0972,293
Totals, defence17,79319,22220,337
    Maintenance —
        Public works and services10,69411,50912,363
        Roads2,3092,0261,938
    Development of primary and secondary industries —
        Lands and Survey2,0412,1142,278
    Forest Service2,7472,9513,268
    Agriculture10,2745,6615,603
    Industries and Commerce494528624
    Tourist and Publicity1,0681,1621,240
    Scientific and Industrial Research1,6581,8122,028
    Mines19713089
    Transport706751847
    Civil Aviation and Meteorological Services3,6783,4413,217
Totals, development of primary and secondary industries22,86418,55019,194
    Social services —
    Health7,5868,3358,709
    Public hospitals15,77417,20519,561
    Education36,14539,44543,825
    Rehabilitation9609171,355
    War and other pensions10,96211,57612,330
    Contribution to Social Security Fund24,600106,50034,700
Totals, social services96,027183,977120,481
Totals, annual appropriations182,858269,594212,803
    Unauthorised expenditure727013
    Transfer to Defence Fund9,000
    Transfer to Reserve Fund5,000
    Transfer to Public Works Account5,0006,500
    Transfer to Loans Redemption Account10,000
Grand totals239,955*314,217*283,958*

In a number of cases the expenditure incurred on various related services appears partly in each of two or more places in the accounts. Typical instances occur where capital expenditure out of the Public Works Account or money paid under permanent appropriations are not associated with departmental votes (refer parliamentary paper B. 1 [Pt. II], 1961).

PUBLIC WORKS ACCOUNT — The Public Works Account, once the major construction account, now covers only those development works relating to forestry, State housing construction, and provision of public buildings.

Receipts — A summary of receipts of the Public Works Account is contained in the following table.

Item1958–591959–601960–61

* Includes amounts transferred from Consolidated Fund: Public buildings, £250,000 in 1958–59, 1959–60, and 1960–61 (from vote “Public Works and Services”); and Forest development, £100,000 in 1958–59, 1959–60, and 1960–61 (from vote “Forest Service”).

† £100,000 from vote “External Affairs” in 1959–60 and in 1960–61.

 £(thousand)
Forest development1,780*1,843*2,051*
Housing construction1,2671,0641,243
Transfer from Deposits Accounts —
    New Zealand Government Building, London604
Public buildings292*254*327*
Transfers from National Development Loans Account7,00014,0006,000
Transfers from Consolidated Fund5,0001006,600
Repayment of loans of capital advances, and recoveries of capital moneys (various)658040
Miscellaneous657667
Totals15,47018,02116,328

Payments — Particulars of payments from the account are now given.

Item1958–591959–601960–61
 £(thousand)
Forest development1,7691,9803,066
Housing construction8,60211,01610,114
Public buildings2,9692,9873,830
Railway construction81
Unauthorised expenditure11
Totals13,34015,98417,093

For the three years concerned, balances at the end of the year were: 1958–59, £2,197,000; 1959–60. £4,235,000; and 1960–61, £3,470,000.

NATIONAL ROADS FUND — The National Roads Act 1953 established a National Roads Fund within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund being derived mainly from motor taxation together with an annual contribution from the Consolidated Fund. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modern standards and of subsidising the roading programmes of local authorities.

Receipts and payments of the National Roads Fund were as follows.

Item1958–591959–601960–61
Receipts £(thousand)
Highways revenue19,79820,84221,695
Contribution from Consolidated Fund1,5001,2001,000
Miscellaneous449569577
Interest262822
Totals21,77422,63923,294
Payments £(thousand)
Highways maintenance4,9895,5574,212
Highways construction8,63210,2688,456
Payments to local authorities5,7956,0459,749
Administration and general expenses1,7971,6401,645
Unauthorised expenditure..1..
Totals21,21323,51124,062

The balance of this account at the end of March 1959 was £2,352,000, at the end of March 1960, £1,481,000, and at the end of March 1961, £712,000.

TRADING ACCOUNTS — Several important trading operations of the Government are outside the scope of the Public Account, while certain others are included in the Consolidated Fund, notably the Working Railways Account and the State Coal Mines Account. The Working Railways Account records the revenue from, and operating costs of, the services under the control of the Railways Department, also the cost of capital improvements (including new rolling stock).

Working Railways Account — Receipts and payments of the Working Railways Account were as follows.

Item1958–591959–601960–61
Receipts £(thousand)
Railway revenue33,64534,19835,404
Transfer from National Development Loans Account5,5504,5004,000
Interest123122135
Miscellaneous receipts9771,019862
Totals40,29539,83940,401
Payments £(thousand)
Annual appropriations —
    Working Railways38,97936,15738,288
Subsidy to Government Superannuation Fund286552398
Totals39,26536,71038,686

At the end of each year the following balances remained in the account: 1958–59, £6,179,000; 1959–60, £9,308,000; and 1960–61, £11,024,000.

State Coal Mines Account — A statement of receipts and payments of the State Coal Mines Account is now presented.

Item1958–591959–601960–61
Receipts £(thousand)
  Sales of coal and miscellaneous receipts7,4637,1477,371
  Transfer from National Development Loans Account1,0501,000300
Totals8,5138,1477,671
Payments £(thousand)
Annual appropriations —
    State Coal Mines8,4837,7527,926
Subsidy to Government Superannuation Fund81310
Unauthorised expenditure16
Totals8,5087,7657,937

Balances at the end of March for years 1958–59 to 1960–61 amounted to £17,000, £399,000, and £134,000 respectively.

Electric Supply Account — This account reflects the cash transactions of the Government in the supply of bulk electricity to local distributive organisations such as power boards and municipalities. The principal item of outgo comprises capital expenditure on new power stations (about two-thirds) and on the main trunk transmission system, and operating costs. Receipts and payments were as follows.

Item1958–591959–601960–61
Receipts £(thousand)
Transfer from National Development Loans Account17,00016,00013,000
Sales of electrical energy and miscellaneous receipts14,81317,52118,819
Interest on investments514
Totals31,81333,52531,833
Payments £(thousand)
Development and generation of electric power23,14623,29124,696
Interest on capital liability6,0306,5597,105
Debt redemption1,0001,107
Subsidy to Government Superannuation Fund526373
Unauthorised expenditure5
Totals29,22730,91432,986

The balances in the account at the end of each of the three years were: 1958–59, £2,865,000; 1959–60, £5,476,000; and 1960–61, £4,323,000.

Land Settlement Account — Though this account covers numerous and diverse activities in connection with land settlement, four are dominant: the development of Crown land for farming, the development and settlement for farming of Maori land, provision of houses for Maoris, and purchase of housing sections for resale or lease. Advances for the purchase of farm units from developed Crown land are made by the State Advances Corporation.

The principal advances accounts, those relating to State Advances to settlers, workers, etc., are, as stated earlier in this subsection, outside the Public Account and are not included here (refer Section 30B).

A statement of receipts and payments of the Land Settlement Account is now given.

Item1958–591959–601960–61
Receipts £(thousand)
Transfer from National Development Loans Account3,0003,2502,750
Department of Lands and Survey —
Capital receipts1,1621,4531,948
    Rents, interest, royalties, etc.1,3881,4491,516
    Land development3,4793,6734,093
    Miscellaneous receipts303547
    Transfer from Consolidated Fund450450450
Department of Maori Affairs —
    Receipts from land development schemes1,5791,5511,669
    Repayment of advances under Maori Housing Act6598591,105
    Receipts from rehabilitation of Maori ex-servicemen224244270
    Receipts from other activities9115
    Transfer from Consolidated Fund215146117
Interest on investments....2
Totals12,19413,12113,973
Payments £(thousand)
Crown lands5,7835,5186,220
Maori land settlement3,4013,6424,166
Interest on loans and capital liability2,0872,1312,328
Payment in respect of land and improvements acquired for disposal under Land Act 19481,2259421,075
Other106104140
Totals12,60112,33713,930

The balances in the account for each of the three years were: 1958–59, £160,000; 1959–60, £944,000; and 1960–61, £987,000.

SOCIAL SECURITY FUND — The Social Security Fund was established as from 1 April 1939 under the authority of the Social Security Act of 1938. Receipts and payments of the Fund in recent years have been as follows.

Item1958–591959–601960–61
Receipts £(thousand)
Social security charge 1957–58 income10,3662,4202,224
Social security income tax70,24975,390
Contribution from Consolidated Fund24,600104,08032,476
Interest..2150
Deserted wives' maintenance (recoveries)116131141
Recoveries on account reciprocity arrangements8814
Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1958—
    Repayment of advances under section 4(1)64
Miscellaneous receipts6273103
Totals105,400106,733110,462
Payments £(thousand)
Administration expenses and emergency benefits2,4672,7732,979
Medical, hospital, etc., benefits18,65519,89221,148
Monetary benefits68,33282,63986,299
Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1958 — Advances under section 4 (1)3,8806,941
Reciprocity benefits91113
Totals89,463109,194117,380

The balances remaining in this account for the three years were as follows: 1958–59, £20,601,000; 1959–60, £18,140,000; and in 1960–61, £11,223,000.

More detailed information concerning payments under the various headings is given in Section 6A of this Yearbook.

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT LOANS ACCOUNT — Since the inauguration of the National Development Loans Account in April 1942 all loan moneys raised for public works and other capital purposes are first paid into this account and then transferred to the various accounts covering the activities for which the moneys are required.

Particulars of receipts and payments of the National Development Loans Account were as follows.

Item1958–591959–601960–61
Receipts £(thousand)
Stock issued46,09147,60347,280
Advance subscriptions1,5804
Totals47,67147,60747,280
Expenditure £(thousand)
Public Works Account7,00014,0006,000
Electric Supply Account17,00016,00013,000
Land Settlement Account3,0003,2502,750
State Coal Mines Account1,0501,000300
Working Railways Account5,5504,5004,000
Post Office Account5,0006,0006,000
Advances to National Airways Corporation5004501,400
Advances to State Advances Corporation22,000
Advances to Tourist Hotel Corporation402100200
Calls on shares in New Zealand Steel Investigating Co. Ltd.25
Advance subscriptions from previous year allocated401,5804
Totals39,54246,88055,679

The balance in the account at the end of each year was as follows: 1958–59, £8,494,000; 1959–60, £9,222,000; and 1960–61, £823,000.

EARTHQUAKE AND WAR DAMAGE FUND — The Earthquake and War Damage Fund, which replaced the War Damage Fund created by the War Damage Act 1941, was set up under the provisions of the Earthquake and War Damage Act 1944. Premiums paid into the Fund during the three years 1958–59 to 1960–61 amounted to £1,640,000, £1,754,000, and £1,903,000, respectively. Interest on investments amounted to £603,000, £689,000, and £792,000. Payments during the same years amounted to £445,000, £279,000, and £128,000, leaving balances of £19,446,000, £21,611,000, and £24,178,000 in the Fund at 31 March 1959, 1960, and 1961, respectively.

A description of the provisions of the Act and further details of the Fund will be found in Section 31D.

DEFENCE FUND — In order to provide moneys for the purchase of modern equipment for the Royal New Zealand Air Force, an Air Defence Fund was created in June 1948. This Fund has since been extended to cover the three Services, and the title has been changed to the Defence Fund. The Fund may be expended for any purpose connected with the defence of New Zealand or directly or indirectly with any war or threat of war faced by New Zealand. If not required for its original purposes, money in the Fund may be transferred to the Reserve Fund or to the Loans Redemption Account. The following table shows receipts and payments of the Defence Fund from its inception until 31 March 1961.

ItemAmount
Receipts £(thousand)
        Transfer, being balance in the former War Expenses Account12,079
        Amounts paid into Fund, 1948–6129,711
        Interest on investments, 1948–616,519
Total48,309
Expenditure £(thousand)
        Service expenditure in Korea4,491
        Purchase, construction, etc., of naval vessels, 1955–581,400
        Service expenditure in Malaya, 1957–581,851
        Overseas expenditure on staff, stores, and equipment, etc., 1958–6127,434
        Other7
Total35,183
Balance (31 March 1961)13,126

26 B — TAXATION

TOTAL TAXATION — A summary of taxation revenue during the last 11 March years is given in the following table. In addition to total taxation the amounts received from direct taxes on income are also shown.

Year Ended 31 MarchDirect Taxes on Income (i.e., Income Tax and Social Security Taxation on Income)Total Taxation
AmountPercentage of Total Taxation (All Sources)Amount
TotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean Population

* Excludes £933,000 in 1958–59, £2,326,000 in 1959–60, and £993,000 in 1960–61 of duty on motor spirits refunded under the Transport Amendment Act 1958; this comprises refunds to persons entitled to exemption from the additional payment of Customs duty from 27 June 1958.

 £(000)£s. £(000)£s.
195195,208491360.3157,947827
1952121,71462360.7200,5501028
1953124,209611662.2199,770998
1954130,51763663.4206,8021006
1955144,492681261.5234,76611110
1956150,60970161.5244,82911317
1957159,753721663.2252,8521155
1958144,04364358.8244,8821091
1959190,021821362.1305,243*13216
1960175,92375059.2297,288*12615
1961206,920861361.9334,463*1401

The following table shows receipts, under the various heads, of taxation during the latest five years.

HeadRevenue for Year Ended 31 March
19571958195919601961

* Excludes £933,000 in 1958–59, £2,326,000 in 1959–60, and £993,000 in 1960–61 of duty on motor spirits refunded under the Transport Amendment Act 1958; this comprises refunds to persons entitled to exemption from the additional payment of Customs duty from 27 June 1958.

† Includes social security income tax and also £2,420,000 received as social security charge on 1957–58 income.

‡Includes £2,224,000 received as social security charge on 1957–58 incomes.

 £(thousand)
Consolidated Fund -
    Customs revenue28,93831,98239,099*41,090*42,692*
    Beer duty6,7547,02011,25813,35014,529
    Milage tax8219060
    Land tax1,4001,3081,4481,5261,817
    Income tax (ordinary)98,11877,787109,406175,923131,530
    Sales tax22,28124,22225,75124,24123,744
    Estate duties7,6258,1889,16510,59312,079
    Gift duties6438151,2601,7421,744
    Racing taxation4,1284,2674,1354,1554,840
    Duty on instruments1,4971,8001,6742,0102,617
    Amusement tax463502519560555
    Adhesive stamps4560
    Impressed stamps543571610633
    Other stamps taxation214252255267991
    Film-hire tax147150169166179
Social security taxation —
    Social security charge61,63566,256
    Social security charge - 1957–58 income10,366
    Social security income tax70,24975,390
National Roads Fund —
    Highways revenue (less rebates)18,42219,70119,79820,84221,695
Totals252,852244,882305,243*297,288*334,463*
Taxation receipts per head of mean population£ s.£ s.£ s.£ s.£ s.
 115 5109 1132 16126 15140 1

On a comparable basis (i.e., an amalgamation of the amounts paid into the Consolidated, Social Security, and National Roads Funds in 1959–60, and the Consolidated and National Roads Funds in 1960–61) total taxation receipts increased by £37,175,000, or 12.5 per cent, in 1960–61 compared with those for the previous 12 months.

Items of taxation showing significant increases and the amount of the increases were as follows: beer duty, £1,180,000; Customs revenue, £1,602,000; and death duties, £1,488,000.

It should be noted that for the year 1958–59 social security receipts from taxation were augmented by the receipt of social security tax on income other than salary or wages derived in the year ended 31 March 1958. The Land and Income Tax Amendment Act 1958 provided for the payment within three years of this social security income tax; taxpayers had the option of paying the whole of this tax by 7 December 1958, in which case a rebate of 5 per cent of the total amount was allowed. In 1959–60 all receipts of tax on incomes were paid into the Consolidated Fund first, and an appropriate transfer made to the Social Security Fund. This applied also to the social security charge received in respect of 1957–58 income.

The Social Security Act 1938 provided that, in addition to the special taxation for the purposes of the Fund, payment might be made to the Fund of such other moneys as might be appropriated by Parliament from time to time, and a substantial amount was transferred from the Consolidated Fund each year up to and including 1956–57, and again in 1958–59. In 1959–60 social security taxation was credited to the Consolidated Fund and the amount necessary for administering the Social Security Act was transferred from the Consolidated Fund. The Finance Act 1959 provided for the payment into the Social Security Fund, from 1 April 1960, of an amount computed at the rate of 1s. 6d. for each £1 of the national private income (as defined in the Act) for the preceding year, as estimated by the Government Statistician. The following table shows for each of the last 11 years the taxation receipts of the Consolidated Fund, the amounts transferred to other accounts, and the taxation receipts of the Social Security Fund plus the amounts of transfers to that Fund.

Year Ended 31 MarchConsolidated FundSocial Security Taxation Plus Transfers
Taxation ReceiptsTransfers to —
Social Security FundPublic Works AccountOther Accounts

* War Emergency Account.

† National Development Loans Account.

‡Defence Fund.

§Defence Fund, £1,000,000; National Development Loans Account, £3,500,000.

|No transfer in this year.

¶Loans Redemption Account.

 £(thousand)
1951122,18114,00049,766
1952156,93714,00011,774*57,613
1953154,26214,00014,6364,00059,508
1954156,19614,0003,3073,50063,717
1955162,50914,0003,8034,500§70,175
1956167,41914,00014,34073,911
1957172,79514,0004,15175,635
1958158,9253,32666,256|
1959204,83024,6005,0009,000105,215
1960276,446106,500106,500
1961237,37834,7006,50010,000110,090

A comparison of taxation revenue and total private income and national income is afforded by the following table, which also shows taxation as a percentage of private income and national income.

YearTotal Private IncomeNational Income at Factor CostTaxation Revenue
TotalAs a Percentage of —
Private IncomeNational Income

* Provisional.

 £(m)£(m)£(m)per centper cent
1950–51659.5612.4157.923.925.8
1951–52675.6625.3200.529.732.1
1952–53709.8658.3199.828.130.4
1953–54786.5735.3206.826.328.1
1954–55853.5802.2234.827.529.3
1955–56897.1843.8244.827.329.0
1956–57945.1885.9252.926.828.5
1957–58993.6929.9244.924.726.3
1958–591,033.2961.7305.229.531.6
1959–601,131.21,043.6297.326.328.5
1960–611,207.1*1,114.0*334.527.730.0

The following diagrams show the extent to which taxation receipts have increased since the year 1930–31, and also the relation of direct taxes and other taxes.

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE TAXATION — Revenue included under the heading of Customs is exclusive of receipts from tyre tax and from motor spirits tax. Sales tax receipts are not counted as ordinary Customs revenue, although collected by the Customs Department. The following figures show Customs and excise revenue, for ordinary revenue purposes, for the latest five years.

Year Ended 31 MarchCustoms Duties*Beer DutyTotal Customs and Excise DutiesProportion of Total Taxation

* Excise duties other than beer duty are here included with Customs duties.

 £(thousand)per cent
195728,9386,75435,69114.1
195831,9827,02039,00315.9
195939,09911,25850,35616.5
196041,09013,35054,44018.3
196142,69214,52957,22217.1

Information in regard to Customs and excise duties generally is contained in Section 22D — Customs Tariff and Revenue.

ROADS TAXATION — The National Roads Act 1953 provided for the establishment of the National Roads Board with power to administer a national roading system.

The National Roads Fund, also established by the 1953 Act, derives its revenues from a tax on motor spirits (at present 1s. 3d. per gallon for this purpose), registration and licence fees of motor vehicles, heavy traffic licence fees, a milage tax on vehicles not using motor spirits, and a tax on imported tyres (details of the origin of these are also given in earlier Yearbooks); other revenues of the Fund, which are not classed as taxation, consist of a Government contribution, interest earned, and miscellaneous receipts — e.g., from the sale of materials, etc.

Taxation receipts for roads purposes have been as follows during the latest five years.

Year Ended 31 MarchRegistration and Licence Fees, etc., Under Transport Act 1949Tyre TaxMotor Spirits TaxationMilage TaxHeavy Traffic FeesTotal
 £(thousand)
19572,2172213,6422652,27518,422
19582,3443114,5963102,42119,701
19592,4293014,5013652,47419,798
19602,5282915,3053912,58820,842
19612,6414415,7895032,71921,695

Although it does not affect the table it should be noted that from 27 June 1958 an additional 1s. a gallon tax (reduced to 8d. a gallon on 4 November 1959, to 4d. a gallon on 22 December 1959, and to 2d. a gallon on 22 July 1960) was imposed on motor spirits, and this is credited not to the National Roads Fund but to the Consolidated Fund for general revenue purposes.

INCOME TAX — Income tax is levied under the Land and Income Tax Act 1954, the Income Tax Assessment Act 1957, and amendments.

Income tax is divided into ordinary income tax and social security income tax. Social security income tax is payable by both individuals and companies. It is assessed at the rate of 1s. 6d. for every £1 of assessable income. The rates of ordinary income tax are given later in this Section.

Exemptions — Certain specified incomes and types of income are exempt from income tax. The incomes of local and public authorities (excepting for certain Government trading departments) building societies, cooperative dairy and milk treatment companies, trustees of superannuation funds, friendly societies, charitable societies, and others of similar character are exempt from income tax. The general principle is where any society or association carries on business exclusively for the purposes for which it was established and does not operate for the private pecuniary profit of any individual, the income is exempt from income tax. Monetary benefits from the Social Security Fund (excepting the universal superannuation benefit), sick benefits from friendly societies, workers' compensation payments, war pensions, etc., and the first £30 of income from interest are exempt income.

Any expenditure or loss exclusively incurred in the production of the assessable income may be deducted from the total income derived.

Depreciation Allowances — Depreciation is allowed. On premises the allowable depreciation rates vary from 2 1/2 per cent on cost price for wooden-walled and framed buildings to 1 per cent on cost price for buildings of reinforced concrete. There are higher rates for buildings used as cool stores, chemical works, etc. Various rates of depreciation allowances have been fixed by the Commissioner of Inland Revenue for different classes of plant, machinery, and equipment. These are normally expressed as percentages of the diminishing value of the asset.

There are special depreciation allowances for plant and machinery (motor cars excepted), and a total additional allowance of 20 per cent of the cost is to be spread over five years. Interest on convertible notes offered by a company after 8 September 1960 is not allowed as a deduction from the company's assessable income and is treated as a dividend in the hands of the holder. Unit trusts are treated as companies, and income and other payments to unit holders are treated as dividends.

Profits on the sale of depreciated assets may be allowed against the cost of replacement assets, and in some circumstances the purchaser of depreciated property may not be allowed a larger depreciation deduction than that which would have been allowed to the vendor.

Taxation of Companies:Rates — The rates of ordinary income tax for the year which commenced on 1 April 1961 were as follows.

Debentures Issued by Companies and Local Public Authorities — Where the income has been derived from debentures issued by a company on terms providing for the payment of income tax by the company, the rate of tax is 8s. 6d. per £1.

Companies and Public Authorities — On income not already specified, the rate of ordinary income tax for every £1 of taxable income in the case of companies and public authorities is: (i) where the taxable income does not exceed £6,300, 2s. 6d. increased by 1/100 for every £1 of taxable income; (ii) where the taxable income exceeds £6,300, 7s. 9d. increased by 1/150 for every £1 of the taxable income in excess of £6,300, but so as not to exceed in any case the rate of 8s. 6d. per £1. Social security income tax at 1s. 6d. per £1 is additional to these rates.

Dividends — Dividends received by individual shareholders are included as part of their assessable income. After deduction of any exemptions to which the taxpayer is entitled, he pays ordinary income tax at normal rates on the total taxable income. The dividend income is not liable for social security income tax, and ordinary income tax on the dividends is limited to an average rate of 7s. per £1. The total taxation payable by the company and by the shareholder on the dividends therefore does not exceed an overall rate of 13s. 6d. per £1 of company income. This is the same as the maximum rate for individuals. Dividends, whether in cash or in the form of bonus share issues, are exempted if made from capital profits or the writing up of capital assets.

Excess Retention Tax — A new feature in New Zealand income tax law was introduced by the 1958 Land and Income Tax Amendment Act. This was the taxation of company dividends in the hands of individual (but not company) shareholders, and the imposition of an excess retention tax on companies which applied if the amount of dividends was less than 40 per cent of the income after taxation. The basic rate of excess retention tax was 7s. per £1 of the insufficient distribution of income.

Excess retention tax was abolished in 1961, except for companies of the proprietary type, that is, companies in which the public is not substantially interested and where the shares are held by 20 or fewer persons or the company is under the control of seven persons or less.

Excess retention tax is not payable if the Commissioner is satisfied that the income retained is required for essential development of buildings, plant, or machinery. Companies are given three years in which to expend or definitely commit such retained income.

Non-resident Investment Companies — The 1959 Land and Income Tax Amendment Act limits the income tax payable by a non-resident investment company on income from investments or assets which are used wholly or principally for developing New Zealand. The New Zealand income tax is not to exceed the tax which the company would pay in the country in which it is resident. Incomes of visitors, other than public entertainers, who are in New Zealand for not more than 92 days (the period is 183 days for a resident of a country with which there is a double taxation agreement) and whose employers are not resident in New Zealand, are exempted from income taxation.

Livestock Values — The 1956 Land and Income Tax Amendment Act provided that, where a farmer was obliged to sell livestock because his lease had expired or his farm had been acquired by the Crown, the excess income represented by the difference between standard and selling values of livestock might be carried forward for the next one or two income years and offset by the writing down of substituted livestock to a new standard value. In 1959 this was extended to include events declared to be disasters (e.g., fire, flood, drought, disease among livestock, etc.).

Penalty — The penalty for tax remaining unpaid after due date is 10 per cent, subject to a remission of one-half of the additional tax if paid within three months after due date.

Board of Review — In 1960 an amendment to the Inland Revenue Department Act provided for the establishment of one or more Boards of Review. Members of a board are appointed by the Governor-General and consist of a chairman who is a barrister or solicitor of the Supreme Court of not less than seven years' practice, and two other members. The functions of a board are to sit as a judicial authority for hearing and determining such objections to assessments of tax or duty or the decisions or determinations of the Commissioner as are authorised by the Inland Revenue Acts. A determination of a board is final as to any question of fact, but subject to appeal to the Supreme Court on any question of law. A Board of Review was constituted in December 1960.

The Land and Income Tax Amendment Act 1960 provides for the right of objection to the amount of penal tax charged.

Taxation of Individuals:Rates — The basic rates of ordinary income tax are as follows: On so much of the taxable income as does not exceed £500, the rate of tax per £1 is 3s. For each succeeding £100 or part thereof the rate of tax increases by 6d. until the taxable income reaches £900. From this point the rate of tax increases by 3d. in the pound for each additional £100 (or part thereof) of taxable income. The maximum rate of 12s. 0d. applies where the taxable income exceeds £3,600.

Social security income tax at 1s. 6d. per £1 is additional to these rates, and the special exemptions do not apply to social security income tax.

Taxable Income: In the case of individuals, ordinary tax is assessed on the taxable income of individuals. This comprises the total income less (a) any income exempted from ordinary income tax; (b) any income classified as non-assessable income; (c) the amount of the special exemptions.

A summary of the changes in the principal special exemptions and in the rates of ordinary income tax for the latest 11 years is given in the following table. The tax on 1957–58 incomes was remitted in full.

Income Year Ended 31 MarchSpecial ExemptionsOrdinary Income Tax
PersonalWifeChildInsurance (Maximum)Basic Rates EmployedRebate
RateMaximum
 ££££  £
1951200100501501940£1515
1952200100501501940£1515
1953230100651751940£1515
1954375125751751954
195537512575175195420%75
195637512575175195410%40
1957375125751751954£100100
1958
195933816275175195412 1/2%37
196030020075175195410%30
1961468156782501954

The following points should be noted.

Basic Rates — The 1940 rates were 2s. 6d. in the pound on the first £100 of taxable income, plus 3d. in the pound for each additional £100 of taxable income. The 1954 rates commenced at 3s. in the pound, but were otherwise similar.

Rebate — The basic rates were increased by 10 per cent in 1951, 5 per cent in 1952, and 2 1/2 per cent in 1953 before application of the rebate.

Insurance — In 1959 and 1960 the maximum was £250 where contributions to superannuation funds for self-employed were included.

Persons Over 65 Years — From 1951 to 1953 inclusive an additional rebate was allowed. Thereafter there was an additional personal exemption of £45.

Pay As You Earn Income Tax — The Income Tax Assessment Act 1957 provides for the payment of income tax on a “pay as you earn” basis. Income tax now consists of two parts, namely, ordinary income tax and social security income tax, thus incorporating the social security charge previously payable under the Social Security Act 1938.

The Act came into operation as from 1 April 1958. It applies to salary and wage earners, to self-employed individuals, to other incomes of individuals, and to estates. It does not apply to companies, unless incorporated after 25 July 1957, or unless the company voluntarily elects to come within the provisions of the Act.

The main features of the scheme, as subsequently amended, are:

  1. Income tax and social security income tax became one combined tax on income.

  2. The combined tax on salary and wages is deducted by the employer. In the main, for taxpayers earning less than £1,040 of salary and wages during the year, the tax deductions made by the employer are final. The taxpayer is not required to furnish an annual return of income and in such cases there is no “end of year” adjustment of tax by the Commissioner. The taxpayer, however, may furnish a return of income in order to take advantage of provisions for determining tax deductions on the basis of an “averaged” weekly income.

  3. All other individuals (including self-employed), estates, and companies within the scheme, pay provisional tax in two instalments on a provisional declaration of the then current year's income. There is a final adjustment at the end of the year when the return of income is furnished.

  4. The change from payment of income tax on the previous year's income to tax on the current year's income involved the payment of income tax for two year's income in one income year, and the Act provided for the remission of income tax (but not social security charge) on income for the year ended 31 March 1958, subject to safeguards to ensure that the income for the year of remission was a normal income.

Employees fall into two classes: pay-period taxpayers, and others.

Pay-period Taxpayers — An employee is a pay-period taxpayer where the total income is less than £1,040 for the year and the only income received consists of salary or wages, non-assessable income, and exempted income from interest. Up to £30 of interest income is exempted.

This class of taxpayer is not required to furnish an annual return of income. The tax deductions by the employer are final, and there is no “end of year” adjustment of tax by the Commissioner. The taxpayer may, however, in certain circumstances obtain an adjustment, for example, where he is entitled to claim for excess life insurance premiums paid.

A pay-period taxpayer may furnish a return of income and thereby claim an adjustment of the tax deductions on the basis of the weekly average of the annual income. The adjustment is calculated as follows:

  1. The average weekly wage is obtained (total wages for year divided by 52).

  2. The tax deduction on the average weekly wage is ascertained from the tax deduction table. Where tax rates, etc., have changed during the year the average of the two or more tax deduction amounts is used.

  3. The tax code used is that which applies to the taxpayer on the last day of the income year.

  4. The weekly tax deduction is multiplied by 52. The amount of tax then becomes the smaller of:

    1. The total of the tax deductions originally made.

    2. The amount of tax as calculated above.

Other Employees — Where the taxpayer does not qualify as a pay-period taxpayer the tax deductions made by the employer are not final. An annual return of income is to be furnished to the Commissioner, who will assess the tax payable on the income and allow a credit equal to the amount of the tax deductions made by the employer.

Tax Code Declarations — Employees are required to deliver a tax code declaration to the employer each year before 1 April. The tax code declaration specifies whether or not the taxpayer has a dependent wife, and the number of other dependants.

There is no obligation on the employer to check the accuracy of the tax code declaration. Except for cases where the employee ends and commences employment during the week, the employee must not have more than one tax code declaration current during the pay period. There is, however, provision for secondary tax code declarations where the employee has two or more employers at the same time.

If the employee does not wish to deliver the tax code declaration to the employer, he may deliver it to the Commissioner. The Commissioner may, on application by the employee, issue to the employer a tax code certificate which specifies the employee's tax code as determined on the basis that some or all of the employee's dependants are omitted. In such cases the Commissioner will make an appropriate tax adjustment at the end of the year. There are other circumstances such as, for example, where the employer is not the principal employer, where the Commissioner may issue a tax code certificate specifying the tax code or tax deduction rate applicable to the employee.

At the end of the year the employer completes the tax code declaration by entering the amount of wages and salary paid and the amount of tax deductions made, hands one copy to the employee, and sends the other copies to the Commissioner.

Alteration of Tax Code Declaration During Year — When the employee changes employment during the year, he must deliver a declaration to the new employer. If the declaration is delivered before the end of the first pay period, it applies from and including the first pay.

Employees who become entitled to claim allowances for new dependants during the year may deliver a new tax code declaration immediately the event occurs (e.g., marriage or the birth of a child). The new tax code applies to the pay period commencing after the pay period in which the declaration was delivered.

When it becomes apparent that a dependent wife's income will exceed £156 for the year, the employee must deliver a new tax code declaration immediately and the new code applies to the pay period following that in which it was delivered.

In other cases where a dependant ceases to be a dependant during the year — i.e., where a dependent wife dies or a child dies or reaches the age of 18 years — the employee is entitled to retain the tax code including them as dependants until the following 31 March. This applies even when the employee delivers a new tax code declaration on a change of employment.

Tax Deduction Tables: Principal Tables — The tax code declaration bears a code (M, if the taxpayer is entitled to a wife's exemption; S, if not so entitled; and a number which represents the number of other dependants) and the tax deduction tables specify for each code and number the amount of tax to be deducted from the salary or wage payment for the period.

The following principles have been observed in the calculation of the amounts of tax shown in the deduction tables which came into force on 1 April 1960.

  1. That part of the weekly income which corresponds to the amount of the exemptions allowances is taxed at the rate for social security income tax (1s. 6d. in the pound). The annual exemptions (personal, wife, dependants) to which the taxpayer is entitled have been converted into proportionate weekly parts.

  2. The residue of the weekly income attracts both ordinary income tax and social security income tax. The tax deduction tables are based on proportionate weekly parts of the annual ordinary income tax basic rates.

Amounts paid by an employee to a superannuation fund are deducted from the gross salary for the period. The amount of the tax deduction is then the table deduction appropriate to the net payment to the employee, plus the social security income tax on the amount of the superannuation contribution.

In previous tables the first £2 of weekly income were exempted from the social security income tax. One of the objects of this concession was to provide a means of preventing, as far as possible, the pay-period taxation from exceeding that which would have been paid if the total income for the year had been taxed on an annual basis. This could have happened, for example, when the employee received a fluctuating weekly income through the working of irregular overtime. Pay-period taxpayers may now claim adjustment on the basis of the averaged weekly earnings, and in consequence the exemption has been withdrawn. Where this withdrawal would have caused the new tax deduction amount to exceed that provided in the previous table, the earlier tax deduction amount has been retained.

When there is no tax code declaration or tax code certificate, the tax deduction is at the “no declaration” rate shown in the tables. This deduction is at the flat rate of 5s. 6d. in the pound.

Special Tables — Special tables are provided for shearers and for casual agricultural employees. These are tables of deductions from daily earnings. There is also a table of deductions at a flat rate of 4s. 6d. per £1. This applies to payments of extra emoluments and to secondary employment unless a special tax code is issued by the Commission.

Extra emoluments — e.g., end-of-year bonuses and retrospective wage increases — are treated as separate payments. Secondary employment exists where the taxpayer has two or more employers at the same time. The secondary employers deduct tax according to the flat rate table, while the principal employer uses the normal table.

Employer's Duties — The employer is required to keep a record for each employee showing the amount of the source deduction payment and the amount of tax deducted. Not later than 20 April each year he is to deliver to each employee a signed certificate showing the total amounts of payments and tax deductions for the year (or period of employment if less than one year). A similar certificate is to be given to the employee within seven days from the cessation of employment.

The aggregate amount of all tax deductions is to be remitted to the Commissioner each month. Not later than 15 May each year the employer is to deliver to the Commissioner a reconciliation statement showing the total amount of tax deductions paid to the Commissioner in respect of deductions made during the year, and the total amount of tax deductions shown in the employee's certificates, together with an explanation if the two totals do not agree. The reconciliation statement is accompanied by signed copies of all tax deduction certificates, and all tax code declarations and certificates.

Withholding Payments — These are payments made for services rendered, but in circumstances where there is no real employer-employee relationship. Instances are company director's fees, agricultural contract work, fees for free-lance journalists, etc. Tax is to be deducted from the gross amounts of such payments at flat rates which vary from 1s. 6d. to 5s. in the pound according to the nature of the work.

The Commissioner may determine from time to time that a proportion of the withholding payment to specified classes is to be regarded as expenditure incurred in the production of the income. In such cases, tax would be deducted from the balance of the payment.

An exemption certificate may be issued by the Commissioner to any person specifying that no tax deduction is to be made from payments to that person. The income so exempted will later be included in the recipient's annual return of income.

Provisional Taxpayers — Provisional taxpayers are individuals who derive assessable income from sources other than salary or wages. However, the first £30 of interest is exempted from income tax, and is therefore not assessable income. Estates, trusts, and companies incorporated after 25 July 1957, are also provisional taxpayers. Existing companies may voluntarily elect to become provisional taxpayers.

Salary and wage earners who receive more than £1,040 for the year are provisional taxpayers. Employers make the normal tax deductions and such taxpayers pay provisional tax only on other income, if any.

Tax on provisional incomes is payable in two instalments during the year — on 7 August and on 7 February. Normally the provisional income is an amount equal to the taxpayer's income for the preceding year. When the taxpayer anticipates that the income will be less than that of the preceding year, he may make an estimate of the provisional income and pay provisional tax on the estimated income. If he does this and underestimates the actual final tax or the normal provisional tax (whichever is the smaller) by more than 20 per cent, he may be liable to pay an additional 10 per cent on the amount of tax underestimated.

The taxpayer may at any time make voluntary payments of additional provisional tax.

Provisional, taxpayers are required to furnish returns of income, irrespective of the amount of income. The Commissioner makes an assessment of tax, and any difference between that assessment and the amounts of tax deducted at source or paid as provisional tax is payable by the taxpayer or credited or refunded to him.

Where the total income of the provisional taxpayer is over £1,040 for the year, the final assessment of tax is according to the main provisions of the Land and Income Tax Act. If the total income is under £1,040, the final assessment procedure is that which applies to a pay-period taxpayer who has claimed an adjustment based on the average weekly earnings.

Remission of Tax in Transitional Year — Both salary and wage earners and provisional taxpayers had the income tax on the income for the transitional year, which was the 1957–58 income year, remitted in full. This did not apply to companies, whether provisional taxpayers or not. In other respects the 1957–58 income year was treated as a normal income year for ordinary income tax purposes; losses made were carried forward, etc. Salary and wage earners already had social security income tax on salary or wages for 1957–58 deducted at the source. Provisional taxpayers received a remission of the first £7 10s. from the social security income tax on the 1957–58 income, and also a rebate equal to 1s. 6d. in the pound on two-thirds of income other than salary and wages derived in 1930–31, and on one-third of the same income for 1931–32. The balance was payable by instalments spread over three years.

The Act contained a number of clauses designed to prevent the inflation of 1957–58 incomes at the expense of those of other years. When the 1957–58 income was, in the opinion of the Commissioner, greater than the normal income, the Commissioner determined the amount of the normal income. Any excess income was added to the assessable or non-assessable income for 1958–59.

In determining the amount of the normal income the Commissioner was required to take into account the income of the three preceding years, and, among other things, whether any income had been included in the transitional year which normally would have been included in another income year, or any normal expenditure diverted from the transitional year to another year. In general the Commissioner was empowered to take into account any matters which were relevant to the ascertainment of the normal income. Final determination of the normal income may be deferred until the nature or amount of the income for the next two succeeding years is known.

A Transitional Income Tax Appeal Authority was set up to hear and determine any objections to the amount of the normal 1957–58 income as determined by the Commissioner.

Statistics relating to the incidence of income tax are given in Section 28 of this volume.

PAYE Tax Deductions — The tax rates for the purposes of PAYE tax deductions at source are actually the amounts shown in the tax deduction tables. These deductions are fixed according to the current amount of exemptions and tax rates. Some examples of these tax deductions are given in the tables which follow. These are the weekly tables, and social security income tax and ordinary income tax are combined to form one deduction. Tax rates or exemption allowances, or both, have been changed on four occasions since the inception of PAYE on 1 April 1958 and the four tables therefore give the history of the tax deductions since that date.

Weekly EarningsNot Entitled to Wife's ExemptionEntitled to Wife's ExemptionEntitled to Exemption for Wife and for-
One ChildTwo ChildrenThree Children
Operative from 1 April 1958
££S.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
5046046046046046
6060060060060060
7076076076076076
80108090090090090
901440106010601060106
10018201210012001200120
1111110166013601360136
121511102017001500150
13191114010801770166
14114217111451120181
151184111111841411119
1622911601124189155
1728320311641128193
182121124720711691131
192178281124920101171
203272136292251212
25411342231703121374
30601059353441784122
357162725614666115196
4091538186810181117138
45120211191011210099108
501482138312168125511144
Operative from 1 October 1958
££s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
5046046046046046
6068060060060060
70110076076076076
80155090090090090
91000106010601060106
101480131012001200120
111960175013601360136
1211451111017801500150
131196166120017110166
1424911121671230182
15210111601113168126
162157210116111131610
17320261201111601115
183711211426020101161
19313112168211225102011
20401323216621011259
255169417141034373173
3071210610862951525711
359121874718771017110
4011147107491789838191
451404121081200119710196
501693141711456131431332
Operative from 1 October 1959
££s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
5046046046046046
6066060060060060
70104076076076076
80142090090090090
901810106010601060106
1012201211012001200120
111630167013601360136
121107106017201500150
1311411146101101780166
14119418614111150181
15240112918101531111
1628811701131193158
17214121511731134198
182191251021711761138
193422105260211011710
2039521522107262221
25501145231983145393
30613551365735124154
3589977561946116640
401011694381578727189
4512173117710161110669165
501563131401326121121201
Operative from 1 April 1960
££s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
5046046046046046
6064060060060060
70103076076076076
80120090090090090
901360106010601060106
1001800127012001200120
111260166013601360136
1217001800161101500150
131116126019601740166
1411601701261100180
152061116170126117
1625011601116170140
1729620611601116170
18214025020611601116
1921882962502061160
203382140296250206
2541263181131211378330
3066451025264152485
358367536168684603
401031193981428497159
451277115610141110479146
501414613105121810127711167

It should be noted that in the first three tables when the normal wage was less than £20 for the week, but overtime brought the amount to over £20, a different tax deduction table was used. From 1 April 1960 deductions from all overtime payments are in accordance with the principal table.

The preceding tables may be regarded as giving either the immediate deduction from a particular week's earnings, or the net weekly tax on the average weekly earnings where the taxpayer has exercised the right to claim an adjustment. The net weekly tax referred to is in effect the immediate tax deduction less the weekly value of the refund.

Where the income of a provisional taxpayer is less than £1,040 for the year the amount of tax deduction provided in the table is applied. The final tax payable is the annual equivalent of a weekly deduction on the average weekly earnings. Where more than one tax deduction table has been in operation during the year the different weekly tax deductions are averaged.

In interpreting the tables as an indication of the incidence of social security and ordinary income taxation in New Zealand it should be noted that under the provisions of the Social Security Act a family benefit of £39 a year is paid in respect of each child under 16 years of age, irrespective of the income of the parents. The family benefit is normally paid to the mother, but with her concurrence may be used as an offset against income tax due.

LAND TAX — Land tax is levied on the total unimproved value of land held by each owner after making by way of special exemption from that value the following deduction: where the value does not exceed £6,000, a deduction of £6,000; where the value exceeds £6,000, a deduction of £6,000 diminished at the rate of £1 for each £1 of that excess, so as to leave no deduction when that value amounts to or exceeds £12,000.

Where the land is subject to registered mortgage an alternative scale of exemption is provided — viz, £10,000 in cases where the unimproved value does not exceed £10,000, the exemption of £10,000 being diminished by £1 for every £1 above the margin of £10,000 of unimproved value, and disappearing altogether at £20,000. Where the capital value of the mortgage is less than the amount of deduction provided, such capital value is deducted instead.

The taxpayer receives whichever is the greater of the ordinary exemption or the mortgage exemption.

No special exemption is allowed in the case of land not situated in a borough when such land has been owned by a person for three years and not improved to the extent of £1 per acre or equal to one-third of the improved value if, in the opinion of the Commissioner, it should have been so improved. In the case of such land also, the rate of land tax is 50 per cent more than the ordinary rate.

In lieu of the special exemptions set out above, the Commissioner has discretionary powers to grant relief in certain specified cases of hardship. Subject to deductions provided, life tenants are liable to tax, and joint owners are assessed jointly as regards the land held in conjunction, and are liable severally in respect of each owner's interest in such land and any other land. This liability for joint assessment also applies to companies owning land if half of the paid-up capital or half (in nominal value) of the allotted shares of each company is held by or on behalf of shareholders in the other.

In case of default by a taxpayer in respect of land tax the amount of tax may be demanded from his successor in title, from a tenant of the taxpayer or his successor, or from a mortgagee of the estate or interest concerned. Land tax constitutes a charge on the land, and, notwithstanding any disposition of it, such land continues to be liable in the hands of a purchaser or other holder thereof for the payment of the tax so long as the charge remains in force. Registration of the charge is required, and no disposition of the land or of any interest in it may be registered while the charge remains in force. Provision is made for relief in cases of hardship.

Where the unimproved value on which land tax is payable does not exceed £10,000 the rate of land tax is 1d. in the pound. This rate is increased on a “step” system as follows:

Taxable Value £ £Tax Rate for Every £1
10,001–15,0002d.
15,001–20,0003d.
20,001 and over4d.

ESTATE AND GIFT DUTIES — The legislation dealing with estate duty and gift duty is contained in the Estate and Gift Duties Act 1955 and its amendments.

Where the final balance of the dutiable estate of a deceased person exceeds £2,000, estate duty is levied on the amount thereof. Exemptions are provided for the successions of a wife, husband, or infant child of a deceased person. (For this purpose an infant child is widely defined to include not only an infant adopted child but also an infant stepchild or infant dependant of the deceased.) These exemptions are subject to the following limitations and operate by way of a deduction from the duty of so much as is attributable to the exempted succession or exempted portion of the succession. In the case of a wife, the exemption applies to the value of her succession or £7,500, whichever is the less; in the case of a husband, to the value of his succession or £1,000, whichever is the less; and in the case of an infant child, to the value of the child's succession or £500, whichever is the less.

There are also various exemptions which operate by way of the exclusion of certain property in computing the amount of the final balance of the estate, as, for example, for an interest in a home settled under the Joint Family Homes Act 1950 which passes to the surviving spouse; the property in an outright gift made before death to a charity; certain superannuation allowances for widows and infant children; and the wood value of growing trees on any land, a proprietary interest in which forms part of the dutiable estate.

Relief is provided for quick successions where estate duty is payable twice on the same property by reason of the two deaths occurring within a short period. The duty is reduced in the second estate according to the interval between the two deaths as follows: second death within four months, 75 per cent reduction; within eight months, 60 per cent reduction; within one year, 50 per cent reduction; within two years, 40 per cent reduction; within three years, 30 per cent reduction; within four years, 20 per cent reduction; within five years, 10 per cent reduction.

Ordinary income tax and social security income tax in respect of a deceased person up to the date of death are treated as a debt of the deceased in all cases.

Estate duty is due and payable to the Commissioner of Inland Revenue (Duties Division) on assessment, an additional 5 per cent penalty being payable if duty is not paid within three months after notice. Interest is charged on all duty unpaid within four months after death, at the rate of 4 per cent on duty paid within 15 months after death and at the rate of 5 per cent on all duty unpaid within 15 months (though this period may be extended in certain cases).

There is a right of appeal to the Board of Review, constituted under the Inland Revenue Department Amendment Act 1960, against decisions of the Commissioner in the exercise of his discretion under certain sections of the Act. There is also a right of appeal on points of law or of fact by way of a case stated to the Supreme Court.

The following table gives the scale of rates of estate duty which applies to estates of persons dying on or after 20 July 1961.

Final Balance of EstateRate
Not exceeding £2,000 Nil
£     £ 
2,001- 3,0006 per cent of excess over £2,000
 £          £
3,001–4,00060 plus 6 per cent of excess over 3,000
4,001–5,000120 plus 8 per cent of excess over 4,000
5,001–6,000200 plus 10 per cent of excess over 5,000
6,001–7,000300 plus 12 per cent of excess over 6,000
7,001–8,000420 plus 14 per cent of excess over 7,000
8,001–9,000560 plus 16 per cent of excess over 8,000
9,001–10,000720 plus 18 per cent of excess over 9,000
10,001–11,000900 plus 20 per cent of excess over 10,000
11,001–12,0001,100 plus 22 per cent of excess over 11,000
12,001–14,0001,320 plus 18 per cent of excess over 12,000
14,001–16,0001,680 plus 20 per cent of excess over 14,000
16,001–18,0002,080 plus 22 per cent of excess over 16,000
18,001–20,0002,520 plus 24 per cent of excess over 18,000
20,001–22,0003,000 plus 26 per cent of excess over 20,000
22,001–24,0003,520 plus 28 per cent of excess over 22,000
24,001–26,0004,080 plus 30 per cent of excess over 24,000
26,001–28,0004,680 plus 32 per cent of excess over 26,000
28,001–30,0005,320 plus 34 per cent of excess over 28,000
30,001–33,0006,000 plus 31 per cent of excess over 30,000
33,001–36,0006,930 plus 33 per cent or excess over 33,000
36,001–39,0007,920 plus 35 per cent of excess over 36,000
39,001–42,0008,970 plus 37 per cent of excess over 39,000
42,001–45,00010,080 plus 39 per cent of excess over 42,000
45,001–48,00011,250 plus 41 per cent of excess over 45,000
48,001–51,00012,480 plus 43 per cent of excess over 48,000
51,001–54,00013,770 plus 45 per cent of excess over 51,000
54,001-57,00015,120 plus 47 per cent of excess over 54,000
57,001–60,00016,530 plus 49 per cent of excess over 57,000
60,001–63,00018,000 plus 51 per cent of excess over 60,000
63,001–66,00019,530 plus 53 per cent of excess over 63,000
66,001–69,00021,120 plus 55 per cent of excess over 66,000
69,001–72,00022,770 plus 57 per cent of excess over 69,000
72,001–75,00024,480 plus 59 per cent of excess over 72,000
75,001–80,00026,250 plus 51 per cent of excess over 75,000
80,001–85,00028,800 plus 53 per cent of excess over 80,000
85,001–90,00031,450 plus 55 per cent of excess over 85,000
90,001–95,00034,200 plus 57 per cent of excess over 90,000
95,001–100,00037,050 plus 59 per cent of excess over 95,000
Over £100,00040 per cent

Gift Duty — A gift means any disposition of property (situate in New Zealand at the time of the gift) which is made otherwise than by will, whether with or without an instrument in writing, without fully adequate consideration in money or its equivalent. There is provision for a deduction from the value of the gift of money payments adequately secured to the donor which were fixed or ascertainable at the date of the gift. No duty is payable on a gift which, together with the value of all other gifts (not exempt from duty by reason of their nature) made at the same time or within 12 months previously or subsequently by the same donor to the same or any other beneficiary does not exceed the value of £1,000. Gifts up to £100 in any year to the same person are not taken into account for gift duty (or estate duty) if made as part of the donor's normal expenditure. Various other exemptions, including gifts to any charitable trust, are contained in the Act.

The amount of the gift duty is payable by either the donor or the beneficiary, but the beneficiary is entitled to be indemnified by the donor unless the terms of the gift provide otherwise. Particulars of any gift made exceeding £500 (or the value of which when aggregated with the value of all gifts made by the donor within 12 months previously exceeds £500) are required to be furnished for assessment of duty, if any, within one month of the date of the gift, and if not paid within one year of making of the gift a 10 per cent penalty is imposed. Where duty is payable, the rate is based on the following scale.

Value of Gift (Together With Value of All Aggregated Gifts)Rate
Not exceeding £ 1,000Nil
£      £ 
1,001–1,5009 per cent of excess over £1,000
 £        £
1,501–2,00045 plus 10 per cent of excess over 1,500
2,001–3,00095 plus 9 per cent of excess over 2,000
3,001–4,000185 plus 11 per cent of excess over 3,000
4,001–5,000295 plus 13 per cent of excess over 4,000
5,001–6,000425 plus 15 per cent of excess over 5,000
6,001–7,000575 plus 17 per cent of excess over 6,000
7,001–8,000745 plus 19 per cent of excess over 7,000
8,001–9,000935 plus 21 per cent of excess over 8,000
9,001–10,0001,145 plus 23 per cent of excess over 9,000
10,001–11,0001,375 plus 25 per cent of excess over 10,000
11,001–12,0001,625 plus 27 per cent of excess over 11,000
12,001–14,0001,895 plus 23 per cent of excess over 12,000
14,001–16,0002,355 plus 25 per cent of excess over 14,000
16,001–18,0002,855 plus 27 per cent of excess over 16,000
18,001–20,0003,395 plus 29 per cent of excess over 18,000
20,001–22,0003,975 plus 31 per cent of excess over 20,000
22,001–24,0004,595 plus 33 per cent of excess over 22,000
24,001–26,0005,255 plus 35 per cent of excess over 24,000
26,001–28,0005,955 plus 37 per cent of excess over 26,000
28,001–30,0006,695 plus 39 per cent of excess over 28,000
Over £30,00025 per cent less £25

The net revenue received from estate duty and gift duty during each of the latest five years is given below.

Year Ended 31 MarchEstate DutyGift DutyTotal Estate, and Gift Duties
 £££
19577,624,901643,4648,268,365
19588,188,007815,4389,003,445
19599,165,2991,260,31010,425,609
196010,592,6381,741,89912,334,537
196112,078,5131,744,21613,822,729

ESTATES PASSED FOR DEATH DUTY — Particulars of deceased persons' estates certified during the calendar year 1960 are given in the tables following. Comparative totals for the previous four years are appended. Estates of Maoris, in value a negligible proportion of the total, are included, other than hereditary interests in Maori land.

Size of Estates (Net Value)Number of EstatesAggregate Net Value of EstatesEstate Duties Assessed
MalesTotalMalesTotal
Estates Passed for Duty 1960
£(000)£(000)  £(000)£(000)£
Under11,1802,3896851,379
1 and under21,1852,2101,7793,30628,379
2 and under31,0041,8212,4964,50773,124
3 and under46751,1632,3544,05190,031
4 and under54266921,9033,09582,465
5 and under63165161,7342,82998,175
6 and under72433811,5822,47693,811
7 and under81702711,2622,01597,534
8 and under91442201,2181,874111,619
9 and under101331941,2711,847118,251
10 and under11941459841,518114,919
11 and under12951391,0901,593134,161
12 and under152083042,7884,071418,034
15 and under202593704,4876,410890,707
20 and under251952554,3675,7081,043,444
25 and under301041482,8564,055938,652
30 and under3580932,5612,977803,269
35 and under4056652,0902,429771,195
40 and under4544511,8692,163741,769
45 and under5018248511,139438,587
50 and under6034441,8502,404984,408
60 and under7012167881,049472,879
70 and under8012158891,115504,457
80 and under9056420508249,441
90 and under10068565760380,207
100 and over22243,7874,1712,134,460
Totals, 19606,72011,56448,52569,44911,813,978
Totals, 19596,83011,67544,62963,61410,498,830
Totals, 19586,89011,84045,10664,24110,005,233
Totals, 19577,04711,97741,07758,4667,597,986
Totals, 19566,81411,57241,12057,3867,917,189

The average net value per estate certified in 1960 was £6,006 (males £7,221; females, £4,320), inclusive of a small number of “nil” estates. Duty on male estates amounted to £8,907,932 and on female estates £2,906,046.

Far-reaching changes in the law relating to death duties were introduced by the Estate and Gift Duties Act 1955. By this Act, estate and succession duties were replaced by a single duty scale of estate duties, involving a marked reduction in estimated tax yield. An amendment to the Act, passed in 1958, provided for a graduated increase in duties on estates of a net value of over £12,000. The 1958 provisions are reflected in the figures for 1959 and 1960. The Estate and Gift Duties Amendment Act 1961, which came into force on 20 July 1961, made reductions in rates of duty.

The table of averages and percentages given below illustrates the increase in the amount of duty assessed in proportion to the final net value of the estate.

Size of Estate (Net Value)Average Duty Assessed per EstateAverage Duty as Percentage of Average Value
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
£(000)£(000)£££per centper centper cent
Under1
1 and under2917130.61.10.9
2 and under32657401.12.31.6
3 and under450115771.43.32.2
4 and under5761881191.74.22.7
5 and under61292881902.45.33.5
6 and under71593992462.46.23.8
7 and under82575323603.57.14.8
8 and under93947235074.78.46.0
9 and under104978566105.29.16.4
10 and under116501,0557936.210.17.6
11 and under128291,2609657.211.08.4
12 and under151,2071,7391,3759.013.010.3
15 and under202,1932,9092,40712.716.813.9
20 and under253,8674,8244,09217.321.618.3
25 and under306,0147,1186,34221.926.123.2
30 and under358,4479,8098,63726.430.627.0
35 and under4011,66313,11811,86531.234.831.8
40 and under4514,63613,97114,54434.533.334.3
45 and under5017,93019,30818,27438.040.138.5
50 and under6022,17723,04022,37340.841.641.0
60 and under7030,08327,97129,55545.842.845.1
70 and under8033,28235,02433,63044.946.445.2
80 and under9041,29242,97941,57449.148.849.1
90 and under10046,93849,28947,52649.850.750.1
100 and over87,366106,20588,93650.855.351.2
All estates, 19601,3266001,02218.413.917.0
All estates, 19591,20447089918.412.016.5
All estates, 19581,13544184517.311.415.6
All estates, 195783734463414.49.813.0
All estates, 195692933468415.49.813.8

A summary showing gross assets, notional estate, and debts and charges, classified in broad groups according to size of estate, is now given. As the figures for assets are taken from the administrators' statements in some cases, prior to checking and adjustment, the residual value (total assets less debts and charges) does not agree with the figure for aggregate net value of estates given in the preceding table, the difference amounting to £51,466. This may be accounted for by the fact that under rather than over valuation is more common in the statement of gross assets, and that subsequent investigation sometimes discloses the existence of unstated assets.

ESTATES PASSED FOR DUTY 1960
 Size of Estate (Net Value)
Under £5,000£5,000 and Under £10,000£10,000 and Under £20,000£20,000 and Under £50,000£50,000 and Under £100,000£100,000 and OverAll Estates
Gross assets–
 New Zealand property –
    Cash£(000)4,2652,1472,2271,88958429211,404
      Average per estate£5151,3572,3252,9716,56012,149986
    Furniture, effects, etc.£(000)1,28252641540679442,752
      Average per estate£1553324336398881,848238
    Farm, stock, implements, etc.£(000)1712145379724881182,500
      Average per estate£211355601,5295,4874,904216
    Private business interests£(000)1332654619661671082,099
      Average per estate£161674811,5191,8744,484182
    Assurance policies£(000)1,0006797481,0702741623,934
      Average per estate£1214297811,6823,0796,750340
    Loans£(000)1,0451,2881,7712,3555584877,504
      Average per estate£1268141,8483,7036,27320,292649
    Shares, stocks, etc.£(000)9431,6322,6144,2301,7601,89113,069
      Average per estate£1141,0312,7286,65019,77778,8011,130
    Real property£(000)7,6963,8364,1215,2171,37044822,688
      Average per estate£9302,4254,3018,20415,38918,6771,962
    Interest, estates, and trusts£(000)249242183473841121,342
      Average per estate£301531917439464,681116
    Other property£(000)55837847644183732,010
      Average per estate£672394976939353,047174
    Foreign property£(000)1201762795773772781,807
      Average per estate£141112919084,23711,593156
    Notional estate£(000)9995026861,149-4313104,077
      Average per estate£1213177161,8064,84312,936353
Debts–
    Unsecured — New Zealand£(000)9544004916632651212,894
    Secured — New Zealand£(000)1,149437466589147352,823
      Total (including foreign)£(000)2,1298469711,2764131555,790
      Average per estate£2575341,0142,0064,6886,478501

The number of estates in each age group for 1960 are classified below according to net value of estate.

Age Group, in YearsUnder £500£500 to £999£1,000 to £1,999£2,000 to £2,999£3,000 to £3,999£4,000 to £4,999£5,000 to £9,999£10,000 to £14,999£15,000 to £19,999£20,000 to £29,999£30,000 to £39,999£40,000 to £49,999£50,000 to £99,999£100,000 and overTotal
Years    Years
Under 208886131
20 and under 255162086243165
25 and under 30815141365121166
30 and under 3510192312791921102
35 and under 40151925121781953311128
40 and under 4515233927181315139841185
45 and under 50204672502120471810115211324
50 and under 55316383896233831510188511502
55 and under 6059821201127051101472428131272728
60 and under 656811019713989641464736381647961
65 and under 70100149222190133801726338411691221,227
70 and under 751372013012801789922010553673491181,703
75 and under 801562233693642081322659169712117212,007
80 and under 85134207371274191992599460621781441,794
85 and under 907914321516010650141523433152831,041
90 and under 95296078443815612117105461389
95 and over921911641231411183
Unspecified52494430781675721228
Totals9351,4542,2101,8211,1636921,58258837040315875892411,564
Per cent8.0912.5719.1115.7510.065.9813.685.083.203.481.370.650.770.21100.00

OTHER DUTIES — These cover a miscellany of items of taxation imposed by the legislation such as the Stamp Duties Act 1954 and the Amusement Tax Act 1960.

In the next table the receipts for the last five years are shown under the various heads; receipts under agreement on sales of overseas lottery tickets in New Zealand have been added to the revenue items handled by the Duties Division of the Inland Revenue Department.

 Year Ended 31 March
 19571958195919601961

* Now included with “Duty on Instruments”.

† Now under the heading “Duty on cheques”.

 £££££
Adhesive stamps44,90359,929
Duty on instruments1,496,5331,800,4531,673,8672,009,6282,616,938
Fines and penalties2,6792,8481,9315,990*
Impressed stamps543,171570,556610,090633,409
Duty on cheques691,441
Racing taxation4,127,6364,266,6084,135,2374,154,6284,839,891
Amusement tax462,996501,561518,827560,198555,413
Lottery duty65,75461,10664,05464,05175,065
Overseas lottery duty145,717188,436189,325196,694224,711
Totals6,889,3897,451,4977,193,3317,624,5989,003,459

Some of the more important items included in the foregoing table are dealt with in more detail under subsequent headings,

RACING TAXATION — The Government taxation on totalisator (pari mutuel) turnover is, under the Stamp Duties Act 1954, 2 1/2 per cent on the first £20,000 of gross turnover received by a club in any year and 5 per cent on the balance in excess of £20,000. There is also a tax of 1 per cent on the total value of all stakes. In addition there is a dividend tax of 5 per cent on the total amount available for dividends after the following deductions have been made: (a) totalisator tax; (b) club's commission of 7 1/2 per cent; (c) 1/2 per cent levy as provided by the Gaming Amendment Act 1953. Where the latter levy is deducted by a racing or hunt club it is paid to the New Zealand Racing Conference and where it is deducted by a trotting club it is paid to the New Zealand Trotting Conference. Each conference is to pay the moneys received by it into a separate account, which is to be applied solely for the purpose of assisting clubs to provide, maintain, and replace amenities for the public and course improvements on their racecourses. The proceeds of the levy and the amounts paid to clubs are not subject to taxation. The Gaming Amendment Act 1960 provides that the levy is to cease on 1 November 1965.

The Totalisator Agency Board, established by the Gaming Amendment Act 1949 to conduct off-course betting, receives 7 1/2 per cent of the turnover made through the totalisator agencies. This amount forms part of the general funds of the Board, but the Board distributes to racing and trotting clubs surplus funds not required for its own operations.

The Gaming Act 1908 and amendments provide for the Minister of Internal Affairs to grant totalisator licences for not more than 380 days in any racing year. Of these 380 days, 259 are allocated to racing and hunt clubs and 121 to trotting clubs.

The following figures relate to the racing year, which ends on 31 July.

 Year Ended 31 July
19571958195919601961

*The Totalisator Agency Board commenced operations in April 1951.

† Retained by the clubs.

‡ Includes extra day on account of Royal Meeting of Wellington Racing Club.

§ Includes extra day on account of Hawke's Bay Centennial celebrations.

|| Includes two extra days on account of Marlborough Centennial celebrations, and one for the Westland Centennial celebrations.

Number of racing days374381381§383||380
Number of races3,0053,0643,0653,0803,059
 £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
Amount of stakes1,5991,6011,5551,5511,624
Totalisator turnover–
    On course22,56323,59121,67922,88824,115
    With TAB*21,90922,83921,99524,43027,935
Totals44,47146,43043,67447,31852,050
Amount paid in dividends36,63538,25335,99238,99942,904
Government taxes–
    On totalisator turnover2,1602,2572,1182,3002,537
    On dividends1,9342,0201,9002,0582,264
    On stakes1616161616
Totals4,1104,2924,0334,3744,817
Amount (7 1/2 per cent) of totalisator turnover retained by clubs and TAB3,3993,5473,3423,6153,969
Unpaid fractions121122104109115
Levy of 1/2 per cent222232218237260

For the financial year ended 31 March 1961 Consolidated Fund receipts from racing taxation amounted to £4.84 million, as compared with £4.15 million in 1959–60.

The rising tendency in recent years in the volume of betting as measured by totalisator turnover, which was halted during the racing year ended 31 July 1959 continued again in 1959–60 and 1960–61. For the latest period an amount of £52,050,000 was handled by totalisators, as compared with £47,318,000 in 1959–60, and £43,674,000 in 1958–59.

The greater part of this increase occurred in the volume of turnover handled by the Totalisator Agency Board which rose by £3,505,000 to £27,935,000 during the 1960–61 racing year. There was also an increase of £1,227,000 in on-course betting.

It will be noted that the turnover handled by the Totalisator Agency Board during the latest three racing years exceeded the turnover in respect of on-course betting.

Of the amount placed on the totalisators in 1960–61, 82.4 per cent was returned to bettors by way of dividends. Government taxes absorbed 9.3 per cent, 7.8 per cent was retained by the racing clubs, and the special levy described in an earlier paragraph amounted to 0.5 per cent.

Of the 380 racing days in the 1960–61 racing year, 259 were devoted to racing (galloping) meetings and 121 to trotting meetings. It should be mentioned, however, that a number of racing clubs include trotting events in their programmes, but there are no trotting clubs which cater in a similar manner for gallopers. Of the total amount placed on the totalisator during the year, £38,550,000 was on racing meetings and £13,501,000 on trotting meetings, giving an average of £149,000 per day for racing clubs and £112,000 per day for trotting clubs. Stakes paid at racing meetings totalled £1,128,000, the average amount per race being £539, while at trotting meetings the total was £496,000, and the average amount per race £512.

Doubles totalisator turnover increased from £15,698,000 in 1959–60 to £18,144,000 in 1960–61. This is an increase of £2,446,000, or 15.6 per cent of the total doubles turnover; £14,324,000 was placed at racing meetings and £3,820,000 at trotting meetings.

AMUSEMENT TAX — Amusement tax is levied on payments for admission to certain entertainments. The present authority is the Amusement Tax Act 1960. Entertainments taxable are horserace meetings and exhibitions of cinematograph films, but not lectures illustrated by motion pictures. Amusement tax is not charged on payments for admission to an entertainment where the whole of the takings is devoted to charitable purposes — without any charge on the takings for any expenses of the entertainment. The Commissioner of Inland Revenue may refund tax where the net proceeds of an entertainment are donated for charitable purposes and the whole of the expenses of the entertainment does not exceed 50 per cent of the total takings.

The following net amounts have been collected during the latest 11 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchAmount Collected
 £
1951236,373
1952308,976
1953396,306
1954401,704
1955416,797
1956440,229
1957462,996
1958501,561
1959518,827
1960560,198
1961555,413

FILM-HIRE TAX — Part V of the Finance Act 1930 imposed, as from 1 July 1930, a film-hire tax, which is payable monthly by holders of renters' licences under Part IV of the Cinematograph Films Act 1928.

The film-hire tax payable is assessed on the net monthly receipts derived by the renter from renting sound-picture films. On British Commonwealth films the tax is 10 per cent and on foreign films 25 per cent of the net receipts. Films made wholly in New Zealand are exempt from the tax. The film-hire tax yielded a revenue of £147,218 in 1956–57, £150,081 in 1957–58, £168,873 in 1958–59, £166,094 in 1959–60 and £179,269 in 1960–61.

SOCIAL SECURITY TAXATION — The Social Security Act 1938 provided for the establishment of a Social Security Fund with special taxation (as from 1 April 1939) superseding employment promotion taxation. The Finance Act (No. 2) 1945 increased the social security charge to 1 1/2d. for every 1s. 8d., the new rate applying to all salaries and wages in respect of any period after 12 May 1946, and in the case of income other than salaries and wages to all such income derived during the year ended 31 March 1946 and subsequent years. The income of companies has been liable for social security taxation since the inception of the scheme.

Under the Income Tax Assessment Act 1957, which introduced PAYE taxation from 1 April 1958, social security income tax is combined with ordinary income tax as one tax on income. By the Social Security Amendment Act 1958 all income tax, including social security income tax, was payable into the Consolidated Fund in 1958–59 and 1959–60, and the amount necessary for administering the Social Security Act was appropriated out of that Fund. The Finance Act 1959 provided for the payment into the Social Security Fund, from 1 April 1960, of an amount computed at the rate of 1s. 6d. for each £1 of the national private income (as defined in the Act) for the preceding year, as estimated by the Government Statistician.

SALES TAX — Sales tax is collected under the authority of the Sales Tax Act 1932–33 and its amendments. Numerous classes of goods were originally exempt from the tax, these being, in the main, commodities of primary production, articles used in the primary industries, machinery for use in manufacture, and the more important foodstuffs for household consumption. Goods exported from New Zealand were exempt, as were also certain commodities (e.g., motor spirits) which were subject to special taxation. In the post-war years a wide range of goods has been exempted from sales tax. The Sales Tax Exemption Order 1961 consolidated in one list all the then existing exemptions from sales tax. Beer and manufactured tobacco were exempted from sales tax on 4 November 1959. The rate of tax is normally 20 per cent, but it was increased to 40 per cent for motor vehicles in June 1958 and then reduced to 33 1/3 per cent for motor vehicles on 22 July 1960. The tax is not a turnover tax, being payable only once and, as far as possible, at the point where the goods pass to the retailer. The Sales Tax Act is administered by the Customs Department. The net amount yielded by the sales tax during each of the latest five March years and paid into the Consolidated Fund has been: 1956–57, £22,281,000; 1957–58, £24,222,000; 1958–59, £25,751,000; 1959–60, £24,241,000; and 1960–61, £23,744,000.

Monthly figures of sales tax collected by the Customs Department during recent calendar years have been as follows.

MonthTotal Sales Tax Receipts
19571958195919601961
£(thousand)
January2,5342,5312,5551,8882,014
February7919466041,1331,110
March2,3152,6652,6092,0222,395
April1,9992,1672,3851,8331,027
May1,8492,0492,0721,9593,039
June9861,8002,0031,9722,226
July2,8632,5192,0091,7821,309
August2,0012,1001,0771,3392,989
September1,4602,2032,2242,3171,547
October2,5012,2832,1871,9282,606
November2,1861,3241,9082,1482,785
December2,1883,4812,3072,3051,503

The collections during a month relate in general to sales during the preceding month. Sales tax for any one month must be paid by the twenty-eighth of the following month to secure the discount. When the twenty-eighth falls on a Friday in a thirty-day month last-minute payments posted on the Friday are actually received in the succeeding month, e.g., sales tax on January sales posted on 28 February (when this is the last day of the month) is credited in March receipts.

The following table of receipts from the sales tax gives some indication of comparative trading operations in the principal centres. These figures and those in the preceding table are compiled from monthly departmental returns and in most cases differ slightly from the final Treasury figures shown earlier.

Year Ended 31 MarchAucklandWellingtonRest of North IslandChristchurchDunedinRest of South IslandTotal*

*Includes receipts through the Post Office.

£(thousand)
19576,31010,7059712,3671,17263822,210
19587,10111,5301,0662,4811,24471624,182
19597,11512,8541,1032,6541,25468925,694
19606,34412,7349262,4981,10758024,215
19615,95112,8386332,39183941123,104

LOCAL TAXATION — Local governing authorities have power under various Acts of the Legislature to impose taxes for general or special purposes, as set out in Section 27 of this Yearbook The amount of revenue collected by local authorities during the latest five March years was as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchRatesLicences and Other TaxesTotalPer Head of Mean Population
  £(thousand) £s.
195618,88374719,63193
195720,65966121,320914
195822,70769923,407108
195924,39273125,1231019
196025,74493526,679117

The figures are exclusive of wharfage dues, tolls, etc., received by harbour boards, such receipts being regarded as charges for services.

26 C — STATE INDEBTEDNESS

GENERAL — The principal legislative measure which is concerned with public indebtedness is the New Zealand Loans Act 1953.

The Minister of Finance may raise loans, when authorised by Parliament so to do, by the issue of debentures, or scrip, or stock, in New Zealand or elsewhere at his discretion. When raising a loan the Minister may prescribe the mode and conditions of repayment, the rates of interest (not exceeding the maximum rate fixed by the authorising Act), and the times and places of payment of principal and interest respectively. Power is given to convert debentures or scrip into stock, and the Minister may specify the terms of conversion at the time when a loan is raised, or arrange that terms shall be subsequently agreed upon. For the purpose of paying off or renewing at maturity any debenture, scrip, or other security, new debentures or other securities may be issued and disposed of if necessary. Authority also exists for the conversion of loan money which has not yet matured, as well as for the redemption and cancellation of securities before maturity. The management of the public debt was transferred to the Reserve Bank of New Zealand as from 1 October 1936.

The money composing the public debt has been borrowed on the security of the public revenues of New Zealand. No portion of the public estate is pledged for payment of either principal or interest.

Whereas in 1934, 56 per cent of the public debt was owing to overseas investors, the percentage has now dropped to much less than 20 per cent. The bulk of the public debt is held by Government-owned institutions, by savings banks and insurance companies, and by reserve accounts set up for the benefit of the primary industries.

There was established within the Public Account, as from 1 April 1942, a National Development Loans Account into which all moneys from loans for national development are paid. The amounts raised by loans since the inception of this account to 31 March 1961 totalled £539,274,319, of which £47,280,355 was raised in 1960–61. Moneys are transferred from this account as required, the amounts transferred during the last three years being given in Section 26A. The balance in the account at 31 March 1961 was £822,816.

National Savings — The National Savings Act 1940 provides that investments made in accordance therewith shall be applied in like manner to receipts from the sale of the Post Office investment certificates — i.e., available for the purposes of any loan authorised by Parliament. The immediate object was to assist in financing the Second World War. Two forms of investment were provided: (a) deposits in National Savings accounts with the Post Office and certain authorised trustee savings banks, and (b) purchase of National Savings bonds. These investments are approved trustee securities, the interest rate being 3 per cent a year from the inception of the scheme to 30 June 1956, thereafter 3 1/2 per cent a year.

Deposits in National Savings accounts cannot be withdrawn at will, but are invested for a definite period. Moneys deposited up to 30 June 1943 were repayable on 30 June 1945, and each subsequent investment period is for a term of two years — i.e., deposits made during the year ended 30 June 1961 are repayable on 30 June 1963, and so on. National Savings bonds were issued in three denominations — £1, £10, and £100 — for a term of five years, but the sale of these was discontinued as from 1 May 1956.

Recording of Public Debt — At the commencement of the financial year 1943–44 a change in practice was effected in regard to the treatment of exchange on overseas transactions. As from that date the cost of exchange has been treated as a part of the payment from which it arose, and not accounted for in the public accounts under the one heading of “Exchange”, as was the previous practice.

It was further decided that Government funds and investments held in the United Kingdom as at 1 April 1943 and all subsequent overseas transactions were to be converted into pounds New Zealand at a fixed exchange rate of 25 per cent and brought into the public accounts at the increased figure. Previously pounds New Zealand and pounds sterling were treated as if they were of the same value, despite the fact that New Zealand currency for many years had been at a discount on sterling.

In keeping with the foregoing decisions, that portion of the public debt domiciled in the United Kingdom, which was previously shown only at the sterling figure, was converted to pounds New Zealand, and the whole of the debt was shown in the debt tables in New Zealand currency in addition to the nominal amounts. The nominal increase resulting from the adjustment at 1 April 1943 was £39,569,000.

With the adjustment of the exchange rate as from 20 August 1948 New Zealand currency again became on a par with sterling. To facilitate comparison over a period on a common basis the public debt tables in this section have, in general, been so shown that either nominal amounts or the amounts in New Zealand currency can be readily ascertained during the period of divergence.

The Finance Act (No. 2) 1952 in redefining the term “public debt” excluded from the debt those loans funded by agreement with the United Kingdom Government under the authority of section 8 of the Finance Act 1922. The public debt figures throughout this section have therefore been adjusted to be on a comparable basis and exclude the amount of £24,100,000 (£(N.Z.)30,125,000 for years 1932–48, i.e., the years in which the New Zealand pound was at a discount of 25 per cent on sterling) funded in terms of the 1922 Act, and in respect of which interest payments have been suspended by agreement with the United Kingdom Government since 1931. This amount originally formed part of the First World War debt.

An amount of £2,090,909 (£(N.Z.)2,613,639 for years 1932–48) raised for State Advances purposes but on which interest payments have also been suspended since 1931 is also excluded from the figures.

GROSS INDEBTEDNESS — On only five* occasions in the history of New Zealand has a reduction in the gross public debt been effected during the financial year. The first occasion was in 1891–92, when the debt was reduced by £117,000; and the second in 1922–23, when another slight reduction (£101,000) was recorded. The third occasion was in 1934–35, when the floating debt of £22,857,000 — comprising outstanding Treasury revenue bills amounting to £3,452,000 and Treasury bills for £19,405,000 in respect of the Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, was entirely paid off. The fourth occasion was in 1947–48, the debt being reduced by £3,137,000 in New Zealand currency (having regard to exchange rate relationships existing prior to 20 August 1948), or £302,000 if nominal amounts only are taken into account. The fifth occasion was in 1951–52, the debt being reduced by £13,571,000 by the sale of State Advances stock, held by Treasury, to the Post Office Savings Bank, and an equivalent amount of Government stock, held by the Savings Bank, being redeemed.

The gross indebtedness of the General Government and the rate of indebtedness per head of population for each of the last 21 years are given in the following table.

*See however, page 603 of 1940 Yearbook.

The figures are given in two series, the first showing the debt at the nominal amount throughout the last 21 years, and the second, covering the same period, with the debt shown in New Zealand currency. In the latter case the amount of overseas debt has been converted to New Zealand currency at the rate of exchange ruling during the period.

At 31 MarchAmountPer Head of Population
A — Nominal Amounts
 £(000)£s.
1941323,23619711
1942359,20721916
1943437,63426716
1944500,5263049
1945537,22731916
1946568,1403238
1947578,3803234
1948578,0783165
1949614,98632917
1950643,8803387
1951667,2333446
1952653,6623297
1953667,68832714
1954704,3713378
1955728,59334118
1956735,20133719
1957757,12034017
1958782,11134314
1959816,5523511
1960844,5163566
1961868,17335912
B — In New Zealand Currency
 £(000)£s.
1941356,28221715
1942391,0982396
1943470,6552880
1944533,75532414
1945570,50033912
1946591,77333617
1947602,0133368
1948598,87532712
1949614,98632917
1950643,8803387
1951667,2333446
1952653,6623297
1953667,68832714
1954704,3713378
1955728,59334118
1956735,20133719
1957757,12034017
1958782,11134314
1959816,5523511
1960844,5163566
1961868,17335912

It should be noted that the figures in the foregoing table are exclusive of £26,191,000 (£(N.Z.)32,739,000 up to 1948) in respect of which interest payments have been suspended by agreement with the United Kingdom Government since 1931. This amount consists of £24,100,000 advances from the United Kingdom Government funded in terms of the Finance Act 1922, and £2,091,000 raised for State Advances purposes.

An outstanding advance of £22,930 to the Government Insurance Account by way of overdraft is not included in the public debt at 31 March 1961.

State guarantees cover such items as the guarantee to policyholders of the Government Insurance Department under the Government Life Insurance Act 1953; the guarantee to the Reserve Bank under the Finance Act 1934 in respect of sterling exchange (which was exercised in the case of the adjustment of the New Zealand currency exchange rate to parity with sterling as from 20 August 1948); the guarantee under the Finance Act (No. 2) 1946 to the Reserve Bank in respect of moneys advanced to Governments of other countries to finance the purchase of New Zealand produce; guarantees to certain undertakings under the State Advances Corporation Act and certain local authority loans. There are also certain contingent State liabilities in respect of the Government Superannuation Fund and in respect of £26,191,000 funded debt referred to earlier.

At 31 March 1961 the amount of contingent loans outstanding in respect of State Advances Corporation stock and debentures, the major portion of which is at present held by the State in consideration of the transfer of property securities from the State to the Corporation, was £176,222,000; and in addition there was a further amount of £1,170,000 in respect of loans to industries by the Corporation.

Other contingent liabilities covering the guarantee of overdrafts were: Apple and Pear Marketing Board, £50,000; Dairy Products Marketing Commission, £2,000,000; Linseed Growers Ltd., £200,000; Tourist Hotel Corporation, £60,000; and Gas Companies, £750,000.

CLASSIFICATION OF PUBLIC DEBT — A broad classification of the public debt according to nature or purpose is contained in the following table, the distinction being made on the basis of whether raised for ordinary purposes, war purposes, or housing. It should be noted that the debt is expressed in terms of nominal amounts, these differing from figures in terms of New Zealand currency for the 1940 year only.

ClassGross Debt at 31 March
192019301940195019601961

*Includes debt due to United Kingdom Government (see p. 817).

£(thousand)
Ordinary121,082197,600245,217358,267585,414621,052
Housing11,55957,331119,829126,081
War loans (1914–18)80,089*69,784*36,85426,757
War expenses (1939–45)3,086201,526139,273121,040
Totals201,171267,383296,716643,880844,516868,173

The amount per head of population for each class as at 31 March 1961 was as follows: ordinary, £257 5s.; housing, £52 4s.; war expenses, 1939–45, £50 3s.

A more detailed allocation of the public debt as at 31 March 1961 is now given.

 £(thousand)
(a) Earning full interest–
    Electric power188,880 
    Post Office77,934 
    Bank of New Zealand shares6,328 
    Land Settlement47,167 
    New Zealand National Airways Corporation4,150 
    Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd.8,749 
  333,208
(b) Earning interest but not at full rate–
    Housing112,582 
    Housing under construction13,499 
    State Advances Corporation22,000 
  148,081
(c) Not earning interest though represented by permanent assets–
    Education buildings13,962 
    Forests (State)14,094 
    Roads and highways56,352 
    General Public Works7,492 
    Railways142,618 
    State coal mines10,503 
  245,021
(d) Non-productive debt–
    War Loans, 1939–45121,040 
    Reserve Bank exchange adjustment20,000 
    New loan moneys on hand823 
  141,863
Total £868,173

MOVEMENT IN PUBLIC DEBT DURING 1960–61 — A summary of transactions in connection with the public debt during the year ended 31 March 1961 is as follows.

Type of DebtAmount Outstanding at
31 March 196031 March 1961+Increase -Decrease
 £(thousand)
External debt: London117,764108,163− 9,601
        United States of America18,96518,499− 466
Internal debt–
Long-term debt699,587733,711+ 34,124
    Floating debt8,2007,800− 400
Totals844,516868,173+ 23,657

A more detailed statement which shows also the main purposes for which loan moneys were raised during the year 1960–61 is now given.

 £££
External debt   
  London–
    Decreases–
      Transfers to New Zealand Register3,311,500  
      Repayment from Loans Redemption Account–
        From revenue6,289,894  
9,601,394  
United States of America–
  Decreases–
    Repayments from Loans Redemption Account-
        From revenue 466,234 
          Decrease in external debt  10,067,628
Internal debt–
  Increases–
    New issues–
      National Development Loans Account47,280,355  
      Loans Redemption Account49,267,750  
      Transfers from London Register3,311,500  
   99,859,605
  Decreases–
    Repayments from Loans Redemption Account–
      From revenue16,876,020  
      New issues in New Zealand49,259,373  
  66,135,393 
Increase in internal debt  33,724,212
Total increase in public debt  £23,656,584

PUBLIC DEBT CONVERSION SCHEMES AND NEW LOANS — A scheme of conversion of practically the whole of the locally domiciled debt bearing interest higher than 4 per cent was successfully carried out in the early part of 1933. Holders had the option of dissenting, but interest on the dissented portion was made subject to an interest tax of 33 1/3 per cent. Holders who signified neither assent nor dissent were regarded as having assented.

Details of this conversion and of other conversions during the period up to 31 March 1945, together with a schedule of war loans over the period 1940–45, were given on pages 503–504 of the 1950 issue of the Yearbook, while conversions and loans in the subsequent period up to 31 March 1950 were given on pages 819–820 of the 1957 issue of the Yearbook. Conversions in the further period up to 31 March 1958 were given on pages 812–813 of the 1958 issue, and loans for this further period up to 31 March 1958 were given on pages 828–829 of the 1960 issue. Conversions from May 1958 to December 1960 were given on page 832 of the 1961 issue.

Conversion Loans — One conversion loan was offered in May 1961 in conversion of £19.1 million 4 1/2 per cent stock maturing 15 June 1961 and £11.2 million 4 1/2 per cent stock maturing 15 July 1961 and £25.6 million 3 per cent stock maturing 15 August 1959–61. Stock offered in conversion was 4 3/8 per cent maturing 15 November 1963, 4 5/8 per cent maturing 15 November 1965–66, and 4 3/4 per cent maturing 15 November 1970–72. Conversion was effected of £14.4 million of the June maturity, £8.9 million of the July maturity, and £20.1 million of the August maturity stock.

One of the largest conversion loans on record was announced in February 1962 in the conversion of more than £49 million of Government stock maturing on 15 April and 15 May 1962. Offered in conversion was five-year stock carrying interest at 4 3/4 per cent and issued at the rate of £100 for each £99 of maturing stock, and 14-year stock carrying interest at 5 per cent and issued at the rate of £100 for each £97 of maturing stock.

London Loans — A loan of £20,000,000 was raised in London in April 1958. It consisted of New Zealand Government 6 per cent stock issued at £99 per cent and maturing in 1976–80. In May 1961 a further loan of £20,000,000 of New Zealand Government 6 per cent stock issued at £99 per cent and maturing 15 November 1972 was raised in London.

United States Loans — In 1956 there was received from the Export-Import Bank, Washington, a loan of $13,000,000 at 4 3/4 per cent repayable half-yearly at the rate of $650,000. The balance outstanding at 31 December 1961 was $5,850,000. An agreement under which the New Zealand Government obtained a loan of $34,500,000 and a credit of $11,500,000 from a group of banks in the United States of America was signed on 30 September 1958. The loan, which bore interest at 3 1/2 per cent, was repaid on 1 August 1961, while the credit, which bore interest at 4 1/2 per cent, was repaid on 30 September 1959. In connection with the loan, the Reserve Bank of New Zealand deposited with the Federal Reserve Bank of New York gold valued at $31,500,000 as security.

For the first time New Zealand raised a public loan in the United States of America in December 1958. An amount of $10,000,000 bearing interest at 5 1/2 per cent and maturing in 1970 was raised in New York. The issue price was $99 per cent. The bond issue has a sinking fund designed to retire $395,000 of the debt annually, beginning 1 June 1961. By this means 75 per cent of the debt will be repaid by maturity. At 31 December 1961 the balance outstanding was $9,210,000.

In 1961 a loan of $20,000,000 was raised in New York, with 5 3/4 percent bonds maturing 15 October 1971–76. The issue has a sinking fund designed to retire $1,350,000 annually commencing 15 April 1964. By this means 84 per cent of the issue will be repaid by maturity. The New Zealand Government also has the option of redeeming the bonds, in whole or in part, at any time after 15 October 1971.

New Zealand Loans — Within New Zealand the 1958 Works Loan of £15,000,000 was opened in June. Stock, at par, was offered with either of three maturity dates, 4 1/2 per cent maturing 15 July 1961 or 4 3/4 per cent maturing either 15 July 1963–64 or 15 July 1968–70. The loan, which had the usual option regarding death duty stock, was oversubscribed, £15,200,000 being raised.

The 1959 Works Loan of £15,000,000 was opened in May. Stock, at par, was offered with either of two maturity dates, 4 1/2 per cent maturing 15 October 1962, 4 3/4 per cent maturing 15 October 1971–73. The loan, which had the usual option regarding death duty stock, was undersubscribed, £14,226,680 being raised.

In January 1960 a Government loan was opened with no specific total sought and no closing date. Stock, at par, was offered with either of two maturity dates, 4 3/8 per cent maturing 15 October 1963, or 4 3/4 per cent maturing 15 October 1971–73. The loan was closed on 31 March 1960, by which time £14,485,000 had been subscribed.

In May 1960 a Government cash loan of £15,000,000 was opened; three-year stock was offered at 4 3/8 per cent, six year stock at 4 5/8 per cent, and 12-year stock at 4 3/4 per cent. Stock issued totalled £15,103,760.

In February 1961 a Government cash loan of £10,000,000 was opened; stock at par was offered as follows: 4 3/8 per cent maturing 15 November 1963, 4 5/8 per cent maturing 15 November 1965–66; and stock was also issued at £99 per cent with an interest rate of 4 3/4 per cent and maturing 15 November 1970–72. An amount of £13,665,000 was subscribed by 7,400 applicants.

In June 1961 a National Development cash loan of £15,000,000 was opened. Stock at par was offered at 4 3/4 per cent maturing 15 June 1965 and 5 per cent maturing 15 June 1973–75. An amount of £14,066,620 was subscribed.

In October 1961 New Zealand Government development bonds were offered, redeemable at 106 per cent on 31 January 1971, or at the option of the holder at: 100 per cent between 31 July 1962 and 30 January 1965,101 per cent between 31 January 1965 and 30 January 1968, and 103 per cent between 31 January 1968 and 30 January 1971. Interest on bonds will be payable as follows: 4 per cent until 31 January 1965, then 4 1/2 per cent until 31 January 1968, then 4 3/4 per cent until 31 January 1971.

In November 1961 a New Zealand Government cash loan was opened; 4 3/4 per cent stock maturing 15 November 1965 was offered at £99 10s. per cent and 5 per cent stock maturing 15 November 1973–75 at £98 per cent.

DOMICILE OF DEBT — The table following shows, for each of the last 11 years ended 31 March, the amount of New Zealand's public debt domiciled in London, United States of America, Australia, and New Zealand. All amounts shown are exclusive of the contingent liability due to the United Kingdom Government to which reference has been made elsewhere in this subsection.

At 31 MarchAmountPercentage of Total on New Zealand Currency Basis
LondonUnited States of AmericaNew ZealandLondonUnited States of AmericaNew Zealand
  £N.Z.(thousand) per cent 
195177,808589,42511.6688.34
195277,808575,85511.9088.10
195377,790589,89811.6588.35
195487,790616,58112.4687.54
195597,789630,80413.4286.58
195695,804639,39713.0386.97
1957100,4254,429652,26513.260.5986.15
195899,5763,963678,57212.730.5186.76
1959118,27723,548674,72814.492.8882.63
1960117,76418,965707,78713.942.2583.81
1961108,16318,498741,51112.462.1385.41

MATURITY YEARS OF DEBT — The maturity years of the debt outstanding at 31 March 1961 are shown in the following statement, which distinguishes between the various countries of domicile. All amounts shown may be regarded as being either in New Zealand pounds or in nominal amounts.

Loans Maturing in Financial Year Ending 31 March*Due inTotal Debt (Nominal Amount)
U.S.A. (in New Zealand Currency)London (in New Zealand Currency)New Zealand
PublicDepartmental and Other

*In respect of many of the loans the Government has the option to redeem the securities at an earlier date.

† Excludes United Kingdom Government advance of £26,191,000.

   £(thousand)  
Treasury bills7,8007,800
Promissory notes, various (from 15 May 1961 to 15 May 1966)2,5642,564
196212,35041,45115,03068,831
196335,76428,60064,365
19647,33749,84732,00489,189
196524,14713,13837,285
196617,04724,51523,53465,097
19676,69624,11616,09446,906
196811,74910,97422,723
196915,4221,84175,50092,763
19707,6188,43616,054
19713,5845,2205,85814,662
19724,967335,000
197325,91026,14252,052
19749,39013,06942,02464,482
19752,49340,35842,851
197633,94833,948
197750,60050,600
19786,52147927,50034,500
19799,9445611,50021,500
198016,9233,07720,000
19835,0005,000
19858,9161,08410,000
Totals18,499108,163272,471469,041868,173

DEPARTMENTAL INVESTMENTS — As shown in the preceding table, £469,041,000 of the public debt outstanding at 31 March 1961 was held by various Government Departments and quasi-Government organisations. A summary of these investments for the latest two years is as follows.

 At 31 March
 19601961
 £(thousand)
Investments held by accounts within the Public Account54,81458,267
Government Life Insurance7,5356,802
Government Superannuation Board30,65333,415
Maori Trustee2,4402,590
National Provident Fund16,32721,171
New Zealand Broadcasting Service1,7501,150
Post Office135,782144,276
Post Office: National Savings54,90053,700
Public Trustee4,0664,131
Reserve Bank71,32171,321
State Advances Corporation2,9533,106
State Fire Insurance Office–  
    Accident Branch1,5521,872
    Fire Branch1,6371,819
Meat Industry Account35,90435,904
Wool Commission Account28,94129,516
Totals450,575469,041

PRICES OF NEW ZEALAND STOCKS — The following table gives the quotations in London for the principal new stocks (excluding accrued interest) in December of each of the years 1949–58 and at quarterly intervals from March 1959 to December 1961.

Date3 1/4 Per Cent, 1962–653 1/2 Per Cent, 1960–644 1/4 Per Cent, 1970–75 Per Cent, 1956–716 Per Cent, 1976–80
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
1949–29 Dec98150100189110163
1950 — 1 Dec1000010226110126
1951 — 6 Dec9339951610 1/210400
1952 — 4 Dec91157 1/2941610 1/2102163
1953 — 3 Dec94157 1/297610 1/210313
1954 — 3 Dec9807 1/2991610 1/2102189
1955 – 9 Dec8700896392157 1/29878 1/2
1956 — 7 Dec811268516385639326
1957 — 6 Dec82131 1/286163831399131 1/2
1958 — 5 Dec8581 1/292610 1/287610 1/294157 1/210250
1959 — 6 Mar8957 1/294 610 1/28910095181 1/2104181 1/2
5 Jun87181 1/29394 1/2881610 1/29557 1/210431 1/2
4 Sep8894 1/294110 1/2895096157 1/210476
4 Dec89157 1/295 110 1/28994 1/299610 1/210600
1960 — 3 Mar89194 1/294 610 1/287131 1/296176103157 1/2
1 Jun8957 1/293131 1/28794 1/29511310239
1 Sep885092008457 1/2918999107 1/2
1 Dec89139313841639116399157 1/2
1961 — 3 Mar9063946383131 1/290144 1/298113
2 Jun90157 1/2941110 1/28317690139971610 1/2
1 Sep87100922679107 1/2866392139
1 Dec89399439811110 1/289194 1/293194 1/2

In September 1961 6 per cent 1972 stock was quoted at £92 17s. 6d. and this rose to £95 5s. at 1 December 1961.

INTEREST — Of the public debt outstanding at 31 March 1932, approximately 30 per cent only of the total bore interest at a rate of 4 per cent or lower. Following on conversion operations and a general decline in interest rates for new money in the succeeding years until recent times, the amount of debt bearing interest at a rate of 4 per cent or under at 31 March 1961 was £589.4 million, or 68 per cent of the total debt (excluding the contingent liability on which interest payments have been suspended since 1931 by agreement with the United Kingdom Government), while on £277.2 million, or approximately 32 per cent, the rate did not exceed 3 per cent. Of the debt domiciled in New Zealand at 31 March 1961, 34 per cent was at rates of 3 per cent or under, the remainder (or 66 per cent) being at rates which did not exceed 6 per cent. A classification of the public debt as at 31 March 1961, according to the rates of interest payable and domicile, is contained in the following table, the values being in terms of New Zealand currency.

Rate of Interest (per cent)Debt Maturing in–TotalGross Annual Interest Charge
LondonUnited States of AmericaNew Zealand
  £(thousand)   
183,30083,300833
2 1/29,0809,080227
321,942162,841184,7825,151
3 1/423,74335824,101783
3 1/216,25312,350106,447135,0504,511
3 3/463,82363,8232,393
49,94479,33989,2833,571
4 1/49,39061010,000425
4 3/829,35529,3551,284
4 1/251,74851,7481,646
4 5/835,62935,6291,648
4 3/42,564111,054113,6185,391
54,9674,8519,818491
5 1/45,0005,000263
5 1/23,5843,584197
616,9233,07720,0001,200
Totals108,16318,499741,511868,17330,016

The total amount of interest paid on the public debt — i.e., excluding the contingent liability on which interest payments have been suspended by agreement with the United Kingdom Government — during the year ended 31 March 1961 was £30,085,000, which gave an average rate of £3 9s. 4d. per cent.

The amount of interest and the average rate per cent paid on the debt domiciled in the respective markets were–

 Amount of InterestAverageRate
 ££s.d.
London4,565,811445
United States of America770,431434
New Zealand24,748,582369

Of the total interest payments from the Consolidated Fund during the year ended 31 March 1961, £4,472,000 was paid in London and £94,000 in New Zealand on account of debt domiciled in London, £770,000 was paid on account of debt domiciled in the United States of America, and the remaining £24,749,000 was paid in New Zealand in respect of internal debt.

The total amount of interest credited to the Consolidated Fund on account of capital liability of various enterprises during 1960–61 was £14,602,000, the contributing accounts being Post Office £2,899,000; Electric Supply, £7,105,000; Housing Account, £1,621,000; Housing Construction £179,000; Land Settlement Account, £1,678,000; under section 31 (3) of Land Act 1948, £650,000; State Advances Corporation, £348,000; and New Zealand National Airways Corporation, £122,000. Interest is also received from the investment of other public moneys, the total under this heading being £1,701,000, including £110,000 from the State Advances Corporation, £585,000 from the Public Account Cash Balance Investment Account, £150,000 from the Christmas Island Phosphate Commission, £21,000 from the British Phosphate Commission, £172,000 from the Deposits Accounts, £138,000 from the Loans Redemption Account, and £344,000 from the Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd. The total interest receipts of the Consolidated Fund were thus £16,303,000, leaving the net interest charges for the year £13,782,000, the same as for the previous year.

The following table shows the gross payments of interest together with the net interest charges for the last eleven financial years.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross PaymentsReceiptsGross Payments, Less Receipts
£N.Z.(thousand)
195117,2646,56610,698
195217,7137,33710,376
195317,3216,89410,427
195418,287,74610,382
195520,0148,37811,636
195621,0019,14711,854
195722,72911,55411,174
195825,31612,39212,924
195927,27713,78513,492
196028,75914,97713,782
196130,08516,30313,782

Administration and management charges in respect of debt services amounted to £450,000 in 1960–61, as compared with £333,000 in 1959–60.

AMORTISATION OF DEBT: Public Debt Repayment — With certain exceptions, the repayment of the public debt is now subject to the provisions of the New Zealand Loans Act 1953. For this purpose there is issued annually out of the Consolidated Fund: (a) a sum equal to 1/2 per cent of the total amount of the public debt outstanding at the end of the preceding financial year; (b) £2,865,000, being 4 per cent of the redemptions effected from 1 April 1925 up to 1 January 1954; (c) a sum equal to 4 per cent of the total amounts paid under section 59 of the Act between the commencement of the Act (1 January 1954) and the end of the preceding financial year: Provided that if the Minister of Finance so directs, any amount required to be paid under this section may be reduced by the amount paid into the Loans Redemption Account under paragraph (c) of section 57 of the Act, but the amount payable under paragraph (c) of this section in any subsequent year shall be computed as if no such reduction had been made. The bulk of the savings in interest on debt paid off is thus applied to further repayments of debt. In brief, provision is made to repay the debt in approximately 60 years from the date of the inception of the scheme (1925) or from the date of raising subsequent loans.

The annual contribution from the Consolidated Fund paid to the Loans Redemption Account is utilised to redeem such securities as the Public Debt Commission determines, which are a charge upon the public revenues of New Zealand. All other moneys raised or available for the purpose of repayment of any loan forming a charge on public revenues are similarly paid into the Loans Redemption Account and utilised for the redemption of such securities charged upon the public revenues as the Minister of Finance from time to time determines.

Transactions involving merely the exchange of one class of securities for another of the same rate of interest and term, or where the only variation is an extension of the term by not more than two years, are not recorded in the Loans Redemption Account.

The repayment scheme provided for under the New Zealand Loans Act 1953 does not apply to the whole of the public debt, moneys borrowed on the security of Treasury bills issued under section 41 of the Public Revenues Act 1953 being excluded. The funded debt and a contingent liability linked with it are not part of the debt nor are they covered by the repayment provisions.

Amounts devoted to the repayment or redemption of the public debt during each of the last five years are set out below, together with a brief statement of the class of debt affected by redemption operations.

Year Ended 31 MarchRepayments Section 58 (a) of 1953 ActAmounts Utilised for RedemptionClass of Debts Affected by Redemption
Section 58 (b) of 1953 ActSection 58 (c) of 1953 ActTotal Amount UtilisedItemAmount
£(thousand)
1957241,2084,8999,06013,959War expenses12,721
Other debt1,238
195834,4478,1781,97510,153War expenses7,774
Other debt2,378
195956,7512,7629,06111,823War expenses3,961
Other debt7,861
196069,50013,1086,54819,656War expenses13,319
Other debt6,337
196149,26016,5447,08823,632War expenses18,233
Other debt5,399

The following table shows the amounts available for redemption for each of the last five years under the repayment scheme provided for by the New Zealand Loans Amendment Act 1953, the amounts utilised, and the nominal value of securities redeemed and cancelled to date.

Year Ended 31 MarchBalance of Amortisation Contributions Unspent at Beginning of YearTransfers from Consolidated FundUtilised to Redeem and Cancel SecuritiesNominal Value of Securities Redeemed and Cancelled from 1 April 1925 to Date
1/2 Per Cent of Public Debt Outstanding at Beginning of Year4 Per Cent of Total Amount of Public Debt Redeemed or Repaid to Beginning of YearTotal
£(thousand)
19575,6333,6763,6617,3374,89990,750
19588,0713,7863,9547,7408,17898,928
19597,6323,9114,2648,1742,762101,690
196013,0454,0834,5908,67313,108114,798
19618,6104,3415,3049,64516,544131,342

NET INDEBTEDNESS — While the sinking funds were annually increasing it was customary to regard the net indebtedness figures as giving the best comparison of indebtedness between one year and another. The initiation of the present system of amortisation, however, destroyed the comparison on this basis, and the gross figures (as shown at the beginning of this subsection) now afford a better and more comparable index. The net indebtedness figures for the latest three years are: 1958–59, £799,269,000 (£343 12s. per head of population); 1959–60, £833,128,000 (£351 10s. per head); 1960–61, £855,870,000 (£354 10s. per head).

The net indebtedness quoted is merely the balance left after deducting from the amount of debentures and stock in circulation, the net balance of the Loans Redemption Account. No allowance is made for the fact that a portion of the debt is actually held by the Government itself. In the course of the year's financial transactions securities are bought and sold by Treasury accounts, and the investments held as at 31 March in each year, while forming part of the debt, do not represent amounts due directly or indirectly to the public. New Zealand Government investments held by Treasury accounts as at 31 March of the last five years have been: 1957, £50,605,000; 1958, £52,388,000; 1959, £72,027,000; 1960, £71,461,000; 1961, £59,846,000.

In addition to the above, Government investments in corporations, etc., held at 31 March 1961 (shown in the return required by the Public Revenues Act 1953 and published in parliamentary paper B. 1 [Pt I]) are given in the following table.

InvestmentAmount at 31 March 1961
 £(000)
Owned by New Zealand Government–
    Bank of New Zealand12,018
    Linen Flax Corporation200
    New Zealand National Airways Corporation4,150
    Reserve Bank of New Zealand1,500
    State Advances Corporation of New Zealand3,753
    Tourist Hotel Corporation of New Zealand2,471
Owned jointly with other Governments–
    British Phosphate Commission520
    Christmas Island Phosphate Commission3,310
    Tasman Empire Airways Ltd.811
Shareholdings in limited companies–
    Bay of Plenty Cooperative Fertiliser Co. Ltd.110
    Dominion Salt Ltd.150
    Kaingaroa Logging Co. Ltd.50
    Maramarua Coalfields Ltd.75
    New Zealand Woolpack and Textiles Ltd.150
    Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd.2,000
    Miscellaneous158
Total£31,426

GENERAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT DEBT — The statistics given throughout this subsection refer to the indebtedness of the General Government only, and do not include the debt of local-governing authorities, which is dealt with in the section of this volume relating to local government.

Local-governing authorities had at 31 March 1961 a gross indebtedness equivalent to £187,159,000 and if this amount be added to the gross debt of the General Government at 31 March 1961 (£868,173,000) the aggregate becomes £1,055,332,000. This latter total is exclusive of £26,191,000 contingent liability due to the United Kingdom. Allowing for duplication on account of outstanding loans to local authorities from the State Advances Corporation, the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, and the Fire Services Council, the total is reduced to approximately £1,052,318,000.

The figures relating to local authorities' indebtedness in the foregoing paragraph are inclusive of hospital boards, and to this extent differ from those generally given in the section on local government. Hospital board gross indebtedness at 31 March 1960 totalled £27,435,000.

Chapter 27. Section 27 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

Table of Contents

GENERAL — The constitution and franchise of local authorities are described in Section 2, History, Constitution, and Government.

Detailed statistics relating to each local authority, other than hospital boards, are contained in the Report on the Local Authority Statistics, an annual publication of the Department of Statistics. Hospital boards, which supply their returns to the Department of Health, are omitted from most of the statistics contained in this section, a special note is made where they are included, but summarised data relating to them will be found in Section 5B.

The local authority year now uniformly ends on 31 March, except in the case of most harbour boards and the Hutt Valley Drainage Board. In certain cases where the harbour is administered by a county or borough council the year ends on 31 March, but in all other cases on 30 September.

BORROWING — Under the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 all loan proposals of local authorities, except in regard to money borrowed in anticipation of revenue, require the sanction of the Local Authorities Loans Board. The board consists of the Secretary to the Treasury, the Commissioner of Works, and five other members appointed by the Governor-General. In cases where a poll of ratepayers is necessary preparatory to raising a loan, the board's consent must be obtained before the poll is held. In no case may the board sanction any application unless provision is made to its satisfaction for repayment of the loan within such period as it deems reasonable, having regard to the probable duration and continuing utility of the works on which the loan moneys are to be expended.

A local authority is empowered to raise a special loan for the construction of any public work, for the purchase of land or buildings, or for the purpose of engaging in any undertaking into which it may lawfully enter. As a general rule local authorities may raise a loan by special order and without a poll of ratepayers, but, in the case of a local authority that is a rating body, a poll of ratepayers is to be taken if–

  1. The Local Authorities Loans Board requires a poll to be taken; or

  2. Before the date fixed for the meeting of the local authority to confirm the resolution to raise the loan not less than 5 per cent of the ratepayers demand a poll; or

  3. The local authority itself decides to take a poll.

A poll cannot be required in cases such as renewal loans, loans raised for emergency expenditure by reason of flood, storm, earthquake, etc., or loans for work of national and local importance and carried out by an agreement between the Government and a local authority.

Where a poll is required it shall be deemed to be carried if a bare majority of the valid votes recorded is in favour of the proposal. The properties and revenue of the local authority may be pledged as security for the repayment of any principal sum or interest thereon, or a special rate may be levied for the same purpose.

The borrowing activities of certain types of local authority are subject to special provisions. Under the Hospitals Act 1957 a hospital board must first obtain the approval of the Minister of Health before exercising its power to borrow; under the Fire Services Act 1949 the boards of urban fire authorities must obtain the prior consent of the Fire Service Council. Harbour boards derive their authority to borrow for harbour works from special empowering legislation, and similar authority is given for the capital works of certain other local authorities.

RATING — Local authorities are largely dependent on revenue from rates to carry out their activities, and even loans raised for special purposes are, except where the assets purchased provide revenue to meet the loan charges, ultimately liquidated by rate revenues — known then as special rates. Three broad classes of rates are distinguished:

  1. General, for general purposes.

  2. Separate rates levied for the construction of public works, for the acquisition of land or buildings, or for the benefit of the whole or part of a local district.

  3. Special rates imposed to secure the repayment of loan money, being sufficient to produce interest and sinking fund, or interest and instalment of principal, as the case may be. Special rates can be levied only by resolution gazetted, and. unlike general and separate rates, are not subject to any statutory limit.

There are three main systems of rating: (1) capital (land and improvements) value, (2) annual value, and (3) unimproved value. Rating on an acreage basis is applied mainly by rabbit boards which also, in two districts, rate according to the number of sheep and/or cattle owned.

The Rating Act 1925 provides that the local authority of any district (other than a district wherein the system of rating on the unimproved value is in force) may from time to time by resolution determine whether the system of rating on the annual value or on the capital value shall be in force in the district. In the case of rating on the capital value the rating roll is based on the district valuation roll prepared by the Valuation Department. Where the rating is on the annual value the local authority generally prepares its valuation roll on the basis of valuations made by its own valuers. There is, however, provision that annual values may be prepared on the basis of the annual value being equal to £6 per cent of the capital value, and also that a rate of 1s. in the pound on the annual value is equivalent to 3/4d. in the pound on the capital value. The Rating Amendment Act 1954 further provides that the Valuer-General may act as a local authority's valuer where an annual value roll is to be prepared. (See also Section 10E on valuation of land.)

Under the Rating Act 1925 it is entirely at the option of the ratepayers of local districts to decide the system of rating. The poll is taken in the same manner as in the case of a loan poll required under the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956. The question of adoption or otherwise is decided by a bare majority of the valid votes recorded, irrespective of the number of ratepayers who have voted.

A rescinding proposal can be carried at a poll by the same means as one for adoption, but not until after three years have elapsed; and, vice versa, rejection of a proposal bars its being brought forward for a similar period.

Under the authority of the Counties Act 1956 the ratepayers within a county town may require the county council to take a poll within the town on a proposal to adopt a system of rating which differs from that in force in the county.

A town district, borough, or another county formed from part of a county automatically rates on the system in force in the county at the time of the constitution of the new district; also two boroughs amalgamating adopt the system in force in the district with the greater population, unless their councils agree to the contrary.

Distribution of Rating Systems in Force — A table is given of rating systems in force during the financial year 1959–60 in those districts which levy rates.

Local DistrictSystem of RatingTotal
Unimproved ValueCapital ValueAnnual ValueAcreage BasisOn Stock

*Includes Chatham Islands county, for which import and export dues are charged in lieu of rates on land.

† Includes one board with the powers of a drainage board which also rates on an acreage basis.

Counties6751119*
Boroughs1151513143
Town districts1810230
Road districts123
River districts44311
Catchment districts1313
Land-drainage districts2813142
Water-supply district11
Rabbit districts22022206
Totals233110152072568*

The position in regard to the four major classes of local authorities at 1 April 1960 (i.e., the beginning of the 1960–61 financial year) is set out in the following table. The figures in parentheses are proportions per cent of the total.

Local DistrictRating onTotal for New Zealand
Unimproved ValueCapital ValueAnnual Value
No.PopulationNo.PopulationNo.PopulationNo.Population*

*Estimated population at 1 April 1960, exclusive of persons on shipboard, etc.

† Includes Sounds and Fiord counties in which the Counties Act is not wholly in force, and Chatham Islands county for which export and import dues are charged in lieu of rates on land.

Counties (excluding town districts)70553,21948300,251121855,040
 (57.8)(64.7)(39.7)(35.1)(-)(-)  
Cities and boroughs1161,178,8201459,97013249,8601431,488,650
 (81.1)(79.2)(9.8)(4.0)(9.1)(16.8)  
Independent town districts108,61043,53016201512,760
 (66.7)(67.5)(26.6)(27.7)(6.7)(4.8)  
Dependent town districts83,81031,6101610126,030
 (66.7)(63.2)(25.0)(26.7)(8.3)(10.1)  
Totals2041,744,45969365,36115251,0902912,362,480
 (70.1)(73.8)(23.7)(15.5)(5.1)(10.6)  

For the purposes of the foregoing tables a district is deemed to rate on the unimproved value where the general rate is levied on an unimproved-value basis. In a number of instances, in particular of boroughs, certain of the subsidiary rates are levied on other systems.

The following table shows the amounts levied under the various systems of rating and by annual fees or charges by counties, boroughs, and town, and road districts for the year ended 31 March 1960. Amounts levied on behalf of other local authorities are included.

Local DistrictSystem of RatingUniform Fees and ChargesTotal
Unimproved ValueCapital ValueAnnual Value
 £££££
Counties5,028,0342,778,04734,714117,0967,957,891
Boroughs10,199,9301,148,0973,787,9241,490,78616,626,737
Town districts45,02715,6993,85313,83078,409
Road districts23,9642,63326,597
Totals15,296,9553,944,4763,826,4911,621,71224,689,634

RECEIPTS — The sources of revenue of local authorities are shown by broad classes in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRatesLicence Fees and Building PermitsReceipts from Public Utilities, Rents, and InterestGovernment Grants and SubsidiesOther Receipts (Including Loan Money)Total Receipts
 £(thousand)
195011,6451,12219,2052,9715,14840,091
195112,5771,24120,4753,0935,27842,664
195214,5141,39622,6553,9466,70149,212
195315,3541,48226,1064,37811,36558,685
195416,4211,53230,7904,83515,67269,250
195518,26076234,5518,51612,52974,618
195618,88374837,64810,35915,06482,702
195720,65966138,90411,55018,81890,592
195822,70869941,64411,97123,596100,618
195924,39273148,17212,27722,533108,105
196025,74493549,92312,71429,066118,382

During the financial year 1959–60 local authorities received by way of rates and licence fees a total amount of £26,678,990, which, for a total mean population of 2,345,602, is equivalent to £11 7s. 6d. per head.

Of the total receipts for 1959–60, rates yielded 21.7 per cent; licences, 0.8 per cent; public utilities, rents, and interest, 42.2 per cent; Government, 10.7 per cent; and other receipts, 24.6 per cent.

Of the total receipts for counties, which amounted to £19,338,495, a sum of £7,536,546, or 39.0 per cent, was raised by way of rates and licence fees. Town districts, road districts, river districts, catchment districts, land-drainage districts, urban drainage districts, and water-supply districts also rely on rates for a considerable portion of their income. On the other hand, for boroughs and harbour boards, taxation through rates and licence fees supplies a smaller proportion of the total receipts. During 1959–60 this source of income accounted for 31.4 per cent of the total receipts of boroughs and 7.2 per cent of that of harbour boards. Rates collected for, or to meet levies by, fire boards are included as receipts from rates by the levying authorities. Electric power districts did not rate during 1959–60.

The next table shows the receipts for 1959–60 (classified as in the preceding table) for each type of local authority.

Local AuthorityRatesLicence Fees and Building PermitsReceipts from Public Utilities, Rent, and InterestGovernment Grants and SubsidiesOther Receipts (Including Loan Money)Total Receipts

*Fees received from licences issued amounted to £332,806, the difference of £11,716 representing receipts for other charges (e.g., hydatids inspection) that, in some instances, were paid with, and could not be separated from, licence fees as such.

† Levy on milk.

‡ Harbour improvement rate of £410,299, and rates on land in harbour rating area, £353,188.

§ Of this total, £1,826,179 represented transport receipts, £9,135,710 sales of electric light and power, and £1,094,539 sales of gas.

 ££££££
County councils7,203,740344,522*1,210,3357,836,6302,743,26819,338,495
Borough councils14,474,207577,66917,391,776§2,868,48112,697,59048,009,723
Town boards100,9196,36874,16025,83730,573237,857
Road boards26,6576455,31616,10964449,371
River boards55,3292,60422,72542,665123,323
Catchment boards587,73636,5861,015,718400,4802,040,520
Land-drainage boards150,0622,52556,89932,242241,728
Electric power boards20,968,9952,997,48523,966,480
Water-supply board7,710807,790
Urban drainage boards1,553,9266,3644,581,4406,141,730
Urban transport boards274,6142,262,112453,2992,990,025
Road tunnel authority
Local railway board35,1885,57540,763
Gas boards163,86310,7762,035176,674
Milk boards9,5915,84468,7999,11093,344
Valley authority12,0001,74210,94324,685
Nassella tussock boards9,2606,48668,5995,98090,685
Harbour bridge authority628,65425,352881,3231,535,329
Plantation board12,6325,27317,905
Underground-water authorities
Rabbit beards514,70462,134624,28666,4511,267,575
Fire boards915,99199,062347,0921,362,145
Harbour boards763,4876,074,53635,3213,752,25410,625,598
Totals25,743,942935,04849,923,05212,713,90129,065,802118,381,745

Of the total rates of £25,743,942 collected during 1959–60, general rates levied brought in £17,778,325 and other rates (including penalty on overdue rates) £7,965,617. Of the latter, £6,573,261 was received by boroughs, and £828,508 by counties. The whole of the rates collected by harbour boards, £763,487, were classed as general rates.

It is of interest to note that for the year 1959–60 the total of all rates collected by counties was equal to £6 10s. 10d. per £1,000 of rateable capital value (land and improvements) at the beginning of the year. The corresponding figure for boroughs was £10 3s. 10d.; for independent town districts £9 5s.; and for dependent town districts, £5 11s. 10d. (excluding rates levied by county councils).

Receipts from General Government — In former issues of the Yearbook there has been given a detailed statement of revenue receipts by local authorities from the General Government. This detailed breakdown is no longer available, the last analysis appearing on page 844 of the 1961 issue of the Yearbook.

EXPENDITURE — The expenditure of local authorities during each of the latest 11 years has been as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchWorks and Utilities (Construction and Maintenance)Hospital Board LeviesAdministrationInterest on Loans and OverdraftOtherTotal Expenditure
£(thousand)
195029,0991,5062,4122,2844,36339,664
195132,1301,6692,8972,2214,32543,242
195236,9891,8553,2222,2194,56148,846
195345,0611,7483,4372,3295,76358,337
195453,6641,6604,0562,5956,31468,289
195558,0941,4554,5832,8746,97473,981
195666,4181,0804,8573,1578,04783,559
195772,7516605,4283,6598,24190,740
195879,619...5,8574,2258,58798,288
195985,868...6,1915,1339,407106,599
196090,092...6,2325,72713,545115,596

Included in the total of other payments for 1959–60 is an amount of £7,280,573 in respect of amortisation of debt, which compares with the figure of £6,237,551 in 1958–59.

The main items of expenditure of the various classes of local authorities during 1959–60 are shown below.

Local AuthorityWorks and Utilities (Construction and Maintenance)AdministrationInterest on Loans and OverdraftAmortisation of DebtOther PaymentsTotal Expenditure
 ££££££
County councils16,236,3261,358,794354,199563,4131,198,57819,711,310
Borough councils35,964,5631,965,9802,448,6463,156,4922,609,64546,145,326
Town boards187,61124,2836,78913,9217,575240,179
Road boards33,9106,1926382,8791,43845,057
River boards103,13313,1394,4584,6545,437130,821
Catchment boards1,621,633277,97831,78565,98050,9112,048,287
Land-drainage boards175,66722,27510,06626,4767,096241,580
Electric power boards17,802,6991,524,467958,0782,043,9241,047,34023,376,508
Water-supply board5,4681,0541466,569
Urban drainage boards4,460,985156,887623,315269,465212,6265,723,278
Urban transport boards2,008,112132,711173,777424,62831,8892,771,117
Road tunnel authority416416
Local railway board25,1062,94170528,752
Gas boards214,86214,4844,56914,3076,886255,108
Milk boards75,18415,844531791,350
Valley authority15,4317,0151014322,590
Nassella tussock boards80,4636,2829,24895,993
Harbour bridge authority1,041,89623,817261,285135,52611,4661,473,990
Plantation board12,9835,2412,03720,261
Underground — water authorities 102102
Rabbit boards1,137,422115,7463,93215,67522,4741,295,249
Fire boards1,067,77132,49258,9379,18558,9451,297,386
Harbour boards7,820,987523,880785,50463,642980,51910,574,788
Totals90,092,2126,232,0205,726,3977,280,5736,264,815115,596,017

The next table shows for some of the more important classes of local authorities the proportions per cent that the main items of expenditure bear to the totals. These percentages are based on the 1959–60 figures as shown in the preceding table.

Local AuthorityWorks and Utilities (Construction and Maintenance)AdministrationInterest on Loans and OverdraftAmortisation of DebtOther PaymentsTotal Expenditure

*Includes districts not listed.

per cent
County councils82.46.91.82.86.1100.0
Borough councils77.94.35.36.85.7100.0
Town boards78.110.12.85.83.2100.0
Catchment boards79.213.61.63.22.4100.0
Electric power boards76.26.54.18.74.5100.0
Urban drainage boards78.02.710.94.73.7100.0
Urban transport boards72.54.86.315.31.1100.0
Rabbit boards87.88.90.31.21.8100.0
Fire boards82.32.64.56.14.5100.0
Harbour boards74.04.97.44.49.3100.0
Totals, all districts *77.95.45.06.35.4100.0

The table following gives, in respect of boroughs only, the expenditure on new works out of loan money during the latest 11 years, classified under various heads.

Year Ended 31 MarchRoads, Streets and BridgesDrainage and SewerageReserves, Domains, Halls, Community Centres, Libraries, Baths, and Recreational FacilitiesGasworks and Electrical WorksWater SupplyOther Public Works (Including Housing)Total
£(thousand)
1950262159933224432421,521
1951280201644805023221,849
1952370255923856835152,300
19537913811634621,1465733,516
19541,0044282449061,3108634,755
19551,3015874424511,6378185,236
19561,3198526873661,8028465,872
19571,7038137273412,0091,2606,853
19581,8287726215413,3581,9019,021
19591,8039867057281,5232,1357,880
19602,0791,3406067301,3731,9028,030

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES — The assets and liabilities of local authorities at the end of the financial year 1959–60 were as shown in the table following.

Local AuthorityAssetsLiabilities
Cash AssetsOther Assets (as Estimated in Published Balance Sheets)Debentures and Other Securities: Net IndebtednessOther LiabilitiesTotal Net Liabilities

*Includes works in progress.

 £££££
County councils3,760,57519,100,0468,363,6611,544,6399,908,300
Borough councils12,617,238120,274,57058,514,1374,658,79763,172,934
Town boards93,442917,112156,92620,313177,239
Road boards15,83582,20414,4727,06221,534
River boards79,867161,52998,7235,899104,622
Catchment boards579,3592,545,512743,910153,671897,581
Land-drainage boards104,122262,848196,54412,181208,725
Electric power boards10,337,30257,091,91122,923,0364,159,81327,082,849
Water-supply board2,7683,416191191
Urban drainage boards1,333,38921,666,30815,062,457735,15615,797,613
Urban transport boards917,9296,814,1513,711,457298,9324,010,389
Road tunnel authority1,3031,303
Local railway board203,00714,18914,189
Gas boards494,055149,07979,500228,579
Milk boards35,45391,42413,00513,005
Valley authority7,92516,8524,0155004,515
Nassella tussock boards13,46752,6143,7023,702
Harbour bridge authority261,4916,699,1975,894,2841,066,4046,960,688
Plantation board58,785122,025711711
Underground-water authorities2432020
Rabbit boards538,6931,354,51994,70162,000156,701
Fire boards411,3333,447,4491,553,13030,1331,583,263
Harbour boards7,785,51134,516,41719,023,467427,89619,451,363
Totals38,954,727275,917,166*136,503,99913,296,017149,800,016

The figures shown in the column “Other Assets” are taken from the respective balance sheets, but are far from complete, inasmuch as no valuations are made for certain items. This applies particularly to roads, which, although representing considerable wealth to the community, do not figure at all in the assets. The greater part of the expenditure of counties and road districts is made in this direction. For boroughs, although the proportion is very much less, 22.56 per cent of the loan-money expenditure during the last 10 years was on roads, streets, and bridges. Assets of local authorities (excluding hospital boards) as returned for the latest available 11 years are as under.

As at 31 MarchCash AssetsOther Assets (Estimated)
 £(000)£(000)
195019,97099,713
195120,339104,741
195221,403112,495
195322,812126,782
195427,295140,310
195529,436155,478
195629,925172,770
195732,205191,494
195837,101213,686
195940,251235,249
196038,955275,917

Cash assets are made up chiefly of loan balances, reserve investments, and cash in hand. Sinking funds, which amounted to £7,052,571 at 31 March 1960, do not appear in the foregoing table, but are shown as a deduction from the gross loan indebtedness of local authorities. Other assets are composed mainly of fixed assets and of stocks of stores and materials.

Boroughs are responsible for 42.2 per cent of the total assets, electric power districts for 21.4 per cent, and harbour boards for 13.4 per cent. Counties show the comparatively low percentage of 7.3 but this is due to the fact that practically the whole of county expenditure is made on roads, bridges, etc., for which no valuation is available.

REGISTERED STOCK — The Local Authorities Amendment Act 1955 authorised local authorities to issue registered stock and nominated the Reserve Bank as Registrar. Prior to 1955 securities given by local authorities for loan moneys were in bearer form, being either debentures for a fixed term with interest coupons attached or table debentures providing for periodic repayments of principal and interest. The following table indicates the growth in this form of security. (Source: Reserve Bank of New Zealand.)

DateAmountTotal Gross Debt of Local Authorities at 31 March*Registered Stock as a Percentage of Gross Debt

*Includes hospital boards.

† Estimated.

 £(000)£(000)percent
March 195648100,8820.05
March 19576,114114,6675.34
March 195818,239132,03313.81
March 195934,342147,25923.32
March 196054,9261168,65932.64
March 196174,900187,15940.02

INDEBTEDNESS — The total gross debt of local authorities at 31 March 1960 amounted to £143,556,570, while net indebtedness (i.e., after deducting accumulated sinking funds from debentures and other securities) was £136,503,999, at face value according to country of domicile. If the amount domiciled overseas is converted to New Zealand currency, the total gross debt at 31 March 1960, at the then rate of exchange, was £143,506,870. When hospital boards were included, the total gross debt of local authorities at 31 March 1960 was £168,659,408. Hospital board loans are shown in section 5B. Since 1 April 1958 the Government has assumed complete financial responsibility for public hospital finance, apart from the raising by hospital boards of loans for major capital construction, and these must be approved by Minister of Health.

Included in the gross indebtedness figure in the previous paragraph are amounts owing by local authorities to Government Departments, and the amounts of the securities held at 31 March for the last five years are shown in the following table. The percentages to the total gross debt are given at the foot of the table.

DepartmentAs at 31 March
19561957195819591960
 £££££
New Zealand Government Insurance Office5,675,9566,200,4317,308,2248,031,3559,099,067
National Provident Fund Board13,402,68315,762,35218,161,75619,378,37321,156,241
Public Trustee2,838,8713,058,8183,477,7643,598,4853,797,827
State Advances Corporation–
    Trading7,097,5697,037,4477,184,5757,727,4378,823,082
    Housing Account980,5781,116,7691,184,1471,267,2121,390,502
    Rural Housing Act 1939338,770467,220607,276777,388951,706
Other2,274,3334,006,7963,962,0564,094,2934,551,051
Totals32,608,76037,649,83341,885,79844,874,54349,769,476
Ratio per cent to total gross indebtednesspercentper centper centper centper cent
 32.332.831.730.529.5

The outstanding loans of local authorities (other than hospital boards) at the end of each of the latest 11 years are shown in the following table.

At 31 MarchDebentures and Other SecuritiesInscribed DebtTotal Debt
Gross DebtNet Debt (i.e., Less Accumulated Sinking Funds)Gross DebtPresent Indebtedness (Actuarially Computed)Gross DebtNet Debt
£(thousand)
195056,04348,3952591256,30248,407
195155,99848,79989456,08748,803
195257,85350,38416157,86950,385
195364,42256,704564,42756,704
195473,44565,808173,44665,808
195579,32072,07579,32072,075
195687,98480,52587,98480,525
195799,08891,67099,08891,670
1958114,675107,239114,675107,239
1959127,970120,495127,970120,495
1960143,557136,504143,557136,504

Of the total net indebtedness of £136,503,999 at 31 March 1960 boroughs were responsible for £58,514,137, which represents 3.7 per cent of their rateable capital value at that date. For counties, which have a much lower expenditure per head on works, etc., the aggregate net indebtedness was £8,363,661, and the percentage of rateable capital value at 31 March 1960 only 0.7.

The following table shows, per head of the population, the gross debt of local authorities and the annual charge thereon for the latest 11 years.

At 31 MarchPopulationGross DebtAnnual Loan Charge
AmountRate per HeadAmountRate per Head
  ££s.££s.
19501,902,88356,302,06629125,287,589216
19511,938,03256,086,59628195,498,866217
19521,984,73057,869,1692935,805,138219
19532,037,55364,427,18531126,293,61232
19542,087,74073,445,5703546,996,15437
19552,130,92779,320,0543757,721,730313
19562,175,37387,983,7474098,977,54643
19572,221,16999,087,67044129,723,55748
19582,275,515114,675,19050810,811,021415
19592,326,129127,970,35355012,047,27154
19602,370,166143,556,570601113,303,765512

It should be noted that the debt of electric power districts shown in the following table does not represent the complete local authority debt on account of electric power activities, since a considerable portion of the borough debt, and a small part of the county and town district debt also, was incurred for that purpose.

At 31 MarchCounties and Road DistrictsBoroughs and Town DistrictsUrban Drainage DistrictsUrban Transport DistrictsElectric Power DistrictsHarbour BoardsOther DistrictsTotal
£(thousand)
19504,66026,4822,5901,20011,9977,7851,58856,302
19514,41926,5792,5791,03312,4627,3821,63356,087
19524,35227,5172,7041,15113,0047,4961,64557,869
19534,34730,1373,1521,64514,4228,8861,83964,427
19544,33334,2083,5712,82015,97010,3622,18173,446
19554,59636,8163,9613,08217,21310,8122,84179,320
19565,13640,2514,9333,37618,82711,6193,84287,984
19575,95044,8336,7253,74719,78913,0604,98399,088
19586,79051,5818,9884,14921,30015,6896,178114,675
19597,42955,90912,1273,90822,93017,5628,104127,970
19608,73562,21516,0923,80423,88420,0338,794143,557

The debt of road districts at 31 March 1960, which is included with that of counties, was £14,472; the town district debt at the same date was £158,114. The debt of “other districts” at 31 March 1960 was mainly that of river districts (£102,206), catchment districts (£761,680), land-drainage districts (£221,652), gas districts (£149,079), fire districts (£1,565,862), and a harbour bridge authority (£5,894,284).

Previously it was possible to classify indebtedness according to the purpose for which the loans were raised. This analysis is no longer available, the last figures of the series appearing on page 851 of the 1961 issue of the Yearbook.

Domicile of Debt — A five-year summary of the domicile of loans outstanding is given hereunder.

At 31 MarchAmountPercentage of Total
New ZealandUnited KingdomAustraliaNew ZealandUnited KingdomAustralia
 £££per centper centper cent
195684,069,8983,612,000301,84995.554.110.34
195795,340,1433,470,000277,52796.223.500.28
1958111,434,6632,963,000277,52797.182.580.24
1959125,812,7001,883,000274,65398.311.470.22
196041,975,0731,333,000248,49798.900.930.17

During 1959–60 the amount domiciled in New Zealand increased by £16,162,373, while the amount domiciled in the United Kingdom decreased by £550,000.

Debt Charges — Particulars of the annual loan charge of local authorities during each of the latest 11 years are as follows.

At 31 MarchOn Debentures and Other SecuritiesOn Inscribed DebtTotal
 £££
19505,278,3829,2075,287,589
19515,495,7683,0985,498,866
19525,804,5785605,805,138
19536,293,4421706,293,612
19546,996,118366,996,154
19557,721,7307,721,730
19568,977,5468,977,546
19579,723,5579,723,557
195810,811,02110,811,021
195912,047,27112,047,271
196013,303,76513,303,765

Amortisation charges are included in the above, the amount payable during 1960–61 on debt at 31 March 1960 being £7,055,866. Interest charges payable during 1960–61 on the debt outstanding at 31 March 1960 aggregated £6,247,899.

As the information is no longer available, it is not possible to classify loans outstanding according to country of domicile, by rates of interest, and maturity dates. The last analyses of these series appeared on page 852 of the 1961 issue of the Yearbook.

Loans Sanctioned, Authorised, Raised, and Uplifted — The following summary of the operations of the Local Authorities Loans Board during the last 11 years shows concisely the trend of local authority borrowing during that period. Hospital boards are included in this instance.

YearTotal ApplicationsSanctioned
New WorksRedemption Loans
£(thousand)
1950–5110,8259,243486
1951–5215,09313,8911,029
1952–5329,13017,854196
1953–5424,90823,983300
1954–5528,58725,819449
1955–5622,50415,462437
1956–5720,95117,23330
1957–5831,93425,800850
1958–5921,51020,538542
1959–6032,84828,973237
1960–6137,68634,649475

From statistics of borrowing, which local authorities are required to furnish quarterly, it is possible to ascertain the amount of loan authorisations granted and exercised. The next two tables show summaries of borrowing at 31 March 1961 by each class of local authority.

LOANS AUTHORISED DURING YEAR ENDED 31 MARCH 1960 — WITH AMOUNTS RAISED AND UPLIFTED TO 31 MARCH 1961
Local AuthorityAmounts Authorised*Up to 31 March 1960During Year Ended 31 March 1961Balance Unexercised at 31 March 1961
Amounts RaisedAmounts UpliftedAmounts RaisedAmounts Uplifted

*Adjusted for amounts revoked or lapsed.

† For the authorisations listed.

‡ Original amount £25,035,727.

£(thousand)
County councils1,484528483621595335
Borough councils8,7484,7844,4912,6452,8171,319
Town councils53322
Catchment boards13982755764
Electric-power and gas boards2,4771,3151,2761,012911150
Urban drainage boards7436466469797
Urban transport boards200132132525216
Harbour bridge authority5001515485485
Rabbit boards9772
Fire boards2067368404593
Harbour boards4,1851,9241,6951,8882,117374
Hospital boards6,3254,3994,1201,6421,671284
Totals25,01913,90513,0108,5438,8552,571
LOANS AUTHORISED DURING YEAR ENDED 31 MARCH 1961 WITH AMOUNTS RAISED AND UPLIFTED
Local AuthorityAmounts Authorised During Year*Amounts Raised During YearBalance Unexercised at End of YearAmounts Uplifted During Year

*Adjusted for amounts revoked or lapsed.

† For authorisations listed.

‡ Original amount £29,066,754.

£(thousand)
County councils2,2669751,291901
Borough councils11,9803,9518,0293,588
Town councils84364813
Catchment boards235112123103
Land-drainage boards14959
Electric power and gas boards2,6721,5791,0931,514
Urban drainage boards2,7451,8938521,893
Road tunnel authority3,2502,6525982,412
Harbour bridge authority424242
Rabbit boards11834
Fire boards19211775100
Harbour boards2,1509431,207768
Hospital boards3,4202,0381,3821,821
Totals29,06114,35414,70713,168

Statistics of the amounts authorised are available from the 1952–53 financial year, and the following table shows comparative debt figures.

Year Ended 31 MarchAmounts Sanctioned by Loans BoardAmounts Authorised by Orders in CouncilGross Indebtedness at Beginning of YearAmount UpliftedPrincipal RepaidGross Indebtedness at End of Year

*Estimated.

£(thousand)
195318,05010,84464,18211,6414,04371,780
195424,28312,12271,78016,6224,77983,623
195526,26823,91283,62312,8045,49390,934
195615,90018,34190,93415,0865,138100,882
195717,26319,638100,88220,3896,604114,667
195826,65025,717114,66724,4297,063132,033
195921,08025,429132,03322,6537,426147,259
196029,21025,035147,25929,9488,548168,659
196135,12329,067168,65926,7438,500*186,902*

Interest Rates — The Local Government Loans Board Amendment Act 1954 placed the determining of rates of interest in the hands of the board, subject to the approval of the Minister of Finance. In October 1955 the maximum rate was raised to 4 1/4 per cent, and a further increase to 4 3/4 per cent was made in March 1956. In June 1956 a scheme of graduated rates was introduced providing for the terms of five, eight, and 12 years the maxima of 4 5/8, 4 3/4, and 4 7/8 per cent respectively. This scheme continued until July 1957, when the rates were again altered to 4 3/4 per cent for terms of up to five years, and 5 per cent for longer periods. Consequent on the presentation by the Minister of Finance of the 1960 Budget the Loans Board determined the following revised terms for local authority borrowing: the maximum rate of interest shall be 4 7/8 per cent per annum; the maximum rate of interest for terms not exceeding five years shall be 4 5/8 per cent per annum except where any amount so borrowed is portion of a sum borrowed from a single lender and partly repayable over a period longer than five years. Following a ministerial announcement of 21 July 1961 the Local Authorities Loans Board passed a resolution on 15 August 1961 which amended the rates of interest to 4 7/8 per cent for local authority loans of one to four years duration; 5 per cent for loans of five to 10 years' duration; and 5 1/8 per cent for loans of a duration exceeding 10 years. A ministerial announcement on 22 February 1962 stated that the Local Authorities Loans Board had adopted the following pattern of interest rates: for periods under six years, 5 1/8 per cent; for periods of six and under 10 years, 5 1/4 per cent; and for periods of 10 years and over, 5 3/8 per cent.

EMPLOYMENT BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES — Employees of local authorities are principally engaged in the construction and maintenance of roads and streets, the operation and maintenance of public-utility industries (gas, electric and water supply, and transport), and community services.

In the following table particulars are given of the number of all direct wage-earning employees who were actually in the employ of the various classes of local authorities (hospital boards excluded) at 31 March of each of the five years 1956 to 1960 inclusive. Besides permanent staff, including administrative and professional employees, the statistics include part-time, casual, and temporary employees, and subsidised workers, but excludes those employed by contractors.

Local AuthorityNumber of Employees at 31 March
19561957195819591960

*As at 30 September.

County councils4,7454,8755,0725,0955,398
Borough councils12,59112,82213,52113,61013,757
Town boards1071161029691
Road boards2530272622
River boards7459474444
Catchment boards536578607622628
Land-drainage boards9796114125111
Electric power boards3,4603,6033,7373,8634,035
Water-supply board55555
Urban drainage boards430487493562527
Urban transport boards1,7611,6681,6441,5641,522
Road tunnel authority111
Local railway board1919201718
Gas boards4554565661
Milk boards3233323030
Valley authority81112
Nassella tussock boards1913224649
Joint transit-housing committee3
Harbour bridge authority1120223163
Plantation board1316161711
Underground-water authorities21
Rabbit boards1,1211,1061,0591,0481,063
Fire boards642690703702724
Harbour boards*3,3283,6113,6133,7793,835
Totals29,06429,90130,92131,35232,008

The number of staff employed in public hospitals and other institutions and activities controlled by hospital boards was as follows for each of the latest five years ended 31 March. (Source: Department of Health.)

Nature of StaffNumbers Employed
19561957195819591960
Institutional medical (whole-time and part-time)1,1941,2011,2391,2501,249
Other professional and technical1,2671,3461,4371,4911,545
Nursing8,6679,3119,7389,92810,438
Other treatment staff304308324380408
Domestic and other institutional staff7,5047,8608,1578,1898,552
Administrative staff479478500506510
District nursing150171177186199
Farm (including vegetable gardening)7583615048
Miscellaneous92181202175186
Totals19,73220,93921,83522,15523,135

Chapter 28. Section 28 INCOMES AND INCOME TAX

Table of Contents

STATISTICS OF INCOMES AND INCOME TAX — Statistics of incomes and income tax are compiled annually by the Department of Statistics. In the case of individuals, these statistics are in normal years substantially based on a 10 per cent sample, but the statistical data from and including the 1957–58 income year have been affected by the introduction of a system of PAYE income tax on 1 April 1958.

Formerly the coverage of the principal statistics commenced at an income of £375. In 1957–58, the statistics included incomes of £375 and upwards in the case of salary and wage earners and all incomes, irrespective of amount, from other sources. There was an exception in connection with incomes derived from interest. The first £12 of such incomes was exempt from income taxation, and there was no available data for interest incomes of less than this amount.

For the 1958–59 income year She statistical coverage was extended to include all salary and wage incomes; while remaining the same as in 1957–58 in respect of incomes from other sources.

Owing to the absence of returns for salary and wage incomes of less than £1,040 in 1957–58, the statistics included estimated data based on projections from previous years for such incomes.

These statistics are estimates based on a sample of returns for all incomes of less than £4,000. There is a complete enumeration of all incomes of £4,000 and over.

The use of the sampling method explains the “rounded-off” figures which are shown for the statistics in the tables which follow. In some cases this process of rounding off results in the total figure given disagreeing slightly with the aggregate of the component items.

The figures are given to the nearest 10 for numbers of assessments, etc., and to the nearest 10,000 for the amounts columns. These units were adopted to lessen the difficulties associated with the mounding off of the figures. It is not intended to imply that the estimates are regarded as having a degree of accuracy as high as the units in which the results are expressed.

CLASSES OF TAXPAYERS — “Individuals” comprise all assessments for individual persons. Partnership returns are ignored in the compilation, as the individual shares of partnership income are included in the individual tax assessments. The incomes of deceased persons' estates are not included, as the greater part of these are transferred to the assessments of the beneficiaries.

The term “companies” not only covers companies incorporated under the Companies Act and other Acts relating to the formation of companies, but also includes local and public authorities, associations (incorporated or unincorporated), and aggregations of individuals (other than partnerships) which form separate and distinct entities for income tax purposes. Government Departments which are liable to pay income tax are included, but local and public authorities are generally not taxable even in respect of their trading operations, and consequently are not included in these statistics.

Apart from the next two tables, statistics of the incomes of individuals and of companies are presented as two distinct parts of this section.

SUMMARY OF INCOMES, EXEMPTIONS, AND TAX — The following tables briefly summarise the main items of information for each of the last five income years available. Individuals and companies are given in separate tables.

INDIVIDUALS
YearNumber of ReturnsNumber of TaxpayersAssessable IncomeTotal IncomeExemptionsTaxable IncomeOrdinary Income Tax Assessed

*Includes social security income tax.

   £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
1954–55648,860576,000577,520594,640343,500234,01046,740
1955–56663,500606,810604,570621,350354,440250,12051,590
1956–57688,620131,990657,770676,180371,220286,56032,250
1957–58814,450702,750723,930417,660311,240
1958–591,057,170958,310760,250778,590288,760234,850114,880*
COMPANIES
YearNumber of ReturnsNumber of TaxpayersAssessable Income*Returnable IncomeTaxable Income*Income Tax Assessed
OrdinarySocial Security

*Assessable income and taxable income are identical, as “exemptions” are normally nil.

   £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
1954–5524,12919,598107,786113,856107,78641,3827,834
1955–5625,94920,865105,254112,730105,25440,0597,630
1956–5728,45022,522110,024117,701110,02441,5757,982
1957–5831,10824,005117,784124,420117,78443,9438,404
1958–5933,26125,252122,625128,290122,62545,8548,755

A strict comparison of the figures for one year with those of another is not possible, as changes in compilation practice and numerous amendments in income tax law have affected the comparability of the figures.

Two events which had major repercussions on the number of taxpayers and the amounts of tax paid by individuals were the granting of a rebate of £100 from the gross tax assessed in 1956–57 and the remission of tax on 1957–58 incomes as a result of the introduction of the PAYE system on 1 April 1958. The 1958–59 tax assessed figure for individuals is not comparable with figures for earlier years as it includes social security income tax.

Nearly all individuals are now recorded as taxpayers since the special exemptions do not apply to the social security component of the combined income tax. The exemptions and taxable incomes data for 1958–59 are also on a different basis from the figures given for earlier years. The figures for individuals in 1958–59 refer only to those cases where an annual return of income was furnished and an assessment of tax made. Where returns were not furnished, as is the case of salary and wage earners with incomes of less than £1,040 who did not claim refunds of PAYE tax deductions, there is no information available about the total annual amounts of exemptions and taxable income. The 1958–59 figure for assessable income does not include assessable dividends.

AMOUNT OF INCOME — The broad principle adopted in calculating the assessable income is that any expenditure or loss exclusively incurred in the production of assessable income for any year may be deducted from the total income from any assessable source for that year. Depreciation is allowed, varying rates for different classes of assets being fixed. The assessable income is approximately equivalent to the net profit as determined by the normal commercial accounting systems. It is, on the whole, rather higher than the commercial net profit, since certain types of expenditure which are regarded as a revenue charge in commercial accounts are not permissible deductions from income for income tax purposes.

Where the operations of a source of income which would be assessable for income tax have resulted in a loss for the year, the loss may be set off against assessable profits from other sources (if any) or, in default thereof, may be set off against assessable profits in the six following years.

Capital profits are not assessable and capital losses are not deductible.

In these statistics the incomes given for individuals are the net incomes after deducting losses from the same source which have been carried forward from previous years. Losses for the current year which have been set off against income from some other source are recorded in the tables in this volume as the difference between the total of the component income items and the given total income.

For companies, incomes before deduction of losses carried forward from previous years are shown in a separate column and the assessable and returnable incomes given are those after the deduction of such losses. Losses during the current year from any source are deducted from the income from any other source.

INCOMES OF INDIVIDUALS: PROVISIONAL ESTIMATES — The data required for this statistical compilation do not become available for a lengthy period after the end of the income year. This, coupled with the necessary time taken by the statistical processing, means an unduly long time lag before the first results of the compilation are available.

In an endeavour to have the most important data available at an earlier date, a small sample of returns is selected from those which are furnished within a short period after the close of the income year. Each case included in the sample shows the income for the recently completed income year and the two previous income years. The income trends disclosed by this sample are applied to the statistical data of the normal sample collection which are then available for the first of the three income years in question.

The income distributions for the first income year shown in returns for the provisional estimates are compared with the income distributions for the final estimates for the same year, and allowances are made for over and under representation in the sample: for provisional estimates. Industrial and occupational representations are similarly compared and corrected. Despite these representation corrections and allowances, the trends shown by the sample may be incorrect. For example, the early closing date means that business returns with balance dates later than March are not included in the sample. But for otherwise identical business units one with a December balance date may have a very different net income to one with a June balance date.

Past experience has shown that provisional estimates similar to those given in the following tables have normally been sufficiently accurate for most practical uses. However, it is emphasised that the data in the provisional estimates are definitely provisional and are liable to be revised substantially at a later date.

Although figures for three income years are given to afford a convenient comparison of the results for each year, only the two later years have been estimated from the restricted sample. The income refers to the “total” income.

The next table gives data for the principal sources of incomes of individuals.

Source of Total IncomeIncome Years
1958–591959–601960–61
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
  £(m) £(m) £(m)
Sheep farming22,33035.522,60041.622,90044.4
Dairy farming31,79034.532,00037.631,90039.6
Other farming25,53029.726,20034.826,00035.9
Totals79,65099.780,800114.080,800119.9
Manufacturing5,5105.95,6006.75,6007.2
Construction13,72014.613,90015.614,00017.1
Commerce16,79018.216,90020.017,10022.1
Transport5,0705.65,1006.15,2006.4
Services–      
   Professional8,64018.38,30020.18,40021.5
   Other9,7907.99,7008.49,9008.9
Miscellaneous (forestry mining, etc.)4,0603.63,7003.43,8003.7
Totals143,240173.8144,100194.3144,800206.8
Salary and wages592,180521.3611,900562.0634,700606.5
Investment income97,84030.799,90031.6101,60033.2
Totals833,270725.8855,900787.9881,100846.5
NOTE — Salary and wages earners under £375 are not included in salary and wages figures.

It will be noticed that the 1959–60 incomes of self employed persons are substantially higher than those for 1958–59. Lower wool prices caused farming incomes to drop sharply in 1958–59 and the 1959–60 result represented an incomplete recovery to the 1957–58 level. Economic conditions were generally less buoyant in 1958–59 and the incomes of other self-employed persons also fell although not to the same extent as farming incomes. The incomes of self-employed persons rose again in 1959–60 and 1960–61.

The following table shows an analysis by the amount of total income for the three major sources (self-employed, salary and wages, and investment incomes) combined.

ALL SOURCES
Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1958–591959–601960–61
 Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
£    £ £(m) £(m) £(m)
Losses2,9701,8001,500
0- 9952,6801.752,1001.651,7001.6
100- 19916,3402.417,4002.615,3002.2
200- 29912,9303.212,3003.114,4003.5
300- 3749,7003.39,0003.18,5002.9
375- 39918,3607.116,8006.515,5006.0
400- 49974,30033.366,60029.958,50026.3
500- 59967,49037.165,10035.859,30032.6
600- 69979,11051.566,70043.465,30042.5
700- 79993,80070.582,20061.781,20060.9
800- 89993,53079.4101,40085.496,40081.9
900- 99974,99071.187,30082.792,30087.7
1,000–1,199105,120114.3121,600132.7141,100153.9
1,200–1,39947,33060.953,30068.865,50084.7
1,400–1,59924,15036.028,70042.832,90049.1
1,600–1,79914,79025.117,80030.120,00033.8
1,800–1,99910,19019.311,30021.512,10023.0
2,000–2,99923,34056.128,40068.031,00074.3
3,000–3,9997,26024.99,50032.010,60035.8
4,000–4,9992,37910.63,00013.53,70016.3
5,000 and over2,51818.03,60022.64,30027.5
Totals833,270725.8855,900787.9881,100846.5
NOTE–The income groups under £375 do not include figures for salary and wage earners.

The £900– £999 income group is the turning point in the above table, below that group the 1960–61 incomes generally fell in numbers, with of course the consequential increase in the numbers from £900 upwards. Four-figure incomes are increasing rapidly. In the period covered by the table, the earners of incomes of £1,000 and over rose from 28.5 per cent of the total numbers included in 1958–59 to 36.5 per cent in 1960–61. In 1960–61 58.9 per cent of the total amount of income was earned by the £1,000 and over group.

The next table provides an analysis of the incomes of self-employed individuals by the amount of total income.

SELF EMPLOYED
Amount of Total IncomeIncome Year
1958–591959–601960–61
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
£    £ £(m) £(m) £(m)
Losses2,2001,1001,000
0- 994,6700.24,6000.24,2000.2
100- 1993,9800.63,5000.53,3000.5
200- 2995,0801.34,3001.13,9001.0
300- 3996,5702.35,6001.94,7001.7
400- 4996,9603.16,5002.95,6002.5
500- 5998,1204.47,2004.06,5003.6
600- 6998,6405.67,3004.86,8004.4
700- 7999,3807.08,4006.37,9005.9
800- 8998,6307.38,3007.08,0006.8
900- 9998,1607.78,2007.87,8007.4
1,000–1,19915,50017.015,40017.016,20017.8
1,200–1,39912,16015.712,40016.113,30017.3
1,400–1,5999,20013.810,20015.310,90016.4
1,600–1,7997,12012.18,00013.68,70014.8
1,800–1,9995,71010.85,60010.75,80011.0
2,000–2,99913,64032.916,90040.617,90042.8
3,000–3,9994,64015.96,40021.67,00023.9
4,000-4,9991,5706.92,1009.32,60011.5
5,000 and over1,3149.02,1009.32,60011.5
Totals143,240173.8144,100194.3144,800206.8

These estimates provide for only comparatively small increases in the numbers for some of the sources of income in the above table. The principal reason is that in recent years the numbers of companies have risen substantially, with corresponding deductions from the numbers of individuals operating as sole traders or as partnerships.

This practice of changing to company ownership has reached dimensions which are large enough to have some effect on the income trends disclosed in these statistics of individuals. There is a greater tendency for the higher income units to adopt company ownership.

Sheep farmers are heavily represented in the top income groups, particularly the £5,000 and over group. The rises in the numbers in this income group in 1959–60 and 1960–61 are mainly due to a recovery of sheep farmers' incomes from a severely reduced level in 1958–59.

The incomes of salary and wage earners are given in the following table.

SALARY AND WAGES
Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1958–591959–601960–61
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
£    £ £(m) £(m) £(m)
375- 39915,4106.014,0005.412,8005.0
400- 49962,61028.155,20024.847,80021.5
500- 59955,97030.854,30029.849,00026.9
600- 69967,79044.256,70036.955,70036.2
700- 79982,43062.071,70053.871,10053.4
800- 89983,32070.891,50077.786,60073.6
900- 99965,82062.478,00073.883,50079.3
1,000–1,19987,65095.2104,100113.4122,700133.7
1,200–1,39933,86043.539,60051.050,80065.5
1,400–1,59914,03020.917,50026.021,00031.3
1,600–1,7996,97011.89,10015.310,50017.7
1,800–1,9993,9807.55,2009.85,80011.0
2,000–2,9998,48020.310,30024.711,90028.6
3,000–3,9992,2007.52,7008.93,10010.3
4,000–4,9996713.08003.51,0004.1
5,000 and over9937.31,2007.21,4008.4
Totals592,180521.3611,900562.0634,700606.5

The estimates which were made covered salary and wage incomes of £375 and over only. The income coverage of the principal collection of data was extended below £375 for the first time in 1958–59 in the case of salary and wage incomes. Therefore there has not been sufficient experience of the trends in such incomes to make projections for the 1959–60 and 1960–61 incomes with a reasonable degree of confidence.

The next table gives corresponding data for individuals whose incomes were principally derived from interest, rents and royalties, “estate” income, and also company dividends if there was no other major source of income.

INVESTMENT INCOMES
Amount of Total IncomeIncome
1958–591959–601960–61
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
£    £ £(m) £(m) £(m)
Losses770650550
0- 9948,0101.447,5001.447,5001.5
100- 19912,3601.813,8702.012,0501.8
200- 2997,8501.98,0502.010,4502.5
300- 3996,0802.16,2502.26,4502.2
400- 4994,7302.14,9002.25,0502.3
500- 5993,4001.93,6002.03,8002.1
600- 6992,6701.72,6501.72,7501.8
700- 7991,9901.52,1001.62,2001.6
800- 8991,5701.31,6301.41,7101.5
900- 9991,0201.01,0601.01,1001.0
1,000–1,1991,9702.22,1002.32,2002.4
1,200–1,3991,3101.71,3501.71,4001.8
1,400–1,5999201.49501.49801.5
1,600–1,7997001.27201.27401.3
1,800–1,9995001.05201.05401.0
2,000–2,9991,2202.91,1502.71,2502.9
3,000–3,9994201.44401.54601.5
4,000–4,9991380.61400.61500.6
5,000 and over2111.62301.72501.9
Totals97,84030.799,86031.6101,58033.2

Approximately one half of the total number of individuals so classed have incomes of less than £100. The majority of these have a small income from interest on savings bank deposits. The first £12 of interest income is exempted from taxation and a large proportion of persons included in this table have incomes £12 larger than that shown. This applies also to higher income groups but in that case the exempted amount is a much smaller proportion of the total income.

The previous table completes the data coming under the heading of provisional estimates. The further data which are given in the following pages are based, in the case of individuals, on the normal 10 per cent sample collection and the results are not provisional.

NUMBERS OF RETURNS AND AMOUNTS OF INCOME — The numbers of returns and the amounts of total income for 1958–59 and the two previous years are shown in the table hereunder.

The term “total income” corresponds in concept with the “returnable income” which was used in earlier Yearbooks. Total income is used in the sense that it is the total of the various component items of income. It does not include income which is exempt from taxation, such as social security benefits (other than universal superannuation), the first £12 of income from interest, war pensions, workers compensation payments, and certain other types of income.

Amount of Total IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
1956–571957–581958–591956–571957–581958–59
£    £   £(000)£(000)£(000)
Losses..1,4003,480
0- 99..63,250147,860..1,9505,380
100- 199..16,43057,480..2,3208,290
200- 299..10,01054,450..2,42013,720
300- 374..7,68055,250..2,56018,610
375- 39913,92011,86018,3605,3604,6107,100
400- 49967,36066,16074,30030,19029,81033,330
500- 59967,21070,65067,49036,93038,75037,070
600- 69983,48082,49079,11054,32053,64051,530
700- 79998,96091,23093,80074,16068,38070,550
800- 89990,35091,15093,53076,56077,02079,400
900- 99967,52074,05074,99063,94070,06071,150
1,000- 1,19981,74097,370105,12088,630105,170114,320
1,200- 1,39936,68044,35047,33047,16057,04060,940
1,400- 1,59920,51023,32024,15030,55034,80036,040
1,600- 1,79913,24013,83014,79022,40023,36025,070
1,800- 1,9999,0109,40010,19017,04017,76019,320
2,000- 2,99923,03023,79023,34055,23057,35056,130
3,000- 3,9998,6408,5407,26029,51029,18024,910
4,000- 4,9993,2003,1052,37914,22913,83110,552
5,000- 5,9991,5771,7881,1578,5819,7396,278
6,000- 6,9998169095485,2645,8623,525
7,000- 7,9994365042793,2523,7542,077
8,000- 8,9992363201651,9932,7061,393
9,000- 9,9991622191191,5342,0781,128
10,000–19,9994575392185,8956,9002,699
20,000–29,9995671221,3461,712524
30,000–39,999191610662565378
40,000–49,99953219131
50,000 and over1581,229467
Not known 17,180
Totals688,620814,4501,057,170676,180723,930778,590

There is an explanation on an earlier page concerning the extent of the increased coverage and the methods adopted to estimate the figures given in the table. As far as incomes of under £375 are concerned, the annual figures in the preceding table are not comparable. The 1957–58 data include incomes of under £375 from all sources except salary and wages. Salary and wage incomes have been added in the 1958–59 figures.

Where salary and wage income returns were not available for 1958–59 (and there is no obligation to furnish returns if the income is from salary and wages only and is less than £1,040), the statistical information was derived from the tax deduction certificates. Excluding students working in school holidays and after school hours and other part-time and part-period workers, there were cases where the certificates which could be associated with the same person did not apparently account for the full period of employment during the year. There are many reasons why this may occur. For example it happens in cases of persons arriving in or departing from New Zealand, retiring or dying during the year, lengthy absences from employment through sickness or extended holidays, and so on. Some proportion would be due to the fact that all the tax code certificates for the same person could not be associated because of variations in the information given. A single woman may after marriage obtain fresh employment, or William John Nameless in one employment is recorded as John Nameless in another. Pending the investigation into all cases where the full period of employment was apparently incomplete all such incomes have been included in a “not known” group in this and other relevant tables. The numbers have not been shown, as the actual number of persons is not known.

There were 710,760 males and 346,410 females included in the 1958–59 income year statistics. The respective numbers of these for each total income group appear in the next table, which also gives comparisons with the two immediately preceding years.

Amount of Total Income1956–571957–581958–59
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
£    £
Losses8405502,570910
0- 99  12,79050,46050,75097,110
100- 199  5,48010,94018,17039,310
200- 299  4,2905,72019,08035,370
300- 374  3,7303,95020,00035,250
375- 3995,3208,6004,3007,5606,73011,630
400- 49928,48038,88027,66038,50029,93044,370
500- 59939,31027,90039,93030,72036,75030,740
600- 69967,90015,58064,49018,00059,51019,600
700- 79991,0907,87082,5908,64083,10010,700
800- 89986,0104,34086,2204,92087,1106,410
900- 99964,8002,72071,2902,77071,4103,580
1,000- 1,19978,1403,60093,2004,170100,5704,550
1,200- 1,39934,8601,82041,8902,46044,8302,500
1,400- 1,59919,3401,17022,0301,30022,8501,300
1,600- 1,79912,50074013,04079014,030770
1,800- 1,9998,4605508,9105009,740450
2,000- 2,99921,7301,30022,4301,37022,1401,200
3,000- 3,9998,1105308,0804606,920350
4,000- 4,9992,9872132,9101952,240139
5,000- 5,9991,480971,6841041,08275
6,000- 6,999751658525751533
7,000- 7,999400364782625722
8,000- 8,999214222982215411
9,000- 9,999149132001910712
10,000–19,999409484954419622
20,000–29,99949764722
30,000–39,999191610 
40,000–49,99953
50,000 and over158
Totals572,520116,100620,200194,250710,760346,410

As has been previously mentioned, the data for incomes of under £375 are not comparable and this to some extent distorts the picture. The preponderance of females in the lower income groups is very evident. By far the largest number of females in any one income group appeared in the £0– £99 total income class. A large proportion of these females received a small income from interest earned. It should be remembered that in such cases the true income range was from £13 to £112 as the first £12 of interest was exempted. Males exceeded females from the income group £500– £599 upwards. For males, the modal £100 range income group shifted from £700– £799 in 1956–57 to £800– £899 in 1957–58, and remained in that group in 1958–59.

Broad trends in total income movements over the three latest available income years appear in the percentages which are given in the following table.

Amount of Total IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
1956–571957–581958–591956–571957–581958–59
£    £Per Cent
375- 59921.5620.7721.6812.0310.7210.84
600- 99949.4247.3646.2343.3039.7838.10
1,000–1,99923.4126.3127.2927.4830.4335.74
2,000–4,9995.064.954.4613.2114.6412.80
5,000 and over0.550.610.343.984.432.52
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

Incomes of £1,000 upwards have been expanding rapidly in recent years as more and more salary and wage earners passed the £1,000 milestone. There was, however, only a relatively small percentage increase in this group in 1958–59. This is partly accounted for by the fact that the higher income ranges of self-employed persons moved downwards instead of upwards in numbers.

Self-employed individuals predominate in income groups from £1,600 upwards. The main subdivision into incomes derived principally from self-employment, from investments, and from salary and wages by amount of total income forms the subject of the next table, which relates to the income year 1958–59.

Amount of Total IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
Self-employedInvestmentsSalary and Wage EarnersSelf-employedInvestmentsSalary and Wage Earners
£    £Pert Cent
375- 59913.6039.4322.624.8418.7612.43
600- 99928.4630.0050.5516.2822.9245.93
1,000–1,99940.6322.3424.7440.7630.7434.33
2,000–4,99916.237.361.9232.8120.825.90
5,000 and over1.080.870.175.316.761.41
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

Only 2 per cent of salary and wage earners received £2,000 or over, compared with 17 per cent for self-employed individuals and 8 per cent for those with incomes principally derived from investments. The percentages in the above table related to individuals who were so classified because they obtained the largest part of their assessable income from that source. They did not refer to amounts of income actually derived from those sources.

The 1958–59 data relating to the major source of income are given in the next table.

Source of IncomeNumber of ReturnsTaxed at SourceNot Taxed at SourceNon-AssessableTotal
Self-employedOther
  £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
Self-employment143,2404,060162,5505,3001,980173,850
Investments97,8401,12070024,1804,98030,740
Salary and wages816,090538,3404,48020,39011,380574,000
Totals1,057,170543,520167,73049,87018,340778,590

As the terms used in this table were adopted as a consequence of the introduction of PAYE taxation, the meanings attached to them are:

Income Taxed at Source — This is essentially salary and wages, including bonuses, taxable allowances, and the like. Also included are withholding payments, which are substantially salary and wage payments made in circumstances where no true employer-employee relationship exists (e.g., company directors' fees, fees for contributions to newspapers, jurors' fees) and some “estate” income.

Income Not Taxed at Source — The principal component is income derived from self-employment, which is given separately in the table. Subdivisions of “other” such income for which statistics are available were net rents and royalties (total £7,290,000, estate income £8,520,000) and social security universal superannuation (total £4,830,000). The balance is mainly income from interest, but it includes salaries of shareholder-employees of companies. In certain circumstances, such salaries are not subject to tax deduction at source.

Non-assessable Income — Primarily this is either overseas income or dividends from companies. The latter are now generally assessable income, but the former classification was retained in the 1958–59 statistics.

As has been previously mentioned, in the preceding table, as in the other statistical tables relating to individuals, the aggregate of the component income items may be greater than the given totals. This is due to the fact that “losses” for particular income sources are deducted in order to arrive at the total income. Negative incomes are, however, ignored in the totalling of incomes from any particular source.

These same 1958–59 data about sources of income are in the following table analysed by amount of total income.

Amount of Total IncomeNumber of ReturnsTaxed at SourceNot Taxed at SourceNon-AssessableTotalIncome Tax Assessed
Self-EmployedOther
£      £ £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
Losses3,4801409020
0- 99147,8603,7702001,430505,380220
100- 19957,4805,9005801,7501208,290350
200- 29954,45010,4201,2101,97016013,720710
300- 37455,25015,1601,6201,64022018,6101,190
375- 39918,3605,890580580607,100520
400- 49974,30027,6103,0002,45033033,3302,900
500- 59967,49029,9704,2802,49037037,0703,810
600- 69979,11043,3205,4802,41037051,5305,680
700- 79993,80060,9706,8502,35043070,5507,860
800- 89993,53069,3107,3602,21056079,4009,450
900- 99974,99061,1707,6901,95035071,1508,800
1,000- 1,199105,12092,42016,7904,220960114,32015,630
1,200- 1,39947,33040,99015,5103,47099060,9409,470
1,400- 1,59924,15018,97013,4302,75090036,0406,120
1,600- 1,79914,79010,18011,8102,11097025,0704,530
1,800- 1,99910,1906,27010,3901,86080019,3203,790
2,000- 2,99923,34014,93031,3606,5003,36056,13013,130
3,000- 3,9997,2604,53014,7603,2502,39024,9107,430
4,000- 4,9992,3791,4446,4471,5081,16010,5523,747
5,000- 5,9991,1571,1663,1249691,0276,2782,437
6,000- 6,9995486161,7664926553,5251,457
7,000- 7,9992793139693674332,077900
8,000- 8,9991652216672122981,393621
9,000- 9,9991191745071972541,128516
10,000–19,9992183881,1294567352,6991,242
20,000–29,999228011198234524246
30,000 and over102811795140378184
Not known17,18017,1801,940
Totals1,057,170543,520167,73049,87018,340778,590114,880

An interesting feature is that non-assessable income is heavily concentrated in the hands of individuals who had incomes of £2,000 or more. They received 58.3 per cent of the total non-assessable income. In 1957–58, the corresponding percentage was 71.0, but the total non-assessable income in that year was £21,180,000. Company dividends (and it should be remembered that these have been retained under the heading of non-assessable income in the 1958–59 statistics) were unusually high in 1957–58. This was evidently due to the approaching change in 1958–59 when company dividends became assessable income. It is therefore a not unexpected result that, in the bracket of £2,000 and over, the drop in the non-assessable income component exceeds the amount of the fall in the total of non-assessable income.

Industrial Classification of Incomes — Incomes of individuals who were classified as mainly deriving income from self-employment in 1958–59 are in the next table analysed by industrial affiliation. For the sake of completeness, the table also includes the totals for salary and wage earners and for individuals deriving income from investments, but there is no information available concerning the industrial classification of these two classes of individuals.

IndustryNumber of ReturnsTaxed at SourceNot Taxed at SourceNon-AssessableTotalIncome Tax Assessed
Self-employedOther
  £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
Agricultural and livestock production–
    Sheep farming22,33062032,7801,57057035,5308,580
    Dairy farming31,79069032,78090012034,4805,720
    Other25,53067027,78096025029,6505,670
Totals79,6501,98093,3503,43093099,66019,970
Forestry, hunting, and fishing2,6301201,29020101,440240
Mining and quarrying3104301045090
Manufacturing–
    Food, drink, and tobacco720209004010960200
    Apparel, textiles, and footwear1,320309002030980180
    Metals and metal products1,560401,77030101,860360
    Other1,910602,01040202,140380
Construction13,72035014,0502204014,6502,370
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services
Commerce–
    Wholesale and retail trade16,79046016,88055028018,1603,320
    Other1,120601,470130701,720410
Transport, storage, and communication5,0701605,31080205,570900
Services, community–
    Professional8,64049016,84052049018,3405,060
    Other9,7902807,370210707,9201,280
Totals143,2404,060162,5505,3001,980173,85034,760
Salary and wages816,090538,3404,48020,39011,380574,00075,940
Investment income97,8401,12070024,1804,98030,7404,180
Grand totals1,057,170543,520167,73049,87018,340778,590114,880

As the table gives the amounts received from each major source of income, it will be appreciated at the classification is based on the source of the largest component item of total income. The United Nations' “enterprise” concept has been adopted for classification purposes. Under this concept, if an individual receives income from two or more of the separately classifiable industries, the whole of the income is classed as if derived from the industry which provided the largest amount of income, and no attempt is made to allocate the component portions of the income to the different industries from which derived. These statistics are therefore not exactly comparable with most other types of statistics where the “establishment” concept is generally used. This provides for the subdivision of the “enterprise” where more than one separately classifiable industry is carried on and each subdivision is then appropriately classified.

The 1958–59 data includes incomes for which statistical information was not previously available. These were incomes from which withholding tax was deducted at source on payments made mainly to whitebait fishermen and opossum trappers. The incomes were normally very small amounts but the numbers were substantial. It was considered that a proportion of these incomes should have been included elsewhere, and a rather arbitrary reduction of the numbers involved was made in recognition of this factor.

Exemptions — In the case of individuals certain statutory deductions are made from the assessable income, and income tax is paid on the balance. Absentees are not usually entitled to the benefit of exemptions other than the personal exemption. These exemptions were:

  1. A personal exemption of £338 (or £383 if 65 years of age or over).

  2. An exemption of £162 in respect of a dependent wife (or husband) whose personal income did not exceed £113. The exemption was diminished by £1 for every £1 of the wife's income in excess of £113.

  3. An exemption not exceeding £162 in respect of a housekeeper employed by a widow, widower, or divorced person to have the care and control of any child or children. This is included with the wife's exemption in the statistics.

  4. An exemption for contributions not exceeding £75 towards the support of a relative by blood, marriage, or adoption, who was dependent on the taxpayer. Children of the taxpayer were included in this definition.

  5. Life assurance premiums, National Provident Fund, superannuation, and similar contributions. An exemption was allowed up to a maximum of 15 per cent of assessable income or £175, whichever amount was the lesser. The maximum was increased to £250 where contributions to superannuation funds for self-employed persons were included. A notional exemption of £25 applied in all cases where the total income was under £1,040.

The exemptions given above have since been substantially altered. Details of the later exemptions are given in Section 26B.

In earlier years the amounts of exemptions recorded in these statistics were the effective exemptions. In cases when the exemptions exceeded the assessable income the potentially available exemptions were reduced accordingly. The next table which shows the amounts of the insurance, total and excess exemptions for the income year 1958–59, classified by size of total income, departs from the former procedure. Potential exemptions have been recorded and the “excess” column gives the amounts by which the exemptions exceed the assessable income (excluding from that term company dividends, which are now assessable income). The amounts of taxable income are also given in the table.

Amount of Total IncomeExemptionsTaxable Income
InsuranceTotalExcess
£      ££(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
Losses1301,8301,830
0- 991,42021,18019,260
100- 19964010,0706,480
200- 2995508,6503,590
300- 3995909,4302,09090
400- 4996109,7601,2001,100
500- 59978012,0008803,070
600- 69998014,3105905,590
700- 7991,25018,2404208,690
800- 8991,41019,34027011,160
900- 9991,46018,6707011,990
1,000–1,1994,03058,1208043,480
1,200–1,3992,51030,1606029,850
1,400–1,5991,56015,6403019,540
1,600–1,7991,16010,0103014,120
1,800–1,9998506,9202011,610
2,000–2,9992,30015,9505036,860
3,000–3,9998705,1103017,430
4,000–4,9993171,66947,727
5,000 and over3291,7071212,533
Totals23,740288,76037,000234,850

The preceding figures include only the exemptions and taxable incomes for the 539,440 assessments of income which have been incorporated in these statistics. Where income and tax data were derived from tax deduction certificates, there is no information available concerning the amounts of exemptions or taxable income.

COMPANY INCOMES — It is perhaps desirable to draw attention to the fact that the term “companies” as it is used in connection with these statistics has been given a wider meaning than that which is commonly assigned to it. A definition of the term will be found on page 842.

The New Zealand Electricity Department was exempted from income taxation as from the income year 1957–58. The exclusion of this Government Department from the statistics has appreciably affected comparisons between 1957–58 and earlier years in a number of the statistical tables in this section.

The various statutory exemptions which are granted to individuals do not apply in the case of companies. The amounts of assessable income and taxable income are identical in the case of companies.

With the exceptions of the table which gives provisional estimates of assessable incomes for 1959–60 and 1960–61 and also the “assets” data which appear at the end of this section, these statistics for companies have been compiled from returns for all companies, and are not estimates based on a sample survey.

The following table gives particulars of the number of companies and their aggregate assessable incomes for 1958–59 and the two preceding income years.

Amount of Assessable IncomeNumber of ReturnAssessable Income
1956–571957–581958–591956–571957–581958–59
£        £   £(000)£(000)£(000)
0- 992,8323,4483,62292115114
100- 1991,4791,5741,708217227251
200- 2991,2331,3511,468304334363
300- 3991,0921,1981,323381417462
400- 4991,0151,0531,176456472527
500- 5991,0011,0301,059547563579
600- 699902929941584603611
700- 799801826874600618655
800- 899764727805648616682
900- 999584583705554552669
1,000- 1,9994,1504,2274,5245,9346,0906,463
2,000- 2,9991,9892,0532,1024,8635,0165,141
3,000- 3,9991,1191,2271,1763,8544,2434,064
4,000- 4,9996877356573,0713,2792,934
5,000- 5,9994684884902,5642,6712,689
6,000- 6,9993103243611,9962,1022,341
7,000- 7,9992272642701,6921,9722,027
8,000- 8,9991822322031,5421,9671,717
9,000- 9,9991511441571,4331,3671,495
10,000- 19,99978579578810,77311,00310,932
20,000- 29,9992552622696,2526,3756,595
30,000- 39,9991251241234,3014,2914,234
40,000- 49,9996683702,9603,7393,143
50,000- 99,99916315920511,58610,89814,080
100,000–199,99971849510,35111,59013,227
200,000–299,9992738346,4348,9898,413
300,000–399,9991114173,8624,7376,044
400,000–499,9991111115,0074,8464,943
500,000 and over19211917,16818,09417,229
Current net loss4,6405,5906,013.........
Assessable income before losses1,2911,5141,996.........
Totals28,45031,10833,261110,024117,784122,625

The provisional estimates of assessable income, in the next table, are calculations based on the income trends revealed by a small sample of returns. The sample is confined to those income returns which are available at an early date. Companies with balance dates later than 30 June would be almost completely unrepresented in the sample.

The estimates are given with the warning that the figures are subject to a possible considerable margin of error and should therefore be used with caution.

Industry Group1958–591959–601960–61
Number of ReturnsAssessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income
  £(m) £(m) £(m)
Agriculture and livestock production2,1362.52,4503.52,7003.9
Manufacturing6,76344.47,17550.07,52561.2
Construction2,6255.62,8506.33,0507.0
Commerce–
    Wholesale and retail trade11,62643.012,47544.813,17549.4
    Other5,35017.95,95018.26,45021.7
Transport, storage, and communication1,6253.81,7255.21,8005.5
Services, community2,6594.32,9254.93,1505.5
Miscellaneous4771.15001.45001.4
Totals33,261122.636,050134.338,350155.6

According to these estimates, company incomes increased by £12,000,000 in 1959–60, and again by £21,000,000 in 1960–61. The latter is by a substantial margin the largest increase experienced in these incomes. In 1959–60, incomes from agriculture and livestock production headed the list of percentage increases over the previous year's income. The basic cause of this was the recovery in wool prices for the 1959–60 income year. The manufacturing group accounted for about one-half of the total income increase in both 1959–60 and 1960–61. The greater restrictions on imports which were brought into force in 1959 would no doubt have been one of the major factors which caused the rise in these incomes.

In the following table, which is classified by the amount of assessable income, more complete data for the 1958–59 income year only are presented.

Amount of Assessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income Before Losses*Assessable IncomeReturnable IncomeCurrent Net LossIncome Tax Assessed
OrdinarySocial Security

*This column represents assessable income plus losses which have been carried forward from previous years.

£        ££(thousand)
0- 993,6222101141,391298
100- 1991,7083092513193318
200- 2991,4684153633984927
300- 3991,3235094625606534
400- 4991,1765645275487639
500- 5991,0596095796058743
600- 699941630611645249545
700- 79987467065573410449
800- 8998056996827281611051
900- 9997057016696906711150
1,000- 1,9994,5246,5886,4636,904591,228482
2,000- 2,9992,1025,2295,1415,2641,193383
3,000- 3,9991,1764,0824,0644,1511,109304
4,000- 4,9996572,9552,9342,987928219
5,000- 5,9994902,7112,6892,727965201
6,000- 6,9993612,3742,3412,411925173
7,000- 7,9992702,0332,0272,115857152
8,000- 8,9992031,7251,7171,727731129
9,000- 9,9991571,4971,4951,539639112
10,000- 19,99978811,00210,93211,2694,652814
20,000- 29,9992696,7556,5956,9112,795491
30,000- 39,9991234,2474,2344,4431,796314
40,000- 49,999703,2293,1433,2521,335236
50,000- 99,99920514,09614,08014,4285,9581,046
100,000–199,9999513,23313,22713,597505,575974
200,000–299,999348,4138,4138,5583,525611
300,000–399,999176,0446,0446,1692,490425
400,000–499,999114,9434,9435,0741,994336
500,000 and over1917,22917,22917,9316,400992
Net loss6,0131666,402
Assessable income before losses1,9962,11849
Totals — 1958–5933,261125,820122,625128,2906,61845,8548,755
1957–5831,108120,359117,784124,4207,17743,9438,404
1956–5728,450111,992110,024117,7016,75741,5757,982

The item “assessable income before losses”, which appears in the preceding table and also in subsequent tables, requires a little further explanation. Companies, and also individuals, are permitted to offset losses from one particular source of assessable income against the profits from any other source of assessable income during the same income year. The remainder of the loss, if any, can be carried forward and offset against the assessable profits of the next six income years. This item represents the number of companies whose assessable incomes for the current year have been reduced to “nil” by the offsetting of losses incurred in previous income years.

There was a small increase from 168 in. 1957–58 to 176 in the later year in the number of companies with assessable incomes of £100,000 and over. Numbers in the next lower income group (£50,000 to £99,999) however showed a significant rise from 159 in 1957–58 to 205 in 1958–59. Cases where a net loss was reported were respectively 6,013, 5,590, and 4,640 for 1958–59 and the two previous income years.

Companies are classified by industry, the classification being identical with that used for individuals, with the minor exception that community services — professional — do not form a separate group. Attention is drawn to the remarks on page 853 regarding the difference between the enterprise and the establishment concepts. These statistics are based on the enterprise concept, i.e., the whole of the company's activities are classified according to the predominant activity. The figures in the next table give the results of this classification for the income year 1958–59.

Industry GroupNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income Before Losses*Assessable IncomeReturnable IncomeCurrent Net LossIncome Tax Assessed
OrdinarySocial Security

*This column represents assessable income plus losses which have been carried forward from previous years.

£(thousand)
Agriculture and livestock production2,1362,7312,5222,564629751189
Forestry, hunting, and fishing143289265276349319
Mining and quarrying26466861061338721946
Manufacturing–       
    Food, beverages, and tobacco94411,40311,23811,5827764,657843
    Textiles, wearing apparel, and made-up textiles8975,5035,2795,3851642,111395
    Metals and metal products2,3168,2888,0858,2294703,033604
    Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)2,60620,37219,81620,1196987,9841,481
Construction2,6255,8665,6295,6756041,951422
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services19214212212258816
Commerce–
    Wholesale and retail11,62643,97443,02943,9471,51416,4823,221
    Other5,35018,20417,88621,3006045,607921
Transport, storage, and communication1,6253,8423,7513,8983321,341280
Services, community and business, and recreation2,6594,4574,2944,4793701,536317
Unknown or not stated51109121011
Totals-1958–5933,261125,820122,625128,2906,61845,8548,755
1957–5831,108120,359117,784124,4207,17743,9438,404
1956–5728,450111,992110,024117,7016,75741,5757,982

Rates of Tax: Companies — For incomes received during the income year 1958–59 the rate of ordinary income tax payable by a company was 2s. 6d., increased by 1/100d. for every £1 of taxable income up to £6,300. Above £6,300 the rate was 7s. 9d., increased by 1/150d. for every £1 of taxable income in excess of £6,300, with a maximum of 8s. 6d. in the £1. Social security income tax was levied at the rate of 1s. 6d. per £1 of income. Not all companies were liable to pay this charge. Further information concerning rates of taxation will be found in the section on taxation.

The next table shows some additional data concerning companies which relate to the income year 1958–59.

Industry GroupStocks at End of PeriodIncomeExpenditureGross Profit
Sales and ServicesInterest and Gross RentsPurchasesSalaries and WagesInterestRentDepreciation

*Gross profit not normally available.

£(thousand)
Agriculture and livestock production8,81721,2432225,4175,9206635541,33912,412
Forestry, hunting, and fishing2313,211112 1,0567687299889
Mining and quarrying37511,84175 5,258396197780*
Manufacturing–         
    Food, beverages, and tobacco38,778349,807810251,25137,3781,1697336,15349,347
    Textiles, wearing apparel, and made-up textiles20,83984,01427545,49522,0085129471,41617,891
    Metal and metal products27,363125,44159175,81228,3977411,0452,14525,833
    Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)43,709223,6531,051112,63148,3942,2012,2289,31553,575
Construction14,804106,87633153,65327,4574884102,89218,652
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services5753,139241,1286707632201,104
Commerce–
    Wholesale and retail167,7071,044,4234,907817,70187,5394,1826,8938,985164,677
    Other81262,50740,0171,85119,28810,6636912,152*
Transport, storage, and communication82951,3663505,43917,9364154144,007*
Services, community and business, and recreation2,76756,3141,15120,00715,7245001,5931,81310,940
Unknown or not stated88463234683289108
Totals-1958–59327,6942,144,29749,9181,390,730317,10822,08315,80441,524355,426
1957–58315,5652,051,29645,9541,358,667300,53519,15513,93440,061331,973
1956–57287,7331,880,69041,5521,228,768279,85020,89312,10535,969307,192

The higher level of imports in 1957–58 was accompanied by a substantial increase in the value of trading stocks held at the end of that year. With a curtailment of imports coming into operation during 1958–59, the 1958–59 end-of-year increase in stocks was £12.1 million, which was less than normal. Stocks held by the wholesale and retail trade group actually declined slightly during 1958–59. Sales of goods and services rose by £93.0 million, compared with an increase of £170.6 million in 1957–58. Economic conditions were appreciably less buoyant than in 1957–58. It should be remembered that there is a constant upward pressure on the figures in these company statistics through the entry of more than 2,000 new companies each year and that consequently the effects of downward tendencies are being minimised.

One point which should be noted is that the purchases figures have not been given for the forestry and mining industry groups. It was found that there was a considerable lack of uniformity in such data for these two groups, which was probably connected with differing treatments of royalty and equivalent payments.

The amount of gross profit shown in the accounts is used in these statistics, despite the wide variations in the conception of gross profit. No attempt has been made to secure uniformity of calculation for individual companies, but of course the total gross profit for each industry should correspond with that industry's average conception of gross profit. In some industries, such as the transport industry, it is not normal practice to calculate gross profit, and in such cases the gross profit is recorded in these statistics as nil. Estimates of the amount of gross profit were, however, made when any company did not calculate the gross profit, and it was the custom of the industry concerned to show this figure.

The abridged version of the full industry classification for which data are given in this publication does not reveal the individual industries where the gross profit is not generally calculated. Apart from “Mining and Quarrying”, “Commerce, other” and “Transport, etc.”, there are a number of industries included in “Services, community” which do not show gross profit.

The assessable income, dividends paid, paid-up capital, and shareholders' funds for 1958–59 are given in the two following tables.

Industry GroupNumber of ReturnsAssessable IncomeDividends PaidShareholders' Funds
TotalPaid-up Capital
  £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
Agriculture and livestock production2,1362,5221,13232,08217,578
Forestry, hunting, and fishing1432651114,4262,663
Mining and quarrying2646101735,9313,207
Manufacturing–
    Food, beverages, and tobacco94411,2382,90285,24940,315
    Textiles, wearing apparel, and made-up textiles8975,2791,53429,88615,385
    Metals and metal products2,3168,0852,05643,90120,518
    Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)2,60619,8165,301107,65867,078
Construction2,6255,6291,60226,15011,525
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services19212792,3631,594
Commerce–     
    Wholesale and retail11,62643,02912,757246,290114,668
    Other5,35017,8866,001173,11386,138
Transport, storage, and communication1,6253,7511,29533,91216,170
Services, community and business, and recreation2,6594,2941,29530,24710,809
Unknown or not stated5193156105
Totals - 1958–5933,261122,62536,243821,362407,753
1957–5831,108117,78442,618769,283387,059
1956–5728,450110,02435,874713,453360,945

For the purposes of these statistics, the shareholders' funds of a company are defined, briefly, as the amount which would be available to shareholders if the assets were realised and the liabilities discharged at the net values shown in the balance sheet. In the case of New Zealand branches of overseas companies, either the paid-up capital and the shareholders' funds are apportioned on some equitable basis, or the balance of the branch's head office account is taken. The capital loan liabilities of those Government Departments which are included in these statistics have been omitted from both paid-up capital and shareholders' funds. Advances from shareholders have been added to shareholders' funds and advances to shareholders deducted.

An analysis of companies by amount of paid-up capital for 1958–59 discloses the position shown in the next table. Those with no paid-up capital are mostly industrial and provident societies, clubs, associations, and similar incorporated bodies.

Amount of Paid-up CapitalNumber of ReturnsPaid-up CapitalShareholders' FundsDividends Paid
£      £ £(000)£(000)£(000)
Nil2,08726,020473
0- 4991,9103908,742454
500- 9992,5941,6059,493567
1,000- 1,9996,1537,53928,9171,620
2,000- 2,9994,57710,08228,7281,534
3,000- 3,9993,0569,69622,6961,142
4,000- 4,9991,9748,28317,4841,006
5,000- 5,9992,11110,74624,1651,152
6,000- 6,9991,2947,95117,023855
7,000- 7,9998015,82111,375523
8,000- 8,9995974,8689,303485
9,000- 9,9994644,2937,710339
10,000- 19,9993,01737,09077,0733,474
20,000- 29,99999322,46140,6001,622
30,000- 39,99943614,18325,1841,118
40,000- 49,9992139,12615,819646
50,000- 59,9991789,26419,404920
60,000- 69,999935,80410,155524
70,000- 79,999795,7879,970445
80,000- 89,999504,1478,002378
90,000- 99,999403,7586,711262
100,000–199,99925132,50463,2773,354
200,000–299,9999120,84539,3561,628
300,000–399,9996321,14334,4501,256
400,000–499,9992510,57317,0061,872
500,000–599,9992814,43426,3151,531
600,000–699,999149,06716,570700
700,000–799,999118,25013,994351
800,000–899,99975,7369,062259
900,000–999,99976,61114,769581
1,000,000 and over4795,694161,9885,170
Totals - 1958–5933,261407,753821,36236,243
1957–5831,108387,059769,28342,618
1956–5728,450360,945713,45335,874

In 1958–59 there were 544 companies with paid-up capital of £100,000 and over. Corresponding figures for 1957–58 and 1956–57 were respectively 518 and 498. These companies had 55.1 per cent of the total paid-up capital and 48.3 per cent of the total shareholders' funds.

The number of companies increased by 6.9 per cent in 1958–59 and paid-up capital rose by 5.3 per cent. These are below the percentages which have been common in recent years. The growth rate for companies in the agriculture and livestock production group dropped to 16.0 per cent in 1958–59 compared with 27.2 per cent in 1957–58 and 31.2 per cent in 1956–57.

Dividends paid by companies in 1957–58 were £6,744,000 larger than in 1956–57. This was well in excess of the increase in the income after taxation, and it was evidently caused by the approaching liability of dividends to taxation in the hands of shareholders and the imposition of an excess retention tax.

There were apparently repercussions in 1958–59, as the dividend payments for that year were lower than would have been anticipated from recent trends.

An analysis by the type of company-i.e., private, public, overseas, etc.—is given in the three following tables, which present some of the principal data for the year 1958–59.

Industry GroupNumber of ReturnsAssessable IncomeOrdinary and Social Security Income TaxNet Business LossShareholders' FundsDividends Paid
Paid-up CapitalTotal
New Zealand Private Companies
  £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
Agriculture and livestock production2,1152,48392159916,89630,9991,114
Forestry, hunting, and fishing12719379318102,25578
Mining and quarrying239458191741,6033,478130
Manufacturing–
    Food, beverages, and tobacco6414,3132,04141612,62228,0651,410
    Textiles, wearing apparel, and made-up textiles8452,8331,2861366,57314,448790
    Metals and metal products2,2446,2872,74643014,53132,0201,553
    Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)2,3749,8904,53942521,53645,8402,823
Construction2,6045,3042,21059210,23023,9141,556
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services7261140972
Commerce–
    Wholesale and retail11,02827,96112,2191,22370,914153,9288,340
    Other4,7793,8771,26616637,37667,7022,684
Transport, storage, and communication1,4872,6551,0852998,46217,048828
Services (community, business, and recreation)1,7682,7531,1302338,46616,0811,104
Unknown or not stated4982101051563
Totals-1958–5930,30769,04129,7274,635210,164436,03022,415
1957–5828,08467,73329,2444,712196,795400,81829,863
1956–5725,47662,06426,9123,824181,366365,18525,246
New Zealand Public Companies
Agriculture and livestock production143014723245618
Forestry, hunting, and fishing16723331,8532,17033
Mining and quarrying25152743131,6042,45343
Manufacturing–
    Food, beverages, and tobacco2846,0253,0102422,08249,8261,468
    Textiles, wearing apparel, and made-up textiles492,4451,219268,74115,303745
    Metals and metal products581,383685384,9919,742444
    Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)1968,8834,40826743,27657,4742,470
Construction1218694127531,18846
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services1218693251,5542,26677
Commerce–
    Wholesale and retail27010,4385,20216237,39372,3953,014
    Other3136,8063,0379835,58274,2723,303
Transport, storage, and communication114924452317,63716,093417
Services (community, business, and recreation)671,077528472,2676,276181
Unknown or not stated
Totals-1958–591,43038,60718,8491,054167,965309,91512,257
1957–581,46435,88717,5051,704161,811294,31311,600
1956–571,47033,72916,8942,562152,700279,3559,560
Industry GroupNumber of ReturnsAssessable IncomeOrdinary and Social Security Income TaxNet Business LossShareholders' FundsDividends Paid
Paid-up CapitalTotal
Remainder of Companies (Overseas, Industrial, and Provident Societies, etc.)
  £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
Agriculture and livestock production79523450628
Forestry, hunting, and fishing
Mining and quarrying
Manufacturing–
    Food, beverages, and tobacco198994493365,6107,35824
    Textiles, wearing apparel, and made-up textiles31271134
    Metals and metal products1441520739962,13859
    Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)361,04351962,2674,3448
Construction9139695421,047
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services
Commerce–
    Wholesale and retail3284,6302,2811286,36119,9671,403
    Other2587,2032,22534013,18031,13914
Transport, storage, and communication241728327177151
Services (community, business, and recreation)82446519590777,89011
Unknown or not stated21
Totals - 1958–591,52414,9766,03392929,62475,4171,570
1957–581,56014,1635,59776228,45274,1521,155
1956–571,50414,2305,75237226,87968,9131,068

Government Departments which are liable for income tax have been classified as New Zealand public companies. In a small percentage of cases, precise information concerning the type of company was not available and there consequently may be a few instances of incorrect classifications.

It will be noticed that the total of public companies now shows a tendency to decline rather than to increase. The whole of the 1958–59 increase in numbers was in private companies. On average, private companies are much smaller than are public companies, but in the aggregate they employ a larger amount of paid-up capital. Their shareholders' funds are also a rather higher percentage of the paid-up capital (207 per cent against 185 per cent for public companies). However, as shareholders' funds include advances from shareholders (£67,679,000), the bulk of which relate to private companies, it is evident that the relation of retained income to paid-up capital is nearly identical for both types of companies. The earning power per unit of shareholders' funds employed is considerably higher in the case of private companies, since their assessable incomes total £69,041,000 against the £38,607,000 for public companies. This earning power is also reflected in the amount of dividends paid, which is twice that paid by public companies.

While on the subject of dividends paid, it should be pointed out that the disposable profits of the New Zealand branches of overseas companies are remitted to their overseas head offices and that these disposable profits are not included as dividends paid in New Zealand. Where the overseas company operates through a New Zealand subsidiary company, the New Zealand company is classified as either public or private and any dividends paid will be included in the statistics.

ASSETS OF COMPANIES — Information on assets is collected for a sample group of companies. The sample comprises a random selection of 10 per cent of the number of companies, plus a complete coverage of those which are deemed to fall into a “large company” category.

The estimates for the various classes of assets are given in the table which now follows, and which relates to the income year 1958–59. At present these estimates should be regarded as being only approximately correct. The figures show the position at the close of the income year. Estimates of the assets of clubs, associations, etc., which form part of the “community services” group, and the assets of the “other or undefined” group have not been included.

Industry GroupLand and BuildingsOther Fixed AssetsInvestmentsClosing StocksOther Current AssetsTotal
 £(million)
Agriculture and livestock production26.586.052.748.824.1348.32
Forestry, hunting, and fishing0.982.900.320.231.616.04
Mining and quarrying2.397.960.940.387.7619.43
Manufacturing–
    Food, beverages, and tobacco37.9229.6212.1137.1131.31148.07
    Textiles, wearing apparel, and made-up textiles6.677.032.5620.8411.9749.07
    Metals and metal products13.9511.842.2627.3617.2872.69
    Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)38.8147.4213.5143.7135.00178.45
Construction5.6411.742.7914.8017.5852.55
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services0.885.430.160.570.737.77
Commerce–
    Wholesale and retail65.6043.0729.82167.71149.46455.66
    Other67.203.51543.670.81316.79931.98
Transport, storage, and communication7.5026.453.130.8311.7549.66
Services, community and business, and recreation13.917.886.882.6310.0341.33
Totals - 1958–59288.03210.90620.89325.80615.402,061.03
1957–58258.92202.23566.99315.34608.841,952.32
1956–57239.72319.37536.27287.63579.211,962.20

Total assets rose by £109 million during 1958–59. Land, buildings, and other fixed assets were larger by £38 million, and investments which rose by £54 million, accounted for most of the total increase. Shareholders provided £52 million of the required funds, either from retained profits or by additional investment. The extra £57 million came from a rise in “provisions” (reserves for specific purposes which are not deducted from an asset) and external liabilities.

Several points about the classification adopted should be noted. “Other current assets” was used to a minor extent as a residual class. It includes assets such as goodwill, establishment accounts, etc. Other nominal assets, such as accumulated losses and similar accounts, were excluded from the assets and deducted from shareholders' funds.

Where the balance sheet did not distinguish between land and buildings and other fixed assets, the whole amount was included in the class deemed the greatest part in value of the assets.

Loans secured by mortgages of property were treated as investments. Loans and advances by banks on overdraft, by finance companies for hire purchase credit, etc., and others of a like nature were classed as “other current assets”. This is particularly important in the “commerce — other” industry group, which includes banks, insurance companies, holding companies, Government lending institutions, etc.

It has been previously mentioned that the term “companies” includes Government Departments which are liable to pay income tax, and that the capital loan liabilities of these Departments are not included in either paid-up capital or shareholders' funds. These capital loan liabilities are, however, represented by investments which appear in the assets. This should be remembered if the ratios of shareholders' funds to total assets are being examined.

CENSUS 1956: INCOMES OF INDIVIDUALS — The following statistics on incomes were compiled from the population census taken on 17 April 1956.

The table divides into income groups the persons actively engaged, and also the total population, including those not actively engaged in employment.

The questionnaire on the schedule asked for income for the year ended 31 March 1956 from all sources without deduction of taxes, superannuation, life insurance, rates, etc. Social security benefits (age, family, etc.) and war pensions were not included.

Income GroupPersons Actively Engaged TotalPopulation
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
£        £
Nil5,5725,79111,363428,462792,0701,220,532
1- 494,1345,3949,52813,77636,53250,308
50- 994,6346,90411,53810,96823,32934,297
100- 29934,35153,54687,89744,62982,439127,068
300- 49965,42478,717144,14173,37790,449163,826
500- 699168,92230,632199,554173,66235,153208,815
700- 899162,4816,556169,037164,9848,462173,446
900–1,09974,5952,12976,72475,9293,14279,071
1,100–1,29932,32783133,15833,2531,43034,683
1,300–1,49915,18642915,61515,72977316,502
1,500 and over51,5241,53853,06253,4492,91556,364
Not specified3,6081,6275,2354,9934,1579,150
Totals622,758194,094816,8521,093,2111,080,8512,174,062

Included in the “nil” income group for actively engaged persons are those people who entered the labour force between 1 and 17 April 1956, and thus did not have income for the year ended 31 March 1956.

There would also be, in the smaller income group, considerable numbers of people who began work towards the end of the year 1955–56.

The largest income group for males actively engaged was the £500 to £699 group, with 168,922, or 27.1 per cent of those males actively engaged. This was followed closely by the £700 to £899 group with 162,481, or 26.1 per cent. The actively engaged males with incomes of £1,500 and over numbered 51,524, or 8.3 per cent.

The largest income group for actively engaged females was the £300 to £499 group with 78,717, representing 40.6 per cent of all actively engaged females. There were only 1,538, or 0.79 per cent, of actively engaged females with incomes of £1,500 and over.

Chapter 29. Section 29 BANKING AND CURRENCY

Table of Contents

ROYAL COMMISSION ON MONETARY, BANKING AND CREDIT SYSTEMS — The report of the Royal Commission, which was released in April 1956 (and is available as parliamentary paper B.3, 1956) gives a general background on the monetary, banking, and credit systems of New Zealand. The Royal Commission examined and reported on these systems and made recommendations within its order of reference which had the stated objectives of fostering a greater degree of stability in prices, maintaining full employment of labour, ensuring the healthy development of natural resources, and promoting generally the economic, financial, and social welfare of the people.

Section 4 of the report outlines the history of monetary, banking, and credit systems 1934–55 and section 7 assesses the systems in operation in 1955. No radical reforms of the existing systems were recommended, but possible improvements in administration were set out and a number of the recommendations have since been put into effect. As recommended by the Royal Commission New Zealand has joined the International Monetary Fund, a Monetary and Economic Council has been established, and the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act has been amended to give the Government full and final responsibility for decisions on monetary policy. (A summary of the report is given as Appendix (d) of the 1956 issue of the Yearbook.)

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND, INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT, AND INTERNATIONAL FINANCE CORPORATION — New Zealand became a member of these three organisations on 31 August 1961 under the International Finance Agreements Act 1961. The organisations are specialised agencies of the United Nations, and their objectives and the implications of New Zealand membership are set out in parliamentary paper A.12, 1961. One of the purposes of the International Monetary Fund is to give confidence to members by making the Fund's resources available to them under adequate safeguards, thus providing them with opportunity to correct maladjustments in their balance of payments without resorting to measures destructive of national or international prosperity. By paying in some gold and the balance of its fund quota in its own currency a member is able to draw against its gold for a nominal cost. New Zealand's fund quota is £(N.Z.)44.9 million, of which the required gold payment was 25 per cent £(N.Z.) 11.2 million.

The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) is designed to promote the international flow of capital for productive purposes and to assist in financing the development of the resources of its member countries.

New Zealand paid £12.2 million in gold and £500,000 in New Zealand currency to join the three agencies, and in addition £38.6 million of non-negotiable non-interest bearing bonds were lodged with the Reserve Bank of New Zealand.

MONETARY AND ECONOMIC COUNCIL — In 1961, in line with a recommendation of the Royal Commission on Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems, there was established a Monetary and Economic Council whose principal functions are to report from time to time on the extent to which stability in the prices of goods and services, economic growth, full employment, and higher standards of living are being achieved, and to make recommendations as to measures that should be taken to promote such developments. Among other matters, the Council is required to consider the provision of finance for the expansion of primary and secondary industries and of services, and the ensuring of a balanced relationship between the creation and issue of money and the production and provision of goods and services. The Council issued its first report to the Government in September 1961 and the report was published on 11 October 1961. The second report was made in may 1962.

BANKING INSTITUTIONS — Banking institutions operating in New Zealand may be enumerated as follows:

  1. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand.

  2. Five trading banks.

  3. The Post Office Savings Bank.

  4. Six trustee savings banks.

In addition, a number of trading companies, investment societies, etc., perform quasi-banking functions, accepting deposits and granting credits (short-term and long-term) to clients. In some instances deposits are repayable to the client's order at call — virtually a system of cheque issuing.

THE RESERVE BANK — The Reserve Bank was constituted by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1933 (amended in minor respects by the Finance Act 1934) with the primary object of exercising control, within defined limits, over monetary circulation and credit in New Zealand. The trading banks were relieved of direct responsibility for the adequacy or otherwise of the total reserves of overseas exchange held by the banking system and also for the overall level of bank credit in New Zealand. The Government now had power to expand the level of bank credit by borrowing from the Reserve Bank to finance Government expenditure and to contract the level of bank credit by repaying its debt to the Reserve Bank from an overall surplus of taxation and other receipts over Government expenditure.

In the March and April 1960 issues of the Reserve Bank Bulletin there are articles on Central Banking Practice in New Zealand.

As originally constituted, the Bank had a share capital of £500,000, composed of 100,000 publicly subscribed shares of £5, bearing a cumulative dividend of 5 per cent. Very important changes in the constitution of the Bank were made by the Reserve Bank Amendment Act 1936, which, among other things, abolished the subscribed share capital of the Bank, with provision for the repayment to shareholders (either in cash or in Government stock, at the option of the shareholder) of the value of shares held and accrued dividends. The General Reserve Fund of the Bank is maintained at £1,500,000, made up of a contribution of £1,000,000 by the Government at the passing of the original Act, and £500,000 to replace share capital after the passing of the 1936 Amendment Act. It will be seen that the whole of the reserve fund is contributed by the State — the Bank thus being State-owned.

Additional powers were conferred on the Reserve Bank by the Finance Act (No. 2) 1936, and further important changes were made by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Amendment Acts of 1939, 1950, and 1960. Prior to the passing of the 1960 Amendment Act the general function of the Bank, as defined in section 10 (1) of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Amendment Act 1936 and as amended in 1950, reads as follows: “It shall be the general function of the Reserve Bank, within the limits of its powers, to give effect as far as may be to the monetary policy of the Government as communicated to it from time to time by the Minister of Finance. For this purpose, and to the end that the economic and social welfare of New Zealand may be promoted and maintained, the Bank shall regulate and control credit and currency in New Zealand, the transfer of moneys to or from New Zealand, and the disposal of moneys that are derived from the sale of any New Zealand products and for the time being are held overseas, and shall do all such things within the limits of its powers as it deems necessary or desirable to promote and safeguard a stable internal price level and the highest degree of production, trade, and employment that can be achieved by monetary action.”

By the 1960 Amendment Act new sections were enacted declaring the right of the Crown to regulate currency and credit, recasting the general function, broadening both the general and particular regulatory powers of the Bank, and introducing a statutory right for the Minister of Finance (after consultation with the Governor of the Bank) to determine the relationship between New Zealand currency and sterling.

Right of Crown to Control Currency and Credit — Section 12 of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Amendment Act 1960 declares that it is the sovereign right of the Crown to control currency and credit, and further states that the Minister of Finance may from time to time communicate to the Reserve Bank the monetary policy of the Government, which shall be directed to the maintenance and promotion of economic and social welfare in New Zealand having regard to the desirability of promoting the highest degree of production, trade, and employment and of maintaining a stable internal price level.

General Functions of Reserve Bank — The present legislation sets out the general functions of the Reserve Bank as follows.

It is the general function of the Reserve Bank, within the limits of its powers, to give effect to the monetary policy of the Government, as communicated to the Bank from time to time by the Minister of Finance.

The Bank may, on behalf of the Government, regulate and control–

  • Money, banking, credit, and currency:

  • Rates of interest in respect of such classes of transactions as may from time to time be prescribed:

  • The transfer of money to or from New Zealand, and the disposal of money that is derived from the sale of any New Zealand products and is for the time being held overseas.

It shall be the duty of the Bank–

  • To advise the Government on matters relating to monetary policy, banking, and exchange:

  • To keep the Government informed with regard to the measures adopted or proposed to be adopted by the Bank to give effect to the monetary policy of the Government:

  • To have regard to any representations that may be made by the Minister of Finance in respect of any functions or business of the Bank, and to give effect to any decision of the Government in relation thereto conveyed to the Governor in writing by the Minister of Finance.

When the Bank gives sterling in exchange for its notes, or gives notes in exchange for sterling or gold, the rate at which the exchange is affected is fixed by the Bank; provided that the relationship between New Zealand currency and sterling for immediate delivery in London may from time to time be determined by the Minister of Finance after consultation with the Governor of the Bank.

Where the Bank is satisfied that it is necessary or expedient in the public interest to do so, it may from time to time give directions to trading banks as to the policy to be followed in relation to advances, discounts, and investments and in relation to rates of interest payable to or by such banks.

In addition to the general powers and functions described earlier, the legislation gives the Bank, or the Governor of the Bank, the following particular powers and functions:

  1. Make and issue bank notes (see heading in “Coinage and Currency”, later).

  2. Buy and sell gold and silver coin and bullion.

  3. Accept money on deposit or on current account.

  4. Discount, rediscount, buy, and sell: (a) bills, notes, etc., whether commercial or agricultural, maturing within 120 days from date of document or 90 days after sight; (b) agricultural bills, notes, etc., maturing within six months of acquisition; (c) Treasury bills of any Government, or bills of any local authority in any British Commonwealth country, all such bills to be maturing within three months of acquisition.

  5. Grant advances, up to three months, against: (a) gold coin or bullion or relative shipping documents thereof; (b) Government, local authority, or other approved securities readily marketable in New Zealand; (c) bills, etc., as referred to above; (d) promissory notes of banks in New Zealand.

  6. Grant accommodation by way of overdraft (a) to the Government of New Zealand; (b) to any Department of State or statutory authority having power to carry on any business or to borrow moneys on overdraft; (c) to any board or other authority having statutory powers in relation to the marketing of any New Zealand produce, for the purpose of financing and marketing of any such produce.

  7. (7) Advance moneys to the Government of any other country in respect of the purchase of any New Zealand produce for export to that country, or guarantee any such advance that may be made by another bank. The amount outstanding in respect of any advances or guarantees in this respect shall not at any time exceed in the aggregate the sum of £10,000,000, and any loss suffered in respect of any such transaction is to be borne by the Consolidated Fund.

  8. Buy and sell securities of the New Zealand or United Kingdom Governments, or securities guaranteed by the Government of New Zealand or by the Government of the United Kingdom.

  9. Buy and sell currencies of other countries.

  10. By authority of the Governor-General in Council, underwrite any loan proposed to be raised by the New Zealand Government, or by the State Advances Corporation of New Zealand.

  11. Issue and manage loans for the Government or any local authority or public body in New Zealand.

  12. Borrow money, establish credits, and give guarantees, whether in New Zealand or elsewhere, in any currency, and on terms providing for repayment or payment in the same or any other currency.

  13. Charge, pledge, or deposit by way of security, any part of its assets for any purpose mentioned in paragraph 12 or for any other purpose whatsoever which may be approved in writing by the Minister of Finance.

  14. Organise a clearing system.

  15. Act as a correspondent for overseas banks or as agent of other reserve banks.

  16. Do any other banking business not prohibited by the Act.

  17. Vary the required minimum balances other banks are required to hold with the Reserve Bank.

  18. Control bank credit and interest rates by giving directions, from time to time, to other banks.

It is the duty of the Government to entrust to the Bank, and of the Bank to undertake, all the money, remittance, exchange, and banking transactions of the Government. The duty of the Bank in respect of reserves is set out later.

The Bank administers the Exchange Control Regulations on behalf of the Government.

The following gives a summary of restrictions upon the conduct of business by the Bank as stated in the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1933 and in later amendments. Except with the authority of the Governor-General in Council, it may not issue bank notes of a denomination less than 10s.; engage in trade or otherwise have a direct interest in any commercial, industrial, or similar undertaking; purchase the shares of any other bank in New Zealand or elsewhere (except shares of the Bank of International Settlements) or grant loans on the security of any shares that the Bank is prohibited from purchasing; make unsecured loans or advances (except to banks for periods not exceeding three months); purchase or make advances on the security of real property, except so far as may be required to enable the Bank to conduct its business; pay interest on any moneys deposited with the Reserve Bank by any other bank or pay interest on any other moneys placed on deposit or on current account with the Bank, except that it may pay interest to the New Zealand Government on Government funds held by the Bank outside New Zealand; allow the renewal of maturing bills of exchange, promissory notes, or other similar documents purchased or discounted by or pledged to the Bank; draw or accept bills payable otherwise than on demand; and it may not grant accommodation to any State Department, local authority, or public body in excess of certain limits.

On the commencement of business on 1 August 1934 the Public Account was transferred to the Reserve Bank, and the management of the public debt was taken over from the Treasury by the Reserve Bank as from 1 October 1936.

The net profits of the Bank are paid to the Consolidated Fund, provided that the Bank's General Reserve Fund is not less than £1,000,000. If the Reserve Fund falls below that level, part of the profits must be credited to the Reserve Fund. The net profits for the year ended 31 March 1961, which were subsequently paid to the Consolidated Fund, amounted to £4,587,000, as compared with £3,497,000 for the previous year.

Under section 4 of the Finance Act 1934, any appreciation or depreciation of assets due to alteration in the exchange rate is to be credited to or borne by the Consolidated Fund. In accordance with this provision, the Reserve Bank was credited with the sum of £20,576,000 from the Consolidated Fund in early 1949 by the Government as a result of the alteration of the exchange rate to parity with sterling as from 20 August 1948.

Details of the liabilities and assets of the Bank at the end of June for the years 1957–61, and weekly averages for the calendar years 1951–61, are shown in the following tables.

LIABILITIES OF RESERVE BANK
YearBank NotesDemand LiabilitiesOther Liabilities*Total Liabilities
StateMarketingBanksOther

*Includes General Reserve Fund of £1,500,000 throughout the period.

† Included in these figures are the weekly averages in Wool Retention Accounts: 1951, £4,204,400; and 1952, £6,000.

£(thousand)
Weekly Average for Calendar Year
195160,36118,84469,3264,9296,765160,224
195262,25214,96248,5574907,387133,648
195364,0356,1543,62190,7411,3688,249174,167
195469,2339,2941,76978,3281,9158,917169,456
195570,08714,1802,09355,7511,0709,095152,277
195670,90412,5571,96360,0321,6469,886156,989
195774,26311,4401,22862,3741,43510,489161,229
195876,23012,07767557,5081,08011,533159,104
195977,03111,60948462,2551,21612,118164,713
196081,50011,09077887,9511,32010,676193,315
196184,47015,1812,06366,2581,73410,466180,172
At End of June
195772,7129,1711,35169,2871,48812,263166,272
195873,8829,90842462,5557648,168155,703
195975,0389,85341367,9081,6648,756163,632
196078,61412,17464794,8485289,080195,891
196181,89014,7751,10273,9181,7548,120181,559
ASSETS OF RESERVE BANK
YearReserveSubsidiary CoinAdvancesInvestmentsOther Assets
GoldSterling ExchangeOther ExchangeStateMarketing OrganisationsOther Advances and DiscountsOverseasIn New Zealand

NOTE — Total assets are equal to total liabilities.

* Major portion of “Gold” shown in “Other Assets” from October 1958 to July 1961. when it was pledged against overseas loans and not therefore within the official definition of “Reserves”. After repayment of the loans most of the gold was sold to the Government. See footnote.

† An increase in investments in New Zealand and a decrease in advances to the State followed in April 1960 from a change in the Government's method of borrowing from the Reserve Bank; holdings of 1 per cent three-month Treasury bills have been exchanged for 1 per cent Government stock.

‡ Includes Government stock issued to Reserve Bank in August and November 1961 on New Zealand joining the IMF and IBRD.

£(thousand)
Weekly Average for Calendar Year
19515,13962,55738347351,1343,3796,8299,98817,1193,224
19525,85623,4161,23560150,7952,2906,12530,24411,3251,761
19536,02358,48758862653,2254,7616,02022,97520,511952
19546,15074,48142859938,4186,6928,93823,5579,279913
19556,16346,71042457135,58117,38810,93922,95410,666882
19566,16239,75153558641,23115,81812,36426,95912,5031,081
19576,16238,98249658539,92227,7683,75228,29214,1951,075
19584,61825,22465956348,11536,8322,53314,06623,8372,656
1959315*59,96249564731,44825,48587213,63024,9236,937*
196031554,32544757125,16118,9671,66323,17761,6837,005
196174011,11052341015,46931,40113,45028,78373,3794,909
At End of June
19576,16254,98931860830,10831,2263,76427,73610,388973
19586,16322,68573856244,06941,6232,37013,56922,8081,116
195931562,84226763225,13330,53054013,56922,8086,995
196031567,1403195672,70819,34116026,39071,3087,643
196131513,3945883565,30532,93618,52531,26771,3127,560

The fall in the Reserve Bank's holding of sterling exchange in 1952 was due partly to the abnormally large volume of imports and partly to the conversion of liquid funds into sterling investments. Normally the Reserve Bank's sterling exchange is held in the form of British Treasury bills (short-term rate of interest), but as a matter of policy it was decided to invest a part of these funds in short- and medium-term British Government securities, which are included in the Reserve Bank's investments.

TRADING BANKS — The Banking Act 1908, which is the law of New Zealand relating to the general business of banking in this country, provides that the incorporation of banks by Royal Charter shall be as effectual within New Zealand as Acts of the General Assembly. The number of directors is prescribed by the Act, and authority is given to any bank to increase its capital on a resolution of the shareholders. Transfers of shares on which there is any liability must be approved by the directors or their duly appointed attorney or attorneys. A sworn copy of an entry in the books of a bank shall in all legal proceedings be evidence of such entry, and a bank is not required in any legal proceedings to which it is not a party to produce its books before a Court, unless ordered by a Judge for special cause. Provision is made for the destruction of cheques, drafts, bills of exchange, or promissory notes after the expiration of 10 years from the date thereof in the case of documents payable on demand, or from the due date in the case of other documents.

Part II of the Bills of Exchange Act 1908 and the Cheques Act 1960 are the law relating to cheques on a bank.

The provisions of section”, 127 and 128 of the Companies Act 1955 (relating to branch registers) apply to banks incorporated in New Zealand; and those of sections 407 to 412 (imposing restrictions on the sale of shares and debentures) apply to companies incorporated outside New Zealand for the purpose of carrying on banking in New Zealand or elsewhere; the provisions of Part XV of the Act (which relate to annual licences) shall as far as they are applicable apply to banks; and also the provisions of section 464 (2) (which relate to the production and inspection of books where an offence is suspected); otherwise the Companies Act does not apply to banks.

With the establishment of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, which commenced to function on 1 August 1934, there was inaugurated an entirely new era in banking practice in New Zealand. The function of note issue was transferred from the trading banks to the Reserve Bank, while all gold coin or bullion held by trading banks for their own account was required by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1933 to be transferred to the Reserve Bank in exchange for equivalent notes of the Reserve Bank or for credit with that Bank.

While the regulation of currency exchange is now a function of the Reserve Bank, commercial exchange transactions are still carried out through the medium of the trading banks.

Each trading bank is required to maintain with the Reserve Bank a balance comprising a proportion of its demand liabilities in New Zealand, and of its time liabilities in New Zealand. These requirements may be varied by the Governor of the Reserve Bank, acting with the authority of the Minister of Finance, but not so as to be less than 7 and 3 per cent respectively. A summary of the changes in these proportions is given later in this section.

There are five banks trading in New Zealand, two of these institutions — the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand — being incorporated by special Acts of the General Assembly of New Zealand. The other three banks — the Australia and New Zealand Bank, the Bank of New South Wales, and the Commercial Bank of Australia-which are predominantly Australian institutions, have in the aggregate much greater capital resources, etc., than the two New Zealand banks. The close Australian affiliations of the Australian banks operating in New Zealand resulted in the past in an interlocking between the Australian and New Zealand financial structures, the separation of New Zealand business being one of the major motives leading up to the founding of the Reserve Bank.

Bank of New Zealand — On the passing of the Bank of New Zealand Act 1945, which came into operation on 1 November 1945, the Bank of New Zealand became a State trading bank. Prior to the passing of the Act the bank was partly State-owned, the New Zealand Government holding preference and certain long-term mortgage shares to the aggregate value of £2,109,000 out of a total paid-up capital of £6,328,000. The Act provided for the acquisition by the Crown of the whole of the remaining shares registered in New Zealand, and also made provision for the purchase by the Crown of shares registered in the United Kingdom or Australia.

The gross profit of the bank for the year ended 31 March 1961 was £5,761,000, while expenses amounted to £5,172,000, leaving a net profit of £588,000. Comparable figures for the previous year were £5,203,000, £4,698,000, and £505,000 respectively. The total assets at 31 March 1961 amounted to £174,040,000, the principal items comprising this total being: coin, Reserve Bank notes, and deposits with bankers, £19,495,000; money at call and short notice, Government securities and other securities in London, £7,180,000; securities of, or guaranteed by, New Zealand Government, £11,437,000; and advances, etc., £98,012,000. The principal item of liabilities was deposits (£149,781,000), while bills payable, etc., amounted to £9,913,000. The reserve fund, which is invested in British Government securities, amounted to £4,000,000, and provision for taxation to £1,236,000. The paid-up capital of the bank remained unaltered at £6,328,000.

Liabilities and Assets of Trading Banks — Statements of liabilities and assets of the trading banks were gazetted quarterly up to 1934. Since the Reserve Bank commenced operations the trading banks have been required to submit at monthly intervals a return of certain liabilities and assets in respect of New Zealand business. Monthly averages for latest 11 calendar years, and figures as at the last Wednesday in June for the latest five years, are given in the next table.

LIABILITIES OF TRADING BANKS
YearDemand LiabilitiesTime LiabilitiesTotal Liabilities
In New ZealandOutside New ZealandIn New ZealandOutside New Zealand
£(thousand)
Monthly Average for Calendar Year
1951196,6637,67659,4052,378266,122
1952187,4788,55267,9851,034265,048
1953210,2364,52358,147816273,722
1954233,6095,31655,040963294,928
1955236,8765,91152,1161,041295,943
1956236,4855,86042,269857285,471
1957246,6705,70736,6131,001289,992
1958242,5957,93742,0561,240293,828
1959244,8636,49843,611665295,637
1960280,5295,96450,838737338,069
1961279,2189,21065,261953354,642
At End of June
1957255,1864,42635,7831,044296,439
1958250,6188,22639,8071,099299,749
1959252,4845,29141,992764300,530
1960282,8255,24549,078722337,870
1961281,81010,43970,1771,077363,505
ASSETS OF TRADING BANKS
YearCoin and BullionReserve Bank NotesBalances Held in Reserve BankOverseas AssetsSecurities HeldAdvances and DiscountsLand, Buildings, etc.Total Assets
£(thousand)
Monthly Average for Calendar Year
19511,52811,47670,27437,33013,243133,0793,085270,016
19521,47311,10851,14926,57113,036166,5603,583273,481
19531,53310,62593,09325,58414,037134,4554,059283,385
19541,44711,08979,36125,99125,153154,7874,510302,338
19551,37110,22856,94725,64725,171180,0475,315304,728
19561,32610,76560,26625,83723,783167,3856,157295,517
19571,31112,74763,82626,23423,650162,8066,868297,442
19581,39914,01860,56922,38323,531171,8907,273301,062
19591,44914,25464,82025,59623,477166,3807,947303,924
19601,43115,82289,01826,95923,405175,9838,633341,252
19611,50416,56867,18823,57023,324214,2469,332355,733
At End of June
19571,29812,05069,19635,35823,656156,8056,761305,124
19581,38713,25862,29525,01623,536173,0147,065305,571
19591,49013,12167,86529,91323,436164,6997,843308,366
19601,40313,93994,66030,80823,398173,5368,528346,271
19611,47915,17473,81128,10823,327217,2779,188368,364

Deposits and Advances — The weekly averages of total deposits (together with the amount per head of mean population), and of total advances, and the ratio of advances to deposits for each of the last 11 calendar years, are given in the following table.

YearDepositsAdvances
Not Bearing Interest (Free)Bearing Interest (Fixed)Ratio of Free to FixedTotal*Per Head of Mean PopulationTotal AmountRatio to Deposits

*Including Government deposits.

† Exclusive of transfers by the Bank of New Zealand to its Long-term Mortgage Department.

‡ Includes certain current accounts, operated by non-profit organisations, for which interest is payable on monthly minimum balances; these accounts were previously included in “deposits not bearing interest” column.

 £(000)per cent£(000)£s.£(000)per cent
1951205,33642,500483250,72312815132,91753.0
1952207,04442,436488252,96812615169,84167.1
1953222,07739,832558265,26912910136,82751.6
1954236,54640,721581281,75013410156,97355.7
1955233,36339,414592279,85513017182,92965.4
1956229,36535,245651268,7341232170,64863.5
1957235,82238,697609278,85812418164,87759.1
1958232,40942,163551279,0301222175,41762.9
1959224,87853,459421283,3641218170,07660.0
1960252,93864,877390323,9211365177,74554.9
1961245,67868,048361319,58613113213,18966.7

It will be noticed that whereas free deposits rose markedly between 1950 and 1954, since then they have remained relatively stable, the fall in free deposits between 1958 and 1959 being caused by the transfer of non-profit making organisations' deposits mentioned in the footnote given. The marked increase during 1960 was mainly due to an increase in trading bank advances and the deficit in the public accounts. Fixed deposits have remained fairly stable over the 10 year period, except for a fall in 1956 and the transfer in 1959. Advances rose steadily until 1955 apart from the effect of the import boom in 1952. Since 1955 credit restraint policies have tended to reduce advances, although in 1958 lower export prices, an increased level of stocks (through higher imports), and an increased use of credit in New Zealand to finance meat exports combined to expand average advances by £10.5 million. In 1959 the demand for advances fell as a result of slack economic conditions and this, in conjunction with higher farm incomes and the reversal of the above-mentioned trend in meat export financing, caused the average of advances to fall by over £5 million. In 1960 advances rose again, the main factor being inflationary economic conditions with a general expansion of expenditures, coupled with a high rate of importing and some increase in meat export finance. During 1961 efforts were made to check the rise, and then effect a reduction in bank advances, without however forcing the liquidation of stocks. The trading banks were urged to be cautious in the granting of new advances and customers were warned by the banks that credit could be expected to be tight for some time. The reserve ratios were adjusted, forcing the banks to borrow from the Reserve Bank continuously. Both deposits and advances declined during the latter part of the year.

The following diagram illustrates the movements that have occurred in deposits and advances from 1931 onwards, the figures used, as in the foregoing table, being the weekly averages for calendar years.

BANKING - DEPOSITS AND ADVANCED

The average amount on deposit during each of the quarter months for the latest five years is shown in the next table.

Month19571958195919601961
£(thousand)
March279,871288,157273,683311,954339,583
June290,852287,190283,770328,210332,083
September270,457271,310283,365329,259320,090
December274,268269,463292,606326,454311,513

The average amount of advances outstanding (exclusive of transfers by the Bank of New Zealand to its Long-term Mortgage Department) during each of the quarter months for the latest five years is next shown.

Month19571958195919601961
£(thousand)
March159,576173,824170,986168,825205,248
June162,502182,380175,402178,819227,926
September165,418174,583166,953175,785221,127
December173,118170,879167,040188,370216,221

The following table shows the movement in advances, Government and other securities held, and deposits, the amounts being the averages of the figures for the last Wednesday of each month.

YearAdvances (Including Discounts)Securities HeldTotal Advances and SecuritiesTotal DepositsRatio of Advances (Plus Securities) to Total Deposits
GovernmentOther
 £(thousand)per cent
1951133,07911,7161,527146,323253,91857.6
1952166,56011,7011,335179,596253,52870.8
1953134,45511,6882,348148,492266,98955.6
1954154,78712,00213,151179,940283,90763.4
1955180,04711,61813,552205,218282,09672.8
1956167,38511,37612,406191,167269,84770.8
1957162,80611,37912,271186,456279,87666.6
1958171,89011,37412,157195,421279,23070.0
1959166,38011,40012,078189,858285,43466.5
1960175,98311,46911,936199,390327,07161.0
1961214,24611,49711,827237,570328,44572.3

The increase in other securities from 1954 reflects the sales of State Advances Corporation securities totalling £12 million to the trading banks in December 1953 and March 1954.

An analysis of advances of the New Zealand trading banks is published by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, and the classification is given in the following table.

Nature of Advance12 March 195811 March 19599 March 19608 March 196114 March 1962
 £(thousand)
BUSINESS AND FARMING ADVANCES 
1. Farming, forestry, hunting, and fishing
  (a) Mainly dairy farming10,61611,05211,22412,67813,017
  (b) Mainly sheep farming10,76913,65212,28813,87714,320
  (c) Other farming4,0454,2374,2494,6354,522
  (d) Farm services8669578299281,045
  (e) Forestry, hunting, and fishing570576759628680
Subtotals26,86630,47429,34932,74633,586
2. Mining and Quarrying699634568433342
3. Manufacturing
  (a) Dairy companies, factories, etc.2,6852,2481,8631,2852,209
  (b) Freezing works, meat companies, etc.20,14915,70321,10723,87827,554
  (c) Other food, beverages, and tobacco4,6776,0975,0335,3206,750
  (d) Textiles, footwear, and clothing7,1666,8236,7898,6088,425
  (e) Pulp and paper and paper products2,2151,2791,0081,8873,704
  (0 Metal products, machinery and engineering6,0287,0366,1098,0138,235
  (g) Transport equipment4,0773,5193,3273,5213,367
  (h) Other manufacturing10,41810,5269,54512,01512,795
Subtotals57,41653,23054,78164,52673,037
4. Construction7,7588,5318,42110,1569,434
5. Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services1,0911,0859249581,012
6. Transport, storage, and communication3,2913,5762,8013,3493,910
7. Commerce, trade, and finance
  (a) Wholesalers, mainly importers14,79311,56711,53914,57613,881
  (b) Wholesalers, other4,8324,3413,5515,4004,535
  (c) Retailers-15,64315,01913,72318,46818,336
  (d) Woolbuyers8,3618,1408,4228,0237,940
  (e) Stock and station agents6,4359,8143,2106,61410,358
  (f) Finance companies (mainly hire purchase)1,9851,7211,9862,4551,803
  (g) Other financial institutions2,1392,4922,4514,3004,081
Subtotals54,18853,09444,88259,83660,933
8. Local authorities731772690929924
9. Services7,4307,9097,9989,1298,747
PERSONAL ADVANCES 
10. (a) For housing purposes8,0687,8648,5499,5968,701
  (b) Other personal advances10,38211,27611,89413,99313,085
Subtotals18,45019,14020,44323,58921,785
Total advances177,919178,444170,856205,651213,709

The following diagram illustrates the level of trading bank advances in March of the last three years.

trading bank advances at 9 march 1960, 8 march 1961 and 14 march 1962

Advance Control PolicyQualitative — An instrument of credit control used by the Reserve Bank since 1942 is a selective control of bank advances which seeks to restrict the availability of credit to certain kinds of borrowers for certain purposes. The most important reason for the retention of this policy in the post-war period is that the purpose for which new money is to be used has a bearing on its inflationary impact. The details of administration of selective advance control are revised from time to time in the light of the needs of the economic situation. On the whole the application of the rules prescribed by the Reserve Bank has been left to the trading banks themselves, with only marginal cases referred to the Reserve Bank for decision. The main emphasis throughout has been on avoidance of the use of bank credit for long-term capital purposes, hire-purchase finance, speculation, and the financing of excessive imports. In August 1961 a considerable tightening of credit was announced, and the trading banks were asked to restrain advances and avoid the granting of new overdraft limits wherever possible; particular reference was made to importers and to the granting of advances for the payment of taxation.

The qualitative controls over bank investments and advances have been and still are operated by arrangement. The new section 45A added to the Reserve Bank legislation in 1960 gave a statutory authority for such controls. This statutory power has not yet been invoked.

Quantitative -The advance control policy outlined above was supplemented in 1952 by the quantitative control of advances provided for in section 45 of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act and reliance is now placed mainly on the quantitative method of control through the reserve ratio procedure and discount rate policy. Section 45 authorises the Governor of the Bank, with the consent of the Minister of Finance, to vary the statutory reserve ratios of the trading banks, but not so as to be less than 7 per cent of their demand liabilities and 3 per cent of their time liabilities.

Commencing in 1952, by progressive increases in these ratios, the minimum balances the trading banks are required to maintain at the Reserve Bank were adjusted so as to reduce the margin of free cash (balances in excess of the minimum required) held by the trading banks. The Reserve Bank stated, in announcing the May 1953 increase, that the actual balances held by the trading banks at the Reserve Bank had been considerably in excess of the statutory minimum, and that this excess was a potential basis for an expansion of bank credit which would be inflationary in its effect and add to the difficulty of maintaining the external balance of payments. By the second half of 1954 this margin had been substantially reduced and some banks had to borrow from the Reserve Bank to comply with the ratio requirements. During 1954 the Reserve Bank's discount rate (the rate charged on advances to the trading banks) was raised in two steps from 1 1/2 (effective since 1941) to 4 per cent. During 1955–56 and 1956–57 the ratios were kept at high levels and the discount rate was raised during 1955 in three further steps to 7 per cent, at which rate the banks were required at times to borrow substantially from the Reserve Bank. The changes made in the discount rate are set out later, where discount rate policy is fully covered. Since 1957 a flexible policy of control has been followed. Following firm pressure on the trading banks in the 1958–59 financial year, from May 1959 the aim was to achieve stability in the volume of bank advances and not to induce a further contraction in bank lending. In recognition of the more favourable situation which developed towards the end of 1959, the Reserve Bank's discount rate was reduced to 6 per cent in October 1959. Since November 1960 the policy of restraint has been resumed, and the discount rate was raised to 7 per cent in March 1961. During 1961 the tighter credit policy pursued meant that the reserve ratios were altered frequently, the objective being to keep the margin of free cash held by the banks fairly constant. The ratios had to be adjusted as the banks' balances at the Reserve Bank increased or decreased.

The following table shows the changes that have taken place in the reserve ratios since 1 January 1960. On 31 May 1956 the Reserve Bank announced changes in the method of calculating the minimum balances which the trading banks must hold at the Reserve Bank. The main change made was that banks' holdings of Reserve Bank notes would for the purposes of reserve ratio requirements count as though they were deposits at the Reserve Bank standing to the credit of the trading banks, provided that the minimum balance maintained at the Reserve Bank was still 7 per cent of demand liabilities and 3 per cent of time liabilities as laid down in the Reserve Bank Act. Alterations in the ratios from 1934 to 31 May 1956 are shown on page 855 of the 1958 Yearbook. These will not be comparable with figures after 1 June 1956 because of the inclusion in the minimum cash requirements since this date of Reserve Bank notes held. Ratios from 1 June 1956 to the end of 1959 are shown on page 893 of the 1961 issue of the Yearbook.

Date of ChangePercentage of New Zealand Liabilities Required to be Maintained by Trading Date of Banks as Minimum Deposits with Change Reserve Bank or in the Form of Reserve Bank Notes Held by the Trading Banks
 DemandTime
      1960  
15 Mar2210
29 Apr2910
23 May3210
8 Jul3510
15 Aug3810
9 Sep3410
7 Nov3610
      1961  
6 Mar2010
30 Mar1510
14 Apr2110
21 Apr2310
28 Apr2510
19 May2710
2 Jun2610
20 Jun2810
23 Jun2910
4 Jul2710
7 Jul2610
21 Aug2810
1961  
8 Sep2610
15 Sep2310
29 Sep2110
13 Oct2310
20 Oct2410
10 Nov2510
20 Nov2810
15 Dec3110
22 Dec3510
      1962  
19 Jan3810
2 Feb3610
9 Feb3510
20 Feb3910
23 Feb4010
9 Mar2010
23 Mar1810
30 Mar1510
6 Apr2110
13 Apr2410
19 Apr2710

In 1956, as shown in the paragraphs on overdraft and discount rates given later, the trading banks were permitted to increase the interest rate on overdrafts as part of the policy of credit restraint with flexibility. In March 1961 (when the discount rate was increased to 7 per cent) the banks were urged to make more use of interest rates as a means of discouraging advances, and to raise their rates closer to the permitted maximum average rate of 5 1/2 per cent.

Debits — The following table shows weekly averages of bank debits.

YearDebits Other Than GovernmentGovernment Debits
£(000)
195056,2427,120
195170,2348,496
195270,5549,951
195373,99610,063
195484,62510,792
195590,31710,809
195691,97611,172
1957100,92211,868
1958103,83713,331
1959105,07814,518
1960120,81815,998
1961128,65616,791

Debits represent the total amount debited to customers' accounts at all branches. These figures, which have been compiled from the weekly returns furnished by the trading banks to the Government Statistician, give a reasonable indication of changes in the volume of business. Government debits with trading banks fell to comparatively small proportions as a consequence of the opening of the Reserve Bank, but the upward movement in evidence since 1936 has been more marked over recent years.

Averages of debits (other than Government) for the four or five weeks ending on the last Wednesday of each of the quarter months for the latest five years are now given.

Month19571958195919601961
£(thousand)
March120,273130,150124,654140,154162,909
June99,834101,554103,843123,951129,049
September90,32689,740100,998118,516122,764
December113,291120,175126,131142,535140,170

Unexercised Overdraft Authorities — The following are the averages for calendar years and the amounts at the end of June of aggregate unexercised overdraft authorities of the trading banks.

YearAverage for Calendar YearAt End of June
£(000)
195064,17863,116
195172,23076,425
195269,88868,825
195393,46493,095
1954110,298111,653
1955100,819100,087
195694,56795,035
1957103,743106,228
1958105,714102,759
1959117,278116,692
1960131,298130,987
1961123,306124,271

NOTES ES CIRCULATION — As indicated elsewhere, the Reserve Bank assumed the note-issuing function on 1 August 1934. As from 10 January 1935 the notes of the trading banks ceased to be legal tender, while on 1 August 1936 the liability for the remaining outstanding trading-bank notes was taken over by the Reserve Bank, thus completing the process of the transfer of the note issue to the Reserve Bank. The following table shows the weekly average note circulation for the latest 11 calendar years, and the position as at the last Wednesday in June for the latest five years.

YearTotal Note IssueNotes Held by Trading BanksNet Note Circulation
£(thousand)
Weekly Average for Calendar Year
195160,36111,39148,970
195262,25211,27350,978
195364,03510,64853,387
195469,23311,54157,692
195570,08710,63159,456
195670,90410,91759,987
195774,26313,04761,216
195876,23014,13562,095
195977,03114,33962,692
196081,50015,87065,630
196184,47016,62367,847
At End of June
195772,71212,05060,662
195873,88213,25860,624
195975,03813,12161,917
196078,61413,93964,675
196181,89015,17466,716

The following diagram of notes in circulation based on weekly averages illustrates the expansion in the note issue since the year 1911.

NOTES IN CIRCULATION

The rise in net note circulation largely reflects the increase in incomes and in the total volume of money (coin, notes, bank demand deposits), the proportion of notes to the total volume of money remaining at a level of approximately 20 per cent. Other reasons include a rise in the number of cash transactions and in price levels.

An analysis of the net bank-note circulation, as at the last balance day in June, is compiled by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, and the figures are contained in the following table.

Last Balance Day in JuneReserve Bank Note Issue (Excluding Trading Bank Holdings)Total Reserve Bank Issue in CirculationTrading Banks' Notes OutstandingTotal Net Note Circulation
10s.£1£5£10£50
£(thousand)
19511,2819,41227,8336,8652,69748,08835648,443
19521,3349,28428,7877,5712,81049,78735550,142
19531,3789,31230,1858,4593,05952,39435352,747
19541,4939,48732,7799,7663,25956,78435257,136
19551,5379,54634,00410,2493,31658,65335159,004
19561,5869,42334,32510,6593,15259,14535059,495
19571,6119,48234,77611,3193,12460,31235060,662
19581,6999,43634,62011,4933,02860,27534960,624
19591,6969,71935,68111,5282,94561,56934861,917
19601,7479,84837,70512,0672,96064,32734864,675
19611,82510,42739,07512,0582,98466,36934766,716

OVERSEAS ASSETS OF BANKS — Under section 46 of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1933 the trading banks are required to supply returns to the Reserve Bank at monthly intervals, showing, inter alia, overseas assets held and liabilities incurred on account of New Zealand business. The figures for net overseas assets in the following table include, in addition to sterling exchange, the Reserve Bank holdings of foreign exchange and overseas investments, less its liabilities in other currencies.

YearTrading Banks' Overseas AssetsReserve Bank's Overseas AssetsGross Overseas AssetsOverseas Liabilities ofNet Overseas Assets
In LondonElsewhereSterling ExchangeOther Overseas AssetsTrading BanksReserve Bank

* Included in the item “Other Overseas Assets” after 1951 are sterling investments. These amounted to £26,390,000 at the end of June 1960, and the weekly average for the calendar year 1960 was £23,176,000. Prior to 15 August 1951 the corresponding amounts were shown under the “Sterling Exchange” heading.

£N.Z.(thousand)
Monthly Average for Calendar Year
195132,0645,26661,53715,259114,12610,05450104,022
195219,9046,66723,744*31,954*82,2689,5865072,633
195321,7113,87259,41423,948108,9465,33943103,564
195421,3384,64674,11324,236124,3326,24186118,005
195520,2105,43746,03623,61395,2966,9524288,302
195620,1435,87039,04327,60292,6576,7027085,886
195719,9096,47438,22928,66093,2716,7186386,490
195815,0437,34026,42914,38763,1999,1771,94352,079
195919,1806,41659,10314,30699,0047,1631,90289,940
196021,0176,15252,43724,548104,1556,5655297,538
196117,0996,48211,30428,98763,87210,15212153,600
At End of June
195141,7745,19278,1205,820130,9057,473116123,316
195223,9776,76220,741*34,411*85,89211,2139074,588
195328,1103,58065,89524,856122,4444,789100117,555
195423,6834,47893,51924,363146,0436,83139139,173
195525,4715,77554,34023,594109,1795,418120103,642
195619,5576,03451,71528,318105,6245,9154299,667
195729,1196,23954,98928,229118,5765,47034113,071
195815,9299,08822,68514,53362,2359,3242552,885
195923,0666,84762,84214,143106,8986,055134100,709
196025,5005,30867,14026,910124,8585,967159118,732
196121,6866,42313,39432,22973,73111,51717762,037

The 1951 totals reflect the high prices ruling for primary produce, notably wool, during the earlier part of the year, while 1952 figures reflect the heavy payments made to finance the excess of import payments over export receipts during that year. The effects of the exchange allocation scheme resulting in smaller payments on account of imports, together with the higher export receipts, were largely instrumental in increasing net overseas assets in 1953 and 1954. Largely on account of the greater volume of imports there was a marked fall in overseas assets in 1955, and the same factor, associated with reduced export prices for dairy produce, caused a further fall in the latter part of 1957, the December 1957 figure being the lowest December figure since 1942.

The overseas assets were supplemented in 1958 by Government borrowing overseas totalling £45 million. The volume of imports was reduced by over 3 per cent at prices comparable with 1957, whilst the volume of exports increased by 6 per cent but at prices 15 per cent lower than in 1957. There was thus a deterioration of 15 per cent in New Zealand's terms of trade. A substantial improvement in the terms of trade occurred in 1959, as well as another significant increase in the volume of exports. There was also a marked fall in the volume of imports as a result of import control and reduced domestic demand. These factors were the main causes of a 73 per cent rise in the overseas assets of the banking system. The rise would have been greater had not the Government repaid £3.6 million in respect of one of the short-term loans raised in 1958, and invested £11.9 million (net) overseas. In 1960 higher payments for private imports and a slight decrease in export receipts resulted in overseas assets dropping from £88 million at the end of 1959 to £66 million at the end of 1960. This pattern was repeated in 1961 and overseas assets dropped to £49 million by the end of 1961.

The following diagram shows the movement in the net amount of overseas assets from 1939 onwards, the first portion showing the figures as at the end of December and the second portion as at the end of June in each year quoted.

net oversea assets

OVERSEAS EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS — Statistics of overseas exchange transactions include transactions both through the banking system and through the Government's overseas accounts. A full classification of overseas exchange transactions for the calendar years 1960 and 1961, showing details for the sterling area, dollar area, and other countries separately, in addition to the overall figures, is given below; figures for 1950 to 1959 are given in preceding issues of the Yearbook.

Item19601961
Sterling AreaDollar AreaOther CountriesTotalSterling AreaDollar AreaOther CountriesTotal
NOTE — Minus sign (-) denotes a deficit.
 £N.Z.(thousand)
Current itemsReceipts
    Exports–
      Butter41,7925102,40344,70540,21644569041,351
      Cheese17,9546528618,69318,0791,53223619,847
      Meat51,62522,16076477,54952,62823,3164,49180,436
      Wool34,59016,26359,680104,53432,98916,81553,087102,891
      Other32,36910,35911,80354,53126,17011,13913,51750,826
Totals, export receipts178,33149,94571,735300,011170,08253,24772,021295,350
    Transport5,731116655,9115,4604861086,055
    Insurance1,58514501,65098046151,041
    Travel (excluding fares)2,813746303,5893,057841293,938
    International investment income–
      Interest and dividends5,65730775,9724,06734074,415
      Other investment income4591981266852614211680
    New Zealand Government receipts, and expenditure by other Governments in New Zealand1,6877242522,6631,1776043442,125
    Miscellaneous–
      Commissions, royalties933320741,3271,0813081101,49
      Expenses of business firms764252401,056860815699
      Personal receipts, legacies, and immigrants' transfers6,7507672217,7387,2149552578,427
      Other current transactions57922043841824182661,073
Totals, current205,29053,60872,527331,425195,33857,23373,027325,599
Capital transfers–
      Private7,2291,0341838,4458,3061,88616110,354
      Government5,6645,66433,58317,444-–51,028
Totals, capital12,8921,03418314,10941,88919,33116261,382
Cook Islands exports105112634131663
Unidentified6027896715379
Grand totals, receipts218,25254,67472,729345,656237,33276,58373,208387,123
Current items–Payments
    Imports–
      Private191,22040,73423,892255,846203,18841,87727,414272,479
      Government19,7003,02323522,95822,0312,04631824,394
Totals, import payments210,92043,75724,126278,804225,21943,92327,732296,873
    Transport11,79199462613,41111,91091676913,594
    Insurance–
      Premiums44176455600116617
      Claims148915884144103
      Other transfers2,2194442,2672,1745372,233
    Travel (excluding fares)11,2761,09852612,90012,9401,21677514,932
    International investment income–
      Interest and dividend?4,6822,053906,8245,8932,625648,583
      Other investment income2,9947291443,8683,303500503,854
      Government interest4,5607715,3314,6196585,277
      Local authority interest83833031
    Government expenditure overseas8,6205125279,6597,7586456599,063
    Miscellaneous–
      Commissions, royalties, and rebates1,4018578363,0922,0909585793,627
      Expenses of business firms3,771964744,8083,7091,4171675,293
      Film hire and entertainment342862161,22035785991,224
      Religious and charitable1,306253121,6431,607254252,057
      Personal remittances, legacies, and emigrants' transfers6,0524492476,7475,8894953266,709
      Transfers by temporary residents2,235197992,5312,0182271072,353
      Other current transactions1,033238961,3681,1553181381,611
Totals, current273,87553,56527,728355,169291,35654,85931,819378,034
Capital Transfers–
    Private3,9875461784,7114,9821,345506,378
    Government7,5704,85012,4217,46111,71419,175
    Local authority6396391 1
Totals, capital12,1955,39717817,77012,44413,0595025,554
Cook Islands imports12726121651163814168
Grand totals, payments286,19758,98827,919373,104303,91767,95631,882403,755
Surplus of receipts over payments−67,945−4,314+44,811−27,448−66,585+8,627+41,326−16,632

The next table gives overseas exchange transactions in summary form for a number of June years, which fit more closely to the farm-production export season than do calendar years. Information for calendar years over a similar period is in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

ItemYear Ended 30 June
195319541955195619571958195919601961
 £N.Z.(million)
 Receipts
Exports–
    Butter49.646.236.452.339.637.551.959.940.3
    Cheese17.420.69.722.817.113.922.719.218.3
    Meat48.354.646.671.674.471.979.674.782.6
    Wool80.590.293.194.1106.687.386.9111.5100.0
    Other38.733.334.240.448.546.348.755.952.8
Other than exports23.536.553.838.344.555.369.438.457.8
Totals258.1281.3273.7319.6330.9311.9359.3359.5351.9
 Payments
Government imports28.124.219.824.528.732.627.322.425.5
Government other payments12.014.618.913.015.219.320.936.326.8
Private imports154.9187.3242.4238.6238.3270.5211.5227.2287.5
Private other payments28.530.035.148.841.949.258.658.669.6
Totals223.4256.1316.1324.8324.0371.6318.3344.5409.5
Surplus (+) or deficit (-)+ 34.7+ 25.2−42.3−5.2+ 6.9−59.7+41.0+ 15.0−57.6

Overseas Travel Allowances - On 4 December 1959 the Reserve Bank announced that funds allocated to New Zealand residents for overseas travel, whether for business or non-business purposes, would be available for use in any country of the world.

Prior to this, limits had been placed on the amounts which could be spent in the dollar countries, in Scandinavia, and on the Continent of Europe.

During the severe exchange crisis of 1958 the amount of travel funds made available for non-business purposes was limited to a maximum of £750 per person a year. In July 1960 the limit was raised by £500 for travellers who had not received an allocation for pleasure travel during the previous three years, but in April 1961 the figure of £1,250 was reduced to £1,000 and the qualifying term extended from three to five years.

Exchange Allocation Scheme — In order to assist in measures for strengthening the sterling area reserves and the balance of payments generally, the Government of New Zealand in March 1952 made certain decisions designed to ensure an increased surplus in New Zealand's overall balance of payments with non-sterling countries from an estimated £5 million for 1952 to £25 million on an annual basis (June year 1952–53). Measures listed covered the cancellation of licences issued for imports from all “scheduled” countries (the United States of America, Canada, and Japan were the countries with which New Zealand was principally concerned); new licences were required for all subsequent imports from these countries; the importation of motor vehicles from all countries was brought under import licensing control; there was no general imposition of import licensing in respect of sterling area countries; endeavours were made to expand primary production for export by providing alternative sources of supplies of agricultural fertiliser on a larger scale; and. the Murupara pulp and paper project for the production of newsprint and pulp for export was pressed forward.

Except with the approval of the Reserve Bank, trading banks were advised not to sell to any importer during 1952 more than 80 per cent of the 1950 amount of exchange sold to him. This amount was the importer's basic allocation, and where foreign exchange in excess of this basic allocation was required application was to be made to the Reserve Bank.

This was followed in August 1952 by a decision to retain the existing exchange allocation scheme, with modifications, in 1953. With the high level of demand for exchange still continuing and the need to maintain reserves to provide a reasonable margin for contingencies in view of the 1952 deficit in overseas receipts over payments, the Reserve Bank was not prepared to draw further on reserves. Accordingly, except with the approval of the Reserve Bank, trading banks were advised not to sell to any importer during the whole of 1953 more than 40 per cent of the amount of exchange sold in 1950 to that importer for non-Government imports other than motor vehicles, and goods paid for under third-party certificates received from other licensed importers. This procedure provided, as formerly, for the basic allocations of exchange, and where importers required more than this quota they could make application to the Reserve Bank.

In July 1953 the Reserve Bank announced that, because of the high level of demand for overseas exchange to pay for imports, the exchange allocation scheme inaugurated in April 1952 would be continued in 1954. An important modification of the scheme was the announcement of a list of goods, payment for which would not require the authority of an exchange allocation. The trading banks were advised that, without the approval of the Reserve Bank and excepting payment for goods classed as “released items”, they were not to sell to any importer in 1954 more than 50 per cent (increased in November 1953 to 75 per cent) of the exchange sold in 1950 to that importer for non-Government imports other than motor vehicles, goods paid for under third-party certificates received, and goods which in 1954 would be classed as “released items”. This procedure provided, as formerly, for basic allocations of exchange, and where importers required more than this quota they could make application to the Reserve Bank.

The Prime Minister announced on 22 July 1954 that the exchange allocation system introduced in August 1952 was to be terminated as from 1 January 1955. Following this statement, the Reserve Bank made certain relaxations for the remainder of the 1954 year (e.g., additional allocations already granted could be used to pay for any items mentioned in the application instead of only those items specifically detailed in the approval, and could be used at any time during the rest of 1954), while allocations made up to termination date would not be linked to tariff items.

The Prime Minister announced en 1 January 1958 that a policy of overall import licensing would be instituted immediately. The new measures were designed to meet the deterioration in overseas reserves, which fell to £45.5 million on 25 December 1957. Under the new policy overseas funds would be allocated to meet all basic needs for imported foodstuffs and as far as possible factories would get raw materials to the full amount required.

On 2 January 1958 the Minister of Customs gave details of the new policy and stated that, as from 1 January 1958, all imports, apart from a few necessary exceptions, would require licences. The former Import Licensing Schedule for 1958, released in August 1957, was withdrawn and a new schedule made available in its place.

Although the overseas exchange position improved during 1958 and 1959, the improvement was not sufficient to justify any major relaxations of exchange control policy. The Import Licensing Schedule for 1960 provided for a much higher value of imports than was permitted in 1958 and 1959, and the 1961 Schedule provided for another easing of the import licensing allocations. In 1961 the reserves of overseas exchange fell to a dangerously low level, and the Government adopted restrictive measures for imports and extended the 1961 licensing period to 30 June 1962.

Although exchange-control approval is required for all overseas remittances it is not practicable to curtail payments, other than for imports, to any significant extent by a more restrictive exchange-control policy, as they are predominantly legitimate commercial transactions of a contractual nature. Hence variations of policy have to be virtually confined to personal remittances and to travel expenditure.

Administrative details on import and export control and exchange allocation are set out in Section 22A.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK: Establishment — The establishment of the Post Office Savings Bank was authorised by the Post Office Savings Bank Act 1865, but actual business did not commence until 1 February 1867, when branches were established at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Hokitika. The present authority is contained in the Post Office Act 1959.

Branches — There are now 1,050 branches of the bank throughout New Zealand. Deposits may be made at any of these branches. A full demand withdrawal service is provided at 179 branches which have ledgers, and a limited demand service is provided at the remaining non-ledger offices (see page 887 — withdrawal services).

Accounts Available — To meet the savings requirements of all sections of the community, the bank offers the following types of accounts: Ordinary Post Office Savings Bank; Thrift Club; Home Lay-by; Investment; National Savings; School Savings Bank. Descriptions of the several types of accounts are given later under appropriate headings.

Deposits, etc. — Any sum of 1s. or more, may be deposited to ordinary, Thrift Club, Home Lay-by, and School Savings Bank accounts.

The conditions concerning deposits to Investment accounts and National Savings accounts are mentioned later.

During the year ended 31 March 1961, deposits to ordinary Savings Bank accounts, Thrift Club accounts, Home Lay-by accounts, and Investment accounts totalled £182,129,519 and withdrawals £166,785,438, which represented an increase in the value of deposits of £23,977,015 and an increase in the value of withdrawals of £20,127,610 over the previous year.

The number of deposits made was 7,119,389 and the number of withdrawals 4,163,667. The figures for the previous year were 6,676,778 and 3,872,730 respectively. The total number of accounts open increased by 57,638 to reach 1,883,675 and the total amount at credit of depositors' accounts at £306,467,048 was £23,533,284 greater than the previous year. Interest (including Investment account interest) credited to depositors for the year amounted to £8,189,203. The average amount at credit of each account was £163.

The following table covering the activities of the Post Office Savings Bank includes Savings Bank, Thrift Club, Home Lay-by, and Investment accounts, but does not include either School Savings Bank accounts, or National Savings Investment accounts, which are referred to later.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Depositors at End of MarchTotal Amount of DepositsInterestTotal Amount of Withdrawals*Excess of Deposits, Plus Interest, Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of March

*From January 1958 includes interest paid out on investment accounts.

 (000) £(thousand)  
19521,45098,2064,08093,7498,537184,639
19531,48699,1264,20896,7006,634191,274
19541,521109,3404,44399,13514,648205,922
19551,555117,8814,711112,8429,749215,671
19561,585118,3124,854118,6574,509220,180
19571,650131,4446,301121,31916,425236,606
19581,720149,0246,869133,99421,900258,505
19591,778141,8377,274143,7035,408263,913
19601,826158,1537,526146,65819,021282,934
19611,884182,1308,189166,78523,534306,468
19621,938187,0718,564183,25612,379318,846

The securities standing in the name of the Postmaster-General on account of the Post Office Savings Bank Fund on 31 March 1961 represented a nominal value of £309,758,276. A summary of the investments is as follows.

 £
New Zealand Government securities307,497,780
Securities held in London2,260,496
Total£309,758,276

Post Office Savings Bank Accounts Classified by Amount Groups — The following is a classification of the balances in Post Office Savings Bank accounts, Thrift Club accounts, Home Lay-by accounts, and Investment accounts, shown by amount groups and percentage of accounts within each group.

Amount GroupAt 31 March 1959At 31 March 1960At 31 March 1961
Number of AccountsPercentage of TotalNumber of AccountsPercentage of TotalNumber of AccountsPercentage of Total
£ 
Under 1359,09320.19359,55119.69379,30120.14
1 and under 10455,40925.67457,12925.03476,38925.29
10 and under 50359,53220.22376,05020.59376,92520.01
50 and under 100147,7468.30153,5068.41156,5338.31
100 and under 200139,6207.85145,6307.97146,7757.79
200 and under 30078,4844.4182,0074.4982,2854.37
300 and under 40051,1802.8952,9842.9054,1512.87
400 and under 50038,8332.1840,5062.2241,2622.19
500 and under 60029,6171.6630,7711.6832,4191.72
600 and under 70018,9391.0620,6351.1322,2111.18
700 and under 80014,8020.8316,5100.9917,2200.91
800 and under 90012,0700.6712,7020.6613,4710.72
900 and under 1,00010,4700.5811,0300.5711,7030.62
1,000 and under 1,50031,4441.7633,6171.8436,5901.94
1,500 and under 2,00012,8730.7213,3850.7314,4820.77
2,000 and under 3,00011,6410.6512,1250.6413,1920.70
3,000 and under 4,0003,7820.214,3530.244,3370.23
4,000 and under 5,0001,7100.091,8620.102,4110.13
5,000 and over1,1810.061,6840.102,0180.11
Total number of accounts1,778,426100.001,826,037100.001,883,675100.00

Withdrawal Services:Demand Withdrawals — When application is made at the ledger office where the account is held, a depositor may make a withdrawal on demand to the full extent of his account balance. Demand withdrawals may also be made at any other of the 1,050 Savings Bank offices, but the amount which may be obtained is limited. If the depositor's specimen signature is on file at the office of application he may withdraw on demand up to £100 in any week. Alternatively, if a specimen signature is not on file he may withdraw on demand up to £20 in any week, provided he can establish his identity. A depositor may have his specimen signature placed on file at any number of offices and because of this provision he may obtain funds without notice while travelling anywhere in New Zealand.

Other Means of Making Withdrawals — Either the postal or telegraph service may be used where the amount required is more than the limit authorised by the demand withdrawal system. Postal applications are forwarded to the office where the account is held and payment is made later at the accepting office. If desired the depositor can request that the amount be telegraphed to the accepting office. Alternatively, the application may be telegraphed both ways. No charge is made for telegraph withdrawals payable at Savings Bank offices within the same postal district as the ledger office. For withdrawals outside the postal district a charge of 1s. is made if the application is forwarded by post and the reply telegraphed. For telegraph service both ways a charge of 2s. is made.

Ordinary Savings Bank Accounts — These form the bulk of Post Office Savings Bank accounts. An account may be opened individually, jointly with another person, or as a trustee or beneficiary in a trust account. Clubs, societies, sports bodies, and any other non-mercantile body may also have these accounts, and organisations of this type have been able to operate under a cheque system since 1 March 1959.

Thrift Club Accounts — These accounts are designed to meet the needs of salary and wage earners who wish to save something each pay day to provide for annual recurring charges. Thrift Club accounts may be opened by any group of persons. In most cases, employees have a nominated amount deducted from their salary or wages each pay day for crediting to a Thrift Club account in their own name. Where this system does not operate the persons may themselves appoint an agent to collect from members and make the deposits. A passbook is issued to each depositor who may operate on the account in the same way as an ordinary account.

At 31 March 1961 there were 124,736 accounts open, the amount at credit being £6,349,884.

Home Lay-by Accounts — These accounts were introduced on 1 July 1957. Their main feature is a suspensory free deposit of £5 for every £100 saved with a maximum of £50. These accounts may be operated on in the same way as ordinary accounts and they earn the same rates of interest, in addition to the suspensory free deposit. The free deposit does not become payable until evidence is furnished that the funds are being used for the purchase or building of a home for the depositor's own occupancy. The first free deposits under this system became payable on 1 July 1959.

At 31 March 1961 there were 2,890 accounts open, the amount at credit being £880,556.

Investment Accounts — These accounts were introduced on 1 October 1957. They are a type of fixed deposit and accounts may be opened by any person or any organisation, including business concerns. The minimum deposit is £100 and deposits above £100 must be in multiples of £10. Any number of deposits may be made, but they must not exceed £10,000 in the aggregate in any year commencing on 1 October. The minimum term of investment is one year and deposits not withdrawn are automatically reinvested. Withdrawals are permitted at any time, but if any are required in the first year one week's notice in writing is required except in the case of business concerns. The interest rates are:

  • For every complete yea; and any part of a year after the first two — 3 1/2 per cent per year.

  • On amounts withdrawn in the first three months of the first year — 1 per cent per year.

  • On amounts withdrawn after three months in the first year — 2 per cent per year.

  • On amounts withdrawn during the second year (the full rate being received for the completed year) — 2 1/2 per cent per year.

  • On 31 March 1961, 7,774 Investment accounts were open with a total credit balance of £10,794,351.

Letters of Credit — This system has been superseded to a large extent by the demand-withdrawal system introduced in December 1956 and the demand is declining each year. The letter of credit (like the demand withdrawal) avoids the necessity of carrying large amounts in cash, and is there-fore, popular with people travelling, particularly at holiday times. The depositor completes an application for a withdrawal from his account and instead of cash receives a letter of credit, the maximum amount for each being £50, but more than one letter of credit may be obtained if desired. The fee payable is 7d. for the first £10 and 3d. for each additional £5 or part thereof.

During the year ended 31 March 1961, 331 letters of credit were issued, the value of these being £12,519. These figures represent a decrease of 149 in number and £5,515 in value on the 1960 issues.

Estates — The Postmaster-General may pay deposits to a maximum of £200 from any type of account to the legal representative of a deceased depositor without requiring him to take out letters of administration or to prove the will. Where there is more than one type of account the aggregate balances must not exceed £200, except in the case of a National Savings account, for which a separate maximum of £200 is permitted. This provision, together with another whereby a depositor may nominate one or more persons to receive part or all of the amount at credit of a Post Office Savings Bank, Thrift Club, or a Home Lay-by account after the depositor's death, enables the next-of-kin to obtain possession of perhaps much-needed funds without delay or cost.

School Savings Bank — The School Savings Bank scheme was introduced in 1934 with the object of encouraging thrift amongst young people. The aim of the scheme is to promote the habit of regular banking every week, so that upon commencing work the depositor will transfer his account to the Post Office Savings Bank and continue his weekly bankings out of his wages or salary.

Each depositor has a passbook, and the lodgement of deposits is made to teachers at the school, the cash and deposits slips being handed in later at the Post Office. Separate accounts for each depositor are held at the savings bank ledger office nearest to the school, and depositors may make withdrawals at their ledger office or by savings bank money order. Interest is payable at ordinary Post Office Savings Bank rates.

Since the inception of the scheme more than 140,000 children have transferred their School Savings Bank Accounts to the Post Office Savings Bank to form the nucleus of adult savings accounts.

A table showing the transactions in School Savings Bank accounts during the last 11 years is appended.

Year Ended 31 DecemberNumber of Schools Operating at End of YearTotal Number of Deposit Transactions During YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearTotal Number of Withdrawal Transactions During YearTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Over WithdrawalsInterest CreditedTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year

* Includes amounts transferred to Post Office Savings Bank.

   £ ££££
19511,395881,768168,24718,341107,99660,2518,862420,858
19521,5101,026,433187,22418,850123,67163,55310,529494,940
19531,6251,210,671218,55121,906135,37583,17612,593590,709
19541,6901,356,836254,84026,220180,54674,29414,749679,752
19551,7491,423,153264,87427,448201,89062,98416,490759,226
19561,8321,482,049284,55530,265212,94571,61020,763851,600
19571,9831,966,880366,06832,282231,671134,39725,5011,011,499
19582,1022,258,474409,04238,625289,842119,20029,8771,160,575
19592,1362,407,448431,56049,814422,3399,22133,4791,203,276
19602,2022,627,329478,98549,106396,70682,27935,8311,321,385
19612,2352,709,065501,40849,403430,72770,68138,6511,430,717

On 31 December 1961 there were 264,861 School Savings Bank accounts open.

TRUSTEE SAVINGS BANKS — The trustee savings bank movement is generally regarded as having originated in Scotland in 1810. The movement spread quickly, and the first such New Zealand Bank was established in Wellington in 1846, 20 years before the New Zealand Post Office Savings Bank commenced business. By 1870 nine trustee banks were in existence, but four, namely Lyttelton, Wellington, Napier, and Nelson did not survive the turn of the century. The five remaining banks — Auckland (1847), New Plymouth (1850), Dunedin (1864), Southland (1864), and Hokitika (1866) — have grown in strength and their activities have become an important factor in New Zealand's economic structure. An Order in Council of 22 January 1959 authorised the establishment of a further trustee savings bank, to be known as the Waikato Savings Bank, with a head office at Hamilton. The bank opened for business on 29 June 1959, and by the end of the first year of operations the amount to the credit of depositors had reached £1 million, a target which it had been anticipated would take three years to reach, while the £2 million mark was reached in June 1961.

The legislation dealing with trustee savings banks is contained chiefly in the Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948, a consolidation of previous enactments. The Act prohibited the formation of new trustee banks and also laid down that no branch office or agency was to be established more than 25 miles from the head office. This prohibition was modified by an amending Act of 1957, by which provision was made for the establishment of new trustee savings banks by Order in Council, subject to such terms and conditions as may be specified, and it was under such an Order in Council that the new savings bank was established at Hamilton. Not less than 50 per cent of investments must be held in the form of Government stock, and at least 5 per cent of depositors' balances are to be kept as cash in hand or on current account. Repayment of deposits is guaranteed by the State.

In addition to ordinary deposits, recent legislation empowers trustee savings banks to accept investments similarly to the Post Office Savings Bank, by way of deposits in Home Lay-by or Investment accounts. The maximum rates of interest payable on deposits are fixed by Order in Council. Maximum rates payable on these and other deposits are given on page 900.

The total amount to credit of depositors at 31 March 1961 was £73,852,000.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Depositors at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Over WithdrawalsInterest CreditedTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
* Excess of withdrawals over deposits.
 No.  £(thousand)  
1951359,78020,72019,6101,11083936,893
1952365,70122,93722,37356487738,334
1953371,40422,64523,012−367*88638,854
1954376,42724,32122,9581,36291541,132
1955382,35726,92426,18873795842,826
1956389,25729,20828,2659431,01644,785
1957400,39533,43130,4083,0241,29949,108
1958412,49140,32234,9735,3491,48055,937
1959424,17539,34138,3899521,60458,493
1960441,70345,54840,7124,8361,71765,045
1961462,94955,93349,0676,8661,94073,852

NOTE — This statement does not include national savings investment accounts.

The following table shows the results of the transactions, exclusive of National Savings investment accounts, of each of the trustee savings banks during the 12 months ended 31 March 1961.

BankNumber of Depositors at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Over WithdrawalsInterest CreditedTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
 No.  £(thousand)  
Auckland309,22332,18628,1714,0151,21045,630
Waikato6,9952,0661,0401,026341,848
New Plymouth36,3414,3033,7595441826,670
Hokitika3,0561971821517602
Dunedin64,3205,5175,0614552479,016
Invercargill43,01411,66410,85381125010,085
Totals462,94955,93349,0676,8661,94073,852

Following is a summary of trustee savings banks' assets at 31 March 1961. The total assets include an amount of £5,658,889 securing National Savings deposits, of which £5,652,910 is invested in New Zealand Government securities and £5,979 held in cash. Under the Trustee Savings Banks Act, however, National Savings deposits are not regarded as assets of the Trustee Savings Banks, and for this reason are shown separately.

BankMortgagesNew Zealand Government SecuritiesLocal Authority DebenturesCash in Hand and on Call at BankTotal Assets (Includes Other Assets but not National Savings Deposits)National Savings DepositsTotal Held Including National Savings Deposits

* Includes £85,000 deposits with banks on call and treated as cash at banks.

† Includes £250,000 deposits with banks on call and treated as cash at banks.

‡ Includes £200,000 deposits with banks on call and treated as cash at banks.

§ (Includes £550,000 deposits with banks on call and treated as cash at banks.

 £(thousand)
Auckland13,20925,8076,7532,85048,6193,30751,925
Waikato1181,439129187*1,8731,873
New Plymouth2,8773,2861147427,0187457,763
Hokitika2623103080683683
Dunedin3,5344,6026438169,5951,30210,897
Southland2,0485,1312,415946§10,54030510,846
Totals22,04940,57510,0835,62278,3275,65983,986

NATIONAL SAVINGS — The National Savings Act 1940 made provision for the issue of savings bonds and the opening of special savings accounts with the Post Office and the Auckland, New Plymouth, Dunedin, and Invercargill Trustee Savings banks. These investments bear interest at the rate of 3 1/2 per cent per year. The sale of National Savings bonds was discontinued as from 1 May 1956.

Deposits to National Savings accounts are accepted up to £10,000 in any one year commencing on 1 July and are invested for a two- to three-year period according to the date of deposit. Interest on amounts withdrawn before the term of investment has expired is credited at Post Office Savings Bank rates. Interest may be withdrawn from 1 July to end of December each year, but if not withdrawn it is compounded and becomes part of the principal.

The following table gives particulars of deposits, withdrawals, etc., in regard to National Savings accounts for the latest 11 years and the cumulative totals from the inception of the scheme.

Year Ended 31 MarchDepositsWithdrawalsInterest to 30 June, Previous YearAmount to Credit of Depositors
£(thousand)
19519,4695,3111,38653,214
195210,9746,5111,54259,218
195310,4198,4271,72062,930
195410,3299,6301,83965,469
195511,12810,2821,91268,228
195610,24011,0141,99869,451
19578,83613,0052,04067,322
19587,50912,9402,33164,222
19595,84311,1912,22861,102
19605,5609,8782,12458,908
19615,8649,2592,04657,559
Totals,1940–61154,992123,64226,209

The next table gives particulars of National Savings bonds sold and redeemed during the same period.

Year Ended 31 MarchValue of Bonds Sold*Value of Bonds Redeemed
* Sales discontinued from 1 May 1956.
 £(000)
19514991,644
1952537619
1953219712
1954360555
1955339550
1956201595
195742646
1958...272
1959...372
1960...398
1961...210
Totals, 1940–6115,83817,710

SMALL SAVINGS — The following table shows the total amounts of transactions in small savings accounts, including accounts in the Post Office Savings Bank and trustee savings banks, also National Savings accounts, but excluding national savings bonds and School Savings Bank accounts.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal Amount of DepositsInterestTotal Amount of Withdrawals*Excess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of March

* From January 1958 includes interest paid out on Investment accounts.

£(thousand)
1952132,1176,499122,63315,982282,191
1953132,1906,814128,13810,866293,058
1954143,9907,197131,72319,464312,522
1955155,9347,581149,31214,203326,725
1956157,7597,868157,9357,692334,417
1957173,7119,640164,73318,618353,035
1958196,85610,680181,90725,629378,665
1959187,02111,105193,2834,844383,508
1960209,26011,366197,24823,378406,887
1961243,92712,176225,11130,991437,878
1962254,04712,762249,91216,897454,774

DEPOSITS, ADVANCES, ETC.: STOCK AND STATION AGENCIES — Financial data as at 30 June 1961 (with totals for previous years) are given in two tables of deposits, advances, etc. for stock and station agencies operating in New Zealand. The statistics refer to the whole of the companies' trading operations including, in some cases, activities additional to normal stock and station transactions, such as retail trading in consumer goods.

The deposit figures include only moneys received for an agreed term and rate of interest and exclude amounts secured by mortgage or debenture, and amounts in credit on current account. Secured advances to customers include those made on mortgage or chattel security. The figure for merchandise and commodity stocks includes all types of trading stock which are regarded as current assets, but excludes livestock, goods held on consignment, or motor vehicles used by the company.

Returns were collected from 28 agencies.

DEPOSITS HELD (ORIGINAL TERM)
Rate of InterestCall and Under 3 Months3 Months and Under 6 Months6 Months and Under 12 Months12 Months and Under 2 Years2 Years and OverTotals, 30 June 1961Totals, 30 June 1960
per cent£££££££
1847847
1 1/4388
1 1/2275,485275,485433,807
1 3/41,1901,190534
2962,954400963,35495,118
2 1/41,0001,000
2 1/2280,340350280,690499,035
2 3/430030020,156
36,26722,467167,40237,31911,190244,645518,528
3 1/45,0005,0002,500
3 1/2215,721104,395320,116560,514
3 3/47,78593,710101,495182,185
43,00015,0001,181,0961,199,0961,294,735
4 1/460091,63092,230139,174
4 1/2310,360310,360365,798
4 3/422,79522,79524,509
52,500913,773916,273651,100
5 1/41,7611,7611,761
5 1/251,49051,49059,590
73,275
Totals, 19611,249,743304,207167,402284,2752,782,5004,788,1274,852,707
Totals, 19602,078,241156,101334,388246,2412,037,7364,852,707
Totals, 19591,219,35134,455207,961230,2021,688,5453,380,514
Totals, 1958539,89020,283112,930255,6181,676,2662,604,987
Totals, 19571,072,64715,265108,10768,4411,089,0562,353,516

Deposits held at 30 June 1961 showed a slight decrease of £64,580, or 1.3 per cent, on those at 30 June 1960. However, the June 1960 figures had shown a substantial increase of £1,472,193, or 13.5 per cent, on those 12 months earlier.

Interest rates paid continued to show some interesting movements compared with those paid at 30 June 1960, as the following table shows.

Interest Rates PaidProportion of Total Deposits on Which Interest Paid
At 30 June 1960At 30 June 1961
 Per CentPer Cent
Under 3 per cent21.631.8
3 per cent and under 5 per cent63.647.95
5 per cent and over14.820.25
 100.00100.00

This downward trend in interest rates, a sharp reversal of a previous upward trend, is attributable to the Interest on Deposits Order of 22 July 1960, which fixed maximum interest rates for deposits held.

The same order probably contributed to the switch from short-term to long-term deposits. Whereas at 30 June 1960, 42.8 per cent of deposits were at call and under 3 months and 42.0 per cent were for two years and over, at 30 June 1961 the comparable figures were 26.1 per cent and 58.1 per cent respectively.

A summary of the liquid position of stock and station agencies is given below.

ItemAt 30 June
19571958195919601961
 £(thousand)
Customers' credit balances on current account18,88715,70614,28417,78015,432
Advances to customers–
    (a) On current account (unsecured)16,55417,18517,11717,47419,550
    (b) Other advances (secured)9,11915,84316,42017,51720,420
Investments–
    (a) Government securities2,9392,0771,8532,2782,206
    (b) Fixed deposits4,2901,3968333,384875
    (c) Other investments8911,6741,4972,4913,248
Cash balances (in hand and at bank)3,9459041,7983,3691,254
Merchandise and commodity stocks9,98511,58212,35011,51713,214

Cash balances (in hand and at bank) at 30 June 1961 showed a drop of £2.1 million, while investments held also showed an overall decrease of £1.8 million. Merchandise and commodity stocks however increased by £1.7 million.

At 30 June 1961, while customers' credit balances dropped by £2.3 million, advances to customers increased by £5.0 million compared with 12 months earlier.

DEPOSITS WITH COMPANIES, ETC. — A summary of deposits with societies, finance companies, firms, and businesses as at 31 March 1961 (with totals for the previous year) is now given. The figures refer to interest-bearing deposits held for an agreed term, and exclude moneys received on mortgage or debenture security, or in the course of a mercantile current account. The figures of deposits with stock and station agents, given previously, are not included in the following table.

For this survey the coverage is believed to include nearly all companies, etc. accepting deposit moneys as defined.

Rate of Interest per Annum (Per Cent)Call and Under 3 Months3 Months and Under 6 Months6 Months and Under 12 Months12 Months and Under 2 Years2 Years and OverTotals
 ££££££
11,3611,361
1 1/2100,017100,017
23,101,0215007,600803,109,201
2 1/41,62319,33020,953
2 1/287,670150,84830,032268,550
2 3/4493100593
3830,70212,100890,42515,87241,9351,791,034
3 1/8 3002,1002,400
3 1/4154,9004,5006,00040,3897,950213,739
3 3/822,000 22,000
3 1/2274,27775,000644,807261,0161,255,100
3 3/4100,00069,000464,40022,315259,390915,105
481,20227,000288,40021,1082,109,8162,527,526
4 1/47001,3001,580235,085238,665
4 1/2429,64777,7101,384,9061,892,263
4 5/8 2,0502,050
4 3/45,000100323,397328,497
4 7/8100100
5154,89621,6804,31463,9276,860,0167,104,833
5 1/430,000118,579148,579
5 1/268,78096,378143,215308,373
5 3/423419,62019,854
6189,24454,62711,31024,086322,349601,616
6 1/271,58137,600109,181
6 3/41,0001,000 
751,92013,0452,95043,124113,317224,356
7 1/41,5001,500
7 1/24,7101,50010,3006,50021,30544,315
827,565220,91610,38871,55351,142381,564
8 1/244,48585045,335
99,79366,33176,124
1034,00822,6501,000135,408193,056
151,0007,0308,030
202020
Totals, Mar 19615,822,358671,7461,720,0371,215,55212,527,20721,956,900
Totals, Mar 19606,387,663534,987742,825868,7149,634,23718,168,426
Totals, Mar 19595,579,918370,780626,311858,1468,382,64815,817,803
Totals, Mar 19585,513,139485,252834,528648,8967,898,84015,380,655

The table above showing figures for March 1961 is not comparable with that published for earlier years owing to the extension of coverage through new companies, etc., being added each year.

However, the following summary table showing interest-bearing deposits held as at 31 March 1960 and 31 March 1961 relates only to those companies in the 1960 collection from which statistics were obtained again, and can be used for purposes of comparability.

Period of DepositAmount as at 31 March
19601961
 £(000)
Call and under 3 months6,3884,461
3 months and under 6 months535338
6 months and under 12 months743957
12 months and under 2 years8691,051
2 years and over9,63411,960
Totals18,16818,767

Interest rates paid, and periods of deposits, showed some interesting movements compared with 12 months previously, as shown below.

Interest Rates PaidProportion of Total Deposits at 31 March
19601961
 Per Cent
Under 3 per cent5.9615.94
3 per cent and under 5 per cent57.9641.85
5 per cent and over36.0842.21
Totals100.00100.00

The proportion of total deposits bearing under 3 per cent interest increased significantly, and this downward trend is presumably attributable to the Interest on Deposits Order of 22 July 1960, which fixed maximum interest rates payable for deposits held. The increase in the proportion paying 5 per cent and over probably results from the switch to longer terms of deposit as shown in the following table.

Term of DepositProportion of Total Deposits at 31 March
19601961
 Per Cent
Call and under 3 months35.226.5
3 months and under 6 months2.93.1
6 months and under 12 months4.17.8
12 months and under 2 years4.85.5
2 years and over53.057.1
Totals100.0100.0

SUMMARY OF BANK DEPOSITS — In the preceding paragraphs statistics of deposits with various classes of banking institutions are shown. It is of interest to show the position in summary form in respect of all classes of deposits (other than Government deposits and trading bank deposits with the Reserve Bank).

* Includes approximately £3,000,000 of ordinary deposits from trustee savings banks.
 As at End of March 1961
 £(000)
Deposits with Reserve Bank (excluding Government and trading banks' deposits)2,459
Deposits with trading banks (excluding Government)323,129*
Deposits with Post Office Savings Bank306,467
Deposits with school savings bank accounts1,289
Deposits with trustee savings banks73,852
Deposits in National Savings accounts57,559
Total764,755
Per head of population£317

The above deposits are bank deposits only. It should be noted also that other classes of deposits exist, e.g., the Common Fund of the Public Trust Office, deposits with building and investment societies, and with trading companies.

VOLUME OF MONEY IN CIRCULATION — The following information, which has been published by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, sets out in detail the changes that have occurred in the amount of money in circulation in the form of coin, notes, and demand deposits of the Reserve Bank and of the trading banks. The first table shows the volume of such money as at the last balance day in January of each of the years given, the figures quoted being in £(N.Z.) million.

Nature of Money195419551956195719581959196019611962

* Government and other demand deposits at Reserve Bank, excluding trading banks' balances at Reserve Bank.

† Trading banks' total demand liabilities in New Zealand.

 £(million)
Coin (estimated)4.04.24.34.54.64.74.95.25.4
Notes held by public56.458.059.560.662.262.064.367.666.5
Demand deposits at–
    Reserve Bank*11.712.412.012.810.310.912.111.521.1
    Trading banks229.2242.3242.3252.0252.0231.2261.3296.3279.9
Totals301.3316.9318.1329.8329.1308.8342.7380.6372.9
Change during year+40.7+ 15.6+ 1.2+ 11.7− 0.7−20.3+33.9+37.9−7.7

The cumulative effect of the changes in the volume of money during the last 10 years is contained in the following summary.

* Government and other demand deposits at Reserve Bank, excluding trading banks' balances at Reserve Bank.

† Trading banks' total demand liabilities in New Zealand.

 1951–61 (10 Years)
 £(m.)
Coin (estimated)+ 1.7
Notes held by public+ 20.2
Demand deposits at– 
    Reserve Bank*− 6.8
    Trading Banks + 101.6
Total+ 116.7

The next table shows the causes of the changes in the volume of money that occurred during the period.

Item1952–62 (10 Years)Movement During Each of Last Three Years
1959–601960–611961–62

* As shown by changes in the Reserve Bank's sterling exchange, plus overseas investments and trading bank's assets overseas in respect of New Zealand business, less overseas liabilities.

† Minus sign indicates shift from demand to time liabilities.

 £(million)
Overseas transactions*− 34.9+24.7−28.5− 6.6
Bank credit–
    Reserve Bank–
      Advances to State for general purposes+ 15.8+37.1+ 19.9− 15.0
      Marketing and other advances+ 27.0− 20.0+ 16.9+ 5.9
    Trading banks   + 7.6
      Advances and discounts+ 77.6− 3.4+27.5 
      Investments in New Zealand+ 10.0− 0.1− 0.1
Shift from time to demand liabilities of trading banks+ 12.5− 5.4− 6.3+ 1.0
Other items+ 8.7+ 0.9+ 8.5− 0.4
      Change during period+ 116.7+33.9+37.9− 7.7

OVERDRAFT AND DISCOUNT RATES — The trading banks' minimum overdraft rates and rates of discount, which had for many years been at 6 1/2 or 7 per cent, were reduced to 6 per cent as from 1 September 1932. This was followed by further reductions to 5 per cent from 1 May 1933, to 4£ per cent from 30 November 1934, and to 4 per cent from 1 August 1941.

The Minister of Finance announced on 8 February 1956 that more flexibility was to be introduced into the control on interest charged by trading banks for loans on overdraft.

The former system, operative since 1941, was an arrangement whereby the trading banks adhered to a minimum rate of 4 per cent and a maximum rate of 5 per cent. Recently it had also been arranged that the average rate over all overdrafts would not exceed 4 3/4 per cent. The new system achieves flexibility by the abolition of the minimum and maximum rates but retains the feature of an average rate, which at first was not to exceed 5 per cent, but now approximates 5 1/2 per cent.

The object of the change is to permit the banks to use higher rates to discourage and deter excessive use of bank overdrafts for relatively non-essential purposes and to provide an additional incentive to borrowers with such overdrafts to reduce these as quickly as they could reasonably do so.

Section 45A of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, which was added in 1960 (see page 867), now gives the Reserve Bank statutory power to control interest rates paid to or by banks.

The Reserve Bank's minimum discount or rediscount rate for New Zealand bills was originally 4 per cent, but was reduced to 3 1/2 per cent from 29 July 1935, to 2 1/2 per cent from 2 March 1936, and to 2 per cent from 29 June 1936. The rate was restored to the original 4 per cent on 19 November 1938, but was reduced to 3 per cent from 6 September 1939, to 2 per cent from 27 May 1940, and to 1 1/2 per cent from 26 July 1941. The rate was increased, however, to 3 1/2 per cent from 13 April 1954, to 4 per cent on 26 November 1954, to 5 per cent from 1 July 1955, to 6 per cent from 5 September 1955, and to 7 per cent from 19 October 1955. The rate was reduced to 6 per cent on 19 October 1959, but was raised again to 7 per cent on 23 March 1961.

The successive increases in the discount rate in 1954 and 1955 were in support of the reserve ratio system and of the Reserve Bank's general policy of credit restraint in recent years. The reduction of the rate to 6 per cent in October 1959 did not denote a change in credit policy but was intended as a reflection of the improvement in economic conditions during 1959. The increase in 1961 was allied to an intensified use of the reserve ratios, since advances had been increasing rapidly.

In effect; the discount rate is the minimum rate at which trading banks may borrow from the Reserve Bank if they need to do so in order to maintain the statutory minimum balances which they are required to deposit with the Reserve Bank.

The statutory minimum balances are calculated as a certain percentage of the trading banks' demand liabilities, plus a percentage of their time liabilities. These percentages are called the reserve ratios, and are described earlier in this section.

Discount rate policy is as follows: the Reserve Bank is required by law to publish a rate at which it will discount approved bills of exchange. It does this in its capacity as a “lender of last resort”, so that potential borrowers will know the minimum rate which will be charged for Reserve Bank credit. The bank has three kinds of lending operations to which the “bank rate” applies:

  1. It may discount, rediscount, buy and sell bills of exchange arising out of commercial transactions, bearing two good signatures and maturing within specified short periods.

  2. It may grant advances for fixed periods not exceeding three months against specified collateral security.

  3. It may discount, rediscount, buy, and sell Treasury bills.

No restrictions are imposed on the Bank as to who may borrow from it, but in practice no transactions of the above types have taken place with the public, for the following reasons:

  1. Bills of exchange are not used to any great extent to finance internal transactions, nor are Treasury bills held by the public.

  2. It is not the Reserve Bank's function to compete with the trading banks for ordinary banking business. The trading banks would normally discount bills of exchange offered them which may be eligible for rediscount with the Reserve Bank.

So far the Reserve Bank's discount rate has applied only to transactions with the trading banks. The discount rate therefore is a supplement to the reserve ratio system as an aid to regulating bank credit. For when a trading bank is short of cash — that is, when its balance at the Reserve Bank is approaching or below the statutory minimum — it may borrow from another bank either in New Zealand or London, or it may sell sterling to the Reserve Bank. The most likely and normal procedure, however, is to borrow from the Reserve Bank. For this money it pays a rate of interest related to the bank's discount rate (3 per cent or a minimum based on bank rate, whichever is the higher). If the trading banks have a safe margin of free cash there would be no need for them to borrow from the Reserve Bank and the discount rate would then be a formality (though it has some psychological impact); but when this margin is small the discount rate acquires a much greater significance.

Advances to the State and to marketing organisations have been at 1 per cent from 22 February 1946. Advances to the State may be in the form of Treasury bills, overdrafts, or 1 per cent Government stock. During the financial year 1959–60 the Bank's holdings of Treasury bills was exchanged for 1 per cent stock and it is intended that, in future, short-term borrowing will be by overdraft or Treasury bills and longer-term borrowing by 1 per cent stock.

DEPOSIT AND INTEREST RATES: Trading Banks — The following is a schedule (since June 1912) of the rates paid by the Associated Banks in New Zealand for moneys lodged on fixed deposit.

Date Operative From3 Months and Under 6 Months6 Months and Under 12 Months12 Months and Under 24 Months24 Months and Upwards
 Per Cent
1 June 191223 1/24
20 January 192133 1/244 1/2
20 June 19213 3/43 3/444 1/2
11 December 19263 3/43 3/444 1/2
9 May 19273 3/444 1/25
9 July 19283 3/43 3/444 1/2
1 February 19303 3/43 3/44 1/45
22 April 19303 3/444 1/45
1 August 19313 1/23 3/444 1/2
1 June 193233 1/43 1/24
2 December 19322 1/22 3/433 1/4
11 July 193322 1/22 3/43
5 July 19341 1/222 1/22 3/4
2 November 19341 1/41 3/42 1/42 3/4
18 September 19403/41 /42 1/42 1/2
17 July 19413/41 1/41 3/42
16 February 19561 1/21 3/42 1/42 1/2
14 June 195622 1/42 3/43
1 October 195722 1/23 1/43 1/2

The new section 45A mentioned earlier in this Section gives the Reserve Bank a statutory power to control deposit rates paid by banks.

Post Office Savings Bank — The Post Office Savings Bank pays interest on all deposits. The present rates on ordinary, Thrift Club, Home Lay-by, and School Savings Bank deposits are 3 per cent per year on deposits of up to £1,000 and 2 1/2 per cent for any balance up to a total of £10,000.

Interest is calculated on each complete £1 at credit for a calendar month subject to the following provisions:

Deposits made on the 1st, 2nd, or 3rd of a month bear interest for that month, but if the Post Office Savings Bank is closed on all of those three days, deposits made on the first business day bear interest for that month.

Withdrawals: No deduction of interest for the current month is made for amounts withdrawn on the last business day of that month. When a deposit and a withdrawal are made on the same day the deposit is deemed to precede the withdrawal.

The rate of interest on National Savings accounts is 3 1/2 per cent per year but if withdrawals are made before maturity date of the deposits, interest on the amount withdrawn is credited at Savings Bank rates.

The rates of interest on Investment accounts are shown in the description of these accounts on page 888.

Following is a table of interest rates payable in respect of Post Office Savings Bank deposits since 1921.

Date Operative FromAmount of Deposit
£1–£300£301–£500£501–£1,000£1,001–£2,0001£2,001–£5,000£5,001–£7,500£7,501–£10,000
 Per Cent
1 January 1921443 1/43 1/43 1/4NilNil
1 April 1928443 1/43 1/4NilNilNil
1 August 19313 1/43 1/43 1/43 1/4NilNilNil
1 April 19333333NilNilNil
1 August 19333332 1/4NilNilNil
1 August 1934332 1/22 1/2NilNilNil
1 August 19413322NilNilNil
1 June 19422 1/22 1/222NilNilNil
1 September 19522 /122 1/2222 1/2NilNil
1 May 19563332 1/22 1/2NilNil
1 August 19573332 1/22 1/22 1/2Nil
1 August 19593332 1/22 1/22 1/22 1/2
1 August 19623333333

In May 1956 the interest rate was raised to 2 1/2 per cent on amounts £1,001 to £5,000, the rate for amounts £1 to £1,000 becoming 3 per cent. As from 1 August 1957 interest at the 2 1/2 per cent rate was extended to amounts from £5,000 to £7,500, and on 1 August 1959 the 2 1/2 per cent rate was extended from £7,500 to £10,000.

Trustee Savings Banks -The Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948 gives power to the Governor-General to fix the rates of interest to be paid on deposits. Changes in rates from 1908 onwards were given in the 1959 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

From 1 April 1955 maximum interest rates payable by trustee savings banks were 2 1/2 per cent up to £500 and 2 per cent for amounts over £500 and up to £750, while from 1 May 1956 the allowable maximum rate on all deposits was increased to 3 per cent on amounts up to £750, this limit being raised to £1,000 from 26 October 1956. A rate of 2 1/2 percent is payable between £1,001 and £2,000 and this was raised to 3 per cent from 1 August 1962.

Company, etc., Deposits — Authority was taken in the National Expenditure Adjustment Act 1932 to fix by Order in Council the maximum rates of interest payable on deposits with stock and station agents, trading companies, and building and investment societies. Changes made in the maximum rates of interest from 1932 have been given in the 1959 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

As from 1 August 1957 interest rates on deposits with companies, etc., were freed from control, with the exception of deposits in the savings bank departments of building and investment societies, the maximum allowable rate for this class remaining at 3 per cent.

However on 22 July 1960, an Interest on Deposits Order became effective. This order fixed the maximum rates of interest payable for deposits held by companies, firms, building societies, etc. Under a new order, which came into effect on 30 March 1962, the rates range from 3 per cent for deposits under three months up to 5 3/4 per cent for deposits for 10 years or more. This order was revoked, on 5 July 1962.

Other Deposit and Interest Rates — It is of service at this stage to mention briefly the interest rates payable in respect of certain other classes of deposits. The highest rate of interest payable on moneys in the Common Fund of the Public Trust Office (see Section 40) was fixed at 4 per cent from 1 January 1958. Reductions were made from 5 1/4 per cent in 1928 to 4 3/4 per cent in 1931, to 4 per cent in 1932, to 3 1/2 per cent in 1933, to 3 1/4 per cent in 1945, and to 3 per cent in 1949. There was an increase to 3 1/4 per cent in 1953, to 3 1/2 per cent on 1 January 1955, to 3 3/4 per cent on 1 April 1956, and to 4 per cent on 1 January 1958.

Local authorities may also accept deposits (in practice, only for short periods). The restrictions previously applying to maximum rates of interest were abolished from 24 October 1957 by Order in Council.

References to rates of interest on mortgages will be found in Section 30A (Mortgages), while interest on Government debt is referred to in Section 26C (State Indebtedness), and interest on local authority debt in Section 27 (Local Government Finance).

COINAGE AND CURRENCY: New Zealand Coin — Under the Coinage Act 1933 the Minister of Finance arranges for the issue of silver or cupro-nickel and bronze coins. Distinctive New Zealand silver coinage first came into circulation in 1933 and New Zealand bronze coins in December 1939. In 1947 cupro-nickel coins were issued in place of silver coins.

Up to 31 December 1961 New Zealand coins of a total face value of £10,000,000 had been minted by the Royal Mint in London. Statistics of the face values of the various denominations of coin minted to 31 December 1961, and the value of New Zealand coin in circulation at 31 December 1961, are as follows.

 Total Minted to 31 December 1961In Circulation
 ££
Crown112,696110,962
Half-crown2,475,1001,224,444
Florin2,577,0001,276,889
Shilling1,167,000789,090
Sixpence1,128,500820,565
Threepence1,357,5001,116,012
Penny464,550422,896
Halfpenny78,260

Restrictions on Import and Export of Currency — A prohibition placed on the importation of coin in 1941 has been revoked, as also has the Customs Import Prohibition (Bank Notes) Order 1956, which prohibited the importation of bank notes of the Bank of England and of bank notes issued by banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland.

The Customs Export Prohibition Order prohibits the exportation of all coin (other than silver coin which is more than 100 years old) of whatever metal and wherever and whenever minted and whether or not it is legal currency in New Zealand or elsewhere. Persons leaving New Zealand are permitted to take silver coin not exceeding £2; or, if the journey is by direct route (without transhipment) to Great Britain or Ireland, silver coin to the value of £5 may be taken. In addition to the above, the Finance Emergency Regulations 1940 prohibited the taking or sending of any money out of New Zealand except with the consent of the Minister, or except in the case of certain transactions especially exempted.

The Reserve Bank, which administers exchange control, has authority to grant permission to take or send money out of New Zealand. It has prohibited the export of New Zealand notes except that travellers proceeding to the United Kingdom may take up to £10, and if to any other destination, £5. These may be in denominations of £1 or 10s. only. In addition, notes may be taken in place of silver coin to the value of £5 or £2 as noted above.

In the cases of both the Export and the Import Prohibition Orders power is vested in the Minister to authorise in writing the variation of the provisions mentioned. Prohibitions mentioned in both orders have effect in addition to, and not in substitution for, any other prohibition in force relating or applicable to the importation or exportation of any of the items enumerated in the orders or in any other enactment.

Legal Tender and Issue of Notes — The Coinage Act 1933 provides that a tender or payment of money, if made in New Zealand coins of current weight, shall be a legal tender to the following extent:

  1. Gold, to any amount.

  2. Silver and cupro-nickel for amounts not exceeding £2.

  3. Bronze for amounts not exceeding 1s.

The position in respect of the bank-note issue in New Zealand was radically altered by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1933. Since 1 August 1934 the Reserve Bank has had the sole right to issue bank notes in New Zealand; and thereupon the authority of every other bank to issue or reissue bank notes was terminated. Reserve Bank notes are constituted legal tender up to any amount. On presentation of gold or of sterling for immediate delivery in London, in either case to an amount of £1,000 or more, the Bank must give its notes in exchange therefor. The rate of exchange for the above transactions is fixed by the Bank, subject to a right of the Minister of Finance, after consultation with the Governor, to determine the relationship with sterling.

Under the Reserve Bank Amendment Act 1950, it is the duty of the Reserve Bank “to maintain reserves which, in the opinion of the Board of Directors, will provide a reasonable margin for contingencies, after taking into account prospective receipts and disbursements of overseas funds, and having regard to the economic position within New Zealand.” The definition of the term “reserve” includes:

  1. Gold coin and bullion in the unrestricted ownership of the Bank.

  2. Sterling exchange, comprising (1) deposits at the Bank of England, (2) British Treasury bills of not more than three months unexpired currency, (3) bills of exchange bearing at least two good signatures and of not more than three months unexpired currency.

  3. Net gold exchange, as defined in section 17 (c) of the Act of 1933.

  4. Other exchange, i.e., balances standing to the credit of the Bank at the central bank of any country the currency of which is freely convertible into sterling.

For the purpose of ascertaining the net reserve, the amount of the Bank's liabilities in currencies other than New Zealand is deducted from the total of the “reserve”.

The Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act permits the Minister of Finance to make a revaluation up to the market value of the fine gold contained in the reserve, the premium resulting from such revaluation to be credited to a special reserve to be held on behalf of the Crown and to be used in such manner as the Minister of Finance may from time to time determine. No such revaluation took place until 1961, when the gold holdings were revalued at $35 a fine ounce and the book value increased from £6.2 million to £12.4 million. The consequential profit of £6.2 million was credited to the Gold Valuation Reserve Account and then used in part payment by Government for the gold and New Zealand currency acquired from the Reserve Bank when New Zealand joined the International Monetary Fund.

The Reserve Bank may not issue bank notes of a less denomination than 10s., except with the authority of the Governor-General in Council. The present issue of notes consists of the following denominations: 10s., £1, £5, £10, and £50.

Notes are issued solely in response to the demands of the public. In assessing likely requirements there are seasonal factors to be considered, as well as basic economic conditions, such as national income, the levels of salaries and wages, changes in price levels generally, and in the total volume of money. In addition, methods and frequency of payments affect the amount to be issued.

Currency Other Than Legal Tender — Neither Australian nor other overseas paper money circulates in New Zealand.

No consideration of the amount of credit currency in use at any moment can overlook the very large proportion of payments made by cheque, mainly upon the trading banks, but also upon one of the trustee savings banks, upon certain types of accounts in the Post Office Savings Bank, and upon various stock and station agencies which act in this respect for their customers in the capacity of banker. Such cheques usually go direct from the payee to the collecting bank, but occasionally they pass from hand to hand.

Government postal notes (issued in 39 denominations of from 1s. to £1) sometimes enjoy a certain length of life in the form of currency.

EXCHANGE RATES — Although the movement of gold, whether internally or externally, was unrestricted in years prior to the First World War, certain of the conditions usually considered essential in the full operation of the gold standard were never effective in New Zealand. More correctly, New Zealand was, and still is, upon a sterling-exchange standard. The explanation is that the New Zealand banking system is not self-contained, in that the banks normally hold a large amount of funds in London. In fact, these London balances are the real regulative factor and the key to the whole New Zealand banking system. The inter-relation between these balances and import control and exchange control is of interest in this respect.

While New Zealand currency was at parity with sterling, except for minor fluctuations above or below parity, no necessity existed for distinction between sterling and New Zealand currency. The latter is entitled to be considered as one of the sterling currencies; but, adopting the convenience of a growing usage, sterling is used herein to refer solely to the currency of Great Britain.

The unusual significance of the exchange rate in the case of New Zealand depends chiefly upon the country's position in regard to overseas trade and to overseas borrowings. The course of development of New Zealand has not reached a stage where the country is fully self-contained, and the external trade per head is greater than that of most countries of the world. Most of this external trade is with the United Kingdom, while the function of London as an international clearing house is also of importance in this connection, New Zealand's borrowings from the London financial market have also been, until the last two decades, upon a high scale, requiring, as noted elsewhere (see State Indebtedness and Local Government Finance), considerable annual payments in London.

The Finance Act 1934 provides that any appreciation or depreciation of the assets of the Reserve Bank (expressed in the currency of New Zealand) owing to any alteration that may subsequently be made in the exchange rate, while the value of the local currency is not fixed by statute in terms of sterling, shall be credited to or be borne by the Consolidated Fund. In this respect, as already noted, the Consolidated Fund bore those losses incurred as a result of the 1948 adjustment of the exchange rate.

New Zealand and Sterling Exchange — The relationship of New Zealand currency to sterling gained added significance from December 1929. Prior to that date the New Zealand currency was at virtual parity with British currency, only slight deviations occurring from time to time, but then commenced to depreciate gradually, reaching, in January of 1931, a level of approximately £110 New Zealand = £100 London for telegraphic transfers. At that level it remained fairly stationary until January 1933, when as a result of Government intervention it was abruptly depreciated to a further degree. The relationship existing from 20 January 1933 until the establishment of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand on 1 August 1934, was £125 (selling) and £124 10s. (buying) New Zealand = £100 London for telegraphic transfers.

From 1 August 1934 Reserve Bank quotations for £100 sterling for immediate delivery in London were: buying rate, £124; selling rate, £125. It was intimated that the policy of the Bank would aim at retaining these rates unchanged for a long period unless there occurred marked changes in existing conditions. While prepared to fulfil its statutory obligations, the Reserve Bank did not desire to compete for exchange business, provided adequate facilities were available elsewhere.

Following the statement of the Reserve Bank's policy, the trading banks adopted as from 1 August 1934 a scale of rates representing a reduction of 10s. per £100 on the rates ruling from 20 January 1933 to 31 July 1934. The rates were slightly changed on 2,1 October 1938, and further changes were made in the selling rate as from 1 December and in the buying rate as from 6 November 1940. During the year 1945–46 the Reserve Bank agreed to certain alterations in the trading banks' on-demand and usance rates.

The position was very materially altered as from 20 August 1948, following on the announcement by the Government on the previous night of the appreciation of New Zealand currency to parity with sterling. The Reserve Bank quotations from 20 August 1948 for £100 sterling for immediate delivery in London were: buying rate, £100; selling rate, £101. Consequential adjustments to the scale of rates of trading banks in New Zealand were also made. The quotations current for New Zealand on London at the end of March 1962 are given in the following table. On-demand and usance buying rates change with changes in the Bank of England discount rate.

CategoryBuying (on Basis of £(Stg.)100)Selling (on Basis of £(Stg.)100)
Telegraphic transfers (cable)£(N.Z.)100 7s. 6d.£(N.Z.)101 0s. 0d.
Sterling notes£(N.Z.) 97 13s. 3d.£(N.Z.)101 0s. 0d.
 Air MailSea MailAir and Sea Mail
Bills, cheques, and drafts payable on demand£(N.Z.)99 18s. 3d.£(N.Z.)99 8s. 0d.£(N.Z.)101 0s. 0d.
Bills or drafts 3 days sight£(N.Z.)99 16s. 9d.£(N.Z.)99 6s. 3d.No quotation
Bills or drafts 30 days sight£(N.Z.)99 9s. 3d.£(N.Z.)98 19s. 0d.£(N.Z.)100 19s. 3d.
Bills or drafts 60 days sight£(N.Z.)99 1s. 0d.£(N.Z.)98 10s. 9d.£(N.Z.)100 18s. 6d.
Bills or drafts 90 days sight£(N.Z.)98 12s. 9d.£(N.Z.)98 2s. 6d.£(N.Z.)100 17s. 6d.
Bills or drafts 120 days sight£(N.Z.)98 4s. 6d.£(N.Z.)97 14s. 3d.No quotation

On the occasion of the devaluation of sterling in terms of gold and the United States of America dollar in September 1949 it was decided that New Zealand should maintain the value of its currency at parity with sterling.

As most of the export credits in normal times are utilised for financing imports it is advisable to note that the full exchange rate is not operative in respect of dutiable goods. This arises from the fact that, although Customs duties are assessed in sterling, payment of Customs duties is accepted in New Zealand currency without addition of exchange.

New Zealand Exchange Rates with Other Currencies — The change in the sterling-dollar parity was followed by a change in the dollar value of a large number of currencies. Some countries maintained the sterling value of their currencies, others maintained the dollar value, and others again altered the exchange value of their currencies in relation to both sterling and the United States of America dollar. In the latter cases there was a consequent alteration in the rate at which New Zealand currency was exchangeable for the currency of the country concerned.

The following table shows exchange rates (since 17 December 1951 the exchange rates have been free to fluctuate within certain limits) for telegraphic transfers quoted by the New Zealand trading banks for various currencies.

New Zealand onAt 31 March 1961At 30 March 1962
BuyingSellingBuyingSelling
United States of America (dollars per £(N.Z.))2.79302.76142.80902.7772
Canada (dollars per £(N.Z.))2.76472.72882.94782.9101
France (francs per £(N.Z.))13.8113.4213.8913.50
Belgium (francs per £(N.Z.))141.52137.00142.03137.50
Switzerland (francs per £(N.Z.))12.0911.8512.2412.00
Pakistan (N.Z. pence per rupee)17.906318.3417.906318.34

The rates applicable for telegraphic transfer to Australia in February 1962 were £(A)124 10s. 9d. buying and £(A)124 selling per £(N.Z.)100.

FINANCE EMERGENCY REGULATIONS AFFECTING BANKING AND CURRENCY — The Finance Emergency Regulations 1940 (No. 2) followed similar legislation passed in the United Kingdom shortly before the New Zealand measures came into force.

The regulations have been amended a number of times and were reprinted in 1953. The present position as regards banking and currency may be summarised as follows. Every person ordinarily resident in New Zealand who holds or acquires any non-sterling currency or a right to receive non-sterling currency is required to offer it for sale to the Reserve Bank of New Zealand. This rule applies to bank notes or other currency, postal notes, promissory notes, and free bank deposits. Fixed deposits have to be reported to the Reserve Bank but not offered for sale. Any non-sterling currency or fixed deposit to which the regulations apply must not be disposed of (other than by way of repatriation through a New Zealand Bank) except with the permission of the Reserve Bank. Prior to 9 March 1950 this provision applied also to sterling-area currencies. Now “invisible” receipts and private holdings of sterling area currency are free from control.

The regulations also provide that non-sterling securities owned by persons ordinarily resident in New Zealand are to be declared to the Reserve Bank by their owners, and are not to be sold or transferred without the prior consent of the Reserve Bank. Prior to 9 March 1950 this applied also to sterling-area securities, but these are now free from control.

It should be noted that the proceeds from the sale of exports under licence must still be sold to a bank in New Zealand. Information concerning import and export control is contained in Section 22A. It is also an offence to engage in transactions involving the conversion of New Zealand currency into the currency of any other country at other than the official rate of exchange.

Capital Issues Control — During the war period fairly intensive control was maintained over the issue of new capital, but in the post-war period such control was progressively eased. However, the heavy demand for capital moneys and the tendency for interest yields to increase in late 1951 and early 1952 caused the Government to decide to apply the existing powers of control over capital issues given by the Finance Emergency Regulations (No. 2) 1940 more fully. A Capital Issues Committee was therefore set up in 1952 to deal with applications for capital issues, including shares, debentures, mortgages, and deposits, and affecting mainly companies — not private individuals or partnerships. In March 1959 the regulations were amended to include partnerships where any partner was a company. Consent was required if the total raised exceeded £10,000 in any period of 12 months. Approval was more likely to be given to cases (a) where no recourse to new finance was involved, e.g., bonus issues, amalgamations, etc.; (b) where a substantial increase of exports or saving of imports were expected to result, whether directly or indirectly; and (c) where substantial shortages of essential goods were to be met.

In the 1960 Budget it was announced that a general consent to any issue of capital would be given by the Capital Issues Committee, with certain exceptions. These exceptions were:

  1. Where the proposed interest rates exceed those fixed by the committee.

  2. Where an overseas company desires to commence business in New Zealand.

  3. For New Zealand companies desiring to obtain capital overseas, and overseas companies desiring to obtain capital in New Zealand.

  4. For any issue of capital in excess of £10,000 which is to be used for the financing or discounting of hire purchase or credit sale agreements.

The Committee was still to be advised of any prospective issues of capital.

The following table shows the total approvals made in recent years.

YearShare IssuesMortgages and DebenturesTotal*
New CompaniesExisting Companies
No.ValueNo.ValueNo.ValueNo.Value

* In some cases a company is granted a share issue and mortgage, resulting in the individual items not adding to the total.

  £(000) £(000) £(000) £(000)
19573416,17023514,98256019,63489940,786
19582435,19719211,28651416,30377232,786
19592248,01125225,56848822,25189655,830
196027511,39748643,10553218,1241,23772,626
196121411,03049941,74461133,1651,30485,939

Capital issues control was abolished by the Budget of 28 June 1962.

Chapter 30. Section 30 INVESTMENT AND FINANCE

30 A-MORTGAGES

MORTGAGE LAW — Under the Property Law Act 1952 a “mortgage” is defined as including a charge on any property for securing money or money's worth; and “mortgage money” means money or money's worth secured by a mortgage. Under the Land Transfer Act 1952 “mortgage” means and includes any charge on land created under the provisions of that Act for securing:

The repayment of a loan or satisfaction of an existing debt.

The repayment of future advances, or payment or satisfaction of any future or unascertained debt or liability, contingent or otherwise.

The payment to the holders for the time being of any bonds, debentures, promissory notes, or other securities, negotiable or otherwise, made or issued by the mortgagor before or after the creation of such charge.

The payment to any person or persons by yearly or periodical payments or otherwise of an annuity, rent charge, or sum of money other than a debt.

Where the ownership of land is registered under the Land Transfer Act (as, see Section 10A, the great majority of land titles now are) mortgages on that land are granted by virtue of the provisions of that Act; they take effect as securities and do not operate as transfers of the estate or interest charged. In the case of other land or property a mortgage is granted under what is known as the deeds or deeds-registration system; the mortgage in this instance operating as a conveyance or assignment of the land or property mortgaged, for the mortgagee becomes the registered proprietor of the land, subject to the right of the mortgagor to have the property reregistered in his name on the discharge of his obligations under the mortgage. Although in form a mortgage under the deeds system is a conveyance, in equity it is treated as merely a charge on the land.

Property That May be Mortgaged — Any land covered by the definitions of “land” in the Property Law Act 1952 and the Land Transfer Act 1952 may be mortgaged. Where, however, property is subject to restrictions upon alienation, these restrictions usually apply to prevent such property being mortgaged. The following are the main instances in which mortgage of property is forbidden by law:

Family homes registered under the Family Protection Act 1908, unless with prior approval of the Supreme Court.

Maintenance moneys under the Family Protection Act 1908.

Inalienable life annuities (Inalienable Life Annuities Act 1910).

Pensions under the War Pensions Act 1954.

Monetary benefits under the Social Security Act 1938.

Property subject to restraint upon anticipation, unless by consent of the Supreme Court.

Property subject to restraint upon alienation in accordance with section 33 of the Property Law Act 1952.

An infant's property, by the infant (Infants Act 1908, sections 12 and 13), unless the approval of the Magistrate's Court under the Statutes Amendment Act 1951 is obtained.

Redemption — A memorandum of discharge vacates the mortgage debt and operates as a deed of reconveyance of the estate and interest of the mortgagee in the mortgaged property “to the person for the time being entitled to the equity of redemption”; but the mortgagee may execute a deed of reconveyance “if he thinks fit and the mortgagor requires it”. The Public Trustee is empowered to receive mortgage moneys on account of absentee mortgagees, and in the case of a deed of mortgage to execute the necessary memorandum of discharge. Alternatively, application may be made to the Supreme Court, and the production of a certificate from the Registrar of the Supreme Court shall operate, upon registration, as a discharge of the land from the mortgage debt. A mortgagor may redeem in the following cases:

Before the due date, on payment of interest for the unexpired term of the mortgage. A special provision in the Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act extends the powers of a mortgagor to redeem in certain cases before the due date.

At the due date, in accordance with the provisions of the mortgage.

After the due date, upon giving three months' notice in writing or paying three months' interest in lieu of notice, except where the mortgagee is or has been in possession or has taken steps to enforce his security, in which case the mortgagor may redeem at any time upon payment of all moneys due.

After default and before sale by the mortgagee. If the mortgagee has entered into possession of mortgaged land or part of it not held under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act 1952, the mortgagor loses his right of redemption after 12 years from the date of the mortgagee's entering into possession, or after 12 years from the last written acknowledgment of the mortgagor's title or of his right to redeem.

Earlier legislation abolished what was formerly known as the doctrine of consolidation of mortgages. Where a mortgagor is liable under more than one mortgage he may now pay off one mortgage without being called on to pay off any mortgage or mortgages on property not comprised in the mortgage he is paying off.

Rights of Mortgagee — Under New Zealand law a mortgagee has no power of foreclosure in respect of realty. The following represent his principal rights:

He is entitled to the custody of the title deeds of the property mortgaged.

He may sue on the personal covenant contained in the mortgage deed.

He may enter and take possession. This right is exercisable either by actually entering upon the land or a part of it or by bringing an action for possession. At least one month's notice of the intention to exercise the right must be served on the owner for the time being of the land subject to the mortgage. If there is a tenant whose rights are binding on the mortgagee, the latter can give notice to the tenant to pay the rent to him, and this will be equivalent to taking possession.

He may assign his interest, either absolutely or by way of submortgage.

He may sell, either under the express powers (if any) in the mortgage deed, or under powers implied by statute, if these have not been negatived in the deed.

Instead of selling, as above, a mortgagee entitled to exercise his power of sale may apply to the Registrar of the Supreme Court to conduct the sale. The mortgagee must state in his application the estimated value of the land, and the date of the sale must be not less than one month and not more than three months from the date of the application. He may bid at the sale and become the purchaser of the land, but in such case the amount paid for the land shall be not less than the value of the land as estimated. If it is, the mortgagor must be allowed in account the full amount of the estimate. As in the case of the right to enter and take possession, no power of sale shall become exercisable unless at least one month's notice of the contemplated action has been served on the owner of the land.

SUMMARY OF MORTGAGES REGISTERED AND DISCHARGED — A table is given showing the net numbers and amounts represented by mortgages registered and discharged during each of the last 21 years. The average rate of interest on new mortgages is also given.

Year Ended 31 MarchMortgages RegisteredAverage Rate of Interest on New Mortgages RegisteredMortgages Discharged
NumberAmountNumberAmount
  £(000)per cent £(000)
194121,66016,2674.6922,89715,934
194220,66714,5504.7322,57715,099
194317,07512,1414.7223,70816,680
194419,92815,5974.6327,16120,030
194521,21218,1004.5127,41421,012
194624,51622,5194.1029,17423,314
194729,88231,0893.8532,23425,947
194829,89332,0413.9029,00225,396
194929,57835,2993.9826,64223,375
195030,35236,0063.9926,09323,101
195143,87545,8204.0935,50332,266
195249,84067,9614.1537,92637,264
395350,63373,7134.2934,16031,401
195452,80770,3784.4936,72836,012
195557,99284,5994.6937,93141,155
195655,54496,2584.7634,07835,367
195751,23091,2115.0932,66337,680
195855,43799,5345.2437,44146,079
195956,195108,5465.1536,92044,394
196057,834119,5205.0139,93151,131
196164,605150,4195.0146,46968,278

The figures given in the preceding table have been adjusted to exclude duplicate registrations, i.e., cases in which a mortgage has been registered in more than one district. It should also be noted that the figures include collateral mortgages and guarantee mortgages not representing money indebtedness. On the other hand, no amount is shown as secured in a proportion of cases where a mortgage is given in anticipation of advances, etc. In addition there are numbers of privately arranged advances which are not registered, and stock and crop liens, bills of sale, and instruments under the Chattels Transfer Act are not included in the statistics.

Many discharges are not registered, particularly in the case of leaseholds and also of second or other further mortgages when the power of sale has been exercised by the first mortgagee. The figures for discharges are further affected by the high proportion of table mortgages. This is particularly so in cases where the mortgage is approaching maturity, since the whole amount remains on the register until finally discharged, despite the fact that the original amount of indebtedness has been considerably reduced.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED: Value by Districts — The total amount for which mortgages were registered, under the Land Transfer Act, in each registration district is given in the next table.

District1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61
   £(thousand)  
North Auckland22,86224,59928,28131,60140,334
South Auckland12,98714,57415,49817,31221,836
Gisborne1,4371,6781,5631,8572,576
Hawke's Bay4,9595,1956,0396,4157,971
Taranaki3,8034,1873,7224,3685,590
Wellington17,23117,82221,38423,43528,715
Marlborough9631,3941,1111,4071,288
Nelson1,7502,2121,9202,7143,037
Westland446477501545571
Canterbury13,42514,82315,55517,01123,133
Otago6,7147,8118,4878,65510,481
Southland4,7856,0845,1285,6878,521
          Gross totals91,361100,855109,187121,006154,054
          Duplications1511,3216411,4863,635
              Net totals91,21199,534108,546119,520150,419

Classification by Amount-Of the gross total of £154,054,000 represented by mortgages registered during the financial year 1960–61, mortgages under £500 in value represented 1.2 per cent of the total; from £500 to £999, 2.7 per cent; £1,000 to £1,999, 10.4 per cent; £2,000 to £2,999, 34.2 per cent; £3,000 to £3,999, 7.9 per cent; £4,000 to £4,999, 4.7 per cent; £5,000 to £7,499, 8.6 per cent; and from £7,500 and over, 30.3 per cent. The following table gives the number and amount for town and suburban and country properties according to sum secured.

Amount GroupTown and SuburbanCountryAll Properties
NumberAmountNumberAmountNumberAmount
££ £(000) £(000) £(000)
Under5006,2481,6744511276,6991,801
500–9995,6033,7547134726,3164,226
1,000–1,99910,07414,1411,3991,92111,47316,062
2,000–2,99920,04949,3811,4083,26321,45752,644
3,000–3,9992,8059,1169203,0153,72512,131
4,000–4,9998863,7397943,4541,6807,193
5,000–7,4997544,2611,5269,0032,28013,264
    7,500 and over60513,0092,39133,7232,99646,732
Unspecified5,525 2,486 8,011 
    Gross totals52,54999.07612,08854,97764,637154,054
    Duplications2399792,638323,635
    Net totals52,52698,08012,07952,33964,605150,419

Excluding mortgages for which no amounts were shown, the average amount for each mortgage registered in 1960–61 was £2,658, as compared with £2,321 in 1959–60.

Mortgages on Urban and Rural Securities — Figures are available in the case of mortgage registrations showing for each registration district the amounts advanced on urban and on rural properties. The distinction is between “town and suburban” and “country” holdings, but sufficient information to permit of a strictly accurate classification on that basis is not always available. Generally, however, mortgages are regarded as town and suburban if secured on properties situated within cities or boroughs or on small holdings in the nature of building allotments which are not definitely distinguishable as country properties. Mortgages classified as town and suburban in 1960–61 were secured on areas averaging just under one-quarter of an acre in extent, as compared with an average area of some 305 acres in the case of “country” securities.

Town and suburban securities accounted for 81 per cent of the number and 64 per cent of the aggregate value of mortgages in 1960–61 as compared with 19 per cent and 36 per cent respectively in the case of country properties.

The following table gives mortgages registered in the various districts during the year 1960–61.

DistrictTown and SuburbanCountry
NumberAreaAmount SecuredNumberAreaAmount Secured
  acres£(000) acres£(000)
North Auckland15,9894,03331,9032,417368,8948,432
South Auckland5,5631,57010,5642,451575,33311,273
Gisborne5901671,063263132,3281,514
Hawke's Bay2,1505354,005650269,1493,966
Taranaki1,4155232,678697195,8112,911
Wellington11,1052,46021,7501,480491,9596,964
Marlborough388114627170130,946660
Nelson1,3143232,092456130,061945
Westland310813639123,197209
Canterbury7,6601,74514,4631,611537,9918,670
Otago4,3559086,112919562,2114,368
Southland1,7104353,456883266,8095,065
                  Totals52,54912,89499,07612,0883,684,68954,977

Since the Second World War the trend in mortgage registrations has passed through several distinct stages. Prior to the lifting of controls on land sales there was a steady increase in the number of mortgage agreements due in large measure to the resettlement of ex-servicemen. Restrictions were removed from the sale of all lands other than farm lands in February 1950, and farm lands were released in November 1950. Following these changes there was a marked increase in activity during the next two years, and since 1953–54 the level of mortgage business has remained high, and though there has been considerable fluctuation from year to year the general trend has been upward.

In 1950–51, the first full year following the release of urban properties from controls, the value of new urban mortgages was £32,030,000, compared with £22,631,000 in the previous year. The following year, 1951–52, new urban mortgages showed a further large increase to reach £46,751,000. After this both the numbers and amounts fluctuated but in 1955–56 and 1958–59 large increases occurred in the amount secured. This trend has continued in the two latest years, the increases in 1960–61 being considerable, amounting to 5,307, or 11.2 per cent, in number and £19,608,000 or 25 per cent in the amount secured.

The movement in new rural mortgages does not always follow the same pattern as that of urban mortgages. In 1951–52, which was the first full year after the release of rural property from controls, the value of new mortgage transactions increased from £14,023,000 to £26,425,000. From 1951–52 to 1958–59 both the numbers and amounts secured of rural mortgages fluctuated but there have been increases in the two latest years, the increase in 1960–61 amounting to 1,463, or 13.8 per cent, in number and £13,440,000 or 32 per cent in the amount secured as compared with the previous year. A comparison of 1960–61 with 1954–55 figures shows that although the numbers of rural mortgages registered in the two years were almost identical, yet the amount secured in the later year had increased by £22,602,000, or 70 per cent.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumberAreaAmount Secured
Town and SuburbanCountryTotalTown and SuburbanCountryTotalTown and SuburbanCountryTotal
    acresacres (000)acres (000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
195135,6978,18743,8849,3732,4302,43932,03014,02346,053
195239,08010,80649,88610,0212,5632,57346,75126,42573,175
195339,37211,28650,6589,9662,8092,81945,15929,57474,732
195440,85611,97752,83310,3963,2593,26942,26628,64570,910
195545,93812,09058,02811,6543,5613,57352,87432,37585,249
195645,52610,06055,58611,2613,1493,16064,42133,72398,144
195741,8819,37651,25710,4012,6402,65158,64032,72191,361
195844,81310,65555,46811,2513,1943,20662,30638,549100,855
195946,5509,66856,21811,8762,7402,75173,08936,098109,187
196047,24210,62557,86711,5262,9762,98779,46841,538121,006
196152,54912,08864,63712,8943,6853,69899,07654,977154,054

NOTE — These figures exclude certain miscellaneous registrations, but have not been adjusted to exclude duplications.

Rates of Interest — The following table gives a classification of mortgages registered according to the various rates of interest, and includes duplicate registrations (to the extent of £1,485,919 in 1959–60 and £3,634,595 in 1960–61).

Rate Per Cent1959–601960-61
 ££
1/26,3041,000
1113,75354,018
1 1/53,000
1 1/47,200
1 1/28,2008,060
1 4/51,000
2178,771172,927
2 1/21,475
2 1/2107,87499,742
2 3/419,075
320,728,72928,187,611
3 1/8567,249329,137
3 3/202,120
3 1/445,43810,480
3 1/2149,493255,131
3 5/814,500
3 3/48,91229,725
3 4/53,000
41,594,0271,634,319
4 1/8799,499691,869
4 1/4405,883324,903
4 1/3500
4 3/82,7004,092
4 2/53,500
4 1/2674,196518,665
4 3/52,620
4 5/830,65449,253
4 7/102,340
4 3/46,354,1086,952,362
4 7/8932,145991,697
4 9/102,640
513,408,36517,025,414
5 1/2013,400
5 1/102,700
5 1/824,5008,450
5 1/5716750
5 1/4152,928287,645
5 3/101,700
5 1/238,420,17545,631,658
5 3/4522,7042,640,790
613,388,35518,621,259
6 1/85,500
6 1/453,50084,760
6 3/811,000
6 1/23,027,9724,172,296
6 3/417,60022,145
71,635,4652,136,243
7 1/47,20021,050
7 1/2473,610426,399
7 2/3750
7 3/47,38015,500
81,201,1971,343,882
8 1/247,777185,537
8 3/4350490
9103,277102,251
9 1/22,3256,150
10595,726670,776
10 1/2100
 −3,1504,300
124,52521,200
12 1/214,0203,035
144,695
158,35111,594
169,950
171,825
185197,154
18 1/21,062
19 1/2318
202877,000
22600
241,000
332,4206,000
Unspecified15,138,31720,192,481
        Totals121,005,749154,053,667

A further classification of the 1960–61 figures in the preceding table is now given, showing the various rates of interest for town and suburban and country properties.

1960-61
Rate Per CentTown and SuburbanCountry
 ££
1/21,000
118,75035,268
1 1/53,000
1 1/47,200
1 1/26,0602,000
294,34478,583
2 1/81,475
2 1/240,89858,844
2 3/419,075
325,826,5022,361,109
3 1/8315,22913,908
3 3/202,120
3 1/410,480
3 1/2124,440130,691
3 5/814,500
3 3/44,70025,025
4388,4651,245,854
4 1/8132,479559,390
4 1/4208,833116,070
4 3/84,092
4 2/53,500
4 1/2234,709283,956
4 3/52,620
4 5/849,253
4 3/46,470,002482,360
4 7/8695,651296,046
4 9/102,640
56,147,70510,877,709
5 1/2013,400
5 1/88,450
5 1/5750
5 1/4136,366151,279
5 1/226,180,61319,451,045
5 3/4969,5071,671,283
611,974,6266,646,633
6 1/478,0256,735
6 1/23,339,465832,831
6 3/415,2456,900
71,495,390640,853
7 1/41,55019,500
7 1/2280,619145,780
7 3/450015,000
81,051,013292,869
8 1/2162,28723,250
8 3/4490
983,46518,786
9 1/26,150
10348,810321,966
10 1/2100
114,300
125,20016,000
12 1/23,035
1511,594
169,950
171,825
187,154
18 1/21,062
202,0005,000
336,000
Unspecified12,159,7598,032,722
      Totals99,076,26954,977,398

The average rate of interest on new mortgages was maintained at over 6 per cent per year from 1922 to 1932, but with the advent of the depression period and the effect of the mortgage relief legislation, subsequent years showed decreases. The inclusion of State Advances Corporation mortgages from the year 1935–36 onwards no doubt also had the effect of reducing the average rate, and in addition the advent of 3 per cent rehabilitation mortgages to ex-servicemen for residential and farm properties in the earlier post-war years and their gradual diminution in later years affected the rate. The average rate showed a rising trend from 1947–48 to 1957–58 but falls were recorded in 1958–59 and 1959–60 while it remained steady in 1960–61. These latter movements occurred largely as a result of the State Advances Corporation 3 per cent home-building loans which were introduced in February 1958. The average rate of interest for town and suburban properties for 1960–61 was 4.83 per cent, as compared with 5.34 per cent for country properties. The comparative figures for 1959–60 were 4.8 and 5.25 respectively. The effect of the 3 per cent home-building loans is also shown by the decline in the average rate of interest on first table town mortgages in the latest three years. The average rates of interest on all other classes of mortgages in 1960–61 have increased, and the average rate of interest with the exclusion of mortgages at 3 per cent was 5.50 per cent in 1959–60 and 5.51 per cent in 1960–61.

Average interest rates for recent years for all properties have been as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchAverage Rate Per Cent
19503.99
19514.09
19524.15
19534.29
19544.49
19554.69
19564.76
19575.09
19585.24
19595.15
19605.01
19615.01

The following table shows interest rates by class of mortgage. It should be noted that mortgages registered with no specified rate of interest are excluded from the calculations of average rates.

Year Ended 31 MarchClass of MortgageTotal, Town and Suburban and Country
Town and SuburbanCountry
First FlatFirst TableTotal (Including Other)First FlatFirst TableTotal (Including Other)
Per cent
19575.504.835.11per cent 5.284.865.075.09
19585.625.005.275.435.015.205.24
19595.774.775.115.475.135.255.15
19605.644.574.895.435.275.255.01
19615.754.484.835'495.245.345.01

The next table gives the amount of mortgage money and interest rate of each class of mortgage.

Class of MortgageAmount Year Ended 31 MarchAverage Rate of Interest Year Ended 31 March
195919601961195919601961
  £ (thousand)  per cent 
First flat town14,61012,42316,1945.775.645.75
First table town45,21152,15764,4134.774.574.48
          Totals, town (including other)65,25270,45686,9175.114.894.83
First flat rural9,5189,68514,0265.475.435.49
First table rural17,36020,03224,6275.135.175.24
          Totals, rural (including other)31,69635,41146,9445.255.255.34
                      Totals, town and rural96,948105,867133,8615.155.015.01

A further analysis showing amounts classified by interest rate groups is given below. This table shows that the proportion of new mortgages registered in the higher range of interest rates rose appreciably in the last five years.

Year Ended 31 MarchNot Exceeding 3 Per CentOver 3 Per Cent to 4 Per CentOver 4 Per Cent to 4 1/2 Per CentOver 4 1/2 Per Cent to 4 3/4 Per CentOver 4 3/4 Per Cent to 5 Per CentOver 5 Per Cent to 5 1/2 Per CentOver 5 1/2 Per Cent to 6 Per CentExceeding 6 Per Cent
Amount £ (thousand)
195110,5586,90418,9843143,466321477880
195212,6359,83834,6213874,7229906521,113
195312,5344,70934,8071,14311,8131,1011,2171,516
19549,5123,60721,98494021,7761,6432,2251,651
19558,4313,54721,50786332,3442,8975,4572,441
19568,1372,70821,4882,10043,6834,5105,1092,861
19576,3041,6909,9476,87221,54424,2737,8054,768
19586,2331,8012,81011,91716,93233,95111,0035,863
195914,1091,4832,08210,50513,69834,70911,4998,863
196021,1452,3681,8836,38714,34138,60313,9117,231
196128,5542,2751,5437,00418,02045,94221,2629,261
Percentage of Total
195125.216.545.30.78.30.81.12.1
195219.515.153.30.67.31.51.01.7
195318.26.850.61.717.21.61.82.2
195415.05.734.71.534.42.63.52.6
195510.94.627.81.141.73.77.03.1
19569.03.023.72.348.25.05.63.2
19577.62.012.08.325.929.29.45.7
19586.92.03.113.218.737.512.26.5
195914.61.52.210.814.135.8 :11.99.1
196020.02.21.86.013.636.513.16.8
196121.31.71.25.213.534.315.96.9

The trend in interest rates is further illustrated in the following diagram, which shows also the movement in mortgage registrations. The total amounts indicated in the diagram and in the two immediately preceding tables do not represent the total registrations in the respective years, as mortgages on which the rate of interest was not specified have been excluded.

MORTGAGES DISCHARGED — The value of mortgages registered normally exceeds the value of mortgages released, although discharges exceeded registrations for a period of five years commencing with the year 1933–34, and again from 1941–42 to 1945–46. Registrations exceeded discharges by £64,152,000 in 1958–59, £68,389,000 in 1959–60, and £82,141,000 in 1960–61.

The amount released during 1955–56, at £35,367,000 was the lowest since 1952–53, but an increase to £37,680,000 occurred in 1956–57, and a large increase to reach £46,100,000 followed in 1957–58. The value of discharges in 1958–59 decreased by £1,685,000, but in 1959–60 there was an increase of £6,737,000, and in 1960–61 a further increase of £17,147,000 to a record figure of £68,278,000.

The total amount of mortgages discharged, including mortgages under the deeds-registration system, for the last four years is as follows.

District1957–581958–591959–601960–61
NumberAmountNumberAmountNumberAmountNumberAmount
  £(000) £(000) £(000) £(000)
North Auckland9,39610,4399,33110,67610,16812,56312,29416,458
South Auckland4,0055,5213,8025,3894,4416,7355,2319,300
Gisborne597857524611558672650927
Hawke's Bay1,6272,3631,6582,1481,7532,4472,0553,569
Taranaki1,3731,8951,2401,6341,3181,9051,6202,581
Wellington7,3229,1507,5449,4577,97610,2929,17113,632
Marlborough405518431549441526452573
Nelson1,0009791,0461,0301,1431,0681,4741,741
Westland344272292229335313380370
Canterbury5,5607,0645,6576,7266,1068,3076,84810,289
Otago4,0064,2383,8603,8963,9464,5304,2505,161
Southland1,8112,7921,5402,0711,7502,3992,0493,712
          Gross totals37,44646,08836,92544,41839,93551,75846,47468,313
          Duplications5105244627534
          Net totals37,44146,07936,92044,39439,93151,13146,46968,278

Details of town and suburban and country discharges for 1960–61 are given in the following table.

DistrictYear Ended 31 March 1961
Town and SuburbanCountry
NumberAreaAmount DischargedNumberAreaAmount Discharged
  acres£(000) acres£(000)
North Auckland10,1652,70312,9082,129302,8643,550
South Auckland3,2429484,2071,989435,5665,092
Gisborne469143448181104,010479
Hawke's Bay1,4873821,691568185,3261,878
Taranaki1,0273871,100593130,5741,481
Wellington7,9581,74810,2481,213439,9833,384
Marlborough3099028014368,163292
Nelson1,0442691,060430121,209681
Westland288702189225,034153
Canterbury5,4811,3196,8741,367354,6773,415
Otago3,4727213,533778314,0881,628
Southland1,3433751,718706182,4801,994
          Gross totals36,2859,15544,28510,1892,663,97424,027
          Duplications3 272 8
          Net totals36,2829,15544,25810,1872,663,97424,019

30 B-STATE ADVANCES CORPORATION

GENERAL — As early as 1892 the Government commenced the purchase of lands for cutting up for sale or lease to private individuals, and two years later the passing of the Government Advances to Settlers Act 1894 marked the inauguration of a series of schemes for lending money to settlers, workers, etc., for the purchase of homes, the improvement of farms, and the development of resources and of industries. The schemes varied considerably in detail, but all lay in one of two main classes — those in which the money was advanced on security, and those in which the expenditure was incurred by the Government itself in the first place and recouped from sales or leases. Advances for farming and housing are the principal examples of the former class, and the purchase of land for settlement (including the settlement of ex-servicemen) and the building of State houses and flats are the principal examples of the latter.

The Mortgage Corporation of New Zealand Act 1934–35 authorised the creation of a Corporation under a board composed of directors appointed partly by the State and partly by the shareholders of the Corporation.

By the State Advances Corporation Act 1936 the private capital invested in the Mortgage Corporation was cancelled, provision being made for buying out shareholders in respect of shares held in the Corporation. The capital of the Corporation was maintained at £1,000,000, however, by an investment from the Consolidated Fund, while all securities issued by the Corporation carry a State guarantee. The management of the Corporation is vested in a board of directors consisting of a managing director and deputy managing director appointed by the Governor-General in Council, one or more other directors similarly appointed, and an ex officio director being such officer of the Treasury as the Minister of Finance may approve from time to time. In the exercise of its powers, the board is enjoined to have regard to any representations that may be made by the Minister of Finance. Every direction in writing given by the Minister is binding on the board.

The change in administration and the institution of a State guarantee on securities issued by the Corporation represented the major alterations to the pre-existing law. All the functions of the Mortgage Corporation were transferred to the new body, while certain extensions of function were made — e.g., the administration of the Housing Act.

The operations of the Corporation may now be classified under two main headings, viz, State Advances Corporation Act 1934–35 and Housing Act 1955.

STATE ADVANCES CORPORATION ACT 1934–35: Urban Loans — In view of the heavy call on its financial resources and the need to overtake the housing shortage, the Corporation has for some years been concentrating its residential lending on the provision of loans for the erection of houses or the acquisition of houses which have not previously been occupied. The Corporation's aim is to assist home seekers to acquire moderately priced new homes of a good standard and provide reasonable accommodation for the applicant and his family.

Advances may be made on the security of a first mortgage of land. Whilst no specific maximum loan is laid down, factors such as family commitments, capital resources and cost of house and land are taken into account, and loans are generally limited to a maximum of £2,500–£2,700. Each applicant is expected to make a reasonable contribution himself and, in general, each case is considered on its merits.

Early in 1958 a scheme was introduced whereby loans with the interest rebated to 3 per cent were made available to borrowers who had not owned a property within a period of five years prior to the date of application, and where the income of the breadwinner did not exceed £1,000 per annum (increased by £50 for each dependent child), including overtime and bonuses, but without taking into account family benefit or war pensions. In the period from 12 February 1958 to 31 March 1961 there had been approved under this latter provision 25,784 loans of a total value of £64,412,300, the figures for the year ended 31 March 1961 being 9,422 loans involving £24,549,615.

Where an applicant does not qualify for 3 per cent interest any loan granted is at the Corporation's normal lending rate which is at present 5 per cent.

In cases where the loan exceeds two-thirds of the assessed value of the land and house, with the approval of the Government, the Corporation is guaranteed against any loss attributable to the granting of advances in excess of two-thirds of the value of the security.

Suspensory Loans — In December 1949 the Government introduced a suspensory loan scheme which is still in operation. In effect an applicant having a house erected for himself can qualify for an additional subsidy up to 10 per cent of the cost of the house (with a maximum of £200). The suspensory loan is reduced by £1 for each £2 by which the cost exceeds £2,300, up to a total cost of £2,600. If, however., the applicant has three children the limit of £2,300 is increased to £2,450, for four children to £2,600, and for five or more children to £2,750. Applicants who are granted 3 per cent loans do not also qualify for suspensory loans. The number of loans of this type approved during the year ended 31 March 1961 was 285 involving £43,125, and the total amount to 31 March 1961 was £3,966,037 in respect of 24,532 loans.

In addition to this suspensory loan scheme on houses there is a further class of suspensory loan granted to rehabilitation farm applicants, the act of which is to settle the men on a basis comparable with that under the conditions which existed while the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act 1943 remained in force. During the 1960–61 year 74 suspensory loans of this type were granted involving advances of £114,880. Since the scheme was put into operation a total of 3,170 such suspensory loans have been authorised, the aggregate amount involved being £3,839,319. The funds required to meet urban and rural suspensory loans are provided by the Treasury out of the Consolidated Fund, the lump sum payments are made by the Treasury to the Corporation to meet requirements from time to time.

Rural Loans—Long-term mortgage finance is granted by the Corporation for the purchase and/or development of farm properties, and present policy is directed towards assisting suitable experienced young farmers and farm workers who can demonstrate a need for finance from the Corporation, and who have not previously owned an economic property. Loans may be granted for the purchase of land and improvements and stock and plant, the erection of necessary buildings, and for essential development work. Loans are generally limited to two-thirds of the Corporation's value of the land and improvements, although loans in excess of this margin may be approved where collateral security over stock and plant is available. It has been found that the aim of assisting suitable applicants to acquire properties with adequate stock and plant can be achieved with loans up to £10,000 in the case of dairy farms, and £14,000 for sheep farms, and these are the maximum loans normally available. However, loans in excess of these amounts will be considered in special circumstances. Repayment is on a table basis over terms of up to 35 years, with interest at 5 per cent per annum. Loan assistance is not normally available to refinance existing mortgages.

Loans to Local Authorities — In addition to its primary function of providing cheap long-term finance in the form of first mortgage on property, the Corporation has been authorised to make loans to local authorities for the purpose of erecting pensioner and approved community housing schemes and farm dwellings, and also advances to individuals for the development of existing industries or the establishment of new industries.

Family Benefit Capitalisation — A further scheme of housing finance administered by the Corporation is that established by the Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1958, which came into operation on the 1 April 1959, the moneys for which are provided by the Social Security Department and paid out by the Corporation. Applications for advances under this Act are received only from applicants who have already been declared eligible by the Social Security Commission. For the year ended 31 March 1961, 10,515 advances, totalling £6,603,109, were authorised by the Corporation under this agency, compared with 9,342 advances totalling £5,684,074 in 1959–60.

Rehabilitation — The Corporation acts as the agent of the Rehabilitation Board in obtaining valuations and preparing reports in respect of farm and residential property for submission to the Rehabilitation Loans Committee (or to District Loans Committees acting under delegated authority from the Rehabilitation Loans Committee), which has been appointed to consider and approve of loan applications lodged by ex-servicemen who are eligible for assistance under the Rehabilitation Act 1941. The administration of such loans, when granted, is the subsequent responsibility of the Corporation. The classes of loans granted and the terms and conditions applicable thereto are set out in Section 9B (Rehabilitation). The securities taken in respect of rehabilitation loans for farms or houses are similar to mortgages taken for the purpose of securing advances made under the Corporation's ordinary lending activities, except that the Reserve Fund contribution on advances within the respective loan limits is paid by the Consolidated Fund, which also meets the difference between the Corporation's normal interest rate and the reduced interest rate charged to ex-servicemen.

Mortgage Guarantee Scheme — A mortgage guarantee scheme was provided for by the State Advances Corporation Amendment Act 1953. This amendment enables the Corporation to guarantee financial institutions repayment by the borrower of an approved amount over and above the normal limits of the institutions.

Conditions of Loans — The large majority of the loans granted by the board are secured by table mortgages for terms varying from 10 to 30 years, but the board also has power to make advances on flat mortgage on certain conditions.

When loans are granted in excess of normal lending margins, mortgagors may be required to offer some form of collateral security (e.g., mortgage of life policy). A mortgagor may not give any subsequent mortgage or any other charge over land subject to any mortgage to the Corporation except with the written authority of the board, unless the further mortgage or other charge is in favour of the Corporation.

All mortgagors who receive from the Corporation a loan secured by a mortgage of land are required to pay as a contribution to the General Reserve Fund an amount equal to 2 per cent of the amount of the loan. These amounts, which may be borrowed as an addition to the principal sum if so desired, together with the surplus profits referred to below, and certain past payments on account of mortgages transferred to the Corporation, form the General Reserve Fund. This contribution may be waived or reduced in respect of loans granted within five years of repaying an earlier loan.

The board is required from time to time to fix the rates of interest to be paid under mortgages to the Corporation, so as to make adequate provision to cover the costs of administration and for all other matters incidental to the proper functioning of the Corporation. After such provision as the Minister of Finance thinks proper has been made for the depreciation of securities or other assets, and for such other matters as in his opinion are necessary for the efficient conduct of the business of the Corporation, the surplus for each financial year is to be paid into the Public Account unless the Minister, in his discretion, authorises the board to credit it, in whole or in part, to the General Reserve Fund of the Corporation.

The lending rate of the Corporation was maintained until the end of 1953 at 4 1/8 per cent. Where first establishment is involved, rehabilitation loans to ex-servicemen for houses and farms are, however, at 3 per cent, reducible to 2 per cent for the first year and for business loans at 4 per cent, reducible to 2 per cent for the first year. The amount involved in interest concessions of this kind is now recouped from the Consolidated Fund. Loans granted under the Corporation's normal lending business are in general secured by table mortgages for varying periods.

The State Advances Corporation increased interest rates from 1 January 1954 on loans for the purchase of approved urban and rural properties from 4 1/8 per cent to 4 7/8 per cent and, from 1 April 1956, to 5 per cent. The interest rate applicable to loans for the building of new houses was increased from 4 1/8 per cent to 4 3/4 per cent as from 1 April 1956, and to 5 per cent as from 27 July 1961.

The following summary shows the annual cost — i.e., interest and principal payments — per £100 borrowed on table mortgage at 3 per cent, and 5 per cent for the various periods.

TermAnnual Amount Payable Per £100 Borrowed
3 Per Cent5 Per Cent
 £s.d.£s.d.
10 years1113012168
15 years8669112
20 years61387194
25 years5144710
30 years516694

Special plans prepared by leading architects are avilable in book form, and assistance in calling tenders and in the erection of the houses is available from the Corporation's technical officers.

Rural Intermediate Credit — Pursuant to the provisions of Part VI of the State Advances Corporation Act 1936, the former Rural Intermediate Credit Board went out of office on 1 July 1937, and was replaced by the Board of Management of the State Advances Corporation.

Loans may be granted to Rural Intermediate Credit Associations for readvancing to individuals or may be granted direct to persons engaged in farming on their own account. Loans are repayable on demand but it has been the policy to arrange for the borrower to repay the advance over a period up to five years.

At 31 March 1961 there were six cooperative rural intermediate credit associations in operation. The loans authorised through this channel during the year 1960–61 amounted to £188,385, and there were 254 loans current at the end of the year for an aggregate amount of £246,225.

The interest fixed for advances other than to cooperative rural intermediate credit associations is 5 per cent per annum, except in the case of ex-servicemen eligible for rehabilitation assistance, where the interest rate is 4 per cent per annum (rebated to 2 per cent for the first year provided the loan conditions are fulfilled). In the case of loans to cooperative rural intermediate credit associations the rate charged is 4 per cent, so that associations may be in a position to make advances to their members at 5 per cent.

HOUSING ACT 1955 — In addition to its lending activities the State Advances Corporation has the important function of administering the Housing Act 1955 on behalf of the Crown. Under the Housing Act 1955 the Corporation administers State houses and flats which become available for letting or for sale to tenants, as well as loans to local authorities granted under the provisions of this Act. The following are the main operations:

  1. Applications for State tenancies.

  2. The subsequent administration of these tenancies.

  3. The sale of State houses to tenants desiring to purchase.

  4. Housing loans to local authorities for projects within defined Government policy.

The number of additional dwelling units handed over to the Corporation during the year ended 31 March 1961 totalled 2,148. New State houses under administration on a tenancy basis at 1 April 1960 were 40,234. After adding the new units taken over and allowing for sales and repurchases, there was a net total of 42,190 for the year ended 31 March 1961, an increase of 1,956 over the previous year, in addition to these houses the Corporation also administers a group of older houses acquired for rental purposes, the number being 1,717 at 31 March 1961.

Substantial responsibilities are involved in the administration of the 43,907 tenancies which were current at 31 March 1961. The number of tenants in arrears during the year ended 31 March 1961 averaged 1.9 per cent, which is slightly above the figure for the previous year.

Rentals received for these tenancies amounted to £4,626,952 for the year ended 31 March 1961, as against £4,337,608 for the previous year. A substantial increase in rental income will result from the general increase in rents as from 1 October 1961. Apart from interest, the largest single item of expenditure charged against rentals was the provision for maintenance of State houses. For the year ended 31 March 1961 this amounted to £1,053,131, against £1,027,596 for the previous year. Rates payable to local authorities showed a substantial increase for the year ended 31 March 1961, being £926,358 compared with the previous year's figure of £845,538.

Revenue accounts arc prepared on the basis of interest on loan capital being charged at the rate of 4 per cent. Actual interest payment; have, however, been restricted to 1 per cent on the first £5 million of capital and 1 1/2 per cent on the remainder; With interest at 4 per cent, the total loss for the year ended 31 March 1961 from all activities was £1,762,911 (including £1,559,476 on rentals), compared with £1,677,525 in 1959–60 (£1,457,377 on rentals). With interest at the reduced rate actually paid, the deficit of £559,131 carried forward from the 1959–50 year was reduced to £77,503 as at the close of the 1960–61 year.

Reference to the Government's housing scheme under the Housing Act 1955, together with particulars of the numbers of houses erected, etc., are contained in Section 19 (Building and Housing Construction; and Tenancy).

Sale of State Houses — Should they desire to own their own homes, State house tenants are given the opportunity of buying the houses they occupy. The current purchase terms available to tenants include:

  1. A minimum deposit usually of 5 per cent of the gross purchase price but where, however, the financial position of the purchaser warrants, the Board of Management of the Corporation may require a greater deposit.

  2. The balance of the purchase money, together with interest, payable over a period of years on an instalment-table basis.

  3. Interest at 5 per cent reducible to 3 per cent while conditions of sale are complied with in the case of purchasers who would qualify for a 3 per cent Housing Loan (see page 917).

From the inception of the sale of State rental houses up to 31 March 1961 the number sold to the tenants was 16,831, for a total sale price of £39,797,118. Of the houses sold, over 1,044 have been repurchased by the Corporation for £2,527,768. The repurchases comprise properties which have been bought back in terms of the sale agreement — generally from purchasers who have transferred to other towns in the course of their employment.

SUMMARY OF ACTIVITIES: Classification of Accounts and Balance Sheet Assets at 31 March 1961 — As already indicated, the Corporation, in addition to its normal lending functions, administers a number of other State activities, and a general summary of the business under administration as at 31 March 1961 is as follows.

ItemNumber of AccountsAmount
State Advances Corporation–
    Investments and accrued interest–
        Rural– £
            Mortgages22,58855,488,286
            Seasonal current accounts (in debit)263741,001
        Urban (mortgages)96,965146,271,638
        Loans to industries331,002,888
        Government and local authority securities71612,567,208
        Fixed and current assets2,349,576
Totals120,565218,420,597
Housing Account—
    Investments and accrued interest–
        Dwellings sold15,12028,132,492
        Loans to local authorities1611,655,893
        Loans to employers1890,379
    Rural Housing Act (loans to local authorities)921,104,023
    Rented properties—
        Dwellings let44,01297,585,793
        Shops, halls, and communal garages186
    Current assets267,945
Totals59,589128,836,525
Agencies—
    Advances under Rehabilitation Act 1941
        Furniture, tools of trade, business and miscellaneous57085,430
        Interest-free supplementary loans1,426,051
    Health Department1021,024,290
    Licensing Control Commission437,786
    Gas companies4268,170
    Suspensory loans (rural and urban)16,2485,666,389
    Miscellaneous rentals, etc.706
Totals17,6348,508,116
Grand totals197,788355,765,238

Farm loans and residential loans to ex-servicemen under the Rehabilitation Act 1941 arc included in the table with mortgage investments. Particulars of all rehabilitation loan authorisations will be found in Section 9B (Rehabilitation).

Financial — Balance-sheet figures show that at 31 March 1961 the authorised capital was £1,000,000, and stock and debentures outstanding were £176,221,890, the same amount as at 31 March 1960. National Development Loans capital was £22,000,000. This sum was raised during 1960–61.

The General Reserve Fund at March 1961 amounted to £12,382,608, and, in addition, there were specific reserves amounting to £3,332,557, making a total of £15,715,165, as compared with £14,648,346 at 31 March 1960.

Mortgages and accrued interest at 31 March 1961 totalled £202,753,519, an increase of £21,505,214 as compared with 31 March 1960, while Government and local authority securities and accrued interest at £12,567,208 were greater by £686,287.

The disposition and appropriation of profits in respect of operations during each of the latest three financial years are given in the following table.

Disposition and Appropriation of Profits1958–591959–601960–61
 £££
Gross income7,100,0907,699,4808,435,208
    Less interest on General Reserve Fund investments381,393429,257478,046
Gross income (mortgage and temporary investments)6,718,6977,270,2237,957,162
Interest on stock and debentures5,103,2815,666,6776,389,554
Gross profit1,615,4161,603,5461,567,608
Management expenses702,416682,418753,272
Net profit913,000921,128814,336
    Less reserve for taxes675,000725,000705,000
    Less reserve for losses102,628102,22610,478
Surplus payable to Crown135,37293,90298,858

The gross income of £8,435,208 in 1960–61 included £7,119,795 interest on mortgages and current accounts, £477,400 interest on Government and local authority securities and temporary investments, and £838,013 recovery from the Rehabilitation Division on account of interest concessions to ex-servicemen on rehabilitation advances. Corresponding figures for 1959–60 were £7,699,480, £6,514,385, £433,725, and £751,370 respectively.

New Business — A summary of loan operations (new business) for the latest two financial years is given in the following table.

Loans Authorised1959–601960–61
NumberValueNumberValue

* Includes 20 loans covering 153 flats and houses.

† Includes 20 loans covering 104 flats and houses.

‡ Excludes the number of supplementary and suspensory loans.

Urban securities— £ £
    Erection of dwellings11,93129,486,59012,263*31,800,970
    Purchase, refinance, and other purposes1,2141,619,2001,0991,499,329
    Supplementary(153)9,940(94)5,670
    Suspensory(406)62,760(264)39,365
Totals, urban13,14531,178,49013,36233,345,334
Rural securities—
    Purchase, refinance, and other purposes1,3205,703,3311,1406,079,953
    Supplementary
    Suspensory(88)124,800(95)118,640
Totals, rural1,3205,828,1311,1406,198,593
Loans to industry2105,0004133,000
Local authorities21,005,00012,200
Grand totals14,46938,116,62114,50739,679,127

NOTE — In addition to the above the following loans were authorised to group builders: 34 loans amounting to £303,000 in 1959–60 and 4 loans amounting to £43,500 in 1960–61.

The preceding figures include rehabilitation loans in respect of farms and houses. Other rehabilitation loans granted by the Rehabilitation Loans Committee and administered by the Corporation were as follows.

Loans AuthorisedYear Ended 31 March 1960Year Ended 31 March 1961Total to 31 March 1961
NumberValueNumberValueNumberValue
  £ £ £
Business710,22022,21611,5257,531,227
Furniture13713,37111611,43063,7515,979,541
Tools of trade1501,48248,964
Miscellaneous2250670132,057
Additional advances62452,338
                        Totals14723,89111813,64678,05213,744,127

A statement is now given of the aggregate number and amount of loans approved by the Board of Management since the Corporation commenced business in 1935.

 Number£
Farm (including supplementary)26,953105,089,638
Residential (including supplementary)154,687257,780,960
Local authorities1,13018,929,913
Industries673,468,048
Totals182,837385,268,559

30 C — BUILDING SOCIETIES

STATUTORY PROVISIONS — The law relating to building societies incorporated in New Zealand is in the main contained in the Building Societies Act 1908. Building societies are afforded all the powers and rights of an ordinary mortgagee, a description of which is contained in Section 30A — Mortgages. No reconveyance is needed to discharge a mortgage made under the Act, a receipt endorsed being a sufficient discharge for this purpose.

On 22 July 1960 new rates of interest payable on deposits were provided for by the Interest on Deposits Order 1960. The maximum rates payable range from 2 per cent, for deposits at call and under three months, to 5 per cent on deposits for not less than seven years. Rates payable for short-term deposits are therefore now less than those paid by the Post Office Savings Bank.

Returns of each society's operations are furnished annually to the Department of Statistics.

CONSTITUTION AND FUNCTIONS — A distinction is made between permanent and terminating societies. A permanent society is statutorily defined as one which has not by its rules any fixed date or specified result at which it shall terminate, and a terminating society as one which by its rules is to terminate at a fixed date, or when a result specified in its rules is attained. In practice a terminating society, or a group thereof, closes when every member so desiring has obtained a loan. There is a considerable difference between the two types of societies, the terminating society being a purely cooperative institution belonging to and managed by the members, proprietary interests being discouraged by placing a limit to the number of shares (usually 10) that any member may hold in any one group. There is, however, nothing to prevent a member from holding the maximum number of shares in more than one group. In a typical terminating society contributions are at the rate of 1s. per week per share, each share entitling a member in due course to £200 of loan, with a maximum of £1,200. As £1,200 has not been sufficient to meet the needs of the average prospective houseowner, there has been a tendency for the loan limit to be increased over a period of years. In some groups of the terminating societies the loan maximum is now £4,000. It is these contributions, together with premiums on loans mentioned later, which make up the funds from which loans are made. Loans are made to members both by ballot and by auction, the latter going for the highest premium offered. Security is required for the loans, which are repaid, free of interest, in periods varying from 10 to 20 years. The weekly payment of 1s. per share is continued, usually till the end of the group, but sometimes only until the total contributions paid in, plus profits, credited to the shareholder, equal the amount owing on the loan. The shareholder's credit balance is then transferred to extinguish the loan. The profit of the society is derived from premiums on loans sold by auction.

Permanent societies are more in the nature of finance companies, and, while both investors and borrowers must be members, the borrower is frequently merely a nominal member. Investments in a permanent society may be made in either large or small amounts. Capital may be raised by shares with a fixed rate of interest, or subject to dividends varying according to profits. As will be observed from the statistics which follow, terminating societies do not issue capital shares. Bonds, debentures, deposits, and overdraft are other methods of financing. The principal object of a permanent society is to lend money at a profit on land and buildings, either freehold or leasehold. Table mortgages are normally adopted, the usual term of repayment being up to 20 years. The statistics refer generally to years ending on 31 March.

NUMBER OF SOCIETIES AND SHARES — The number of societies functioning in 1960–61 was 73, of which 55 were permanent and 18 terminating. The number of societies has shown little variation in recent years.

Permanent Societies — The following table shows for each of the latest five years particulars of permanent societies, including data on number and value of investing and capital shares.

 1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61
Number of societies5454545555
Investing Shares
Number of shares727,814817,800876,557906,335973,176
Members holding26,83427,73928,04227,67128,524
Aggregate value£7,750,980£8,525,253£9,059,485£9,431,647*£9,833,648
Capital Shares
Number of shares918,8391,015,1741,154,5851,247,6821,387,606
Members holding5,8686,0016,0836,0875,971
Aggregate value£2,261,774£2,373,418£2,456,112£2,531,663£2,588,709

At March 1961 the average value of each investing share was £10 2s., and the average value of such shares hold by each member was £345. The comparative figures for capital shares were £1 17s. and £434.

Terminating Societies — Although the number of terminating societies fell for some years, the total membership and value of shares continue to grow. Measured by these criteria, the size of the average existing society has therefore increased greatly. As stated earlier, one person may hold shares in several groups of a terminating society. The next table shows the progress of terminating societies during the latest five years. It should be noted that the information pertaining to shares relates to investing or contributory shares, there being no capital shares in a terminating society.

YearSocietiesGroupsMembers Holding SharesInvesting Shares
NumberValue
     £
1956–5718395183,5201,286,11514,853,317
1957–5818418204,4801,472,96017,371,301
1958–5918440217,1211,657,90820,420,720
1959–6018468229,2781,908,80023,204,508
1960–6118496246,7842,162,73226,531,465

The average value per share in 1960–61 was £12 5s., and the average value of shares held per member was £107 10s. The figures for 1956–57 were, respectively, £11 11s. and £80 18s.

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS — Following is a summary of receipts and payments for all societies during each of the latest five years.

Item1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61
Receipts £(thousand)
Investors' subscriptions and capital shares4,1325,0005,2615,8836,816
Advances repaid3,8884,3714,8385,4946,866
Deposits2,5573,1323,6403,9805,506
Interest7919031,0041,1271,280
Other receipts6796601,001825928
                          Total receipts12,04714,06715,74317,30821,395
Payments £(thousand)
Withdrawals1,1491,3641,4841,8272,199
Advances6,2567,4708,4219,32311,534
Expenses of management337385432496567
Dividends paid130140145156165
Deposits repaid2,6622,9523,0163,2524,152
Interest paid269301352428511
Other payments1,3231,4081,8921,7952,284
                        Total payments12,12714,02115,74217,27721,411

The ratio of loan repayments to advances was 58.5 percent in 1957–58, 57.4 percent in 1958–59, 58.9 per cent in 1959–60, and 59.5 per cent in 1960–61.

LOANS — The number of borrowers and amount of loans outstanding at the end of each of the five years quoted were as follows. Advances on shares are excluded, as are the outstanding balances on premiums on loans where possible. In a few cases however, it has not been possible to separate this figure from the amount of loans and in such cases the outstanding balance owing on premiums on loans is included.

YearPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesTotals
NumberAmountNumberAmountNumberAmount
  £(000) £(000) £(000)
1956–5715,08716,28322,04616,34937,13332,631
1957–5815,06317,46423,77718,61338,84036,077
1958–5915,29518,67325,61320,99740,90839,670
1959–6015,41120,17528,01721,12643,42841,302
1960–6115,97822,45630,04523,89646,02346,352

The average amount owing by each borrower at the end of each of the five years is given below.

Class1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61
 £££££
Permanent societies1,0791,1591,2211,3091,405
Terminating societies742783820754795
All societies8799279709511,007

For terminating societies, if all outstanding balances owing on premiums on loans are added to the loan totals outstanding, the 1960–61 figures would be £28.3 million, compared with £24.8 million in 1959–60 and £21.8 million in 1958–59.

Particulars of loans granted during each of the latest five years follow.

YearPermanent SocietiesTerminating Societies
By BallotBy Auction
NumberAmountNumberAmountNumberAmountPremiums
  £(000) £(000) £(000)£(000)
1956–572,1572,4609441,1391,6742,4451,089
1957–582,5113,2551,1641,5311,7912,5962,201
1958–592,4323,2151,2481,8311,8612,9661,883
1959–602,6423,7461,2131,9261,9643,1041,315
1960–613,0925,0791,5172,4242,1543,6431,631

The totals for loans in the above table represent loans granted and differ slightly from the figures shown as advances in the table relating to receipts and payments, where the amounts refer to payments actually made in respect of loans. The average loan granted by permanent societies amounted to £1,643, and by terminating societies (ballot) £1,598 and (auction) £1,691. The average premium on auctioned loans, representing total interest payments over the period of the loan, was £757.

Premium rates on auctioned loans during the last five years have been: 1956–57, £44.6 per cent; 1957–58, £46.3 per cent; 1958–59, £46.6 per cent; 1959–60, £42.4 per cent; and 1960–61, £44.8 per cent.

Commencing with the year 1937–38, statistics of building societies were extended to include a classification of loans into (1) loans granted to finance the erection of new dwellings, and (2) loans granted to finance the purchase of dwellings already built. For the purposes of the statistics new dwellings are deemed to include those which have been built by the borrower during the 12 months preceding the granting of the loan. Particulars for 1960–61, with totals for earlier years, are given in the following table.

 To Finance the Erection of New DwellingsTo Finance the Purchase of Dwellings Already BuiltFor Other and Unspecified PurposesTotals
No.AmountNo.AmountNo.AmountNo.Amount
  £(000) £(000) £(000) £(000)
Permanent societies4008601,7382,7359541,4843,0925,079
Terminating societies —
    By ballot2353849951,6932873471,5172,424
    By auction3836091,4322,4963395382,1543,643
Totals all societies —
              1960–611,0181,8534,1656,9241,5802,3696,76311,146
              1959–609251,6043,3625,5071,5321,6665,8198,777
              1958–591,1051,7783,1014,9971,3351,2375,5418,012
              1957–581,0581,6903,0854,4981,3231,1955,4667,382
              1956–579391,4852,7743,7691,0627904,7756,044

Loan authorisations again increased in 1960–61, most of the increased activity over the past three years being directed towards the purchase of existing dwellings.

The considerable number of loans shown for other and unspecified purposes is partly due to the fact that some societies are unable to give the necessary classification, so that it may be taken that the foregoing table understates the number of loans actually granted for the erection or purchase of dwellings.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS — The liabilities and assets of building societies for each of the latest five years are given in the next table.

LIABILITIES

YearTo Shareholders (Including Reserve Funds and Undivided Profits)DepositsAppropriations Not Taken Up, or in TrustTo Bankers and Other CreditorsTotal Liabilities
£(thousand)
1956–5728,4984,6841,6031,39836,183
1957–5832,4174,8871,7771,24240,323
1958–5936,4935,7951,7881,11945,195
1959–6040,7076,8741,7421,17050,493
1960–6145,3298,6971,9911,30157,317

ASSETS

YearAdvances on Mortgage*Advances on SharesOther Investments and AssetsCash in Hand and at BankTotal Assets
* Includes balance owing on premiums on loans.
£(thousand)
1956–5732,8694102,68921436,183
1957–5836,4124983,14726640,323
1958–5940,5146163,81325245,195
1959–6045,0037334,50725050,493
1960–6150,7298035,48030657,317

The ratio of advances on mortgage to total assets for 1960–61 was 88.5 per cent, a slight decrease on the figure for 1959–60 which was 89.1 per cent. Although declining slightly, the ratio still remains at a high level.

30 D — COMPANIES

GENERAL — The method of carrying on business by companies is now a proved system, a system for the incorporation of persons into a separate entity for trading purposes and providing a convenient method for the investment of capital and for the limitation of liability of the people associated in the company. The incorporation of a company with limited liability provides the framework of commercial and industrial life, and, particularly in the field of private companies, is becoming increasingly the form of business organisation for the small trader.

LEGISLATION — Comprehensive legislation relating to companies is contained in the Companies Act 1955, which came into force on 1 January 1957. An important principle in the legislation is the protection of shareholders, creditors, and the general public by the requirement that there must be the fullest practicable disclosure of information concerning the activities of companies. The annual financial statements must exhibit a true and complete account of a company's affairs and transactions. A prescribed form of presentation is required and comparative figures for the previous year must be shown. A prospectus must be deposited with the Registrar of Companies before it is issued.

Any number of persons from two to 25 may form a private company; a public company must have at least seven members. A private company of not less than seven members may, under certain conditions, be reregistered as a public company.

NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED — The following table shows for the last 11 years the number and aggregate nominal capital of new private companies registered.

A notable feature is the increase in numbers and aggregate nominal capital during the last five years when compared with those for the previous five-year period.

During 1956–60 years inclusive, 16,047 new private companies were registered, with an aggregate nominal capital of £69 million, whereas in the period 1951–55 the comparable figures were 10,903 and £57 million.

Public companies, however, showed a decline in the aggregate nominal capital, which fell from £17.8 million in the 1951–55 period to £13.7 million in the 1956–60 period notwithstanding that the nominal capital for 1960 of £9,879,000, was the highest recorded for any one year.

YearPrivate CompaniesPublic CompaniesOverseas Companies
NumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal Capital

* Of this number one company was limited (as to capital) by guarantee.

Of this number one company was created under special overseas Government charter and no capital information is available.

Of this number two companies were limited (as to capital) by guarantee.

  £(000) £(000) £(000)
19502,0478,22615366121,586
19511,9789,206282,82514777
19521,7049,307288,3931215,708
19532,01010,7201247719*31,837
19542,64715,83121*1,5131710,402
19552,56412,20019*4,542121,605
19563,21413,733201,4922120,368
19573,46214,111251,44426*64,927
19582,995*12,259124282716,658
19592,685*14,00424*4092832,690
19603,69114,929469,8793012,188

In comparing one year with another, as in the preceding table, it should not be overlooked that reregistrations, on account of reconstruction of companies or for other reasons, are included. Such reregistrations of large companies may have a considerable effect on the year's total, so far as capital is concerned.

The table following gives a classification of new companies registered in 1960 according to the amount of nominal capital.

Amount of Nominal CapitalPrivate CompaniesPublic CompaniesOverseas Companies
NumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal Capital
 £(000)£(000)£(000)
Under £1,00086628962
£1,000 and under £2,0008831,0006622
£2,000 and under £3,0006301,35712
£3,000 and under £4,0003501,095
£4,000 and under £5,000153626
£5,000 and under £6,0002351,186157515
£6,000 and under £7,0008048716
£7,000 and under £8,00063455
£8,000 and under £9,00046375
£9,000 and under £10,00034314
£10,000 and under £15,0002172,275550330
£15,000 and under £20,00032521230
£20,000 and under £50,000802,0351334125
£50,000 and over222,915169,7101111,992
Limited by guarantee2
Totals3,69114,929469,8793012,188

The nominal capital shown for overseas companies is the total nominal capital of these companies and, of course, bears no relationship to their capital resources employed in New Zealand. It is shown merely as some indication of the relative size of overseas companies commencing business in this country.

The total nominal value for March years of capital resources employed in New Zealand by branches of overseas companies is available on request to the Department of Statistics.

The number of private company registrations in 1960 was 3,691. This represented a large increase of 1,006 (37.5 per cent) over the 2,685 registered in 1959. The nominal capital of companies registered showed an increase of £925,000, or 6.6 per cent. This smaller increase in nominal capital as compared with the numerical increase, resulted in the average amount of authorised capital of new companies decreasing from £5,218 in 1959 to £4,045, in 1960. Companies with a nominal capital of £100,000 or over in 1959 numbered 10 with a total of £4,675,000, whereas in 1960, 11 companies in the same group, only totalled £2,297,000.

The extent of changes in the number and nominal capital of new registrations of private companies between 1950 and 1960, expressed as percentages of the totals, is shown in the following table.

Amount of Nominal CapitalNumberAmount of Capital
1950196019501960
 per cent
Under £1,00017.42.023.51.9
£1,000 and under £5,00063.233.754.627.3
£5,000 and under £10,00012.719.412.418.9
£10,000 and over6.744.99.551.9
                                Totals100.0100.00100.00100.00

Compiled from published sources, the following summary gives the stated objects of all new companies registered during 1958–1960. Because of possible inaccuracies in the source data, and the difficulty of precise classification by industrial group from the information available, the figures should be regarded as approximate only.

Industry Group195819591960
Agriculture and livestock production408331427
Forestry, hunting, and fishing142214
Mining and quarrying322220
Manufacturing —
    Food, beverages, and tobacco654136
    Textile, footwear, and apparel1145754
    Woodwork and furniture602856
    Machinery10876111
    Transport equipment12558119
    Other202180195
Construction331220316
Commerce —
  Wholesale and retail7638581,140
  Banks and other financial institutions175229407
  Real estate241321390
  Other13
Transport, storage, and communication13077124
Services —
    Community and business273552
    Personal169152216
    Other281329
Miscellaneous or not known421658
Totals3,0342,7373,767

Companies Carrying on Business — Statistics of companies carrying on business were compiled on four occasions, for the years 1926, 1932, 1938, and 1947.

For detailed tables in connection with the 3947 inquiry into registered companies the 1950 Yearbook should be consulted, while a summary only of the principal information for the four enumerations was given in the subsequent issues up to 1958.

Companies on Register, March 1961 and 1962 — The number of public companies on the register at 31 March 1961 was 1,613, and the number of private companies 39,273. At 31 March 1962 public companies numbered 1,632 and private companies 42,372. These figures were supplied by the Registrar of Companies, no further particulars being available.

ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC COMPANY FINANCIAL STATEMENTS —Since 1953 the Reserve Bank of New Zealand has undertaken an analysis of the annual financial statements of a sample of public companies in New Zealand to obtain information concerning company finance and the capital market. Results of these analyses are published in the Reserve Bank Bulletin, and summaries were printed in the 1958 to 1961 issues of the Yearbook.

Chapter 31. Section 31 INSURANCE

31 A — LIFE ASSURANCE

GENERAL — The statutory provisions affecting life assurance in New Zealand are in the main contained in the Life Insurance Act 1908; the Inalienable Life Annuities Act 1910; and the Government Life Insurance Act 1953. Any association other than a friendly society which issues policies or grants annuities on human life in New Zealand comes within the scope of the enactments. Every life company must deposit with the Public Trustee cash or approved securities to a value related to the total amount assured by its New Zealand policies, the maximum deposit being £50,000. The aggregate value of such deposits at 31 March 1961 was £919,865.

In the case of composite offices, provision is made for the receipts of life and annuity business to be treated as a separate fund, and the Act safeguards the interest of the policyholder by making these funds available only for liabilities arising from such business.

Annual returns of life assurance in the form required by statute are furnished to the Minister of Finance, and it is from copies of these returns that the statistical matter contained in this subsection has been compiled. The balance dates of the offices furnishing returns vary between June and March of the following year, the financial year of the majority ending in December.

Twenty life-assurance offices now conduct business in New Zealand, but the figures for 1960–61 given in this section cover only 18 offices; two recent additions will not figure in life-assurance statistics until the 1961–62 collection. Of these, four only are purely New Zealand institutions — namely, the Government Life Insurance Office, the Provident Life Assurance Co., the Dominion Life Assurance Office of New Zealand Ltd., and the F.A.M.E. Insurance Co. Ltd.

The statistics here given relate exclusively to business transacted in New Zealand.

LIFE ASSURANCE: Ordinary and Industrial — The progress of life assurance in New Zealand is illustrated by the following diagram, which shows the amount of new business transacted at intervals over a period of 55 years.

Eleven years' figures for value of new business, discontinuances, and policies in force for the combined departments (ordinary and industrial) are given in the table following.

YearPolicies IssuedPolicies DiscontinuedPolicies Existing at End of Year
£(thousand)
1950–5149,34315,580387,216
1951–5262,32016,524433,012
1952–5365,21419,150479,077
1953–5473,16123,137529,100
1954–5588,16325,473591,790
1955–56100,04229,679662,153
1956–57103,12733,102732,177
1957–58116,64637,125811,698
1958–59132,22941,979901,948
1959–60159,87548,9691,012,854
1960–61183,98457,6161,139,222

While the upward trend shown in the figures has been influenced both by the rate of monetary depreciation and the normal growth of population, the course of life-assurance business, particularly during the past decade, has been one of steady progress. From 1950–51 to 1960–61 the face value of new business written has more than trebled, and the amount of cover in force has risen by 194 per cent. This expansion has probably been assisted by the rise in the number of young people commencing work (in line with the rising birthrate in earlier years), and the growth in public favour of such types of policies as group insurance and mortgage repayment. A further point is the concession, for income-tax purposes, allowed by the deduction from assessable income of premiums to a certain maximum value.

As the total discontinuances include surrenders and lapses, the general tendency is for discontinuances to follow the same trend as new business, although there is naturally a time lag of, normally, about two years. This trend is plainly apparent, although the increase in discontinuances is normally much smaller than the growth of new business.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE: Progress of Business — A table showing the progress of business over a period of 11 years is given below. Annuities are excluded from these figures.

YearPolicies IssuedPolicies DiscontinuedPolicies Existing at End of Year
NumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual Premiums
* A change by one company in 1960–61 in the method of recording numbers of group and superannuation policies resulted in the numbers of policies issued and discontinued for the year 1960–61 being inflated in comparison with previous years. Policies existing at the end of 1960–61 have been similarly increased. The amounts of sum assured and annual premiums are, however, not affected.
  £(000)£(000) £(000)£(000) £(000)£(000)
1950–5160,73146,0931,46423,35913,362470688,444351,67810,936
1951–5267,54859,0741,92924,07814,332497731,914396,42012,368
1952–5370,77061,4701,88225,50416,679576777,180441,21013,674
1953–5475,82369,1982,14628,87820,399687824,125490,01015,134
1954–5583,92083,6992,58029,25122,556773878,794551,15316,941
1955–5683,39195,6242,77134,25126,4041,006927,934620,37218,707
1956–5781,57599,0242,70235,39429,7261,001974,115689,66920,408
1957–5886,950112,7102,94937,25533,5601,0901,023,810768,81922,267
1958–5989,822128,6522,99741,18038,5041,2481,072,452858,96624,016
1959–6096,582156,5603,12045,82145,5801,4251,123,213969,94625,712
1960–61*117,468180,5263,65555,95654,0851,4941,238,7971,096,38727,873

In addition to the figure of £3,655,110 representing annual premiums payable for policies issued during 1960–61, an amount of £1,428,759 was paid during that year in the form of single premiums.

The average annual premium for each £100 of new business effected during 1960–61 was £2 0s. 6d., as compared with £1 19s. 10d. in 1959–60. There has been evident for some years past a growing preference for whole life policies or longer term endowment assurance. Group assurance as a substitute for, or supplementation of, private or national superannuation schemes, has also assumed relative popularity, but owing to lack of data it is unfortunately not possible to give an analysis of policies by types.

Annuity policies issued during 1960–61 (excluded from these tables) numbered 178, as against 228 in 1959–60. The corresponding annual amounts were £561,007 and £475,193. There were 2,295 annuities in force at the end of the year assuring an annual amount of £2,826,268.

A prominent feature of new insurances of recent years has been, with the exception of 1952–53 and 1960–61, the increase in the average amount of the sum assured per policy. The 1960–61 decrease is influenced by the change referred to previously on the part of one company in the method of recording numbers of group or superannuation schemes.

YearAverage AmountIncrease
* Decrease.
 ££
1949–5068044
1950–5175979
1951–52875116
1952–53869—6*
1953–5491344
1954–5599784
1955–561,147150
1956–571,21467
1957–581,29783
1958–591,432135
1959–601,621189
1960–611,537—84*

The growth in the average amount of the sum assured per policy shown in the above table is due to several factors, including the changing types of policies being issued, and the increasing numbers of such policies which have a high cover, for example, cover for staff superannuation purposes by business concerns, temporary insurance with a high death-risk cover, multiple death benefit and family benefit policies having a high initial cover, and “unit” policies whereby a single premium provides a high initial death cover.

The average face value of discontinued policies during 1960–61 was £967, while the average of policies in force at the end of the year was £885.

The total amount written off during each year represents 4.7 per cent of the amount in force at the end of the year immediately preceding.

Particulars of Policies Discontinued — The causes of discontinuances during each of the latest five years are contained in the next table.

YearDeathMaturitySurrenderLapseOther CausesTotal
Number of Policies
1956–574,3799,82912,7407,0181,42835,394
1957–584,57410,39013,8317,2081,25237,255
1958–595,08511,03815,2697,8081,98041,180
1959–605,09212,59217,6318,9521,55445,821
1960–615,46513,83522,02411,1793,45355,956
Sum Assured (£000)
1956–572,6562,90913,3287,3023,53129,726
1957–582,7463,33614,4378,7594,28333,560
1958–593,2443,42716,7519,8175,26438,504
1959–603,2833,90218,90812,9356,55345,580
1960–613,7104,32321,09415,2819,67754,085

The increase in the number of discontinuances during 1960–61 is affected by the change made by one company in the method of recording numbers.

Reducing the sums assured in the previous table to a percentage basis, the results are as follows.

YearDeathMaturitySurrenderLapseOther CausesTotal
per cent
1956–578.99.844.824.611.9100.0
1957–588.29.943.026.112.8100.0
1958–598.48.943.525.533.7100.0
1959–607.28.541.528.414.4100.0
1960–616.98.039.028.217.9100.0

Revenue and Expenditure — A statement of revenue and expenditure under the various heads illustrates the course of ordinary life-assurance business in New Zealand during the past five years. Transfers between head offices and branches are included. The ratios of management expenses to premium income and to total revenue are also given.

Item1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61
Revenue£££££
New and renewal premiums20,761,38222,526,00024,639,69926,552,59828,866,208
Consideration for annuities103,879124,045117,463329,770228,510
Interest, rents, etc.6,836,2437,791,6569,008,25810,380,83211,893,423
Transfers454,7311,005,0532,708,3992,287,3832,611,530
Other revenue1,5862,7148,679219,068266,325
                Totals, revenue28,157,82131,449,46836,482,49839,769,65143,865,996
Expenditure     
Claims by death and maturity6,851,6327,476,3658,102,0308,848,0909,949,056
Annuities141,664142,338144,183152,676162,855
Surrenders1,614,5311,787,1822,201,2592,719,3962,856,251
Cash bonuses44,19836,92842,71055,32446,879
Commissions1,558,7631,704,4621,809,7371,825,9202,051,111
Other management1,601,6391,765,1111,921,7602,138,2322,623,900
Rates and taxes815,296877,440955,3971,090,4591,247,680
Transfers365,302923,398150,83290,56279,844
Other expenditure179,13797,247112,964269,001425,742
                Totals, expenditure13,172,16214,810,47115,440,87217,189,66019,443,318
                    Ratiosper centper centper centper centper cent
Management expenses to premium income15.2215.4015.1414.9316.20
Management expenses to total revenue11.2211.0310.239.9710.66

Of the excess of revenue as shown in the above statements a large proportion is transferred annually to reserves to meet future payments under policies.

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE: Progress of Business — In this class of insurance the premiums are payable at shorter intervals than three months, and provision is made for its control by regulation. Companies are required to deposit with the Minister of Finance forms of policy tables, rates of premiums, and other documents, and policies must contain only such conditions as have been approved by the Governor-General in Council. Restrictions are placed on the forfeiture of policies in default of payments or other requirements. There has been a long-term decline in the demand for industrial issues relative to ordinary policies, as the following figures exemplify. During the last decade particularly, the demand for ordinary life assurance has not been shared to any extent by the industrial department, the number of policies issued in 1960–61 being only 64.0 per cent of the 1950–51 total. Of the 18 life offices covered in these statistics, five also engage in industrial business.

A summary of the course of industrial-assurance business from 1950–51 to 1960–61 is given in the following table.

YearPolicies IssuedPolicies DiscontinuedPolicies Existing at End of Year
NumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual Premiums
  £(000)£(000) £(000)£(000) £(000)£(000)
1950–5131,7143,25015033,7402,211124572,61035,5441,865
1951–5229,8793,24615033,0582,198124569,43136,5931,892
1952–5331,5733,75117436,5862,470138564,41837,8731,927
1953–5431,9533,96318439,9832,738151556,38839,0981,961
1954–5533,0134,45620641,6632,916160547,73840,6382,007
1955–5629,8854,41820542,4353,275176535,18841,7812,035
1956–5727,4104,10319142,0853,376178520,51342,5082,048
1957–5826,5063,93718442,7343,565188504,28542,8792,044
1958–5923,6763,57816939,3293,475181488,63242,9822,033
1959–6021,8483,31515735,3123,388180475,16842,9082,010
1960–6120,3123,45815938,8223,532185456,65842,8351,983

The average sum assured under each policy of new business effected in 1960–61 amounted to £170 with an average annual premium of £7 16s. 3d. Corresponding averages for 1950–51 were £109 and £5 0s. 5d.

Particulars of Policies Discontinued — A summary of the number of industrial policies and the corresponding assurances discontinued according to the several causes is now given in the form of a five-year table.

YearDeathMaturitySurrenderLapseOther CausesTotal
Number of Policies
1956–572,05127,0674,9787,9454442,085
1957–582,11827,2505,0288,2578142,734
1958–591,89224,2435,3767,7675139,329
1959–601,83722,0416,2825,1025035,312
1960–611,61624,7746,1606,14312938,822
Sum Assured (£)
1956–57112,9741,296,895691,8501,267,9106,5203,376,149
1957–58120,5461,398,173777,8961,256,57511,8423,565,032
1958–59116,1981,277,097839,4161,233,4059,2093,475,325
1959–60117,7071,175,714922,9601,161,36010,6443,388,385
1960–61103,8201,325,381935,5471,140,06726,7103,531,525

The amount written off in each year is proportionately greater in the industrial than in the ordinary branch. Of the assurance in force at the end of the previous year, 5.6 per cent of the ordinary became void in 1960–61, as compared with 8.2 of the industrial.

In the following table the sums assured for the various classes of discontinuances are expressed as percentages of the total discontinuances.

YearDeathMaturitySurrenderLapseOther CausesTotal
per cent
1956–573.338.420.537.60.2100.0
1957–583.439.221.835.30.3100.0
1958–593.336.724.235.50.3100.0
1959–603.534.727.234.30.3100.0
1960–612.937.526.532.30.8100.0

Discontinuances by death are relatively lower in industrial than in ordinary business, while the proportion of policies reaching maturity is much higher. The explanation probably lies in the comparatively short terms for which industrial policies are issued, and the fact that premiums are usually collected personally by agents.

Revenue and Expenditure — The several items of revenue and expenditure in industrial business are shown in the following five-yearly table, together with the ratios of management expenses to premium income and to total revenue. Transfers between head offices and branches are again included.

Item1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61
Revenue£££££
Premiums2,029,5612,031,8782,017,4101,992,4391,971,907
Interest, rents, etc.675,592723–194758,289835,022888,565
Transfers5705851,934412
Other revenue2,2041,2461,41547,41018,021
                        Totals, revenue2,707,3572,756,8882,777,6992,876,8052,878,905
Expenditure     
Claims by death and maturity1,592,8221,712,1881,575,6281,441,9621,672,821
Surrenders122,991130,018146,159169,723179,548
Commissions285,981276,494262,259248,721247,575
Other management367,820360,616357,703360,499369,274
Rates and taxes58,44374,83271,43174,74691,260
Transfers5,4968,17518,291752,217
Other expenditure9,23521,67812,25055,63720,172
                  Totals, expenditure2,442,7882,584,0012,443,7212,351,3632,582,867
Ratiosper centper centper centper centper cent
Management expenses to premium income32.2131.3630.7330.5831.28
Management expenses to total revenue24.1523.1122.3221.1821.43

The higher ratio of management expenses to premium income in the industrial branch is largely accounted for by the cost of renewal commissions on collection of premiums and the greater amount of office work involved in relation to the amount assured. In the ordinary branch, commission (new and renewal) in 1960–61 was equivalent to 7.1 per cent of the premium income, and in the industrial branch to 12.6 per cent. Excluding commission, the ratio of management expenses to premium income was 18.7 per cent in the industrial branch, as against 9.1 per cent in the ordinary.

LIFE-ASSURANCE DEATH RATES — The following table shows for the period 1950–51 to 1960–61 the death rate per thousand policies exposed to risk in each year. In computing these rates all policies which were in force for any portion of the year have been taken into account. The much lower death rate among policyholders, compared with that for the general population (8.79), points to a lower average age in the insured group, a normal consequence of rapid growth in the life-assurance field.

YearDeath Rate per 1,000 Policies
Ordinary Life AssuranceIndustrial Life AssuranceOrdinary and Industrial Combined
1950–514.444.244.35
1951–524.614.234.44
1952–534.614.314.48
1953–544.533.774.22
1954–554.663.784.31
1955–564.214.124.18
1956–574.343.654.09
1957–584.313.874.16
1958–594.573.584.25
1959–604.363.604.13
1960–614.403.264.08

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS — The principal items in the balance sheets of life-assurance companies are summarised below for the three latest years. Both classes of assurance are represented in the figures, which, as in the previous tables, relate to New Zealand business only. In the case of some companies other branches of insurance business are included.

Aggregate liabilities are first shown.

Liabilities1958–591959–601960–61
 £(000)
Paid-up share capital203207221
Life assurance and annuity funds218,256240,759265,485
Depreciation, reserve, and other special funds3,1193,8834,636
Claims admitted but not paid1,3491,5341,833
Other liabilities2,3852,9633,054
Totals225,313249,347275,229

The assets of the New Zealand branches at the end of each of the three latest years were as follows.

AssetsAmountProportion to Totals
1958–591959–601960–611958–591959–601960–61
 £(000)per cent
Mortgages on property101,503113,358126,93945.0545.4646.12
Loans on policies6,8387,7797,8243.043.122.84
New Zealand Government securities50,87756,34351,88722.5822.6018.85
Securities of other Governments3713711690.160.150.06
Local authority securities39,67140,62148,90017.6116.2917.77
Landed and house property7,2379,78112,2083.213.924.44
Other investments13,27615,69520,2075.896.297.34
Outstanding premiums1,5371,5952,1450.680.640.78
Interest accrued, etc.1,9482,2202,5370.870.890.92
Cash8173151,0220.360.130.37
Other assets1,2391,2701,3930.0.510.51
Totals225,313249,347275,229100.00100.00100.00

As a form of investment, mortgage securities have steadily gained in favour during the past decade, the proportion of assets held in this form rising from 21.7 per cent in 1950–51 to 46.1 per cent in 1960–61. This movement has been chiefly at the expense of the Government and local authority securities, the proportion of the former declining from 40.2 per cent to 18.9 during the same period. Other investments (chiefly company shares and debentures), although small in relation to the total, are gaining in popularity.

For 1960–61 the average rate of interest earned on the life funds of both departments was £5 5s. 11d. per cent, compared with £5 2s. 8d. during 1959–60. This rate was calculated by taking the arithmetic mean of funds at the beginning and end of the year less half the amount of interest, etc., earned.

The following diagram illustrates the expansion that has taken place since 1940–41 in the assets of the New Zealand branches of life-assurance companies. This, of course, is a natural consequence of the huge increase in the amount of business. As stated previously, receipts of life assurance and annuity business must be treated as a separate fund, and the interests of the policyholders are safeguarded by the fact that these funds are available only for liabilities arising from such business.

The diagram also shows the trend in the class of security in which the funds have been invested. It illustrates the fact that the most significant change has been the preference for mortgage investment, the proportion rising fourfold during the latest 10-year period.

31 B — ACCIDENT INSURANCE

GENERAL — In terms of the Accident Insurance Companies Act 1908, accident insurance policies may be issued by any association, whether incorporated or not, provided such association is not established under any Act relating to friendly societies. The principal classes of accident insurance transacted in New Zealand are as follows:

  1. Personal accident, covering accident, sickness, etc.

  2. Employers' liability under statutory or common law.

  3. Motor-vehicle insurance, comprehensive and compulsory third-party risks cover.

Other important classes of accident insurance policies are in respect of plate-glass insurance and fidelity-guarantee insurance.

The Workers' Compensation Amendment Act 1947 provided for the compulsory insurance with the Government Accident Insurance Branch of the State Fire Insurance Office of all employers' liability insurances as from 1 April 1949. However, insurances with certain specified mutual insurance companies were exempted from the operation of the Act. An amending Act of 1950, however, restored the right of insurance companies to undertake employers' liability insurance as from 1 April 1951.

Information relating to deposits required from companies transacting accident insurance business is contained in the next subsection, which deals with the cognate subject of fire insurance.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE — The number of accident insurance offices represented in the statistics for 1960–61 is 78, the head offices of the companies concerned being domiciled as follows: Great Britain, 28; Australia, 18; United States of America, 2; Hong Kong, 2; and New Zealand, 28.

Of the New Zealand offices only 13, including the State Accident Insurance Office, may be stated to be competitive in the ordinary sense of the term, the remainder having been formed by trade associations, etc., on a more or less cooperative basis. In the main an office of this latter type conducts one class of accident insurance business only, according to the nature of the association with which it is connected.

The following table shows, for the years quoted, the principal items of revenue and expenditure. Premiums and claims are net, i.e., after deductions for acceptances of reinsurance, whether effected locally or overseas, have been taken into account.

YearNumber of OfficesRevenueExpenditure
PremiumsOther RevenueTotal*ClaimsCommissionSalariesOther ExpensesTotal*

* Excluding reserves provisions.

£(thousand)
1950–51625,8171715,9873,4663695947825,211
1951–52626,6252066,8303,9565007458596,060
1952–53617,9652218,1874,8866178158857,203
1953–54648,9542299,1835,3136899701,0598,031
1954–55679,91830410,2226,0727791,1161,0919,057
1955–566711,02235611,3787,0718831,2361,19810,387
1956–576712,40041512,8158,2131,0251,3951,21311,846
1957–586713,68848014,1689,1961,1441,5591,32613,225
1958–597114,82155015,3709,9541,2281,6471,51814,347
1959–607616,07960216,68110,5831,3411,7541,58615,263
1960–617818,00675718,76311,4321,4351,9601,81916,646

Premium receipts in 1960–61 were 12.0 per cent above the 1959–60 figure, while claims rose by 8.0 per cent.

Employers' liability insurance accounted for the largest single part (£851,000) of the increase in premium revenue. This large increase is mainly attributable to the 20 per cent increase in premium rates for this class of business as from 1 April 1960. Motor vehicle comprehensive insurance accounted for an increase of £540,000 in premium revenue for 1960–61.

Claims for employers' liability insurance which in 1959–60 had risen by £210,000, decreased in 1960–61 by £147,939. Motor vehicle comprehensive insurance claims showed a large increase of £677,000 in 1960–61, the increase in the previous year being £268,000. Expenses other than claims totalled £5,214,305, of which taxation amounted to £533,000.

A review of the expenses incurred in transacting accident insurance is contained in the table following. The fluctuations over a period of five years are shown in the form of percentages of revenue to expenditure under various heads.

YearClaims to PremiumsCommission to PremiumsSalaries to PremiumsOther Expenses to PremiumsTotal Expenses (Other Than Claims) to PremiumsTotal Expenditure to PremiumsTotal Expenditure to Total Revenue
per cent
1956–5766.28.311.39.829.395.592.4
1957–5867.28.411.49.729.496.693.3
1958–5967.28.311.110.229.696.893.3
1959–6065.88.310.99.929.194.991.5
1960–6163.58.010.910.129.092.492.6

Working expenses (excluding taxation) amounted to £3,984,296 in 1958–59, £4,266,609 in 1959–60; and £4,681,058 in 1960–61. The ratios of working expenses to premium income for each of the three years were respectively 26.9, 26.5, and 26.0 per cent.

ANALYSIS OF PREMIUMS AND CLAIMS — In the next table particulars of premiums and claims for the three main classes of accident insurance are given for the last five years. Reinsurances effected outside New Zealand are not taken into account in the figures presented below.

YearEmployers' LiabilityPersonal Accident and SicknessMotor Vehicle ComprehensiveMotor Vehicle Third-party RisksOther FormsTotal
* Figures for company in liquidation not available.
£(thousand)
Premiums
1956–573,2769775,7561,5341,34412,886
1957–583,4111,1336,6481,5861,47414,252
1958–593,3741,2667,4261,6601,77415,500
1959–603,8101,4037,7841,7161,93716,650
1960–61*4,6611,5848,3241,8102,11418,492
Claims
1956–572,0583804,3388774978,150
1957–582,3874294,6801,0935799,167
1958–592,8854974,7401,1306839,935
1959–603,0955965,0081,26572810,692
1960–61*2,9476005,6851,34268311,257

Premiums and claims for motor vehicle third-party risks insurance relate to the years ended 30 June.

Reducing the figures of each class for the years 1958–59 to 1960–61 to a percentage basis, the following results are obtained.

Class of InsuranceClaims to PremiumsPremiums to Total PremiumsClaims to Total Claims
1958–591959–601960–611958–591959–601960–611958–591959–601960–61
per cent
Employers' liability85.581.263.221.822.925.229.028.926.2
Personal accident and sickness39.342.537.98.28.48.65.05.65.3
Motor vehicle comprehensive63.864.368.347.946.845.047.746.850.5
Motor vehicle third-party risks68.173.774.210.710.39.811.411.811.9
Other38.537.632.311.411.611.46.96.86.1
                        All classes64.164.260.9100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

MOTOR VEHICLES INSURANCE (THIRD-PARTY RISKS) — The Transport Act 1949 requires owners of motor vehicles to insure against their liability, through their negligence, to pay damages on account of the death of or bodily injury to another person. The payment of the insurance premiums is made annually to Deputy Registrars of Motor Vehicles at the same time as the annual licence fee is paid. Owners of motor vehicles are required to nominate each year the insurance company with which the contract of insurance is to be made, and the contract is deemed to be complete on the payment of the premium.

Premium receipts and claims actually paid have been shown in the earlier tables, but the claim figures given later also show amounts on account of the estimated liability for claims still outstanding at 30 June 1961, which are necessarily subject to revision.

With the spectacular increase in road usage, the claims figures have steadily mounted, resulting in progressively higher premium rates until the last four years, during which period premium rates have remained relatively constant over all. The table following gives the premium rates for the various classes of motor vehicles over the last four years, together with a comparison of rates in 1949–50. The minimum rates for omnibuses, service cars, and contract motor vehicles are subject to increases according to seating capacity.

Class of Motor Vehicle1949–501959–601960–611961–621962–63
 £s.£s.£s.£s.£s.
Motor cycles 162120118118
Power cycles   15 12 1/2 10 8
Tractors and traction engines 3 7 7 7 7
Private cars and station wagons11222226210
Dealers' and business cars11530353535
Goods-service vehicles115310310310310
Fire-brigade vehicles 10210210210210
Public taxicabs1501710171017101610
Private taxicabs50605104040
Omnibuses (minimum)80280270270270
Service cars (minimum)40150140120120
Contract motor vehicles (minimum)3040404040
Trailers 2 4 4 4 4
Hearses and ambulances 10215215210210
Rental cars41090100100100

A sum of 2s. 6d. for every contract of insurance is deducted for administration expenses, and the balance paid to the insurance company concerned.

The liability of the company does not extend to indemnify the owner against any claim made in respect of the death of (or injury to) (a) his own passenger (other than a fare-paying passenger in a vehicle plying for hire); (b) any relative of the owner within the third degree of relationship (except in certain cases of school children travelling to or from school); (c) any employee, except where the accident occurs otherwise than in the course of employment.

The liability of any insurance company under any contract under the Act is limited to £7,500 (increased from £5,000 from 23 October 1959) in respect of any passenger in the motor vehicle concerned, and to £75,000 (£50,000 prior to 23 October 1959) for all claims made by or in respect of passengers carried for hire. Otherwise there is no limit as to amount.

The following particulars give the experience of the last five years, with a summary covering the 10 years to 30 June 1961. It should be noted that the liability for outstanding claims is usually overestimated, and that the total claims for any particular year when finally settled may be expected to be somewhat smaller than the amounts now given. For instance, taking a period of five years 1951–52 to 1955–56 inclusive, for which virtually all claims had been settled by 30 June 1961, it is found that premiums received totalled £5,765,930, while total claims paid up to 30 June 1961 in respect of accidents during the five year period quoted totalled £4,286,047, a ratio of claims to premiums of 74.33 per cent. The actual claims payments made during the five-year period itself totalled £3,583,777, of which a proportion was on account of accidents occurring prior to 1951–52. From this explanation it follows that the ratios given below are also likely to be reduced in course of time, particularly those for the most recent years.

ItemRegistration Year Ended 30 JuneTotal for Ten Years to 30 June 1961
19571958195919601961
* Total claims outstanding from 1954–55 — all previous years' claims having been settled.
 ££££££
Premiums received1,533,5551,586,3941,660,3991,715,9831,809,69514,071,956
Claims actually paid to 30 June 19601,207,3251,330,4091,013,979550,872135,1088,523,740
Estimated liability for claims still outstanding at 30 June 196093,315201,275657,1541,595,0031,799,7194,370,416*
Ratio per cent of claims paid and outstanding to premiums84.896.6100.6125.1105.991.6

A summary showing the experience over the last three registration years for each of the principal classes of motor vehicle is given in the table following.

Class of Motor VehicleNet Premiums ReceivedClaims PaidEstimated Claims Outstanding
Arising During YearArising During Previous YearsArising During YearArising During Previous Years
 £££££
1958–59
Motor cycles47,17771020,37621,89669,796
Private cars812,06740,519540,358748,782791,710
Business cars188,87919,764141,822231,095210,598
Goods-service vehicles411,78735,393229,460442,682480,187
Public taxicabs46,5782,47831,62435,50970,960
Public omnibuses62,3704,29817,20754,44045,115
Other classes91,5412,82843,26059,15059,460
                              Totals1,660,399105,9901,024,1071,593,5541,727,826
1959–60
Motor cycles47,2732,36524,19131,55649,060
Private cars836,12573,733598,6641,005,611952,229
Business cars222,37116,249138,137210,221311,635
Goods-service vehicles414,34624,303302,766450,410533,805
Public taxicabs44,9732,19028,07046,00075,200
Public omnibuses61,4813,95721,94967,78550,305
Other classes89,4145,98822,80939,25086,990
                              Totals1,715,983128,7851,136,5861,850,8332,059,224
1960–61
Motor cycles47,9002,05419,60832,87554,911
Private cars882,55853,653667,304994,4511,260,743
Business cars253,24326,002175,083193,766331,581
Goods-service vehicles428,61619,957258,793362,697703,392
Public taxicabs46,7982,02529,20535,97560,485
Public omnibuses60,8486,72823,952106,13083,550
Other classes89,73224,68933,07073,82576,035
                              Totals1,809,695135,1081,207,0151,799,7192,570,697

31 C — FIRE INSURANCE

GENERAL — In the legislation dealing with insurance, four separate classes of fire insurance offices are distinguished, namely: (1) local insurance companies established within the limits of New Zealand; (2) foreign insurance companies established beyond New Zealand; (3) United Kingdom offices similarly established; and (4) mutual insurance associations. To these may be added the State Fire Insurance Office, established under a separate Act of Parliament.

Part XIV of the Companies Act 1933 required a minimum paid-up capital of £50,000 intact in the case of limited companies undertaking insurance business (other than life insurance) in New Zealand. A later provision, contained in the Finance Act (No. 3) 1934, allowed overseas companies limited by guarantee which were carrying on insurance business in New Zealand at 31 March 1934 to continue in such business if a sum of not less than £50,000 (including deposits required by law in respect of such business) was kept deposited with the Public Trustee. Part XIII of the Companies Act 1955, which came into force on 1 January 1957, re-enacted the provisions concerning local companies, but the authorisation to engage in insurance business was extended to overseas companies limited by shares and regardless of date of commencement. Part II of the Insurance Companies Act 1940 provides that, in the case of an insurance company of doubtful solvency, inspectors may be appointed to investigate and report on the affairs of the company. Mutual associations are referred to specifically at a later stage in this subsection.

DEPOSITS — The law regarding deposit requirements to be made with the Public Trustee for companies carrying on the business of insurance, except life assurance, marine insurance, and insurance against earthquake damage, is governed by the Insurance Companies Act 1953. For any New Zealand company commencing business the amounts of deposit required are: fire insurance, £22,500; employers' liability insurance, £22,500; motor vehicles third-party risks insurance, £10,000; all other kinds of insurance, except life, marine, and earthquake insurance, £5,000. These provisions date from 1940 legislation. In the original legislation and in the consolidating act of 1953 special requirements are laid down for New Zealand companies which were already carrying on business when the original legislation was introduced in 1940.

Details of deposits for other classes of company, such as British companies, agents of British companies, and foreign companies, are shown in the 1959 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

Life and marine businesses are not affected by the provisions mentioned in the preceding paragraphs. Deposits required from life assurance companies are dealt with under Section 31A.

The capital amount of deposits held by the Public Trustee at 31 March 1961, under the Insurance Companies' Deposits Act and amendments, on behalf of 86 companies and three associations, was £3,469,936, as compared with £3,127,002 at 31 March 1960.

Statistics of fire insurance are compiled annually by the Department of Statistics from returns furnished by the insurance companies for the financial year most closely approximating to the calendar year, and these in some cases extend up to the following June. For 1960–61 information was obtained from 60 offices conducting business in New Zealand. The head offices of these were distributed as follows: Great Britain, 27; New Zealand, 16; Australia, 13; Hong Kong, 2; United States of America, 2.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS — The following table indicates generally the extent to which fire insurance offices have funds available to meet losses and liabilities. The figures refer to all departments of business underwritten. Funds of life departments are added for completeness, but by the Life Insurance Act 1908 (which follows the provisions of the United Kingdom statute on the subject) life funds must be accounted for separately, and form a security for life-policy holders which is not available for other classes of insurance transacted. Of the 60 fire offices, 20 also engage in life assurance business, but only four of these conduct such business in New Zealand. The amount of funds (other than life) in New Zealand and elsewhere is, it will be seen, approximately £2,095 million.

Item1960–611959–60 (Total)1958–59 (Total)
Overseas CompaniesLocal CompaniesTotal
* Liabilities of one company in liquidation exceeded assets by £1.7 million.
 £(million)
Paid-up capital142.210.4152.6122.197.2
Preserves1,136.321.11,157.41,024.1931.4
Other liabilities762.122.7784.8698.4618.5
Totals2,040.654.22,094.81,844.61,647.1
Life funds2,678.70.12,678.82,364.92,172.5
Total liabilities4,719.354.3*4,773.6*4,209.53,819.6
Total assets4,719.352.64,771.94,209.53,819.6

The following table gives the amount of assets in New Zealand as at the end of each of the last three years classified under various heads. The figures given include all investments in New Zealand securities and do not relate merely to the assets held by the New Zealand branches of the companies concerned. The assets of other departments — accident, life, marine, etc. — are also included.

Assets in New Zealand1958–591959–601960–61
 £££
House and landed property4,346,6854,842,6325,353,887
New Zealand Government securities12,947,08712,353,10811,975,516
New Zealand local authority securities2,423,8842,577,0312,829,879
Company stocks and shares3,251,5683,897,8704,191,165
Mortgages, etc.2,726,6403,273,7533,751,038
Outstanding premiums2,549,1732,648,7523,014,043
Cash and other assets in New Zealand6,353,8506,673,6357,372,048
                      Total New Zealand assets34,598,88736,266,78138,487,576

SUMMARY OF BUSINESS — The increase in extent and value of property over the years is reflected in the statistics of policies issued and business underwritten given in this subsection. The figure for new and renewal business for 1960–61 shows an increase of £1,050 million, or 38.8 per cent, compared with 1955–56.

The average premium rate per £100 of insurance cover fell from 11s. 11d. in 1920 to 9s. 2d. in 1930 and 7s. in 1940. The latest rate of 4s. 10d. shows an increase of 1d. over that of 1958–59 and 1959–60, the rate for these two years being the lowest ever recorded. This average is influenced not only by movements in premium rates, but also by the varying proportions of insurance risks which are rated at higher or lower premiums than the average. It should be explained that the figures in the table which follows relate to the business conducted with the insuring public. Reinsurance transactions are not taken into account, nor are the figures for one company which went into liquidation during the year.

Item1958–591959–601960–61
Amounts Underwritten   
Gross amount of insurance cover in force in New Zealand on 31 December£2,990,574,293£3,198,640,082£3,327,056,460
Number of policies representing the foregoing1,418,7821,477,0091,482,684
Gross amount of new and renewal business underwritten during year£3,370,464,020£3,597,866,096£3,758,066,279
Number of policies representing the foregoing1,552,1671,609,3421,629,526
Premiums   
Total gross premiums charged on business (new and renewal) underwritten during year£7,969,865£8,552,067£9,111,120
Percentage of gross premiums to total amount of business underwritten4s. 9d.4s. 9d.4s. 10d.
Total premiums (as shown above), less premiums refunded to insured other than to other offices£7,147,207£7,656,848£8,085,725
Losses   
Total number of separate fire losses with which offices were concerned29,43830,37431,673
Gross losses£3,159,621£2,676,393£2,658,434
Percentage of gross loss to amount underwritten (new and renewal) during year (as shown above)0.10.10.1
Percentage of gross loss to total premiums less refunds to insured (as shown above)44.135.032.9
Average loss£107£88£84

The next table shows the position of premium income and fire claims during the period 1950–51 to 1960–61. Since 1957–58 fire claims have shown a tendency to decrease, the percentage of claims to premium income in 1960–61 of 33.0 per cent being the lowest for some years. Fire claims are subject to considerable annual fluctuations as a result of the effect of severe losses which can be caused by major fires.

YearPremium IncomeFire ClaimsPercentage of Claims to Premium Income
* Excludes figures for one company in liquidation.
 ££per cent
1950–514,018,7601,114,53427.7
1951–524,672,9141,244,46726.6
1952–535,200,2312,058,54939.6
1953–545,561,9641,996,30235.9
1954–555,878,4631,745,96129.7
1955–566,241,3192,077,75633.3
1956–576,396,8432,174,12734.0
1957–586,614,3923,468,72052.4
1958–597,147,2073,159,62144.2
1959–607,656,8482,676,39335.0
1960–61*8,085,7252,658,43433.0

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE — A statement of the total revenue and expenditure, both gross and net, of all offices is now given in respect of New Zealand business. The gross figures include reinsurance business accepted, while the net figures comprise insurances with the public, plus reinsurances accepted, and less amounts reinsured with other offices.

It is insurance practice at the closing date of the accounts of a fire insurance company to transfer to a reserve a proportion of the income received during the year, to allow for policies whose currency extends into the following accounting year.

Previously the unexpired risks reserve shown as revenue comprised the amount of premiums collected in the previous year and set aside as reserve for use in the current year, while the unexpired risks reserve shown as expenditure comprised the amount of premiums collected in the current year but set aside for reserve for use in the following year. This method of treatment was changed from 1959–60 and the entry of net effect of reserve provisions now shown represents the difference between the amount of reserves set aside for the previous and for the current year.

Thus, if the amount transferred to reserve this year is larger than was transferred at the end of last year, the net effect is equivalent to an increase in this year's expenditure and the difference is therefore shown as expenditure. Similarly, if the amount transferred this year is less than last year, then the difference will be shown as revenue.

The entry of net effect of reserve provisions in the gross figures, it should be noted, is calculated on the assumption that it bears the same proportion to gross premium income as does the actual net reserve to the net premium income.

Item1959-601960–61
GrossNetGrossNet
Revenue££££
Net effect of reserve provisions25,00013,77911,0006,590
Amount of fire premiums receivable during year9,258,5905,226,5449,760,1555,606,031
Interest and dividends on stock, mortgages, etc.208,467208,467251,170251,170
Rents128,138128,138146,343146,343
Other revenue11,00011,00027,30427,304
Totals9,631,1955,587,92810,195,9726,037,438
Expenditure    
Net effect of reserve provisions330,000186,564404,000233,168
Amount of fire claims incurred during year, including adjustment and other expenses of settlement but less salvage3,108,4581,742,9543,041,8161,607,579
Fire authority levies529,626381,458545,533419,767
New Zealand Government taxes294,786317,018685,630613,147
Rents82,64780,92378,98577,070
Depreciation53,38453,08658,01557,725
Allowances and commissions on premiums to agents, subagents, and others997,289341,3521,093,021456,181
Salaries and wages, including commissions on profits or bonuses1,111,8721,046,3851,136,0731,070,137
Other expenses of management482,965461,314568,326567,311
Totals6,991,0274,611,0547,611,3995,102,085

The principal items of net revenue and expenditure for 1960–61 of the two classes of offices operating in New Zealand are contained in the next table.

Class of OfficeNet RevenueNet Expenditure
PremiumsTotal*ClaimsSalaries and CommissionsTotal*
* Excluding net effect of reserve provisions.
 £££££
Overseas companies2,955,8773,078,250912,656748,2222,569,248
Local companies2,650,1542,952,598694,923778,0962,299,669
                            Totals5,606,0316,030,8481,607,5791,526,3184,868,917

Excluding the net effect of reserve provisions, the excess of net revenue over net expenditure for 1960–61 of £1,161,931 compares with surpluses of £1,149,659 and £804,989 for 1959–60 and 1958–59 respectively.

The following table shows the percentage ratio of working expenses to premium income for the years 1956–57 to 1960–61. It is sometimes contended that contributions to the fire-prevention authority are not a working expense, but should be added to the total of fire losses. While this view is not subscribed to in the compilation of the statistics, there is a definite relationship between the items, and this table shows the ratio both inclusive and exclusive of such levies.

Item1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61
 per cent
Net working expenses (excluding taxes) to net premium income47.147.746.945.247.2
Net working expenses (excluding taxes and fire-service levies) to net premium income39.339.839.737.939.8
Gross working expenses (excluding taxes) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)35.635.735.435.235.7
Gross working expenses (excluding taxes and fire-service levies) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)29.729.629.629.530.1

FIRES AND LOSSES — In the following tables particulars are given of fire losses according to the causes of fires, extent of loss, etc., for the year 1960, the figures for earlier years being generally given for purposes of comparison. Payments or recoveries on account of reinsurance are excluded. The data, which cover insured losses only, refer to fires which occurred during the respective calendar years, and in respect of which payments were made by the insurance company concerned not later than 31 March of the following year, thus enabling reasonably prompt publication of results. Accordingly, 1960 figures would include payments for 1959 or earlier fires not made by 31 March 1960 and therefore not included in 1959 figures. In general, carry-overs from one year to another balance out. These figures are therefore not comparable with the fire claims data given previously, which relate to the accounting years of the various offices.

From and including 1955, the number of separate fires given in previous years has been replaced by the number of fire-loss payments, which includes an unknown number of multiple payments by insurance companies relating to the same outbreak. Experience has shown that the latter figure is greater by some 15 per cent than the actual number of fires.

A summary of losses over the latest 11 years follows. The growth of population and the rise in property values are reflected in the upward trend shown in the table. In addition, the figures have been augmented from time to time by heavy losses involved in the destruction of valuable buildings plant, and stocks, such as the disastrous wool-store fires of 1951 and 1955. Major insured losses during 1958 included an extensive industrial plant at Gracefield, Lower Hutt, and hotel premises at Lake Wanaka, Otago. In 1959 a Dunedin departmental store fire and a large woodware and joinery fire caused major insured loss.

The uninsured loss is assessed by the fire-prevention authorities at a further 15 per cent of the figures given.

YearFire-loss PaymentsGross Cover*Gross Loss

* On buildings, etc., affected.

Separate fires.

  ££
195010,17822,195,8691,029,945
195111,66327,415,0241,517,992
195212,60237,033,9381,716,450
195314,24639,936,0361,650,390
195416,56849,175,5801,525,866
195520,60050,048,6482,058,067
195622,19958,277,0421,980,647
195725,79093,879,2093,025,407
195827,42873,108,6762,708,090
195928,45977,742,5232,611,074
196029,48489,354,7922,076,806

The average insurance claim paid for material fire damage per head of total population was 23s. 8d. in 1958, 22s. 4d. in 1959, and 17s. 6d. in 1960.

The total fire wastage is, of course, greater than the foregoing figures reveal, to the extent of the uninsured loss. This unknown figure is normally assessed by the fire authorities at 15 per cent of the insured loss, and on this assumption the 1960 property loss in New Zealand through fire would have amounted to £2,400,000.

The classification by fire districts which follows is based on the schedules to the Fire Services Act 1949, which set out in full the districts (and their status) originally constituted under the Act. Additions, deletions, and alterations in status are periodically gazetted. The administrative authority appointed by the Act is the Fire Service Council, responsible to the Minister of Internal Affairs.

Type of Fire DistrictNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsGross Amount of Insurance Cover on Risks AffectedGross Amount of Loss Paid on Risks AffectedPercentage of Loss Paid to Amount at Risk
  1960  
  ££per cent
United urban fire districts12,43541,509,783764,0131.8
Urban fire districts11,89534,955,671772,2572.2
Secondary urban fire district2,1723,621,331194,7245.4
Remainder of New Zealand (including floating risks)2,9829,268,007345,8123.7
Totals29,48489,354,7922,076,8062.3

The relationship between the number of payments and loss incurred is fairly closely sustained for the main types of district; 89.9 per cent of payments relating to fires which occurred in urban (including united urban) fire districts, the loss amounting to 83.4 per cent of the total.

Causes of Fires — Particulars regarding causes of fires are contained in the following table which covers the years 1958 to 1960.

Cause of Fire195819591960
Number of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of LossNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of LossNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of Loss
  £ £ £
Electricity6,693198,1867,348235,3287,606292,503
Gas4828,04650812,28240217,789
Chimneys and flues789138,70077380,23975742,419
Fireplaces and stoves9,711192,4249,896216,5189,778185,787
Smoking and matches4,969140,2195,037172,1285,873145,900
Inflammable spirits and materials75864,05674568,92483991,448
Outside causes93489,949966128,43589062,359
Arson and incendiarism5614,0797622,4906931,998
Other specified causes63988,09564642,90071964,772
Unknown causes2,3971,774,3362,4641,631,8302,5511,141,831
                              Totals27,4282,708,09028,4592,611,07429,4842,076,806

The actual cause of many fires is not easily ascertainable, especially in cases of total, or near-total loss, where evidence as to origin is obliterated. This accounts for the high proportion of loss due to unknown causes and for the fact that the average loss payment is much greater in these instances. During 1960 the average payment for specified causes was £35, while the average for the unspecified group amounted to £448. As most major fires result from unknown causes this accounts for the large difference between the averages.

The Fire Services Amendment Act 1952 provides that the Minister of Internal Affairs may appoint any person to hold any inquiry into any fire and the steps taken to deal with it.

Extent of Loss — The next table gives particulars of fire losses during the latest three years, classified according to the amount of loss. The vast majority of fires cause only minor damage. During 1960 payments of less than £10 accounted for 64.8 per cent of the total number, but only 3.8 per cent of the total loss sustained. On the other hand, payments of £10,000 or over, numbering only 19, represented 16.4 per cent of the insured loss.

Loss Category195819591960
Number of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of LossNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of LossNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of Loss
££ £ £ £
Under1018,01274,54318,81076,72019,09877,893
    10 and under255,22077,0915,31879,3355,77084,561
    25 and under1002,397111,0742,519115,2882,695122,032
    100 and under1,0001,365446,0701,326462,7011,493512,921
1,000 and under2,000236321,042276370,842228299,659
2,000 and under5,000127382,262157447,608149422,632
5,000 and under20,00056545,48442368,87946408,956
20,000 and over15750,52411689,7015148,152
Totals27,4282,708,09028,4592,611,07429,4842,076,806

Class Groups — Losses have been classified in broad groups according to the nature of the risk, the figures for the years 1958–60 being presented in the next table. Fires in private dwellings accounted for 87.4 per cent of the total payments during 1960, but the proportion of loss sustained was only 44.4 per cent. It should be noted that the “contents”, where insured, are included in the various class groups. Consequently the total for the houses and flats group is swollen by the numerous small claims on account of damage to personal effects, etc., the actual building not being affected by the fire in many instances. The miscellaneous risks group also includes those cases where a fire has affected two or more buildings, which individually are classifiable into more than one of the other groups shown in the table, or, in some instances, single buildings housing occupiers of different occupational groupings.

Class Group195819591960
Number of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of LossNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of LossNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of Loss
  £ £ £
Private houses and flats, boarding-houses, etc.23,639829,43124,611916,50525,767921,883
Hotels and restaurants657262,311611158,59257493,164
Offices and public buildings39754,28140974,36140176,785
Theatres and entertainment places9146,13111099,9309425,683
Bulk stores and warehouses137342,03312461,37813159,366
Shops614210,220776725,929658303,920
Factories and industrial risks913844,004852487,469895479,989
Farm risks (other than dwellings)29567,94630357,81928365,288
Miscellaneous (including unclassified)13232,67615114,23214232,393
Floating and travelling risks55319,05751214,85953918,335
Totals27,4282,708,09028,4592,611,07429,4842,076,806

MUTUAL INSURANCE ASSOCIATIONS — Mutual associations are governed by the Mutual Insurance Act 1955, which allows 200 or more owners or occupiers of isolated or farm properties to subscribe to a declaration, and form themselves into a mutual association to insure against loss to an amount in the aggregate of not less than £200,000. The Act permits these associations to conduct accident business in addition to fire insurance. Such associations effect insurance on the premium note principle, and accept premium notes to be assessed for losses in the proportion of the total amount of such notes. The amount of a member's premium notes limits his liability. As stated in the section relating to deposits, mutual insurance associations carrying on employers' liability insurance business are now required to deposit approved securities to a specified value with the Public Trustee.

The Mutual Insurance Regulations, gazetted in 1956, permit these associations to carry on additional types of insurance (other than life assurance).

Summarised figures for the three associations formed under the Act appear below.

Year Ended 31 MarchNet Premium IncomeTotal Net IncomeNet ClaimsReserves and FundsAssets*
FireAccidentFireAccident

* Including premium notes.

Revised method of treating unexpired risks reserve (See page 946).

 £££££££
195798,312116,526288,70921,45049,685243,6201,202,561
1958105,240133,097328,85821,82165,872270,689654,310
1959113,192139,066365,42728,91877,749231,488693,883
1960116,051165,303404,00827,22492,882247,080741,797
1960116,051165,303304,44327,22492,882247,080741,797
1961124,653182,066331,95720,99796,314270,352748,975

FIRE BRIGADES — At 31 March 1961 there were 270 fire brigades under the administrative authority of the Fire Service Council. Of these, 22 were staffed with full-time personnel numbering 165 officers and 403 men, as well as 210 auxiliaries; while 213 brigades, together with 35 auxiliary units, were manned by 4,260 volunteers.

31 D — STATE INSURANCE ACTIVITIES

STATE LIFE ASSURANCE — The New Zealand Government Life Insurance Office was founded in 1869 at a time when New Zealanders had comparatively poor facilities in regard to life assurance. Payment of all policies with the Office is guaranteed by the Government. The administration of the Office is regulated by the Government Life Insurance Act 1953.

The total income of the Office for 1960 was £7,537,394, of which premium income amounted to £5,306,913, annuity purchase money £13,519, and interest, rents, etc. (net) £2,216,962.

During the year 1960 payments were made under the following heads: matured policies (including bonuses additions), £947,087; claims by death (including bonuses), £517,241; annuities, £80,386; surrendered policies and bonuses cashed, £605,654; commission, £389,349; other management expenses, £335,188; rates and taxes £149,272; and other expenditure, £73,717.

Income and expenditure figures of the Government Life Insurance Office are now given for each of the latest five years.

YearPremium Income (Including Purchase of Annuities)Total IncomeManagement ExpensesTotal ExpenditureRatio of Management Expenses to Total IncomeRatio of Management Expenses to Premium Income
 £(thousand)per centper cent
19563,8775,1295362,25510.4513.82
19574,1225,5705992,36410.7614.54
19584,5806,2766262,5729.9713.66
19594,9376,8846512,8369.4613.19
19605,3207,5377253,0989.6113.61

Figures showing the progress of the Office are contained in the next table. Annuities are excluded.

YearNew BusinessPolicies DiscontinuedPolicies in Force at End of Year
Number of PoliciesSum AssuredAnnual* PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual Premiums
* Excludes single premiums.
  £(000)£(000) £(000)£(000) £(000)£(000)
195622,62922,6734837,2225,569134233,921155,9433,504
195723,11223,2305448,0786,397155248,955172,7753,894
195823,65226,0305419,0297,428181263,578191,3774,253
195923,68527,5385549,8538,456202277,410210,4604,605
196024,92230,63761510,6669,463221291,666231,6334,999

During 1960 there was an increase of 11.3 per cent over the previous year in the value of new policies written and an increase of 11.1 per cent in the amount of annual premiums represented. The average sum assured per policy was £1,101 in 1958, £1,153 in 1959, and £1,229 in 1960. In addition to the total sum assured at the end of the year, accrued reversionary bonuses amounted to £11,726,104. Immediate, deferred, and contingent annuities totalled £1,737,842, representing 507 policies. Single premium income for the years 1958 to 1960 was £437,506, £446,758, and £472,763 respectively.

The Office's balance sheet as at 31 December 1960 showed that the total assets amounted to £47,510,328, and were invested as shown in the following statement, which also gives the distribution of the assets at the end of the two preceding years for purposes of comparison.

Class of InvestmentAmountProportion to Totals
195819591960195819591960
* Mainly due and overdue premiums and interest, interest accrued, and company stocks, shares, and debentures.
 £(thousand)per centper centper cent
Mortgages on freehold property17,77520,06222,11545.9746.6946.55
Loans on policies1,4451,6701,8283.743.893.85
Government securities8,1658,1617,26821.1218.9915.30
Local authority securities7,8138,69110,72120.2020.2322.57
Landed and house property1,1001,4571,7462.843.393.67
Miscellaneous assets*2,3712,9283,8326.136.818.06
Totals38,66942,96847,510100.00100.00100.00

Assurance, annuity, and endowment funds, apart from special reserves of £1,000,000, amounted to £45,845,730, an increase (the largest ever recorded) of £4,439,500 over the corresponding figure at the end of the previous year.

STATE ACCIDENT INSURANCE — In the year 1901 the Government Life Insurance Office opened an Accident Branch. On 1 January 1925 the accident business was transferred to the control of the State Fire Insurance Office. General accident business was undertaken, but the branch was opened more especially to conduct insurance under the Workers' Compensation Act. In recent years other forms of accident insurance have contributed on an increasing scale to the premium income of the Office. The main classes transacted are employers' liability, personal accident, public risk, motor comprehensive, third-party risks, plate glass, and fidelity guarantee.

General Business — A summary of revenue and expenditure during the last three years is contained in the following table.

YearRevenueExpenditureSurplus for Year
PremiumsTotalClaims*Working ExpensesNet Effect of Reserve ProvisionsTotal Expenditure (Including Taxation)

* Including unadjusted losses.

Includes statutory levies.

At the closing date of the accounts of an accident insurance company it is customary to transfer to a reserve a proportion of the income received during the current year. If the amount transferred to reserve in the current year is more than was transferred at the end of the previous year the net effect is equivalent to an increase in the current year's expenditure.

£(thousand)
19581,7991,8961,377332951,86926
19591,9092,0171,469369441,95067
19602,1592,2861,5473901002,160126

The percentage of various classes of expenditure to earned premiums after allowance for provision for unexpired risks are now given.

Item195819591960

* Excluding Workers' Compensation Board levies.

Deficit.

Ratio of claims to earned premiums80.878.775.1
Ratio of working expenses to earned premiums*18.719.118.6
Ratio of underwritten surplus to earned premiums before providing for taxation0.31.45.9

The total assets at 31 December 1960 were £3,886,250, which included £1,839,653 invested in Government securities and £916,186 in local authority securities. Of the total liabilities at 31 December 1960, reserves totalled £1,146,810, while provision for unexpired risks totalled £959,216. In addition, provision for unadjusted claims amounted to £1,575,229.

STATE FIRE INSURANCE — The New Zealand State Fire Office was the first competitive State fire-insurance office in the world, and opened for business on 4 January 1905. Marine insurance has been undertaken since 1947. Premium-rate reductions and bonus rebates have reduced the cost of insurance.

Premium income advanced by £106,989 during 1960, while losses increased by £36,049. The apportionment for taxes was £175,855, while the net surplus rose from £188,016 in 1959, to £205,616 in 1960.

YearRevenueExpenditureSurplus for Year
Net Premium IncomeNet Total IncomeClaims*Working ExpensesNet Effect of Reserve ProvisionsNet Total Expenditure (Including Taxation)

* Including unadjusted losses.

At the closing date of the accounts of a fire insurance company it is customary to transfer to a reserve a proportion of the income received during the year. If the amount transferred to reserve in the current year is more than was transferred at the end of the previous year the net effect is equivalent to an increase in the current year's expenditure.

£(thousand)
1958796913275 2996482291
19599611,098261 34682909188
19601,0681,237297388531,031206

The percentages of various classes of expenditure to earned premiums after allowance for provision for unexpired risks are given below.

Item195819591960
Ratio of claims to earned premiums37.629.729.3
Ratio of working expenses to earned premiums41.539.938.8
Ratio of Fire Service Council levies to earned premiums10.08.88.4
Ratio of underwriting surplus to earned premiums before providing for taxation10.921.523.5

The total assets at 31 December 1960 were £3,659,080, which included £1,811,956 invested in Government securities and £464,191 invested in local authority securities. Of the total liabilities, reserves amounted to £2,339,582, while the provision for unexpired risks amounted to £533,881. Provision for unadjusted claims totalled £151,425.

EARTHQUAKE AND WAR DAMAGE INSURANCE — Under the Earthquake and War Damage Act 1944 there exists the Earthquake and War Damage Fund, which is administered by a Commission. All property insured against fire is deemed to be insured to the extent of the indemnity value against earthquake and war damage. Premiums at the rate of 1s. for each £100 of insurance cover are collected by the insurance companies and paid into the Fund (less commission of 2 1/2 per cent).

The Act provides for both compulsory and voluntary insurance against earthquake and war damage. Under the compulsory provisions of the original Act all property insured to any amount under any contract of fire insurance with an insurance company is deemed to be insured to the same amount against earthquake damage and war damage. An amending Act passed in 1951, however, provides that where the contract of fire insurance provides for the settlement of the claim upon the basis of the replacement value, the compulsory earthquake and war damage insurance will be for the amount of the indemnity or present value only. If the present value is certified by a registered architect or a registered valuer, the earthquake and war damage premium will be charged on the amount so certified. Under the voluntary provisions of the Act any person having an insurable interest in any property may make application to the Commission for earthquake or war damage insurance, and a contract may be made for the insurance of any property that is not insured under the compulsory section of the Act, or for the insurance to an additional amount of any property that is so insured.

Advances may be made from the Consolidated Fund if at any time the amount in the Earthquake and War Damage Fund is not sufficient to meet the claims thereon.

“Earthquake damage” is defined as damage occurring as the direct result of earthquake or of fire occasioned by or in consequence of earthquake. It also includes damage occurring as the direct result of measures taken under proper authority to avoid the spreading of, or otherwise to mitigate the consequence of, any such damage. In addition to damage occurring as a direct result of action by the enemy, “war damage” included damage occurring as the direct result of measures taken in combating the enemy or precautionary or preparatory measures taken under proper authority with a view to preventing or hindering any enemy or anticipated enemy action. It also includes accidental damage occurring as the direct result of any explosion or fire which involves any explosives or munitions, etc., required for war purposes.

During the financial year 1949–50 an extension of the scheme was instituted to provide some measure of protection to the insured against storm and flood of an abnormal or widespread nature. Finance is provided by crediting 10 per cent of the premiums compulsorily collected under the Act to a special Disaster Fund, without further liability on the Earthquake and War Damage Fund.

On 1 November 1954 the definition of disaster damage was extended to include volcanic eruption, and authority was given to the Commission to accept insurance against landslip. This latter type of cover does not apply automatically.

The Earthquake and War Damage Regulations 1956, came into force on 1 June 1956. The amount of the franchise (proportion of loss to be borne by the insured) was fixed for all cases as 1 per cent of the loss but not less than £10 where the loss is less than £5,000, and £50 where the loss exceeds £5,000. The franchise may be fixed at a higher rate where the property is more than normally susceptible to damage. Cover under the disaster provisions was widened by the deletion of the word “widespread” from the definition.

The following is a comparative statement for the last six years of the financial operations under the Earthquake and War Damage Act, together with a statement showing the position from the inception of the Fund to 31 March 1960.

 1955–561956–571957–581958–591959–601960–6119 Dec. 1941 to 31 Mar. 1961

* At end of each period.

From commencement in November 1949.

£(thousand)
Income —
    Premiums —       
        Earthquake and war damage1,1731,2971,3831,5091,5801,72119,520
        Storm and flood1291431531661771901,455
        Interest4174655466217168265,743
Totals1,7191,9052,0812,2962,4742,73726,719
Outgo —
    Claims —       
        Earthquake and war damage59953716145
        Storm and flood211403831918643961
    Salaries and expenses of management610981011113
    Discount to insurance offices323638414447424
    Exchange adjustment      340
Totals641944382461771171,982
Surplus1,6551,7111,6432,0512,2972,62024,737
Earthquake and war damage fund*13,89215,59317,45919,53621,74224,21224,212
Disaster Funds*523533310284375524524

The item “exchange adjustment” of £339,525 was the depreciation in the New Zealand value of the Commission's overseas funds as the result of the alteration in the exchange rate to parity with sterling which came into operation during 1948.

During the year ended 31 March 1961, 228 earthquake and 445 storm and flood claims were lodged, compared with 624 and 1,301 for the previous year. The large number of earthquake claims in 1959–60 was the result of an earthquake on 22 May 1959 which affected principally the Picton area and produced 461 claims. In the year 1960–61 there was a surplus in the Disaster Fund of £149,673 compared with a surplus of £90,663 in 1959–60 and an underwriting loss in the two previous years.

Chapter 32. Section 32 LABOUR LAWS AND WORKING CONDITIONS

Table of Contents

GENERAL — A short history of labour laws was given on pages 1009–1016 of the 1960 Yearbook and in earlier issues.

A considerable proportion of the persons comprising the labour force of New Zealand have their working conditions determined either directly or indirectly by virtue of the provisions of the Factories Act 1946, the Coal Mines Act 1925, the Shops and Offices Act 1955, the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, the Agricultural Workers' Act 1936, the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954, and the Construction Act 1959. Legislative authority covering the working conditions of substantially the greater portion of the remaining participants in the labour force is contained in the Public Service Act 1912 and the Government Service Tribunal Act 1948, the Government Railways Act 1949, the Post Office Act 1959, the Police Act 1958, the Education Act 1914, the Hospitals Act 1957 and the Hospital Employment Regulations 1957, and the Waterfront Industry Act 1953.

In the following pages a survey is made first of the Court of Arbitration and then of the working and other conditions laid down by legislation.

COURT OF ARBITRATION — The Court of Arbitration, which dates from 1894 and whose jurisdiction is set out in the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954, consists of three members appointed by the Governor-General, one of whom is the Judge of the Court. No one may be appointed as the Judge unless he is a barrister or solicitor of not less than seven years' standing. One of the two other members is appointed on the recommendation of the industrial unions of employers and the other on the recommendation of the industrial unions of workers. Although the members other than the Judge are appointed for a term of three years only, in practice it has been found that they have usually served much longer terms on the Court.

The work of the Court may be divided into two sections — the making of laws through the promulgation of awards, apprenticeship orders, etc., and the interpretation and enforcement of industrial laws, including industrial agreements and certain statutes. The second function is similar to the functions of other Courts, but in making industrial law the Court of Arbitration has a unique role. In addition the Court has wide powers and responsibilities associated with the making of general wage orders (see Section 33 of the Yearbook).

Jurisdiction of Court — The following is a general account of the present jurisdiction, powers, and functions of the Court of Arbitration, some of which are legislative in character and others judicial.

  1. Under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954:

    1. The principal function of the Court is to settle any matters which are outstanding after the representatives of workers, unions and employers in any industry have failed under the procedure laid down in the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act to reach complete agreement in conciliation upon the minimum rates of wages and conditions of work which are to govern employment in the industry for a limited future period. This function of the Court is really legislative in character, for Parliament in effect has delegated authority to the Court to make law in a restricted field but its awards must not be inconsistent with any statute. For a large proportion (approximately one-half) of the labour force, the determining factor in minimum rates of wages and working conditions is the series of awards issued by the Court of Arbitration, and industrial agreements made by representatives of employers and workers. The number of awards and agreements in force is quite large — 596 at 31 March 1961 — and each is subject to individual negotiation by the unions or associations concerned during its formulation.

      Included in the respective awards and agreements are provisions covering minimum rates of remuneration, the hours of work, overtime, holidays, safety, health, and welfare. Initiated by the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act 1936 a 40-hour week is now prescribed in almost all awards and industrial agreements.

      The Court does not settle strikes or lockouts. If there is a strike or lockout in an industry, access to the Court is not usually available to the parties unless and until work is resumed.

    2. The provisions of awards and industrial agreements are enforced through Magistrate's Courts and the Court of Arbitration. There are limited rights of appeal against the judgments of Magistrates to the Court of Arbitration the determination of which is final. Inspectors of Awards who are officers of the Department of Labour may proceed directly in the Court of Arbitration for the recovery of penalties. In the Magistrate's Court actions for penalties may be brought at the suit of an Inspector of Awards or at the suit of any party to the award or industrial agreement.

    3. The Court has power to impose penalties for a number of offences against special provisions of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act; for example, being a party to a strike or lockout when bound by an award or industrial agreement, combining to defeat an award, contempt of Court, obstruction of a conciliation council or the Court, failure to comply with a summons to give evidence, victimisation, and so forth.

    4. Actions to recover moneys due to workers under awards and industrial agreements may be brought by Inspectors of Awards in the Court of Arbitration.

    5. The Court of Arbitration upon application of Inspectors of Awards or upon applications of parties, joint or otherwise, nay give its opinion upon any question connected with the construction of any award or industrial agreement or upon any particular determination or direction of the Court or upon the construction of any statute relating to matters within the jurisdiction of the Court. This function is largely availed of and enables many legal disputes to be settled with a minimum of friction and at a minimum cost.

    6. The Court of Arbitration is vested with a jurisdiction to hear appeals from decisions of disputes committees set up to consider differences arising between parties to awards and industrial agreements as to any matter arising out of or connected with an award or agreement but not specifically dealt with therein.

    7. The Court has a special jurisdiction to conduct inquiries into allegations of irregularities in connection with election of the officers of any industrial union and to make and enforce orders relating to such matters.

  2. Under the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948 and regulations made thereunder:

    The Court of Arbitration has power to make general orders amending the rates of remuneration in all awards and industrial agreements either of its own motion or on the application of any industrial union or association of workers or employers. For this purpose, the expression “rates of remuneration” has a very wide connotation.

  3. Under the Shops and Offices Act 1955:

    The Court has power when making an award in any trade to fix the opening and closing hours of all shops in the particular trade in that locality and also to provide that such shops shall not be open for business on one working day in each week or on any award holiday.

  4. Under the Annual Holidays Act 1944:

    The Court has power to impose penalties for offences against the provisions of the Act.

  5. Under the Apprentices Act 1948:

    1. The Court has power to make apprenticeship orders, in respect of any industry or branch thereof to which the Act applies, prescribing the wages, hours, and other conditions of employment to be incorporated in contracts of apprenticeship, the period of apprenticeship in any industry and the minimum age at which a person may commence to serve as an apprentice in any industry, and pre-requisite education.

    2. The Court on the application of certain parties may give its opinion upon any question connected with the construction of any apprenticeship order or with any determination or direction of the Court under the Act.

    3. The Court may hear appeals from decisions of apprenticeship committees and district commissioners of apprenticeship, and its decisions are final and conclusive.

    4. The Court has jurisdiction to decide actions in respect of alleged breaches of any contract of apprenticeship order of the Court or requirement of the Apprentices Act.

  6. Under the Agricultural Workers Act 1936:

    Matters in dispute between certain classes of agricultural workers and their employers may be referred to the Court of Arbitration for the purpose of making a recommendation to the Minister of Labour as to how matters in dispute should be settled.

General — The Court of Arbitration early in its history expanded beyond the limited function originally conceived for it. It has been the major force in the formulation of industrial codes. In its evolution and in its task of establishing uniform wage rates, the Court has risen to a commanding position in the economic life of the country. Apart from occasional legislation to meet special economic conditions, or as in 1936 to introduce the 40-hour week, no attempt has been made by Parliament to express in law the social and economic policy to be followed by the Court. There is no right of appeal from the decisions of the Court on any matters coming within its exclusive jurisdiction.

HOURS OF WORK — The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act 1936 contained inter alia, provisions aimed at the establishment of a 40-hour week, without reduction in the weekly wage rate. The Court of Arbitration might fix longer hours, but was required to state its reasons for so doing. The Factories Amendment Act 1936 required the fixing of a 40-hour week in factories. The Shops and Offices Amendment Act 1936 reduced the working hours in shops from 48 to 44 per week, and a further reduction to 40 hours was made by later amendments passed in 1945 and 1946. The Shipping and Seamen Amendment Act 1946 reduced seamen's hours to 40 per week. Employees in wood and coal yards, motor and horse drivers, and restaurant workers also obtained a 40-hour week in the same year. From 5 April 1948 a seven-hour day was, by decision of the Coal Mines Council, introduced for all underground workers in coal mines. By section 6 of the Mining Amendment Act 1948 this provision was extended as from 1 January 1949 to underground workers in other mines.

ANNUAL HOLIDAYS ACT — The Annual Holidays Act 1944 provides for an annual holiday of two weeks' duration on full pay for all workers who are not otherwise provided for in this respect. The holiday is to be given within six months after it becomes due, but if the employment is terminated before it has been taken the employer is required to pay the amount of holiday pay due. If any special holiday for which the worker is entitled to payment under any Act, award, or agreement, or under his contract of service, occurs during the period of the annual holiday, the length of the annual holiday is increased by one day in respect thereof. An amendment passed in 1945 provided that not less than seven days' notice must be given by the employer of the day on which the annual holiday is to commence, unless an agreement has been made to the contrary.

Where a worker has been employed for less than one year, on termination of employment he is entitled to payment equal to one twenty-fifth of his ordinary pay for the period of employment. An employer is required to keep a record (holiday book) containing particulars of employment, annual holidays, and amounts paid in respect of each worker in his employment.

ANZAC DAY ACT — The Anzac Day Act 1949 provides that the 25th day of April in each year shall be known as Anzac Day, and shall be observed throughout New Zealand in all respects as if Anzac Day were a Sunday. The Act prohibits the transfer of a holiday, observance of certain hours of labour, or payment at certain rates of wages on Anzac Day to any other day instead of Anzac Day, although an employer may grant a holiday on any other day instead of Anzac Day, where the worker is required to work on Anzac Day at ordinary rates of wages.

FACTORIES ACT — Under the Factories Act 1946, the definition of factory was varied to read “any building, office, or place in which two or more persons are engaged or in which one or more persons are employed … directly or indirectly, in any handicraft, or in preparing or manufacturing goods for trade or sale …”, thus excluding places (with certain specified exceptions) where one self-employed person was engaged. The 1946 Act also brought Government-owned factories within the scope of the legislation.

Hours of Work and Overtime — Since 1945 a 40-hour week has applied to all factories.

No boy or girl under 16 years of age is permitted to work overtime. No woman shall work more than three hours' overtime in one day (excluding time worked before noon on Saturday), and not more than nine hours in any week, but there is no restriction on the yearly total overtime hours.

There are special provisions in regard to work for industries where raw materials which, in the opinion of the inspector are subject to rapid deterioration, are processed for sale as foodstuffs or where, in the opinion of the inspector, extended hours are necessary in order to meet a public demand.

Holiday Provisions — Whole holidays are prescribed for eight statutory holidays (apart from the annual holiday described earlier). Payment for each whole holiday mentioned in the Factories Act was made to apply to all persons employed at any time in the fortnight ending on the day on which the holiday occurs. Special provisions have been made requiring extra payment to be made for work done on Sundays or holidays. Generally speaking, treble time is counted for work done on statutory whole holidays (where the worker would be paid ordinary time if not working), double time on Sundays, and time and one-half on half holidays. In connection with holidays, reference should also be made to the Annual Holidays Act 1944, the provisions of which have been outlined earlier.

It should be noted also that the Public Holidays Act 1955 gives rules which shall be applicable to the provisions of any Act, award, or industrial agreement when Christmas Day and New Year's Day fall on a Friday, Saturday, or Sunday. The effect of the Act is broadly to provide that provisions regarding the granting of a holiday or observance of certain hours of labour or payment of certain specified rates of wages are carried over from Saturday and Sunday to Monday (or Tuesday). In a similar way, where an anniversary day of any province falls on a Friday, Saturday, or Sunday, the provisions governing a holiday, pay, etc., on anniversary day apply on the next succeeding Monday; if it falls on a Tuesday, Wednesday, or Thursday, the provisions apply to the immediately preceding Monday as if it were the anniversary day. Labour Day is deemed to be the fourth Monday in October.

Section 15 of the Statutes Amendment Act 1948 made special provision in regard to holiday work for newspaper printing and publishing. A “day” for holiday and overtime purposes is defined as from noon on one day to noon on the following day in the case of newspaper offices and works.

Restrictions on Employment — No boy or girl under 15 years of age may be employed in any factory. No boy or girl under 16 years of age may be employed in any factory unless a certificate of fitness is issued by an Inspector of Factories, and no such certificate may be granted unless the proposed employer obtains at his own expense a medical certificate of fitness from a Medical Officer of Health, or from a registered medical practitioner nominated by a Medical Officer of Health.

Minimum Rates of Pay — Under the Factories Act 1946 the minimum rate of pay is 22s. 6d. per week with half-yearly increments of not less than 5s. per week, until a weekly rate of £2 12s. 6d. is reached. These rates would apply only in the case of juveniles not covered by an award or industrial agreement fixing a higher minimum. Minimum adult rates are prescribed under the Minimum Wage Act 1945 in these cases where a higher adult minimum is not fixed by award or industrial agreement or wage order.

Safety, Health, and Welfare — The safety measures have reference to machinery, dangerous liquids, means of access and safety of places of employment, and means of escape in case of fire, etc. The employer is required to keep a register of all accidents of which he has any knowledge, and first-aid appliances must be provided and maintained. The health and welfare provisions are very extensive and include reference to such matters as air space, cleanliness, ventilation, canteens, the care of employees, amenities and other things to be supplied by the employer to secure employees' health or welfare, and to the making of regulations laying down standards as to what may be regarded as adequate, effective, sufficient, or suitable health and welfare requirements.

Other Provisions — The Factories Act 1946 specifically states that the Act shall bind the Crown. It also includes the normal provisions relating to powers of inspection, registration, maintenance of records and exhibition of notices, requisitions by inspectors, and the prescription of offences, penalties, and procedure. Finally, it provides for awards and industrial agreements to be read subject to the provisions of the Factories Act.

SHOPS AND OFFICES ACT — Under the Shops and Offices Act 1955, a “shop” is defined as any building or place in which goods are kept, exposed, or offered for sale, or in which any part of the business of a shop is conducted, and includes an hotel, a restaurant, a hairdressing saloon, an auction market, and an automatic “ending machine, but does not include a warehouse or a private hotel or boardinghouse; special provisions are contained relating to hotels and restaurants as well as to chemists, and bookstalls at passenger transport terminals.

An “office” covers any building in which any person is employed, directly or indirectly, to do any clerical work in connection with any business carried on by the occupier, but does not include any building in which the clerical work of a factory or shop is carried on if situated within the factory or shop.

The definition of the term “shop assistant” includes those employed in the general management or control of a shop, subject to a wage qualification.

Hours of Work and Overtime — A 40-hour week for all shop assistants has applied since 1945. Hours must be worked continuously — i.e., not exceeding eight per day, but up to 11 on one day in the week — except for meal times and breaks for refreshments. If the meal time exceeds an hour, the extra time over this is to be regarded as time worked. Provision is made for two free days for each shop assistant in each week, thus providing for a normal working week of five days.

Limited overtime (to be paid for at time and half rates) may be worked for stocktaking and on special occasions. A break of not less than three-quarters of an hour for rest and refreshment must be allowed after four and one-quarter hours' continuous overtime work.

For shop assistants the hour of commencing work for persons under 16 years must not be earlier than 7 a.m., except that newspapers may be delivered from 6 a.m. by persons aged 12 years and under 16, and milk by persons aged 14 years and under 16 from the same hour. Boys under 18 or females may not be employed after 10.30 p.m. The Act provides that female assistants and boys under 18 cannot be employed in restaurants before 5 a.m. or after 10.30 p.m. However, it is not unlawful to employ female assistants over the age of 18 up to 11.30 p.m. or to midnight in connection with social functions (or if over 21 years, between midnight and 5.30 a.m.), if satisfactory provision for conveying these assistants to their homes be made. There is no limit under the Act to the time at which adult male hotel and restaurant employees may be required to commence or cease work.

There are no provisions as to hours of employment in offices or as to the times when they may be open. In practice, a five-day week is worked in most offices. Employment in excess of 40 hours in offices is permitted, payment for overtime at the rate of time and a half being mandatory in respect of such overtime, but subject to a maximum wage payment.

Opening and Closing Hours of Shops — The Court of Arbitration has power when making an award in any trade to fix the opening and closing hours on weekdays of any shops substantially (i.e., at least 20 per cent of turnover) carrying on the particular trade in that industrial district, and also to provide that such shops shall not be open for business on one working day in each week or on any award holiday. Before the Court exercises any of these powers, however, it is required to have regard to all relevant considerations. The Court is empowered (with the prior consent of the Minister of Labour) to fix the times during which shops may be open on Sundays. Any organisations are entitled to be heard by the Court when dealing with these matters if in the opinion of the Judge they may be affected by the result of the proceedings. The Court is not to make an award without a hearing unless the Judge so directs. Applications for exemption, other than chemist shops and bookstalls at passenger transport terminals, may be made to the Shops and Offices Exemptions Tribunal.

The occupier of every shop, whether employing assistants or not, is deemed to be an employer within the meaning of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, and therefore bound by an award relating to shop assistants for the purpose of bringing his premises within the closing provisions fixed in an award.

Sunday Trading — Sunday trading is prohibited except (a) if provision is made in an award, the prior consent of the Minister being required to such inclusion, (b) for sale of exempted goods listed later, (c) if individual shops are granted exemption by the Shops and Offices Exemptions Tribunal or the Minister to permit them to open on Sunday. This is designed to enable shops in motor camps and other holiday resorts to cater for the needs of the travelling public.

The term “exempted goods” means (a) tobacco, cigarettes, cigarette papers, cigars, and matches; (b) confectionery and sweetmeats; (c) milk, cream, eggs, butter, and cheese; (d) motor spirits, petrol, and oil; (e) motor accessories urgently and necessarily required for the functioning of a motor vehicle; (f) fruit, vegetables., and flowers, if for sale by the grower on the premises where grown; (g) goods of a class exempted from the provisions of the Act relating to the closing of shops by Order in Council. The list of exempted goods drawn up in 1955 was extended in 1957 and reviewed in 1959 and 1962. The list is given in the Shops and Offices Exempted Goods Order.

Non-exempted goods must be properly locked away from the view of the public.

Holiday Provisions — These are governed by the provisions of awards or industrial agreements. Employees are entitled to the benefits of the Annual Holidays Act 1944. The provisions of the Public Holidays Act 1955 also apply.

Minimum Rates of Pay — Wage rates are fixed by awards and industrial agreements. The provisions of the Minimum Wage Act 1945, and orders made under it, also apply.

Safety, Health, and Welfare Provisions — The Act also makes provision for the welfare, health, and safety of assistants. Particular matters that are covered relate to dangerous liquids and noxious gases, limitation of loads, safe means of access, construction and maintenance of floors, passages, stairs, fire precautions, lighting, cleanliness, ventilation, drinking water, drainage, washing facilities, clothing accommodation, seating and first-aid facilities, rest rooms for women, sanitary conveniences, temperature and heating appliances, accommodation for meals, etc.

AGRICULTURAL WORKERS ACT — The primary purpose of the Agricultural Workers Act 1936 was to make better provision for the accommodation of agricultural workers, and to make special provisions for the remuneration of workers on dairy farms and for the conditions of their employment. The Act also includes provision for the extension of these special provisions to other classes of agricultural workers, and Orders in Council have been issued under this provision. The orders do not apply to workers covered by awards or agreements under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act. Section 4 of the Statutes Amendment Act 1945 provides that where proposals for the extension to any specified class of agricultural workers have been submitted as required by the principal Act, and the parties are unable to agree, the matters in dispute may be referred to the Court of Arbitration for a recommendation to the Minister. The administration of the Act is carried out by the Department of Labour.

Another important measure dealing with farm workers is the Sharemilking Agreements Act 1937, which defines the respective responsibilities of employers and sharemilkers in farm management and control of stock, and prescribes the minimum percentages of returns to sharemilkers. The Act contains provision for terms and conditions to be altered by Order in Council, the current order being the Sharemilking Agreements Order 1951, which came into operation on 26 September 1951.

Holiday Provisions — Workers employed on dairy farms are to be allowed a holiday on full pay plus an amount equal to the full allowance for board and lodging. The duration of the holiday is to be not less than seven days in the aggregate for every 12 weeks of employment. If a regular weekly half-holiday commencing at noon is allowed, a holiday of 14 days a year (or proportionate duration for a lesser period of employment) will be regarded as sufficient compliance with the Act. Separate conditions pertain in respect of workers on farms and stations used for the commercial production of wool, meat, or grain (including seed), these being set out in the current Agricultural Workers (Farms and Stations) Extension Order 1952.

Minimum Rates of Pay — Under the Agricultural Workers Act minimum weekly rates of pay are prescribed for workers on dairy farms. Rates of pay are fixed by Orders in Council. In fixing such rates the basic prices paid in respect of primary produce are taken into account, but later rates are not to be lower than those fixed by the Act. The minimum rate is £10 5s. 6d. per week, increased by £2 2s. 6d per week if the worker is not provided with board and lodgings by the employer. This rate is taken to include allowance for work done at weekends and on holidays as part of the normal week's work. Minimum rates of pay for casual workers are contained in all the extension orders made so far. At present (May 1962) the minimum rate for casual and for permanent adult male workers on tobacco farms is 5s. 7 1/4d. per hour, with lesser rates for male and female workers according to specified ages; and for harvesters on farms and stations 5s. 4d. per hour with rations. In the case of workers on farms and stations for whom the hours of work are not definitely laid down, the rates applicable are given in the Agricultural Workers (Farms and Stations) Extension Order 1952, Amendment No. 4, the minimum weekly rate for an adult male worker being £8 8s. 3d., increased by £2 2s. 6d. per week if the worker is not provided with board and lodging by the employer, or by £1 12s. 6d. per week if provided with only lodging or free house. The minimum rate of wages for adult males permanently employed in orchards is prescribed in the Agricultural Workers (Orchardists) Extension Order 1961, at £12 10s. weekly. The corresponding rate for workers in market gardens provided for in the 1960 extension order is £11 6s. 7d.

Restrictions on Employment — No child under the age of 15 years may be employed for hire except in market gardens for the harvesting of peas, beans, tomatoes, and soft fruits.

Health and Welfare Provisions — The sections of the Act in relation to the accommodation of agricultural workers lay down definite requirements for the comfort of such workers, and Inspectors of Factories have power to inspect the accommodation and to require that improvements be made where necessary. In the various extension orders made under the authority of the principal Act, regulations are made dealing explicitly with questions of accommodation, sanitation, ventilation, etc. A number of orders also prohibit the lifting of excess weights by females.

CONSTRUCTION ACT 1959 — This is an Act to promote the safety, health, and welfare of workmen engaged on construction work. It widens the field and extends the scope of the former Scaffolding and Excavation Act of 1922 which it replaced.

Construction Work — Construction work is defined as meaning any work in connection with the construction, erection, installation, repair, maintenance, cleaning, painting, renewal, removal, alteration, dismantling, or demolition of a large range of building and engineering works. These involve buildings, structure, earth works, drainage undertakings, bridges, harbour and river works, power stations, transmission lines, and railways, and include site preparation and all work in connection with these undertakings.

Responsibility for Safety — The responsibility for safety is on the employer who is defined as the person liable for payment of wages of the workmen or who would be so liable if the men were so employed.

Safety of Other Persons — The safety provisions also apply to the safety of other persons, including the public, who are legally or lawfully in the vicinity of the work.

Application — The Act applies to all types of construction work, whether large or small, which is carried out by way of trade or business or in the exercise of the employer's functions for the purpose of any industrial or commercial undertaking.

Notifiable Work — Certain types of work which are considered more dangerous to workmen are classed as “notifiable works”. On these works the employer must have a representative in charge to ensure that safety measures are carried out and that the requirements of the Act and regulations are observed. This person is given the designation under the Act of “safety supervisor” and considerable details are laid down in regard to his duties and functions. Any notifiable work must be notified to the nearest office of the Department of Labour at least 24 hours before the work is commenced. Such notification must contain particulars as to the time and place of work and of the name of the safety supervisor. Notifiable works are set out in the Construction Regulations 1961. They include any work in which there is a risk of a fall of 15 ft or more, with some exceptions as to residential buildings and working off a ladder. Also included is any trench or excavation more than 6 ft deep in which workmen work in a restricted space. It also covers certain lifting appliances, drives and short tunnels, excavated faces over 15 ft high, use of explosives and work in compressed air in diving or caissons.

Safety Supervisor — The safety supervisor must be experienced in the work being carried out and shall not be assigned such other duties as will prevent him from discharging with reasonable efficiency the duties required of him as safety supervisor. His name must be made known by the employer to the workmen on the job. The liability of an employer is not affected by the failure of a safety supervisor to exercise his proper functions. It is permissible for two or more employers to appoint jointly the same supervisor on any single construction work. Where, in the opinion of an inspector, a safety supervisor is considered incompetent or negligent in the performance of his duties, the inspector may require the employer to appoint another safety supervisor in his place.

General Safety Provisions — These require the employer to exercise such supervision on the work as will ensure that the provisions of the Act are complied with. He is required to take all reasonable precautions to ensure the safety of workmen employed on the work and to see that all temporary work is constructed of suitable material and is of adequate strength for the purpose intended. AH apparatus, plant, and gear used in connection with the work must be operated only by competent workmen. Where work is being carried out on roads or public places, notices and warning devices as may be necessary must be installed and also such barricades, screens, or other devices as may be necessary to prevent workmen from being injured and to reduce the danger hazard to road users, This is further elaborated in the 1961 regulations.

Excavation — The regulations also give considerable details as to excavations to be timbered, limitation of loads adjacent to excavations, timbering of excavations and trenches, and requirements for regular examination of excavations which are liable to be dangerous to workmen.

Scaffolding — The Construction Regulations 1961 give extensive comprehensive details for scaffolding. Some of the essential features are —

  1. Three strengths of scaffolding, light-duty, heavy-duty, or special duty.

  2. Scaffolding over 25 ft high to be erected by a certificated scaffolder.

  3. A register of examination to be kept of all scaffolding over 25 ft high, including all suspended scaffolding.

  4. Detailed requirements for standard timber and tube scaffolding.

  5. Provision for design and construction of any scaffolding in accordance with proved sound and accepted engineering practice.

Other Safety Provisions — General provisions are given for the safety of mechanical plant, and for the safe use of plant, tools and gear, and explosives, all of which are subject to regulations yet to be issued.

Certification — The regulations make general provision for the certification of workmen in various fields of work such as in the use of explosives, electric-arc welding, machine operation, rigging, and in using powder-powered tools, but these do not become operative till special regulations are made. The 1961 regulations provide for the certification of scaffolders in timber or in metal tube and frame or in suspended or in special scaffolding.

Health and Welfare — The Act prescribes in general terms that adequate provision must be made for drinking water, accommodation for meals and clothing, sanitary conveniences, first-aid and washing facilities, provision for drying clothes, lighting and ventilation, safe access and egress, fire protection, dewatering, and also for protective clothing and for protection from harmful effects arising from the work. These are given in more detail in regulations.

Administration — The Act is administered by the Department of Labour and provides for safety inspectors who have full rights of entry and power to issue direction orders or cease-work orders if there is a danger to workmen. The regulations set out entry and qualifying standards for inspectors and provide for advanced examinations.

Accidents — Accidents of a serious nature to any person must be reported to the inspector, and serious injury is defined as requiring absence from work for 48 hours or more. Provision also exists for a magisterial inquiry into any accident if so directed by the Minister of Labour.

Appeals — Provision is made for an appeal within 14 days to a Magistrate from an inspector's direction or order, or from an inspector's decision concerning replacement of a safety supervisor.

Liabilities of Workmen — Any workman who fails to comply with any requirement under the Act or wilfully does anything likely to injure himself or others or negligently disregards any instruction given to him for the purpose of securing observance of the Construction Act commits an offence. He may be charged either with the employer or separately.

MINING LEGISLATION — The present law relating to mining and quarrying will be found for the most part in the Coal Mines Act 1925 and subsequent amendments, the Mining Act 1926 and amendments, and the Quarries Act 1944 and its amendments. A noteworthy feature of such Acts is the appointment of inspectors with wide powers.

Application of Mining Acts — A “mine” under the Mining Act means generally any mine other than a coal mine, while by the Quarries Act 1944 a quarry is defined as any place in which persons work in excavating any kind of material from the earth, including an opencast coal quarry, and includes an excavation for the purposes of the construction of any work for the generation of electricity, or for the purposes of the construction of a dam for the supply of water for the use of the public, and a tunnel. A quarry does not include any place (other than an opencast coal quarry) in which mining or searching for coal, gold, scheelite, or petroleum is carried on; any road cutting or railway cutting; or any tunnel in the construction of which explosives are not used and which is less than 50 ft long, or any shaft less than 15 ft deep.

Working Conditions — In common with the practice pertaining for many other industrial groups of workers the current working conditions for quarry men generally are set out in awards made by the Court of Arbitration. In the coal-mining industry working conditions are usually determined by direct negotiation between the coal-mine owners and the workers' organisations. Both principal mining Acts prohibit employment in or about mines on Sundays unless the previous authority of an Inspector of Mines has been obtained.

Since 1948 an underground shift of seven hours has applied in the mining industry in lieu of the former eight-hour limit.

Restriction on Employment — No male under the age of 16 years may be employed underground in any coal mine, or in any alluvial mine, or on or about any dredge; while the minimum age in respect of underground work in a quartz mine is 19 years. No youth may be employed in a mine for more than eight hours per day or 48 hours per week except in cases of emergency.

Safety, Health, and Welfare Provisions — In general the provisions of the Coal Mines Act 1925 are similar to those of the Mining Act 1926 in so far as safety, etc., is concerned, although, of course, to combat the special risks of coal mining additional regulation is necessary. The appropriate provisions are considered under Occupational Safety in Section 37C.

SHIPPING AND SEAMEN LEGISLATION — The Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 states that the general superintendence of matters relating to merchant ships and seamen in New Zealand is with the Marine Department.

Hours of Work, Overtime, and Holiday Provisions — Under the Shipping and Seamen Act the normal hours of work of seamen, whether at sea or in port, are restricted to eight per day or 40 per week. Seamen may be required to work hours in excess of these, but shall be recompensed for the excess (by payment at a higher rate or by the allowance of time off on pay). Holiday provisions are contained in the applicable award.

Competence, Safety, Health, and Welfare Provisions — The Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, as amended by the Shipping and Seamen Amendment Act 1959, makes adequate provision to ensure competence on the part of controlling officers of ships. Home-trade ships of 90 ft or more register length require two certificated mates unless running under 300 miles between terminal ports when only one mate is required; a ship less than 90 ft register length requires one certificated mate if running over 100 miles between terminal ports. A foreign-going ship is required to carry two certificated mates. Foreign-going certificated mates are entitled to ship as mates in the Home-trade. Provision is made for issuing certificates of competency of mates of home-trade ships. Certificates of masters, mates, and engineers granted in any part of the British Commonwealth are recognised as being valid in New Zealand.

Further sections dealing with the safety of the ship require the adjustment of compasses to be carried out under regulations, while power is given to the Minister to define restricted trading limits for steamers and for vessels propelled by oil, gas, etc. The Governor-General in Council is empowered to make regulations as to the loading and stowage of ballast and the loading of grain cargo in bulk. It is an offence to ship wool, flax, tow, or skins in such a condition as to be liable to spontaneous combustion.

The following rules and regulations are all concerned with the subject-matter under consideration: Shipping Rules — Shipping Casualty 1937; Dangerous Goods 1953; Grain 1953; Load Line 1953; Closing of Openings in Hulls and Watertight Bulkheads 1954; Construction 1954; Direction Finders 1954; Musters 1954; Navigation Warnings 1954; Pilot Ladders 1954; Radio 1954; Signals of Distress 1954; Fire Appliances 1958; and Lifesaving Appliances 1960. Regulations — Ballast 1937; Ships Compass 1947; Deck Cargo 1950; Transport of Radioactive Substances 1951; Shipping (Accepted Safety Convention) 1953; Collisions Regulations Order 1953; Timber Cargo 1953; Crew Accommodation 1954; Certificates of Competency as A.B. 1954 (these certificates have reciprocity with United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland certificates); Load Line (Particulars of Depth of Loading) 1954; Marine Engineers Examination Regulations 1961; Masters and Mates (Foreign Going and Unrestricted Home Trade) Examination Regulations 1961; Masters (Restricted Home Trade and Fishing Boats) Examination Regulations 1961; and Shipping Tonnage Regulations 1961.

Since 1909 there has been a gradual extension of the type of ship required by law to be equipped with radio installations. The regulations now define the nature of the installations and service, and the number and grade of operators in different classes of vessels, and provide for inspection thereof.

The provisions regarding working conditions on vessels require, inter alia, proper sanitary, hospital, and lavatory accommodation, including bathrooms, to be provided for the crew, together with an adequate supply of hot water for those employed in connection with the engines, while a prescribed minimum of space for the seamen's quarters is also laid down.

Commonwealth ships where the agreement with the crew is first made in New Zealand, in addition to home-trade ships, are liable to pay the wages, maintenance, and medical expenses of seamen left on shore in New Zealand, by reason of illness or accident in the service of the ship, for a period of three months. The illness or accident which entitles a man to the benefits provided for is one which requires medical treatment for 14 days.

Fines not exceeding £100 in any case are prescribed for a breach of any safety rules made expressly for those small craft not subject to the provisions of the principal Act relating to survey, etc.

In matters of dispute, by agreement between the parties concerned, Superintendents of Mercantile Marine may deal with any matters in dispute. In matters relating to wages where the amount in question does not exceed an amount equal to 14 days wages the Superintendent may adjudicate on application being made by either party.

LEGISLATION GOVERNING WORKING CONDITIONS IN THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF THE GOVERNMENT SERVICE — The principal measures which are concerned with the majority of persons employed either directly or indirectly by the State and which have reference to their working conditions are given in the succeeding paragraphs.

Members of the Public Service are governed by the Public Service Act 1912. The 1946 amendment provided for the control of the Public Service by a Commission as from 1 November 1946. Included in the functions of the Commission are the control of recruitment, maintenance of discipline and of a fair and efficient system of promotion, and also the regulation of a variety of points connected with personnel control — e.g., leave, hours of work, payment of allowances, etc.

The Government Service Tribunal Act 1948 provided for the establishment of a tribunal with functions, in relation to the remuneration and conditions of service of employee, of making (a) principal and other orders, and (b) recommendations to the Prime Minister on any matters other than those contained in the principal orders.

The Government Railways Act 1949, a consolidation measure, furnishes the legislative framework for determination of the working conditions of railway employees. In 1944 there was established the Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, the principal functions of which are to prescribe scales of salaries and rates of wages; conditions in regard to hours of work, overtime, etc.; and terms and conditions in respect of leave of absence, railway travel concessions, etc. The Government Railways (Staff) Regulations 1953 are also of relevance in this connection.

Working conditions for Post Office employees are determined by the administrative authority, the Postmaster-General, with the Director-General as executive head. Power is vested in the Minister by virtue of the Post Office Act 1959. There is a Post Office Staff Tribunal whose function it is to make recommendations to the Minister on such matters as may be referred to it by the Minister, the Director-General, or the New Zealand Post Office Association (Incorporated).

There are other legislative enactments which apply to the relevant sections of General Government employees. Members of the Police are governed by the Police Act 1958; the Police Regulations 1959 have been issued pursuant to the Police Act 1958. The three fighting services are controlled at present by the Army Act 1950, the Navy Act 1954, and the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act 1950.

The Education Act 1914 and amendments provide the legislative background authorising, either by regulation or through the agency of education boards, the determination of the conditions of employment, pay, leave of absence, etc., for the members of the teaching profession.

LEGISLATIVE PROVISION FOR CERTAIN OTHER GROUPS — The provisions relating to working conditions of hospital board employees, such as nurses, etc., will be found in the Hospitals Act 1957 while the Hospital Employment Regulations 1957 bear directly on these matters.

The legislation at present governing waterside work is contained in the Waterfront Industry Act 1953, which defines waterside work as “the loading and unloading of ships, barges, lighters, and other vessels; and, in relation to any port where the harbour board acts as wharfinger, includes the work of receiving and delivering cargo customarily performed by waterside workers at that port”. The functions of government are shared between two types of bodies — one legislative and judicial, the other administrative only.

The legislative and judicial body is the Waterfront Industry Tribunal which consists of a Chairman and two other members appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Labour. The Tribunal is appointed for a term of three years and is a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908. The functions of the Tribunal are, firstly, to prescribe the terms and conditions of employment for waterside work, and here the Tribunal's procedure is similar to that followed by the Government Service Tribunal. To assist with this function, the Act also provides for the setting up by the Minister of Labour of National Conciliation Committees consisting of eight employer and eight worker representatives, with an independent Chairman, to conduct conciliation proceedings on any application to the Tribunal which concerns two or more ports. Secondly, the Tribunal is required to settle any disputes that arise in relation to waterside work, and for this function has the assistance of Port Conciliation Committees which consist of an equal number of employers' and workers' representatives with an independent Chairman. These committees, also, are appointed by the Minister of Labour, but are subject to the control and direction of the Tribunal, and are responsible for conciliation proceedings on any matter concerning their port of appointment. In addition these committees have duties in relation to fixing the rules for the supply and discipline of waterside labour, and generally to act at a port in relation to local disputes or interpretations of terms and conditions of employment. Thirdly, the Tribunal is a general Appeal Court from decisions of Port Conciliation Committees (with certain limitations), National Amenities Committees, and orders of the Waterfront Industry Commission imposing levies or charges.

The Waterfront Industry Commission, which is the administrative body, consists of one Commissioner appointed for a term of five years by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Labour. The functions of the Commission are, firstly, to carry out all administrative work in connection with the engagement and employment of, and payment of wages to, waterside workers, including administrative work in connection with guaranteed minimum payments, annual and statutory holiday payments and systems of payment by results for waterside workers. In this connection the Commission also administers and enforces the rules for the supply and discipline of waterside workers as fixed by Port Conciliation Committees or the Waterfront Industry Tribunal, and maintains statistical records in relation to the various aspects of waterside work. Secondly, the Commission is responsible for the provision of amenities for waterside workers (subject to the direction of the National Amenities Committee) and for the equipping, operation, and management of these amenities which include waiting rooms or assembly halls, restaurants, canteens, and first-aid rooms. The National Amenities Committee, which is associated with the Commission in the function of provision of amenities, consists of seven nominated representatives of employers, workers, and harbour boards and the Waterfront Industry Commissioner as Chairman, and is appointed by the Minister of Labour. This committee acts in an advisory capacity in authorising the Commission to provide amenities costing not more than £1,000 each at any port, in approving schemes for the provision by harbour boards of amenities costing more than £1,000 each at any port, in fixing the rates and methods of repayments to harbour boards for amenities provided for waterside workers and to arrange for the caretaking and cleaning of all waterside amenities. The National Amenities Committee may also appoint for any port a Port Amenities Committee consisting of a chairman (usually the Commission's local administrative officer) and representatives of interested parties, with duties to prepare port schemes for the provision of amenities and generally to assist the National Amenities Committee in carrying out its functions at that port.

To carry out its administrative functions the Waterfront Industry Commission maintains an office and permanent staff at all main and secondary ports, and has appointed local shipping companies as agents at some minor ports. In addition to actual administrative work the Commission is responsible for the provision of funds to meet costs of guarantee and holiday payments and costs of provision, operation, and maintenance of amenities. Finance is provided mainly by a national administration fund levy, based on paid labour hours, from all employers of waterside workers, but a proportion of administrative costs is recovered from profits under payments-by-results schemes, and a token grant to cover costs of Tribunal and other legislative and judicial functions is made by Government from the Consolidated Fund. Details of the Commission's annual statement of accounts and statistical tables are included as Appendices to the Annual Report (parliamentary paper H. 45) presented to the House of Representatives pursuant to section 53 of the Waterfront Industry Act 1953.

The organisation of “registered” waterside workers is on the basis of separate port unions with two associations or federations of unions, one of South Island and one of North Island port unions. There is also a joint committee of the executive officers of the two associations. Registration of the port unions and of the two associations is under the provisions of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954 — that is, through the Registrar of Industrial Unions in the Department of Labour. The provisions of the Act relating to strikes and lockouts and the taking of secret ballots in connection therewith, the cancellation by the Minister of Labour of the registration of a union or association, following on any discontinuance of employment and the enforcement of awards and agreements apply also to all waterside employers and unions of waterside workers and any associations of these employers or unions. In addition, where a discontinuance of employment in the waterfront industry causes or is likely to cause serious loss or inconvenience through the action of any union or association of unions, the Minister of Labour has power to suspend in whole or in part any order, direction or decision of the Tribunal, Commission, or any committee appointed under the Act as applies to all or any of the ports.

Chapter 33. Section 33 WAGES AND WAGE RATES

Table of Contents

GENERAL — About half of New Zealand's wage and salary earners are subject to awards and industrial agreements made under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954 (a re-enactment of a measure which was originally enacted in 1894). The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act enables wage rates to be determined, industry by industry, by agreement between organisations of employers and workers concerned or, failing such agreement, by awards made by the Court of Arbitration after hearing the parties. The great majority of Government employees are subject to orders made by the Government Service Tribunal in the case of the Public Service and by similar tribunals for Railways and Post Office employees. Waterside workers arc subject to orders of the Waterfront Industry Tribunal. Workers in certain branches of agriculture are subject to orders made under the Agricultural Workers Act 1936. Apprentices are subject to apprenticeship orders made under the Apprentices Act 1948. There are considerable numbers of employees in supervisory and executive grades whose wage rates or salaries are determined by individual contracts of service and there are some relatively small groups whose wage rates or salaries are determined under other legislation.

GENERAL WAGE ORDERS — In addition to its original jurisdiction, the Court of Arbitration is vested with the power to make general wage orders from time to time which have the effect of simultaneously increasing or reducing the rates of remuneration prescribed in all awards and industrial agreements in operation. The Court also has the power to exclude any class or section of workers from the operation of a general order, and to make such special provision as it considers just and equitable for that class or section.

General orders may be made by the Court of its own accord or on the application of any industrial union or industrial association of employers or workers.

The authority to make general orders is not derived from the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, but from regulations made under the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948.

Stabilisation as an explicitly stated object of policy came to the forefront early in the Second World War. It had long been realised that in wartime the normal supply or flow of goods would be restricted, particularly so in the case of imports, but also in some degree in the field of local production. It was recognised that this factor, reinforced by others such as the progressive withdrawal of elements of the labour force for service with the armed forces, and changes in the extent and character of industrial activity and in the labour force generally, would inevitably exert an upward pressure on the wage and price structures of the country. It was equally necessary to limit or confine upward movements in these structures as far as possible. Measures to this effect were authorised, evolving into a fairly comprehensive system of regulations covering the general fields of price control, wages stabilisation, rent stabilisation, direction of manpower, subsidies, etc. After the close of the war some of these measures were dispensed with, while others were retained and relieved of their emergency status by further legislation.

The present jurisdiction to make general orders was introduced in 1940 as a war measure. Pursuant to the Emergency Regulations Act 1939, the Rates of Wages Emergency Regulations 1940 were promulgated, and during the following years were amended on many occasions.

In 1948 some of the provisions of the wartime regulations were incorporated into the permanent legislation of the country in the form of the Economic Stabilisation Act. Under the authority of that Act the Economic Stabilisation Regulations have been made, and frequently amended, and the Court of Arbitration operates under them today.

In making a general order the Court is directed by the regulations to take into account the following matters:

  1. Any rise or fall in retail prices as indicated by any index published by the Government Statistician.

  2. The economic conditions affecting finance, trade, and industry in New Zealand.

  3. Any increase or decrease in productivity and in the volume and value of production in primary and secondary industries of New Zealand.

  4. Relative movements in the incomes of different sections of the community.

  5. Any other considerations that the Court deems relevant.

During the past 20 years 13 major cases under the Rates of Wages Emergency Regulations and the Economic Stabilisation Regulations have been heard. As a result eight general orders have been made. Four applications were followed by standard wage pronouncements (described elsewhere in this section), while in one instance an application for a general order was declined.

In dealing with such applications the Court is required to afford such opportunity to be heard as it thinks proper to representatives appointed by the parties bound by awards and industrial agreements or by orders of certain tribunals, namely, the Government Service Tribunal, the Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, and the Waterfront Industry Tribunal. The Court's normal jurisdiction does not extend to employees of the State or to workers employed on waterside work but, as the result of certain statutory provisions, decisions of the Court by way of general orders and standard wage pronouncements are taken into account by these Tribunals in determining rates of wages within the scope of their respective jurisdictions; consequently, provision was made to permit parties bound by orders of the Tribunals to appear when applications for general orders are before the Court, although the parties themselves cannot initiate applications. In practice the major burden of conducting the cases has been accepted by the New Zealand Federation of Labour and the New Zealand Employers Federation.

All the main aspects of the economy of the country are examined in considerable detail, and expert evidence is usually called in support of the submissions or to assist the Court in its task. For example, such persons as the Governor of the Reserve Bank, the Secretary to the Treasury, and the Government Statistician have frequently given evidence. The Court itself has no research staff. For basic information it relies for the most part on the comprehensive statistics published by the Government Statistician, the reports of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, official economic and other surveys, and reports of Government Departments, such as the Treasury, Department of Labour, Department of Agriculture, and the Department of Industries and Commerce. The advocates for the parties are invariably persons with long experience in the industrial arena. No professional lawyer has ever been engaged on the hearing of an application for a general order during the past 20 years. The applications have varied in nature and magnitude from time to time and have involved claims for annual increases in wages and salaries up to as much as 17 per cent of the gross national product.

The last general order was made on 18 September 1959 after the most extended hearing in the history of the Court.

The Economic Stabilisation Regulations 1953 had been amended in April 1959, principally for the purpose of authorising the Court to make a pronouncement that it would, if thought fit, incorporate in new awards the effect of general or other orders made under the regulations. An immediate application was then lodged for a general order increasing rates of remuneration and for a pronouncement on incorporation in terms of the authority contained in the amended regulations. A general order, effective from 12 October 1959, and revoking the general order of 1956, was made by the Court on 18 September 1959. This order increased the rates of remuneration prescribed by all awards and industrial agreements to which it applied by 24 per cent (instead of 18 per cent as hitherto and therefore increasing minimum rates of wages by a little over 5 per cent) on amounts up to and including £13 per week for adult males and certain adult female workers employed under awards and industrial agreements requiring them to be paid adult male rates, and £9 15s. and £7 10s. per week for other adult females and junior workers respectively. The effect of the order was to provide maximum increases of 15s. 7.2d. per week for those to whom the £13 limit applied and 11s. 8.4d. and 9s. per week respectively for those to whom the limits of £9 15s. and £7 10s. applied. For varying reasons 127 awards and industrial agreements were excluded from the operation of the order, it being open to any party to any excluded awards or agreements to apply to the Court for a subsequent order amending the rates of remuneration prescribed in such awards or agreements. The Court simultaneously made a pronouncement “that, when making any award to supersede in whole or in part, any award or industrial agreement to which any general or other order applies, or to which it is specifically applied by any provision in that award or industrial agreement, the Court will incorporate in such rates of remuneration as the Court thinks just and equitable, as an integral part of those rates, the effect of the general or other order”. An amendment in May 1960 to the Economic Stabilisation Regulations 1953 gave the parties to awards and agreements the right to apply to the Court of Arbitration for incorporation immediately.

Theoretically, as a result of the general order effective from 12 October 1959, the effective standard hourly rates became: skilled workers, 6s. 2.4d.; semi-skilled workers, 5s. 5.72d. to 5s. 9.44d.; and unskilled workers, 5s. 3.86d. A later general order increased minimum rates by 2 1/2 per cent from 26 July 1962.

STANDARD WAGE PRONOUNCEMENTS — Before the Second World War it was the practice of the Court on intermittent occasions to make standard wage pronouncements and it has always possessed inherent powers to issue them, the object of doing so being to give parties to industrial disputes an indication of the manner in which the Court would be likely to adjust rates of wages when dealing with industrial disputes during the period following the pronouncement.

An extremely simple skeleton scale has usually been adopted, standard casual hourly rates being fixed for adult male workers of three classes — skilled workers, semi-skilled workers, and unskilled workers. Such pronouncements had no operative effect, but when awards were made after a pronouncement, the rates of wages were brought into approximately the same relative position, compared with the new standard rates, as they previously occupied in relation to the former standard rates. This procedure meant that, before all workers could benefit from the review of the standard rates, any period up to two years might elapse, because of the necessity for awaiting the expiry of current awards before adjusting the rates in accordance with the new standards. It also meant that some groups of workers received the benefit of their new rates appreciably earlier than other groups.

Special steps were taken under the wartime emergency legislation to eliminate the variable waiting period. At different times during the past 20 years the Court has been vested with special powers to make individual amendments simultaneously and immediately to every award and industrial agreement in the country, in order to enable the rates of wages prescribed therein to conform to any new pronouncement of standard wage rates. The last occasion on which the Court was granted such powers was in February 1952, and it was then enjoined in making amendments to have due regard to any increases in the rates of remuneration granted to the workers concerned since the date of the last preceding wage pronouncement dated 12 April 1949.

The object of this provision was to enable the Court, if it thought fit, to restore a proper balance between the minimum rates of wages prescribed for different classes of workers in the various industries. Some workers' unions have stronger bargaining power than others and some industries enjoy temporary periods of high prosperity. These circumstances, combined with the fact that in the post-war years there have been many more positions in New Zealand than workers to fill them, have tended to introduce unjustifiable disparities in the prescribed minimum rates of wages. The making of a general order increasing wages by a fixed percentage tends to aggravate the disparities. On the other hand, if a general order prescribes a fiat increase, existing margins or differentials for skill and responsibility are detrimentally affected.

The technique of amending awards and agreements to give effect to a pronouncement while at the same time having regard to the increases gained in the previous three years enabled the Court to iron out disparities to some extent following the making of a pronouncement in July 1952. The Court's decisions on that occasion, however, were strongly criticised by workers' organisations. One factor which caused irritation was that some of the increases gained by workers in conciliation had in the course of bargaining been associated with the abandonment of certain restrictive provisions to the advantage of employers. The Court, in applying its pronouncement, was not in the position to take such matters into account, and some workers' unions felt they had been unfairly treated. The special powers to amend awards and agreements concurrently and immediately following a pronouncement were revoked by amending regulations in May 1953 and have not since been re-enacted.

The history and effects on wages of the standard wage pronouncements and general orders made since 1919 were given in the 1960 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

MINIMUM WAGE — Enforceable minimum wage rates are determined under various statutes, the most universally applicable being the Minimum Wage Act 1945. This Act provides that workers of the age of 21 years and upwards must receive not less than the rates prescribed under the Act. In the great majority of cases, however, workers are subject to wage orders, awards, or industrial agreements relating to the particular industries in which they are employed and which provide somewhat higher enforceable minimum rates.

The minimum wage prescribed in the Act or by Order in Council under the Act may be amended from time to time as fresh pronouncements of standard rates or general orders are made, if it is desired to preserve a balance between statutory minimum wages and such rates of wages. In this reference it will be noted that the minimum wage for males is set at a rate which is lower than the standard rate for unskilled labour.

The minima prescribed by the Minimum Wage Order 1959, and operating from 21 October 1959, are given below, while those in force during the earlier periods are also shown.

Category1 Dec 1947 to 31 Aug 19491 Sep 1949 to 31 Aug 19501 Sep 1950 to 31 Jul 19511 Aug 1951 to 30 Sep 19521 Oct 1952 to 14 Dec 195315 Dec 1953 to 14 Dec 195415 Dec 1954 to 4 Dec 19565 Dec 1956 to 20 Oct 195921 Oct 1959 Onwards
 
Males —£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
    Paid by hour or by piece work030033035039041046047 1/20410051
    Paid by day14U16017411001128116011701186206
    Other (per week)51506506118750718481509009769176
Females —
    Paid by hour or piece work0111022023 1/2026029030031033035
    Paid by day015401740184100120140148160174
    Other (per week)3130430480416456451646006606130

BASIC WAGE — There is now no “basic wage” in New Zealand; nor is there any formula for determining such a wage. In 1936 an amendment of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act required the Court to determine a basic wage for adult males and for adult females and directed that the basic wage for adult males should be sufficient to maintain a man, his wife, and three children in a fair and reasonable standard of comfort. The basic wage rates so determined by the Court, being below the prevailing minimum adult rates in awards and industrial agreements, were of little practical effect and were never revised. The relevant provisions were dropped from the Act in 1954.

SPECIAL PROVISIONS COVERING WAGES OF CERTAIN GROUPS OF WORKERS — Certain groups of workers have their wages fixed by special authorities. Minimum rates for agricultural workers are prescribed by the Agricultural Workers Act 1936 and the various extension orders made pursuant to section 20 of that Act. Rates of remuneration for waterside work are fixed by the Waterfront Industry Tribunal, constituted now under the Waterfront Industry Act 1953. Determination of wages in coal mines lies within the scope of the Coal Mines Council, established under the Coal Mines Council Emergency Regulations 1940. Rates of pay for workmen engaged on public-works construction have been determined from 1949 by the Government Service Tribunal and issued in the form of principal and other orders by that Tribunal.

Salaries and wages in the railways are, by the Government Railways Act 1949, prescribed by the Government Railways Industrial Tribunal. The legislative authority covering rates of remuneration for employees of the Post Office is contained in the Post Office Act 1959, while certain questions may be referred to the Post Office Staff Tribunal.

In 1948 the Government Service Tribunal Act was passed vesting the Tribunal with powers of making principal and other orders in relation to remuneration of public servants.

Pay and allowances for the Armed Services at present are prescribed in regulations under the Army Act 1950, the Navy Act 1954, and the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act 1950. Salary and wage rates for hospital board employees not under awards and agreements are covered by the Hospitals Act 1957 and the Hospital Employment Regulations 1957. Two other groups of employees may also be mentioned; members of the Police coming under the Police Act 1958, and finally members of the teaching profession, whose rates of remuneration are generally determined by authority of the Education Act 1914 and amendments.

Rates of pay for shearers and other wool-shed hands are adjusted proportionately with the movements of an index number prepared by the Government Statistician based on average prices realised at New Zealand sales for greasy wool (calculated for June years).

In referring to the general question of wage rates it is relevant to draw attention to the supplementary income which is provided by benefits available under the Social Security Act in certain cases, while the War Pensions Act is of significance also in this connection (see Section 6).

PROTECTION OF WAGES — Workers' wages were first safeguarded by the Truck Act of 1891, and are now protected by the Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act 1939.

Some of the salient provisions of the present law are now set out.

In the absence of any written agreement to the contrary, wages of manual workers are to be paid at intervals of not more than a week, and of other workers at intervals of not more than a month. The attachment of workers' wages for debt is prohibited except in the case of any surplus over an amount specified in the Act or when specific provision is made in any other Act for attachments on a lower minimum. Exceptions are made by the Child Welfare Act 1925 and the Destitute Persons Act 1910. The Coal Mines Amendment Act 1941 provides for deduction from wages, with the written consent of the employee, of sums towards repayment of principal or payment of interest, etc., in respect of advances by the mine owner to the worker for the purpose of acquiring a home. Section 210 of the Land and Income Tax Act 1954 provides for deduction of due amounts from the salary or wages of a taxpayer who has made default in the payment of income tax.

The Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act prohibits payment of wages being made in goods (truck) or in any other way than in money or by approved cheque, and also prohibits any stipulation as to how the wages money is to be expended. The truck provisions do not, however, apply where the employer supplies house accommodation, board and lodging, fuel, medical assistance, materials, tools and the like required for the work, nor to seamen or farm workers.

No deduction from workers' wages may be made for purposes of insurance against compensation for accident arising out of and in the course of employment.

Wages are further safeguarded by certain sections of the Bankruptcy Act, which give priority of payment for wages or salaries of workers (with certain limitations as to amount and period) in preference to certain other debts, and since the passing of the Bankruptcy Amendment Act 1927 wages take precedence over rents. Similarly, under the Companies Act, wages (with the same limitations as under the Bankruptcy Act) are a first claim on the assets of a company being wound up. Under the Bankruptcy Amendment Act 1956, compensation payments rank with wages as a priority charge on the assets of a bankrupt.

Various individual labour laws contain provisions with the special intent of protecting the payment of wages of the workers to whom such legislation applies.

STATISTICS

WAGE RATES — Wage rates are to be distinguished from rates of earnings which include additions by way of overtime and bonus payments. Wage rates themselves may be either minimum rates or actual rates and on either basis may be calculated as weekly rates or hourly rates. An age-sex classification shows rates for adult males, adult females, juvenile males, and juvenile females separately. Statistics are now given for nominal weekly wage rates for each of the age-sex classes mentioned, together with nominal minimum hourly wage rates for adult males and effective minimum weekly wage rates for adult males and adult females, all in the form of index numbers; then for selected minimum wage rates in shillings and pence weekly for each age-sex group; then for rates of earnings; and finally for index numbers of average weekly hours of labour for adult males and adult females. There is no complete coverage of actual wage rates.

Minimum Wage Rates — The material used by the Department of Statistics in the compilation of statistics of wage rates in New Zealand is taken from the awards made by, and the industrial agreements filed in, the Court of Arbitration, and decisions of other wage-fixing tribunals. The rates specified in these awards and orders are minimum rates; they take into account neither overtime nor ruling rates which may be above the prescribed minima. Nevertheless, for the purpose of tracing the movement in wage rates over any considerable space of time, the award rates form a more reliable basis than any other information at present available.

The award rates for the four principal districts — Northern, Wellington, Canterbury, and Otago and Southland — are in general taken as being representative of minimum wages throughout New Zealand. For such industries as are carried on in the towns these rates are quite satisfactory; in cases where the important centre of an industry is situated outside the geographical boundaries of the four principal districts, the award rates for that centre are used. For instance, the rates used for sawmilling in the Canterbury District are those prescribed by the awards for the Westland Industrial District.

Nominal Wage Rate Index — The current series of index numbers has the calendar year 1954 as the expression base and the average wage rates for this period were equated to 1000.

As far as possible the weighting pattern has been based on information obtained from the Census of 1951, but supplementary data were obtained from the statistics of Industrial Production, the half-yearly surveys of employment published by the Department of Labour in the Labour and Employment Gazette, figures of union membership published in the parliamentary paper (H. 11), the Census of Distribution 1953, and other special material and surveys.

There are 14 industrial groups in the series. The series are predominantly indices of wage rates of manual workers, such occupations as clerical and office workers, professional, technical, and related workers, managers, officials, and administrators, and most service workers being excluded. Besides all primary and secondary industries the following distributive trades and services are, however, included:

  1. Retailing of meat, groceries, soft goods, and coal and firewood.

  2. Provision of accommodation, meals, and personal services.

  3. Transport industries.

Four series of wage-rates index numbers are compiled; these comprise indices for adult males, adult females, juvenile males, and juvenile females. The adult male index alone covers the 14 industrial groups.

A full description of this series, together with details of the weighting, can be found in the appendix to the Report on Prices, Wages, and Labour Statistics for the year 1954.

Wage Rates of Adult Male Workers — Index numbers of annual averages of nominal weekly wage rates of adult males over the period 1914–61 are given in the following table. This “long-term linked series” has been obtained by combining the successive series and converting the whole to the base of the current index, which is the weighted average of weekly wage rates for adult males in 1954 (= 1000).

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (ADULT MALES), ALL INDUSTRIAL GROUPS

Base: 1954 (= 1000)
YearIndex Number
1914253
1915263
1916273
1917289
1918303
1919329
1920371
1921402
1922389
1923375
1924378
1925387
1926393
1927401
1928413
1929414
1930414
1931383
1932351
1933339
1934341
1935349
1936386
1937421
1938440
1939447
1940460
1941476
1942497
1943513
1944518
1945562
1946583
1947606
1948646
1949682
1950729
1951829
1952871
1953929
19541000
19551035
19561055
19571104
19581116
19591136
19601193
19611212

The wage rates on which the foregoing index numbers are based are gross rates, no account having been taken of the fact that from August 1931 wages have been subject to certain forms of taxation not previously in operation. A summary of these taxes on wages since their introduction is as follows.

Date from Which EffectiveRate per PoundClass of Tax
 s.d. 
1 August 193103Emergency unemployment charge.
1 May 193210Emergency unemployment charge.
1 October 1934010Employment promotion tax.
1 October 193508Employment promotion tax.
1 April 193910Social security tax.
21 July 194020Social security tax (1s. in pound).
National security tax (1s. in pound).
11 May 194226Social security tax (1s. in pound).
National security tax (1s. 6d. in pound).
13 May 194620Social security tax (1s. 6d. in pound).
National security tax (6d. in pound).
21 April 194716Social security tax.

Since 1 April 1958, under the PAYE tax system, income tax (ordinary income tax and social security income tax) has been deducted from wages at the rates set out in the relevant taxation tables — refer to Section 26B, Taxation, for further information.

The next table shows the index numbers of nominal weekly wage rates of adult males for each industrial group and for all groups combined for the years 1959–61. The base in this instance is the New Zealand weighted average wage rate for all groups combined, 1954 (= 1000).

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (ADULT MALES)

Base: All groups combined, 1954 (= 1000)
Industrial GroupCalendar Year1961
19591960196131 Mar30 Jun30 Sep31 Dec
* Revised.
Provision of —       
    Food, drink, etc.1212127212921286128613021302
    Clothing, footwear, and textiles1125118212051205120512051211
    Building and construction1093114911661162116211621181
    Power, heat, and light1062112011561145115911591165
    Transport by water and air1340140714371419144314471447
    Transport by land11471214*12331228122812281258
    Accommodation, meals, and personal service1098115711971200120012041206
Working in or on —       
    Wood, wicker, seagrass, etc.1158122112331229122912351246
    Metal1204126712871271129212921309
    Stone, clay, glass, chemicals, etc.10871136*11541154115411551157
    Paper, printing, etc.1227129413041298129812981340
    Skins, leather, etc.1079114211571151115111641164
    Mines and quarries1144120112071207120712071207
    The land (farming pursuits)994102910391038104010411041
All groups combined1136119312121206121012141224

NOTE — The index numbers in this table are comparable both vertically and horizontally.

In the groups “accommodation, meals, and personal service”, and “transport by water and air”, the estimated value of board and lodging, and in the “working on the land” group, the value of rations as well as the estimated value of board and lodging are, where applicable, added to the money wage rate in order to make a legitimate comparison with other industries. Also included in the wages for workers in the “transport by water and air” group is a sea-going allowance where applicable. In the case of waterside workers (an important subgroup of the “water and air transport” group) these allowances are not, of course, applicable.

Movement in Individual Groups — The index numbers in the preceding table being on a national all-groups base, comparisons between movements in individual groups cannot readily be made; an increase in a group in which the index numbers are consistently low being considerably smaller numerically than would be an increase of the same percentage in one where the index numbers are higher. The following table brings out the movements in the various groups more clearly. The respective bases are the New Zealand average weekly wage rates for each industrial group, 1954 (= 1000).

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (ADULT MALES)

Base: Each group separately, 1954 (= 1000)
Industrial Group1914193919541958195919601961
* Revised.
Provision of —       
    Food, drink, etc.25748810001146116912271247
    Clothing, footwear, and textiles24645410001114113711951218
    Building and construction27447210001112113611941212
    Power, heat, and light26648310001128114612081246
    Transport by water and air23744010001120115012081233
    Transport by land2564631000113211581225*1245
    Accommodation, meals, and personal service28246010001127114212031245
Working in or on —       
    Wood, wicker, seagrass, etc.25347010001115114112031215
    Metal27447510001119113811971217
    Stone, clay, glass, chemicals, etc.2524861000112911521204*1223
    Paper, printing, etc.28747210001136115312161225
    Skins, leather, etc.26248710001100111511801194
    Mines and quarries26845010001156117112281235
    The land (farming pursuits)22637310001065107011071119
All groups combined25344710001116113611931212

Care must be exercised in drawing inferences from this table, for, while horizontal comparisons are quite valid, the vertical comparison between the various groups is valid only in so far as it shows in which groups the greater or the smaller movements have occurred.

Indices of Hourly Wage Rates — The indices which follow cover 13 only out of the 14 industrial groups commonly adopted (as is also the case in respect of the indices of standard weekly hours of labour), since working hours on farms (which would be essential to the fourteenth group) cannot for this purpose be satisfactorily treated statistically. The base of the first table is the New Zealand average hourly wage rate (computed as described after the two following tables) for all groups combined 1954 (= 1000).

NOMINAL HOURLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (ADULT MALES)

Base: All groups combined, 1954 (= 1000)
Industrial Group19541958195919601961
* Revised.
Provision of —     
    Food, drink, etc.10241173119712561276
    Clothing, footwear, and textiles9771088111111671190
    Building and construction9501057107911351151
    Power, heat, and light9161033104911061141
    Transport by water and air11081241127313381366
    Transport by land979110811331199*1218
    Accommodation, meals, and personal service9501070108411431182
Working in or on —     
    Wood, wicker, seagrass, etc.10021117114312051218
    Metal10451169118912511271
    Stone, clay, glass, chemicals, etc.932105210731122*1140
    Paper, printing, etc.10511194121212781287
    Skins, leather, etc.9561052106611281142
    Mines and quarries10381200121512751282
All groups combined10001125114812081227

The next table shows the movement in individual groups. The base is the New Zealand average hourly wage rate for each group individually, 1954 (= 1000).

NOMINAL HOURLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (ADULT MALES)

Base: Each group separately, 1954 (= 1000)
Industrial Group1914193919541958195919601961
* Revised.
Provision of —       
    Food, drink, etc.19644810001146116912271247
    Clothing, footwear, and textiles21344310001114113711951218
    Building and construction24147310001113113611941212
    Power, heat, and light22148110001128114612081246
    Transport by water and air18841810001120115012081233
    Transport by land2134431000113211581225*1245
    Accommodation, meals, and personal service18544710001127114212031245
Working in or on —       
    Wood, wicker, seagrass, etc.22047110001114114112031215
    Metal23647510001119113811971217
    Stone, clay, glass, chemicals, etc.2124831000112911521204*1223
    Paper, printing, etc.26147310001136115312161225
    Skins, leather, etc.21846810001100111511801194
    Mines and quarries21841510001156117112281235
All groups combined21745510001125114812081227

The figures shown in the last two tables are derived from average hourly rates calculated in every case by dividing the corresponding average weekly rate by the standard number of hours worked in the week.

Wage Rates of Adult Female Workers — Index numbers showing movements in wage rates of women workers are compiled, using the award rates of the Court of Arbitration; a much smaller list of occupations is used than is the case in computing index numbers of wage movements for male workers. Although only 21 occupations are taken into consideration in the case of women workers, these occupations normally cover a large proportion of the total women in industry — more than sufficient to constitute a representative sample for measuring movements in wages.

The following table shows index numbers of women's wage rates on base: New Zealand all-groups weighted average, 1954 (= 1000), divided into the principal industries in which women workers are normally engaged. In the compilation of these indices, the value of such perquisites as board and lodging in the case of hotel workers has been added to the money wage rates.

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (ADULT FEMALES)

Base: All groups combined, 1954 (= 1000)
Industrial Group19541958195919601961
Provision of —     
    Food, drink, etc.9091016102810821091
    Clothing, footwear, and textiles9811100111811781204
    Accommodation, meals, and personal service10831233125413261389
Working in paper, printing, etc.9191072109011641173
All groups combined10001128114612101244

Movements in Individual Groups — Movements within the various groups are brought out more clearly in the next table, the base in this case being the New Zealand weighted average weekly rate of each group, 1954 (= 1000). As with the similar table relating to male wage rates (p. 974), horizontal comparisons are valid, but vertical comparisons merely show in which groups the greater or smaller movements have occurred.

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (ADULT FEMALES)

Base: Each group separately, 1954 (= 1000)
Industrial Group1914193919541958195919601961
Provision of —       
    Food, drink, etc.15337510001118113111911201
    Clothing, footwear, and textiles19237210001121114012011228
    Accommodation, meals, and personal service27544110001138115712241282
Working in paper, printing, etc.19937610001166118612671277
All groups combined21339010001128114612101244

Weekly Wage Rates: All Adult Workers — A series of index numbers has been computed on the base, 1954 (= 1000) for all adult workers. In general this has followed the index for adult males, although for some years after 1945 female wage rates made on the whole relatively greater gains than male rates. Index numbers for the last 15 years are as follows.

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (ADULT MALES AND FEMALES COMBINED), ALL INDUSTRIAL GROUPS

Base: 1954 (= 1000)
YearIndex
1947602
1948644
1949682
1950729
1951828
1952869
1953929
19541000
19551036
19561055
19571105
19581123
19591137
19601195
19611214

Wage Rates of Juvenile Workers — Index numbers of wage rates of juveniles, male and female, are compiled for each calendar year. Owing to the fact that a number of industries utilise juvenile labour to a limited extent only, or not at all, it has not been possible to cover a very wide field, but 36 occupations representing 12 out of the 14 industrial groups are included in the case of juvenile males, and five occupations representing three industrial groups in the case of juvenile females.

Wherever possible the weekly wage rate adopted in the compilation of the indices is that provided for a worker having attained the age of 18 years or having completed three years' service, according to the terms of the award.

In the table which follows the respective bases are the New Zealand average weekly wage rates for each industrial group, 1954 (= 1000), the heavily ruled vertical line indicating the commencement of the new series.

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (JUVENILE WORKERS)

Base: Each group and each sex separately, 1954 (= 1000)
Industrial Group1914193919541958195919601961
* No provision made in awards for juvenile females.
Juvenile Males
Provision of —       
    Food, drink, etc.21540710001197123413081342
    Clothing, footwear, and textiles17332910001162119812601293
    Building and construction17732110001180120212711276
    Transport by land and air25548510001136116312361251
    Accommodation, meals, and personal service16833910001239125513311379
Working in or on —       
    Wood, wicker, seagrass, etc.17636110001163119412681310
    Metal14636110001182119712731273
    Stone, clay, glass, chemicals, etc.19248710001200122813191348
    Paper, printing, etc.18429510001189120612791289
    Skins, leather, etc.26643110001157116912871342
    Mines and quarries26446810001265128113461352
    The land (farming pursuits)19034010001053105911221132
All industrial groups18435410001134115212211237
Juvenile Females
Provision of —       
    Food, drink, etc.14437410001121113411991210
    Clothing, footwear, and textiles18238610001126114812401381
Working in paper, printing, etc.*39510001209122613261338
All industrial groups18038510001130115112411366

In recent years juvenile wages have been largely governed by the Apprentices Act 1948, under which the scale of wages in apprenticeship orders is based on a percentage of the ruling minimum rates for journeymen in the industry concerned. Consequently, the wage-rates index numbers for juvenile males now tend to move in sympathy with the index numbers of male adult wage rates. In the preceding table horizontal comparisons are valid, but vertical comparisons merely show in which groups the greater or smaller movements have occurred.

EFFECTIVE WEEKLY WAGE RATES — The index numbers quoted in the foregoing paragraphs relate to nominal weekly wage rates only — that is, they are based on actual or equivalent money rates without any allowance being made for changes during the period under review in the prices of those goods and services which are purchased out of wages earned. It is obvious that this factor is of considerable importance, for a rise in wage rates may be offset by a fall in the purchasing power of the monetary unit, while, on the other hand, a fall in money wages may be offset by a rise in the purchasing power of money. Index numbers of effective (or “real”) wage rates are arrived at by dividing the index numbers of nominal wage rates by the corresponding all-groups index numbers of retail prices (both series of index numbers having first been set on a common base) and multiplying the result by the base value of 1000.

The following table accordingly shows a comparison of nominal and effective weekly wage rates of adult male and female workers in each of the years 1951–61. The base of the index numbers is in each case the calendar year 1954 (= 1000).

YearRetail Prices (All Groups)Nominal Weekly Wage RatesEffective Weekly Wage Rates
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
1951848829817978963
1952914871852953932
1953956929924972967
195410001000100010001000
195510241035103910111015
1956106110551056994995
195710831104110610191021
1958113211161128986996
1959117511361146967975
196011831193121010081023
196112041212124410071033

The continuous series of retail prices index numbers required for the foregoing table has been obtained by linking the revised consumers' price index to the earlier series and converting the whole to the base: calendar year 1954 (= 1000).

In making use of these results it should not be overlooked that the index numbers of nominal wage rates apply only to full-time employment at award rates of pay. They do not take into account either on the one hand above-award rates or overtime earnings, or on the other, short-time deductions or wages tax imposed (a summary of the rates of wages tax in force during different periods has been set out earlier). Nor do the retail prices index numbers take cognisance of all classes of household expenditure; income tax, charitable and other gifts, sea and air travel, domestic help, etc., being omitted. Having regard to opportunities for spare-time gainful occupation, a comparison with movements in the index numbers of hours of labour shown later in this section is also relevant.

To the extent that female wages are not normally devoted to purchasing the full range of household requirements the results of employing the all-groups retail prices index to determine effective wages for females are subject to certain limitations.

AVERAGE RATES OF WAGES — The following table shows the New Zealand minimum weekly wage rates in various occupations for the years 1957–61. The figures given are simple averages for the four principal industrial districts as at 31 March in the years indicated. The adult male wage rates on the same basis as at 31 March 1962 will be found in the Latest Statistical Information at the back of this volume. The rates shown throughout this table are money rates, and do not include any allowance for the value of board and lodging, which is a usual perquisite of the employment of some workers, e.g., seamen and hotel employees. Further information on this latter point is available in the note given at the end of the table.

OccupationAverage Wage (Four Principal Districts) at 31 March
19571958195919601961
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Adult Males
Bakers —               
    Journeymen12821214312143137313136
    Labourers101081014910149115811910
Butchers —               
    First shopmen134613851385144814137
    Second shopmen126512102121021355131111
Butter-factory employees — Churning and buttermaking: Others11106111061224121481313
Flourmilling —               
    Kilnmen120412041263121871342
    Assistant smuttermen1196119611135125212100
    Rollermen121801218013910143514100
Meat freezing —               
    Slaughtermen, per 100 sheep51175131513151845184
    Workers not otherwise specified1217812197121971317013170
Meat preserving —               
    Boners1541015111015111016109161010
    Others121971376137614531453
Sausage-casing making: Workers not otherwise specified1356131341313414157141510
Aerated water and cordial making —               
    Cordial makers11441144114411181121310
    Others101471014710147117111237
Brewing: Others111811111811125713051376
Tailors —               
    Journeymen1119111241012410121741350
    Stock cutters (factory)1119111241012410121741342
Footwear manufacturing workers12410127101293130513126
Woollen mills —               
    Spinners12510128912891388131510
    Others110311321132121101292
Building —               
    Bricklayers1211812169121691310013176
    Carpenters and joiners128112130121301313413134
    Plasterers12155121651313131561416
    Plumbers1219512195135314501450
    Builders' labourers1148116111191012171268
    General labourers107410951012511331186
Sawmilling —               
    Sawyers13391340138614391489
    Tailers-out12121215125101219111350
    Yardmen, head1218412187133013801434
    Workers not specified11169111701215121531300
Boatbuilding: Shipwrights12151012151013301316013190
Metal works, etc —               
    Boilermakers, journeymen127101213812138136813134
    Iron and brass moulders121091210912168139813160
    Tinsmiths, journeymen1213312133121921318413184
    Engineering fitters, etc.12141130101301014001400
    Electrical wiremen12185121851344131751434
    Motor mechanics1219111219111301013131113142
Printing —               
    Linotype (day)13361395139514941494
    Letterpress machinist (day)1213812197121971319013190
Skin and leather workers —               
    Curriers111501118111118111215012150
    All other workers10810101291012911791179
Mineral and stone workers —               
    Flanger and moulder1118112110124612171113010
    All other workers1016610191111211114611176
Mining (coal) —               
    Surface: Tippers1376137613761431141211
    Miners (on day wages, per shift)21332133213321652164
    Truckers1200120012001214512155
Quarrymen10109101121014111501181
Agricultural and pastoral workers —               
    General farm workers816816816883883
    Threshing mill: Other workers, per hour 57 1/2 57 1/2 57 1/2 511 511
    Ploughmen816816816883883
    Shearers (per 100 sheep shorn)38031703803263116
    Shepherds816816816883883
    Wool pressers12581318813114121121442
    Dairy-farm workers91009100910010561056
Railways —               
    Engine drivers, average third and sixth years1439143914121157115189
    Locomotive assistants, average second and eighth years1212111212111313131501434
    Guards, average first and third years1311313113131971413915510
Tramways —               
    Drivers111601231012310132613100
    Conductors (after six months)11721115011150121321300
Shipping and cargo working —               
    Assistant stewards, first grade111101111011110123512112
    Assistant stewards, second grade117111711171111941271
    Chief cooks142614261426141761553
    Second cooks121571215712157139513172
    Able seamen12711127111271113141391
    Ordinary seamen: 18 years or over910891089108919210610
    Waterside workers: Ordinary cargo12197121971219714341434
Hotel workers —               
    First cooks11186123212321215712197
    Waiters8100814981499389128
Miscellaneous —               
    Retailing of apparel —               
    Shop assistants111601118111119111217412174
    Grocers' assistants11581116011160129112161
    Warehouse storemen116211621111112421296
Females
Biscuit and confectionery factory workers7307511751171767176
Tailoresses (factory): Journey-women7154718471848658134
Footwear manufacturing workers71597184719481078150
Woollen-mill workers71547191719181368184
Hotel workers —               
    Cooks8134818181819729162
    Housemaids51756226226856175
    Waitresses51756226226856175
Restaurant workers —               
    Cooks910991099174107510125
    Waitresses616661667257987148
    Pantrymaids616661667257987148
Printing workers71057152715281008100
Retailing of apparel: Shop assistants717480781881338133
Juvenile Males
Bakers' apprentice: After three years' service814810491048190933
Butchers' assistant: 18 years of age6134616961697507810
Butter and cheese factory: Youth, 18 years of age714571458048868151
Flour-mill: Youth, after three years' service67067061106176717
Meat freezing and preserving: Youth, 18 years of age74079107910813813
Aerated water and cordial manufacture: Youth, 18 years of age6510651065106136744
Tailoring, etc.: Apprentice, after three years' service71771110711107197839
Footwear manufacturing: Apprentice, after three years' service745713771468168811
Woollen-mill: Youth, 18 years of age61787147148128100
Bricklayers' apprentice: After three years' service79108068068878134
Carpenters' apprentice: After three years' service7917194719481208120
Plasterers* apprentice: After three years' service712580783881298165
Plumbers' apprentice: After three years' service7159812281511969969
Sawmill: Youth, 18 years of age645645610461611720
Engineering: Apprentice, after three years' service711383383381528152
Brick, tile, etc., works: Youth, 18 years of age66961066124702770
Tannery: Youth, 18 years of age65169069061926192
Coalmining: Trucker, 18 years of age1150115011501114211142
Agriculture and dairying (mixed farms): Youth, 18 years of age514651465146629629
Retailing of apparel: Shop assistant, after three years' service618270577471857185
Grocers' assistant: After three years' service61587121071210871181411
Juvenile Females
Biscuit and confectionery factory: Assistant, after three years' service6156456456131061310
Footwear manufacturing: Assistant, after three years' service60460461461046150
Woollen mill: Worker, after three years' service63466366372081311
Clothing factory: Improver, after three years' service60116311631161037100
Printing trade: Worker, after three years' service61296167616771007100

NOTE — The following perquisites (as assessed for statistical purposes) as at 31 March 1961 should be added to the listed occupations: dairy-farm workers, £2 2s. 6d. per week for board and lodging; general farm workers, ploughmen, shepherds, and youths (18 years of age) employed on agricultural and dairy (mixed) farms, £2 2s. 6d. per week for board and lodging; shearers and wool pressers, 8s. per day for rations; assistant stewards (first and second grade), chief and second cooks, able seamen and ordinary seamen (first class), £2 15s. 7d. per week as value of board and lodging; and hotel first cooks and waiters, female cooks, housemaids, and waitresses, £3 3s. 2d. per week as value of board and lodging. Varying amounts in this connection would also be added to the occupations affected for earlier years.

EARNINGS AND HOURS WORKED IN INDUSTRY — The following pages supply information extracted from the half-yearly surveys conducted by the Department of Labour (see Section 34), the particulars relating to a sample week at the end of each half-year.

Up to April 1957, one result of the half-yearly survey was to show the average weekly payout per person. This was obtained by dividing the aggregate payout for one week by the number of full-time employees in the same week.

From and including the April 1957 survey some important changes were made in the information cards filled in by employers. From that date the Department of Labour has published average hourly earnings for all workers covered by the half-yearly survey. In calculating these earnings the Department has included part-time as well as full-time employees. To provide a long-term series, average weekly wage payouts per person, on this same basis, have been computed for all periods covered by the half-yearly surveys. Also, to provide a link with the previous series of average wage payouts per person, computations using full-time employees have continued to be made.

In the following table, which gives the average weekly payout per person, all ages, both sexes, and all occupations within industry are included in the one figure.

Date of SurveyWeekly Wage Payout per Person (Including Overtime, Bonus Earnings, etc.) Aggregate Payout for One Week Divided by —Nominal Minimum Weekly Wage for Adult Males as Prescribed in Awards and Industrial Agreements as at End of Preceding Month
Full-time EmployeesFull-time and Part-time Employees

* Does not include retrospective payments arising from the general order of the Court of Arbitration of 19 November 1953.

Revised.

 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
1951 — April91529878198
          October103191619311
1952 — April107101001960
          October1013010569146
1953 — April111510131091411
          October1121*101311*101410
1954 — April12251113610150
          October12701117110164
1955 — April1215212481147
          October1340121261159
1956 — April1368121501174
          October13104121811191
1957 — April1430139911198
          October1446131091207
1958 — April14861313101227
          October14106131551232
1959 — April1415213191112411
          October14181014261249
1960 — April1514101417412183
          October151881418111310
1961 — April16121151101325
          October16139151101341

The table shown next commences from April 1957 and continues at half-yearly intervals. To obtain estimated average ordinary time worked by full-time employees, aggregate ordinary-time hours worked during one week have been divided by the sum of full-time employees plus half of the part-time employees. Hence, if there are any part-time workers the sum of the average ordinary-time hours and overtime hours will not be equal to the average time worked by full-time and part-time employees as shown in the last column.

DateAverage Minimum Hourly Rates as Prescribed in Awards and Industrial Agreements for Adult Males in 13 Industrial Groups (Excluding Farming) as at End of Preceding MonthAverage Hourly Earnings for All Workers Covered by Half-yearly SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Worked by Workers Covered by Half-yearly Survey
Ordinary TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time and Overtime CombinedOrdinary Time (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOvertime (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOrdinary Time and Overtime Worked by Full-time and Part-time Employees Combined
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.hourshourshours
1957—April61.368.5910.8610.837.72.439.1
          October61.569.1100.7611.337.72.339.0
1958—April62.269.7101.770.137.72.539.1
          October62.5610.4100.170.637.82.439.1
1959—April63.1611.4102.971.837.72.539.1
          October63.270.7103.672.937.82.339.0
1960—April67.473.71010.476.537.92.739.4
          October68.274.8110.377.637.92.639.2
1961—April68.777.5119.1711.137.63.039.3
          October69.378.9115.3711.837.62.838.9

The preceding table combines all industries. A dissection by industrial groups of the last line of that table — relating to October 1961 — is now provided. Minimum hourly rates are omitted.

Industrial GroupAverage Hourly Earnings for All Workers Covered by Half-yearly SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Worked by Workers Covered by Half-yearly Survey
Ordinary TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time and Overtime CombinedOrdinary Time (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOvertime (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOrdinary Time and Overtime Worked by Full-time and Part-time Employees Combined
 s.d.sd.sd.hourshourshours
Forestry, logging, mining, and quarrying —         
    Forestry79.91110.2710.838.20.738.8
    Logging90.4114.792.738.33.441.7
    Coalmining115.81211.4117.033.82.336.1
    Other mining88.7156.495.238.44.542.6
    Quarrying (not lime, cement)711.21010.284.938.47.545.5
Totals94.01110.196.136.72.839.4
Seasonal manufacturing —         
    Meat processing, etc.90.0133.894.934.83.638.3
    Fruit and vegetable preserving610.7100.071.837.13.440.1
    Dairy factories82.4117.289.339.48.047.1
Totals87.4124.890.636.14.740.6
Food, drink and tobacco (other than seasonal) —         
    Grain milling710.4109.781.037.93.140.5
    Bread bakeries75.6119.480.137.05.839.4
    Biscuit making610.6109.675.036.06.238.5
    Cake and pastry making60.2121.063.038.01.735.2
    Sugar and confectionery69.5102.071.136.23.837.3
    Other food71.41011.475.137.33.339.7
    Beverages710.4122.684.538.05.142.6
    Tobacco manufacture71.298.475.336.25.640.7
Totals71.7112.376.637.14.439.2
Textiles, clothing and leather —         
    Tanneries81.2110.584.837.94.442.0
    Fur dressing and manufacture611.81110.570.137.00.334.2
    Leather goods63.898.765.736.51.836.7
    Knitted wear and hosiery611.9107.872.136.61.937.6
    Flax, rope and twine84.890.285.237.22.539.2
    Woollen mills610.395.271.536.24.339.2
    Other textile production80.8113.084.337.53.940.9
    Clothing manufacture510.887.2511.536.10.935.5
    Footwear manufacture73.596.875.036.42.137.8
    Footwear repair64.8104.865.939.00.937.8
    Other textile goods66.9106.569.036.21.836.3
Totals66.999.768.735.41.937.0
Building materials and furnishings —         
    Sawmilling, plywood, etc.83.11110.186.837.63.640.9
    Builders' woodwork76.4106.3710.238.64.542.7
    Furniture and cabinets73.51011.476.538.42.840.2
    Other wood manufacture610.2117.672.538.23.140.3
    Structural clay products86.2108.8810.136.36.442.3
    Pottery and glass76.9124.983.337.06.343.1
    Lime, cement, etc.711.6118.985.737.75.943.0
Totals710.1116.282.737.84.441.7
Engineering and metalworking —         
    Engineering and machinery711.5118.984.438.04.742.1
    Electrical manufacture75.81011.978.737.72.939.8
    Ships, locomotives, etc.77.9114.1711.838.33.742.0
    Vehicle and cycle manufacture87.5134.292.037.34.841.8
    Vehicle repair and aircraft74.6109.476.638.62.139.8
Totals78.9117.580.438.23.641.1
Miscellaneous manufacturing —         
    Chemicals and by-products83.7115.987.237.63.840.6
    Rubber manufacture93.2107.494.637.83.540.7
    Paper and paper products88.0124.191.137.65.042.2
    Printing, publishing and allied80.3117.383.038.32.739.5
    Instruments, clocks, jewellery71.21110.973.437.61.637.8
    Other manufacturing70.71010.475.837.54.840.8
Totals82.2116.485.637.93.540.3
Totals, manufacturing industries (including seasonal)77.7115.7711.637.43.540.1
Power, water and sanitary services83.7123.637.638.63.541.8
Building and construction79.0112.081.838.65.243.7
Transport and communication —         
    Rail transport711.8129.784.739.86.446.1
    Road transport78.9117.982.538.35.342.3
    Water transport (not waterfront work)89.9127.693.338.75.243.6
    Air transport100.7103.0100.938.44.142.1
    Post Office74.2121.078.138.42.940.6
Totals710.2122.683.838.74.742.8
Distribution and finance —         
    Wholesale and retail trade75.0109.075.938.21.037.2
    Storage80.2109.084.639.06.145.0
    Finance93.11111.793.537.00.436.9
    Insurance88.7117.789.037.30.437.2
    Real estate98.0107.898.138.10.536.7
Totals78.3109.979.138.00.937.2
Wool and grain stores (seasonal)77.3116.3710.336.92.539.2
Sub-totals (including wool and grain stores)78.31010.479.138.00.937.2
Domestic and personal services —         
    Provision of lodging, food, etc.64.5108.166.136.71.432.9
    Portrait and photo studios65.9127.067.437.40.935.0
    Laundries, cleaning, etc.61.391.362.937.12.132.1
    Barbers, beauty shops, etc.43.765.643.938.80.337.8
    Recreation, sports, etc.710.8110.880.131.71.525.8
    Undertaking, etc.711.5116.481.639.22.139.9
Totals65.7104.367.235.81.431.4
Administration and professional         
    Hospitals62.488.364.138.52.438.4
    Medical and allied services73.095.273.036.70.635.3
    Education and instruction92.2202.992.835.70.233.1
    Arts, sciences, and religion86.61211.087.037.60.336.1
    Government (n.e.i.)811.6114.790.137.70.737.4
    Local authorities (n.e.i.)85.3119.487.838.12.639.6
    Miscellaneous services and agencies74.3104.474.636.70.335.5
Totals80.4104.681.237.21.136.4
                  Grand totals, all industries (including seasonal)78.9115.3711.837.62.838.9

SUMMARY OF INDEX NUMBERS — The following table gives a summary for the years 1951–61 of the movements in index numbers covering both wage rates and standard hours of labour.

WEEKLY WAGE RATES, HOURLY WAGE RATES, AND STANDARD HOURS OF LABOUR: ALL INDUSTRIAL GROUPS COMBINED

Base: 1954 (= 1000)
YearNominal Weekly Wage RatesNominal Hourly* Wage Rates: Males, AdultStandard Weekly Hours of Labour
AdultsJuveniles
MalesFemalesCombinedMalesFemalesMales*Females
* Excluding the agricultural and pastoral group.
195182981782882185282810001000
195287185286986688086110001000
195392992492993293392710001000
195410001000100010001000100010001000
195510351039103610321039103710001000
195610551056105510511061106010001000
195711041106110510991118111110001000
195811161128112311341130112510001000
195911361146113711521151114810001000
196011931210119512211241120810001000
196112121244121412371370122710001000

Chapter 34. Section 34 EMPLOYMENT

Table of Contents

PROMOTION OF EMPLOYMENT: National Employment Service — As from 1 April 1946 a National Employment Service was established under the Employment Act 1945 with the principal function of promoting and maintaining full employment in New Zealand. In fact, provision for Government Employment Bureaus had been made as early as 1891. From 1930 to 1936, the period of the operations of the Unemployment Board, the bureaus functioned rather as unemployment registration offices than as placement services. In 1936 the activities of the Unemployment Board were transferred to the Employment Division of the Department of Labour and the bureaus replaced by a State Placement Service, which operated a widely used system of local labour exchanges. From 1942 to the end of March 1946 this became merged in the Industrial Manpower Division of the National Service Department, and, with an augmented staff, carried out the wider and more complex functions of manpower direction and control. In this work the Industrial Manpower Division placed a much greater emphasis on the collection and use of employment and other economic data, on the research and planning aspects of employment, and on the coordination of industrial activities with manpower resources. The National Employment Service was built upon these foundations. After 12 months' activity as a separate Department the National Employment Service was, however, on 1 April 1947, amalgamated with the Department of Labour.

The functions and duties of the Department are set out in the Labour Department Act 1954. On the employment side the duties include: the provision of a complete employment service for the purpose of placing workers in employment, assisting employers to provide employment, helping persons to find better or more suitable employment, and aiding persons who require occupational readjustment or training; the collection and publication of information relating to employment and unemployment; the making of surveys and forecasts of the classes of employment required or available; the promotion of voluntary placing of suitable persons in such employment; and in general the promotion and maintenance of full employment. In particular the Department may operate hostels for workers, provide a home-aid service, and arrange for the selection, transport, and accommodation of immigrants.

Accordingly the Department seeks to maintain a policy of full employment at the highest productive level, operates 24 district employment offices, provides through a home-aid service domestic help for families in urgent circumstances, and administers employment schemes, subsidised where necessary, for those unfit to compete in the ordinary labour market.

The 15 camps and hostels operated by or for the Department at 31 March 1961 — comprising industrial workers' camps and hostels, immigration hostels, Public Service hostels, miners' hostels, and Maori youth hostels — provided accommodation for 1,769 workers.

Immigration matters, including the maintenance of immigration hostels, are, as already indicated, handled by the Department. Reference to assisted immigration has been made on pages 65–66 of this volume. To advise the Minister of Immigration on immigration matters and to aid the Department in the implementing of the immigration policy, an Immigration Advisory Council was established in April 1947 and continues to operate under the Act of 1954. Throughout the country there are also immigration welfare committees whose function is to coordinate welfare activities in respect of new settlers.

Of recent years special attention has been directed to the problem of Maori employment. Outstanding features of the Maori population are its rate of growth and the fact that the Maori people are largely resident in localities remote from the main centres of industrial activity. Practical measures for ensuring the continuing absorption of the Maori race into full employment have included the fostering of Maori apprenticeships and the establishment of Maori youth hostels.

In the post-war years the labour situation was characterised by overfull employment and a high number of vacancies in industry. The employment position is still one of great buoyancy with the demand for labour exceeding the supply and practically no unemployment.

One employment-promotion measure which has been in operation for some years is Scheme 13, under which 46 men were employed at 31 March 1962, compared with 49 on 31 March 1961. Most of these men are fit for light work only and are located in districts where employment opportunities are limited. Everything possible is done to place them in suitable private employment when the opportunity arises. They are allocated to local authorities and their wages are subsidised to an extent which brings their earnings up to the award rate for the type of work performed.

Information concerning the measures in operation for the rehabilitation of ex-servicemen will be found in Section 9B.

Vocational Guidance — Since 1938 full responsibility for the work of vocational guidance of pupils at post-primary schools, which for some years previously had been carried on almost entirely by voluntary organisations, has been taken by the Department of Education. A youth centre was established in each of the four main centres, and the work of guidance and placement was undertaken jointly by officers of the Education and National Service Departments. The Department of Education assumed full control of these youth centres (now called Vocational Guidance Centres) in 1943. At present six centres, including Lower Hutt and Hamilton, are in operation.

The numbers of those enrolled who were placed in employment during each of the last eight calendar years were as follows.

Year Ended 31 DecemberNumber Placed by CentresNumber Self-placedTotals
* Number replaced in employment.
19541,2824031,685
19551,2035201,723
19561,2524991,751
19571,1714611,632
19581,478177*1,655
19591,372151*1,523
19601,238108*1,346
19611,07894*1,172

Apprenticeships — The Apprentices Act 1948 provides for orders governing apprenticeships to be made by the Court of Arbitration, which consists of a Judge, a workers' member, and an employers' member. Orders are made on the recommendations of New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees, which consist of four representatives of employers, or four representatives of workers, a person conversant with technical education, and the Commissioner of Apprenticeship, who is ex officio chairman of each committee. The New Zealand Committees are in effect policy making committees. There are 30 committees, which normally meet once or twice a year.

Day-to-day administration of the Apprentices Act and the apprenticeship orders is carried on by local apprenticeship committees, of which there are 205. They consist of three representatives of employers, three representatives of workers, a person conversant with technical education, and the District Commissioner of Apprenticeship, who is ex officio chairman of all committees for the district for which he is appointed. District Commissioners delegate chairmanship to other officers of the Department of Labour when necessary.

The methods of training followed are on the lines of the traditional apprenticeship system. The apprentice learns by doing tasks under supervision. Provision is made in a number of apprenticeship orders for a specific list of operations and skills to be taught apprentices by their employers. Both employers and apprentices are thus helped to define the scope of training, and apprenticeship committees, when called on to do so, are enabled to judge whether or not training is adequate.

As no employer may engage an apprentice without the prior consent of the appropriate local committee, the facilities for training are known to the committee in each case. When an employer who has not previously had an apprentice applies for permission to engage one, arrangements are made for an inspection of his workshop by two members of the local committee. On their report the full committee makes the appropriate decision. Every apprentice has a contract of apprenticeship, which is registered by the District Commissioner.

Local committees deal with complaints from apprentices and employers, with applications to transfer apprentices to other employers, and applications to discharge apprentices for misconduct. Their decisions, which are of a semi-judicial nature, are subject to review by way of appeal to the Court of Arbitration.

In the major industries there are provisions in apprenticeship orders for the attendance of apprentices at technical classes, both during working hours and in the evening. In the 40-hour week four hours are spent at day classes, with usually an equivalent amount of time at evening classes. In some industries technical training is concentrated into an annual course of three or four weeks' duration. The classes are operated by technical and other post-primary schools.

Although technical schools are semi-autonomous bodies, the general policy regarding apprentice education is determined by the Department of Education. That Department itself operates a Technical Correspondence School, which provides courses of instruction for those apprentices who live too far from any school to allow them to attend evening classes.

A statutory body, the New Zealand Trades Certification Board, conducts examinations for apprentices (see Section 7 — Education), The examinations are voluntary and, except in the electrical trade and in plumbing, no examination test is required for the practice of a trade. There is very close liaison between New Zealand. Apprenticeship Committees and the Board, the Commissioner of Apprenticeship being ex officio a member of the Board. The Commissioner is also ex officio a member of the New Zealand Council for Technical Education (see Section 7).

The number of apprenticeship contracts registered during the year, completed during the year, and in force at the end of the year are indicated in the following table for each of the years ended 31 March 1960 and 31 March 1961.

TradeApprenticeship Contracts
Registered During Year Ended 31 MarchCompleted During Year Ended 31 MarchIn Force at 31 March
196019611960196119601961
Aircraft30502938185194
Baking40472018128138
Boilermaking66501934178172
Bricklaying58563830177180
Carpentry1,2711,4481,0569874,9145,172
Clothing60703234188195
Coachbuilding2552851321561,0391,076
Coopering
Dentistry45132726
Electrical2843862472571,2761,346
Engineering3864312952651,5101,591
Footwear making and repairing14167116763
Footwear manufacturing56683040206207
Furniture218222177147849840
Gardening292210108695
Hairdressing34282323124121
Jewellery33462626131137
Lead burning11143
Masonry2278
Motor trades8689946266673,6833,805
Moulding1420663543
Painting18819096109598622
Photo-engraving41281919122123
Piano repairing and tuning8134128
Plastering94864840302308
Plumbing2132431842281,1301,098
Printing238253139137872931
Radio64963629219265
Refrigeration servicing262632219798
Saddlery, leather, and canvas goods618963946
Sheet-metal working50593231188197
Shipbuilding2231142197103
Terrazzo work213
Timber industry2027584152
Others50312033147131
Totals4,7445,3363,4123,44018,68119,394

DISTRIBUTION OF LABOUR FORCE — The table which follows shows the estimated distribution of the labour force (including Maoris) by broad industrial groups in April of each year from 1951 to 1961. The figures include estimates for industries (e.g., farming) and persons (in “one-man” businesses) not covered by the half-yearly surveys.

The figures have been adjusted into line with the 1956 census data.

YearIndustry GroupArmed ForcesUnemployedTotals, Labour Force
Primary IndustryManufacturing IndustryPower, Water, and Sanitary ServicesBuilding and ConstructionTransport and CommunicationDistribution and FinanceDomestic and Personal ServicesAdministration and ProfessionalTotals
thousand
Males
1951135.9141.29.752.866.281.418.350.8556.310.0566.3
1952134.8142.49.857.268.983.018.251.3565.610.0575.6
1953134.3144.910.862.768.984.318.652.5577.011.1588.1
1954133.9149.110.868.069.187.019.253.7590.810.90.1601.8
1955133.4151.911.072.269.089.019.153.9599.59.7609.2
1956133.5154.111.174.470.991.319.156.1610.58.90.1619.5
1957134.0156.311.374.972.794.519.858.4621.99.20.4631.5
1958134.1160.911.477.674.396.620.261.2636.38.90.4645.6
1959133.8167.311.779.874.396.820.063.6647.38.71.1657.1
1960133.4171.611.881.574.598.720.366.0657.810.00.6668.4
1961132.5177.711.882.775.5102.420.567.8670.99.10.2680.2
Females
195112.244.40.71.07.636.425.845.2173.30.8174.1
195211.943.90.71.08.237.925.046.6175.20.8176.0
195311.542.30.81.18.539.325.448.7177.61.0178.6
195411.145.20.81.28.641.725.150.7184.40.8185.2
195511.247.00.81.38.844.224.852.2190.30.8191.1
195610.846.10.81.49.646.324.654.1193.70.7194.4
195710.946.60.81.410.047.725.056.6199.00.7199.7
195810.949.30.81.510.248.725.257.7204.30.6204.9
195910.950.40.91.510.348.825.060.2208.00.60.1208.7
196010.951.50.81.510.149.425.461.9211.50.50.1212.1
196110.854.70.81.611.052.726.163.4221.10.50.1221.7
Totals
1951148.1185.610.453.873.8117.844.196.0729.610.8740.4
1952146.7186.310.558.277.1120.943.297.9740.810.8751.6
1953145.8187.211.663.877.4123.644.0101.2754.612.1766.7
1954145.0194.311.669.277.7128.744.3104.4775.211.70.1787.0
1955144.6198.911.873.577.8133.243.91061789.810.5800.3
1956144.3200.211.975.880.5137.643.7110.2804.29.60.1813.9
1957144.9202.912.176.382.7142.244.8115.0820.99.90.4831.2
1958145.0210.212.279.184.5145.345.4118.9840.69.50.4850.5
1959144.7217.712.681.384.6145.645.0123.8855.39.31.2865.8
1960144.3223.112.683.084.6148.145.7127.9869.310.50.7880.5
1961143.3232.412.684.386.5155.146.6131.2892.09.60.3901.9

LABOUR FORCE PROJECTIONS — Accompanying the expected future growth of New Zealand's population, as shown by the population projections set out in Section 3, will be a substantial rise in the size of the labour force. Projections of the labour force based on these population projections have been made by the Department of Statistics and are displayed in the next table. The projections cover the period 1963–80 and assume that 1956 census labour force participation rates, adjusted to April 1961, for each quinquennial age group in the three population categories, males, not-married females, and married females, will continue. Reference should be made to the section on population projections for comment on the meaning and limitation of statistical projections.

Labour force projections for each year from 1963 to 1980 are set out in the following table.

YearProjected Labour Force Assuming Net Inward Migration of
5,000 per Annum10,000 per Annum
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
thousand
1963704233937709234943
1964718238956724240964
1965731244975740246986
19667452499947562511,007
19677592551,0147722571,029
19687732601,0337882621,050
19697872641,0518042671,071
19708012691,0708212731,094
19718152731,0888382781,116
19728302771,1078552831,138
19738452811,1268732881,161
19748612851,1468912941,185
19758772891,1669092981,207
19768932941,1879273031,230
19779092981,2079453081,253
19789253021,2279643131,277
19799423061,2489843171,301
19809593111,2701,0043221,326

STATISTICS OF EMPLOYMENT: Half-yearly Surveys — Commencing in 1946 the Department of Labour has carried out at half-yearly intervals a general survey of employment in New Zealand. These surveys are conducted by means of inquiries sent out to employers of labour, the results being published in the Labour and Employment Gazette. Returns are required from all establishments in which at least two persons (including working proprietors) are engaged. Government and local authority employment is included. Each return covers six consecutive months, the initial survey (apart from a pilot survey taken for April 1946) relating to the period May to October 1946. Particulars of working proprietors, number of establishments, reported vacancies, and hours of work and earnings are available at half-yearly intervals only. Employers in farming, hunting, trapping, fishing, waterfront work, and private domestic service are not required to submit half-yearly returns. The following tables, which are based on these surveys, have been extracted from the Labour and Employment Gazette, and show the figures for April of each year from 1951 to 1961 and for October 1961. Separate tables are given for males and females (except for part-time employees by industrial groups), working proprietors are in general distinguished from employees, and the numbers of vacancies reported and of establishments covered are appended.

Since the introduction of half-yearly employment surveys there have been several changes in the industrial classification of units to bring the New Zealand classification into line with the United Nations Standard Industrial Classification. In respect of working proprietors and employees the effects of the various reclassifications have been carried back to 1946, and the figures in the following tables are on the revised basis.

Since April 1953 the industry of threshing and chaff cutting has been treated as a branch of farming and hence omitted from the inquiry, and the following tables exclude threshing and chaff cutting throughout.

A summary of the tables referred to is first provided.

Date of SurveyFull-time Employees and Working ProprietorsVacanciesPart-time WorkersHalf-yearly Percentage Rate of Labour Turnover*
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemales
* The relationship between the number of terminations over the previous half-year and the average number of employees during the same period.
April —         per centper cent
    1951356,233134,917491,15021,40411,39232,7966,17810,00616,1842032
    1952366,344136,668503,01221,6078,51030,1176,5429,91116,4532132
    1953376,743138,282515,02514,1976,21720,4147,20410,01717,2211828
    1954390,320144,807535,12715,2337,49622,7297,63811,53919,1771930
    1955399,992150,784550,77618,9838,54527,5289,04813,05822,1062132
    1956412,676154,915567,59115,9516,53422,4859,66514,66924,3342032
    1957423,720159,606583,32611,9835,56217,54511,22115,40826,6291931
    1958436,062164,498600,56010,6695,28015,94912,39717,43729,8341832
    1959447,003167,802614,8058,4904,02612,51612,85518,40131,2561832
    1960456,816171,605628,4219,9106,00415,91414,13920,29034,4291932
    1961468,113180,181648,29416,9808,92125,90115,88424,94640,8302134
October —           
    1961467,415181,672649,08713,2637,66920,93216,41027,71844,1282032

Employment in industry on 15 April of the years 1951–61, and on 15 October 1961, is given in the following table. No industrial dissection of part-time employment is available prior to April 1957.

Date of SurveyPrimary Industry (Other Than Farming, Fishing, and Hunting)Manufacturing IndustryPower, Water, and Sanitary ServicesBuilding and ConstructionTransport and Communication (Other Than Waterfront Work)Distribution and FinanceDomestic and Personal ServicesAdministration and ProfessionalTotals, All Industries Covered
* Not included in any other figures in this table.
Male Employees
April —         
    195111,243121,0289,50835,12147,88359,25610,80138,595333,435
    195210,963125,0989,61938,01149,42260,74510,76039,186343,804
    195310,619127,64110,37241,30650,71161,94211,05840,523354,172
    195410,428131,18210,81044,57950,59663,30311,23741,066363,201
    195510,234134,65510,95547,59050,44865,31811,22341,439371,862
    195610,339137,80511,02249,19751,75567,78511,25143,957383,111
    195710,705139,01111,30349,33153,74669,74911,49645,887391,228
    195810,754143,06111,41551,18854,84671,10411,66648,373402,407
    195910,617148,92311,72752,71854,75271,43611,47450,262411,909
    196010,637152,93911,78453,74355,18872,54311,72652,216420,776
    196110,414158,54511,75554,64355,30775,22411,69253,611431,191
October —         
    196110,698154,78611,90654,96455,61075,51211,85654,450429,782
Male Working Proprietors
April —         
    19513307,34973,9221,5356,6972,56239622,798
    19523487,17484,0251,5056,6222,44541322,540
    19533307,26943,9711,4196,6762,53536722,571
    19543508,30065,0321,6478,3132,84063127,119
    19553048,48955,4651,6308,8102,93649128,130
    19563518,82196,0381,7569,1242,97049629,565
    19574569,77696,3441,96910,1053,26057332,492
    195844310,09386,4822,08410,6343,42049133,655
    195948310,26387,0492,26710,9723,51553735,094
    196048110,396117,3172,25211,4183,61754836,040
    196144410,49567,2942,31412,0433,70462236,922
October —         
    196147110,53877,4702,34712,4203,81456637,633
Female Employees
April —         
    195118540,6316778986,99631,37713,43736,222130,423
    195220640,1206959097,46432,11913,22437,414132,151
    195321538,6547169647,72832,88913,41439,128133,708
    195420541,1517741,0487,81034,21113,54640,496139,241
    195522643,0807881,1277,98936,14013,62841,733144,711
    195623742,3538091,2038,57537,88713,96643,571148,601
    195725742,7647921,7948,98538,74714,15945,673152,571
    195829545,3758191,2579,23339,39014,25846,599157,226
    195928846,3378341,3109,27939,18214,02048,709159,959
    196029247,2658391,2839,33239,85014,29650,195163,352
    196130250,2798421,3569,87442,57114,73551,448171,407
October —         
    196130151,0618631,35210,19942,66914,66451,507172,616
Female Working Proprietors
April —         
    195131,129381,5541,5791914,494
    195231,0871451,7061,5101654,517
    195311,0581341,7441,5771594,574
    195411,1924392,4291,7191825,566
    19551,2043352,8051,8252016,073
    19561,2101492,9791,9011746,314
    195721,278703,4262,0701897,035
    195821,290843,5932,1141897,272
    195921,369993,9002,2642097,843
    196081,3781074,2052,3452108,253
    1961121,4371254,5172,4722118,774
October —         
    196171,44411364,7552,4982159,056
Part-time Employees — Males and Females Combined*
April —         
    1957815,11110311,1526,0317,4166,73426,629
    1958825,3461211,1606,6918,4577,97729,834
    1959815,4841101,1617,1929,2008,02831,256
    1960875,9991051,2458,0869,7849,12334,429
    1961548,1361311,54310,09110,8919,98440,830
October —         
    1961528,6891471,72310,94811,39911,17044,128

A dissection of the manufacturing industry column shown in the preceding table is now given over the same period.

Date of SurveySeasonal ManufacturingFood, Drink, and Tobacco (Other Than Seasonal)Textiles, Clothing, and LeatherBuilding Materials and FurnishingsEngineering and Metal WorkingMiscellaneous ManufacturingTotal Manufacturing Industry
* Not included in any other figures in this table.
Male Employees
April —       
    195117,8088,86313,04422,61842,77315,917121,028
    195220,2378,90512,48723,41144,40315,655125,098
    195321,2869,01012,06323,42146,06115,800127,641
    195420,6789,07012,44624,24948,02116,718131,182
    195520,5118,88412,27724,58050,78217,621134,655
    195621,5488,89711,86624,99351,34719,154137,805
    195721,9989,06811,58824,31052,31319,734139,011
    195823,1449,11112,10024,54653,70120,459143,061
    195925,4339,21012,65925,79254,44221,387148,923
    196025,8019,26512,73926,30556,31322,516152,939
    196126,0799,60713,37327,40858,53523,543158,545
October —       
    196119,1819,87613,78427,69360,30623,946154,786
Male Working Proprietors
April —       
    1951571,0779581,4763,0027797,349
    1952609609141,4663,0277477,174
    1953529588701,5473,1167267,269
    1954661,0359811,7163,6618418,300
    1955629879971,7973,7648828,489
    1956641,0011,0271,8913,9229168,821
    1957831,0491,1592,0534,4101,0229,776
    1958991,0531,1782,0664,6531,04410,093
    1959951,0511,2002,0284,8631,02610,263
    1960951,0401,1972,0104,9391,11510,396
    1961901,0631,1732,0405,0361,09310,495
October —       
    1961901,0441,2022,0325,0961,07410,538
Female Employees
April —       
    19511,5554,53023,5731,2033,8715,89940,631
    19521,6364,58022,5281,2764,2255,87540,120
    19531,8234,80520,8391,2274,3115,64938,654
    19541,7774,76322,6621,3214,6146,01441,151
    19551,6614,91023,5391,4445,1776,34943,080
    19561,7484,76422,7631,5065,0596,51342,353
    19571,9604,97622,5461,4535,1276,70242,764
    19582,1795,06424,0791,5315,4207,10245,375
    19592,1794,87924,4701,7085,5277,57446,337
    19602,2565,02824,0151,8675,9788,12147,265
    19612,2315,22925,5471,9276,8218,52450,279
October —       
    19612,0365,26926,0501,9057,0088,79351,061
Female Working Proprietors
April —       
    195144525331360671,129
    195244115351950681,087
    195344374982039601,058
    195474555562573761,192
    195584605433174881,204
    195674515552778921,210
    19579452552361241051,278
    19589451540371441091,290
    19595467556571771071,369
    19605457531462151241,378
    19614471531482521311,437
October —       
    19617473538492521251,444
Part-time Employees—Males and Females Combined*
April —       
    19571719191,4394931,1029875,111
    19581469391,4405381,2491,0345,346
    19591609521,4475441,3191,0625,484
    19601521,0261,5556101,4361,2205,999
    19612031,6022,2056881,9641,4748,136
October —       
    19611791,6932,5266821,9851,6248,689

The following table shows the number of vacancies reported by employers in the half-yearly surveys. Figures on the basis of the revised industrial classification are not available for the years prior to 1953.

Date of SurveyPrimary Industry (Other Than Farming, Fishing, and Hunting)Manufacturing Industry*Power, Water, and Sanitary ServicesBuilding and ConstructionTransport and Communication (Other Than Waterfront Work)Distribution and FinanceDomestic and Personal ServicesAdministration and ProfessionalTotals, All Industries Covered

* Excluding seasonal manufacturing.

A reduction from and including May 1959, and an increase from and including June 1961, in vacancies for Railways Department, resulted from a reassessment of their stalling requirements.

Males
April —         
    19515798,4304722,6095,1262,0243121,85221,404
    19528067,8575623,0215,2592,0852851,73221,607
(Revised basis)         
    19533335,0803511,9043,8031,4171731,13614,197
    19542025,3023842,4903,7811,6921551,22715,233
    19554096,8673882,9714,2492,2312721,59618,983
    19563035,3075302,3233,9201,7772591,53215,951
    19571334,0183161,5283,2041,3992241,16111,983
    19581093,7552751,7532,3901,0811841,12210,659
    1959532,9551539572,2218241491,1788,490
    19601003,3681871,9581,4101,3061971,3849,910
    19612366,4143713,2222,2492,1404021,94616,980
October —         
    19611884,7573971,9881,9661,6024111,95413,263
Females
April —         
    1951276,492414091,6515682,20411,392
    1952243,82435.-4161,5114462,2548,510
(Revised basis)         
    1953112,7285913238862891,9206,217
    195483,734133541,1543081,9257,496
    1955114,1602413371,4964632,0538,545
    195672,6802712281,1703932,0286,534
    1957122,204211849794171,7455,562
    195852,372101818543711,4875,280
    195921,40451776952791,4644,026
    196052,332101969684142,0796,004
    1961163,753173441,6966732,4228,921
October —         
    1961192,5781413231,3536872,6947,669

Reported vacancies in manufacturing industry included in the previous table are now shown separately.

Date of SurveyFood, Drink, and Tobacco (Other Than Seasonal)Textiles, Cloth, and LeatherBuilding Materials and FurnishingsEngineering and Metal WorkingMiscellaneous ManufacturingTotals, Manufacturing Industry*

* Excluding seasonal manufacturing.

A reduction from and including May 1959, and an increase from and including June 1961, in vacancies for Railways Department, resulted from a reassessment of their staffing requirements.

Males
April —      
    19513131,1861,4134,5569628,430
    19523327721,2284,6169097,857
Revised basis      
    19531455758973,0004635,080
    19541306789482,8876595,302
    19553107591,3243,6648106,867
    19561603929753,0807005,307
    19571353547992,2864444,018
    19581293308222,1023723,755
    1959851994501,9252962,955
    19601073007001,8224393,368
    19612606341,2643,5037536,414
October —      
    19612033728802,7495534,757
Females
April —      
    19512925,118753266816,492
    19523942,654472344953,824
(Revised basis)      
    19531492,24331992062,728
    19541752,934652053553,734
    19552963,201622443574,160
    19561372,075331562792,680
    19571111,783191061852,204
    19581161,881621211922,372
    19591021,045201041331,404
    19601711,685362132272,332
    19613822,586733173953,753
October —      
    19612161,797621973062,578

The number of establishments covered by the half-yearly surveys is now shown, the second part of the table giving an analysis of the manufacturing industry' column contained in the first part. Figures on the basis of the revised industrial classification are not available for the years prior to 1953.

Date of SurveyPrimary Industry (Other Than Farming, Fishing, and Hunting)Manufacturing IndustryPower, Water, and Sanitary ServicesBuilding and ConstructionTransport and Communication (Other Than Waterfront Work)Distribution and FinanceDomestic and Personal ServicesAdministration and ProfessionalTotals, All Industries Covered
April —         
    195175311,1042243,6262,26012,6773,8242,93237,400
    195277611,1472243,8952,37313,0063,7072,88238,015
(Revised basis)         
    195359211,7402443,8962,35912,4684,0643,40938,772
    195461112,0952414,7162,45713,4594,2783,54041,397
    195560312,3752435,1872,48514,1534,4013,63543,082
    195662512,5992475,6752,51314,7204,4453,72444,548
    195763212,5442425,8992,54315,1434,5013,73945,243
    195862112,6112516,0572,60515,6044,6263,82246,197
    195963412,6562576,6092,68815,9504,7363,88447,414
    196063412,7082676,5072,68416,3844,8414,00848,033
    196160312,7422666,6212,70917,1414,9944,03249,108
October —         
    196161012,7892686,7462,72617,5185,1184,03649,811
Date of SurveySeasonal ManufacturingFood, Drink, and Tobacco (Other Than Seasonal)Textiles, Clothing, and LeatherBuilding Materials and FurnishingsEngineering and Metal WorkingMiscellaneous ManufacturingTotals Manufacturing Industry
April —       
    19515501,4742,0181,7744,0881,20011,104
    19525461,3872,0041,8194,2061,18511,147
(Revised basis)       
    19535401,3761,9632,4704,1031,28811,740
    19545401,3691,9492,5534,3471,33712,095
    19555351,3331,9802,6004,5671,36012,375
    19555271,3151,9752,6614,7351,38612,599
    19575291,2851,8752,5994,8661,39012,544
    19585181,2541,8612,5884,9731,41712,611
    19595041,2491,8502,5555,0981,40012,656
    19604951,2221,8322,5285,1761,45512,708
    19614791,2281,8102,5305,2631,43212,742
October —       
    19614811,2131,8162,5135,3391,42712,789

The table now following shows the half-yearly survey totals of full-time employment in industry, under a mere detailed industrial classification, as at 15 April 1960 and 1961; employment by the General Government, by local authorities, and by private employers being distinguished at the same time in the 1961 figures.

IndustryNumber of Persons* in Industry at 15 April 1960Number of Persons* in Industry at 15 April 1961
MalesFemales
MalesFemalesGovernmentLocal AuthoritiesPrivate*GovernmentLocal AuthoritiesPrivate*
* These figures are inclusive of working proprietors.
Primary industry (other than farming, fishing, and hunting) —        
    Forestry2,5281862,4301821784
    Logging2,629371332,335436
    Coal mining4,311523,101993436
    Other mining268826114
    Quarrying (n.e.i.)1,38217971,326227
Seasonal manufacturing —        
    Meat processing, etc.20,54688323820,6631951
    Fruit and vegetable preserving1,0999451,018845
    Dairy factories4,2514334,250438
Food, drink, and tobacco (other than seasonal) —        
    Grain milling7737979387
    Bread bakeries2,1535502,177553
    Biscuit making660641671669
    Cake and pastry making1,1271,3391,2351,393
    Sugar and confectionery1,2991,0931,2211,096
    Other food1,3327481,494822
    Beverages2,466319162,5562359
    Tobacco manufacture495716507719
Textiles, clothing, and leather —        
    Tanneries1,1941161,157121
    Fur dressing and manufacture7711281104
    Leather goods502471470505
    Knitted wear and hosiery1,6763,0501,7673,204
    Flax, rope, and twine4256537665
    Woollen mills1,8721,5322,0251,664
    Other textile production1,1885441,533658
    Clothing manufacture3,37415,5163,37316,315
    Footwear manufacture2,5602,2522,7152,516
    Footwear repair3183531033
    Other textile articles750853739893
Building materials and furnishings —        
    Sawmilling, plywoods, etc.9,8193566049,67221339
    Builders' woodwork4,670162324,828153
    Furniture and cabinets4,1994014,276456
    Other wood manufacture996210990—_—_230
    Structural clay products1,149431,18943
    Pottery and glass1,7515221,826483
    Lime, cement, etc.5,731219116,020250
Engineering and metal working —        
    Engineering and machinery23,3572,451224,6162,760
    Electrical manufacture4,6801,4134,8381,679
    Ships, locomotives, etc.6,895665,5321,0714416
    Vehicle and cycle manufacture4,1814194,467575
    Vehicle repair and aircraft22,1391,8441,00322,042281,971
Miscellaneous manufacturing —        
    Chemicals and by-products4,8321,71444,8641,784
    Rubber manufacture2,7656722,971699
    Paper and paper products3,8061,1324,0011,195
    Printing, publishing, and allied9,1322,9815948,8681962,899
    Instruments, clocks, jewellery1,1124621,123434
    Other manufacturing (n.e.i.)1,9841,2842,2111,448
Power, water, and sanitary services11,7958393,1947,65591215261080
Building and construction61,0601,28312,6582,58446,69546072824
Transport and communication —        
    Rail transport17,6591,08216,875151,0672
    Road transport16,6551,0261,4361,82013,93651118933
    Water transport (not waterfront)4,6274781663,0101,522499394
    Air transport1,943456697121,388821496
    Post Office -16,5566,39716,7446,752
Distribution and finance —        
    Wholesale and retail trade68,42936,4304022771,51118939,060
    Storage70211146435
    Finance7,3814,4571,2206,1337634,052
    Insurance3,7322,5886433,1824122,313
    Real estate1,1964361,144401
    Wool and grain stores (seasonal)2,521332,70325
Domestic and personal services —        
    Provision of lodging, food, etc.7,95910,4403217,885772210,396
    Portrait and photo studios478535501547
    Laundries, cleaning, etc.1,9642,5442,0092,705
    Barbers, beauty shops, etc.8381,7318462,045
    Recreation, sport, etc.3,7211,3461,0649431,81445451866
    Undertaking383458921244
Administration and professional —        
    Hospitals7,12119,5421,8075,2781651,75015,7012,203
    Medical and allied services5682,114704771,210750
    Education and instruction15,48515,6301,98312,7641,7621,46212,5262,212
    Arts, sciences, and religion1,6435517571,052196541
    Government (n.e.i.)14,3955,24714,3615,408
    Local authorities (n.e.i.)8,5751,1098,6341,161
Miscellaneous services and agencies4,9776,2122294,8941436,396
                  Totals  86,38644,419337,30820,94930,403128,829
456,816171,605 468,113  180,181 

NOTE — The preceding table does not include armed forces personnel, numbering 10,500 in April 1960 and 9,600 in April 1961, or persons engaged in farming, fishing, hunting, waterfront work, one-man business units, etc., estimated to total 240,900 in April 1960 and 243,700 in April 1961.

An effective correlation of the figures shown in the preceding tables with those of employment in factories found in Section 18 of this volume is precluded by the differing definitions of “manufacturing industry”; furthermore, the tabulations of half-yearly surveys differ from factory-production statistics in including managers and foremen, clerical workers, and distributing staff attached to manufacturing establishments in one figure with factory operatives.

VACANCIES, PLACEMENTS, AND DISENGAGED PERSONS — In addition to the half-yearly surveys of the employment position as a whole, the Department of Labour maintains a month-to-month record of vacancies, placements, and disengaged persons seeking work. The following tables are derived from this record and hence relate only to the Department's operations as a labour exchange.

Notified Vacancies — For some years past insufficient labour has been available to satisfy the demands of industry; though diminished in intensity since 1950 this shortage still persists. Its extent and distribution may be measured to some degree by the number of unsatisfied vacancies at the end of each month. Particulars of such vacancies at the end of each month from December 1960 to December 1961 (together with monthly averages for the calendar years 1951–61 inclusive) are shown by district groupings in the following table. This table does not necessarily cover the same establishments as the preceding tables derived from half-yearly surveys; on the one hand it does not exclude vacancies on farms, in seasonal manufacturing industry, and in domestic service; but on the other hand it includes only those vacancies which have been notified to a district office of the Department of Labour in its capacity as a placement service.

PeriodAucklandWellington and Lower HuttOther North IslandChristchurchDunedinOther South IslandTotal
* A reduction from and including May 1959, and an increase from and including June 1961, in vacancies notified by Railways Department, resulted from a reassessment of their staffing requirements.
Monthly Average For Calendar Years
19513,0906,6074,4452,9482,6232,25521,968
19522,5545,1933,5392,3981,8322,13117,647
19531,6483,5212,7611,2669451,25811,399
19542,2554,0962,8141,2258771,26512,532
19552,2555,6923,1151,5557531,48414,854
19561,7275,2612,3971,3529141,33512,986
19571,4723,2761,7577346521,0358,926
19581,3722,4591,3315516048187,135
1959*9922,0688345403485185,300
19601,2292,4601,0459653627036,764
19611,5923,9971,2141,0674368909,196
Monthly Totals
1960 —       
    December1,8903,1321,1821,3353898418,769
1961 —       
    January1,8843,1961,1991,2443969258,844
    February1,8133,5451,3111,1744459739,261
    March1,7533,8471,3571,2594291,0179,662
    April1,5684,0491,3581,2214438999,538
    May1,4664,0201,2591,0613919139,110
    June*1,5364,2891,2501,0794828369,472
    July1,4674,1501,1971,0774498159,155
    August1,4244,1431,0667854418188,677
    September1,4464,2111,1548604568749,001
    October1,4484,2431,1909264088819,096
    November1,6554,1651,1811,0584638889,410
    December1,6404,1081,0501,0604228449,124

Placements — An industrial analysis of placements by the Department of Labour during the last five years 1957 to 1961 follows; not all these placements were, however, of disengaged persons.

YearPrimary IndustryManufacturing IndustryBuilding and ConstructionPower, Water, and Sanitary ServicesTransport and CommunicationDistribution and Finance, etc.Domestic and Personal ServicesAdministration and ProfessionalTotal
Annual Totals
19573,4334,2742,4402261,1621,8691,3131,70616,423
19583,3523,9292,5662239071,9771,1591,44415,557
19593,9594,1253,2631871,0901,6351,3011,40416,964
19603,5443,3162,192866481,6229061,15613,470
19612,9232,9231,4041275341,3458951,01911,170

A classification of these placements by district grouping is contained in the next table.

YearAucklandWellington and Lower HuttOther North IslandChristchurchDunedinOther South IslandTotal
Annual Totals
19571,7203,8383,7781,3341,9843,76916,423
19581,8933,2653,8031,2591,7093,62815,557
19591,9852,7174,8982,2721,5093,58316,964
19601,4942,3293,8101,5989803,25913,470
19611,5151,9712,7791,6656872,55311,170

Summary — The following table contains a summary of the numbers of notified vacancies, placements, and disengaged persons as recorded by the Department of Labour for each month from December 1960 to December 1961, together with monthly averages for the calendar years 1951–61 inclusive.

DateVacancies at End of MonthPlacements During MonthDisengaged Persons at End of Month
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
* A reduction from and including May 1959, and an increase from and including June 1961, in vacancies notified by Railways Department, resulted from a reassessment of their staffing requirements.
Monthly Average For Calendar Years
195113,6908,27821,9681,3905241,91429938
195211,7335,91417,6471,4705352,005331447
19537,9443,45511,3991,3615301,891671885
19548,4044,12812,5329974221,419481058
195510,1534,70114,8549013901,291441256
19568,9584,02812,9868663971,26324019259
19575,8643,0628,9269414281,36936826394
19584,4072,7287,1358904061,29673352785
19593,046*2,2545,3001,0253891,4141,096921,188
19604,0762,6886,7647933291,12256964633
19615,802*3,3949,19663429793133541376
Monthly Totals
1960 —         
    December5,4173,3528,76929919048925244296
1961 —         
    January5,5023,3428,8446686141,28228845333
    February5,7623,4999,2619106661,57622343266
    March6,1483,5149,66258633492020529234
    April6,0803,4589,53859329188422043263
    May5,770*3,3409,11065221686828534319
    June6,054*3,4189,47265719885537746423
    July5,7433,4129,15576520997450035535
    August5,4743,2038,67762418580946042502
    September5,6533,3489,00154216070246028488
    October5,6803,4169,09663418782136542407
    November5,9963,4149,41065933299127746323
    December5,7553,3699,12431717148836054414

The number of disengaged persons enrolled for placement by the Department of Labour reached its lowest level (12) at the end of March 1951. The lowest figure recorded during 1961 was 234 in March of that year.

UNEMPLOYMENT — Except for occasional returns relating to State unemployment relief which were presented to Parliament from time to time, practically no direct statistical evidence as to the extent of unemployment in New Zealand prior to 1892 is extant. Such information is, however, available from the census (since 1896) and from the records of the Department of Labour (since 1892). In addition, statistics of unemployment among trade unionists were collected from trade union secretaries by the Department of Statistics from 1925 to 1930. A table showing figures of unemployment from June 1931 to March 1939 will be found on page 854 of the 1940 Yearbook.

Census Data on Unemployment — The great disadvantage of the census inquiry as an indicator of the trend of unemployment is that it provides data at quinquennial intervals only up to April 1926, since when only five censuses have taken place, one on 24 March 1936, one on 25 September 1945, one on 17 April 1951, one on 17 April 1956, and one on 18 April 1961. The unemployment figures from the 1956 census were 5,558 males and 2,378 females.

The following table gives relevant census data on unemployment from 1896 to 1956. Prior to 1951 Maoris were not included.

CensusNumber of Males UnemployedProportion per 1,000 Male Wage and Salary Earners
12 April 189614,759100
31 March 19018,46748
12 April 19068,18939
2 April 19117,15230
15 October 19165,92026
17 April 192111,06139
20 April 192610,69434
24 March 193635,77496
25 September 19455,82316
17 April 19517,90218
17 April 19565,55812

The 1936 figure includes men on rationed relief work, but excludes men (16,222) partly unemployed but not on relief work. The 1945 figure includes ex-servicemen recently returned from overseas who had not then resumed work. At the time of the 1951 census the waterfront strike was in progress and it was estimated that approximately 15,000 workers in that and other industries were on strike. Evidently many of these were not returned as unemployed; it is likely that a number changed to other industries, while some may not have considered themselves to be unemployed.

Unemployment Benefit — In the years immediately preceding 1939 two forms of unemployment relief were available: the provision of work for unemployed under various employment promotion schemes, and the payment of sustenance without work (refer 1942 and earlier issues of the Yearbook). Measures for the promotion of employment are still in operation, but the payment of sustenance without work was discontinued on the introduction of a system of unemployment benefits under the Social Security Act 1938. These benefits came into force on 1 April 1939, and monthly figures of the number of benefits current have been published in previous editions of the Yearbook. The number in force at the end of March 1956 was only five, but since then the number of benefits has increased, there being 232 in force at the end of March 1962.

Subject to the conditions set out in Section 6A, the unemployment benefit may be claimed as of right from the Social Security Fund, to which all workers contribute indirectly through PAYE taxation. Registration at a district office of the Department of Labour is a compulsory prerequisite to eligibility for the benefit. Hence it is considered that the great majority of workers becoming involuntarily unemployed would register for employment in order to validate a claim for the benefit.

Close liaison is maintained between the Social Security Department and the Department of Labour to prevent the payment of benefit where work is available. In addition to the requirement that a benefit applicant must register for work at an employment office, all unemployment beneficiaries must report once weekly at the employment office.

INDUSTRIAL DISTRIBUTION, OCCUPATIONS, AND OCCUPATIONAL STATUS — Statistics on industrial distribution, occupations, and occupational status compiled from the population census taken on 17 April 1956 are given in the following tables. The tables illustrate the extent to which the population directly participated in the economic life of the country, according to industry and occupation, and show the nature of their activities, i.e., employer, wage or salary earner, etc.

Excluded from the tables are members of the Armed Services overseas at census dates, numbering 1,894 in 1951 and 2,162 in 1956. Maoris are included in all tables.

The next table shows the numbers and percentages actively engaged or otherwise.

Category1951 Census1956 Census
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Numbers
Actively engaged568,963171,533740,496622,758194,094816,852
Not actively engaged405,005793,9711,198,976470,453886,7571,357,210
Totals973,968965,5041,939,4721,093,2111,080,8512,174,062
Percentages
Actively engaged58.4217.7738.1856.9717.9637.57
Not actively engaged41.5882.2361.8243.0382.0462.43
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The percentage of actively engaged males to total male population dropped from 58.42 to 56.97 between 1951 and 1956. This is a reflection of the large increase recorded in the under 15 years age group between 1951 and 1956, as compared with the increase in the working age group of 15 to 64 years.

This would, in normal circumstances, have meant a similar drop in the proportion per cent of actively engaged females, but, owing mainly to the substantial increase in numbers of married women working, the percentage for females has increased from 17.77 to 17.96.

Occupational Status 1956 — The following table shows the distribution of the population according to the character of participation or non-participation in industry.

Occupational Status1951 Census1956 Census
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Employer63,5705,93369,50366,8645,98372,847
Own account71,2357,68378,91872,2397,85680,095
Wage or salary earner423,174154,520577,694476,637176,721653,358
Unemployed7,9021,7269,6285,5582,3787,936
Relative assisting, unpaid1,9661,2483,2141,2081,0382,246
Not specified1,1164231,539252118370
    Totals, actively engaged568,963171,533740,496622,758194,094816,852
    Not actively engaged405,005793,9711,198,976470,453886,7571,357,210
Grand totals973,968965,5041,939,4721,093,2111,080,8512,174,062

The total number actively engaged increased by 76,356, or 10.31 per cent, between 1951 and 1956. In the wage or salary earner group the increase was 75,664, or 13.1 per cent.

Female wage or salary earners increased by 22,201, or 14.37 per cent; a substantial increase in the number of married females working boosted the increase in this particular group.

The number of males unemployed in 1951 was inflated owing to industrial disturbances at that time.

Industrial Distribution 1956: Divisions — The industrial distribution of the population by the principal divisions of industry at the 1956 census is now given. (A more detailed classification by major groups was given in the 1960 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.)

DivisionNumbersProportion Per Cent of Actively Engaged
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fishing122,7959,132131,92719.724.7016.15
Mining and quarrying7,2721127,3841.170.060.90
Manufacturing149,97843,681193,65924.0822.5123.71
Construction79,6561,42581,08112.790.739.93
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services9,38873310,1211.510.381.24
Commerce96,20848,821145,02915.4525.1517.75
Transport, storage, and communication73,7559,80183,55611.845.0510.23
Services80,49279,424159,91612.9240.9219.58
Activities not adequately described3,2149654,1790.520.500.51
    Totals, actively engaged622,758194,094816,852100.00100.00100.00
    Not actively engaged470,453886,7571,357,210   
Grand totals1,093,2111,080,8512,174,062   

EMPLOYMENT ON FARMS — The omission of farm employment from the Department of Labour statistics shown on pages 992–997 is partly made good by figures derived from the collection of farm production statistics undertaken by the Department of Statistics.

A table giving special detailed statistics of farm workers and farm population at 31 January 1950, covering persons actually residing on holdings of 1 acre and over situated outside borough boundaries, was published on page 979 of the 1954 Yearbook.

SEASONAL FLUCTUATIONS IN EMPLOYMENT — The adoption of the maintenance of full employment as a desideratum in many countries has prompted research into various employment problems, including that of the fluctuation or periodicity of employment. Information on the annual cycle of employment in New Zealand is available for those industries which are covered by the half-yearly survey. The following table shows the month-to-month variations in male employment in seasonal industries for the period of 13 months from April 1960 to April 1961. The seasonal changes in female employment are less marked, such fluctuations as are evident originating mainly in the fruit- and vegetable-preserving industry.

MonthMeat Processing, etc.Fruit and Vegetable PreservingDairy FactoriesWool and Grain StoresTotal, Seasonal Industries
1960     
April20,4721,0804,2492,51928,320
May19,6411,0014,0382,34327,023
June17,4739793,8691,71724,038
July14,1399163,8431,59820,496
August13,4339164,2521,82520,426
September12,3959204,6802,04720,542
October12,3979434,8742,29720,511
November16,1549354,9873,27325,349
December23,2731,3174,9973,72133,308
1961     
January23,7621,4344,8543,65433,704
February23,0281,2554,6083,10231,993
March21,7411,2064,4232,83530,205
April20,8311,0004,2482,68728,766

PUBLIC WORKS — Figures are available which include not only the number of workers in the direct employ of the Ministry of Works and the New Zealand Electricity Department, but also those employed by contractors for public works, and those employed by local authorities on works which are financed wholly or partly by the Ministry of Works, National Roads Boards, and Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council. In the next table figures on this basis are given for the years 1951 to 1961 and at quarterly intervals from December 1960 to December 1961. Departmental and contractors' workmen on Housing Division work are included.

PeriodElectricity WorksRoadsIrrigationSoil Conservation and Rivers Control
Electricity DepartmentMinistry of Works
Average for calendar year —     
19512,3032,5154,361133354
19522,5012,8254,659102338
19532,7253,4834,276100259
19542,8453,0364,373126291
19552,8633,0074,958133288
19562,8452,7985,582118257
19572,7343,3945,157186350
19582,7083,9534,917174363
19592,8083,6445,025173393
19602,9093,1245,417140380
19612,9483,0425,330128365
Month —     
  1960 — December2,9213,0815,441135354
  1961 — March2,9583,2935,723132376
            June2,9663,1915,273151362
            September2,9332,8375,163107362
            December2,9512,6134,883105368
PeriodBuildingsAerodromesRailwaysOther WorksTotal
Average for calendar year —     
19514,9613773361,76617,106
19524,9683865511,77218,102
19535,8333906601,90819,634
19545,1573314341,85018,443
19555,3093451421,86018,905
19565,540471332,01419,658
19574,4512291182,63919,258
19584,0251661712,35418,831
19594,6761561012,48419,460
19604,627951542,67519,521
19614,1731841102,54918,829
Month —     
  1960 — December4,2961481552,62019,151
  1961 — March4,444215992,63919,879
            June4,3411481142,61519,161
            September3,9921921192,43918,144
            December3,533215602,38417,112

The figures shown in this table and also those in the table following on local authority employment are included in the national employment tables already presented.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES — The following table shows the number of employees of local authorities as at 31 March for the latest five years. Employees of electric power boards and fire boards are included here, but not those of hospital boards. The figures include all employees, whether permanent, temporary or part-time, and whether paid out of revenue, loan money, or Government subsidy or grant.

As at 31 MarchAdministrative, Professional, and ClericalOtherTotal
* Provisional.
19576,71223,18929,901
19587,13823,78330,921
19597,54623,80631,352
19607,72124,28732,008
1961*8,03424,05432,088

WORKING LIFE EXPECTANCIES — Precise statistics on the pattern of working life for New Zealand's population first became available with the compilation by the Department of Statistics in 1957 of Tables of Working Life based on the year 1951. These tables display the manner in which labour force rates of participation, entry, and withdrawal vary with age for both males and females. Also included are expectancies of future working life and retirement life for members of the labour force, assuming that 1951 experience continues. The main applications of these tables are to economic and social studies relating to large groups of people. Individuals frequently do not conform to group patterns and, therefore, applications of the expectancies and other statistics contained in the tables must be made with caution. An abridgement of the detailed tables is presented below. For an explanation of the contents of the Table of Working Life and a detailed analysis of the pattern of working life, male and female, in New Zealand, reference should be made to a Supplement to the February 1957 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

ABRIDGED TABLES OF WORKING LIFE, 1951

Exact Age (Years)Percentage of Population in Labour ForceNumber in Labour Force, per 100,000 Live BirthsChanges in the Labour Force in the Following 5 Years of Age, per 100,000 Live BirthsExpectation of Work Life of Person in Labour Force (Years)Expectation of Retirement Life of Person in Labour Force (Years)
Total Entries*Total Withdrawals

* Entries of females into the labour force below the horizontal line are secondary entries by those who withdrew at younger ages for reasons connected with marriage.

The working life expectancies for females allow for the possibility of a second spell of labour force membership after a period of non-membership due to marriage.

Difference between life expectancy and working life expectancy.

Males
1588,33155546.78.6
2092.787,7764,30491342.08.7
2597.391,16738286437.58.7
3097.690,6851871,00732.88.8
3597.789,8651,33728.18.9
4097.588,5281,80623.58.9
4597.186,7223,63818.99.0
5095.783,0348,38914.69.1
5590.374,69512,30411.08.7
6081.662,39126,0007.68.5
6553.836,39116,0886.76.1
7036.420,30311,7705.05.0
7520.58,5335,9723.83.8
809.82,5612,2812.43.1
852.22802771.32.6
900.1330.71.9
Females
1581,8058,47316.242.7
2076.573,3321,12942,40712.441.8
2533.632,0541,13614,06416.732.7
3020.219,1264,0315,03020.324.4
3519.218,1274,2283,06219.920.1
4020.719,2933,0141,80317.517.9
4522.320,5041,2972,65113.617.2
5021.319,1507754,6769.916.6
5517.615,2493515,4497.215.2
6012.310,1516,4144.613.8
654.93,7372,5923.811.0
701.71,1451,0142.58.9
750.21311311.17.4

Chapter 35. Section 35 INDUSTRIAL UNIONS

Table of Contents

UNIONS OF WORKERS — Registration under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954 (originally enacted in 1894) makes a trade union of workers into a body corporate for the purposes of the Act, places the union and its members under the jurisdiction of the Court of Arbitration, lays down certain matters which must be included in the rules of the union, and makes the rules legally binding on the members. It enables the union to sue or be sued, and to hold land and property, and gives it disciplinary power over its members who may be sued for fees or fines in the Courts. The chief advantage arising from registration under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act is that it enables the union to compel the employers to negotiate with it in a Conciliation Council and, if no agreement is reached, to secure a decision from the Court of Arbitration in the form of an award laying down minimum wages, hours, and working conditions applicable to all employees in the industry. On the other hand, by registration, a union loses the right to strike and renders its members liable to penalties for striking. In order to secure registration under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act and, therefore, to be able to secure an award for its members, a union must fulfil certain conditions of membership. For registration an industrial union of workers must consist of not less than 15 members or enrol not less than 25 per cent of the total number of workers engaged in the industry in the industrial district in which it is registered, but it may not consist of less than five members. Until 1936, when the Act was amended, a union could, however, only cover one of the eight industrial districts into which the country is divided. The registration of a large number of small unions, one for each industrial district, was thus made inevitable.

The legislation in 1936 removed the legal obstacles to the formation of national unions, and enabled any society of workers to register as a New Zealand union covering the whole country, provided it had branches in each of at least four industrial districts. Unions covering two or more districts could also be registered. Under the amended Act, when a New Zealand union is registered, the registrations of the local unions which united to form it are automatically cancelled unless the Minister has directed that any such union shall continue in existence, and no new union in that industry can be registered unless two-thirds of the workers in the district or locality concerned so desire. The 1936 legislation thus opened the way for the first time for the registration of national organisations.

Even before 1900, awards of the Court had contained clauses providing for preference of employment for union members. In 1916, however, the Court of Appeal issued a decision restricting preference clauses. In 1925 the position was clarified when specific power was given to the Court of Arbitration to determine, amongst other matters, “the claim of members of industrial unions of workers to be employed in preference to non-members”. Preference clauses continued to be included in most awards, giving a qualified preference to unionists where a unionist was ready and willing to do the particular work and equally qualified to do it.

In the years subsequent to 1936, when the changes in the law enabled national unions to be formed and introduced compulsory membership of unions, two tendencies were visible. The first was the immediate creation of many new small unions, the numbers of unions jumping from 410 in 1935 to 499 in 1937, as many small groups of workers for the first time became unionised and secured an award. Later, a tendency for small unions to amalgamate into New Zealand unions or unions covering two or more districts became evident, so that the total number of unions declined at the same time as the number of large unions increased. By 1942 the result of these changes was to leave the number and membership of the small unions little different from what they were in 1928, but substantially to increase the number of large unions, and very greatly to increase their membership.

Compulsory unionism resulted in a great numerical strengthening of the existing unions with consequential increase in their financial strength, and the legislation enabling national unions to be formed helped to consolidate these gains; at the same time it resulted in the unionisation of many small groups of workers who were previously unorganised.

In 1961 the provision in the Act for compulsory union membership was replaced by two alternatives. Membership of a union would continue to be a condition of employment if the representatives of the parties in conciliation agreed to such a clause being included in the industrial agreement or award, or if 50 per cent or more of the workers who would be bound by an award desired to be members of the union and party to the award. Alternatively, a qualified preference clause on the lines of the pre-1936 clauses would be inserted in the agreement or award.

The Act provides for a worker to seek a certificate of exemption from any union-membership provision on grounds of conscience.

From earliest days local trades councils had been the mouthpieces of the trade union movement. The great increase in the membership of the trade unions brought about by compulsory unionism and the formation of national unions were factors facilitating the formation of the Federation of Labour in 1937 as an organisation representative of the trade union movement as a whole on a national basis.

The supreme authority of the Federation of Labour is the annual conference of delegates representing affiliated unions. Between conferences the business of the Federation is carried on by a National Executive Committee and a National Council. The Executive consists of the officers and two members elected directly by the conference who must reside in Wellington. The Executive meets frequently, about once a fortnight, or oftener as business requires. The National Council, which meets about once a quarter, consists of members of the National Executive and one representative of each local trades council, and is the governing body of the Federation between meetings of the conference. The local organs of the Federation are the local trades councils, 19 in number, to which all local unions and branches of unions affiliated to the Federation of Labour are entitled to send representatives. The trades councils meet once a month to carry on the local business of the Federation and they maintain close contact with the National Executive by means of exchange of minutes of meetings. Within each district the trades council has local autonomy, but where any matter affects other districts the National Executive or the National Council usually deals with it.

UNIONS OF EMPLOYERS — Under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, not less than three persons or a registered company may register as an industrial union of employers. By registering, the employers secure all the rights of a union under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act and can exercise them, with only minor differences, in the same manner as a union of workers.

Compulsory membership of unions does not apply to employers and in many cases their unions are maintained with a nominal membership.

The employers are, however, much more highly organised in respect of negotiations with labour than the figures of membership and the prevalence of local unions of employers might suggest. The New Zealand Employers' Federation, which is of long standing, is the chief coordinating authority for all activities of employers in connection with negotiations under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act. It is composed of 11 district employers' associations together with a number of other affiliated employers' organisations of national scope. Through the New Zealand Employers' Federation there is close integration of the various employer organisations operating under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

POWERS OF A UNION — The powers of a union are limited to those authorised by statute, and the manner in which such powers may be exercised, where not specifically mentioned in the statute, must be set out in the rules. It cannot use its funds for any purpose foreign to the purposes for which it is established, not can it commence any project nor use its funds in any manner not contemplated by the Act under which it is registered. Under the Political Disabilities Removal Act 1960, a union may apply its funds in furtherance of political objects if a resolution is passed on a ballot of the members taken in accordance with its rules. A resolution shall be deemed to have been passed in a ballot of the members if a majority of the total valid votes recorded at the ballot is in favour. The Act provides that, where any levy to be applied in the furtherance of political objects becomes lawfully payable, a member shall be exempt from payment of the levy by giving notice of objection in writing.

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act requires certain provisions to be included in the rules of industrial unions, especially that elections of officials are to be made by secret ballot of financial members or by such other democratic method as may be approved by the Registrar of Industrial Unions. The Registrar may refuse any unreasonable or oppressive rule, subject to a right of appeal by the union to the Court of Arbitration. He may also, on application by at least 10 financial members, refer to the Court for inquiry a disputed election of union officials. Secret ballots are required to validate subscriptions in excess of 2s. weekly and levies on union members. Penalties are prescribed in the case of a strike or lockout, and these are heavier where an affirmative decision on the issue has not been made by a pre-strike or pre-lockout secret ballot of members concerned.

Provision is made under section 79 of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954 for the furnishing of an annual return showing the number and membership as at 31 December of unions registered under the Act. It is from this return (see parliamentary paper H. 11) that the tables in this section have been compiled.

STATISTICS: Unions of Employers — The numbers and membership of industrial unions of employers registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act as at the end of each of the years 1956–60 are shown in the following table according to industrial groups. In the few cases where current membership figures are not known the latest known figures are included. Some employers belong to two or more unions.

Industrial Group19561957195819591960
UnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembers
* Revised.
Provision of —          
    Food and drink594,698594,689604,731594,738594,752
    Clothing, footwear, and textiles113,462*113,443113,459113,444113,279
    Building and construction504,043514,095514,057504,122504,167
    Power, heat, and light1170911635116461164111632
    Transport by water and air1411114105141111411014114
    Transport by land1144311421115121147511499
    Accommodation, meals, and personal service322,225332,350332,488332,617332,827
Working in or on —          
    Wood, wicker, sea-grass, etc.95759540952795189508
    Metal1388212812128291285212896
    Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals86998698870087038696
    Paper, printing, etc.1840418430184211843418441
    Skins, leather, etc.627626626625524
    The land (farming pursuits)102,628102,628103,180103,299103,289
Miscellaneous84688467746574658495
Totals26021,37426121,33926122,15225922,44325922,619

Unions of Workers — The following table shows membership only of industrial unions of workers as at the end of each year from 1900 to 1961. The outstanding feature is the large increase consequent upon the 1936 Amendment to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, which made union membership compulsory whenever an award or industrial agreement existed; on the other hand the effect of both world wars, of the economic depression of the 1930s, and of the waterfront strike of 1951 are clearly discernible.

YearNumber of Members
* 1950 figure now includes the membership of five subsequently deregistered unions totalling 8,554 members.
190017,989
190123,768
190223,816
190327,640
190430,271
190529,869
190634,978
190745,614
190849,347
190954,519
191057,091
191155,629
191260,622
191371,544
191473,991
191567,661
191671,587
191772,873
191871,447
191982,553
192096,350
192197,719
192296,838
192394,438
192496,822
1925100,540
192699,567
1927101,071
1928103,980
1929102,646
1930101,526
193190,526
193279,283
193371,888
193474,391
193580,929
1936185,527
1937232,986
1938249,231
1939254,690
1940248,081
1941231,049
1942218,398
1943214,628
1944223,027
1945229,103
1946247,498
1947260,379
1948271,100
1949275,977
1950275,779*
1951272,957
1952283,496
1953290,149
1954299,254
1955304,520
1956308,031
1957317,137
1958324,438
1959327,495
1960332,362
1961324,747

The same information is now depicted graphically at yearly intervals from 1900 in the diagram below.

The next table shows both numbers of workers' unions and their membership as at the end of each of the five years 1956 to 1960 according to industrial groups. In the few cases where current membership figures are not known, the latest known figures are included.

Industrial Group19561957195819591960
UnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembers
Provision of —          
    Food and drink7734,1957734,1587435,5177035,6107036,993
    Clothing, footwear, and textiles1720,6391820,5691721,8791722,8081721,809
    Building and construction3930,9513731,1773731,3093631,5053431,230
    Power, heat, and light57085727573557355719
    Transport by water and air4713,4204713,8154713,6154713,4634813,233
    Transport by land2134,3952137,1352138,2672138,0422137,209
    Accommodation, meals, and personal service2625,1282626,3462627,0162627,9782528,987
Working in or on —          
    Wood, wicker, sea-grass, etc.1713,7231713,6701713,6671713,8731714,847
    Metal2534,2962536,0112536,2912435,6132438,754
    Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals203,132213,090203,242213,874224,105
    Paper, printing, etc.36,22036,30836,51136,94437,151
    Skin, leather, etc.71,26971,24871,32171,40371,285
    Mines and quarries161,578161,543151,733141,605141,627
    The land (farming pursuits)417,252417,315416,266416,468416,812
Miscellaneous8971,1258774,0258777,0698777,5748777,601
Totals413308,031411317,137405324,438399327,495398332,362

In the following table industrial unions of workers are classified according to membership. Unions for which no membership figures were available have been classified according to the latest known figures.

YearUnder 100100 and Under 200200 and Under 300300 and Under 500500 and Under 1,0001,000 and Under 2,0002,000 and Under 3,0003,000 and Under 5,0005,000 and Under 10,00010,000 and OverTotal
* Revised.
Number of Unions
190114230195411202
19111825326231481307
19212397036282811321418
1931239583130291431405
19411847038383227131052419
19511656944383928111173415
19561556445394429131293413
19571546643374628121393411
195815068383448261414103405
195915158403749221513104399
196015157393947241412114398
Membership
19015,7774,0324,8152,0732,5201,6512,90023,768
19117,5217,6866,3608,8799,6859,4146,08455,629
192111,2229,7089,18211,06618,52714,5807,4336,5069,49597,719
19319,9697,9667,57811,24420,60218,5666,7447,85790,526
19417,9099,7689,20715,06022,84135,41731,01241,19128,98729,657231,049
19517,87510,22510,39414,67127,27439,65827,36443,21840,27852,000272,957
19566,9478,80210,55415,16431,35440,01931,16747,02362,10154,900308,031
19576,6939,14210,40313,40134,91039,74430,17952,34863,03557,282317,137
19586,6779,7009,21312,81535,39635,80534,19355,98467,95456,701324,438
19596,684*8,291*9,52613,87936,14630,46934,97752,58365,30969,631327,495
19606,8287,8929,29614,76933,78633,64132,85648,91871,01173,365332,362
Percentage of Total Membership
190124.317.020.38.710.66.912.2100.0
191113.513.811.416.017.416.911.0100.0
192111.59.99.411.319.014.97.66.79.71000
19311118.88.412.422.820.57.48.6100.0
19413.54.24.06.59.915.313.417.812.612.8100.0
19512.93.73.85.410.014.510.013.814.819.1100.0
19562.22.93.44.910.213.010.115.320.217.8100.0
'9572.12.93.34.211.012.59.516.519.918.1100.0
19582.13.02.84.010.911.010.517.320.917.5100.0
19592.12.52.94.211.09.310.716.119.921.3100.0
19602.12.42.84.410.210.19.914.721.322.1100.0

There has been a more or less steady growth in the average size of workers' unions, the trend being to a certain extent obscured at times by the cancellation of registration by some large unions. An average membership of 118 in 1901 increased in 1921 to 234, in 1941 to 551, and in 1956 to 746. The average membership of the 398 workers' unions registered in 1960 was 835.

INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS — Associations of two or more unions in different districts in the same industry can be registered as an industrial association. At 31 December 1960 there were 18 industrial associations of employers and 41 of workers, the former having 131 affiliated unions and the latter 216. The following summary shows the number of industrial associations of employers and workers in each industrial group, with the number of affiliated unions in each case. In most cases the associations cover the entire country.

Industrial GroupEmployersWorkers
AssociationsAffiliated UnionsAssociationsAffiliated Unions
19591960195919601959196019591960
Provision of —        
    Food, drink, etc.553637552321
    Clothing, footwear, and textiles331111
    Building and construction334038332623
    Power, heat, and light1122
    Transport by water1 1010553133
    Transport by land1 44111212
    Accommodation, meals, and personal service222120331818
Working in or on —        
    Wood, wicker, seagrass, etc.1 442277
    Metal33109
    Stone, clay, glass, chemicals, etc.1 3333911
    Paper, printing, etc.221011
    Skins, leather, etc.1 321143
    Mines and quarries2244
    The land (farming pursuits)1 221133
Miscellaneous885959
Totals18181331314141219216

PROPORTION OF UNIONISTS — The following table, showing the proportion of workers belonging to unions registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act to the total number of wage earners in the country, is of interest as manifesting the movement in and the extent of unionism during the period under review. The figures for total wage earners are derived from census enumerations and include professional, business, and other classes in which unionism prior to the passing of the amending Act of 1936 did not exist, and agricultural and pastoral occupations where it was practically non-existent. In addition, females are included in both sets of figures, although the proportion of women unionised prior to 1936 was negligible.

Census YearTotal Wage EarnersEnd of Year Nearest to Census DateNumbers of Workers on Rolls of Registered UnionsPercentage of Wage Earners on Rolls of Registered Unions
* 1950 figure now includes the membership of five subsequently deregistered unions, totalling 8,554 members.
1901 (March)224,346190017,9898
1906 (April)269,039190529,86911
1911 (April)304,272191057,09119
1916 (October)302,161191671,58724
1921 (April)370,692192096,35026
1926 (April)414,6731925100,54024
1936 (March)496,563193580,92916
1945 (September)473,6841945229,10348
1951 (April)577,6941950275,779*48
1956 (April)653,3581955304,52047
1961 (April) 1960332,362 

Chapter 36. Section 36 INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES

Table of Contents

GENERAL — New Zealand's first legislation in industrial relations was the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act of 1894. This Act was almost revolutionary in its conception and aroused world-wide interest in its provisions for the compulsory reference of industrial disputes to arbitration. The Act was designed to promote the formation and registration of both employers' and workers' unions and provide regulation of conditions of employment by industrial agreements. It aimed at prevention of industrial disturbances by providing that disputes be referred to Boards of Conciliation. In the event of disagreement, either party could request that the dispute be referred to the Court of Arbitration. Findings of the Court were to be recorded in an award enforceable at law. It is of interest to note that the system has survived, despite the crises of depression and war, and has remained one against which, over a period of more than 60 years, no serious criticism on grounds of efficiency has been voiced.

INDUSTRIAL CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION ACT — The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954 is the present statute governing most industrial disputes. The Act applies only where the workers in any industry have registered as an industrial union. Thereupon the union and the employers in the industry and locality may enter into an industrial agreement fixing the minimum wages and other conditions of employment. In lieu of such agreement either side may bring a dispute before a Council of Conciliation with subsequent recourse to the Court of Arbitration for an award. Both industrial agreements and awards are enforceable in the Courts by parties thereto or by officers of the Department of Labour. The Registrar of Industrial Unions is responsible for registration of industrial unions, recording of rules, and other administrative functions. Inspectors of Factories are charged with the duty of seeing that the provisions of awards and agreements are carried out.

The term “dispute” is used in its widest sense and is intended to refer to the whole field of wage fixation and conditions of employment, as well as to the settlement of strikes and lockouts. New Zealand's approach to this problem is different from that adopted in most other countries in that it has preferred to follow a system of conciliation and compulsory arbitration, rather than to adopt the more normal system of collective bargaining with the unrestricted right to “strike” or “lockout”. It is, however, incorrect to say that unions in New Zealand must submit to compulsory arbitration. It is entirely in their own hands to decide whether they wish to follow that method or to remain outside the scope of the Act, and to settle their disputes by collective bargaining under the procedure laid down in the Labour Disputes Investigation Act 1913.

The principle which has been written into the Act is that if unions elect to register under the Act they forfeit the right to strike and elect to have their differences settled by conciliation and arbitration. Most unions have seen fit to register under the Act and thereby have forfeited their right to strike.

Council of Conciliation — All industrial disputes must be referred to a Council of Conciliation before reference to the Court of Arbitration. The Conciliation Council consists of a Conciliation Commissioner, who is chairman, and not more than four assessors from each side. In the case of a dispute extending over two or more industrial districts, up to seven assessors from each side may be appointed. The proceedings are quite informal. It is the duty of the council to endeavour to bring about a settlement of the dispute between the parties. (The Conciliation Commissioner has no vote.)

If a settlement of a dispute is brought about by the council, the terms of settlement are reduced to writing and, when signed, the document operates as if it were an industrial agreement signed by all the parties to the dispute; but any party to the dispute may apply to the Court of Arbitration for exemption. In most cases the parties prefer an award and it is usual for the parties to apply to the Court to have the terms of settlement embodied in an award. This may be done by the Court without a hearing. If the council cannot bring about a settlement the dispute is automatically referred to the Court for settlement.

An industrial union (or association of unions) of workers registered under the Act may cite a union or association of unions of employers, or an employer, or a number of employers, before a Council of Conciliation for the hearing of an industrial dispute before a Commissioner and assessors appointed from either side.

An industrial union (or association of unions) of employers registered under the Act, or an individual employer, or employers, may cite a union of workers in a similar manner. The workers may compel any of their employers to come under the Act, but the employers cannot compel their workers to come under it unless the latter have registered as an industrial union or association thereunder; registration is voluntary.

If a settlement of a dispute is arrived at by the parties in the course of an inquiry held before a Council of Conciliation, the terms of the settlement are set forth as an industrial agreement. Applications for exemption from the terms of the agreement must be made within one month after it has been filed. The Court is empowered to grant or to refuse such applications. Where an agreement applies to the employers employing the majority of workers in the industry to which it relates, the agreement may be made binding on all employers, whether parties or not.

Every such agreement must be executed on behalf of the parties by the assessors representing the parties. If settlement cannot be arrived at before the Conciliation Council the matter is referred to the Court. The Council may at the same time submit a recommendation for the settlement of the dispute; whereupon the parties are notified of such recommendation, and, if acceptable to them, the recommendation is made an industrial agreement; failing agreement the matter is referred to the Court.

Court of Arbitration — If a dispute comes before the Court, argument is heard upon the matters in debate, and the Court then makes its award, which becomes binding upon the employers specified in the award, upon any employers commencing business in the district subsequent to the date of the award, and upon all persons working for such employers. In all cases where an industrial agreement or accepted recommendation or award is filed, it becomes binding on all the parties. When an award or industrial agreement has been filed, a strike or lockout becomes unlawful. Unless the parties otherwise agree, rates of wages specified in an award shall have effect from two months after the date first appointed for the hearing by the Conciliation Council, or where two or more districts are affected, four months after this date, or as from the date of the making of the award, whichever is the earlier, or as from such other date as the Court in its discretion thinks fit after taking into consideration all relevant matters.

No industrial dispute shall be referred for settlement to a Council of Conciliation by an industrial union (or association of unions) unless the proposed reference has been approved by resolution by the committee of management of the union or of each of the unions concerned, as the case may be.

The Minister of Labour is empowered, if he is satisfied that any discontinuance of employment brought about wholly or partly by any industrial union of employers or of workers has caused, or is likely to cause, serious loss or inconvenience, to cancel the registration of the union concerned or to cancel any award or industrial agreement so far as this relates to it.

Disputes Committees — Any award or industrial agreement may include provisions to the effect that any party to a dispute on a matter arising out of the award or agreement but not specifically dealt with therein may require the appointment of a local disputes committee, which will have power to decide the dispute or to refer it to a Conciliation Commissioner. The latter in his discretion can refer the dispute either to a national disputes committee, which may be appointed where any award relates to two or more industrial districts or parts thereof, or to the Court of Arbitration. Appeals against the decisions of the disputes committees may be made to the Court of Arbitration.

Hospital Board Employees — Where a majority of the workers affected by any industrial dispute under the principal Act are hospital board employees, the Director-General of Health is to be a party to the dispute and is to recommend assessors for the employers in the conciliation proceedings. Other sections provide that an award is not to be made affecting hospital employees now affected by regulations unless a majority votes in favour of an award, and for the concurrence of the Minister of Health with industrial agreements in similar circumstances.

Definition of a Strike — A strike means the act of any number of workers who are or have been in the employment of the same or of different employers:

  1. In discontinuing that employment, whether wholly or partially; or

  2. In breaking their contracts of service; or

  3. In refusing or failing after any such discontinuance to resume or return to their employment; or

  4. In refusing or failing to accept engagement for any work in which they are usually employed; or

  5. In reducing their normal output or their normal rate of work — the act being due to any combination, agreement, common understanding, or concerted action, whether express or implied, made or entered into by any workers;

  6. With intent to compel or induce any such employer to agree to terms of employment or comply with any demands made by the said or any other workers; or

  7. With intent to cause loss or inconvenience to any such employer in the conduct of his business; or

  8. With intent to incite, aid, abet, instigate, or procure any other strike; or

  9. With intent to assist workers in the employment of any other employer to compel or induce that employer to agree to terms of employment or comply with any demands upon him by any workers.

An industrial dispute is a strike if it comes within the definition of a strike which is quoted above. It is in addition an unlawful strike if either:

  1. The union or the workers taking part in it are for the time being bound by an award or industrial agreement under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954, or by a duly filed agreement under the Labour Disputes Investigation Act 1913, or by any principal order under the Waterfront Industry Act 1953; or

  2. In the case of a dispute relating to conditions of employment between a society of workers to which the Labour Disputes Investigation Act 1913 applies, but who are not bound by any duly filed agreement under the Act, they have failed to give notice of the dispute to the Minister of Labour as required by section 4 of that Act, or if the strike occurs before the expiration of seven days after the publication of the result of a secret ballot of the workers directly concerned taken in pursuance of the Act.

Further, a strike which would not be unlawful for any of these reasons may be or become unlawful by the operation of regulations to that effect made under the Public Safety Conservation Act 1932, during a state of emergency declared by proclamation of the Governor-General in accordance with the provisions of that Act.

Definition of a Lockout — A lockout means the act of an employer:

  1. In closing his place of business, or suspending or discontinuing his business in any branch thereof; or

  2. In discontinuing the employment of any workers, whether wholly or partially; or

  3. In breaking his contracts of service; or

  4. In refusing or failing to engage workers for any work for which he usually employs workers — with intent;

  5. To compel or induce any workers to agree to terms of employment or comply with any demands made upon them by the said or any other employer; or

  6. To cause loss or inconvenience to the workers employed by him or to any of them; or

  7. To incite, aid, abet, instigate, or procure any other lockout; or

  8. To assist any other employer to compel or induce any workers to agree to terms of employment or comply with any demands made by him.

Penalties — Maximum penalties and fines for being a party to or inciting, instigating, or aiding an unlawful strike or lockout are also provided for — namely, (a) for a worker, £50 or (in the case of certain essential industries) £75; (b) for a union official, £250 or £350; (c) for a union or association or employer, £500 or £750. The maximum penalty for impeding or interfering with a secret ballot on the question of a strike or lockout is imprisonment for 12 months or a fine of £100, or both.

The law relating to the taking of secret ballots by members of industrial unions of workers or of employers on questions relating to strikes and lockouts has been supplemented by making the union liable as having instigated any strike or lockout that takes place without a secret ballot having first been taken. The penalty in such a case is a fine not exceeding £100 for every member of the union taking part in a strike, and for every official of the union a fine of £500 unless he proves that he had no means of knowing the imminence of the strike or that he took every step possible to ensure compliance with the provision and to prevent the strike. Corresponding maximum penalties in respect of a lockout are £1,000 for a member of the union and £500 for an official.

Section 196 of the Act provides special penalties in certain circumstances for strikes in specified essential industries.

LABOUR DISPUTES INVESTIGATION ACT — Machinery for dealing with all disputes to which the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act does not relate is contained in the Labour Disputes Investigation Act 1913.

Under this Act, if a dispute concerning wages or other conditions of employment arises between a society (or societies) of workers, whether registered or not, that is not bound by any award or industrial agreement and its employers, the society must, before it may strike, give to the Minister of Labour formal notice of the dispute, setting forth the names of the parties to the dispute and the claims made by the society. The Minister then refers the dispute to a Conciliation Commissioner to call a conference, or to a labour disputes committee for investigation and recommendation. Such a committee consists of from one to three members chosen from each side, with an independent chairman. In the event of no settlement being arrived at, a secret ballot is taken by the Registrar of Industrial Unions among the members of the society as to whether, in the case of no recommendation having been made, a strike should eventuate; or, in the case of a recommendation having been made, as to whether the recommendation should be adopted. Seven days' notice must be given to the employers should a strike be decided upon.

Similar provisions apply with reference to the filing of a dispute and to a lockout by the employers.

In the event of an agreement being arrived at, it may be filed with the Clerk of Awards. It is then enforceable in the same manner as an industrial agreement under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

By this Act the principle of settlement of industrial disputes by conciliation and arbitration is extended to workers outside the scope of the Court of Arbitration, so that definite restrictions on the right to strike or to lockout exist over the whole field of industry in New Zealand. The powers under this Act are not, of course, as far reaching as those under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, its main object being that workers or employers should take time for consideration of the points at issue and not precipitate themselves into industrial strife.

As most types of employment are covered by awards or industrial agreements under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, only a few agreements are filed each year under the Labour Disputes Investigation Act. There were 22 such agreements in force at 31 March 1961.

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS ACT 1949 — This measure contains a section enabling a Conciliation Commissioner or a person nominated by the Minister to call a compulsory conference of parties where there is reason to believe that a matter not provided for in the award or industrial agreement governing the industry is causing or is likely to cause industrial unrest.

STATISTICS OF INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES — In the tabulations which follow only those disputes are included which resulted in a strike or lockout, or where organised “go slow” or other passive-resistance methods were clearly manifested. Many disputes are, of course, settled without recourse to such measures; these are not recorded for statistical purposes. To avoid confusion with the term “dispute” as used in the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, these statistics have been called “industrial stoppages”.

The compilation of statistics regarding industrial stoppages was first undertaken by the Department of Statistics at the beginning of the year 1920. Returns furnished by Inspectors of Factories from inquiries made in each district form the main source from which information is obtained. It is considered that the statistics based on these reports are less liable to bias than would be the case if parties to the stoppage or other private persons were relied on to furnish the information. It is the duty of an inspector, during the course of a stoppage in his industrial district, to collect all available particulars relating to it. The inspectors have power to make the necessary inquiries, and thus are able to obtain complete information.

It occasionally happens that there are strikes in different centres with the same or similar objects, and occurring at or about the same time; in such cases the several disturbances are treated as one if the available evidence is sufficient to justify such a course, and the duration is taken as the maximum donation in any centre. While the stoppage itself may be tabulated under a single industrial district, the actual number of workers involved may be distributed over more than one of the districts.

In the tables following no distinction is drawn between strikes which were lawful and those which were unlawful. Detailed figures for the period 1921–61 are as follows:

YearTotal Industrial Stoppages*Firms AffectedTotal Duration (Days)Average Duration (Days)Workers InvolvedWorking Days LostAverage Days Lost per Worker InvolvedEstimated Loss in Wages

* The number of lockouts included in total industrial stoppages were: 1925, 2; 1928, 2; 1929, 1; 1931, 1; 1940, 1; and 1944, 1.

Includes workers indirectly involved.

        £
1921771127699.9910,433119,20811.4390,477
1922586785114.686,41493,45614.5760,782
1923497960312.317,162201,81228.18114,074
192434581343.9414,81589,1056.0162,732
192583935987.209,90574,5527.5349,149
192659673145.326,26447,8117.6332,355
19273840832.184,47612,4852.7911,819
192839562536.499,25821,9972.3822,304
192947603427.287,15125,8893.6226,940
1930384439210.325,46731,6695.7937,299
1931243726210.926,35648,4867.6344,544
1932236731313.619,355108,60511.61105,715
1933154320513.673,55865,09918.3059,334
193424371205.003,77310,3932.757,121
19351265887.332,32318,5637.9915,266
1936431282215.147,35416,9802.3112,886
193752723206.1511,41129,9162.6232,129
1938721032873.9911,38835,4563.1142,104
1939666364166.3015,68253,8013.4360,394
194057994357.6310,47528,0972.6828,062
194189972332.6215,26126,2371.7234,552
194265781432.2014,34551,1893.5763,179
1943691141221.7710,91514,6871.3520,179
19441492692811.8929,76652,6021.7774,012
19451541,2553792.4639,41866,6291.6992,546
1946961222592.7015,69630,3931.9440,112
19471342348346.2226,970102,7253.81187,669
19481018856086.0228,49493,4643.28195,985
19491231,3156725.4661,536218,1723.55390,773
19501291,1895674.4091,492271,4752.97514,236
19511093543,46431.7836,8781,157,39031.383,111,307
1952501771082.1616,29728,1231.7369,371
1953738801451.9922,17519,2910.8748,433
1954614471362.2316,15320,4741.2766,366
1955651142113.2520,22452,0432.57185,287
1956504263907.8013,57923,8701.7684,206
195751881653.2415,54528,1861.8183,023
195849831523.1013,70918,7881.3764,232
1959731192293.1418,76229,6511.58107,461
196060813445.7314,30535,6832.49116,412
196171893534.9616,62638,1852.30149,335

The following table shows figures of incidence rates of stoppages for the period 1947–61.

YearNumber of Wage and Salary Earners*Workers Involved as Percentage of Wage and Salary EarnersWorking Days Lost per 1,000 of Wage and Salary Earners
* October estimates.
 (000)  
1947545.54.94188.31
1948556.35.12168.01
1949568.110.83384.04
1950574.915.91472.21
1951583.06.331,985.23
1952591.42.7647.55
1953608.73.6431.69
1954623.72.5932.83
1955639.33.1681.41
1956652.52.0836.58
1957668.22.3342.18
1958688.11.9927.30
1959693.82.7042.74
1960714.02.0049.98
1961733.82.2752.04

The figures for stoppages include details of stop-work meetings unless, as on the waterfront, provision is made for these in the relevant award or agreement. In all cases unauthorised stop-work meetings are included, also unauthorised delays in resuming work after recognised stop-work meetings. A single stoppage may include or may consist of one stop-work meeting or several stop-work meetings; if several such meetings are included, these may be held at different times or different places, provided all relate to the same issue. This class of stoppage has assumed considerable importance recently, the number of such cases in the five years 1957–61 being 29 (36 stop-work meetings) involving 11,862 workers, and the loss of 11,894 working days and of £51,301 in wages.

In the table shown later recording methods of settlement, all such interruptions of labour, including periods of deliberate absence from work by way of a protest against an alleged injustice, are classified under the heading “voluntary return to work”. In 1957 these cases comprised 18 out of 51 stoppages; in 1958, 19 out of 49; in 1959,29 out of 73; in 1960, 21 out of 60; and in 1961, 7 out of 71.

In calculating the number of working days lost it is assumed that work would have been continuous if no stoppage had taken place. No allowance is made for loss of work from unemployment or other causes which might have occurred even if there had been no stoppage, nor is the possibility taken into account of strikers being replaced with non-union labour. In some cases, such as shearing, there is a definite amount of work to be done, and a stoppage of work does not decrease the total amount of it, but only postpones its completion. In those cases the figures are perhaps more or less fictitious, but in the great majority of cases they represent a real loss.

The year 1951 was marked by a prolonged waterfront strike, lasting from 9 February to 17 July, and constituting the most serious industrial disturbance which has ever occurred in New Zealand. During its course other essential industries, notably coal mining, shipping, and meat freezing, became involved. Since 1951 there has been comparative peace in industry; this is emphasised by the low incidence rates in these years compared with the rates recorded annually over the period 1947 to 1951 (inclusive).

The only serious dispute which occurred during 1952 was a disagreement as to wages between tradesmen in freezing works and their employers. Of the total of 28,123 days lost through all stoppages in that year, 13,933 days, or almost 50 per cent, were on account of this single strike. The year 1953 was marked by frequent minor stoppages of which, however, no single disturbance merits special mention. Time lost during 1954 included 6,300 working days in respect of a strike at the Roxburgh hydro-electric construction works, which was the only disturbance of any gravity during that year. Two stoppages accounted for over 50 per cent of the working days lost in 1955; a strike at the Roxburgh hydro-electric construction works involved the loss of 17,178 working days, and a stoppage over employment conditions in the building and construction industry resulted in the loss of 9,179 days. In 1956 two industrial groups — meat industry, and building and construction — accounted for about two-thirds of the number of working days lost and estimated loss in wages. During 1957 the majority of the time lost was in the building and construction, meat-freezing, and coal-mining industries, a number of comparatively minor stoppages having occurred in each of these fields. In 1958 the building and construction industry accounted for almost 45 per cent of the working days lost, the majority of the remaining time lost being due to strikes in the meat-freezing, coal-mining, and waterfront industries. During 1959 the meat-freezing industry was responsible for more than 43 per cent of the working days lost; the coal-mining, building and construction, and paper and pulp industries accounted for the major part of the remaining time lost. Of the working days lost in 1960 the meat freezing industry accounted for 18,924, or more than half, the second in order being the pulp and paper industry with 6,363 working days lost, or almost one-fifth of the total. The balance of the working time lost was shared fairly equally by the other industrial groups.

In 1961 the freezing industry was again the major industry responsible for working days lost. It accounted for 20,738 days, or more than half, while the building industry was responsible for 7,407, or nearly a fifth, of the total working days lost.

Nature and Duration — The next table shows the nature of the stoppages and the number of workers involved during the years 1950–61.

YearNature of StoppageNumber of Workers Involved
Direct StrikeSympathetic StrikePartial Strike*TotalDirect StrikeSympathetic StrikePartial Strike*Total
* i.e., where no actual cessation of work, but a “go slow” or other policy of protest adopted.
195012912991,49291,492
19515848310922,42713,87857336,878
1952505016,29716,297
1953737322,17522,175
1954616116,15316,153
195562216520,0441235720,224
1956505013,57913,579
1957515115,54515,545
1958494913,70913,709
19597127316,1762,58618,762
19605646013,92338214,305
19616657113,1123,51416,626

The table following illustrates the duration of stoppages during 1961.

DurationNumber of StoppagesNumber of Firms AffectedNumber of Workers InvolvedNumber of Working Days LostEstimated Loss in Wages
     £
1 day and less21314,0892,69412,644
Over 1 day but not over 2 days12133,3544,77818,106
Over 2 days but not over 3 days551,4703,33314,287
Over 3 days but less than 1 week13171,9995,77323,386
1 week but less than 2 weeks15184,82813,33944,707
2 weeks but less than 4 weeks448237,67134,193
4 weeks but less than 8 weeks11635972,012
8 weeks and over
Totals718916,62638,185149,335

Geographical Distribution — The following table shows the number of stoppages in each industrial district for the years 1957–61 and also the number of workers involved. In 1961 the Northern District had the greatest number of stoppages and the Otago and Southland District the greatest number of workers involved; the meat freezing industry accounted for nearly all the workers involved in the latter district.

YearNorthernTaranakiWellingtonMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtago and SouthlandTotal
Number of Stoppages
195733552651
1958268282349
195931181514473
19602671231260
19612626210141171
Number of Workers Involved
195710,3197263,15061673415,545
195810,1336136311,17583532213,709
19595,6915291,6133,4266,93856518,762
19603,2122,3293,6404624,66214,305
19613,415173605472,8363,2756,27516,626

A stoppage extending into more than one industrial district is allocated to that district which includes the greatest number of the workers involved. The actual (or occasionally estimated) numbers of workers in the several districts are, however, correctly distributed.

Industrial Distribution — In the following table industrial stoppages are classified according to the industrial groups in which they took place, this grouping being similar to that used in the compilation of wage and industrial-union statistics.

Industrial Group19571958195919601961Totals 1957–61
Number of Stoppages
Provision of —      
    Food, drink, etc.1415292431113
    Clothing, footwear, and textiles11
    Building and construction22181451776
    Power, heat, and light112
    Transport by water and air4355320
    Transport by land123
    Accommodation, meals, and personal service11
Working in or on —      
    Wood, etc.11
    Metal143311
    Stone, clay, glass, chemicals, etc.14611
    Paper, printing, etc.223512
    Skins, leather, etc.
    Mines and quarries —      
    Coal mines51015111051
Miscellaneous22
    Totals5149736071304
Number of Workers Involved
Provision of —      
    Food, drink, etc.2,1222,9848,8976,41811,16731,588
    Clothing, footwear, and textiles299299
    Building and construction4,2384,2501,1692151,10210,974
    Power, heat, and light4063103
    Transport by water and air4,9033,7574,0401,32656314,589
    Transport by land20889909
    Accommodation, meals, and personal service1515
Working in or on —      
    Wood, etc.1717
    Metal621656273521,206
    Stone, clay, glass, chemicals, etc.72383543998
    Paper, printing, etc.4308507091,1883,177
    Skins, leather, etc.
    Mines and quarries —      
    Coal mines3,1501,8063,4263,2442,83614,462
Miscellaneous610610
Totals15,54513,70918,76214,30516,62678,947

A more detailed analysis of stoppages occurring during 1961 is given below.

Industrial GroupNumber of StoppagesNumber of Firms AffectedNumber of Workers InvolvedNumber of Working Days LostEstimated Loss in Wages
DirectlyIndirectlyTotal
Provision of —      £
    Food, drink, etc.31348,6562,51111,16722,58283,223
    Clothing, footwear, and textiles 
    Building and construction17261,09841,1027,70730,817
    Power, heat, and light1163635972,012
    Transport by water and air375635631,1216,412
    Transport by land
    Accommodation, meals, and personal service
Working in or on —       
    Wood, etc.
    Metal333523528022,692
    Stone, clay, glass, chemicals, etc.663871565431,4255,084
    Paper, printing, etc.
    Skins, leather, etc.
    Mines and quarries —       
    Coal mines10122,8362,8363,95119,095
Miscellaneous
Totals718913,9552,67116,62638,185149,335

Causes — In the next table the causes of stoppages which occurred during the years 1957–61 are shown. Under the heading “Wages” are included stoppages concerning wages, overtime, or rates for piece work.

Stoppages concerning the employment or dismissal of certain classes of persons are included under the heading “Employment”. Stoppages on the subject of employment usually concern the dismissal of a worker on allegedly insufficient grounds.

“Other working conditions” are of diverse nature, and include such causes as the following: distribution of work in coal mines and on wharves, conveyance to and from work, atmospheric conditions in coal mines, accommodation on ships, numbers of men to be allocated to certain duties, supply of food, and the method of handling cargo.

Under the heading “Sympathy” are included all stoppages caused by workers striking not on account of a grievance arising out of their own wages or conditions, but in sympathy with the demands of other workers.

Cause19571958195919601961
Number of Stoppages
Wages1417251825
Hours12
Employment2016312328
Other working conditions12107911
Sympathy24
Other causes55847
Totals5149736071
Number of Workers Involved
Wages3,9202,8336,8754,2097,077
Hours194514
Employment5,4534,2185,5495,3494,704
Other working conditions3,6485,6222,6362,8122,619
Sympathy2,586382
Other causes2,5248421,1161,0392,226
Totals15,54513,70918,76214,30516,626

A further analysis by causes for the year 1961 is given later in this Section.

Methods of Settlement — Following is a table showing the methods of settlement of disputes causing stoppages during the years 1957–61. Negotiations supposedly under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act and the Labour Disputes Investigation Act are treated as “Intervention of third party.” “Voluntary return to work” includes such cases as “Protest” absence and stop-work meetings. Other headings are self-explanatory.

Method of Settlement19571958195919601961
Number of Stoppages
Private negotiations between parties1815271830
Intervention of third party1511172030
Voluntary return to work181929217
Other414
Totals5149736071
Number of Workers Involved
Private negotiations between parties3,7574,7224,8292,6826,407
Intervention of third party2,1152,1963,1004,2146,982
Voluntary return to work9,6735,80610,8336,3902,093
Other9851,0191,144
Totals15,54513,70918,76214,30516,626

Further information for the year 1961 is given in the next table.

Method of SettlementNumber of StoppagesNumber of Firms AffectedNumber of Workers InvolvedNumber of Working Days LostEstimated Loss in Wages
     £
Private negotiations between parties30406,4079,10834,679
Intervention of third party30376,98220,43373,481
Voluntary return to work782,0933,12016,258
Other441,1445,52424,917
Totals718916,62638,185149,335

RESULTS — In compiling the table which follows no stoppage has been included as ending in favour of either employers or workers unless the result has been beyond question. In cases where workers have made more than one demand, succeeding in one or more and failing in one or more, or where they have made one or more demands and in respect of each have been partially successful only, the result has been treated as a compromise. Where strikers have returned to work without any definite decision being arrived at regarding the demands made, or where (as in the case of a sympathetic strike) no definite demand has been made, or where a strike is merely by way of a protest, the result has been recorded as indeterminate.

Result19571958195919601961
Number of Stoppages
In favour of workers14611716
In favour of employers65101012
Compromise510171619
Indeterminate2628352724
Totals5149736071
Number of Workers Involved
In favour of workers2,4341,4978741,4973,884
In favour of employers9764761,9642,1352,550
Compromise4063,8072,5073,6042,085
Indeterminate11,7297,92913,4177,0698,107
Totals15,54513,70918,76214,30516,626
Number of Working Days Lost
In favour of workers10,1022,9618273,4479,648
In favour of employers4,0621,7283,1218,6127,470
Compromise1,1445,1098,99313,9015,058
Indeterminate12,8788,99016,7109,72316,009
Totals28,18618,78829,65135,68338,185

Of stoppages ending definitely in favour of one party or the other during the five years 1957–61 workers succeeded in 54 instances and employers in 43. In the previous five years (1952–56) workers were successful in 52 instances and employers in 29.

CAUSES AND RESULTS — In the following table the causes and results of stoppages occurring during 1961 are shown in conjunction.

ResultCause
WagesHoursEmploymentOther Working ConditionsSympathyOtherTotal
Number of Stoppages
In favour of workers364316
In favour of employers541212 
Compromise98219
Indeterminate8104224
Totals252811771 
Number of Firms Affected
In favour of workers3613325
In favour of employers541212
Compromise98219
Indeterminate11155233
Totals283321789
Number of Workers Involved
In favour of workers6416461,5171,0803,884
In favour of employers1,510338306722,550
Compromise5369925572,085
Indeterminate4,3902,7285154748,107
Totals7,0774,7042,6192,22616,626
Number of Days Lost
In favour of workers1,9405941,6545,4609,648
In favour of employers5,3841,441755707,470
Compromise1,9822,5914855,058
Indeterminate8,1266,51684352416,009
Totals17,43211,1423,0576,55438,185
Estimated Loss in Wages
 £££££££
In favour of workers7,8352,2095,94424,59740,585
In favour of employers20,8924,5672383,19528,892
Compromise7,8707,6921,49117,053
Indeterminate26,72730,4133,8891,77662,805
Totals63,32444,88111,56229,568149,335

Chapter 37. Section 37 WORKERS' COMPENSATION; INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS; OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY

37 A — WORKERS' COMPENSATION

GENERAL—The Workers' Compensation Act 1956, with regulations made under it, represents the law on workers' compensation, subject to certain other relevant legislation mentioned later in this section. “Worker” for the purposes of the Act means any person who has entered into, or works under, a contract of service or apprenticeship with an employer, whether by way of manual labour, clerical work, or otherwise, and whether remunerated by wages, salary, or otherwise. Thus all workers (manual and non-manual) are afforded the protection of the Act, irrespective of the amount of remuneration. A worker who is the husband or wife of his or her employer is not a worker for the purposes of the Act, except for the provisions enabling employers to take out voluntary insurance cover in respect of certain classes of persons as if they were workers covered by the Act.

The worker is entitled to compensation from his employer where he suffers personal injury by accident arising out of and in the course of the employment, and this is so whether or not the employment is for the purposes of any trade or business carried on by the employer and whether or not the employment is of a casual nature. Even if the worker is working under an illegal contract of service at the time of an accident arising out of and in the course of employment, he is entitled to compensation if the illegality consists in evasion of a statutory minimum age provision, or if the Judge, Magistrate, or other person dealing with the matter decides, having regard to all the circumstances, to treat the contract as valid. No compensation is payable in respect of any accident which is attributable to the serious and wilful misconduct of the worker injured, unless the injury results in death or serious or permanent disablement. No compensation is payable in respect of the death of a worker following on, or incapacity resulting from or aggravated by, unreasonable refusal to submit to medical or surgical treatment. Certain accidents are deemed to arise out of and in the course of employment, provided that in each case the accident is of a type that would entitle the worker to compensation had it happened at his work place, namely:

  1. Accidents to apprentices attending compulsory classes at technical schools.

  2. Accidents to workers acting in breach of any Act, regulations, or orders affecting their employment or acting without instructions from the employer (provided that the worker would have been entitled to compensation had there been no breach of Act, etc.).

  3. Accidents to workers travelling to or from work by transport provided by the employer primarily for conveyance of the workers, authorised by him, or arranged with the workers or their union, the employer meeting the whole or part of the cost.

  4. Accidents to workers during meal or rest times, happening on premises occupied by the employer, on premises to which the workers have by virtue of their employment the right of access, or on premises where the workers are entitled to be by authorisation of the employer.

Diseases are deemed to be personal injuries by accident if they are due to the nature of any employment in which the worker was employed during a prescribed period before the date of commencement of the incapacity. In the case of diseases due to exposure to radioactivity the prescribed period is five years, and two years in all other cases. If the worker contracts any disease in respect of which he would be entitled to a miner's benefit under the Social Security Act he is not entitled to receive any compensation under the Workers' Compensation Act while receiving such benefit. Nor can a benefit be paid for any period during which the worker is receiving compensation, and no lump-sum compensation is to be paid for any incapacity caused by such diseases.

In assessing compensation, account is not to be taken of any money accruing to the claimant under any insurance policy, nor, in the case of a partial dependant of a deceased worker, of any gain to the estate or the dependant, nor of any money payable by or to a friendly society or other organisation.

The Act generally applies only to accidents happening in New Zealand, but also applies to accidents on New Zealand ships and aircraft and to accidents to seamen or airmen employed in New Zealand ships or aircraft.

RATES OF COMPENSATION—All the maximum rates of compensation, whether for weekly payments or the various allowances, such as dependants' allowances and medical expenses, are fixed by Order in Council. The Act also adopts the method of having the various maximum total payments of compensation for death or incapacity expressed in terms of the current maximum weekly payment, so that any variation in the latter automatically varies the maxima for total payments. Compensation rates at present (by virtue of the Workers' Compensation Order 1957 and amendments) are as follows:

  1. In case of death:

    1. Where the worker leaves total dependants, a sum equal to the aggregate of the prescribed maximum weekly payments for 274 weeks (£2,740); or

    2. Where the worker leaves partial dependants only, a sum reasonable and proportionate to the injury to these dependants, but not exceeding the sum specified in (a).

    Compensation received prior to death by the injured person in respect of the accident which causes his death is deducted from the above amounts, to arrive at the amounts payable to dependants, to the extent that such prior compensation exceeds the aggregate of the prescribed maximum weekly payments for 39 weeks (£390).

  2. In the case of injury:

  1. During total incapacity, weekly payments equal to 80 per cent of the worker's weekly earnings (maximum £10 per week, minimum £2 10s.).

  2. During partial incapacity, weekly payments equal to 80 per cent of the difference between the worker's pre-accident weekly earnings and the weekly amount he is earning or able to earn in suitable employment or business after the accident.

Weekly payments are payable for a maximum of six years. They are payable for all periods of incapacity. The workers' weekly earnings are deemed to be his ordinary weekly earnings (exclusive of overtime) at the time of the accident, increased or reduced during his incapacity according to increases or decreases in ordinary rates of pay, ruling rates of pay, or minimum rates of wages. As an alternative, the worker may elect to have his weekly payments based on his average weekly earnings (exclusive of overtime) over the last 12 months or some shorter period in the employment of the same employer, increased or decreased during incapacity according to increases or decreases in the minimum wage under the Minimum Wage Act 1945. Permanently incapacitated apprentices, trainees, or workers under 21 years of age have their weekly earnings computed on adult or journeymen's rates.

In the case of certain injuries involving permanent disability (e.g., dismemberment or loss of use) compensation is assessed in accordance with a schedule to the Act, representing a percentage (varying according to the nature of the dismemberment) of an amount equal to the aggregate of maximum weekly payments of compensation for six years (£3,130). In assessing the compensation payable for such injuries, any period of total incapacity due to illness resulting from the injury is deducted from the six years.

In addition to the ordinary compensation, dependants' allowances are payable under the Workers' Compensation Act 1956. Where the death of the worker results from the injury, an allowance of £50 is payable in respect of each total dependant under 16 years of age, and a proportionate amount in respect of each partial dependant under 16. Where the worker's total incapacity results from the injury, an allowance of £1 per week is payable in respect of his wife or dependent woman in a position of parent to children under 15 years of age maintained by the worker, provided that the combined amount of weekly payments and dependants' allowances is not to exceed 90 per cent of the worker's weekly earnings. A child over 16 and under 18 years of age is treated as being under 16 if still at school or undergoing training without pay.

Various other allowances and expenses are payable in addition to the ordinary compensation. An injured worker is entitled to an allowance of £2 per week for any period during which he requires constant personal attendance and is not being maintained free of charge in a hospital. In the case of death, reasonable expenses up to £100 are payable for medical and surgical attendance and the funeral. In the case of incapacity reasonable expenses of medical and surgical attendance are payable up to a maximum:

  1. In respect of the total sum, £50 for inpatient treatment in any hospital and £50 for other treatment.

  2. In respect of each occasion of attendance other than for inpatient treatment, 17s. 6d. (with certain variations in the case of specialist services, X-ray diagnostic services, and physiotherapeutic services).

Where as a result of the injury to a worker an artificial limb or aid is necessary, the employer must pay the reasonable cost of the artificial limb or aid, and the reasonable cost of keeping it in repair for three years up to a maximum of £25. Where, as a result of accident arising out of and in the course of employment, the worker suffers damage to teeth, an artificial limb or aid, clothing, or spectacles he is wearing (in this case the injury suffered must be one for which compensation is payable), the employer must pay for the reasonable cost of repair or replacement to a maximum of £50. Where the worker needs to be removed to a doctor or hospital after the accident, the employer must pay the costs of removal. Where a worker requires medical treatment in another town or at a place more than 5 miles from his residence, the employer must pay the expenses of transport and meals or lodging up to a maximum of £50.

Weekly payments of compensation may not be discontinued or diminished except in the following cases:

  1. Where the weekly payment is in respect of total incapacity and the worker has actually returned to work.

  2. By agreement with the worker.

  3. By leave of the Compensation Court upon payment of a lump sum in lieu of weekly payments.

  4. By leave of the Compensation Court or Magistrate's Court where a doctor certifies that the worker has wholly or partially recovered or that any incapacity is not due in whole or part to the accident. The Court will not grant such leave in the case of partial recovery unless the worker is working in some suitable employment or business, or some suitable employment has been provided by his employer.

  5. By judgment or order of a Court of competent jurisdiction.

  6. After the expiration of the maximum period of six years.

  7. Where the weekly payment is in respect of total incapacity and the worker's doctor has certified he is fit to resume work and the worker has not done so. If in fact the Compensation Court is satisfied that the worker was not fit to resume work, it shall declare that the ending of payments was unlawful. The additional amount to be paid by way of penalty is in the discretion of the Court.

If the employer wrongfully terminates or diminishes weekly compensation payments, he is liable to pay double compensation to the worker.

COMPENSATION COURT—Proceedings under the Act are taken in the Compensation Court. The Court consists of a Judge, and there is provision in the Act for the appointment of a Registrar for each industrial district under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954. Procedure is determined by regulations — the Workers' Compensation Rules. No appeal lies to any other Court from any order made by the Compensation Court, nor may any such order be removed into another Court to be quashed or varied, except upon the ground of want or excess of jurisdiction. All proceedings for the recovery of compensation and the determination of any questions under the Act are, with certain exceptions, taken in the Compensation Court and not otherwise. Rights of indemnity conferred by the Act are enforceable in the Supreme Court or some other Court of competent jurisdiction, and not (except with the consent of the parties) in the Compensation Court. Where the parties agree or the amount claimed does not exceed £50, proceedings for the recovery of compensation in respect of any injury which has not caused the death of a worker may be taken in the Magistrate's Court. Medical, funeral, and surgical expenses and other allowances of a similar nature may be recovered in the Magistrate's Court equally with the Compensation Court.

Proceedings under the Act for the recovery of compensation are not maintainable unless written notice of the accident has been given to the employer as soon as practicable after its happening. Action for recovery must also be commenced within 12 months after the date of the accident or death, or date of the last payment of compensation or signing of admission of liability. The Court has power to excuse failure to give notice or to commence action within the limited time if the employer has not been prejudiced, or the failure was due to mistake, absence from New Zealand, or other reasonable cause.

Compensation is apportioned by the Compensation Court, and is to be paid to the dependants entitled, but where the dependant is an infant or of unsound mind or the Court so orders, the amount is to be held on trust subject to the directions of the Court. The Court may order that such amount be held on trust as a class fund to be applied for the benefit of the persons concerned, at the discretion of the trustee subject to directions from the Court. These provisions of the Act relating to apportionment in the case of death are applied to cases of incapacity where compensation is payable in the form of a lump sum and the injured worker is an infant or of unsound mind, or the Court orders that the whole or part of the lump sum be held on trust for the worker. In the case of an infant worker, the application of the provisions is subject to there being no settlement between the parties in writing approved by a Magistrate's Court, in which case the Magistrate may order that the compensation be paid to the infant or held on trust under the apportionment provisions of the Act.

INSURANCE—With certain exceptions it is compulsory for all employers to insure against their liability to pay compensation or damages in respect of injuries to workers. The Secretary of Labour has power to grant exemption where the employer has adequate financial resources, or is a Commonwealth shipping company indemnified by a United Kingdom mutual protecting club or is employing workers domiciled outside New Zealand and adequately protected by compensation rights and insurance enforceable in the country of their domicile or in the country where they were engaged. The National Airways Corporation, the Linen Flax Corporation, and education boards and other school authorities are not required to insure their workers. The Secretary of Labour may grant exemption to the trustees of the General Trust Fund established under the New Zealand Rules of Racing. The insurance provisions of the Act do not apply with respect to overseas workers temporarily employed in New Zealand by overseas employers for a period of six months or less.

Insurance is effected by the delivery of wages statements by employers to authorised insurers (insurance companies who have notified the Secretary of Labour that they have made the necessary deposit under the Insurance Companies' Deposits Act 1953). Maximum rates of premiums for the different categories of workers are fixed by the Employers' Liability Insurance Regulations. The employer is required to give prompt notification of details of accidents causing death or personal injury to workers, to his insurer, and to an Inspector of Factories.

WORKERS' COMPENSATION BOARD—The Workers' Compensation Board consists of the General Manager of the State Fire Insurance Office and one other Government representative, two representatives of the Council of Fire and Accident Underwriters' Associations of New Zealand, one employers' representative, and one workers' representative. Its functions include recommending the maximum rates of premiums and rates of commission for insurance agents, administering the Workers' Compensation Account used in carrying out the Board's functions, undertaking and assisting accident prevention, research into causes, incidence, and prevention of accidents, and the care and assistance of injured workers. Penal rates up to 100 per cent in excess of the prescribed maximum rates may be imposed by the Board in cases where the risks to workers are unusually great. To finance the activities of the Board, levies are collected from authorised insurers and exempted employers. The Board also acts as the insurer of employers who have neglected to insure their workers with an authorised insurer, so that workers are protected in all cases. The Board may collect from delinquent employers moneys it pays out as insurer.

MISCELLANEOUS—Various offences are recognised under the legislation. They include refusing or failing to give or deliver any statement or information as required by the Act, or reasonably required by the insurer or the Board, wilfully or negligently making any false return or giving any false or misleading information concerning liability to any premiums or in relation to any claim, and making any false or otherwise misleading statements to obtain benefits or avoid obligations under the Act. In the case of intentional evasion of liability to pay premiums there is the additional liability to a penal charge up to treble the deficient premium.

Damages received in respect of an accident may be set off against compensation recoverable in respect of the same accident, or vice versa. Where judgment has been recovered for compensation, no damages are thereafter recoverable unless the Court is satisfied that the judgment has not been satisfied though all reasonable steps have been taken to obtain satisfaction. The same rule applies with respect to compensation, where judgment has been recovered for damages.

Where the injury for which compensation is payable was caused under circumstances creating a legal liability in some person other than the employer to pay damages in respect thereof, the person by whom the compensation is paid or payable is entitled to indemnification by the person so liable.

OTHER LEGISLATION—Certain other statutes are relevant to the question of workers' compensation. By the Law Reform Act 1936, all causes of action (with certain exceptions) subsisting against or vested in a person who dies survive against or for the benefit of his estate. The Workers' Compensation Act makes it clear that this applies to rights to recover compensation. The Law Reform Act also provides that the amount of compensation or damages payable to a worker shall be a charge on the insurance moneys payable in respect of liability to compensation or damages, so that the injured worker is protected in the event of an employer becoming bankrupt or, in the case of a corporation, being wound up. This Act also provides for contribution between joint tort-feasors. It completely abolished all remnants of the common law defence of common employment, whereby an injured worker could not recover damages from his employer where the injury was caused by the negligence of a fellow worker. The defence had been previously abrogated in the Workers' Compensation Act 1922, but subject to the condition that the injured worker could not recover more than £1,000 damages. The Contributory Negligence Act 1947 removed the common law disability on a plaintiff, guilty of contributory negligence, to sue for damages, and provided that in such case the damages recoverable should be reduced to such extent as the Court thought just, having regard to the plaintiff's share in the responsibility for the damage. Section 23 of the Tuberculosis Act 1948 creates a presumption in favour of a person who contracts tuberculosis while employed on nursing duties or the like, that the disease was contracted whilst so employed. By the Deaths by Accidents Compensation Act 1952, when the death of any person is caused by another's negligence the executor or administrator of the deceased person's estate, or certain relatives, have the right, which did not exist at common law, to bring an action for damages. Section 16 of the Finance Act (No. 2) 1952, amending section 29 of the Social Security Act 1938, provides that in any proceedings under the Deaths by Accidents Compensation Act or the Workers' Compensation Act for damages or compensation in respect of the death of any person, no account is to be taken in assessing the damages or compensation payable by or to any person of any family benefit under the Social Security Act. By provisions of the Companies Act 1955 and the Bankruptcy Amendment Act 1956 workers compensation is given equal priority with wages in bankruptcy and the winding up of a company.

37 B — INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS

GENERAL — Since the collection of statistics of industrial accidents commenced in New Zealand in 1924, following decisions of an international conference arranged by the International Labour Office in 1923, their coverage has been progressively improved. Since 1951, when the Workers' Compensation Board came into being, its assistance has enabled the statistics to be continued on the basis of compensation claims, these being notified to the Department of Statistics by all authorised insurers. Coverage was, moreover, improved, with the addition, of reports of accidents in marine and waterfront work, some local authorities, Government Departments, and a few businesses for which exemption has been authorised from the normal liability to insure. The only limitation in the statistics now is that, because they are derived from claims made under the Workers' Compensation Act, they exclude accidents to working proprietors and similar persons not insurable under the Act. This limits the scope of the statistics in the farming industry especially.

Doubt has been expressed from time to time that all claims are being reported by insurers and self-insurers. Lengthy and careful investigations, however, have established no way in which a real discrepancy could occur, but a number of ways in which an illusory one might; and indeed there is positive proof of a tendency on the part of insurers to over-report. It will be seen from the later tables that accidents showed a startling increase in 1958 over 1957. A full discussion of the probable reasons for this increase will be found in the Report on the Industrial Accidents Statistics of New Zealand for 1958.

Claims resulting from the more serious accidents are frequently not settled for some considerable time after the occurrence of the accident, and a period is therefore allowed so that the bulk of such claims may be included in the statistics for the year in which the accidents occurred. From 1953 the closing date has been standardised at mid-August of the following year. Even allowing this period of seven and a half months, it is inevitable that any year's statistics will include a small proportion of long-delayed claims from previous years, but these late claims should be compensatory from year to year.

PRINCIPAL STATISTICS — The following table gives a summary of the principal statistics for the latest five years. The concepts and calculation of frequency and severity rates and of calendar days lost are explained in a succeeding note, and changes in compensation rates are set out in a subsequent table.

Item19561957195819591960

* Calculated on a different basis from 1956; see explanation following.

Revised figures.

Number of accidents resulting in —      
    Fatality 9786926684
    Permanent total disability 581085
    Permanent partial disability 944813969934962
    Temporary disability 42,58444,58350,87452,30552,599
Totals 43,63045,49051,94553,31353,650
Compensation paid (incl. damages) —      
    Total£2,342,6232,422,2882,947,4052,950,5802,905,596
        Average per accident£53.753.256.755.354.2
Calendar days lost —      
    Temporary disability only 909,879921,226975,440964,872924,364
        Average per accident 2121191818
    Total, on constant basis* 3,234,5842,918,5463,377,7302,915,2403,068,203
        Average per accident (time charge) 7464655557
    Total, on actual basis* 3,238,5972,896,9073,315,0202,923,5203,075,276
    Average per accident 7464645557
Frequency and severity rates —      
    Frequency rate 3.333.413.833.893.88
    Physical injury severity rate* 1,5381,3501,5481,3131,353
    Economic loss severity rate* 1,5471,3531,5311,3241,367

FREQUENCY AND SEVERITY RATES — Frequency rates are calculated according to the formula: Accidents per 100,000 man-hours worked.

For severity rates the formula is: Man-hours lost through accidents per 100,000 man-hours worked. In calculating the physical injury severity rate in the foregoing table a constant allowance of average working-life expectancy (9,263 calendar days) is made for all fatalities, with a percentage of this for each permanent disability according to the percentage of that disability as set out in the First Schedule to the Workers' Compensation Act 1956. To the calendar days lost through fatal and permanent disabling accidents are added the actual days lost through temporary disabilities, adjusted to allow for the different age distribution of workers suffering this kind of accident. From the total the man-hours lost are calculated.

The economic loss severity rate is calculated similarly, but takes into account the workers' actual ages. Further details will be found in the Report on the Industrial Accidents Statistics of New Zealand for 1960.

The average severity of accidents is found by dividing the calendar days lost by the number of accidents. This rate, also called the time charge, is calculated without reference to age.

The numbers of accidents and the severity rates (hours lost per 100,000 man-hours worked) for the industrial groups, together with the labour force and frequency rate (accidents per 100,000 man-hours worked) for the groups, are shown in the following diagrams.

CLASSIFICATION BY INDUSTRY — In the following table industrial accidents during the year 1960 are classified by industrial groups.

Industrial GroupTotal AccidentsCalendar Days LostTotal Compensation (Including Damages)
TotalAverageTotalAverage
    ££
Agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fishing —
    Agriculture and livestock production4,044568,040140292,19872.3
    Forestry and logging1,395145,953105103,34274.1
    Hunting, trapping, and game propagation8225,9023166,97185.0
    Fishing843,576435,58066.4
Mining and quarrying —     
    Coal mining2,508122,77049154,01961.4
    Metal mining181,669931,11662.0
    Crude petroleum and natural gas192641443422.8
    Stone quarrying, clay and sand pits37144,22511932,38187.3
    Non-metallic mining and quarrying143322454939.2
Manufacturing—     
    Food7,356311,10242358,31948.7
    Beverages30710,9003615,19349.5
    Tobacco771,962252,28229.6
    Textiles55517,0573128,62551.6
    Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods48527,6705713,01726.8
    Wood and cork (excluding furniture)2,607138,99453141,07054.1
    Furniture and fixtures38839,90710324,99464.4
    Paper and paper products58361,47510537,64764.6
    Printing, publishing, and allied industries30627,1808919,09062.4
    Leather and leather products (except footwear)14811,621797,75252.4
    Rubber products2927,2252510,14434.7
    Chemicals and chemical products68529,8824430,26844.2
    Products of petroleum and coal35659191,18633.9
    Non-metallic mineral products1,35664,4364885,78763.3
    Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,24157,9844752,58542.4
    Machinery (except electrical machinery) and general engineering2,44862,3272587,50835.7
    Electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and supplies35625,0747027,80078.1
    Transport equipment2,03077,7953870,53034.7
    Miscellaneous industries25426,80810627,983110.2
Construction9,155496,92354520,22656.8
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services —     
    Electricity, gas, and steam1,02988,2178657,84856.2
    Water and sanitary services35920,2535622,15861.7
Commerce —     
    Wholesale and retail trade3,492158,99346183,37852.5
    Banks and other financial institutions245202294639.4
    Insurance12771641,19999.9
    Real estate15588.0
Transport, storage, and communication —     
    Transport5,878206,20735291,83449.6
    Storage and warehousing15111,1157412,87885.3
    Communication85414,2491721,35425.0
Services —     
    Government2434,526197,38930.4
    Community and business1,13441,6743753,43947.1
    Recreation31859,50118736,286114.1
    Personal94859,4456358,14761.3
Not adequately described8881113617.0
Totals53,6503,075,276572,905,59654.2

In the next table the accidents in 1960 are classified by the resulting extent of disability.

Industrial GroupNumber of Accidents Resulting in —Total Number of Accidents
FatalityPermanent Total DisabilityPermanent Partial DisabilityTemporary Disability
Agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fishing —     
    Agriculture and livestock production251973,9214,044
    Forestry and logging71301,3571,395
    Other16159166
Mining and quarrying —     
    Coal mining7182,4832,508
    Stone quarrying, clay and sand pits211358371
    Other15051
Manufacturing —     
    Food31377,2167,356
    Beverages7300307
    Textiles13542555
    Footwear, other apparel, and made-up textile goods13481485
    Wood and cork3712,5332,607
    Furniture and fixtures18370388
    Paper and paper products217564583
    Printing, publishing, and allied industries114291306
    Rubber products3289292
    Chemicals and chemical products112672685
    Non-metallic mineral products1271,3281,356
    Metal products1281,2121,241
    Machinery, including general engineering322,4162,448
    Electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and supplies10346356
    Transport equipment1182,0112,030
    Other manufacturing19495514
Construction521838,9659,155
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services —     
    Electricity, gas, and steam6151,0081,029
    Water and sanitary services13355359
Commerce —     
    Wholesale and retail trade5633,4243,492
    Other13637
Transport, storage, and communication —     
    Transport9395,8305,878
    Storage and warehousing4147151
    Communication5849854
Services —     
    Government1242243
    Community and business1171,1161,134
    Recreation216300318
    Personal23925948
Not adequately described88
Totals84596252,59953,650

CAUSE OF ACCIDENT AND RESULTING DISABILITY — The following table relates cause of accident and degree of resulting disability for the five-year period 1956–60.

CauseFatalityPermanent Disability*Temporary DisabilityTotalPercentage of Total Accidents
* Including permanent total disability cases as follows: 1956, 5; 1957, 8; 1958, 10; 1959, 8; 1960, 5; total, 36.
Machinery842,00737,66539,75616.0
Vehicle13320311,28911,6254.7
Electricity, explosion, flames, hot substance49766,2076,3322.5
Poison, corrosive substance872,0792,0940.8
Fall of person5056431,80232,41613.1
Stepping on or striking against fixed or stationary object54711,29211,3444.6
Moving object (not being handled by person injured)431518,8979,0913.7
Fall of earth11461,3631,4200.6
Handling of object880077,73678,54431.7
Hand tools554540,56041,11016.6
Miscellaneous2921214,05514,2965.7
Totals4254,658242,945248,028100.0

AGE OF WORKERS — The following table gives numbers and percentages according to age groups of the persons injured.

Age (Completed Years)19561957195819591960
Number of CasesPer Cent of TotalNumber of CasesPer Cent of TotalNumber of CasesPer Cent of TotalNumber of CasesPer Cent of TotalNumber of CasesPer Cent of Total
Under 163510.83470.83580.74130.84600.9
16–205,30812.25,75112.67,27714.07,95014.98,23515.3
21–245,11911.75,00311.06,06011.76,09211.45,99111.2
25–3411,16225.611,57425.412,60724.312,68923.912,15422.7
35–448,66519.98,94519.79,68418.69,67518.29,60417.9
45–546,75915.57,10615.67,66214.77,69614.47,57814.1
55–643,3257.63,4007.53,6187.03,5966.73,7657.0
65 and over6501.56731.57261.46091.16171.1
Not stated2,2915.22,6915.93,9537.64,5938.65,2469.8
          Totals43,630100.045,490100.051,945100.053,313100.053,650100.0

NATURE OF INJURY — A classification of accidents according to injury sustained gives the following results for the latest five years.

Injury19561957195819591960Total, 1956–60
Bruises, contusions, and abrasions8,0987,9925,8635,7136,22033,886
Burns1,5371,7242,1542,1092,2889,812
Concussions2892743082553041,430
Lacerations, punctures, and open wounds12,23713,23314,02414,57314,81368,880
Ruptures3803534214574572,068
Amputations (traumatic)3462671471191301,009
Dislocations2282402252202201,133
Fractures4,3114,3764,6854,4044,26022,036
Sprains and strains13,33313,99515,55916,32116,45175,659
Occupational dermatitis5214955635265252,630
Other and ill defined2,3502,5417,9968,6167,98229,485
Totals43,63045,49051,94553,31353,650248,028
Cases where septic poisoning occurred —      
Number5,6457,0548,8899,5989,64540,831
Percentage of all accidents12.915.517.118.018.016.5

Of the septic cases shown for 1960 in the preceding table, 30.8 per cent occurred in the handling of objects (including pricks and scratches by bones and thorns in slaughtering and packing operations), and 23.7 per cent in the use of hand tools.

PART OF BODY INJURED — In the following table industrial accidents are classified according to the different parts of the body injured.

Part of Body Injured19561957195819591960Total, 1956–60
NumberPer Cent
Head7767298028038523,9621.6
Eye and orbit1,8421,9712,5912,8102,99712,2114.9
Rest of face6676506106055953,1271.2
Neck, back, and chest6,9887,5908,6079,1879,47941,85116.9
Abdomen and contents5334789269939983,9281.6
Upper limb —       
    Collarbone and shoulder1,3551,3971,4411,4611,4567,1102.9
    Arm2,5352,6172,6822,5812,57112,9865.2
    Hand and wrist14,36115,09818,05218,37618,59984,48634.1
Lower limb —       
    Hip, thigh, and leg5,7035,7575,7795,8945,86128,99411.7
    Ankle and foot5,6986,0037,1637,1917,18433,23913.4
Other, multiple, ill defined, not applicable3,1723,2003,2923,4123,05816,1346.5
Totals43,63045,49051,94553,31353,650248,028100.0

DURATION OF INCAPACITY — A summary of the duration of incapacity and the number of cases of fatality, permanent total disability, and permanent partial disability is given below.

Duration1957195819591960Total, 1956–60
NumberPer CentNumberPer CentNumberPer CentNumberPer CentNumberPer Cent
1 or 2 days1,9564.32,7865.33,0365.73,5796.713,2015.3
Over 2 days to 1 week12,34127.114,66128.215,66729.416,58830.970,56428.5
Over 1 week to 2 weeks13,04128.715,05629.015,23428.614,91927.870,75628.5
Over 2 weeks to 4 weeks9,48720.910,23119.710,47819.710,01618.649,41819.9
Over 4 weeks to 6 weeks3,3387.33,5146.83,4536.53,2276.016,9016.8
Over 6 weeks to 13 weeks3,2187.13,4486.63,3026.23,2646.116,3796.6
Over 13 weeks1,2022.61,1782.31,1352.11,0061.95,7262.3
Number of accidents resulting in —          
    Temporary disability44,58398.050,87497.952,30598.252,59998.0242,94597.9
    Fatality860.2920.2660.1840.24250.2
    Permanent total disability8108536 
    Permanent partial disability8131.89691.99341.79621.84,6221.9
Totals45,490100.051,945100.053,313100.053,650100.0248,028100.0

ACCIDENTS PRODUCING DELAYED ACTION — As the following table shows, in about one-third of all accidents there is a time lag between the accident and the time the worker ceases work.

Complications of InjuryDelayed ActionNo Delayed ActionTotal
1 Week or LessOver 1 Week and up to 2 WeeksOver 2 Weeks
Sepsis4,9748003673,2959,436
Surgical amputation3213216
Sepsis and surgical amputation7251933
Loss of function (excluding amputation)541119490574
Sepsis, both organs of a pair7514780176
Loss of function (excluding amputation), both organs of a pair55
No complications, both organs of a pair11312361477
No complications, other10,85774775330,37642,733
Totals16,0831,5751,15334,83953,650

TIME OF OCCURRENCE — The following tabulation of industrial accidents, according to the hour of occurrence, shows the effects of fatigue during the working day.

Time of Occurrence to Nearest HourYearCause, 1956–60
19561957195819591960MachineryFalls of PersonsHandling ObjectsHand ToolsOtherTotal, 1956–60
8 a.m.1,6401,8902,1182,1992,1891,5161,7923,0421,4422,24410,036
9 a.m.3,8504,1334,7984,9695,0563,9382,7837,8954,1124,07822,806
10 a.m.5,4805,5496,3816,5966,4744,7763,71110,4225,4176,15430,480
11 a.m.5,8806,0746,8027,0096,9425,1673,89911,2376,0346,37032,707
12 noon2,9403,0813,6263,6943,8872,8782,3265,1223,1773,72517,228
1 p.m.1,6161,7152,0932,3082,1801,8601,3862,5721,6562,4389,912
2 p.m.4,3854,6895,4215,5995,5194,4952,9938,2204,7785,12725,613
3 p.m.4,8734,8535,6205,6755,8094,4763,6098,7874,8645,09426,830
4 p.m.4,2254,4515,0665,0625,1454,2313,4307,5114,1544,62323,949
5 p.m.2,2432,3672,6132,6422,5951,9542,0993,5291,8583,02012,460
Other hours3,4993,5873,9173,9574,1542,9603,4515,3441,7455,61419,114
Not stated2,0142,0712,3992,4612,7001,4809374,2651,8293,13411,645
Not applicable9851,0301,0911,1121,00025598444,5815,248
                Totals43,63045,49051,94553,31353,65039,75632,41678,54441,11056,202248,028

This table indicates that accidents are most numerous during the middle and later part of the morning; there is another peak in mid-afternoon, but this does not reach the same high point.

A more definite indication is given by the length of tine the employee had worked on the day when the accident occurred.

Number of Hours Already WorkedYearCause, 1956–60
19561957195819591960MachineryFalls of PersonsHandling ObjectsHand ToolsOtherTotal, 1956–60
Under 12,3812,5882,9643,0212,9672,3202,4404,2202,0722,86913,921
1 and under 24,5924,9435,6225,7865,7364,5443,1719,1214,5865,25726,679
2 and under 35,2675,4906,2626,4906,1684,7183,6269,9075,1196,30729,677
3 and under 45,8895,9766,6946,8496,7635,2183,83810,7765,8986,44132,171
4 and under 53,3863,5664,2354,2744,2893,3692,7675,7653,5254,32419,750
S and under 63,7203,9224,5694,7644,5393,6872,5286,7073,9834,60921,514
6 and under 74,7974,9165,7705,7795,8314,5393,6048,6634,8255,46227,093
7 and under 84,1894,3414,7384,9734,8494,0463,3067,2263,9884,52423,090
8 or over3,6003,5384,0814,0004,0503,1163,2155,7042,7274,50719,269
Not stated4,8245,1805,9196,2357,4584,1743,9219,8574,3437,32129,616
Not applicable9851,0301,0911,1421,00025598444,5815,248
                Totals43,63045,49051,94553,31353,65039,75632,41678,54441,11056,202248,028

The foregoing table shows that the greatest number of accidents occurred during the third and fourth hours worked in the day. Overtime accidents (eight hours or more already worked) represented 7.6 per cent of all accidents in 1960.

DAY OF THE WEEK — The following table correlates the causes of accidents with the days of the week on which they occurred. In 1960 there were more accidents on Tuesday than on Monday. In the two preceding years Monday's total was the highest.

CauseSunMonTuesWedThurFriSatNot StatedTotal
Machinery1431,6261,7361,6231,5451,402440138,528
Vehicle3948249143438836710312,305
Electricity, explosion, flames, hot substance532282442922822669261,463
Poison, corrosive substance6761009177753616477
Fall of person1491,4061,3771,2501,1281,077442126,841
Stepping on or striking against fixed or stationary object58496531463447450112172,574
Moving object (not being handled by person injured)374014423893843218042,058
Fall of earth1433851503210225
Handling of object3173,3033,2503,1983,0972,75687519816,994
Hand tool1531,7721,7861,7081,6751,505373409,012
Miscellaneous884384593964182752298703,173
Totals1,04410,27110,4549,8959,4918,5262,7921,17753,650
              Percentage of all accidents2.019.119.518.417.715.95.22.2100.0

37 C — OCCUPATIONAL, SAFETY

The legislation on occupational safety is principally contained in the following statutes (and the regulations made under them):

The Factories Act 1946, sections 41 to 79; the Machinery Act 1950; the Bush Workers Act 1945; the Construction Act 1959; the Shops and Offices Act 1955, First Schedule; the Workers' Compensation Act 1956; the Coal Mines Act 1925; the Mining Act 1926; the Explosives Act 1957; the Dangerous Goods Act 1957; the Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950; the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952; the Quarries Act 1944; the Health Act 1956 so far as it relates to occupational health (see Section 5A).

Government Departments and other organisations concerned with the administration of the Acts, or who have responsibilities for occupational accident prevention, have the scope of their work summarised in the following pages, and legislative requirements are also covered.

Department of Labour — This Department has the largest overall responsibility for the prevention of accidents in industry. The principal statutes it administers are the Factories Act 1946, of which a large section is concerned with safety, health, and welfare in factories, the Construction Act 1959, which completely covers safety, health, and welfare of workmen on works of building and engineering construction, and the Machinery Act 1950, which is concerned with the inspection of all machinery (with some exceptions covered by other legislation) in work places and the safety of persons working with such machinery. The Department also administers regulations under these Acts, and other statutes dealing with specific spheres of occupational safety, health, and welfare — the Bush Workers Act 1945 and the Shops and Offices Act 1955. It also has administrative responsibility for the Workers' Compensation Act 1956. In addition, the Department supervises nearly 600 awards and industrial agreements, many of which include specific safety, health, and welfare provisions relating to particular occupations and processes.

The administration of this safety legislation is based primarily on regular inflection of work places and requisitioning for improvements, together with investigation of reported breaches of legislation by employers and workers and investigation of a large number of accidents including serious and fatal accidents in industries coming within the scope of the legislation. Special attention is given to dangerous machinery. The Department employs some 110 Inspectors of Factories (including six who specialise in bush undertakings), together with 20 Safety Inspectors appointed under the Construction Act 1959, all of whom are qualified by special examination. Their work is substantially preventive.

The Department of Labour also engages in a large amount of occupational safety education. It collaborates with the Department of Education and with teacher training colleges and technical schools in the instruction of technical teachers in occupational safety and in the safety training of apprentices and senior school pupils. Further, it issues monthly occupational safety posters to industry and publishes a range of safety booklets, pamphlets, warning notices, and other printed publicity. Its library of occupational safety films, which is widely used by industry, Government Departments, trade unions, industrial organisations, etc., is believed to be the largest specialised film library of its kind in the world. The Department produces industrial safety displays and exhibits, and has its own specially fitted exhibition van by means of which the displays are taken on tour regularly through selected areas of the country and the exhibits used in the education and instruction of apprentices, school children, workers, employers, and the general public. The Department also publishes the Labour and Employment Gazette, a quarterly industrial periodical which includes a substantial amount of material relating to occupational safety.

In Wellington the Department has a Safety Centre which it opened in 1960, consisting of a lecture room and a large display and demonstration area. The centre is used for safety courses for inspectors, teachers, trade and industry groups, post-graduate nurses doing work in the field of occupational health, and so on.

The Department cooperates with all other bodies working in this and related fields and seeks specialist advice from time to time from such other Departments as Health, Marine, Forestry, Mines, Railways, Works, Electricity, Agriculture, and Scientific and Industrial Research, and collaborates with them in matters of mutual concern.

A Joint Committee on Occupational Health and Safety Education of the Departments of Labour and Health ensures that the educational work of these Departments in this field is coordinated and wherever responsibility is shared that it is undertaken jointly. The National Safety Association of New Zealand (Inc.) is also associated with this Committee for the purpose of mutual sharing of information.

Safety of Machinery — The Machinery Act 1950 provides for the inspection of machinery by inspectors of the Department of Labour. The use of faulty, defective, and insufficiently guarded machinery may be prohibited as unsafe, and requisitions served on the owner to make a machine safe for use in a specified time. Inspectors of Factories, Safety Inspectors appointed under the Construction Act 1959, and inspectors under the Bush Workers Act 1945 have all the powers of an inspector under the Act, and inspectors of Mines have powers of Inspectors of Machinery in respect of machinery in mines.

Where a person is killed or suffers serious bodily injury as the result of an accident caused by machinery the owner or person in charge of the machinery must inform an inspector within 48 hours, and the cause of the accident is investigated.

The Machinery Amendment Act 1956 placed on the manufacturer the responsibility to design and build machines incorporating guards which securely encase all dangerous parts. Sellers, agents, and persons who let on hire commit an offence against the Act if they sell or let on hire any machine which is not properly guarded. This has overcome complaints previously made by owners of machines when requested to guard dangerous parts — namely, that the machine had been recently purchased and that guards should have been provided with the machine.

The number of requisitions for machine guarding complied with during the latest five years ended 31 March, including figures for other statutes as well as the Machinery Act, were as follows: 1956–57, 4,076; 1957–58, 21,895; 1958–59, 19,371; 1959–60, 14,107; and 1960–61, 12,127.

The Workers' Compensation Act 1956 provides that, whenever any accident happens which causes personal injury to or the death of any worker, the employer shall report the matter to his insurer. The report has to be in the form prescribed by the Employers' Liability Insurance Regulations 1957.

Likewise any accident must be reported to an Inspector of Factories.

Under the Factories Act 1946 the occupier of a factory is required to keep a register in the prescribed form with details of all accidents which occur in the factory and of which he has knowledge. An Inspector of Factories must also be given notice of accidents in a factory causing death or injury which is likely to incapacitate the sufferer for work for at least 48 hours.

Under the Machinery Act 1950 the person in charge of machinery must also maintain a register of accidents in the prescribed form and notify an Inspector of Machinery where a person is killed or suffers severe bodily injury.

Safety on Construction — The Scaffolding and Excavation Act 1922 was replaced by the Construction Act 1959. This has an extended application to the erection, maintenance, alteration, or demolition of any building or engineering work. Broadly the Act requires that every employer of labour on such work shall take all reasonable precautions for the safety of his workmen.

This calls for adequate supervision of the work including a named “Safety Supervisor” as the employer's representative on any work which is prescribed in the regulations as being “notifiable”. It also requires special precautions to be taken in regard to excavation work and any temporary work such as scaffolding. All machinery, plant tools, and gear must be adequate for the purpose and be operated by competent workmen.

Where scaffolding is over 25 ft high the erection and dismantling must be carried out under the supervision of a qualified scaffolder and a register of regular inspections kept on the site of the scaffolding while in use.

Department of Health — This Department has general responsibility under the Health Act 1956 and regulations made under that Act for occupational health as one sphere of public health, and, in addition, section 78 of the Factories Act 1946 gives to Medical Officers of Health and Inspectors of Health the same powers and responsibilities as Inspectors of Factories with regard to the health and welfare provisions of the Act. There is no distinct dividing line between occupational safety and occupational health, and therefore the responsibilities of the Departments of Labour and Health at some points tend to overlap. There is therefore the closest collaboration between the two Departments at Head Office administrative level and also between Medical Officers of Health and Inspectors of Factories at local district level. For this reason, certain regulations are issued jointly under both the Health Act and Factories Act. (See also the section on “Occupational Health” on pages 136–7).

Marine Department — This Department has overall responsibility for the safety of persons working on the waterfront, for physical conditions on ships affecting the safety of ships' crews, and for the Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950.

Safety of Ships — A substantial portion of the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 is concerned with the safety of ships and those who sail in them. This Act contains the necessary authority for implementing the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1948 and the International Load Line Convention 1930, to both of which New Zealand is a signatory. Both conventions deal principally with ships engaged on international voyages, but the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 also contains provisions concerning the safety of all other ships plying in and about New Zealand coastal waters. New Zealand is also a signatory to the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1960. This convention has not yet been ratified.

With the exception of fishing boats not exceeding 60 ft registered length, pleasure yachts not exceeding 50 tons register, missionary ships, and certain small vessels engaged in carrying agricultural or pastoral produce, the hull, machinery, and equipment of every New Zealand ship are required to be surveyed once in every 12 months by a Surveyor of Ships of the Marine Department. If in the opinion of the surveyor the hull, machinery, and equipment of the ship are up to the standards of seaworthiness and efficiency required by the Marine Department, a certificate of survey is issued which is valid for a period not exceeding one year and which sets out the limits in which the vessel may ply, the number of passengers and/or crew she may carry, and the lifesaving appliances to be carried. Under certain circumstances this certificate may be extended for a further period not exceeding three months.

Rules and regulations have been made under the authority of the Shipping and Seamen Act prescribing the scales of lifesaving and fire appliances to be carried on the various classes of ships, the radio installations required, the number and type of compasses and their adjustment by competent persons, the standards of crew accommodation, and in the case of passenger ships, standards of watertight subdivision, fire protection, electrical and machinery installations, pumping arrangements, etc. The following rules and regulations are all concerned with the safety of life at sea; Shipping (Dangerous Goods) Rules 1953; Shipping (Grain) Rules 1953; Load Line Rules 1953; Shipping (Closing of Openings in Hulls and Watertight Bulkheads) Rules 1954; Shipping Construction Rules 1954; Shipping Direction Finders Rules 1954; Shipping Lifesaving Appliances Rules 1960; Shipping Musters Rules 1954; Shipping Navigational Warning Rules 1954; Shipping (Pilot Ladders) Rules 1954; Shipping Radio Rules 1954; Shipping Signals of Distress Rules 1954; Shipping Fire Appliances Rules 1958; Shipping Ballast Regulations 1937; Ships' Compasses Regulations 1947; Deck Cargo Regulations 1950; Transport of Radioactive Substances Regulations 1951; Shipping (Accepted Safety Convention Certificates) Regulations 1953; Collision Regulations Order 1953; Timber Cargo Regulations 1953; Shipping (Crew Accommodation) Regulations 1954; Shipping (Certificates of Competency as A.B.) Regulations 1954; Load Line (Particulars of Depth of Loading) Regulations 1954.

Provision is also made in the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 to ensure the competence of ships' masters, deck and engineer officers, and able-bodied seamen.

In the event of a shipping casualty involving material damage to a vessel through stranding, collision, fire, etc., or where any loss of life occurs, there is power under the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 to hold a preliminary inquiry into the circumstances of the casualty. If this inquiry indicates the necessity for it, the Minister of Marine may order a formal investigation to be held by a Magistrate assisted by technical assessors. The function of the Court is to determine the facts concerning the casualty, to apportion blame if necessary, and to make recommendations as to any action which might reduce the likelihood of a recurrence of the casualty. Much of the existing legislation concerning the safety of life at sea has been the direct result of lessons learned from past casualties both in New Zealand and overseas.

Port Safety — The General Harbour Regulations and General Harbour (Safe Working Load) Regulations administered by the Marine Department are designed to promote the safety of life and limb in the waterfront industry. It is an obligation placed on employers of port workers to report accidents occurring in New Zealand ports on official forms to the Marine Department.

All cargo gear used in working cargo must comply with the requirements of the General Harbour (Safe Working Loads) Regulations. Articles of cargo gear are tested and inspected by officers of the Marine Department before being put into use, and certificates of test and examination are issued in respect of them. Samples of wire and fibre ropes used for working cargoes are tested to destruction, and the respective breaking strengths must not be less than specified in departmental tables. Gear is afterwards inspected annually by officers of the Department, or in the case of repaired gear, is tested and inspected after repair.

Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes — The Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950 is designed to promote the safety of life and limb in the operation of steam boilers, digesters, other steam-pressure vessels, and air receivers; hydraulic, electric, and other lifts; all types of power-driven cranes. Nothing in the Act applies to any machinery driven by manual or animal power, or to any machinery the motive power of which does not exceed 1 horsepower.

Boilers, air receivers, and other pressure vessels, lifts, and cranes are required to be of approved design and workmanship, and the moving parts of machinery must be adequately guarded.

All boilers and power cranes are inspected and certificated once per year and lifts twice per year. It is illegal to work a boiler or other pressure vessel or any crane or lift which does not carry a current certificate of inspection issued by the Marine Department. The Department publishes three books of rules on pressure vessels, boilers, and cranes.

Particulars of inspections of boilers and machinery by the Marine Department during the year ended 31 December 1960 were as follows.

Boiler inspections — 
        Fired boilers4,545
        Pressure vessels18,534
Total23,079
Machinery inspections — 
        Lifts4,028
        Cranes2,076
Total6,104
Grand total29,183

The Acts provide that where loss of life or serious bodily injury to any person occurs by reason of the explosion of a boiler, or as a result of an accident caused by machinery, the explosion or accident must be reported by the owner, and the cause investigated by an engineer-surveyor.

The Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950 also provides for the issue of certificates to those who pass the prescribed examinations for land engineers and enginedrivers in charge of boilers and machinery, for winding-engine drivers for mining purposes, for drivers employed on locomotives working on railway lines not under the control of the Government Railways Department, and for the drivers of steam traction engines on roads. Certificates are also issued to electric-tram drivers, as provided by the Tramways Amendment Act 1910, and cable-tram drivers' certificates in pursuance of section 75 of the Statutes Amendment Act 1946. The issue of these certificates is controlled by a Board of Examiners set up under the Act, the chairman being the Chief Engineer-Surveyor. The total number of candidates examined in 1960 was 356; of this number 285 were successful.

Mines Department — This Department is responsible for the safety of persons working in mines (both underground and opencast) and in quarries.

Mining Acts — The Mining Act 1926 requires that a person acting in the capacity of mine manager of any mine where there are more than 12 men employed at any one time above ground, or more than six underground, must hold a certificate granted after examination by a Board of Examiners empowered under the Act to grant such certificates. Provision is made for proper ventilation in mines, the air temperature must not exceed 80°F in any working place, special care is required to be taken in handling explosives, dangerous places must be properly timbered, and special regulations are made as to hauling machinery, etc.

All machinery used to supply motive power is subject to the provisions of the Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950 and the Machinery Act 1950 so far as these provisions apply. Inspectors of Mines have the powers of Inspectors of Machinery under the former Act and, by the Mining Amendment Act 1953, they are also given the powers of Inspectors of Machinery under the latter Act. Sufficient water must be supplied where it is necessary for the laying of dust in a mine. The Mining Amendment Act 1927 provides, inter alia, that a mine where 20 men or over are employed on one shift must have two outlets.

Comprehensive amending regulations pursuant to the Mining Act were issued in August 1945.

Coal Mining Acts — For every coal mine there must be a duly qualified manager, who must be either the owner of the mine or some person appointed by the owner, and who is responsible for the control, management, and direction of the mine. Inspectors of Coal Mines must hold certificates as first-class mine managers under the Coal Mines Act 1925. Certain sections of the Act deal with the control of coal dust, the use of safety lamps, first-aid endorsement on certificates of competency, the prohibition of work in places where the presence of gas is suspected, and the inspection of the mine before the commencement of work, etc. All accidents in mines rendering a workman unfit for work are notifiable. Comprehensive regulations pursuant to the 1925 Act, and known as the Coal Mines Regulations, were issued in 1939. These regulations have been amended from time to time in subsequent years.

A levy at the rate of 9d. a ton on coal other than lignite and 7 1/2d. a ton for lignite is paid into a fund, called the Coal Mining Districts Welfare and Research Fund. This fund is used for the purposes of relief of miners injured in the course of employment, covers the cost of running and equipping mine rescue stations, and provides amenities in coal-mining districts, while moneys may be expended from the fund for research and otherwise generally for the benefit of the industry. The Coal Mining Districts Welfare and Research Council directs the expenditure.

Quarries Act — The Quarries Act 1944 contains provisions as to inspectors, and the appointment, qualifications, and duties of quarry managers. Adequate rules are provided for the safety of workers and the prevention of accidents. The Quarries Amendment Act 1951 placed opencast coal quarries under the authority of this Act and made consequential amendments to the Coal Mines Act 1925, certain provisions of which are now applied to opencast coal quarries. The 1954 amendment extends the definition of a quarry to cover hydro-electric works construction and a dam for water supply to the public.

Revised Quarries Regulations containing many new regulations and amendments to previous regulations were promulgated on 21 January 1959. These are framed to ensure proper standards of safety for all engaged in quarrying operations.

New Zealand Electricity Department — In addition to its major role of supplying bulk power, the New Zealand Electricity Department, amongst other things, administers the Electricity Act 1945, the Electrical Supply Regulations, the Electrical Wiring Regulations, the Electricians Act 1952, the Electric Linemen Act 1959, and the Gas Industry Act 1958.

The Electrical Supply Regulations set out minimum requirements for the construction and maintenance of lines and equipment used for the generation and distribution of electricity. These regulations also state conditions in regard to the characteristics of the supply to electricity consumers. The Department provides inspecting services in the interests of safety to life and property.

The Electrical Wiring Regulations set out minimum requirements for electrical installations, apparatus, and appliances used on consumers' premises. It is the responsibility of Electrical Supply Authorities to inspect such installations to sec that they comply with the Wiring Regulations, which are designed to promote safety to life and property. New regulations came into force on 1 December 1961 and the “Handbook to the Electrical Wiring Regulations 1961” incorporates explanatory notes and diagrams.

The Electricians Act, through a Board set up under that Act, provides that electrical work be performed by registered persons, for the registration of Electrical Inspectors, and for legal proceedings to be taken where necessary. The aim of the Act is to promote safety to life and property.

The Electric Linemen Act set up the Electric Linemen Training Committee and provides for the training and certification of linemen and for work on overhead lines to be done only by authorised persons.

The Department is also actively engaged in promoting electrical safety through such bodies as the National Safety Association and committees of the New Zealand Standards Institute.

Air Department, Civil Aviation Administration — The Administration is responsible for the safety of aircraft and crews engaged in private and commercial carriage of the public and commercial carriage of goods, including agricultural aviation. The Administration lays down standards of aircraft construction and maintenance by means of Civil Airworthiness Requirements, and by regulation controls the standards of crew competency and physical fitness.

The Operations Division generally lays down standard limitations for aircraft operations according to aircraft performance and quality of airfields. Safety of aircraft engaged in all-weather flying is achieved by controlled separation exercised by Air Traffic Control.

The Accidents Branch of the Air Department has a responsibility in regard to both service and civil flying to investigate all aircraft accidents, to ascertain their causes, and to advise on preventive measures.

With agricultural aviation now rivalling all other forms of aviation in New Zealand, and with the increasing use of toxic chemicals for control of pests and weeds, the Administration, in close collaboration with the Departments of Health and Agriculture, requires pilots engaged in the distribution of these chemicals to obtain a Chemical Rating by attendance at a special residential course at one of the agricultural colleges and the passing of a written examination.

Department of Internal Affairs — The Department of Internal Affairs, through its Explosives Branch, administers legislation which has as its purpose the protection of life and property from the hazards associated with the handling, storage, transport, and use of explosives, dangerous goods, and cinematograph film.

Explosives — The empowering legislation is the Explosives Act 1957 as amended by the Explosives Amendment Act 1958. The regulations in force are the Explosives Regulations 1959, and the Explosives Authorisation Order 1959 lists the explosives which may be imported into or manufactured in New Zealand. The explosives legislation is concerned solely with explosives proper, such as blasting powder, gelignite, and detonators which are used in blasting operations, explosive compositions used in ammunition, signals, or fireworks, and also ammunition, signals, and fireworks in their final manufactured form.

The main matters covered by the explosives legislation are (a) the authorisation and classification of explosives; (b) the licensing and control of importations, manufacture, conveyance (by air, sea, or land), storage, and sale of explosives; and (c) the promulgation of rules for the handling and use of explosives.

The regulations provide for the approval of the design, construction, and isolation of storage magazines and explosives factory buildings. In the case of factories, approval is also required of the manufacturing processes used in the production of explosives, and a general set of rules governing the safety of employees engaged in the industry are laid down in these regulations.

The legislation also deals with the conditions under which explosives may be transported and the type of vehicle which may be used for that purpose.

Dangerous Goods — The relevant legislation is the Dangerous Goods Act 1957 and the Dangerous Goods Regulations 1958. Substances controlled under the heading of dangerous goods embrace a wide range of inflammable materials, such as petrol, kerosene, fuel oil, calcium carbide, white phosphorus, ammonium nitrate, the chlorates of sodium, potassium, and calcium, compressed gases, and liquefied petroleum gas. While the Chief Inspector of Explosives has the overall responsibility for administration of this legislation, provision is made in the Act for the appointment of local bodies to act as local licensing authorities responsible for the issue of licences and the carrying out of regular inspections within their own districts. Over 160 local authorities, including all cities, almost all boroughs, a number of town boards, and a few counties, have been appointed as local licensing authorities under this provision.

As the regulations pertaining to dangerous goods are very comprehensive, a summary only of the more important requirements is given here. These are:

  1. Premises for the storage of dangerous goods must be licensed.

  2. Work rooms where dangerous goods are used industrially must be approved as to their construction and general layout.

  3. The design and construction of tank wagons, aircraft-refuelling units, and other vehicles used for the conveyance of dangerous goods must be approved.

  4. Types of containers, such as tins and drums for packing of dangerous goods, must be approved.

  5. Vehicles and containers used for carrying or holding dangerous goods must be properly labelled.

  6. Fuel-oil burners must be approved as to type and the installation of fuel-oil-consuming systems must also be approved.

  7. Cylinders for holding compressed gases must be to an approved specification and the arrangements for filling and storage of the cylinders must also be subject to approval.

  8. The installation of stationary petrol-driven internal combustion engines must be approved.

  9. The repair and disposal of tanks and other containers which have held dangerous goods are controlled.

  10. Adequate fire-extinguishing equipment must be provided in any place where dangerous goods are stored, handled, or used.

For the purpose of effective enforcement, inspectors appointed under the Act are given the power to enter and inspect premises where dangerous goods are stored under licence or where there is reason to believe that dangerous goods may be present; to seize goods or containers where such action is considered necessary; to take samples of dangerous goods for the purpose of testing; and to investigate the circumstances of any accident with dangerous goods.

Cinematograph Films -The Cinematograph Films Act 1961 and its associated regulations include provisions governing the storage, handling, and projection of cinematograph films and the licensing of theatres and other buildings in which cinematograph film is projected and of cinematograph-film projectionists. Control is exercised through a licensing system. Premises in which cinematograph film is stored or screened must be licensed and must comply with certain requirements as to construction, ventilation, and means of egress. Projectionists employed in cinematograph theatres are required to be the holders of an operator's licence of the requisite grade.

The Public Service Commission — Progress towards safety at work can come only from deliberate, informed, and organised effort in every work place. It is a recognised fact that most industrial accidents result from unsafe conditions, unsafe human acts, or from a combination of both. Consequently, occupational accidents, with their resultant loss of productive hours, suffering, and incapacity, will be kept to a minimum only if (a) safe working conditions are provided, and (b) safe working methods are adopted.

To this end the Public Service Commission has ensured that positive measures are adopted towards the prevention of accidents at work. It realises that safety at work is important to morale and efficiency. It accepts the fact that leadership in the organisation of safety measures must come from top management. It endeavours to have every worker assured that there is a definite policy for safety based on the best available knowledge and methods, and that organisation and resources are in existence to ensure the implementation of that policy.

Safety work must be, and is, in the hands of experienced people. The Commission itself watches statistics and trends and directs special attention to causes and localities with a high incidence of accidents. It encourages Departments to campaign for safety, and offers active assistance where needed. Also, on behalf of its associated Departments, the Commission is a member of the National Safety Association of New Zealand.

Ministry of Works — On each major construction project the Ministry of Works has appointed a senior technical officer to act in the capacity of Safety Officer. He is invariably an officer with considerable practical knowledge and experience of departmental construction works. It is his duty to see that every section of the work is safeguarded to the maximum extent.

There is a wide range of activities undertaken by the Department on a major construction job such as a hydro-electric power project. For instance there are the mechanical workshops with installed machinery of various types used to repair the machines used on the job. There are also scores of bulldozers, carryall scrapers, huge mechanical shovels, cement hoppers, and cableways. The custody and distribution of tons of stores of all kinds is undertaken daily. Large numbers of men are transported daily in buses and trucks to and from their homes and the job sites. Electrical reticulation and maintenance is also a major task if the job is to proceed day and night without interruption.

In the actual carrying out of the work, tunnels are driven into the rock floor for foundation and survey purposes. Rivers are diverted, necessitating the excavation of thousands of tons of material, tons of explosives being used in these operations. Massive reinforced concrete structures are erected.

Safety requirements prescribed in various Government Acts and regulations play a major part in safety promotion on construction works. The Safety Officer is required to have a sound working knowledge of these requirements. In addition he is sent to training courses conducted periodically by the National Safety Association of New Zealand. From this training and with the help of Divisional Technical Staff (Mechanical, Civil Engineering, etc.) to whom he can look for specialised knowledge and assistance, the Safety Officer is well qualified to police the various sections of the works and ensure that the various safety regulations are complied with.

In the main it is the Department's foremen and overseers who can play the most important part in accident prevention on the job. These supervisors are in direct control of the day-to-day work, and by instructing their workers in the use of correct, efficient, and safe working methods, can prevent accidents. It is therefore an important part of the Safety Officer's job to make supervising staff safety conscious.

To do this, staff talks on safety are given, circulars, booklets, and extracts from safety regulations are distributed, posters are displayed on the works site, and film showings are made at regular intervals. In addition, with a view to safety, the Department encourages visits and inspections of the works by officials from other Government Departments, although these are not always required by law. The recommendations made in their reports are invariably acted upon.

All accident reports are examined by the Safety Officer. It is his responsibility to ensure that appropriate action is taken to prevent a recurrence of a similar accident on the job. He also reports to Head Office if the experience gained would be helpful on other works.

Protective clothing is supplied to many of the Department's workers employed on specific work. Welders are issued with goggles or helmets, gauntlets, and also leather aprons on special jobs. Operators on lathes, woodworking machinery, and other allied types of machines are supplied with goggles; spray painters with masks; and construction workers on projects with protective helmets. These are only a few of the items on issue to protect workers from injury, and work in this field is progressing as better and improved protective equipment becomes available.

Quite apart from accident-prevention activities on the job, a great deal of work is done by Head Office Divisions in safety promotion. In recent years much time has been devoted by the Mechanical Division to improve the safety of existing machinery in workshops by use of guards. Investigations into the use of cranes and other lifting machinery have also resulted in safety improvements.

Department of Agriculture — The high degree of mechanisation on the 90,000-odd farm holdings in New Zealand is responsible in large part for the high output per unit of labour engaged in primary production; but it has been responsible too for an increase in the hazards associated with life and work in the country. Nearly 4,000 threshing machines, 19,000 wool presses, 30,000 internal combustion engines, 140,000 electric motors, 78,400 agricultural tractors, 37,000 milking plants, 29,000 shearing plants, as well as farm trucks, cultivating and harvesting implements, and other farm equipment and installations have taken a high annual toll in accidents and deaths, especially in recent years when there has been rapid growth in the use of heavy machinery for both normal farm operations and for bringing new land into production.

The increasing use of chemicals in agriculture for weed control and as pesticides and therapeutants, and employment of aircraft in farm work (262 machines in 1961), have added to the hazards to which those engaged in the agricultural industry have been subjected.

Workers' Compensation Board — This Board is a statutory body set up under the provisions of the Workers' Compensation Act. One of its responsibilities is a general requirement to “prevent accidents to workers by such means as the Board thinks fit, and cooperate with any Government Department and other bodies and persons for that purpose”. It is also required to assist in providing facilities for the treatment and rehabilitation of injured persons. It has interpreted these requirements by sponsoring the formation of the National Safety Association of New Zealand (Inc.), and by making grants to the Department of Labour for safety education, the Department of Health for the construction of Industrial Health Centres at Penrose and Mt. Wellington (Auckland) and Woolston (Christchurch), and to the Auckland Hospital Board towards the cost of a rehabilitation centre for disabled civilians at Otara (Auckland). The Board also sponsors a scheme for first-aid instruction in remote areas by the Order of St. John.

National Safety Association of New Zealand (Inc.) — This organisation was sponsored and is largely financed by the Workers' Compensation Board. It comprises member firms interested in promoting occupational safety, and is controlled by an elected executive functioning through specialist committees, five branch committees, and a small headquarters staff, together with a number of field organisers. It seeks to stimulate firms and organisations in taking all possible measures to reduce accidents in their own establishments, and especially in establishing their own internal safety organisations, full-time or part-time safety officers, and where possible joint management-worker safety committees. The Association also issues safety education material, undertakes general safety instruction and supervisor training within firms through its field staff, and organises periodical courses for farm safety officers and industrial safety officers. Its field of interest is substantially limited to occupational safety.

Chapter 38. Section 38 ISLAND TERRITORIES

Table of Contents

ADMINISTRATION — Under the Island Territories Act 1943 and the Cook Islands Act 1915, the Minister of Island Territories is charged with the administration of New Zealand's dependent territories, and the Department of Island Territories is the executive agency for that administration.

New Zealand's first administrative responsibility for dependent areas in the South Pacific was undertaken in 1901, when the Cook Islands (including Niue) were brought within the boundaries of New Zealand. In 1919 New Zealand was given a mandate over Western Samoa; this became a trusteeship in 1946 under the Trusteeship Council of United Nations, and was terminated on 1 January 1962 with the granting of independence to Western Samoa. In 1949 the Tokelau Islands, formerly part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, legally became part of New Zealand, which had administered them on behalf of the United Kingdom since 1925. Annual reports are forwarded to the United Nations Committee on Information from Non-self-governing Territories regarding progress made in Cook Islands, Niue, and the Tokelau Islands.

The Chatham Islands, which comprise one of the 121 counties of New Zealand, have had their development seriously retarded by reason of their isolation and consequent lack of direct contact with the mainland. In order to assist in overcoming the disabilities suffered by the people of the Chatham Islands, and to promote the general welfare and development of the islands, the Government, in December 1949, placed their general administration under the Department of Island Territories, but from 1 April 1962 responsibility for control has been transferred to the Department of Internal Affairs, which will have the assistance of an advisory committee from other Government Departments. A Resident Commissioner is responsible for coordination of all Government activities in the islands and also acts as Resident Magistrate.

Besides administering the various island groups, the Department controls the operations of the N.Z.G.m.v. Moana Roa and the purchase and snipping of equipment, stores, etc., to island administrations. In addition, the Department takes an interest in the welfare of islanders in New Zealand, and is associated with the South Pacific Commission and the South Pacific Health Service. The former is an advisory and consultative body set up by the Governments of Australia, France, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Britain, and the United States of America, all of which are responsible for the administration of non-self-governing territories in the Pacific. The functions of the Commission are to recommend to the member Governments means for promoting the social, economic, and medical welfare of the peoples in the region, and to this end several projects have been organised. The South Pacific Health Service advises member Governments on health matters, collects and distributes epidemiological information, assists in the maintenance of professional staffs, and encourages medical research and the training of indigenous people as assistant medical practitioners and nurses.

The Officer for Islands Education is responsible to the Department for the coordination of educational policies in the various island groups, assists with the appointment of New Zealand teachers on secondment, the publication of School Journals in the vernacular of the different groups, and the supply of modern teaching equipment. An islands scholarship scheme instituted in 1945, under which selected students from all territories are given secondary and higher education in New-Zealand, is under the Department's direction. Since the inauguration of the scheme 309 children have won scholarships, of whom 103 have already returned to employment in the islands.

By arrangement between the Governments of Western Samoa, Fiji, and New Zealand, young Samoans, Cook Islanders, Niueans, and Tokelau Islanders receive training at the Central Medical School, Suva, Fiji, to equip them for duty in their own territories as assistant medical practitioners, assistant dental practitioners, pharmacy and laboratory assistants, and assistant sanitary inspectors.

New Zealand also exercises the administration of the Ross Dependency or. behalf of the United Kingdom Government. The Ross Dependency has been inhabited for some years and at the 1961 Census had a population of 198 males, who were maintaining the permanent scientific bases. Brief mention is also made in this section of Nauru Island, which is administered under a trusteeship, held jointly by the British Government, the Government of Australia, and the New Zealand Government.

The term “island territories” does not include Stewart Island or the Chatham Islands, which form part of New Zealand. The following minor islands, which are referred to on page 1 of this Yearbook, are also excluded: Three Kings Islands, Auckland Islands, Campbell Island, Antipodes Islands, Bounty Islands, Snares Islands, and Solander Island. Apart from Campbell Island, none of these islands is regularly inhabited, but a scientific staff of 11 men is stationed on Campbell Island maintaining meteorological records, conducting ionospheric research, and manning a radio station. The Kermadec Islands are also excluded, for, although they are in the same category as the Cook Islands in that they originally ranked as annexed islands, all New Zealand laws extend to them and there is no separate administration. A meteorological station and an aeradio station have been established on Raoul Island and have an official staff of 10 men. This is the only island of the Kermadec Group that is inhabited.

The termination of the Trusteeship Agreement in respect of Western Samoa and the emergence of the Territory as the first fully independent Polynesian state have not severed the close ties of friendship existing between New Zealand and Western Samoa. The New Zealand Government appreciates some of the difficulties being faced by the new state, and will endeavour to give all possible aid and assistance when requested to do so. Educational assistance, the scholarship scheme, and staff training programmes are important assistance schemes being continued by New Zealand.

Western Samoa's transition from Trust territory status to complete independence was smooth, and the calm and orderly behaviour at the Plebiscite held in May 1961 showed great maturity on the part of voters, the majority of whom were exercising voting power for the first time. This Plebiscite, held under the supervision of the United Nations, was on the basis of universal adult suffrage. The overwhelming majority of voters elected for the adoption of the constitution drawn up by the Constitutional Convention in 1960, and for independence on the basis of that constitution as from 1 January 1962.

COOK ISLANDS: Descriptive — The Cook Islands were proclaimed a British Protectorate in 1888, and on 11 June 1901 they were annexed and proclaimed part of New Zealand under the Colonial Boundaries Act 1895. Niue, though one of the Cook Islands, has been under separate administration since 1903, and data relating to it are given later in this section. Not including Niue, there are 15 islands in the proclaimed territory, scattered over an area of some 850,000 square miles of ocean, and extending from Penrhyn, situated 9° south of the Equator, to Mangaia, which is just north of the Tropic of Capricorn. The Cook Islands are bounded on the east and west by the 156th and 167th meridians of west longitude respectively, and on the north and south by the 8th and 23rd parallels of south latitude. The total land area of the 15 islands is approximately 93 square miles, while Niue has an area slightly in excess of that figure.

Of the islands of the Southern Group, Rarotonga, Aitutaki, Atiu, Mitiaro, Mauke, and Mangaia are elevated and fertile, while Manuae and Takutea and the islands of the Northern Group, comprising Penrhyn, Manihiki, Rakahanga, Pukapuka, Palmerston, Nassau, and Suwarrow, are sea-level coral atolls. As a consequence the southern islands support the greater population. With one exception, Penrhyn, none of the islands possesses a good harbour.

The whole of the Cook Islands lie within the hurricane zone, and a number of destructive storms have been experienced. The Cook Islands are covered by a meteorological service with headquarters in Fiji, and advance warning of the intensity and path of tropical storms is available and enables precautions to be taken to protect life and property. From December to March the climate is warm and humid, and there is always the possibility of serious storms. In the remaining months of the year the climate of the Southern Group is mild and equable. The mean annual temperature in Rarotonga taken over the last 40 years was 74.5° F, and the average yearly rainfall over the same period was 84 in.

Following is a brief description of the individual islands.

SOUTHERN GROUPRarotonga (16,602 acres), the most fertile island of the territory, rises to a height of 2,140 ft. It is clothed to the tops of the mountains with splendid vegetation, and has abundant streams, considerable tracts of sloping land, and rich alluvial valleys. The town of Avarua is the centre of the local administration, and is 1,633 miles from Auckland. There is an airfield on the island. Tomatoes, oranges, and other citrus fruits are the chief exports.

Mangaia (12,800 acres, 110 miles from Rarotonga) is the south easternmost of the Group. Mangaia is not as fertile as Rarotonga, but produces quantities of coconuts, oranges, pineapples, other citrus fruits, etc. Mangaia is of volcanic origin and is surrounded by a barrier reef without passages. From a narrow sandy beach the shore rises in high cliffs to a mile-wide plateau, which descends again to almost sea level, enclosing an ancient crater holding several volcanic mounds, the highest of which exceeds 550 ft. The crater drains by subterranean channels.

Atiu (6,654 acres, 116 miles from Rarotonga) has a fertile plateau above steep cliffs. Citrus fruits and copra are the main exports.

Mauke (4,552 acres, 150 miles from Rarotonga) is a low circular island about 2 miles across, lying to the north-east of Rarotonga. Like Mangaia and Atiu, it is surrounded by an unbroken fringing reef. Mauke is very fertile. Oranges are the main export.

Aitutaki (4,461 acres, 140 miles from Rarotonga) is about 18 miles in circuit and one of the most fertile of the islands forming the Southern Group. It has an airfield and a flying-boat base which was used regularly by the Coral Route service to Tahiti up to September 1960. Tomatoes, oranges, and copra are the main exports.

Mitiaro (5,500 acres, 142 miles from Rarotonga) is a good example of an elevated coral reef, thinly coated with sand and gravel of the same material. The greater part of the surface is not more than 6 ft above high-water mark.

Manuae (1,524 acres, 124 miles from Rarotonga) consists of two small islands, Manuae and Te-Au-o-Tu, joined by a coral reef. The two islands are in general usage covered by the term Manuae; the name Hervey Islands is an alternative but rarely used title.

Takutea (302 acres, 118 miles from Rarotonga) is a small coral island, moderately fertile, but it is not regularly inhabited. It is owned by the people of Atiu and worked by them as a copra plantation.

NORTHERN GROUPPenrhyn (2,432 acres, 737 miles from Rarotonga) is also sometimes known as Tongareva. The large lagoon with its two entrances affords the only land-locked shelter within the group for vessels other than fishing boats, and it is the refuge of trading schooners during the hurricane season. The island has a pearl-shell industry.

Manihiki (1,344 acres, 650 miles from Rarotonga) is an atoll about 30 miles in circumference, valuable for the extent of its coconut groves. It has a large pearl-shell industry. Fishing for shell was suspended from 1958 to 1960.

Pukapuka (1,250 acres, 715 miles from Rarotonga) is a small triangular-shaped atoll of about 3 miles in diameter, with its highest point about 15 ft above sea level. The people of this island have somewhat different customs and dialect from those of the remainder of the group.

Rakahanga (960 acres, 674 miles from Rarotonga) is also an atoll, and shares its Resident Agent with Manihiki, from which it is only 25 miles distant. Copra is the only export.

Palmerston (1,000 acres, 270 miles from Rarotonga) consists of eight islets threaded along a reef. Palmerston also bears the name of Avarau, and is noted as the “San Pablo” of Magellan, the first island discovered in the South Seas.

Suwarrow (600 acres, 513 miles from Rarotonga) is a coral atoll of triangular form possessing a land-locked lagoon 8 miles by 6, which is capable of being made into an excellent harbour. The island, which has been much reduced in land area by storms, is a sanctuary for sea birds.

Nassau (300 acres, 673 miles from Rarotonga) is a small island well planted with coconut trees. It is owned by the people of Pukapuka, who utilise the island for its copra.

Administration — The executive government of the Cook Islands is vested in the Crown in right of the Government of New Zealand. There is a Resident Commissioner, who is charged, subject to the control of the Minister of Island Territories, with the administration of the executive government of the Cook Islands. The Resident Commissioner, who is stationed at Rarotonga, is represented in the outer islands by Resident Agents.

In each of the 10 main islands there is an Island Council consisting of ex officio members (officials, arikis, or leading chiefs) and elected members. Elections were first held in March 1947 and have since been conducted triennially in each constituency, the franchise extending to all Cook Island Maoris of 18 years of age or over. The councils, which must meet at least annually, and in practice meet much more frequently, are presided over by the Resident Commissioner, if present, or by the Resident Agents.

A major step forward in the constitutional development of the Cook Islands was the passing in October 1957 of the Cook Islands Amendment Act 1957 which provided for a Legislative Assembly with an elected majority to replace the Legislative Council which had a majority of official members. This Assembly is empowered to appropriate and authorise the expenditure of all revenue derived in the Cook Islands and met for the first time on 3 November 1958.

The Legislative Assembly consists of 26 members, excluding the Resident Commissioner, 14 of whom are elected by secret ballot under a system of universal suffrage, seven (being in each case a member of an Island Council) elected by the various Island Councils, one member elected by Europeans of the Cook Group, and four official members.

Laws governing the Cook Islands are made by Act of the New Zealand Parliament or by Orders in Council and regulations issued thereunder. Ordinances applicable to the whole of the Cook Islands are now made by the Legislative Assembly of the Cook Islands, subject to certain statutory restrictions. These ordinances require the assent of the Resident Commissioner, and may be disallowed either wholly or in part by the Governor-General within one year after the assent of the Resident Commissioner has been given. Ordinances restricted in their application to the islands in which they are made may be enacted by the local Island Councils. These local ordinances require the consent of the Resident Commissioner, or they may be reserved for the Governor-General's pleasure.

As from 1 April 1959 the Island Council of Rarotonga was reconstituted as a body corporate with power to make bylaws, raise loans, collect revenues, and expend moneys. The control of harbours, roads, and drainage is vested in the council which is responsible for the maintenance and improvement of these and other public amenities. Its revenues are derived from motor-vehicle registration, etc., fees, a road tax on petrol and certain individuals, trading licences, and a harbour-improvement rate. The council is being subsidised from the Cook Islands Assembly Account until such time as it is able to raise sufficient revenue to finance its various activities. With this in view, the council has passed bylaws imposing a bicycle tax, an entertainment tax, and extending the road tax, and has further proposals for raising revenue under consideration.

The powers of all island councils were extended and placed on the same basis as the Rarotonga Island Council as from 1 April 1961.

Apart from taxes raised by the Island Council, the only direct taxation of the Maori community is an income tax levied in accordance with the Income Tax Ordinance 1956.

The administration of justice is in the hands of the High Court, the Native Land Court, and the Native Appellate Court. The High Court exercises civil and criminal jurisdiction throughout the Cook Islands, while the Native Land Court is concerned with litigation on lands and titles. The Native Appellate Court hears appeals and applications for rehearings in respect of judgments of the Native Land Court.

The Cook Islands Public Service comes under the control of the New Zealand Public Service Commission.

Population and Vital Statistics — The Cook Island Maori is a Polynesian and is closely related to the New Zealand Maori. There is a strong resemblance between the two peoples in tradition, language, and custom. Many of the tribes in both places are able to trace their descent back to a common ancestor. A census of the Cook Islands taken on 25 September 1961 recorded a total population (exclusive of Niue) of 18,378, an increase of 1,698, or 10.2 per cent, as compared with the census of 25 September 1956. Details of population of the islands of the group as at 25 September 1961 are set out in the following table.

IslandMalesFemalesTotal
Rarotonga4,4704,2068,676
Aitutaki1,3151,2672,582
Mangaia9409371,877
Atiu6576091,266
Mauke414371785
Mitiaro156151307
Manuae13518
Palmerston384886
Pukapuka362356718
Nassau6445109
Manihiki5514551,006
Rakahanga157162319
Penrhyn316312628
Suwarrow11
Takutea-
        Totals9,4548,92418,378

During the year ended 31 December 1960 births numbered 903 and deaths 152. The number of deaths of children under one year of age in 1960 was 31.

Health — In accordance with the provisions of the Cook Islands Act 1915, all Cook Islanders receive free medical and surgical treatment in their villages, in the hospital, and in the tuberculosis sanatorium. Cook Island Maori patients in the hospital and the sanatorium, and all school children, receive free dental treatment.

Although lying within the tropics, the Cook Islands are singularly free from the common diseases prevalent in other tropical islands. Malaria is unknown, but filariasis is endemic, and this and tuberculosis provide the main health problems of the Group. The objective of the health services — to improve the health of the community — is being pursued by a system of village sanitary inspection and group medical examination, combined with modern treatment of disease in dispensary, clinic, hospital, and sanatorium.

The staff of the Health Department during 1960–61 numbered 146. Only the Chief Medical Officer, the Assistant Medical Officer, the Matron, and three or four certificated New Zealand nurses were Europeans. The dental clinic is staffed by a European dentist and two nurses, and six Cook Islands staff.

A general hospital (57 beds) equipped with dispensary, X-ray, and laboratory facilities, and a tuberculosis sanatorium (64 beds) are maintained in Rarotonga. In the outer islands, dispensaries with accommodation for a few patients are operated by assistant medical practitioners. A cottage hospital has been built at Aitutaki. Atiu, Penrhyn, and Mangaia also have small hospitals. The New Zealand Government has approved in principle the erection of a new hospital in Rarotonga and construction should commence shortly.

Education — Primary education in the Cook Islands is provided by the Administration, the Roman Catholic Mission, and the Seventh Day Adventist Mission, post-primary education being provided by the Administration for children selected from throughout the Group.

Education is free and compulsory between the ages of six and sixteen years. At 31 March 1961 the total number of pupils on the rolls was 4,915, comprising 4,445 pupils at Government schools and 470 at denominational schools. Under the Government Scholarship Scheme seven ordinary and three trade scholars proceeded to New Zealand early in 1960. The total number of scholarships granted since 1946 is now 90.

Labour and Employment — There is a wide variation in types of employment in the different islands. On the atolls in the Northern Group the island people subsist largely on coconuts and fish, and there is little opportunity for them to engage in other pursuits which would provide exports and a consequent higher living standard. In the islands of Manihiki and Penrhyn pearl diving is carried out under regulations which restrict this employment to Polynesians, and otherwise govern the industry. A strict control of this industry is enforced to ensure that the beds are not depleted. It is in the fertile islands of the Southern Group that most of the population is concentrated, and labour is required for the growing, harvesting, packing, and shipment of fruit and copra, the staple exports on which living standards depend. As most of the land in these islands is held by family groups under customary title, the bulk of the people are engaged in work on their own plantations. There is, however, opportunity for wage earners in the administrative departments, in plantation work, and in the handling of fruit for export.

In Rarotonga secondary industries have been established in the form of two clothing factories and a factory for manufacturing articles from paua shell. Products from both industries are exported to the New Zealand market. The manufacture of handicrafts is on a domestic basis.

During 1961 a new fruit juicing and canning factory commenced operations in Rarotonga. An important adjunct to the citrus industry, this factory will process fruit with high juicing qualities, but unsuitable in appearance for export.

A number of Cook Island Maoris go to New Zealand to engage in service or to learn trades. This migration is under supervision, and persons desiring to leave the islands are subject to examination for health and character.

Agriculture — The principal export crops of the Cook Islands are citrus fruits, copra, pineapples, and tomatoes. The following are the estimated areas planted in the principal crops: coconuts, 28,250 acres; citrus fruits, 767 acres; taro, 400 acres; bananas, 1,406 acres; tomatoes, 800 acres; pineapples, 473 acres; manioc, 325 acres; kumeras, 200 acres; yams, 50 acres. In order to aid the economy of the Cook Islands, the New Zealand Government arranged for an extension of the citrus replanting scheme and the erection of a central cool store and packing shed at Rarotonga.

There are 1,864 horses, 262 head of cattle, 10,273 pigs, and 2,248 goats in the islands.

Transport and Communications — The New Zealand Government vessel, Moana Roa, maintains a service between New Zealand and the Cook Group at approximately monthly intervals visiting Rarotonga and those of the outer islands which are offering cargo. Occasional calls at Rarotonga are also made by trans-Pacific cargo vessels. The Matson Line vessels Monterey and Mariposa regularly visit Rarotonga en route from the Pacific coast of America to New Zealand and uplift passengers and mail.

Radio communication has largely removed the former isolation of the islands, there being now no permanently inhabited island without a radio station. The chief station is Rarotonga Radio, which maintains direct communication with the substations and with Wellington, Apia, and Suva. Postal and telegraph services are available in all the islands. There is a telephone service in Rarotonga and a limited service operates on Aitutaki.

Trade — A summary of exports by country of destination and imports by country of origin for the last five years is contained in the next table.

Country of Origin195619571958 19591960
Imports (£)
New Zealand557,023564,171641,926495,806605,481
Australia19,06025,71538,42147,75232,944
United Kingdom108,29165,06266,94467,748111,188
Canada14,79734,37225,29822,89918,624
United States of America15,30148,05531,94215,40534,994
Japan11,92414,29921,99313,71042,451
Other42,81436,37459,50754,44151,518
Totals769,210788,048886,031717,761897,200
Exports (£)
New Zealand381,891402,454363,225482,011435,653
Australia929,9251,737124,525
United States of America47,23659,04117,1848,907308
United Kingdom462274288174605
Italy21,71716,21011,631
Other33,71953,02111,1938,2423,223
Totals485,117540,925405,258499,335464,314

The New Zealand Customs Tariff applies to the Cook Islands with special duties on sugar, cotton piece goods (except calico), linen piece goods, piece goods of mixed linen and cotton, and black-twist tobacco. During the war period, import, finance, and price controls were instituted and have been kept in force. Import licences are required for goods imported from countries other than New Zealand.

Details of the quantities and values of the principal commodities exported in 1960, with 1959 figures also given, are shown below.

Commodity19591960
QuantityValueQuantityValue
 Cases£Cases£
Citrus fruits106,951155,03794,037120,452
Bananas1,0558652,0482,170
Pineapples1,472 1,5111,300 1,400
 boxes boxes 
Tomatoes85,959 58,65695,825 58,238
 tons tons 
Copra1,32199,5651,21466,489
Mother-of-pearl shell6118,5865724,244
Handicrafts, grassware, etc....2,813...6,550
Manufactured goods...80,858...92,796
Jewellery...29,449...13,194

Foodstuffs continue to be the largest class of import; major imports for 1960, with comparative figures for 1959, are set out in the following table.

CommodityValuePercentage of Total Imports
1959196019591960
 ££per centper cent
Foodstuffs226,202236,51331.526.4
Drapery and piece goods68,663106,9849.611.9
Oils and petrol, etc.43,96245,6026.65.1
Tobacco and cigarettes13,83918,7552.02.1
Vehicles and parts31,95743,4244.54.9
Fruit cases and sacks30,38331,4834.23.7
Timber and cement...57,444...6.4

Public Finance — New Zealand currency is in use in the Group. The principal sources of revenue within the Group are import duties £75,740, export duties £6,921, stamp sales £5,607, and income tax £19,247. Apart from income tax, there is no direct taxation of the Maori community.

The New Zealand Government has continued to make subsidies and grants available on a generous scale for capital development in health, education, and other social services, and for meeting the budgetary deficits of the Group.

A comparative statement of revenue and expenditure for the latest five years is shown hereunder.

YearSubsidies from New ZealandRevenue from Cook IslandsExpenditure
 £££
1956–57275,000305,940622,745
1957–58390,962444,391787,909
1958–59365,425432,261836,232
1959–60455,530425,868855,617
1960–61575,435509,9411,118,004

The principal items of expenditure in 1960–61 were £199,212 on education, £139,264 on health services, and £133,073 on public works. More detailed information in respect of the Cook Islands and Niue Island will be found in parliamentary paper A.3 for the year ended 31 March 1961.

NIUE: Descriptive — Niue Island, discovered by Captain Cook in 1774, became part of New Zealand in 1901, when the boundaries of New Zealand were extended to include the Cook Islands. As stated previously, Niue is part of the Cook Islands, but has been under separate administration since 1903. The island is situated in latitude 19° 02' south and longitude 169° 52' west, somewhat west of the centre of the irregular triangle formed by Samoa, Tonga, and the southern Cook Islands, and is 600 miles distant from the latter. The island, which has an area of 64,028 acres, is an elevated coral outcrop with a coral reef fringing a precipitous and broken coastline. The central saucer-shaped plateau, rising to a height of 220 ft, is encircled by a narrow terrace about 90 ft above sea level. There are no running streams, and the island is dependent on rainwater, which is stored in tanks. The soil, though fertile, is not plentiful, and this feature, combined with the rocky and broken nature of the country, makes cultivation difficult and has precluded the grazing of stock in the past, although some goats were recently introduced to provide milk. The climate is mild and equable, but the island is on the edge of the hurricane belt. (In February 1959 a hurricane struck the island and damage to administration buildings, houses, churches, crops, timber supplies, and personal possessions was estimated at £750,000, and a similar misfortune occurred in January 1960.) The mean annual temperature during the last 30 years was 76.6° F, and the average annual rainfall for a similar period was 79.4 in.

The port of Alofi has an open roadstead anchorage which is satisfactory in fair weather.

Administration — Provision for the administration of Niue is made in the Cook Islands Act 1915, which provides for the appointment of a Resident Commissioner charged with the administration of the executive government of Niue. Laws are made by Act of the New Zealand Parliament, or regulations issued thereunder, or by ordinance passed by the local Island Assembly. This body meets periodically under the presidency of the Resident Commissioner, and consists of up to 16 Niuean members appointed by the Governor-General, and representing all villages on the island.

Population and Vital Statistics — The Niuean is of Polynesian stock and the language a Polynesian dialect peculiar to the island, but closely related to that of Tonga, Samoa, and the Cook Islands. Population increase would be greater by 100 or more annually if it were not for the increasing emigration of Niueans to New Zealand. Totals of the 11 censuses taken since 11 June 1901 are as follows.

CensusPopulation
19024,079
19063,822
19113,943
19163,880
19213,750
19263,795
19364,104
19454,253
19514,553
19564,707
19614,868

In the population as at the census of 25 September 1961 there were 2,395 males and 2,468 females. There were 82 Europeans included.

The inhabitants are distributed amongst 12 villages, of which Alofi is the largest. The inhabitants of Niue are British subjects and New Zealand citizens.

For the calendar year 1960 births totalled 215 and deaths 40. There were 7 deaths of children under one year of age, the infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births being 33.3.

Health — Niue, although situated in the tropics, is largely free from diseases prevalent in tropical countries. An energetic tuberculosis campaign is being carried out by the Chief Medical Officer and his staff. The Niuean standard of general hygiene is very good by Pacific standards.

All medical and dental treatment, including hospital services, is provided free of charge to the inhabitants, the money for this expenditure being provided out of subsidies from the New Zealand Government. There is a Government hospital. Attached to the hospital is an outpatients department, X-ray unit, laboratory, and dispensary. The staff at December 1960 numbered 50.

The amounts expended on public health during the past five years were as follows.

Item1956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61
Amount expended£42,724£39,360£37,471£49,618£58,260
Population4,7074,7354,7184,7814,868
Amount per head of population£9 0s. 0d.£8 6s. 6d.£9 15s. 0d.£10 7s. 7d.£12 0s. 6d.

Education — The seven primary schools, the two post-primary classes, an accelerate class, and the side school (European and selected Niuean pupils) are all under the control of the Administration. The Education Department is controlled by the European Education Officer with a staff of seven European and 89 Niuean teachers.

The total number of children attending school in Niue at the end of 1960 was 1,178, and scholarship pupils attending school or receiving training in New Zealand numbered 24. Education is free and compulsory for those aged from six to 14 years

Labour and Employment — The only substantial employer of labour is the Administration, which employs Niueans in the Education, Police, Public Works, Transport, and other Departments, and in the loading or discharge of vessels. Apart from this, labour is engaged from time to time to prepare copra for shipment. During the last four years a large number of unskilled labourers has been employed on public works. The basic wage rates are 9s. 9d. per day for unskilled work, 1s. 6d. per hour for waterside work, and on a varying scale for other employment. There is no unemployment problem.

Agriculture — The Agriculture Department has now been functioning for over sue years. Before any actual plant improvements could be made it was necessary for soil studies to be made, pilot trials commenced, and for the Department to be organised and staff trained. Much of this had been achieved when the hurricane of February 1959 destroyed practically all existing trials and experiments.

The principal agricultural exports are copra, bananas, and kumeras. All the copra exported is grown by the Niueans, there being no European planters. Most copra is shipped under a contract with a New Zealand firm.

The extremely locky nature of the ground makes all agriculture difficult, as practically the whole of the arable land is confined to small pockets of soil among the coral rocks. Of the total area of some 65,000 acres, approximately 48,000 acres are more or less continuously cultivated, while some 8,000 acres are in forest. The remaining 9,000 acres are either in coastal forest and scrub, light forest, or heavy forest.

As the Niuean depends for his livelihood upon his family lands, alienation is prohibited, so that there are no landowners apart from the Niueans and the Administration.

Transport and Communication — There are no internal transport services. The transport of goods and produce to and from the port of Alofi is carried out by Administration and privately owned motor vehicles. There are some 72 miles of all-weather roads on the island.

At Alofi there is an open roadstead only, and cargo is handled by lighters.

Full postal services are provided at Alofi, where there is a Post Office Savings Bank. A single-line telephone system connects all villages on the island, and a radio station is maintained by the Administration for overseas communication.

Trade — During 1960 inward cargo totalled 4,782 tons, while outward cargo totalled 894 tons. As usual, the bulk of the trade was with New Zealand. During 1960 the coconut trees did not fully recover from the hurricanes of 1959 and 1960, and it was not expected that copra exports could be resumed before late 1961.

The values of exports and imports for the latest five years available are given below.

YearExportsImportsTotal Trade
 £££
195663,608162,739226,347
195758,667153,598212,265
195856,785152,107208,892
195925,753171,659197,412
196022,203232,413254,616

Exports of principal commodities over the latest five years were as follows.

Item19561957195819591960
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
  £ £ £ £ £
Copra (tons)83148,97874040,10471536,7601237,782
Bananas (cases)4,0704,0706,1246,4489881,0702392651,2991,413
Kumeras (bags)1902601,3771,6626,5285,7668,9108,9037,9539,739
Plaited ware...6,321...5,498...5,183...1,592...3,827
Principal exports...59,629 53,712...48,779...18,542...14,979
Total exports...63,608 58,667...56,785...25,753...22,203

The New Zealand Customs Tariff is in force, and there is free trade between the island and New Zealand. Local duties are, however, imposed on cotton piece goods, sugar, and twist tobaccos irrespective of country of origin.

Public Finance — Revenue on the island is raised principally from import and export duties, the sale of stamps and High Court fines. Local income tax is levied in accordance with the Income Tax Ordinance of 1961, and a poll tax of £1 a year is imposed on all Niuean males aged 18 years and over who are not liable for income tax.

Deficits are met by a subsidy from New Zealand. A comparative statement of revenue and expenditure during the latest five financial years is given in the following table.

YearRevenueExpenditureSubsidy
 £££
1956–57101,761243,951137,172
1957–58149,980284,632163,587
1958–59139,747297,831150,000
1959–60167,642418,837232,560
1960–61242,718481,013237,675

TOKELAU ISLANDS: Descriptive — Situated some 300 miles to the north of Western Samoa, between 8° and 10° south latitude and between 171° and 173° west longitude, are the three atoll islands of Atafu, Nukunono, and Fakaofo, of the Tokelau (Union) Group. A fourth island, Olosega, belonging to the United States of America and lying 100 miles to the south of Fakaofo, completes the group.

Each atoll is composed of a number of coral islets surrounding a central lagoon. These islets vary in size from 100 yards to 4 miles in length, while none is wider than 400 yards nor, with but few exceptions, higher than 10 ft above sea level. The land area of each atoll is approximately as follows: Fakaofo, 650 acres; Atafu, 500 acres; Nukunono, 1,350 acres. The atolls do not lie in close proximity, there being 40 miles of open sea between Fakaofo and Nukunono, and 57 miles between Nukunono and Atafu.

Owing to the absence of humus in the soil, the vegetation is practically restricted to coconut palms, although one islet of each atoll is reserved for growing the tauanave, or tausunu, a short stubby tree, which yields to the Tokelau Islanders their only timber for the construction of canoes and utensils.

The general isolation of the Tokelau Islands and the limited nature of the economy have combined to produce an extremely simple pattern of living and a stable society in which there is freedom from many social problems. The absence of such complicating factors as divergent economic interests, cultural differences, or racial conflict is conducive towards the maintenance of the present peaceful mode of Life and outlook. Village affairs are managed by the Council of Elders, comprising representatives of the families, and this body also exerts some influence over the “aumaga” or village labour force. In this way the traditional form of patriarchal authority has been preserved and regulates Tokelau society, performing a service alongside, and also in addition to, the public duties of government which are carried out by local officials such as the Faipule and the Pulenu'u.

Administration — The first recorded European discovery of the Tokelau Islands was made by Quiros, the Spanish Navigator, who in 1606 made a landfall at Olosega. In 1765 Atafu was discovered by Commodore Byron, R.N., and the islands were included under the protection of Great Britain in 1877. In J 916 the islands, at the request of the inhabitants, were formally annexed to Great Britain by an Order in Council, which also extended the boundaries of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony to include the Tokelau Group (then known as the Union Islands) and their dependencies. The group was governed by the High Commissioner for the Western Pacific and administered by the District Officer at Funafuti, in the Ellice Group. In 1925 the New Zealand Government, at the request of the British Government, agreed to administer the islands. By Order in Council the group was separated from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, and by a further Order in Council in the same year the Governor-General of New Zealand was empowered to make laws for its peace, order, and good government.

The Tokelau Nomenclature Ordinance 1946 officially fixed the name of the group, hitherto sometimes referred to as the Union Islands, as the Tokelau Islands or the Tokelau Islands Dependency.

By the Tokelau Islands Act 1948 the Tokelau Group was included within the territorial boundaries of New Zealand; legislative powers are now vested in the Governor-General in Council. The inhabitants of the Tokelau Islands are British subjects and New Zealand citizens.

There is no resident European administrative staff, but an administrative officer was appointed in 1955. He is based at Apia, Western Samoa, and coordinates administrative services for the group.

Population — The people, though closely allied to the Samoans, have not such a fine physique. Intermarriage with Gilbert and other Islanders has probably lessened the strain of pure Polynesian blood to a greater extent than in the case of the Samoans. On 25 September 1961 a census showed a total population of 1,870. The population was as follows.

IslandMalesFemalesTotal
Atafu265309574
Fakaofo358425783
Nukunono251262513
        Totals8749961,870

Health — Health services in the Tokelau Islands are organised and supervised from Apia, from where also the supplies are drawn. The incidence of disease in the islands is slight.

Three Samoan medical practitioners are stationed in the group. Other medical staff consists of staff nurses, nurses, and dressers, who obtain their training at Apia hospital in Western Samoa. In addition, each atoll has an active women's committee, and to these committees much credit is due for their work in village health and sanitation.

Education — There are now 17 trained Tokelau teachers in the group. All the necessary school equipment, stationery, and textbooks are supplied by the New Zealand Government; the schools also receive copies of the Samoan Teachers Monthly Guide and of Samoan and New Zealand School Journals. In addition, they are equipped with filmstrip projectors and also with radio sets so that the daily educational broadcasts of the Western Samoan Education Department may be utilised. The mission school on Nukunono is equipped by the New Zealand Government in a similar fashion to the schools of the other islands.

The rolls of the three schools in March 1961 were as follows: Fakaofo, 235; Atafu, 145; Nukunono, 150. In addition, a number of Tokelau children attend Government and mission schools in Western Samoa.

Communications — Visits to the islands are made at approximately three-monthly intervals by aircraft of the Royal New Zealand Air Force stationed at Lauthala Bay, Fiji. Trading visits are made at fairly regular intervals by a vessel chartered by the Western Samoa Trust Estates Corporation.

Radiotelegraph receivers and transmitters are operated on each atoll, being housed in small radiotelegraph station buildings. In addition, receiving sets are installed in all villages and enable the people to listen to broadcasts from the Apia broadcasting station.

Trade and Finance — The quantity of copra shipped for the year ended 31 March 1961 amounted to 220 tons. Apart from copra the only exports are handicrafts.

Revenue is derived principally from export duty on copra. Customs duty of 12 1/2 per cent ad valorem on all goods entering the islands, trading profits, and the sale of postage stamps. Revenue for the year 1960 was £37,948 (including subsidy from New Zealand) and expenditure £37,948.

Under the Tokelau Islands Copra Regulations 1952 a Copra Stabilisation Fund was established by a levy on purchases of copra for export, and is used to supplement the prices received by the producers, or by the purchasers on resale after export, as may be necessary from time to time. At 31 March 1961 there was £6,481 in the fund.

CHATHAM ISLANDS — The Chatham Islands, which are composed of one main island, three small islands, and numerous reefs and islets within a radius of 30 miles, lie 467 nautical miles east of Lyttelton, and have an area of 372 square miles. There are approximately 500 people on the islands, which are part of New Zealand proper, being attached to the Lyttelton Electorate for Europeans and to the Western Maori Electorate for Maori electors.

The islands were constituted a county in 1901, but the first council was not elected until 1925. The council obtains its revenue not from rates, but from import and export duties. The revenue of the county council from this source for the year ended 31 March 1961 amounted to £10,256.

There is a cottage hospital at Waitangi, the main settlement and port of entry, and schools at Te Kairakau, Te Ore, Owenga, and Kaingaroa.

The island's major industry is sheep farming, there being no dairy farming. Some cattle are exported, but the islander's greatest source of revenue comes from the export of sheep and wool. For the year ended March 1961, 14,672 sheep and 3,402 bales of wool were exported. Imports totalled 1,297 tons.

Flying boats have been chartered from time to time as found necessary to transport passengers to and from New Zealand. There is an irregular shipping service for the greater part of the year. Internal communications are not good, road work being made difficult and expensive by the extensive peat swamps. There are six party-telephone lines on the island. Isolated sheep stations maintain contact with the radio station at Waitangi by means of radiotelephones. A radiotelephone service was established with New Zealand early in 1953.

ROSS DEPENDENCY: Descriptive — The Ross Dependency comprises the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160° east and 150° west longitude, together with the islands lying between those degrees of longitude and south of latitude 60° south.

Within these boundaries there are an estimated 160,000–175,000 square miles of land and 130,000 square miles of permanent ice shelf. The land is virtually entirely covered by ice, but has bases inhabited by scientific personnel.

Administration — By Order in Council of 30 July 1923 under the British Settlements Act 1887 (Imp.). the territories of the Ross Dependency were brought within the jurisdiction of the New Zealand Government. From time to time laws for the Dependency have been made by regulations promulgated by the Governor-General of New Zealand.

Administrative powers are vested in the Governor-General of New Zealand, and administrative officers (commonly referred to as Administrators) have been appointed from time to time since 1923. In 1956 a Deputy Administrator was also appointed, and other officers were given the powers of Stipendiary Magistrate, coroner, and postmaster.

The New Zealand Geographic Board, which is the place-names authority for the Ross Dependency, has published a provisional Gazetteer of the Ross Dependency.

The New Zealand Government decided that the New Zealand bases in the Ross Dependency would continue to be operated after the conclusion of the International Geophysical Year. In March 1958 the Government appointed the Ross Dependency Research Committee to coordinate and supervise all New Zealand activity in the Ross Dependency, with particular reference to the scientific and technical programme.

The functions of the Committee are:

  1. To advise the Minister in Charge of Scientific and Industrial Research on the organisation and administration of New Zealand activity in the Ross Dependency;

  2. To present an annual report to the Minister in Charge of Scientific and Industrial Research;

  3. To coordinate and supervise all New Zealand activity in the Ross Dependency with particular reference to the scientific and technical programme;

  4. To coordinate New Zealand activity with that of other countries operating in Antarctica and, in particular, with any expeditions of such countries operating in the Ross Dependency;

  5. To coordinate the publication and dissemination of the results of scientific research and investigation and the custody of records.

The implementation of the approved programme is the responsibility of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, in which an Antarctic Division has been formed to undertake this task. The specific functions of the Division are:

  1. To be responsible for the execution and operation of Antarctic activities undertaken by the New Zealand Government;

  2. To supervise approved non-Government expeditions to the Antarctic;

  3. To maintain an information centre on Antarctic exploration and scientific research.

Responsibility for coordinating the scientific details of the approved programme, the procurement of scientific equipment and spares, and the working-up of scientific data has been delegated as follows: Meteorology, Director, New Zealand Meteorological Service; Survey and Maps, Surveyor-General, Department of Lands and Survey; Geology and Glaciology, Director, Geological Survey; Special Upper Atmosphere Investigations and Aurora, Director, Dominion Physical Laboratory; Semiology, Geomagnetism, Ionosphere, Director, Geophysics Division; Oceanography, Director, Oceanographic Institute; Biology, Director, Dominion Museum.

Outside the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, several Government Departments provide important aid to New Zealand Antarctic activities. Until 1960–61 the Royal New Zealand Navy operated ships for the annual relief of Scott Base and for oceanographic surveys. The Post Office provides assistance on communication matters and by the secondment of staff. The Meteorological Service, Dominion Museum, and Department of Lands and Survey participate in the programme. The last-named provides surveyors and publishes all maps. The Army and Air Departments, and the Marine Department assist in numerous ways, particularly with the secondment of staff. The Victoria University of Wellington and the University of Canterbury, Christchurch, are active participants in Antarctic work. Their projects are coordinated through the Ross Dependency Research Committee and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

Non-Government expeditions from New Zealand to the Antarctic are authorised by the Minister for Scientific and Industrial Research after prior examination by the Ross Dependency Research Committee as to their scientific worth, the competence of the members of the expedition to accomplish the objectives, the adequacy of the logistic arrangements, etc.

New Zealand's international relations on Antarctic affairs are conducted at the political level by the Department of External Affairs. Whilst scientific contact with other countries and institutions engaged in Antarctic research is maintained at all levels, the primary channel is the Ross Dependency Research Committee.

Exploration — Various expeditions have operated within the area of the Dependency since the coastline was explored by Sir James Ross in 1841. In the twentieth century British and American explorers have investigated parts of the territory, but much still remains to be done.

In December 1956 a New Zealand expedition under the leadership of Sir Edmund Hillary sailed for McMurdo Sound in HMNZS Endeavour. In January 1957 Scott Base was established near Cape Armitage on Ross Island. The purpose of the expedition was twofold: to take part in the crossing of the continent from the Weddell Sea to Scott Base by the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition, and to participate in the Antarctic programme of the International Geophysical Year. During the early months of 1957 the expedition was successful in finding a route and setting up depots across the Ross Ice Shelf and up the Skelton Glacier to the Polar Plateau.

In the summer of 1957–58 the expedition explored a route farther south and established depots for the use of the crossing party of the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition. Sir Edmund Hillary and four other New Zealanders reached the South Pole on 3 January 1958. The crossing of the continent was successfully achieved on 20 March 1958 when Sir Vivian Fuchs' party leached Scott Base. Further reference to these activities is made in Appendix (d) of the 1958 Yearbook, which also includes maps of the Ross Dependency.

Scientific Programme — For the purposes of the International Geophysical Year a joint New Zealand — United States scientific station, known as Hallett Station, was established at Cape Hallett in January 1957. Throughout the International Geophysical Year New Zealand maintained at Scott Base and Hallett Station a scientific programme in close accord with the aims and objects of the IGY. (References to these activities are contained in Appendix (d) of the 1958 Yearbook.) With the conclusion of the IGY synoptic and intensive programme of regular observations, and the widening scope of Antarctic research, the Ross Dependency Research Committee formulates each year a programme for scientific work at the bases.

Since 1957, at Scott Base, regular observations have been undertaken in seismology, geomagnetism, ionosphere, meteorology, aurora, and glaciology. Special research programmes have been carried out on “Whistlers” and associated phenomena, and on the D-region of the ionosphere. Sea-level recordings have also been made. At Hallett Station, which is a joint United States — New Zealand base, New Zealand scientists have conducted a programme in aurora, geomagnetism, ionosphere, and seismology, New Zealand in alternate years supplying the leader of the scientific staff. During the summers of 1958–59 and 1959–60 the regular programme was amplified by:

Geological and mapping surveys south of Scott Base and in the McMurdo Sound region, with air support in 1959–60 by the reactivated RNZAF Antarctic Flight. The completion of this survey network will make possible the construction of a detailed map from aerial photographs.

Parties from the Victoria University of Wellington working in the dry valley areas of Victoria Land, making a geological and topographical survey and carrying out meteorological and biological work and gravity observations.

Oceanographic cruises by HMNZS Endeavour between New Zealand and the Antarctic continent and between New Zealand and Macquarie Island, involving hydrological and geological work, as well as seismic and magnetic surveys.

Biological work at Cape Royds and at Scott Base, and by scientists travelling on HMNZS Endeavour, with special emphasis on the study of seals, skua gulls, and Adelie penguins.

In 1959–60 an eight-man New Zealand Alpine Club expedition, with a strong nucleus of scientists, worked in the area east of the Beardmore Glacier.

In 1959–60 a party of two scientists of the Soil Bureau investigated the soil potentialities of the McMurdo Sound area.

For the 1960–61 summer the principal activities in addition to the regular scientific programme at Scott Base were:

  1. Geological and topographical survey work by two four-man teams using dogs, in the coastal section of Victoria Land between Byrd Glacier and Barne Inlet in the north and Nimrod Glacier and Shackleton Inlet in the south. Owing to the loss of a snocat and a Beaver aircraft in the 1959–60 season, the expedition relied on United States air support to get the teams into the field and to provide the necessary support.

  2. Investigation of the Koettlitz area by a Victoria University of Wellington expedition of five men. Flown in by U.S. helicopter, the men backpacked their equipment from camp to camp. The geology and glaciology of the area was investigated, gravimetric traverses completed, and meteorological readings taken.

  3. Biological studies by two men at Cape Adare, Hallett Station, and Cape Royds, continuing the studies commenced in previous seasons on population and breeding cycles of skuas and penguins.

  4. Huts restoration. Seven men restored the Shackleton hut at Cape Royds and the Scott hut at Cape Evans as nearly as possible to the appearance they had when occupied by the early explorers. At Cape Evans this involved the removal of 250 cu. yd. of ice, and resulted in the finding of innumerable articles of clothing, etc., and a number of documents of historical interest which have been forwarded to the Scott Polar Research Institute in England.

  5. Oceanographic surveys from HMNZS Endeavour and USS Edisto in McMurdo Sound, in the western and north-western parts of the Ross Sea and the approaches to Cape Hallett; also from USS Wilhoite on station between New Zealand and the Antarctic continent. A party of five made a three-month investigation of the currents and hydrology, and of the ice cover and ice movements in McMurdo Sound, including measurements at hydro holes dug through the sea ice to the west and south of Cape Armitage.

For the 1961–62 summer a similar programme of field work was followed.

Whaling — To date there has been little development of the economic resources of the territory, and commercial activity has been restricted to whaling.

Regulations dated 24 October 1929 prohibit whaling in the territorial waters of the Ross Dependency without a licence. New Zealand is a member of the International Whaling Commission, the purpose of which is to enforce conservation of whale stocks.

NAURU — Nauru Island is about half a degree below the equator and lies 166° 56' east of Greenwich. It is an elevated island about 3 1/2 miles long and 2 1/2 miles wide, with a circumference of 12 miles, and an area of 5,263 acres. With the exception of a narrow coastal belt favourable for the growth of coconuts, and of a brackish lagoon, the island consists of phosphate deposits overlying a bed of coralliferous limestone. The island is completely surrounded by a coral reef, and beyond the reef the sea bed slopes sharply downwards at an angle of 45°. These two factors, together with the presence of the strong equatorial current of 2 knots, materially affect the shipping facilities of the island. The fact that the island lies in the latitude of the easterly trade winds, which blow from nine to 10 months of the year, is also significant, since it explains the comparative absence of rainfall, a condition necessary for the existence of phosphate deposits. Before the Japanese occupied it on 26 August 1942, the Island of Nauru was administered under a mandate, dated 17 December 1919, approved by the League of Nations. This mandate was held jointly by the Governments of Australia, Great Britain, and New Zealand, and by a mutual agreement the administration v/as in practice left to the Australian Government. On 13 September 1945 the Japanese garrison on the island surrendered, and civil administration was re-established on 1 November 1945. Nauru was brought under the International Trusteeship system by a trusteeship agreement which was approved by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 1 November 1947. The Governments of Australia, New Zealand, and Britain were designated as the joint Administering Authority, and it was agreed that the Australian Government should continue to administer the island on their behalf.

In 1951 an ordinance provided for the abolition of the Nauruan Council of Chiefs, a body established by custom, and the creation of a Nauruan Local Government Council. The latter council is composed of nine Nauruans elected by all Nauruans, male or female, who are over 21 years of age. Voting is by secret ballot, and a preferential system of voting is employed. The council is an advisory body which, subject to the Administrator's approval, may make rules covering certain specified subjects.

The mining rights are vested in the British Phosphate Commissioners, subject to the rights of the Nauruan landowners, and the deposits, as well as those on Ocean Island, about 165 miles to the east of Nauru, are worked by the Commissioners. The royalty payable on phosphate shipments to or on behalf of the Nauruans for 1960–61 amounted to £A239,847. Administrative expenses are covered by direct payments by the Commissioners. These amounted to £A486,214 for 1960–61.

The deposits do not appear to be simple guano, and some authorities consider them to be of a marine sedimentary origin raised from the sea bed and subjected to weathering. From the point of view of phosphate manufacture the deposits are of a very high grade, exports averaging 85.4 per cent tricalcic phosphate and 3.4 per cent calcium carbonate. Owing to the uneven nature of the outcrops of coralliferous limestone the extent of the deposits cannot be measured accurately, but it is estimated that there are between 65 and 70 million tons of phosphate rock available.

Of the 1,338,681 tons of phosphate exported in 1960–61 Australia received 783,100 tons and New Zealand 365,300 tons; the remainder was exported to the United Kingdom.

The following table shows the population of Nauru for the five latest years.

Group19561957195819591960
* Includes 784 Gilbert and Ellice Islanders employed under contract by the British Phosphate Commissioners.
Nauruans1,9762,0932,1582,1962,409
Immigrants—
    European286373363382324
    Chinese696732654712712
    Other Pacific Islands9351,1051,133*9741,094
            Total population3,8934,3034,3084,2644,539

Revenue and expenditure and trade of the Nauru Administration for five years are given in the following table in Australian currency.

YearRevenueExpenditureExportsImports
 ££££
1956–57218,916302,3492,236,8081,170,218
1957–58352,656357,3962,421,898971,029
1958–59350,344357,7592,492,3611,013,674
1959–60438,246408,9062,823,9401,342,201
1960–61490,233486,2142,945,0981,463,236

Imports consist almost entirely of food supplies and of machinery for the working of the phosphate deposits.

Chapter 39. Section 39 TOURIST INDUSTRY

Table of Contents

NEW ZEALAND'S TOURIST INDUSTRY — New Zealand has rightly been described as “the world's most exciting travel package”. With features such as the amazing thermal areas, magnificent lakes and fiords, glaciers, alpine regions, and unrivalled hunting, fishing, and other sporting opportunities, New Zealand combines in a comparatively small area a host, of attractions, each one of which has made some other country famous. In addition to these natural attractions, the dignity and charm of the Maori race provides a cultural attraction which is unique to New Zealand.

In spite of these many and diverse attractions, for many years New Zealand remained beyond the reach of most potential tourists. Infrequent transport services and the time and cost involved in getting here often made the trip prohibitive. However, over recent years there have been spectacular changes. Increased and faster snipping services, the phenomenal patronage of air transport, and the more recent introduction of “time payment” travel has brought New Zealand within comparatively easy reach. Auckland is now only 27 hours by air from London or 22 hours by air from New York.

Improvements in transport services have not only increased the number of tourists coming to New Zealand, they have also extended the markets from which tourists are attracted.

Visitor Arrivals and Receipts from Travel — There were 77,310 visitors to New Zealand in the year ended 31 March 1961. It is estimated that the expenditure of overseas visitors amounted to £5,463,000 in that year. This excludes receipts from fares, £144,000, and expenditure by crews of visiting ships. Crew numbers are excluded from the visitor total. Crew numbers have risen from 47,499 in the March year 1950 to 100,190 in the year ended 31 March 1961.

Year Ended 31 MarchLong-stay Visitor ArrivalsShort-stay Visitor Arrivals*Total Visitor ArrivalsReserve Bank Travel ReceiptsEstimated Visitor Expenditure
* Through passengers and tourists on cruise ships.
    £(000)£(000)
195116,4342,92319,3571,2002,038
195217,1502,74419,8941,4712,119
195318,6655,64524,3101,6862,345
195419,5067,44826,9541,6062,471
195521,94611,00532,9511,9502,817
195623,6798,26431,9432,3962,988
195727,97920,71848,6973,1553,677
195829,77231,46861,2403,4714,041
195931,17326,04557,2183,0104,140
196036,55735,63772,1943,2644,923
196140,92436,38677,3103,7595,463

In general, short-stay tourists do not stay for more than three days in New Zealand, therefore the travel receipts are derived mainly from long-stay visitor arrivals. In the years ended March 1957 and March 1958 abnormal receipts were derived from visitor movements caused by the Olympic Games in Australia and international meetings in New Zealand such as the International Jaycee Conference, the Boy Scout Jamboree, and the International Geophysical Year. The fall-off in short-stay visitors from 31,468 in the 1958 March year to 26,045 in the 1959 March year and the reduction in immigration from 26,254 to 24,852 over the same period accentuated the fall in receipts, since a small amount of travellers' cheques cashed by immigrants and through passengers is credited to travel receipts.

Receipts from travel for the year ended March 1961 were £3,759,292, and represented an increase of £495,537, or 15.2 per cent, on the previous year.

Country or AreaYear Ended 31 MarchIncrease
19601961ActualPercentage
 £££per cent
Canada63,94459,835−4,109−6.4
United States550,976737,255186,279+33.8
Other non-sterling47,26227,057−20,205−42.8
                    Totals662,182824,147161,965+24.5
United Kingdom991,6511,079,59687,945+8.9
Australia1,518,0461,699,749181,703+ 12.0
Other sterling91,876155,80063,924+70.0
                    Totals2,601,5732,935,145333,572+ 12.8
          Grand totals3,263,7553,759,292495,537+ 15.2

For the year ended March 1961 total receipts from the non-sterling area rose by 24.5 per cent to £824,147, an increase of £161,965 on the previous year. While the percentage increase in sterling area receipts (12.8 per cent) was much lower than for the non-sterling area (24.5 per cent), the increase in Australian receipts of £181,703 was nevertheless substantial.

Countries of Origin — The countries or areas of origin of all long-stay visitors to New Zealand during the years ended 31 March 1960 and 1961 are given in the following table. Increases are also given.

Country or AreaYear Ended 31 MarchIncrease
19601961NumberPer Cent
* Includes Middle Eastern countries.
Australia17,56919,6412,07211.8
United Kingdom4,1994,4842856.8
Canada926975495.3
Pacific Isles (Br.)3,3283,87354516.4
Other Commonwealth countries1,3221,274−48−3.6
United States6,4027,8711,46923.0
Other European countries*1,4681,461−7−0.5
Other countries1,3431,34520.0
Totals36,55740,9244,36711.9

Traditionally Australia has always been the major source of tourists but other areas are now gaining in relative importance, notably the United States, as can be seen in the following table giving percentage distribution according to country of origin for long-stay visitors.

March YearAustraliaUnited KingdomCanadaUnited StatesOthersTotal
195061142617100
195559132818100
1960481131820100
1961481121920100

In 1955–56, 14,254 Australians constituted 61 per cent of all long-stay visitors, but, although by March 1961 their number had increased to 19,641, they represented only 48 per cent of all long-stay visitors. In the same period the number of United States long-stay visitors has increased from 1,950 to 7,871, and their proportion of the market from 8 to 19 per cent. The growth in visitor arrivals from the United States has been rapid since the year ended March 1956. Prior to that year a slow rate of growth had been maintained.

The influx of United States visitors since 1956 is attributable mainly to the growth in the number of cruise ships in the Pacific area. The surge of through-passenger arrivals from 1956 onwards is a measure of the greater availability of berths to New Zealand.

Length of Stay of Tourists in New Zealand — Of the 36,557 long-stay visitors (excluding through passengers) who arrived in New Zealand in the year ended March 1960, 24,794 classified themselves as tourists. The tourists alone, according to their stated intended length of stay, spent approximately 1,229,000 days in New Zealand. In addition, 11,763 other long-stay visitors stayed an estimated 623,400 days in New Zealand. The 35,637 through passengers also spent from one to three days in this country, making the total length of stay in New Zealand for these classes of arrivals almost 2,000,000 days.

The average intended length of stay stated by the tourist on arrival is given in the following table.

Country of OriginYear Ended 31 March
19591960
 days
United Kingdom7676 (49)
Australia4944 (37)
United States3127 (21)
Canada6751 (34)
        All countries5754 (38)

The figures in parentheses give the average intended length of stay for tourists staying less than four months in New Zealand; 86.7 per cent of all tourists intended to stay for less than four months in New Zealand and the average intended length of stay of these persons was 38 days.

Ports of Arrival in New Zealand and Seasonality — The ports of arrival for long-stay and short-stay visitors to New Zealand are given below for the years ended 31 March 1960 and 1961.

Port of ArrivalLong-stay VisitorsShort-stay VisitorsTotal Visitors
1959–601960–611959–601960–611959–601960–61
* Flights were resumed from Australia to Wellington in June 1960.
Auckland: Air16,75818,0921,23697617,99419,068
Auckland: Sea7,6886,88426,22622,32533,91429,209
Totals24,44624,97627,46223,30151,90848,277
Wellington: Air*3,7223,722
Wellington Sea4,5864,2067,29312,03611,87916,242
Totals4,5867,9287,29312,03611,87919,964
Christchurch: Air6,6277,4706,6277,470
Lyttelton: Sea473468473468
Dunedin: Sea1111
Other425718821,0491,3071,120
          Grand totals36,55740,92435,63736,38672,19477,310

Auckland is the main port of arrival and receives over 62 per cent of all visitors including through passengers. This influx causes a high demand for hotel accommodation in Auckland.

An analysis of the distribution pattern shows that the majority of the visitors arrive in the period from October to February, as is shown in the following table for the year ended 31 March 1961.

Month of ArrivalLong-stay VisitorsMonthly Index No.Short-stay VisitorsMonthly Index No.Total VisitorsMonthly Index No.
April2,45340 (41)2,15129 (53)4,60437 (51)
May1,78329 (29)2,32632 (71)4,10933 (51)
June1,56825 (25)2,01227 (99)3,58028 (62)
July1,59926 (28)2,24030 (71)3,83931 (51)
August1,94432 (33)1,99527 (40)3,93931 (39)
September2,87447 (54)1,78024 (69)4,65437 (66)
October3,86263 (62)4,28058 (49)8,14265 (62)
November3,95264 (65)2,21130 (78)6,16349 (77)
December6,159100 (100)4,01855 (79)10,17781 (99)
January5,21385 (81)7,359100 (84)12,572100 (90)
February5,17184 (85)3,58849 (100)8,75970 (100)
March4,34671 (73)2,42633 (69)6,77254 (78)
Totals40,924 36,386 77,310 

The monthly index number gives the monthly total of arrivals as a percentage of the peak month. The previous year's index number is given in parentheses.

Arrivals are highest in December (10,177) and January (12,572) and these arrivals, taken in conjunction with the demand arising from the New Zealand summer holiday period, impose a strain on available hotel accommodation during these months. There is a growing tendency for through passengers to make overland trips if the ship calls at, say, Auckland and Wellington. This means that hotels at inland centres benefit from the provision of accommodation to coach parties, who may spend from two to four days travelling overland.

Hotel Accommodation in New Zealand — In New Zealand hotels aim at providing good food and comfortable living, rather than the extra luxury services that are features of some American and Continental hotels.

Few New Zealand hotels have more than 100 rooms. In the main cities some provide a private bathroom or shower and toilet with every bedroom. Smaller hotels which have been recently built in secondary centres close to tourist resorts also have these facilities.

Most of the other hotels have a proportion of bedrooms with private bath and toilet attached, and many have telephones in bedrooms. All leading hotels have good furnishings that are comfortable and pleasing rather than ostentatious. At tourist resorts the leading tourist hotels offer good standards of accommodation and service.

Overseas visitors will find New Zealand hotel tariffs reasonable. In a top-grade hotel a room with bath and toilet (all meals included) costs about 65s. (about $9,00) a day. Rooms without private bathrooms range from 40s. ($5,00) a day. These tariffs are liable to alterations.

As in other parts of the world, reservations, especially at the main scenic areas, are often difficult to obtain if early application is not made. It is advisable, therefore, to arrange for reservations well ahead of the proposed visit to avoid possible disappointment.

Tourist Hotels — Since its inception the Tourist Department operated hotels and ancillary services at national tourist resorts. In the main, these hotels are situated in national parks or scenic reserves, whose administration, until the National Parks Act 1952, was the responsibility of the Department. Control of these hotels passed to the Tourist Hotel Corporation in 1956.

Tourist hotels are situated at the following places:

 
North Island
Lake House, Waikaremoana
Chateau Tongariro
Waitomo
Wairakei
Tokaanu
South Island
Hermitage, Mount Cook
Eichardt's, Queenstown
Te Anau
Milford

In December 1958 there were 131 licensed hotels of tourist-class standard with a capacity of 6,765 beds throughout the country. Since that time a number of new hotels have been brought into operation and other major hotels are now in the planning stage. New tourist hotels are to be constructed near the Franz Josef Glacier and at Wanaka. These hotels will provide 60 beds each initially. A new wing, accommodating 42 guests, has been completed at the Hermitage, Mt. Cook.

The Government's intention is to introduce a mortgage guarantee scheme to encourage private enterprise to provide more hotel accommodation where existing facilities are either unsatisfactory or insufficient to meet the demand.

Climate — The summer season, which is the peak time for tourist travel, comes at the opposite time of the year to that of the Northern Hemisphere. The seasons are:

Summer: December (59.2°), January (61.3°), February (61.3°).

Autumn: March (58.8°), April (54.4°), May (49.0°).

Winter: June (44.8°), July (43.6°), August (45.4°).

Spring: September (48.8°), October (52.6°), November (55.8°).

The average temperature for each month in degrees Fahrenheit is given in brackets.

With no violent summer or winter extremes, special clothing is not required for a visit to New Zealand. The relatively even temperatures make most of New Zealand's tourist centres “all the year round” holiday resorts.

Transport — All main cities, secondary centres, and tourist resorts are linked by road or rail services running to regular and frequent schedules and there are extensive internal air services. Rail travel is comfortable. Fast diesel railcars have been introduced on most main routes. Dining or buffet facilities are not provided on the trains, but refreshments are obtainable during conveniently placed stops at stations. Modern motor coaches run on long-distance road services, and luxury limousines are available for personally conducted tours.

The New Zealand National Airways Corporation operates an efficient internal air service which links the leading cities and secondary centres and also some of the tourist resorts. Meals and refreshments are not usually served in the air because of the relatively short journeys, but there are cafeterias at the air centres. Vickers Viscount and Fokker Friendship aircraft operate between the main cities. There are also several privately owned scenic and charter air services. South Pacific Airlines of New Zealand Ltd. now offers an ‘All Air Round New Zealand’ tour which gives the passengers an opportunity of landing at scenic spots.

The North and South Islands are linked by a 174 nautical mile steamer express service which operates nightly, except Sundays, between Wellington and Lyttelton, the port for Christchurch. There is also a steamer service across Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton, which is situated at the north end of the South Island.

Inter-Island traffic will receive a boost when the new car and passenger ferry comes into operation between Wellington and Picton in 1962. In conjunction with this, a new scenic road is being driven down the West Coast of the South Island. When completed in 1964 the new road will enable tourists to make a circular tour of the South Island viewing the alps, lakes, fiords, and glaciers which abound in this region.

Shopping — New Zealand shops are well stocked, both with imported lines and locally manufactured goods. Clothing costs are relatively sightly higher than in the United Kingdom; most foodstuffs are relatively cheaper.

Souvenirs — Attractive jewellery is made from the highly polished blue-green shell of the paua, a large shellfish similar to the North American abalone. Set in silver, paua-shell jewellery makes pleasing and distinctive mementos.

A type of jade, known in New Zealand as greenstone, has been for centuries the material out of which the Maori carved his ornaments and weapons. The quaint little tiki, featured on the New Zealand halfpenny, is often fashioned into attractive brcoches, tiepins, and earrings.

New Zealand has many attractive woods, which are also made into interesting souvenirs. The Maori people are outstanding wood carvers, and beautifully ornamented objects, often inlaid with paua shell, are obtainable.

As a leading wool-producing country, New Zealand has a large woollen goods manufacturing industry. Fine locally manufactured travelling rugs (car robes) make useful souvenirs. New Zealand knitwear — sweaters, scarves, etc. — are attractive.

Cigarettes and Tobacco — New Zealand and English cigarettes are obtainable, but American cigarettes are not available.

Sporting AttractionsAngling — Most rivers, streams, and lakes in the country contain trout. The best area is that from Lake Taupo to Lake Rotorua in the North Island. Rainbow trout predominate, and the average weight is between 5 and 10 lb. There are numerous fishing lodges to cater for enthusiasts. The brown trout provides outstanding angling in the South Island. Quinnat salmon have been successfully introduced in the large glacier-fed rivers of the South Island. Atlantic salmon are found in the Waiau River system, particularly at the outlets of Lakes Te Anau and Manapouri.

Big-game Fishing — The warm waters off the eastern shores of North Auckland and in the Bay of Plenty are New Zealand's deep-sea fishing grounds. Swordfish, black and striped marlin, broadbill, hammerhead, mako, and thresher shark are the principal game fish. The main bases are at Otehei Bay and Russell. Other centres are Whangaroa, Whangarei, Whitianga, and Tauranga.

Ski-ing — New Zealand has good ski-ing grounds, both in the North and South Islands. Mt. Ruapehu is the main centre in the North Island. Skis and all necessary equipment can be hired from the Chateau Tongariro tourist hotel at the foot of the mountain. There are also good ski-ing slopes at Mt. Egmont in Taranaki.

In the South Island the Hermitage Hotel at Mt. Cook on the eastern slopes of the Southern Alps is an important ski-ing centre. The other major ski-ing area in the South Island is at Coronet Peak near Queenstown.

Hunting — Deer have become so numerous in New Zealand that they are classed as pests and can be shot all the year round. Some of the best deerstalking in the world can be found in the New Zealand forests. In the South Island deer are often found in the less accessible areas, such as Fiordland and on the higher slopes of the Southern Alps. This is the only region in the world where that and chamois trophies can be obtained. In the North Island conditions are easier, and the sport is becoming increasingly popular in the Rotorua-Taupo area.

A brief description of the scenic attractions in New Zealand is to be found in the 1955 Yearbook, and the 1960 Yearbook contains a pictorial supplement entitled “Scenic New Zealand”.

Early History of the Tourist and Publicity Department — The Tourist and Publicity Department, established in 1901, was originally known as the Department of Tourist and Health Resorts. Its objectives were to provide facilities which would enable New Zealanders to enjoy the scenic and recreational resources of their own country and to develop overseas tourist traffic to and through New Zealand.

Tourist bureaus were opened in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill in 1902, and in 1911 the first overseas offices were established in Sydney and Melbourne. Bureaus are now sited in Auckland, Te Aroha, Rotorua, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill. There are also a further 21 agencies in other parts of New Zealand. Overseas offices are situated in Sydney, Melbourne, London, San Francisco, and New York.

Organisation of the Department — The Department now consists of a Tourist Division responsible to the Minister in Charge of Tourist and Health Resorts and a Publicity Division responsible to the Minister of Publicity and Information. The Permanent Head of both Divisions is the General Manager of the Tourist and Publicity Department. The Head Office in Wellington provides accounting, staff, and staff training services for both Divisions and administrative and promotional services for its offices and agencies in New Zealand and overseas. The Publicity Division consists of three sections:

  1. The Information Section, which provides editorial and public relations services to the Government and to most Government Departments and initiates and supplies New Zealand publicity of all kinds for use within New Zealand and overseas.

  2. The National Publicity Studios, which combine photographic, artistic, design, display, modelling, workshop. and other services necessary for a wide range of publications, exhibitions, displays, and posters.

  3. The National Film Unit, which produces news and feature films covering all aspects of New Zealand. Many of its films are made for purely tourist publicity purposes and these are widely distributed overseas.

Facilities Offered by the Tourist Department — The Department operates a comprehensive travel service and provides reservation of accommodation; bookings for seats on trains, service cars, aircraft, and inter-Island steamers, and hire of taxis. Officers of the Department meet overseas vessels and aircraft to help tourists clear their luggage through Customs and to aid them with travel arrangements. Individual tours can be arranged down to the last detail. Conducted party tours are available for those who prefer to travel in groups. Private motor tours and “drive yourself” tours can also be provided. New Zealand was the first country in the world to develop a complete Government-owned travel service, in addition to the normal function of publicising New Zealand as a tourist resort.

Association with Other Organisations — New Zealand is a member of the International Union of Official Travel Organisations, an association whose principal aims are to ease travel difficulties and obstacles and promote travel research. New Zealand sent observers to its annual conferences from 1946 to 1948 and became a member in 1949.

New Zealand is a foundation member of the Pacific Area Travel Association, which was formed in 1952 as a tourist promotional body for the Pacific area. Two of the Association's conferences have been held in this country — one in 1954 and another in Christchurch in February 1960.

The Tourist Department is also a member of the New Zealand Travel and Holidays Association an organisation representing private travel interests in New Zealand.

Chapter 40. Section 40 MISCELLANEOUS

ART GALLERIES AND MUSEUMS — New Zealand art galleries and museums follow progressive modern lines in endeavouring to cater for a wide range of artistic and scientific interests. While one of their primary aims is to feature New Zealand material, their collections, particularly those of the larger centres, include overseas subjects.

The principal public art galleries and museums include the following: Auckland Institute and Museum; Auckland Art Gallery; Waikato Art Gallery, Hamilton; Gisborne Art Gallery and Museum; Hawke's Bay Art Gallery and Museum, Napier; Taranaki Museum, New Plymouth; Wanganui Public Museum; Sargeant Art Gallery, Wanganui; Dominion Museum and National Art Gallery, Wellington; Nelson Museum; Bishop Suter Art Gallery, Nelson; Canterbury Museum, Christchurch; Robert McDougall Art Gallery, Christchurch; South Canterbury Historical Museum, Timaru; Otago Museum, Dunedin; Dunedin Public Art Gallery, Dunedin; and Southland Museum, Invercargill.

New Zealand museums are particularly rich in New Zealand Maori and related Polynesian material. While the chief activities and qualifications of staff in New Zealand museums have in the past lain in the fields of natural history and Maori ethnology, in recent years they have had to take increasing responsibility for historical and technological material.

A steady increase in the artistic achievement of New Zealand artists progressively enriches the collections of New Zealand art galleries. In the art field the broadening of collections by the acquisition of more overseas material is a need which is engaging the attention of New Zealand's art galleries. The same need in the field of natural history, archaeology, and history is increasingly the concern of New Zealand museums.

While no uniform pattern for the control and financing of New Zealand's art galleries and museums applies, they are for the most part run by boards deriving their funds from bequests, local authority grants, public subscriptions, and donations. The Dominion Museum and National Art Gallery have for a number of years received a substantial Government subsidy.

International cooperation in the featuring in New Zealand of overseas exhibitions and in overseas countries of New Zealand exhibitions has been characteristic over recent years of the progressive policies of New Zealand's art galleries and museums.

LITERARY AND OTHER CULTURAL AWARDS AND GRANTS — A number of cultural awards and grants are available in New Zealand.

The literary field includes the following:

  1. New Zealand Literary Fund — This fund is financed by a yearly appropriation on the vote of the Department of Internal Affairs, the amount in recent years being £2,000. Assistance from the fund is granted by the Minister of Internal Affairs, who is advised by the Literary Fund Advisory Committee. The approved categories of assistance are: (1) Grants towards the publishing costs (or by other appropriate means) to enable the publication of writing of literary merit in such fields as contemporary creative literature, historical writing, reprints of New Zealand classics, and Maori literature. (2) Grants to New Zealand authors undertaking creative work on approved projects. (3) Grants towards the cost of publication (or other appropriate means) of critical books and studies, to encourage the reading and study of New Zealand literature. (4) Such other assistance as the committee, with better knowledge gained by its experience, may deem desirable.

  2. Scholarship in Letters — The scholarship is available annually for award to a New Zealand writer by the Minister of Internal Affairs on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee. It is of the value of £500. The scholarship is intended to enable the recipient to give all or most of his time to the project or projects nominated by him, either in New Zealand or abroad, during the year of tenure. Applications for tenure dining the following calendar year are made before 31 August to the Secretary of Internal Affairs.

  3. Robert Burns Fellowship in Literature — This fellowship in literature is tenable for one year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago, a condition being that the fellow shall be resident for the academic year. The fellowship is open to New Zealand writers, preferably under 40 years. The fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin.

  4. Award for Achievement — The Award for Achievement of £100 is available annually for award to a New Zealand writer by the Minister of Internal Affairs on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee. (Applications are not called for.)

  5. Esther Glen Award — This award of the New Zealand Library Association is available annually for award to the author of the most distinguished children's book written by a New Zealander and published in New Zealand during the year. The award consists of a medal. (Applications are not called for.)

  6. Hubert Church Prose Award — This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) is available annually for the best prose writing by a New Zealand author during the year in question. The amount is £50. (Applications are not called for.)

  7. Jessie Mackay Poetry A ward — This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) is available annually for the best poetry written by a New Zealand author during the year in question. The amount is £50. (Applications are not called for.)

  8. Katherine Mansfield Memorial Award — This award of the New Zealand Women Writers' Society (Inc.) is financed from funds provided by the Bank of New Zealand. It is open to New Zealanders (both men and women) by birth or residence. In 1961 entries were called for in two sections, one for an essay and the other for a short story, the prizes being 50 guineas in each section. The next competition will be in 1963.

In the fields of music, drama, ballet, and the fine arts the New Zealand Government gives assistance through the Arts Advisory Council, which was constituted in November 1960. It receives an annual grant of £60,000. The Council has adopted as its basic policy the encouragement of professional standards in all the arts. In accordance with this policy substantial grants have been made to the New Zealand Opera Company and the New Zealand Ballet Company. In drama the New Zealand Theatre Company and the Southern Comedy Players have been assisted. Assistance has also been given to the New Zealand Federation of Chamber Music Societies, the New Zealand Drama Council, the British Drama League, the Alex Lindsay String Orchestra, the New Zealand Film Institute and a variety of regional activities in all the arts. Training awards are made in all the arts and may be for study either overseas or locally. The Council has commissioned an opera and has set aside a sum of money for the purchase of contemporary works of art and pottery. It also makes travel grants and subsidises important exhibitions in the visual arts.

NATIONAL HISTORIC PLACES TRUST — Under the Historic Places Act 1954 a National Historic Places Trust was established for the purpose of preserving and marking and keeping permanent records of places and objects of national or local historic interest. The original members of the Trust were appointed as from 11 August 1955. Seventeen regional committees have been formed. The Trust has acquired the Waimate North Mission House, and has approved grants towards the preservation of a number of historic buildings and monuments. Plaques and notice boards have been erected to mark historic sites, and the Trust has published booklets on historic buildings and sites.

MAORI WELFARE — The legislative basis of the Maori welfare programme is the Maori Social and Economic Advancement Act of 1945. The aim of the Act is “The social and economic advancement and the promotion and maintenance of the health and general well-being of the Maori community. It is also designed to facilitate the full integration of the Maori race into the social and economic structure of the country. An important feature of the Act is that it does not seek to impose standards from without; rather, it calls upon the Maori people to exercise control and direction of their own communities in the essentials of good citizenship and civic responsibility.

Under the above Act areas may be declared tribal districts or tribal committee areas. In such districts or areas tribal executives and committees have been set up by the Maori people to promote their development. At 31 March 1961 the numbers of such districts and areas were 84 and 495 respectively. A Controller, an Assistant Controller, seven district welfare officers, and 29 male and 29 female welfare officers, nearly all of the Maori race, have been appointed to advise and assist these bodies.

One of the major aspects of the recent development of Maori welfare is the emergence of women as an organised socialising factor. Thus, as at 31 March 1961 the Maori Women's Welfare League had a strength of approximately 2,926 members.

The Act provides for subsidies to be paid on moneys raised by the Maori people through their executives and committees for various social purposes set out in the Act, mainly in the improvement of local amenities. The subsidy granted in the financial year ended 31 March 1961 amounted to £27,704. Total subsidies paid under the Act amount to £320,140.

The Minister of Maori Affairs also appoints Maori wardens who have certain powers to ensure orderly behaviour among the Maori people within the tribal districts to which they are appointed. By 31 March 1961 wardens' certificates were held by 505 persons, all being Maoris.

The 1951 amendment to the principal Act, while similar to earlier provisions prohibiting the supply and consumption of liquor in or near dance halls, is somewhat wider in scope and prohibits the supply and consumption of liquor where any gathering of Maoris is being held at a “marae”. Provision is made for the issue of permits by tribal committees authorising the supply of liquor to Maori gatherings in certain circumstances. There are also provisions relating to applications for prohibition orders against Maoris.

The Maori Education Foundation is mentioned in Section 7 (Education).

PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE — In the early years of settlement in New Zealand those who wished to make provision for the administration of their estates on their death often experienced difficulty in selecting a suitable person competent and willing to act as trustee. That difficulty was natural in a new country where the colonists were fully occupied with their own affairs, and were unable to give to the property or business of another the close attention that was demanded. Even if an otherwise suitable trustee could be found, his solvency — an essential element in a trustee — might be in doubt, particularly when in those days the financial position of an individual could quickly change for the worse. Moreover, changes of residence were frequent, and the nominated trustee might have left the colony or have moved to another district at the time when his presence and services were most required.

In these circumstances the Public Trust Office was established in 1872 (it is now constituted under the Public Trust Office Act 1957) under the administration of the Public Trustee, a corporation sole with perpetual succession and a seal of office. The main purpose of the original Act was to provide a means of overcoming the difficulties that have been mentioned and to make available to the public a trustworthy administrator of the estates of deceased persons at a reasonable cost, the integrity of the Public Trustee and his officers being guaranteed by the State. That continues to be the chief function of the Office, but since its establishment the range of service has been very considerably extended. The Public Trustee now acts in many capacities, e.g., as administrator in intestate estate; executor and trustee under wills; trustee under marriage and other settlements; trustee of benefit or relief funds; agent or attorney for absentees or persons desiring to be relieved of business worries; sinking fund commissioner for local authorities; administrator of unclaimed lands and property; statutory administrator of the estates of mental patients (other than Maoris); manager (when so appointed by the Court) of the estates of aged and infirm persons unable to attend their own affairs; and administrator of compensation moneys payable in respect of the death of a worker. The wills of persons desiring the Public Trustee to act as their executor are prepared and held in safe custody by him, free of charge.

In lieu of obtaining probate or other grant of administration, the Public Trustee may file in an office of the Supreme Court an election by him to administer an estate (testate or intestate) if the gross value of the property in New Zealand is estimated not to exceed £1,000. If after the filing of the election the value of the property is found to exceed £1,500, the Public Trustee must obtain a grant of probate or administration in the ordinary way. This authority in many instances, by obviating the need for a grant of probate or administration, facilitates the administration and reduces costs.

The establishment of the Public Trust Office — one of the earliest examples of a State service — has proved an unqualified success. Ample evidence of this is to be found in the fact that 18,981 estates and funds of a total value of £80,318,790 were under the Public Trustee's administration at 31 March 1961. The beneficial results achieved did not pass unnoticed outside New Zealand and led to the establishment of similar offices in England and other parts of the British Commonwealth.

The progress that has been made in the present century is illustrated by the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchEstates and Funds Under AdministrationWills of Living Persons on Deposit
NumberValue
  £No.
19002,6672,192,594675
192014,67920,860,68625,792
195018,31358,646,288146,288
196118,98180,318,790194,631

During the year ended 31 March 1961, 4,548 estates valued at £15,203,641 were accepted for administration. The administration of 4,430 estates was completed.

Capital moneys becoming available for investment either form part of the Common Fund of the Office or, at the option of the testator or settlor, are invested in such securities as he may specify. Interest is allowed on moneys in the Common Fund at the rate fixed from time to time by the Governor-General in Council (4 1/4 per cent from 1 June 1961) and is free of all commission and other charges. Both capital and interest are guaranteed by the State, thus affording the complete security that it is the object of the Office to provide. On the other hand, moneys directed to be invest in specified securities do not carry the State guarantee and, subject to the Public Trustee's ordinary liability as a trustee, any loss resulting from their investment falls upon the estate concerned. Commission is charged on the collection of the interest. Recognising that the safety of the moneys is thereby assured, the great majority of testators and settlors desire their funds to be placed in the Common Fund.

Charges and commission rates are contained in the Public Trust Office Regulations 1958.

New investments completed during the year ended 31 March 1961 totalled £3,407,000, the favourable terms offered by the Office again proving popular with borrowers. The investments held by the Office at 31 March 1961 totalled £23,813,413. These figures relate exclusively to Common Fund investments, and do not include other special investments made on behalf of estates or investments which constituted assets of estates when the latter came under the-Public Trustee's administration and which are still held as assets of those estates.

During the year ended 31 March 1961, 10,089 wills appointing the Public Trustee executor were deposited with him for safe custody. The total number of such wills held on deposit at 31 March 1961 was 194,631. In addition to preparing the will of the testator in the first instance, the Public Trustee prepares any subsequent will or codicil that may be desired. During the year ended 31 March 1961 effect was given in 7,143 cases to changes desired by testators.

PATENTS, DESIGNS, TRADE MARKS, AND COPYRIGHT — The legislation concerned is the Patents Act 1953, the Trade Marks Act 1953, the Designs Act 1953, and the Copyright Act 1913. The total number of applications for the grant of letters patent and for the registration of designs and trade marks during the financial year 1960–61 was 5,672, which was 350 more than the previous year.

The following table shows the number of applications for patents and for the registration of trade marks and designs in each of the last 12 years.

YearPatentsTrade MarksDesigns
* Year ended 31 March.
19491,9841,292255
19501,9871,422246
19512,0471,439165
19521,9521,390177
19532,1241,358216
1954–55*2,4381,703245
1955–56*2,2981,631261
1956–57*2,3241,858250
1957–58*2,3981,956261
1958–59*2,3561,896246
1959–60*2,7842,258280
1960–61*2,8332,496343

Patents — The applications received during 1960–61 were broadly classified as follows: mechanical engineering, 879; chemistry, 636; electrical engineering, 400; primary industries, 281; building construction, 332; home science and miscellaneous, 305.

Great Britain with 715 applications was less than New Zealand (788), followed by the United States of America (537), Australia (254), with the remainder (539) distributed among 25 other countries.

Trade Marks — In applications for trade marks in 1960–61 Classes 5 (pharmaceutical, veterinary, and sanitary substances) and 25 (clothing) again predominated with 373 and 269 applications respectively, and they were followed by Class 3 (soaps, detergents, cosmetics, etc.) 174; Class 1 (chemicals, etc.) 172; Class 9 (scientific, electrical apparatus, etc.) 171; Class 7 (machines and machine tools, etc.) 113.

The countries from which the applications originated were: New Zealand, 835; United States of America, 462; Great Britain, 427; Australia, 257; with the remaining 515 distributed between 17 other countries.

Renewal of registration of 1,813 trade marks was effected during the year.

Designs — The total number of applications since the inception of design registration in New Zealand is 8,786.

Copyright — Copyright fees in 1960–61 amounted to £20, compared with £27 in the previous year.

BANKRUPTCY — The law relating to bankruptcy in New Zealand is contained in the main in the Bankruptcy Act 1908 and its amendments. Jurisdiction in bankruptcy matters is vested in the Supreme Court. The Governor-General, however, may by Proclamation confer similar jurisdiction on a Magistrate's Court in cases where the liabilities do not exceed £300.

All proceedings in bankruptcy are commenced by a petition filed in the Court. A petition may be filed either by the debtor or by a creditor, a fee of £6 being payable. The filing of a debtor's petition is equivalent to an order of the Court adjudging the debtor a bankrupt, no order being required in this case. Not less than £30 in the aggregate must be owing by the debtor to the creditor or creditors filing a petition.

Section 7 of the Statutes Amendment Act 1947 increased the value of furniture and household effects, including wearing apparel of himself and family, which a bankrupt may select and retain as his own property from £50 to £100.

Immediately on a debtor's petition being filed or adjudication being made on a creditor's petition, the Registrar of the Court gives notice to the Official Assignee in Bankruptcy, in whom all the property of the bankrupt thereupon vests. The bankrupt must hand over his books of account, papers, deeds, etc., to the Official Assignee, and furnish such information as is necessary to enable the Assignee to administer the estate to the best advantage. The bankrupt may also be required to produce statements of accounts, balance sheets, etc., covering the period of three years immediately prior to the commencement of his bankruptcy, give inventories of his property and debts, and generally assist in the realisation of his property. The Assignee may summon the bankrupt before himself, or before a Magistrate, to be examined on oath. The Bankruptcy Amendment Act 1927 forbids (save with the consent of the Court, on the application of the Official Assignee) the publication of a report of any examination of a bankrupt before the Assignee or of any matter arising in the course of such an examination.

The Official Assignee is empowered to sell the bankrupt's property, to claim debts due to the bankrupt estate, to carry on the business of the bankrupt so far as is necessary or expedient for its beneficial winding up, or to divide the property among the creditors. The bankrupt may be appointed by the Official Assignee to manage his estate or carry on his business on behalf of the creditors.

Creditors may accept a composition in satisfaction of the debts due to them. In such a case, after approval of the Court, a deed of composition is executed and filed, and the bankruptcy annulled.

On application being made by the bankrupt, the Court is empowered to grant him an order of discharge, either absolute, suspended, or conditional. The application may be opposed either by the Official Assignee or by any creditor who has proved his claim. A public examination of the bankrupt may be demanded by the Assignee on a resolution by creditors.

Undischarged Bankrupts — Section 14 of the Bankruptcy Amendment Act 1927 requires the annual compilation of a list showing the names, occupations, and other particulars of all persons who have been adjudged bankrupt since 31 March 1927, and who have not obtained an order of discharge, or whose order of discharge is suspended for a term, or is subject to conditions remaining unfulfilled.

Section 9 of the Statutes Amendment Act 1936 provides that the Minister of Justice may from time to time publish the list, or so much of it as relates to adjudications within any specified period ending on the date of the compilation of the list.

Transactions in Bankruptcy — The number of transactions in bankruptcy during the last five years is now given. A long-term record of the more important features will be found in the Statistical Summary given later in this volume. The number of Court orders for liquidation of companies by an Official Assignee is shown in addition to the figures of individual bankrupts, financial transactions on behalf of companies being included in the later tables.

YearNumber of BankruptciesPetitions by DebtorsAdjudications on Petitions by CreditorsOrders of Discharge or Annulment GrantedOrders for Liquidation of Companies by Assignee
* One company liquidation subsequently stayed by Court order.
1957421364577416
1958479392878216
19595945118313124
19604734056814422
19614003574314025*

In the case of a partnership, not only the partnership but each partner is counted in the total of transactions.

During the later war and immediate post-war years the number of bankruptcies, including liquidation of companies, was exceptionally low, extremely buoyant business conditions prevailing throughout this period. Since 1956 there has been a decided upward trend, the annual average being 138 for the five years 1947–51, compared with an average of 494 for the years 1957–61, although the numbers in recent years are still below the average of the period 1920–40. Regard should be paid to the fact that the number of business units is also increasing.

The general bankruptcy statistics do not cover private assignments and compositions, but relate only to cases dealt with by Official Assignees. Certain statistics of private assignments are available, and details of these appear later.

Assets and Liabilities — Debtors are required to file a statement of the extent of their liabilities and assets, but there is usually a marked difference between these statements and the amounts actually realised by the Official Assignee or the debts subsequently proved by creditors.

It should be understood that in the following table the figures in each column refer to all transactions under the respective heads during the year, the amounts realised by Assignees and paid in dividends and preferential claims relating partly to the current year's bankruptcies (many of which, however, are not disposed of during the year) and partly to cases commenced in previous years. Time-lag variations of this nature account for the amounts paid during 1959 exceeding the figures for amounts realised. Since 1954 company liquidations are included in the totals.

YearNumber of BankruptciesAmounts Realised by Official AssigneesAmounts of Debts ProvedAmounts Paid in Dividends, Preferential and Secured ClaimsAmounts Paid in Government Commission

* Including 1 deceased person's estate under Part IV of the Administration Act 1952.

Including 2 deceased persons' estates under Part IV of the Administration Act 1952.

‡Including 4 deceased persons' estates under Part IV of the Administration Act 1952.

  ££££
1951145*48,269136,82246,8973,916
1952168*56,241251,12929,0533,322
1953215*72,162381,01646,9164,597
195427782,571413,44759,2124,938
1955304*112,418382,32296,4849,337
1956390130,574547,75178,5036,921
1957437180,364782,226100,4888,134
1958495184,795819,135130,78312,797
1959618194,877755,193200,77512,596
1960495165,586668,911139,87413,206
1961425151,783707,880125,53611,342

The table following shows for each of the last 11 years the average amount of debts proved per estate, and also the proportion of dividends, preferential claims, and secured claims, to debts.

YearAverage Debts Proved per EstateProportion of Dividends, etc., to Debts
 £per cent
195194434.3
19521,49511.6
19531,77212.3
19541,49314.3
19551,25825.2
19561,40414.3
19571,79012.9
19581,65516.0
19591,22226.6
19601,35120.9
19611,66617.7

Apart from dividends, preferential and secured claims, and Government commission, payments made from assets realised include cost of actions, solicitors' fees, and expenses incurred in managing estates for the benefit of creditors.

Amount of Liabilities — The following table shows for each of the last five years a classification of bankruptcies according to the amount of stated liabilities. With all partnerships the liabilities for each partner are included, but not the partnership.

Liabilities19571958195919601961

* Excludes 3 partnerships.

Excludes 3 partnerships, also 2 companies for which no statement of liabilities has been filed.

‡Excludes 5 partnerships.

§Excludes 1 partnership.

Under £2501599413811383
£250 and under £500711051459791
£500 and under £1,000791121249488
£1,000 and under £2,00060851069178
£2,000 and under £3,0004669747349
£5,000 and over1925262633
Totals434*490613494§422*

Most failures are for comparatively small amounts. Of a total of 2,453 bankruptcies during the five years surveyed 24 per cent were for liabilities of less than £250 and 45 per cent for liabilities under £500.

Industry Groups of Bankrupts — The following table shows in broad groups the industries of those persons adjudged bankrupt in the last five years. The revised classification is based on the international standard industrial code. Companies are here excluded.

Industry Group19571958195919601961

* Excludes 3 partnerships.

Excludes 5 partnerships.

‡Excludes 1 partnership.

Agriculture and livestock production3436704130
Forestry, hunting, and fishing1222261710
Mining and quarrying12
Manufacturing —     
    Food and beverages15611211
    Footwear and textiles5544
    Wood, furniture, and fixtures75374
    Printing and publishing143
    Machinery (not electrical)435220
    Transport equipment622211919
    Other5710117
Construction67699811464
Wholesale and retail trade6482906854
Other commerce11
Transport, storage, and communication6672663042
Personal and community services3344525954
Activities not adequately described —     
    Contractor1026965
    Labourer5451874144
    Other3431423726
Totals418*476*589472397*

The types of activity in which bankrupts were engaged at the time of failure frequently bear little relationship to the fact of insolvency. Personal extravagance or business incompetence are probably much more important factors in the majority of cases.

The occupational status of individual bankrupts during each of the calendar years 1951–61 is given in the following table. With all partnerships the occupation of each partner is included, but not the partnership. Under the heading “Working for Salary or Wages” are included small numbers returning no occupational status.

YearOccupational Status
Working for Salary or WagesEmployer of LabourWorking on Own Account But Not Employing LabourTotal

* Excludes 1 partnership.

‡Excludes 2 partnerships.

||Excludes 5 partnerships.

Includes 1 retired person.

§Excludes 3 partnerships.

1951612657144*
1952644063167*
1953913489214*
195410337123263
195510839145293
195618849132369
195721171136418§
195821380183476§
195928899202589||
1960246109117472*
196119486117397§

Private Assignments — Official bankruptcies, as explained earlier, do not comprise all financial failures and the bankruptcy statistics have been supplemented since 1928 by the collection of data relating to private assignments. The statistics cover all operations arising out of deeds of assignment made under section 150 (2) of the Stamp Duties Act 1954. Because of the difficulty in collecting the information, the figures include estimates in some cases and are therefore approximations.

Amount of Liabilities — The following table classifies estates assigned during the last five years according to the amount of liabilities.

Liabilities19561957195819591960

* Excludes 1 assignment not proceeded with and 1 assignment for which no information is available.

Excludes 1 estate in which the assignor was subsequently adjudged bankrupt, and 2 estates for which no information is available.

‡Excludes 10 assignments not proceeded with.

§Excludes 3 estates for which no information is available.

Under £250
£250 and under £50011
£500 and under £1,00011
£1,000 and under £2,00066372
£2,000 and under £5,000171181812
£5,000 and over1319122012
Unspecified
Totals38*36244626§

The amounts of liabilities involved are relatively much higher for private assignments than for bankruptcies. For the five years 1956–60, 98 per cent of privately assigned estates had liabilities of £1,000 and over. For bankruptcies, only 35 per cent of the total number fell into this category.

Industry Groups of Assignors — The broad industrial classes in which assignors were engaged are given for the latest five years. The classification used follows that of the table of bankrupts given earlier in this section.

Industry19561957195819591960

* Excludes 1 assignment not proceeded with and 1 assignment for which no information was available.

Excludes 1 estate in which the assignor was subsequently adjudged bankrupt, and 2 estates for which no information is available.

‡Excludes 10 assignments not proceeded with.

§Excludes 3 estates for which no information is available.

Agriculture and livestock production4211
Manufacturing41
Construction121781910
Wholesale and retail trade1898109
Transport, storage, and communication11
Personal and community services14555
Activities not adequately described2436
Totals38*36244626§

Of the 1960 total, 14 were employers of labour, and 12 were working on own account.

Provisional figures for 1961 show the number of private assignments as 18. Data relating to private assignments do not become available until much later than those for bankruptcies, as a longer period is necessary for settlement of the financial arrangements in the former case.

LOTTERIES — Under the Gaming Act 1908 the Minister of Internal Affairs may grant permission (subject to such conditions as he thinks fit) for the disposing by raffle or chance of any painting, drawing, sculpture, or other work of art, or literature, or mineral specimen, or mechanical model. The Gaming Amendment Act 1949 made several important changes in the law relating to raffles. Major changes include provisions enabling real and personal property to be raffled, licences being formerly issued only for works of art and mineral specimens; authority is given to authorised members of the Police to issue raffle licences where an individual prize does not exceed £10 in value, and where the total value of the prizes does not exceed £25; and authorised members of the Police may from time to time approve organisations to conduct raffles, provided the value of the prizes in any raffle does not exceed £5. By the Stamp Duties Act 1954, as amended in 1957, any such licence granted for the raffling of any real or personal property in excess of £500 value is subject to a lottery duty of 10 per cent of the value of the tickets sold in the lottery. Information as to receipts from this source will be found in Section 26B — Taxation.

The Gaming Act also permits sweepstakes and art unions (as defined) under certain specified conditions.

During the year ended 31 March 1961, 7,084 licences covering small raffles with prizes ranging from £25 to £500 in cash or goods were issued to local or national organisations. Raffles in which the prizes are less than £25 in total, and with no one prize exceeding £10, are licensed and supervised by the Police. In addition, 17 licences were issued in respect of regular £10,000 art unions. A new series of £30,000 art unions was initiated in December 1961. The aggregate results of these regular art unions for the past seven years have been as follows.

Item1954–551955–561956–571957–581958–591959–601960–61
Number of lotteries 13151616171717
Gross sales£404,449608,620605,738588,258606,256594,157594,488
Commission on sales£60,66791,29390,86088,23990,93889,12389,623
Expenses£49,95264,06062,91955,57359,31760,08259,708
Prizes£91,000150,000160,000160,000170,000170,000170,000
Net proceeds£202,830303,267291,959284,446285,501274,952278,157
Lottery duty£40,44560,86260,57458,82660,62559,41659,749
Net profit£162,385242,405231,385225,620224,876215,536218,408

Allocation of funds earned from the art unions in the preceding table during 1960–61 was as follows: £52,470 to charitable and philanthropic, organisations; £14,235 to various mayoral or other recognised relief of distress funds; £31,145 to cultural purposes; £22,455 to sporting bodies; £3,550 to old folks' associations; £24,705 to youth organisations (YMCA, Boy Scouts, etc.); £5,050 to the bands' associations; national water safety, £18,500; children's health camps, £15,018; and miscellaneous grants, £19,928.

LIQUOR LICENSING — The principal Act dealing with the sale of liquor is the Licensing Act 1908 and its amendments.

History — The growth of the temperance and prohibition movements led to the passing of the Licensing Act 1881, which comprehensively regulated and controlled the liquor trade and is the source of many of the provisions of the present law. The Act created a system of licensing committees, which originally consisted of five members elected annually by ratepayers. The districts over which licensing committees had jurisdiction were small and fragmentary but they were extended by the Alcoholic Liquors Sale Control Act 1893 to coincide with parliamentary electoral boundaries. The same Act provided that the committees should consist of a Magistrate as chairman and eight members (reduced to five in 1895) elected every three years by the electors of the district. The constitution of licensing committees remained unaltered until 1962.

The Licensing Amendment Act 1961 reconstituted licensing districts and licensing committees with effect from 1 May 1962. It divided New Zealand into 22 districts, each with a licensing committee comprising a Magistrate as Chairman and four members elected for a term of three years by the local authorities of the district on a one body-one vote basis.

In 1893 a system of local option was introduced. The electors of every licensing district were given the opportunity of voting periodically for the continuance, reduction, or abolition of licences in the district. In consequence of this many hotels lost their licences and a number of districts (the first being Clutha) carried “no licence”. The right to vote for reduction of licences was abolished in 1910 and the provisions relating to local option were repealed in 1918 and replaced by provisions for a periodical nation-wide vote on the issues of continuance, prohibition, and state purchase and control. Those areas which had carried no-licence were, however, to remain “dry” until a 60 per cent majority of the electors had voted for restoration of licences. Remaining districts with no-licence are Auckland Suburbs, Eden, Grey Lynn, Roskill, Wellington East, Wellington South, and Wellington West.

The most important developments in the law since 1920 have been the establishment in 1948 of the Licensing Control Commission, the introduction in certain former no-licence districts of a system of control through licensing trusts, and the 1961 legislation providing for new types of licences and the conversion of existing publicans' and accommodation licences into either hotel or tavern licences according to the needs of the locality.

The principal functions of the Licensing Control Commission are to authorise the issue of new hotel, tavern, tourist house, and wholesale licences, to determine applications for the grant of club charters, to cancel unnecessary licences and determine the compensation payable to their holders, to review publicans' and accommodation licences and determine whether the licence to be issued in their place should be a hotel or a tavern licence, to prescribe and enforce standards of accommodation amenities and services, and generally to supervise the work of licensing committees. There is a right of appeal to the Commission from every decision of a licensing committee and a right of appeal to the Supreme Court against many of the decisions of the Commission. Where the Commission determines the amount of compensation payable on the cancellation or surrender of a licence an appeal against that determination can be made to the Land Valuation Court.

Principles of Licensing Law — The principles on which the licensing law of New Zealand rests are that no liquor may be sold without a licence, that the number of licences is strictly limited, and that there should be close regulation of the conduct of the trade and of the provision of accommodation and services. In the light of the introduction of restaurant and tavern licences the former general principle that the right to sell liquor for consumption on the premises went hand in hand with the provision of accommodation on the same premises for the travelling public must be regarded as no longer valid.

The following types of licences for the sale of liquor are authorised by law in New Zealand: hotel (including extended licences and special hotel licences), tavern, tourist house, restaurant, publican's, accommodation, packet, New Zealand wine, works canteen, wholesale, wine reseller's, winemaker's, brewer's, and conditional. In addition, charters conferring the right to sell liquor may be issued to certain clubs.

The publican's licence is at present the most important and numerous form of licence, but no new publicans' licences may be granted and this licence is likely to disappear during the next few years. It authorises the sale of liquor in any quantity for consumption on or off the premises. In return for the privilege of selling liquor the holder of a publican's licence must provide accommodation and amenities in accordance with the requirements of the Licensing Control Commission, with a minimum in boroughs of six rooms for guests.

A hotel licence has the same effect as a publican's licence.

A tavern licence authorises the holder to sell liquor in any quantity for consumption on or off the premises. There is no obligation to provide meals or accommodation, but the Commission may direct that what is popularly known as a counter lunch shall be available to drinkers. The holders of tavern licences will pay an annual licence fee equivalent to 3 per cent of the value of purchases of liquor during the preceding financial year.

An extended licence authorises the holder to conduct a hotel and also a tavern on separate premises. An explanation of the circumstances in which such a licence may be issued is given under the heading “new licences”.

A special hotel licence enables the bar and the house side of the hotel business to be conducted on separate premises.

The number of hotel (including extended and special hotel) tavern and publicans' licences which may be in force at any one time is limited by statute to a number equal to the total of:

  1. The number of publicans' licences in force on the passing of the Licensing Amendment Act 1948, together with an additional 20;

  2. The number granted in place of accommodation licences;

  3. The number granted following the carrying of restoration in a no-licence district (including the King Country); and

  4. One additional licence for every 10,000 increase in the population of New Zealand.

It should be made clear that the number of licences which may be granted under these heads is in addition to the number of hotels, taverns, and bottle stores existing in licensing trust districts.

Accommodation licences were granted in earlier times on the terms of keeping a road or bridge in repair or of providing accommodation or of performing some similar obligation. No new accommodation licences may be granted and this form of licence is not of significance at the present day.

Tourist house licences were first provided for in the Licensing Amendment Act 1948. They are authorised by the Licensing Control Commission and confer the right to sell liquor to guests staying or dining at the hotel for consumption on the premises.

Packet licences authorise the sale of liquor to passengers on ships.

A restaurant licence (first provided for in 1960) authorises the licensee to sell and serve light wine, beer, and stout to persons dining at the restaurant for consumption with a meal. The licences are issued by the Licensing Control Commission. The Commission may authorise dancing on restaurant premises if it is satisfied that the premises are not being used primarily for dancing and that the facilities are available only to people partaking of meals.

New Zealand wine licences authorise the sale of wine produced in New Zealand in quantities of not more than 2 gallons. Only three New Zealand wine licences are in operation and the law prohibits the grant of any further licences of this type.

A works canteen licence is a form of licence created in 1948. It authorises the sale of liquor for consumption on the premises at canteens in a public works camp. No works canteen licences have been granted.

Wholesale licences authorise the sale of liquor in quantities of not less than 2 gallons to any one person at any one time. The holder of a wholesale licence is not required by law to, and in most cases does not in fact, confine his sales to the holders of other licences, and sales by wholesale licensees to the general public are extensive.

A wine reseller's licence authorises its holder to sell New Zealand wine for consumption off the premises in quantities of not less than 1 reputed quart.

Winemakers' licences are granted not by a licensing committee but by a Magistrate, and authorise the sale of New Zealand wine by producers in the same quantities as are permitted by a wine reseller's licence.

Brewers' licences are not issued under the Licensing Act but under Customs legislation. A brewer's licence authorises the sale of beer, whether to the holders of licences or to the general public, in quantities of not less than 2 gallons. The Licensing Control Commission has the power to grant new brewers' licences and, subject to appeal to the Supreme Court, to revoke existing ones.

Conditional licences authorise the sale of liquor at shows, races, and similar functions for any period not exceeding seven days. In the nature of things the number of conditional licences in force at any one time fluctuates considerably.

New Licences — The Licensing Control Commission decides after a public inquiry whether the issue of a hotel, tavern, tourist house, or wholesale licence is desirable in a particular locality and in the case of a hotel, tavern, or tourist house licence prescribes the minimum standards of accommodation services and other facilities that must be approved. The Commission may direct that any bar of a hotel or tavern shall contain facilities for sit-down drinking. There is provision for a poll of residents on the question whether a licence is desired in the locality, and if the majority of valid votes recorded at the poll is against a licence the Commission may not authorise one unless special circumstances exist.

Unless the proposed licence is a hotel or tavern licence that has been rejected at the poll mentioned above the Commission then calls for applications for the licence. On each application the Commission fixes a fair price which the applicant, if successful, must pay. The Commission decides which applicant should receive the licence and its decision in effect fixes the exact site of the proposed premises. In the case of a hotel or tavern licence 20 or more residents within a certain radius may object to the establishment of the hotel or tavern on the site, on the grounds that it is in the vicinity of a school, church, or hospital, or that the area is predominantly residential and a substantial number of residents object to a licence there. This objection is heard by a Magistrate who may uphold or dismiss it or direct a poll of residents where the area is predominantly residential.

Where the licence to be issued is a tavern licence the owner of a hotel in the vicinity may apply for it. If the Commission considers that the accommodation provided in that hotel is adequate the hotelkeeper is given by statute a priority over other applicants. Subject to this an application on behalf of a local trust for a hotel or tavern licence has priority, other things being equal. The owner of hotel premises who successfully applies for a tavern licence as mentioned above is not granted a separate tavern licence but an extension of his hotel licence to enable him to conduct a tavern on the extended premises. This licence is known as an extended licence.

An applicant for a hotel licence may also ask for a special hotel licence to be granted to him. This form of licence authorises the house and the bar sides of the business to be conducted on separate premises not more than a certain distance apart. The licensee of an existing hotel may also apply to have his licence converted into a spiral hotel licence.

Licences either in force or authorised at 31 March 1961 comprised 1,106 publicans' and accommodation licences, 167 wholesale licences, and 21 tourist house licences. These figures do not include premises in trust areas.

There were 48 permanent club charters and 120 renewable club charters in force on 31 March 1961.

Hours of Sale — In 1917 the Sale of Liquor Restriction Act provided for the closing of licensed premises, so far as the sale of liquor was concerned, on weekdays between the hours of 6 p.m. in the evening and 9 a.m. on the following morning, and all day on Sundays, Christmas Day, and Good Friday, except that wholesalers and brewers (also winemakers and wine resellers) might sell liquor between 7 a.m. and 9 a.m. on weekday mornings. This legislation was originally intended as a temporary wartime measure but was made permanent in 1918.

In 1949 a referendum was held pursuant to the provisions of the Licensing Amendment Act 1948 on the question of hours for the sale of liquor in hotel bars. The proposal for the retention of the existing hours was carried by a large majority, the vote in favour of the existing hours being 473,768 and the vote for the alternative proposal of a total of 9 hours between 10 a.m. and 10 p.m. being 153,854.

The Licensing Amendment Act 1955 removed the restrictions as to the hours during which holders of brewers' licences might sell and deliver to other licensed premises. The Licensing Amendment Act 1960 similarly removed limitations on the hours during which holders of winemakers' licences might sell and deliver to other licensed premises.

The Licensing Amendment Act 1960 authorised hotels to serve liquor to guests and lodgers partaking of a meal for consumption with the meal up to 11.30 p.m. on any day and between 12 noon and 2.30 p.m. on Sunday, Christmas Day, and Good Friday. By the same Act the hours during which licensed restaurants may sell and serve liquor to diners were fixed as 12 noon to 2.30 p.m. and 6 p.m. to 11.30 p.m. on any day.

Licensing Trusts — The system of trust control in New Zealand is an alternative to the traditional means of controlling the sale of liquor through privately held licences supervised by licensing committees and since 1949 by the Licensing Control Commission. The system of licensing committees controlled by the Licensing Control Commission gives the public an indirect control over the conditions under which liquor is sold. In the case of trusts public control is direct, since the whole of the liquor trade in a trust district is conducted by the trust, which is elected by the residents and is responsible to them.

The first licensing trust in New Zealand was set up in 1944 following the carrying of restoration in the former Invercargill no-licence district. This trust was originally an appointed body but was made elective in 1950 to bring it into line with other licensing trusts.

Following the carrying of restoration in the Masterton no-licence district in 1946, the electors of that area were given the opportunity of recording their views as to whether they desired trust control. The district was divided into three areas, trust control being carried in the southern area (mainly comprising the borough of Masterton) and being defeated in the other two areas which are predominantly rural. Legislation providing for the constitution of the Masterton Licensing Trust to control the southern area was passed in 1947.

As a result of special licensing polls held on 9 March 1949 in the Ashburton and Geraldine areas, the restoration proposal was carried by the necessary majority in each case. A majority of the valid votes cast were also in favour of trust control and, by virtue of the Licensing Trusts Act 1949, trusts were established in these two districts.

The Licensing Trusts Act 1949 provides a general code for the taking of polls on the issue of trust control in former no-licence districts which have carried restoration, and for the constitution, functions, and powers of licensing trusts. An amendment in 1950 provided for the taking of polls in any area where the Licensing Control Commission has authorised a new licence to determine whether the majority of the residents wish that licence to be conducted by a local licensing trust. It may be mentioned that the powers of a local licensing trust operating an individual licence are more limited than those of a district licensing trust. The Licensing Act applies virtually in its entirety to a local licensing trust which, unlike district licensing trusts, is subject to supervision by the licensing committee and the Licensing Control Commission.

Following a vote in favour of trust control in the areas of Clutha and Mataura, provision was made in the Licensing Amendment Act 1955 for the division of districts into wards for the purpose of elections. In 1960 the Oamaru district carried restoration and a trust elected on the ward system was subsequently set up in that district.

Pursuant to the provisions of the Licensing Amendment Act 1953, special polls were held in the King Country, Johnsonville, and Porirua areas in 1954 to determine whether liquor should be sold in those areas and if so whether its control should be in the hands of licensing trusts. In the King Country the necessary majority voted in favour of the sale of liquor and rejected the proposal for trust control; in Johnsonville the proposal for the sale of liquor was not carried; in Porirua the majority favoured the sale of liquor and the establishment of a trust.

The total number of district trusts in New Zealand is at present eight — Ashburton, Clutha, Geraldine, Invercargill, Masterton, Mataura, Oamaru, and Porirua. In addition, two local trusts at Cheviot in Canterbury and Mt. Wellington in the Auckland suburbs are operating hotels.

GENERAL ELECTION RESULTS — A general election of parliamentary representatives was held on 26 November 1960, voting in New Zealand for both European and Maori electorates taking place on that day. Details of voting were given on pages 1110–1114 of the 1961 Yearbook.

The strength of the political party representation among members of Parliament after the 1960 election was National 46, Labour 34. The relative strengths after the four preceding general elections were as follows: November 1949, National 46, Labour 34; September 1951, National 50, Labour 30; November 1954, National 45, Labour 35; and November 1957, Labour 41, National 39.

The total number of electors on the roll for the election was 1,303,955, comprising European, 1,255,488 and Maori, 48,467. The number of votes recorded, including informal, was 1,176,963 (European 1,139,090; Maori 37,873), this figure including 6,315 special votes cast by persons who were not on the roll.

Votes cast for candidates by political affiliations were as follows: National, 557,046; Labour, 508,179; Social Credit, 100,905; Communist, 2,423; Independent, 1,257; other parties 693.

The following table shows for the 1954, 1957, and the 1960 general elections the number of votes recorded by the main political parties, along with the percentages that the various party votes represent of the total votes recorded and of the total valid votes.

PartyVotes RecordedPercentage of Total Votes RecordedPercentage of Total Valid Votes
195419571960195419571960195419571960
National485,630511,699557,04643.9343.9947.3344.2844.2147.59
Labour484,082559,096508,17943.7848.0743.1844.1348.3143.42
Social Credit122,06883,498100,90511.047.188.5711.137.228.62
Communist1,1347062,423O-100060.210.100.060.21
Other3,9792,3661,9500.360.200160.360.20016
Total valid votes1,096,8931,157,3651,170,50399.2199.5199.45100.00100.00100.00
Informal votes8,7165,6966,4600.790.490.55.........
      Total votes recorded1,105,6091,163,0611,176,963100.00100.00100.00.........

NATIONAL LICENSING POLLS — The licensing poll of 26 November 1960, held in conjunction with the parliamentary elections, was the eleventh at which the three issues — national continuance, State purchase and control, and national prohibition (without compensation) — were submitted to the electors. Official figures of the 1960 poll, together with those of the five preceding polls, were as follows.

 194319461949195419571960
For national continuance529,386542,681660,573672,754723,059765,952
For State purchase and control123,701202,664135,982164,380160,483138,644
For national prohibition269,800259,162268,567250,460260,132255,157

The percentage of votes recorded for State purchase and control was 13.4 of the total votes in 1943, 20.2 in 1946,12.8 in 1949, 15.1 in 1954, 14.0 in 1957 and 11.95 in 1960. National continuance reached 63.4 per cent in 1935, since when it fell gradually to 54.0 per cent in 1946, recovered substantially at the expense largely of the State purchase and control vote to 62.0 per cent in 1949, was steady at 61.9 per cent in 1954, rose to 63.2 per cent in 1957 and to 66.04 in 1960. Votes cast in favour of national prohibition amounted to 47.3 per cent in 1925, but fell heavily at each of the next two polls, reaching 29.6 per cent in 1935. There was little variation in this percentage in 1938 and 1943, but further falls to 25.2 per cent, 23.0 per cent, 22.8 and 22.0 per cent were recorded in 1949, 1954,1957, and 1960 respectively.

TIME-SERVICE ARRANGEMENTS — The following article on the New Zealand time-service arrangements was prepared by the New Zealand Time Service, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

One uniform time is kept throughout New Zealand. The New Zealand Gazette of 31 October 1868 contained a Government announcement to the effect that the time corresponding to longitude 172°30' east of Greenwich (exactly 11 1/2 hours in advance of Greenwich time) was to be adopted as the New Zealand Mean Time throughout the colony.

This New Zealand Mean Time, 11 h 30 min. in advance of Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T.), was observed continuously up to 1927, when on 6 November clocks were advanced 1 hour until 4 March 1928. Summer Time, with clocks advanced only 30 minutes (to 12 h ahead of G.M.T.), became standard practice in the summer months under the Summer Time Act 1929.

The Daylight Saving Emergency Regulations of 1941 provided for the continuance of Summer Time throughout that year, and its continued observance during subsequent war years was provided for by regulations made annually.

By the Standard Time Act of 1945 the time of the meridian 180° east of Greenwich (12 h in advance of G.M.T.) was adopted as the Standard Time for New Zealand. Thus, what was formerly known as “Summer Time” became “New Zealand Standard Time” as from 1 January 1946. The times stated in this article are New Zealand Standard Time, unless otherwise stated.

The time throughout New Zealand is controlled by the New Zealand Time Service, Wellington. The Observatory signal clock is kept as correct as possible by means of astronomical observations and by comparison with radio time signals from observatories in other parts of the world.

The Observatory provides the following time service:

(1) RADIO TIME SIGNALS TRANSMITTED THROUGH STATION ZLW ON A WAVELENGTH OF 500 Kc/s (600 METRES) I.C.W.

These signals are transmitted between 10 h 54 min and 11 h 00 min a.m. daily, and are in accordance with the English system. All times are given in New Zealand Standard Time. The procedure is as follows:

At 22 h 54 min 00 sec the “Attention” call (—. —. —).

From 22 h 54 min 10 sec to 22 h 54 min 40 sec the letters ZMO (— —. .— — — — — —), repeated every 10 seconds.

From 22 h 55 min 00 sec to 23 h 00 min 00 sec a dot each second, lengthened to a dash on the sixtieth second of each minute.

Each dot consists of 150 cycles of 1,000 c/s audio tone and the dash on the sixtieth second of each minute is lengthened to 300 c/cles.

Origin of Signal — The time signals are derived from the quartz crystal clock of the New Zealand Time Service.

Error — Normally less than five hundredths of a second.

Corrections to the time signals can be obtained on application to the Officer in Charge, New Zealand Time Service.

(2) RADIO TIME SIGNALS TRANSMITTED BY THE NEW ZEALAND BROADCASTING CORPORATION

Time signals from the Observatory are transmitted as follows:

New Zealand Standard Time

5.00 a.m.2YA only (daily except Sundays)
6.00 a.m.All YA and YZ stations (daily except Sundays)
7.00 a.m.All YA and YZ stations (daily)
8.00 a.m.All YA and YZ stations (daily)
9.00 a.m.All YA and YZ stations (daily)
10.58 a.m.}2YA only (daily)
10.59 a.m.
11.00 a.m.
12.30 p.m.All YA and YZ stations (daily)
4.00 p.m.2YA only (daily)
6.30 p.m.All YA and YZ stations (daily)
7.00 p.m.2YA only (daily)
9.00 p.m.All YA and YZ stations (daily except Sundays)
10.00 p.m.2YA only (daily)
11.00 p.m.All YA and YZ stations (daily)

Each time signal consists of six dots, separated by intervals of one second, the last dot being the exact minute.

(3) TIME SIGNALS BY TELEGRAPH

The Observatory sends time signals by telegraph to the General Post Office and the Railways Department, Wellington, at 9.00 a.m. daily. This signal is transmitted to all telegraph offices in New Zealand and to all railway stations in the North Island.

(4) PUBLIC CLOCKS

The Government Buildings clock (Wellington) is checked at 9.00 a.m. daily by means of a special circuit between the clock and the Observatory. The error of this clock is usually less than 15 seconds.

PUBLIC HOLIDAYS — These are listed below.

 19621963
* Date of Queen's birthday, 21 April 1926.
New Year's Day1 January1 January
Good Friday20 April12 April
Easter Monday23 April15 April
Anzac Day25 April25 April
Queen's Birthday* (observance)4 June3 June
Labour Day22 October28 October
Christmas Day25 December25 December
Boxing Day26 December26 December

In addition to the above, there is in each provincial district a holiday for the provincial anniversary. The actual anniversary days are as follows: Auckland, 29 January; Canterbury, 16 December; Hawke's Bay, 1 November; Marlborough, 1 November; Nelson, 1 February; Otago and Southland, 23 March; Taranaki, 31 March; Wellington, 22 January; and Westland, 1 December.

When Anniversary Day falls on Friday or later, the holiday is observed on the next Monday; if earlier, it is observed on the preceding Monday. In some cases the holiday is taken on the local show day or some other day.

Chapter 41. Section 41 OFFICIAL

GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF NEW ZEALAND

His Excellency the Right Hon. Viscount Cobham, G.C.M.G., T.D.

Official Secretary — D. C. Williams, Esq.

Comptroller — Major J. Brown, Royal New Zealand Armoured Corps.

Aides-de-Camp — Captain D. H. Blundell-Hollinshead-Blundell, Grenadier Guards. Captain H. Y. La R. Beverley, Royal Marines.

(His Excellency assumed office on 5 September 1957)

Governor-General Designate — Brigadier Bernard Edward Fergusson, D.S.O., O.B.E.

PREVIOUS VICE-REGAL REPRESENTATIVES

Details of previous vice-regal representatives up to 1924 were listed in the 1931 issue of the Yearbook (pp. 59–60). Governors-General since 1924 are listed below.

Governor-GeneralAssumed OfficeRetired
General Sir Charles Fergusson, Bart., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., D.S.O., M.V.O.20 Oct 19248 Feb 1930
The Right Hon. Viscount Bledisloe, P.C., G.C.M.G., K.B.E.19 Mar 193015 Mar 1935
The Right Hon. Viscount Galway, G.C.M.G., D.S.O., O.B.E.12 Apr 19353 Feb 1941
Marshall of the Royal Air Force the Right Hon. Baron Newall, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.M.G., C.B.E., A.M.22 Feb 194119 Apr 1946
Lieutenant-General the Right Hon. Baron Freyberg, V.C., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., K.B.E., D.S.O.17 Jun 194615 Aug 1952
Lieutenant-General the Right Hon. Baron Norrie, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., C.B., D.S.O., M.C.2 Dec 195225 Jul 1957

SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES AND PRIME MINISTERS

SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT IN NEW ZEALAND IN 1856
Name of MinistryName of Prime MinisterAssumed OfficeRetired
1. Bell-SewellHenry Sewell7 May 185620 May 1856
2. FoxWilliam Fox20 May 18562 Jun 1856
3. StaffordEdward William Stafford2 Jun 185612 Jul 1861
4. FoxWilliam Fox12 Jul 18616 Aug 1862
5. DomettAlfred Domett6 Aug 186230 Oct 1863
6. Whitaker-FoxFrederick Whitaker30 Oct 186324 Nov 1864
7. WeldFrederick Aloysius Weld24 Nov 186416 Oct 1865
8. StaffordEdward William Stafford16 Oct 186528 Jun 1869
9. FoxWilliam Fox28 Jun 186910 Sep 1872
10. StaffordEdward William Stafford10 Sep 187211 Oct 1872
11. WaterhouseGeorge Marsden Waterhouse11 Oct 18723 Mar 1873
12. FoxWilliam Fox3 Mar 18738 Apr 1873
13. VogelJulius Vogel, C.M.G.8 Apr 18736 Jul 1875
14. PollenDaniel Pollen, M.L.C.6 Jul 187515 Feb 1876
15. VogelSir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.15 Feb 18761 Sep 1876
16. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson1 Sep 187613 Sep 1876
17. Atkinson (reconstituted)Harry Albert Atkinson13 Sep 187613 Oct 1877
18. GreySir George Grey, K.C.B.15 Oct 18778 Oct 1879
19. HallJohn Hall8 Oct 187921 Apr 1882
20. WhitakerFrederick Whitaker, M.L.C.21 Apr 188225 Sep 1883
21. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson25 Sep 188316 Aug 1884
22. Stout-VogelRobert Stout16 Aug 188428 Aug 1884
23. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson28 Aug 18843 Sep 1884
24. Stout-VogelSir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G.3 Sep 18848 Oct 1887
25. AtkinsonSir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G.8 Oct 188724 Jan 1891
26. BallanceJohn Ballance24 Jan 18911 May 1893
27. SeddonRight Hon. Richard John Seddon1 May 189321 Jun 1906
28. Hall-JonesWilliam Hall-Jones21 Jun 19066 Aug 1906
29. WardRight Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, BART., K.C.M.G.6 Aug 190628 Mar 1912
30. MackenzieThomas Mackenzie28 Mar 191210 Jul 1912
31. MasseyRight Hon. William Ferguson Massey10 Jul 191212 Aug 1915
32. NationalRight Hon. William Ferguson Massey12 Aug 191525 Aug 1919
33. MasseyRight Hon. William Ferguson Massey25 Aug 191914 May 1925
34. BellHon. Sir Francis Henry Dillon Bell, G.C.M.G., K.C.14 May 192530 May 1925
35. CoatesRight Hon. Joseph Gordon Coates, M.C.30 May 192510 Dec 1928
36. WardRight Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, BART., G.C.M.G.10 Dec 192828 May 1930
37. ForbesRight Hon. George William Forbes28 May 193022 Sep 1931
38. CoalitionRight Hon. George William Forbes22 Sep 19316 Dec 1935
39. SavageRight Hon. Michael Joseph Savage6 Dec 19351 Apr 1940
40. FraserHon. Peter Fraser1 Apr 194030 Apr 1940
41. FraserRight Hon. Peter Fraser, C.H.30 Apr 194013 Dec 1949
42. HollandRight Hon. Sir Sidney George Holland, G.C.B., C.H.13 Dec 194926 Sep 1957
43. HolyoakeRight Hon. Keith Jacka Holyoake26 Sep 195712 Dec 1957
44. NashRight Hon. Walter Nash, C.H.12 Dec 195712 Dec 1960
45. HolyoakeRight Hon. Keith Jacka Holyoake12 Dec 1960 

Chapter 42. EXECUTIVE COUNCIL

HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL

Right Hon. K. J. HOLYOAKE, Prime Minister, Minister of External Affairs, Minister in Charge of the Legislative Department, Minister in Charge of the Audit Department.

Hon. J. R. MARSHALL, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Industries and Commerce, Minister of Overseas Trade.

Hon. J. R. HANAN, Attorney-General, Minister of Justice, Minister of Maori Affairs, Minister in Charge of the Electoral Department.

Hon. J. K. McALPINE, Minister of Transport, Minister of Railways, Minister in Charge of Civil Aviation.

Hon. T. P. SHAND, Minister of Labour, Minister of Immigration, Minister of Mines, Minister in Charge of Publicity and Information.

Hon. W. S. GOOSMAN, Minister of Works, Minister of Electricity.

Hon. H. R. LAKE, Minister of Finance, Minister in Charge of the Inland Revenue Department, Minister in Charge of the Department of Statistics, Minister in Charge of the National Provident Fund, Minister in Charge of the Government Superannuation Fund, Minister in Charge of Friendly Societies.

Hon. D. J. EYRE, Minister of Defence, Minister in Charge of Police, Minister in Charge of Tourist and Health Resorts.

Hon. R. G. GERARD, Minister of Lands, Minister of Forests, Minister of Marine, Minister in Charge of the Valuation Department.

Hon. F. L. A. GÖTZ, Minister of Internal Affairs, Minister of Civil Defence, Minister of Island Territories.

Hon. J. RAE, Minister of Housing, Minister in Charge of the State Advances Corporation, Minister in Charge of the Public Trust Office, Minister in Charge of the Government Life Insurance Office, Minister in Charge of the Government Printing Office.

Hon. W. B. TENNENT, Minister of Education, Minister in Charge of Scientific and Industrial Research.

Hon. N. L. SHELTON, Minister of Customs, Associate Minister of Industries and Commerce.

Hon. A. E. KINSELLA, Postmaster-General, Minister of Broadcasting, Minister in Charge of War Pensions, Minister in Charge of Rehabilitation, Minister in Charge of the State Fire Insurance Office, Minister in Charge of the Earthquake and War Damage Commission.

Hon. B. E. TALBOYS, Minister of Agriculture.

Hon. D. N. McKAY, Minister of Health, Minister of Social Security, Minister for the Welfare of Women and Children, Minister in Charge of the Child Welfare Division.

Hon. D. C. SEATH, Minister without portfolio.

Clerk of the Executive Council, T. J. Sherrard, O.B.E., M.S.M., J.P.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Prime Minister — Rt. Hon. K. J. Holyoake.

Leader of the Opposition — Rt. Hon. W. Nash, C.H.

Speaker — Hon. R. M. Algie. Chairman of Committees — R. E. Jack.

Clerk of the House — H. N. Dollimore, LL.B.

NameElectoral District

* Government member.

Elected 10 March 1962, following the death of the Hon. T. L. Hayman, Minister of Agriculture, on 2 January 1962.

‡Elected following the death of the Hon. C. F. Skinner.

§Elected 21 July 1962 following the retirement of Rev. Clyde Carr.

For European Electorates 
Adams-Schneider, L. R.*Hamilton
Aderman, E. P.*N. Plymouth
Algie, Hon. R. M.*Remuera
Allen, A.E.*Franklin
Allen, P. B.*Bay of Plenty
Arthur, Sir Basil M.§Timaru
Bailey, R. L.Heretaunga
Blanchfield, P.Westland
Brown, W. H.*Palmerston North
Carter, D.J.*Raglan
Connelly, M. A.Riccarton
Connolly, Hon. P. G., D.S.C., V.R.D.Dunedin Central
Cooksley, B. V., M.M.*Wairarapa
Deas, J. M.Otahuhu
Dick, A.D.*Waitaki
Douglas, N. V.Auckland Central
Edwards, J. G.Napier
Eyre, Hon. D. J.*North Shore
Faulkner, A. J.Roskill
Fox. Hon. W. A.Miramar
Fraser, W. A.St. Kilda
Freer, W. W.Mount Albert
George, J. H.*Central Otago
Gerard, Hon. R.G.*Ashburton
Goosman, Hon. W. S.*Piako
Gordon, J. B.*Clutha
Götz, Hon. F. L. A.*Manukau
Grieve, G. G.*Awarua
Hackett, Hon. F.Grey Lynn
Hanan, Hon. J. R.*Invercargill
Harker, C. G. E.*Hawke's Bay
Holyoake, Right Hon. K. J.*Pahiatua
Howard, Hon. Miss M. B.Sydenham
Hudson, W. A.Mornington
Jack, R.E.*Patea
Johnstone, H.*Waipa
King, N.J.Waitemata
Kinsella, Hon. A. E.*Kauraki
Kirk, N.E.Lyttelton
Lake, Hon. H. R.*Fendalton
Lapwood, H. R.*Rotorua
McAlpine, Hon. J. K.*Selwyn
McCready, A.*Otaki
Macdonald, R.Ponsonby
Macfarlane, Hon. R. M., C.M.G.Christchurch Central
MacIntyre, D., D.S.O., O.B.E., E.D.*Hastings
McKay, Hon. D.N.*Marsden
McMillan, Mrs E. E.North Dunedin
Marshall, Hon. J. R.*Karori
Mason, Hon. H. G. R., Q.C.Waitakere
Mathison, Hon. J.Avon
May, H.L.J.Onslow
Moohan, Hon. M.Petone
Muldoon, R. D.*Tamaki
Murray, T. T., M.C., M.M.*Stratford
Nash, Right Hon. W., C.H.Hutt
Nordmeyer, Hon. A. H.Island Bay
Pickering, H. E. L.*Hurunui
Rae, Hon. J.*Eden
Ridiford, D. J., M.C.*Wellington Central
Rowling, W. E.Buller
Scott, W.J.*Rodney
Seath, Hon. D. C.*Waitomo
Shand, Hon. T. P.*Marlborough
Sheat, W.A.*Egmont
Shelton, Hon. N. L.*Rangitikei
Sim, G.F.*Waikato
Sloane, L. F.*Hobson
Spooner, G. A.Wanganui
Talboys, Hon. B. E.*Wallace
Tennent, Hon. W. B.*Manawatu
Tombleson, Mrs E. I.*Gisborne
Walker, H. J.*St. Albans
Walsh, G. A.*Tauranga
Watt, Hon. H.Onehunga
Whitehead, S. A.Nelson
For Maori Electorates 
Omana, T.Eastern Maori
Paikea, T. P.Northern Maori
Ratana, Mrs I. M.Western Maori
Tirikatene, Hon, Sir Eruera, K.C.M.G.Southern Maori

(For earlier Parliaments and sessions refer to pp 59–60 of the 1930, p 986 of the 1940, and p 1184 of the 1960 issues of the Yearbook.)

PARLIAMENTARY SESSIONS

ParliamentDate of Opening of SessionDate of Ending of Session
Twenty-ninth{27 June 19501 December 1950
26 June 195113 July 1951
Thirtieth25 September 19516 December 1951
25 June 195224 October 1952
8 April 195327 November 1953
12 January 195413 January 1954
22 June 19541 October 1954
Thirty-first22 March 195528 October 1955
4 April 195626 October 1956
11 June 195725 October 1957
Thirty-second21 January 195831 January 1958
10 June 19583 October 1958
24 June 195923 October 1959
22 June 196028 October 1960
Thirty-third20 June 19611 December 1961
7 June 1962 

LIST OF LEGISLATION, 1961 — During the parliamentary session of 1961, which commenced on 20 June, and which ended on 1 December, the General Assembly passed 138 public Acts, 14 local Acts, and 4 private Acts. The following is a list of public, local, and private Acts passed during the session, suffixed in each case as appropriate by “N.A.” — new Act, “A.A.” — amending Act, “C.A.” — consolidation Act, “C.A.A.” — consolidating and amending Act, or “V.C.A.” — validating and confirming Act.

PUBLIC ACTS

Agricultural and Pastoral Societies Amendment (A.A.)
Agriculture (Emergency Regulations Confirmation) (V.C.A.)
Apprentices Amendment (A.A.)
Appropriation (N.A.)
Auckland Electric Power Board Amendment (A.A.)
Births and Deaths Registration Amendment (A.A.)
Broadcasting Corporation (N.A.)
Carriage by Air Amendment (A.A.)
Chattels Transfer Amendment (A.A.)
Child Welfare Amendment (A.A.)
Chiropractors Amendment (A.A.)
Cinematograph Films (C.A.A.)
Civil Aviation Amendment (A.A.)
Civil List Amendment (A.A.)
Clerks of Works Amendment (A.A.)
Coal Mines Amendment (A.A.)
Cook Islands Amendment (A.A.)
Counties Amendment (A.A.)
Crimes (C.A.A.)
Criminal Justice Amendment (A.A.)
Customs Acts Amendment (A.A.)
Dairy Production and Marketing Board (C.A.A.)
Distillation Amendment (A.A.)
Dogs Registration Amendment (A.A.)
Education Amendment (A.A.)
Electric Power Boards Amendment (A.A.)
Electricity Amendment (A.A.)
Emergency Regulations Amendment (A.A.)
Engineering Associates (N.A.)
Estate and Gift Duties Amendment (A.A.)
Factories Amendment (A.A.)
Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Amendment (A.A.)
Finance (N.A.)
Fire Services Amendment (A.A.)
Friendly Societies Amendment (A.A.)
Gaming Amendment (A.A.)
Gas Industry Amendment (A.A.)
Government Railways Amendment (A.A.)
Guardianship of Infants Amendment (A.A.)
Harbours Amendment (A.A.)
Health Amendment (A.A.)
Hospitals Amendment (A.A.)
Hydatids Amendment (A.A.)
Immigration Restriction Amendment (A.A.)
Imprest Supply (N.A.)
Imprest Supply (No. 2) (N.A.)
Imprest Supply (No. 3) (N.A.)
Imprest Supply (No. 4) (N.A.)
Imprest Supply (No. 5) (N.A.)
Imprest Supply (No. 6) (N.A.)
Indecent Publications Amendment (A.A.)
Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment (A.A.)
Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment (No. 2) (A.A.)
Inland Revenue Department Amendment (A.A.)
International Finance Agreements (N.A.)
Judicature Amendment (A.A.)
Juries Amendment (A.A.)
Land Agents Amendment (A.A.)
Land Amendment (A.A.)
Land and Income Tax Amendment (A.A.)
Land and Income Tax (Annual) (N.A.)
Land Settlement Promotion Amendment (A.A.)
Land Transfer Amendment (A.A.)
Land Valuation Court Amendment (A.A.)
Law Practitioners Amendment (A.A.)
Law Reform (Testamentary Promises) Amendment (A.A.)
Licensing Amendment (A.A.)
Licensing Trusts Amendment (A.A.)
Lincoln College (C.A.A.)
Local Authorities Loans Amendment (A.A.)
Local Elections and Polls Amendment (A.A.)
Local Government Commission (N.A.)
Local Legislation (N.A.)
Machinery Amendment (A.A.)
Magistrates' Courts Amendment (A.A.)
Manapouri-Te Anau Development Amendment (A.A.)
Maori Education Foundation (N.A.)
Maori Purposes (N.A.)
Maori Social and Economic Advancement Amendment (A.A.)
Married Women's Property Amendment (A.A.)
Massey College (N.A.)
Meat Amendment (A.A.)
Mental Health Amendment (A.A.)
Mining Amendment (A.A.)
Monetary and Economic Council (N.A.)
Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Amendment (A.A.)
Motor Spirits Duty (N.A.)
Municipal Corporations Amendment (A.A.)
National Military Service (N.A.)
National Provident Fund Amendment (A.A.)
New Zealand Army Amendment (A.A.)
Otago Boys' and Girls' High Schools Amendment (A.A.)
Penal Institutions Amendment (A.A.)
Physiotherapy Amendment (A.A.)
Police Amendment (A.A.)
Post Office Amendment (A.A.)
Poultry Amendment (A.A.)
Poultry Runs Registration Amendment (A.A.)
Primary Products Marketing Regulations Confirmation (V.C.A.)
Property Law Amendment (A.A.)
Public Works Amendment (A.A.)
Quarries Amendment (A.A.)
Republic of Cyprus (N.A.)
Reserves and Other Lands Disposal (N.A.)
Royal New Zealand Air Force Amendment (A.A.)
Sale of Goods Amendment (A.A.)
Scientific and Industrial Research Amendment (A.A.)
Shipping and Seamen Amendment (A.A.)
Social Security Amendment (A.A.)
Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Amendment (A.A.)
Stamp Duties Amendment (A.A.)
State Advances Corporation Amendment (A.A.)
State Supply of Electrical Energy Amendment (A.A.)
Stock Amendment (A.A.)
Stock Remedies Amendment (A.A.)
Summary Proceedings Amendment (A.A.)
Superannuation Amendment (A.A.)
Taranaki Scholarships Trust Board Amendment (A.A.)
Tariff and Development Board (N.A.)
Tenancy Amendment (A.A.)
Tourist Hotel Corporation Amendment (A.A.)
Town and Country Planning Amendment (A.A.)
Trade Practices Amendment (A.A.)
Transport Amendment (A.A.)
Trustee Savings Banks Amendment (A.A.)
Universities (N.A.)
University of Auckland (C.A.A.)
University of Canterbury (C.A.A.)
University of Otago Amendment (A.A.)
Victoria University of Wellington (C.A.A.)
Visiting Forces Amendment (A.A.)
Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Amendment (A.A.)
Waikato Valley Authority Amendment (A.A.)
War Pensions Amendment (A.A.)
Western Samoa (N.A.)
Wool Commission Amendment (A.A.)
Wool Commission Amendment (No 2) (A.A)
Wool Industry Amendment (A.A.)

LOCAL ACTS

Auckland Harbour Board Loan and Empowering (N.A.)
Beachlands Domain Board Empowering (N.A.)
Borough of Port Chalmers Leasing Empowering (N.A.)
Cook County Council Empowering (N.A.)
Dunedin City (Suburban Water Charges) Amendment (A.A.)
Gisborne Harbour Board Empowering (N.A.)
Kaituna River District Amendment (A.A.)
Nelson Harbour Board and Nelson City Empowering (N.A.)
New Plymouth Airport (N.A.)
Otamatea County Empowering (Community Centres) (N.A.)
Southland Harbour Board Empowering (N.A.)
Southland Harbour Board Empowering (No. 2) (N.A.)
Wellington Harbour Board Loan and Empowering (N.A.)
Whangarei Harbour Board Vesting and Empowering (N.A.)

PRIVATE ACTS

Carter Trust (N.A.)
Presbyterian Church Property Amendment (A.A.)
Thomas Adoption Discharge (N.A.)
Whakatane Board Mills Limited Water Supply (N.A.).

JUDICIARY

Judges of the Court of Appeal and Supreme Court

Chief Justice: Right Hon. Sir Harold Barrowclough, K.C.M.G., C.B., D.S.O., M.C., E.D.

Court of Appeal: Hon. Sir Kenneth Gresson, K.B.E., President; Hon. Sir Alfred North; Hon. Sir Timothy Cleary (died 15 August 1962).

Supreme Court, Puisne Judges: Hon. Sir Douglas Hutchison; Hon. A. K. Turner; Hon. G. I. McGregor; Hon. T. E. Henry; Hon. T. A. Gresson; Hon. T. P. McCarthy; Hon. A. L. Haslam; Hon. R. Hardie Boys; Hon. I. H. Macarthur; Hon. C. P. Richmond; Hon. W. E. Leicester; Hon. A. O. Woodhouse; Hon. F. C. Spratt (temp.).

Judges of the Court of Arbitration — Hon. Sir Arthur Tyndall, K.B., C.M.G.; K. G. Archer (temp.).

Judges of Compensation Court — D. J. Dalglish; K. G. Archer.

Judge of Land Valuation Court — K. G. Archer.

HONOURS

Since the preceding issue of the Yearbook the following honours have been conferred by Her Majesty the Queen for services rendered in connection with New Zealand:

NEW YEAR HONOURS LIST, 1962

CIVIL DIVISION

Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (K.B.E.) — Mr Alexander McKenzie.

Knight Bachelor

Mr Thomas Duncan Macgregor Stout, C.B.E., D.S.O., E.D.

Companion of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (C.M.G.) — Mr E. L. Greensmith; Mr A. P. O'Shea.

Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.) — Mr D. G. B. Morison, M.C.; Mr C. H. Perkins; Mr A. H. Reed, M.B.E.; Mr D. F. C. Saxton.

Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.)

The Reverend A. A. Brash; Mr E. O. Faber; Mr D. Harris; Mr H. D. Lambie; Mr A. L. Lydiard; Mr E. A. Millward; Mr R. P. Milner; Mr D. C. Pryor; Dr E. I. Robertson; Mr W. J. Whineray; Mr R. H. White.

Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.)

Mr F. W. Baillie; Mr A. C. Booth; Mr I. D. A. Cameron; Mr M. A. Carson; Miss C. L. Cumming; Mr A. J. Denz; Mr R. A. Douglas; Mr F. J. Foster; Mrs H. B. Gardiner; Mrs E. Gourley; Mr E. A. F. Jenner; Mr J. E. May; Mr C. W. B. Michie; Mr D. S. Mitchell; Miss M. W. Nicholls; Mr I. J. Quigley; Brigadier H. G. Rogers (Salvation Army); Mr A. W. Ruskell; Miss A. A. L. Woods.

British Empire Medal (B.E.M.)

Detective Sergeant R. C. Anderson; Detective Sergeant T. Thomson.

The Queen's Police Medal

Chief Superintendent P. Kearney.

Queen's Fire Service Medal—

Chief Fire Officer N. L. Brown; Chief Fire Officer N. G. Buick.

MILITARY DIVISION

Companion of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (C.B.)

Major-General L. W. Thornton, C.B.E.

Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B E.)

Rear Admiral P. Phipps, D.S.C., V.R.D.

Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.)

Commander O. R. J. Skyrme; Lieutenant-Colonel T. F. L. Ward, E.D.; Group Captain E. G. King.

Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E)

Engineer Lieutenant Commander G. Mitchell; Major R. D. P. Hassett; Major C. K. Fleming, E.D.; Major G. McC. Gray, E.D.; Warrant Officer Second Class A. Ross; Squadron Leader IL B. Hayward; Warrant Officer J. MacDonald.

Air Force Cross (A.F.C.)

Squadron Leader T. J. Danaher.

Associate of the Royal Red Cross (A.R.R.C.)

Charge Sister, Temporary Matron, J. G. W. Dickson.

British Empire Medal (B.E.M.)

Stores Chief Petty Officer H. M. D. Pond; Master at Arms M. E. Bennett; Chief Engine Room Artificer R. A. Agnew; Chief Ordnance Artificer J. C. Tyler; Staff Sergeant R. J. Plummer; Staff Sergeant R. G. Evans; Sergeant M. S. Ryan; Sergeant G. L. Holland; Flight Sergeant J. H. Brown; Flight Sergeant J. E. Rasmusen.

Queen's Commendation for Valuable Services in the Air—

Flight Lieutenant J. M. Terry; Flight Lieutenant W. H. Willis; Flight Sergeant J. W. Karauria.

SPECIAL LIST FOR WESTERN SAMOA

CIVIL DIVISION

Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E)

Chief Judge C. C. Marsack; Mr J. B. Wright.

Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.)

Mr G. F. D. Betham; Mr L. M. Cook; Mr H. Gow; Mr W. H. Kelly; Mr E. F. Paul.

Honorary Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire

Mr K. M. A. H. zu Seh. Meyer.

Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.)

Mr T. Ioelu; Mr T. T. Laban; Mr M. Maiava; Mr T. A. Malaefou; Mr E. Stehlin.

Honorary Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire—

Mr A. L. Philipp; Mother M. Rachel.

British Empire Medal (B.E.M.)

Amanono; Miss M. Kuresa.

BIRTHDAY HONOURS LIST, JUNE 1962

CIVIL DIVISION

Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (K.B.E.)

Mr Alfred Thomas Carroll, O.B.E.

Knight Bachelor

Mr Robert James Kerridge.

Companion of the Most Distinguished Order of Scint Michael and Saint George (C.M.G.)

Lieutenant-Colonel K. W. Fraser, O.B.E., E.D.; Mr F. Shanahan.

Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.)

Miss H. R. Herrick, O.B.E.; Mr S. D. Reeves; Mr D. O. Whyte.

Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.)

Mr E. A. Adams; Dr F. Cameron; Mr W. T. Churchward; Mr J. A. Colquhoun; Mr R. M. Hutton-Potts; Mr J. J. Maher; Mr H. H. Rankin; Mr J. R. Reid; the Rev. Dr J. D. Salmond; Mr H. Morison.

Companion of the Imperial Service Order (I.S.O.)

Mr T. Pound; Mr P. W. Smallfield.

Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.)

Mr M. B. Baker; Miss E. L. Dowling; Mr F. C. Eyles; Mr M. C. Gudex; Mr C. W. Henderson; Mrs N. M. Hudson; Mrs K. B. McCreanor; Mr T. McCristell; Mrs E. McQuilkin; Miss W. L. J. Mellsop; Mr D. N. Perry; Mr E. G. Smith; Mr P. G. Snell; Mr J. E. F. Stokes; Mr J. L. Sutton; Mr M. K. Takarangi; Mr A. Wheeler; Mr H. E. Young.

British Empire Medal (B.E.M.)

Sergeant E. F. Bennett; Constable J. J. D. Fleming; Constable A. G. Hogg; Mr M. McLaren; Mr J. A. Newsome.

MILITARY DIVISION

Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.)

Group Captain A. H. Marsh.

Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.)

Commander J. F. McKenzie; Lieutenant Colonel M. J. Mason, M.C., E.D.; Wing Commander F. E. Fennessy.

Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.)

Lieutenant Commander (SP) R. S. Fleming; Major B. M. Poananga; Major B. W. J. Brown, E.D.; Major G. T. Seccombe, D.C.M.; Warrant Officer Second Class D. G. MacPherson; Flight Lieutenant P. E. H. Duffin; Warrant Officer G. E. Tynan.

Air Force Cross (A.F.C.)

Squadron Leader H. G. Moss; Squadron Leader E. J. E. Tompkins.

British Empire Medal (B.E.M.)

Chief Engine-Room Artificer D. Sheldrake; Chief Petty Officer P. H. Barker; Chief Engine-Room Artificer N. N. Dewson; Chief Electrician R. R. Wheeler; Corporal L. T. Williams; Sergeant R. C. M. Brown; Staff Sergeant R. J. Shelley; Staff Sergeant J. E. Dunn; Sergeant W. A. K. Currie; Temporary Sergeant N. H. Bartholomew.

Queen's Commendation for Valuable Services in the Air

Flight Lieutenant Te W. H. Morete; Flight Lieutenant B. D. Gordon.

AWARDS-SOUTH-EAST ASIA THEATRE

A complete list of the honours, decorations, etc., for distinguished or gallant conduct, devotion to duty, etc., awarded to New Zealand personnel serving with Her Majesty's Forces in Malaya up to mid-1961 was published in the 1959,1960, and 1961 Yearbooks. No further awards have been made since 31 July 1960.

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

LIST OF DEPARTMENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT, WITH TITLES AND HOLDERS OF CHIEF ADMINISTRATIVE POSITIONS
DepartmentChief Administrative Positions
TitleName
AgricultureDirector-GeneralD. N. R. Webb.
AirChief of Air Staff and First Air Force Member of the Air BoardAir Vice-Marshall I. G. Morrison, C.B.E.
 Air SecretaryB. R. Rae, M.B.E., B.COM.
Civil AviationDirectorSir Arthur Nevill, K.B.E., C.B., M.SC, F.R.AE.S.
MeteorologicalDirectorR. G. Simmers, D.SC. (MIT), M.SC.
ArmyChief of the General Staff and First Military Member of the Army BoardMajor-General L. W. Thornton, C.B.E.
 Army SecretaryA. N. V. Dobbs, M.COM., ACCTS. PROF.
AuditController and Auditor-GeneralA. D. Burns, A.R.A.N.Z.
Crown LawSolicitor-GeneralH. R. C. Wild, Q.C., LL.M.
CustomsComptrollerJ. F. Cummings.
EducationDirectorA. E. Campbell, M.A., DIP.ED.
External AffairsSecretaryA. D. M. McIntosh, C.M.G., M.A.
Government Life InsuranceCommissionerW. K. Watson, A.R.A.N.Z.
HealthDirector-GeneralH. B. Turbott, I.S.O., M.B., CH.B., D.P.H. (N.Z.).
Mental Health DivisionDirectorG. Blake-Palmer, M.R.C.S. (ENG.), L.R.C.P.(LOND.), D.P.M., L.D.S., R.C.S.(ENG.).
Industries and CommerceSecretaryW. B. Sutch, M.A., B.COM., PH.D.(U.S.A.).
Inland RevenueCommissionerF. R. Macken, LL.M.
 Chief Deputy CommissionerJ. E. Curran, A.R.A.N.Z.
Internal AffairsSecretary and Clerk of WritsJ. V. Meech.
Dominion MuseumDirectorR. A. Falla, D.SC, M.A.
National Art GalleryDirectorS. B. Maclennan, A.R.C.A.
Island TerritoriesSecretaryJ. M, McEwen, LL.B.
JusticeSecretary for JusticeJ. L. Robson, LL.M., PH.D.
Land and Deeds DivisionRegistrar-General of LandE. K. Phillips, Solr.
Patent OfficeCommissionerA. D. McGregor, LL.B.
Registrar-General's DivisionRegistrar-GeneralJ. G. A'Court.
 Chief Electoral OfficerL. Irwin.
LabourSecretary of LabourH. L. Bockett, C.M.G., A.R.A.N.Z.
Lands and SurveyDirector-GeneralE. J. G. Price, LAW PROF. (Acting.)
Law DraftingLaw DraftsmanD. A. S. Ward, B.A., LL.B.
LegislativeClerk of House of RepresentativesH. N. Dollimore, LL.B.
Maori AffairsSecretary, and Maori TrusteeJ. K. Hunn, LL.M.
MarineSecretaryG. L. O'Halloran, LL.B.
MinesUnder-SecretaryP. M. Outhwaite, M.S.EX.
NavyChief of the Naval Staff and First Naval Member of the Naval BoardRear-Admiral P. Phipps, D.S.C. AND BAR, V.R.D.
 Navy SecretaryD. A. Wraight.
New Zealand ElectricityGeneral ManagerA. E. Davenport, B.E.(ELECT.), M.I.E.E.
New Zealand Forest ServiceDirector-GeneralA. L. Poole, M.SC., B.FOR.SC.
PoliceCommissionerC. L. Spencer.
Post OfficeDirector-GeneralD. Donaldson, B.SC., M.L.E.E.
Prime Minister'sPermanent HeadA. D. M. McIntosh, C.M.G., M.A.
 Joint Principal Private Secretaries{P. A. Barnes, ACCTS. PROF.
R. B. Taylor, B.A.
Printing and StationeryGovernment PrinterR. E. Owen.
Public Service CommissionChairman of CommissionL. A. Atkinson, M.COM., D.P.A.
 MembersA. G. Rodda, ACCTS. PROF., D.P.A.
R. J. MacLachlan, B.A., B.COM., DIP. U.V. (AUCK.).
Public TrustPublic TrusteeW. Brown, LAW PROF.
RailwaysGeneral ManagerA. T. Gandell, M.I.C.E., M.N.Z.I.E.
Scientific and Industrial ResearchSecretaryW. M. Hamilton, D.SC., M. AGRIC. SC., N.D.H.(N.Z.).
Social SecurityDirector, Chairman, Social Security Commission, and Secretary for War PensionsW. L. Watson, ACCTS. I-ROF.
State Advances Corporation of New ZealandManaging DirectorJ. D. R. Wood.
 Deputy Managing DirectorW. Hay, LL.M.
 General ManagerG. W. Hopkinson, LL.B., ACCTS. PROF.
State Fire and Accident InsuranceGeneral ManagerA. J. Martin, FIRE AND ACCTS. INS. DIPS.
StatisticsGovernment StatisticianJ. V. T. Baker, M.A., M.COM., F.R.A.N.Z., D.P.A.
Tourist and PublicityGeneral ManagerK. B. Longmore, ACCTS. PROF.
TransportCommissionerA. E. Forsyth, B.E.
TreasurySecretaryE. L. Greensmith, M.COM., LAW PROF., A.R.A.N.Z.
Government Actuary's BranchGovernment ActuaryV. Thompson, F.I.A.
SuperannuationController}M. Aldred, ACCTS. PROF.
National Provident FundSuperintendent 
ValuationValuer-GeneralJ. B. Brown, DIP. AG. (LIN.).
Works, Ministry ofCommissioner of WorksJ. T. Gilkison, B.E., M.I.C.E.
 Engineer-in-ChiefC. W. O. Turner, B.SC.(ENG.) (LON.), M.ENG. (ILLINOIS), M.I.C.E.
 Government ArchitectF. G. F. Sheppard, F.N.Z.I.A., A.R.I.B.A.
Housing DivisionDirectorJ. V. Jebson, F.N.Z.I.A.

THE PUBLIC SERVICE

The Public Service comprises in the widest sense all servants of the Crown — other than those holding political or judicial office — who are employed in a civil capacity and whose remuneration is paid from parliamentary appropriations. They are employees of the various State Departments, commissions, and other agencies, and represent practically all occupations.

Thirty-seven State Departments are under the control of the Public Service Commission. They employed approximately 39,611 permanent officers and 2,141 temporary staff (excluding casuals) at 31 March 1962. Two other Departments, the Post Office and the Railways Department, are each independently controlled; details of numbers of staff employed by them and general administrative organisation are contained elsewhere in this volume, as are the details of the Teaching Service, the uniformed branches of the Police, Navy, Army, and Air Departments, the Judiciary, and the Magistracy.

The Public Service Commission — The Commission is a body of up to four men each appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of Government for a period of five years and eligible for reappointment (Public Service Amendment Act 1954). At 1 April 1962 the Commission had three members.

Functions — The Commission's functions are defined in the Public Service Act 1912 and amendments, and are briefly as follows: (1) recruitment of staff, (2) classification of positions according to importance and character, (3) maintenance of a fair and efficient system of promotion, (4) protection of the independence and integrity of the Service, (5) maintenance of efficiency and economy, (6) maintenance of discipline, (7) regulation of various personnel matters, e.g., leave, hours of work, payment of allowances.

Recruitment — The recruitment of public servants is conducted by the Commission through its district representatives, its own officers, and by Departments in collaboration with the Commission. Details of career openings in the Service are regularly supplied to schools; careers booklets are published by some Departments.

All recruits, except with permission of the Governor-General, must be British subjects, and are appointed on probation normally for two years.

Classification — There are five statutory divisions into which positions may be classified, as follows:

  1. Administrative — Those positions held by Permanent Heads and some deputy Permanent Heads.

  2. Professional — Includes qualified officers employed in fields such as architecture, engineering, dentistry, law, medicine, and science.

  3. Clerical — Includes qualified officers employed on duties ranging from routine clerical and accounting work to senior executive positions.

  4. Educational — Includes teachers in Maori schools, the correspondence schools, and special institutions.

  5. General — Includes a wide range Of “field” positions, the trades, and similar occupations.

The Commission is required to grade officers in these divisions according to their fitness and the character and importance of the duties performed by them. A statutory regrading of the whole Service is required each five years.

Promotion — Promotion in the Public Service is based on merit. While the Service has clearly defined salary scales and avenues of promotion, it allows for and encourages quick promotion with special salary increases to officers of merit. All vacancies above the basic grade for first entry into the Service are widely advertised so that all persons in the Service, and sometimes persons outside the Service, may apply for higher positions. Appointments are given to the most suitable and efficient applicants and, as between Service personnel, seniority becomes a factor only when applicants have equal claims in other respects.

Public servants have certain rights of appeal to the Public Service Board of Appeal concerning (1) gradings fixed by the Commission in the statutory regrading year, (2) promotions approved by the Commission, (3) decisions by the Commission concerning charges made against officers, and (4) against transfer from any place within, to any place outside New Zealand. An officer may also apply to the Chairman of the Board of Appeal for leave to appeal against transfer within New Zealand on grounds of extraordinary hardship. The Board's decisions are final.

Independence and Integrity — One of the statutory functions of the Commission is to protect the independence and integrity of the Service. The Commission is not responsible to a Minister of the Crown. Subject to the statutory appeal rights of staff, the Commission is autonomous in matters of appointments to and promotions in the Service, except in respect of a few positions exempted from the provisions of the Public Service Act. It is, however, required to report annually to Parliament on the condition and efficiency of the Public Service.

By statute a person is liable to a penalty should he attempt to influence the Commission regarding a person's appointment, promotion, or salary.

Efficiency and Economy — The Commission is responsible for efficiency and economy in the Public Service. Its Inspectors carry out general inspections of Departments; and it has an Organisation and Methods (O and M) Section to give advisory service to Departments and to explore, in collaboration with Departments, problems of Service application with a view to finding model systems. Successful administration depends on the employment of the most efficient and up-to-date management techniques.

Complementary to the continuing search for improved organisation and methods is a formal suggestions scheme designed to stimulate suggestions for better methods from all ranks of public servants. This scheme produces a steady flow of suggestions, many of which are adopted in full or in part.

Staff Training and Education — A comprehensive Service training and education policy is pursued by the Commission's Staff Training Branch. The Branch organises central courses, instructs departmental training officers in training techniques, publishes training material, assists Departments to develop training to meet specific needs, and acts as a general clearing house for the exchange of information on training methods. It also administers the various bursary schemes operated by the Commission.

Office Accommodation — The Commission is represented on the Government Office Accommodation Board. The Board's Secretariat are members of, and attached to, the Commission's staff.

Statistics: Staff — The detailed distribution of staff among Departments under the Public Service Commission is shown in the Commission's annual reports to Parliament (parliamentary paper H. 14).

Salaries — The following general provisions are applicable:

  1. Public Service Commissioners — Fixed by annual appropriation. Present rates are: Chairman, £3,750; members, £3,000.

  2. Administrative Division — Various rates, according to position held; fixed by annual appropriation.

  3. Other Divisions — As prescribed by Public Service Salary Order 1961 (Serial No. 1961/163). Salaries payable in the Professional and Clerical Divisions from 1 October 1961 were as set out below (various rates are payable in the General Division):

SalarySalary Incremental Range
VI£325, £375, £430, £495, £555, £620, £675, £725, £775, £835, £880
V£775, £835, £880, £930, £970
IV£1,015, £1,060
III£1,105, £1,150
u£1,195, £1,240
I£1,330
Sp.£1,430, £1,530, £1,630, £1,730, £1,830, £1,930, £2,045, £2,160, £2,300, £2,450, £2,600, £2,800.

The commencing salary for those with three years' secondary education is £375; with School Certificate, £430; with Endorsed School Certificate, £430, with increment to next step after six months' service; with University Entrance £495; and for those with University Entrance and Higher School Certificate, £495, with increment to next step after six months' service.

Royal Commission on State Services — In July 1961 there was appointed a Royal Commission on State Services with The Hon. Mr Justice McCarthy as Chairman. The Commission was given wide terms of reference and asked to report by 31 March 1962. It was directed, among other things, to inquire into the structure of Departments and to recommend such changes as would promote efficiency, economy, and improved service; to examine the machinery of Government with a view to improving coordination and control of Departments of State; to examine and recommend possible redistribution of functions between Departments; and to examine conditions of service with the object of promoting improved standards of administration — recruitment, promotion, appeal rights, and retirement policies. The Commission held public sittings at Wellington, Auckland, and Christchurch, and reported in June 1962.

NEW ZEALAND REPRESENTATIVES OVERSEAS MAY 1962

Argentina — Hon. Representative of Department of Industries and Commerce, T. E. B. Poole, Alsina, 1146, Buenos Aires.

Australia — High Commissioner, S. C. Johnston; Counsellor, J. Shepherd; Second Secretary, P. G. Milien; Second Secretary, A. E. Q. Pope; Canberra, A.C.T.; Head, New Zealand Joint Services Liaison Staff, Brigadier J. R. Page, C.B.E., D.S.O., Air Liaison Officer, Squadron Leader D. B. Flintoff; Senior Trade Commissioner in Australia and Commercial Adviser, C. H. Fowler; Trade Commissioner and Assistant Commercial Adviser, W. A. Brooker; Travel Manager (Tourist and Publicity), R. W. Coupland; Assistant Trade Commissioner, Miss P. A. Little; Trade Commissioner (Timber), J. Byrne; Assistant Trade Commissioner (Timber), B. H. James; Trade Officer, R. E. Tyrie, 14 Martin Place (P.O. Box 365F), Sydney; Trade Commissioner and Commercial Adviser, A. C. Davys; Assistant Trade Commissioner and Assistant Commercial Adviser, P. E. Donovan; Travel Commissioner (Tourist and Publicity), T. G. Robinson; Deputy Travel Commissioner, D. D. Welsh, 428 Collins Street (P.O. Box 2136), Melbourne.

Britain — High Commissioner, Hon. T. L. Macdonald; Counsellor, G. D. L. White, M.v.o.; Counsellor (Economic), M. J. C. Templeton; First Secretary (Economic), K. C. Durrant; First Secretary, R. L. Jermyn; Second Secretaries, Miss J. R. Leicester, J. R. Martin, D. G. Harper; Third Secretary, J. M. K. Hill; Senior R.N.Z.A.F. Officer, Air Commodore C. A. Turner, C.B.E., R.N.Z.A.F.; Senior Army Liaison Officer, Brigadier R. C. Queree, C.B.E., D.S.O.; Senior R.N.Z.N. Liaison Officer, Captain M. C. Ashdown, R.N.Z.N.; Financial Secretary, R. J. Hogg; Senior Trade Commissioner and Commercial Counsellor, D. W. Woodward; Trade Commissioner and Commercial Secretary, G. S. Fox; Assistant Trade Commissioner and Commercial Secretary, W. E. B. Tucker; Assistant Trade Commissioner and Commercial Secretary, D. J. Walker, M. Roberts; Public Relations Officer, A. T. Campbell; Senior Scientific Adviser, Dr V. Armstrong; Scientific Adviser, A. W. Melville; Agricultural Adviser, H. Doyle; Inspector of Dairy Products, J. J. Walker; Chief Migration Officer, J. V. Brennan; Customs Adviser, P. A. Bemrose; Travel Commissioner (Tourist and Publicity), J. E. Hartstonge; Deputy Travel Commissioner, W. F. Bern; Communications Adviser, E. H. R. Green, C.B.E.; Representative of the Public Trust Office, G. M. McQuillan; Advisory Engineer, New Zealand Railways, E. M. Read.

Burma — Hon. New Zealand Government Agents, New Zealand Insurance Co., Rangoon.

Canada — High Commissioner, J. S. Reid; Counsellor and Deputy High Commissioner, R. R. Cunninghame; Second Secretary, C. D. Geary; Attaché (Administration), Miss J.P. Greig; Military, Naval and Air Adviser, Brigadier T. C. Campbell, C.B.E., D.S.O., M.C, E.D.; Air Adviser, Wing Commander J. R. Claydon, A.F.C., R.N.Z.A.F., Suite 804, Commonwealth Buildings, 77 Metcalfe Street (P.O. Box 1222), Ottawa; Trade Commissioner, R. B. Gray; Assistant Trade Commissioner, A. K. Watson, 708 Prudential Assurance Building, Montreal 2; Trade Commissioner, G. Laurence, 405 Federal Building, Vancouver.

Ceylon — High Commissioner, Sir Guy Powles, K.B.E., C.M.G. (resident in New Delhi); Trade Commissioner, R. T. C. de Lambert (resident in New Delhi).

European Economic Community — Ambassador (resident in London), Hon. T. L. Macdonald; Minister, Deputy Head of Mission, K. L. Press; First Secretary, J. G. McArthur; First Secretary (Economic) (resident in London), K. C. Durrant; 51 Rue de la Loi, Brussels 4.

Fiji — Hon. New Zealand Government Agents, W. R. Carpenter and Co. (Fiji) Ltd., Suva.

France — Ambassador, C. E. Beeby, C.M.G.; Counsellor, I. L. G. Stewart; Counsellor (Economic), G. H. Datson; Third Secretary, G. J. Young; Third Secretary, Miss D. H. Palmer; Attaché (Administration), and Vice-Consul, G. W. Richards, 9 Rue Leonard de Vinci, Paris.

Ghana — Trade Commissioner, J. B. McGuire, Room 415, Ambassador Hotel, Accra.

Hong Kong — Trade Commissioner, J. P. Costello, Union House Phase 1, Chater Road, Hong Kong.

India — High Commissioner, Sir Guy Powles, K.B.E., C.M.G.; Counsellor and Deputy High Commissioner, R. A. Lochore; Trade Commissioner, R. T. C. de Lambert; First Secretary, I. K. McGregor; Second Secretary, J. K. Cunningham; Attaché (Administration), J. Nicholson, 39 Golf Links Road, New Delhi. Hon. New Zealand Government Agents, New Zealand Insurance Co., Calcutta.

Indonesia — Consul-General, D. M. Rae; Vice-Consul, C. V. Bell, Hotel Duta, Djakarta.

Japan — Ambassador, E. B. E. Taylor; Counsellor, R. Q. Quentin-Baxter; Trade Commissioner and Commercial Counsellor, J. S. Scott; Second Secretary, D. N. Atkins; Attaché (Administration), D. J. Robertson; Assistant Trade Commissioner and Attaché (Commercial), C. A. H. Paul, 26 Sanbancho Chiyodaku, Tokyo.

Malaya — High Commissioner, C. M. Bennett, D.S.O.; First Secretary, B. M. Brown; Trade Commissioner, W. L. Middlemass, M.v.o.; Second Secretary, J. C. Carter; Attaché (Information), A. D. M. Curnow; Attaché (Administration), N. E. Parker, Police Cooperative Building, Suleiman Road, Kuala Lumpur.

Nepal — Ambassador (resident in New Delhi), Sir Guy Powles, K.B.E., C.M.G.

Netherlands — Consul, J. G. Hale; Vice-Consul, P. C. K. Thompson, 53 Anna Pavlownastraat, The Hague.

Singapore — Commissioner, R. H. Wade; Second Secretary, Miss B. Angus; Second Secretary, G. N. Parkinson; N.Z.J.S. Liaison Officer, Wing Commander, A. F. Tucker, D.F.C; Assistant N.Z.J.S. Liaison Officer, Commander W. B. Elliott; Trade Commissioner, H. W. Shepherd; Attaché (Administration), B. R. Finny, Asia Insurance Building, Finlayson Green, Singapore.

South Africa — Hon. Representative of the Tourist and Publicity Department, H. R. Ballington, 3–4 Osborne Arcade, Durban.

South-East Asia Treaty Organisation — Council Representative, Sir Stephen Weir, K.B.E., C.B., D.S.O.; Representative on the Permanent Working Group, N. V. Farrell, Bangkok.

Switzerland — Consul-General, B. D. Zohrab; Vice-Consul, Miss A. V. Stokes, 13 Avenue de Budé Petit Sacconex, Geneva.

Thailand — Ambassador, Sir Stephen Weir, K.B.E., C.B., D.S.O.; First Secretary, N. V. Farrell; Second Secretary, I. P. Muir; Second Secretary, J. M. R. Mansfield; Third Secretary, P. J. Te O. Gordon, New Zealand Embassy, 96 Sathorn Road, Bangkok.

Trinidad — Trade Commissioner, D. N. Hull, 27 Henry Street, Port of Spain.

United Nations — Permanent Representative, F. H. Corner; Counsellor, M. Norrish; First Secretaries, B. F. Bolt, H. C. Templeton; Third Secretaries, L. G. Watt, G. C. Hensley; the Permanent Mission of New Zealand to the United Nations, 22nd floor, 733 Third Avenue, New York.

Permanent Representative to the European Office of the United Nations — B. D. Zohrab; Third Secretary, Miss A. V. Stokes; The Permanent Mission of New Zealand to the European Office of the U.N., 13 Avenue de Budé, Petit Sacconex, Geneva.

United States of America — Ambassador, G. R. Laking; Counsellor, R. M. Miller; First Secretaries, R. M. Mullins, A. C. Shailes; Second Secretary, D. B. G. McLean, Third Secretary, D. K. Hunn; Attaché (Administration), S. J. V. Wilson; New Zealand Embassy, 19 Observatory Circle, Washington. Armed Forces Attaché, Brigadier T. C. Campbell, C.B.E., D.S.O., M.C, E.D.; Assistant Armed Forces Attaché, Wing Commander J. R. Claydon, A.F.C, R.N.Z.A.F., 3101 Cleveland Avenue, N.W., Washington. Senior Trade Commissioner and Commercial Counsellor, G. R. J. Hope; Trade Commissioner and Commercial Secretary, A. W. Broadbent; Assistant Trade Commissioner and Commercial Attaché, L. G. Donaldson, Suite 306, Associations Buildings, 1145, 19th Street, N.W., Washington. Consul-General, O. P. Gabites; Consul, R. W. Sharp; Consul (Commercial) and Trade Commissioner, J. L. Fenaughty, Assistant Trade Commissioner and Vice-Consul, (Commercial), A. K. Robinson; Travel Commissioner, N. S. Munro; Deputy Travel Commissioner, G. F. Swafford, Administration Officer and Vice-Consul, G. A. Petterson, Suite 530, International Building, Rockefeller Centre, New York. Consul-General, R. L. G. Challis, Trade Commissioner and Consul (Commercial), R. J. Inglis; New Zealand Travel Commissioner for the United States and Canada, N. F. F. Gouffe; Vice-Consul, Miss A. J. Pearce; Deputy Travel Commissioner, W. Scott; New Zealand Consulate-General, 153 Kearney Street, San Francisco.

Western Samoa — High Commissioner, J. B. Wright; C.B.E.; First Secretary and Deputy High Commissioner, G. K. Ansell; Second Secretary, H. L. Hobson, Apia.

OVERSEAS REPRESENTATIVES IN NEW ZEALAND MAY 1962

Argentina — Acting Consul-General, Dr L. M. Moreno-Quintana, Government Life Insurance Building, Customhouse Quay, Wellington.

Australia — High Commissioner, His Excellency Vice-Admiral Sir John Collins, K.B.E., C.B.; First Secretary, F. W. Truelove; Defence Representative, Colonel S. A. Fletcher; Commercial Counsellor, C. A. Allen, M.V.O.; Commercial Secretary, J. A. Morey; Second Secretary, Miss R. L. Dobson; Attaché (Consular and Administration), R. D. Adlam, Government Life Insurance Building, Customhouse Quay, Wellington. Trade Commissioner, C. L. Steele, 56 Shortland Street, Auckland. Trade Commissioner, S. D. Shubart, Phoenix Assurance Building, 89 Worcester Street, Christchurch.

Austria — Chargé d'Affaires (with jurisdiction in New Zealand), Dr W. de Comtes, Canberra, Hon. Consul-General, S. B. Clarke, Wellington.

Belgium — Chargé d'Affaires, a.i., Etienne Humblet, Dominion Farmers' Institute, Wellington. Hon. Consuls, J. B. Ferguson, D.S.O., E.D., Auckland; Sir Joseph G. D. Ward, Bart., Christchurch; A. H. Allen, C.B.E., Dunedin.

Brazil — Secretary in charge of Consular Affairs, E. Radwanski, Canberra.

Britain -High Commissioner, His Excellency The Hon. Sir Francis Cumming-Bruce, K.C.M.G.; Deputy High Commissioner, F. A. K. Harrison; First Secretary (Information), J. L. Hayden, O.B.E.; First Secretary, J. R. Flaxman; Second Secretary, R. G. Beer; Information Officer, J. Shotter; Economic Adviser, C. G. Cruickshank; First Secretary (Commercial) and Trade Commissioner, G. C. Dick; Second Secretaries and Assistant Trade Commissioners, Miss D. F. Stuart, K. W-Neall; First Secretary (Agriculture and Food), J. Eaton, Government Life Insurance Building, Customhouse Quay, Wellington. Service Liaison Staff: Navy, Captain T. G. V. Percy, O.B.E., D.S.C, R.N.; Army, Colonel K. H. S. Wilson; Air, Group Captain J. H. L. Blount, D.F.C, R.A.F.; Secretary, Squadron-Leader L J. Ayling, M.B.E., Government Life Insurance Building, Customhouse Quay, Wellington. Trade Commissioner, A. P. Timms; Assistant Trade Commissioner, D. P. Dick, Customs Street East, Auckland. Information Officer, W. D. Symington, Auckland. Trade Commissioner, A. Vine, Christchurch.

Burma — Ambassador (with jurisdiction in New Zealand), His Excellency Brigadier Aung Shwe (designate); Second Secretary, A. J. Lamech, Canberra.

Canada — High Commissioner, His Excellency Mr G. R. Heasman, O.B.E.; Second Secretary, Miss V. Allen; Second Secretary (Commercial), W. J. Collett, Government Life Insurance Building, Customhouse Quay, Wellington.

Ceylon — High Commissioner (with jurisdiction in New Zealand), His Excellency Mr W. D. Gunaratna, O.B.E.; Official Secretary, A. Nesaratnam, Canberra; Commercial Attaché and Trade Commissioner, M. C. M. Shibly, Sydney; Hon. Trade Commissioner, D. H. Scott, Wellington.

Chile — Hon. Consul-General (with jurisdiction in New Zealand), J. R. Dundas Smith, Sydney; Hon. Consul, H. O. Taylor, Auckland.

China — Ambassador (with jurisdiction in New Zealand), His Excellency Dr Chen Chih-Mai, Canberra; Chargé d'Affaires, a.i., Dr Daniel Yu-Tang Lew; Third Secretary, Chen Che Yao; Third Secretary, George Ho-Sang Loh, D.I.C. Buildings, Lambton Quay, Wellington.

Czechoslovakia — Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary (Vacant); First Secretary and Chargé d'Affaires, a.i., Bretislav Matonoha; Second Secretary, O. Svihalek, 10 Brougham Ave., Wellington.

Denmark — Chargé d'Affaires, Thorkild Wegener-Clausen; Vice-Consul, Verner Levald, Government Life Insurance Building; Customhouse Quay, Wellington. Hon. Consuls: A. A. Beuth, Wellington; L. J. Stevens; Hon. Vice-Consul, E. J. S. Kjaer, Auckland; A. C. Perry, Christchurch. Hon. Vice-Consul, G. C. Petersen, Palmerston North.

Dominican Republic — Hon. Consul, F. Russell Baker, Auckland.

Fiji — New Zealand Agents for the Colony of Fiji, L. D. Nathan and Co. Ltd., Auckland.

Finland- Chargé d'Affaires (with jurisdiction in New Zealand), Toivo Kala, Sydney. Hon. Consul, T. N. Gibbs, Wellington.

France — Ambassador, His Excellency Mr L. A. Félix; First Secretary, A. Sicé; Third Secretary, L. Da viles; Commercial Counsellor, R. Maurice; Assistant Commercial Attaché, M. Bai Hard, Government. Life Insurance Building, Customhouse Quay, Wellington. Army, Naval, and Air Attaché, Capitaine de Frégate, P. Lemahieu (Resident in Noumea). Hon. Consular Agents: R. G. McElroy, Auckland; R. G. F. Kingscote, Christchurch; Dermot Neill, Dunedin.

German Federal Republic — Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, His Excellency Dr H. Noehring; First Secretary, J. J. Blomeyer, 3 Claremont Grove, Wellington; Hon. Consul, K. McK. Wilson, Auckland.

Greece — Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary (with jurisdiction in New Zealand), His Excellency Mr Phedon Annino Cavalierato (designate); First Secretary and Chargé d'Affaires, a.i., N. Athanassiou; Attaché, D. N. Pyliotis, Canberra; Hon. Acting Consul-General, S. Garland, Wellington.

India — High Commissioner (with jurisdiction in New Zealand), His Excellency Mr Samarendranath Sen, Canberra; Press Attaché, Vacant, Sydney; First Secretary (Commercial) and Acting High Commissioner, Mr V. K. Ahuja; Attaché (Commercial), Mr T. C. Kuruvilla, 49 Willis Street, Wellington.

Indonesia — Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, His Excellency Brigadier General Suadi Suromihardjo; Attaché (Military), Colonel Sentot Iskandar di Nata, Canberra; Hon. Consul-General, G. E. L. Alderton, C.M.G., Auckland.

Israel — Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary (with jurisdiction in New Zealand), His Excellency Mr Moshe Yuval; Counsellor and Consul-General, Nabum Astar, Canberra; Commercial Attaché, Oswald Sharef, Sydney.

Italy — Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, His Excellency Dr Giuseppe Capece Galeota della Regina, Secretary (Commercial), C. Bonetti, 24 Grant Road, Wellington. Hon. Consular Agents, E. Flego, Auckland; P. P. Amodeo, Christchurch; G. Monopoli, Nelson.

Japan — Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary, His Excellency Mr Kaoru Hara; Counsellor, T. Nakagawa; Second Secretary, Hiroshi Ando, Assistant Attaché, Michio Hamano, 298 Oriental Parade, Wellington C. 4. Hon. Consul, A. G. Hardy, Auckland.

Lebanon — Acting Consul-General (with jurisdiction in New Zealand), Mr Ramiz Shammah, Sydney.

Malaya — High Commissioner, His Excellency the Hon. Dato' Sulieman bin Dato' Abdul Rahman, P.MN, SPMJ; Counsellor and Trade Commissioner, Inche Bahadun bin Haji Hassan; Second Secretary, Yusof bin Ariff; Third Secretary, Jay Fook Choy, Canberra.

Netherlands — Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, His Excellency Baron Bentinck van Schoonheten; First Secretary, C. G. Van Geest; Emigration Attaché, Ph. J. te Winkel; Attaché of Legation, J. G. W. Faber; Attaché (Consular), W. J. Hootsen, Shell House, The Terrace, Wellington. Hon. Consul, C. O. Hughes; Migration Officer, H. W. F. M. Knottenbelt, Auckland; Emigration Officer, J. J. A. de Moor, Christchurch. Hon. Consuls: G. N. Francis, Christchurch; J. M. Richie, Dunedin.

Norway — Consul-General (with jurisdiction in New Zealand), Olav Nordland, Sydney. Hon. Consul, Dr A. B. Andersen, Wellington. Hon. Vice-Consuls: J. P. Nannestad, Auckland; E. J. Parry, Christchurch; W. F. Edmond, Dunedin.

Pakistan — High Commissioner (with jurisdiction in New Zealand), His Excellency Mr K. M. Kaiser; First Secretary, Bashir-ul Alam; Second Secretary, Kaiser Rasheed, Canberra; First Secretary (Commercial), F. H. Choudhury, Sydney.

Panama — Hon. Consul, P. C. Griffiths, N.I.M.U. Building, Auckland.

Peru — Hon. Consul, A. M. Doull, Auckland.

The Philippines -Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary (with jurisdiction in New Zealand), His Excellency Mr R. S. Busuego; First Secretary and Consul-General, Bartolome Umayam; Third Secretary, Julio Calvo; Attaché, A. Prats, jun., Sydney; Military Attaché, Colonel F. Llamas; Hon. Consul, E. O. Faber, Auckland.

Portugal — Hon. Consuls: L. D. Nathan, Auckland; W. S. Wheeler, Wellington. Hon Vice-Consul, I. D. Reid, Wellington; Hon. Vice-Consul, R. W. Crombie, Dunedin.

South Africa — Hon. Trade Commissioner, Vacant.

Sweden — Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, His Excellency Mr Olof Ripa, 105 Customhouse Quay, Wellington; Hon. Acting Consul, C. E. Taylor, Wellington. Hon. Vice-Consuls: C. M. Richwhite, Auckland; I. Machin, Christchurch; Vacant, Dunedin; G. M. Corbet, Invercargill.

Switzerland — Consul-General, Dr O. Rossetti, D.I.C. Building, Wellington.

Thailand — Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary (with jurisdiction in New Zealand), His Excellency Mr Vadhana Isarabhakdi; Military Attaché, Colonel Bulrit Dadarananda, Canberra; Chargé d'Affairs, a.i., Rabin Kesonsukhon; Third Secretary, Charas Kiriratnikom, Wellington.

Tonga — New Zealand Agents for the Government of Tonga, Messrs Spedding Ltd., Auckland.

Turkey — Hon. Consul, E. G. Cowell, Auckland.

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics — Chargé d'Affaires, a.i., N. V. Ivanov; First Secretary, N. Evdokeyev; Third Secretary, L. A. Filatov; Attachés, L. V. Shcherbakov and B. I. Bushuev, 57 Messines Road, Wellington.

United States of America — Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary, His Excellency Mr A. B. Akers; Counsellor, Miss R. Bacon; Army Attaché, Colonel Albert H. Hislop; Air Attaché, Colonel Andrew E. McDavid (resident in Canberra); Naval Attaché and Naval Attaché for Air, Commander L. C. Knowles; Agricultural Attaché, Dr Daniel E. Brady; First Secretary (Economic), F. Irving; First Secretary (Political), G. M. Fennemore; Attaché and Public Affairs Officer, T. T. Driver; First Secretary (Political), R. L. Brown; Second Secretary (Administrative Officer), R. R. Bliss; Second Secretary and Consul, C. L. Rice; Second Secretary (Commercial), J. C. Nelson; Assistant Air Attaché (Resident in Canberra), Colonel Harold E. Ottaway, Government Life Insurance Building, Customhouse Quay, Wellington. Consul, J. P. Parker, Vice-Consul, G. L. Kelly, Auckland. Consular Agent, William G. Quirk, Christchurch.

Venezuela — Hon. Consul, Dr L. Bennett, Dingwall Building, Auckland C. 1.

Yugoslavia — Consul-General, A. Djomparin; Consul, R. Dziha, 49 Hobson Street, Wellington.

Chapter 43. STATISTICAL SUMMARY

Table of Contents

TOTAL POPULATION AND EXTERNAL MIGRATION
YearPopulationMean PopulationYear Ended 31 March
At 31 DecemberAt 31 MarchYear Ended 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 MarchOverseas Passenger Arrivals*Overseas Passenger Departures*
* Excluding through passengers and tourists on cruising liners.
19111,075,2501,056,1991,063,8871,045,70637,04934,375
19121,102,4711,081,3441,088,8611,069,82843,09737,205
19131,134,5061,111,5891,118,4881,096,46746,89234,935
19141,145,8381,139,6681,140,1721,125,62841,67231,517
19151,152,6381,150,3861,149,2381,145,02733,37727,254
19161,150,3391,150,2501,149,2251,150,31825,40722,808
19171,147,4481,150,9381,148,8931,149,22520,47020,047
19181,158,1491,154,5591,152,7981,152,74813,71812,214
19191,227,1811,178,4061,192,6651,166,48211,97811,473
19201,257,6111,236,9151,242,3961,207,66026,90023,990
19211,292,8921,267,4981,274,9171,252,20646,09031,908
19221,318,8841,301,2511,305,1261,283,54641,12830,396
19231,343,0211,325,3011,328,1931,311,38234,10828,581
19241,370,4031,347,8531,352,6181,334,02936,25430,487
19251,401,2301,379,4871,384,4281,359,99542,21129,913
19261,429,6691,409,8121,413,7431,392,07342,44930,714
19271,450,3561,438,1321,439,0041,420,83845,68234,018
19281,467,3701,453,8211,456,0751,443,55135,83737,072
19291,486,1341,471,1101,473,4191,460,36334,79934,088
19301,506,8091,489,2031,493,0191,478,02733,83931,454
19311,522,7621,511,7001,514,2151,498,41630,74125,632
19321,534,7351,525,5451,527,0621,517,94017,89121,063
19331,547,1241,538,0281,539,5901,530,11918,71321,308
19341,558,3731,550,1251,551,5321,542,65119,68722,022
19351,569,6891,560,9921,562,2331,554,29724,90128,051
19361,584,6171,573,9271,575,2311,565,26326,93628,050
19371,601,7581,587,2111,589,9721,578,75731,67032,023
19381,618,3131,604,4791,606,7631,594,27538,73836,352
19391,641,6391,624,7141,628,5121,611,36242,64837,685
19401,633,6451,640,9011,637,3051,633,44731,43225,404
19411,631,2761,636,2301,630,9481,635,71513,81413,100
19421,636,4031,634,3381,639,5721,630,4197,1026,893
19431,642,0411,634,0941,635,6351,640,1913,1332,592
19441,676,2861,643,9001,655,7951,637,5703,7473,640
19451,727,8171,679,9721,694,6411,664,5857,2076,189
19461,781,2141,756,7561,759,5261,710,68013,30910,966
19471,817,4531,789,4761,798,2621,770,29125,35822,320
19481,853,8061,828,0251,834,6551,807,61133,14427,388
19491,892,0421,864,5601,871,7481,843,76735,94631,765
19501,927,6291,902,8831,909,0921,881,31750,88043,000
19511,970,5221,938,0321,947,5291,917,93454,64447,122
19522,024,5561,984,7301,996,1491,958,72962,49846,834
19532,074,7812,037,5532,048,8262,009,50666,24044,208
19542,118,4342,087,7402,094,9102,061,37661,84546,404
19552,164,7342,130,9272,138,9462,105,76761,61054,580
19562,209,1322,175,3732,182,8332,150,29066,47258,380
19572,262,8142,221,1692,232,5912,194,10876,00564,563
19582,315,9002,275,5152,285,8522,246,09379,66664,258
19592,359,7462,326,1292,334,6172,298,81483,64873,656
19602,403,5672,370,1662,377,0102,345,60289,37786,164
19612,463,2412,414,2962,427,3662,388,004106,238104,618
1962 2,477,297 2,442,700132,656113,824

VITAL STATISTICS (EXCLUDING MAORIS)

YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Mean PopulationDeaths Under 1 Year per 1,000 Live Births
Live BirthsMarriages*DeathsDeaths Under 1 YearLive BirthsMarriages*Deaths
* Maori marriages are included since 1942.
191126,3548,8259,5341,48425.978.709.3956.31
191227,5089,1499,2141,40926.488.818.8751.22
191327,9358,81310,1191,65326.148.259.4759.17
191428,3389,28010,1481,45625.998.519.3151.38
191527,85010,0289,9651,39425.339.129.0650.05
191628,5098,21310,5961,44625.947.479.6450.72
191728,2396,41710,5281,36025.695.849.5848.16
191825,8606,22716,3641,25223.445.6514.8448.41
191924,4839,51910,8081,10821.428.339.4645.26
192029,92112,17512,1091,51325.0910.2110.1550.57
192128,56710,63510,6821,36623.368.698.7347.82
192229,0069,55610,9771,21523.187.648.7741.89
192327,96710,07011,5111,22521.967.919.0443.80
192428,01410,25910,7671,12721.607.918.3040.23
192528,15310,41911,0261,12521.207.858.3039.96
192628,47310,68011,8191,13221.067.908.7439.76
192727,88110,47811,6131,08020.297.638.4538.74
192827,20010,53711,81198419.577.588.5036.18
192926,74710,96712,31491219.037.808.7634.10
193026,79711,07512,19992418.837.788.5734.48
193126,6239,81712,04785618.456.818.3532.15
193224,8849,89611,68377717.126.818.0431.22
193324,33410,51011,70177016.637.187.9931.64
193424,32211,25612,52778116.517.648.5032.11
193523,96512,18712,21777316.178.238.2532.26
193624,83713,80813,05676916.649.258.7530.96
193726,01414,36413,65881217.299.559.0831.21
193827,24915,32814,75497117.9310.099.7135.63
193928,83317,11514,15889818.7311.129.2031.14
194032,77117,44814,28299021.1911.289.2430.21
194135,10013,31315,1461,04522.818.659.8429.77
194233,57412,77516,38596421.737.7910.6028.71
194330,31112,02115,44795119.707.3510.0431.37
194433,59913,64615,3631,01221.598.249.8730.12
194537,00716,69316,0511,03623.229.8510.0727.99
194641,87121,09616,0931,09325.2611.999.7126.10
194744,81619,04715,9041,12226.4710.599.3925.04
194844,19317,75015,81297025.599.6791621.95
194943,98817,35416,0121,04624.989.279.0923.78
195044,30917,09916,7151,00824.678.969.3122.75
195144,65116,91517,5121,01724.398.699.5622.78
195246,46917,06117,4131,01424.778.559.2821.82
195346,41417,22417,00993124.128.418.8420.06
195448,43117,55717,66796824.638.388.9819.99
195549,86917,79517,9531,00224.868.328.9520.09
195650,43017,53118,40397824.668.039.0019.39
195751,85217,61419,4111,03624.827.899.2919.98
195853,77418,30519,0141,04325.168.018.9019.40
195954,73918,31519,8141,08925.107.849.0919.89
196055,43518,90919,5241,09025.007.968.8119.66
196157,70619,42620,3971,10425.538.009.0319.13

EDUCATION

YearNumber of Scholars* ReceivingUniversity Students (Excluding University Colleges of Agriculture)
Primary Education atSecondary Education at
Public SchoolsRegistered Private SchoolsMaori Village SchoolsSecondary (Including Endowed and Combined) SchoolsDistrict High SchoolsTechnical SchoolsRegistered Private Schools and Maori Secondary Schools
* Excludes those receiving tuition from the correspondence schools (primary and secondary).
1911161,99119,9674,5575,4651,7771,3418311,900
1912166,64520,3504,6945,8311,8151,5268832,228
1913172,61721,2514,6476,1541,8371,6645452,318
1914178,96922,2475,0726,4181,8961,8398502,257
1915183,71922,4775,1916,4882,1021,9559922,039
1916186,35023,6355,1327,0522,1152,1051,0041,985
1917188,75425,6855,1737,5902,1802,3471,2061,977
1918193,34526,3715,0648,3842,2832,7471,3662,226
1919194,58620,9775,1989,0682,1592,9261,4973,060
1920198,46022,1935,5089,1962,1572,7661,4393,822
1921205,95523,9245,82210,0302,1763,3491,6344,123
1922211,08124,8616,16110,7362,6064,2021,9983,958
1923212,46026,0106,18611,6192,8185,0542,1344,202
1924213,76826,3026,31012,0102,9005,3692,4734,236
1925215,06325,9336,38612,5143,1365,1322,5114,442
1926219,01726,7786,59113,6513,2995,7002,7944,653
1927221,15727,3586,62014,1903,5815,7032,9324,878
1928219,95026,5966,67115,0383,8806,0613,4304,802
1929219,16626,9776,97915,4984,0006,1143,6984,623
1930219,23526,4517,07016,1494,2406,9533,8254,801
1931218,82926,7267,50316,3444,9447,3973,7774,869
1932207,63526,4107,31315,9484,4867,1063,6164,912
1933200,96826,4287,34015,7154,5117,1493,5864,806
1934200,07026,6367,58715,9014,3657,1833,6514,721
1935197,68926,8697,87616,1624,5937,3233,9684,818
1936210,55227,7099,17516,5564,0707,4224,2414,967
1937208,03627,9319,64216,8114,3897,8334,6135,010
1938206,37528,3869,83217,7644,9058,1494,9025,219
1939205,41528,28010,40318,1765,4018,4815,1375,647
1940204,27628,45410,73017,7105,2538,0095,2075,197
1941204,33228,61410,91616,9865,0337,3715,3254,964
1942204,20028,46711,00916,8054,8527,9235,3574,292
1943204,37229,32811,27418,3245,1978,4366,0355,693
1944206,22029,71711,79320,8296,18710,2336,9276,986
1945209,89930,40112,19021,5666,87210,8657,8318,149
1946218,61431,50612,65421,9366,65611,7128,41910,993
1947227,10832,60413,17021,8476,66612,3288,91311,291
1948233,30433,36013,25422,0596,89512,1368,80911,380
1949242,03834,96013,28822,6177,32012,5049,18211,000
1950254,53336,74813,42623,5396,99213,8599,43910,936
1951267,54138,51213,66324,6287,19514,8719,94610,428
1952285,04040,44414,07626,4117,94616,17910,55810,225
1953300,74842,79914,34528,7838,70918,13611,36810,326
1954314,94444,24014,08635,6168,36418,26812,56810,304
1955321,53745,96313,98840,8248,87618,29212,90310,331
1956335,64548,43413,99643,1118,61819,06914,53410,493
1957348,94049,64413,28447,1418,82317,49615,73811,039
1958364,18151,06314,13551,5738,72017,40616,55712,085
1959373,80753,43113,15357,6318,23618,29717,23813,505
1960378,92754,16813,18764,4347,54220,78118,68414,934
1961389,78755,63813,11371,9657,93123,11120,22315,913

NOTE-In addition, in 1961, 907 attended the University Colleges of Agriculture, 1,084 received tuition from the Primary Correspondence School, 439 from the Secondary Correspondence School, and 5,861 from the Technical Correspondence School.

JUSTICE

YearSummary Convictions in Magistrates' Courts*Total Convictions or Sentences in Superior CourtsTotal Distinct Persons Sentenced in Superior CourtsPrisoners in Gaol at End of Year (Undergoing Sentence)
NumberRate per 1,000 of Mean PopulationNumberRate per 1,000 of Mean PopulationNumberRate per 1,000 of Mean PopulationNumberRate per 1,000 of Population

* Excluding Children's Court cases from year 1914 onwards.

Change in legislation has resulted in more cases being dealt with in Magistrates' Courts.

191032,43531.174950.484940.478430.80
191133,02931.054530.434270.408020.75
191236,19133.244800.444280.398210.75
191339,68535.484460.404090.378340.74
191440,67335.675220.464830.429810.86
191538,44633.455090.444410.389410.82
191634,32429.874480.394010.358340.73
191733,30228.996230.543770.339540.83
191828,42124.656320.553550.311,0050.87
191931,76626.638080.684610.398520.69
192034,74027.961,0110.814590.379960.79
192136,49228.581,4751166160.481,0440.81
192233,99526.051,4171.096010.461,0520.83
192336,70129.141,6631.256250.471,1410.85
192438,98228.821,3881035550.411,1970.87
192543,40731.351,4651.065110.371,2840.92
192644,88731.751,5621105690.401,3880.97
192744,54030.951,7391.215690.401,4831.02
192843,41929.821,3680.944780.331,4350.98
192944,31130.071,3450.914730.321,3420.90
193045,54430.501,5241.025380.361,5231.01
193140,37426.661,6241.076000.401,6141.06
193240,59126.581,7101.126360.421,5220.99
193336,04323.411,5130.985310.341,4100.91
193435,75223.041,2130.784900.321,1990.77
193536,23023.191,1480.734720.301,1120.71
193639,51725.091,1780.754620.299150.58
193742,72626.871,3180.835070.327900.49
193849,65130.901,3220.824880.307770.48
193952,28832.111,4890.915710.358950.55
194046,11028.161,3940.855470.338630.53
194139,63624.301,4960.925420.339880.61
1942....1,4600.894570.281,0340.63
1943....1,3780.844940.301,0240.62
1944....1,4410.875600.349450.56
1945....1,8851.116190.379980.58
1946....1,7130.976550.379920.56
194740,99022.791,9481.087400.411,0880.60
194844,11924.052,3231.277170.399860.53
194950,00026.711,7180.926760.369410.50
195051,60627.031,5830.836420.341,0430.54
195156,12828.821,5740.816440.331,0400.53
195273,96037.051,7060.857040.351,0830.54
195382,14340.093610.181790091,0880.52
195480,21038.293260.161480.071,1960.57
195577,80636.383770.181470.071,1180.52
195687,39440.406010.282040.091,3620.62
195798,64744.185670.251990.091,4740.66
1958108,79147.595580.242060.091,6420.72
1959101,65543.545950.252120.091,7140.73
1960112,88947.497490.322860.121,7570.74

AGRICULTURE

SeasonWheat for ThreshingOats for Threshing
AreaYieldYield per acreAreaYieldYield per acre

* Yield probably overstated for these four seasons, owing to total being obtained by applying ascertained averages to areas returned by farmers as sown for threshing. Some areas returned in these years as intended for threshing would appear to have been eventually utilized for other purposes.

Provisional.

 acresbushelsbushelsacresbushelsbushels
1910–11322,1678,290,22125.73302,82710,118,91733.41
1911–12215,5287,261,13833.69403,66819,662,668*48.71
1912–13189,8695,179,62627.28386,78613,583,924*35.12
1913–14166,7745,231,70031.37361,74114,740,946*40.75
1914–15229,6006,644,33628.94287,56111,436,301*39.77
1915–16329,2077,108,36021.59212,6887,653,20835.98
1916–17217,7435,051,22723.19177,5245,371,43630.26
1917–18280,9786,807,53624.23156,2024,942,75931.64
1918–19208,0306,567,62931.57172,6866,884,60939.87
1919–20139,6114,559,93432.66179,8006,967,86238.75
1920–21219,9856,872,26231.24147,5595,225,11535.41
1921–22352,91810,565,27529.94170,6556,752,66339.56
1922–23275,7758,395,02330.44143,0905,688,15739.75
1923–24173,8644,174,53724.0163,8421,964,51130.77
1924–25166,9645,447,75832.62147,3875,707,17438.72
1925–26151,6734,617,04130.44102,4854,115,60640.14
1926–27220,0837,952,44236.13117,3264,997,53542.58
1927–28260,9879,541,44436.5688,2233,852,68743.66
1928–29255,3128,832,86434.6073,1013,065,11341.93
1929–30235,9427,239,55630.6867,7223,002,28844.33
1930–31249,0147,579,15330.4487,1523,376,60938.74
1931–32268,7566,582,69824.4968,6902,818,15241.03
1932–33302,53111,054,97236.54116,2065,132,18344.16
1933–34286,2719,036,01731.5678,3433,242,50041.39
1934–35225,3895,933,24526.3252,5161,890,14535.99
1935–36248,6398,859,22335.6377,5023,302,64242.61
1936–37221,7907,168,96332.3274,7723,525,43047.15
1937–38185,9496,042,98132.5057,9172,640,91545.60
1938–39189,2815,564,13629.4054,4222,604,81747.86
1939–40257,5328,010,08931.1049,7512,081,10641.83
1940–41243,1978,305,86534.1571,7583,114,94643.41
1941–42258,0028,671,24433.6170,7963,444,81248.66
1942–43286,9989,819,34234.2156,2912,808,77449.90
1943–44233,7867,208,48530.8339,6521,834,31046.26
1944–45183,8866,992,20438.0277,6844,209,14354.18
1945–46161,0495,439,04133.7757,2782,796,87748.83
1946–47141,4075,368,12037.9655,2972,686,21148.58
1947–48123,7514,539,01736.6863,1592,853,51745.18
1948–49146,7075,958,02640.6178,3003,718,59747.49
1949–50125,1594,899,66839.1552,6452,620,25249.77
1950–51144,7636,271,92843.3335,8081,827,95351.05
1951–5289,9553,890,16743.2545,5612,469,53054.20
1952–53127,2254,525,29835.5749,0872,385,12948.59
1953–54113,8134,783,22742.0320,529945,38646.05
1954–55103,9894,113,44439.5631,1641,602,05851.41
1955–5668,4792,658,42838.8242,1681,947,40446.18
1956–5765,7432,950,27344.8856,4962,888,31051.12
1957–5883,9363,727,11744.4029,9811,460,14948.70
1958–59132,9136,038,82245.4334,0111,575,75546.33
1959–60163,1588,700,19953.3233,5241,825,10454.44
1960–61186,9959,290,08249.6841,0252,208,62053.34

LIVESTOCK

YearHorsesTotal CattleDairy Cows*SheepPigs
* Figures from 1917 onwards are for dairy cows in milk only.
1911404,2842,020,171633,73323,996,126348,754
1912......23,750,153..
1913......24,191,810..
1914......24,798,763..
1915......24,901,421..
1916371,3312,417,491750,32324,788,150297,501
1917373,6002,575,230684,03225,270,386283,770
1918378,0502,869,465710,56126,538,302258,694
1919363,1883,035,478732,25325,828,554235,347
1920346,4073,101,945782,75723,919,970266,829
1921337,2593,139,223890,22023,285,031349,892
1922332,1053,323,2231,015,32522,222,259384,333
1923330,8183,480,6941,124,67123,081,439400,889
1924330,4303,563,4971,184,97723,775,776414,271
1925326,8303,503,7441,195,56724,547,955440,115
1926314,8673,452,4861,181,44124,904,993472,534
1927303,7133,257,7291,181,54525,649,016520,143
1928307,1603,273,7691,242,72927,133,810586,898
1929298,9863,445,7901,291,20429,051,382556,732
1930297,1953,770,2231,389,54130,841,287487,793
1931282,7294,043,5601,478,94729,792,516468,533
1932267,9804,072,3831,562,07928,691,788505,755
1933263,8834,155,0581,703,32827,755,966583,921
1934260,8924,264,1631,795,81728,649,038652,732
1935259,9724,256,5341,807,37729,076,754755,094
1936263,1564,217,1131,802,77330,113,704800,802
1937264,7854,352,1361,784,82031,305,818794,758
1938265,1534,469,1171,743,19032,378,774748,805
1939261,7894,527,9831,723,89331,897,091675,802
1940258,5674,496,0671,719,28931,062,875706,340
1941253,0524,538,9081,759,01831,751,660769,180
1942248,5974,641,7141,777,239..688,677
1943236,4554,447,5481,714,959..604,574
1944225,8234,439,2581,647,92033,200,298573,362
1945217,6894,590,9261,678,94333,974,612593,828
1946216,3354,666,7821,661,944..549,391
1947206,5754,633,8001,657,69032,681,799545,874
1948203,8854,716,2871,713,53232,483,138548,177
1949196,0554,722,8361,746,75332,844,918544,841
1950194,8774,954,9061,850,08933,856,558555,245
1951183,9725,060,0241,898,19734,786,386564,335
1952173,9225,164,6891,905,53435,384,270565,723
1953158,0655,445,9631,962,49236,192,935627,830
1954158,2805,744,8781,999,14038,010,954648,902
1955147,0635,886,7771,994,76139,117,300681,359
1956......40,255,488..
1957129,3095,808,6351,997,81942,382,008602,469
1958123,2615,885,5841,966,54746,025,930627,812
1959122,9575,973,3521,931,11246,876,222691,568
1960104,9955,991,9381,886,77247,133,557660,261
1961..6,445,7891,928,78848,462,310655,432

NOTE — With the exception of sheep, figures from 1931 onwards exclude stock within boroughs, and the figures from 1960 are for stock on holdings of 10 acres or over outside borough boundaries.

TRADE

YearExcluding Specie*Specie
ExportsImports (c.d.v.)ExportsImports
TotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean Population

* Figures are in terms of New Zealand currency.

Specie exports and imports represent face value.

‡Increases mainly due to imports of defence materials and equipment.

§Provisional.

 £(000)£s.£(000)£s.£(000)
191118,980171717,07516148763
191221,512191518,706174259400
191322,81020819,6851712176635
191426,25423119,22216178712
191531,43127718,7811633181,070
191633,281281922,769191661,294
191731,51727918,85616870177
191828,481241421,93819136102
191953,90845427,55423262363
192046,40537755,9584513742
192144,82835238,858309198
192242,726321531,660245186
192345,940341239,42229142715
192452,509381644,1163212103
192555,243391847,6603491931
192645,26932145,283321778
192748,496331440,712286 
192855,57038340,76728061842
192954,93037644,30430164964
193044,94130240,309270363
193134,95123224,089151820256
193235,61023622,40514141,35655
193341,006261323,256152296425
193447,343301028,4911872,2841,242
193546,538291633,016213521382
193656,75236140,23525114537
193766,713411951,0553224319
193858,37636750,3843173231
193958,049351344,8972711325
194073,74145144,54327437
194167,47941844,69727810205
194281,285491248,960291725147
194371,863431986,58452191462
194477,78747078,543479160
194581,63148350,08029114208
1946101,302571265,0653705419
1947129,4207119116,94665110185
1948147,8218011116,849631455625
1949147,2817814109,1215865701,041
1950183,752965143,584753514170
1951248,1271278187,758968280250
1952240,56112010229,447114192785
1953235,8601152163,61379178107
1954244,46611614213,15510115821
1955259,2891214250,66111741344
1956277,4831272234,77910711212
1957276,56912318261,73811751549
1958250,1731099252,8001101216298
1959293,65912516205,0768783955
1960§302,5081275251,811106103757
1961§283,67911618287,126118625280

TRADE — ctd.

YearExports of New Zealand Produce
WoolFrozen Meat*Tallow
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue

* Includes exports of chilled beef.

† Provisional.

 lb(m.)£(000)tons£(000)tons£(000)
19111696,492112,5283,50320,656607
19121887,105128,6623,91023,545685
19131878,058128,9354,45022,743663
19142209,318161,4985,86324,515694
191519710,388179,5637,79426,763781
191618612,386166,3027,27122,472785
191717812,175122,3475,98212,599553
19181097,527101,8454,95816,421848
191927419,560191,1349,62846,8742,680
192016211,864231,46411,67427,0411,749
19211595,221216,13811,16427,712867
192232211,882175,9008,38726,495751
192321810,905152,1969,01325,243786
192420615,268160,6799,50023,988799
192520617,740170,71011,17525,038895
192621311,830151,7188,65621,128741
192722112,962168,2489,10523,875714
192822716,679189,69110,31025,748804
192923515,359166,8109,88320,832694
19301977,664201,83210,93724,628684
19312125,515206,9408,89323,264413
19322385,743232,2748,43625,377462
19332867,422260,1569,84628,020516
193425612,516248,47211,88727,662480
19352237,097260,32612,76925,277631
193631413,294255,99013,23926,095628
193728219,070270,54614,69025,940648
193827112,185268,66515,09229,613525
193927711,666295,31315,39129,137457
194030016,875348,83119,68134,138708
194121612,613264,24216,59539,328818
194230818,337287,06917,77751,7791,144
194320713,484220,63313,80243,9551,071
194418912,711207,80312,48226,624608
194516612,717282,69217,59830,726909
194636526,596337,66923,24024,7561,063
194737531,970347,78129,35325,7252,367
194842144,505343,49628,62420,0632,154
194943046,554344,10327,23025,4322,531
195039474,653338,08428,62929,5962,161
1951317128,176274,80125,39429,8482,568
195243881,998385,56140,47548,9514,752
195339284,598326,68839,88740,1531,945
195439388,437370,79251,90639,1122,577
195541793,887378,17860,74043,4342,872
195642891,532414,15263,89239,6182,655
1957432105,959388,44664,07846,2073,033
195845780,037405,40173,49051,2603,414
195952989,643434,73971,25053,5593,283
1960521102,320467,02076,16759,3032,921
1961554100,144459,43471,89257,6463,121

TRADE

YearExports of New Zealand Produce
ButterCheeseGold
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
* Provisional.
 tons£(000)tons£(000)oz£(000)
191115,1191,57721,9591,192455,2261,817
191218,9062,08928,8541,680343,1631,345
191318,6132,06230,5831,770376,1611,459
191421,7032,33943,1892,564227,954895
191521,0072,70140,8632,730422,8251,695
191617,9322,63247,4713,514292,6201,199
191712,7202,03244,2873,949218,624904
191821,5513,40244,1724,08711,98742
191917,2913,08078,6167,791320,2071,334
192015,6003,02261,1036,161212,973884
192144,92411,17068,4398,199149,595612
192256,0109,04258,0604,687131,848540
192362,50710,68972,0736,870169,512699
192463,47311,64279,7247,023133,631552
192562,26610,24068,8385,801114,696472
192658,4028,69573,0775,939125,777516
192772,77710,91574,6405,583130,171535
192872,47911,30378,3646,694118,722490
192982,69013,22888,9557,017116,848480
193094,21211,85490,6496,438133,749551
193199,42810,65081,8174,461140,970581
1932109,27710,63989,5224,951200,6481,092
1933131,76211,64999,1474,766177,2411,282
1934130,72610,04399,2254,694162,4901,321
1935139,46513,61786,3784,377171,2831,442
1936139,80715,31882,9105,122168,0731,399
1937148,80416,98682,3585,372172,3171,435
1938130,72716,52080,5265,935152,4871,297
1939122,16516,11183,8635,870176,3701,629
1940131,13518,228101,6758,233188,4591,948
1941113,15715,778118,3129,834176,2421,830
1942117,23116,478134,38111,860167,2461,727
194399,25914,393100,4979,126149,5631,543
1944115,34018,55377,7037,444138,0481,424
1945103,47719,27887,4269,519121,0841,263
1946101,79419,84175,7468,448111,5311,185
1947127,70829,05887,04411,62198,5571,035
1948135,63433,76375,62311,19758,400609
1949147,67035,47493,93812,67463,854608
1950138,26735,87399,89014,536110,4861,311
1951147,96441,490106,61916,65068,929844
1952184,02856,14591,25515,52766,616798
1953159,10651,461101,36018,37329,674365
1954132,48144,80790,39616,38041,484488
1955150,96551,02285,04213,68221,840261
1956167,44953,16888,87722,24420,450244
1957145,07538,45688,47617,92326,769311
1958175,39238,85089,42812,40219,392232
1959192,97855,80883,45222,10330,333364
1960*157,05050,13579,41218,55825,953311
1961*164,99739,406 i87,59219,91123,159280

TRADE

YearExports of New Zealand Produce
Apples and PearsGrass and Clover SeedsMilk and Cream (Dried and Condensed)
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
* Provisional.
 lb(000)£cwt£tons£
19112402,04918,43840,3171266,898
19125894,97936,34469,69414671
19131,50512,16035,58960,4928359
19142,55422,41239,57273,55121791
19152,45921,40213,98042,31452520,388
19168657,4659,84134,26643923,780
1917710816,48448,6351,832153,538
19181216015,99542,2153,153341,797
19191321049,906249,8864,685579,266
19201,40515,07323,821147,3696,228795,612
19212,04223,59037,319156,1148,3021,109,331
19224,74165,73270,120285,4515,099529,650
19235,95474,45547,031175,7547,242513,495
19249,784122,72136,331149,0836,018505,098
19258,787120,54645,368151,1646,135425,738
192629,350369,66457,726200,3805,056345,072
192721,841272,84890,362255,7985,545346,271
192840,618514,99250,238162,4527,687392,452
192940,343582,80957,869182,5376,132352,587
193053,091669,21436,560166,2216,786351,339
193153,607669,14540,953155,4105,735246,483
193263,222799,42034,337109,6327,158269,121
193357,537720,76680,308152,4587,875315,964
193462,679778,84048,751166,5119,626407,708
193541,578524,49371,649215,7389,278370,890
193649,337608,43079,982249,86110,599405,801
193737,720472,73958,107205,98811,033364,676
193861,847772,09645,484233,3729,168307,603
193941,906574,70445,829284,51410,958377,506
194023,709226,00245,742369,03510,464419,176
19414254,66088,191563,67313,233699,533
19423273,51182,499592,68112,315683,578
19431852,00290,720665,11310,353598,228
194420303158,4751,453,0908,228534,716
19451592,118166,5531,797,82715,1051,021,128
194612,159153,408150,5981,942,07216,9951,202,323
19472394,260147,0111,663,36519,9811,651,396
194840,204873,627174,8431,700,64426,5402,209,805
194921,364383,182161,9931,523,42634,3902,866,116
195038,603679,243164,1142,083,63040,6323,321,883
195127,944691,71788,4281,246,01446,7133,952,028
195255,2782,060,089163,4522,106,62762,7326,563,941
195346,1221,714,903179,2671,869,67662,9906,277,745
195449,6931,549,342184,253802,42145,2234,091,835
195541,6391,303,39879,3981,348,13350,9253,586,598
195664,4862,029,327146,4031,597,46752,0804,384,527
195757,3891,801,521162,5521,189,60567,7115,741,428
195873,1372,289,340148,2301,517,71689,4283,806,182
195976,7542,400,98091,221988,27170,3795,728,978
1960*76,8062,402,889128,3251,679,42760,3135,532,348
1961*76,5352,408,047130,3861,297,56850,3474,184,699

TRADE

YearExports of New Zealand Produce
Cattle Hides and Calf SkinsSheep Skins
Cattle HidesCalf SkinsAggregate ValueWith WoolWithout WoolAggregate Value
* Provisional.
 (thousand)£(000)(thousand)£(000)
1911......9016,719634
1912......9207,001707
1913......9337,238800
19142141824089197,607857
19152702345724998,595827
19162972066723987,938918
19171775145436,5251,300
19182071065308,7421,814
19193191079648,5021,695
19202852511,1269,2223,060
1921329441569868,351972
19222404655046459,500980
19233406097467067,5411,122
19244707078326898,1361,513
19254967029404718,2241,989
19264497517567078,5251,544
19273987749239738,9461,551
19284327701,2281,3658,8171,924
19292916686781,0728,5601,812
19302916575111,5429,4781,517
19313096533371,66610,420806
19323048463061,64111,999694
19334018915443,38011,8141,403
19344761,1106272,9509,2441,250
19355221,2666862,40511,7651,275
19364311,1787621,78010,8471,703
19375061,1631,0311,74410,7592,246
19385161,2477431,82412,3541,369
19395281,1037811,93313,2241,460
19405201,0328601,79911,3401,932
19413851,0161,00377017,7442,007
19423579311,0651,01314,5902,807
19434189441,12977714,0002,264
194430588890081514,4252,387
19453297951,04090514,3242,402
19463926601,48078414,6942,491
19474737572,9171,41615,6246,014
19484766662,88786916,2895,658
19493281,1222,34079516,6203,856
19503638702,60167016,7916,736
19513369772,99271913,9869,033
19525331,5783,2581,10018,9926,416
19534009612,4021,25417,0327,934
19545031,1292,5841,06817,8317,659
19556541,3042,8221,06419,2496,082
19568371,1172,9651,08819,2717,319
19579061,2803,2411,06618,7456,645
19589041,0152,92291519,6795,085
19598809634,4681,25024,6188,457
1960*8071,0293,3681,23625,9889,529
1961*7937852,8561,22125,9678,968

PRODUCTION

SeasonWool ProductionButterfat ProductionTimber ProductionMeat Production
Total Production (Greasy Basis)Average Price per Pound (Greasy Wool)Total ValueTotal ProductionYield per Cow in MilkAverage Payout per Pound

* Provisional.

† Excludes payment for butterfat in milk and cream consumed as such.

 lb (m.)d.£(m.)lb (m.)lbdbd. ft.(m.)ton(000)
1915–162291514.312018016.5309..
1916–172311514.4127186......
1917–182391514.9121170......
1918–192411515.1124170......
1919–202291514.313617421.0301..
1920–2121776.315517428.0308..
1921–2221087.019919614.5315..
1922–2320910.859.422620117.0304..
1923–2421615.7814.222919315.5317..
1924–2522320.2118.824120217.0344..
1925–2622811.9311.323419818.0353..
1926–2724112.7012.825921915.5306..
1927–2825316.6717.626421318.0270..
1928–2926314.8816.328922418.5270..
1929–302628.559.331422616.0282..
1930–312595.676.132221511.5229..
1931–322705.265.934021511.0154..
1932–332775.155.93972309.0166..
1933–3429011.0713.44272359.0198..
1934–352656.547.24102249.5244..
1935–363049.1311.643724012.5293..
1936–3730315.7119.845825413.7306..
1937–3829710.0412.443524715.2323..
1938–393289.1712.540022916.5317..
1939–4031012.8515.843124716.7336..
1940–4133112.8716.946626216.7342..
1941–4234512.8817.643724616.8324..
1942–4334014.5819.740723417.1342..
1943–4433014.6019.238723218.2351..
1944–4537214.6121.643225420.3340..
1945–4636514.5121.237322121.2345541
1946–4736717.8327.540824323.7354560
1947–4836225.1137.941824126.6431549
1948–4936725.8139.545725927.8470556
1949–5039037.9861.747025129.2478577
1950–5139087.84142.749425831.0528530
1951–5240740.1968.250126234.6575602
1952–5341846.1980.453527337.2575578
1953–5442650.2589.249725138.9574589
1954–5545549.6794.250725638.2616637
1955–5646246.1988.953026938.0626682
1956–5749154.76112.052426638.1597670
1957–5849641.1685.155828536.9597688
1958–5954036.0781.255729332.8637731
1959–6057744.65107.354728633.4694753
1960–6158840.3498.8557*28533.1714758

FACTORY PRODUCTION (REVISED SERIES)

YearNumber of EstablishmentsPersons* EngagedSalaries* and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsOther Expenses of ProductionValue of OutputAdded ValueValue of Land and Buildings, Plant end Machinery

* For the year 1915–16 and earlier years, figures refer to productive employees only.

† Estimates based on results of sample survey carried out during that year.

     £(thousand)   
1877–781,09310,604..........2,382
1880–811,43013,922..........7,102
1885–861,83319,653......6,458..4,069
1890–912,15223,7611,657....8,558..4,335
1895–962,36125,3971,7483,562..9,2645,7034,777
1900–013,05938,6512,8117,716..16,4858,7696,546
1905–063,38145,1983,59313,290..21,6108,3209,537
1910–113,42142,1424,35318,738..28,5699,83111,989
1915–163,65744,6735,31729,850..41,92412,07315,799
1918–193,38553,0627,64638,291..53,80615,51519,144
1920–213,89462,97211,75353,009..75,48922,47925,696
1925–264,64370,21214,14951,3037,26278,46827,16532,420
1930–315,04770,62513,88545,3148,44871,72126,40734,496
1931–324,82362,33511,19938,8677,66060,75121,88432,919
1932–334,84762,58310,67438,9457,51960,15921,21432,945
1933–344,88365,96110,72943,5137,53665,90822,39531,965
1934–355,12672,09511,69448,8358,16373,32024,48532,415
1935–365,39178,70113,09156,8598,66583,76626,90733,175
1936–375,58487,82216,29667,4969,77899,37931,88334,386
1937–385,78093,53418,70371,7509,808106,50234,75236,308
1938–396,00293,63819,92771,1739,316106,60835,43538,597
1939–406,19899,34921,89380,21010,345120,32440,11441,020
1940–416,252104,78424,30693,01311,203137,39944,38642,165
1941–426,225108,27526,81396,48212,047145,60849,12643,752
1942–435,985106,17929,427101,90012,541155,77953,87944,674
1943–446,062109,22131,398107,02713,626164,83757,81045,984
1944–456,340113,53434,197116,47614,556178,58662,11048,765
1945–466,847118,88637,910117,05915,312183,54266,48351,781
1946–477,498124,92541,488131,34817,279205,64974,30155,775
1947–487,822130,50447,940174,84520,077259,18184,33663,316
1948–497,852132,42751,402195,05321,955286,39691,34373,585
1949–507,815133,24556,231215,00924,140317,343102,33477,993
1950–518,113138,43565,005266,88528,867380,200113,31687,617
1951–528,546144,35275,029290,73131,940430,984140,25297,522
1952–538,511143,16478,483318,94935,258463,940144,992109,100
1953–548,377146,48886,621332,82540,263495,213162,389122,269
1954–558,366153,57598,413365,29947,853550,618185,318138,274
1955–568,515158,238107,939384,79456,541585,942201,148168,573
1956–578,488156,752110,948394,98859,902602,041207,053180,123
1957–588,529162,985119,989417,91866,052644,929227,011189,287
1958–598,565168,742128,278418,64770,321659,455240,807205,886
1959–608,550171,973136,176439,08872,841705,617266,529224,227
1960–618,734181,346150,475469,70378,998756,800287,097249,305

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF GENERAL GOVERNMENT

Year Ended 31 MarchConsolidated Fund*
ReceiptsPaymentsDeficitSurplus
From TaxationFrom Other SourcesTotal

* See p. 782 for coverage of Consolidated Fund.

† Excludes £20,000,000 loan portions of payment to Reserve Bank for liability due to alteration in the exchange rate as from 20 August 1948.

‡ Excludes duty on motor spirits refunded under the Transport Amendment Act 1958 (£933,000 in 1958–59, £2,327,000 in 1959–60, £993,000 in 1960–61, and £399,000 in 1961–62).

   £(thousand)   
19125,2975,76511,06110,340...721
19135,6076,12711,73411,082...652
19145,9186,31212,23011,826...404
19155,8826,57012,45212,380...72
19167,2677,24314,51012,493...2,017
191710,5507,81818,36814,059...4,309
191812,3417,86520,20615,120...5,086
191913,8028,55122,35218,674...3,679
192016,2579,82526,08123,782...2,299
192122,18412,07734,26128,129...6,132
192216,37111,75628,12728,467340...
192315,59411,98527,57926,264...1,316
192416,41711,54427,96026,148...1,812
192516,55512,08828,64327,399...1,244
192616,9787,74724,72623,570...1,156
192716,9008,04424,94324,356...587
192816,8498,27525,12424,945...179
192917,8355,76523,60024,177577...
193019,4745,87625,35025,201...149
193118,5974,47123,06924,7081,639...
193216,1886,53222,72024,8612,141...
193315,6046,96422,56922,528...40
193417,0606,43323,49324,202709...
193520,1785,94826,12624,500...1,626
193621,5564,61626,17225,891...282
193726,9414,20631,14730,675...472
193831,66413,14544,81043,999...811
193932,30611,39343,69942,889...809
194032,81114,10946,91946,600...319
194134,87416,10750,98149,254...1,726
194235,16219,39154,55352,880...1,672
194336,19618,88055,07650,921...4,155
194442,01815,54457,56155,329...2,233
194545,68914,23959,92958,714...1,215
194648,37115,54363,91462,659...1,254
194790,71517,579108,294103,683...4,611
194896,09921,017117,116115,330...1,786
1949101,06220,462121,524118,893...2,631
1950103,85321,143124,997120,689...4,308
1951122,18121,576143,757135,504...8,253
1952156,93723,851180,788168,153...12,636
1953154,26223,560177,822174,515...3,307
1954156,19626,124182,319180,516...1,803
1955162,50928,708191,216184,376...6,840
1956167,41930,014197,433193,282...4,151
1957172,79533,482206,276202,951...3,326
1958158,92534,655193,580193,736155...
1959204,83035,547240,377239,955...422
1960276,44638,402314,848314,217...631
1961237,37846,975284,354283,958...396
1962254,17446,463300,637300,313...324

NOTE - Reference to Section 26A will indicate that the figures shown in the above table are by no means on a comparable basis over the period. The figures from 1937–38 onwards have been adjusted to bring them into line with present practice.

INDEBTEDNESS OF GENERAL GOVERNMENT - AMOUNT OF DEBENTURES AND STOCK IN CIRCULATION

(Nominal Amounts)
As at 31 MarchDomiciled inTotalPert Head of Population
United States of AmericaLondonAustraliaNew Zealand
   £(thousand)  £s.
191264,0054,21416,13584,354780
191368,9294,21416,91790,061810
191478,6244,28716,81999,7308710
191576,4103,97919,671100,060870
191681,4653,52124,652109,637956
191783,8783,38642,573129,83611216
191888,7083,38658,747150,84013013
191995,7083,38676,982176,0761498
192095,7083,386102,077201,17116213
192199,6921,655104,977206,32416216
1922105,9192,287110,848219,0541687
1923110,6682,159106,126218,9531654
1924114,8772,107104,633221,6161648
1925120,8182,952104,044227,8151653
1926128,0483,643107,165238,8551698
1927132,5134,042109,296245,85117019
1928139,7574,169107,470251,39617218
1929149,3464,168110,677264,19217912
1930146,5814,277116,526267,38317911
1931154,5474,175117,311276,03318212
1932133,4513,915118,386255,75216713
1933135,2102,869118,354256,43216615
1934134,7172,908138,976276,6011789
1935134,7812,184117,425254,39016219
1936132,5211,593122,257256,37016218
1937130,546892130,041261,47916415
1938130,666883132,462264,01016411
1939130,662880146,238277,77917019
1940131,672880164,165296,71618017
1941132,180880190,176323,23619711
1942127,564862230,780359,20721916
1943132,083862304,689437,63426716
1944132,917862366,747500,5263049
1945133,091861403,274537,22731916
194694,529861472,750568,1403238
194794,529861482,990578,3803234
194883,188779494,112578,0783165
194979,962628534,395614,98632917
195078,140628565,112643,8803387
195177,808589,425667,2333446
195277,808575,855653,6623297
195377,790589,898667,68832714
195487,790616,581704,3713378
195597,789630,804728,59334118
195695,804639,397735,20133719
19574,429100,425652,265757,12034017
19583,96399,576678,572782,11134314
195923,548118,277674,728816,5523511
196018,965117,764707,787844,5163566
196118,499108,163741,511868,17336311
196212,542127,013764,289903,8443700

NOTE—The figures for 1932 and later years exclude £26,191,000 contingent liability in respect of which interest payments have been suspended by agreement with the United Kingdom Government since 1931.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES*

Year Ended 31 MarchReceiptsPaymentsTotal Gross Indebtedness
RevenueOther ReceiptsTotal
From RatesFrom Other Sources

* Exclusive of hospital boards.

† Debt shown at its nominal amount, that portion domiciled overseas not being converted to its New Zealand currency equivalent. In terms of New Zealand currency, gross debt at 31 March 1961 amounted to £(N.Z.)143,506,870.

   £(thousand)   
19111,5932,1721,7775,5415,36019,105
19121,6782,2992,4256,4026,07420,763
19131,7992,5322,3836,7146,53822,183
19142,0062,7192,4127,1366,79623,773
19152,1402,8612,5967,5976,80724,539
19162,3552,9682,4697,7926,92126,045
19172,5353,2441,4117,1906,75926,800
19182,6753,2841,2507,2087,10327,653
19192,9403,4529437,3347,32028,075
19203,1444,4873,32910,96010,88430,188
19213,5505,3363,43012,31612,76232,105
19223,7806,0755,48715,34215,09236,745
19234,2786,2447,40017,92115,69643,191
19244,4466,7045,68516,83516,52146,538
19254,6697,5127,61319,79419,42353,353
19265,0408,3347,50620,87920,91659,420
19275,3118,9556,68020,94621,74864,012
19285,6169,7865,66821,07022,42366,404
19295,8449,5846,04221,47021,30069,295
19306,01110,7475,49522,25322,06171,208
19315,63710,6274,43320,69822,17572,686
19325,5129,6824,37419,56820,08772,402
19335,2388,9134,43318,58418,88572,476
19345,5418,6883,82218,05117,73861,969
19355,5119,1673,94318,62218,74571,245
19365,5869,5534,34919,48719,33770,400
19375,9949,9794,25320,22720,22368,560
19386,54111,0054,39021,93622,05168,061
19396,97211,7516,25524,97725,07968,207
19407,28912,6706,77226,73125,70969,487
19417,34413,1444,65225,14024,72767,975
19427,44213,3993,17524,01724,07266,646
19437,76514,0832,64024,48823,22865,131
19447,82415,1452,05425,02223,80163,263
19457,89615,4732,08625,45525,22461,238
19468,63315,8442,74427,22127,35560,026
19479,54117,0193,73730,29730,47957,768
19489,8071,8244,40832,03932,45757,117
194910,79719,7575,45836,01235,81256,605
195011,64521,0797,36740,09139,66456,302
195112,57722,6267,46142,66443,24256,087
195214,51425,1559,54349,21248,84657,869
195315,35428,71714,61558,68558,33764,427
195416,42133,52219,30769,25068,28973,446
195518,25939,07917,28074,61873,98179,320
195618,88342,39521,42482,70283,55987,984
195720,65943,87526,05890,59290,74099,088
195822,70746,85931,051100,61898,288114,675
195924,39253,83829,874108,105106,599127,970
196025,74450,85841,780118,382115,596143,557
196127,47454,37944,067125,920122,505159,414

LOCAL AUTHORITIES* — LOAN INDEBTEDNESS

(Exclusive of Inscribed Debt)
As at 31 MarchCountiesBoroughsHarbour BoardsElectric Power DistrictsOtherTotal

* Exclusive of hospital boards.

† Debt shown at its nominal amount, that portion domiciled overseas not being converted to its New Zealand currency equivalent.

   £(thousand)   
19111868,3996,002...1,54416,132
19124049,1496,272...1,95317,777
19136059,9826,432...2,17619,195
191480111,0616,696...2,37320,931
19151,02611,3536,991...2,38921,758
19161,16212,3647,136...2,65523,317
19171,26012,9197,272...2,65824,109
19181,47613,4627,387...2,69825,023
19191,65413,6807,417...2,77025,521
19202,03315,2967,496...2,89227,717
19212,52616,0417,6501483,31429,679
19223,00718,0608,2501,4803,56634,363
19233,80321,5968,5893,0523,80840,850
19243,99722,0759,1734,7414,23744,224
19254,61725,8839,7516,5154,31651,081
19265,39028,0269,9938,7465,02557,180
19275,99230,04410,25810,1135,41561,823
19286,20531,59910,47710,1755,81764,274
19296,35132,24410,77411,9875,86067,217
19306,53331,52110,46112,6368,02969,180
19316,64132,13910,50913,0128,41670,717
19326,68631,68310,54913,1228,43770,478
19336,61431,79210,62013,0328,55070,608
19346,55831,35910,49713,2138,52270,148
19356,40330,99210,52513,3998,18669,505
19366,22930,77310,21913,4858,04068,746
19376,12530,50610,15212,0278,14166,950
19386,08330,5429,89411,8908,07866,487
19396,10730,6019,74712,4717,75366,678
19406,18430,7699,96113,1157,97868,006
19416,15430,0249,92813,1077,33166,544
19426,10129,6479,79712,4997,28965,333
19435,87328,8539,79112,3777,07663,969
19445,63328,2129,70111,8296,93462,308
19455,38627,5679,49711,5366,42960,415
19465,19627,2319,36511,1916,36059,342
19474,95726,7138,40610,8426,25357,172
19484,76326,4798,23411,0946,04356,613
19494,63125,9258,04611,5806,00056,182
19504,46626,0757,78511,9975,71956,043
19514,31626,2367,38212,4625,60255,998
19524,27627,1587,49613,0045,91957,853
19534,32329,7398,88614,4227,05264,422
19544,31334,00510,36215,9708,79573,445
19554,57936,69610,81217,21310,02079,320
19565,12040,10411,61918,82712,31387,984
19575,92944,68413,06019,78915,62599,088
19586,77251,41415,68921,30019,500114,675
19597,41355,75117,56222,93024,313127,970
19608,72162,05620,03323,88428,862143,557
19619,39366,29622,97824,64535,602159,414

TRADING BANKS - ASSETS AND LIABILITIES : NET NOTE CIRCULATION

(Average of Four Quarters up to 1929, thereafter Weekly Averages)
YearTrading Banks — AssetsTrading Banks — LiabilitiesNotes in Circulation*
AdvancesCoin and Bullion*Total (All Assets)DepositsTotal (All Liabilities)

* Gold coin and bullion, and note-issue functions, taken over by Reserve Bank (August 1934). The Reserve Bank assumed liability for the outstanding notes of the trading banks as from 1 August 1936.

† As at last balance day in December from 1934 onwards.

 £(thousand)
191121,2605,19529,43426,76528,6261,678
191222,9085,33831,19625,62227,5081,715
191322,9025,20430,70925,73327,5911,674
191424,2505,71332,50227,64129,8081,998
191523,6396,78133,20931,43434,4482,846
191624,9127,39437,01537,50841,9784,050
191728,8488,07244,98042,93148,5425,411
191831,7118,08648,57045,56352,0496,267
191931,7188,01748,61550,48957,8617,088
192038,2427,72956,11159,40567,8187,890
192150,6087,66168,70149,39758,8087,569
192244,7687,82361,78045,91353,8697,019
192343,3227,90159,64149,03956,2046,593
192444,5377,81661,32649,50257,1316,588
192545,2997,72362,12952,20760,2206,775
192649,1497,79765,76550,13558,0086,730
192750,0327,87566,62748,29456,3216,510
192846,1797,51262,81953,79961,8516,374
192949,3787,04865,47657,63665,2336,361
193053,6576,79969,74856,42563,9846,187
193152,4206,92468,55753,64561,4635,734
193250,2565,95869,01552,85260,6495,917
193345,7055,10669,65757,62065,2816,163
193441,4103,42373,50963,38269,2596,286
193544,70076883,00961,45365,9816,420
193645,91872083,86665,15465,9407,500
193749,20074385,82366,84367,8428,921
193855,65087685,07265,03966,8219,989
193954,74674796,10967,27975,97812,014
194047,954718101,49677,36482,03314,791
194149,746762105,29180,72084,07417,435
194245,440687118,94990,880100,76821,497
194343,250644132,699106,324114,62827,636
194446,773713140,939117,568122,21432,102
194551,766684164,499130,138142,59534,983
194658,271727179,028149,777160,50438,198
194776,476906191,992164,170177,59340,127
194888,1601,393193,458175,669190,53840,796
194983,3571,502208,278186,092208,92042,535
195094,7151,688225,349202,200233,96945,228
1951132,9171,532270,301250,723275,25648,970
1952169,8411,471268,151252,968255,08350,978
1953136,8271,540291,295265,269281,55753,387
1954156,9731,455301,633281,750305,82757,692
1955182,9291,383300,303279,855299,52959,456
1956170,6481,338287,681268,734284,36859,987
1957164,8771,321299,551278,858296,13661,216
1958175,4171,416288,538279,030280,14362,095
1959170,0761,471316,286283,364314,94962,692
1960177,7451,444350,290323,921360,33065,630
1961213,1891,497342,134319,586352,68067,847

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK

YearNumber of Depositors at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearInterest Credited to DepositorsTotal Amount of Withdrawals During Year*Excess of Deposits plus Interest over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year

* From January 1958 includes interest paid out on investment accounts

† Fifteen months, 1 January 1920 to 31 March 1921.

‡ Excess of withdrawals over deposits.

§ Does not include £11,448,000 from war gratuity accounts transferred to Post Office Savings Bank as from 31 March 1949, transactions in respect of which are shown in next line in italics.

 Number£(thousand)
1911405,56611,62747310,6621,43815,543
1912432,19911,72551211,45078716,330
1913458,59411,28755611,04180117,131
1914483,26211,90461510,6031,91619,048
1915509,08513,70670711,2953,11822,166
1916538,07215,57681812,9573,43725,603
1917566,35117,10794814,4613,59329,196
1918590,20518,1011,05914,9394,22133,418
1919630,78329,7581,17925,9624,97538,393
1920–21664,81944,3031,81941,1624,95943,352
1921–22678,93029,1261,60030,23649043,842
1922–23690,79026,6821,60627,76951944,360
1923–24710,15729,5981,65029,5101,73846,098
1924–25735,14829,5831,68130,41485046,949
1925–26758,15531,8341,73232,60396247,911
1926–27783,82729,4561,76730,1501,07448,986
1927–28804,72527,6111,74730,585–1,22747,759
1928–29828,29627,2521,74528,11288548,644
1929–30852,75728,5621,80629,57679249,436
1930–31878,04324,5321,76428,063−1,76847,669
1931–32877,09019,4641,61125,488−4,413,43,255
1932–33797,09716,9331,47619,636−1,22742,028
1933–34798,26219,4291,23117,8182,84244,870
1934–35817,61724,1801,32020,9474,55349,424
1935–36840,67125,6201,40623,5343,49252,916
1936–37880,85730,6771,51427,0425,14958,066
1937–38920,80533,0411,66929,6295,08163,147
1938–39946,82230,4341,72734,598−2,43660,710
1939–40960,56525,1511,60329,463−2,70958,002
1940–41992,79228,6071,66725,3194,95562,957
1941–421,039,78332,0451,82125,3778,48971,445
1942–431,086,99638,0971,81726,88913,02584,470
1943–441,128,93647,6492,07635,58014,14598,614
1944–451,161,88654,5852,45242,15914,878113,492
1945–461,203,18167,8612,78755,62615,022128,514
1946–471,239,94872,3813,09462,74712,727141,242
1947–481,277,26572,5533,30768,6607,200148,442
1948–491,311,29270,6913,43967,7236,407154,849§
1949–50 11,448 3,7937,655170,982
1,372,67277,9633,82173,3068,478
1950–511,407,24186,3953,91585,1905,120176,103
1951–521,450,30998,2064,08093,7498,537184,639
1952–531,485,85299,1264,20896,7006,634191,274
19531,520,988109,3404,44399,13514,648205,922
1954–551,554,549117,8814,711112,8429,749215,671
1955–561,585,422118,3124,854118,6574,509220,180
1956–571,650,331131,4446,301121,31916,425236,606
1957–581,719,564149,0246,869133,99421,900258,505
1958–591,778,426141,8377,274143,7035,408263,913
1959–601,826,037158,1537,526146,65819,021282,934
1960–611,883,675182,1308,189166,78523,533306,467
1961–621,922,236187,0718,699183,25612,515318,676

POSTAL

YearLetters, Cards, etc., PostedTotal Mail Matter (Including Parcels) PostedMoney Orders Issued Number AmountPostal Notes Issued§
NumberAmountNumberAmount

* Year ended 31 March following from 1946.

† Counted once only from 1941.

‡ Increase largely accounted for by withdrawals from savings-bank accounts for payment at sub-post-offices being paid by savings-bank money orders as from 31 March 1946.

§ Year ended 31 March following from 1922.

 (000)(000)(000)£(000)(000)£(000)
1910196,769310,2375702,4581,667517
1911205,451323,6646082,7591,822567
1912214,184333,6216663,2311,971627
1913223,961338,4006913,3582,239712
1914233,901359,0316923,4282,314715
1915242,548356,5206653,4722,370713
1916242,121347,0176693,6072,286686
1917245,797344,9636433,4772,167629
1918242,527333,8276393,6492,091611
1919247,143340,4486904,6042,198646
1920259,743360,7477005,2772,280691
1921253,767359,0976694,8512,378723
1922239,997356,1886604,2792,435730
1923252,022383,1976854,3902,653786
1924272,312426,9087324,6932,846841
1925294,631471,5047674,9773,041902
1926298,617486,3817935,0333,330965
1927297,478496,5538044,9953,6141,015
1928298,548517,7508084,9783,5761,058
1929309,162532,0718355,1883,8171,123
1930313,148542,0038345,0703,9071,129
1931263,634465,4847143,9932,885952
1932246,395436,6156493,3362,687958
1933261,979461,1336363,1132,8831,062
1934275,064486,8316553,2103,3261,141
1935288,645526,1276733,3743,8271,294
1936292,099534,0977343,7953,8331,378
1937302,170547,6887844,3133,7471,455
1938316,309608,6828484,8023,8351,485
1939312,604591,4779115,0943,3751,323
1940296,684531,9428134,4352,5591,021
1941142,996261,8707524,3022,408981
1942....8174,9612,242934
1943....7875,5012,216945
1944....7625,9892,223952
1945140,355236,8447707,2022,266983
1946160,680*294,326*90310,6242,3541,028
1947159,778301,06791710,8042,4651,072
1948162,131319,22994310,8432,4841,106
1949169,798343,02495210,8562,4611,120
1950178,857358,18397711,6382,3721,084
1951174,591346,6541,02712,6812,3501,116
1952176,895357,6111,09114,3742,2971,101
1953173,532359,3461,13614,6672,2301,080
1954180,105386,3811,23620,5872,2781,101
1955187,487408,0971,33725,4612,3341,086
1956191,979412,3791,38326,3002,2301,072
1957202,339438,6381,33924,9072,1761,136
1958204,660446,4031,35325,0392,2401,230
1959210,286464,2541,40424,0442,3691,337
1960224,098497,7631,48524,5152,6141,447

GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS

Year Ended 31 MarchMiles Open for TrafficCapital Cost of Open LinesTrain-milagePassengers Carried, Excluding Season-ticket HoldersGoods and Livestock*RevenueExpenditure

* Equivalent tonnage of livestock.

† From 1925–26, figures relate to railway operation only.

‡ Capital cost written down by £10,400,000.

  £(000)(000)(000)tons(000)£(000)£(000)
19112,75329,6078,14111,2015,8643,4942,303
19122,79830,5068,37211,8915,8883,6772,466
19132,85131,6119,01613,1246,2463,9712,706
19142,85432,3559,31913,3566,0204,0432,880
19152,94534,1349,38313,5666,4534,1052,920
19162,96034,8589,35714,2026,3714,5482,911
19172,96035,3799,14614,1736,2394,8012,927
19182,98336,0017,46911,4085,7434,6883,043
19192,98336,1687,47811,3755,6124,9893,309
19202,99636,3907,40912,7616,0005,7524,105
19213,00937,2359,30315,3166,4876,9095,637
19223,02139,3098,71714,2626,3216,6446,238
19233,02840,2758,34714,2576,6196,7285,502
19243,05341,3999,02513,8176,9186,9845,404
19253,08544,5719,08412,3977,0257,1135,545
19263,13847,60910,31911,7887,2477,5896,165
19273,16449,18410,72410,2757,3007,4236,158
19283,18051,18710,8399,2737,3587,3446,302
19293,28756,56911,1139,0477,6137,5256,375
19303,28757,78812,0228,4677,7897,4746,848
19313,32260,54511,2827,2666,9586,7816,406
19323,31551,42510,1696,5045,8255,7895,302
19333,31551,4819,8296,8715,4915,3394,834
19343,32053,90910,1637,5115,6425,6294,877
19353,32054,08910,6267,8096,0245,9085,139
19363,32054,25311,0507,9646,1896,2445,523
19373,32054,69611,8688,2856,8136,9046,338
19383,32356,06512,7788,0697,5167,5927,292
19393,31958,67713,0737,8137,5398,0057,664
19403,39063,05913,3678,2837,6748,7627,943
19413,39064,76313,5609,4408,4269,6948,407
19423,39064,90413,97911,1068,47410,3848,903
19433,46068,68515,14017,1718,88712,41510,020
19443,50470,99915,32918,3179,02713,46511,366
19453,50471,35412,80313,6308,95412,44811,697
19463,52874,46713,45513,5539,21013,10512,550
19473,52875,35413,16910,2229,32912,82413,645
19483,52677,08913,7128,1119,52413,96415,090
19493,52678,79613,8957,7089,66615,33916,788
19503,52681,55214,4217,8819,94816,06217,361
19513,53184,99214,1537,5749,61618,50018,725
19523,53988,02712,3715,6429,82920,09721,515
19533,53593,33013,4095,77910,02622,58922,755
19543,50497,62213,7196,8419,63523,68223,621
19553,489103,55414,4207,80410,33627,00925,542
19563,422108,54814,8847,97510,67827,87126,775
19573,418120,10115,1028,13210,32528,50728,694
19583,466125,47214,8257,76910,33230,01031,064
19593,420133,94314,6058,07010,36729,82330,505
19603,336138,47214,4808,24510,54330,27130,758
19613,333142,61814,7738,46110,83031,42931,489

BANKRUPTCIES AND NEW COMPANY REGISTRATIONS

YearBankruptciesNew Company Registrations*
Number of BankruptciesAmount Realised by Official AssigneeAmount of Debts ProvedNumber of New RegistrationsAmount of Nominal Capital

* Public, private, and overseas.

† The extraordinarily high figure for 1934 is due to the inclusion of all overseas companies (numbering 187 with an aggregate nominal capital of £193,023,000) which had previous to 1934 established places of business in New Zealand and which were reregistered in 1934 under Part XII of the Companies Act 1933.

‡ Since 1954 company liquidations are included in the total.

  ££ £(000)
191134440,009133,517....
191231239,965120,325....
191334342,735228,829....
191439164,153199,251....
191529463,310153,926....
191630456,416172,7742584,073
191726563,645178,2442615,367
191816467,72988,6072003,055
191914154,66259,7673285,943
192014547,89777,7525019,564
192133678,271558,5043373,498
1922690126,145834,35641713,125
1923674124,641668,92550213,006
1924670118,641703,99556521,367
192565398,648471,02862114,760
1926752102,899585,68765510,748
1927867108,850679,4736988,702
1928806116,613767,32773610,985
192968791,180502,11290312,472
193078083,308827,3458936,703
1931848108,8091,042,1877958,284
193266175,657624,8928126,866
193345061,723489,8958307,301
193432644,533258,920933200,739
193525741,037225,50881024,238
193626032,983169,8669429,935
193722255,970171,7068886,113
193826764,511230,4638246,576
193926744,171225,4906818,910
194021342,418125,2893913,779
194116535,45371,01128811,246
19428229,75332,227198961
19434518,88320,0522701,547
19445113,46651,0354641,490
19454518,530118,2167413,383
19465220,94248,5061,43511,064
19477415,52844,7311,8139,575
194814850,280143,2821,7518,684
194917938,410203,1732,1577,982
195014249,252125,9172,07410,178
195114548,269136,8222,02012,807
195216856,241251,1291,74433,408
195321572,162381,0172,04143,034
195427782,571413,4472,68527,746
1955304112,418382,3222,6951837
1956390130,574547,7513,25520,608
1957437180,364782,2263,50280,543
1958495184,795819,1353,03430,764
1959618194,877755,1932,73747,103
1960495165,586668,9113,76736,996
1961425151,783707,8803,56735,854

INSURANCE

YearLife (Ordinary and Industrial)AccidentFire
Policies in ForceSum AssuredNet Revenue*Net Expenditure*Net Revenue*Net Expenditure*

* Excluding unexpired risks reserves.

Excludes annuities.

 (000)£(million) £(thousand) 
1911–1221637272228....
1912–1323039327254....
1913–1424141342261....
1914–1525042351288....
1915–1626044345292....
1916–1727445355302....
1917–1828346356321....
1918–1929949364327974748
1919–20318544563991,101770
1920–21339595414551,282886
1921–22357637156191,4041,159
1922–23370657186521,4291,169
1923–24389707677071,4351,207
1924–25412768697911,4461,279
1925–26433811,1589801,5171,224
1926–27455871,3311,1451,4911,352
1927–28480921,3411,2241,4971,445
1928–29503981,4231,2991,5011,534
1929–305321051,6631,4491,5161,333
1930–315531121,7451,5491,5531,307
1931–325461131,5261,4561,5541,452
1932–335431121,3191,1811,4931,166
1933–345581131,2661,1121,4281,079
1934–355891171,3931,2011,3731,050
1935–366281241,5131,4041,3751,019
1936–376861361,7641,7001,355987
1937–387511512,2232,1351,295933
1938–398011612,6062,3361,3301,011
1939–408361702,8202,3921,3921,059
1940–418651782,6412,3051,4421,123
1941–429001872,6052,2281,5071,167
1942–439221942,3912,0651,5621,337
1943–449542042,6802,2921,6791,324
1944–459922192,7182,4321,5711,286
1945–461,0362392,9612,6521,6401,353
1946–471,0962663,3792,8421,8281,544
1947–481,1512964,0373,4612,0431,674
1948–491,1923254,4713,9852,3221,712
1949–501,2263535,0544,4952,5541,922
1950–511,2633875,9875,2112,7492,238
1951–521,3044336,8306,0603,0532,429
1952–531,3454798,1877,2033,4092,792
1953–541,3815299,1838,0313,7553,084
1954–551,42759210,2229,0574,1263,248
1955–561,46366211,37810,3874,2243,555
1956–571,49473212,81511,8464,3963,654
1957–581,52881214,16813,2254,6484,029
1958–591,56190215,37014,3475,0124,207
1959–601,5981,01316,68115,2635,5744,424
1960–611,6951,13918,76316,6466,0314,869

Chapter 44. APPENDICES

Table of Contents

(a) PRINCIPAL EVENTS

CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF SOME NOTEWORTHY EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND

1642 European discovery of New Zealand by Tasman.

1769 Captain Cook's first visit to New Zealand.

1791 Discovery of Snares and Chatham Islands.

1792 First sealing gang left on New Zealand coast.

1814 Arrival of Rev. Samuel Marsden, and introduction of Christianity. Horses, cattle, sheep, and poultry first brought to New Zealand.

1820 Hongi's visit to England. First, vessel entered Auckland Harbour.

1823–28 Jurisdiction of Courts of Justice in New South Wales extended to British subjects in New Zealand.

1825 First attempt at colonisation, by an expedition under Captain Herd.

1827 Hongi's forces destroyed mission station at Whangaroa.

1831 Tory Channel whaling station established. Application of 13 chiefs for the protection of King William IV.

1833 Mr James Busby appointed British Resident at Bay of Islands.

1834 Waimate Pa, near Opunake, shelled and captured by British-first occasion on which HM troops employed in New Zealand.

1835 Declaration of independence of the whole of New Zealand as one nation, with title of “United Tribes of New Zealand”. Ngati-Awa tribes migrated to and conquered Chatham Islands.

1838 Pelorus Sound discovered.

1839 Governor of New South Wales authorised to include within the limits of that colony any territory that might be acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand. Preliminary expedition of New Zealand Company under Colonel Wakefield arrived at Port Nicholson.

1840 Arrival of New Zealand Company's settlers at Port Nicholson. Treaty of Waitangi signed. British sovereignty proclaimed. Captain Hobson appointed Lieutenant-Governor, with residence at Auckland. Settlements formed at Petre (Wanganui) and Akaroa.

1841 Issue of charter of incorporation of New Zealand Company. New Zealand proclaimed independent of New South Wales. Arrival of New Plymouth settlers.

1842 Settlement founded at Nelson.

1843 Affray with Maoris at the Wairau.

1844 Royal flagstaff at Kororareka cut down by Heke.

1845 Destruction of Kororareka by Heke.

1846 Arrival of first steam vessel (HMS Driver) in New Zealand waters. Capture of pa at Ruapekapeka and termination of Heke's war. Maori hostilities near Wellington. Te Rauparaha captured and detained as a prisoner. New Zealand divided into two provinces, New Munster and New Ulster, and representative institutions conferred.

1847 Attack by Maoris on Wanganui.

1848 Suspension of that part of New Zealand Government Act which had conferred representative institutions. Otago founded.

1850 Surrender of New Zealand Company's charter, all its interests reverting to the Imperial Government. Canterbury founded.

1852 Discovery of gold at Coromandel. Constitution Act passed, granting representative institutions to New Zealand, and dividing country into six provinces.

1854 Opening at Auckland of first session of the General Assembly.

1855 First members elected to the House of Representatives under system of responsible Government. Very severe earthquake on both sides of Cook Strait.

1856 Appointment of first Ministry under system of responsible Government.

1857 Goldfield opened at Collingwood.

1858 New Provinces Act passed. Hawke's Bay Province constituted.

1859 Establishment of Marlborough Province.

1860 Hostilities in Waitara district.

1861 Truce arranged with Waitara Maoris. Bank of New Zealand incorporated. Southland Province established. Gold discovered at Gabriel's Gully, Otago.

1862 Coromandel proclaimed a goldfield. Wreck of s.s. White Swan, with loss of many public records. First electric-telegraph line opened — Christchurch to Lyttelton.

1863 Wreck of HMS Orpheus on Manukau bar, with loss of 181 lives. Control of Maori affairs transferred to Colonial Government. Commencement of Waikato War. Defeat of Maoris at Rangiriri, and occupation of Ngaruawahia. First railway in New Zealand, portion of Christchurch-Lyttelton line, opened.

1864 Severe fighting in Waikato and elsewhere, including battles of Rangiaohia, Orakau, Gate Pa, and Te Ranga. First major discovery of gold on West Coast of South Island.

1865 Seat of Government transferred to Wellington. Further fighting, followed by proclamation of peace. Activities of Hauhau fanatics, including murders of Europeans. Rebel Maoris defeated at Wairoa.

1866 Cook Strait submarine telegraph cable laid.

1867 Opening of Thames Goldfield. Lyttelton Tunnel completed. Admission of four Maori members to House of Representatives as direct representatives of Maori people.

1868 Maori prisoners, under leadership of Te Kooti, seized schooner Rifleman and escaped from Chatham Islands to mainland, where they massacred Europeans. Considerable fighting with these and other rebel Maoris.

1869 Continuation of fighting with rebels and of pursuit of Te Kooti. Visit of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh. Government Life Insurance Office established.

1870 Further fighting with Te Kooti. Last of Imperial troops left New Zealand. Commencement of San Francisco mail service. Possession taken of Bounty Island. Inauguration of Vogel public works policy. Act passed to establish the New Zealand University. Southland Province reunited with Otago.

1871 Commencement of railway construction under public works policy.

1872 Resumption of friendly relations with Waitara Maoris. Appointment of Maori chiefs (two) to Legislative Council. Public Trust Office created.

1873 Establishment of New Zealand Shipping Co.

1874 In pursuance of immigration and public works policy, 31,774 assisted immigrants arrived. Westland Province established.

1875 Resumption of amicable relations with Maori King. Establishment of Union Steam Ship Company. Abolition of Provinces Act passed.

1876 New Zealand connected by cable with Australia. Abolition of Provinces Act came into operation, provincial institutions being abolished and the country divided into counties and boroughs.

1877 Education Act passed, providing for free and compulsory education.

1878 Completion of the Christchurch-Invercargill railway.

1879 Triennial Parliaments Act passed. Adult male suffrage introduced. Kaitangata coal mine explosion, whereby 34 lives lost.

1881 Wreck of s.s. Tararua, with loss of 130 lives.

1882 First shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand.

1883 Direct steam communication inaugurated between New Zealand and England.

1885 New Zealand Industrial Exhibition at Wellington.

1886 Tarawera eruption, involving loss of 101 lives and destruction of Pink and White Terraces.

1887 Annexation of Kermadec Islands Members of House of Representatives reduced to 74, including four Maoris.

1888 British protectorate over Cook Islands proclaimed.

1889 South Seas Exhibition at Dunedin.

1890 Great maritime strike. First election of House of Representatives under one-man-one-vote principle.

1891 Inauguration of Liberal régime under Hon. John Ballance, succeeded on his death in 1893 by Mr Seddon. This and following years marked by passage of industrial and social legislation.

1892 Introduction of lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure.

1893 Franchise extended to women. Special licensing poll introduced.

1894 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act passed. Government Advances to Settlers Act passed. Wreck of s.s. Wairarapa, with loss of 135 lives.

1896 Brunner Mine explosion, causing 67 deaths. Abolition of non-residential or property qualification to vote. Government Valuation of Land Act passed.

1898 Old-age Pensions Act passed.

1899 Labour Day instituted. New Zealand contingent (the first of 10) sent to South Africa.

1900 Number of European representatives in Lower House increased to 76.

1901 T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York visited New Zealand. Penny postage adopted by New Zealand. Cook and other Pacific islands annexed.

1902 Pacific cable opened. Wreck of s.s. Elingamite, with loss of 43 lives. Conference of colonial Premiers in London.

1903 Empire Day proclaimed. State Fire Insurance Act passed.

1905 Workers' Dwellings Act passed. Title of New Zealand's representative in London altered to “High Commissioner”.

1906 Death of Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier since 1893. Advances to Workers Act passed. New Zealand International Exhibition at Christchurch.

1907 New Zealand constituted a Dominion. Lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure abolished. Parliament Buildings destroyed by fire.

1908 Through railway communication established between Wellington and Auckland. Wellington-Manawatu railway purchased by Government. Second Ballot Act passed.

1909 S.s. Penguin wrecked in Cook Strait, with loss of 75 lives. Battle cruiser presented by New Zealand to Imperial Government. System of compulsory military training introduced.

1910 Field-Marshal Lord Kitchener reported and advised on New Zealand defences. Public Debt Extinction Act and National Provident Fund Act passed.

1911 Wireless telegraphy installed in New Zealand. Widows' Pensions Act passed. First poll on national prohibition taken.

1912 Foundation stone of new Parliament Buildings laid. Public Service placed under Commissioner control.

1913 Extensive strikes. Second Ballot Act repealed.

1914 Western Samoa occupied by New Zealand Advance Expeditionary Force. Main Expeditionary Force left for Egypt. Huntly coal mine disaster, with loss of 43 lives.

1915 New Zealand Expeditionary Force engaged in operations on Gallipoli Peninsula. National Cabinet formed. National register of men compiled. Pensions for miners introduced.

1916 New Zealand Division transferred to Western Front, Mounted Brigade being retained in Egypt. Compulsory enrolment of men for war service introduced. Lake Coleridge electric-supply scheme opened.

1918 S.s. Wimmera sunk by enemy mine off New Zealand coast, with loss of 26 lives. Otira Tunnel pierced. End of First World War. Great influenza epidemic, causing nearly 7,000 deaths.

1919 Women made eligible for scats in Parliament. New Zealand represented at Peace Conference by Right Hon. W. F. Massey, Prime Minister.

1920 Visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales. Railway strike. First aeroplane flight over Cook Strait. League of Nations gave New Zealand mandate to administer Western Samoa. Anzac Day constituted.

1921 Samoa Act passed, making provision for government in terms of mandate. New Zealand represented at Disarmament Conference, Washington.

1922 Meat-export trade placed under control of a board.

1923 Opening of Otira Tunnel. Ross Dependency proclaimed, and placed under jurisdiction of Governor-General. Dairy Produce Export Control Act passed.

1924 Railway strike. Direct two-way radio communication effected with England. Motor Vehicles Act provided for registration and annual licensing of motor vehicles. Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act passed. Pensions for blind persons introduced. S.s. Ripple foundered off Cape Palliser with loss of 16 lives.

1925 New Zealand and South Seas International Exhibition at Dunedin. Administration of Tokelau (Union) Islands transferred to New Zealand.

1926 Family Allowances Act passed.

1927 Visit of T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York. Summer Time Act passed.

1928 Kingsford Smith and party made first successful flight across Tasman Sea.

1929 Severe earthquake in Murchison-Karamea district caused 17 deaths. Daylight saving (half hour) permanently adopted for summer months.

1930 Legislation providing for relief of unemployment first passed.

1931 Worst earthquake in history of New Zealand occurred in Hawke's Bay, resulting in the loss of 255 lives. General reduction of 10 per cent in wages and salaries. Parliament approved draft Statute of Westminster. Mortgagors' relief legislation passed.

1932 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act made important changes in industrial legislation. National Expenditure Adjustment Act made reductions in old-age and other pensions, in salaries of State employees, and in rentals, interest rates, and other fixed charges. The historic Waitangi Estate presented to the nation by Their Excellencies Lord and Lady Bledisloe. New Zealand represented at Ottawa Conference.

1933 Exchange raised at instance of Government to £125 N.Z. for £100 London (telegraphic transfers). Sales tax instituted. Conversion of internal public debt with reduction in interest rates, and provision made for local authorities interest reduction and loans conversion. Successful experimental shipments of chilled beef to England. Issue of New Zealand silver coinage.

1934 First official trans-Tasman air mail. Reserve Bank incorporated and commenced business. H.R.H. the Duke of Gloucester arrived on an official visit. First licensed air-transport service commenced operations.

1935 Bank notes of trading banks ceased to be legal tender. Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act passed, and Court of Review established. National Government defeated at general election, and Labour Government assumed office for first of four successive terms.

1936 Inauguration of inter-Island trunk air services. Reserve Bank nationalised. System of guaranteed prices for butter and cheese introduced. Forty-hour week became operative. Powers of Court of Arbitration restored. Railcar services inaugurated. New Zealand elected to seat on League of Nations Council.

1937 New Zealand represented at Imperial Conference by Right Hon. M. J. Savage, Hon. W. Nash, and Mr W. J. Jordan. Death of Lord Rutherford of Nelson.

1938 Mr W. J. Jordan, New Zealand's representative on League of Nations, elected President of the League Assembly. Social Security Act passed. Introduction of import selection and control.

1939 Declaration of war with Germany. Recruitment for 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Arrangements for purchase of primary products by Imperial Government. New Zealand Centennial Exhibition opened at Wellington. Naval engagement off River Plate in which HMS Achilles, largely manned by New Zealand ratings, took part.

1940 Centennial celebrations. Departure of First Echelon of 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Death of the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage; succeeded in office by Hon. P. Fraser. Declaration of war with Italy. RMS Niagara sunk off New Zealand coast by enemy mine. Ballots for military service. National savings scheme inaugurated.

1941 Daylight saving period extended to cover whole year. First enrolment of married men for military service. Declaration of war with Japan. Territorial Forces mobilised.

1942 Complete mobilisation of Military Forces ordered. Introduction of control of industrial manpower. Compulsory enrolment of all male British subjects between ages of 18 and 65 inclusive, in Emergency Reserve Corps. Lend-lease reciprocal aid extended to include Australia and New Zealand. Gold to value of £2,397,000 salvaged from RMS Niagara. Rationing introduced. Mobilisation of women for essential work.

1943 Death of Right Hon. J. G. Coates, M.C., member of War Cabinet and former Prime Minister. North African campaign brought to a successful conclusion. Railway accident near Hyde-21 persons killed. 2nd NZEF (3rd Division) took part in action against Japanese in the Pacific Area.

1944 Australian — New Zealand Agreement 1944, providing for collaboration on matters of mutual interest. Mutual-aid Agreement between Canadian and New Zealand Governments signed.

1945 War in Europe ended (8 May). Manpower controls in regard to women and young persons relaxed. Wartime press censorship abolished. War Cabinet dissolved. War in Pacific ended, Japan formally surrenders (15 August). Electoral Amendment Act providing for abolition of the “country quota” passed. South Island Main Trunk Railway opened, through rail connection from Picton to Bluff established.

1946 First women members of Legislative Council (two) appointed. Restrictions on consumption of electric power imposed in North Island. Remaining manpower controls lifted in June. Family benefit of 10s. per week made universal as from 1 April. Lieutenant-General Sir Bernard Freyberg, V.C., assumed office as Governor-General (17 June). Railways Department inaugurated inter-island air freight service.

1947 £12,500,000 presented to United Kingdom Government by New Zealand. Local Government Commission appointed. First woman Cabinet Minister in New Zealand appointed. Marketing of dairy produce and fixation of basic price taken over by Dairy Commission. Statute of Westminster adopted by New Zealand Parliament.

1948 Licensing Control Commission appointed. Mt. Ngauruhoe erupts after 22 years' quiescence. Adjustment of exchange rate to parity with sterling as from 20 August.

1949 Polls on the establishment of off-course betting and on an alteration in hotel hours held in March. Referendum on question of compulsory military training answered in the affirmative. Labour Government defeated and National Government assumed office on 13 December for first of three successive terms.

1950 British Empire Games held at Auckland. Control of land sales, except of farm land, lifted. Control of sterling funds and securities relaxed. Abolition of petrol and butter rationing. Two New Zealand frigates departed for Korean waters. Legislative Council Abolition Act passed. Kayforce sailed from Wellington for Korea on 10 December. Death of Right Hon. Peter Fraser, Prime Minister, 1940–49.

1951 Prolonged waterfront strike resulted in Proclamation of State of Emergency, and issue of regulations under the Public Safety Conservation Act. Servicemen kept essential cargoes moving. Waterfront unions deregistered, followed by deregistration of certain other unions — e.g., freezing workers — seamen and miners also involved. Establishment of Civil Emergency Reserve. Off-course betting operations commenced by Totalisator Agency Board. United States of America, Australia, and New Zealand signed Pacific Security Treaty.

1952 Royal Commission on Railways. Proclamation of the accession of Queen Elizabeth II read by the Governor-General at Parliament Buildings on 11 February. New Zealand team at Olympic Games at Helsinki most successful, one gold and two bronze medals won and one Olympic record made. Report of Royal Commission on the Waterfront Industry released.

1953 Power restrictions suspended in North Island, first time for 12 years. Coronation Day for Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second marked in New Zealand by nation-wide civic programmes. Mt. Everest conquered on 29 May by British expedition, the summit being reached by the New Zealander Edmund Hillary and the Sherpa Tensing. Armistice agreement signed in Korea. The London-Christchurch air race won by RAF Canberra No. 3 in record time of 23 hours 51 minutes. New Zealand's worst railway disaster occurred at Tangiwai on Christmas Eve, with a death roll of 154 persons. Arrival of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, on 23 December, the first occasion on which a reigning monarch had visited these shores. Her Majesty broadcast to the Commonwealth and Empire from Auckland on 25 December. The first Proclamation issued by a reigning Sovereign in New Zealand summoned Parliament for its opening by the Queen on 12 January 1954.

1954 Continuation of Royal Tour, including meetings of the Privy Council and Executive Council and opening of a special session of Parliament. New Zealand took seat on United Nations Security Council. New Zealand sent team to Vancouver for British Empire Games — most successful in New Zealand's history, winning seven gold, seven silver, and five bronze medals. The Executive Council and Cabinet held meetings at Auckland on 25 May to mark the centenary of parliamentary government in New Zealand. New Zealand signed the South-East Asia Treaty at Manila.

1955 New Zealand made contribution to defence of South-East Asia by sending squadron of fighter bombers and part transport squadron to Malaya and, later in the year, an Army Special Air Service Squadron. First train run from Murupara to Kawerau in April, this followed later in the year by the successful operation of newsprint mills at Kawerau. Rimutaka tunnel opened for traffic in November.

1956 Report of Royal Commission on Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems released. Roxburgh and Whakamaru power stations in operation. Guaranteed price scheme for potatoes announced. Petition for increased State aid to private schools rejected. Building controls abolished. Team of 53 competitors sent to Olympic Games at Melbourne wins two gold medals. Colombo Plan Conference held in Wellington. Duke of Edinburgh visited New Zealand.

1957 New Zealand Antarctic Expedition established Scott Base at Pram Point, McMurdo Sound. New Zealand shared fully in programme for International Geophysical Year, including Antarctic section. Dairy produce given unrestricted, duty-free right of entry to Britain till 1967. Plan announced to almost double generating capacity of New Zealand's power systems by 1970 at cost of £235 million, including the laying of a cable across Cook Strait. Restraints on credit continued. Lord Cobham succeeded Lord Norrie as Governor-General on 5 September. Separate Court of Appeal constituted. Sir Leslie Munro elected President of United Nations General Assembly. National Government defeated and Labour Government assumed office on 12 December. Battalion sailed for service in Malaya.

1958 Import selection and exchange allocation brought into force to conserve overseas exchange. Sir Edmund Hillary and companions reached South Pole overland from Scott Base. Royal Tour of Her Majesty the Queen Mother. PAYE taxation on incomes introduced. Electric power restrictions in North Island. Increase in family and age benefits. Army reorganised as an operational regular brigade group. New Zealand won four gold, six silver, and nine bronze medals at Empire Games in Cardiff. Power generated from geothermal steam at Wairakei and from coal station at Mercer. Report made by Royal Commission on Local Authority Finance. Revised trade pact provided for variation of margins of preference on United Kingdom imports.

1959 Mr C. M. Bennett, a distinguished Maori, appointed High Commissioner in Malaya. National Consumer Council appointed and four regional consumer committees established. Institute of Nuclear Sciences established. Commission of inquiry into meat industry. Scheme provided for capitalisation of family benefit for housing purposes. Auckland Harbour Bridge opened (May). Reconstructed Wellington Airport opened for traffic (July). S.s. Holmglen foundered off Timaru with loss of 15 lives. Twelve nations, including New Zealand, signed treaty to preserve Antarctica for peaceful scientific research for all time.

1960 Government signed agreement for company to use power from Te Anau — Manapouri Lakes system for large aluminium smelting industry with production planned for 1965. Report issued by Committee on New Zealand Universities chaired by Sir David Hughes Parry. Regular television programmes began in Auckland. Commission on Education appointed with Sir George Currie as chairman. Institute of Economic Research established. Meat export development company formed. Industrial Development Conference held in Wellington. New Zealand athletes won two gold medals in one day at Olympic Games in Rome, also one bronze medal. Government Service Equal Pay Act passed. Conference of British Commonwealth Statisticians held in Wellington. Labour Government defeated and National Government assumed office on 13 December.

1961 Review of Maori Affairs (Hunn Report) published. Contract let for Lyttelton road tunnel. Trade agreement with Malaya signed. United Nations seminar on Human Rights held in Wellington. Deficit of £57.6 million in overseas exchange transactions in year ended 30 June 1961. Further reduction in prices for butter on United Kingdom market — protest made by New Zealand on butter dumping by European countries; representations made to GATT, later United Kingdom Government limited shipments for six months to 31 March 1962. Right of unrestricted and duty free access to United Kingdom market for meat and dairy produce emphasised in discussions on possible entry of United Kingdom into European Economic Community; assurance given that special arrangements will be sought to protect vital interests of New Zealand. Minister to European Economic Community appointed. Expansion of overseas trade posts and wide extension of market surveys. Tasman Empire Airways became wholly owned by New Zealand. Monetary and Economic Council appointed. New Zealand joined International Monetary Fund, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and International Finance Corporation. New Customs tariff to take effect from 1 July 1962; import licensing year extended to 30 June 1962. Royal Commission on State Services, with Mr Justice McCarthy as Chairman, began hearings. Tenders accepted for Cook Strait electric power cable. Death of Right Hon. Sir Sidney Holland, Prime Minister, 1949–57. Television broadcasts extended to Wellington and Christchurch.

(b) SPECIAL ARTICLES IN PREVIOUS ISSUES

SubjectYearPage
Building stones1892194
Varieties of soil1892193
Patents, designs, and trade marks1893350
Acclimatisation1894430
Cooperative system of constructing public works1894234
Frozen meat trade, the1894311
Labour in New Zealand1894362
Midland railway, the1894386
Railways in New Zealand: Their history and progress1894377
Sheep, crossbreeding of1894308
Sheep farming1894302
Southern Alps, the1894474
State farms1894243
West Coast Sounds, the1894482
Cheviot Estate, the1895264
Shipping companies—
    New Zealand Shipping Co.1895392
    Shaw, Savill, and Albion Co.1895393
    Union Steam Ship Co. of New Zealand1895389
Wellington-Manawatu railway, the1895381
Laws of England and New Zealand, difference between1896281
Waihi Gold Mining Co.1897432
Wattle growing in the Auckland Provincial District1897430
Mount Cook: Its glaciers, and the Hermitage1898552
Scenic wonderland, a1898565
Christchurch to West Coast, journey from1899548
Forest trees and the timber industry1899470
Gold dredging industry, the1899509
Moa, heir of the1899517
Mount Cook district, the1899554
Tokaanu to Raetihi1899539
Tuhoeland1899546
Waikato district and through to Wanganui1899520
Waiouru to Mangaonoho1899543
Chatham Islands, the1900531
Coal deposits of New Zealand, the1900479
Hemp industry, the1900477
Kauri gum1900489
Maori mythology1900536
Mount Cook, a night on1900525
Mount Sefton, ascent of1900519
New Zealand contingents for South Africa1900449
Pumice-stone deposits of New Zealand1900486
Wanganui River, up the, to Tokaanu1900509
Maori religion1901530
Marlborough Sounds, the1901517
Otago lakes, the1901523
Sydney pageant, the1901527
Cook Islands, the laws of1902573
Maori, neolithic, the1902578
Maori sociology1903641
Timber trees of the world1903605
Exotic trees in Canterbury1904569
Hanmer thermal springs1905631
Maori, colour sense of the1905637
Thermal springs district1905614
Maori marriage customs1906638
Tree planting1906611
White Island, a day on1906637
Maori, ancient: His amusements, games, etc.1907707
Maori chant (tangi)1907711
New Zealand international exhibition1907701
Maori, ancient: His clothing1908734
Maori songs1908739
Agriculture in New Zealand1912809
Government training ship Amokura1913942
HMS New Zealand1913932
Land and income tax assessment1913884
Mineral waters of New Zealand1913896
External trade of New Zealand, the1915858
Maori, topographical nomenclature of the1919936
Wages and working hours in New Zealand1919860
Education system of New Zealand, the1925816
Effect of nativity order on infant mortality1925835
Local government in New Zealand1925845
Terman intelligence tests in New Zealand schools1925823
Wellington municipal milk supply1925777
Cancer in New Zealand: A statistical study1926889
Totalisator, the1926838
Britomart, mission of, at Akaroa, in August 184019271012
Mortality rates, New Zealand1927995
Livestock production: A review based on standard values and units1929990
Lakes of New Zealand193211
Rivers of New Zealand19326
Dairy farm survey1938429
Ross Dependency1938900
Fauna, the194036
Geology19407
Libraries1940928
Mineral waters and spas1940935
Plants of New Zealand, the194028
Tourist attractions1940932
Alexander Turnbull Library1946914
National Film Unit1946724
Retail prices in New Zealand, with special reference to the Consumers' Price Index1947–49998
Economic policy and national income19501033
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research1951–521066
Standardisation1951–521076
Sources of statistical information19531016
Royal Tour of New Zealand, 23 December 1953 to 31 January 195419541121
New Zealand: Its tourist industry, tourist and sporting attractions, and travel information19551143
Royal Commission on Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems: Summary of report19561201
Consumers' Price Index — 1955 Revision19571214
New Zealand Activities in the Antarctic19581247
New Zealand's International Activities19591221
Grassland Research in New Zealand19601243
University Education for Science and Technology19611186

(c) SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF NEW ZEALAND PUBLICATIONS

Compiled by the National Library Centre, Wellington

The following list of books and serials has been compiled to give New Zealand and overseas readers a selective approach to the country's literature and sources of information. Entries are arranged alphabetically under appropriate subject headings which are in approximate order of the Dewey Classification. Emphasis has been placed on works which are known to be in print, but standard works which are out of print have been included where necessary. Selection has covered books published in New Zealand as well as books published overseas about New Zealand or written by resident New Zealanders. Works which are clearly university or school texts have been omitted unless they represent the most concise and authoritative treatment of a subject. Pamphlets of less than 75 pages have been indicated by an asterisk.

The standard current bibliographies of New Zealand books and pamphlets are Copyright Publications of the General Assembly Library and the Current National Bibliography of the National Library Centre (based on its central cataloguing service and cumulated as Part II of the Index) cited below. Prices of New Zealand imprints have been based on the Associated Booksellers' New Zealand books in print but prices of overseas publications are given at the overseas rate.

Having regard to the importance of serial publications as records of current research, opinion, and original work, a number of journals, annuals, and bulletins have been cited where appropriate. In sections where they occur the serials follow the monographs in a separate sequence, and, where not otherwise noted, prices are for a year's subscription. A subject approach to most serials is given in the Centre's New Zealand Serial Publications, a Select Classified List also cited below. The annual reports of Government Departments although particularly relevant to many of the subjects covered have not been listed as they are fully set out in Copyright Publications. Significant Royal commissions and committees of inquiry have, however, been included.

INDEX TO SUBJECTS

 PAGE
Agriculture1141
Antarctica1149
Architecture1143
Arts, General1143
Banking1135
Bibliography, General1134
Biography1149
Biology, General1139
Business management1143
Cook Islands, etc.1149
Defence1138
Dentistry1141
Descriptive works1147
Directories1134
Economics1135
Education1137
Encyclopaedias1134
Essays1146
Fauna1140
Fiction1145
Flora1140
Forestry1141
Gazetteers1146
Geography (descriptive works)1146
Geology1139
Government1137
Historical works1147
Home economics1142
Industry1141
Landscape1143
Language1143
Law1136
Literature, General1144
Maori language1143
Maori people, past and present1138
Maori poetry1145
Medicine1141
Mental health1134
Painting1143
Poetry1144
Power1141
Psychology1134
Public administration1137
Religion1134
Social science1135
Sport1144
Statistics1135
Technology1141
World wars1148

ABBREVIATIONS

a.Annually
AkAuckland
AssnAssociation
ChChristchurch
Dept.Department
D.S.I.R.Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
DnDunedin
Ed.Edition
Govt. Print.Government Printer
irr.Irregular
Lond.London
m.Monthly
Mimeo.Mimeographed
n.p.No price
N.Y.New York
o.p.Out of print
O.U.P.Oxford University Press
PrPress
q.Quarterly
vol.Volume
WnWellington

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

FAIR, A. P. R. Guide to Book Values, New Zealand — Australia — Pacific — Antarctic. Book Auction Records, 1956–61. Wn, the Author, 1961. £1.

GENERAL ASSEMBLY LIBRARY. Union Catalogue of N.Z. Newspapers. Preserved in Public Libraries, Newspaper Offices, and Local Authority Offices. 2d Ed. Wn, the Library, 1961. J. S. Gully, comp.

HARRIS, J. W. Guide to New Zealand Reference Material. 2d Ed. Wn, N.Z. Library Assn, 1950. Supplements, 1951, 1957. 7s. 6d.

HOCKEN, T. M. A Bibliography of the Literature Relating to New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1909. o.p.

NATIONAL LIBRARY SERVICE. New Zealand Serial Publications, a Select Classified List, irr., gratis. (latest Ed. 1961).

NATIONAL LIBRARY SERVICE. Union List of Serials in New Zealand Libraries. Wn, the Library, 1953. 6th (cumulative) Supplement, 1958. £3 ea. Eighth Supplement, gratis.

N.Z. LIBRARY ASSN. Union List of Theses of the University of New Zealand, 1910–54. D. L. Jenkins, comp. Wn, N.Z. Library Assn, 1956. Mimeo. £1.

PAUL, D. B. A List of New Zealand Books in Print. Associated Booksellers of N.Z., 1961. 2s. 6d.

* WILSON, J. O. A Finding List of British Parliamentary Papers Relating to New Zealand, 1917–60. Wn, General Assembly Library, 1960. 7s. 6d.

NATIONAL LIBRARY SERVICE. Index to New Zealand Periodicals and Current National Bibliography. Wn, Library, 1947. a. £1 17s. 6d.

GENERAL ASSEMBLY LIBRARY. Copyright Publications. 1933–34. a. 17s. 6d.

LIBRARIES

MCELDOWNEY, W. J. The New Zealand Library Association 1910–60 and Its Part in New Zealand Library Development. Wn, N.Z. Library Assn, 1962. 18s.

N.Z. LIBRARY ASSOCIATION. Special Libraries and Collections; a New Zealand Directory. Wn, The Assn, 1959.5s.

OSBORN, A. D. New Zealand Library Resources: Report of a Survey … Wn, N.Z. Library Assn, 1960. 7s. 6d.

TAYLOR, D. M. The Oldest Manuscripts in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Council for Educational Research, 1955. £2 2s.

ENCYCLOPAEDIAS AND DIRECTORIES

THE NEW ZEALAND JUNIOR ENCYCLOPAEDIA. Wn, N.Z. Educational Foundation, 1960. 3 vol. £12 12s. (An Australian Production).

UNIVERSAL BUSINESS DIRECTORIES LTD. Universal Business Directories. 9 vol. £12 12s.

PSYCHOLOGY AND MENTAL HEALTH

BEAGLEHOLE, E. C. Mental Health in New Zealand. Wn, Price Milburn, 1959. 5s.

MANNING, A. E. The Bodgie. 2d Ed. Wn, Reed, 1958. 6s. 6d.

ROGERS, C. A. Measuring Intelligence in New Zealand. Ak, Auckland University, 1956. 17s. 6d.

STALLWORTHY, K. R. The Facts of Mental Health and Illness. 3d Ed. Ch, N. M. Peryer, 1961. £1 4s.

RELIGION

ELDER, J. R. History of the Presbyterian Church of New Zealand, 1840–1940. Ch, Presbyterian Bookroom, 1940. o.p.

MORAN, P. F. History of the Catholic Church in Australasia. Sydney, F. Coffee, 1895. 2 vol. o.p.

MORLEY, W. The History of Methodism in New Zealand. Wn, McKee, 1900. o.p.

PURCHAS, H. T. A History of the English Church in New Zealand. Ch, Simpson & Williams, 1914. o.p.

See also MAORI PEOPLE, PAST AND PRESENT.

SOCIAL SCIENCE, SOCIAL WELFARE, AND STATISTICS

BOLLINGER, C. V. I. Grog's Own Country: History of Liquor Licensing in New Zealand. Wn, Price-Milburn, 1959. 10s. 6d.

CAMPBELL, W. J. Hydrotown: The Social History of an Industrial Boom Settlement. Dn, University of Otago, 1957. Mimeo. n.p.

FONG, N. B. The Chinese in New Zealand. Hong Kong, Hong Kong University Press; Lond. O.U.P., 1959. £1 10s.

GORDON, B. K. New Zealand Becomes a Pacific Power. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1960. $6.50.

GREEN, W. A. E., and Others. Social Services in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Public Administration, 1955. n.p.

LOCHORE, R. A. From Europe to New Zealand: An Account of Our Continental European Settlers. Wn, Reed, 1951. 10s 6d.

MCLINTOCK, A. H. Liquor and the King Country. Wn, Govt. Print., 1953. o.p.

NEALE, E. P. Guide to New Zealand Official Statistics. 3d Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1955. 16s.

* N.Z. DEPT. OF STATISTICS. Statistical Publications, 1840–1960. Wn, Govt. Print., 1961. 9s. 6d.

N.Z. LICENSING CONTROL COMMISSION. Report, etc. Wn, Govt. Print., 1957. 5s.

N.Z. SOCIAL SECURITY DEPARTMENT. The Growth and Development of Social Security in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1950. o.p.

SCOTT, K. J., ed. Welfare in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Public Administration; Lond. O.U.P., 1955. 15s.

SIMPSON, H. M. The Women of New Zealand. Ak., Paul's Book Arcade, Lond., G. Allen & Unwin, 1962. £1 1s.

WOOD, F. L. W. New Zealand in the World. Wn, Dept. of Internal Affairs, 1940. o.p.

EXTERNAL AFFAIRS REVIEW. Wn, Dept. of External Affairs, m.

N.Z. DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS. Farm Production. Govt. Print., Wn. a. 12s. 6d.

—– Report on Prices, Wages, and Labour Statistics, Wn. Govt. Print., a. 12s 6d.

—– Report on Industrial Production, Wn, Govt. Print., a. £1 10s.

—– Report on the Population, Migration, and Buildings Statistics, Wn, Govt. Print., a. 8s. 6d.

—– Vital Statistics. Wn, Govt. Print, a. 7s. 6d.

N.Z. TREASURY. Economic Survey. Wn, Govt. Print, a. 3s. 6d.

NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Public Administration. Semi-a. 8s.

POLITICAL SCIENCE. Wn, Victoria University of Wellington. Semi-a. 5s.

ECONOMICS AND BANKING

BUTLIN, S. J. Australia and New Zealand Bank. London., Longmans, 1961. £2 5s.

CHAPPELL, N. M. New Zealand Banker's Hundred: A History of the Bank of New Zealand, 1861–1961. Wn, The Bank, 1961.

MARRIS, E. C. New Zealand Investment Guide. 2d Ed. Wn, N.Z. Financial Times, 1960. £1.

N.Z. INSTITUTE OF VALUERS. Principles and Practice of Urban Valuation in New Zealand. 2d Ed. Wn, 1959. £2 2s.

N.Z. ROYAL COMMISSION ON MONETARY, BANKING, AND CREDIT SYSTEMS. Report. Wn, Govt. Print., 1956. 16s.

RESERVE BANK OF NEW ZEALAND. Overseas Trade and Finance, with Particular Reference to New Zealand. Wn, 1960. 15s.

SIMKIN, C. G. F. The Instability of a Dependent Economy: Economic Fluctuations in New Zealand, 1840–1914. London., O.U.P., 1951. o.p.

SINCLAIR, K., and MANDLE, W. F. Open Account: A History of the Bank of New South Wales in New Zealand, 1861–1961. Wn, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1961. £1 7s. 6d.

WESTSTRATE, C. Portrait of a Modern Mixed Economy. Wn, N.Z. University Press, 1959. £1 2s. 6d.

CANTERBURY CHAMBER OF COMMERCE. Economic Bulletin. Ch. The Chamber, m. 15s. p.a.

MONTHLY ABSTRACT OF STATISTICS. Wn, Govt. Print, m. £2 10s. p.a.

NEW ZEALAND ECONOMIST AND TAXPAYER. Wn. Financial Publications Ltd. m. £1 5s.

RESERVE BANK OF NEW ZEALAND. Bulletin. Wn, The Bank. m. 12s.

NEW ZEALAND FINANCIAL TIMES. Wn. m. £1 15s.

LAW

ADAMS, E. C. The Law of Estate and Gift Duties in New Zealand. 3d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1956. £4 10s.

ANDERSON, H. E., and DALGLISH, D. J. The Law Relating to Companies in New Zealand. 2d Ed. Wn, Brooker & Friend, 1957. £7 12s. 6d.

BARTON, J. S. The New Zealand Company Secretary. 8th Ed. by W. G. Rodger. Wn, Butterworth, 1960. £2 7s. 6d.

BIRKS, W. R. The Legal Relationship of Parent and Child. Wn, Legal Publications, 1952. £3.

BUTTERWORTH'S CASES ANNOTATIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND STATUTES REPRINT, 1908–57, Wn, Butterworth, 1960–61. 2 vol. £13.

CAMPBELL, I. B. Handbook to the Workers' Compensation Act 1956. Wn, Sweet & Maxwell, 1958. £3.

CAMPBELL, I. D. The Law of Adoption in New Zealand. 2d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1957. £2 15s.

CASEY, M. E. Hire Purchase Law in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet & Maxwell, 1960. £1 5s.

CUNNINGHAM, H. A. Taxation Laws of New Zealand. 4th Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1960. £6 10s.

CURRIE, A. E. Crown and Subject. Wn, Legal Publications, 1953. £2 15s.

DOBBIE, A. E. Probate and Administration Practice in New Zealand. Wn, Butterworth, 1951. £3 10s.

GARROW, J. M. E. Garrow's Criminal Law in New Zealand. 3d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1950. o.p.

—– Garrow's Law of Real Property. 5th Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1961. £5 17s. 6d.

—– Garrow and Gray's Law of Personal Property in New Zealand. 4th Ed. Wn, Butterworth; 1959. £3 10s.

GARROW, J. M. E., and HENDERSON, E. W. Garrow and Henderson's Law of Trusts and Trustees … 2d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1953. £3 17s. 6d.

GARROW, J. M. E., and WILLIS, J. D. Garrow and Willis's Law of Wills and Administration and Succession on Intestacy. 3d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1960. £6 6s.

—– Garrow and Willis's Principles of the Law of Evidence in New Zealand. 4th Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1960. £2 5s.

GOODALL, S. I. Goodall's Law and Practice Relating to Conveyancing in New Zealand. 2d. Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1951. o.p.

GRIEVE, G. F. Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration: A Handbook to the New Act. Wn, Financial Publications, 1956. £1 2s. 6d.

INGLIS, B. D. Family Law. Wn, Sweet & Maxwell, 1960. £6 10s.

KELLY, E. M. Summary of the Law Relating to Land Surveying in New Zealand. 3d Ed. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Surveyors, 1958. £2 5s.

A LEGAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS. Lond. Sweet & Maxwell, 1955- (Vol. 6, Australia, New Zealand, and their Dependencies … 2d Ed., 1958. £1 10s.)

LUXFORD, J. H. Commercial Law of New Zealand. 2d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1961-0-(Looseleaf) £9 10s.

—– Police Law in New Zealand. 2d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1950. £3 17s. 6d.

—– Real Estate Agency in New Zealand. 3d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1954. o.p.

MACDONALD, J. W. Macdonald's Law Relating to Workers' Compensation in New Zealand. 3d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1958. £7 7s.

MCVEAGH, J. P. Land Valuation Law in New Zealand. 2d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 3959. £2 12s. 6d.

MARSHALL, J. R., and PAGE, E. F. The Law of Water-Courses and a Handbook for Catchment Boards. Wn, Legal Publications, 1957. £2 2s.

MAZENGARB, A. J. Mazengarb's Industrial Laws of New Zealand. 3d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1956. £5 5s.

MAZENGARB, O. C. The Law and Practice Relating to Actions for Negligence on the Highway. Sydney, Buttersorth, 1957. £3 15s.

MORISON, C. B. Morison's Company Law in New Zealand. 3d Ed. by F. C. Spratt … Wn, Butterworth, 1958. 2 vol. £7 7s.

N.Z. COPYRIGHT COMMITTEE. Report. Wn, Govt. Print., 1959. 6s.

N.Z. LAWS, STATUTES, etc. Reprint of the Statutes of New Zealand, 1908–57. Wn, Govt. Print., 1958–61. 16 vol.

NORTHEY, J. F. Commercial Law in New Zealand. Wn, Butterworth, 1961. £3 5s.

ROBSON, J. L. Ed. New Zealand: The Development of its Laws and Constitution. London., Stevens & Sons, 1954. £3 7s. 6d.

SIM, Sir W. A. The Practice of the Supreme Court and Court of Appeal of New Zealand. 9th Ed., by Sir W. J. Sim. Wn, Butterworth, 1955 £6 10s.

—– Sim's Divorce Law and Practice in New Zealand. 6th Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1954. £2 15s.

SMITH, N. W. Maori Land Law. Wn, Reed, 1960. £2 2s.

STAPLES, C. A. Land Tax in New Zealand. 4th Ed. Wn, Financial Publications, 1960. 6s.

TONKIN, A. S. The Law and Procedure Relating to Company Meetings and Winding-up in New Zealand. 2d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1958. £1 7s. 6d.

WARD, D. A. S., and WILD, H. R. C. Mercantile Law in New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1960. £1 7s. 6d.

WILY, H. J. Wily's Magistrates' Courts Practice… . 4th Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1955. £6.

NEW ZEALAND LAW JOURNAL. Butterworth, Wn. Fortnightly. £4 5s.

NEW ZEALAND LAW REGISTER. Wn, N.Z. Law Publishing Co., 1950– a. 10s. 6d.

NEW ZEALAND LAW REPORTS. Butterworth, Wn. m. £7 3s.

GOVERNMENT AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

AMUNDSEN, G. A. comp. Local Body Administration in New Zealand. Wanganui, N.Z. Institute of Local Body Administrative Offices, 1960. £1 10s.

ANGUS, N. C. ed. The Expert and Administration in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Public Administration: Lond., O.U.P., 1959. 12s. 6d.

BISHOP, C. L. Local Authority Finance, Accounts and Administration. 2d Ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1959. £5 17s.

DOLLIMORE, H. N. The Parliament of New Zealand and Parliament House. Wn, Govt. Print., 1954.2s.

JOLLIFFE, W. Jolliffe's Local Government in Boroughs and Counties. 7th Ed., Ed by J. P. McVeagh. Wn, Ferguson & Osborn, 1955–56. 2 vol. £10 10s.

MILNE, R. S. ed. Bureaucracy in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Public Administration; London, O.U.P., 1957. 15s.

NEW ZEALAND PARLIAMENTARY RECORD, 1840–1949, ed. by G. H. Scholefield. Wn, Govt. Print., 1950. £1 15s.

N.Z. ROYAL COMMISSION ON LOCAL AUTHORITY FINANCE. Report … Wn, Govt. Print., 1958. 10s.

POLASCHEK, R. J. Government Administration in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Public Administration; Lond., O.U.P., 1958. £1 10s.

—– Ed. Local Government in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Public Administration: Lond., O.U.P., 1956. 15s.

WEBB, L. C. Government in New Zealand. Wn, Dept. of Internal Affairs, 1940. o.p.

NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. N.Z. Institute of Public Administration, Wn. Semi-a. 8s.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES HANDBOOK OF NEW ZEALAND. Govt. Print., Wn. a. 15s.

EDUCATION

ASHBRIDGE, G. R. Teachers' Legal and Service Handbook. 6th Ed. Wn, N.Z. Educational Institute, 1959. 7s. 6d.

BEAGLEHOLE, J. C. Victoria University College: an Essay Towards a History. Wn, N.Z. University Press, 1949. 15s.

BEEBY, C. E. The Intermediate Schools of New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Council for Educational Research, 1938. o.p.

EWING, J. L. Origins of the New Zealand Primary School Curriculum, 1840–1878. Wn, N.Z. Council for Educational Research, 1960. £1 7s. 6d.

N.Z. COMMITTEE ON NEW ZEALAND UNIVERSITIES. Report … Wn, Govt. Print., 1960. 5s.

N.Z. CONSULTATIVE COMMITTEE ON ADULT EDUCATION. Report Further Education for Adults. Wn, Council for Adult Education, 1947. o.p.

N.Z. CONSULTATIVE COMMITTEE ON AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. Report. Wn, Govt. Print., 1958. n.p.

N.Z. CONSULTATIVE COMMITTEE ON THE POST-PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM. Report …Wn, Dept. of Education, 1959. 2s. 6d.

PARKYN, G. W., ed. The Administration of Education in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Public Administration, 1954. 15s.

—– Children of High Intelligence: A New Zealand Study. Wn, N.Z. Council for Educational Research, 1948. 18s.

—– The Consolidation of Rural Schools. Wn, N.Z. Council for Educational Research, 1952. 18s. 6d.

—– Success and Failure at the University. Wn, N.Z. Council for Educational Research, 1959–62. 2 vol. vl. £2 2s.

SEARLE, E. J. The Teaching of Science in Post-Primary Schools. Wn, N.Z. Council for Educational Research, 1958. £1 10s.

SUTTON-SMITH, B. The Games of New Zealand Children. Berkeley, Calif., University of California Press, 1959. $4.

THOM, A. H. The District High Schools of New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Council for Educational Research, 1950. 10s.

TURNER, H. W. Halls of Residence. Wn, N.Z. Council for Educational Research, 1953. 18s. 6d.

* WELLS, P. C. R. The New Zealand School Publications Branch. Paris, UNESCO, 1957. 3s. 6d.

EDUCATION: A magazine for teachers. N.Z. Department of Education, Wn. 3 p.a. 5s.

N.Z. UNIVERSITY GRANTS COMMITTEE. Handbook. Wn. a. n.p. (The separate universities of New Zealand issue their own calendars.)

TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS

COLLINS, R. J. G., and FATHERS, H. T. M. Ed. The Postage Stamps of New Zealand. Wn, Royal Philatelic Society of N.Z., 1938–55. 3 vol. o.p.

EADDY, P. A. 'Neath Swaying Spars: the Story of the Trading Scows of New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1955. 10s.

MACKAY, I. K. Broadcasting in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1953. o.p.

N.Z. ROADING INVESTIGATION COMMITTEE. Report … Wn, Govt. Print., 1953. 4s. 6d.

PALMER, A. N., and STEWART, W. W. Cavalcade of New Zealand Locomotives. Wn, Reed; N.Y., Heineman, 1957. o.p.

DEFENCE

DORNBUSCH, C. E., comp. The New Zealand Army; a Bibliography. Cornwallville, N.Y., Hope Farm Press, 1961. $4.

* N.Z. NAVY DEPARTMENT. History and Development of the Royal New Zealand Navy. Wn, Govt. Print., 1960.

See also World War.

THE MAORI PEOPLE, PAST AND PRESENT

ARMSTRONG, A. G., and NGATA, R. Maori Action Songs. Wn, Reed, 1960. 12s. 6d.

BEST, E. The Maori As He Was. Wn, Govt. Print., 1952. £1.

BIGGS, B. G. Maori Marriage; an Essay in Reconstruction. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1960. £1 1s.

BUCK, Sir P. The Coming of the Maori. Wn, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1949. £1 15s.

—– Vikings of the Sunrise. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1954. £1 15s.

DUFF, R. D. The Moa-hunter Period of Maori Culture. 2d Ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1956. £2 15s.

FIRTH, R. W. Economics of the New Zealand Maori. 2d Ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1959. £2 10s.

FREEMAN, J. D., and GEDDES, W. R., Eds. Anthropology in the South Seas. New Plymouth, Avery, 1960. £2 2s.

GREY, Sir G. Polynesian Mythology and Ancient Traditional History of the Maori. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1956. 17s. 6d.

HILL, Mrs J. A., and HILL, B. Hey Boy. Photographs and Text. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1961. 15s.

JEFFERSON, C. Dendroglyphs of the Chatham Islands; Moriori Designs on Karaka Trees. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1956. £1 4s.

MEAD, S. M. The Art of Maori Carving. Wn, Reed, 1961. 16s.

N.Z. DEPARTMENT OF MAORI AFFAIRS. The Maori Today. 2d Ed. 1956. 5s. 6d.

PHILLIPPS, W. J. Maori Houses and Food Stores. Wn, Dominion Museum, 1952. 18s.

—– Carved Maori Houses of Western and Northern Areas of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1955. £2 10s.

—– Maori Carving Illustrated. 3d Ed. Wn, Reed, 1961. 6s.

REED, A. W. Myths and Legends of Maoriland. 3d Ed. Wn, Reed, 1961. 18s. 6d.

SHARP, C. A. Ancient Voyagers in the Pacific. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1956. o.p.

VAYDA, A. P. Maori Warfare. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1960. £1 1s.

*YOUNG MAORI LEADERS CONFERENCE, AUCKLAND, 1959. Report … Council of Adult Education, University of Auckland. Mimeo. n.p. (and reports of other similar conferences throughout N.Z.).

(See also Historical Works, Maori Tribal and Language, Maori and English).

TE AO HOU. Department of Maori Affairs, Wn, q. 7s. 6d.

POLYNESIAN SOCIETY. Journal, The Society, Wn. m. £1 10s. p.a.

SCIENCE, GENERAL

BASTINGS, L. ed. Directory of New Zealand Science. 3d Ed. Wn, N.Z. Association of Scientists, 1954. o.p.

CALLAGHAN, F. R., ed. Science in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1957. o.p.

N.Z. D.S.I.R. INFORMATION BUREAU. D.S.I.R, Handbook. 4th Ed. Wn, 1960. n.p.

AUCKLAND INSTITUTE AND MUSEUM. Records. The Museum, Ak. Irreg. Price varies.

CANTERBURY MUSEUM, CHRISTCHURCH. Records. The Museum, Ch. Irreg. Price varies.

N.Z. DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH. Bulletins. D.S.I.R. Wn. Irreg. Price varies.

—– Information Series. D.S.I.R., Wn. Irreg. Price varies.

N.Z. DOMINION MUSEUM, WELLINGTON. Dominion Museum Records. The Museum, Wn. Irreg. Price varies.

NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. D.S.I.R., Wn. £1.

GEOLOGY AND EARTH SCIENCE

ALLAN, R. S., and COLLINS, B. W. Bibliography of New Zealand Geology Since 1908. Ch, N.Z. Geological Survey, 1952. o.p.

BANWELL, C. J., and others. Physics of the New Zealand Thermal Area. Wn, D.S.I.,R. 1957. 15s.

* CAMPBELL, W. M. Minerals and Gems of Maoriland. Ak, 1957. 5s.

COTTON, Sir C. A. New Zealand Geomorphology: Reprints of Selected Papers, 1912–25. Wn, N.Z. University Press, 1955. £2 2s.

—– Landscape as Developed by the Processes of Normal Erosion. 2d Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1948. o.p.

COTTON, C. A. Volcanoes as Landscape Forms. 2d Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1952. £1 15s.

EIBY, G. A. Earthquakes. London, Muller, 1957. (U.S. Ed., About Earthquakes. N.Y., Harper, 1957). £1 1s.

* ELPHICK, J. O. A Users Directory of New Zealand Coals. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1956. 3s.

GARNER, D. M. Hydrology of New Zealand Coastal Waters, 1955. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1961. 12s. 6d.

GARNIER, B. J. The Climate of New Zealand. Lond. E. Arnold, 1958. £3 10s.

OTAGO UNIVERSITY. School of Mines and Metallurgy. Proceedings of a Coal-mining Conference. Dn, The School, 1950.

—– Proceedings of a Mining Conference. Dn, The School, 1953.

—– Proceedings of a Mining and Quarrying Conference. Dn, The School, 1956. 3 vol.

—– Proceedings of a Mineral Conference. Dn, The School, 1959.

* RICHARDS, J. H. Waitomo Caves. 7th Ed, Wn, Reed, 1960. 7s. 6d.

* RYAN, A. B. Gold Discoveries in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1959. 6s.

SUGGATE, R. P. New Zealand Coals. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1959. 12s. 6d.

N.Z. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. Geological Bulletins. The Survey, P.O. Box 368, Lower Hutt. Irreg. Price varies.

—– Geological Memoirs. The Survey, Lower Hutt. Irreg. Price varies.

—– Palaeontological Bulletins. The Survey, Lower Hutt. Irreg. Price varies.

N.Z. SOIL BUREAU. Bulletins. The Bureau, Wn. Irreg. Price varies.

NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS. D.S.I.R., Wn. q. £1 10s.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW ZEALAND. Transactions: Geology. The Society, c/o P.O. Box 196, Wellington. Irreg.

BIOLOGY, GENERAL

POOLE, A. L., comp. Preliminary Reports of the New Zealand — American Fiordland Expedition. Wn, Govt. Print., 1951. 7s. 6d.

* RINEY, T. A., and others. Lake Monk Expedition; an Ecological Study in Southern Fiordland. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1959. 8s. 6d.

NEW ZEALAND ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Proceedings. The Society, Box 202, Wellington, a. 7s. 6d.

FAUNA

ALPERS, A. F. G. A Book of Dolphins. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade; Lond., John Murray, 1960.15s.

BANDSMA, A. T., and BRANDT, R. T. Camera Studies of the Small World. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1961. 13s. 6d.

FOREST AND BIRD PROTECTION SOCIETY OF NEW ZEALAND. New Zealand Sea and Shore Birds: 24 col. illus. with Descriptive Letterpress. 2d Ed. Wn, The Society, 1953. 17s. 6d.

—– New Zealand Birds: 24 col. illus. of Forest-inhabiting Birds with Descriptive Letterpress 3d Ed. Wn, The Society, 1959. £1 1s.

GRAHAM, D. H. A Treasury of New Zealand Fishes. 2d Ed. Wn, Reed, 1956. o.p.

LEE, K. E. The Earthworm Fauna of New Zealand. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1959. £3.

MCCANN, Y.M.C. The Lizards of New Zealand. Wn, Dominion Museum, 1955. £1.

MONCRIEFF, Mrs P. New Zealand Birds and How to Identify Them. 5th Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1957. 10s. 6d.

MOON, G. J. H. Focus on New Zealand Birds. 2d Rev. Ed. Wn, Reed, 1960. £2 5s.

OLIVER, W. R. B. New Zealand Birds. 2d Ed, Rev. and Enl. Wn, Reed, 1955. £6.

ORNITHOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF NEW ZEALAND. Checklist of New Zealand. Wn, Reed for the Society, 1953. o.p.

PARROTT, A. W. Big Game Fishes and Sharks of New Zealand. Lond., Hodder, 1958. £1 5s.

—– The Queer and the Rare Fishes of New Zealand. Lond., Hodder, 1960. £1 5s.

—– Sea Angler's Fishes of New Zealand. Lond., Hodder, 1957. 18s.

POWELL, A. W. B. Native Animals of New Zealand. Auckland Institute & Museum, 1951. 7s. 6d.

—– Shells of New Zealand, an Illustrated Handbook. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1957. 17s. 6d.

RICHDALE, L. E. A Population Study of Penguins. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1957. £2 16s.

STOKELL, G. Fresh Water Fishes of New Zealand. Ch, Simpson & Williams, 1955. £1.

WILSON, R. A. Bird Islands of New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1959. £1 5s.

WODZICKI, K. A. Introduced Mammals of New Zealand; an Ecological and Economic Survey. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1950. o.p.

NOTORNIS, New Zealand Ornithological Society, c/o R. B. Sibson, King's College, Ak. q. 10s.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW ZEALAND. Transactions: Zoology. The Society, Wn. irreg.

TUATARA. Journal of the Biological Society, Victoria University of Wellington, irr. 2s. per issue.

FLORA

ALLAN, H. H. Flora of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1961–2 vols. vol. 1 1961. £5 5s.

* BROOKER, S. G. and COOPER, R. C. New Zealand Medicinal Plants. Ak, Auckland Museum, 1961.15s.

CHAMBERLAIN, E. E. Plant Virus Diseases in New Zealand. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1954. £1.

COCKAYNE, L., and TURNER, E. P. The Trees of New Zealand. 4th Ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1958. £1 5s.

COCKAYNE, L. The Vegetation of New Zealand. 3d Ed. (Reprint). Weinheim, H. R. Engelmann (J. Cramer) 1958. DM 84.-

CONNOR, H. E. The Poisonous Plants in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1951. 3s. 3d.

DAVIES, W. C. New Zealand Native Plant Studies. 2d Ed. Wn, Reed, 1961. £2 7s. 6d.

DRUCE, A. P. Botanical Survey of an Experimental Catchment, Taita, New Zealand. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1957. 15s.

GUTHRIE-SMITH, W. H. Tutira; the Story of a New Zealand Sheep Station, 3d Ed. Edinburgh, William Blackwood, 1953. o.p.

HINDS, H. V., and REID, J. S. Forest Trees and Timbers of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1957. 7s. 6d.

LAING, R. M., and BLACKWELL, E. W. Plants of New Zealand. 6th Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1957. £1 8s. 6d.

MARTIN, W. The Flora of New Zealand. 4th Rev. Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1961. 16s. 9d.

NATUSCH, S. E. Native Plants; an Introduction to the Plant Life of New Zealand. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1956. 4s. 6d.

RICHARDS, E. C. The Chatham Islands, their Plants, Birds and People. Ch, Simpson & Williams, 1952. £1.

—– Our New Zealand Trees and Flowers. 3d Ed. Ch, Simpson & Williams, 1956. £1 10s.

SAINSBURY, G. O. K. Handbook of New Zealand Mosses. Wn, Royal Society of New Zealand, 1955. £1 5s. 6d.

STEVENSON, G. A Book of Ferns. 2d Rev. Ed. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade. 1959. 13s. 6d.

WALL, A., and ALLAN, H. H. The Botanical Names of the Flora of New Zealand; their Origin, History and Meaning. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1950. 6s.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW ZEALAND. Transactions: Botany. The Society, Wn. Irreg.

MEDICINE AND DENTISTRY

HEWAT, R. E. T., and EASTCOTT, D. F. Dental Caries in New Zealand. Ch, Medical Research Council of N.Z., 1956. o.p.

N.Z. COMMITTEE OF INQUIRY ON THE FLUORIDATION OF PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. Report. Wn, Govt. Print., 1957. 8s.

N.Z. CONSULTATIVE COMMITTEE ON HOSPITAL REFORM. Report. Wn, Govt. Print., 1953. o.p.

N.Z. CONSULTATIVE COMMITTEE ON INFANT AND PRE-SCHOOL HEALTH SERVICES. Report. Wn, Govt. Print., 1960. n.p.

RATTRAY, J. Great Days in New Zealand Nursing. Wn, Reed, 1961. 18s. 6d.

* ROSE, R. J. Maori-European Standards of Health. Wn., Dept. of Health, Medical Statistics Branch, 1960. n.p.

NEW ZEALAND DENTAL JOURNAL. N.Z. Dental Association, Lister Building, Auckland, q. 15s.

NEW ZEALAND MEDICAL JOURNAL. British Medical Association, Wn. m. £2 2s.

TECHNOLOGY, POWER, AND INDUSTRY

BRAITHWAITE, R. A. M. Ed. New Zealand Drainage and River Board Review, 1953. Hamilton, N.Z. Land Drainage & River Boards Association, 1954. o.p.

FURKERT, F. W. Early New Zealand Engineers. Wn, Reed, 1953. o.p.

GRANGE, L. I. Geothermal Steam for Power in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1955. 15s.

HUTTON, L. B., and STACE, F. N. eds. The Engineering History of Electric Supply in New Zealand. Wn, Electric Supply Authority Engineers' Vol. 1. £1 10s.

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT CONFERENCE, WELLINGTON, 1960. Background Papers. Wn, Govt. Print., 1960.

—– Report. Wn, Govt. Print., 1960.

* LUKE, I. J. Iron Ore Resources of New Zealand. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1955. 2s.

N.Z. COMBINED COMMITTEE ON THE NEW ZEALAND ELECTRIC POWER SUPPLY. Report. Wn, Govt. Print., 1957. n.p.

N.Z. COMMISSION OF INQUIRY INTO THE DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY. Report. Wn, Govt. Print., 1959. 4s. 6d.

O'LEARY, J. T., and SHAFFER, R. H. Scientific and Engineering Manpower in New Zealand Industry. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1958. 7s. 6d.

PREECE, CARDEW & RIDER (firm), LONDON. Report on Inter-Island Power Transmission, Wn, Govt. Print., 1960. 3s. 6d.

WARD, R. G, and WARD, M. W. Eds. New Zealand's Industrial Potential. Ak, N.Z. Geographical Society, 1960. 10s.

ELECTRIC SUPPLY AUTHORITIES' ENGINEERS' INSTITUTE OF NEW ZEALAND. Transactions … Annual Conference. The Institute, Wn. a. £2 2s.

NEW ZEALAND ELECTRICAL JOURNAL. Technical Publications Ltd., Wn. in. 12s. 6d.; 15s. Overseas.

NEW ZEALAND ENGINEERING. Technical Publications Ltd., Wn. m. £1; £1 5s. Overseas.

NEW ZEALAND PATENT OFFICE JOURNAL. Patent Office, Wn. m. £5 5s.

AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY, etc.

AMESS, A. H. R., and JOHNSON, S. C. Dairying. 4th Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1955. 7s. 6d.

BLAIR, I. D. Life and Work at Canterbury Agricultural College; the First Seventy-five Years … Ch, Caxton Press, 1956. £2 2s.

BOWEN, W. G. Wool Away: The Art and Technique of Shearing. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1955. 17s. 6d.

CONNELL, R. P., and HADFIELD, J. W. Agriculture. 7th Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1961.19s. 6d.

COOP, I. E. The Principles and Practice of Animal Nutrition. 2d Rev, Ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1961. 17s. 6d.

CRITCHELL, J. T., and RAYMOND, J. A History of the Frozen Meat Trade. Lond., Constable, 1912. o.p.

DRUMMOND, H. M., and LEATHAM, E. H. Bibliography of New Zealand Tussock Grasslands. Wn. D.S.I.R., 1959.4s.

ENTRICAN, A. R., and others. The Physical and Mechanical Properties of the Principal Indigenous Woods of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1951. o.p.

EVANS, B. L. A History of Farm Implements and Implement Firms in New Zealand. Feilding, 1956. 12s. 6d.

HADFIELD, J. W. Arable Farm Crops of New Zealand. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1952. £1 8s. 6d.

HARRISON, R. E. Handbook of Bulbs and Perennials for the Southern Hemisphere. Palmerston North, Keeling & Mundy, 1953. £1 16s.

—– Handbook of Trees and Shrubs for the Southern Hemisphere. Wn, Reed; Sydney, Angus & Robertson, 1959. £2 2s. 6d.

* HOWARD, W. E. The Rabbit Problem in New Zealand. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1958. 4s.

LEVY, Sir E. B. Grasslands of New Zealand. 2d Ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1955. £1 6s. 6d.

MCDOWALL, F. H. The Buttermaker's Manual. Wn, N.Z. University Press, 1953. 2 vols. £10 10s.

MCMEEKAN, C. P. Grass to Milk. Wn, N.Z. Dairy Exporter, 1960. £1 10s.

—– Principles of Animal Production. 3d Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1959. £1 7s. 6d.

N.Z. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. Primary Production in New Zealand. 5th Ed. Wn, 1957.

N.Z. FOREST SERVICE. Westland's Wealth. Wn, 1959. £1.

N.Z. FOREST SERVICE. The National Forest Survey of New Zealand. Vol. 1. The Indigenous Forest Resources of New Zealand, by S. E. Masters and others Wn, Govt. Print., 1957. 17s. 6d.

N. Z. SOIL BUREAU, and N.Z. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. Extension Division. General Survey of the Soils of North Island, New Zealand. Wn, 1954. £2 7s. 3d.

NEW ZEALAND AGRICULTURAL AVIATION SYMPOSIUM. Proceedings, 1st, Wanganui, 1959. Wn, Civil Aviation Administration, 1960. 12s. 6d.

NEW ZEALAND VETERINARY ASSOCIATION TECHNICAL COMMITTEE. Diseases of Domestic Animals in New Zealand. Wn, Editorial Services, 1958. £1 15s.

PHILPOTT, H. G. A History of the New Zealand Dairy Industry, 1840–1935. Wn, Govt. Print., 1937. o.p.

REED, A. H. The Story of the Kauri. Wn, Reed, 1953. o.p.

* REID, J. S. New Zealand Building Timbers (how, where and when to use them), 3d Ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1961. 5s.

SAXBY, S. H. Pasture Production in New Zealand. 3d Ed. Wn, N.Z. Dept. of Agriculture, 1956. 2s. 6d.

STEVENS, P. G. W. Sheep. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1958–61. 2 vols. 31s.

STUDHOLME, E. C. Te Waimate: Early Station Life in New Zealand. 2d. Ed. Wn, Reed, 1954. o.p.

WESTON, G. C. Exotic Forest Trees in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Forest Service, 1957. 17s. 6d.

WILD, L. J. Soils and Manures in New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1960. 10s. 6d.

WILSON, R. A. Fifty Years Farming on Sand Country. Palmerston North, Keeling & Mundy, 1959 n.p.

WINTER, T. S. Beekeeping in New Zealand. Wn, Dept. of Agriculture, 1961. 5s.

CANTERBURY CHAMBER OF COMMERCE AGRICULTURAL BULLETIN. The Chamber, Ch. m.

DAIRYFARMING ANNUAL. Massey University College of Agriculture, P.B. Palmerston North, a. 10s.

NEW ZEALAND GRASSLAND ASSOCIATION. Conference Proceedings. The Association, Wn, a. 15s.

NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH. D.S.I.R., Wn. bi-m. £1 10s.

NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF FORESTRY. N.Z. Institute of Foresters, Rotorua. a. 10s.

NEW ZEALAND PLANTS AND GARDENS. Royal N.Z. Institute of Horticulture, P.O. Box 1368, Wellington. q. Not for Sale.

NEW ZEALAND SOCIETY OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION. Conference Proceedings. The Society, Hamilton. a. 15s.

NEW ZEALAND VETERINARY JOURNAL. Editorial Services Ltd., P.O. Box 2721, Wn. bi-m. 12s. 6d.

NEW ZEALAND WEED CONTROL CONFERENCE. Proceedings. The Conference, Wn. a. 15s.

SHEEPFARMING ANNUAL. Massey University College of Agriculture, Palmerston North, a. 12s. 6d.

HOME ECONOMICS

* MESSENGER, E. M. The Wine and Food Book; New Zealand Recipes and Menus. Wn, Price Milburn, 1961.

MOORE, E. E. Food and Health. Wn, Dept. of Agriculture, 1951. 1s. 6d.

* N.Z. DEPT. OF INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE. Wine in New Zealand, Wn, Govt. Print., 1961. 2s. 6d.

NEW ZEALAND DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. Second Journal of Agriculture Cookery Book. Wn, Reed, 1959. 6s. 9d.

* OTAGO UNIVERSITY ASSOCIATION OF HOME SCIENCE ALUMNAE. New Zealand Dishes and Menus. Wn, Price Milburn, 1960. 5s.

* OTAGO UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF ADULT EDUCATION. Home Science Extension. New Zealand Fish. Dn, 1962. 2s.

ROYAL NEW ZEALAND SOCIETY FOR THE HEALTH OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN. Modern Mothercraft; a Guide to Parents, by Helen Deem and Nora P. Fitzgibbon. 2d Rev. Ed. Dn, 1953. 6s. 6d.

BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT

BARTON, J. S. The New Zealand Company Secretary. 8th Ed., by W. G. Rodger. Wn, Butterworth, 1960. £2 7s. 6d.

COWAN, T. K. Financial Accounting in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet & Maxwell, 1960. £3 5s.

NEW ZEALAND BUSINESS WHO'S WHO. L. T. Watkins Ltd., Wn. a. £5 12s. 6d.

NEW ZEALAND SOCIETY OF CUSTOMS AGENTS. Customs Agents' Handbook. Wn, V. A. Dunlop, 1956. £1 1s.

LANGUAGE, MAORI AND ENGLISH

BAKER, S. J. New Zealand Slang. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1941. o.p.

HARAWIRA, K. T. Teach Yourself Maori. 3d Ed. Wn, Reed, 1960. 10s. 6d.

TE REO. Linguistic Society of New Zealand, c/o Dept. of Romance Languages, University of Auckland, Ak. a. 10s.

WALL, A. The Mother Tongue in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1936. o.p.

—– New Zealand English; a Guide to the Correct Pronunciation of English, with Special Reference to New Zealand Conditions and Problems. 3d Ed. Enl. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1959. 10s.

WILLIAMS, H. W. A Bibliography of Printed Maori to 1900. Wn, Dominion Museum, 1924. o.p.

WILLIAMS, W. A Dictionary of the Maori Language. 6th Ed., by H. W. Williams, Rev. and Augmented Under the Auspices of the Polynesian Society. Wn, Govt. Print., 1957. £1 15s.

WILLIAMS, W. L. First Lessons in Maori. 12th Ed. Wn, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1957. 8s. 6d.

ARTS IN GENERAL, PAINTING AND MUSIC

* AUCKLAND ART GALLERY. John Gully. 1819–88. Ak, 1960. 1s. 6d.

* AUCKLAND ART GALLERY. P. van der Velden, Paintings, 1870–1912. Ak, 1959. o.p. and Similar Catalogues on Other N.Z. Artists.

* GALLERIES AND MUSEUMS ASSOCIATION OF NEW ZEALAND. Guide to the Art Galleries and Museums of New Zealand. Ak, 1958. 1s.

* HOWE, C. W. P., comp. Schola Cantorum, Wellington, New Zealand, 1936–50. Wn, Wright & Carman, 1951. o.p.

* MCCAHON, C. A Colonial View; Paintings of Early New Zealand. Ak, Auckland City Art Gallery, 1958. 3s.

* MCCORMICK, E. H. Eric Lee-Johnson. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade, 1956, o.p.

* MCCORMICK, E. H. The Inland Eye; a Sketch in Visual Autobiography. Ak, Auckland Gallery Associates, 1959. 3s.

* MARSH, NGAIO. Perspectives; the New Zealander and the Visual Arts. Ak, Auckland Gallery Associates, 1960. 2s. 6d.

* NAN KIVELL, R. de C. The Rex Nan Kivell Collection of Early New Zealand Pictures. Wn, Dept. of Internal Affairs, 1953. n.p.

SIMPSON, E. C. A Survey of the Arts in New Zealand. Wn, Wellington Chamber Music Society, 1961. £1.

* TAYLOR, E. M. Engravings on Wood. Wn, Mermaid Press, 1957. £2 2s.

LANDSCAPE

N.Z. NATIONAL PARKS AUTHORITY. New Zealand National Parks. Wn, 1957. 3s. 6d.

SALMON, J. T. Heritage Destroyed; the Crisis in Scenery Preservation in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1960. 8s. 6d.

ARCHITECTURE

FIRTH, C. H. State Housing in New Zealand. Wn, Ministry of Works, 1949. n.p.

ROSENFELD, M. The New Zealand House. 7th Ed. Ak, 1960. 15s.

* SOAR, F. C. Journey's End. Onehunga, F. C. Soar, 1961. Notes on Replica of Fencible Cottage, Onehunga. n.p.

* TAYLOR, C. R. H. The Gothic Beauties and History of the Canterbury Provincial Buildings. 3d. Ed. Ch, Canterbury Provincial Buildings Board, 1950. 2s.

* WARREN, D. E. Some Canterbury Churches. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1957. 5s. 6d.

SPORT

BRIDGE, L. D. Mountain Search and Rescue in New Zealand. Wn, Federated Mountain Clubs of N.Z., 1960. 15s. 6d.

BRITTENDEN, R. T. Great Days in New Zealand Cricket. Wn, Reed, 1958. 18s. 6d.

BUNT, C. T., ed. New Zealand, Fisherman's Paradise. Ak, E. D. Goebel and C. T. Bunt, 1961. 15s.

CRUMP, B. J. A Good Keen Man. Wn, Reed, 1960. 16s. (Sketches Based on the Experiences of a Deer Culler).

DOOGUE, R. B., and MORELAND, J. M. New Zealand Sea Anglers' Guide. Wn, Reed, 1960. £1 2s. 6d.

HEWITT, L. R., and DAVIDSON, M. The Mountains of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1954. o.p.

HILLARY, Sir E. P. High Adventure. Lond., Hodder & Stoughton, 1955. 16s.

HINTZ, O. S. Trout at Taupo. Lond., M. Reinhardt, 1955. £1 5s.

HOUSTON, J. Association Football in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1952. 6s.

JARDEN, R. A. Rugby on Attack. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1961. 18s. 6d.

LITTLE, K. M. Polo in New Zealand. Wn, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1956. £1 10s.

* MIERS, K. H. Shooters' Guide to New Zealand Waterbirds. Wn, Dept. of Internal Affairs, 1960. 1s. 6d.

N.Z. DEPT. OF EDUCATION. Physical Education Branch. (Sports Series) 1954-(Guide Books for Teachers and Coaches on Various Sports, e.g., rugby football, athletics, hockey) 2s. 6d. ea.

NOLAN, M. A. Bush Lore. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1961. 13s. 6d.

O'BRIEN, B. F. Kiwis with Gloves on; a History and Record-book of New Zealand Boxing. Wn, Reed, 1960. £1 5s.

PASCOE, J. D. Great Days in New Zealand Mountaineering. Wn, Reed, 1958. n.p.

—– Land Uplifted High. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1952. o.p.

PAUL, G. R. Cruising in New Zealand Waters. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1961. 9s. 6d.

SWAN, A. C. History of New Zealand Rugby Football. Vol. 2: 1946–57. Wn, N.Z. Rugby Football Union, 1958. £1 12s. 6d.

—– History of New Zealand Rugby Football 1870–1945. Wn, N.Z. Rugby Football Union by Reed, 1948. o.p.

—– The Log o' Wood; a Complete History of the Ranfurly Shield. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1960. 11s. 6d.

TOTALISATOR AGENCY BOARD. History and Operation of Off-course Betting in New Zealand. Wn, 1958. n.p.

CRICKET ALMANAC OF NEW ZEALAND. A. H. Carman, Wn. a. 10s 6d.

RUGBY ALMANAC OF NEW ZEALAND. A. H. Carman, Wn. a. 7s. 6d.

LITERATURE, GENERAL

JOHNSON, O. A. A. R. D. Fairburn, 1904–57; a Bibliography of his Published Work. Ak, University of Auckland, 1958. 15s.

MCCORMICK, E. H., New Zealand Literature; a Survey. Lond., O.U.P., 1959. £1 2s. 6d.

STEVENS, J. The New Zealand Novel, 1860–1960. Wn, Reed, 1961. 12s. 6d.

LANDFALL. Caxton Press, 119 Victoria St., Ch. q. £1 p.a.

POETRY

BAXTER, J. K. The Fire and the Anvil; Notes on Modern Poetry. Wn, New Zealand University Press, 1955. 7s. 6d.

—– Howrah Bridge and Other Poems. Lond., O.U.P., 1961. 10s. 6d.

* BAXTER, J. K. In Fire of no Return; Poems. Lond, O.U.P., 1958. 12s. 6d.

BETHELL, M. U. Collected Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1950. o.p.

* BRASCH, C. O. Disputed Ground; Poems 1939–45. Ch, Caxton Press, 1948. 6s.

* BRASCH, C. O. The Estate and Other Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1957. 15s.

* CAMPBELL, A. Mine Eyes Dazzle; Poems 1947–49. 2d Ed. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1956. 9s. 6d.

CHAPMAN, R. MCD., and BENNETT, J., comps. Anthology of New Zealand Verse. London., O.U.P., 1956. £1 1s.

CURNOW, T. A. M. The Penguin Book of New Zealand Verse. Harmondsworth, Eng. Penguin Books, 1960. 5s.

* CURNOW, T. A. M. Poems 1949–57. Wn, Mermaid Press, 1957. 14s. 6d.

* DALLAS, R. The Turning Wheel. Ch, Caxton Press, 1961. 15s.

* DOWLING, B. C. Canterbury and Other Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1949. 6s.

* DOYLE, C. D. A Splinter of Glass; Poems 1951–55. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1956. 12s. 6d.

* DUGGAN, E. M. More Poems. Lond., Allen, & Unwin, 1951. 7s. 6d.

*FAIRBURN, A. R. D. The Disadvantages of Being Dead. Wn, Mermaid Press, 1958. 10s. 6d.

FAIRBURN, A. R. D. Strange Rendezvous. Poems 1929–41, with Additions. Ch, Caxton Press, 1952. 17s. 6d.

* FAIRBURN, A. R. D. Three Poems: Dominion, The Voyage and To a Friend in the Wilderness. Wn, New Zealand University Press, 1952. 10s. 6d.

* GLOVER, D. J. M. Arawata Bill. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1953. 7s. 6d.

* GLOVER, D. J. M. Since Then. Wn. Mermaid Press, 1957. 10s. 6d.

* GLOVER, D. J. M. Sings Harry and Other Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1951. 12s. 6d.

HART-SMITH, W. Poems of Discovery. Sydney, Angus & Robertson, 1959. 15s.

* HENDERSON, P., pseud. Unwilling Pilgrim; Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1955. 12s. 6d.

* HERVEY, J. R. She was My Spring. Ch, Caxton Press, 1954. 15s.

* JOHNSON, L. A. New Worlds for Old: Poems. Wn, Capricorn Press, 1957. 10s.

* JOSEPH, M. K. The Living Countries. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade, 1959. 10s. 6d.

MITCALFE, B., tr. Poetry of the Maori. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade, 1961. 12s. 6d. Eng. Trans. of Maori Poetry with the Maori Texts.

* MITCALFE, B. Thirty Poems. Wn, Price Milburn, 1960. 9s. 6d.

MURDOCH, W., and MULGAN, A., comps. A Book of Australian and New Zealand Verse. Lond., O.U.P., 1950. 9s.

NGATA, Sir A. T., ed. (Nga Moteatea) The Songs. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1959. £1 12s. 6d.

* OLIVER, W. H. Fire Without Phoenix; Poems 1946–54. Ch, Caxton Press, 1957. 12s. 6d.

* SINCLAIR, K. Strangers or Beasts; Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1954. 7s. 6d.

* SMITHYMAN, W. H. The Blind Mountain and Other Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1950. 8s. 6d.

* SPEAR, C. Twopence Coloured. Ch, Caxton Press, 1951. 8s. 6d. (Wilkinson, I. G.) Houses by the Sea & the Later Poems of Robin Hyde (pseud.) Ch. Caxton Press, 1952. 13s. 6d.

* WILSON, P. S. Staying at Ballisodare. London., Scorpion Press, 1960. 8s. 6d.

WOODHOUSE, A. R., Comp. New Zealand Farm and Station Verse 1850–1950. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1950. o.p.

NEW ZEALAND POETRY YEARBOOK. Whitcombe & Tombs, Wn. a. 10s. 6d.

FICTION

N.Z. NATIONAL LIBRARY SERVICE. School Library Service. Fiction for Post-primary Schools; an Annotated List. 2d Ed. Rev. and Enl. Wn, 1960. Photoprinted.

ASHTON-WARNER, S. Incense to Idols. Lond., Seeker & Warburg, 1960. 18s.

—– Spinster. Lond., Seeker & Warburg, 1958. 18s.

BOOTH, P. J. Long Night Among the Stars. Lond., Collins, 1961. 16s.

BRATHWAITE, E. Fear in the Night. Ch, Caxton Press, 1959. 15s.

COURAGE, J. The Visit to Penmorten. Lond., Cape, 1961. 16s.

—– The Young Have Secrets. London., Cape, 1954. 12s. 6d.

CROSS, I. R. After Anzac Day. London., A. Deutsch, 1961. 15s.

—– The Backward Sex. Lond., A. Deutsch, 1960. 12s. 6d.

—– The God Boy. Lond., A. Deutsch, 1958. 12s. 6d.

DAVIN, D. M. New Zealand Short Stories. Lond., O.U.P., 1953. 5s.

—– No Remittance. Lond., M. Joseph, 1959. 15s.

DUCKWORTH, M. R. A Gap in the Spectrum. Lond., New Authors, 1959. 13s. 6d.

—– The Matchbox House. Lond., Hutchinson, 1960. 16s.

FRAME, J. Faces in the Water. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1961. 17s. 6d.

—– The Lagoon, and Other Stories. 2d Ed. Ch. Caxton Press, 1961. 12s. 6d.

—– Owls Do Cry. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1957. 15s.

FRANCE, H. R. Ice Cold River. Lond., Constable; Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade, 1961. 17s. 6d.

—– The Race. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade, 1960. 15s.

GILBERT, G. R. Love in a Lighthouse. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1956. 12s. 6d.

HILLIARD, N. H. Maori Girl. Lond., Heinemann, 1960. 16s.

JOSEPH, M. K. I'll Soldier No More. Lond., V. Gollancz; Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade, 1958. 16s. 6d.

—– A Pound of Saffron. Lond., V. Gollancz, 1962. 18s.

MCDONALD, G. B. Stinson's Bush. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1954. 6s. 6d.

MCLEOD, D. The Tall Tussock; Stories of the High Country. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1959. 13s. 6d.

MANDER, J. The Story of a New Zealand River. Lond., R. Hale; Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1960. 16s. 6d.

MANSFIELD, K. Selected Stories, Chosen and Introduced by D. M. Davin. Lond., O.U.P., 1953. 5s.

MUIR, M. R. Word for Word. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1960. 18s.

MULGAN, A. E. Spur of Morning. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1960. 12s. 6d.

MULGAN, J. A. E. Man Alone. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade, 1960. 13s. 6d.

PARK. R. R. L. One-a-Pecker, Two-a-Pecker. Sydney, Angus & Robertson, 1957. 17s. 6d.

SARGESON, F. I. for One. Ch, Caxton Press, 1954. 6s.

SATCHELL, W. The Greenstone Door. Lond., Whitcombe & Tombs, 1950. 15s.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. The New Zealanders; a Sequence of Stories. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1959. 18s.

SLATTER, G. C. A Gun in my Hand. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1959. 15s.

(Wilkinson, I. G.) Check to your King … by Robin Hyde (pseud.) Wn, Reed, 1960. 15s.

WILSON, P. J. Some Are Lucky. Wn, D. Glover, 1960. £1.

FICTION, JUVENILE

CAMPBELL, A. The Happy Summer. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1961. 14s.

* DUGGAN, M. N. Falter Tom and the Water Boy. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade, 1958. 10s. 6d.

* MORICE, S. The Book of Wiremu. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade, 1958. 7s. 6d.

SUTTON-SMITH, B. Smitty Does a Bunk. Wn, Price Milburn, 1961. 12s. 6d.

TINDALE, N. B., and LINDSAY, H. A. Rangatira (the High Born). Wn, Reed, 1959. 12s. 6d.

ESSAYS

HOLCROFT, M. H. Discovered Isles; a Trilogy: The Deepening Stream, The Waiting Hills, Encircling Seas. Ch, Caxton Press, 1950. £1 2s. 6d.

—– The Eye of the Lizard, a Selection of Editorials from the New Zealand Listener, 1949–59. Wn, Reed, 1960. 15s. 6d.

DRAMA AND THEATRE

NEW ZEALAND DRAMA COUNCIL. List of Recommended Plays. Wn, 1955. 1s. 6d.

REID (JOAN AND RUSSELL) LTD., WELLINGTON. Prompt Book, 2d Ed.; a New Zealand Theatre Guide … Wn, 1959. 10s. 6d.

PLAYS

* BAXTER, J. K. Two Plays: The Wide Open Cage and Jack Winter's Dream. Hastings, Capricorn Press, 1959. 7s. 6d.

CURNOW, T. A. M. The Axe; a Verse Tragedy. Ch, Caxton Press, 1949 (i.e. 1950) o.p.

MASON, B. E. G. The Pohutukawa Tree: a Play in Three Acts. Wn, Price Milburn, 1960. 7s. 6d.

HUMOUR

ANTHONY, F. S., and JACKSON, F. Me and Gus Again. Wn, Reed, 1955. 9s. 6d.

CRUMP, B. J. Hang on a Minute Mate. Wn, Reed, 1961. 16s.

GRIEVE, H. Sketches from Maoriland. Lond., R. Hale; Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1961. 12s. 6d.

REID, J. C. The Kiwi Laughs; an Anthology of New Zealand Prose Humour. Wn, Reed, 1960. 16s.

GAZETTEERS, etc.

ANDERSEN, J. C. Maori Place Names. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1942. o.p.

DOLLIMORE, E. S. The New Zealand Guide … A Comprehensive Gazetteer … Dn, H. Wise, 1952. £2 2s.

REED, A. W. A Dictionary of Maori Place Names. Wn, Reed, 1961. 12s. 6d.

DESCRIPTIVE WORKS: GENERAL

AUSUBEL, D. P. The Fern and the Tiki; an American View of New Zealand. Sydney, Angus & Robertson, 1960. £1 2s. 6d.

BIGWOOD, K. V. New Zealand in Colour. Wn, Reed, 1961. £1 5s.

CONSTABLE, L. D. Home Territory. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1953. 9s. 6d.

CUMBERLAND, K. B. This is New Zealand; a Pictorial Description. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1960. 8s. 3d.

DUFF, O. New Zealand now. 2d Ed. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade; London, Allen & Unwin, 1956. 12s. 6d.

* DUFF, O. Ourselves Today. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1959.

HALL, D. O. W. Portrait of New Zealand. 3d Ed. Wn, Reed, 1961.

HARDWICK, J. M. D. Seeing New Zealand; an Illustrated Travel Guide. 4th Ed. Wn, Reed, 1959. 18s. 6d.

MCLINTOCK, A. H., ed. A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand, Wn, Govt. Print., 1959. £2.

SINCLAIR, K. Distance Looks our Way; the Effects of Remoteness on New Zealand. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade for the University of Auckland, 1961.

STONE, D. Verdict on New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1959. 18s. 6d.

SUTHERLAND, W. T. G. The Silver Fern: a Journey in Search of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1959. 16s.

WHITE, L. L. White's Pictorial Reference of New Zealand. 2d Ed. Ak, White's Aviation, 1960. £6 6s.

WOOD, F. L. W. This New Zealand. 3d Ed. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade, 1958. £1 5s.

NEW ZEALAND GEOGRAPHER. New Zealand Geographical Society, University of Canterbury, Ch. semi-a. £1 10s.

DESCRIPTIVE WORKS — HISTORICAL

BARKER, M. A., Lady. Station Life in New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1950. o.p.

COOK, J. The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery. Edited … by J. C. Beaglehole … Cambridge, Hakluyt Society, 1955-

CRUISE, R. A. Journal of a Ten Months' Residence in New Zealand (1820). New Ed. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1957. £2 2s.

DRUMMOND, Mrs A. E. H. Married and Gone to New Zealand; Being Extracts from the Writings of Women Pioneers. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade, 1960. 18s. 6d.

MANING, F. E. Old New Zealand; a Tale of the Good Old Times. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1952. 15s.

TAYLOR, Mrs N. M. Early Travellers in New Zealand. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1959. £3 3s.

WAKEFIELD, E. J. Adventure in New Zealand. An Abridgement. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1955. 17s. 6d.

DESCRIPTIVE WORKS — REGIONAL

The following are representative of the many titles in this category:

HAMILTON, W. M. Little Barrier Island (Hauturu). 2d Ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1961.

KEAM, R. F. Volcanic Wonderland; the Scenery and Spectacle of the New Zealand Thermal Region. 2d Ed. Ak, The Author, 1961.

MOIR'S Guide Book to the Tramping Tracks and Routes of the Great Southern Lakes and Fiords of Otago and Southland. 3d Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1956–61.

N.Z. MINISTRY OF WORKS. Town and Country Planning Branch. National Resources Survey. Part 1. West Coast Region. Wn, Govt. Print., 1959.

NEWTON, PETER. High Country Journey. Wn, Reed, 1952. (Canterbury High Country Sheep Stations).

* PACKARD, W. P. Mount Cook National Park Handbook. Ch, Mount Cook National Park Board, 1959. (Corresponding Handbooks for other Parks in process of publication.)

PASCOE, J. D. The Mountains, the Bush and the Sea; a Photographic Report. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1950.

REED, A. H. The Four Corners of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1954.

HISTORICAL WORKS — GENERAL AND PERIOD INCLUDING MAORI WARS

BEAGLEHOLE, J. C. The Discovery of New Zealand. 2d Ed. London, O.U.P., 1961. £1 1s.

CONDLIFFE, J. B. New Zealand in the Making. 2d Ed. Lond., Allen & Unwin, 1959. £1 10s.

—– The Welfare State in New Zealand. Lond., Allen & Unwin, 1959. £1 15s.

COWAN, J. The New Zealand Wars. Wn, Govt. Print., 1955–56. £4 10s.

GORST, Sir J. E. The Maori King. Edited by Keith Sinclair. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade, 1959. £1 5s.

HALL, D. O. W. The New Zealanders in South Africa, 1899–1902. Wn, War History Branch, Dept. of Internal Affairs. 1949. 10s. 6d.

MCCLYMONT, W. G. The Exploration of New Zealand. Lond., O.U.P., 1959. £1 1s.

MCCORMICK, E. H. Tasman and New Zealand; a bibliographical study. Wn, Govt. Print. 7s. 6d.

MCLINTOCK, A. H. Crown Colony Government in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1958. £1 15s.

MILLER, J. O. Early Victorian New Zealand … 1839–52. Lond., O.U.P., 1958. £1 17s.

N.Z. DEPT. OF INTERNAL AFFAIRS. Centennial Branch. Making New Zealand; Pictorial Surveys of a Century. Wn, the Branch, 1939–40. 2 vols. o.p.

N.Z. NATIONAL ARCHIVES. Preliminary Inventory. No. 1–8, 1953–58. Wn, Dept. of Internal Affairs.

OLIVER, W. H. The Story of New Zealand. London, Faber, 1960. 18s.

PASCOE, J. D. Great Days in New Zealand Exploration; the Bush and the Rain. Wn, Reed, 1959. o.p.

SCHOLEFIELD, G. H., Ed. The Richmond-Atkinson Papers. Wn, Govt. Print., 1960. £10 10s.

SINCLAIR, K. A History of New Zealand. Penguin Books, 1959. 4s. 9d.; London, O.U.P., 1961. £1 5s.

—– The Origins of the Maori Wars. Wn, New Zealand University Press, 1957. £1 10s.

SUTCH, W. B. The Quest for Security in New Zealand. Penguin Books, 1942. o.p.

* WILSON, G. H. O. War in the Tussock; Te Kooti and the Battle al Te Porere. Wn, Govt. Print., 1961.

WRIGHT, H. M. New Zealand, 1769–1840; Early Years of Western Contact, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1959. £1 18s.

HISTORICAL NEWS, Whitcombe and Tombs in Association with the History Dept., Canterbury University, Christchurch. 2 p.a. 6s.

HISTORICAL REVIEW. Whakatane and District Historical Society, Whakatane. Irreg. Not for sale. (and publications of other Local Historical Societies).

POLITICAL SCIENCE.See full entry under Political Science. Includes Historical Articles.

HISTORICAL WORKS-MAORI TRIBAL

GRACE, J, H. Tuwharetoa; the History of the Maori People of the Taupo District. Wn, Reed, 1959. o.p.

KELLY, L. G. Tainui; the Story of Hoturoa and his Descendants. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1949. £1 10s.

TAYLOR, W. A. Lore and History of the South Island Maori. Ch, Bascands, 1952. o.p.

HISTORY — REGIONAL AND LOCAL

The following are representative of the many titles in this category:

ACLAND, L. G. D. The Early Canterbury Runs. Rev. Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1951. o.p.

ADKIN, G. L. The Great Harbour of Tara; Traditional Maori Place-names and Sites of Wellington Harbour and Environs. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1959. £1 8s. 6d.

ALLAN, Mrs R. M. The History of Port Nelson. Wn, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1954. £1 5s.

GARDNER, W. J. The Amuri; a County History. Culverden, Amuri County Council, 1956. o.p.

GILLESPIE, O. A. South Canterbury; a Record of Settlement. Timaru, South Canterbury Centennial History Committee, 1958. £3 5s.

HAWKINS, D. W. Beyond the Waimakaiiri. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1957. £1 5s.

HIGHT, Sir J. A History of Canterbury. Ch, Canterbury Centennial Association, 1957– vol. J, 1957 by C. R. Straubel and others. £1 2s. 6d.

MCLINTOCK, A. H. The History of Otago. Dn, Otago Centennial Historical Publications, 1949. o.p.

MILLAR, J. H. Westland's Golden 'Sixties. Wn, Reed, 1959. £1.

MILLER, F. W. G. Golden Days of Lake County. 2d Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1961. £1 7s. 6d.

PETERSEN, G. C. Forest Homes; the Story of the Scandinavian Settlements in the Forty Mile Bush, New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1956. o.p.

SHARP, C. A. Crisis at Kerikeri. Reed. 12s. 6d.

WORLD WAR, 1914–18

Official History of New Zealand's Effort in the Great War. Ak, Whitcombe & Tombs, under Authority of N.Z. Govt. 4 vols. 1919–23. o.p.

WORLD WAR, 1939–45

The following represent a selection of the New Zealand Official History General Campaign Volumes. Unit Histories have been listed in earlier volumes of the Yearbook.

ANSON, T. V. The New Zealand Dental Services. Wn, War History Branch, 1960. £1 5s.

DAVIN, D. M. Crete. Wn, War History Branch, 1953. o.p.

GILLESPIE, O. A. The Pacific. Wn, War History Branch, 1952. o.p.

MCCLYMONT, W. G. To Greece. Wn, War History Branch, 1959. £1 5s.

MASON, W. W. Prisoners of War. Wn, War History Branch, 1954. £1 5s.

MURPHY, W. E. The Relief of Tobruk. Wn, War History Branch, 1961. £1 5s.

N.Z. DEPT. OF INTERNAL AFFAIRS. War History Branch. New Zealand in the Second World War, 1939–45. Episodes and Studies. Wn, 1950–51. £2 17s.

PHILLIPS, N. C. Italy. Wn, War History Branch, 1957– Vol. 1 Sangro to Cassino, 1957. £1 5s.

ROSS, J. M. S. Royal New Zealand Air Force. Wn, War History Branch, 1955. £1 5s.

SCOULLAR, J. L. Battle for Egypt; the Summer of 1942. Wn, War History Branch, 1955. £1 5s.

STEVENS, W. G. Problems of 2 NZEF, Wn, War History Branch, 1958. £1 5s.

STOUT, T. D. M. War Surgery and Medicine. Wn, War History Branch, 1954. £2 10s.

—– Medical Services in New Zealand and the Pacific … Wn, War History Branch, 1958. £1 5s.

—– New Zealand Medical Services in Middle East and Italy. Wn, War History Branch, 1956. £1 5s.

THOMPSON, H. L. New Zealanders with the Royal Air Force. Wn, War History Branch, 1953–3 vols. £1 5s. ea.

WATERS, S. D. The Royal New Zealand Navy. Wn, War History Branch, 1956. £1 5s.

WOOD, F. L. W. The New Zealand People at War; Political and External Affairs. Wn, War History Branch, 1958. £1 5s.

BIOGRAPHY

BURDON, R. M. The Life and Times of Sir Julius Vogel. Ch, Caxton Press, 1948. 17s. 6d.

—– King Dick; a Biography of Richard John Seddon. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1955. 17s. 6d.

GORDON, Mrs D. C. Doctor Down Under. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs; Lond., Faber. 15s.

HOLCROFT, M. H. Dance of the Seasons; an Autobiographical Essay. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1952. 7s. 6d.

JONES, J. J. The Cradle of Erewhon; Samuel Butler in New Zealand … Austin, University of Texas Press, 1959. £1 17s.

LENNARD, C. G. Sir William Martin; the Life of the First Chief Justice of New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1961. £1 2s. 6d.

* MCCORMICK, E. H. The Fascinating Folly; Dr Hocken and his Fellow Collectors. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1961. 7s. 6d.

MALING, P. B. Samuel Butler at Mesopotamia, together with Butler's “Forest Creek” Manuscript. Wn, Govt. Print., and National Historic Places Trust, 1960. 5s.

MANSON, C. M., and Mrs C. Doctor Agnes Bennett. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs; Lond., Michael Joseph, 1960. 18s.

MULGAN, A. E. The Making of a New Zealander. Wn, Reed, 1958. 18s. 6d.

N.Z. DEPT. OF INTERNAL AFFAIRS. The New Zealand Honours List. 3d Ed Wn, Govt. Print., 1960.

RUTHERFORD, J. Sir George Grey, K.C.B., 1812–98; a Study in Colonial Government. Lond., Cassell, 1961. £4 18s.

SCHOLEFIELD, G. H. Ed. A Dictionary of New Zealand Biography. Wn, Dept. of Internal Affairs, 1940. 2 vols. o.p.

SUTHERLAND, W. T. G. Green Kiwi. Reed, 1960. 16s.

TORLESSE, C. O. The Torlesse Papers. Journals concerning the Foundation of the Canterbury Settlement … Edited by P. B. Maling. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1958. £2 5s.

WHO'S WHO IN NEW ZEALAND. 7th Ed. Edited by G. C. Petersen. Wn, Reed, 1961. £2 12s. 6d.

WILLIAMS, H. The Early Journals of Henry Williams, … Church Missionary Society, 1826–40. Ed. by L. M. Rogers. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1961. £3 15s.

WILSON, Mrs H. My First Eighty Years. Hamilton, Paul's Book Arcade, 1959. 16s.

WILSON, P. J. The Maorilander; a Study of William Satchell. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1961. 12s.

WOODHOUSE, Mrs A. E. Guthrie-Smith of Tutira. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs (1959) £1 7s. 6d.

COOK ISLANDS, NIUE, CHATHAM ISLANDS, AND SUBANTARCTIC ISLANDS

BEAGLEHOLE, E. Social Change in the South Pacific; Rarotonga and Aitutaki. Lond., Allen & Unwin, 1957. £1 15s.

CUMBERLAND, K. B. South-west Pacific. A Geography. 3d Ed. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1958. 18s. 6d.

EDEN, A. W. Islands of Despair… a Survey Expedition to the Sub-Antarctic Islands of New Zealand. Lond., Andrew Melrose, 1955. o.p.

N.Z. TOURIST AND PUBLICITY DEPT. Publicity Division. New Zealand's Tropical Provinces. Wn, Govt. Print., 1960. gratis.

SIMPSON, F. A. Chatham Exiles; Yesterday and Today at the Chatham Islands. Wn, Reed, 1950. o.p.

NEW ZEALAND SUB-ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION, 1941–45 (“Cape Expedition”). Reports, 1949–(Biological reports based on observations of coast-watchers, stationed on Auckland and Campbell Islands).

NEW ZEALAND IN ANTARCTICA

HELM, A. S. Provisional Gazetteer of the Ross Dependency, Wn. Govt. Print., 1958. £1 2s. 6d.

HILLARY, Sir E. P. No Latitude for Error. London, Hodder & Stoughton, 1961. £1 1s.

SIMPSON, F. A., ed. The Antarctic Today; a Mid-century Survey by the Antarctic Society. Wn, Reed and the Society, 1952. o.p.

HATHERTON, T. New Zealand IGY Antarctic Expeditions, Scott Base and Hallett Station. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1961. 15s.

ANTARCTIC. N.Z. Antarctic Society, Wn. q. 15s.

(d) NEW ZEALAND AND THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY*

“The signing in March 1957 of the Treaty of Rome establishing the European Economic Community is one of the historic events of our time. By this act six nations of Western Europe agreed to merge their economies into a single unit and to limit their national sovereignties in the interests of the economic development and security of the wider Community which they form. The progress already made towards the achievement of the Community's immediate objectives offers convincing evidence of the strength of the desire in Europe for unity. The Community is not merely an agreement to promote trade and industry: its basic purpose is political; to establish, as the Preamble of the Rome Treaty clearly states 'the foundations of an ever closer union among European peoples'.

“Britain's decision to enter negotiations for accession to the Community has far-reaching implications — whether the outcome is success or failure-for the future of Britain and the Commonwealth, for Europe, and for the free world as a whole. For New Zealand with its deep and long-standing ties with Britain in all aspects of life, the British decision raises issues which are probably the most momentous but at the same time most challenging we have ever faced in times of peace … .” Keith Holyoake, Prime Minister of New Zealand.

The Rome Treaty: General — The avowed aim of the European Economic Community established by the Treaty of Rome is to “promote throughout the Community a harmonious development of economic activities, a continuous and balanced expansion, an increased stability, an accelerated raising of the standard of living, and closer relations between its member states”. The aims are to be achieved by establishing a Common Market and by progressively harmonising the economic policies of member states.

For these purposes the six countries (Belgium, France, German Federal Republic, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands) are to eliminate all tariffs, quantitative restrictions, and other trade barriers among member states over a transitional period of 12 to 15 years. At the same time, a common external tariff, coupled with a common commercial policy, is to be instituted as regards trading relations with third countries.

The Common Market thus established also involves the removal of all obstacles to the free movement of persons, services, and capital among the Six. It will also apply in principle to agriculture, but in recognition of the difficulties of integration in this sector, special provisions are included in the Treaty, the most important requirement being the development of a common agricultural policy among the member states.

Parallel with these measures the Treaty requires positive action to be taken in a number of fields towards ensuring a true integration of the six economies. Activities which distort competition, such as monopolies and cartels, dumping, and state aids, are to be brought under control. Economic policies must be coordinated, social policies and national legislation affecting the working of the Common Market, for example taxation, must be harmonised, and a common transport policy developed. A Social Fund to assist the movement of workers and a European Investment Bank to promote economic development are provided for.

Transitional Period — The establishment of the Common Market is to take place over a period of 12 years but this may, in certain circumstances, be extended to 15 years. This transitional period is divided into three stages of four years each, but the length of each stage may be modified by agreement, provided that the total transitional period is not extended beyond 15 years.

Customs Union: Tariffs — While the European Economic Community is far more than an agreement about tariffs and trade, the core of its arrangements is the establishment of a customs union, an arrangement involving dismantling of barriers to the movement of goods between member countries and the establishment of a common external tariff to regulate imports from third countries. (By contrast a free trade area, while involving the removal of tariffs and quantitative restrictions among members, permits members to retain their existing tariffs against third countries. A common external tariff is not required.) The Treaty sets out in considerable detail how this objective is to be achieved. All duties must be completely abolished by the end of the transitional period — that is between 1970 and 1973. Members must also abolish progressively all other charges having an effect similar to tariffs, imposed on goods imported from other members, but in certain circumstances some of the charges may be replaced by internal taxes. Thus the progressive elimination of tariffs is to take place gradually to give the national economies time to adjust to the competitive effects of the Common Market. Any member state may, however, reduce internal duties to a greater extent than the Treaty requires.

* This is based on The European Economic Community, Parliamentary Paper A. 21. 1961, (88 pp.) available from the Government Printer, Wellington, price 3s.

Common External Tariff — The provisions of the Treaty dealing with the establishment of a common external tariff to apply to imports from third countries are more complex than those relating to the removal of internal tariffs. The common tariff was required to be, in general, the arithmetical average of the duties applied by the member states as on 1 January 1957, but there have been a number of important exceptions to this rule.

Summary of Tariff Changes — Tariff reductions between member states of the Community have been made at a faster rate than that required by the timetable laid down in the Rome Treaty. Further reductions took place on 1 January 1962 bringing the level of tariffs for industrial products to 60 per cent of the rates in force during the base year 1958, 65 per cent of the basic rates for agricultural products subject to quantitative import controls, and 70 per cent of the basic rate for liberalised agricultural products. A further accelerated reduction of 10 per cent in 1962 is being considered by the Council of Ministers. Tariffs against third countries for industrial products were adjusted on 1 January 1961 by a reduction of 30 per cent of the difference between the common external tariff reduced notionally by 20 per cent and the individual national tariffs. For agricultural products this first adjustment to the common tariff (not notionally reduced by 20 per cent) took place on 1 January 1962.

Quantitative Restrictions — As part of the decision to accelerate the implementation of the Treaty, the member States agreed to abolish at the end of 1961 all import quotas (except for agricultural products) applying to intra-Community trade. However, the member states may have recourse to the escape clauses of the Treaty in order to maintain import quotas in certain cases.

The procedures in the Treaty for dealing with quantitative restrictions towards third countries are covered much less specifically than those which relate to the elimination of internal restrictions. The general objective to be sought by the end of the transition period, the Treaty says, is a “common commercial policy” which, so far as quantitative import barriers are concerned, will include “the alignment of measures of liberalisation”. This means that the members should secure “… uniformity between themselves at as high a level as possible of their lists of liberalisation in regard to third countries … .”

The Common Agricultural Policy:

The Treaty Provisions-The aims of this policy are described in Article 39 as follows:

  1. To increase agricultural productivity by developing technical progress and by ensuring the national development of agricultural production and the optimum utilisation of the factors of production, particularly labour:

  2. To ensure thereby a fair standard of living for the agricultural population, particularly by increasing the individual earnings of persons engaged in agriculture:

  3. To stabilise markets:

  4. To guarantee regular supplies:

  5. To ensure reasonable prices in supplies to consumers.

In establishing a common market organisation, the Treaty permits the use of “all measures necessary to achieve the objectives of the common agricultural policy”, in particular, price controls, subsidies, the production and marketing of various products, arrangements for stockpiling, and common machinery for stabilising imports or exports.

General Provisions: Escape Clause — A provision of some importance is the general escape clause contained in Article 226. In terms of this article a member state may be authorised to take safeguard measures “where there are serious difficulties which are likely to persist in any sector of economic activity or difficulties which may seriously impair the economic situation in any region”.

These safeguard measures are determined by the Commission and may even include derogations from the Treaty. But recourse to this right is restricted to the transitional period. Since entry into force of the Treaty, this article has been sparingly used.

In the case of agricultural commodities more specific safeguard measures have been provided in the regulations drawn up for each product.

Prior Commitments — Article 234 deals with the rights and obligations of member states arising from agreements with third countries entered into prior to the Treaty. In terms of this Article such rights and obligations are not affected by the provisions of the Treaty. However, member countries are obliged to take all appropriate steps to eliminate any incompatibility with the Treaty which may exist. On this question action has been taken by the Council (the supreme decision-making body of the Community) to ensure that bilateral agreements do not prevent the formulation of a common commercial policy.

AGRICULTURE IN THE COMMUNITY — Regarded as a single industry, agriculture is of considerable importance in the Community. It employs nearly 23 per cent of the working population and produces 13 per cent of the gross national product. The Six, taken together, produce nearly 1 million tons of butter, 1 1/4 million tons of cheese, 3 million tons of beef and veal, over 3 million tons of pigmeat, and very substantial quantities of grain and other cereals. In all of the six countries, however, agriculture is to a greater or lesser degree affected by certain common problems. These can be generalised into two categories. The first is that incomes in agriculture are low and rising at a much lower rate than incomes in industry. The second is the instability of prices.

The low level of incomes reflects in particular the low level of productivity, for which there are numerous causes common to the six countries (but also familiar in the agricultural structure of many other countries). European agriculture is essentially small scale. The average size of all holdings above 2 1/2 acres is 24 acres, and of these only 14 per cent are above 50 acres. Even these small holdings are often split into much smaller plots, frequently at widely separated points, and greatly restrict the adoption of mechanical and modern systems of farming. Small farmers are often unable to afford mechanical equipment not only because of low incomes but because of the inability, as a result of the small size of holdings and their fragmentation, to employ equipment economically. Lack of income also checks the use of fertilisers or the making of capital improvements or the introduction of new techniques. A factor in agriculture which cannot be overlooked is that the demand for agricultural products tends to rise at a slower rate than incomes as a whole. This is a factor related also to the chronic problem of agricultural price instability. Because of the relatively inelastic demand for and supply of foodstuffs, fluctuations in output are accompanied by proportionately much greater changes in prices and this tends to result in the alternation of glut and shortage and wide price swings from one season to another.

All members of the Six, in an effort to overcome their agricultural problems, have operated for many years comprehensive systems of agricultural price and income supports, together with special assistance measures to improve agricultural structure and productivity. In general, the price support systems operated by the Six aim to maintain agreed prices to producers by maintaining prices at the consumer stage. Direct government support plays a relatively minor part by comparison with the position in the United Kingdom where for certain important commodities, but by no means all, payments are made by the government to make up the difference, if any, between the market price and a guaranteed price to producers. The systems operated by the six governments generally involve some means of controlling supplies into the market. Where there is a net domestic supply deficiency, imports as the balancing factor are controlled either quantitatively or by means of devices such as variable levies or minimum prices. Where there is a net surplus, exports are assisted by means of subsidies in one form or another, although the extent of such assistance varies widely. In the United Kingdom, by way of comparison, there is in general — there are exceptions — no control on the quantity of imports which are permitted to exercise their full influence on market prices.

In the case of butter the Six are more than self-sufficient, and nearly so in cheese and pigmeat. In wheat, sugar, eggs, poultry, and beef the degree of self-sufficiency is over 90 per cent. The principal deficiency is in hard wheat, coarse grains, citrus fruit, and vegetable fats and oils. Nevertheless, in spite of this high degree of self-sufficiency, the six countries as a whole are the world's largest importers of agricultural products. The Commission has emphasised repeatedly that it is not the intention to adopt a policy of self-sufficiency and that the need to maintain trade with third countries in agricultural products is an important element in the formulation of the common policy.

Against this background it is apparent that the problem of integrating the agricultural sections of each of the six economies is beset with extraordinary complex problems, and that the introduction of a common agricultural policy for the Six as a whole is not an easy task. Experience so far confirms this.

PROPOSALS OF COMMISSION — In June 1960, the Commission (the main executive body of the Community) put forward proposals for a common agricultural policy in which the organisation of the markets for agricultural produce would be based chiefly on the regulation of prices in member States. In addition, the Commission submitted specific proposals for the organisation of markets for wheat, coarse grains, sugar, milk and milk products, beef and veal, pigmeat, eggs and poultry, fruit and vegetables, and wine.

In the Commission's proposals marketing and trade policy are closely linked with each other. The aim of market policy is to establish among the agricultural markets of the member states a common market having the characteristics of a single market, The market policy must attempt to balance production and sales possibilities inside the Community, in view of the difficulties that would be caused by permanent overproduction. Market prices must, nevertheless, ensure a fair return for farmers by comparison with other sectors of the economy. Excessive price instability must be prevented, but shelter from all economic risks should not be given as otherwise adaptation to market requirements would be hindered. A very important aspect of the common organisation of the markets of the Six is that a common level of agricultural prices must be established, although regional price differences must be permitted in order to allow for differences in marketing conditions.

So far as trade policy is concerned, it is recognised that a common policy in this field is an essential adjunct of a common market policy and at the same time an integral part of general trade policy. But again, agriculture in the Community cannot be exposed fully to outside competition and the trade policy will need to take this into account. The requirements of trade policy, “which aim at the harmonious development of world trade, at the gradual elimination of restrictions on that trade, at tariff disarmament, and at the respect of bilateral and multilateral international obligations undertaken by member states must not imperil the vital interests of agriculture”. On the other hand, the Community has important interests in the field of agricultural exports, the need for which is likely to become greater n? a result of the common agricultural policy.

The Commission's proposals were examined by the Special Committee on Agriculture, established by the Council in terms of the acceleration decision of 12 May 1960, during the latter part of 1960. On the basis of the reports of the Special Committee, the Council made a number of important decisions concerning the principles on which the common agricultural policy would be based were approved by the Council. These include the gradual introduction of the common policy, the establishment of a common price level, and a common trade policy. It was also agreed in principle that action should be taken during the transitional period to remove distortions of competition. The most important decision was the acceptance by the Council on 20 December 1960 of certain principles governing the establishment of the levy system, for both internal trade and trade with third countries.

The Council agreed that a levy system might fulfil the need for a “Community instrument” to ease the transition to the common market stage. Furthermore, such a system had the advantage of being applicable to certain problems of competition distortion arising out of differences in agricultural policies.

The basis of the levies would be the difference between the prices of the importing country and those of the exporting country. Such levies between Community countries would progressively be reduced in the light of the removal of conditions distorting competition and progress towards a common price level, at which stage they would disappear. The levies would, however, remain for trade with outside countries. The proceeds of the levies from intra-Community trade would accrue to the importing member state, but the levy proceeds from trade with third countries would gradually be allocated to the financing of Community activities (e.g., the Guidance and Guarantee Funds).

An important feature of the levy decision is the requirement that for intra-Community trade, levies should take precedence over all other measures of protection during the transitional period. The extent to which other protective measures such as minimum prices and quantitative restrictions might be used in addition to levies was left for the Council to determine when taking decisions on the application of the levy system to particular products. Finally, the Council agreed that in drawing up proposals for levies, the relation between levies on internal trade and levies on external trade should be such as to accord a preference for Community countries.

COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY DECISIONS OF 14 JANUARY 1962 — On 14 January 1962 after prolonged discussion the Council reached sufficient agreement on the implementation of the proposals for a common agricultural policy to allow agreement to be reached on the transition to the second stage of the Rome Treaty. Detailed regulations were decided for cereals, pigmeat, eggs, poultry, wine, fruit, and vegetables but some very important questions, e.g., the eventual common price level for cereals, had still to be determined. The agreed policies follow the Commission's proposals of June 1960 in essentials. Changes have been made, particularly in the direction of escape clauses and the retention at least temporarily of subsidies for German grain producers. The Council of Ministers has not yet considered detailed proposals for dairy products or for beef and veal.

In addition to the regulations on grain, pigmeat, eggs, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and wine, the Council adopted a regulation on rules of competition and made decisions concerning processed agricultural products, and objective criteria for minimum prices. (Below the “minimum price”, imports of a commodity may be suspended or a special levy imposed to bring the price of imports up to the minimum.) The four fundamental questions which had remained unsolved until 14 January were the length of the transition period for agricultural products, the procedure for harmonisation of cereal prices, safeguard clauses, and the finance and expenditure of the European Guidance and Guarantee Fund. A summary of the decisions taken with regard to these questions is as follows.

Length of Transition Period — Seven and a half years, from 1 July 1962 until 31 December 1969, have been allowed for the progressive implementation of the agricultural common market.

Harmonisation of Cereal Prices — The criteria for the upper and lower limits of target prices for the marketing and harvesting period beginning 1 July 1962 have been settled. The upper limit will be based on the intervention prices guaranteed to the producer in the greatest consumer area of Germany in the 1961–62 season, and the lower limit on the intervention prices guaranteed to French producers during the same period. These measures are designed to prevent the existing gap between French and German prices from increasing. It has been agreed to fix criteria for the harmonisation of prices before the end of 1962 and to begin the harmonisation measures in 1963.

Safeguard Clauses — Member States may resort to safeguard measures, for example, import restrictions, to prevent serious disturbance in their market. Within four days of any measures being imposed (10 days in the case of grain) the European Economic Community Commission must decide whether they are to be maintained, amended, or abolished. The member State may appeal against the Commission's decision to the Council which will decide by qualified majority. A final appeal may be made to the Court of Justice. For top quality fruit and vegetables no autonomous measures are possible and prior authorisation by the Commission is required.

Financial Provisions — A European Guidance and Guarantee Fund has been set up with the objects of subsidising exports to non-member countries, interventions on the internal markets to maintain prices, and improvement in the structure of agriculture in the Community. Detailed arrangements for financing the Fund have been agreed for the first three years only. Arrangements for the subsequent period must be made by unanimous vote. Funds will come partly from budgetary contributions according to the scale laid down in the Rome Treaty and to a lesser extent from levies on imports from non-member countries. Ceilings have been set for the total contributions from any individual member country.

The Council also decided upon a timetable for the formulation and implementation of proposals for rice, dairy produce, beef and veal, the veterinary system, and sugar in 1962.

Accordingly, on 9 May the Commission submitted to the Council detailed regulations for the common organisation of markets for dairy products, beef and veal, and rice. According to the proposed timetable the Council should reach agreement on draft regulations by 31 July and the regulations come into force on 1 November 1962. Summaries of the draft regulations for beef and veal and for dairy produce and the approved regulation for fruit and vegetables are given below.

Beef and Veal — As the Community is a net importer, it is proposed to regulate competition from non-member countries by customs duties. Prices within the Community are to be harmonised. The new system is to be completed by 1 April 1966. The proposed timing is: reduction of duties towards member States by 45 per cent by April 1963; 60 per cent by April 1964; 80 per cent by April 1965; all duties abolished and common external tariff in force by April 1966.

For some kinds of cattle and meat a guide price will be fixed for each member State on the basis of the arithmetical average of wholesale prices during the two years before the system comes into force. These guide prices will gradually be brought into line by means of annual reviews until they reach a single level on 1 April 1966 at the latest.

For these same products a “sluice gate price” towards non-member countries will be fixed in relation to the guide price for each member State by the Council. In the event of the selling price for imports being lower than the sluice gate price, the difference will be compensated by a levy. This levy, however, is not applied to non-member countries willing and able to guarantee that the price applied to imports from their territory will not be below the sluice gate price and that trade will not be disrupted.

There will be no sluice gate prices in intra-community trade, though member States are authorised to apply a form of levy during the transition period when intervening in the market. In addition, a special system is provided for France until her customs duties are eliminated.

For offal, fats, sausages, and other beef preparations and preserves there will be no sluice gate price or guide price but a system of import certificates, the issue of which may be suspended whenever home prices are subjected to too much pressure. Imports of frozen meat will be subject to import certificates as well as the levy system.

A system of export refunds on exports to non-members is proposed but there is no such provision for exports to other members. The proposals for intervention in the market are to be submitted to the Council which must determine within three years the advisability and means of applying Community intervention. The regulations would replace all national restrictive measures including import quotas, present minimum price systems and special taxes.

Dairy Produce — The Commission has proposed a levy system for dairy produce comparable with that adopted for grain. It is supplemented by a system of target prices for farm milk and measures of intervention and price support in the butter market.

Levies on imports will be equal to the difference between the threshold (minimum import) price of the importing member State and the frontier price. On imports from member States the levy is reduced by a lump sum in order to promote intra-Community trade, these intra-Community levies being gradually abolished during the transition period in step with the approximation of the prices of dairy produce.

Threshold prices for preserved milk and cream and for cheese are fixed at 3 per cent above the reference price if imports of these products were liberalised on 1 January 1961, or 6 per cent above, if imports were subject to quotas. Reference prices are calculated on the arithmetical average at which purchases were made in the various member States during 1961 by wholesale traders ex-producer. The threshold price for butter is fixed at $0.15 above the intervention price (the price at which the national authority supports the market).

National target prices for milk ex-farm will be fixed. A common target price for milk ex-farm will be decided each year by the Council on a proposal of the commission. This price will be fixed for the first time (before 1 February 1963) for the dairy year beginning 1 April 1963. The approximation of national target prices for milk ex-farm should be completed by 1 April 1966.

The approximation of threshold prices for dairy produce during the transition period will be effected with reference to the common target price of milk ex-farm. In the case of butter threshold prices will be harmonised gradually in step with the harmonisation of national intervention prices, which will be fixed annually by member States for fresh butter for the next dairy year. The intervention price for butter for the period 1 November 1962 to 31 March 1963 should correspond to the weighted average of prices at which intervention has taken place between 1 September 1961 and 31 August 1962.

If more fresh butter is bought by the intervention authorities than is necessary to compensate for a seasonal deficit, the excess is to be sold in such a way as to disturb normal sales as little as possible. If despite intervention supply and demand for dairy produce cannot be balanced on the basis of the target price for milk, the price of butter should be reduced (presumably by subsidies) until a balance is obtained.

To facilitate exports to non-member countries on the basis of prices prevailing in international trade, the difference between these prices and the exporting member State's prices may be covered by a refund.

All imports of dairy produce will be subject to import certificates valid for a period to be determined by the Council.

Emmenthaler cheese — duties on which have been bound at the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) — will have a special system. Customs duties will be collected instead of levies as long as the exporting countries respect the corresponding minimum selling prices laid down in the GATT agreement.

The present draft contains no provisions on trade in fresh milk and cream. A special regulation will be adopted to bring liquid milk and products of fresh milk into the overall market organisation.

Fruit and Vegetables — For fruit and vegetables no import levy system is envisaged. Common standards will be determined for the various qualities of fruits and vegetables. The customs duties will be reduced according to the normal intra-Community tariff reductions and a timetable is determined according to which the regulation will be applicable on a certain quality. In accordance with this schedule the existing restrictive measures (quantitative restrictions, minimum prices, etc.) will cease in respect of the intra-Community trade. Thus, the regulation will enter into effect for the quality “extra” as from 1 July 1962, for “the quality “I” as from 1 January 1964, and for the quality “II” as from 1 January 1966.

With regard to imports from third countries, the initial proposals envisaged that the only protection would be the common tariff. Now the Council will have to decide by qualified majority on the coordination and unification of the import regimes vis-a-vis third countries.

If the markets of the Community are subject to serious disturbance caused by imports from third countries below a certain reference price imports can be suspended or a compensatory tax equal to the difference between the import price and the reference price can be levied. The reference price will be established on the basis of the average price prevailing during a certain period on the market with the lowest price level within the Community.

The regulations for cereals, pigmeat, eggs, poultry, and wine and the draft regulations for other products have not been summarised in this paper because they are of less interest to New Zealand than those which have been covered.

It may be useful, however, to summarise at this point the main features of the common agricultural policy proposals as they have so far been developed:

  1. Most products will come under the control of common marketing authorities.

  2. There will be a transitional period which for most products concludes on 31 December 1969. On beef, however, it will be 1 April 1966.

  3. For all products the common market stage will imply a common level of prices with allowance for regional variations.

  4. All intra-Community trade barriers will be abolished at the end of the transitional period.

  5. For protection at the frontier, variable levies will be employed to make up the difference between world prices and the higher internal price level of the Community. In the calculation of these levies the price for grain is a major influence. For some products the levies will be supplemented by minimum import prices and in the case of grain, dairy produce, and frozen beef, a system of import certificates.

  6. Internally, prices will be maintained at a desired level by controlling the level of supplies coming on to the market either by interventions by the marketing authorities or by checking imports or encouraging exports.

  7. During the transitional period, variable levies will also apply to trade with other Community countries, diminishing each year with parallel measures to bring about an alignment of differing national prices.

  8. All other measures of internal protection would be abolished as soon as the levy system is established.

  9. Guidance and Guarantee Funds (Stabilisation Funds) finance market operations and also subsidise necessary exports. These funds receive an increasing proportion of the revenue from levies.

  10. For fruit and vegetables and for certain other products the principal means of establishing a common policy will be by setting common quality standards applicable to internal trade as well as trade with third countries, plus, in the case of the latter, the common external tariff.

  11. Harmonisation of veterinary, plant health, and similar regulations will also be required, and such harmonised standards will apply equally to imports from third countries as to internal trade.

Of some interest to New Zealand is that no specific provisions for lamb and mutton have been put forward, mainly because of the limited production of this commodity within the EEC. (The main producer is France.)

In lamb and mutton the only protection envisaged is the common tariff of 20 per cent and, indeed, this rate of tariff was bound to New Zealand during the negotiations undertaken with the EEC in GATT early in 1961. In the case of dairy products no specific proposals have been advanced for cheese, apparently because the great number of varieties involved, often of a quite different nature, would have made the administration of any scheme involving target prices, intervention prices, and variable levies virtually impracticable. It is likely, of course, that cheddar cheese, which is mainly used for processing purposes in the Six, would be the only type likely to be imported in any significant quantity from outside the Six as it is the main variety manufactured in New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, Canada, and the United States. The common external tariff for cheddar cheese has been bound to New Zealand at a rate of 23 per cent subject to a minimum price to ensure adequate protection to the domestic industry.

NEW ZEALAND AND THE EEC — The common agricultural policy adopted by the EEC is of great importance to New Zealand because of the possible effects on the expansion of New Zealand exports to Europe in coming years.

It has long been realised that the United Kingdom with its low rate of growth of population and of real incomes could not be relied upon as an outlet at satisfactory prices for a growing volume of exports of meat and dairy produce. The continued growth in these exports is necessary in order to meet the requirements of our rapidly expanding population for imports of capital and consumer goods and raw materials for industry. Europe is one of the few areas of the world where there is a consumer demand for the type of product exported by New Zealand. Hindrances to an expansion of our exports to the EEC are therefore of some significance to our future development.

The EEC countries together form New Zealand's second largest market. In 1957 they took over 18 per cent of our total exports. This proportion fell to around 14 per cent in 1958 and 1959 but, with heavy wool buying in 1960, the proportion showed some recovery in that year to 16.6 per cent. Of these exports wool accounts for about 80 per cent of the total and hides and skins account for another 10 per cent. These industrial raw materials will continue as at present to enter the EEC duty free and without other restrictions of substance. Indeed with industrial expansion and the growth of incomes it can reasonably be expected in the long run that the formation of the Community will have a favourable influence on demand and prices of these commodities.

The fact that wool and hides and skins account for about 90 per cent of our present exports to the Community countries highlights the principal problem that New Zealand has had to face over recent years in trading with Europe, namely, the existence of severe restrictions against imports of many of our other products. These restrictions take various forms, such as quantitative controls, minimum prices, and variable import levies. Frequently they are employed to restrict imports to the level necessary to make up the estimated difference between domestic production and demand. They are thus often an adjunct of a system of agricultural price and income support by which internal prices are kept above the level of prices on world markets. In a number of cases the restrictive measures at present employed have been in direct breach of GATT obligations or have been legitimised by waivers granted by the Contracting Parties. Moreover, in recent years there has been a growth of new techniques of restriction such as variable levies which, although not directly in breach of GATT obligations, have been particularly effective in limiting trade.

The incidence of these restrictions varies from country to country. Dairy products — butter, cheese, milk powders — face fairly widespread restrictions and imports of these products from New Zealand have only been spasmodic. For beef and veal opportunities for trade have been somewhat greater, although still within the framework of tightly regulated import programmes; and the effect of restrictions in Europe has been substantially counterbalanced by the development of trade with the United States. In the case of mutton and lamb, restrictions continue to be maintained by France and Germany and only a small flow of imports is permitted. However, the lack of consumer taste in Europe for this type of meat has been an important barrier to the expansion of trade even where, as in the case of the Netherlands and Italy, restrictions on imports other than a tariff are not maintained.

In the following paragraphs an assessment is attempted of the way in which our main exports to the Community could be affected if the Commission's present proposals are adopted.

Dairy Products — Adverse effects on New Zealand of the common agricultural policy are likely to be most serious in the field of dairy products. As already noted, restrictions by individual EEC countries on these products, especially butter and milk powders, are particularly severe at the present time. The common policy is unlikely to result in a modification of the degree of protection, although the methods may differ. Production in the EEC as a whole is at the present time more than sufficient to meet consumer demand at existing high prices. Moreover, cow numbers as well as yields are expected to continue rising during the next five years. Consumption of butter is expected to increase but total output, it is estimated, will rise even more rapidly. Accordingly the EEC as a whole, even in the absence of a common policy, is likely to become a substantial net exporter of butter. How far this will be true depends a good deal on the internal policies of the EEC. The price levels to producers (which will largely determine consumer prices) remain to be decided, but it is difficult to see much prospect of these being set at a level which would both substantially discourage milk production (especially in the light of technological changes) and lead to a marked rise in domestic consumption. Receipts from milk production form a significant part of total farm income in the EEC countries and it is in this sector as much as in any other that pressure for a high target price is likely to be exerted. The level of the target price will of course determine the level of the butter intervention price and the height of the variable levies on imports from outside the area. If the target price is high, these levies could virtually prohibit trade.*

On a more favourable note, it may be observed that in the case of cheddar cheese no common policy proposals have been advanced, similar to those suggested for butter. The intention apparently is to rely upon the common tariff (at present 23 per cent) for protection supplemented by a minimum price arrangement. While, as with other commodities, it is difficult to judge what the effects of this level and method of protection will be on future trade development, there would seem to be greater prospects for some trade in cheddar cheese, at least for manufacturing purposes, than is the case with butter. As with mutton and lamb, however, consumer preferences may be a limiting factor.

Beef — In the case of beef the common tariff has been fixed at 20 per cent, which in itself represents an important barrier to trade. In addition, however, minimum price arrangements are envisaged under which levies would be imposed equal to the difference between world prices and the minimum price. Furthermore, for frozen beef, the Commission envisages the employment of a system of import certificates. The precise implications of these arrangements are difficult to see. Much will depend upon the level of returns to producers — the aim is to encourage beef production — and the growth of production and demand within the Community. Although it has been estimated that the net import requirements of beef within the Community will tend to increase in the years immediately ahead, the system proposed could be highly effective in restraining the level of imports especially of frozen beef to ensure that consumer prices are maintained at the desired level above world prices.

* New Zealand's Butter and Cheese in the European Economic Community, a research paper published in 1962 by the New Zealand Institute of Economic Research, discusses export prospects in detail.

Mutton and Lamb — For mutton and lamb, on the other hand, no specific measures against imports are envisaged apart from the tariff of 20 per cent. This is encouraging since theoretically at least the institution of a common policy at the end of the transitional period should result in the abandonment of restrictions now maintained by France and Germany against this product. On the other hand, however, apart from France, there is a lack of consumer taste for this type of meat and a widespread prejudice against the frozen product. The development of consumer demand may be a long-term and probably expensive process. In these circumstances the common tariff could be a substantial barrier. Moreover, in the transitional period existing restrictions may well continue and thus substantially hamper any market promotion work.

Apples and Pears — For apples and pears, the establishment of the common policy could be of benefit to the exports of New Zealand to the Common Market. At the present time most of the EEC countries impose restrictions of a varying degree of severity, but a valuable level of trade has been maintained in recent years. Under the present proposals of the Commission, all produce from third countries which fulfils the grading standards laid down would be free of quantitative regulation and subject only to the common tariff. For that part of the year in which most sales of New Zealand apples and pears are made to EEC countries, the tariff is at its low point — 8 per cent — which is not markedly different from existing national tariffs, although the change to a common tariff may affect the pattern of trade with individual members.

Summary — To summarise, the effects of the common agricultural policy proposals are likely to be greatest in the case of dairy products, principally butter, and milk powders and to a lesser extent in the case of beef and veal. A particularly disturbing prospect, especially as regards butter, is that internal policies of the EEC as well as increases in productivity may intensify the production of surpluses which may need to be exported to markets outside the EEC, especially the United Kingdom. A more favourable prospect is that there should be some advantage in the freeing of trade in fruit and vegetables, cheese, and a variety of miscellaneous products where tariffs will be the only method of protection. For mutton and lamb, as well as for cheese, the level of the tariff is an important barrier, but consumer preferences may be even more significant in developing exports to Europe in future years. In the case of wool, hides and skins, tallow and casein, these will continue to be admitted to the EEC either tariff free or at very low rates.

The possible accession of the United Kingdom and of Denmark and their participation in the common agricultural policy introduces entirely new elements, which could substantially modify the tentative assessment of our prospects in the present EEC countries.

IMPLICATIONS FOR NEW ZEALAND — Two main points emerge from the survey of the possible consequences for New Zealand of the common agricultural policy of the EEC. First that the policy might result in formalising and intensifying throughout the Community measures of agricultural protection already practised by some member countries; and that this would hinder the growth of our exports to Europe in the years ahead when new or expanded markets for our produce will be urgently necessary. Secondly, that the policy could result in an intensification of exports of surpluses from European countries at subsidised prices, thus damaging our existing markets. Both of these concerns relate principally to our trade in dairy produce and meat.

These prospects are serious enough, but the extension of the Community to include Britain, Denmark, and other European countries raises questions of a different order of magnitude. The possibility of such a development has been a constant concern of New Zealand since the first steps taken in 1956 by Britain to bring about a solution to the problems which the EEC raised for Britain itself. Under the original European Free Trade Area proposals, New Zealand's position in the United Kingdom market would have been largely safeguarded since agricultural products would not have come within the scope of the provisions for the removal of tariffs. Nevertheless, a free trade area of this kind would not have assisted in the problem of obtaining access to European markets, nor would it have prevented damage to our markets in the United Kingdom from subsidised European exports. These problems would have remained.

In negotiations with the EEC the United Kingdom has made clear its readiness to accept the principles and objectives of the Rome Treaty and to join in the formulation of a common agricultural policy. At the same time, in accordance with the undertakings to the Commonwealth, Britain has insisted that special arrangements must be made to safeguard Commonwealth interests. For New Zealand, the problem centres on the common agricultural policy. The large element of uncertainty about this policy has already been noted. That uncertainty is magnified by the applications of the United Kingdom, Denmark, Ireland, and other countries to join the Community. Each of these countries has important agricultural interests; the United Kingdom is a substantial importer but wishes to continue protecting its farmers; Denmark is one of the main exporters of butter in competition with New Zealand; Ireland is a traditional exporter of meat and butter to the British market. It is to be hoped that these countries will exercise a liberal influence on the formation of a common agricultural policy; however, as the economies of the Six and these three countries are highly complementary to each other, pressures towards internal self-sufficiency of the new grouping could be strong.

The interests that New Zealand has at stake are considerable. They are best illustrated by a brief survey of our present trading arrangements with the United Kingdom and by an assessment of how they might be affected if, on an extreme assumption, no special arrangements are made to cover New Zealand's special dependence on agricultural trade with the United Kingdom.

United Kingdom — New Zealand Trade — Trade between the United Kingdom and New Zealand is at present governed broadly by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and in particular by the New Zealand — United Kingdom Trade Agreement of 1959. Under this Agreement New Zealand has been guaranteed unrestricted and duty free entry to the United Kingdom market for dairy produce and pork until May 1967. The Agreement also gives guarantees of duty free entry for all New Zealand's exports and the preservation of specified margins of preference over imports from foreign sources of commodities such as dairy produce, beef, and veal during the currency of the Agreement, which may be terminated following six months notice on either side. In addition, the United Kingdom has undertaken, in a Joint Declaration of 1952, to permit New Zealand's exportable surplus of beef, veal, mutton, and lamb to be sold in the United Kingdom market without restriction of quantity up to 31 October 1967. These are the formal arrangements. In practice they are of considerable importance because of New Zealand's dependence on the United Kingdom market. Of our total exports over 50 per cent are sent to the United Kingdom but for certain products the degree of dependence is much greater. In 1960, for instance, 91 per cent of butter exports, 94 per cent of cheese, and 94 per cent of mutton and lamb exports were destined for the United Kingdom. On the other hand, in the case of beef (because of the development of exports of this commodity to the United States) and some minor dairy products, the degree of dependence on the United Kingdom market has dropped sharply in recent years. A smaller proportion of our wool is sold in the United Kingdom by comparison with the position of a few years ago.

Effect of Rome Treaty — New Zealand would be seriously affected in the United Kingdom market by the full application of the Rome Treaty provisions by the United Kingdom.

So far as tariffs are concerned, the position in the United Kingdom market of New Zealand and of the EEC countries would be reversed. At present New Zealand has free entry while EEC countries pay tariffs. By the end of the transitional period the EEC countries would have free access and New Zealand would have to pay tariffs, as illustrated in the following table:

 Common Tariff Payable by New Zealand at End of Transitional PeriodExiting Tariff Payable by EEC Countries
Butter24%15s. per cwt.
Cheese23%15%
Milk powders18–23%6s. per cwt.
Beaf and veal:
    Boned or boneless20%20%
    Other20%2/3d. to 3/4 d. per lb.
Mutton and lamb20%Nil
Apples10% (1 January to 31 March)4s. 6d. per cwt. (16 April to 15 August)
8% (1 April to 31 July) 
Honey30%15s. per cwt.

In addition, for some products systems of variable levies would become applicable and these could have very restrictive effects on the level of imports. On present proposals such levies would apply to butter, beef and veal, and possibly cheese. In the case of butter, frozen beef and veal, quantitative restrictions might become applicable, through the proposed import certificate procedure, as an additional means of controlling imports.

The application of the common tariff and the levy system would have serious direct effects on our earnings of overseas exchange and hence on our ability to import. In addition, however, these measures would involve a rise in United Kingdom prices and thus have the effect of reducing consumer demand. For example, the effects on consumption of a rise in butter prices to levels prevailing on the Continent would probably be substantial. To maintain the higher price level the levy and import certificate system would need to be operated to restrict imports to the volume consistent with the lower level of consumption. But in the Common Market stage, imports from other EEC countries, including Denmark (if a member) would enter the United Kingdom freely. Thus the main burden of restriction would fall on New Zealand as the principal supplier from outside the Community. Moreover, the greater the increase in production surplus to consumption in the continental member countries, the smaller would be the share of the United Kingdom market available to New Zealand. Even at the substantially higher prices which might prevail in the United Kingdom compared with previous prices, New Zealand's total earnings from butter exports to the United Kingdom would probably be very much less than at present.

In the case of mutton and lamb no protection other than the tariff of 20 per cent is at present proposed in the Community. The entry into the Community of a substantial producer such as the United Kingdom may, however, result in pressure for the adoption of the levy system for this product. The higher level of prices involved by such a change-over from the present deficiency payments system in the United Kingdom could similarly reduce the level of demand and contract marketing possibilities for New Zealand lamb in the United Kingdom.

Restricted Alternative Outlets — Finding suitable trading outlets outside the United Kingdom has, for a number of reasons, proved difficult. The systems of agricultural protection used in North America and in Europe generally rely on restriction of supplies, especially imports, in order to maintain domestic prices and thus incomes to producers. These systems not only make it very difficult for New Zealand to export to these markets (which could be most lucrative) but also frequently result in the dumping of surpluses on relatively free markets. These problems are particularly acute in respect of dairy produce. In some instances lack of consumer appeal is a barrier to the promotion of new markets, as in the case of mutton and lamb in Continental Europe. The development of markets on any significant scale for the most vulnerable products — dairy produce and mutton and lamb — in African, Asian, and Latin American countries faces difficulties of a rather different kind. The developing countries in these areas of the world need to allocate a substantial proportion of their limited foreign exchange for imports of capital goods essential to their development programmes. They cannot therefore afford to import freely dairy produce and meat which for them are luxuries. Moreover, consumer preference for local foodstuffs, the lack of cold storage facilities, and the existence of religious and social barriers against meat consumption are significant among other factors in inhibiting the growth of trade between New Zealand and these regions in certain classes of meat and foodstuffs. Difficulties such as these make New Zealand more conscious of the restrictions on imports in the countries of Europe and North America which could be expected to be “natural” markets for our products.

The high degree of dependence on the United Kingdom market reflects these difficulties of finding suitable alternative outlets for certain products. Any reduction of that degree of dependence is bound to be slow. It follows that restriction of access to the United Kingdom market as a result of its entry to the EEC without adequate safeguards for New Zealand's position would either leave us with surpluses which cannot be disposed of elsewhere or would entail restrictions on production in New Zealand. The consequences for our standard of living and future economic development would be very serious indeed.

Discussions with the United Kingdom — The problems which the closer association of Britain with the Community would raise were discussed with the New Zealand Government by Mr Duncan Sandys, Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations, early in July 1961. The Government's attitude in these discussions reflected both political and economic considerations. New Zealand has in principle welcomed closer integration in Europe as a means of increasing the political strength and economic stability of the free world. New Zealand has also recognised the disadvantages and dangers of the division of Europe into two mutually exclusive economic blocs. The successful accomplishment of a settlement between the two could be of great advantage provided that at the same time new divisions are not created between Europe and the rest of the free world. On the other hand, New Zealand is very much aware that the entry of the United Kingdom into the European Economic Community could have far-reaching political as well as economic implications for the future of the Commonwealth. For New Zealand, in particular, Britain's entry without arrangements to protect our vital interests would have grave consequences for the New Zealand economy.

The full text of the communique issued following discussions with Mr Sandys is as follows:

  1. The Prime Minister of New Zealand, Mr Holyoake, and other New Zealand Ministers have, during the last four days, had discussions with the British Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations, Mr Duncan Sandys.

  2. Mr Sandys explained that the British Government were concerned about the future consequences, both economic and political, of the continued division in Europe and were therefore re-examining their relationship with the European Economic Community. Before determining their attitude, they were seeking the views of other Commonwealth Governments.

  3. New Zealand Ministers stated that, while they supported the objective of economic and political unity in Europe, they had to have regard to the effects of possible developments upon New Zealand's economic well-being. They emphasised that their agriculture, which was New Zealand's basic industry, had been developed to supply the British market and that New Zealand's economy was highly dependent on the sale of foodstuffs in that market at remunerative prices. They therefore stressed the grave consequences for New Zealand's economy if Britain should join the Common Market without having taken steps to protect New Zealand's vital interests.

  4. Mr Sandys assured them that the British Government fully understood the dependence of New Zealand's agriculture on the British market. At the same time it had to be recognised that, even if Britain did not join the Common Market, New Zealand might in any case be faced with difficult problems in finding outlets for its increasing agricultural production. There were limits to the British market. Mr Sandys said that the British Government had not yet come to any decision whether or not to enter into negotiations to join the Common Market, and it would not do so until the views of all Commonwealth countries had been fully considered. He made it clear that, in the course of any such negotiations, the British Government would seek to secure special arrangements to protect the vital interests of New Zealand and other Commonwealth countries, and that Britain would not feel able to join the European Economic Community unless such arrangements were secured.

  5. New Zealand Ministers made it clear that they could not at present see any effective way of protecting New Zealand's vital interest other than by the maintenance of unrestricted duty-free entry. Mr Sandys explained the difficulties of reconciling unrestricted duty-free entry into Britain for all New Zealand's exports with the concept of the Common Market, and said that it might therefore be necessary in any negotiations to explore other methods of securing comparable outlets for New Zealand exports. New Zealand Ministers said that, while adhering to the views they have expressed, they would be willing to examine any such alternative methods for protecting New Zealand interests which might emerge in the course of negotiations. Until specific proposals have been put forward they would necessarily have to reserve their position.

  6. Mr Sandys gave an assurance that, if Britain entered into negotiations with the European Economic Community, the New Zealand Government and other Commonwealth Governments would be closely consulted on all matters affecting their interests before and during the negotiations, and that arrangements would be made for the results to be thoroughly discussed with them before the British Government took any decision to join the European Economic Community.

  7. New Zealand Ministers welcomed the assurances that Mr Sandys had given, namely, that the New Zealand Government would be closely consulted before and during any negotiations, that in any such negotiations the British Government would seek to secure special arrangements to protect the vital interests of New Zealand, that Britain would not feel able to join the European Economic Community unless such arrangements were secured, and that the results of any negotiations would be thoroughly discussed with the New Zealand Government before the British Government took a decision to join the European Economic Community. In the light of these assurances they informed Mr Sandys that they would understand it if, after considering the views of Commonwealth countries, the British Government should open negotiations with the European Economic Community. In that event, New Zealand would be prepared to participate in the subsequent consultations envisaged.”

As this communique indicates, the Government took the view that unrestricted and duty free entry to the British market seemed the only way of protecting New Zealand's vital interests. Nevertheless, if any alternative methods of protecting New Zealand's interests were to emerge in the course of the negotiations the Government would be willing to examine them. This remains the view of the Government, and until the negotiations advance further it is impossible to say what form any satisfactory alternatives might take.

Other Effects on New Zealand — The accession of Britain to the Community, even with adequate arrangements to safeguard New Zealand's interests in the British market, is likely to have many important implications for New Zealand. For example, the introduction of a common commercial policy for the Community is likely to involve the abrogation of all bilateral trade agreements between member countries and non-member countries before the end of the transitional period. The responsibility for negotiating trade and tariff agreements between the Community as a whole and third countries would then rest with the Commission. In these circumstances, the United Kingdom — New Zealand Trade Agreement of 1959 would, in principle, need either to be terminated or to be adjusted to eliminate any incompatibility with Community policy. Similarly, the application, subject to any special arrangements, of the common agricultural policy by Britain would tend to make New Zealand's annual consultations on agricultural policies with the United Kingdom redundant. On trade matters generally, New Zealand's dealings, at least when the Common Market is finally established, would be with the Commission in Brussels rather than with the United Kingdom authorities in London.

The requirements of the Treaty of Rome for the harmonisation of legislation affecting the working of the Common Market could also have implications for New Zealand. For example, the establishment of common veterinary and plant health regulations could entail a revision of the grading and inspection requirements which New Zealand exports would need to meet.

The arrangements for the association of the overseas countries and territories could be important for New Zealand if certain United Kingdom dependent territories or other members of the Commonwealth should seek and obtain associate membership of the EEC. Membership or association of the West Indies, for example, could mean that New Zealand's rapidly expanding exports in this area (about £4 million in 1960) might lose the present tariff preference of about 20 per cent.

In financial matters, the possible effects of British accession to the Community can be only vaguely perceived. Cooperation among the Six in economic and financial policies is already well established and, as the Common Market develops, this cooperation is almost certain to intensify. Whether ultimately it will lead, for example, to a common monetary policy, a common currency, and the common holding of exchange reserves as many in Europe seem to wish, is a matter for conjecture. But if Community policies were to develop in this way beyond the strict scope of the present provisions of the Treaty, British participation would have profound implications for the sterling area system.

The directives already issued on the free movement of capital within the Community and the recent decisions on the right of establishment and movement of services could be important to New Zealand. The effect of these provisions is to encourage in particular the flow of investment capital throughout the Community and to make it easier for firms or nationals of the Community to establish subsidiaries or new businesses in any member country. Having regard to the influence of the removal of tariffs and quantitative restrictions, one result could be to stimulate the flow of British capital to its Community partners. This may well lead to a reduction of the capital flow from Britain to New Zealand and elsewhere. On the other hand, in the longer term, our connections with Britain could assist in opening up wider possibilities of obtaining our capital requirements both public and private from Community sources.

General Implications — Any survey of the effects on New Zealand would be incomplete without some comment about the general political implications for New Zealand and about the effects on the Commonwealth as a whole. Much will depend, of course, on the arrangements negotiated to safeguard the interests of New Zealand and other Commonwealth countries. Whatever these may be, British entry will almost certainly bring about adjustments in Commonwealth relationships. Equally, however, the failure of Britain to join because of her Commonwealth commitments is likely to entail a reappraisal and adjustment of Britain's own policies which is bound to have implications for her future Commonwealth relations.

The Rome Treaty itself does not contain specific political commitments or objectives. While in economic and commercial affairs some loss of sovereignity would seem to be involved, Britain's accession to the Community would not mean the subordination of the Parliament at Westminster to a European institution with supra-national political functions. But closer political cooperation among Community countries must certainly be expected. The Bonn declaration of 18 July 1961 by the Six Heads of State pointed in that direction. It may therefore be argued that such closer political cooperation could lessen Britain's independence of viewpoint in world affairs. Moreover, British entry into the Community would come at a time when, as part of the process of transforming Empire into Commonwealth, British sovereignty over many territories is disappearing. British entry could thus mean a division of the resources, energies, and aspirations of the British people to new and more specific and tangible goals nearer home. It has therefore been suggested that whatever arrangements are made to safeguard Commonwealth interests, Britain would in the long run come to regard its position in Europe as its primary interest and its relations with the Commonwealth as its secondary interest, thus reversing Britain's traditional outlook.

The significance of a development of this kind can easily be overdrawn. The closer association of Britain with Europe could help to enrich its relations with other Commonwealth countries and perhaps also help to strengthen relations between Europe and the Commonwealth as a whole. Nevertheless, the weakening of Britain's relations with the Commonwealth as a result of Britain's new ties in Europe is a danger which must be guarded against. This is important if only because the Commonwealth draws and will continue to draw much of its vigour from the historical, political and economic links between Britain and individual members.

The economic links are of key importance; for if these are gravely weakened the whole structure of the Commonwealth may be affected. Looking to the future, if Britain should decide to join the Community, after making satisfactory arrangements for the Commonwealth and her other vital interests, there is likely to be a lengthy period of adjustment to the new relationships for all the countries involved.

Our existing good relations with other Commonwealth members must be maintained and wherever possible extended as should our association with the United States and the countries of the Pacific region. In Asia, there are potential trade openings as standards of living rise a id opportunities for increased contacts through our membership of the Colombo Plan and the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East as well as through the diplomatic and trade posts New Zealand has established there. At the same time opportunities to strengthen our ties with other regions must be pursued.

The safeguarding of our interests in the United Kingdom remains, however, of first importance. Our exceptionally high degree of dependence on the United Kingdom market and the lack of adequate alternative outlets means that, without adequate safeguards for our exports, New Zealand would suffer damage to its economy more perhaps than would any other Commonwealth country by British accession to the Community. It is for these reasons that the assurances given by Britain have special significance for New Zealand.

LATER PROPOSALS FOR TEMPERATE AGRICULTURAL FOODSTUFFS—On 22 February 1962, the British Government informed the Six that it fully accepted the extension of the Common Market to agriculture and trade in agricultural products and that Britain was prepared to participate in the Community's common agricultural policy.

On 19 March the British Government advised the New Zealand Government that it hoped to secure recognition of the importance of the Commonwealth and of the special trading position Commonwealth countries enjoy in the United Kingdom; the importance to the economies of the Commonwealth countries of existing trade developed on this basis, and an agreement that the essential interests of the Commonwealth countries would be protected on the basis of the principle of comparable outlets for Commonwealth temperate foodstuffs. In discussions with the British Government about the definition of the term “comparable outlets” the New Zealand Government emphasised the necessity to ensure the right of access to markets in the enlarged Community for at least the quantities traditionally sold there.

Accordingly, after consultation with New Zealand and other Commonwealth Governments, the United Kingdom sought the agreement of the Six to certain proposals embodying the idea of comparable outlets and including precise arrangements for the transitional period, with respect to each of the major commodities. New Zealand was constantly consulted about the proposals for commodities such as mutton and lamb, beef and veal, apples and pears, and butter and about proposals affecting the common external tariff on processed agricultural food products, industrial raw materials, and manufactured goods. The New Zealand Government, for its part, consulted the producer boards fully on all matters of interest to them.

In the negotiations in June and July 1962 it became apparent that the Six would not agree to the continuation of the Commonwealth preferential trading position in its entirety even until 1970, the end of the transitional period. The Six, basing their arguments on the Treaty of Rome and the Common Agricultural Policy agreed among them on 14 January 1962, were prepared to go no further than permit the phasing out (decalage) of the Commonwealth preferential position during the transitional period until it disappeared in 1970.

In general terms, they envisaged that the problems of temperate products from Commonwealth countries would be dealt with by world-wide agreements negotiated with the Community. The Six recognise that the enlarged Community will constitute the largest importing bloc in the world. Its imports amount to approximately half of all world commercial imports of wheat, two-thirds of dairy products, three-quarters of beef exports, and one-third of the world's sugar exports. For these reasons they consider the organisation of the world market to be inevitable.

They would be willing to take the initiative in calling as soon as possible an international conference to which all principal exporting and importing countries of the products in question would be invited. Among the products considered suitable for world-wide arrangements are wheat, beef, butter, and milk products.

If it were impossible to conclude world-wide arrangements, the Community would be prepared to consult with those Commonwealth countries willing to enter into world-wide arrangements on the basis envisaged by the Community. This is often referred to as the “hinge” or “bridge” solution.

Thus the Six would propose to solve the problem of temperate agricultural foodstuffs exported by the Commonwealth in one of two ways, either by the conclusion of international or world-wide agreements for the organisation of the marketing and distribution of such products and, pending the conclusion of such world-wide agreements, the adoption for individual products of transitional measures within the scope of the Common Agricultural Policy of the Six, or in the event of failure to conclude world-wide agreements special arrangements with those Commonwealth countries who are prepared to conclude them on the basis envisaged by the Community.

The British have endeavoured, with some success, to secure specific undertakings with regard to price and production policies from the Six, two major factors affecting access to the market. The British have also sought other undertakings with regard to the access of temperate foodstuffs in the transitional period.

Commonwealth Prime Ministers will discuss the position in London in September 1962. The fact that complete agreement on a solution for temperate agricultural foodstuffs has not yet been reached makes it particularly difficult for the Prime Ministers concerned to make a judgment on the likely effect on Commonwealth trade in these commodities of a British decision to join the Common Market.

At the conclusion of the Community's last Ministerial meeting in August 1962 the Chairman of the meeting informed Britain that because of the extent of her dependence on the British market the Six recognised that New Zealand was in a special position. They were prepared to consider additional solutions to cope with the particular difficulties arising from New Zealand's high degree of dependence on the United Kingdom market.

LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION

For some of the statistical series included in this issue of the Yearbook later information is available than is included in the body of the book. This later information & given in the following paragraphs, with references to the appropriate portion of the Yearbook containing more detailed information for earlier periods.

POPULATION

Population (p. 43) — Recent population changes are given in the following table.
DateMalesFemalesTotalMean Population for Year
Total Population (Including Maoris)
30 June 19611,215,9981,204,3252,420,3232,399,591
30 September 19611,228,2391,213,2032,441,4422,412,785
31 December 19611,239,2291,224,0122,463,2412,427,366
31 March 19621,246,1781,231,1192,477,2972,442,700
30 June 19621,250,0711,235,4072,485,4782,458,720
Maori Population
30 June 196185,57882,707168,285163,025
30 September 196186,47883,573170,051165,198
31 December 196187,21084,343171,553167,407
31 March 196288,04485,168173,212169,646
30 June 196288,93085,988174,918171,604

The above figures are exclusive of the population of the Cook Islands, 18,378 (at 25 September 1961); Niue Island, 4,858 (at 31 December 1961); and Tokelau Islands, 1,870 (at 25 September 1961).

Natural Increase — Owing to the uniformly high levels in births in the last few years and the relative stability in the number of deaths, population gains from natural increase — i.e., excess of births over deaths — have been particularly marked in recent years, the excess of births over deaths for the calendar year 1961 being 43,694.

Migration (pp. 63–65) — The total number of arrivals in New Zealand during the year ended 31 March 1962 was 283,042, while the total number of departures in the same year was 263,465. Excluding crews, through passengers and tourists on cruising liners, arrivals totalled 132,656 and departures 113,824, making the net excess of arrivals 18,832, as compared with 1,620 in 1960–61.

A classification of total arrivals and departures gives the following results.

CategoryYear Ended 31 March
19611962
Migration: Arrivals
Immigrants intending permanent residence21,42432,769
New Zealand residents returning43,89048,199
Visitors—
    Tourists27,29935,169
    Others13,62516,519
Through passengers and tourists on cruising liners36,38638,587
Crews100,190111,799
Total arrivals242,814283,042
Migration: Departures
New Zealand residents departing—
  Permanently14,84812,691
  Temporarily47,20447,781
Temporary residents departing42,56653,352
Through passengers and tourists on cruising liners36,38638,587
Crews99,863111,054
Total departures240,867263,465

Passenger arrivals for the year ended 31 March 1962 reached a record level, as did passenger departures. While, arrivals showed an increase of 40,228, or 16.57 per cent, over the previous year, departures increased by 22,598 or 9.38 per cent.

Immigrants intending permanent residence numbered 32,769, an increase of 11,345 on the previous year. The 3,584 assisted immigrants included in the 32,769 arrivals in 1961–62 show an increase of 1,353 on the 1960–61 figure of 2,231.

New Zealand residents departing permanently showed a decrease of 2,157, or 15 per cent, on the 1960–61 figure.

SOCIAL SECURITY (pp. 176–197)

Receipts of the Social Security Fund for the year ended 31 March 1962 consisted of £80,377,500 in social security income tax, and a contribution of £38,100,000 from the Consolidated Fund. Miscellaneous receipts totalled £414,874, making the total receipts of the Fund £118,892,374.

Payments from the Fund in 1961–62 amounted to £121,542;451, compared with £117,380,269 in 1960–61.

Particulars of the various social security benefits (monetary and health) in force at the end of March 1962, together with payments during the financial year 1961–62, are shown in the following table.

Class of Benefit or PensionAs at 31 March 1962Payments During Year Ended 31 March 1962
Number in ForceAnnual Value
* Approvals during year.
Social security benefits £(000)£(000)
      Monetary—   
        Superannuation105,49924,09423,149
        Age100,08324,20824,858
        Widows'13,6234,4504,353
        Orphans'2704146
        Family357,56832,84633,440
        Invalids'8,1812,1742,191
        Miners'21174100
        Unemployment273...80
        Sickness4,346...1,705
        Emergency2,608...843
        Supplementary assistance7,989...324
        Advances for repairs to homes ...25
Capitalisation of family benefit9,341*...5,762
Totals......96,876
Medical—
  Medical......4,380
  Hospital......6,260
  Maternity......1,755
  Pharmaceutical......7,678
  Supplementary......2,898
Totals......22,971
Sundry pensions and annuities71310393
Grand totals......119,940

From 18 July 1962 social security benefits and economic pensions, wives' war pensions, and war veterans' allowances have been increased by 2s. 6d. a week. The rate of family benefit has remained unchanged.

WAR PENSIONS (pp. 197–205)

The following table shows for all classes of war pensions the number in force at the end of March 1962 and the expenditure during the financial year 1961–62.

Year Ended 31 MarchFirst World War (1914–18)Second World War (1939–45)K ForceWar VeteransSouth African WarMercantile MarineEmergency Reserve CorpsSupplementary AssistanceTotal
Number in Force
196213,84524,67620914,7491729821953,752
Expenditure £(000)
19623,2912,93813.46,1255.34.22.010.912,389

TRANSPORT

Shipping and Trade of Ports (pp. 314–328)-Statistics of entrances and clearances of vessels in the foreign trade in 1960 and 1961, and the total calls made in the foreign and coastal trade for the same years, are shown in the following table. The tonnage of cargo handled is also given.

ItemCalendar Year
 19601961
Entrances—
    Overseas—  
      Number of vessels9721,038
      Net tonnage4,500,8924,953,929
Clearances—
    Overseas—
        Number of vessels9611,031
        Net tonnage4,408,4254,923,422
Total calls made—
    Overseas—
    Number of vessels3,1243,652
    Net tonnage13,548,76116,177,083
Coastal—
        Number of vessels10,24910,247
        Net tonnage4,978,1425,035,749
    Total—
        Number of vessels13,37313,899
        Net tonnage18,526,90321,212,832
Tonnage of cargo handled—
    Inwards7,342,0518,137,205
    Outwards3,928,3644,147,649
    Transhipped219,926315,092
Total manifest tonnage11,490,34112,599,946

Statistics of shipping movement and cargo handled at New Zealand ports in 1960 and 1961 are given below.

PortTotal Shipping MovementTotal Cargo Handled
1960 Net Tonnage1961 Net Tonnage19601961
tons (thousand)
Auckland8,2659,0853,2903,465
Wellington8,6409,6722,4362,563
Lyttelton6,2536,7951,3991,546
Otago2,7203,086589605
Tauranga1,1861,597643759
Other ports9,90112,1323,1333,662
Totals36,96542,36711,49012,600

Railway Transport (pp. 329–338) — Summarised statistics of railway transport in the years ended 31 March 1960, 1961, and 1962 follow.

ItemUnitYear Ended 31 March
196019611962
* Including road motor and other subsidiary services.
Passenger journeys—
    Railways(000)26,13426,23326,324
    Railway road motor services(000)21,20121,37022,280
Tonnage of goods carried—
    Timber (excluding firewood)tons (00O)1,5701,6521,592
    Livestocktons (000)657639599
    Other goodstons (000)8,3168,5398,631
Totalstons (000)10,54310,83010,822
Net ton-miles runmillions1,1711,2051,221
Revenue—
    Railway operation£(000)30,27131,42931,695
Total*£(000)34,93736,23936,639
Expenditure—
    Railway operation£(000)30,75831,48931,816
Total*£(000)35,50036,30236,801

Road Transport (p. 346) — Statistics of motor vehicles licensed at 31 March 1961 and 1962 are as follows.

ClassAs at 31 March
 19611962
Cars523,847553,181
Trucks—
    Light51,02554,096
    Heavy73,38276,062
Contract vehicles1,7061,756
Omnibuses2,2552,330
Taxis2,4912,691
Rental cars2,4232,582
Private-hire cars158170
Service cars586546
Trailers117,597134,516
Vehicles exempted from payment of licence fees (other than exempted Government-owned vehicles)62,16968,881
Government vehicles17,48017,132
Motor cycles28,43631,288
Power cycles10,85413,065
Totals894,409958,296
Dealers' cars3,1353,264
Dealers' motor cycles145116
Grand totals897,689961,676

FARMING (pp. 403–449)

Following are some of the principal statistics of farming for 1960–61 and at 31 January 1961.

LivestockAt 31 January
19601961
Cattle—
    Dairy stock—
        Cows and heifers, two years old and over—
          Cows in milk during season1,886,6721,928,788
          Heifers not yet in milk71,34268,771
          Cows not in milk during season but intended to again be used for dairying30,73928,744
        Heifers—
          One and under two years old412,547465,300
          Under one year old477,088520,113
        Bulls and bull calves intended for dairy breeding93,38899,764
Total, dairy stock2,972,7763,111,480
Beef stock—
    Beef cows, two years old and over—
        Beef cows used for breeding968,3851,047,363
        Beef cows not used for breeding56,92357,257
        Cows culled from dairy herds27,33525,283
    Beef heifers—
        Two years old and over175,540173,873
        One and under two years old313,610340,547
        Under one year old388,548412,004
    Steers and bulls of all ages1,088,8211,277,982
Total, beef stock3,019,1623,334,309
Total, cattle (dairy and beef stock combined)5,991,9386,445,789
Pigs—
      Sows, one year old and over87,82483,979
      Other pigs of all ages (including boars)572,437571,453
Total, pigs660,261655,432
Farm Operation1959–601960–61
Sheep and hoggets shorn44,010,09245,603,564
Lambs shorn11,179,88711,649,582
Lambs tailed31,116,53531,990,722
Grasses and clovers cut for hayacres681,838662,451
Grasses and clovers cut for silageacres188,260173,406
Lucerne cut for hay or silageacres139,258158,475
Total area cut for hay or silageacres1,009,356994,332
Grassland topdressed–
    With artificial fertilisers onlyacres7,140,2288,208,571
    With lime onlyacres421,908356,299
    With both artificial fertilisers and limeacres1,335,1711,249,202
Total grassland topdressedacres8,897,3079,814,072

PRODUCTIVITY (pp. 395–402)

A new volume of production index, including services, has been prepared on base 1954–55 = 1000, and in conjunction with an index of employment (total labour force) there has been constructed an index of productivity.

Production YearIndex of ProductionIndex of EmploymentIndex of Productivity
1954–55100010001000
1955–56104110201021
1956–57105410391014
1957–58111610611052
1958–59114610861055
1959–60119010991083
1960–61127111251130

PRODUCTION

Timber Production

Timber: Production (p. 465) — Provisional figures issued by the New Zealand Forest Service give the output of rough-sawn timber for the year ending 31 March 1962 at 692,590,000 board feet. This is 21,500,000.feet (3.0 per cent) lower than the record output of the previous year. The output of the principal species was as follows: rimu and miro, 213,909,000 board feet; matai, 32,277,000 board feet; kahikatea, 17,726,000 board feet; beech, 12,805,000 board feet; totara, 12,579,000 board feet; tawa, 17,434,000 board feet; and exotic pine, 359,346,000 board feet. Indigenous species totalled 311,100,000 board feet, and exotics, 381,490,000 board feet.

Factory Production Statistics, 1960–61

Volume of Output — Production totals for 1960–61 rose by 9.4 per cent in volume of output over the previous year. In the post-war period, only the year 1954–55, with an increase of 10.9 per cent, has shown a higher annual rate of increase. With the exception of the food (+2.1 per cent), all groups recorded significant, and in some cases substantial, increases — for electrical machinery and appliances the rise,was 22.2 per cent.

Value of Output — This represents the total value of all goods and services produced and totalled £756,800,157 in 1960–61, over £51 million-more than in 1959–60 (an increase of 7.3 per cent). Except for the food group, where lower overseas prices for dairy produce and meat combined to cause a reduction in value of output, all groups showed increases ranging from 7.9 per cent for textiles to 28.2 per cent for electrical machinery and appliances.

Added Value — Added value represents that value added in the factory to the cost of materials brought .in, and is therefore possibly a better indicator relatively of true production value. At £287,097,297, added value for 1960–61 shows a rise of £20.6 million (7.7 per cent) on 1959–60.

Apart from the food, group, whore meat values caused a substantial decline in the total added value, all groups showed solid increases over the previous year ranging up to 25.8 per cent for electrical machinery and appliances. In 1960–61, salaries and wages represented 52.4 percent of added value (51.1 per cent in the previous year) while manufacturers' surplus was 20.1 per cent (21.6 per cent the previous year).

Capital Expenditure — In line with the general expansion recorded in 1960–61 in all groups, with the exception of food, capital expenditure totalled £34.3 million compared with £26.9 million in 1959–60. These amounts do not represent the total capital spent on the manufacturing sector during the year but only that capital introduced by firms already producing at the beginning of each year. However, they serve to show the increased activity on the manufacturing front over the year under review.

Persons Engaged — The number of persons engaged, which includes working proprietors, was 181,346, an increase of 9,373 persons (5.5 per cent) over the previous year. The numerical increase is the highest in the departmental records for this series. Of the additional 9,373 persons engaged, 7,081 were males and 2,292 were females. With the exception of tobacco manufacturers, all industry groups engaged more persons.

Salaries and Wages — Total salaries and wages paid during the year, at £150,575,407, were £14.4 million more than in 1959–60, an increase of 10.5 per cent. Wages paid in industry during 1960–61 averaged £893 for males and £475 for females as compared with £853 and £450 during the previous year, increases of 4.7 per cent and 5.6 per cent respectively. These averages include overtime payments and bonuses.

Overtime — There were 26.3 million hours of overtime worked by wage earners in 1960–61, which represents an increase of 3.6 million hours, or 15.6 per cent, on 1959–60. This is the highest annual increase in number of overtime hours worked since the series commenced in 1949–50. Average overtime hours worked by all wage earners in 1960–61 were 211 hours for males and 53 hours for females (the previous year's figures were 194 and 45 respectively).

This series of industrial production statistics compiled by the Department of Statistics covers 80 per cent of the labour force engaged in manufacturing activity. Actually the proportion of industrial production covered by the survey would be greater than 80 per cent, in that all establishments of any considerable size are included.

The year covered by these statistics is in general that ended 31 March 1961, although concerns are permitted to furnish returns covering financial years most closely corresponding to that period. In the case of dairy factories and meat-freezing works the years correspond to the respective seasons ended June and September 1961.

Summary (p. 495)—Following are the principal statistics of factory production for 1960–61, with comparable figures for the two preceding years.

General Summary1958–591959–60*1960–61
* Revised.
Number of establishments8,5658,5508,745
Persons engagedNo.168,742171,973181,346
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages£128,278,259136,175,840150,575,407
    Materials£418,647,288439,087,799469,702,860
    Other expenses£70,320,61072,841,27678,997,858
Totals£617,246,157648,104,915699,276,125
Value of output£659,454,543705,616,999756,800,157
Manufacturers' surplus£42,208,38657,512,08457,524,032
Value added in manufacture£240,807,255266,529,200287,097,297
Overtime worked by wage earnersh21,724,24122,724,08226,277,234
Volume index for industry: Base 1956–57 (=1000)113011801290
Premises and plant—
    Value at end of year—
        Land and buildings£123,629,077136,549,586154,118,168
        Plant and machinery£82,257,29087,177,46295,187,073
    Capital expenditure during year—
        Land and buildings£11,184,62410,364,66212,826,100
        Plant and machinery£16,653,92116,574,85721,476,015
Coal consumption as fueltons1,029,974988,504963,062

Regional Distribution of Factory Production, 1960–61 (p. 497) — The table following gives a general summary by employment districts and shows a comparison of the manufacturing strengths of each district. The fairest guide to actual volume of production is the column in the subsequent part of this table on “Added Value”. This shows Auckland district's dominance in the manufacturing world, its production now being more than the total for the South Island.

FACTORIES: SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS BY EMPLOYMENT DISTRICTS, 1960–61

Employment DistrictNumber of FactoriesPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages Paid
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
    £(000)£(000)
Whangarei2302,7532302,304107
Auckland2,19438,73017,68237,4608,764
Hamilton5476,8421,0656,239478
Paeroa1211,3713701,179176
Tauranga1351,3531351,15960
Rotorua2276,1974936,413240
Gisborne1151,4243521,234161
Napier1661,8345031,675234
Hastings1753,2035893,121297
New Plymouth3534,4089693,998409
Wanganui2442,9328582,781396
Palmerston North4344,9541,6654,399786
Masterton1431,6982991,486130
Lower Hutt3458,4083,0488,7961,685
Wellington7078,8334,6888,7492,474
      Totals, North Island6,13694,94032,94690,99416,397
Blenheim96915222804103
Nelson1781,9683571,664156
Greymouth1611,3212171,15099
Christchurch1,03418,3567,41516,8863,520
Ashburton751,033258939115
Timaru1662,3074202,103211
Oamaru591,152261927109
Dunedin4878,5943,0847,6241,415
Invercargill3535,1624185,165197
        Totals, South Island2,60940,80812,65237,2615,924
        Totals, New Zealand8,745135,74845,598128,25422,321
Employment DistrictCost of MaterialsValue of OutputAdded Value
TotalPercentage of Total*
* Figures in parentheses are percentages in previous year (1959–60).
 £(000)£(000)£(000)  
Whangarei13,04318,3255,2821.84(1.78)
Auckland129,502215,02085,51929.79(28.72)
Hamilton34,79948,08613,2864.63(4.63)
Paeroa8,03510,7012,6660.93(0.90)
Tauranga5,9018,4752,5740.90(0.80)
Rotorua15,84734,97019,1236.66(6.72)
Gisborne3,9696,4752,5060.87(0.87)
Napier7,47811,3903,9121.36(1.30)
Hastings13,34518,9535,6091.952.04)
New Plymouth22,85130,7337,8832.75(2.82)
Wanganui11,57916,9405,36.11.87(2.05)
Palmerston North21,07830,6809,6013.34(3.66)
Masterton6,533,9,2782,7450.96(1.14)
Lower Hutt39,02361,07622,0537.68(6.96)
Wellington22,73243,47020,7387.22(7.20)
    Totals, North Island355,715564,574208,85772.75(71.59)
Blenheim2,1563,4671,3100.46(0.54)
Nelson4,5698,3993,8301.33(1.36)
Greymouth2,6945,1692,4750.86(0.89)
Christchurch48,62885,09636,46812.70(12.68)
Ashburton3,0324,8051,7740.62(0.62)
Timaru8,82812,5393,7111.29(1.49)
Oamaru3,2775,4912,2150.77(0.75)
Dunedin22,59039,25516,6665.81(6.15)
Invercargill18,21328,0059,7923.41(3.93)
      Totals, South Island113,986192,22678,24027.25(28.41)
      Totals, New Zealand469,703756,800287,097100.00(100.00)

Volume of Industrial Production (p. 523) — The following analysis shows the variations in the volume of industrial production in the several industrial groups. The series is based on the volume of production in 1956–57.

GROUP INDICES: BASE 1956–57 (= 1000)

Industry Group1958–591959–601960–61
Index No.Increase Over 1959–60
    Per Cent
Food112111561181+ 2.1
Beverages99310021091+ 8.9
Tobacco manufactures114812681436+ 13.2
Textiles128714001499+ 7.1
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods114811061158+ 4.7
Wood and cork products (except furniture)105311031192+ 8.0
Paper and paper products130614021524+ 8.7
Printing, publishing, etc.109312321392+ 12.9
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)117211241254+ 11.6
Rubber products114411371244+ 9.4
Chemicals and chemical products104011631289+ 10.8
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.112112431351+ 8.7
Electrical machinery and appliances129313481648+22.2
Furniture and fittings111711421316+ 15.3
Petroleum and coal products
Basic metal manufactures
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment
Machinery (except electrical)
Transport equipment
Miscellaneous products
Totals, all groups113011801290+ 9.4

Principal Statistics 1960–61 (p. 525) — The following table gives the number of persons engaged, production costs, value of output, and added value for the year 1960–61, classified according to industry groups.

Industry GroupNumber of Persons EngagedProduction CostsValues of OutputAdded Values
Salaries and WagesMaterialsOther ExpensesTotal
 £(000)
Food31,51630,296197,40817,141244,845250,47353,065
Beverages2,1641,9805,8962,32210,19812,6526,756
Tobacco manufactures1,2058696,3117777,9588,6662,355
Textiles10,7037,67126,9523,95438,57741,32714,376
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods25,96515,20527,1414,06246,40949,48222,340
Wood and cork products (except furniture)13,91112,07927,1096,43145,62050,28623,177
Furniture and fittings5,1324,2487,4581,18312,88914,0466,588
Paper and paper products5,8645,50415,7827,56528,85133,99618,215
Printing, publishing, etc.11,41410,05310,5824,55625,19129,67519,093
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1,7081,2893,6294455,3626,0192,391
Rubber products3,0952,9796,3591,79311,13112,9476,588
Chemicals and chemical-products5,8385,00622,6444,33231,98236,80114,157
Petroleum and coal products4223942,8633593,6163,9781,115
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.7,6506,9769,7106,47023,15626,45016,740
Basic metal manufactures1,0681,0192,7344774,2294,6531,919
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)9,6598,77717,4163,57829,77033,65316,237
Machinery (except electrical)10,7759,69719,8863,58333,16636,04616,160
Electrical machinery and appliances5,5144,217111,3221,81617,35519,3578,035
Transport equipment23,44319,06942,7636,64568,47774,37131,608
Miscellaneous products4,3003,2475,7371,51010,49411,9206,183
Totals181,346150,575469,70378,998699,276756,800287,097

MARKETING OF PRIMARY PRODUCE (p. 591)

Dairy Produce — The following table shows the average weekly sterling price for New Zealand butter and cheese ex-store, and the average weekly sales on the London market.

MonthButterCheese
(Finest and First Grades) Average Price per Cwt(All Grades) Weekly Average Sales(Finest and First Grades, White) Average Price per Cwt (Crated)(All Grades) Weekly Average Sales
1962s.tonss.tons
July3052,8282301,435
August3053,0412301,480

DOMESTIC TRADE (pp. 603.625)

Retail Trade — Values of quarterly sales or turnover for all retail stores, corrected for seasonal fluctuations and for price and population changes, are shown in the following table for December 1961 and March 1962 quarters.

QUARTERLY SALES OR TURNOVER — ALL STORE TYPES

Quarter EndedIn Current £sIn Constant 1957–58 £sIn Current £sIn Constant 1957–58 £s
As RecordedSeasonally CorrectedBefore Seasonal CorrectionSeasonally CorrectedAs RecordedSeasonally CorrectedBefore Seasonal CorrectionSeasonally Corrected
 total turnover £(m)total turnover £(m)turnover per head population £turnover per head of population £
1961-Dec166.7149.8154.9139.168.061.163.256.7
1962-Mar143.0152.7132.8141.957.961.853.857.4

Wholesale Trade-The following table shows, by store-type group, for stores covered by the quarterly survey, the values of stocks held by wholesalers at 31 March for the last three years. The value of stocks increased by 11.5 per cent between 1960 and 1961 and decreased by 1.1 per cent between 1961 and 1962.

Store-type GroupAs at
31 March 196031 March 196131 March 1962
 £(thousand)
Food and drink4,9855,0465,768
Apparel5,9326,0715,844
Furniture2,4932,9823,121
Automotive7,2888,0548,311
Hardware9,37310,3059,921
Chemicals3,3693,6213,934
General merchants9,02510,1939,790
Miscellaneous21,00324,48124,572
Totals63,46870,75371,261

EXTERNAL TRADE (pp. 626–693)

Statistics of external trade in the calendar year 1961, are given below.

Total Commodity Trade — Following are statistics of exports and imports in 1959, 1960, and 1961.

Calendar YearExportsImports (c.d.v.)Excess of Exports Over Imports
New Zealand ProduceTotal Exports
* The corresponding c.i.f. values were £231,417,000 in 1959, £282,333,000 in 1960, and £322,097,000 in 1961.
 £(thousand)
1959290,998293,659205,076*88,583
1960299,791302,508253,157*49,351
1961279,861283,679287,126—3,447

The total trade per head of mean population in 1961 was £235 (exports £117 and imports £118).

Exports—New Zealand's export commodity trade in 1961 was valued at £283.7 million, a decrease of £18.8 million from the previous year. An indication of the movement in the value of exports in the main groups of commodities is afforded by the following table.

VALUE OF EXPORTS

Calendar YearButterCheeseFrozen MeatWoolHides, Pelts, and Skins
 £(thousand)
195955,80822,10371,25089,64313,254
196050,13518,55876,167102,32013,291
196139,40619,91171,937100,14412,082

Apart from the question of values, a special interest, attaches to progress in the volume of our export trade in major export commodities. In the following table the fluctuations in the quantities of exports of butter, cheese, meat, and wool since 1951 are shown.

Calendar YearButterCheeseFrozen MeatWool
 tons(thousand)
1951147.5106.6274.8141.5
1952184.091.3385.6195.6
1953159.1101.4326.7174.8
1954132.590.4370.8175.4
1955151.085.1378.2186.3
1956167.588.9414.2191.0
1957145.188.5388.5192.7
1958175.489.5405.4204.0
1959193.83.5436.9236.0
1960157.179.4467.0232.8
1961165.087.6459.6247.3

Direction of Export Trade — The table below shows the main destinations of New Zealand exports in 1961.

CountryTotal Exports*
* Provisional figures.
 £(000)
United Kingdom143,837
India922
Ceylon297
Malaya762
Singapore546
Hong Kong402
Rhodesia-Nyasaland Federation103
Kenya and Uganda-166
South Africa590
Bahamas66
Barbados284
Bermuda239
Canada3,754
Jamaica1,184
Trinidad and Tobago1,262
Australia10,942
Fiji1,093
Tonga226
Western Samoa762
Other Commonwealth countries775
      Total, Commonwealth countries168,212
Belgium and Luxemburg8,260
Bulgaria
Czechoslovakia1,487
Denmark579
Finland162
France17,387
Germany, East14
German Federal Republic7,982
Greece397
Ireland, Republic of174
Italy6,743
Netherlands3,972
Norway228
Poland966
Portugal502
Russia1,520
Sweden779
Yugoslavia39
Burma186
China1,323
Philippines800
Japan14,822
Egypt256
Mexico111
Netherlands Antilles206
Panama Republic244
Peru474
United States of America (including Hawaii)41,998
Venezuela38
American Samoa170
Other countries1,747
                      Total, all other countries113,566
Ships' stores1,901
Total, all countries283,679

Exports to Commonwealth countries in 1961 accounted for 60 percent of the total exports, excluding ships' stores.

Imports — The table following classifies imports by broad divisions.

IMPORTS VALUED AT CURRENT DOMESTIC VALUE IN COUNTRY OF EXPORT

Calendar YearFood, Beverages, and TobaccoMineral FuelsChemicals (Including Manufactured Fertilisers)Base Metals and Manufactures of MetalMachinery and Transport EquipmentTextiles, Clothing, and FootwearTotal*
* Including classes not listed.
 £(thousand)
195919,28918,49916,72532,36754,96728,168205,076
196020,16020,69220,31139,30372,26235,699253,157
196121,71921,467.22,36446,16589,38937,440287,126

Direction of Import Trade — The next table shows the main sources (origin) of New Zealand's imports in 1961.

CountryTotal Imports*
* Provisional figures.
 £(000)
United Kingdom128,455
Aden535
Singapore1,708
Bahrain576
Ceylon2,487
Hong Kong2,270
India5,808
Malaya1,854
Pakistan223
Sarawak83
Ghana523
Kenya and Uganda504
Rhodesia-Nyasaland Federation164
Tanganyika245
South Africa2,015
Canada10,731
Jamaica152
Australia47,015
Fiji656
Gilbert and Ellice Islands214
Nauru Island668
Western Samoa456
Other Commonwealth countries552
        Total, Commonwealth countries207,894
Austria520
Belgium and Luxemburg2,323
Czechoslovakia598
Denmark441
Finland534
France2,838
Germany, East172
German Federal Republic9,916
Ireland, Republic of84
Italy2,276
Netherlands5,635
Norway803
Portugal244
Spain194
Sweden2,574
Switzerland2,481
China425
Indonesia1,057
Iran1,664
Japan8,350
Saudi Arabia1,816
Dominican Republic998
Mexico246
Netherlands Antilles2,352
Peru1,131
United States of America27,023
Venezuela1,530
French Oceania243
Other countries764
                    Total, all other countries79,232
Total, all countries287,126

Imports from Commonwealth countries in 1961 comprised 72 per cent of the total.

PRICES

Retail Prices (pp. 707.709) — Details of the consumers' price index for the calendar year 1961 and for the quarter ended 31 March 1962, are given below.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX

Base: Weighted average 21 towns, 1955 (= 1000)
 Calendar Year 1961Quarter Ended 31 March 1962
Food -
    Meat and fish11811182
    Fruits, vegetables, and eggs11261141
    Other foods10501054
                  All foods11021108
Housing
    Rent13001448
    Home ownership13631392
                All housing13441409
Household operation
  Fuel and light11331155
  Home furnishing 11031118
  Domestic supplies and services11251141
                  All household operation11181135
Apparel
    Clothing10511058
    Footwear12821310
                All apparel10861097
Transportation
    Public transport12181234
    Private transport12161222
                All transportation12161226
Miscellaneous
    Tobacco and alcohol12721273
    Other supplies11531163
    Other services13281456
                All miscellaneous12521285
All groups11751197

Share Prices Index Numbers (pp. 724.725) — Index numbers of share prices in 1961, together with the average for the year ended March 1962, are as follows.

Subgroup and GroupIndex Numbers Base Average for Each Subgroup and Group 1960 (= 1000)
Year Ended 31 December 1961Year Ended 31 March 1962
Industrial
    Frozen meat1000935
    Other foods960922
    Beverage industries950930
    Textiles and apparel970943
    Wood, pulp, paper11071095
    Leather, rubber, chemicals962937
    Construction and materials980960
    Other industrial987972
    All industrial990964
Distribution
    Chain stores879855
    Department stores976949
    Other distribution932885
All distribution930892
Finance
    Banks893891
    Loan and agency948906
    Insurance957954
All finance944933
All groups968944

Monthly statistics for the first five months of 1962 are given below.

SHARE PRICES MONTHLY INDEX NUMBERS, BASE YEAR 1960 (= 1000)

MonthIndustrial GroupDistribution GroupFinance GroupAll Groups
1962
    January927865929918
    February936830940921
    March935841933920
    April9508491008951
    May99790810621002

GENERAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

Consolidated Fund (pp. 783–785-)—The following table contains a summary of the receipts and payments of the Consolidated Fund for the financial years ended 31 March 1961 and 1962.

Item1960–611961–62

* Excludes £993,000 in 1960–61 and £399,423 in 1961–62 of duty on motor spirits refunded under the Transport Amendment Act 1958; this comprises refunds to persons entitled to exemption from the additional payment of Customs duty from 27 June 1958.

Includes £2,224,000 social security charge on 1957–58 income.

* See footnote on page 1182.

Receipts£(thousand)
Taxation237,378*254,173*
Interest on capital liability
    Post Office2,8993,138
    Electric supply7,1058,547
    Housing and housing construction1,8003,467
    Land settlement2,3282,384
    New Zealand National Airways Corporation12294
    State Advances Corporation3481,143
Interest on other public moneys1,7011,421
Profits on trading undertakings4,7415,527
Departmental receipts25,93020,743
Totals, receipts284,354*300,637*
Payments  
Permanent appropriations
    Civil list201221
    Debt services
        Interest30,08531,678
        Amortisation9,83010,315
        Administration and management4501,646
    Superannuation (subsidy and contribution)5,3815,702
    Advance to Dairy Production and Marketing Board3,000
Miscellaneous694*678*
Totals, permanent appropriations49,642*50,239*
Annual appropriations
    Legislative284301
    Prime Minister's Office2626
    External Affairs2,7653,724
    Finance
        Treasury566564
        Stabilisation15,35113,886
        Customs691727
        Inland Revenue2,1382,216
        Audit268284
Totals, finance19,01417,678
General administration
        Public Service Commission164181
        Internal Affairs2,2862,131
        Island Territories1,6921,482
        Printing Office1,6781,933
        Marine915931
        Labour1,6141,983
        Maori Affairs1,1071,301
        Valuation469486
        Statistics278455
Totals, general administration10,20210,883
Law and order
    Justice2,6952,653
    Crown Law5051
    Police3,4553,540
Totals, law and order6,2006,244
Defence
    Navy4,4814,950
    Army7,2707,993
    Air6,2947,133
    Defence construction and maintenance2,2932,104
Totals, defence20,33722,180
Maintenance
  Public works and services12,36312,258
  Roads1,9381,947
Totals, maintenance14,30014,205
Development of primary and secondary industries
    Lands and Survey2,2782,207
    Forest Service3,2683,364
    Agriculture5,6036,090
    Industries and Commerce624674
    Tourist and Publicity1,2401,399
    Scientific and Industrial Research2,0282,193
    Mines89113
    Transport847871
    Civil Aviation and Meteorological Services3,2174,372
        Totals, development of primary and secondary industries19,19421,283
Social services
    Health8,7099,627
    Public hospitals19,56120,286
    Education43,82547,183
    War and other pensions13,68613,767
    Contribution to Social Security Fund34,70038,100
Totals, social services120,481128,963
Totals, annual appropriations212,803225,488
Unauthorised expenditure13585
Transfer to Loans Redemption Account10,00024,000
Transfer to Public Works Account6,500
Transfer to Reserve Fund5,000
Totals, payments283,958*300,313*
Surplus or deficit from current year's operations+396+324
Balance in Fund at end of year8,4348,758

Summary of Budget Proposals — The Financial Statement was presented on 28 June 1962. Principal changes from the existing situation are as follows.

  1. In the 1962–63 year ordinary income tax will be reduced by 5 per cent, with a maximum lax reduction of £50.

  2. The exemption from social security tax on the first £2 a week (or £104 a year) of income is to be extended to all individual taxpayers.

  3. Increased pension rates granted to disabled ex-servicemen and war widows.

  4. The exemption for a widow's succession was increased from £7,500 to £10,000 and a widower's succession from £1,000 to £5,000.

  5. The first £3,600 of all company income is to be taxed at existing graduated scale and income in excess of £3,600 at a flat rate of 8s. 6d. in the pound.

  6. Land tax beginning this year will be subject to a 50 per cent rebate.

  7. Six capital market proposals were announced — virtual abolition of capital issues control, cancellation of Interests on Deposits Order, further assistance by National Provident Fund to local authorities in arranging loan finance, recognition of a short-term money market, a proposal to establish an Industrial Development Finance Corporation, and a change in the tax provisions relating to interest on convertible notes.

  8. Interest rates on Post Office and trustee savings bank accounts will be raised to 3 per cent throughout.

Taxation (pp. 792–793) — Particulars of revenue from taxation for the financial years 1959–60, 1960–61, and 1961–62 are contained in the following table.

Item of Revenue1959–601960–611961–62

* See footnote on page 1182.

Includes social security income tax and also £2,420,000 social security charge on 1957–58 income.

Includes £2,224,000 social security charge on 1957–58 income.

 £(thousand)
Consolidated Fund
    Customs41,090*42,692*41,470*
    Beer duty13,35014,52915,018
    Sales tax24,24123,74425,554
    Film-hire tax166179190
    Milage tax1906054
    Racing taxation4,1554,8404,764
    Stamp and other duties3,4704,1633,982
    Estate and gift duties12,33513,82312,987
    Land tax1,5261,8172,018
    Income tax175,923131,530148,137
Social security taxation -
Social security income tax75,39080,378
National Roads Fund taxation
    Highways revenue (less rebates)20,84221,69523,652
Totals297,288*334,463*358,203*

A summary showing the amounts received from direct taxes on income and from all sources during the latest three years is now given.

YearDirect Taxes on Income (i.e., Income Tax and Social Security Charges on Income)Total Taxation
AmountPer Head of Mean PopulationPercentage of Total TaxationAmountPer Head of Mean Population
 £(000)£s. £(000)£s.
1959–60175,92375059.2297,28812615
1960–61206,920861361.9334,4631401
1961–62228,514931163.8358,20314613

State Indebtedness (pp. 818–820) — The public debt as at 31 March 1962 amounted to £903,844,000, an increase of £35,644,000 as compared with a year earlier. Of the 1962 debt figure, £127,013,000 was held in the United Kingdom, £12,542,000 in the United States of America, and £764,289,000 in New Zealand.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE (pp. 828–841)

Financial statistics of local government for the year ended 31 March 1961 now follow.

Receipts

Year Ended 31 MarchRatesPublic Utilities, Licences, Rents, Interest.Government Grants and SubsidiesLoansOther ReceiptsTotal Receipts
   £(thousand)  
196025,74450,85812,71422,9336,133118,382
196127,47454,37914,11823,1946,755125,920

Expenditure

Year Ended 31 MarchWorks and Utilities (Construction and Maintenance)AdministrationInterest on LoansAmortisation of DebtOtherTotal Expenditure
   £(thousand)  
196090,0926,2325,7267,2816,265115,596
196195,2256,6246,5757,3406,741122,505

Expenditure on New Works out of Loan Money (Boroughs Only)

Year Ended 31 MarchRoads, Streets, and BridgesDrainage and SewerageWater SupplyParks, Gardens, Town Halls, Libraries, Art Galleries, and Places of Public RecreationGasworks and Electrical WorksOther Public WorksTotal
 £(thousand)
19602,0791,3401,3726067301,9028,030
19611,8361,2201,2752637591,3596,712

Assets and Liabilities

As at 31 MarchAssetsLiabilities
Cash AssetsOther Assets (Estimated)Total DebtOther LiabilitiesTotal Liabilities
Gross DebtNet Debt
   £(thousand)  
196038,955275,917143,557136,50413,296149,800
196145,259298,385159,414151,88613,607165,493

Gross Debt of Local Authorities per Head of Population and Annual Charge

At 31 MarchPopulationGross DebtAnnual Loan Change
AmountRate per HeadAmountRate per Head
  £(000)£s.d.£(000)£s.d.
19602,370,166143,5576011413,3045123
19612,414,984159,414660315,153656

Gross Loan Indebtedness

At 31 MarchCounties and Road DistrictsBoroughs and Town DistrictsUrban Drainage DistrictsUrban Transport DistrictsElectric Power DistrictsHarbour BoardsOther DistrictsTotal
    £(thousand)   
19608,73562,21416,0923,80323,88420,0338,794143,557
19619,90566,46120,0733,57324,64522,97811,779159,414

Domicile of Debt

At 31 MarchAmountPercentage of Total
New ZealandUnited KingdomAustraliaNew ZealandUnited KingdomAustralia
 £(000)£(000)£(000)Per CentPer CentPer Cent
1960141,9711,33325298.900.930.17
1961158,46170225199.400.440.16

Debt Charges and Loans Sanctioned

At 31 MarchDebt ChargesLoans Sanctioned
On Debentures and Other SecuritiesOn Inscribed DebtTotal.YearTotal ApplicationsSanctioned
New WorksRedemption Loans
 £(000)£(000)£(000) £(000)£(000)£(000)
196013,30413,3041960–6137,68634,648475
196115,15315,1531961–6230,34124,0431,801

FINANCE Banking and Currency

Reserve Bank (p. 869) — Data showing the liabilities and assets of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand at the last balance day in May 1962 are shown below, together with the corresponding figures for the last balance day in March 1962.

ItemAs at Last Balance Day in
March 1962May 1962
* Expressed in New Zealand currency.
Liabilities£(000)
    Total liabilities (including other)186,370195,717
    Bank notes82,40081,201
    Demand liabilities
        State44,16418,411
        Marketing2,4803,380
        Bank's44,44478,165
        Other1,5982,188
Assets
    Total assets (including other)186,370195,717
    Investments
        Overseas*16,44216,442
        In New Zealand77,60571,112
    Reserved*
        Sterling exchange22,63327,789
        Other exchange447549
    Advances
        State35610,483
        Marketing organisations47,69545,542
        Other18,14513,920

Trading Banks (pp. 870–885) — The principal statistics of trading banks for the months of March and May are given below. Debits and clearings cover the weekly periods ended on the last Wednesday of the respective months, while the remaining figures are as at those dates.

ItemAs at Last Balance Day in
March 1962May 1962
* Includes certain current accounts, operated by non-profit organisations, for which interest is payable on monthly minimum balances; these accounts were previously included in “deposits not bearing interest” column.
Bank debits during week
    Government£(000)18,68612,265
    Other£(000)149,217137,075
Advances including notes and bills discounted£(000)217,203203,494
Unexercised overdrafts£(000)117,160124,184
Deposits
    Total£(000)313,597325,166
    Government£(000)5,8504,508
    Not bearing interest£(000)239,301249,035
    Bearing interest*£(000)68,44671,623
Reserve Bank notes
    Notes held by trading banks£(000)16,40815,480
    Net note circulation£(000)65,99265,721
Ratio of advances to depositsPer Cent69.2662.58

Overseas Exchange Transactions — The following statement gives statistics of overseas exchange transactions for the years ended 31 March 1961 and 1962. Comparable items for the calendar years 1960 and 1961 are, however, given on pages 883–884. All figures quoted are taken from Reserve Bank sources.

ItemYear Ended 31 March 1961Year Ended 31 March 1962
ReceiptsPaymentsReceiptsPayments
Exports£(thousand)
    Butter40,530...42,203...
    Cheese19,480...19,522...
    Meat79,656...81,944...
    Wool101,963...104,411...
Totals (including other)296,568...299,397...
Imports
    Licensed...251,674...218,473
    Decontrolled...19,216...24,606
    Government...28,583...23,708
Totals (including other)...299,473...271,621
Transport: Freights, fares, ships' charters5,98813,6395,68114,527
Travel: Private and business (exclusive of fares)3,75913,8834,14414,397
Insurance
    Insurance, reinsurance, other transfers1,5742,8609602,710
International investment income
    Interest, dividends, and other private investment income6,20611,2995,14811,986
    Interest on Government and local authority loans...5,331...5,186
Totals, international investment income6,20616,6305,14817,172
Government transactions
    Current expenditure by New Zealand Government overseas...9,437...10,027
    Current receipts by New Zealand Government and expenditure by other governments in New Zealand2,458 2,344...
Totals, Government transactions2,4589,4372,34410,027
Miscellaneous current transactions
    Commissions, royalties, rebates, etc.1,4913,2851,3113,559
    Films and entertainments1,1781,266
    Unilateral transfers (immigrants' transfers, personal remittances, charitable, legacies, etc.)7,84110,7668,50611,053
    Expenses of business firms8894,8111,1875,472
    Other current transactions9681,4161,0011,487
Totals, miscellaneous current transactions11,18921,45512,00522,838
Capital transfers
    Private8,7115,54410,6315,698
    Government8,3208,63148,38026,353
    Local authority...639...203
Totals, capital transfers17,03114,81459,01132,254
Cook Islands exports or imports4315845161
Unidentified7988
Grand totals344,896392,348388,822385,707

Overseas Assets of Banks (p. 881)—In the following table overseas assets of banks (on account of New Zealand business only) are shown.

ItemOverseas Assets at End of
March 1961March 1962
 £(000)
Trading banks' overseas assets—
    In London17,10823,331
    Elsewhere6,7785,126
Reserve Bank's overseas assets—
    Sterling exchange11,17622,633
    Other overseas assets34,02517,213
Total gross overseas assets69,08868,304
Overseas liabilities of trading banks15,43011,307
Overseas liabilities of Reserve Bank140151
Net overseas assets53,51856,846

Net overseas assets at 27 June 1962 totalled £73.4 million, compared with £62.0 million on 28 June 1961.

Savings Banks (pp. 886–892)—A summary of statistics of savings banks at 31 March 1962 is given below.

ItemPost Office Savings BankTrustee Savings BanksNational Savings Accounts

* Includes interest paid out on investment accounts.

On deposits held during year ended 30 June 1961.

Number of depositors1,922,236486,122..
 £(000)£(000)£(000)
Total amount of deposits during year187,07161,6955,280
Total amount of withdrawals during year183,256*57,3899,267
Interest8,6992,1741,998
Total amount to credit of depositors at end of March 1962318,67680,33355,570

Post Office Savings Bank Accounts Classified by Amount Groups (p. 887) — The following is a classification of the balances in Post Office Savings Bank accounts at 31 March 1960,1961, and 1962, shown by amount groups and percentage of accounts within each group.

AmountAt 31 March 1960At 31 March 1961At 31 March 1962
Number of AccountsPercentage of TotalNumber of AccountsPercentage of TotalNumber of AccountsPercentage of Total
££      
Under 1
    Inoperative 161,1318.82166,4478.84168,3558.76
    Operative 198,42010.87212,85411.30211,25810.99
1 and under10457,12925.03476,38925.29482,48625.10
10 and under50376,05020.59376,92520.01396,13720.61
50 and under100153,5068.40156,5338.31160,0198.33
100 and under200145,6307.98146,7757.79149,1857.76
200 and under30082,0074.4982,2854.3782,1494.27
300 and under40052,9842.9054,1512.8754,4962.84
400 and under50040,5062.2241,2622.1941,6382.17
500 and under60030,7711.6932,4191.7232,3131.68
600 and under70020,6351.1322,2111.1822,9431.19
700 and under80016,5100.9117,2200.9118,1370.94
800 and under90012,7020.7013,4710.7214,0740.73
900 and under1,00011,0300.6011,7030.6212,7760.66
1,000 and under1,50033,6171.8436,5901.9437,9951.98
1,500 and under2,00013,3850.7314,4820.7715,3800.80
2,000 and under3,00012,1250.6713,1920.7013,6130.71
3,000 and under4,0004,3530.244,3370.234,8190.25
4,000 and under5,0001,8620.102,4110132,2670.12
5,000 and over 1,6840.092,0180.112,1960.11
Total number of accounts1,826,037100.001,883,675100 and under 001,922,236100.00

LABOUR

Wage Rates (pp. 967–986) — Index numbers of average nominal weekly wage rates of adult male and adult female wage earners in 1960 and 1961, and of adult male wage earners as at 31 March 1962, are as follows.

Industrial GroupBase: All Groups (1934=1000)
Adult MalesAdult Females
Average for YearAs at 31 March 1962*Average for Year
1960196119601961
* Provisional.
Provision of
    Food, drink, etc.12721292130210821091
    Clothing, footwear, and textiles11821205121111781204
    Building and construction114911161181....
    Power, heat, and light112011561165....
    Transport by water and air140714371457....
    Transport by land121412331258....
    Accommodation, meals, and personal service11571197120613261389
Working in or on
    Wood, wicker, seagrass, etc.122112331249....
    Metal126712871309....
    Stone, clay, glass, chemicals, etc,113611541157....
    Paper, printing, etc.12941304135011641173
    Skins, leather, etc.114211571164....
    Mines and quarries120112071207....
    The land (farming pursuits)10291391041....
All groups combined11931212122512101244

Effective Weekly Wage Rates (p. 978)—The following table shows nominal and effective weekly wage rates of adult workers for the years 1960 and 19.61, and of males only for the first quarter of 1962. The base of the index numbers is in each case the calendar year 1954 (= 1000).

YearRetail Prices (All Groups)Nominal Weekly Wage RatesEffective Weekly Wage Rates
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
* Provisional.
196011831193121010081023
196112041212124410071033
1962
    March quarter12271225*..998*..

Court of Arbitration General Wage Order. All minimum rates of awards and industrial agreements were increased by 2% per cent from 26 July 1962 by a general wage order issued on 4 July 1962 by the Court of Arbitration.

Average Rates of Wages (pp. 979–981)—The following table gives the prescribed minimum average weekly wage rates as at 31 March 1962, the series being confined to adult males.

OccupationAverage Wage (Four Principal Districts) at 31 March 1962*
* Provisional.
Adult Males£s.d.
Bakers
    Journeymen1400
    Labourers11176
Butchers
    First shopmen14180
    Second shopmen13152
Butter-factory employees
    Churning and butter making: Others1313
Flourmilling
    Kilnmen1342
    Assistant smuttermen12100
    Rollermen14100
Meat freezing
    Slaughtermen per 100 sheep602
    Workers not otherwise specified1434
Meat preserving
    Boners16176
    Others14118
Sausage-casing making: Workers
    not otherwise specified1526
Aerated water and cordial making
    Cordial makers121310
    Others1237
    Brewing: Others1376
Tailors
    Journeymen1350
    Stock cutters (factory)1342
Footwear manufacturing workers13126
Woollen mills
    Spinners131510
    Others1292
Building
    Bricklayers13176
    Carpenters and joiners1442
    Plasterers1454
    Plumbers1450
    Builders' labourers1268
    General labourers1186
Sawmilling
    Sawyers14139
    Tailers-out13100
    Yardmen head1484
    Workers not specified1350
    Boatbuilding: Shipwrights14107
Metal works etc.
    Boilermakers journeymen1434
    Iron and brass moulders1444
    Tinsmiths journeymen1468
    Engineering fitters etc.1400
    Electrical wiremen14116
    Motor mechanics14126
Printing
    Linotype operators (day)1504
    Letterpress machinists (day)14100
Skin and leather workers
    Hand fleshers1311
    All other workers111311
Mineral and stone workers
    Flangers and moulders1349
    All other workers11195
Mining (coal)
    Surface: Tippers141211
    Miners (on day wages per shift)2164
    Truckers12155
Quarrymen1181
Agricultural and pastoral workers
    General farm hands883
    Threshing mill: Other workers
        per hour 511
    Ploughmen883
    Shearers (per 100 sheep shorn)3124
    Shepherds883
    Wool pressers1460
    Dairy-farm workers1056
Railways
    Enginedrivers average third and sixth years1784
    Locomotive assistant average second and eighth years1576
    Guards average first and third years.16142
Tramways
    Drivers13100
    Conductors (after six months)1300
Shipping and cargo working
    Assistant stewards, first grade1313
    Assistant stewards, second grade12172
    Chief cooks151611
    Second cooks1473
    Able seamen13192
    Ordinary seamen 18 years or over101310
    Waterside workers: Ordinary cargo1434
Hotel workers
    First cooks12197
    Waiters9128
Miscellaneous
    Retailing of apparel: Shop assistants1347
    Grocers' assistants12160
    Warehouse storemen121510

NOTE—The following perquisites (as assessed for statistical purposes), as at 31 March 1962, should be added to the listed occupations: General farm hands, ploughmen, and shepherds, 42s. 6d., and dairy-farm workers, 42s. 6d. per week for board and lodging; shearers and wool pressers, 8s. per day for rations; assistant stewards (first and second grade), chief and second cooks, able and ordinary seamen, 56s. 8d. per week as value of board and lodging; and hotel first cooks and waiters, 63s. 2d. per week as value of board and lodging.

Estimated Distribution of the Labour Force (p. 990) — The following table supplies an estimated distribution of the total labour force at 15 October 1961 and 15 April 1962.

Industrial GroupMalesFemalesTotals
October 1961April 1962October 1961April 1962October 1961April 1962
 thousand
Primary industry133.0131.810.810.8143.8142.6
Manufacturing industry174.0182.255.555.7229.5237.9
Power, water, and sanitary services11.912.20.90.912.813.1
Building and construction83.381.91.61.784.983.6
Transport and communication75.977.511.411.887.389.3
Distribution and finance102.9104.352.954.0155.8158.3
Domestic and personal services20.820.926.126.646.947.5
Administration and professional68.769.763.565.6132.2135.3
Totals in industry670.6680.5222.6227.1893.2907.6
Armed forces9.41010.50.59.910.6
Unemployed0.40.80.00.00.40.8
Totals, labour force680.4691.4223.1227.6903.5919.0

Half-yearly Surveys of Employment (pp. 991–998) — Following is a summary of the employment statistics as returned for 15 April 1962. These statistics are provisional.

ItemPrimary Industry (Other than Farming, Fishing, and Hunting)Manufacturing IndustryPower, Water, and Sanitary ServicesBuilding and ConstructionTransport and CommunicationDistribution and FinanceDomestic and Personal ServicesAdministration and ProfessionalTotal, all Industries Covered
Male employees (full time)10,516163,03212,24954,06756,91476,67312,03955,205440,695
Male working proprietors45010,42797,2872,37212,4433,77657737,341
Female employees (full time)31651,2078631,41410,62343,67015,07253,361176,526
Female working proprietors71,46411474,7872,4782209,104
Number of establishments59912,7232696,6532,71817,5575,1324,02549,676

The figures shown in the manufacturing industry column are further subdivided as follows.

 Food, Drink, and TobaccoTextiles, Clothing, and LeatherBuilding Materials and FurnishingsEngineering and Metal WorkingMiscellaneous Manufacturing
Male employees (full time)36,29813,84827,36261,39524,129
Male working proprietors1,0931,1991,9885,0761,071
Female employees (full time)7,58825,9701,8817,2308,538
Female working proprietors47654549269125
Number of establishments1,6701,8022,4815,3581,412

Limitations in the coverage of the figures shown above are noted on page 991.

Summary of Vacancies, Placements, and Disengaged Persons — This table gives additional figures to those presented on page 999.

ItemVacancies at End of MonthPlacements During MonthDisengaged Persons at End of Month
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
* From and including June 1961 vacancies notified by Railways Department were increased following a re-assessment of their staffing requirements.
Monthly average over calendar year
  19604,0762,6886,7647933291,12256964633
  1961*5,8023,3949,19663429793133541376
Monthly total
  1962
      January5,5703,3788,9481,0236951,71848163544
      February5,1733,2098,3821,0708111,88141360473
      March4,6923,0087,7008093711,18056899667
      April4,5432,6397,18254522677175859817
      May4,2482,5156,7639623851,3471,1591151,274

MISCELLANEOUS STATISTICS

Radio Licences (p. 383) — The number of radio licences in force for receiving stations on 31 March–1962 was 601,674, and for all classes of radio licences 607,881, compared with 587,168 and 593,220 respectively at 31 March 1961.

Television Licences (p. 384) — At 31 May 1962 there were 28,969 television receiving licences in force.

Horse Racing (pp. 812–814) — The number of racing days in the calendar year 1961 was 378. Totalisator turnover totalled £51,968,000 in 1961 (£50,186,000 in 1960) while Government taxation totalled £4,811,000 in 1961 (£4,643,000 in 1960).

Land Transfers (pp. 290–291)—Transactions under the Land Transfer Act showed decreases in both number and consideration. The average amount per transaction (town and suburban properties) in 1961–62 was £2,364, as compared with £2,295 in 1960–61 and £2,102 in 1959–60.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
196019611962
Town and suburban properties
    Number 45,12552,23349,358
    Consideration£(000)94,866119,894116,705
Country properties
    Freehold
        Number 7,2048,4037,787
        Areaacres (000)1,2641,7101,408
        Consideration£(000)44,57662,17658,578
    Total freehold and leasehold
        Number 7,7309,1798,455
        Consideration£(000)47,85967,88863,343
All properties: Total consideration£(000)142,725187,782180,048

Mortgages (pp. 906–916)—Particulars of gross totals of mortgages registered and discharged during the last three financial years are shown below.

Year Ended 31 MarchRegistered*Discharged*
NumberAmountNumberAmount
* Inclusive or duplicate registrations and discharges.
  £(000) £(000)
196057,867121,00639,93551,758
196164,637154,05446,47468,313
196262,551168,48244,494_ 66,896

Justice (p. 266) — Prisoners in jails at end of calendar year: 1960,1,828, or 7.60 per 10,000 of population; 1961, 1,868, or 7.69 per 10,000 of population.

Registration of Aliens (p. 69) — The number of aliens on the register at 1 April 1962 totalled 27,739 (16,833 males, 10,906 females), compared with 1 April 1961, figures of 27,294 (16,649 males, 10,645 females).

Naturalisations (p. 70)—The number of certificates of naturalisation issued to former aliens during the year ended 31 March 1962 was 748, compared with a total of 930 in the previous year. Certificates of registration as a New Zealand citizen were granted to 801 citizens of other countries of the Commonwealth or former aliens (847 in 1960–61), and 378 certificates of registration (372 in 1960–61) to minor children (either citizens of other countries of the Commonwealth or former aliens).

PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS

[Obtainable from the Government Printer, Corner of Rutland and Lorne Streets (P.O. Box 5344) Auckland; Lambton Quay, Wellington; 112 Gloucester Street (P.O. Box 1721), Christchurch; and Stock Exchange Building, Princes Street (P.O. Box 1104), Dunedin.]

TitleLatest No.Date of IssuePrice per Copy (Post Free)
* £2 10s. a year (post free).
   s.d.
Annual Report of the Department of Statistics (H. 39)1962June 196210
New Zealand Official Yearbook1962September 1962176
Pocket Digest of New Zealand Statistics1962June 196250
Catalogue of New Zealand Statistics March 196250
Statistical Publications, 1840–1960 April 196196
Annual Statistical Reports:
    Balance of Payments1960–61November 196146
    External Trade Statistics, Report on, and Analysis of1959October 1961126
    Farm Production Statistics1959–60July 1961126
    Income and Income Tax Statistics for the Income Year1957–58January 1961106
    Industrial Accidents Statistics1960April 196266
    Industrial Production Statistics1959–60October 1961300
    Insurance Statistics1960–61March 196246
    Justice Statistics1960December 1961106
    National Income and Expenditure1960–61September 196146
    Special Supplement: The Accounts of the1955–56 to   
    Government Sector1960–61March 196256
    Population, Migration, and Buildings Statistics1960–61March 196286
    Prices, Wages, and Labour Statistics1960September 1961126
    Transport Statistics1961September 196266
    Vital Statistics1960June 196176
Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy1954–55June 195956
Local Authorities Handbook of New Zealand1959–60September 1961176
Monthly Abstract of Statistics*  50
    Supplements:
        Accounts of the Government Sector1960–61December 1961  
        Balance of Payments1960–61September 1961  
        Compound Interest Tables November 1959  
        Export Prices and Terms of Trade August 1961  
        Factory Production1960–61April 1962  
        Gross Domestic Product in Constant Prices1960–61May 1962  
        Import Prices and Volume Index Numbers July 1961  
        Industrial Classification of Salary and Wage Payments1960–61August 1962  
        Manufacturers' StocksMar QuarterJune 1962  
        National Income and Expenditure1961–62September 1962  
        Population at 1 April 1962 July 1962  
        Productivity and Volume of Production Indexes April 1962  
        Retail TradeMar QuarterJune 1962  
        Share Prices Index, 1960 Revision April 1961  
        Survey of Dairy Farmers' Incomes1959–60August 1961  
        Survey of Sheep Farmers' Incomes1959–60February 1962  
        Survey of Town Milk Producers' Incomes1959–60November 1961  
        Wholesale Prices Index November 1959  
        Wholesale TradeMar QuarterJune 1962  
    Special Supplements:
        Consumers' Price Index, 1955 Revision December 195630
        Remarriage and Length of Widowhood of New Zealand Widows, 1955–57 June 196116
        Tables of Working Life1951March 195720
Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics of New Zealand 1861–1954 July 195620
Census of Distribution, 19581958August 1959106
Census of Libraries, 19591959March 196076
Final Report on the Census of Farm Production1949–50May 1956116
Maps of Urban Areas, 19511951January 1953200
Volumes of 1956 Census Results:
    Vol. I. Increase and Location of Population1956March 1958166
    Vol. II. Ages and Marital Status1956February 1959176
    Vol. III. Religious Professions1956February 195956
    Vol. IV. Industries and Occupations1956January 1960196
    Vol. V. Incomes1956June 195956
    Vol. VI. Birthplaces and Duration of Residence of Overseas-born1956May 195946
    Vol. VII. Race1956October 195956
    Vol. VIII. Maori Population and Dwellings1956April 1960136
    Vol. IX. Dwellings and Households1956April 1959126
    Vol. X. General Report (including Details of War Service, Dependent Children, and Usual Place of Residence)1956December 1960176
    Appendix A. Census of Poultry1956February 195846
    Appendix B. New Zealand Life Tables 1955–571956January 196146
Volume of 1961 Census Results:
    Interim Returns of Population and Dwellings1961September 196156

INDEX (DETAILED)

NOTE-Where more than one reference to a subject is given, the chief reference, wherever it has been possible to determine it, is indicated by bold type. Two or more references to a subject so indicated signify major, and approximately equal, importance.

A

Abortion, 118, 134, 158, 164.
Accident Insurance, 938–942, 1124.
State, 952.
Accidents —
Aircraft, 120, 166.
Cases Treated in Hospitals, 166.
Causes of, 1034.
Deaths from, 101, 102, 109, 119–121, 339, 353–355, 482, 1033, 1034, 1036.
Farming, 121.
Frequency Rates, 1030–1031.
Industrial, 1025–1037.
Mining, 121, 482, 483, 1032, 1033.
Motor-vehicle, 101, 102, 109, 119, 120, 351–355.
Railway, 120, 166, 339, 353.
Time Lost Through, 1036.
Tramway, 120, 353.
Transport, 119, 120, 166, 353–355.
Acclimatisation of Fishes, 5, 477.
Accommodation Licences, 1078–1080.
Accounts of the Government Sector, 757.
Accounts, Public, 779–792.
Accounts, Sector, and Inter-Industry Studies, 778.
Acreage and Yield of Crops, 422–439, 1106.
Acreage of Holdings, 285–286.
Acts Passed in 1961, 1088–1090.
Added Value in Manufacturing, 495–503, 516–518, 521, 522, 523, 527–543, 1114.
Administration, 33–35.
Cook Islands, 1048–1049.
Niue Island, 1053.
Adolescent Dental Service, 140.
Adoptions, 90–91.
Adult Education, 243–244.
Adultery, 129, 131.
Advances —
Bank, 869, 872–878, 1119.
Bank Control Policy, 876–878.
Building Societies, 923–927.
Rural, 293–294, 918–923.
State (see State Advances and State Aid).
Advertisements, Medical, 136.
Advertising by Radio and Television, 378–383.
Aerated Water and Cordial Industry, 500, 531.
Aerial Land Surveys, 306, 365.
Aerial Work Operations, 364–365.
Aero Clubs, 368.
Aerodromes, 276, 368.
Afforestation, 450–458, 462.
Companies, 450, 462.
Age Benefits, 178, 180, 181, 183–184.
Age Distribution of Population, 58–59.
Ages of —
Cancer Decedents, 107.
Infants Dying, 110, 112.
Injured Employees, 1034.
Maoris Dying, 95.
Migrants, 64.
Mothers or Parents, 86, 87, 89, 90.
Offenders Probationed, 261.
Patients in Public Hospitals, 162.
Persons Dying, 95, 96–98.
Persons Married, 126–128.
Population, 58–59.
Prisoners, 265.
Public School Pupils, 225, 227.
Registered Aliens, 72.
Tubercular Decedents, 103.
Agricultural and Pastoral Production, 395–449, 1106, 1107.
Persons Engaged in, 1002.
Value of, 395–401.
Volume of, 397, 401.
Agricultural Aviation, 295, 364–365.
Agricultural Colleges, 241.
Agricultural Machinery, 421–422, 503, 543.
Imports of, 688.
Agricultural Produce —
Consumed Locally, 399, 733–735.
Exported, 399, 649, 651, 667, 670, 671.
Gross Farming Income, 395–398.
Agricultural Workers Act, 960.
Agriculture, 395–422.
Department of, 416–417.
Occupational Safety, 1045.
Publications, 1141–1142.
Research in, 416–419, 428, 429, 440.
Aids, Artificial, 179, 196–197.
Aids, Nursing, 146.
Air Force, 275–276, 277.
Casualties, 278.
Expenditure on, 276, 785.
Air Mails, 360–367, 370.
Air Pollution, 137.
Air Training Corps, 276.
Air Transport and Aviation, 275–276, 361–368.
Aircraft —
Accidents, 120, 166.
Licensing and Control, 359–368.
Aitutaki Island, 2, 1048, 1049.
Alcoholic Liquors —
Consumption of, 734.
Duty on, 695, 696, 697, 793, 796.
Exports of, 649, 651.
Imports of, 674, 682, 690.
Sale of, 1077–1081.
Alexander Turnbull Library, 1132.
Aliens, Naturalisation and Registration of, 68–74, 1194.
Alps, 2, 3.
Aluminium Industry, 492.
Ambassadors, 1097–1101.
Ambulance, St. John, 149.
Amortisation of Debt, 784, 788, 825–826, 832.
Amputees, 199.
Amusement Tax, 391, 393, 394, 793, 812, 814.
Angling, 477, 1066.
Animal Life, 1140.
Animals, Noxious, 455, 459–460.
Anniversary Days, 1083.
Annual Holidays Act, 957.
Annual Value System of Rating, 829–830.
Annuities, 205–207, 934.
Antarctic, New Zealand Activities in the, 1057–1059, 1132.
Antarctica, Publications on, 1149.
Ante-natal Services, 157–158.
Antimony Ore, 485.
Antipodes Islands, 1, 1047.
Anzac Day, 957.
Apiaries or Apiculture, 434, 449.
Apples, 425, 437.
Consumption of, 733.
Exported, 649, 651, 667, 670, 671, 1111.
Fixation of Prices of, 588.
Marketing of, 588–589.
Apprentices, 279, 988–989.
Appropriation, Expenditure under, 784–785.
Arbitration (see Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration).
Architecture, Publications on, 1143.
Area —
In Crops, 422–439, 1106.
In Cultivation, 286, 426–435.
Of Land Holdings, 285, 286.
Of New Zealand, 1–2, 61, 285, 405.
Of Properties Transferred, 290–291.
Of Statistical Areas, 49.
Top-dressed, 419.
Armed Forces —
Casualties in, 278.
Demobilisation of, 284.
Honours and Awards Conferred, 1091, 1092.
Overseas at Census Dates, 43.
Pay and Allowances, 742, 751, 761, 762.
Serving Overseas, 270, 274, 276–277.
Strengths of, 269, 271, 274, 276, 277, 990.
Army, 272–274, 277.
Expenditure on, 274, 785.
Arrivals (see Migration).
Arson and Incendiarism, 949.
Art Galleries, 1068.
Art Unions, 1077.
Articles on Special Subjects in Previous Issues, 1131–1132.
Artificial Aids, 179, 196–197.
Artificial Limbs, 197.
Arts, Publications on the, 1143.
Asbestos, 487.
Assessable Income, 842–859.
Assessment of —
Income Tax, 796–805, 842–857.
Land Tax, 805–806.
Land Values, 310.
Assets of —
Bankrupts, 1073, 1123.
Banks, 869, 872, 880–882, 891, 1119, 1189.
Building Societies, 927.
Companies, 863–864.
Electric-power Undertakings, 575.
Fire Insurance Companies, 943–944.
Friendly Societies, 212.
Life Assurance Companies, 937.
Local Government, 834–835, 1185.
Manufacturing Industries, 519–520.
Atafu Islands, 2, 1055, 1056.
Atiu Island, 2, 1048, 1049.
Auckland —
Building Values, 558.
Climate, 13, 15.
Population, 50, 51, 53.
Radio and Television Stations, 379–381.
Sales Tax Receipts, 815.
Slipping, 317, 320–324, 669, 692.
Trustee Savings Bank, 889–891.
University of, 238.
Urban Transport, 357, 358.
Auckland Islands, 1, 1047.
Audit of Expenditure, 779–780.
Australia —
Birth and Natural Increase Rates, 84.
Consumption of Foodstuffs, 732, 735.
Debt Domiciled in, 838, 1116.
Libraries, 389.
Motor Accident Death and Injury Rates, 355.
New Zealand Representatives in, 1097.
Population, 79.
Population, Annual Average Increase, 44.
Prices in, 706.
Reciprocal Trade with, 698.
Representatives in New Zealand, 1099.
Social Security Reciprocity with, 176, 177, 178, 191–192.
Automobiles (see Motor Vehicles).
Aviation, Agricultural, 295, 364–365.
Aviation and Air Transport, 275–276, 361–368.
Awards, Cultural, 1068–1069.
Awards, Literary, 1068–1069.
Awards to Armed Forces Personnel, 1091, 1092.

B

Bachelors Marrying, 126.
Bacon and Ham, Consumption of, 733.
Bacon and Ham Curing, 500, 528.
Balance of Payments, 757–778.
Capital Account, 758, 765, 767, 769, 771, 773.
Current Account, 758, 762–764, 768, 770, 772.
Merchandise Transactions, 766.
Regional Accounts, 767–774.
Survey of Companies with Overseas Affiliations, 774–778.
Balance of Trade, 630.
Bananas, 590, 1050, 1051, 1054.
Consumption of, 733.
Imports of, 681, 690, 693.
Bank Notes, 867–872, 879–880, 902.
Denominations of, 880, 902.
In Circulation, 879–880, 897, 1119.
Bank of New Zealand, 819, 827, 870–871.
Banking and Currency, 865–905, 1119, 1120, 1187–1189.
Banking and Economics Publications, 1135–1136.
Bankruptcy, 971, 1072–1077, 1123.
Banks, Overseas Assets of, 872, 880–882, 1189.
Banks, Savings —
Post Office, 886–889, 900, 1120, 1189.
School, 888–889.
Trustee, 889–891, 1189.
Barley, 426, 427, 430, 440.
Beds, Hospital, 155, 156.
Beef —
Cattle, 444, 1170.
Cattle Farms, 446.
Chilled, 601, 602, 670, 671.
Consumption of, 732, 733.
Export of, 585, 670, 671.
Slaughterings for, 413, 527.
Beer —
Consumption of, 734.
Duty on, 695, 696, 697, 783, 793, 796.
Production of, 531.
Bees, 449.
Benefits, Social Security, 140, 175, 178–193, 738, 749, 751, 790.
Bentonite, 478, 487.
Beverages, Production of, 504–525, 531.
Bibliography —
New Zealand Fauna and Flora, 1140.
New Zealand Publications, 1133–1149.
Bills, Treasury, 817, 822.
Biographies, Publications of, 1149.
Biology Publications, 1139.
Births, 80, 81–92, 1103.
Excess of, over Deaths, 49, 81, 83.
In Cook Islands, 1049.
In Niue Island, 1053.
Of Maoris, 80.
Biscuit Industry, 500, 530.
Bituminous Coal, 478, 479, 481.
Blind, Benefits for and Education of, 187, 191, 222, 280.
Board of School Children, 233.
Board of Trade, 644–645, 694.
Bobby Calves, 414.
Boilers, Inspection of, 1041.
Bonds, National Savings, 816–817, 891–892.
Books, Library, 387–389.
Boroughs, 39, 829–841.
Area of, 53–54.
Bridges in, 340.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 312.
Debt, 834, 837, 1118.
Employees of, 841.
Housing, 545, 558.
Milage of Streets, 339.
Population, 53–55.
Borstal Institutions, 254, 257, 262, 264.
Boundaries of New Zealand, 1.
Bounty Islands, 1, 1047.
Bread Subsidy, 736.
Breeding Bulls, 444.
Breeding Ewes, 440.
Breeding Sows, 440, 441, 446.
Breweries, 500, 531.
Brick Production, 539.
Brides and Grooms, 125–128.
Bridges, 331, 340.
Brigades, Fire, 459, 950.
Britain, New Zealand Representatives in, 1097.
Britain, Representatives in New Zealand, 1099.
British Countries, Representatives in New Zealand, 1099–1101.
British Nationality, 68.
British Phosphate Commission, 827, 1060.
British Postal Orders, 372.
British Preference, 697–699.
British Sovereignty, 20.
British Trade Representatives, 1099.
Broadcasting, Radio and Television, 378–384.
For Schools, 237.
Time Signals, 380, 1082–1083.
Bronze Coinage, 961.
Building, 544–560.
Persons Engaged in, 990, 992, 993
Wages and Hours Worked of Employees, 979, 985.
Building and Housing, 544–563, 916–923.
Group Building Scheme, 544.
Building Costs, 546, 554.
Building Materials, 546–548.
Imports of, 548, 676.
Building Permits, 554–559.
Building Societies, 923–927.
Deposits, 901, 925–927.
Buildings, Education, 223.
Bulk Purchase Agreement, 586.
Bullion, Exports of, 648, 650, 670, 671, 1110.
Bullion Production, 5, 485.
Burials, 92, 136.
Bursaries —
Dental, 140, 241.
Department of Health, 133.
Ex-servicemen's, 241, 281.
Ex-servicemen's Children, 201, 281.
Medical, 241.
Post-primary Teacher's, 235.
Secondary Schools, 232.
Technical Schools, 232.
University, 240–241.
Bush, 287, 450–456.
Bushel Units, Weights of, 425.
Business and Management Publications, 1143.
Business, Census of, 603–613.
Business Failures, 971, 1072–1077, 1123.
Business Loans, 922, 923.
For Ex-servicemen, 281–284, 923.
Butter (see Dairy Produce).
Butterfat Production, 408–410, 528, 1113.
Butterfat Yields, 408, 409.

C

Cabinet, 34.
Cable Tramway, 358.
Cables, Ocean, 375.
Cadets —
Army, 274.
Navy, 271.
Calf-skins Exported, 649, 650, 665, 670, 671, 1112.
Calves Slaughtered, 413.
Campbell Island, 1, 43, 1047.
Camps, Health, 138, 149.
Canada —
Consumption of Foodstuffs, 732, 735.
Exchange Rate with, 904.
Libraries, 389.
New Zealand Representatives in, 1097.
Population, Annual Average Increase, 44.
Prices in, 706.
Reciprocal Trade with, 699.
Representatives in New Zealand, 1099.
Canadian Pacific Air Lines, 367.
Cancer, 101, 102, 103–107, 108, 163.
Candle and Soap Industry, 502, 537.
Canned and Preserved Meats, etc., Production of, 527.
Canned Fish —
Exports of, 475.
Imports of, 681, 690.
Canned Fruits —
Consumption of, 733.
Imports of, 681, 690.
Production of, 531.
Canned Meat Exported, 649, 650, 662, 670, 671.
Canned Vegetables —
Consumption of, 733.
Exports of, 649, 651, 670, 671.
Production of, 531.
Capital —
Expenditure of Government, 786.
Invested in Electric-power Undertakings, 572–575.
Invested in Manufacturing Industries, 519–520.
Invested in Railways, 330, 1122.
Invested in Telegraph Construction, 372.
Invested in Telephone Construction, 374.
Of Banks, 866, 870.
Of Companies, 928, 929.
Capital Formation, 739–746.
Capital Issues Control, 905.
Capital Transfers, 883, 884.
Capital Value of Land, 309–313.
Rating on, 829–830.
Cargo Carried by Air Transport, 360–367.
Cargo Handled at Ports, 314–326.
Carnegie Corporation, 241.
Carpets and Rugs, Imports of, 683.
Carton, Paper Bags, etc., Industry, 535.
Casein Exported, 649, 650, 666, 670, 671.
Casein Produced, 410, 528.
Cash Order Trading, 623.
Cassiterite, 485.
Casualties in War, 278.
Casualties, Shipping, 329.
Catchment Boards, 39, 294, 458, 829–841.
Cattle, 440, 441, 444–446, 1107, 1170.
Cattle Hides Exported, 649, 650, 665, 670, 671, 1112.
Cattle Slaughtered, 413.
Causes of —
Accidents, 1034.
Deaths, 101–109.
Fires, 949.
Industrial Disputes, 1021–1022, 1024.
Infant Mortality, 113–115.
Maori Deaths, 107–109.
Mental Disorders, 172.
Still-births, 116.
Cement —
Carried on Railways, 337.
Exports of, 648, 650.
Imports of, 684, 691.
Industry, 502, 539.
Production of, 539.
Cemeteries, 136.
Census, 35, 44, 48–62, 89.
Employment Statistics, 1001–1002.
Incomes of Individuals, 864.
Of Agriculture, 286, 407–408, 424, 434, 442.
Of Distribution, 603–613.
Of Dwellings, 549–551.
Of Libraries, 387–389.
Of Poultry, 447–448.
Of Religions, 77–78.
Publications, 1196.
Unemployment Statistics, 1000.
Central Reserve Bank (see Reserve Bank).
Cereals, 422–430, 1106.
Consumption of, 735.
Certificates —
Dentists' Practising, 146.
Enginedrivers', 1041.
Land Titles, 289.
Marine Officers', 327–328, 963.
Medical Practitioners', 145.
Mine Officials', 1041.
Naturalisation, 68–69.
Occupational Therapists', 147.
Opticians', 148.
Physiotherapists', 147.
Plumbers', 148.
Teachers', 221.
Certification of Seed, 440.
Certification of Trades, 221, 222.
Chatham Islands, 1, 375, 1057, 1149.
Schools, 219, 233.
Cheese (see Dairy Produce).
Chemicals and Chemical Products Industry, 502, 504–525, 537–538.
Chemists, Registration of, 148.
Child Health, 137–139.
Child Migration, 66.
Child Welfare, 137–139, 149, 222, 245–247, 259.
Childbirth, Accidents, etc., of, 101, 102, 109, 113–115, 116–119, 134, 158, 164.
Children —
Adopted, 90–91.
Affected by Divorce Proceedings, 131.
Allowances in Respect of, 176–199.
Born, Numbers and Rates, 80, 82–83, 92.
Born, Sexes of, 84–86, 91, 92.
Crippled, 149, 232.
Dental Treatment of, 139.
Dependent, 76–77.
Handicapped, 138, 218, 245–247.
Legitimated, 90.
Medical Inspection of, 138.
Offences by, 245–247, 259–261.
Under One, Deaths of, 96, 97, 109–115, 1103.
Children's Courts, 245–247, 259–261.
Children's Homes, 246.
Chilled Beef, 601, 602, 670, 671.
Chinese, 71, 1060.
Christchurch —
Building Values, 558.
Climate, 13, 15.
Population, 50, 51, 54.
Radio and Television Stations, 379–381.
Sales Tax Receipts, 815.
University of Canterbury, 238.
Urban Transport, 355, 356, 357.
Churches, 128–129.
Cigarettes and Tobacco —
Duty on, 695, 696, 697.
Imports of, 674, 682, 690.
Production of, 438, 500, 504–525, 532.
Cinemas, 390–394.
Cinematograph Film-hire Tax, 783, 793, 814.
Cinematograph Films, 1043–1044.
Cinnabar, 485.
Cities, Population of, 51, 53, 54.
Citizenship, 68.
Citrus Fruits, 425, 436, 590, 1050, 1051.
Consumption of, 733.
Imports of, 690, 693.
Civil Aviation, 361–368.
Civil Law Cases, 248–252.
Civil List, 32, 34, 784.
Claims, Insurance, 931–954.
Clays, 404, 478.
Clergy of Each Church, and Marriages by, 128–129.
Climate, 2–3, 9–15, 1065.
Cook Islands, 1047.
Niue Island, 1052.
Clinics —
Ante-natal, 157.
School Dental, 139.
Clocks, Public, 1083.
Closing Hours of Shops, 959.
Clothing and Footwear, Retail Prices of, 704–705
Clothing, Imports of, 675.
Clothing Industry, 500–501, 532–533.
Clover Seed (see Grass and Clover Seed).
Club Charters, 1080.
Clubs, Aero, 368.
Clubs Agricultural, 234.
Clubs, Rifle, 274.
Clubs, Working-men's, 211.
Coal —
Carried on Railways, 337, 338.
Consumption of, 483, 512–513, 579, 580.
Exports of, 648, 650, 670, 671.
Production of, 478, 482.
Research, 484, 488.
Resources, 480–481.
Coal Mines Act, 480, 1041.
Coal Mining, 478–484.
Disputes, 1020, 1021.
Rights, 454.
Wages and Hours Worked of Employees, 980, 984.
Welfare and Research Fund, 484.
Coastline, 2.
Coastal Shipping, 319, 321–325.
Coastal Vessels Registered, 327.
Cocoa Beans, Imports of, 682, 690.
Coffee Beans, Imports of, 682, 690.
Coin Held by Banks, 869, 872.
Coin Imported and Exported, 640, 1108.
Coin in Circulation, 897.
Coinage and Currency, 901–903.
Colleges —
Agricultural, 217, 219, 241.
Military, 273.
Naval, 271.
Pharmacy, 148.
Teachers' Training, 217, 221, 234–235.
Collieries, 478–484.
State, 483.
Colombo Plan, 27–28.
Commerce, Overseas, 626–701, 1108–1112, 1177–1179.
Commercial Failures, 971, 1072–1077, 1123.
Commodities, Consumption of, 728–736.
Commodity Sales, Retail, 606, 613–615.
Commodity Sales, Wholesale, 609.
Community Centres, 150, 244.
Companies —
Assets of, 863–864.
In Manufacturing Industries, 521.
In Manufacturing Industries, 521.
Bank Advances to, 875.
In Manufacturing Industries, 521.
In Manufacturing Industries, 521.
Cooperative Dairy, 411.
In Manufacturing Industries, 521.
In Manufacturing Industries, 521.
Deposits with, 894–896, 900.
In Manufacturing Industries, 521.
In Manufacturing Industries, 521.
Financial Statements, Analysis of, 930.
In Manufacturing Industries, 521.
In Manufacturing Industries, 521.
Income of, 742–756, 843, 855–862.
In Manufacturing Industries, 521.
In Manufacturing Industries, 521.
Joint Stock, 861, 928–930.
In Manufacturing Industries, 521.
In Manufacturing Industries, 521.
Overseas, 928–929, 944, 947.
In Manufacturing Industries, 521.
Paid-up Capital, 859–862.
In Manufacturing Industries, 521.
Private, 861, 928–930.
In Manufacturing Industries, 521.
Registered, 928–930, 1123.
Share Prices Indices, 723–727.
Taxation of, 177, 797–798, 843, 855–862.
Comparisons with Other Countries —
Birth and Natural Increase Rates, 84.
Cinema Attendance, 392.
Consumption of Foodstuffs, 734–735.
Dairy Produce Consumption, 732.
Death Rates, 96.
Expectation of Life, 100.
External Trade Per Head, 630.
Infant-mortality Rates, 110, 111.
Libraries, 389.
Marriage Rates, 125.
Motor Accident Death and Injury Rates, 355.
Population, Annual Average Increase, 44.
Prices, 706.
Suicide Rates, 122.
Telephones to Population, 373–374.
Compensation, Workers', 1025–1032.
Compulsory Insurance, 953, 1028.
Compulsory Unionism, 1008.
Conciliation Council, 1012–1013.
Concrete Products Industry, 502, 540.
Confectionery Industry, 530.
Confinement, Deaths in, 101, 102, 109, 118–119, 164.
Confinements, 85, 87, 90.
Conjugal Conditions of Persons Marrying, 125–126.
Conjugal Rights, Restitution of, 129, 131.
Conservation of Forests, 450–451.
Conservation of Soil, 294–296, 458.
Consolidated Fund, 177, 782–785, 793–794, 1115, 1182–1183.
Constitution, 29.
Of Local Districts, 38–39.
Construction Act, 961–962.
Construction, Building, and Housing, 544–563, 916–923.
Wages and Hours Worked of Employees, 979, 985.
Consuls, 1097–1101.
Consumer Council, 703–704.
Consumer Credit, Survey of, 622–625.
Consumers' Goods, Imports of, 676, 677, 678.
Consumers' Price Index, 707–716, 1132, 1180.
Consumption of —
Coal, 483, 512–513, 579, 580.
Commodities, 728–736.
Electricity, 564, 575–576.
Farm Produce, 398–399, 411, 412, 429, 732–735.
Motor Spirits, 347.
Wheat, 429.
Wool, 414, 532.
Contact Lenses, 197.
Contagious Diseases, 101, 102, 108, 113–115, 134, 158–165.
Contractors' Liens, 970.
Contributory Negligence Act, 1029.
Control of —
Bank Advances, 876–878.
Capital Issues, 905.
Exchange, 636, 882, 903.
Exports, 587, 640–641.
Imports, 640–643.
Poultry, 448–449.
Prices, 702–703.
Rivers, 294–296.
Convictions —
For Drunkenness, 253, 254, 255, 258.
For Traffic Offences, 253, 254–255.
Of Juveniles, 259–261.
Of Maoris, 259.
Of Women, 252, 255, 256, 259.
Convictions in Magistrates' Courts, 251–255, 259, 1105.
Convictions in Supreme Court, 256–257, 259, 1105.
Cook Islands, 1, 2, 67, 205, 1047–1052.
Bibliography, 1149.
Exports to, 672–673.
Imports from, 692–693.
Population, 43, 1049.
Public Finance, 1052.
Radio Stations, 375, 1051.
Shipping, 325–326.
Trade, 672–673, 692–693, 1051–1052.
Cook Strait Submarine Power Cable, 567.
Cooperative Credit Associations, 919.
Cooperative Dairy Companies, 411.
Copper Fabricating Industry, 493.
Copper Ore, 485.
Cordial and Aerated-water Industry, 531.
Corn Crops, 426–427.
Correspondence Classes, 219, 230, 234.
Cosmetics, Manufacture of, 538.
Cost of Living, 702–716.
Costs —
Railway Construction, 330, 1122.
Roading, 341–345, 787.
Cotton Piece-goods, Imports of, 683.
Council, Consumer, 703–704.
Council, Dental, 146.
Council, Executive, 34.
Members of, 1086.
Council, Fire Service, 950.
Council for Educational Research, 241.
Council for Technical Education, 242.
Council, Legislative, Abolition of, 30.
Council, Medical, 145–146.
Council, Medical Research, 144–145.
Council of Adult Education, 243.
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, 417.
Counties, 38, 829–841.
Area of, 52–53.
Bridges in, 340.
Building Values, 558.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 312.
Debt, 834, 837, 1118.
Employees of, 841.
Milage of Roads, 339.
Population, 51–53.
County Towns, Area and Population of, 56.
Country Lands, Mortgages on, 909–910, 912 921.
Courts —
Appeal, 248–249, 252, 258, 1090.
Arbitration, 249, 955–957, 971, 1006, 1012–1015, 1090.
Bankruptcy, 1072.
Children's, 245–247, 259–261.
Compensation, 249, 1027–1029, 1090.
Divorce, 129–131.
Judges of, 1090.
Land Valuation, 249, 292, 310, 1090.
Magistrates', 249, 250–251, 259, 1105.
Maori Appellate, 303.
Maori Land, 303.
Supreme, 129–131, 249, 251, 256–257, 1105.
Cover, Fire, 945.
Cow Testing, 416, 420.
Cranes, Inspection of, 1041.
Crayfish, 473, 475, 476.
Exports of, 648, 650.
Cream, Consumption of, 732.
Cream Separators on Farms, 421.
Credit, Consumer, Survey of, 622–625.
Credit, Letters of, Post Office Savings Bank, 888.
Credit, Rural Intermediate, 919.
Creditors' Petitions, 1072.
Crematoria, 136.
Crews of Overseas Vessels, 64.
Crime, Law and, 248–267, 1105.
Criminals, Habitual, 264.
Crippled Children, 149, 232.
Crops, 286, 422–440, 1106.
Research, 417–419.
Crown Land, 287, 296–301, 789.
Crown Tenants, 297–299.
Cultivation, Area in, 286, 426–435.
Cultural Awards, 1068–1069.
Cupro-nickel Coinage, 901.
Currency and Banking, 865–905, 1119, 1120, 1187–1189.
Customary Land, 301.
Customs, Representatives Overseas, 1098.
Customs Tariff and Revenue, 693–701.
Customs Taxation, 693–701, 748, 783, 793, 796.

D

Dairy Cows, 422, 440, 441, 444–445, 1107, 1170.
Dairy Farms, 408, 445.
Dairy Industry, 395–400, 422, 444–445, 500, 528, 592–600, 875, 960, 984.
Dairy Produce, 408–410, 592–600.
Account, 603.
Bulk Purchases of, 586.
Carried on Railways, 337, 338.
Consumption of, 732.
Export of, 323, 585, 646–650, 663–664, 670, 671, 732, 1110.
Factories, 408–410, 528.
Grading of, 411, 417.
Gross Farming Income, 395–398.
Guaranteed Prices for, 595–600.
Levy on, 411.
Marketing of, 582–583.
Prices Paid for, 592–600, 1176.
Production of, 408–410, 528.
Subsidy on, 735, 736.
Dairy Production and Marketing Board, 410–411, 587, 595–600.
Dairying Machinery, 421–422.
Exports of, 651.
Damage (Earthquake and War) Insurance, 791, 953–954.
Daylight Saving, 1082.
Death Duties, 748, 783, 793, 806–811.
Estates Passed for, 809–811.
Death Penalty Abolished and Restored, 257.
Deaths, 80–81, 83, 92–123, 163–164, 339, 353, 355, 482, 1103.
Accidental (see Accidents).
Distribution Over Year, 96.
Due to Earthquakes, 8.
Foetal, 91.
From External Causes, 119–122.
From Puerperal Causes, 101, 102, 109, 117–119, 164.
In Cook Islands, 1049.
In Hospitals, 163–164.
In Mental Hospitals, 175.
In Niue Island, 1053.
Inquests on 123.
Neo-natal, 96, 110–112.
Of Friendly Society Members, 212.
Of Infants, 96–98, 109–115, 1103.
Of Insured Persons, 933–935.
Of Maoris, 80–81, 94–95, 107–109.
Of Servicemen Overseas, 93, 278.
Violent, 101, 102, 109, 119–121, 123, 353, 355, 482.
Debenture Tax, 797.
Debentures, 816, 835–838, 891, 1116.
Debits, Bank, 878.
Debt, Conversion of, 820–821.
Debt, Location of, 822, 838, 1116.
Debt of Local Government, 154, 827, 835–840, 1117, 1118, 1186.
Debt, Public, 784, 816–827, 1116.
Debtors' Petitions, 1072.
Deceased Persons' Estates, 809–811.
Decrees in Divorce, 129–131.
Deeds Registration, 289, 906.
Defence, 268–278.
Council, 268.
Expenditure on, 272, 274, 276, 749, 785.
Fund, 791–792.
Science, 268–269.
Degrees, University, 145, 238.
Demobilisation of Servicemen, 284.
Demography, 43–79, 1102, 1103.
Density of Population, 60.
Dental Benefits (Social Security), 140, 179, 196.
Dental Bursaries, 241.
Dental Services, Hygiene, etc., 139–140, 146–147, 196.
Dentistry Publications, 1141.
Department of Agriculture, 416–417.
Department of External Affairs, 23–24.
Department of Health, 132–133.
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, 417–419, 1132.
Departments, Government, 35, 1070, 1086, 1093–1094.
Departures (see Migration).
Dependants of Servicemen, Pensions for, 197–205.
Dependent Children, 76–77.
Dependent Children, Care of, 245–247.
Deposits —
By Insurance Companies, 931, 943.
Interest Rates on, 898–901.
With Building Societies, 900, 925, 927.
With Local Authorities, 901.
With Reserve Bank, 869.
With Savings Banks, 886–892, 1120.
With Stock and Station Agencies, 892.
With Trading Banks, 872–874, 897, 899, 1119.
With Trading Companies, 901
Depreciation Allowances, 519, 738, 746, 797.
Depreciation of New Zealand Currency, 903.
Desertion, 129, 131, 184.
Desertion, Ship, 253.
Designs, Registration of, 1072.
Detention, Reformative, 257, 262.
Diagnostic, Laboratory, Services, 196.
Diagnostic, X-ray, Services, 179, 195.
Diagrams and Graphs —
Aviation, Civil, 363.
By Monetary Areas, 774.
Changes in Overseas Direct Investment, 762, 776.
Expenditure, 743.
Private Outlay, 744.
Balance of Payments —
By Monetary Areas, 774.
Changes in Overseas Direct Investment, 762, 776.
Expenditure, 743.
Private Outlay, 744.
Banking, 873, 876, 880, 882.
Expenditure, 743.
Private Outlay, 744.
Building Permits, 556.
Expenditure, 743.
Private Outlay, 744.
Butterfat Production, 410.
Expenditure, 743.
Private Outlay, 744.
Dairy Produce, Prices and Sales of in United Kingdom, 594–595.
Expenditure, 743.
Private Outlay, 744.
Dairy Production, 410.
Expenditure, 743.
Private Outlay, 744.
Electricity Generation, 576.
Expenditure, 743.
Private Outlay, 744.
Exports, 629, 635, 647.
Expenditure, 743.
Private Outlay, 744.
Factory Production, 518.
Expenditure, 743.
Private Outlay, 744.
Farming Income, Gross, 397.
Expenditure, 743.
Private Outlay, 744.
Imports, 629, 635.
Expenditure, 743.
Private Outlay, 744.
Industrial Accidents, 1031.
Expenditure, 743.
Private Outlay, 744.
Infant Death Rates, 113.
Expenditure, 743.
Private Outlay, 744.
Life Assurance, 931, 938.
Expenditure, 743.
Private Outlay, 744.
Manufacturing Industries, 518.
Expenditure, 743.
Private Outlay, 744.
Mortgages, 915.
Expenditure, 743.
Private Outlay, 744.
Motor Vehicles Licensed, 347.
Expenditure, 743.
Private Outlay, 744.
Motor Spirits Consumption, 347.
Expenditure, 743.
Private Outlay, 744.
National Income and Expenditure —
Expenditure, 743.
Private Outlay, 744.
Note Circulation, 880.
Overseas Assets of Banks, 882.
Population, 48.
Price Indices, 708, 725.
Production, 410, 428, 518.
Pulp and Paper, etc., Production, 466.
Railways, Tonnage of Goods, etc., 338.
Rates of Interest on Mortgages, 915.
Retail Prices Indices, 708.
Retail Trade, 621.
School Population, 220.
Share Prices Indices, 725.
Taxation Revenue, 795.
Temperature Pattern, 14.
Timber Production, 464.
Trading Banks, 873, 876, 882.
Union Membership, 1009.
Vital Statistics, 84, 104.
Wheat Production, 428.
Wool Production, 415.
Dietitians, 147.
Diphtheria, 101, 102, 113, 114, 115, 134, 138, 158, 159.
Diplomas, 145, 221, 239.
Diplomatic Representatives, 1097–1101.
Directories and Encyclopaedias, 1134.
Disabilities from Industrial Accidents, 1030–1034.
Disability War Pensions, 204.
Disabled Servicemen, 197–205, 279–280.
Discharged Soldiers' Settlement, 278–284, 300, 923.
Discount Rates, 898–899.
Disease, Prevention of, 138.
Diseases, Notification of, 134, 158–161.
Diseases, Principal, Deaths from, 101, 102, 108–109, 163–164.
Diseases Treated in Hospitals, 162–165.
Diseases, Tropical, 1050.
Disengaged Persons, 999.
Displaced Persons, 67.
Disputes, Industrial, 1012–1024.
Distribution, Census of, 603–613.
Distribution of Population, 48–58.
By Ages, 58–59.
By Industries, 1002.
Distribution of Private Income, 751–756.
Distribution Statistics, 603–625.
District High Schools, 219, 228–231, 236, 1104.
Districts —
Electoral, 35–36, 1087.
Land, 287, 296.
List of Local, 39–40.
Roads Councils, 341.
Dividends, Bankruptcy, 1073.
Dividends, Taxation on, 797.
Dividends, Totalisator, 813.
Divorce, 129–131.
Divorced Persons Remarrying, 125–126.
Dogs, 447.
Domains, Public, 287–288.
Domestic Assistance, 179, 191, 196.
Domestic Trade, 603–625, 1176.
Domicile of Debt, 822, 838, 1116.
Drainage Boards, 39, 831–841.
Dredging, Gold, 485.
Drivers' Licences, 345.
Drowning Accidents, 119.
Drugs, 135, 193.
Drunkenness, 129, 131, 253, 254, 255, 258.
Ducks, 447.
Dunedin —
Building Values, 558.
Climate, 13, 15.
Population, 50, 51, 54.
Radio and Television Stations, 379–381.
Sales Tax Receipts, 815.
Shipping, 317, 320–324, 669, 692.
Trustee Savings Bank, 889–891.
University of Otago, 238.
Urban Transport, 357, 358.
Duties —
Customs and Excise, 693–701, 748, 783, 793, 796.
Death, 748, 783, 793, 806–811.
Gift, 793, 807–808.
On Instruments, 793, 812.
On Lottery Tickets, 812, 1077.
Stamp, 783, 793, 812.
Dwellings (see also Houses and Flats), 549.
Amenities of, 550–551.
Materials of Outer Walls, 551.
Means of Cooking, 550.
Tenure of, 550.

E

Earthquake and War Damage Insurance, 791, 953–954.
Earthquakes, 7–8.
Earths, Types of, 403–405.
Economic Pensions, 200.
Economic Stabilisation, 703.
Economics and Banking Publications, 1135–1136.
Education, 214–247, 1050, 1053, 1056, 1104.
Adult, 243–244.
Boards, 214.
Buildings, 223.
Buildings, Debt on, 819.
Commission on, 215.
Dental Health, 140.
Endowments, 223.
Expenditure on, 222–224, 233, 749, 785.
Of Ex-servicemen, 281, 284.
Of New Settlers, 244.
Pacific Islands, 244–245.
Physical, 150.
Publications, 1137.
Educational Association, Workers', 244.
Educational Research, 241–242.
Effective Weekly Wage-rates, 978, 1190.
Eggs, 448.
Consumption of, 734.
Marketing of, 590.
Retail Price of, 704.
Subsidy on, 736.
Elections, General, 31–32, 1081.
Representation Commission, 36.
Electoral Districts, 35–36, 1087.
Electoral Provisions, 35–36.
Electoral Qualifications, 37–38, 40–41.
Electors, Registration of, 37, 40.
Electric —
Motors on Farms, 421.
Power Boards, 39, 571, 573, 831–841, 1118.
Power, Development of, 564–567.
Power, Generation and Supply, 564–578.
Steam Stations, 483, 566–567.
Power in Manufacturing Industries, 511–512.
Power, Review of Operations, 572–578.
Railways, 330–332.
Supply Account, 788.
Tramways, 355, 358.
Electrical Machinery and Appliances Industry, 503, 504–525, 541.
Electricity, Consumption of, 564, 575–576.
Emergency Benefits, 178, 180, 182, 191.
Emergency Reserve Corps, 278.
Pensions for, 201, 203.
Emigration, 63–65.
Employees —
Cinemas, 390, 394.
Electric Supply, 572–574.
Farm, 1002.
Fire Brigade, 950.
Forest Industries, 469.
Government, 996–998.
Hospital Boards, 841.
In Industry, 990, 992–997.
Legislation Affecting, 955–966.
Local Government, 841, 996–997, 1004.
Manufacturing Industries, 495–508, 521, 527–543, 990, 992–997, 1002, 1114.
Mining, 482, 483.
Post Office, 377, 997.
Public Service, 1096.
Public Works, 1003.
Railway, 338–339, 997.
Retail Trading, 605.
Service Establishments, 610.
State Coal Mines, 483.
Unions of, 1006–1011.
Wholesale Trading, 609.
Employers, 1007, 1011.
Employers' Liability Insurance, 938–940, 952, 1025–1029.
Employers' Unions, 1007, 1010–1011.
Employment, 987–1005.
Employment Districts, Manufacturing Industries, Production in, 497.
Employment Placement Scheme, 998.
Employment Promotion, 987–989.
Taxation, 814, 973.
Employment, Seasonal Fluctuations in, 1002.
Employment Service, National, 987.
Employment, Subsidised, 987.
Employment, Survey of, 991–1000, 1193.
Employment Vacancies, 995, 998, 999.
Encyclopaedias and Directories, 1134.
Endowment Land, 297–300.
Endowments, Education, 223.
Enginedrivers' Certificates, 1041.
Engineering Industries, 541–543.
Engines —
Employed in Manufacturing Industries, 511–512.
Employed on Farms, 421.
Railway, 331, 332.
English and Maori Language Publications, 1143.
Ensilage (see Silage).
Entertainments Tax, 391, 393, 394, 793, 812, 814.
Erosion, 458.
Estate Duty, 793, 806–811.
Estates —
Administered by Public Trust Office, 1070–1071.
Assigned, 1072–1077.
Passed for Death Duty, 809–811.
European Economic Community, 584, 1150–1164.
Ewes, Breeding, 440.
Examinations —
Education Department, 221.
Electric-tram Drivers', 1041.
Enginedrivers', 1041.
Marine Officers', 327–328.
Medical, of School Children, 138.
Medical Practitioners, 145.
Teachers', 221.
Trades, 222.
University, 145, 221.
Exchange Allocation, 884–885.
Exchange (Currency), 903–904.
Control of, 636, 882, 903.
Expenditure on, 817.
New Zealand — London, 903–904.
Rates of, 903–904.
Reserve, 869, 880–882.
Exchange Transactions, Overseas, 636–638, 882–885, 1188.
Exchanges, Telephone, 372–374.
Excise Duties, 696–697, 748, 793, 796.
Executive Council, 34.
Members of, 1086.
Exemptions from Taxation —
Income Tax, 797–805, 854.
Land Tax, 805.
Ex-nuptial Infants —
Births of, 89–90.
Legitimation of, 90.
Protection of, 247.
Exotic Plantations, 453–454, 456–458.
Expectation of Life, 99–100.
Expeditionary Forces, 277, 1127, 1128.
Expenditure —
Air Force, 276, 785.
Army, 274, 785.
Audit of, 779–780.
Broadcasting and Television, 382.
Cinemas, 391.
Civil Aviation, 360.
Defence, 272, 274, 276, 749, 785.
Education, 222–224, 233, 749, 785.
Electric Power, 572–575, 577–578.
Forest Service, 462.
Government, 747–749, 779–792, 1115, 1182.
Health, 133, 785.
Insurance Companies, 934, 936, 939, 946–947, 951–954, 1124.
Local Government, 54, 571, 573, 750, 832–833, 1117, 1185.
Mental Hospitals, 175.
National, 737–757.
National Roads Fund, 342, 787.
Naval, 272, 785.
Post Office, 372, 374, 376–377.
Railway, 333–335, 787, 1122.
Rehabilitation, 281–284 785.
Roads, 342.
Urban Transport, 356–359.
War, 819.
Explosives, 1043.
Export Control, 587, 640–641.
Dairy Produce, 411, 587.
Honey, 590.
Meat, 587.
Export Licences, 640–641.
Export Prices, 592–595.
Index Numbers of, 719–72.
By Classes, 720.
By Commodity Groups, 20.
By Destination, 720.
Exports, 626–673, 698–699, 723–730, 766, 1108–1112, 1177–1178.
Apples, 649, 651, 667, 670, 671, 1111.
By Ports, 669.
By Section and Division, 651–653.
Casein, 649, 650, 666, 670, 671.
Classification of, 646–653.
Crayfish, 648, 650.
Currency Restrictions on, 901.
Dairy Produce, 323, 585, 640–650, 663–664, 670, 671, 732, 1110.
Destination of, 653–668.
Excess over Imports, 630.
Fats, 323, 649, 651, 664–665, 670, 671.
Fish, 475, 648, 650, 668, 670, 671.
Gold, 648, 650, 670, 671, 1110.
Hides, Skins and Pelts, 323, 646, 649, 650, 651, 665–666, 670, 671, 1112.
List of, 648–651.
Meat, 323, 585–586, 646–652, 660–662, 670, 671, 732, 1109.
Metal, Scrap, 649, 651.
Milk, Dried and Condensed, 649, 650, 664, 670, 671, 1111.
Newsprint, 648, 650, 668, 670, 671.
Receipts from, 883, 884.
Sausage Casings, 649, 650, 666, 670, 671.
Seeds (Grass and Clover), 649, 651, 567, 670, 671, 1111.
Specie, 640, 1108.
Timber, 323, 469–471, 648, 650, 668, 670, 671.
Valuation of, 631, 646.
Values, Index Numbers, 729.
Volume, Index Numbers, 639, 730.
Wood Pulp, 648, 650, 668, 670, 671.
Wool, 323, 646, 649, 651, 659–660, 670, 671, 1109.
External Affairs, Department of, 23–24.
External Migration, 63–67, 1102, 1165–1166.
External Trade, 626–701, 1108–1112, 1177–1179.

F

Factories, 489–543, 1114.
Accidents in, 1030–1037.
Act, 136, 957–958.
Classification of, 494–495, 500–503.
Classified by Size, 507–508.
Coal Consumed in, 512–513.
Dairy, 408–410, 528.
Employees, 495–508, 521, 527–543, 990, 992–997, 1002, 1114.
Fire Losses on, 950.
Registered, 495.
Summary of Operations, 524–543.
Factory Production, 399–401, 489–543, 1114, 1171–1175.
By Employment Districts, 497.
By Provincial Districts, 496.
Fakaofo Island, 2, 1055, 1056.
Fallow Land, 286, 425.
Family Benefits, 176, 178, 180, 182, 186–187, 805.
Capitalisation of, 178, 186, 546, 918.
Family Homes, Joint, 560.
Farm Employees, 1002.
Farm Employees, Wage-rates, etc., 960, 973, 974, 980, 982.
Farm Finance, Provision of, 281–284, 296–300, 875, 918–923.
Farm Holdings, 285–286.
Classification of, 407–403.
Farm Implements, 421–422.
Manufacture of, 543.
Farm Industry Reserves, 602–603.
Farm Loans for Ex-servicemen, 281–284.
Farm Machinery, 421–422.
Imports of, 676, 686, 688.
Farm Produce —
Consumption of, 398–399, 411, 412, 429, 732–735.
Export of, 323, 398–399, 646–652, 659–667, 670, 671, 1109–1112.
Marketing of, 581–603.
Farm Subsidies, 420–421.
Farm Training and Settlement of Discharged Servicemen, 280, 284, 300.
Farmers —
Advice for, 416–419.
Financial Assistance to, 293–294, 875, 918–923.
Mutual Insurance Associations, 950.
Farming, 395–449, 1170.
Farming Income, Gross, 395–398.
Farming Lands, Mortgages on, 909–910, 912, 921.
Fathers, Ages of, 86.
Fats Exported, 649, 651, 664–665, 670, 671, 1109.
Fauna, 1140.
Female Suffrage, 37, 1127.
Female Wage Rates, 970, 976–978, 981, 982.
Ferns, 1140.
Fertiliser Industry, 502, 537.
Fertiliser, Land Top-dressed with, 419–420.
Fertiliser Used in Aerial Top-dressing, 365.
Fertilisers, Imports of, 675, 687, 691.
Fertilisers, Subsidy on Transport of, 420.
Fever, Scarlet, 101, 102.
Fiction, List of Publications, 1145–1146.
Field Crops, 422–439.
Film Library, National, 237.
Film Unit, National, 1132.
Film-hire Tax, 783, 793, 814.
Finance and Investment, 906–930.
Finance, Farm, 281–284, 293–294, 296–300, 875, 918–923.
Finance, Government, 747–749, 779–827, 1115, 1116, 1182–1184.
Finance, Local Government, 152–155, 573, 749–750, 828–841, 1117–1118.
Hospital Boards, 152–155.
Fire Boards, 40, 831–841.
Fire Brigades, 459, 950.
Fire Districts, 455.
Fire Insurance, 943–950, 1124.
State, 823, 953.
Fire Losses, 945–950, 953.
Fire Prevention in Forests, 455, 459.
Fires on Vessels, 329.
First Births, 87–89.
Fish, 5, 472–477.
Canned —
Exports of, 475.
Imports of, 681, 690.
Consumption of, 734.
Exported, 475, 648, 650, 668, 670, 671.
Value of Production, 400, 473.
Fishing, Big-game, 477, 1066.
Fish-liver Oil, 476.
Fixed Deposits, 872, 899.
Flats, 549, 552.
Flax Lands, 287, 439.
Flax, Linen, 426, 439, 827.
Exports of, 649, 651.
Flax, Phormium (see Phormium).
Floating Debt, 817, 820.
Flogging Abolished, 257.
Flora, 1140.
Flour —
Consumption of, 734.
Production of, 529.
Subsidy, 736.
Fodder Crops, 429, 432–433.
Foetal Deaths, 91.
Fog Signals, 328.
Food and Drugs, Sale of, 135.
Food Consumption, 728–736.
Food Poisoning, 134, 158, 160.
Food Production, 500, 504–525, 527–531.
Food, Retail Prices of, 704, 706.
Food Subsidies, 735–736.
Footwear and Clothing, Retail Prices of, 704–705.
Footwear, Imports of, 675, 683, 690.
Footwear Industry, 501, 533, 985.
Foreign Vessels, 318.
Foreigners, Naturalisation of, 68–69.
Forest Fire Prevention, 455, 459.
Forest Produce Exported, 469–471, 648, 650, 668, 670, 671.
Forest Trees, 471.
Forestry, 450–472.
Persons Engaged in, 469, 996.
Publications, 1141–1142.
Research, 460–461.
Value of Production, 400.
Forty-hour Week, 957.
Fowls, 447.
Franchise, General Government, 37–38.
Franchise, Local Government, 40–41.
Freehold, Crown Land Made, 300.
Freehold Land, 287.
Freight —
Carried by Air Transport, 360–367.
Carried by Shipping, 314–326.
Carried by Trains, 336–338, 1122.
Subsidy, 420–421.
Train-miles, 337.
Frequency Rates of Accidents, 1030–1031.
Friendly Societies, 211–213.
Frost, 10, 12.
Fruit —
Consumption of, 733, 734.
Export of, 649, 651, 667, 670, 671, 1111.
Fixation of Prices of, 588, 590.
Imports of, 681, 690, 693.
Industry, 286, 436–438.
Fruit and Vegetable Preserving Industry, 500, 530–531.
Fuels and Lubricants, Imports of, 676, 677, 684, 691.
Funds of Public Account, 779–792.
Funeral and Sick Funds, 212.
Furniture and Fixtures Industry, 501, 504–525, 534.
Furniture Loans, 281, 284, 923.

G

Gaming Act, 812, 1077.
Gaols, Prisoners in, 264–266, 1105.
Gardens, Acreage in, 286, 435.
Gardens, Production in Home, 436.
Gas Boards, 831–841.
Gas Generation and Supply, 578–580.
Gas Price, 578.
Gas Subsidy, 578, 736.
Geese, 447.
General Assembly, 30–33, 1087.
Generating Stations, 565–570.
Geographic Board, 307.
Geographical Features, 2–6.
Geology, 7, 487–488.
Publications, 1139.
Geophysical Year, International, 1058.
Geothermal Steam, Electric Power Stations, 566–567.
Geysers, 2.
Gift Duty, 793, 807–808.
Glaciers, 4.
Glass and Glass Products Industry, 493, 502.
Gold, Discovery of, 5, 1125.
Gold Exported, 648, 650, 670, 671, 1110.
Gold Mining and Production, 5, 485.
Gold Reserve, 869.
Gonorrhoea, 134, 163.
Goods Available for Use, 728–731.
Goods Carried on Railways, 336–338, 1122.
Goods, Dangerous, 1043.
Goods-service Licences, 348–350.
Government and Public Administration Publications, 1137.
Government Departments, 35, 1070, 1086, 1093–1094.
Government Finance, 747–749, 779–827, 1115, 1116, 1182–1184.
Government Housing, 544, 551–554, 786, 819, 920.
Government Insurance, 951–954.
Government Marketing, 586.
Government Railways, 329–339, 1122.
Industrial Tribunal, 339, 964.
Superannuation Fund, 205.
Government Representatives Overseas, 1097–1099.
Government Roads, 343–344.
Government Sector, Accounts of the, 757.
Government Service Tribunal Act, 964.
Government Superannuation Fund, 205–207.
Government, System of, 30–35.
Governments, Provincial, 38.
Governor-General, 1084.
Powers, Duties, etc., 29.
Grading of —
Dairy Produce, 411, 417.
Public Servants, 1095, 1096.
Graduates, University, 239.
Grain Crops, 426–430, 1106.
Grain Milling, 500, 529, 979, 984.
Grapes and Vineyards, 434, 436.
Graphs (see Diagrams).
Grass and Clover Seed, 424, 425, 426, 433–434.
Exports of, 649, 651, 667, 670, 671, 1111.
Grass Lands, 286, 287, 405, 419, 425.
Grassland Research in New Zealand, 1132.
Gravel and Sand, 478.
Greenstone, 487.
Groceries, Retail Prices of, 704.
Gross Farming Income, 395–398.
Gross Indebtedness, 817–818, 1116.
Of Local Government, 827, 835–837, 1117.
Of Local Government to Government Departments, 836.
Gross National Product, 738–742.
Gross Reproduction Rate, 44.
Guaranteed Prices for Dairy Produce, 595–600.
Guidance, Vocational, 232, 988.
Gum, Kauri, 487.
Exported, 487, 648, 650, 670, 671.

H

Half-castes, 62, 92.
Ham and Bacon, Consumption of, 733.
Ham and Bacon Curing, 500, 528.
Harbour Boards, 40, 831–841, 1118.
Harbour Bridge Authority, 40, 831–841.
Harbour-ferry Services, 348–350.
Harbours (see also Ports), 2.
Hardwoods Imported, 469.
Harvesters, Header, 422.
Harvests, 422–439, 1106.
Hay, 433.
Heads of Government Departments, 1093–1094.
Health Camps, 138, 149.
Health, Child, 137–139.
Health, Dental, 139–140.
Health, Department of, 132–133, 1039.
Health Education, 140–141.
Health Insurance, 176, 187–197.
Health, Occupational, 136–137.
Health, Public, 132–175.
Hearing Aids, 197.
Heavy Traffic Fees, 342, 348.
Hepatitis, 134, 158, 159, 160.
Herd Testing, 416.
Hides, Skins, and Pelts Exported, 323, 646, 649, 650, 651, 665–666, 670, 671, 1112.
High Commissioners, 1097–1099.
High Schools, 219, 228–231, 236, 1104.
Higher Education, 219, 238–241, 1104.
Highways, 343–344.
Taxation, 341–342, 793, 796.
Hire Purchase Trading, 606, 623–625.
Historic Places Trust, National, 1069–1070.
History, Early and From 1870, 16–19.
History of New Zealand, 16–19, 1125–1130.
History, Regional and Local, Publications on, 1148.
Hoes, Rotary, and Garden Tractors, 421.
Holdings (see Land Holdings).
Holidays, 957, 958, 959, 960, 1083.
Home Economics Publications, 1142.
Home Garden Vegetable Production, 436.
Home Lay-by Accounts, Post Office Savings
Bank, 888.
Home-nursing Services, 196.
Homes, Children's, 246.
Homicide, 101, 102, 109, 119, 123, 257.
Honey, 449.
Consumption of, 734.
Exported, 449, 649, 650, 670, 671.
Marketing of, 590–591.
Honours Conferred, 1090–1092.
Hops, 438, 531.
Exports of, 649, 651.
Horse-racing, 812–814, 1194.
Horses, 408, 440, 441, 447, 1107.
Exported, 649, 651.
Horticulture, 408, 417, 434.
Hosiery and Other Knitting Mills, 532.
Hosiery, Imports of, 682, 690.
Hospital Benefits, 178, 193–197.
Hospital Boards, 40, 151–157, 194.
Employees of, 841.
Employees' Superannuation, 208–209.
Finances of, 152–155.
Indebtedness of, 827.
Levies on Local Government, 153, 832.
Hospital Districts, 151.
Hospitals, 151–158, 161–166, 194–197, 1050, 1053.
Accommodation of, 155–156.
Maternity, 141, 157, 195.
Mental, 167–175, 194.
Private, 156–157, 179, 194, 195.
Public, 161–166, 179, 195.
St. Helens, 141, 157.
Staff of, 841.
Hostels, 987.
Hot Springs, 2.
Hotels and Restaurants, Fire Losses on, 950.
Hotels, Licensed, 1064–1065, 1077–1081.
Hourly Wage Rates, 974–975.
Hours of Labour, 523–524, 957, 959–963, 982–986.
House of Representatives, 30–33, 1087.
Broadcast of Proceedings of, 380.
Members of, 1087.
House Rents, 560–563.
Houses and Flats, 544–563.
Advances for, 281–284, 916–923.
Census Enumerations, 549–551.
Completed, 552–553, 559–560.
Fire Losses on, 950.
Maori, 284, 551–552.
Rents, 560–563.
Sale of State, 920.
State, 544, 552–554.
Housing, 544–563, 786, 916–923.
Conference, 544.
Debt, 819.
Group Building Scheme, 544.
Home Lay-by Scheme, 546.
Of Ex-servicemen, 281–284.
Of Maoris, 284, 551–552.
State, 544, 551–554, 786, 819, 920.
Hungarian Refugees, 67.
Hunting, 1066.
Hydatids, 134, 135, 158, 159–160.
Hydro-electric Power, 4, 5, 565–570.
Development of, 564–566.
Hygiene —
Environmental, 135.
Industrial, 136.
Mental, 167.
Social, 134.

I

Ice-cream, Consumption of, 732.
Ice-cream Industry, 500, 529.
Illegitimacy (see Ex-nuptial).
Immigration, 63–67, 987, 1102.
Assisted, 65–66.
Hostels, 987.
Restriction on, 67–68.
Implements, Farm, 421–422.
Manufacture of, 543.
Import Control and Licences, 640–643.
Cook Islands, 1051.
Import Price Indices, 722, 726, 727.
Importers, Bank Advances to, 875.
Imports, 626–643, 673–693, 698–699, 728–730, 766, 1108, 1177, 1179.
By Ports, 692.
Cook Islands, 1051.
Classification of, 673–678.
Cook Islands, 1051.
Currency, Restrictions on, 901.
Cook Islands, 1051.
Excess of Exports over, 630.
Cook Islands, 1051.
Free and Dutiable, 693–701.
Cook Islands, 1051.
Licensing and Control of, 640–643.
Cook Islands, 1051.
List of, 681–691.
Cook Islands, 1051.
Origin of, 678–689.
Cook Islands, 1051.
Payments on Account of, 883, 884.
Cook Islands, 1051.
Purpose or Use of, 673–678.
Cook Islands, 1051.
Restrictions on, 640–643.
Cook Islands, 1051.
Specie, 640, 901, 1108.
Valuation of, 631, 673.
Value of, Index Numbers, 729.
Volume of, Index Numbers, 639, 730.
Income —
Company, 742–756, 843, 855–862.
Gross Farming, 395–398.
National, 737–757.
Of Individuals, 843–857.
Personal, 742, 743.
Private, 738–744, 751–756.
Returnable, 843 856, 857.
Income Tax, 748, 783, 793, 796–805, 842–864.
Increase of Population, 43–44, 48–50, 80–81, 83.
Indebtedness of Local Government, 154, 827 835–840, 1117–1118.
Indebtedness, State, 816–827, 1116.
Index Numbers —
Consumers' Price, 709–716.
By Classes, 720.
By Commodity Groups, 720.
By Destination, 720.
Value and Volume, 401, 522–523.
Value and Volume, 401, 522–523.
Farm, Value and Volume of, 397, 401.
Manufacturing Industries, Value and Volume of, 401, 522–523.
Deaths, Sex-ratio, 94.
By Classes, 720.
By Commodity Groups, 720.
By Destination, 720.
Value and Volume, 401, 522–523.
Value and Volume, 401, 522–523.
Farm, Value and Volume of, 397, 401.
Manufacturing Industries, Value and Volume of, 401, 522–523.
Electricity Generated, 564.
By Classes, 720.
By Commodity Groups, 720.
By Destination, 720.
Value and Volume, 401, 522–523.
Value and Volume, 401, 522–523.
Farm, Value and Volume of, 397, 401.
Manufacturing Industries, Value and Volume of, 401, 522–523.
Export Prices, 719–721, 726, 727.
By Classes, 720.
By Commodity Groups, 720.
By Destination, 720.
Value and Volume, 401, 522–523.
Value and Volume, 401, 522–523.
Farm, Value and Volume of, 397, 401.
Manufacturing Industries, Value and Volume of, 401, 522–523.
Factory Production —
Value and Volume, 401, 522–523.
Value and Volume, 401, 522–523.
Farm, Value and Volume of, 397, 401.
Manufacturing Industries, Value and Volume of, 401, 522–523.
Farm Production, Value and Volume, 397, 401.
Value and Volume, 401, 522–523.
Farm, Value and Volume of, 397, 401.
Manufacturing Industries, Value and Volume of, 401, 522–523.
Gross Farming Income, 397.
Value and Volume, 401, 522–523.
Farm, Value and Volume of, 397, 401.
Manufacturing Industries, Value and Volume of, 401, 522–523.
Hours of Labour, 986.
Value and Volume, 401, 522–523.
Farm, Value and Volume of, 397, 401.
Manufacturing Industries, Value and Volume of, 401, 522–523.
House Rent, 709.
Value and Volume, 401, 522–523.
Farm, Value and Volume of, 397, 401.
Manufacturing Industries, Value and Volume of, 401, 522–523.
Import Prices, 722, 726, 727.
Value and Volume, 401, 522–523.
Farm, Value and Volume of, 397, 401.
Manufacturing Industries, Value and Volume of, 401, 522–523.
Manufacturing Industries Production —
Value and Volume, 401, 522–523.
Farm, Value and Volume of, 397, 401.
Manufacturing Industries, Value and Volume of, 401, 522–523.
Private Income, 752, 756.
Farm, Value and Volume of, 397, 401.
Manufacturing Industries, Value and Volume of, 401, 522–523.
Production, 397, 401, 1171.
Farm, Value and Volume of, 397, 401.
Manufacturing Industries, Value and Volume of, 401, 522–523.
Retail Prices, 707–716, 726, 727.
Share Prices, 723–727.
Value of Goods Available for Use, 729.
Value of Imports, 729.
Value of Production, 397, 401–402.
Volume of Exports, 639, 730.
Volume of Goods Available for Use, 729, 730.
Volume of Imports, 639, 730.
Volume of Production, 397, 401–402, 522–523
Volume of Trade, 639.
Wage Rates, 971–978, 986.
Wholesome Prices, 716–719, 726, 727.
Wool Prices, 591.
Indigenous Forests, 287, 453.
Industrial Accidents, 1025–1037.
Compensation Paid, 1030–1032.
Frequency and Severity Rates, 1030.
Nature and Location of, 1035.
Time Charge of, 1036.
Industrial Associations, 1010–1011.
Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration, 955–956, 1006–1015, 1022.
Industrial Development Conference, 492.
Industrial Distribution of Population, 1002.
Industrial Efficiency, 491.
Industrial Hygiene, 136.
Industrial Relations Act, 1015.
Industrial Unions, 1006–1011.
Industries —
Bank Advances to, 875.
Classification of, 494–495, 500–503.
Licensing of, 491.
Manufacturing, 399–401, 489–543, 1114, 1171–1175.
Industry —
Earnings and Hours Worked in, 982–986.
Fatigue in, 1036.
Organisation of, 521–522.
Persons Engaged in, 495–508, 521, 527–543, 990, 992–997.
Power, and Technology Publications, 1141.
Sector Accounts, 778.
State Aid to, 921, 922.
Industry Groups of Bankrupts, 1074–1075.
Infancy, Diseases of, 101, 102, 113–115, 164.
Infant Mortality, 96–98, 109–115, 1103.
Maori, 109–110, 114–115.
Infantile Paralysis (Poliomyelitis), 101, 102, 108, 113, 114, 115, 134, 158, 159.
Infectious Diseases —
Control of, in Schools, 138.
Deaths from, 101, 102, 108, 163.
Hospital Cases, 163.
Notification of, 134, 158–161.
Injuries (see Accidents).
Inquests, 92, 123.
Insanity, 129, 130, 131, 167–175.
Insolvency, 971, 1072–1077, 1123.
Instalment Sales, 623,
Instruments, Duty on, 793, 812.
Instruments, Registration of, 289.
Insurance, 931–954, 1124.
Accident, 938–942, 1124.
Earthquake and War Damage, 791, 953–954.e
Fire, 943–950, 1124.
In Manufacturing Industries, 519.
Life, 931–938, 951–952, 1124.
Motor-vehicles, Third-party Risks, 938–942.
State, 951–954.
Inter-Industry Studies and Sector Accounts, 778.
Interest —
Credited by Savings Banks, 886, 889–892, 1120.
On Local Government Debt, 154, 750, 838, 840.
On Mortgages, 911–915, 919.
On Post Office Capital Liability, 376, 783.
On Public Debt, 738, 742, 749, 784, 824–825.
On Railways Capital Liability, 333.
Payments Overseas, 824.
Payments to Consolidated Fund, 783.
Rates (see Rates of Interest).
Reduction of, 898–901.
Intermediate Credit, Rural, 919.
Intermediate Schools, 215–216, 219, 226, 227, 233, 236.
International Activities, New Zealand's, 20–29, 1132.
International Air Services, 365–367.
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 865.
International Finance Corporation, 865.
International Geophysical Year, 1058.
International Investment Income, 883.
International Monetary Fund, 865.
International Refugee Organisation, 67.
Intoxicating Liquor —
Duty on, 695, 696, 697, 793, 796.
Sale of, 1077–1081.
Invalid's Benefits, 178, 180, 182, 187–188.
Investment Accounts, Post Office Savings Bank, 888.
Investment and Finance, 906–930.
Investment Certificates, 816.
Investment in New Zealand and Overseas, 774–778.
Investment Pool, National Provident Fund, 209.
Investment Societies, 923–927.
Deposits, 901, 925–927.
Investments, Reserve Bank, 869.
Investments, State, 819, 823.
Invisable Imports and Exports, 882–884.
Iron and Steel, Imports of, 685, 691.
Iron and Steel Industry, 492–493.
Iron Ores and Ironsands, 478, 484.
Irrigation, 1003.
Island Territories, 2, 43, 1046–1060.
Islands —
Administered on Trust, 1059–1060.
Annexed, 1046–1056.
Outlying, 1, 1046–1047.

J

Joinery Industry, 501, 534.
Joint Family Homes, 560.
Joint-stock Companies, 861, 928–930.
In Manufacturing Industries, 521.
Journal of Agriculture, 417, 419.
Journal, School, 237, 1046.
Judiciary, 35, 248–249.
Members of, 1090.
Superannuation of, 206.
June Year Exports, 632, 669–671.
June Year Imports, 632.
Juries, 249–250.
Justice, 248–267, 784, 1105, 1194.
Justices of the Peace, 252.
Juvenile Offenders, 245–247, 259–261.
Juvenile Wage-rates, 981–982, 986.

K

Kale, 426, 433.
Kauri Gum, 487
Exported, 487, 648, 650, 670, 671.
Kea, Destruction of, 420.
Kermadec Islands, 1, 43, 1047.
Kindergarten Schools, 215, 219, 224.
Knitting Mills and Hosiery Industry, 532.

L

Laboratory Diagnostic Services, 179, 196.
Labour Department of, 987, 988, 991–1000, 1038–1039.
Labour Disputes Investigation Act, 1015.
Labour Force, 990, 1192.
Projections, 990–991.
Labour, Hours of, 523–524, 957, 959–963, 982–986.
Labour Laws and Working Conditions, 955–966.
Lakes, 5–6, 565–566.
Lambs, Consumption of, 412, 732, 733.
Lamb Exported, 585, 670, 671, 732.
Lamb Produced, 412, 413.
Lambs, 440, 441, 1170.
Slaughtered, 413, 527.
Land Act, 296–300.
Land Development, 296–301, 304.
Land Districts, 287, 296.
Land Drainage Districts, 39, 831–841.
Land for Ex-servicemen, 280, 300.
Land Holdings, 285–286.
Classification by Farm Types, 407–408.
Mortgages on, 906–910, 921.
Land, Marginal, 293–294.
Land, Occupation of, 285–287, 405.
Land, Purchase of, 296–301.
Land Sales, Control of, 292.
Land Settlement, 285–304.
Land Settlement Account, 789.
Land Settlement Board, 296.
Land Settlement Promotion Act, 292–293.
Land Surveys, 305–308.
Land Tax, 748, 783, 793, 805–806.
Land Tenure and Settlement, 285–304.
Land Titles, Registration of, 289.
Land Transfers, 289–292, 1194.
Land, Valuation of, 308–313.
Lands Open for Selection, 297.
Language, Maori and English Publications, 1143.
Latest Statistical Information, 1165–1194.
Law and Crime, 248–267, 1105.
Law, Mortgage, 906–907.
Law Publications, 1136–1137.
Law, Revision of, 248.
Laws Affecting Labour, 955–966.
Laws Enacted in 1961, 1088–1090.
Leasehold Landholdings, 287, 297–300.
Leases, Renewable, 296–299.
Leather and Leather Products Industry, 502, 504–525, 536.
Legacy Duty, 806–811.
Legal Tender, 902.
Legations, 1099–1101.
Legislation —
Labour and Allied, 955–966.
Passed in 1961, 1088–1090.
Legislative Authority, 30–33.
Legislative Council, Abolition of, 30.
Legitimation, 90.
Letter Boxes, 370.
Letter Telegrams, 373.
Letters, etc., Posted, 369, 370, 1121.
Letters of Credit, Post Office Savings Bank, 888.
Levies by Fire Authorities, 946.
Levies by Hospital Boards, 153, 832.
Levy —
Coal Production, 484, 1042.
Dairy Produce, 411.
Electric Power, 571.
Honey, 590.
Orchard, 436.
Potato, 431.
Totalisator, 812, 813.
Vegetable Growers, 435.
Wool, 416, 588.
Liabilities of —
Bankrupts, 1073–1076, 1123.
Banks, 869, 871, 1119.
Building Societies, 927.
Electric-power Undertakings, 575.
Fire Insurance Companies, 943–944.
Friendly Societies, 212.
Life Assurance Companies, 937.
Local Government, 834, 1185.
Reserve Bank, 869.
Libraries, Publications on, 1134.
Library, Alexander Turnbull, 1132.
Library, School, 244.
Library Services, 222, 244, 263, 385–389.
Licences —
Aerodrome, 368.
By Local Authorities, 831.
Drivers', 345.
Export, 640–641.
Fishing, 477.
Fishing Vessels, 472.
Flight Crew, etc., 368.
Import, 640–643.
Motor Vehicle, 345–346.
Petroleum Prospecting, 486.
Publicans', 1078–1080.
Radio and Television, 383–384.
Raffle, 1077.
Ross Sea Whaling, 1059.
Transport, 348–351.
Licensing, 1077–1081.
Authority, 348–350.
Control Commission, 1078–1081.
Poll, 1082.
Trusts, 1080–1081.
Licensing of —
Commercial Air Services, 360.
Industries, 491.
Lotteries, 1077.
Motor Vehicles, 345–348.
Private Hospitals, 156.
Sale of Alcoholic Liquor, 1077–1081.
Liens, Contractors', 970.
Life Assurance, 931–938, 951–952, 1124.
Death-rates, 936.
State, 951–952.
Life, Expectation of, 99–100.
Lifts, Inspection of, 1041.
Lighthouses, 328.
Lignite, 478, 479, 481.
Lime Industry, 502.
Lime, Land Top-dressed with, 419–420.
Lime, Subsidy on Transport of, 420.
Limestone, 478.
Lincoln College, 217, 219, 241.
Linen Flax, 426, 439, 500, 827.
Exports of, 649, 651.
Linseed, 426, 432.
Liquor Licensing, 1077–1081.
Literary Awards, 1068–1069.
Literature, New Zealand, 1068–1069, 1133–1149.
Livestock, 440–449, 1107.
Carried on Railways, 336–337.
Slaughterings of, 413.
Loans —
Allocation of, 819.
By Building Societies, 923–927.
Conversion of, 820–821.
Dates of Maturity of, 820–821.
Domicile of, 822, 838, 1116.
Guaranteed, 818.
National Development, 790–791, 821.
Of Hospital Boards, 154.
Of Local Government, 154, 828, 835–840, 1117, 1118.
On Assurance Policies, 937, 952.
Raised for War Purposes, 819.
Redemption of, 784, 788, 820–821, 832.
Rehabilitation, 281–284, 918, 923.
State Advances, 544–546, 916–923.
Supplementary, 282, 921, 922.
Suspensory, 282, 917, 921, 922.
Local Government, 38–41, 151–157, 571, 573, 749–750, 828–841, 1117–1118, 1185–1186.
Advances to, 344–345, 918–923.
Assets of, 834–835.
Borrowing, 828.
Commission, 40.
Debt of, 154, 827, 835–840, 1117–1118.
Deposits with, 901.
Employees of, 841, 996–997, 1004.
Expenditure of, 154, 571, 573, 750, 832–833, 1117.
Finance, 828–841, 1185–1186.
Forestry, 462.
History of, 38.
Housing by, 545.
Investment Pool, 209.
Levies on, by Hospital Boards, 153, 832.
Liabilities of, 834.
Obligations under Health Act, 132.
Receipts of, 153, 573, 750, 830–832, 1117.
Registered Stock, 835.
Roading, 344.
Superannuation, 208.
Taxation by, 750, 816, 828–831.
Urban Transport Operated by, 355–359.
Local Railway Board, 39, 831–841.
Lockouts, 1012–1015.
Locomotives, 331, 332.
Lodges, Friendly Societies, 211–213.
London Prices for Dairy Produce, 593–595.
London Prices for Meat, 600–601.
Losses from Fire, 945–950, 953.
In Forests, 459.
Lotteries, 1077.
Duty on, 812, 1077.
Lubricants and Fuels, Imports of, 676, 677, 684, 691.
Lucerne, 426.
Lump-sum Payments, 738.

M

Machinery —
Accidents, 1034.
Farm, 421–422.
Imports of, 675, 686, 688.
Industry, 503, 504–525, 543.
Manufacturing Industries, 511–512, 520.
Safety of, 1038–1039.
Magistrates, Stipendiary, 249.
Superannuation of, 206.
Mails, 369–371, 1121.
Air, 360–367, 370.
Maize, 426, 427.
Malaya, Federation of, Reciprocal Trade with, 699.
Malting Barley, 430.
Malting Industry, 500.
Management and Business Publications, 1143.
Mangaia Island, 2, 1047, 1049.
Manganese Ore, 478, 485.
Mangolds, 426.
Manihiki Island, 2, 1048, 1049.
Manuae Islands, 2, 1048, 1049.
Manufacturing Industries, 399–401, 489–543, 1114, 1171–1175.
By Employment Districts, 497, 1173–1174.
By Provincial Districts, 496.
Classification of, 500–503.
Coal Consumed in, 512–513.
Persons Engaged in, 495–508, 521, 527–543, 990, 992–997, 1002.
Registered, 495.
Stocks, 520–521.
Summary of Operations, 524–543.
Manure Industry, 537.
Manures, Imports of, 673, 687, 691.
Manures, Land Top-dressed with, 419–420.
Manures Used for Aerial Top-dressing, 365.
Maori Affairs, Board of, 302.
Maori and English Language Publications, 1143.
Maori Education Foundation, 243.
Maori Electorates, 1087.
Maori Housing, 284, 551–552.
Maori Lands, 301–304.
Maori Trustee, 303–304, 823.
Maori Welfare, 1069–1070.
Maoris —
Births of, 80, 91.
Children Attending Schools, 219, 227–229, 232, 233.
Deaths of, 80–81, 94–95, 107–109.
Employment, 987.
Expectation of Life, 100.
Franchise, 37.
Half-castes, 62, 92.
In Prisons, 259, 265.
Infant Mortality of, 109–110, 114–115.
Members of Parliament, 32, 1087.
Natural Increase of, 81.
Offences by, 258–259.
Population, 43, 59, 61–62, 1165.
Publications on, 1138.
Rehabilitation of, 280, 284.
Schools for, 217, 222, 224, 227–229, 232, 233.
Sex Proportions of, 60.
Still-births, 91.
Map of New Zealand (End of Volume).
Maps and Charts, 307–308.
Maps, Factory Production, 498–499.
Maps, Geological, 488.
Maps, Rainfall, 11.
Maps Showing Mineral Resources, 479.
Maps Showing Power Stations, etc., 569, 570.
Marine Department, Occupational Safety, 1039–1041.
Marine Officers' Certificates, 327–328, 963.
Marital Status, 75–76, 125–126.
Market Gardens, 434–435, 960.
Marketing of Primary Produce, 581–603.
Marriages, 81, 123–131, 1103.
Masculinity Rate, 85, 91.
Masseurs (see Physiotherapists).
Massey College, 217, 219, 241.
Materials Used in Manufacturing Industries, 495–499, 513–514, 521, 525–543, 1114.
Maternal Mortality, 101, 102, 109, 118–119, 164.
Maternal Welfare, 141.
Maternity Benefits, 157, 178, 179, 194–195.
Maternity Hospitals, 141, 155, 157, 195.
Maternity Nurses, 146, 157, 195.
Maternity Services, 157–158, 194–195.
Maturity Dates of Loans, 820–821.
Mauke Island, 2, 1048, 1049.
Mean Population, 45, 402, 1102.
Mean Time, 1082.
Measures and Weights, 305, 425.
Meat —
Bulk-purchase of, 586.
Consumption of, 411, 412, 732, 733, 735.
Export Control, 587.
Export of, 323, 585–586, 646–652, 660–662, 670, 671, 1109.
Export Price Index, 720.
Freezing and Preserving Industry, 500, 527, 875.
Industry Reserve Account, 603.
Inspection of, 416.
Marketing of, 581–582, 587–588.
Prices for, 587, 600–602.
Production, 411–414, 527–528, 1113.
Retail Prices of, 704.
Meat Producers Board, 587, 601.
Medical Advertisements, 136.
Medical Benefits, 178, 179, 193.
Medical Bursaries, 241.
Medical Council, 145–146.
Medical Practitioners, 145, 193.
Medical Publications, 1141.
Medical Research Council, 144–145.
Medical Services, 132–175, 193–197.
In Cook Islands, 1050.
In Niue Island, 1053.
Medical Statistics, 144, 158–166, 212.
Medicine, Physical, 142–143.
Members of Parliament, 30–33, 1087.
Superannuation of, 33, 206.
Meningitis, 134.
Meningococcal Infections, 101, 102, 108, 113, 114, 115, 158.
Mental Health and Psychology Publications, 1134.
Mental Hospitals, 167–175, 194.
Mercantile Marine, 278, 314–326.
Pensions, 201, 203.
Merchandise, Exports of, 626–673, 698–699, 728–730, 766, 1108–1112, 1177–1178.
Merchandise, Imports of, 626–643, 673–693, 698–699, 728–731, 766, 1108, 1177, 1179.
Merchandise Transhipped, 321–325.
Mercury, 485.
Metal Products Industry, 503, 504–525, 543.
Metal, Scrap, Exports of, 649, 651.
Meteorology, 8–15.
Cook Islands, 1047.
Niue Island, 1052.
Midwives, 143, 146, 157, 195.
Migration, External, 63–67, 1102, 1165–1166.
Child, 66.
Milage of —
Bus, etc., Routes, 357, 358.
Commercial Air Services, 361–362, 366.
Highways, 343.
Railways, 329–330, 339, 1122.
Roads, 339.
Milage Tax, 783, 793.
Military Colleges, 273.
Military Forces, 272–274.
Military Pensions, 197–205.
Milk —
Boards, 39, 831–841.
Consumption, 732, 735.
Control of Prices and Sale of, 589–590.
Dried and Condensed, Exports of, 649, 650, 664, 670, 671, 1111.
Dried and Condensed, Production of, 410.
Examination and Testing of, 411, 417.
For School Children, 234.
Marketing of, 589–590.
Subsidy, 736.
Milk Products (see Dairy Produce).
Milking Machines, 422.
Minerals and Mineral Production, 478–488.
Miners' Benefits, 178, 180, 182, 188–189, 484.
Miners' Phthisis, 188.
Mining, 478–488, 819.
Accidents, 121, 482, 483, 1032, 1033.
Disputes, 1020, 1021.
Legislation, 962–963.
Persons Engaged in, 482, 483, 996.
Produce Exported, 648, 650, 670, 671.
Value of Production, 400, 478.
Ministers of Each Church, and Marriages by, 128–129.
Ministers Plenipotentiary, 1099–1101.
Ministries, Successive, 1084–1085.
Minors, Marriages of, 128.
Mission Schools, 1056.
Mitiaro Island, 2, 1048, 1049.
Monarch, The, 29.
Monetary and Economic Council, 704, 865.
Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems, Royal
Commission on, 865, 1132.
Monetary Benefits, Social Security, 178–193, 790.
Money Orders Issued and Paid, 371, 372, 1121.
Money, Volume of, in Circulation, 897–898.
Morbidity, 158–166, 212.
Mortality (see Deaths).
Mortgage Exemption, 805.
Mortgagee, Rights of, 907.
Mortgages, 906–916, 921, 937, 1194.
Rates of Interest on, 911–915, 919.
State Advances, 916–923.
Mothers, Ages of, 86, 87, 89.
In Ex-nuptial Cases, 90.
Mothers, Average Issue of, 87.
Mothers, Previous Issue of, 87.
Motive Power in Manufacturing Industries, 511–512.
Motor Body Building and Repairs Industry, 542.
Motor Spirits —
Consumption of, 347.
Imports of, 688, 691.
Retail Price of, 706.
Taxation on, 342, 348, 695, 796.
Motor Transport, 334, 345–359.
Motor Vehicles —
Accidents, 101, 102, 109, 119, 120, 351–355.
Assembly of, 503, 541–542.
Drivers' Licences, 345.
Duty on, 695.
Imports of, 688, 691.
Insurance, 938–942.
Methods of Purchasing, 624.
Post Office, 377.
Registration and Licensing of, 345–348, 1169.
Repairs Industry, 503.
Taxation, 341, 695, 748, 796.
Traffic Offences, 253, 254–255, 352.
Motor Vessels Registered, 327.
Motor-engineering Industry, 541–542.
Motorways, 344.
Mountains, 2–3.
Multiple Births, 85–86.
Murder, 96, 101, 102, 109, 119, 123, 257.
Abolition and Restoration of Death Penalty for, 257.
Museums, 237, 1068.
Mussels, 473, 475.
Mutton, Consumption of, 412, 732, 733.
Mutton Exported, 585, 670, 671, 732.
Mutton Produced, 411, 412, 527.
Mutual Insurance Associations, 950.

N

Nassau Island, 2, 1048, 1049.
Nassella Tussock Boards, 40, 831–841.
National Accounts, 737–778.
National Airways Corporation, 360–362, 783, 819, 827.
National Council of Adult Education, 243.
National Development Loans, 790–791, 821.
National Employment Service, 987.
National Film Library, 237.
National Film Unit, 1132.
National Health Institute, 144.
National Historic Places Trust, 1069–1070.
National Income and Expenditure, 737–757.
National Library Service, 222, 263, 385–387.
National Licensing Polls, 1082.
National Military Service Act, 269.
National Provident Fund, 208–210, 823.
National Roads Board, 340–342, 796.
National Roads Fund, 340–342, 786–787, 796, 1184.
National Safety Association, 1045.
National Savings, 816–817, 823, 891–892, 1189.
Nationality, 68–69.
Of Naturalised Persons, 70.
Of Overseas Shipping, 317–318.
Of Registered Aliens, 70–72.
Native Animals, 1140.
Native Bush, 287, 450–456.
Native Fresh-water Fishes, 477.
Native Grasses, 1140.
Natural Increase of Population, 49, 81, 83–84, 1165.
Naturalisation, 68–69, 1194.
Nauru Island, 1059–1060.
Naval Defence, 269–272, 277.
Naval Expenditure, 272, 785.
Neo-natal Deaths, 96, 110, 112.
Nephrite, 487.
Net Note Circulation, 879–880.
Net Reproduction Rate, 44.
New Zealand and the European Economic Community, 1150–1164.
New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation, 237, 378–383, 823.
New Zealand Dairy Production and Marketing Board, 410–411, 587, 595–600.
New Zealand Electricity Department, 564, 1003.
Occupational Safety, 1042.
New Zealand Forest Products Ltd., 467.
New Zealand Mean Time, 1082.
New Zealand Red Cross Society, 149.
New Zealand Representatives Overseas, 1097–1099.
New Zealand Wool Board, 415–416.
New Zealand's International Activities, 20–29, 1132.
Newspapers, 384–385.
Produced, 526.
Registered, 371.
Newsprint, Exports of, 323, 471, 648, 650, 668, 670, 671.
Newsprint, Imports of, 471, 687.
Newsprint, Production of, 466.
Niue Island, 1, 2, 43, 325–326, 375, 672, 1052–1055.
Note Issue, 869, 872, 879–880, 902.
Notes in Circulation, 879–880, 897, 1119.
Notification of Births, 81–82.
Notification of Diseases, 134, 158–161.
Nukunono Island, 2, 1055, 1056.
Nullity of Marriage, 130.
Nurseries, 434, 435.
Nurses —
Dental, 139, 196.
District, 196.
In Public Hospitals, 841.
Industrial, 137.
Male, 146.
Maternity, 146, 157, 195.
Plunket, 138, 149, 157.
Psychiatric, 146.
Psychopaedic, 146.
Public Health, 138, 149.
Registration of, 146.
Nursing, 143–144, 196.
Nursing Aids, 146.
Nylon Piece-goods, Imports of, 683.

O

Oatmeal, etc., Consumption of, 734.
Oatmeal, etc., Production of, 529.
Oats, 426, 427, 429–430, 433, 440, 1106.
Observatory, Time Signals From, 380, 1082–1083.
Occupation of Land, 285–287, 405.
Occupational Health, 136–137.
Occupational Safety, 1037–1045.
Occupational Therapists, 147.
Occupational Training of Discharged Servicemen, 279, 283.
Occupations of Registered Aliens, 73.
Ocean Island, 1060.
Offences, 252–261.
By Children, 245–247, 259–261.
By Maoris, 258–259.
By Women, 258.
Officers' Certificates (Marine), 327–328, 963.
Offices Act, Shops and, 958–960.
Official Representatives, 1097–1101.
Oil and Tar, Production from Coal, 483.
Oil, Fish-liver, 476.
Oil Refinery, 492.
Oil Wells, 486.
Oil, Whale, 473, 648, 650.
Omnibuses Licensed, 346.
Onions, 426, 432, 440.
Exports of, 649, 651.
Opencast Mining, 482.
Opium, Prohibition of, 135.
Opossum Skins Exported, 649, 650, 670, 671.
Opticians, Registration of, 147.
Oranges, Imports of, 681, 690, 693.
Orchards, 434, 436–438, 960.
Orchestra, National, 381, 382.
Origin of Immigrants, 65.
Origin of Imports, 678–689.
Orphans' Benefits, 178, 180, 182, 185–186.
Ottawa Agreement, 694, 698.
Outlying Islands, 1, 1046–1047.
Outpatients, 156.
Maternity Hospitals, 157.
Overdraft Authorities, Unexercised, 879.
Overdraft Rates, 898.
Overtime, 523–524, 957, 959, 963, 984–986.
Owner-occupied Houses, Rental Value of, 737, 742, 751.
Oysters, 473, 476.

P

Pacific Islands, Annexed, 1046–1056.
Bibliography, 1149.
Education, 244–245.
Radio Communication, 375, 1051, 1054.
Paint and Varnish Industry, 502, 538.
Palmerston Island, 2, 1048, 1049.
Pan American World Airways, 367.
Paper and Paper Products Industry, 501, 504–525, 534–535.
Paper and Pulp, External Trade in, 471.
Paper, Imports of, 687, 691.
Paralysis, Infantile (Poliomyelitis), 101, 102, 108, 113, 114, 115, 134, 158, 159.
Parcels-post, 370, 371, 669.
Parents —
Ages of, 86, 87.
Duration of Marriage of, 88.
Parks, National, 288.
Parliament, 30–33.
Members of, 30–33, 1087.
Parliamentary Elections, 31–32, 1081.
Parliaments, Successive, 1088.
Parole Boards, 262, 264.
Passenger Milage —
Air Services, 363–366.
Railways, 335.
Passenger Services, 348–351.
Passengers —
Buses, etc., 355–359.
Commercial Aircraft, 363–367.
Motor Vehicle, 351.
Overseas, 63, 64, 1102.
Railway, 335, 1122.
Shipping, 319.
Passports, 67.
Pastoral and Agricultural Production, 395–449, 1106, 1107.
Persons Engaged in, 1002.
Value of, 395–401.
Volume of, 397, 401.
Pastoral Produce —
Consumed Locally, 399, 732–733, 735.
Export of, 399, 449, 646–671, 1109–1112.
Gross Farming Income, 395–398.
Pasture Grasses, 286, 419, 425.
Patents, Designs, Trade Marks, and Copyright, 1071–1072.
Patients in Hospitals, 155–156, 161–162.
Patients in Mental Hospitals, 167–174.
PAYE Taxation, 177, 799–805.
Payments, Balance of, 757–778.
Payments Overseas, 636–638.
Peaks, Altitude of, 3.
Pears, 425, 437.
Export of, 649, 651, 1111.
Marketing of, 588–589.
Peas, 426, 427, 431.
Export of, 649, 651, 667, 670, 671.
Pelts, Hides, and Skins, Export of, 323, 646, 649, 650, 651, 665–666, 670, 671, 1112.
Penrhyn (Tongareva) Island, 2, 1048, 1049.
Pensions, 176–205, 738, 751.
Perinatal Mortality and Prematurity, 115–117.
Perlite, 487.
Permanent Building Societies, 924, 926–927.
Permanent Heads of Government Departments, 1093–1094.
Permits, Building, 554–559.
Petitions —
Bankruptcy, 1072.
Divorce, 129–131.
Petrol (see Motor Spirits).
Petroleum, 478, 486.
Imports of, 691.
Pharmaceutical Benefits, 178, 179, 193.
Pharmaceutical Chemists, 148.
Pharmaceuticals, Manufacture of, 538.
Pharmacy, 148.
Phormium, 287, 408, 439.
Industry, 500.
Phosphate Rock, 487, 537.
From Nauru Island, 1060.
Imports of, 687, 691.
Phthisis (see Tuberculosis).
Miners', 188.
Physical Welfare and Recreation, 150.
Physiography, 1–15.
Physiotherapists, 146.
Physiotherapy Benefits, 179, 195.
Picture Theatres, 390–394.
Pig-meats —
Consumption of, 732, 733.
Export of, 670, 671, 732.
Prices for, 602.
Production of, 527.
Pigs, 408, 440, 441, 446, 1107, 1170.
Slaughtered, 413.
Pilots, Air, 368.
Pisciculture, 477.
Placement Service, 987, 998–999.
Plaints, 251.
Planing Mills, 501, 534.
Planning, Town and Country, 41–42.
Plantations, 286, 405, 408, 425, 435, 450–452.
State, 452.
Plants, New Zealand, 1140.
Platinum, 485.
Plumbers, Registration of, 148.
Plunket System, 149, 157.
Plywood and Veneer, 467, 501, 540.
Poems, Publications of, 1144–1145.
Poisoning, 119, 134, 158, 160, 164, 1035.
Poisons, 135.
Police, 266–267, 784.
Superannuation, 205.
Polices, Insurance, 931–952, 1124.
Poliomyelitis, 101, 102, 108, 113, 114, 115, 134, 158, 159.
Vaccination, 138, 159.
Polling at —
General Elections, 1081.
Licensing Polls, 1082.
Pollution, Air, 137.
Population, 43–79, 402, 1102, 1165.
Age Distribution of, 58–59.
Distribution of, 48–58.
Industrial Distribution of, 1002.
Of Campbell Island, 43.
Of Cook Islands, 43, 1049.
Of Kermadec Islands, 43, 1047.
Of Nauru Island, 1060.
Of Niue Island, 43, 1053.
Of Ross Dependency, 43.
Of Tokelau Islands, 43, 1056.
Projections, 46–48.
World, 78–79.
Pork Consumed, 412, 733.
Pork Exported, 670, 671, 732.
Pork Produced, 411, 412, 527.
Portfolios of Ministers, 1086.
Ports —
Fishing, 475.
Of Arrival and Departure, 317.
Of Registry, 327.
Safety of, 1040.
Shipping and Trade of, 314–325, 669, 692.
Post Office, 369–377, 823, 1121.
Account, 791.
Superannuation of, 205.
Wages and Hours Worked of, 985.
Debt, 819.
Superannuation of, 205.
Wages and Hours Worked of, 985.
Employees, 377, 997.
Superannuation of, 205.
Wages and Hours Worked of, 985.
Interest on Capital Liability, 783.
Savings Bank, 886–889, 900, 1120, 1189.
Staff Tribunal, 964, 970.
Postal Notes, 372, 1121.
Post-primary Education, 216–219, 228–232, 1104.
Post-primary Teacher Studentships, 235.
Potatoes, 426, 431–432.
Consumption of, 733, 735.
Export of, 649, 651, 670, 671.
Marketing of, 589.
Pottery, China, and Earthenware Industry, 502, 539.
Poultry, 408, 447–449.
Consumption of, 734.
Poultry Runs Registration, 448–449.
Pounamu (Greenstone), 487.
Power Boards, 39, 571, 573, 831–841, 1118.
Power, Electric (see Electric).
Power, Technology, and Industry Publications, 1141.
Power Used in Manufacturing Industries, 511–512.
Preferential Tariff, 693–701.
Pregnancy, Diseases, etc., of, 101, 102, 109, 116–119, 158, 164.
Premium Income, 931–954.
Preserved Meats, etc., Production of, 527.
Prevention of Forest Fires, 455, 459.
Price Tribunal, 702–703.
Prices, 702–727.
Collection of, 707.
Comparisons with Other Countries, 706.
Effect on Exports and Imports, 722–723.
Fixation of, 702.
Guaranteed for Dairy Produce, 595–600.
Of New Zealand Stocks, 823.
Regulation of, 702–703.
Stabilisation of, 702–703.
Trade Practices Act 1958, 703.
Primary Products —
Consumption of, 398–399, 732–735.
Export of, 323, 398–399, 646–671, 1109–1112.
Marketing of, 581–603.
Primary Schools, 215–216, 224–228, 233–236, 1104.
Prime Ministers, Successive, 1084–1085.
Principal Events, 1125–1130.
Printing and Publishing Industry, 501, 535.
Prisoners of War, 278.
Prisons and Prisoners, 259, 262–266, 1105.
Private Assignments, 1076–1077.
Probation, 253, 257, 261–262, 263.
Producers' Equipment, Imports of, 676, 677, 678.
Producers' Materials, Imports of, 676, 677.
Production —
Agricultural and Pastoral, 395–449, 1106, 1107.
Clothing, 532–533.
Dairy, 408–411, 528, 1113.
Fisheries, 473–476.
Forestry, 400.
Index Numbers of, 1171.
Local Consumption of, 398–399, 732–734.
Manufacturing Industries, 400, 401, 489–543, 1114, 1171–1175.
Meat, 411–414, 527–528, 1113.
Mineral, 400, 478–488.
Per Head of Population, 402.
Pulp and Paper, etc., 465–467.
Timber, 463–465, 533, 1113, 1171.
Value of, 395–401, 729.
Volume of, 397, 401–402, 522–523, 730–731.
Wool, 395, 414–416, 1113.
Prohibition Issue, 1082.
Prohibition Orders, 253.
Projections —
Labour Force, 990–991.
Population, 46–48.
School Population, 220.
Promotion of Employment, 987–989.
Properties Transferred, 289–292.
Proprietors, Working, 992–994.
Protection of Wages, 970–971.
Provident Fund, National, 208–210, 823.
Provincial Districts, 38.
Manufacturing Industries in, 496.
Psychology and Mental Health Publications, 1134.
Public Accounts, 779–792, 1182–1183.
Public Administration and Government Publications, 1137.
Public Authority Sector of National Income and Expenditure, 747–751.
Public Buildings, Expenditure on, 786.
Public Debt, 816–827, 1116.
Repayment of, 784, 816–821, 825–826.
Public Finance, 779–827, 1115, 1116, 1182–1184.
Public Health, 132–175.
Public Holidays, 1083.
Public Service, 964, 1095–1097.
Board of Appeal, 1095.
Occupational Safety, 1044.
Classification, 1095, 1096.
Occupational Safety, 1044.
Commission, 1095–1096.
Occupational Safety, 1044.
Employees, 1096.
Superannuation, 205–207.
Public Trust Office, 1070–1071.
Public Works —
Account, 786, 791.
Employees, 1003.
Housing Construction, 552–554, 786.
Occupational Safety, 1044–1045.
Railway Construction, 329.
Road Construction, 340–342.
Public Works and Services, Maintenance of, 749, 785.
Publicans' Licences, 1078–1080.
Publications —
A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand, 403.
Agriculture, Department of, 417, 419.
Bibliography of New Zealand Publications, 1133–1149.
Census, 1196.
Education, Department of, 237, 1046.
Labour and Employment Gazette, 991, 1038.
Lands and Survey, Department of, 307–308.
New Zealand Flora and Fauna, 1140.
New Zealand Listener, 381, 382.
Register of Newspapers, 371.
Statistics, Department of, 1195–1196.
Publishing and Printing Industry, 501, 504–525, 535.
Puerperal Accidents, etc., 101, 102, 109, 113–115, 116–119, 158, 164.
Puisne Judges, 1090.
Pukapuka (Danger) Island, 2, 1048, 1049.
Pulp and Paper, External Trade in, 471.
Pulp and Paper Industry, 465–467, 534–535.
Pulp and Paperboard, Imports of, 691.
Pumice, 478, 648, 650.
Pupils, School, 219–234, 1104.

Q

Quarries, 962.
Accidents at, 121, 1032, 1033.
Persons Engaged in, 996.
Safety in, 1042.
Quartz Mining, 485.
Quicksilver, 485.
Quorum —
Executive Council, 34.
House of Representatives, 31.
Quotations, New Zealand Stocks, 823.

R

Rabbit Boards, 40, 421, 831–841.
Rabbits, Destruction of, 365, 420.
Racing Taxation, 783, 793, 812–814.
Radiation Protection, 141–142.
Radio and Television Advertising, 378–383.
Radio and Television Broadcasting, 237, 378–384.
Radio and Television Licences, 383–384, 1194.
Radio Assembly and Manufacture, 503, 526, 541.
Radio Beacons, 328.
Radio Communication, 375–376, 1051, 1054.
Radio Stations, 375, 376, 379–380, 1047, 1051, 1054.
Radio Time Signals, 380, 1082–1083.
Radioactive Substances Act, 141.
Radiologists, 141–142, 179, 195.
Radiotelephone Services, 376.
Raffles, 1077.
Railcars, 331.
Railway and Tramway Equipment, Imports of, 676, 688.
Railways, 329–339, 1122, 1169.
Accidents, 120, 166, 339, 353.
Air Freight Service, 363–364.
Debt, 819.
Employees, 338–339, 997.
Private, 329, 339.
Revenue and Expenditure, 333–335, 787, 1122.
School Children's Transport, 233.
Superannuation, 205, 339.
Tribunal, 339, 964, 970.
Wages and Hours Worked of Employees, 980, 985.
Rainfall, 9, 10–11, 14, 15.
Rakahanga (Reirson) Island, 2, 1048, 1049.
Rangemaking Industry, 503, 541.
Ranges, Mountain, 2–3.
Raoul Island, 1047.
Rape, 426, 440.
Rarotonga Island, 2, 1047, 1049–1051.
Rateable Value of Land, 313.
Rates, Local Government, 750, 816, 828–831, 1117.
Rates of Exchange, 903–904.
Rates of Interest —
On Building Societies' Deposits, 901.
On Company Deposits, 900.
On Fixed Deposits, 899.
On Local Government Debt, 840.
On Mortgages, 911–915, 919.
On Public Debt, 820–821, 824.
On Rehabilitation Loans, 281.
On Rural Intermediate Credit, 919.
Paid by Savings Banks, 900.
Rates of Tax, 797–805, 857.
Rates of Wages, 958–960, 967–986, 1191–1192.
Rates of War Pensions, 198–201.
Rating by Local Government, 153, 828–830.
On Unimproved Value, 829–830.
On Urban Farm Lands, 310.
Rayon Piece-goods, Imports of, 683.
Receipts Overseas, 636–638, 1188.
Reciprocal Benefits, Social Security, 176, 177, 178, 191–193, 790.
Reciprocal Tariff and Trade, 697–700.
Recreation and Physical Welfare, 150.
Recreation in Forests, 456.
Recruiting —
Air Force, 276.
Army, 273.
Navy, 271.
Police, 267.
Red Cross Society, 149.
Redemption of Loans, 784, 788, 820–821, 832.
Redemption of Mortgages, 906–907, 915–916.
Redemption of Savings Bonds, 892.
Re-exports, 672.
Reformative Detention, 257, 262.
Refrigerators, 526, 550.
Refugee Organisation, International, 67.
Refugees, 67.
Registrars, Marriages Before, 123, 128.
Registration of —
Adopted Children, 90.
Aliens, 69–74.
Apiaries, 449.
Apprenticeships, 988–989.
Births, 80, 81–82.
Building Societies, 923.
Chemists, 148.
Companies, 928–930, 1123.
Dairy Companies, 411.
Deaths, 92.
Deeds, 289, 906.
Dentists, 146.
Designs, 1072.
Electors, 37, 40.
Ex-nuptial Births, 82, 89.
Fishing Vessels, 472.
Friendly Societies, 211.
Hospital Dietitians, 147.
Industrial Unions, 1006.
Land Owners, 289.
Land Titles, 289.
Land Valuers, 313.
Male Nurses, 146.
Maori Births, 91–92.
Maori Deaths, 94.
Maori Electors, 37.
Marriages, 123–124.
Maternity Nurses, 146.
Medical Practitioners, 145.
Midwives, 146.
Mortgages, 906–910.
Motor Vehicles, 345–348.
Newspapers, 371.
Nurseries, 435.
Nurses, 146.
Nursing Aids, 146.
Occupational Therapists, 147.
Opticians, 147–148.
Patents, 1071.
Pharmaceutical Chemists, 148.
Physiotherapists, 146.
Plumbers, 148.
Poultry-runs, 448–449.
Private Schools, 227.
Psychiatric Nurses, 146.
Psychopaedic Nurses, 146.
Still-births, 91, 92–93, 116.
Trade Marks, 1071.
Trade Unions, 1006.
Unemployed, 1000.
Vessels, 326–327.
Registry, Ports of, 327.
Regulation of Prices, 702–703.
Rehabilitation, 241, 278–284, 749, 785, 918, 923.
Relief of Unemployment, 189.
Religious Professions, 77–78.
Marriages by Ministers of, 128–129.
Officiating Ministers, 123, 128–129.
Publications on, 1134.
Renewable Leases, 296–299.
Rent Restrictions, 560–563.
Rental Cars, 346.
Rental Value, Owner-occupied Houses, 737, 742, 751.
Renters, Film, Taxation of, 814.
Rents, House, 560–563.
Rents, Stabilisation of, 561.
Repayment of Public Debt, 784, 820–821, 825–826.
Representation Commission, 36.
Representatives, House of, 30–33, 1087.
Broadcast of Proceedings of, 380.
Election of, 31–32, 1081.
Members of, 1087.
Representatives in New Zealand, 1099–1101.
Representatives Overseas, 1097–1099.
Reproduction Rate, 44.
Research, Agricultural, 416–419, 428, 429, 440.
Research Associations in Industry, 494.
Research, Dental, 140.
Research, Educational, 241.
Research for Industry, 493–494.
Research, Forestry, 460–461.
Research, Grassland, 1132.
Research Institute, Wheat, 428, 429.
Research, Medical, 144.
Research, Mining, 487–488.
Research Scholarships, 240.
Reserve Bank, 636–638, 823, 827, 866–870, 902.
Reserves, Air Force, 276.
Reserves, Farm Industry, 602–603.
Reserves, Military, 274.
Reserves, Naval, 271.
Reserves, Public or Scenic, 287–288.
Restrictions on Employment, 958, 960, 963.
Retail Prices, 704–706, 1180.
Retail Trading, 604–608, 612–621, 1176.
Retailers, Bank Advances to, 875.
Revaluations, Land, 310.
Revenue, 779–816, 1115.
Broadcasting and Television, 382–383.
Cinemas, 391–394.
Customs, 696–697, 793, 796.
Electric Power, 572–574, 576.
Forest Service, 462.
Government (see Government Finance).
Insurance Companies, 934, 936, 939, 946–947, 951–954, 1124.
Local Government, 153, 573, 750, 830–832, 1117, 1185.
National Roads Fund, 342, 787.
Post Office, 372, 375, 376–377.
Railway, 333–335, 337, 787, 1122.
Social Security Fund, 177, 790, 793, 814.
Urban Transport, 356–359.
Rice, Imports of, 690.
Rivers, 4–5, 565–566.
Control of, 294–296.
Road Districts, 39, 831–841.
Bridges in, 340.
Debt of, 834.
Milage of Roads, 339.
Road Goods Services, 348–350.
Road Passenger Services, 348–351, 355–359.
Road Safety, 351–352.
Road Transport, 348–351, 355–359, 1169.
Roads, 339–359.
Accidents on, 101, 102, 109, 119, 120, 353–355.
Expenditure on, 341–345, 787, 819.
Taxation, 341–342, 348, 793, 796.
Roll, Valuation, 309–310, 829.
Rolling Stock —
Buses, etc., 356–358.
Railway, 331–332.
Roman Catholic Schools, 218, 228, 1050.
Ross Dependency, 1, 2, 43, 1057–1059, 1149.
Whaling, 1059.
Royal Commission on State Services, 1096–1097.
Royal New Zealand Air Force, 275–276, 277.
Royal New Zealand Navy, 269–272, 277.
Rubber Products Industry, 502, 504–525, 536, 985.
Rural Advances, 293–294, 918–923.
Rural Education, 232–234.
Rural Housing, 545, 555, 558, 921.
Rural Intermediate Credit, 919.
Rural Mail Deliveries, 370.
Rural Mortgages, 909–910, 912, 921.
Rural Population, 57–58.
Ryecorn, 425, 440.

S

St. Helens Hospitals, 141, 157.
St. John Ambulance, 149.
Safety, Occupational, 1037–1045.
Safety of Machinery, 1038–1039.
Safety of Workers, 961–962.
Salaries and Wages, 376, 391, 495–503, 508–511, 525–543, 572–574, 579, 580, 605, 609, 610, 742, 751, 761, 762, 853, 1114.
Charge on, 153, 177, 790, 793, 814, 973.
Salaries of Members of —
Executive Council, 32.
House of Representatives, 32–33.
Public Service, 1096.
Sales Tax, 748, 783, 793, 815.
Salmon, 477.
Salt 478, 487, 827.
Samoa (see Western Samoa).
Sanatoria, 156.
Sanctuaries, Wildlife, 289.
Sand and Gravel, 478.
Sand Dunes, Stabilisation of, 458.
Sanitation, 132–137.
Sausage Casings, Export of, 649, 650, 666, 670, 671.
Savings Accounts and Bonds (National), 816–817, 891–892.
Savings Banks, 886–892, 900, 1120, 1189.
Savings, Private, 739–746.
Savings, Small, 892.
Sawmills, etc., 463–468, 501, 533.
Wages and Hours Worked of Employees, 979, 984.
Scheelite, 485, 648, 650.
Scholarships, 240.
School Certificate, 216, 221.
School Children, 219–234, 1104.
Dental Treatment of, 139.
Medical Inspection of, 138.
Milk for, 234.
Transport and Board of, 232–233.
School Committees, 214.
School Inspectors, 225, 227, 229.
School Journal, 237, 1046.
School Library Service, 244.
School Savings Bank, 888–889.
School System, 215–218.
School Teachers, 227, 228, 234–237.
Superannuation, 205.
Schools, 214–246, 1050, 1053.
Combined, 219, 228–231, 233.
Consolidation of, 232.
Denominational, 218, 228, 1050.
Dental Clinics, 139.
Free Text-books in, 237.
Military, 273–274.
Of Mining, 238, 487.
Private, 227–228, 233, 1104.
Public, 212–237, 1104.
Special, 222, 246.
Science, Defence, 268–269.
Science Publications, 1139.
Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of, 417–419, 1132.
Scientific Research for Industry, 493–494.
Sea Fisheries, 472–477.
Seals, 476.
Seamen, 201, 203, 963–964.
Seamen Act, Shipping and, 963.
Secondary Education, 216–219, 228–232, 236–237, 1104.
Sector Accounts and Inter-Industry Studies, 778.
Seed Certification, 440.
Seed Sowing, Aerial, 365.
Seeds, Grass and Clover, 426, 433–434.
Exported, 649, 651, 667, 670, 671, 1111.
Seismology, 7–8.
Sentences on Criminals, 256–257, 1105.
Separate Rates, 828.
Separation, Judicial, 129, 130.
Separators, Cream, 421.
Serpentine, 478, 487, 537.
Service, Public (see Public Service).
Service-car Licences, 346.
Servicemen —
Acquisition of Land by Ex-, 280, 300.
Casualties Overseas, 278.
Demobilisation of, 284.
Educational Facilities for Ex-, 281.
Financial Assistance to Ex-, 281–284, 300, 918, 923.
Pensions for Ex-, 197–205.
Registration of Deaths of, 93.
Rehabilitation of Ex-, 241, 278–284, 749, 918, 923.
Services —
Air Force, 275–276, 277.
Army, 272–274, 277.
Navy, 269–272, 277.
Sessions, Parliamentary, Successive, 1088.
Settlement of Industrial Disputes, 1012–1015, 1022–1023.
Settlement of Land, 285–304.
Settlement, Ex-servicemen's, 280, 281–284, 300.
Settlement, Small Farms, 297–299.
Sex Proportions, 60.
Children Born, 84–86, 91, 92.
Factory Employees, 505–508.
Patients in Mental Hospitals, 168–169.
Patients in Public Hospitals, 162.
Prisoners, 264, 265.
Scholars and Students, 225, 227–231, 239.
School Teachers, 227, 228, 235–237.
Twin Births, 86.
Sexual Offences, 253, 257, 259, 260.
Share Prices, Index Numbers, 723–727, 1181.
Sharemilking Agreements, 960.
Shares in Building Societies, 924, 925.
Sharks, 477.
Shearers' Wage Rates, 970, 980.
Shearing Machines on Farms, 421.
Sheep, 440–444, 1107.
Sheep and Lambs Slaughtered, 413, 527.
Sheep Farms, 408.
Sheep Skins and Pelts Exported, 649, 651, 666, 670, 671, 1112.
Sheetmetal Working Industry, 503, 543.
Shipping, 314–329, 1168.
On Inland Waters, 326.
Shipping and Seamen Act, 963.
Ships (see Vessels).
Shoe and Boot Industry, 533.
Shops and Offices Act, 958–960.
Shops, Fire Losses on, 950.
Short-wave Radio Broadcasting, 380.
Sick Funds, 212, 376.
Sickness, 158–166, 212.
Benefits, 178, 180, 182, 189–190.
Insurance, 212, 938.
Signals, Time, 380, 1082–1083.
Silage, 433.
Silica Sand, 478.
Silver, 478, 485.
Coins, New Zealand, 901.
Silviculture, 455–458, 461.
Sinking Fund, Electric Power, 577.
Ski-ing, 1066.
Skins, Hides, and Pelts, Export of, 323, 646, 649, 650, 651, 665–666, 670, 671, 1112.
Slaughter of Animals for Food, 413.
Snares Islands, 1, 1047.
Snow, 12.
Soap and Candle Industry, 502, 537.
Social Science and Welfare Publications, 1135.
Social Security, 153, 176–197, 1166–1167.
Benefits, 140, 175, 178–193, 738, 749, 751, 790.
Charge, etc., 153, 177, 790, 793, 814, 856, 857, 973.
Fund, 140, 177, 790, 794, 814.
Income Tax, 177, 790, 793.
Reciprocity with Australia, 176, 177, 178, 191–192.
Reciprocity with United Kingdom, 176, 178, 192–193.
Supplementary Assistance, 180.
Taxation, 177, 748, 790, 793, 814, 973, 1184.
Soil Conservation, 294–296, 458.
Soil Survey, 418.
Soils, 403–405.
Solander Island, 1, 1047.
Soldiers, 272–274, 277.
Sources of Income, 853.
South Africa —
Birth and Natural Increase Rates, 84.
Libraries, 389.
Population, 79.
Population, Annual Average Increase, 44.
Prices in, 706.
South African War Pensions, 203.
South-East Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO), 27.
Southern Alps, 3.
Souvenirs, 1065.
Sovereignty, 20.
Specialist Services, 179.
Specie, Movement of, 640, 1108.
Speed Limit, 351.
Spinsters Marrying, 126.
Spirits, Consumption of, 734.
Spirits, Duty on, 695, 696, 697.
Spirits, Imports of, 682, 690.
Sports, 150, 1066.
Publications on, 1144.
Stabilisation of —
Prices, 702–703.
Rents, 561.
Sand Dunes, 458.
Stabilisation Subsidies, 735–736, 738, 749, 784.
Stakes, Tax on, 813.
Stamp Duties, 783, 793, 812.
Standard Time, 1082.
Standardised Death Rates for Cancer, 105.
State Advances Corporation, 544–546, 823, 827, 836, 916–923.
State Aid to —
Afforestation, 460–461.
Building, 544–546, 916–923.
Cook Islands, 1052.
Discharged Servicemen, 278–284, 300, 918, 923.
Farming Industry, 296–301, 416–419, 918–923.
Hospital Boards, 153.
Housing, 916–923.
Immigrants, 65.
Local Government, 153, 344–345, 750, 918–923.
Manufacturing, 922, 923.
Mining, 487–488.
National Provident Fund, 210.
Niue Island, 1055.
Prospecting, 487.
Purchases of Private Land, 300.
Superannuation Fund, 207.
Unemployed, 180, 189, 1000.
Wheat growing, 428, 429.
State Coal Mines, 483, 819.
Account, 788.
Persons Employed in, 483.
State Departments, 35, 1070, 1086, 1093–1094.
State Electricity Department, 564, 1003.
Occupational Safety, 1042.
State Finance, 747–749, 779–827, 1115, 1116.
State Forests, 450–452, 454, 819.
State Housing, 544, 551–554, 786, 819.
Sale of, 920.
State Indebtedness, 816–827, 1116, 1184.
State Insurance —
Accident, 823, 952.
Earthquake and War Damage, 791, 953–954.
Fire, 823, 953.
Life, 951–952.
State Marketing, 586.
State Maternity Hospitals, 157, 195.
State Placement Service, 987, 998–999.
State Services, Royal Commission on, 1096–1097.
Stations —
Air Force, 276.
Electric Power, 565–570.
Fire Brigade, 950.
Meteorological, 13, 15, 1047.
Naval, 270.
Radio, 375, 376, 379–380, 1047, 1051, 1054.
Telephone, 373.
Statistical Areas —
Area and Population of, 49.
Density of Population in, 61.
Statistical Information, Latest, 1165–1194.
Statistical Publications, 1195–1196.
Statistical Summary, 1102–1124.
Statutes of 1961, 1088–1090.
Steam Electric Power Stations, 566.
Steam, Geothermal, Electric Power Stations, 566–567.
Steel and Iron, Imports of, 685, 691.
Steel Industry, 492–493.
Sterling Exchange —
Holdings of, 869, 881.
Rates, 903–904.
Sterling Values of Currency, 903–904.
Stewart Island, 1.
Oysters, 476.
Population, 53.
Still-births, 85, 86, 91, 116.
Registration of, 91, 92–93, 116.
Stock and Station Agents —
Advances to, 875.
Deposits, etc., with, 892–894.
Stock, Live (see Livestock).
Stock, Quotations for, 823.
Stock, Registered, Local Government, 835.
Stocks, Manufacturers', 520–521.
Stocks, Retail, 604–608, 615.
Stone Fruits, 425, 436, 438, 733.
Stones, Building and Ornamental, 478, 487.
Stranding of Vessels, 329.
Streets and Roads, Length of, 339.
Strikes, 1012–1024.
Students, 219–221.
Students, University, 219, 221, 239, 1104.
Studentships, Post-primary Teacher, 235.
Subscribers, Telephone, 373.
Subsidies —
Highways, 344.
On Carriage of Lime, 420.
On Food, 735–736, 749.
Stabilisation, 735–736, 738, 749, 784.
To Gasworks, 578, 735, 736.
To Hospital Boards, 153.
To Local Government, 831.
To Mining, 487.
To National Provident Fund, 210.
To Superannuation Fund, 207, 376, 787, 788.
Suffrage, 32, 37, 40–41.
Sugar —
Consumption of, 734, 735.
Duty on, 695, 696, 697.
Exported, 649, 651.
Imports of, 682, 690.
International Agreement, 701.
Used by Factories, 529, 530, 531.
Sugar of Milk Exported, 649, 650, 670, 671.
Suicide, 101 102, 109, 121–122, 123.
Sulphur, Imports of, 691.
Sulphur Used in Fertiliser Industry, 537.
Summary Convictions, 252–255, 259, 1105.
Summer Time (Daylight Saving), 1082.
Sunshine, 12–13, 14, 15.
Superannuation, 154, 205–207, 339, 784.
Benefits, Social Security, 178, 180, 182.
Members of Parliament, 33.
Private Funds, 207.
Superphosphate and Fertiliser Industry, 537.
Supplementary Medical, etc., Benefits, 178, 195–197.
Surtax, 694.
Survey of Companies with Overseas Affiliations, 774–778.
Survey Publications, Land, 307–308.
Survey System, Land, 305.
Surveys —
Aerial, Land, 306, 365.
Geodetic, Land, 305.
Geological, 487–488.
National Forest, 451.
Of Coal Resources, 480–481.
Of Consumer Credit, 622–625.
Of Employment, 991–1000.
Of Land, 305–308.
Of Retail Prices, 707.
Of Retail Trading, Quarterly, 612–621, 1176.
Of Ships, 328.
Of Wholesale Trading, Quarterly, 622.
Soil, 418.
Standard Land, 305.
Tidal, 306–307.
Sustenance Allowances, 1000.
Suwarrow (Anchorage) Island, 2, 1048, 1049.
Swedes, 426, 433, 440.
Sweepstakes, 1077.
Swimming, 151.
Drowning Accidents, 119.
Swordfish, 477.
Syphilis, 101, 102, 113, 114, 115, 134, 163, 172.

T

Takutea Island, 2, 1048, 1049.
Tallow Exported, 323, 649, 651, 664–665, 670, 671, 1101.
Tallow Produced, 527.
Tanning Industry, 502, 536, 985.
Tariff, Customs, 697–700.
Tariffs and Trade Agreement (GATT), 700.
Tasman Empire Airways Ltd., 365–366, 827.
Tasman Pulp and Paper Co., 466, 827.
Tax, Income, 748, 783, 793, 786–805, 842–864.
Tax, Land, 748, 783, 793, 805–806.
Taxation, 696, 738–755, 783, 792–816, 1115, 1184.
Amusement, 391, 393, 394, 793, 814.
Companies, 177, 797–798.
Customs, 693–701, 748, 793, 796.
Direct, 744, 745, 748, 750, 753, 754, 792.
Employment Promotion, 814, 973.
Film Hire, 783, 793, 814.
Forest, 462.
Highways, 341–342, 793, 796.
Indirect, 738, 745, 748, 753.
Local Government, 750, 816, 828–831.
Motor Spirits, 342, 348, 695, 796.
Motor Vehicles, 341, 695, 748, 796.
Orchards, 436.
Racing, 783, 793, 812–814.
Roads, 341–342, 793, 796.
Sales, 748, 783, 793, 815.
Social Security, 177, 748, 790, 793, 814, 973, 1184.
Taxis, 346.
Taxpayers, Incomes of, 842–864.
Tea —
Consumption of, 734.
Duty on, 695.
Imports of, 682, 690.
Teacher Studentships, 235.
Teachers' Grading, 214.
Teachers' Superannuation, 205.
Teachers' Training Colleges, 217, 234–235.
Teaching Aids, 237.
Teaching Profession, 234–237.
Technical Correspondence School, 219, 230.
Technical Education, 219, 228–232, 236, 1104.
Technical Education, Council for, 242.
Technology, Power, and Industry Publications, 1141.
Telegraph Services, 372–373, 375.
Telephones, 372–374.
Television, 379, 381–384, 1194.
Temperature, 13–15.
Tenancy Act, 560–563.
Tenancy and Rents, 560–563.
Tenure of Crown Lands, 296–301.
Tenure of Dwellings, 550.
Tenure of Occupied Land, 287, 297–299.
Terminating Building Societies, 924–927.
Terms of Trade, 722–723.
Territorial Air Force, 275–276.
Territorial Forces (Army), 272–274.
Tetanus Immunisation, 138.
Text-books in Schools, Free, 237.
Textiles, Production of, 500, 504–525, 532.
Theatres, etc., Fire Losses on, 950.
Theatres, Picture, 390–394.
Theft, 253, 257, 258, 260.
Therapists, Occupational, 147.
Thermal Electric Power Stations, 566.
Third-party Risks Insurance, 938–942.
Thorium, 484.
Three Kings Islands, 1, 1047.
Thrift Club Accounts, Post Office Savings Bank, 887–888.
Tidal Survey, 306–307.
Timber —
Carried on Railways, 337, 338.
Value of, 400.
Export of, 469–471, 648, 650, 668, 670, 671.
Value of, 400.
Imports of, 469–470, 686, 691.
Value of, 400.
Output, 463–465, 533, 1113, 1171.
Value of, 400.
Plantations, 286, 408, 425, 435, 450–452.
Preservation of, 468.
Resources, 450–452.
Trees, 471.
Timbers, Strengths of, 471.
Time Lost —
Through Industrial Accidents, 1036.
Through Industrial Disputes, 1016–1024.
Time Service, 380, 1082–1083.
Tin, 485.
Title, Certificates of, Issued, 289, 290.
Titles, Compulsory Registration of, 289.
Tobacco, 426, 438–439.
Consumption of, 734.
Duty on, 695, 696, 697.
Factories, 500, 504–525, 532, 984.
Imports of, 674, 682, 690.
Tokelau (Union) Islands, 1, 2, 43, 67, 1055–1056.
Toll Communications, 373–374.
Ton-miles Flown, 363–366.
Tonnage of Registered Vessels, 326–327.
Tonnage of Shipping and Cargo, 314–326.
Tons, One-mile, Railway, 337.
Topdressing, 365, 419–420, 1170.
Topographical Mapping, 306.
Totalisator Taxation, 812–813.
Totalisator, Turnover on, 812–814.
Tourist Agents Overseas, 1097–1099.
Tourist and Publicity Department, 1066.
Tourist Attractions, 1131, 1132.
Tourist Industry, 1061–1067.
Tourists, 64.
Town and Country Planning, 41–42.
Town Districts, 39, 831–841.
Area of, 55.
Bridges in, 340.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 312.
Debt, 834, 837.
Milage of Streets, 339.
Population, 55.
Tractors, Imports of, 686, 691.
Tractors on Farms, 421–422.
Trade, 626–701, 1108–1112, 1177–1179.
Agreements, 583–584, 697–701.
Balance of, 630.
Board of, 644–645, 694.
Commissioner Service, 645–646.
Cook Islands, 672–673, 692–693, 1051–1052.
Direction of, 633–635.
Nauru Island, 1060.
Niue Island, 672, 1054.
Of Ports, 314–324, 669, 692.
Representatives, 1097–1101.
Terms of, 722–723.
Volume of, 639, 730.
Trade Marks, 1071.
Trade Practices Act 1958, 703.
Trade, Retail, 604–608, 612–621, 1176.
Trade Training of Discharged Servicemen, 279, 284.
Trade Unions, 1006–1011.
Trade, Wholesale, 607–609, 622, 1176.
Trades Certification, 221, 222.
Trading Accounts, State, 787–789.
Trading Banks, 870–879, 1119, 1187.
Trading Companies, Deposits with, 901.
Traffic —
Accidents, 101, 102, 109, 119, 120, 339, 351–355.
Air, 361–368.
Motor, 345–359.
Offences, 253, 254–255.
Railway, 335–338, 1122.
Training of —
Defence Forces, 270–276.
Dental Nurses, 139.
Discharged Servicemen, 279, 284.
Forestry Employees, 461.
Nurses, 143.
Police Recruits, 267.
Teachers, 221, 222, 234–236.
Tramways, etc., 355.
Accidents, 120, 353.
Cable, 358.
Transhipment of Cargo, 321–325.
Transport, 314–368, 1168–1169.
Accidents, 119, 120, 166.
Districts, Urban, 39, 831–841.
Equipment, Imports of, 676, 677, 678.
Equipment Industry, 503, 504–525, 541–542.
Licensing, 348–351.
Of School Children, 232–233.
Persons Engaged in, 997.
Urban, 355–359.
Transport and Communications Publications, 1138.
Travel Allowances, Overseas, 884.
Trawling, 472, 475.
Treasury Bills, 817, 822.
Treaty of Waitangi, 20.
Tree Planting, 450–458.
Trees, Forest, 471.
Triplets Born, 85, 86.
Trolley-buses, 357–358.
Trout, 5, 477.
Trust (Liquor) Control, 1080–1081.
Trust Territory, 1059–1060.
Trustee, Maori, 303–304, 823.
Trustee, Public, 1070–1071.
Trustee Savings Banks, 889–891, 900, 1189.
Tuberculin Tests, 161.
Tuberculosis, 101, 102, 103, 104, 113, 114, 115, 133, 137, 149, 156, 158, 161, 163, 172, 1050.
Maori Deaths from, 108.
Register, 161.
Vaccination, 137, 161.
Tungsten Ore, 478, 485.
Tunnels, Railway, 329–330.
Turkeys, 447.
Turnbull, Alexander, Library, 1132.
Turnips, 426, 433, 440.
Tussock Boards, Nassella, 40, 831–841.
Tussock, etc., Land, 419.
Twins and Triplets Born, 85–86, 90.
Tyre Tax, 342, 796.

U

Undergraduates, 239.
Under-Secretaries, Parliamentary, 32.
Unemployment, 1000.
Benefits, 178, 180, 182, 189, 1000.
Taxation, 973.
Unexercised Overdraft Authorities, 879.
Unimproved Occupied Land, 287.
Unimproved Value of Land, 309–313.
Land Tax Assessed on, 805.
Rating on, 829–830.
Unions, Trade, 1006–1011.
United Kingdom —
Birth and Natural Increase Rates, 84.
Consumption of Foodstuffs, 732, 735.
Dairy Produce and Meat Imported into, 584–586.
Debt Domiciled in, 821, 822, 838, 1116.
Libraries, 389.
Motor Accident Death and Injury Rates, 355.
New Zealand Representatives in, 1098.
Population, 79.
Population, Annual Average Increase, 44.
Prices in, 706.
Representatives in New Zealand, 1099.
Social Security Reciprocity, 176, 178, 192–193.
United Nations, 24–27, 84, 96, 111, 122, 125.
United States of America —
Birth and Natural Increase Rates, 84.
Consumption of Foodstuffs, 732, 735.
Debt Domiciled in, 822, 1116.
Exchange Rate with, 904.
Libraries, 389.
Motor Accident Death and Injury Rates, 355.
New Zealand Representatives in, 1098–1099.
Population, 79.
Population, Annual Average Increase, 44.
Prices in, 706.
Representatives in New Zealand, 1101.
University Education, 217, 219, 221, 231, 238–241, 1104.
University Entrance Examination, 217.
University Libraries, 387, 388.
University Scholarships, 240.
Unpaid Fractions, Totalisator, 813.
Uranium, 484, 488.
Urban Drainage Districts, 39, 831–841.
Urban Drift, 57.
Urban Farm Lands, Rating on, 310.
Urban Housing, 554–558.
Urban Mortgages, 909–910, 912, 921.
Urban Population, 57–58.
Urban Transport, 355–359.
Urban Transport Boards, 831–841.

V

Vacancies, Employment, 995, 998, 999.
Vaccination, 137, 138, 161.
Valuation —
Of Exports, 631, 646.
Of Imports, 631, 673.
Of Land, 308–313.
Of Personal Expenditure, 739.
Roll, 309–310, 829.
Value Added in Manufacturing, 495–503, 516–518, 521, 522, 523, 527–543, 1114.
Value of —
Currency, 903–904.
Farm Production, 395–401.
Goods Available for Use, 728–729.
Manufacturing Production, 399–401, 495–543, 1114.
Materials Used in Manufacturing Industries, 495–543, 1114.
Production, 395–401, 729.
Valuers' Registration Board, 313.
Veal —
Consumption of, 412, 733.
Export of, 670, 671.
Production of, 411, 412, 527.
Vegetable Gardens, 435.
Home Production in, 436.
Vegetables —
Consumption of, 733, 734.
Exported, Canned and Frozen, 649, 651.
Retail Prices of, 704.
Vegetation, 1140.
Vehicles —
Buses, 355–359.
Motor (see Motor Vehicles).
Railway, 331.
Veneer and Plywood, 467, 501, 540.
Venereal Diseases, 101, 102, 108, 113, 114, 134, 163, 172.
Vessels —
Crews of, 64.
Entered and Cleared, 314–321.
Fishing, 473.
Nationality of, 317–318.
Naval, 270.
Radio Communication with, 376.
Registered, 326–327.
Safety of, 1039–1040.
Survey of, 328.
Wrecked, 329.
Veterans' Allowances, 199, 200–201, 203.
Veterinary Services, 416, 420.
Vineyards and Grapes, 434, 436.
Visitors to New Zealand, 64, 1061–1064.
Visual Aids in Teaching, 237.
Vital Statistics, 80–131, 1103.
Cook Islands, 1049.
Niue Island, 1053.
Vocational Guidance, 232, 988.
Volcanoes, 2, 3, 404, 405.
Volume of —
Exports, 639, 730.
Farm Production, 397, 401.
Goods Available for Use, 730.
Imports, 639, 730.
Manufacturing Industries Production, 401, 522–523.
Money in Circulation, 897–898.
Production, 397, 401–402, 522–523.
Trade, 639, 730.
Voluntary Welfare Organisations, 149.
Voting —
At General Elections, 1081.
At Licensing Polls, 1082.
Qualifications, 37–38, 40–41.
Vouchers, Audit of, 779–780.

W

Wage and Salary Earners, 495–503, 841, 1011.
Wage, Basic, 970.
Wage, Minimum, 958, 959, 960, 969–970.
Wage Rates, 958–960, 967–986, 1190.
Wages —
And Salary Payments, 376, 391, 495–503, 508–511, 525–543, 572–574, 579, 580, 605, 609, 610, 742, 751, 853, 1114.
And Wage Rate Legislation, 967–971.
Average Hourly Wage in Industry, 984–986.
Increases in, 958, 967–984.
Legislative Changes in, 967–971.
Lost Through Industrial Disputes, 1016–1024.
Minimum Weekly Rates, 979–982.
Of Electric-supply Employees, 572–574.
Of Manufacturing Industry Employees, 495–503, 508–511, 525–543, 1114.
Protection of, 970–971.
Shearers', 970, 980.
Tax on, 153, 177, 790, 793, 814, 973.
Waitangi, Treaty of, 20.
War, 277–278.
Bursaries for Ex-servicemen's Children, 201, 281.
Casualties, 278.
Damage and Earthquake Insurance, 791, 953–954.
Deaths Register, 93.
Debt, 819.
Loans, 819.
Pensions, 197–205, 1167.
Pensions Appeal Board, 202.
Pensions Supplementary Assistance, 201.
Publications, 1148.
Veterans' Allowances, 199, 200–201, 203.
Warships, 270.
Washing Machines, 526, 550.
Water Power, 565–570.
Waterfront Control, 964–966.
Weather, 8–15.
Cook Islands, 1047.
Niue Island, 1052.
Weights and Measures, 305, 425.
Welfare, Maori, 1069–1070.
Welfare, Maternal, 141.
Welfare of Workers, 958, 960, 961–962, 963.
Welfare Organisations, 149.
Wellington —
Building Values, 558.
Climate, 13, 15.
Population, 50, 51, 54.
Radio and Television Stations, 379–381.
Sales Tax Receipts, 815.
Shipping, 317, 320–324, 669, 692.
Urban Transport, 358.
Victoria University of, 238.
Western Samoa, 205, 375.
Whale Oil, 473, 648, 650.
Whales and Whaling, 476, 1059.
Wheat, 426–429, 1106.
Imports of, 682, 690.
International Agreement, 700.
Milled, 529.
Research, 418, 419.
Whey Butter, 410, 528.
Whipping Abolished, 257.
Whitebait, 473, 477.
Wholesale Liquor Licences, 1078–1080.
Wholesale Prices, 706, 716–719.
Wholesale Trading, 607–609, 622, 1176.
Whooping-cough, 101, 102, 108, 113, 114, 115, 138.
Widowers, Remarriages of, 126, 127.
Widows —
Benefits, 178, 180, 181–182, 184–185.
Remarriages of, 126, 127.
War Pensions, 198–205.
Wildlife Sanctuaries, 289.
Wills Administered by Public Trust Office, 1070–1071.
Winds, 9.
Wine, Consumption of, 734.
Wine, Duty on, 695.
Wine Licences, 1078–1080.
Wine-making Industry, 500.
Withdrawals from Savings Banks, 886–892, 1120.
Wives, Allowances in Respect of, 183–206.
Women —
Air Force, Royal New Zealand, 275.
Army Corps, Royal New Zealand, 272.
Deaths of, in Childbirth, 101, 102, 109, 118–119, 164.
Eligible for Parliament, 32.
Employed in Factories, 507–508, 990, 992–997.
Nationality Laws, re, 68–69.
Naval Service, Royal New Zealand, 271.
Of Child-bearing Ages, 83.
Offences by, 258.
Police, 267.
Wage Rates of, 970, 976–978, 981, 982.
Working Conditions of, 957, 959.
Working Hours of, 986.
Wood Preservation, 468.
Wood Pulp, Exports of, 471, 648, 650, 668, 670, 671.
Wood Pulp, Production of, 465.
Wool —
Board, 415–416.
Capital Account, 603.
Carried on Railways, 337, 338.
Commission Account, 603.
Commissions, 588.
Export Price Index, 720.
Exports of, 323, 646, 649, 651, 659–660, 670, 671, 1109.
Imports of, 682.
Levy, 416, 588.
Marketing of, 582, 588.
Prices for, 591, 1113.
Production, 395–396, 414–416, 527, 1113.
Retention Moneys, 603, 743.
Used at Local Mills, 414, 532.
Woollen Milling, 500, 532, 985.
Woollen Piece-goods, Imports of, 683.
Woolscouring Industry, 500.
Workers' Compensation, 1025–1032.
Board, 1028, 1045.
Insurance, 938, 952.
Workers' Educational Association, 244.
Workers, Safety of, 961–962.
Working Conditions, 955–966.
Working Conditions in the Government Service, 964.
Working Days Lost Through Industrial Disputes, 1016–1024.
Working Hours, 523–524, 957, 959–963, 982–986.
Working Life Expectancies, 1004–1005.
Working Proprietors, 992–994.
World Population, 78–79.
Wrecks, 329.

X

X-ray, 141–142.
Diagnostic Services, 179, 195.
Examinations, 137, 161, 195.

Y

Yields —
Butterfat, 408, 409.
Crops, 427–434, 1106.
Youth Centres, 988.
Youths —
Wage Rates of, 981–982, 986.
Working Conditions of, 957, 959, 963.

Z

Zoology, 1140.