THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1951-52


Table of Contents

PREFACE.

THIS is the fifty-seventh issue of the New Zealand Official Year-Book.

New features in this issue include substantial revision of the sections on forestry, electric power, electric tramways and associated transport; while the miscellaneous section includes a précis of legislation passed in the 1951 sessions of Parliament and detailed results of the 1951 Parliamentary elections.

The Population section contains final population totals from the 1951 census, as well as interim returns of dwellings.

Every effort has been made to include as much recent information in the Year-Book as practicable. The letterpress has been, in general, revised up to May, 1952; while, in the Latest Statistical Information section following this Preface, important statistical series—e.g. Migration, building activity, Government revenue and expenditure, banking, wage-rates, &c., are given for the financial year ended on 31st March, 1952.

Two interesting features published for the first time in the Year-Book are (1) An account of the activities of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (appendix (d)); (2) an article on standardization with particular reference to the New Zealand Standards Institute (appendix (e)).

Acknowledgment is due to officers of this and other Departments for assistance in preparing material, and to the Government Printer and his staff for the special efforts made to expedite the printing of the volume. My special thanks are due to Mr. J. Gilchrist, the officer in charge of the Editorial staff, to Mr. A. A. Teague, M.A., his senior assistant, and to Mr. F. Croom who prepared the index.

G. E. WOOD,
Government Statistician.
Census and Statistics Dept.,
  Wellington C.I., 25th June, 1952.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND CENSUS AND STATISTICS DEPARTMENT

Table of Contents

Title.Latest No.Month of Issue.Price Per Copy.Postage (Extra).

* £2 2s. per annum (post free).

   s. d.d.
New Zealand Official Year-Book1951–52Aug., 195215 08
Annual Statistical Reports—    
  Population and Buildings1949–50June, 19514 02
  Vital Statistics1950Mar., 19525 02
  Justice Statistics1949April, 195210 02
  Trade and Shipping (Part I)1945 and 1946June, 195230 09
  Trade and Shipping (Part II)1945 and 1946In the press  
  Agricultural and Pastoral Production1949–50June, 19527 63
  Factory Production1948–49 and 1949–50July, 195210 04
  Insurance Statistics1945, 1946, and 1947Mar., 19502 02
  Miscellaneous (Banking, Bankruptcy, Building Societies, Cinematograph Theatres, Tramways)1943, 1944, and 1945Jan., 19492 61
  Prices, Wages, and Labour Statistics1948Oct., 19503 61
  Industrial Accidents1947 and 1948Jan., 19523 61
Local Authorities Handbook of New Zealand1948–49May, 195215 05
Pocket Compendium of New Zealand Statistics1950–51Sept., 19512 61
Monthly Abstract of Statistics  4 0*1
  Special Supplements—    
  National Income and Expenditure (July Abstract)1938–39 and 1951–52Aug., 19523 01
  Retail Prices in New Zealand (October-November Abstract) Dec., 19492 01
  New Zealand Production Statistics (May Abstract) May, 19521 61
  External Trade1949 and 1950Aug., 19525 02
Census of Public Libraries1949Jan., 19522 61
Volumes of 1951 Census Results—    
Interim Returns of Population and Dwellings (Other volumes to follow)1951Nov., 19513 02
Volumes of 1945 Census Results—    
  Increase and Location of Population1945Dec., 19474 62
  Poultry1945May, 19482 61
  Island Territories1945June, 19482 61
  Ages and Marital Status1945July, 19495 02
  War Service1945May, 19502 61
  Industries and Occupations1945Jan., 19517 62
  Maori Census1945Aug., 19515 01
  Race1945April, 19523 62
  Dependent Children1945April, 195212 61
  Religious Professions1945May, 195210 01
  Usual Place of Residence1945May, 19523 61
  Incomes1945July, 19527 64
  Dwellings and Households1945July, 195215 02
  Birthplaces and Duration of Residence1945July, 195210 02
  Interim Returns of Ages, Marital Status, Religious Professions, Birthplaces, Duration of Residence of Overseas-born, Race, War Service, Industries, Occupations, Occupational Status and Travelling Time1945Jan., 19492 61

NOTE.—This list is subject to revision from time to time. Publications are obtainable from the Government Printer, Wellington.

LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION

FOR some of the statistical series included in this issue of the Year-Book later information is available than is included in the body of the book. This later information is given in the following paragraphs, with references to the appropriate portion of the Year-Book containing more detailed information for earlier periods.

POPULATION

Inter-censal Population (pp. 22–23).—Recent population changes are given in the following table.

POPULATION AT END OF YEAR

Year EndedMales.Females.Total.Mean Population for Year.
Total Population (Including Maoris)
30th June, 1951978,247969,1421,947,3891,927,212
30th September, 1951981,765973,8581,955,6231,937,132
31st December, 1951989,513981,0091,970,5221,947,529
31st March, 1952997,468987,2621,984,7301,958,729
Maori Population
30th June, 195159,74656,773116,519114,767
30th September, 195160,14457,222117,366115,597
31st December, 195160,63457,672118,306116,471
31st March, 195261,13058,158119,288117,397

The above figures are exclusive of the population of the Cook Islands, 15,079, Nine Island, 4,553 (at the census of the 25th September, 1951), and Tokelau Islands (1,534 at 31st March, 1951). The population of Western Samoa, 83,565 at the 31st December, 1951, is also excluded.

Natural Increase.—Owing to the uniformly high levels in births in the last few years and the relative stability in the number of deaths, population gains from natural increase—i.e., excess of births over deaths—have been particularly marked in recent years, the excess of births over deaths increasing from 23,965 in 1945 to 32,362 in 1947 (a record level) with slight recessions in subsequent years to a 1951 excess of 31,053.

Migration (pp. 23–26).—The total number of arrivals in New Zealand during the year ended 31st March, 1952, was 114,803, while the total number of departures in the same year was 99,324. Excluding crews and through passengers, arrivals totalled 62,498 and departures 46,834, making the net excess of arrivals 15,664, as compared with 7,522 in 1950–51. A classification of total arrivals and departures gives the following results.

Year Ended 31st March,
1951.1952.
Migration: Arrivals  
Immigrants intending permanent residence18,23424,922
New Zealand residents returning19,97620,426
Visitors—  
  Tourists12,18312,325
  Others4,2514,825
Through passengers2,9232,744
Crews47,26349,561
    Total arrivals104,830114,803
Migration: Departures  
New Zealand residents departing—  
  Permanently7,7887,300
  Temporarily21,37121,091
Temporary residents departing17,96318,443
Through passengers2,9232,744
Crews46,41149,746
    Total departures96,45699,324

Recent statistics of the number of immigrants intending permanent residence show considerable increases, the arrivals under this heading having increased during the last three years as follows: 1949–50, 17,701; 1950–51, 18,234; and 1951–52, 24,922. The resumption of assisted passages for certain classes of immigrants is reflected in the statistics. In the last three years the number coming under this heading totalled 2,528 in 1949–50, 2,928 in 1950–51, and 4,949 in 1951–52.

VITAL STATISTICS

Vital statistics for the calendar years 1950 and 1951 are shown, in summary form, in the following table. Statistics in more detail for earlier years are given on pages 56–112.

1950.1951.
Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.

* Infant mortality rates per 1,000 live births.

Births—    
  Europeans44,30924.6744,65124.39
  Maoris5,10545.075,23844.97
    Total population49,41425.8849,88925.62
Deaths—    
  Europeans16,7159.3117,5129.56
  Maoris1,36912.091,32411.37
    Total population18,0849.4718,8369.67
Marriages (European)16,5049.1916,3598.93
Infant deaths under one year—    
  Europeans1,00822.75*1,01722.77*
  Maoris35669.74*35768.16*
    Totals1,36427.60*1,37427.54*

Births.—The total number of births registered in 1951 (49,889) is the highest recorded in the history of New Zealand, although it exceeded the previous high total in 1947 by only 85. The birth-rate however is lower than for the preceding five years, the rate falling progressively from 27.70 in 1947 to 25.62 in 1951.

PRODUCTION

Gross Farming Income (pp. 386–391).—The statistics of gross farming income for 1950–51 show record totals for values for each of the groups, particularly the “Pastoral” group which, owing to the phenomenal increase in the price of wool, coupled with the rise in the price of live-stock slaughtered, showed an advance of 102 per cent. despite the fact that the volume remained unchanged. A substantial increase in butterfat production resulted in record levels being reached for both value and volume for the “Dairying” group, the former being 12 per cent. and the latter 5 per cent. above the 1949–50 level. The “Agricultural” group recorded an increase of 4 per cent. in value and 2 per cent. in volume.

Farm production as a whole, as measured in terms of gross farming income, showed an over-all increase of 60 per cent. in value and 2.4 per cent. in volume as compared with the previous year. Both value and volume totals for 1950–51 established records.

GROSS FARMING INCOMES: VALUES

Production Year.Agricultural Produce.Pastoral Produce.Produce of Dairying, Poultry, and Bees.All Farm Produce.

* Provisional.

 £(m.)£(m.)£(m.)£(m.)
1946–4715.053.544.9113.4
1947–4815.068.452.1135.5
1948–4917.471.158.4146.9
1949–5017.899.264.2181.2
1950–51*18.5200.171.8290.4

INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE AND VOLUME

Base: 1938–39 (= 100)

Production Year.Agricultural.Pastoral.Dairying, &c.All Farm Produce.
Value.Volume.Value.Volume.Value.Volume.Value.Volume.

* Provisional.

1946–47183152172108146102161110
1947–48183144221114169104193113
1948–49212156230112190113210117
1949–50217150332122208117263123
1950–51*226153669122233123421126

Farm Production

General.—Statistical data covering the principal items for the 1950–51 season are presented below, together with final figures for the 1949–50 collection. Provisional figures for 1949–50 are given in the relevant portions of Section 18 of this Year-Book.

The greater detail available from the earlier collection is the result of the expanded collection undertaken in 1950 as part of the World Census of Agriculture. Where comparative figures are not quoted for 1951, data are not available.

The most striking features of the 1950–51 statistics are the substantial increases in area and yield of grass and clover for seed, particularly ryegrass, and the further increase in the number of dairy cows and beef stock. Associated with the increase in the number of dairy cows was an increase in the production of butterfat per cow, so that the total butterfat production of 498,000,000 lb. in 1950–51 created a record.

The figures of breeding ewes and of total sheep have been included in the tables that follow, but attention is drawn to the fact that the date of the annual sheep collection was altered in 1951 to the 30th June instead of 30th April as in previous years. The 1951 (30th June) figures actually show an increase over the 1950 (30th April) figures despite the fact that sheep numbers would suffer a reduction in the months of May and June on account of slaughterings, &c. These factors suggest that at the 30th April, 1951, sheep numbers would have been substantially above the totals at a similar date in the previous year. Apart from this, the actual numbers of breeding ewes and sheep in 1951 are higher than in any previous year.

Attention is directed to the fact that the figures (with the exception of the numbers of sheep) relate only to holdings of 1 acre and over located outside the borough boundaries.

Summary of Holdings (pp. 355–357).—The following table gives a summary of holdings as at the 31st January, 1950, and 1951.

At 31st January,
1950.1951.
 Number.Number.
Total holdings90,29090,230
Number occupied by Maoris4,6554,748
Number worked on share system2,678 
Number lying entirely idle or unused2,270 
Status of occupier—  
  Owner55,088 
  Lessee17,844 
  Manager2,532 
  Partner1,242 
  Shareworker2,303 
  Part owner, part lessee11,281 
 Acres.Acres.
Total area occupied43,158,32143,156,088
Tenure—  
  Crown lands, including Crown leases and licences18,275,63018,494,339
  Freehold occupied by owner21,183,18921,248,138
  Leased from private individuals1,972,1071,577,582
  Leased from public authorities587,238656,294
  Leased from Maoris1,140,1571,179,735

The total area occupied at the 31st January of the years quoted is further subdivided in the following table.

At 31st January,
1950.1951.
Sown grasses—Area (Acres).Area (Acres).
  New pasture—  
  Sown on virgin land45,24681,461
  Sown on land previously cultivated539,643607,429
  Old or established pasture17,606,84817,535,124
Grain and root, &c., crops less area also sown with grasses and clovers904,613879,762
Naturally established Danthonia1,232,8861,271,972
Tussock11,697,83111,840,716
Phormium (New Zealand flax)40,84334,876
Fern, scrub, second growth, &c.5,246,0015,245,512
Standing native bush or forest2,816,9972,769,928
Plantations—  
  Conifers887,831882,839
  Eucalypts and broad-leaved trees20,52919,325
Orchards—  
  Registered bearing14,65814,504
  Registered non-bearing1,3231,895
  Unregistered bearing2,3332,547
Unregistered non-bearing539776
Grape vines1,0911,152
Passion-fruit vines84119
Hop-vines605615
Market gardens—  
  Gooseberries14613,984
  Black currants154
  Red currants26
  Raspberries830
  Other bush fruits and berries331
  Vegetable crops for sale (including tomatoes)11,953
Nurseries—  
  Flowers and ornamental shrubs8121,191
  Forest tree seedlings352
Seedling fruit trees (including small bush fruits and berries)255
  Vegetable seedlings168
Residence, outbuildings, private gardens, &c.97,64193,971
Bare fallow during season90,819114,536
Barren and unproductive land1,894,9331,741,854
    Total area occupied43,158,32143,156,088

Top-dressing (pp. 419–420).—The area of grassland top-dressed during the years 1949–50 and 1950–51 is given in the following table.

Top-dressed withYear Ended 31st January,
1950.1951.
Area (Acres).Total Quantity Used.Area (Acres).Total Quantity Used.
Artificial fertilizers only—    
  Straight super-phosphate2,520,1166,217,386 cwt.4,155,94310,601,651 cwt.
  Basic, reverted, or serpentine superphosphate617,9761,796,483 cwt.
  Ground rock phosphate and/or basic slag322,4591,010,770 cwt.
  Other phosphatic fertilizers and mixtures237,361740,334 cwt.
  Manufactured organic fertilizers56,383163,149 cwt.
Lime only589,608516,644 tons649,490566,933 tons
Both artificial fertilizers and lime1,394,524 1,521,311 
  Quantity of fertilizer 3,312,604 cwt. 3,537,517 cwt.
  Quantity of lime 604,020 tons 712,606 tons
    Total area of grassland top-dressed5,738,427 6,326,744 

Crops (pp. 408-424).—Following is a summary of the principal crop statistics for the production years 1949-50 and 1950-51.

1949-50.1950-51.
Area.Yields.Area.Yields.
Wheat-Acres. Acres. 
  For threshing125,1594,899.668 bushel144, 7636,271, 928 bushel
  For chaff, hay, or ensilage6631,229 ton9612,018 ton
  Not harvested (fed off, &c.)2,418 1,284 
Oats-    
  For threshing52,6452,620,252 bushel35,8081,827,953 bushel
  For chaff, hay, or ensilage53,901100,183 ton40,96480,971 ton
  Not harvested (fed off, &c.55,007 56,824 
Barley—    
  For threshing56,7932,433,835 bushel46,1541,902, 432 bushel
  For chaff, bay, or ensilage437791 ton470981 ton
  Not harvested (fed off, &c.)13,295 11,911 
Maize—    
  For threshing7,240463,033 bushel6,119362,533 bushel
  For ensilage57100 ton82334 ton
  Not harvested (fed off, &c.)5,032 5,464 
Linseed for threshing7,54469,002 ewt.16,224148,099 ewt.
Peas for threshing41,3191,242,730 bushel21,701625, 784 bushel
Lupins for threshing4,53869,633 bushel5,479134,768 bushel
Ryecorn for threshing1,82939,753 bushel2,63552,887 bushel
Beans for threshing3138,045 bushel1654,641 bushel
Rape for seed1,015376,584 Ib.970805,092 lb.
Turnips for seed489312,377 lb.11946,332 lb.
Chou moellier for seed246105,117 lb.25851,748 lb.
Mangolds for seed22081,328 lb.107,748 lb.
Other crops for threshing or seed262 514 
Linen flax (corporation contract)2,791 173 
Potatoes17,794135,442 ton16,804119,778 ton
Onions8878,386 ton1,0539,644 ton
Tobacco3,376 3,324 
Fodder crops—    
  Swedes174,996 171,452 
  Turnips, white fleshed (soft)146,991 137,946 
  Turnips, yellow fleshed (hard)40,775 56,230 
  Rape181,805 161,770 
  Kale—    
  Thousand headed11,510 14,414 
  Chou moellier89,580 96,174 
  Turnips and rape mixed27,295 36,722 
  Pumpkins and marrows1,281 974 
  Mangolds2,547 2,283 
  Lupins for green fodder8,412 5,438 
  Ryecorn for green fodder8,534 9,887 
  Other green fodder crops1,752 3,004 
Vegetable crops for processing1,052 2,000 
Grasses, clovers and lucerne for seed, hay, or ensilage–    
  Harvested for seed–    
  Ryegrass—    
  Perennial43,71217,545,636 lb.81,92736,384, 008 lb.
  Italian (Including Western Wolths)3,4611,352,021 lb.9,9464,585,398 lb.
  Short rotation (11,)8,0013,325,629 lb.12,6475,088,804 lb.
  Cocksfoot4,915769,617 lb.7,2881,612,483 lb.
  Chewings fescue17,7553,522,867 lb.14.8312,370.705 lb.
  Crested dogstail5,6901,093,211 lb.7,7511,472,052 lb.
  Broad red clover11,7742,377,364 lb.10,8451,916,437 lb.
  Montgomery red clover8,3011,046,027 lb.7,805612,783 lb.
  Timothy1,582251,530 lb.2,130370,677 lb.
  Lucerne1,641107,300 lb.4,127370,205 lb.
  White clover29,5124,298,278 lb.43,3207,687,150 lb.
  Other grasses and clovers for seed11,739740,924 lb.0.407584,352 lb.
Cut for hay or ensilage—    
  Grasses and clovers cut for hay495,2141,005,876 ton551,0851,126,313 ton
  Grasses and clovers cut for ensilage85,155411,692 ton109,604482,228 ton
  Lucerne cut for hay or ensilage52,042124,071 ton68,622192,142 ton

The area of wheat harvested for grain in the 1951 season showed an increase of 19,604 acres, or 11-5 per cent., while the yield increased by 1,372,260 bushels, or 12-8 per cent. Moreover, the yield per area (43-33 bushels) is the highest yet obtained, the former high yield being 40-61 bushels in 1948-49. The acreage under oats for grain showed the substantial fall of 16,637 (32-0 per cent.) while the aggregate yield decreased by 792,299 bushels, or 30-2 per cent. The acreage of barley threshed also decreased, the difference amounting to 10,639 acres (18-7 per cent.) while the yield was less to the extent of 531,403 bushels (21-8 per cent.).

The potato crop in 1950-51 totalled 119,778 tons, a considerable decrease of 15,664 tons, or 11-6 per cent., on the 1949-50 harvest; while an increase was recorded in the onion crop (9,644 tons in 1950-51, compared with 8,386 tons in 1949-50).

The area under tobacco of 3,324 acres showed only a slight fall from the acreage in the previous year of 3,376. In addition to this area, a quite considerable acreage is grown within borough boundaries. Acreages of grasses and clovers harvested for seed in 1950-51 generally increased compared with those of the previous year. The acreage of perennial rye-grass showed a large increase from 43,712 acres in 1949-50 to 81,927 acres in 1950-51–the yield rising from 17,545,636 lb. to 36,384,008 lb.

Line-stock (pp. 425-443).—In the following table the numbers of live-stock on holdings at 31st January, 1950 and 1951, are given.

As at 31 st January,
1950.1951.
CattleNumber.Number.
  Dairy stock—  
    Breeding bulls, two years old and over61,94260,054
    Cows and heifers, two years old and over—  
      Cows in milk during season1,850,0891,898,197
      Heifers not yet in milk57,63876,996
      Cows not in milk during season but intended to again be used for dairying59,91440,696
    Heifers—  
      One and under two years old394,777388,654
      Under one year old409,895406,843
    Bulls and bull calves under two years old32,34639,992
        Total, dairy stock2,866,6012,911,432
Beef stock—  
  Breeding bulls, two years old and over22,37423,605
  Cows and heifers, two years old and over771,420804,124
    Heifers—  
      One and under two years old199,822208,758
      Under one year old206,364217,802
    Steers, two years old and over455,985444,086
    Steers and bulls—  
      One and under two years old207,610212,923
      Under one year old224,730237,294
        Total, beef stock2,088,3052,148,592
        Total cattle4,954,9065,060,024
Pigs  
  Pigs, under six months old352,708349,509
  Pigs, six months and under 1 year old113,843125,883
  Boars, one year old and over14,18513,890
  Sows, one year old and over74,50975,053
      Total pigs555,245564,335
Horses  
  Draught and three-quarter draught71,59365,901
  Spring cart, including half draught26,24422,541
  Hacks and light working horses76,82975,318
  Thoroughbreds and other horses20,21120,212
      Total horses194,877183,972
Sheep (including flocks within boroughs)—30th April, 1950.30th June, 1951.
  Breeding ewes21,881,46722,638,491
  Total sheep33,856,55834,786,386

The total number of cattle in New Zealand on 31st January, 1951, was the highest on record at 5,060,024. Dairy stock rose from 2,866,601 in 1949-50 to 2,911,432 in 1950-51, while beef stock rose from 2,088,305 in the former year to 2,148,592 in the latter year.

The number of dairy cows in milk during the season rose from 1,850,089 in 1949-50 to 1,898,197 in 1950-51, while butterfat production increased from 472,000,000 lb. in the 1949-50 dairying season to 498,000,000 lb. in the 1950-51 season.

Sheep (pp. 427-428).—A collection of statistics of sheep population was made through Inspectors of Stock on 30th April, 1950, and on 30th June, 1951. Following are the results (in summarized form) of the last two collections of this date.

Class.At 30th April 1950.At 30th June. 1951.

* Hoggets.

 Number.Number.
Rams594,682621,426
Wethers2,476,2592,679,392
Breeding-ewes21,881,46722,638,491
Dry ewes643,420470,856
Lambs8,260,7308,376,221*
Total sheep population33,856,55834,786,386

The foregoing statement shows the position at stages when the meat-slaughtering season is well advanced, particularly in 1951. Consequently the figures do not represent maximum sheep population. The number of lambs tailed in 1950-51 was 21,238,461 compared with the total of 21,169,576 in 1949-50. Sheep shorn numbered 32,251,297 in 1950-51 and 31,533,232 in 1949-50, the corresponding figures for lambs shorn being 7,017,989 and 6,339,709 respectively.

Farm Machinery (pp. 404-408).—Statistics of farm machinery on holdings in 1950 and 1951 where available are given in the following table.

At 31st January,
1950.1951.*

* Where a number is not shown for 1951, this indicates that such information was not requested in the 1951 collection.

 Number.Number.
Threshing-mills347 
Tin mills279 
Header harvesters3,121 
Chaffcutters1,352 
Reapers and binders8,509 
Hay-sweeps24,244 
Hay-rakes (including side delivery and dump rakes)26,439 
Hay-stackers11,701 
Hay balers and presses4,263 
Mowers39,666 
Drills—  
Combine14,243 
Ridger6,008 
Ploughs—  
Mouldboard53,596 
Disk8,695 
Mole drain2,322 
Harrows—  
Tine (number of sets)46,296 
Disk (number of sets)29,336 
Chain (number of sets)30,726 
Cultivators—  
Inter-row10,338 
Field12,053 
Manure sowers and spreaders31,474 
At 31st January,
19501951.*

* Where a number is not shown for 1951, this indicates that such information was not requested in the 1951 collection.

 Number.Number.
Rollers16,744 
Potato-planters828 
Potato-harvesters1,067 
Spraying-machines (power driven)1,692 
Motor lorries and trucks25,419 
Motor-cars48,285 
Farm carts and drays41,646 
Electric motors—  
  Number110,683116,549
  Horse-power100,747106,094
Internal combustion engines-  
  Number29,92629,046
  Horse-power84,82281,262
Rotary hoes and garden tractors—  
  Number3,0933,812
  Horse-Power14,94216,957
Agricultural tractors—  
  Diesel oil—  
    Crawler type—  
      Number1,307Number. 40,310 Horse-power. 946,779
      Horse-power42,606
    Wheel-type— 
      Number1,217
      Horse-power39,530
  Petrol driven— 
    Crawler type— 
      Number1,794
      Horse-power41,056
    Wheel type— 
      Number24,524
      Horse-power544,016
Kerosene (paraffin) driven— 
    Crawler type— 
      Number653
      Horse-power16,449
    Wheel type— 
      Number5,423
      Horse-power130,852
Number of shearing-sheds21,551
Night-pen capacity of sheds4,030,650 
Number of flocks machine shorn31,136 
Number of flocks blade shorn7,490 
Number of wool-presses18,846 
Shearing-machines—  
    Number of plants18,79119,473
    Number of stands40,53642,298
Number of sheep dips—  
    Bath dips13,250 
    Spray dips254 
Number of herds machine milked35,154 
Number of herds hand milked35,719 
Milking-machines—  
    Number of plants36,36837,176
    Cow-capacity139,929144,574
Number of cows in milk on holdings recording milking-machines1,721,8641,782,861
Power used in driving milking-machines—  
    Electric motors31,269 
    Internal combustion engines4,409 
    Other power86 
Number of cream separators54,421 
Number of wheeled trailers29,581 

Types of Farm Holdings.—A detailed type classification for farm holdings was evolved for use in 1949-50 and provisional figures are now available as to the number of holdings of the various types. These are presented in the following table.

The type classifications in the main are self explanatory, but some general observations may be of help.

The system of farming is defined according to the proportion of labour input required to be devoted to the various commercial enterprises constituting the farm operations. In order to compare the various enterprises from the viewpoint of relative labour requirement certain conversion factors were employed.

SUMMARY OF TYPE HOLDINGS—1949-50

Type Group.North Island.South Island.New Zealand Totals.
Idle and unused1,3479932,340
Grazing areas2,2401,754.3,994
Residential3,4443,2666,710
Plantations112162274
Phormium (New Zealand flax)51722
Dairying33,2646,50339,767
Sheep-farming12,15711,10723,264
Arable cropping2932,4952,788
Beef cattle8024391,241
Poultry7616911,452
Horse-raising170307477
Pig-raising13493227
Horticultural2,4222,1934,615
Mixed farming4271,3071,734
Timber-cutting581775
Other holdings7425681,310
    Totals, all holdings58,37831,91290,290

Estimated Areas of Principal Crops, 1952 Season.—Estimates of areas sown under wheat, oats, barley, and potatoes were collected in the spring of 1951 by inquiry from growers of these crops. Following are the estimates (in acres) for 1951-52 together with the final figures for the preceding season, 1950-51.

Acreages Under Principal Crops.
1950-51 (Final Figures).Total, New Zealand, 1951-52 (Estimated).
Wheat147,00095,000
Oats133,600121,000
Barley58,50056,000
Peas for threshing21,70027,000
Potatoes16,80013,000

These figures relate only to holdings of 1 acre and over situated outside borough boundaries. In addition, in the case of potatoes, a fairly considerable amount in the aggregate is grown on smaller holdings and on holdings within borough boundaries.

The following estimated average yields per acre of wheat, oats, and barley for the season 1951-52 have been compiled from reports furnished by officers of the Department of Agriculture throughout New Zealand.

District.Wheat: Bushels Per Acre.Oats: Bushels Per Acre.Barley: Bushels Per Acre.
North Island414046
Marlborough333542
Nelson333243
Canterbury424842
Otago384738
Southland506233
1951-52 average (estimated for New Zealand)425142
1950-51 actual average43.3351.0541.22

In accordance with the above estimates, the total yield of wheat for the season 1951-52 should be approximately 4,000,000 bushels, as against an ascertained yield of 6,271,928 bushels for the season 1950-51.

The area from which oats were threshed for the five seasons ending with 1950-51 averaged 34 per cent, of the total area under that crop. Assuming that a similar proportion is threshed this year, the total yield of grain would be approximately 2,100,000 bushels, as against a yield of 1,827,953 bushels for the season 1950-51.

On a similar assumption in regard to barley, the total yield of grain would be 1,900,000 bushels, as against 1,902,432 bushels for the season 1950-51.

Timber Production

Timber Production (pp. 456-459).—Provisional figures issued by the New Zealand Forest Service indicate a substantial increase in timber production for the year ended 31st March, 1952, the output of rough-sawn timber being given as 575,200,000 board feet, a rise of 47-6 million board feet, or 9 per cent, over the record output of the previous year. Exotic species accounted for 88 per cent. of the increase. The output of the principal species was as follows: rimu and miro, 225,400,000 board feet; matai 36,900,000 board feet; kahikatea, 20,000,000 board feet; beech, 18,000,000 board feet; totara, 17,400,000 board feet; and insignis pine, 224,500,000 board feet. Indigenous species totalled 339,100,000 board feet, and exotics, 236,100,000 board feet.

Electric Power

Electric-power Statistics (p. 551).—Principal data covering all stations for the year ended 31st March, 1951, are summarized below:—

Number of stations96
Persons engaged4,970
Salaries and wages paid£2,520,235
Number of consumers576,409
Prime movers (total b.h.p.)972,702
Generator capacity (main and standby) (kW.)675,344
Revenue— 
Sales of current— 
Retail£8,751,267
Bulk and interchange£4,480,617
Other (including rates)£232,933
Total revenue£13,464,817
Expenditure— 
Power purchased (including interchange)£4,517,975
Generating-costs£1,437,341
Transmission and distribution£1,811,884
Management and general£1,322,876
Capital charges£3,827,481
Total expenditure£12,917,557
Capital outlay— 
Total expenditure to date£94,330,819
Expenditure during year£10,995,695
Units (kWh.)— 
Generated (000)3,085,022
Per head of mean population1,609
Sold (retail) (000)2,446,572

Factory Production (see Section 22)

Following are the principal statistics of factory production in the years 1947-48, 1949-50, and 1950-51. Data for the year 1948-49 are not shown here although included in the relevant portions of Section 22. In that year the annual survey was carried out on a sample basis, only 20 major industries being covered.

Production Year.
1947-48.1919-50.1950-51.
Number of establishments Number7,9668,0278,318
Persons engaged—   
    Male Number106,206108,975111,571
    Females Number34,06135,33437,369
        Totals Number140,267144,309148,940
Production costs—   
    Salaries and wages—   
      To males £ (000)44,76152,38759,711
      To females £ (000)7,3728,93010,676
        Total £ (000)52,13361,31770,387
  Cost of materials used £ (000)181,773221,229274,166
  Other expenses of production £ (000)21,24126,33530,528
        Total cost of production £ (000)255,147308,881375,081
Value of output £ (000)272,155331,704395,046
Added value £ (000)90,382110,475120,880
Value of land and buildings £ (000)42,59351,30358,361
Value of plant and machinery £ (000)90,220110,991121,430
Engines employed to drive machinery   
    Total H.p. (000)1,3201,4741,497
    Excluding electric supply and generation H.p. (000)431499524
Overtime worked Hours (000)13,97515,55917,496

The quantities of some of the more important factory products in 1947-48, 1949-50, and 1950-51 are given in the following table.

Item.Unit.1947-48.1949-50.1950-51.

* Carcase weight.

Food, drink, and tobacco—    
Aerated waters and cordialsGallons4,312,0004,694,0004,932,000
Ale and stoutGallons30,499,00034,241,00036,057,000
BiscuitsTons13,00015,00015,000
ButterCwt.3,040,0003,377,0003,637,000
Canned and pulped fruitCwt.51,00059,00072,000
Canned vegetablesCwt.124,000132,000151,000
CheeseCwt.1,729,0002,108,0002,170,000
ConfectioneryTons13,00016,00017,000
FlourShort tons172,000165,000164,000
Frozen beef*Cwt.2,080,0001,778,0001,531,000
Frozen lambCarcases12,209,00012,450,00011,273,000
Frozen muttonCarcases2,826,0002,831,0002,268,000
Ham and bacon (cured)Cwt.282,000301,000281,000
  Ice-cream and ice-cream productsGallons2,714,0003,063,0003,249,000
  Jam and jelliesCwt.133,00076,00071,000
  Oatmeal, rolled oats, &c.Short tons9,0008,0008,000
  Preserved meatsCwt.183,000167,000168,000
  CigarettesMillion1,3541,6481,722
  Tobaccolb.4,027,0004,963,0005,158,000
Textiles—    
  BlanketsPairs125,000132,000139,000
  FlannelYards460,000498,000320,000
  Tweed and clothYards2,247,0002,223,0002,257,000
Clothing—    
  Boots and shoesPairs3,396,0003,193,0003,420,000
  DressesNumber1,197,0001,121,0001,392,000
  HosieryDoz. pairs647,000672,000664,000
  Knitted outerwearDozen90,000102,000117,000
  Men's trousersNumber747,000871,000998,000
  Overcoats—    
    Men's and boys'Number196,000150,000197,000
    Women's and girls'Number405,000423,000487,000
  Pyjamas and nightwearDozen111,000136,000154,000
  ShirtsDozen207,000221,000274,000
  SlippersPairs2,065,0001,940,0001,894,000
  Suits—    
    Men'sNumber141,000186,000197,000
    Boys'Number15,00043,00019,000
  UnderwearDozen820,000912,000972,000
Other—    
  Agricultural limeTons1,012,0001,133,0001,200,000
  CementTons227,000246,000204,000
  Chemical fertilizersTons619,000683,000712,000
  Leatherlb.12,267,00010,153,00010,216,000
  ManuresCwt.702,000769,000757,000
  Soap (including toilet)Tons10,00010,00010,000
  BricksMillions293438
  Electricity generatedMillions2,5903,0303,085
  Gas madeMillion cub. ft.5,4575,5415,446
  Radio receiversNumber49,00056,00053,000
  Motor-vehicles assembled—    
    CarsNumber10,4089,73113,444
    Commercial vehiclesNumber4,5836,7548,589

Classification of Industries.—In the following table the principal factory statistics are classified according to four significant industrial groups. Group I comprises industries concerned with processing pastoral products; Group II, public utility industries (electricity generation and supply, gasworks): Group III, further industries closely associated with primary or extractive production (e.g., sawmilling): and Group IV, the remainder of factory industries, being those falling generally within the economic classification of “secondary” production. (For a detailed explanation see pages 509-510 of this Year-Book.)

Principal statistics for these groups for the years 1949-50 and 1950-51 are as follows.

Group.Persons Engaged.Salaries and Wages Paid.Cost of Materials.Total Cost of Production.Value of Output.Added Value.Capital Additions to Premises and Plant During Year.
 Number£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
1949-50
I17,7079,439108,249123,621127,25719,0082,647
II6,4113,06711,04814,66915,2214,1738,826
III13,3306,2996,42316,36918,78712,364974
IV106,86142,51295,509154,222170,43974,9306,357
    Total144,30961,317221,229308,881331,704110,47518,805
1950-51
I17,89710,926143,085160,269157,29014,2052,799
II6,6813,39211,66715,64116,3794,71211,233
III13,4677,0007,49119,06821,47213,9811,941
IV110,89549,069111,923180,103199,90587,9827,663
    Total148,94070,387274,166375,081395,046120,88023,635

The figures given in the following table showing average salaries and wages, output and added value are derived from the foregoing summaries.

Year.Salaries and Wages Per Person Engaged.Value of Output Per Person Engaged.Added Value Per Person Engaged.Ratio Per Cent of Salaries and Wages to Added Value.
Males.Females.Total.
 £££££Per Cent.
1947-484212163721,94064457.7
1949-504812534252,29976655.5
1950-515352864732,65281258.2

"Added value" as shown above means the value added to materials by the process of manufacture. It is the difference between the value shown for “cost of materials” and that shown for "value of output". Therefore, it represents salaries and wages, costs of production other than by way of materials, and the manufacturing surplus prior to provision for taxation, dividends, &c. The following table shows for the last three years available the content of added value.

1947-48.1949-50.1950-51.
£(000)Per Cent.£(000)Per Cent.£(000)Per Cent.
Salaries and wages52,13357.761,31755.570,38758.2
Other costs of production (excluding materials)21,24123.526,33523.830,52825.3
Manufacturing surplus17,00818.822,82320.719,96516.5
    Added value90,382100.0110,475100.0120,880100.0

A better understanding of relative movements in the value and volume of factory production can be obtained from a study of the following index numbers. The groups referred to are the same as quoted in a previous table, and the index numbers are on the base 1938-39 (= 100).

Production Year.Group I.Group II.Group III.Group IV.Total, All Groups.
Total Value of Production (Gross Output)
1947-48199163213294238
1948-49217182248326263
1949-50249194268351290
1950-51308209306412345
Net Value of Production (Added Value)
1947-48209154210251233
1948-49228164252267252
1949-50271185268300285
1950-51203209304353311
Volume of Production
1947-48128158131159151
1948-49131167138163155
1949-50136174143174164
1950-51131176149185172

BUILDING ACTIVITY (pp. 536-542)

Urban Districts.—Statistics of building permits issued in cities, boroughs, and town districts (to which are added nine counties and two road districts in which the population is predominantly urban) during the year ended 31st March, 1952, are given below, together with (for purposes of comparison) statistics for the four preceding years.

BUILDING PERMITS ISSUED: URBAN DISTRICTS

Year Ended 31st March.Dwellings.Value of Other New Buildings and Alterations and Additions.Total Value of All Buildings.
Number.Value.
  £££
194810,78116,956,1175,892,10422,848,221
194912,27020,430,6897,823,56028,254,249
195013,13422,711,23910,336,34133,047,580
195113,10225,165,13812,708,80137,873,939
195212,44327,762,90818,516,48346,279,391

NOTE.—Since April, 1951, figures for the Waitemata, Manukau, Paparua, Peninsula, and Taieri Counties have been included in urban district totals; the figures quoted in the table for preceding years have been adjusted to be comparable on the revised basis.

Rural Districts.—Building permit statistics for rural districts have been collected from counties (excluding the nine counties and two road districts which are included in urban districts) also the two Road Boards on Waiheke Island. Figures quoted in the rest of this paragraph have been adjusted to be on a comparable basis (refer to Note below preceding table). The total value of rural building operations for the year 1951–52 was £12,963,868, an increase of £2,068,203 or 19 per cent. on the 1950–51 figures. The number of new private dwelling permits in rural districts was 4,668 in 1951–52 compared with 4,747 in 1950–51 and 4,523 in 1949–50.

All Districts (Urban and Rural).—The total value of building operations represented by permits or authorizations issued in the year ended 31st March, 1952, in both urban and rural districts, was £59,243,259 (£48,769,604 in the March year, 1951). Included in this total were 17,111 permits. &c. for private dwellings (17,849 in the March year, 1951). The totals include State buildings commenced in the years quoted, as do the statistics under the separate headings, urban and rural.

Dwelling Units Completed.—Local authorities which supply building permit figures were also requested to supply the number of new dwelling units which were completed during the year. Estimates have been made in some cases where it was not possible to supply data. While absolute accuracy for the statistics cannot be claimed, it is believed they will give reasonably approximate results and also reasonably accurate comparisons of year to year changes.

The total figures on this basis for new dwelling units completed during 1951–52 were 16,300 compared with 16,400 in 1950–51 and 15,800 in 1949–50. Those completed in urban districts (on the revised basis) numbered 11.900 in 1951–52, and in the previous years quoted, 12,350 and 12,000 respectively.

EXTERNAL TRADE

Statistics of external trade in the calendar year 1951, in continuation of the statistics included in pp. 219–280 of this Year-Book, are given below.

Total Commodity Trade.—Following are statistics of exports and imports in 1949. 1950, and 1951.

Calendar Year.Exports.Imports.Excess of Exports over Imports.
New Zealand Produce.Total Exports.
 £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
1949146,113147,290119,71327,577
1950182,342183,753157,89625,857
1951246,394248,131206,49141,640

Commodity trade statistics for the calendar year 1951 show some interesting features. The value of both exports and imports during 1951 was the highest on record. The total trade per head of mean population in 1951 was £233 (exports £127 and imports £106), a figure substantially higher than any recorded previously.

Although price changes have contributed materially to the high values of commodity trade—both exports and imports—there has also been a considerable upward movement in the volume of trade. The following table illustrates this fact.

INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE AND VOLUME OF TRADE

Calendar Year.Exports.Imports.
Volume Index.Volume Index.Value Index.Value Index
Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.

* Not yet available.

1936–38 (average)100100100100100100
194924312810823011799
1950303123102304140117
195140911090397**

Comparing the 1950 and 1951 figures with the pre-war average (1936–38) it is seen that the total value of exports has increased by 203 and 309 per cent, respectively, while the corresponding percentage increases for imports were 204 for 1950 and 297 for 1951. On a volume basis, exports showed an increase of 23 per cent. for 1950 and 10 per cent. for 1951, while imports increased by 40 per cent. in the former year.

Exports.—As indicated earlier, New Zealand's export commodity trade reached a record level in 1951, an increase of 35 per cent. in value being recorded between 1950 and 1951. By far the largest factor in the increase was the higher returns from wool (£53–5 million), but increases were shown also for hides, pelts, and skins (£2–9 million), butter (£5–8 million), and cheese (£2–1 million). The value of frozen meat declined by £3–2 million. An indication of the progress of exports in the main groups of commodities is afforded by the following table.

VALUE OF EXPORTS

Calendar Year.Butter.Cheese.Frozen Meat.Wool.Hides, Pelts, and Skins.
 £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
194935,45012,67427,23046,5546,679
195035,56714,53628,62974,6539,996
195141,36216,65025,394128,17612,862

Apart from the question of values, a special interest attaches to progress in the volume of our export trade in major export commodities. In the following table the fluctuations in the quantities of exports of butter, cheese, meat, and wool since 1939 are shown.

Calendar Year.Butter.Cheese.Frozen Meat.Wool.

* Record.

 Tons (000)Tons (000)Tons (000)Tons (000)
1939122,283,9295,3123,8
1940131,1101,7348,8*134,1
1941113,2118,3264,296,3
1942117,2134,4*287,1137,3
194399,3100,5220,692,3
1944115,377,7207,884,2
1945103,587,4282,774,2
1946101,875,7337,7163,1
1947127,687,0347,7167,5
1948135,675,6343,5188,0
1949147,693,9344,1191,8*
1950137,499,9338,1175,9
1951147,1106,6274,8141,5

Following a record production season the quantities of butter and cheese exported in 1951 were considerably higher than both the previous year's figures and the pre-war totals, but still below the respective record figures of 148,800 tons of butter in 1937 and 134,400 tons of cheese in 1942. Several factors, including high wool prices, good feed conditions, the widespread industrial dispute, and an apparent tendency towards a heavier stocking on farms, led to live-stock slaughterings falling in 1950–51, with a consequent drop in frozen-meat exports to the lowest figure for several years. Shipments of war-time stocks of appraisal wool were negligible in 1951 while there were delays in the shipment of the current clip due to the waterfront industrial dispute so that wool exports were the lowest, in volume, in the post-war period.

The figures do not include wartime supplies to Allied Forces under mutual-aid arrangements, a factor of particular importance in 1943 and 1944.

Direction of Export Trade.—The table below shows the destinations of New Zealand exports in 1951.

Country.Total Exports.
 £
United Kingdom142,365,921
Republic of India963,421
Pakistan148,053
Federation of Malaya321,285
Hong Kong271,076
British West Africa77,940
Union of South Africa268,725
British West Indies715,627
Canada8,564,989
Australia5,110,663
Fiji778,027
Gilbert and Ellice Islands86,525
Tonga212,853
Western Samoa481,207
Other Commonwealth countries289,171
  Totals, Commonwealth countries160,655,483
 £
Belgium5,239,179
Denmark1,157,146
Finland322,162
France17,853,958
Germany8,836,332
Greece253,693
Italy3,847,487
Netherlands3,261,869
Norway227,920
Czechoslovakia763,699
Poland7,312,145
Yugoslavia312,242
Russia (U.S.S.R.)1,246,911
Sweden672,908
Switzerland128,277
Burma103,391
Philippine Islands105,037
Japan3,844,738
Egypt353,120
Mexico295,059
Netherlands Antilles175,235
Panama Republic305,814
United States of America28,859,044
Society Islands275,198
Other countries880,035
  Totals, other countries86,632,599
Ships' stores842,815
  Totals, all countries248,130,897

Trade with Commonwealth countries in 1951 accounted for 64.7 per cent. of the total exports.

FINANCE Banking and Currency

Reserve Bank (p. 672).—Data showing the liabilities and assets of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand at the last balance day in May, 1952, are shown below, together with the corresponding figures for the last balance day in March, 1952.

As at Last Balance Day in
March, 1952.May, 1952.

* Included in this item are sterling investments of £(N.Z.)32,140,080 at end of March and May, 1952.

Liabilities—££
  Total liabilities (including other)128,290,841120,875,692
  Bank-notes62,205,23861,876,093
  Demand liabilities—  
    State33,605,24915,433,259
    Banks24,642,82041,097,725
    Other604,118488,549
Assets—  
  Total assets (including other)128,290,841126,875,692
  Investments*34,181,88532,181,886
  Sterling exchange reserve (in New Zealand currency)21,755,82524,818,022
  Advances—  
    Marketing organizations6,320,9244,701,370
    Other purposes50,000,00050,000,000

Trading Banks (pp. 673–680).—A statement of the principal statistics of the operation of trading banks as at the last balance day in March and May, 1952, is given below.

As at Last Balance Day in
March, 1952.May, 1952.
Bank debits—££
  Government10,489,4908,570,642
  Other96,780,61180,334,858
Bank clearings58,540,57048,391,602
Advances, including notes and bills discounted187,259,488179,861,955
Deposits—  
  Total263,615,864259,679,163
  Government4,388,5655,068,321
  Not bearing interest212,276,706213,171,589
  Bearing interest46,950,59341,439,253
Reserve Bank notes—  
  Notes held by trading banks12,391,98411,485,358
  Net note circulation49,813,25450,390,735
Ratio of advances to deposits71.0369.26

An analysis of advances of the trading banks at quarterly intervals is published by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, and the classification as at the last Wednesday in March of 1951 and 1952, is contained in the following table. Figures for earlier years will be found on page 678.

Advances toAs at Last Wednesday in March,
 £(000)£(000)
Farmers19,15421,538
Industries allied to primary production32,18833,452
Other manufacturing and productive industries20,47732,492
Merchants—  
  Wholesalers13,79227,189
  Retailers11,34720,658
Transport3,0643,603
Other30,71040,980
    Total advances130,732179,912

Overseas Assets of Banks (p. 683).—In the following table the revised series of overseas assets of banks (on account of New Zealand business only) are shown.

Overseas Assets.
As at End of March, 1951.As at End of March, 1952.
Trading banks' overseas assets—£(000)£(000)
In London35,02026,285
Elsewhere3,8518,158
Reserve Bank's overseas assets—  
Sterling exchange60,97021,756
Other overseas assets7,37934,937
Total gross overseas assets107,21991,136
Overseas liabilities of trading banks7,36712,342
Overseas liabilities of Reserve Bank9431
Net overseas assets99,75878,764

Savings-banks (pp. 686–689).—A summary of statistics of savings-banks at 31st March, 1952, is given below.

Post Office Savings-bank.Trustee Savings-banks.National Savings Accounts.

* On deposits held during year ended 30th June, 1951.

Number of depositors1,450,309365,701 
 £££
Total amount of deposits during year98,205,64322,937,10710,973,761
Total amount of withdrawals during year93,748,81822,372,9336,511,399
Excess of deposits over withdrawals4,456,825564,1744,462,362
Interest credited to depositors4,079,606877,2351,541,632*
Total amount to credit of depositors at end of March, 1952184,639,21338,334,04959,218,069

Overseas Receipts and Payments.—The following statement gives statistics of exchange-control transactions for the years ended 31st March, 1951 and 1952. Comparable items for the calendar years 1950 and 1951 are, however, given on pages 684–685. All figures quoted are taken from Reserve Bank sources.

Year Ended 31st March, 1951.Year Ended 31st March, 1952.
Receipts.Payments.Receipts.Payments.
Merchandise—£NZ(000)£NZ(000)£NZ(000)£NZ(000)
  Exports208,025 251,922 
  Licensed imports 129,417 75,745
  Decontrolled imports 15,548 152,520
  Other imports 24,742 24,365
    Totals, merchandise208,025169,707251,922252,631
Transport: Freights, fares, ships' charters1,1212,3931,6593,843
Travel: Private and business (exclusive of fares)1,2005,4121,4715,954
Insurance—    
  Insurance5106701,168729
  Reinsurance 364 651
    Totals, insurance5101,0351,1681,380
International investment income—    
  Interest, dividends, and other private investment income2,4094,1112,9725,754
  Interest on Government and local authority loans 2,673 2,723
    Totals, international investment income2,4096,7842,9728,476
Government transactions—    
  Current expenditure by New Zealand Government overseas 3,845 5,213
  Current receipts by New Zealand Government and expenditure by other Governments in New Zealand1,901 2,025 
    Totals, Government transactions1,9013,8452,0255,213
Miscellaneous current transactions—    
  Commissions, royalties, rebates, &c.8511,6251,5461,907
  Films and entertainments 599 628
  Unilateral transfers (immigrants' transfers, personal remittances, charitable, legacies, &c.)5,0536,5267,4515,247
  Expenses of business firms1,8251,2785071,721
  Other current transactions386295614428
    Totals, miscellaneous current transactions8,11510,32310,1189,931
Capital transfers—    
  Private3,6594,1966,0132,348
  Government 338 4,020
  Local authority 461 104
    Totals, capital transfers3,6594,9966,0136,472
Unidentified860 183 
    Grand totals227,802204,495277,528293,901

PUBLIC FINANCE

Consolidated Fund (pp. 560–563).—The following table contains a summary of the receipts of the Consolidated Fund for the financial years ended 31st March, 1951 and 1952.

1950–51.1951–52.
 ££
Taxation122,180,538156,936,939
Interest on capital liability—  
  Post and Telegraph811,128947,886
  Electric supply1,640,5941,946,053
  Land settlement1,206,2291,333,871
  Other accounts986,3371,219,663
Interest on other public moneys1,922,0021,889,562
Profits on trading undertakings1,770,3511,740,532
Departmental receipts13,239,63614,773,896
Totals143,756,815180,788,402

The next table contains a summary of payments from the Consolidated Fund for the financial years 1950–51 and 1951–52.

1950–51.1951–52.
Permanent appropriations—££
  Civil list93,898119,326
  Debt services26,313,98623,775,254
  Highways253,882298,078
  Miscellaneous510,455568,765
  Superannuation (subsidy and contribution)2,850,0002,915,000
    Totals, permanent appropriations30,022,22127,676,423
Annual appropriations—  
  Legislative192,084183,061
  Prime Minister's Office11,79214,438
  External Affairs736,6381,604,363
  Finance11,136,35017,243,569
  General Administration10,211,92014,258,034
  Law and Order2,142,3192,636,346
  Defence13,942,30622,634,172
  Defence Construction and Maintenance1,308,4272,005,485
  Maintenance of Public Works and Services6,750,6877,739,979
  Maintenance of Highways4,044,9364,785,095
  Development of Primary and Secondary Industries9,762,71411,611,683
  Social Services—  
    Health10,247,29412,775,834
    Education13,345,56415,904,424
    War and other Pensions5,597,3356,443,238
    Transfer to Social Security Fund14,000,00014,000,000
      Totals, annual appropriations103,430,366133,839,721
Transfer to War Emergency Account 6,600,000
Other services not provided for2,051,01136,537
      Grand totals135,503,598168,152,681
      Balance in Fund at end of year15,393,91919,776,423

The sum of £4,307,742, being the surplus for the 1949–50 year, was transferred to the Public Works Account during the year ended 31st March, 1951. The surplus for 1950–51, £8,253,217, was, expended during the year 1951–52, as follows: Payment of family bonus, £3,078,910; transfer to War Emergency Account, £5,174,307.

Taxation (pp. 570–588).—Particulars of revenue from taxation for the financial years 1949–50, 1950–51, and 1951–52 are contained in the following table.

Item of Revenue.1940–50.1950–51.1951–52.
Consolidated Fund—£££
  Customs revenue21,474,53323,600,06232,599,596
  Beer duty4,822,3405,036,1455,273,804
  Sales-tax14,785,32016,827,10621,811,375
  Motor-vehicles taxation3,640,1163,996,6294,575,347
  Death duties5,713,7507,254,0138,117,259
  Land-tax967,3861,043,2031,137,937
  Income-tax48,483,45059,441,83978,101,503
  Duty on instruments596,9921,161,0001,436,588
  Racing taxation2,268,4912,577,6032,628,383
  Other1,101,0861,242,9381,255,147
      Totals103,853,464122,180,538156,936,939
Social security taxation—   
  Social security charge31,702,57035,766,23643,612,868
  Registration fee, &c.28520174
      Totals31,702,85535,766,43743,612,942
      Grand totals135,556,319157,946,975200,549,881

A summary showing the amounts received from direct taxes on income and from all sources during the last ten years is now given.

Your.Direct Taxes on Income (Including War and Social Security Charges on Income).Total Taxation.
Amount.Per Head of Mean Population.Percentage of Total Taxation.Amount.Per Head of Mean Population.
 ££ s. d. ££ s. d.
1942–4353,977,44132 18 261.487,940,84453 12 4
1943–4463,311,96538 13 362.8100,839,48461 11 7
1944–4568,438,47741 2 363.0108,681,81465 5 10
1945–4671,582,87041 16 1162.3114,954,87367 4 0
1946–4763,873,16236 1 756.5113,119,04663 18 0
1947–4863,581,24435 3 652.0122,275,91167 12 11
1948–4978,386,05742 10 360.1130,440,24970 14 11
1949–5080,186,02042 12 559.2135,556,31972 1 1
1950–5195,208,07549 12 1060.3157,946,97582 7 1
1951–52121,714,37162 2 960.7200,549,881102 7 9

State Indebtedness (p. 590).—The public debt as at 31st March, 1952, amounted to £679,853,533 a decrease of £13,571,145 as compared with a year earlier.

SOCIAL SECURITY AND WAR PENSIONS (pp. 608–638)

Revenue of the Social Security Fund for the year ended the 31st March, 1952, together with the 1950–51 figures in parentheses, was as follows: Charge on salaries and wages, £24,318,138 (£20,650,975); charge on company and other income, £19,294,730 (£15,115,261); grant from Consolidated Fund, £14,000,000 (£14,000,000); fees and fines, £74 (£201); maintenance recoveries, interest, and other receipts, £168,724 (£115,952); total receipts, £57,781,666 (£49,882,389).

Payments from the Fund in 1951–52 with 1950–51 payments in parentheses were: Monetary benefits, £43,490,634 (£39,553,623); emergency benefits, £365,180 (£292,069); medical, &c., benefits, £9,368,027 (£8,723,383); administration expenses, £952,598 (£848,486), other payments, £3,804 (£3,200); total payments, £54,180,243 (£49,420,761).

Particulars of the various social security benefits (monetary and health) and war pensions in force at the end of March, 1952, together with total payments during the financial year 1951–52 are shown in the following table.

Class of Benefit or Pension.As at 31st March, 1952.Payments during Year Ended 31st March 1952.
Number in Force.Annual Value.
Social security benefits—   
  Monetary— ££
    Universal superannuation69,1335,124,9753,144,091
    Age125,77519,442,04819,235,326
    Widows12,3672,179,7572,230,635
    Orphans'32431,99333,667
    Family272,08415,916,91416,110,297
    Invalids'8,5281,447,3551,476,281
    Miners'562121,841127,619
    Sickness4,138 1,128,804
    Unemployment7 3,914
    Emergency2,127 365,180
        Totals495,045 43,855,814
  Health—   
    Medical  2,760,583
    Hospital  2,112,494
    Maternity  884,781
    Pharmaceutical  2,428,215
    Supplementary  1,181,954
        Totals  9,368,027
War pensions—   
  First World War18,1352,654,0572,711,710
  Second World War25,3692,011,7612,071,829
  War veteran's allowance5,4681,410,7441,282,094
  South African War341,4264,430
  Mercantile Marine pensions244,8852,872
  Emergency Reserve Corps102,8821,973
  Kay Force131,009671
        Totals49,0536,086,7646,075,579
Sundry pensions and annuities23843,21342,701
    Grand totals544,336 59,342,121

PRICES

Retail Prices (pp. 764–771).—Details of the consumers' price index for each of the quarters ended 31st December, 1951, 31st March, 1952, and 30th June, 1952, and for the calendar year 1951 are given below.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX

Base: Weighted average twenty-one towns, first quarter, 1949 (=1000)

Food.Housing.Fuel and Lighting.
Meat and Fish.Fruits, Vegetables, and Eggs.Other Foods.All Food.Rent.Other Housing.All Housing.
Calendar year—        
  195113551265127612921052107210641235
Quarter ended—        
  1951—        
    31st December14961511127713821065107210691229
  1952—        
    31st March15141412129513731098116511381252
    30th June15451483132414131098116511381272
Clothing and Footwear.Miscellaneous.All Groups.
Clothing.Footwear.Clothing and Footwear.Household Durable Goods.Other Commodities.Services.All Miscellaneous.
Calendar year—        
  195111901269120211531039111710911183
Quarter ended—        
  1951—        
    31st December12691325127711791064114911191237
  1952—        
    31st March12711338128111771120114911421253
    30th June12671363128211641122118311521270

Comparative Table.—With reference to the comparative table of index numbers on the base: 1936–38 (= 100) shown on page 776, the following addition for 1951 may be made—import prices, 274.

Share Prices (pp. 777–780).—Index numbers of share prices in 1951 together with the average for the three months ending March, 1952, are given below.

GroupIndex Numbers Base Average for each Group, 1938 (=1000).
Average for 1951.Average for 3 Months Ended March, 1952.
Frozen meat23111749
Woollens19731766
Gas818674
Timber22101918
Minerals14761322
Miscellaneous (including breweries)15041281
      All industrial groups15661323
Banks12511048
Insurance23502024
Loan-agency companies25872182
Miscellaneous22632081
      All finance, &c., groups20271758
      All groups combined17961541

Monthly statistics for 1951 and the first five months of 1952 are given below:—

SHARE PRICES MONTHLY INDEX NUMBERS, YEAR 1938 (= 1000)

1951.1952.
Industrial Groups.Finance Groups.All Groups.Industrial Groups.Finance Groups.All Groups.

* Month of December Interpolated.

January163920211830137818381608
February161720461831129616931495
March161120371824129417371515
April159920121806129516971496
May160320221812130016941497
June159720641830   
July157920571818   
August157520341804   
September156220561809   
October152920751802   
November145919851722   
December1419*1912*1665*   

Summary of Price Movements.—The following addition for 1951 may be made to the table on page 780 showing price index numbers on the base: first quarter, 1949 (= 1000)—import prices, 131.

Wool Prices

(Compiled from Information Supplied by New Zealand Wool Commission)

Statistics of greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand are given below in two sections. The first table gives a summary of the transactions that took place during the five seasons 1947–48 to 1951–52. Actual total quantities and values are shown as recorded at sales, no attempt being made to allow for variations in quality or in the relative quantities of the various types of wool sold from season to season. Besides price movements, therefore, the average value per pound of wool sold shown in this table includes variations on account of these additional factors.

WEIGHT, SALE VALUE, AND AVERAGE VALUE PER POUND OF GREASY WOOL SOLD AT AUCTION

Season.Weight of Greasy Wool Sold.Sale Value.Value Per Pound.
 lb.(000)£(000)d.
1947–48280,72929,37525.11
1948–49287,21130,88225.81
1949–50297,88647,13837.98
1950–51293,737107,50987.84
1951–52314,89652,73440.19

In the next table, details of a wool price index on base 1949–50 (= 1000) are given. This index has been compiled in an attempt to eliminate all but the price factor in movements of average wool values during the five seasons. A description of the index is given in the March, 1952, issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Season.Price Per Pound on Floor, Greasy.Index Numbers* Base: 1949–50 (= 1000).

* Based on price on floor, clean.

 d. 
1947–4825.62676
1948–4926.10686
1949–5037.981000
1950–5187.472299
1951–5241.631089

LABOUR STATISTICS

Wage-rates (pp. 782–786).—Index numbers of average nominal wage-rates of adult male wage-earners in 1951 and as at 31st March, 1952 are as follows:—

Industrial Group.Average for Year 1951.As at 31st March, 1952.
Base: All Groups 1926–30 (=1000).Base: Each Group 1926–30 (=1000).Base: All Groups 1926–30 (=1000).Base: Each Group 1926–30 (=1000).
Provision of—    
  Food, drink, &c.2126192121451939
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles2060202020962056
  Building and construction2003195020241971
  Power, heat, and light2062188220881906
  Transport by water2223200822882067
  Transport by land2013191620301932
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service1839189118711925
Working in or on—    
  Wood, wicker, sea-grass, and fibre2109195721381984
  Metal2149193921691957
  Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals1928188319561910
  Paper, printing, &c.2186183722371880
  Skins, leather, &c.1894181119331848
  Mines and quarries2060197520851999
  The land (farming pursuits)1919249420612079
    All groups combined2037203720922092

Effective Weekly Wage-rates (p. 788).—The following table shows nominal and effective weekly wage-rates of adult workers for the year 1951 and of males only for the first quarter of 1952. The base of the index numbers is in each case the average of the five years 1926–30 (=1000).

Year.Retail Prices (All Groups).Nominal Weekly Wage-rates.Effective Weekly Wage-rates.
Males.Females.Males.Females.

* Not available.

195115662037230913011474
1952—     
    March quarter16592092*1261*

Average Rates of Wages (pp. 790–792).—The following table gives the prescribed minimum average weekly wage-rates as at the 31st March, 1952, the series being confined to adult males.

Occupation.Average Wage (Four Principal Districts) at 31st March, 1952.
Adult Maless. d.
Bakers— 
  Journeymen191 3
  Labourers159 6
Butchers— 
  First shopmen209 8
  Second shopmen193 9
Butter-factory employees—Churning and butter making: General hands163 11
Flour-milling— 
  Kilnmen185 11
  Assistant smuttermen177 4
  Rollermen201 3
Meat-freezing— 
  Slaughtermen, per 100 sheep79 10
  General hands182 0
Meat-preserving— 
  Boners222 0
  General hands182 0
Sausage-casing making: General hands188 0
Aerated water and cordial making— 
  Cordial-makers175 5
  Bottle-washers165 11
Brewing labourers175 7
Tailors— 
  Journeymen185 11
  Factory hands185 11
Boot operatives185 11
Woollen-mills— 
  Spinners189 9
  General hands170 7
Building— 
  Bricklayers197 0
  Carpenters and joiners192 7
  Plasterers195 3
  Plumbers (competent)196 8
  Builders' labourers178 3
  General labourers161 0
Sawmilling— 
  Engine-drivers200 9
  Sawyers204 7
  Tailers-out186 5
  Yardmen, head200 9
  General hands182 7
Boatbuilding: Shipwrights194 6
Metal-works, &c.— 
  Blacksmiths, floormen184 0
  Boilermakers, journeymen189 9
  Iron and brass moulders188 8
  Tinsmiths, journeymen188 4
  Engineering fitters, &c.192 3
  Electrical workers193 6
  Motor mechanics194 3
Printing— 
  Linotype (day)202 3
  Letterpress machinist (day)193 7
Skin and leather workers— 
  Curriers184 0
  General hands161 0
Mineral and stone workers— 
  Brickmakers181 4
  General hands163 2
Mining (coal)— 
  Surface— 
    Tippers180 2
    Labourers180 2
  Miners (on day wages, per shift)40 10
  Truckers189 9
  Mining (gold): Miners In rises or winzes with machines171 1
Quarrymen166 9
Agricultural and pastoral workers— 
  General farm hands122 6
  Threshing-mill hands, per hour4 5
  Ploughmen122 6
  Shearers (per 100 sheep shorn)117 0
  Shepherds122 6
  Wool-pressers425 4
  Dairy-farm hands153 0
Railways— 
  Engine-drivers, average third and sixth years210 10
  Firemen, average second and ninth years191 9
  Guards, average first and third years201 9
Tramways— 
  Motormen182 1
  Conductors174 5
Shipping and cargo-working— 
  Assistant stewards, first grade175 6
  Assistant stewards, second grade172 2
  Chief cooks219 2
  Second cooks196 4
  A.B. seamen189 10
  Ordinary seamen, first class147 4
  Waterside workers: Ordinary cargo195 0
Hotel workers— 
  Chefs178 0
  Waiters120 0
Miscellaneous— 
  Soft-goods assistants (male)186 11
  Grocers' assistants178 10
  Warehouse storemen166 9

NOTE.—The following perquisites (as assessed for statistical purposes) as at the 31st March, 1952, should be added to the listed occupations: General farm-hands, ploughmen, shepherds, and dairy-farm hands, 28s. 9d. per week for board and lodging; shearers and wool-pressers, 7s. per day for rations; assistant stewards (first and second grade), chief and second cooks, able and ordinary seamen, 38s. 5d. per week as value of board and lodging; and hotel chefs and waiters, 37s. 11d. per week as value of board and lodging.

Estimated Distribution of the Labour Force (p. 857).—The following table supplies an estimated distribution of the total labour force at the 15th October, 1951, and the 15th April, 1952.

(Thousands)

Industrial Group.Males.Females.Totals.
October, 1951.April, 1952.October, 1951.April, 1952.October, 1951.April, 1952.
Primary industry159.0154.713.313.3172.3168.0
Secondary industry188.1194.747.746.2235.8240.9
  Manufacturing139.4144.846.845.3186.2190.1
  Building and construction48.749.90.90.949.650.8
Tertiary industry210.4212.8119.7122.1330.1334.9
  Transport and communication65.766.87.68.073.374.8
  Distribution and finance79.780.540.541.4120.2121.9
  Domestic and personal services16.316.425.625.741.942.1
  Public administration and professional48.749.146.047.094.796.1
      Totals, in industry557.5562.2180.7181.6738.2743.8
Armed forces10.510.00.80.311.310.8
Unemployed      
      Totals, labour force568.0572.2181.5182.4749.5754.6

Half-yearly Surveys of Employment (pp. 860–866). Following is a summary of the employment statistics as returned for the 15th April, 1952:—

Primary Industry (Other than Farming Fishing, and Hunting).Secondary Industry.Transport and Communication (Other than Waterfront Work).Distribution and Finance.Domestic and Personal Services.Administration and Professional.Seasonal Industries.Totals, All Industries Covered.
Male employees15,825146,83648,83360,2819,96439,82622,259343,824
Male working proprietors66810,9531,5046,8522,2692338322,562
Female employees28940,5867,41388,88012,52735,7821,674132,151
Female working proprietors41,111451,7331,48014044,517
Number of establishments77614,7202,37812,9203,7072,88264738,039

The figures shown in the secondary industry column are further subdivided as follows:—

Food, Drink, and Tobacco (Other than Seasonal).Textiles, Clothing, and Leather.Building Materials and Furnishings.Engineering and Metal Working.Miscellaneous Manufacturing.Power and Water Supply.Building and Construction.Totals, Secondary Industry (Other than Seasonal).
Male employees8,88312,49418,54745,23815,4638,95737,254146,836
Male working proprietors9619141,1473,29161054,02510,953
Female employees4,63922,5461,1864,5636,10566987840,586
Female working proprietors411529256580 11,111
Number of establishments1,3872,0041,8194,2061,1852243,89514,720

Limitations in the coverage of the figures shown above are noted on page 860.

Summary of Vacancies, Placements, and Disengaged Persons.—This table gives additional figures to those presented on page 868.

Vacancies at End of Month.Placements During Month.Disengaged Persons at End of Month.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Monthly average over calender year—         
  195113,6908,27821,9681,3905241,91429938
Monthly total—         
  1952—         
  January13,7958,43022,2251,3506832,033191736
  February13,7528,22821,9801,6204452,065151429
  March13,6097,59521,2041,7081,6833,391161228
  April13,4807,10820,5881,1743371,51116521

Industrial Accidents (pp. 886–898).—As explained on page 887, the figures shown below are given on a different basis to that on which the statistics for 1948 and earlier years were compiled. The 1949 accident figures are derived from compensation claims handled by the State Fire and Accident Insurance Department and by the exempted companies (in terms of the Workers' Compensation Amendment Acts of 1947 and 1949).

Calendar Year, 1949.
Total number of accidents30,075
Number of accidents resulting in— 
  Fatality67
  Permanent partial disability546
  Temporary disability29,462
Number of accidents resulting in temporary disability where information is available regarding— 
  (a) Duration of incapacity of— 
    I week or less6,579
    Over 1 week and up to 2 weeks8,314
    Over 2 weeks and up to 4 weeks6,425
    Over 4 weeks and up to 6 weeks2,127
    Over 6 weeks and up to 13 weeks2,215
    Over 13 weeks832
  (b) Amount of time lost— 
    Number of cases26,492
    Time lost, in days604,852
Calendar days lost by all accidents where— 
  (a) Constant allowance for age is made in case of fatality or permanent partial disability1,939,388
  (b) Actual age of person is taken into account in case of fatality or permanent partial disability1,664,135
Cases where amount of compensation or damages is stated— 
    Number27,043
    Amount of compensation or damages— 
    Total£784,786
    Average per case£29.0

MISCELLANEOUS Transport

Shipping and Cargo Handled (pp. 281–292).—Statistics of entrances and clearances of vessels in the foreign trade in 1950 and 1951, and the total calls made in the foreign and coastal trade for the same years, are shown in the following table. The tonnage of cargo handled is also given.

Calendar Year.
1950.1951.
Entrances—  
  Overseas—  
    Number of vessels597546
    Net tonnage2,688,2232,552,809
  Clearances—  
  Overseas—  
    Number of vessels575550
    Net tonnage2,624,8892,548,040
Total calls made—  
  Overseas—  
    Number of vessels1,5291,395
    Net tonnage6,364,0686,060,377
  Coastal—  
    Number of vessels12,83311,436
    Net tonnage4,366,1703,809,698
  Total—  
    Number of vessels14,36212,831
    Net tonnage10,730,2389,870,075
Tonnage of cargo handled—  
    Inwards5,427,8375,459,864
    Outwards3,100,3032,758,633
    Transhipped229,588156,728
Total manifest tonnage8,987,3168,531,953

Statistics of shipping movement and cargo handled at New Zealand ports in 1950 and 1951 are given below.

Total Shipping Movement.Total Cargo Handled.
1950: Net Tonnage.1951: Net Tonnage.1950: Tons.1951: Tons.
 (000)(000)(000)(000)
Auckland4,0113,9772,8302,835
Wellington6,9166,2172,2782,117
Lyttelton3,8933,635945945
Dunedin1,5211,522528519
Other ports4,9124,3902,4062,116
    Totals21,25319,7418,9878,532

In the following table the country of registry of inwards overseas shipping in 1951 is shown.

Country of RegistryCalendar Year 1951.
Number of Vessels.Net Tonnage.
Commonwealth countries—  
  United Kingdom3201,764,481
  New Zealand87227,908
  Australia27123,169
  Other Commonwealth countries1520,350
Cargo4111,924,118
Ballast38211,790
    Totals, Commonwealth countries4492,135,908
Other countries—  
  Formosa1020,630
  Norway31129,638
  Netherlands840,469
  Panama20113,867
  United States of America738,403
  Other countries2173,894
Cargo91392,226
Ballast624,675
      Totals, other countries97416,901
      Grand totals, all countries5462,552,809

Of the total net tonnage of inwards overseas vessels in 1951 (2,552,809 tons), ships on the United Kingdom registry accounted for 1,764,481 tons—69 per cent. of the total—while the distribution between Commonwealth and other countries was: Commonwealth, 84 per cent.; other, 16 per cent.

Railway Transport (pp. 295–303).—Summarized statistics of railway transport in the years ended 31st March, 1950, 1951, and 1952 follow.

Unit.Year Ended 31st March,
1950.1951.1952.

* Including road motor and other subsidiary services.

Passenger journeys—    
  Railways(000)25,89524,82421,293
  Railway road motor services(000)25,69624,09124,664
Tonnage of goods carried—    
  TimberTons (000)759808744
  Live-stockTons (000)711645639
  CoalTons (000)2,1318,1638,446
  Lime and manuresTons (000)1,672
  Other goodsTons (000)4,675
  TotalsTons (000)9,9489,6169,829
Net ton miles runMillions1,0211,0271,069
Revenue—    
  Railway operation£(000)16,06218,50020,097
  Total*£(000)19,54122,08523,993
Expenditure—    
  Railway operation£(000)17,36118,72521,515
  Total*£(000)20,59722,08025,196

Road Transport (p. 319).—Statistics of motor-vehicles licensed at 31st March, 1951 and 1952, are as follows:—

Class.As at 31st March,
1951.1952.

* Not available.

Cars251,122280,458
Trucks—  
  Light46,71453,167
  Heavy38,20742,014
Contract vehicles2,1432,103
Omnibuses1,5831,678
Taxis2,162,222
Rental cars1,3931,557
Private-hire cars308306
Service-cars734703
Trailers36,47140,937
Dealers' cars1,677*
Local authority, &c., vehicles34,50942,971
Government vehicles11,03612,018
Motor-cycles21,04826,703
Dealers' motor-cycles89*
    Totals449,150506,837

REHABILITATION (pp. 906–915)

The number of ex-servicemen and ex-servicewomen demobilized from the Forces, as recorded by the Rehabilitation Department, up to the end of March, 1952, was 212,313, of whom 145,450 had returned from overseas service and 66,863 had served with the home forces.

The following table gives particulars of rehabilitation-loan authorizations for the years ended 31st March, 1951 and 1952, and the totals to 31st March, 1952.

Class of Loan.Number.Amount.
1950–51.1951–52.Total to 31st March, 1952.1950–51.1951–52.Total to 31st March, 1952.
    £(000)£(000)£(000)
Purchase of farm, &c.1,0329238,5966,2815,61840,398
Housing—      
  Erection3,2611,95817,7815,5893,56827,201
  Purchase2,5311,99821,6472,8182,81322,601
Tools of trade39221,4451148
Furniture5,9084,14653,8055623994,999
Business94060410,2716314076,531
Miscellaneous9741604274124
    Totals13,8089,692114,14915,90912,810101,902

Included in the foregoing total figures are 20,321 supplementary housing loans for £2,751,253. These loans, which are not repayable so long as the ex-serviceman or his dependants continue in occupation of the property, are granted to assist in bridging the gap between present-day costs and normal values, and each case is considered on its merits.

The figures shown in the table are exclusive of 4,541 suspensory loans (3,782 residential and 759 farm) amounting to £1,380,730 (£650,275 residential, £730,455 farm) made up to the 31st March, 1952.

EDUCATION (p. 159)

The following table shows the number of scholars and students receiving instruction in the educational institutions of New Zealand during the years 1950 and 1951, Registered private schools are included.

1950.1951.

* Exclusive of students taking part-time courses with the Correspondence School, 1,806 in 1950 and 1,269 in 1951.

† Includes 540 students taking short courses at the agricultural colleges in 1950 and 735 in 1951.

Primary schools306,380321,192
Post-primary schools54,323*57,097*
Technical classes (part-time)21,17522,850
Universities12,05511,491
    Totals393,933412,630

OTHER MISCELLANEOUS STATISTICS

Radio Licences (p. 354).—The number of radio licences for receiving-stations in force on 31st March, 1952, was 477,533, compared with 463,418 at the 31st March, 1951.

Horse-racing (p. 585).—The number of racing-days in the calendar year 1951 was 359, as compared with 350 in 1950. Totalizator investments totalled £28,277,000 in 1951 (£26,050,000 in 1950), while Government taxation totalled £2,659,000 in 1951 (£2,456,000 in 1950).

Land Transfers (pp. 358–361).—Transactions under the Land Transfer Act have been on a very heavy scale during the last three financial years. The heavy increases during the last two years were, no doubt, contributed to by the exemption of town and suburban properties from control as from 23rd February, 1950, and by the relaxation of controls on farm lands as from 1st November, 1950. The average amount per transaction (town and suburban properties) in 1951–52 was £1,586, as compared with £1,234 in 1950–51, and £833 in 1949–50.

Year Ended 31st March,
1950.1951.1952.
Town and suburban properties—   
  Number33,18249,88046,145
  Consideration £27,629,00061,537,00073,165,000
Country properties—   
  Number5,8768,05810,464
  Area Acres1,783,3871,457,7061,848,601
  Consideration £13,034,00017,823,00035,965,000
All properties—   
  Number39,05857,93856,609
  Consideration £40,663,00079,360,000109,129,000

Mortgages (pp. 708–717).—Particulars of gross totals of mortgages registered and discharged during the last three financial years are shown below. In sympathy with the movement in land transfer registrations mortgage registrations have been particularly heavy during the last two years, the rise in the amount of consideration from £36,048,804 in 1949–50 to £73,179,120 in 1951–52 being particularly outstanding.

Years ended 31st March,Registered.*Discharged.*
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.

* Inclusive of duplicate registrations and discharges.

  £ £
195030,36336,049,00026,09323,101,000
195143,89046,056,00035,51032,270,000
195249,88673,179,00037,93537,595,000

Divorces (p. 77).—Petitions filed: 1950, 1,912; 1951, 1,882. Decrees absolute granted: 1950, 1,633; 1951, 1,582.

Justice.—Prisoners in gaols at end of calendar year (pp. 192–196): 1950, 1,083, or 5–62 per 10,000 of population; 1951, 1,076, or 5.46 per 10,000 of population.

Registration of Aliens (p. 30).—The number of aliens on the register at the 1st April, 1952, totalled 16,229 (11,050 males, 5,179 females) compared with the 1st April, 1951 figure of 10,425 (7,248 males, 3,177 females).

Naturalizations (p. 29).—The number of certificates of naturalization issued to former aliens during the year ended 31st March, 1952, was 127 compared with a total of 117 in the previous year. Certificates of registration as a New Zealand citizen were granted to 239 citizens of other countries of the Commonwealth or of former aliens (79 in 1950–51), and 40 certificates of registration (25 in 1950–51) to minor children (either citizens of other countries of the Commonwealth or former aliens).

CORRIGENDA

Table of Contents

Page 175, Education.—In the 7th line of the third paragraph, for “1905” read "1950."

Page 385, Agricultural and Pastoral Production.—The first item given in the table towards the end of this page would be more correctly described as “Primary production subsidies” in lien of "Farm subsidies."

Page 549, Electric Power.—Total kW. for 1950, should read 589, 510.

Page 563, Revenue and Expenditure.—The totals given for annual appropriation towards the end of the table include “Other services not provided for” shown in the next line, and should, therefore, read as follows:—

Totals, annual appropriations: 1948–49, £87,003,412; 1949–50, £94,545,598; 1950–51, £103,430,366.

Page 580, Taxation—Table showing the amounts of income-tax payable, &c.:—For “assessable incomes of £1,500 and over” substitute the following figures under the respective headings:

££ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.
1,500112 10 0286 0 0260 0 0244 17 6229 15 0215 6 3
2,000150 0 0457 17 6431 17 6413 6 3394 15 0376 17 6
2,500187 10 0664 2 6638 2 6616 2 6594 2 6572 16 3
3,000225 0 0904 15 0878 15 0853 6 3827 17 6803 2 6
3,500262 10 01,179 15 01,153 15 01,127 15 01,101 15 01,075 15 0
4,000300 0 01,489 2 61,463 2 61,437 2 61,411 2 61,385 2 6
4,500337 10 01,819 2 61,793 2 61,767 2 61,741 2 61,715 2 6
5,000375 0 02,149 2 62,123 2 62,097 2 62,071 2 62,045 2 6

Chapter 1. SECTION 1—DESCRIPTIVE

Table of Contents

AREA AND BOUNDARIES.—The administrative responsibilities of New Zealand devolve over a large area, the land territories of which consist principally of a number of islands of varying size in the South Pacific Ocean, together with a large uninhabited tract in the Antarctic Ocean. While the two largest and most important islands, the North and South Islands of New Zealand, are separated only by a relatively narrow strait, the remaining islands or island groups are very much smaller and in general are widely dispersed over a considerable expanse of ocean.

The boundaries of New Zealand inclusive of its most outlying islands and dependencies range from the northern limit of the 8th degree of south latitude to south of the 60th degree of south latitude, the complementary extremes of longitude with origin Greenwich being from the 160th degree of east longitude to the 150th degree of west longitude.

The precise boundaries as they now exist were originally defined in the relevant proclamations, letters patent, and legislation mentioned in the pages immediately following; general statements are contained in the description next presented relating to those areas over which New Zealand exercises jurisdiction or administrative responsibility. In all instances the measurement of longitude refers to the number of meridians east or west of Greenwich.

In proceeding from north to south, the first area, including the Tokelau Islands some 300 miles north of Western Samoa or 2,300 miles approximately north by east of Wellington (the capital of New Zealand), extends from the 8th to the 10th degrees of south latitude and from the 171st to the 173rd degrees of west longitude. The second area encloses the Cook and associated islands distant from Wellington in a northeasterly direction approximately 2,100 miles (Cook (Lower) Group) to 2,800 miles (Northern Group and Niue). The Cook (Lower) and Northern Groups are bounded on the east and west by the 156th and 167th degrees of west longitude respectively, and on the north and south by the 8th and 23rd degrees of south latitude. Niue Island is situated in latitude 19° 10' south and longitude 169° 46' west.

Then follows a third zone covering the trust territory of Western Samoa, which is some 2,000 miles distant to the north-north-east and contained within the 13th to the 15th degrees of south latitude and the 171st to 173rd degrees of west longitude.

Further south, and slightly north by east from New Zealand, a matter of roughly 1,000 miles from Wellington, is situated the Kermadec Islands group. These islands lie between the 29th and 32nd degrees of south latitude and the 177th and 180th degrees of west longitude.

New Zealand as defined after the extension of boundaries in 1863, constitutes the fifth and principal area. Its boundaries extend from the 33rd to the 53rd degrees of south latitude and from the 162nd degree of east longitude to the 173rd degree of west longitude.

The sixth area relates to the Ross Dependency which is administered by New Zealand and consists of the coasts of the Ross Sea with adjacent islands and territories between the 160th degree of east longitude and the 150th degree of west longitude, and south of the 60th degree of south latitude.

Jointly with the United Kingdom Government and the Government of Australia, New Zealand is responsible for the administration of the Trust Territory of the Island of Nauru. The' administrative appointments for Nauru are made by the Australian Government, but New Zealand appoints a representative to the British Phosphates Commission, which controls the working of the phosphate deposits.

For statistical purpose, the following classification of the administrative area of New Zealand is the most convenient, the actual areas being also given. It should be noted also that statistics for “New Zealand” refer to the group of islands shown in (a) only, unless it is expressly stated that the other islands as a whole or in part are included.

New Zealand :

(a) Exclusive of Island Territories—Area in Square Miles.
  North Island44,281
  South Island58,093
  Stewart Island670
  Chatham Islands372
  Minor islands— 
    Inhabited— 
      Kermadec Islands13
      Campbell Island44
    Uninhabited (areas in parentheses)—263
    Three Kings(3).  Snares (1).
      Solander (1/2).  Antipodes (24). 
      Bounty (1/2).  Auckland (234). 
        Total New Zealand, exclusive of Island Territories103,736
(b) Island Territories— 
  Tokelau Islands, comprised of4
    Fakaofo Island, Nukunono Island, Atafu Island 
    Cook and associated islands, comprised of— 
    Cook (Lower) Group84
    Rarotonga.  Aitutaki. 
    Mangaia.  Mauke. 
    Atiu.  Takutea. 
  Mitiaro.  Manuae and Te-au-o-tu. 
    Northern Group15
    Palmerston.  Pukapuka. 
    Penrhyn.  Suwarrow. 
    Manihiki.  Nassau. 
    Rakahanga. 
  Niue Island100
      Total New Zealand, inclusive of Island Territories103,939
Ross Dependency (Estimated)175,000
Trust Territory of Western Samoa1,133

The total area of the foregoing groups exclusive of the Ross Dependency and the Trust Territory of Western Samoa is 103,939 square miles. Elsewhere in this issue—viz., in the section of land tenure, settlement, &c.—the aggregate area of New Zealand appears as 66,390,700 acres—i.e., 103,736 square miles. The latter area does not include the Cook and associated islands or the Tokelau Islands.

The relevant Proclamations, defining from time to time the administrative area of New Zealand, are briefly referred to in the following paragraphs.

The Proclamation of British sovereignty over New Zealand, dated the 30th January, 1840, gave as the boundaries of what was then the colony the following degrees of latitude and longitude: On the north, 34° 30' S. lat.; on the south, 47° 10' S. lat.; on the east, 179° 0' E. long.; on the west, 166° 5' E. long. These limits excluded small portions of the extreme north of the North Island and of the extreme south of Stewart Island.

In 1842, by Letters Patent, and again by the Imperial Act 26 and 27 Vict., c. 23 (1863), the boundaries were altered so as to extend from 33° to 53° of south latitude and from 162° of east longitude to 173° of west longitude. The minor islands mentioned on page 2 were thus brought within the extended boundaries of New Zealand, being assigned to the appropriate province on the occasion of the 1847 Proclamation dividing the country into two provinces. The number of provinces was increased in later years, though all were finally abolished in 1875. By Proclamation bearing date the 21st July, 1887, the Kermadec Islands were declared to be annexed to and to become part of the then colony of New Zealand.

By Proclamation of the 10th June, 1901, the Cook Islands, and all the other islands and territories situate within the boundary-lines mentioned earlier were included as from the 11th June, 1901.

The territory of Western Samoa was formerly administered pursuant to a mandate conferred upon His Britannic Majesty, to be administered on his behalf by the Government of New Zealand, and confirmed by the Council of the League of Nations on 17th December, 1920. Following the replacement of the League of Nations by the United Nations, a draft Trusteeship Agreement for Western Samoa was prepared by the New Zealand Government and submitted to the General Assembly of the United Nations late in 1946. This draft agreement replaced the original mandate and thus brought the Territory within the framework of the international trusteeship system established under the United Nations Charter. Under the new agreement the New Zealand Government assumed direct responsibility for the administration of Western Samoa. The agreement was approved by the General Assembly on 13th December, 1946. Western Samoa is comprised of two large islands, Upolu and Savai'i, and the small islands of Manono, Apolima, Fanuatapu, Namu'a, Nu'utele, Nu'ulua, and Nu'usafe'e.

By Imperial Order in Council of the 30th July, 1923, the coasts of the Ross Sea (in the Antarctic regions), with the adjacent islands and territories between the limits specified earlier were declared a British settlement within the meaning of the British Settlements Act, 1887. This region was named the Ross Dependency, and placed under the administration of the Governor-General of New Zealand. The dependency is uninhabited.

By Imperial Orders in Council of the 4th November, 1925, the Tokelau Islands (consisting of the islands of Fakaofo, Nukunono, and Atafu, and the small islands, islets, rocks, and reefs depending on them, a total area of only four square miles) were excluded from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, and placed under the administration of the Governor-General of New Zealand. In accordance with a provision of the second of these Orders in Council, the Governor-General's authority and power in connection with the administration of the islands were, by New Zealand Order in Council of the 8th March, 1926, delegated to the Administrator of Western Samoa.

By the Tokelau Islands Act, 1948, which came into operation on 1st January, 1949, the Tokelau Islands were declared to form part of New Zealand. This Act emerged as the result of an agreement between the United Kingdom and New Zealand Governments.

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES—Coast-line.—Since the combined length of the North and South Islands extends just over a thousand miles, and since the width of neither Island exceeds 280 miles at its broadest point, New Zealand possesses a very lengthy coast-line in proportion to its area. With the exception of the low-lying North Auckland peninsula, the New Zealand land-mass lies along a south-westerly and north-easterly axis, parallel to the direction of its mountain-chains.

By reason of the latter fact the coast-line is, on the whole, not greatly indented; and, as a consequence, New Zealand is not well endowed with natural harbours. In the North Island, Auckland and Wellington are the only two safe natural harbours of which the fullest commercial use can be made. On the east coast of the North Auckland peninsula several deep and sheltered harbours exist, but as the surrounding country is comparatively undeveloped they are of little economic consequence at present. In the South Island the Marlborough Sounds and the West Coast Sounds form perfect land-locked harbours, but owing to their situations and to the rugged nature of the terrain they have—with the exception of Queen Charlotte Sound—little or no commercial utility. Where vital localities have not been endowed with ideal harbours it has been necessary to improve existing facilities by dredging and by breakwater-construction, &c. In this manner efficient ports, capable of accommodating overseas vessels, have been formed in Lyttelton, Otago, and Bluff harbours. On the west coast of both Islands the strong ocean-drifts and high seas cause shoaling at river-mouths and harbour-entrances, while on the east coast of the South Island similar circumstances prevail, duo to the large quantities of shingle brought down by the rivers being spread along the coast by ocean currents. The mountainous nature of the country makes the haulage of goods to and from the better-equipped natural harbours both costly and difficult, and the construction and maintenance of further ports at various points along the coasts of both Islands has been necessary, either by dredging river-mouths or by harbour-construction work.

Mountains.—The mountainous nature of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics, less than one-quarter of the land surface lying below the 650 ft. contour. In the North Island the higher mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (8,260 ft.), Ruapehu (9,175 ft.), Ngauruhoe (7,515 ft.), and Tongariro (6,458 ft.), they do not exceed an altitude of 6,000 ft. Of these four volcanoes only the first-named can be classed as dormant. Ruapehu was particularly active from March, 1945, to the end of that year, being responsible for considerable deposits of volcanic ash over a very wide area, while spectacular activity was exhibited by Ngauruhoe during the period February to May, 1949. In both cases violent eruptions alternated with quieter periods. Other volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, each of which has, upon one occasion within historical times, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The South Island is much more mountainous than the North, but shows fewer manifestations of recent volcanic activity. Along almost the entire length of the Island runs the massive chain known as the Southern Alps, which attains its greatest height in Mount Cook (12,349 ft.), while no fewer than seventeen peaks exceed 10,000 ft.

As might be expected, the higher mountains of the South Island have exerted a greater influence on the economic development of the country than those of the North Island. For many years the Southern Alps were an effective barrier to communication by land between the east and west coasts, while their climatic effects on the Canterbury plains and Otago plateaux determined the types of cultivation undertaken. Moreover, the existence of much elevated open country led to the development of pastoral holdings on a large scale. While the mountains in the North Island are not as high nor is extensive as those of the South Island, in the early days they effectively isolated various portions of the coastal plains and valleys. Their effect on climatic conditions, however, is considerably less, the rainfall being more evenly distributed. Owing to this more even distribution of the rainfall, and to the existence of considerable areas of lower relief, the foothills of the mountain systems were heavily wooded, and so proved a hindrance to agrarian development.

In the 1931 issue of the Year-Book a list was given, not claimed as exhaustive, of 223 named peaks of 7,500 ft. or more in altitude. Below is a list of the peaks restricted to the three largest volcanic cones in the North Island and to mountains of a minimum height of 9,000 ft. in the South Island. The list has been compiled from various sources, and does not purport to be free from omissions.

Mountain or Peak.Height (Feet).
NORTH 
Ruapehu9,175
Egmont8,260
Ngauruhoe7,515
  SOUTH ISLAND 
Kaikoura Ranges 
  Tapuaenuku9,465
  Alarm9,400
Southern Alps 
  Cook12,349
  Tasman11,475
  Dampier11,287
  Silberhorn10,757
  Lendenfeldt10,450
  David's Dome10,443
  Malte Brun10,421
  Torres10,376
  Teichelmann10,370
  Sefton10,354
  Haast10,294
  Elie de Beaumont10,200
  Douglas Peak10,107
  La Perouse10,101
  Haidinger10,059
  De la Beche10,058
  The Minarets10,058
  Aspiring9,975
  Hamilton9,915
  Glacier Peak9,865
  Arguilles Rouges9,731
  Nazomi9,716
  Darwin9,715
  Chudleigh9,686
  Annan9,667
  Lowe9,653
  Haeckel9,649
  Le Receveur9,562
  Goldsmith9,532
  Big Mac9,511
  Conway Peak9,510
  Bristol Top9,508
  Walter9,507
  Grey9,490
  Green9,307
  Hutton9,297
  D'Archiac9,279
  Bell9,276
  Hochstetter Dome9,258
  Earnslaw9,250
  Nathan9,200
  Barnicoat9,183
  Sibbald9,181
  Arrowsmith9,171
  Spencer9,167
  The Footstool9,073
  Rudolf9,039
  The Dwarf9,025
Darran Range 
  Tutoko9,691
  Madeline9,042

Glaciers.—In keeping with the dimensions of the mountain system, New Zealand possesses, in the South Island, a glacial system of some magnitude. Of the glaciers the largest is the Tasman, which, with others of comparable size, rises in the more elevated area surrounding Mount Cook. Flowing down the eastern slope of the range, the Tasman glacier has a length of 18 miles and a width of 1¼ miles. In common with other glaciers on the eastern slope, of which the more important are the Murchison (11 miles), the Mueller (8 miles), the Godley (8 miles), and the Hooker 7¼ miles, its rate of flow is slow, while its terminal face is at an altitude of somewhat over 2,000 ft. On the western slope of the range, owing, to the greater snow precipitation, the glaciers are more numerous and descend to lower levels, while the steeper slope gives them a more rapid rate of flow. The two largest of these are the Fox and the Franz Josef, with lengths of 9¾ miles and 8½ miles respectively, and terminal faces at altitudes of 670 ft. and 690 ft.

As will be realized, these glaciers are and important tourist attraction, and as such have definite economic significance. Moreover, those glaciers on the eastern slopes which feed rivers utilized for irrigation and hydro-electric purposes are valuable in that they help to ensure a steady volume of water throughout the year.

Rivers.—Of the numerous New Zealand rivers few are of sufficient length or volume to be navigable. Moreover, owing to the high relief of the country, they are mostly swift-flowing, while, as mentioned previously, nearly all are obstructed at their mouths by bars. For the purpose of internal communication, therefore, they are of little economic utility, and only in two or three isolated instances have they been thus consistently used. With improved roading conditions, however, their traffic has become negligible even in these cases.

As sources of hydro-electric power, New Zealand rivers are of considerable importance, since their rapid rate of flow and dependable volume of ice-free water make them eminently suitable for this purpose. At the present time the Waikato and the Mangahao in the North Island and the Waitaki and Waipori in the South are used for major hydro-electric schemes and a further major development is now being undertaken on the Clutha. The characteristics just mentioned are also important for purposes of irrigation, but, owing to the country's reliable rainfall, there are few areas other than in Canterbury and Otago where the rivers are so utilized.

In the 1932 Year-Book appears an account of the rivers of New Zealand, but space in this issue is, however, available only for a list of the more important ones. The lengths of rivers shown have been recently revised and differ in many instances from those previously given. For purposes of uniformity, the length of a river is taken to be the distance from the mouth to the farthest point in the system whether this should happen to bear the same name or that of an affluent and is inclusive of the estimated course of a river flowing into and emerging from any lake in the system.

NORTH ISLAND

Flowing into the Pacific OceanMiles.
Piako65
Waihou (or Thames)95
Rangitaiki95
Whakatane65
Waiapu (from source Mata River)75
Waipaoa (from source Waipapa Stream)70
Wairoa (from source Hangaroa River)85
Mohaka (from source Taharua River)95
Ngaruroro90
Tukituki70
Flowing into Cook Strait 
Ruamahanga90
Hutt35
Otaki30
Manawatu120
Rangitikei130
Turakina70
Wangaehu100
Wanganui180
Waitotara55
Patea75
Flowing into the Tasman Sea 
Waitara85
Mokau85
Waikato (from source Upper Waikato River)270
Wairoa (from source Waiotu Stream)115
Hokianga (from source Waihou River)45

SOUTH ISLAND

Flowing into Cook StraitMiles.
  Aorere (from source Spee River)45
  Takaka (from source Cobb River)45
  Motueka70
  Waimea (from source Wai-iti River)30
  Pelorus40
  Wairau105
  Awatere70
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean 
  Clarence130
  Conway30
  Waiau-uha (or Waiau)105
  Hurunui90
  Waipara40
  Ashley60
  Waimakariri100
  Selwyn50
  Rakaia90
  Ashburton70
  Rangitata (from source Clyde River)75
  Opihi50
  Pareora35
  Waihao45
  Waitaki (from source Hopkins River)135
  Kakanui40
  Shag45
  Taieri175
  Clutha (from source Makarora River)210
Flowing into Foveaux Strait 
  Mataura140
  Oreti120
  Aparima (Jacobs River)70
  Waiau (from source Clinton River)135
Flowing into the Tasman Sea 
  Hollyford50
  Cascade40
  Arawhata45
  Haast60
  Karangarua25
  Cook25
  Waiho (from source Callery River)20
  Whataroa35
  Wanganui35
  Waitaha25
  Hokitika40
  Arahura35
  Taramakau50
  Grey75
  Buller (from source Travers River)110
  Mokihinui35
  Karamea50
  Heaphy25

The discovery in 1861 that the beds of numerous rivers in the South Island contained extensive deposits of alluvial gold was of considerable importance in the economic development of the country. Not only did it lead to an increase in population and in wealth, but, through the following of the numerous streams to their sources, it also led to the rapid exploration of large tracts of remote country. The exploitation of these deposits has been carried on with varying degrees of success up to the present time by both manual and mechanical means.

A further factor in connection with the rivers is that, owing to the very successful acclimatization of fresh-water fish, notably trout, many of them now provide exceptionally fine fishing.

Lakes.—In considering New Zealand's numerous lakes, a distinction can be made, especially from the scenic viewpoint, between the lakes of the two Islands. Surrounded by extremely rugged country the larger lakes of the South Island are distinguished by the grandeur of their alpine settings, while those of the North Island, situated on a volcanic plateau, are of interest by reason of the neighbouring thermal activity. Owing to the excellence of their fishing, the North Island lakes possess an added tourist attraction. In both Islands the larger lakes are situated at high altitudes, and their consequent remoteness renders them unsuitable as a means of communication. In their functions as reservoirs the lakes of both Islands are of vital importance for the maintenance of the streams draining them and as a means of flood-prevention. More especially is this the case where hydro-electric schemes are involved, Lakes Waikaremoana and Taupo in the North Island, and Lakes Coleridge, Pukaki, Tekapo, Wanaka, Hawea and Wakatipu in the South Island, being of particular significance in this respect.

An article on the lakes of New Zealand will be found in the 1932 Year-Book. Some particulars of the more important are given in the following table.

Lake.Length, in Miles.Greatest Breadth, in Miles.Area, in Square Miles.Drainage Area, in Square Miles.Approximate Volume of Discharge, in Cubic Feet per Second.Height above Sea-level, in Feet.Greatest Depth, in Feet.
NORTH ISLAND       
Taupo25172381,2505,0001,211534
Rotorua63215842091584
Rotoiti10¾1426500913230
Tarawera1575 1,032285
Waikaremoana12211287722,015846
Wairarapa104271,250  64
SOUTH ISLAND       
Rotoiti5286 1,997228
Rotoroa78146 1,470 
Brunner5416145 280357
Kaniere5811 422646
Coleridge1131870 1,667680
Tekapo124325805,0002,323620
Pukaki105315156,0001,588 
Ohau103234245,0001,720 
Hawea205485185,7001,062 
Wanaka30475960 922 
Wakatipu5231121,16213,0001,0161,242
Te Anau3361321,32012,660694906
Manapouri12656416 5961,458
Monowai1211251700600 
Hauroko203251951,800611 
Poteriteri17217162 96 
Waihola1⅛3⅓2,200 (Tidal)52
Ellesmere1610107½745 (Tidal)45

GEOLOGY.—An article on the geology of New Zealand prepared by Dr. J. Henderson, M.A., F.R.S.N.Z., former Director of the Geological Survey, is contained in the 1940 and earlier editions of the Year-Book. For more detailed information the reader is referred to the treatises of Professors Park and Marshall, the bulletins of the Geological Survey, and the many papers that have appeared in the “Transactions of the New Zealand Institute” (now the Royal Society of New Zealand).

EARTHQUAKES.—An article on earthquakes in New Zealand appeared in the 1942 and earlier issues of the Year-Book. The information given below has been supplied by Mr. R. C. Hayes, Director of the Seismological Observatory.

Seismicity and Earthquake Distribution.—A comparison between the records of destructive earthquakes in New Zealand and those in other seismic countries shows that the seismicity of New Zealand, on the whole, is surprisingly high. However, this is due to the occurrence of a large number of earthquakes of the semi-destructive type (R.-F. 8) with comparatively few major destructive shocks (R.-F. 9, 10).

During the period 1835–1950, 74 destructive earthquakes are known to have occurred in New Zealand, 54 of which were of the semi-destructive type (not exceeding tensity R.-F. 8). Of the remainder, 14 were of intensity 9, and 6 of intensity 10.

The total number of earthquakes of all intensities, and the maximum intensity, reported felt in New Zealand in each of the years 1922 to 1950 were as follows:—

Year.Number of Earthquakes reported felt.Maximum Intensity of Heaviest Shock.
R.-F. Scale.M.-M.*Scale.

* Modified Mercalli Scale of 1931, which is now used for recording earthquake effects in New Zealand.

19221,18787
19237665–6
19247076–7
19257687
192617387
192710787
19288087
19296781010
193074887
19314321010
193231398+
193310876–7
193423098+
193515076–7
193612365–6
19371796–76
193813287
193915776–7
194012076–7
194110787
19421989+9
194317687
19449565+
194512776+
194630287
19472338+7+
19481278+8
1949976–76
195018876–7

The abnormally large number of earthquakes reported in the year 1922 was due to the swarm of local shocks in the Taupo region in the latter half of that year. Abnormally large numbers of shocks also occurred in 1929–30, due to aftershocks of the Buller earthquake of 17th June, 1929.

Summary of Seismic Activity in New Zealand in 1950.—During the year seismic activity reached its greatest intensity in the first three months. In January a disturbance originating in the region north-east of Queen Charlotte Sound accounted for a considerable number of perceptible earthquakes, many of which affected Wellington and the surrounding districts. Two shocks on 13th January were felt in Wellington with intensity M.-M. 5+ and caused some minor damage. On 5th February a shock of instrumental magnitude 7, centred south-west of New Zealand, was felt in parts of Otago and Southland; while on 6th February a further one, centred in the Cheviot region, was felt from Kaikoura to Akaroa with maximum intensity M.-M. 5.

The most severe earthquake during the year occurred on 1st March in the region between Taupo and Waikaremoana. It reached intensity M.-M. 6–7 at Te Whaiti, causing some damage in that area. On 14th March a shock of magnitude 5½–6 in the eastern Bay of Plenty gave rise to unusual sea disturbances along the Bay of Plenty coast, the maximum reported felt intensity being M.-M. 5–6.

In June two strong shocks in Hawke's Bay reached intensities M.-M. 5–6 and 5 respectively. The second of these was centred at depth 150 km. and was widely felt from Bay of Plenty to Greymouth and Christchurch.

During the remainder of the year several shocks of intensity M.-M. 5 occurred in various parts of the country; one of these, centred south of Milford Sound, on 11th October reached intensity M.-M. 5–6.

On 11th December a very large shock (magnitude 8–8¼) centred north-west of Kermadec Islands at depth 220 km. was felt with intensities up to M.-M. 4 in eastern districts of New Zealand as far south as Akaroa and about Cook Strait. The distance of Akaroa from the epicentre was approximately 1,170 miles. This distance of perceptibility appears to be at least equal to any previously recorded.

In all, 188 shocks were reported felt in New Zealand during the year; 156 in the North Island and 46 in the South Island. The number for each island includes 14 which were felt in some part of both Islands.

Regional Distribution.—New Zealand earthquake statistics over the past hundred years or so show that certain parts of the country are subject to almost continuous seismic activity with occasional destructive shocks, while other parts are more or less free from seismic disturbances. By combining early earthquake records with the more precise data of later years it is possible to divide the country roughly into four seismic regions. These regions are classified below, in order of seismicity.

  1. All areas of the North Island east and south of an approximate line from the vicinity of Whakatane in the Bay of Plenty to the vicinity of Hawera in South Taranaki, and all areas of the South Island north of an approximate line from the vicinity of Hokitika on the west coast, through the region of Lake Coleridge, to Banks Peninsula:

  2. South Auckland, western Bay of Plenty, Waikato, and Taranaki (except the southern portion):

  3. Areas of the South Island, south of the boundary of region I:

  4. Areas north of Auckland.

The following table shows the average frequency of earthquakes in each of the four regions defined above.

Region.Average Number of Earthquakes per Year (1921–1940).Average Number of Destructive Shocks per Decade (1835–1940).Relative Seismicity based on Destructive Shocks.
Minor Shocks (R.-F. 8).Major Shocks (R.-F. 9, 10).
I97.84.11.711.5
II23.01.1 1.1
III12.10.1 0.1
IV1.1  0.0

The boundaries between the seismic regions are not well defined, since one region generally merges more or less imperceptibly into another. Further, seismic frequency is not uniform. This leads to the number of shocks being considerably above the average in some years and below it in others. The normal irregularity is increased by the occasional occurrence of earthquake swarms in certain regions. Probably the most notable swarm in New Zealand was that which occurred in the Taupo region in the latter half of 1922. The number of minor local shocks in this swarm was so great that only the stronger ones, or those affecting the adjacent region, were used in determining the average frequency of region I. Major earthquakes occur chiefly in the eastern and southern parts of region I.

Deaths due to Earthquakes.—During the period 1848–1950 the number of deaths recorded in New Zealand as due directly or indirectly to earthquakes was 284. Of these, 255 were due to the Hawke's Bay earthquake of 3rd February, 1931.

CLIMATE.—The collection of climatic data for the use of Government Departments and the general public is a function of the New Zealand Meteorological Service. It maintains approximately 110 stations within New Zealand and 35 on islands of the South-west Pacific for the recording of full climatic data, supplemented by approximately 900 stations in New Zealand and 130 in the Pacific Islands recording rainfall. Most of these stations are operated by public bodies, government departments, or voluntary observers. Additional records are provided by over a hundred stations which report by telegraph or radio for forecasting purposes.

A general description of the climate of New Zealand is contained in an article supplied by Dr. M. A. F. Barnett, O.B.E., M.Sc., Ph.D., F.Inst.P., Director of the New Zealand Meteorological Service, which was included in the year 1942 and earlier editions of the Year-Book.

Detailed climatological statistics are published annually in the Meteorological Observations. Work on this publication ceased during the war years, and this has delayed the appearance of recent issues, the latest available being that for 1946. Current statistics appear monthly in a climatological table included in the New Zealand Gazette.

The following table provides a brief summary of the main climatological elements for selected locations.

CLIMATOLOGICAL AVERAGES (OVER A PERIOD OF YEARS)

Station.Attitude.Average Annual Rainfall.Average Number of Rain-days.Average Bright Sunshine.Temperatures in Shade, Degrees Fahrenheit.
Mean Daily Maximum.Mean Daily Minimum.
Jan.July.Year.Jan.July.Year.

* Normals relate to present site.

 Ft. In. Hrs.       
Te Paki, Te Hapua20055.801692,16972.859.265.957.045.952.0
Auckland16048.931832,05972.656.764.960.046.153.2
Tauranga1052.921522,37674.557.466.154.740.147.6
Hamilton East13146.281612,05674.6*55.9*65.5*51.7*37.1*44.7*
Rotorua96955.421452,06174.3*54.4*63.6*51.3*38.4*44.5*
Onepoto, Lake Waikaremoana2,10076.82184 68.147.658.052.037.745.0
Gisborne1238.311472,28476.256.366.454.340.047.6
New Plymouth16060.601852,21169.154.862.255.242.949.3
Napier534.481142,40673.955.164.857.039.448.7
Taihape2,15736.93179 68.247.257.950.136.143.2
Wanganui7235.971562,18271.054.263.055.941.048.9
Plant Research Bureau, Palmerston North11038.761721,83970.553.162.254.339.146.9
Waingawa, Masterton34037.851432,09174.353.363.750.535.843.4
Wellington41547.331652,04567.651.259.854.441.548.3
Nelson2438.081182,49071.254.263.054.537.146.1
Blenheim1225.021032,44973.0*53.5*64.0*53.2*35.6*44.9*
Hanmer Springs1,22545.501331,96671.648.260.947.829.039.1
Hokitika12114.641881,89865.3*51.7*58.8*50.9*35.6*43.8*
Lake Coleridge1,19532.38114 70.748.661.149.130.340.7
Christchurch2226.161261,98870.250.060.952.734.744.0
Timaru5623.361141,92770.049.460.751.433.442.8
Milford Sound20251.28195 64.448.357.050.034.242.5
Queenstown1,10031.141042,00369.845.658.849.030.940.9
Alexandra52013.251002,17072.644.660.950.828.040.2
Dunedin530.791601,71565.2*49.3*59.0*51.2*36.2*44.3*
Invercargill3244.442011,64066.348.858.348.433.841.7

Brief Review of 1950.—The annual rainfall was below average, except on the east coast from the Waitaki River to East Cape, in eastern Coromandel, and the coastal strip from Wanganui to Cape Egmont. The deficiency was not large, although in a few scattered areas totals were slightly less than 75 per cent. of the average. These included parts of Nelson, Marlborough, Otago, and Waikato. The only substantial surplus occurred in the northern Hawke's Bay - Gisborne district. Mean temperatures for the year were close to average in the South Island, with a general tendency towards a positive departure. However, in Southland and Westland the tendency was more pronounced, and values there were about 1° F, above normal, as they were also over the greater part of the North Island. Sunshine was above average, except in eastern districts of the North Island from Cook Strait to East Cape, where there was a deficiency of 100–200 hours. New Plymouth's sunshine total was also a little below the average. There was a good surplus on the West Coast, and in Marlborough.

Seasonal Notes.—The first three months showed no marked abnormalities except north of the Waikato, where a prolonged dry spell resulted in a substantial reduction in dairy producton. Crops generally gave good yields and were harvested in favourable conditions, though in Southland changeable weather during March caused some delay. Stone-fruits, however, were in short supply due to hail and frost damage to orchards in Hawke's Bay and Central Otago in the preceding spring.

Winds from the south-easterly quarter replaced the normal westerlies in April, and the weather was dull and wet in the north and east, but sunny in the west and south. Abnormal weather continued for the following month, which was the mildest May ever recorded. The fourth week was very stormy, and heavy rains in and west of the Southern Alps damaged road and rail communications in Westland, as well as causing some flooding on the Canterbury Plains.

The winter season was generally favourable, though there was little settled weather. A storm at the beginning of July caused severe flooding in the Waipaoa River, Gisborne, and minor floods also occurred in South Canterbury on two separate occasions during August. Snowfalls were much lighter than usual, but some early lambs were lost in Canterbury during cold rains at the end of August.

Mild temperatures together with an absence of strong westerly winds combined to provide exceptionally favourable conditions for spring growth, resulting in a high level of production in the dairy industry. The persistence of easterly winds brought much rain to eastern districts of the North Island, where shearing operations suffered frequent interruptions. A brief spell of changeable westerly weather did eventuate at the end of November and continued until the middle of December. Unfortunately for many thousands of holiday-makers, the fine summer weather which followed lasted only a week, and cool wet conditions prevailed for the final week.

Summary of Meteorological Observations.—The observations from which the following summary was compiled for the year 1950 were taken at 09.00 hrs. New Zealand standard time—i.e., 21.00 hrs. Greenwich Mean Time.

Station.Temperatures in Shade, Degrees Fahrenheit.Hours of Bright Sunshine.Rainfall.
Mean Daily Maximum.Mean Daily Minimum.Approx. Mean Temperature.Extremes for 1950.Extremes.Total Fall (Inches)Number of Rain-days.
Maximum and Month.Minimum and Month.Absolute Max.Absolute Min.
Te Paki, Te Hapua 52.0 80.2 Feb.29.2 Jul.80.227.02,220.852.19159
Auckland66.854.060.480.1 Jan.37.9 Aug.90.433.22,181.236.17144
Tauranga66.949.358.185.2 Jan.31.0 Jun.90.722.52,411.050.51141
Hamilton East66.544.655.583.9 Jan.23.3 Jul.94.414.22,193.237.30123
Rotorua65.045.355.185.0 Jan.26.0 Jul.98.021.32,110.256.10126
Gisborne66.148.557.392.2 Jan.29.8 Jun.95.826.02,104.355.05171
Onepoto, Lake Waikaremoana59.044.851.984.0 Jan.27.0 Jul.88.027.0 90.99195
New Plymouth62.949.856.378.2 Jan.32.0 Jun.89.027.02,205.353.15127
Napier65.349.657.590.7 Jan.28.1 Jul.96.527.52,209.135.62125
Taihape59.443.551.480.0 Jan.26.6 Jul.87.820.4 34.74145
Wanganui63.648.756.282.2 Jan.30.2 Jul.88.028.82,211.434.29131
Plant Research Bureau, Palmerston North63.346.755.079.5 Feb.25.2 Jul.87.021.21,968.136.67138
Waingawa, Masterton63.843.453.685.5 Jan.23.6 Jul.95.420.02,025.035.97145
Wellington59.748.454.080.9 Feb.32.6 Jul.88.028.62,027.944.70138
Nelson63.846.955.380.0 Nov.28.8 Jul.92.025.02,575.727.2897
Blenheim64.744.454.687.8 Feb.24.9 Jul.94.616.12,598.523.1682
Hanmer Springs61.138.249.788.0 Dec.15.0 Jul.97.08.21,958.044.93125
Hokitika59.343.651.572.6 Dec.26.0 Jul.84.525.02,052.497.56169
Lake Coleridge61.140.350.787.0 Dec.17.4 Jul.92.010.0 28.86101
Christchurch61.543.952.788.7 Dec.24.3 Aug.95.719.31,997.230.64116
Timaru 41.9  22.2 Jul.99.019.81,979.428.45101
Milford Sound    26.9 Aug.79.323.1 217.57179
Queenstown60.040.850.486.2 Dec.24.0 Jul.93.419.22,071.631.61123
Alexandra62.839.651.291.9 Dec.19.2 May94.411.02,207.710.8192
Dunedin59.044.251.686.0 Dec.27.0 Jun.94.023.01,893.822.88153
Invercargill59.141.750.486.0 Jan.22.0 Jul.90.019.01,660.640.23208

For 1950 the mean sea-level pressure values in millibars at 09.00 hrs., New Zealand Standard Time, were: Auckland, 1017.9; Hokitika, 1017.3; Wellington, 1016.9; Nelson, 1016.8; Christchurch, 1015.3; and Dunedin, 1014.8.

PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND.—Those desiring information on the flora and plant covering of New Zealand are referred to the article by Dr. W. R. B. Oliver, D.Sc., F.R.S.N.Z., which appeared in the 1940 and previous issues of the Year-Book, while a brief reference to the geographical distribution of the forest trees is made in the section of this Year-Book dealing with Forestry (Section 19). For more detailed information the following works may also be consulted: “Plants of New Zealand,” by R. M. Laing and E. W. Blackwell, ed. 4, 1940; “Manual of the New Zealand Flora,” by T. F. Cheeseman, ed. 2, 1925; “The Trees of New Zealand,” by L. Cockayne and E. Phillips-Turner, 1950 (reprint); “The Forest Flora of New Zealand,” by T. Kirk, 1889; “New Zealand Trees and Shrubs and how to Identify Them,” by H. H. Allan, 1928; “New Zealand Ferns,” by H. B. Dobbie, ed. 3, 1931; “New Zealand Plants and their Story,” by L. Cockayne, ed. 3, 1927; “The Vegetation of New Zealand,” by L. Cockayne, ed. 2, 1928; “The Cultivation of New Zealand Plants,” by L. Cockayne, 1923; “The Flora of New Zealand,” by W. Martin, ed. 3, 1947, “The Botanical Names of the Flora of New Zealand,” by A. Wall and H. H. Allan; ed. 2, 1950; “Grasses of New Zealand,” by H. H. Allan, 1936; “A Handbook of the Naturalized Flora of New Zealand,” by H. H. Allan, 1940; and numerous articles published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand.

FAUNA.—A brief article on the fauna of New Zealand, originally prepared by the late Mr. James Drummond, F.L.S., F.Z.S., and revised by him in 1935, is contained in the 1940 and earlier editions of the Year-Book. Later publications dealing with this topic include “Native Animals of New Zealand,” by A. W. B. Powell, 1947.

Chapter 2. SECTION 2—CONSTITUTION

Table of Contents

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL.—The powers, duties, and responsibilities of the Governor-General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of 11th May, 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of 24th April, 1919 (p. 1213). In the execution of the powers and authorities vested in him the Governor-General must be guided by the advice of the Executive Council; but, if in any case he sees sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the Council, he may act in the exercise of his powers and authorities in opposition to the opinion of the Council, reporting the matter to Her Majesty without delay, with the reasons for his so acting.

In any such case any member of the Executive Council may require that there be recorded in the minutes of the Council the grounds of any advice or opinion that he may give upon the question.

At present (March, 1952) the Executive Council consists of fifteen members in addition to the Governor-General. Two members, exclusive of His Excellency or the presiding member, constitute a quorum.

Under the Civil List Act, 1950, which consolidates and amends the Civil List Act, 1920, and its amendments, His Excellency the Governor-General receives an honorarium of £5,000 per annum, an allowance of £5,000 per annum for the salaries and expenses of his establishment (exclusive of the Official Secretary), plus all expenditure incurred in respect of the transport to and from New Zealand and the travelling within or outside New Zealand of the Governor-General and his family and staff.

The Civil List Act, 1920, fixed the number of paid Ministers (exclusive of the Prime Minister) at ten, but an amendment in 1936 increased the number to eleven, with a proviso that the total amount paid in any one year was not to exceed the aggregate amount specified in the principal Act. Part V of the Finance Act (No. 3), 1944, further increased the number of Ministers of the Crown (other than the Prime Minister) who may be paid to twelve and the limit was removed altogether by the 1950 Act. The 1944 amendment also abolished the provision regarding the aggregate payment. In accordance with the recommendations contained in the report (issued in 1951) of the Royal Commission upon parliamentary salaries and allowances, the Prime Minister's salary as from the 1st September, 1951, has been increased to £3,000 with a tax-free allowance of £1,000 for the expenses of his office and the Ministerial residence. In addition, while travelling on official business he receives £3 3s. per day to meet expenses, and by virtue of his office is entitled to free cars, secretarial assistance, and free postage. The salary of each Minister holding a portfolio is now £2,000 with a tax-free expense allowance of £450, and that of each Minister without portfolio £1,650, with £400 tax-free expense allowance. Where the office of Minister of External Affairs is held by a Minister other than the Prime Minister the expense allowance is increased to £600. Any Minister not occupying a Ministerial residence receives an allowance in lieu at the rate of £300 per annum. This allowance or the assessed value of the residence where one is provided is subject to income-tax. Previously Ministers did not receive an expense allowance as such, but the Commissioner of Taxes allowed a deduction from salary of £250 as an expense allowance. Ministers also receive an allowance of £3 3s. per day when travelling on official business.

The Civil List Amendment Act, 1936, made provision for the appointment of Parliamentary Under-Secretaries, an innovation in executive control in New Zealand. The rate of salary attachable to such a position is now £1,250, with the same house provision or allowances, and travel allowance while on official business as for Ministers. An expense allowance of £350 is also payable. At the present time (March, 1952) three such appointments are current.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.—The number of members constituting the House of Representatives is eighty—seventy-six Europeans and four Maoris. They are designated “Members of Parliament.” The number was originally fixed by the Constitution Act as not more than forty-two and not less than twenty-four, and the first Parliament called together in 1854 consisted of forty members. Legislation passed in 1858 fixed the number of European members at forty-one; in 1860, at fifty-three; in 1862, at fifty-seven; in 1865, at seventy; in 1867, at seventy-two; in 1870, at seventy-four; in 1875, at eighty-four; in 1881, at ninety-one; in 1887, at seventy; and in 1900, at seventy-six. By the Maori Representation Act, 1867, which is still in force, as embodied in the Electoral Act, 1927, four Maori members were added, three for the North Island and one for the South.

Under the Electoral Act, 1927, every registered elector of either sex, but no other person, is qualified to be a parliamentary candidate. It is provided, however, that a person shall not be so elected who is disqualified as an elector under any of the provisions of the Act (see under “Franchise” post); or is an undischarged bankrupt; or is a contractor to the public service of New Zealand to whom any public money above the sum of £50 is payable, directly or indirectly (but not as a member of a registered company or incorporated body), in any one financial year. Though women's suffrage has been operative since 1893, women were not eligible as parliamentary candidates until the passing of the Women's Parliamentary Rights Act, 1919, the provisions of which are now embodied in the Electoral Act, 1937. Under the Electoral Act public servants were prohibited from being elected, but this prohibition was removed by the Political Disabilities Removal Act, 1936, which provided that if elected they immediately cease to be public servants.

The Civil List Act, 1950, provided that, on a recommendation of a Royal Commission, the salaries and allowances of Ministers and members of Parliament may be fixed by Order in Council, in which event the salaries and allowances so fixed will be payable instead of those specified in the Civil List Act, 1950. In conformity with the recommendations of the Royal Commission issued in 1951, the honorarium paid to members of the House of Representatives has been increased to £900 per annum. They are also paid a basic allowance at the rate of £250 per annum for expenses incurred in connection with parliamentary duties and a sessional allowance of £150 per annum to all members except those representing the nine electorates in or around Wellington. To meet the higher travelling and other expenses for partly rural and predominantly rural electorates, additional increments of £75 and £150 respectively are to be paid to members representing such electorates, subject to the classification of electorates by the Representation Commission into the three classes of (a) urban, (b) partly urban and partly rural, and (c) predominantly rural. Payment to members is subject to certain deductions for absence not due to sickness or other unavoidable cause. In addition to the honorarium, members are entitled to certain privileges in respect of railway and other forms of travel, a stamp allowance of £4 a month, &c.

Part V of the Superannuation Act, 1947, introduced a contributory superannuation scheme for members of the House of Representatives, which provided a minimum retiring-allowance of £250 per annum for a member with nine years' service, the allowance increasing by £25 per annum for every year's service in excess of that period until a maximum allowance of £400 per annum is reached after fifteen years' service.

A member must be fifty years of age before he qualifies, on ceasing to be a member, to receive the allowance. The annual deduction, which is compulsory, is £50 per annum, but a member may, if he so desires, receive a refund of his contributions upon ceasing to be a member.

In the case of a male member dying and leaving a widow surviving, she becomes entitled during her widowhood to receive an annuity of two-thirds of the retiring-allowance to which her husband was entitled at the time of his death.

The election of a Speaker is the first business of a new House after the members have been sworn. A Chairman of Committees is elected as soon afterwards as is convenient. Both Speaker and Chairman of Committees hold office until a dissolution, and receive payment until the first meeting of a new Parliament. The Speaker's remuneration is £1,600 per annum, in addition to which he receives an expense allowance of £500 and residential quarters in Parliament House. The honorarium of the Chairman of Committees is £1,300, and an allowance of £350 per annum to cover expenses incurred in connection with his parliamentary and official duties is also paid.

The Leader of the Opposition is paid a salary of £1,600 with an expense allowance of £400. In addition, a secretary and typist are provided by the State and an allowance of £150 is payable for travel outside his electorate. The official stamp allowance has now been increased to £10 per month.

Twenty members, inclusive of the Speaker, constitute a quorum.

Legislative Council.—The Legislative Council was in existence in New Zealand from 1854 until the 31st December, 1950, after which date it was abolished by virtue of the Legislative Council Abolition Act, 1950. For further details, pages 14 and 15 of the 1950 issue of the Year-Book may be consulted.

Electoral Provisions.—The basis upon which New Zealand is divided anew into seventy-six European electorates after each population census was substantially altered by the Electoral Amendment Acts, 1945 and 1950. The 1945 amendment abolished the former country quota which was an addition of 28 per cent. made to the rural populations, so that the number of rural electorates, in proportion to their population, was higher than urban electorates. In addition it changed the basis on which the electorates were allocated from the distribution of the total population to that of the “adult” population. The definition of the “adult” population, according to the Act, excluded Maoris, persons under twenty-one years of age and persons detained in mental institutions or prisons. Persons detained as military defaulters in detention camps were also excluded. Provision was made for an allowance by way of addition or subtraction of adult population not exceeding five hundred where districts containing the exact quota could not be formed consistently with considerations of topography, communications, community of interest, and (except in making the first division under the 1945 Act) existing boundaries of electoral districts.

The Electoral Amendment Act, 1950, however, restored the basis of allocation of electorates according to the distribution of the total population. In addition to the existing exclusion of persons detained in mental hospitals and prisons, no account is taken, in making the division into electorates, of persons who spent the night of the census on board ship, as guests in licensed hotels, in military, &c., camps, or as patients in public hospitals. The allowance for adjustment of the quota has been amended to become a figure not exceeding 7½ per cent. of the quota.

The 1950 amendment also provided that all general elections and by-elections shall be held on a Saturday and for both European and Maori elections to be held on the same day. An amendment in 1951 provides for the polling hours in Maori electoral districts to be extended to 7 p.m. as in the case of European electoral districts.

The Electoral Amendment Act, 1951, provided that, if at any time Parliament is dissolved before it has been two years in existence, the general and supplementary rolls used in the previous general election, together with a further supplementary roll, may be used if in the opinion of the Chief Electoral Officer it is impracticable to print new general rolls. The same rolls together with a further supplementary roll, are to be used for any by-election occurring before the next following general election.

The latter amending Act also provides for the voting at elections and licensing polls by servicemen serving overseas who are or will be of, or over the age of, twenty-one years before the date of the election or poll, whether or not registered as electors of any electoral district. Each such serviceman shall be qualified to vote as an elector of the electoral district in which is situated his usual place of residence before he last left New Zealand.

Quinquennial Parliaments, instituted under the Constitution Act, were abolished by the Triennial Parliaments Act, 1879, which fixed the term at three years. General elections have been held at three-yearly intervals since 1881, with a few exceptions. The term of the nineteenth Parliament was during the First World War extended to five years by special legislation, and that of the twenty-fourth (1931–35) and subsequent Parliaments to four years under the Electoral Amendment Act, 1934. By the Electoral Amendment Act, 1937, the three-year term was restored, but on account of war conditions the term of the twenty-sixth Parliament was extended to four years by the Prolongation of Parliament Act, 1941. The Prolongation of Parliament Act, 1942, extended the term still further to one year from the termination of the war, but with a proviso for a motion to be moved in the House of Representatives each year after the year 1942 either approving the continuation of the House or fixing an earlier date for its expiry. During the 1943 session a motion in favour of dissolution was carried, and Parliament was dissolved on 30th August, 1943.

Franchise.—Since the abolition of plural voting in 1889 and the introduction of women's suffrage in 1893 every person twenty-one years of age or over has had the right to exercise a vote in the election of members for the House of Representatives. To be registered as an elector a person must have resided for one year in New Zealand, and for three months in the electoral district for which he claims to vote. A system of compulsory registration of electors was introduced at the end of 1924, but for Maori electors a Proclamation was necessary before registration became operative. The Electoral Amendment Act, 1948, however, provided for the preparation of rolls for Maori electoral districts, which, subject to and after notification in the Gazette that these rolls have been formed, shall be for all purposes the electoral rolls of the districts concerned.

There are, of course, slight exceptions to the foregoing, for, if a person is classified as one of the following, he or she is not entitled to register as an elector or to vote:—

  • An alien:

  • A mentally defective person:

  • A person convicted of an offence punishable by death or by imprisonment for one year or upwards within any part of Her Majesty's dominions, or convicted in New Zealand as a public defaulter, or under the Police Offences Act, 1927, as an idle and disorderly person or as a rogue and vagabond, unless such offender has received a free pardon, or has undergone the sentence or punishment to which he was adjudged for such offence.

The Electoral Emergency Regulations 1943 prescribed the following additional classes of persons who were not entitled to be registered as electors or to vote:—

  • A person who was committed to military defaulters' detention and had not been discharged therefrom:

  • A person who was taken into custody under the Aliens Emergency Regulations 1940 and had not been released therefrom.

Maoris are qualified to vote only at elections of the four members representing the Maori race. A Maori half-caste is entitled to be registered either as an elector of a Maori or a European electoral district, while special provisions govern any changeover of registration.

By the Electoral Amendment Act, 1937, which made provision for a secret ballot in Maori elections, Maori electors were granted the same privileges, in the exercise of their vote, as European electors.

For the system of local-government administration a modified form of franchise exists, a ratepaying qualification being necessary for the exercising of votes on financial issues. Further reference to this aspect of franchise will be found in Section 27 of this Year-Book.

Chapter 3. SECTION 3—POPULATION

Table of Contents

A POPULATION census was taken as for the night of Tuesday, 17th April, 1951, in New Zealand while censuses of its island territories were conducted by the Department of Island Territories for the night of Tuesday, 25th September, 1951.

The minor islands (see page 2) other than the Kermadec Islands and Campbell Island were uninhabited at the date of the census, as was also the Ross Dependency, situated in Antarctic regions.

The 1951 census population of New Zealand proper was 1,939,472, inclusive of 115,676 Maoris. At the same date there were 5 people on Campbell Island and 14 in the Kermadec Islands. Information is not yet available for the 1951 census regarding the population of Cook Islands, Niue Island, Tokelau Islands, and the Trust Territory of Western Samoa.

The summary below gives the final New Zealand figures for the census of 1951, while in the pages following will be found similar figures for provincial districts, urban areas, counties, boroughs, and town districts. Data, other than population location are not yet available, but certain 1945 census figures will be found later in this section, or in other portions of the volume as listed on page 44. For details it will be necessary to refer to the census volumes published separately.

Date.Males.Females.Totals.

* Includes population of the inhabited minor islands, i.e., Kermadec Islands, 14 males; and Campbell Island, 5 males.

† Not available.

New Zealand—    
  (a) Exclusive of Island Territories—    
  Europeans17th April, 1951914,646909,1501,823,796
  Maoris"59,32256,354115,676
    Totals, New Zealand (excluding Island territories)"973,968965,5041,939,472*
  (b) Island Territories—    
    Tokelau Islands31st March, 19511,534
    Cook Islands and Niue Island31st March, 195110,0919,76919,860
    Totals, New Zealand (including Island territories)"  1,960,866
Trust Territory of Western Samoa30th June, 195142,58439,90982,493

METHOD OF COMPILATION.—In common with almost all countries, the chief instrument in compiling population data in New Zealand is the census, which in this country in normal times is taken quinquennially. The minutiae of the distribution of population, together with analyses of various population characteristics, compiled from census data will be found in the official publications compiled after each census.

The basis adopted for the census, and virtually throughout population statistics in New Zealand, is that of the population present, which may be defined as the population present at the place of enumeration at the time of the enumeration.

Intercensal figures of total population are based on the customary equation:— Population = Population (census) + Births and immigration — Deaths and emigration.

The first interruption in the sequence of New Zealand censuses was caused by the abandonment, for reasons of financial stringency resulting from the world-wide economic depression, of the census proclaimed for 21st April, 1931. Owing to the outbreak of war and its subsequent effect on population no census was taken in 1941, the necessary legislative sanction being provided by section 36 of the Finance Act, 1940. The section authorized the census due in 1941 to be taken in any year not earlier than 1941 nor later than 1945. As this census was taken on 25th September, 1945, authority was granted for the abandonment of the census which was due in 1946.

For many purposes a dichotomy of population into Europeans and Maoris is used. Maoris include those of wholly Maori origin and also all Maori-Europeans who are in half or greater degree of Maori origin. The rest of the population is conveniently, if not quite accurately, termed European.

Population figures since 1939 are exclusive of New Zealand soldiers, &c., overseas, and of members of forces of overseas countries who were in New Zealand.

Residents of the Cook Islands, Niue, the Tokelau Islands, and Western Samoa are not included in the population statistics quoted throughout this section, except in the first table on page 18. Separate statistics of the Maori population are given where they are available.

INCREASE OF POPULATION.—The outstanding note of the history of population movement in New Zealand is that of unbroken growth. That it has not been invariably regular is well attested by the accompanying table, and by the long-term comparison shown in a later section of this Year-Book entitled "Statistical Summary."

Date of Census.Population (Excluding Maoris).Maoris.
Numbers.Numerical Increase.Percentage Increase.Average Annual Percentage Increase.

* See letterpress.

† An enumeration taken between September, 1857, and September, 1858.

‡ Inclusive of members of Armed Forces overseas at census date.

December, 185126,707    
" 185859,41332,706122.4612.1456,049
" 1861*97,90438,49164.7918.26 
" 1864171,00973,10574.6720.74 
" 1867217,43646,42727.158.20 
February, 1871254,92837,49217.245.11 
March, 1874297,65442,72616.765.2947,330
" 1878412,465114,81138.578.4945,542
April, 1881487,88975,42418.295.6046,141
March, 1886576,52488,63518.173.4143,927
April, 1891624,45547,9318.311.6044,177
" 1896701,09476,63912.272.3342,113
March, 1901770,30469,2109.871.9145,549
April, 1906885,995115,69115.022.7950,309
" 19111,005,585119,59013.502.6052,723
October, 19161,096,22890,6439.011.5752,997
April, 19211,214,677118,44910.812.3156,987
" 19261,344,469129,79210.692.0563,670
March, 19361,491,484147,01510.931.0582,326
September, 19451,603,554112,0707.510.7798,744
" 19451,647,635156,15110.471.05100,044
April, 19511,823,796220,24213.732.34115,676
" 19511,825,626177,99110.801.86115,740

Commencing with the 1926 census all half-caste European-Maoris were included with the Maori population in lieu of the previous practice of treating as Europeans such half-castes as were living in European fashion, and as Maoris those half-castes who were living in Maori fashion. The figures in the preceding table have been corrected from 1861 onwards, to accord with the present practice. Lack of data prevents adjustment for years prior to 1861. The increase in the European population from 1858 to 1861 is therefore very slightly understated.

The European population now looks in retrospect down a vista of a hundred and fifty years. At the opening of the nineteenth century there existed a more or less fluctuating population of perhaps one hundred; by 1839 it had swelled to a total of about a thousand whalers, sealers, traders, missionaries, adventurers, and settlers. Activities of the colonizing companies and societies in the “forties” brought rapid changes and swiftly rising numbers, to be enhanced in the “sixties” by the gold rushes of the period.

The most significant period is possibly that of the “seventies,” marked by a vigorous developmental policy of public works and assisted immigration. The record year 1874, which saw a rise in population of 46,000 (including 32,000 assisted immigrants), was, and still is, the high-water mark of population gains. Both 1874 and 1875 showed a ratio of growth far in advance of any level subsequently attained.

In the late “eighties” and early “nineties” came economic depression and, consequently, comparative stagnation in population. In the three years 1888, 1890, and 1891, emigrants exceeded immigrants, these being the only such occasions in the history of the country, until the depression years following 1930, when departures exceeded arrivals in the five years 1931–35. A small decrease was also recorded in 1945.

Up to the “seventies” New Zealand was dependent on migration for the greater portion of her increase of population, but since then natural increase—i.e., excess of births over deaths—has been the principal factor.

A table is appended showing for each five-yearly period from 1861 the excess of births over deaths and of immigration over emigration. Maoris are not included, nor, prior to 1921, are crews of vessels. Figures for years later than 1920 have not been adjusted consequent upon the censuses. While there thus exist discrepancies with total population increases given elsewhere, such discrepancies do not invalidate the use of the table.

Period.Excess of Births over Deaths.Excess of Arrivals over Departures.Total Increase.
Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.

* Decrease.

† Members of Armed Forces, &c., are not included in migration figures.

1861–657,6258,98516,61063,28529,88493,16970,91038,869109,779
1866–7015,66317,77933,44211,1679,36920,53626,83027,14853,978
1871–7519,41021,12940,53946,50135,44581,94665,91156,574122,485
1876–8030,14432,80762,95131,87022,91754,78762,01455,724117,738
1881–8532,36235,04667,40815,95813,00128,95948,32048,04796,367
1886–9030,78133,54464,325-4,911*-3,791*-8,702*25,87029,75355,623
1891–9527,25530,63057,8859,9175,40315,32037,17236,03373,205
1896–190028,09731,43759,5347,3203,31810,63835,41734,75570,172
1901–0532,51536,22368,73831,22314,22345,44663,73850,416114,184
1906–1038,68143,06781,74825,45415,51240,96664,13558,579122,714
1911–1542,32346,68289,00517,65617,90535,56159,97964,587124,566
1916–2035,24841,35976,6076,9797,87514,85442,22749,23491,461
1921–2541,87644,86886,74426,70523,29450,08968,67168,162136,833
1926–3036,88640,45677,34214,7589,86924,62751,64450,325101,969
1931–3530,71533,23763,952-5,256*-4,662*-9,918*25,45928,57554,034
1936–4032,60437,19269,7967,4334,93512,36840,03742,12782,164
1941–4544,17047,02991,1991,4126542,06645,58247,68393,265
1946–5068,09670,545138,64119,72012,83732,55787,81683,382171,198
Totals,1861–1950594,451652,0151,246,466327,281217,988545,269921,732870,0031,791,735

Trend of Population.—While the population of New Zealand had been growing, the rate of increase declined substantially, the lowest point being reached in 1935. The next four years showed steady improvement until 1939, when the percentage increase recorded was the highest since 1927. With the outbreak of war, however, a check on migration and the movement of members of the Armed Forces, &c., introduced abnormal features. Since the end of the war substantial improvement has been noted, both in natural increase and migration increase.

For many years past immigration has contributed relatively small increments to the population; indeed, in the five depression years 1931–35 there was a net exodus from New Zealand of 9,918. With the passing of the depression the net inward flow resumed, but fell to very low proportions during the war years. Recovery again became manifest and during the years 1946–50 the inward excess totalled 32,557, which gives the highest average annual increase since 1921–25.

In the years following 1930, natural increase (excess of births over deaths) reached a critical position, falling to a rate of 7–89 per 1,000 of mean population by 1936. It is obvious that this meant that the population was still increasing at a moderate rate, but owing to the time-lag it was less obvious to many that a rate as low as this meant, in the near future, a stationary or, more probably, a declining population. In other words, the population was failing to reproduce itself in sufficient numbers for growth and even for the maintenance of a stationary population.

One method of measuring the status of a population is that of the net reproduction index, which is based on female children born and probably surviving. Gross and net reproduction rates in recent years are:—

Year.Gross Rate.Net Rate.
19411.3691.274
19421.2981.208
19431.1581.077
19441.2981.207
19451.4211.321
19521.7171.600
19461.6851.473
19471.6841.567
19481.6511.537
19491.6231.511
19501.6501.537
19511.6511.539

Though economic factors are not the only, and possibly not even the most important, cause of the decline in the birth-rate, the immediate cause of the low level reached in 1935 was almost certainly the economic depression from 1931 onwards. As economic conditions recovered there was some improvement in the birth-rate (though accompanied by higher death-rates), and the net reproduction index returned to a level of 1–274 in 1941, indicating a modest margin of growth. Decreases were recorded for the two following years, but the next four years showed substantial improvement, with the result that the rate for the 1947 year was the highest of the entire series; a slight recession was, however, recorded during the two following years, but a small improvement has been noted for 1950. This index is not and cannot be, an exact measure, but it does afford a close and fairly reliable approximation in normal circumstances. In its use it is necessary to remember, inter alia, that the probability of survival of the children born is calculated on past mortality experience in more or less normal conditions; no allowance is made for wars, major epidemics, or other factors which may result in abnormal losses of population.

The foregoing observations necessarily omit any forecast of the trend of external migration; also they do not take into account the Maori section of the population, which is increasing fairly rapidly.

SEX PROPORTIONS.—The following table is interesting as showing the early excess of males and the gradual equalization of the sexes in New Zealand. The figures quoted are exclusive of Maoris.

Census Year.Males.Females.Females to 1,000 Males.
186160,43537,469620
1871149,600105,328704
1881268,553219,336817
1891331,744292,711882
1901404,799365,505903
1911530,433475,152896
1921621,136593,541956
1936756,226735,258972
1945782,602820,9521,049
1951914,646909,150994

The preponderance of males in the early years of New Zealand was doubtless due to the fact that the difficulties of pioneering and the remoteness of the country from Europe were such as to deter female immigration to a greater extent than male. This was accentuated by the character of the early industries.

Of the two sources from which the population has been recruited—viz., migration and natural increase—the effect of the former has hitherto been to give in the aggregate a considerable preponderance of males, and of the latter to give a regular preponderance of females.

The 1945 census results—for the first time in the history of New Zealand—recorded an excess of females. The figures were, however, affected by the absence from New Zealand of a large number of Armed Forces at census date. Their inclusion would restore an excess of males, the number of females per 1,000 males being 995 if allowance is made for members serving overseas. Deaths of members of the Forces during the war period have still further accentuated the position as disclosed by the 1945 census. The 1951 census shows a small male excess, and this would be a little higher if members of the Armed Forces overseas at that time were included.

INTERCENSAL RECORDS.—The intercensal statements of total population, prepared from the records of vital statistics and of external migration, have been by virtue of the favourable position of New Zealand in this respect relatively accurate. Moderate discrepancies, however, are inevitable and in the tables following, revisions have been made for figures subsequent to the 1945 census to conform with the 1951 census figures.

Population (Excluding Maoris) at End of Year.Increase During Year.Mean Population for Year.
Males.Females.Totals.Numerical.Per Cent.

* Minus sign (-) signifies a decrease.

Years Ended 31st March
1940781,723768,1981,549,92113,6570.891,543,748
1941765,131778,8511,543,982-5,939*-0.38*1,544,371
1942751,312789,3461,540,658-3,324*-0.22*1,537,734
1943740,369797,2681,537,637-3,021*-0.20*1,545,052
1944739,744805,2971,545,0417,4040.421,539,978
1945763,155815,2361,578,39133,3502.161,564,436
1946826,877828,9671,655,84477,4534.911,610,193
1947841,070843,8701,684,94029,0961.761,667,631
1948860,419860,5381,720,95736,0172.141,701,873
1949878,487876,1111,754,59833,6411.951,735,223
1950897,618892,7101,790,32835,7302.041,770.130
1951913,852908,6741,822,52632,1981.801,803,944
Years Ended 31st December
1939785,946765,3881,551,33420,9681.371,539,420
1940766,021775,9101,541,931-9,403*-0.61*1,546,312
1941751,919786,2271,538,146-3,785*-0.25*1,538,620
1942745,008795,6221,540,6302,4840.161,545,112
1943741,045802,7411,543,7863,1560.201,538,651
1944762,566812,8851,575,45131,6652.051,556,318
1945804,809823,5481,628,35752,9063.361,593,898
1946838,010839,4881,677,49849,1413.021,657,851
1947855,480855,6401,711,12033,6222.001,693,168
1948873,062871,4891,744,55133,4311.951,726,839
1949891,991888,2371,780,22835,6772.051,761,204
1950908,479904,4671,812,94632,7181.841,795,830

The figures given in the preceding table show the population exclusive of Maoris. The following table shows the population inclusive of Maoris.

Population (Including Maoris) at End of Year.Increase During Year.Mean Population for Year.
Males.Females.Totals.Numerical.Per Cent.

* Minus sign (-) signifies a decrease.

Years Ended 31st December
1940828,971811,9301,640,90116,1871.001,633,447
1941812,421823,8091,636,230-4,671*-0.28*1,635,716
1942798,938835,4001,634,338-1,892*-0.12*1,030,419
1943789,400844,6941,634,094-244*-0.01*1,640,191
1944789,772854,1281,643,9009,8060.601,637,570
1946814,470865,5021,679,97236,0722.191,664,585
1946878,739878,0171,750,75676,7844.571,710,680
1947894,810804,6661,789,47632,7201.861,770,291
1948915,350912,0001,828,02538,5492.151,807,611
1949935,019929,5411,864,56036,5352.001,843,767
1950955,427947,4561,902,88338,3232.061,881,317
1951973,082964,9501,938,03235,1491.851,917,934
Years Ended 31st December
1939832,841808,7981,641,63923,3261.441,628,512
1940813,028820,6171,633,645-7,094*-0.40*1,637,306
1941799,241832,0351,631,270-2,369*-0.15*1,030,948
1942793,681842,7221,036,4035,1270.311,639,572
1943790,842851,1991,642,6415,6380.341,636,635
1944813,604802,6891,670,29334,2522.691,655,794
1945855,494872,3231,727,81751,6243.071,694,641
1946891,321889,8931,781,21463,3973.091,759,526
1947910,055907,3981,817,46336,2392.031,798,262
1948929,233924,5731,853,80036,3532.001,834,655
1949949,443942,5991,892,04238,2362.061,871,748
1950967,308960,3211,927,62935,5871.881,909,092

EXTERNAL MIGRATION.—Statistics of external migration have been recorded in New Zealand since 1860. Since 1st April, 1921, they have been compiled from individual statements obtained from each person entering or leaving New Zealand.

Commencing with the year 1933–34, the year ending 31st March has been adopted as a standard for the statistical expression of external migration in place of the calendar year formerly in use. The principal reason for the change was to avoid the partition of a season's migration movement into two statistical years as was inevitable with the calendar year ending in the middle of the summer flow of tourists and immigrants.

Including crews of vessels, 101,907 persons from overseas arrived in New Zealand during the year ended 31st March, 1951, which, compared with 1949–50, shows an increase of 3,528. During the same period, 93,533 persons departed. This figure, compared with the corresponding one for 1949–50, shows an increase of 4,575.

In addition to the figures just quoted there were also 2,923 “through” passengers who called at a port of New Zealand en route to their destination.

The excess of total arrivals over total departures for 1950–51 was 8,374, compared with a similar excess of 9,421 during 1949–50.

The numbers of arrivals and departures during the last ten years are given in the table following. Crews of vessels, “through” passengers, tourists on cruising liners, and members of the Armed Forces, &c. have not been taken into account in this table.

Year Ended 31st March,Arrivals.Departures.Excess of Arrivals over Departures.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
19423,7093,3937,1023,7023,1916,893209
19431,8901,2433,1331,3821,2102,592541
19442,1221,6263,7471,8481,7923,640107
19453,6673,5407,2073,1123,0776,1891,018
19466,4166,89313,3095,6576,30910,9662,343
194712,68212,67625,35811,41710,90322,3203,038
194817,00416,14033,14413,94513,44327,3885,756
194918,64617,30035,94615,83715,92831,7654,181
195026,19024,69050,88021,47121,52943,0006,989
195128,30926,33554,64423,41123,71147,1227,522

The figures for 1950–51, both for arrivals and departures, are the highest ever recorded in the history of New Zealand migration statistics.

Classes of Arrivals and Departures.—The following table gives an analysis of all classes of arrivals during the last five years, including “through” passengers, and crews.

1946–47.1947–48.1949–40.1949–50.1950–51.
Immigrants intending permanent residence8,1069,64811,38717,70118,234
New Zealand residents returning Visitors—7,94711,98812,84018,46319,976
  Tourists4,8407,6927,82810,76812,183
  On business1,6961,7321,7691,9362,406
  Theatrical, entertaining, &c.2333877001,117634
  Educational purposes79977697597111
  Others, officials, &c.313469
  In transit1,625890447485631
Not stated11231   
Through passengers5,7425,1363,0732,4892,923
Crews31,69834,17636,69547,49947,263
    Totals62,79872,45675,714100,868104,830

The succeeding table gives a similar analysis of departures.

1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.
New Zealand residents departing—     
  Permanently6,0515,7696,6796,8867,788
  Temporarily6,86510,72513,56620,10721,371
Temporary residents departing9,40410,89411,52016,00717,963
Through passengers5,7425,1363,0732,4892,923
Crews32,03133,31936,84945,95846,411
    Totals60,09365,84371,68791,44796,456

Ages.—The following table gives the age-distribution of immigrants and emigrants for the twelve months ended 31st March, 1951.

Age, In Years.Permanent Arrivals.Permanent Departures.Excess of Arrivals over Departures.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
0–141,5611,3912,9526326221,2541,698
15–242,4471,5363,9831,0108791,8892,094
25–342,7262,4085,1349291,1632,0923,042
35–441,4111,3322,7434765791,0551,688
45–599311,1442,0753864648501,225
60 and over4668171,283246392638645
Unspecified253964551054
Totals9,5678,66718,2343,6844,1047,78810,446

Origin.—The great majority of immigrants to New Zealand have always come from the British Isles. During the immigration boom of the “seventies” several shiploads of immigrants from Baltic countries arrived under Government auspices. With this exception systems of Government-assisted passages to immigrants have been until recently confined to immigrants from the United Kingdom. Conditions arising out of the recent war have brought changes and systems of Government aid have been devised for immigrants from other countries. These conditions have also stimulated independent migration, apart from that governmentally aided. It is therefore of some interest to survey briefly the net gain of population in the post-war years.

The next table gives the excess of overseas arrivals over departures for the six years 1945–46 to 1950–51. The basis of “permanent” arrivals and “permanent” departures has not been used; this is founded on intention and intentions, particularly in existing times, are frequently changed. Instead the table covers total arrivals and total departures less (a) persons of New Zealand birth and (b) New Zealand residents of overseas origin returning after an absence of less than a year or departing for a period of less than a year. Included, it will be noted, are crews of vessels. Annually the surplus of crew arrivals over crew departures provides a moderate increment to the population of New Zealand. For the six years the net gain from this source was 5,016, a higher level than normal. Information as to the country of origin is not available in this case.

The total surplus of arrivals on this basis was 46,653. Of these, 33,467 came from Commonwealth countries (including 26,891 from the United Kingdom) and 7,993 from other countries. The remaining 5,193 came from unspecified countries or were born at sea. It may be noted that the migration position has been considerably affected by shipping, housing, and other difficulties. The period under review ends at 31st March, 1951. In the next few months thereafter immigration arrivals included approximately 2,000 from the Netherlands and 2,000 displaced persons.

Country of Birth.Excess of Arrivals.
Males.Females.

* Including condominia, protected States, and trust territories.

† Excess of departures.

Commonwealth*  
United Kingdom12,75014,141
Union of South Africa82141
India and Pakistan1,054921
Canada118329
Australia1681,114
Cook Islands and Niue Island366406
Western Samoa424401
Fiji266195
Tonga12157
Others (Pacific)5132
All others178152
Totals15,57817,889
Other Countries  
Denmark185141
Russia8187
Estonia61105
Latvia164185
Lithuania8179
Poland630211
Germany122247
Netherlands1,037352
France2553
Republic of Ireland and Ireland, n.o.d.488491
Switzerland8256
Austria5697
Czechoslovakia129110
Hungary7375
Yugoslavia-10689
Italy28240
Greece1971
Others (Europe)3578
Egypt4070
Burma121100
Indonesia156121
China307245
United States of America427238
Others (Pacific)3126
All others8668
Totals4,3583,635
Born at sea 3
Not specified8193
Crews of vessels4,875141
Grand totals24,89221,761

ASSISTED IMMIGRATION.—Various systems of assisted immigration have been in force since 1871, with the exception of the period 1892 to 1903 (inclusive). The scheme that was operating prior to 1947 had been largely suspended since 1927, and only 50 immigrants received financial assistance during the ten years ended 31st March, 1946.

To alleviate the shortage of staffs in mental hospitals, the Government decided in 1946 to recruit labour in the United Kingdom, and the number of arrivals under this system totalled 240 (all females).

In July, 1947, a comprehensive assisted passage scheme was introduced by the Government. Under this scheme financial aid has been granted to certain categories of immigrants. Eligibility has been confined to single residents of the United Kingdom (with no dependants) between the ages of twenty and thirty-five years who were suitable for, and willing to accept employment in, a wide variety of productive and servicing occupations. Free passages were provided for those successful applicants who served in the United Kingdom Armed Forces (including Merchant Navy) during the Second World War; all others selected were required to contribute £10 towards the cost of their fares. All assisted immigrants are required to enter into a contract with the New Zealand Government that they will engage in approved employment for two years after their arrival in New Zealand.

Commencing with the year 1949–50 the Government agreed to accept drafts of displaced persons from Europe, who were brought to New Zealand in shipping provided by the International Refugee Organization. These settlers were chosen by a New Zealand Selection Mission, and arrivals totalled 941 in 1949–50 and 951 in 1950–51, made up of young single men and women, widows with one child, family groups, orphans, and a number of elderly people.

A scheme of child migration from the United Kingdom also came into operation during the year, the first draft arriving in June, 1949. This scheme was devised to bring to New Zealand, on a guardianship basis, British children between the ages of five and seventeen years, whose parents are prepared to agree to their placement with foster-parents approved by the Superintendent of Child Welfare. During the year ended 31st March, 1950, 169 children arrived under this scheme, comprising 114 boys and 55 girls.

In May, 1950, a new immigration policy was announced by the Government, the main changes being as follows:—

  1. The existing scheme in regard to unmarried British immigrants, including nominations, to continue, but with an extension of the age-limit from thirty-five to forty-five years of age.

  2. The contribution of £10 previously required to be paid by other than ex-service personnel towards the cost of their fares to New Zealand is abolished. In future free passages will be provided for all British immigrants, both single and married (including wives and families), selected under the scheme.

  3. Extension of the free passage scheme to certain categories of married British immigrants with up to two children.

  4. The acceptance, after negotiation and conclusion of agreements with the countries concerned, of a number of single non-British men and women between the ages of twenty and thirty-five years. Such an agreement has now been entered into with the Netherlands Government.

The number of assisted immigrants (exclusive of displaced persons) arriving in New Zealand since the reintroduction of the scheme was as follows:—

  Number.
Year ending 31st March,1947158
"19481,137
"19491,522
"19502,528
"19512,928

In the preceding migration tables, assisted immigrants are included in the totals of "Immigrants intending permanent residence."

PASSPORTS.—Authority for the issue of passports in New Zealand and by New Zealand representatives overseas is contained in the Passports Act, 1946, and the Passport Regulations 1946.

New Zealand passports are issued by the Department of Internal Affairs at Wellington and Auckland. United Kingdom, Canadian, and Australian passports are issued by the respective High Commissioners for those countries.

Permission to Enter New Zealand.—Apart from British subjects arriving from Australia, no person sixteen years of age or over may land in New Zealand unless in possession of a valid passport or other travel document satisfactorily establishing nationality and identity. Exemption (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Restriction and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Acts) may be granted by the Minister of Internal Affairs. With the exception of nationals of those countries with which New Zealand has concluded agreements for the mutual abolition of visas, all aliens require a British visa.

For persons from the Cook Islands, Niue, or Western Samoa the only requirement is a permit to visit New Zealand granted by the Resident Commissioner of the Cook Islands or Niue, or the High Commissioner for Western Samoa, as the case may be.

The regulations, further, do not apply to a British subject who is the master or a member of the crew of the vessel in which he arrives.

Departure from New Zealand.—British subjects leaving New Zealand, with the exception of those travelling to Australia or making the round trip to New Zealand's island territories, should be in possession of a valid passport or other travel document.

IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION.—The legislation respecting the restriction of immigration into New Zealand is contained in the Immigration Restriction Act, 1908, and its amendments, and the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act, 1919. It is administered by the Labour and Employment Department.

Subject to certain exemptions, the following classes of persons are prohibited from landing in New Zealand:—

  1. Persons not of British birth and parentage, unless in possession of permits issued by the Labour and Employment Department. (Note.—A person is not deemed to be of British birth and parentage by reason that he or his parents or either of them is a naturalized British subject or by reason that he is an aboriginal Native or the descendant of an aboriginal Native of any dominion (other than New Zealand), colony, possession, or protectorate of Her Majesty.)

  2. Idiots or insane persons.

  3. Persons suffering from contagious diseases which are loathsome or dangerous.

  4. Persons arriving in New Zealand within two years after the termination of a period of imprisonment for a serious offence.

  5. Persons who are considered by the Attorney-General to be disaffected or disloyal, or of such a character that their presence in New Zealand would be injurious to the peace, order, and good government of the country.

  6. Aliens of the age of fifteen years or over who refuse or neglect to take an oath (or make an affirmation) of obedience to the laws of New Zealand.

To obtain permits to enter New Zealand as permanent residents, application must be made by the intending immigrants themselves to the Minister of Immigration, Wellington. The application must be made in the prescribed form and must be supported by documents duly attested in the country of origin, in which country the applicant must have resided for at least twelve months prior to the date of application. Each application is considered individually on its own merits.

Provision is made in the law to permit persons covered by clause (1) above to pay temporary visits to New Zealand for the purposes of business, pleasure, or health. Temporary permits are normally restricted to some period not exceeding six months, but may be extended if the proper authorities consider that the circumstances warrant such action. A deposit may be required in respect of such temporary permit, and is returned on the departure of the visitor if the conditions of the temporary permit have been complied with. The Collector of Customs may also require, if he so decides, a deed to be entered into by some person or persons resident in New Zealand approved by him guaranteeing to pay all expenses that may be incurred by the Crown or any public body for the visitor's maintenance, relief, arrest, or detention in New Zealand or his deportation therefrom.

Provision is also made whereby, under certain conditions, students may be allowed to enter New Zealand temporarily.

Restricted Immigrants.—When persons who are lunatic, idiotic, deaf, dumb, blind, or infirm, arrive in New Zealand and are likely to become a charge upon the public or upon any public or charitable institution, the master, owner, or charterer of the ship by which such persons came to New Zealand may be called on to enter into a bond of £100 for each such person, guaranteeing payment of any expenses which may be incurred for his support and maintenance by or in any such institution within a period of five years.

Declaration by Persons Arriving in New Zealand.—Every person of and over the age of fifteen years who lands in New Zealand must, unless exempted by the Minister of Immigration, make and deliver to an officer of Customs a declaration giving the following particulars: Name, age, marital status, occupation, birthplace, nationality, race, particulars of children under fifteen years of age arriving with him, residence. &c.

NATIONALITY AND NATURALIZATION.—The British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act, 1948, which came into force on the 1st January, 1949, was enacted following a conference of nationality experts of Commonwealth countries in February, 1947, when it was agreed that each Commonwealth country should establish its own citizenship status. Citizens of the various Commonwealth countries also possess a common status as members of the wider association of peoples comprising the Commonwealth. (NOTE.—The Act states that “British subject” and “Commonwealth citizen” have the same meaning, and any person of that status may use either term.)

Upon the commencement of the Act, New Zealand citizenship was automatically conferred on the following classes of British subjects:—

  1. Those born in New Zealand.

  2. Those naturalized in New Zealand.

  3. Those ordinarily resident in New Zealand throughout the whole of the year 1948.

  4. Those whose fathers were British subjects born or naturalized in New Zealand.

  5. Women (being British subjects) married before the commencement of the Act to men who become citizens under the various provisions of the Act.

After the commencement of the Act, New Zealand citizenship may be acquired in the following ways:—

  1. By birth in New Zealand.

  2. By descent.

  3. By registration.

  4. By naturalization.

The principal conditions governing the grant of naturalization to aliens under the 1948 Act are that the applicant shall satisfy the Minister of Internal Affairs (a) that he has resided in New Zealand for a period of five years, (b) that he is of good character and has a sufficient knowledge of the English language, (c) that if his application is granted he intends to reside permanently in New Zealand, (d) that the applicant gives a year's notice of his intention to apply, and (e) that the applicant possesses a sufficient knowledge of the responsibilities and privileges of New Zealand citizenship. There is discretionary provision for the Minister to allow residence in other Commonwealth countries and service in the Armed Forces during the Second World War to be reckoned for the purposes of the first condition, but in such cases a minimum of one year's residence in New Zealand is essential. Conditions (d) and (e) are new.

Under the provisions of the British Nationality and Status of Aliens (in New Zealand) Amendment Act, 1946, alien women marrying British subjects did not automatically become British by marriage according to New Zealand law, but could acquire British nationality only by the grant of a certificate of naturalization. This Act was in force from the 9th October, 1946, until the 31st December, 1948, and was repealed by the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act, 1948.

From the date of the commencement of the last-mentioned Act (1st January, 1949) alien women who marry New Zealand citizens now acquire citizenship by the more simple process of registration, which is considered on completion of the prescribed application form. The acquisition of New Zealand citizenship automatically confers the status of British nationality. Certificates of registration as New Zealand citizens are issued, and these are for all intents and purposes equivalent to the former certificates of naturalization.

Alien minor children may acquire New Zealand citizenship by registration, following the naturalization of their parents or in special cases in their own right. Before the 1st January, 1949, minor children were included (on application) in the naturalization certificate issued to their father or mother.

The complete numbers of naturalizations, registrations, &c., during the year ended 31st March, 1951, were as follows:—

Country of Birth.Certificates of Naturalization. (Aliens)Certificates of Registration as a New Zealand Citizen. (British Subjects and Aliens)Certificates of Registration as a New Zealand Citizen—Minor Children. (British Subjects and Aliens)
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.

* These persons were British by birth, subsequently acquired American citizenship, and later decided to reacquire British nationality.

New Zealand 1*    
United Kingdom1* 217  
Republic of India  101011
Federation of Malaya  1   
North Borneo   1  
Western Samoa   3  
Fiji   1  
Tonga1  1  
Norway6  1  
Sweden4  1  
Denmark71    
Finland1     
Russia (U.S.S.R.)11 1 1
Estonia   1  
Latvia   1  
Poland73 8  
Germany111 736
Netherlands   1 1
Belgium1  1  
Luxemburg1   1 
France2     
Switzerland71 4  
Italy14  13  
Czechoslovakia7  41 
Austria1 31  
Hungary3  311
Yugoslavia18  6 1
Greece8  1  
Egypt   1 1
Jordan    1 
Burma  1112
Indonesia3 1131
China1 11  
United States of America2    1
Tahiti2     
Totals109835841015

Of the certificates of registration granted to adult males, 32 were to British subjects from other Commonwealth countries who acquired New Zealand citizenship by virtue of one year's residence in the country immediately preceding the date of application, and 3 to British subjects, generally resident outside New Zealand who claimed New Zealand citizenship by descent, residence, or otherwise.

The certificates of registration granted to adult females were 16 to British wives of British subjects from other Commonwealth countries, 4 to British subjects generally resident outside New Zealand, and 64 to alien women married to New Zealand citizens by birth or naturalization who desired to acquire New Zealand citizenship.

Certificates of registration granted to minor children were 20 (9 males, 11 females) to children of New Zealand citizens by naturalization or registration, and 5 (1 male, 4 females) to alien children whose parents, were deceased, resident overseas or not eligible for naturalization.

REGISTRATION OF ALIENS.—The registration of aliens in New Zealand is provided for by the Aliens Act, 1948, the administration being carried out by the Police Department. This Act repealed earlier enactments relating to aliens.

The number of aliens on the New Zealand register at 1st April, 1951, was 10,425, comprising 7,248 males and 3,177 females. This does not purport to be the complete number in New Zealand, as certain classes are not required to register, including the following: (a) Children under sixteen years of age; (b) Persons holding diplomatic status, Consuls, or employees of Embassies, Legations and Consulates who are resident in New Zealand solely for the purpose of performing official duties; (c) certain temporary visitors to New Zealand; (d) Western Samoans, except in special circumstances. Under the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act, 1948, a citizen of the Republic of Ireland, though not possessing the status of British subject (or, in alternative phraseology, Commonwealth citizen) is nevertheless not classed as an alien and is not required to register.

The following table shows the numbers on the register at 1st April, 1950, and 1st April, 1951.

Country of Nationality.1st April, 1950.1st April, 1951.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
Norway1241513912631157
Sweden751994672390
Denmark23085315271115386
Finland2643031940
Russia (U.S.S.R.)4129706339102
Estonia33691026188149
Latvia72103175136181317
Lithuania58651237278150
Poland5234429658155641,379
Germany148139287141127268
Netherlands3371144511,0963131,409
Belgium2753227431
France61511126263125
Switzerland1304917917975254
Italy149140289144137281
Czechoslovakia696813711072182
Austria323971414081
Hungary4751986669135
Yugoslavia555171726580204784
Greece1035916210166167
Syria94139413
Lebanon81018121123
China2,2135432,7562,2955462,841
United States of America571227798597207804
Tonga492675201030
Other countries333366513283
Stateless46551017569144
  Totals5,7692,6158,3847,2483,17710,425

The number of aliens on the register as at 1st April, 1951, shows an increase of 2,041 as compared with twelve months earlier, the countries contributing the major portion of this increase being Netherlands (958), Poland (914), Latvia (142), and China (85).

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION—North and South Islands.—In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, but this position was reversed at the succeeding enumeration and the South Island had the larger population (exclusive of Maoris) at each census from 1861 to 1896. In 1901 the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total and since then has steadily increased its lead. The Maori War which broke out in 1860 retarded settlement in the north, while a large area of land reserved for the Maoris was for many years a serious hindrance to the development, by Europeans, of this portion of New Zealand. The South Island was practically free from Maori troubles, and settlement was more rapid, though much of the land was disposed of in large areas. The discovery of gold in Otago in 1861 and on the West Coast in 1864 attracted to these localities considerable numbers of miners.

The following table gives the population of the North and South Islands as disclosed by each census since 1881.

Census Year.Population (Excluding Maoris).Proportions Per Cent.
North Island.South Island.Totals.North Island.South Island.

* Includes Maori half-castes (total, 4,236), living as Europeans.

1881191,534296,355487,88939.2660.74
1886248,909327,615576,52443,1756,83
1891279,642344,813624,45544,7855,22
1896338,739362,355701,09448,3251,68
1901388,626381,678770,30450,4549,55
1906474,605411,390885,99553,5746,43
1911561,281444,3041,005,58555,8244,18
1916648,439447,7891,096,22859,1540,85
1921741,255*477,658*1,218,913*60,8139,19
1926831,813512,6561,344,46961,8738,13
1936938,939552,5451,491,48462,9537,05
19451,050,984552,5701,603,55465,5434,46
19511,202,357621,4391,823,79665,9334,07

The natural increase of European population (i.e., excess of births over deaths) for the North Island during the 1945-51 intercensal period was 103,954, and the total net increase 151,373. For the South Island the natural increase was 48,806, and the total net increase 68,869. It is clear that in the strict sense of the term there was no “northward drift” of population in this period. Inclusive of Maoris the North Island increase was 167,577, or 14-62 per cent., and the South Island increase 69,597, or 12–52 per cent. In contrast to preceding periods the South Island rate of increase approaches fairly closely that of the North Island.

At the 1951 census, the North Island population was 1,313,869, inclusive of 111,512 Maoris; and the South Island population 625,603, inclusive of 4,164 Maoris.

Provincial Districts.—The approximate areas and the populations, inclusive of Maoris, of the various provincial districts are as follows:—

Provincial District.Area (Square Miles).Census Population.
1901.1921.1936.1945.1951.

* Including 196 Maori wives of Europeans, provincial district not specified.

Auckland25,420204,899406,899546,970640,971745,099
Hawke's Bay4,26039,60465,08076,96879,08491,205
Taranaki3,75040,46565,24477,65276,83386,883
Wellington10,870146,326254,696316,446349,404390,682
Marlborough4,22013,74618,28919,14920,73722,891
Nelson10,87038,06747,73459,48157,20167,671
Westland4,88014,56614,25318,67617,00718,173
Canterbury13,940144,195199,969234,399246,848280,024
Otago—      
  Otago portion14,050125,782137,062151,213144,035159,231
  Southland portion11,48048,01662,43972,85670,17877,613
    Totals103,740815,862*1,271,6641,573,8101,702,2981,939,472

The foregoing table illustrates the wide disparities in the size of the provincial districts, whether measured by area or by population.

The area shown for New Zealand now includes certain islands which formerly were excluded. These are Ackerman Islands (13 square miles), Campbell Island (44 square miles), and the uninhabited islands, Three Kings, Solander, Bounty, Snares, Antipodes, and Auckland, with a total area of 263 square miles.

All provincial districts shared in the intercensal gain of population, though Westland's ratio of growth was below the general level. The highest rate was that of Auckland, if the seasonally affected case of Nelson is excluded. The 1945 census was taken in spring and that of 1951 in autumn. The figures of increase include Maoris.

Provincial District.Numerical Increase 1945–51.Percentage Increase.
Auckland104,12816,25
Hawke's Bay12,12115.33
Taranaki10,05013.08
Wellington41,27811,81
Marlborough2,15410,39
Nelson10,47018.30
Westland1,1666,86
Canterbury33,17613.44
Otago—  
Otago15,19610,55
Southland7,43510,59
New Zealand237,17413,93

Urban and Rural Population.—On 17th April, 1951, somewhat over two-fifths (43–7 per cent.) of the population of New Zealand (excluding Maoris) was included in the five principal urban areas—Auckland, Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin—and over one-half (54–4 per cent.) in these or in the eleven secondary urban areas. In the following table urban population means the population in cities and boroughs, while rural population covers counties, all town districts, and extra-county islands. It will be observed that there was a marked slackening in the rate of the urban drift between 1926 and 1936, but the 1945 figures, due, no doubt, to wartime influences, disclosed a substantial increase in the urban population, whereas the rural population, for the first time, recorded a decrease. In the 1945–51 period a substantial gain was recorded in the rural population, but it was insufficient to prevent further deterioration of its ratio to total population.

Census.Population.Per Cent.
Rural.Urban.Migratory.Rural.Urban.Migratory.

* Figures exclude military and internment camps.

† Figures include Armed Services in New Zealand at census date and internment camps, but exclude members of the United States Forces present in New Zealand and also enemy prisoners of war.

‡ Inclusive of Maorl half-castes (3,221 in 1916 and 4,236 in 1921) living as Europeans.

Excluding Maoris—      
  1881290,254194,7412,89459,4939,920,59
  1886326,447245,3554,7225642,560,82
  1891351,109270,0413,305562843,240,53
  1896390,694307,0223,37855,7343,790,48
  1901416,701349,8423,76154,0945,42049
  1906457,297424,2514,44751,6147,890,60
  1911495,677505,0035,00540,2850,220,50
  1916*501,956585,3063,46346,0253,660,32
  1921531,694681,9886,23143,6255,950,43
  1926552,344785,0407,08541,0868,390,53
  1936602,519884,2934,67240,4059,290,31
  1946591,8551,008,5343,16536,9162,890,20
  1951654,9211,163,0905,78535,9163,770,32
Including Maoris—      
  1926610,446790,5557,13843,3556,140,51
  1936677,087892,0244,69943,0256,680,30
  1945674,8211,024,2923,18539,6460,170,19
  1951748,9221,184,6725,87838,6261,080,30

Another conception of urban and rural population is presented in the next table. For this purpose urban population has been taken as that enumerated in cities, boroughs, or town districts, with a minimum population of 1,000. Migratory population is excluded.

Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
1926.1951.1926.1951.
Numbers
Urban: towns of—    
  1,000–2,500104,36088,532102,20186,560
  2,500–5,00086,408123,59685,430114,757
  5,000–10,00082,662107,25182,144115,666
  10,000–25,000186,545251,812185,580236,930
  25,000 or over338,213625,666337,221617,924
    Totals, urban798,1881,196,857792,5761,171,837
Rural602,813736,737544,808646,174
    Totals, New Zealand1,401,0011,933,5941,337,3841,818,011
Percentages
Urban: towns of—    
  1,000–2,5007,454,587,644,76
  2,500–5,0006,176,396,396,31
  5,000–10,0005,905,556,146,36
  10,000–25,00013,3113,0213,8813,03
  25,000 or over24,1432,3625,2134,00
    Totals, urban56,9761,9059,2664,46
Rural43,0338,1040,7435,54
    Totals, New Zealand100,00100,00100,00100,00

Some apparent anomalies where the numbers exclusive of Maoris exceed those inclusive of Maoris arise from the transfer of towns to other categories as a result of the different basis of population.

An important characteristic of the distribution of urban population in New Zealand is what may be termed its decentralization. In place of one great metropolis containing a huge proportion of the population, the more highly urbanized portion of the community is localized in four widely separated centres. These four centres (counting Wellington and Hutt as a single conurbation) have always existed more or less on the same plane, a fact which has played no small part in the development of the country. An interesting feature is the wide gap which has long existed between the four major centres and the next largest towns.

Urban and rural communities are not evenly distributed. The South Island, for example, contains proportionately more rural population than does the North Island

RECENT MOVEMENTS IN TOWNS AND COUNTIES.—Urban Areas.—Urban areas afford the best basis of comparison of population-growth in the case of the largest towns, since their boundaries are stable and, of greater significance, they include the suburbs as well as the central city or borough. Urban area boundaries were revised in 1951, and all figures quoted are on the basis of the new boundaries. The most significant change resulting from this revision was the division of the former Wellington Urban Area, plus additional areas to the north, into the two adjacent urban areas of Hutt and Wellington. The two areas in a sense form a single conurbation, and for some purposes it may still be convenient to use a combined figure. However, the extent and pattern of development in the Hutt Valley have been such as to establish it as a centre complementary to Wellington but no longer suburban to it.

Urban Area.Population (Including Maoris).
1926.1936.1945.1951.
Auckland204,549226,366286,767329,123
Hamilton17,27120,09628,04233,137
Gisborne15,08915,87816,99519,774
Napier18,59419,17020,74124,538
Hastings14,61217,92020,30623,797
New Plymouth16,34418,59721,05724,923
Wanganui26,52125,75026,26229,717
Palmerston North20,10724,37227,82032,908
Hutt25,32737,29555,78674,878
Wellington103,687122,062132,305133,414
Nelson11,74613,49316,52320,497
Christchurch118,708133,515151,068174,221
Timaru16,95918,77119,67222,851
Dunedin88,86285,60787,58795,457
Invereargill22,05425,91227,75531,613

In the quarter-century covered by the table all urban areas, with two exceptions, have consistently recorded increases in population. Of these exceptions, one comprised a slight recession at Wanganui, 1926–36. The other was Dunedin, 1926–36, but there the recession arose from the inflation of the 1926 population by visitors to the exhibition then being held at Dunedin. In numbers, growth during the twenty-five years is led by Auckland; in rate, Hutt and Hamilton are outstanding.

Increases between the censuses of 1945 and 1951 have been:—

Urban Area.Numerical Increase.Percentage Increase.
Auckland42,35614,77
Hamilton5,09518,17
Gisborne2,77916,35
Napier3,79718,31
Hastings3,49117,19
New Plymouth3,86618,36
Wanganui3,45513,16
Palmerston North5,08818,29
Hutt19,09234,22
Wellington1,1090,84
Nelson3,97424,05
Christchurch23,15315,33
Timaru3,17916,16
Dunedin7,8708,99
Invercargill3,85813,90

The Wellington figure is partly explained by the substantial growth in the adjacent Hutt Urban Area. However, the increase for the two urban areas combined is 10–74 per cent., a rate exceeded by all urban areas except Dunedin.

The next table presents the population (including Maoris) at the census of 1951, for the component cities, boroughs, and town districts included in the relevant urban areas.

Urban Area.Population (Including Maoris).
    Auckland 
Auckland City127,406
  Birkenhead Borough4,708
  Northcote Borough3,109
  Takapuna Borough13,500
  Devonport Borough11,605
  Henderson Borough2,114
  New Lynn Borough6,015
  Mt. Albert Borough25,937
  Mt. Eden Borough19,351
  Newmarket Borough2,670
  Ellerslie Borough3,451
  One Tree Hill Borough12,481
  Mt. Roskill Borough18,953
  Onehunga Borough16,985
  Otahuhu Borough8,082
  Papatoetoe Borough7,921
  Manurewa Borough2,999
  Papakura Borough3,192
  Glen Eden Town District2,580
  Howick Town District2,113
  Mount Wellington Road District6,745
  Panmure Township Road District608
  Remainder of urban area26,598
  Total329,123
    Hamilton 
Hamilton City29,838
    Remainder of urban area3,299
    Total33,137
Gisborne 
  Gisborne Borough17,302
  Remainder of urban area2,472
    Total19,774
Napier 
Napier City19,709
  Taradale Town District2,472
  Remainder of urban area2,357
    Total24,538
Hastings 
Hastings Borough17,238
  Havelock North Town District1,828
  Remainder of urban area4,731
    Total23,797
New Plymouth 
New Plymouth City21,747
  Remainder of urban area3,176
    Total24,923
Wanganui 
Wanganui City27,254
  Remainder of urban area2,463
    Total29,717
Palmerston North 
Palmerston North City30,531
  Remainder of urban area2,377
    Total32,908
Hutt 
Lower Hutt City44,474
  Upper Hutt Borough7,449
  Petone Borough10,851
  Eastbourne Borough2,750
  Remainder of urban area9,354
    Total74,878
Wellington 
Wellington City120,072
  Tawa Flat Town District2,459
  Johnsonville Town District3,588
  Remainder of urban area7,295
    Total133,414
Nelson 
Nelson City16,829
  Remainder of urban area3,668
    Total20,497
Christchurch 
Christchurch City123,548
  Riccarton Borough8,016
  Lyttelton Borough3,681
  Heathcote County7,092
  Remainder of urban area31,884
    Total174,221
Timaru 
Timaru City21,209
  Remainder of urban area1,642
    Total22,851
Dunedin 
Dunedin City69,829
  Port Chalmers Borough2,682
  West Harbour Borough2,291
  St. Kilda Borough7,413
  Green Island Borough3,492
  Mosgiel Borough3,134
  Remainder of urban area6,616
    Total95,457
Invercargill 
Invercargill City26,777
  South Invercargill Borough1,297
  Remainder of urban area3,539
    Total31,613

Counties.—The following table gives the population (including Maoris) of individual counties as disclosed by the 1951 census, together with the approximate area of each. It should be noted that “Administrative Counties” do not include boroughs or town districts independent of county control, but include dependent town districts.

Fourteen counties—viz., Hokianga, Kawhia, Wairoa, Whangamomona, Waimate West, Manawatu, Pahiatua, Eketahuna, Mauriceville, Featherston, Kaikoura, Malvern, Chatham Islands, and Maniatoto—lost population in the 1945–1951 intercensal period. Of these, Pahiatua and Malvern were affected by reduction in camps located in the counties. Of counties showing the highest rates of intercensal growth, Eden (112 per cent.), Hutt (52 per cent.), and Waimairi (49 per cent.) are wholly or partly within urban areas. Taupo (137 per cent.) and Tuapeka (49 per cent.) gained heavily from hydro-electric settlements at Mangakino and Coal Creek respectively. Stewart Island (68 per cent.) and Rotorua (44 per cent.) were affected by the change in the seasonal date of the census, the 1951 figures in the former including mutton-birders, and in the latter a higher proportion of visitors.

Administrative County.Population (Including Maoris).Approximate Area, In Square Miles.
North Island—  
  Mangonui7,598958
  Whangaroa2,446240
  Hokianga7,760613
  Bay of Islands11,788824
  Whangarei13,5791,044
  Hobson6,229745
  Otamatea6,081421
  Rodney5,732477
  Waitemata27,557607
  Eden8,3347
  Great Barrier Island275110
  Manukau15,728239
  Franklin16,727550
  Raglan11,011925
  Waikato14,139644
  Waipa14,522445
  Otorohanga6,183600
  Kawhia1,982330
  Waitomo7,5551,138
  Taumarunui3,670878
  Coromandel2,622444
  Thames2,933414
  Hauraki Plains5,183233
  Ohinemuri3,438237
  Piako11,482444
  Matamata13,374994
  Tauranga14,269721
  Rotorua9,3791,040
  Taupo7,5713,040
  Whakatane12,7591,684
  Opotiki4,8601,326
  Matakaoa1,906295
  Waiapu6,251793
  Uawa1,636261
  Waikohu.3,4031,017
  Cook7,878834
  Wairoa7,7761,371
  Hawke's Bay17,2031,672
  Waipawa3,655524
  Waipukurau1,089128
  Patangata3,055651
  Dannevirke4,363428
  Woodville1,813156
  Weber330118
  Ohura1,852423
  Whangamomona801447
  Clifton2,612443
  Taranaki7,668229
  Inglewood3,259199
  Egmont4,851239
  Stratford5,165419
  Eltham3,575207
  Waimate West2,78883
  Hawera6,163191
  Patea3,787591
  Kaitieke3,566550
  Waimarino3,488883
  Waitotara3,576468
  Wanganui3,763460
  Rangitikei9,5761,675
  Kiwitea2,298359
  Pohangina1,318259
  Oroua4,009190
  Manawatu6,114265
  Kairanga5,666184
  Horowhenua8,683544
  Hutt17,522450
  Makara5,778100
  Pahiatua2,727286
  Akitio1,237321
  Castlepoint610230
  Eketahuna1,807311
  Mauriceville554115
  Masterton3,163586
  Wairarapa South6,003440
  Featherston3,742952
    Totals471,83943,719
South Island—  
  Sounds946507
  Marlborough8,4751,897
  Awatere1,5661,030
  Kaikoura3,159906
  Amuri2,6432,285
  Cheviot1,354327
  Waimea15,3671,537
  Takaka2,215458
  Collingwood1,013552
  Buller4,9961,885
  Murchison1,3931,372
  Inangahua3,720942
  Grey5,1181,579
  Westland4,5444,410
  Waipara2,476937
  Kowai1,937157
  Ashley655309
  Rangiora3,41896
  Eyre1,812175
  Oxford1,580318
  Tawera742941
  Malvern3,123250
  Paparua8,858136
  Waimairi25,47248
  Heathcote7,09219
  Halswell2,47640
  Mount Herbert581‗66
  Akaroa1,494169
  Chatham Islands471372
  Wairewa900170
  Springs2,20291
  Ellesmere2,861230
  Selwyn1,593954
  Ashburton10,3492,459
  Geraldine5,536691
  Levels4,675263
  Mackenzie4,0332,739
  Waimate6,0001,383
  Waitaki10,1212,392
  Waihemo1,121338
  Waikouaiti3,632316
  Peninsula3,84340
  Taieri6,291902
  Bruce3,830520
  Clutha5,8251,025
  Tuapeka5,9411,388
  Maniatoto2,6611,340
  Vincent4,1982,922
  Lake1,6543,872
  Southland25,4633,724
  Wallace9,1963,727
  Fiord293,035
  Stewart Island576670
    Totals241,22658,911
    Grand totals713,065102,630

Boroughs.—Similar information as in the case of counties is now given for boroughs.

Borough.Population (Including Maoris).Approximate Area, In Acres.
North Island—  
  Kaitaia1,7991,310
  Kaikohe1,6091,342
  Whangarei11,8513,507
  Dargaville2,8092,800
  Helensville1,1101,315
  Birkenhead4,7083,084
  Northcote3,1091,190
  Takapuna13,5002,780
  Devonport11,6051,100
  Henderson2,1141,265
  New Lynn6,0151,393
  Auckland (City)127,40618,253
  Mount Albert25,9372,430
  Mount Eden19,3511,476
  Newmarket2,670182
  Ellerslie3,451745
  One Tree Hill12,4812,430
  Mount Roskill18,9534,605
  Onehunga16,9851,876
  Otahuhu8,0821,345
  Papatoetoe7,9211,587
  Manurewa2,9991,960
  Papakura3,1922,010
  Pukekohe3,6473,470
  Huntly3,8151,678
  Ngaruawahia2,1241,112
  Hamilton (City)29,8385,705
  Cambridge3,0201,280
  Te Awamutu3,8781,162
  Te Kuiti3,3041,668
  Taumarunui3,2201,925
  Thames4,5512,712
  Paeroa2,5901,419
  Waihi3,8914,094
  Te Aroha2,6672,783
  Morrinsville2,824950
  Matamata2,127934
  Putaruru1,872975
  Mount Maunganui1,867935
  Tauranga7,8232,748
  Te Puke1,4611,047
  Rotorua10,6563,611
  Whakatane3,7771,539
  Opotiki1,998772
  Gisborne17,3023,378
  Wairoa3,3481,603
  Napier (City)19,7092,477
  Hastings17,2382,612
  Waipawa1,4151,710
  Waipukurau2,525971
  Dannevirke4,6641,300
  Woodville1,2791,054
  Waitara3,0581,587
  New Plymouth (City)21,7474,132
  Inglewood1,540703
  Opunake1,106676
  Stratford4,4452,016
  Eltham1,9821,599
  Hawera5,342897
  Patea1,6851,420
  Ohakune1,6212,079
  Raetihi1,153958
  Wanganui (City)27,2545,726
  Taihape2,3441,923
  Marton3,4751,415
  Feilding5,8122,031
  Foxton2,226757
  Palmerston N. (City)30,5316,839
  Shannon1,042844
  Levin4,7361,332
  Otaki2,4961,390
  Upper Hutt7,4492,165
  Lower Hutt (City)44,4747,688
  Petone10,8511,132
  Eastbourne2,7501,546
  Wellington (City)120,07216,289
  Pahiatua2,097720
  Eketahuna722948
  Masterton11,5453,116
  Carterton2,1971,265
  Greytown1,2581,927
  Featherston1,069759
  Martin borough9701,070
    Totals807,136194,558
South Island—  
  Picton1,9241,052
  Blenheim7,0511,640
  Nelson (City)16,8295,550
  Richmond1,9732,600
  Motueka2,4642,523
  Westport5,505760
  Runanga1,8281,186
  Greymouth8,8652,594
  Brunner1,1135,700
  Kumara478842
  Hokitika2,986674
  Ross4713,800
  Rangiora2,799877
  Kaiapoi2,246877
  Riccarton8,016728
  Christchurch (City)123,54816,788
  Lyttelton3,6812,560
  Akaroa557233
  Ashburton8,2871,860
  Geraldine1,080566
  Temuka2,212795
  Timaru (City)21,2092,895
  Waimate2,907771
  Oamaru8,1191,385
  Hampden285630
  Palmerston894900
  Waikouaiti6011,958
  Port Chalmers2,682490
  West Harbour2,2912,382
  Dunedin (City)69,82913,536
  St. Kilda7,413462
  Green Island3,492878
  Mosgiel3,134965
  Milton1,672315
  Kaitangata1,2471,280
  Balclutha2,6241,000
  Tapanui434129
  Lawrence638615
  Roxburgh751515
  Naseby204112
  Alexandra1,414815
  Cromwell838806
  Arrowtown200457
  Queenstown1,003270
  Gore5,5511,940
  Mataura1,7151,272
  Winton1,133505
  Invercargill (City)26,7776,399
  South Invercargill1,2972,257
  Bluff2,2512,111
  Riverton1,018718
    Totals377,536102,973
    Grand totals1,184,672297,531

Only two boroughs showed any significant loss of population between the 1945 and 1951 censuses. Newmarket (10 per cent.) records the normal experience of a built-up central area where commercial buildings are replacing dwellings. Wellington (3 per cent.) recorded the first population recession in its history. The main cause is the limited amount of building land available owing to the situation and terrain of the city. Main growth in this area has been in the Hutt Valley and in the northern and coastal regions. The movement to the perimeter of the larger centres has thus taken the population out of the city.

The highest rates of growth for 1945–51 are naturally shown by the smaller towns. Of these, Papatoetoe (87 per cent.), Manurewa (62 per cent.), Mount Roskill (48 per cent.), Papakura (43 per cent.), New Lynn (41 per cent.), and Henderson (40 per cent.) are all within Auckland Urban Area. Lower Hutt City (42 per cent.) records a rate of growth outstanding for a city in New Zealand; this has resulted mainly from large-scale State-housing developments. The new borough of Mount Maunganui (89 per cent.) continues rapid growth, but would probably have more visitors than in 1945. Kaikohe (54 per cent.) and Kaitaia (49 per cent.) are Northland towns making swift progress. Putaruru (80 per cent.) and Levin (45 per cent.) are high on the list. In Otago, Roxburgh (46 per cent.) has gained through neighbouring hydro-electric works, but it is less obvious why the tiny borough of Tapanui should record 51 per cent.

Town Districts.—As stated earlier, the population of independent town districts—i.e., those contained in section (a) of the following table—is not included with that of the county in which the town district is located, but the population of dependent town districts—section (b)—is included in that of the respective parent county.

Town District.Population (Including Maoris).Approximate Area, In Acres.

* Parent county shown in parentheses.

(a) Town Districts Not Forming Parts of Counties
North Island—  
  Hikurangi911960
  Kamo782852
  Warkworth7331,420
  Glen Eden2,5801,267
  Howick2,1131,091
  Waiuku1,1921,275
  Tuakau1,0691,265
  Leamington8301,330
  Otorohanga1,569560
  Manunui7711,251
  Taupo1,3582,290
  Taradale2,4721,469
  Havelock North1,828835
  Ohura512815
  Manaia660510
  Waverley780484
  Mangaweka376955
  Hunterville534791
  Bulls693677
  Tawa Flat2,459755
  Johnsonville3,588842
    Totals27,81021,694
South Island—  
  Takaka591585
  Leeston738391
  Tinwald8691,525
  Pleasant Point561730
  Wyndham579680
  Lumsden5031,264
  Nightcaps614285
  Otautau737954
    Totals5,1926,414
    Grand totals33,00228,108
(b) Town Districts Forming Parts of Counties*
North Island—  
  Kohukohu (Hokianga)2221,020
  Rawene (Hokianga)454280
  Russell (Bay of Islands)5771,066
  Kawakawa (Bay of Islands)639280
  Onerahi (Whangarei)831990
  Mercer (Franklin)3061,000
  Te Kauwhata (Waikato)6211,290
  Ohaupo (Waipa)2861,283
  Kihikihi (Waipa)449523
  Kawhia (Kawhia)289470
  Te Karaka (Waikohu)384700
  Patutahi (Cook)2241,275
  Kaponga (Eltham)432558
  Normanby (Hawera)394260
    Totals6,10810,995
  South Island—  
  Havelock (Marlborough)283210
Southbridge (Ellesmere)387531
  Outram (Taieri)361886
  Edendale (Southland)478696
    Totals1,5092,323
    Grand totals7,61713,318

Of town districts showing a high rate of growth between 1945 and 1951, Tawa Flat (182 per cent.) and Johnsonville (45 per cent.) are within Wellington Urban Area and Glen Eden (64 per cent.) and Howick (58 per cent.) within Auckland Urban Area. Taupo (88 per cent.), Onerahi (70 per cent.), and Kamo (41 per cent.) also show outstanding growth.

Extra-county Islands and Migratory Population.—In addition to the populations quoted for administrative counties, cities and boroughs, and independent town districts, the New Zealand totals include migratory population and persons located on islands not within the boundaries of any county. The two latter categories comprised a total of 8,733 people at the 1951 census.

Of the islands concerned, Waiheke was the only one with a reasonably sized population, which was 1,873 at the census date, an increase of 73 per cent. since 1945.

DENSITY OF POPULATION.—The total area of New Zealand is approximately 103,939 square miles. Omitting the Island Territories of Tokelau Islands, Cook Islands, and Niue Island, the area remaining is 103,736 square miles, and includes Kermadec Islands and Campbell Island, and certain uninhabited Islands—viz., Three Kings, Solander, Bounty, Snares, Antipodes, and Auckland. This calculation, it should be explained, includes all inland waters—i.e., lakes, rivers, harbours, estuaries, &c. It should be noted also that there is a great deal of high mountainous country in New Zealand, particularly in the South Island, while there are also large areas of broken, swampy, or hilly country which is either incapable of effective use or which can be used profitably only for pastoral purposes, afforestation, or the like.

The density of population at the 1951 census may be quoted as 18.69 persons to the square mile.

The area and population of individual towns and counties will be found in preceding tables in this section. Many boroughs contain within their boundaries large reserves which, with farming and other unbuilt-on land, tend to disguise the actual relation of population to area. At the 1951 census, density of population in the various provincial districts was:—

 Persons per Square Mile.
Auckland29.03
Hawke's Bay21.41
Taranaki23.17
Wellington35.94
Marlborough5.42
Nelson6.22
Westland3.72
Canterbury20.08
Otago—Otago11.33
    Southland6.76

Except for limited purposes, a comparison of the gross density of population of one country with that of another is wholly invalid and frequently causes very serious misconceptions. Many writers and speakers have used very high figures of the potential population capacity of New Zealand which apparently derive from the basis of comparative population density without any or adequate consideration of the many and highly complex factors which make this an exceedingly difficult and controversial problem. To assess the optimum population or, a different question, the population which could be carried at a reasonably high and improving standard of living would be an immense and exceedingly difficult task and one for which many relevant data would be lacking.

MAORI POPULATION.—The first official general census of Maoris was taken in 1857–58, and others occurred in regular sequence from 1874 onwards. Owing to inherent difficulties the earlier census records make no pretence towards complete accuracy, and even some later enumerations hardly claim to be more than approximations.

Available statistical evidence points to a decline in the numbers of the Maori race following the advent of Europeans, but this decline was probably exaggerated by early writers. Of later years an unmistakable and now fairly rapid increase has been noted. This gain, however, has been accompanied by a very considerable dilution of blood.

The census record of Maori population is given below:—

Year.Maori Population.Numerical Increase.Percentage Increase.

* Includes members of Armed Forces overseas at census date.

1857–5856,049  
187447,330-8,719-15.6
187845,542-1,788-3.8
188146,1415991.3
188643,927-2,214-4.8
189144,1772500.6
189642,113-2,064-4.7
190145,5493,4368.2
190650,3094,76010.5
191152,7232,4144.8
191652,9972740.5
192156,9873,9907.5
192663,6706,68311.7
193682,32618,65629.3
194598,74416,41819.9
1945*100,04417,71821.5
1951115,67616,93217.1
1951*115,74015,69615.7

NOTE.—Minus sign (—) denotes a decrease.

The percentage increase from 1945 to 1951 was 17.15, equivalent to an average annual increase of 2.89 per cent. These percentages, it will be noted, are considerably higher than the corresponding figures for the European population—viz., 13.73 per cent. and 2.34 per cent. Movements of troops have tended to invalidate this comparison; the natural increase ratios for the year 1950 afford a better illustration. These are:—

 European.Maori.
Birth-rate24.5643.66
Death-rate9.2711.71
Natural-increase rate15.2931.95

Of the 115,676 Maoris at the 1951 census, 111,512 were in the North Island. Auckland Provincial District contains the bulk of the Maoris, particularly in the Auckland peninsula and Poverty Bay regions. In the South Island, Maoris do not attain any numerical significance. Maoris have always been residents in rural communities and this is still substantially true. A marked change is, however, taking place which probably acquired impetus during the war as a result of employment conditions. As late as the 1936 census only 8,249 Maoris (10.02 per cent.) dwelt in cities, boroughs, or independent town districts. By the 1951 census the comparative figure was 22,726 (19.65 per cent.). The largest concentration is in Auckland Urban Area, where 7,621 Maoris were enumerated.

The records of the 1936 and 1945 censuses (1951 figures are not yet available) permit of a statement of the total numbers wholly or partly of Maori blood.

Counted in the Maori population—
 1936.1945.
Full Maori55,91561,440
Maori-Europeans—  
  Three-quarter caste11,39718,956
  Half-caste14,89118,348
  Degree not specified123 
    Totals82,32698,744
Counted in the population other than Maori—
 1936.1945.
Maori-European quarter-caste11,50816,902
  Maori-Polynesian102263
  Maori-Japanese920
  Maori-Chinese38198
  Maori-Indian41134
  Maori-Syrian2657
  Maori-American Indian328
  Maori-Negro 19
  Maori-Filipino 8
  Maori-West Indian 11
  Maori-Melanesian 10
    Totals11,72717,650

In 1945 there were recorded in New Zealand some 116,394 persons wholly or partly of Maori origin, compared with 94,053 in 1936.

STATISTICS OF 1951 CENSUS.—In addition to the 1951 census figures of population given in the preceding pages, a summary of dwelling statistics for this census is shown in Section 23 (Building, Construction, and Housing). Where other categories of 1951 figures are not yet available, the latest figures (i.e., 1945 census) are given, as in the pages immediately following.

STATISTICS OF 1945 CENSUS.—The tabulation and analyses of the population census taken for the night of 25th September, 1945, met with delay through staff shortage and other causes. Further and considerable delay in presentation of completed results has arisen from the difficulties of the printing trade. The following volumes of census results have been published, or are in the press:—

  • Volume I—Increase and Location of Population.

  • Volume II—Island Territories (Cook Islands and Niue, Tokelau Islands, and Western Samoa).

  • Volume III—Maori Census.

  • Volume IV—Ages and Marital Status.

  • Volume V—Dependent Children.

  • Volume VI—Religious Professions.

  • Volume VII—Birthplace and Duration of Residence.

  • Volume VIII—Race.

  • Volume IX—Industries and Occupations.

  • Volume X—Incomes.

  • Volume XI—Dwellings and Households.

  • Appendix A—Census of Poultry.

  • Appendix B—War Service.

  • Appendix C—Usual Place of Residence.

  • Interim Returns (Ages, Marital Status, Religious Professions, Birthplaces, Duration of Residence of Overseas-born, Race, War Service, Industries, Occupations, Occupational Status, and Travelling Time).

Included in the summaries given below are some dealing with topics for which comprehensive data are contained in volumes of census results still in the printing stages. In addition certain other figures will be found in this issue in the appropriate sections—viz., population of island territories (Section 46); statistics of poultry (Section 18C); industrial and occupational distribution (Section 40); incomes (Section 36); hours of work and travelling-time (Section 38); and dwellings (Section 23).

In the 1945 census the following categories of people were excluded from the enumeration:—

  1. 45,381 members of the New Zealand Forces overseas at census date, this figure comprising 43,415 male and 666 female Europeans, the remaining 1,300 being Maoris.

  2. Members of the United States of America Forces in New Zealand totalling 250.

  3. Enemy prisoners of war, 803 in number.

On the other hand, refugees and internees were included in the enumeration.

Ages.—The age-distribution of the population as disclosed at the censuses of 1936 and 1945 is now given.

Age-group (Years).1936 Census.1945 Census.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
European Population
Under 559,82456,914116,73882,66279,493162,155
5 and under 1065,57462,813128,38766,95865,310132,268
10 " 1569,05566,261135,31660,80257,949118,751
15 " 2067,37064,875132,24564,64463,264127,908
20 " 2567,67565,865133,54046,53066,430112,960
25 " 3063,72961,259124,98851,58864,740116,328
30 " 3556,04253,468109,51058,05364,361122,414
35 " 4050,71751,087101,80458,51559,930118,445
40 " 4543,47947,57091,04953,31752,061105,378
45 " 5046,23846,71692,95447,39648,58895,984
50 " 5545,80343,52189,32440,53944,06484,603
55 " 6040,95937,58078,53941,59741,92883,525
60 " 6529,89027,92357,81338,96738,45477,421
65 " 7021,69121,14542,83631,82632,33364,159
70 " 7513,28813,54726,83519,88020,30940,189
75 " 808,0267,97816,00411,51812,64824,166
80 " 854,0803,9988,0784,8975,80210,699
85 " 901,4691,5643,0331,8012,2234,024
90 " 95333396729396543939
95 " 10064751396594159
100 and over448448
Not specified—      
  Adults8726651,5376314061,037
  Minors443478161834
  Totals, Europeans756,226735,2581,491,484782,602820,9521,603,554
Maori Population
Under 57,1956,82914,0248,3308,04016,370
5 and under 106,3546,25112,6057,9727,68315,655
10 " 155,2455,07710,3226,8286,62413,452
15 " 204,1133,8717,9845,3635,26710,630
20 " 254,0163,7857,8013,6934,2887,981
25 " 303,3333,0196,3523,2003,5386,738
30 " 352,2762,0214,2972,9902,9385,928
35 " 402,2211,9764,1972,8092,5355,344
40 " 451,6871,4433,1302,0221,8313,853
45 " 501,6061,1822,7881,9381,5203,458
50 " 551,2579732,2301,2691,0012,270
55 " 609947321,7261,1438371,980
60 " 657847691,5538797211,600
65 " 707575831,3406885901,278
70 " 75417361778402307709
75 " 80250185435232184416
80 " 85144138282113127240
85 " 9066691354374117
90 " 95314677283967
95 " 100102636111627
100 and over5253031316
Not specified—      
  Adults5660116227192419
  Minors46428892104196
  Totals, Maoris42,86339,46382,32650,27548,46998,744

A noticeable feature of the European population is the movement of large numbers of people into the higher age-groups. Persons of 60 years of age and over increased between 1936 and 1945 by 66,289; in 1945 such persons comprised 13.83 per cent. of the total population; in 1936, 10.42 per cent.; in 1926, 7.84 per cent.; and in 1874 only 2.33 per cent.

At the other end of the scale, a marked reversal of the trend of the 1930's was recorded. Children under 10 years of age increased by 49,298 since 1936, in strong contrast to the decrease of 22,102 shown by that census over the corresponding age-group in 1926. Whether the improvement in the European birth-rate over the past few years and in the post-war period will be maintained as a long-term feature is a question that cannot be answered at this juncture.

The cumulative effect of the declining birth-rate since 1910 in its effect on those age-groups in which the majority of the working population is contained is shown by the succeeding comparison. In the age-group covering ages 15 years to 59 years the 1936 figure recorded an increase of 119,179 over 1926. In 1945, even allowing for 44,081 European members of the New Zealand Forces overseas, the comparable increase has dropped to 57.673. Some part of this reduced number is, of course, due to reduced migration gains and to war losses. Nevertheless, it would seem that the present labour shortage must be in some measure the direct result of a smaller influx into working-age groups caused through decreases in births occurring over a very considerable period.

The European population in 1945 may be divided into adults (21 years and over) 1,037,469, equal to 64.70 per cent., and minors (under 21 years) 566,085, or 35.30 per cent. of the total. In 1936, adults comprised 63.84 per cent. and minors 36.16 per cent. of the total.

The outstanding characteristic of the rapidly increasing Maori race is its comparative youthfulness. The large number of persons under twenty-one years of age amounting to 58,066, constitutes 58.8 per cent. of the total, which is in sharp contrast to the figure of 35.3 per cent. for the corresponding European age-group. Further evidence of this feature is afforded by the much lower average age (arithmetic mean) of Maoris, 21.76 years as against the 32.94 years of the European section. This difference is accounted for by the higher natural increase associated with the Maoris, further accentuated by the probably greater expectation of life possessed by Europeans.

It is obvious that the changes noted in the above paragraphs impinge on the social economy in many ways. The recent increases in the number of children born are now beginning to exert their influence on school rolls, school-teachers, and indirectly on all those concerned with the needs of youth. Different classes of commodities and services are required for elderly people, too, and the census results are full of significance in this respect. The information disclosed on the quantity and age distribution of the economically active portion of the population also holds salient points of interest in many spheres of inquiry.

In the preceding table, and indeed for most 1945 census results, the non-inclusion of 45,381 members of the Armed Forces overseas must be considered in any analysis of the figures. The estimated age distribution of the 44,081 Europeans and 1,300 Maoris comprising this total is given below.

Age-group (Years).Europeans.Maoris.Total.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Under 20610 610   610 610
20 and under 2518,69510618,801620 62019,31510619,421
25 " 3011,57024011,810450 45012,02024012,260
30 " 357,1502207,370130 1307,2802207,500
35 " 403,740903,83080 803,820903,910
40 " 451,70101,38020 201,390101,400
45 " 5010 210   210 210
50 " 5550 50   50 50
55 " 6020 20   20 20
  Totals43,41566644,0811,300 1,30044,71566645,381

Marital Status.—The marital status of persons aged 16 years and over as returned at the census of 1945 is summarized in the following tables. The status is that existing at the census date—e.g., a person who had been widowed or divorced but had remarried before the census is counted as married, not as widowed or divorced.

Age (Years).Never Married.Married.Legally Separated.Widowed.Divorced.Not Specified.Total.
Europeans: Males
16 and under 2051,5222351  3851,796
20 " 2111,4044384112611,874
21 " 2526,5617,90610219333534,656
25 " 3023,08227,6893841042963351,588
30 " 3514,05642,5595342825626058,053
35 " 409,21747,5315804367153658,515
40 " 456,88144,4215546727563353,317
45 " 505,86239,2714501,0187662947,396
50 " 554,58433,4214081,4476592040,539
55 " 604,93933,2414212,3356471441,597
60 " 654,64629,7595043,4365932938,967
65 " 703,97522,7613614,2634442231,826
70 " 752,65112,7812094,0022271019,880
75 " 801,4486,5381133,312101611,518
80 " 855502,316321,9543874,897
85 " 90202673149001021,801
90 and over49123228623465
Not specified, adults651284164414631
  Totals—1945171,694351,7914,67724,4835,854817559,316
    1936211,551304,9554,47221,5743,913763547,228
Europeans: Females
16 and under 2048,9021,84216111 50,772
20 " 2110,9502,09624178 13,095
21 " 2530,80021,725347293165553,335
25 " 3018,15144,498732788565664,740
30 " 3511,00750,8547431,022728764,361
35 " 408,53048,5966781,272849559,930
40 " 457,13641,6885921,837802652,061
45 " 506,35237,7475773,128780448,588
50 " 555,75332,5194884,584715544,064
55 " 605,19228,6235186,969619741,928
60 " 655,06223,2905059,105487538,454
65 " 704,40216,56436810,651342632,333
70 " 753,0458,1611588,790149620,309
75 " 801,7783,531827,19954412,648
80 " 857271,080103,9602235,802
85 " 9021930131,691722,223
90 and over5073151052641
Not specified, adults612081060760406
  Totals—1945168,117363,3965,85261,8876,305133605,690
    1936175,230301,8024,93949,6623,490523535,646
Age (Years).Never Married.Married.Legally Separated.Widowed.Divorced.Not Specified.Total.
Maoris: Males
16 and under 204,06686 1 24,155
20 " 217371041225851
21 " 251,814998712292,842
25 " 301,1291,98017551093,200
30 " 355552,32222701652,990
35 " 403382,326269811102,809
40 " 451911,67317129842,022
45 " 501511,559161871961,938
50 " 558798751741151,269
55 " 60788426208541,143
60 " 6562567124432879
65 " 70444222206410688
70 " 7526197 17414402
75 " 8011108210812232
80 " 85733 70 3113
85 " 90312224 243
90 and over514 23  42
Not specified, adults8593429115227
  Totals—19459,38914,3231281,814949725,845
    19368,26312,5872691,8286413823,149
Maoris: Females
16 and under 203,52052817 24,058
20 " 215393633331912
21 " 251,3281,96318521143,376
25 " 305222,856281081593,538
30 " 352592,514301171262,938
35 " 401632,2111912517 2,535
40 " 45771,55420167941,831
45 " 50451,2247230771,520
50 " 553372810223521,001
55 " 601855582533 837
60 " 6521416327812721
65 " 7020286128012590
70 " 754110118912307
75 " 80114211291 184
80 " 85321 101 2127
85 " 90214 58  74
90 and over112 58 374
Not specified, adults986112714192
  Totals—19456,66415,4581512,405875024,815
    19364,87813,0712412,158379120,476

Taking only the adult population—i.e., those aged 21 years and over—the proportional distribution of the population was—

Marital Status.Europeans.Maoris.
Males.Females.Males.Females.
1936.1945.1936.1945.1936.1945.1936.1945.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Never married30.3521.9824.2819.9923.5222.1011.8313.16
Married63.4170.9563.3966.3665.1768.1273.6273.58
Legally separated0.930.941.041.071.400.611.380.74
Widowed4.494.9510.5511.429.588.7312.9612.10
Divorced0.821.180.741.160.330.440.210.42
  Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

The influence of the recent war on the never-married and married figures is well illustrated in this table. Many single men were overseas in 1945, thereby reducing the proportion of this class in the latter year and enhancing at the same time the proportion of married men. Increases in the proportions of married women and widows in the European section of the population can, no doubt, be also ascribed to war conditions, while higher wartime marriage-rates are reflected in a lower proportion of single women.

Religious Professions.—The table following presents a summary of the religious professions of the population as recorded in 1945, together with comparative figures for 1936. The figures are exclusive of Maoris, who are shown on the page following.

Religious Profession.Adherents.
1936.1945.
Church of England600,786601,786
Presbyterian367,855374,956
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)195,261215,629
Methodist121,012130,220
Baptist24,70327,512
Brethren17,26018,629
Salvation Army12,60813,203
Protestant (undefined)5,17811,911
Church of Christ11,19711,346
Spiritualist1,201763
Hindu591661
Confucian778638
Apostolic390636
Jehovah's Witness428622
Eastern Orthodox Catholic361595
Society of Friends494546
Pentecostal490440
Unitarian669417
Theosophist457409
Congregational7,1796,403
Seventh Day Adventist3,8254,956
Christian Scientist4,6174,819
Christian (undefined)1,6893,671
Hebrew2,6533,470
Freethinker9253,089
Rationalist2,0662,883
Lutheran2,5372,140
Undenominational Christian1,2891,692
Atheist5991,654
Agnostic1,4991,544
Christadelphian1,3031,367
Latter Day Saints (Mormon)7451,247
Missions (undefined)1,346891
Ratana461764
Commonwealth Covenant Church 763
Nonconformist295396
Assemblies of God389361
Uncertain103341
Liberal Catholic274334
Friendly Road598258
Evangelical301196
British Israel704158
Catholic Apostolic347137
Christian Assembly 134
Chinese Church27115
Undenominational1,5421,497
No religion (so returned)4,29211,038
All other religious professions2,1531,801
Object to state71,302126,426
Not specified14,7058,090
  Totals1,491,4841,603,554

The category recorded as “Object to state” represents those persons availing themselves of the special statutory right of objecting to answer a question on this subject. A proportion of the “not specified” may also consist of persons objecting to the question.

The proportional distribution at the last two censuses was:—

Religious Profession.Percentage of Total Population.
1936.1945.
Church of England40.2837.53
Presbyterian24.6623.38
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)13.0913.45
Methodist8.118.12
Baptist1.661.72
Brethren1.151.16
Salvation Army0.840.82
Protestant, undefined0.350.74
Church of Christ0.750.71
No religion (so returned)0.290.69
Object to state4.787.88
All others (including "not specified")4.043.80
Totals100.00100.00

The numbers and proportional distribution of religious professions of Maoris at the last two censuses are now given. In comparison with the European distribution shown earlier some considerable differences will be noted, caused partly by the inclusion of religious professions such as Ratana, Ringatu, and Hau Hau, which are essentially Maori.

Religious Profession.1936 Census.1945 Census.
Numbers.Percentage.Numbers.Percentage.
Church of England24,83230.1632,57832.99
Ratana16,33719.8417,18117.40
Roman Catholic11,32613.7615,19015.38
Methodist5,7436.987,5357.63
Latter Day Saints5,2576.396,5516.63
Ringatu5,0916.185,1665.23
Mission n.o.d.5,0476.132,0912.12
Presbyterian1,1151.361,6461.67
Hau Hau5860.716620.67
Other professions1,5111.841,8551.88
Not specified or indefinitely specified1,2461.511,2841.30
Object to state4,2355.147,0057.10
Total Maori population82,326100.0098,744100.00

Birthplaces.—The distribution of the population in 1945 according to place of birth is now presented, with 1936 figures being incorporated for comparative purposes.

The nomenclature used in regard to countries of birth refers to status and territories in the census year and not necessarily to the present position.

Birthplace.Census.
1936.1945.

* Includes protectorates, trust territories, &c., as at the date of the census.

British Countries*  
  New Zealand1,197,5911,357,323
  England140,422114,508
  United Kingdom, or Great Britain, n.o.d.476219
  Isle of Man490362
  Channel Islands906622
  Wales3,6383,911
  Scotland54,18843,818
  Northern Ireland1,7889,024
  Eire7477,249
  Ireland, n.o.d.23,3302,342
  Gibraltar5442
  Malta, Gozo, and Comino8164
  Union of South Africa1,3211,223
  Cyprus1751
  India (British or Native States)2,1942,096
  Ceylon149118
  Burma3056
  Malaya132194
  Hong Kong4094
  Canada1,6251,738
  Australia42,00936,789
  Cook Islands157393
  Niue Island54222
  Western Samoa279592
  Fiji8191,173
  Tonga269433
  Norfolk Island113128
  Other British Pacific islands53115
  All other British countries355318
    Totals, British countries1,473,3271,585,217
Foreign Countries  
  Norway650508
  Sweden723478
  Denmark1,4431,039
  Russia (U.S.S.R.)391348
  Estonia2845
  Latvia6465
  Lithuania2024
  Finland239188
  Poland3661,307
  Germany1,2991,297
  Netherlands124128
  Belgium137114
  France368303
  Switzerland636599
  Italy917840
  Czechoslovakia72166
  Austria140342
  Hungary34112
  Yugoslavia2,7213,090
  Greece192260
  Egypt4972
  Syria354153
  Lebanon156
  China2,1843,150
  Japan10648
  United States of America1,2101,079
  America, n.o.d.292159
  Argentina8285
  Society Islands6571
  All other foreign countries442493
    Totals, foreign countries15,34816,719
  Born at sea749570
  Not specified2,0601,048
    Grand totals1,491,4841,603,554

The chief points of interest emerging from a scrutiny of this table can be briefly given. Declines in the numbers of persons born in British countries other than the Pacific islands are fairly general. Reduced immigration in the depression period and subsequent years, together with gradual elimination by death or emigration of the older residents born overseas, with the additional complication of war movements, doubtless account for this state of affairs. Improved transportation facilities and war conditions to some extent explain the increases shown of those born in the neighbouring Pacific islands.

The distribution of the movement of the foreign-born element since 1936 is of interest, in that it reflects the influence of pre-war European conditions and the impact of war. For example, those born in northern European countries declined, probably more directly as the result of the war. Central European countries exhibit the same characteristic, except in the case of those countries from which political and war refugees were drawn, particularly Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Austria, in which increases were recorded.

Duration of Residence of Overseas-born.—Persons born elsewhere than in New Zealand are now classified by their duration of residence in this country.

Duration of Residence.Census.
1936.1945.
Under 1 year4,6093,777
1 year1,8791,835
2 years1,254577
3 "1,044778
4 "1,333955
5 "2,9142,315
6 "3,7764,958
7 "3,6242,994
8 "5,0002,362
9 "9,3481,516
10 "12,0701,320
11 "9,732848
12 "9,831987
13 "7,548840
14 "9,5341,748
15 "11,6713,437
16 "8,9363,320
17 "3,2093,690
18 "1,5606,243
19 years1,3019,299
20 and under 25 years36,37943,565
25 " 30 "39,22119,711
30 " 35 "25,12135,684
35 " 40 "10,83330,901
40 " 45 "9,37918,473
45 " 50 "6,6306,934
50 " 55 "12,8646,567
55 " 60 "12,2274,057
60 " 65 "16,0527,160
65 " 70 "3,0956,486
70 " 75 "4,4116,884
75 " 80 "1,5271,015
80 " 85 "3801,209
85 " 90 "70212
90 and over1445
Not specified5,5173,529
  Totals293,893246,231

This table is a very graphic one. It conveys a picture of broad economic and political changes in the history of New Zealand made manifest by the movement of immigration. Thus the small numbers shown for the years 2–4 are symptomatic of the Second World War disturbances; the larger numbers over years 6–8 are in response to the stimulus given to migration by the economic recovery following the depression of the mid "thirties"; while the 11–13 years duration reflect slump conditions and the voluntary restriction on immigration entailed by such conditions. This analysis can be carried further, for the 25–30 years' duration illustrates the effects of the First World War and post-war circumstances. The severe depression of the early 1890's is responsible for the drop recorded in the 55–60 years group, while the public-works policy of 1870 onwards accounts for the larger numbers in the 65–75 years duration group. The table thus affords a general conspectus of economic history in quantitative form.

Racial Origins.—It is definitely impossible to obtain from census data an accurate ethnological survey of the racial origins of the population. For example, such terms as “European” or “Indian” cover in reality a variety of races. Nevertheless, the general meaning of the terms employed will be clear and the data afforded are of distinct service. The following summary gives data for the 1945 census, together with the 1936 figures by way of comparison.

Race.Census.
1936.1945.
European—  
European1,473,0001,575,974
European-Maori quarter-caste11,50816,902
    Totals, European1,484,5081,592,876
Maori—  
Full Maori55,91561,440
Three-quarter caste11,39718,956
Half-caste14,89118,348
Maori-European n.o.d.123 
    Totals, Maori82,32698,744
Race alien—  
Chinese F.B.2,5804,373
Chinese M.B.319359
Chinese-Maori38198
Chinese-Polynesian210
Syrian F.B.960895
Syrian M.B.275438
Syrian-Maori2657
Indian F.B.8651,116
Indian M.B.292299
Indian-Maori41134
Japanese F.B.7211
Japanese M.B.3012
Japanese-Maori920
Sinhalese F.B.42
Sinhalese M.B.195
Eurasian n.o.d.145
Polynesian—  
Hawaiian F.B.54
Hawaiian M.B.1736
Samoan F.B.3960
Samoan M.B.323656
Tahitian F.B.516
Tahitian M.B.2061
Nine Islander F.B. 165
Nine Islander M.B. 60
Cook Island Maori F.B.53222
Cook Island Maori M.B.50132
Polynesian-Maori 102263 
Other or undefined F.B.6190
Other or undefined M.B.313394
Melanesian—  
Fijian F.B.2320
Fijian M.B.86164
Other or undefined F.B.26
Other or undefined M.B.518
Negro F.B.2717
Negro M.B.12385
Negro-Maori 19
West Indian F.B.911
West Indian M.B.3245
West Indian-Maori 11
American Indian F.B.13
American Indian M.B.2215
American Indian-Maori328
Abyssinian F.B.12
Abyssinian M.B.1518
Egyptian311
Armenian118
Half-caste, race not specified22 
Other race aliens F.B.3233
Other race aliens M.B.3561
Totals, race aliens6,97610,678
Grand totals1,573,8101,702,298

NOTE.—F.B. signifies “full blood"; M.B. "mixed blood,” the second race being European.

Of the total population in 1945, Europeans comprised 1,592,876 (93.57 per cent.); Maoris, 98,744 (5.80 per cent.); and race aliens, 10,678 (0.63 per cent.). Corresponding figures for 1936 were: Europeans, 1,484,508 (94.33 per cent.); Maoris, 82,326 (5.23 per cent.); and race aliens, 6,976 (0.44 per cent.). The relative rate of increase between 1936 and 1945 was: Europeans, 7.30 per cent.; Maoris, 19.94 per cent.; and race aliens, 53.07 per cent.

In the race-alien division there was a fairly substantial increase in the number of Chinese, principally per medium of immigration. Other considerable increases occur in the Samoan and Cook Island Maori racial components.

Overseas War Service.—The following tables record the number of those persons at the 1936 and 1945 censuses who gave the relevant particulars of overseas war service. It must be appreciated that at the date of the 1945 census there were 45,381 (inclusive of 666 females and 1,300 Maori males) members of the Armed Forces still overseas.

In the 1936 census tabulation, service in only one war was taken into account. In those instances in which individuals had seen service in two or more wars, the latest period of service was selected, the distinction being therefore between service in the First World War and service in all other wars. The table records the number of separate individuals participating in wars.

WAR SERVICE: NUMBERS, 1936 CENSUS

Force with which served.World War I.Wars other than World War I.Total.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Europeans
New Zealand68,97255369,5252,53762,54371,50955972,068
Australian1,592511,643253 2531,845511,896
Imperial14,8101,03415,8441,131121,14315,9411,04616,987
Other British423542812411255476553
  Totals85,7971,64387,4404,045194,06489,8421,66291,504
Maoris
New Zealand1,53341,5378 81,54141,545
Australian3 3   3 3
Imperial1 1   1 1
  Totals1,53741,5418 81,54541,549

The table now presented dealing with the 1945 census refers to the number of separate persons with overseas service in one or more of the three major wars. However, each war or each combination of wars has been recorded separately.

WAR SERVICE: NUMBERS, 1945 CENSUS

Wars.Europeans.Maoris.
Males.Females.TotalMales.Females.Total.
Overseas service—      
  Only in World War II77,7951,32279,1171,817251,842
  Only in World War I69,5371,43670,9731,14081,148
  Only in South African War3,446293,475   
  In World War II and World War I2,318122,33040141
  In World War I and South African War1,62671,633   
  In World War II and South African War3 3   
  In World War II, World War I, and South African War22 22   
    Total with overseas war service154,7472,806157,5532,997343,031

The Maori questionnaire did not provide for service in the South African War, but it is understood that no Maoris participated therein.

As the classification in the table following is by wars and forces and not by separate individuals, the total numbers will exceed those given in the preceding table. This derives from the fact that those persons with overseas service in more than one war will appear in the table below more than once—i.e., under the appropriate wars in which they participated. Maoris are omitted from the table, as information regarding forces was not asked in 1945.

WAR SERVICE: WARS AND FORCES WITH WHICH SERVED, 1945 CENSUS: EUROPEANS

Forces with which served.World War II.World War I.South African War.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
New Zealand Forces78,9431,05958,8525732,89914
Australian Forces143271,369473202
Imperial Forces79221312,6598001,64018
Other British Forces553440972152
New Zealand and Australian Forces17 2823 
New Zealand and Canadian Forces9 7 3 
New Zealand and Imperial Forces1711159258 
New Zealand and other British Forces3 4 1 
Australian and Imperial Forces4 1115 
Australian and other British Forces    3 
Imperial and other British Forces1 5   
    Totals80,1381,33473,5031,4555,09736

Chapter 4. SECTION 4—VITAL STATISTICS

4 A—BIRTHS

REGISTRATION.—An ordinance which came into force from 1st January, 1848, made provision for a Government record of births and deaths. While this Ordinance did not precisely make registration of births compulsory, it did make notification of births compulsory and also required registration particulars to be furnished on request made by a Deputy Registrar. Under its provisions many registrations were made, some of births as early as 1840. However, for some years (certainly until 1854 and possibly a year or so later) the requirements of the Ordinance were not fully known or appreciated, and it cannot be said to have been completely enforced during this period. The Registration Act, 1858, operative from 1st January, 1859, provided for compulsory registration of births. Registration of still-births, previously not provided for, was made compulsory from the 1st March, 1913.

The law as to registration of births is now embodied in the Births and Deaths Registration Act, 1951, a consolidation of the then existing legislation. The provisions generally as to registration are that a birth may be registered within two months without fee. After two months and within six months a birth is registrable only after a statutory declaration, of the particulars required to be registered, has been made before the Registrar by the parent or some person present at birth and on payment of the prescribed fee. A birth may be registered after six months only upon the direction of the Registrar-General, who may authorize registration in any case within two years after the date of birth. An information for neglect to register must be laid within two years of date of birth. In cases of neglect or refusal to give the Registrar information in respect of any birth the Registrar-General may at any time within two years after the birth of the child authorize some person to give the Registrar the information required to enable him to register the birth, and to sign as informant the entry in the register, upon which the Registrar shall register the birth.

Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions, power is given by the Act for the Registrar-General to register an unregistered birth which occurred in New Zealand, irrespective of the time that may have elapsed. Satisfactory evidence on oath, and such other proof as the Registrar-General may deem necessary, are required. This provision does not, however, relieve any person from liability to prosecution for failure to register in the proper manner.

Although two months are allowed for the registration of a birth, it is compulsory to notify the birth to the Registrar within a much shorter interval—viz., forty-eight hours if in a city or borough and seven days in every other case. Births are to be registered by the Registrar whose office is nearest to the place of birth.

Particulars now required to be registered are: date and place of birth; name and sex of child; names, ages, and birthplaces of parents; occupation of father; maiden name of mother; date and place of parents' marriage; and ages and sex of previous issue (distinguishing living and dead) of the marriage. The father of an illegitimate child is not required to give information, nor is his name entered in the register unless at the joint request of the mother and himself, or unless he subsequently marries the mother (see pp. 66–67). A child born out of New Zealand but arriving before attaining the age of eighteen months may be registered within six months of arrival. The Registrar-General may authorize registration of such a child who is over eighteen months but under three years of age.

Birth statistics are compiled from the records of the Registrar-General. The births covered by a year's statistics are those registered during the year irrespective of the year of birth. The figures do not include still-births, except in the special classification on page 68, and in a table on page 61.

Registration of Maori Births.—In the successive Registration Acts special provision was made for exemption from the necessity of registration in the case of births and deaths of Maoris, though registration could be effected if desired. Section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1912 (later section 60 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act, 1924), empowered the making of regulations to provide for the registration of births and deaths of Maoris. Regulations were made accordingly, and Maori births and deaths became registrable as from the 1st March, 1913. The number of Registrars of Maori Births and Deaths is over 250, most of these being in the North Island, where the great majority of the Maori population is located. Every Maori settlement of any size is within easy reach of one of these Registrars. Maori registrations are entered in a separate register, and the figures of births given in the following pages do not include those of Maoris, which are dealt with in Section 4D.

NUMBERS AND RATES.—The general long-term history of the birth-rate in New Zealand has been downward. A reference to the diagram on page 59 and to the table on page 58, showing quinquennial average birth-rates, indicates this trend very clearly. After the pioneering days of the nineteenth century, when the population consisted very largely of young immigrants faced with the raising of a family, the birth-rate began to decline appreciably. A further migration wave at the turn of the century reversed the trend temporarily, but in 1909 the downward movement was again resumed. With minor fluctuations in the earlier stages and in the years influenced by the First World War this decline continued until 1936. In that year a slight upward movement began, and by 1940 some of the deficit had been made up by the gradual rise. This was accelerated during the Second World War (with minor fluctuations) until successive record high totals (as regards the numbers of births) were established in 1945–47. In 1948 a decline in births was shown with a further recession in 1949. The decreases were not large, and in 1950 an increase was again recorded. The numbers and rates of births (children born alive) for each of the last twenty years are given in the following table.

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.
193126,62218.45
193224,88417.12
193324,33416.63
193424,32216.51
193523,96516.17
193624,83716.64
193726,01417.29
193827,24917.93
193928,83318.73
194032,77121.19
194135,10022.81
194233,57421.73
194330,31119.70
194433,59921.59
194537,00723.22
194641,87125.26
194744,81626.47
194844,19325.59
194943,98824.98
195044,30924.67

Much of the movement in the birth-rate during recent years has been allied to movement in the marriage-rate.

During the depression years there was a cessation of the normal annual increase in the number of marriages expected in a growing country, and correspondingly the first-birth rate remained at a low figure.

When the country emerged from the depression the effect of postponed marriages and child-bearing manifested itself immediately, and the first-birth rate rose rapidly. Again added impetus was given to this rate during the early war years, when, for obvious reasons, there was a decided rise in the marriage-rate. As the war proceeded the number of marriages declined somewhat, with a marked effect on the first-birth rate. With the end of hostilities and the release of men from the Forces the number of births rose rapidly, with first births the major factor in this increase.

As may be expected, the movement in the birth-rate reflects the tendency for couples to marry and have children in prosperous years rather than in years of depression. An analysis of birth-rates by order of births shows that up to the fourth child birth-rates fluctuate in accordance with this general trend; from the fifth to the seventh child some sympathetic movement is noticeable, but in such cases the extent of recovery has usually been less than the downward range evident in adverse years, indicative of an overall decline in the larger-sized families; the birth-rate for the eighth (or more) child has exhibited a definitely continuous decline over a long period being apparently unaffected by economic cyclical changes.

Comparisons of birth-rates over a series of years or between different countries are usually made on the basis of the “crude” rates—i.e., the number of births per 1,000 of the mean population, irrespective of sex or age.

The “crude” rates do not permit of allowance being made for variations in the proportion of women of the child-bearing ages, and it is advisable and of interest to supplement the table of “crude” rates with a computation of the legitimate birth-rate per 1,000 married women of 15 and under 45 years of age, or the total birth-rate per 1,000 of all women of these ages. The following table gives both rates for New Zealand in each census year from 1878 to 1945.

Year.Number of Women 15 and under 45.Number of Births.Birth-rate per 1,000 Women 15 and under 45.
Married.Total.Legitimate.Total.Legitimate.*Total.

* Per thousand married women.

187850,99980,31317,34117,770340.0221.3
188157,46196,14418,19818,732315.0194.8
188662,709117,89518,69719,299298.2163.7
189163,172131,27117,63518,273279.2139.2
189669,816158,21417,77818,612254.6117.6
190179,420183,38719,55420,491246.2111.7
190698,249212,59823,12024,252235.3114.1
1911119,390240,71425,27626,354211.7109.5
1916141,322267,30027,36328,509193.6106.7
1921150,400288,47727,30928,567181.699.0
1926161,737313,36327,00028,473166.990.9
1936173,557344,12423,71124,837136.672.2
1945211,299370,78635,18337,007166.599.8

The legitimate rate per 1,000 married women between the ages of 15 and 45 is seen to have fallen by 51 per cent. between 1878 and 1945, while an even greater fall is shown for the total rate on the basis of all women of the ages mentioned. The greater fall in the latter rate than in the former is due to the fact that among women of the child-bearing ages the proportion of married women is considerably smaller than in the earlier years covered.

A study of the figures for successive censuses reveals considerable changes in the age-constitution of married women within the child-bearing ages. As the birth-rate varies with age, the change in age-constitution over the period is a factor which should be taken into account.

NATURAL INCREASE.—The decline of the birth-rate in New Zealand has been accompanied until recent years by a decrease in the death-rate. Nevertheless, the nominal rate of natural increase of population has fallen from 31.19 per 1,000 of mean population in 1870 to 15.29 in 1950. Acceptance of this figure without consideration of the effect of the changing age-constitution will give an erroneous view of the present margin of increase and of the probable trend of population growth in the future.

Period.Annual Rates per 1,000 Mean Population.
Births.Deaths.Natural Increase.
1871–187539.8812.6727.21
1876–188041.2111.8029.41
1881–188536.3610.9525.41
1886–189031.159.8521.30
1891–189527.6810.1517.53
1896–190025.759.5516.20
1901–190526.609.9116.69
1906–191027.069.7517.31
1911–191525.989.2216.76
1916–192024.3210.7313.59
1921–192522.268.6313.63
1926–193019.768.6011.16
1931–193516.988.238.75
1936–194018.369.209.16
1941–194521.8110.0811.73
1946–195025.399.3316.06

The movements that have taken place since 1875 are well illustrated in the accompanying diagram, which shows the rates at five-yearly intervals.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES.—An international comparison of birth and natural increase rates is made in the following table. New Zealand's position is much higher on the basis of natural increase than it would be on that of the birth-rate. The rates, which are the average of the five years 1945–49, are taken from the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics issued by the United Nations.

Country.Rates per 1,000 of Population.
Births.Natural Increase.
Mexico44.726.7
Costa Rico44.531.4
Puerto Rico41.228.8
Venezuela39.825.8
Ceylon39.022.5
Panama35.526.0
Chile33.315.4
Japan30.013.0
India27.18.4
Finland26.814.9
Canada26.717.4
Union of South Africa26.517.6
Netherlands25.916.4
Portugal25.211.4
New Zealand25.015.6
United States of America23.313.2
Australia23.113.2
Czechoslovakia22.38.9
Spain22.010.1
Denmark21.612.0
Norway20.911.7
Italy20.99.2
France20.06.2
Switzerland19.48.3
Sweden18.98.5
United Kingdom18.36.7
Belgium17.33.8
Austria16.61.3

SEXES OF CHILDREN BORN.—With the exception of one year (1860), there has always been a preponderance of males in the number of children born in New Zealand. The proportions are usually shown by stating the number of births of male children to every 1,000 female births. This number has been as high as 1,113 (in 1859), and as low as 991 (in 1860), but little significance can be attached to any figures prior to 1870, on account of the comparatively small number of births. The period preceding 1870 exhibited violent fluctuations in the proportion of males, which showed a tendency to disappear as the total of births grew larger. It is a popular idea that the proportion of male births tends to increase considerably in war years, but the experience in this country does little to bear out this theory, the average over the six years 1940–45 being 1,057, as against that of 1,050 for the preceding ten years. Figures taken out some years ago prove that the masculinity rate for first births is distinctly higher than for subsequent births. As the first-birth rate tends to rise during war years, and actually reached a very high peak during the early part of Second World War, the total masculinity rate would also be affected and would give rise to the popular idea that wars result in an increase in the proportion of male children born. The extreme range since 1870 has been from 1,016 male per 1,000 female births in 1878 to 1,081 in 1923.

Year.Number of Births ofMale Births per 1,000 Female Births.
Males.Females.
194016,81715,9541,054
194118,00317,0971,053
194217,24216,3321,056
194315,72814,5831,079
194417,20516,3941,049
194518,95018,0571,049
194621,53220,3391,059
194722,89821,9181,045
194822,61721,5761,048
194922,73321,2551,070
195022,67721,6321,048

The masculinity rate from 1856 to 1950 is expressed in the following table in average ratios for successive decennial periods.

Period.Male Births per 1,000 Female Births.
1856–18651,062
1866–18751,043
1876–18851,045
1886–18951,045
1896–19051,054
1906–19151,055
1916–19251,053
1926–19351,057
1936–19451,050
1946–1950 (five years)1,054

MULTIPLE BIRTHS.—The number of cases of multiple births and the proportion per 1,000 of the total (living births only) during the last five years were:—

Year.Total Births.Total Cases.Cases of Twins.Cases of Triplets.Multiple Cases per 1,000 of Total Cases.

* Includes one case of quadruplets.

194641,87141,338518712.70
194744,81644,279529412.04
194844,19343,667522212.00
194943,98843,450532312.31
195044,30943,7565406*12.48

Counting only cases where both children were born alive, there were 540 cases of twin births registered in 1950. There were also five cases of triplets and one case of quadruplets (3 males and 1 female).

The total number of confinements resulting in living births was 43,756, and on the average one mother in every 80 gave birth to twins (or triplets).

When still-births are taken into account, the total number of confinements for the year 1950 is increased to 44,561, and the number of cases of multiple births to 605. On this basis the proportion of mothers giving birth to twins or triplets is increased to one in 74.

The incidence of multiple births varies considerably, as may be seen from the following summary for each of the last eleven years:—

Year.Cases of Twins.Cases of Triplets.Total Multiple Cases.Rate per 1,000 Confinements.
Both born alive.One born alive, one still-born.Both still-born.Total.All born alive.One born alive, two still-born.Two born alive, one still-born.All still-born.Total.

* Includes one case of quadruplets.

194034444113991  1240112.0
194139851144633   346613.1
194240024134372 2 444113.0
1943332411138432 1639012.7
19444304034737   748014.2
194546337115112   251313.7
194651842145747 1 858213.8
194752938115784   458212.9
19485223075592   256112.6
19495324395843 1 458813.3
195054046125986*  1760513.7

The proportion of multiple births has been consistently high during recent years, that experienced in 1944 being a record figure. The numbers of cases of triplets recorded in 1944, 1946, and 1950 were exceptional.

The likelihood of still-births occurring is much greater in cases of multiple births than in single cases. This is exemplified in the following table. The figures in respect of multiple cases include all cases where one or more of the children were still-born.

Year.Still-birth Cases per 100 of Total Cases (including Still-births).
Single Cases.Multiple Cases.
19412.5413.95
19422.568.88
19432.4614.10
19442.258.96
19452.199.36
19462.079.79
19471.918.42
19481.806.60
19491.839.01
19501.9111.16
  Average of ten years2.1510.02

The following table shows the sexes in individual cases of live twin births (including illegitimate) for the years 1946–50.

Year.Total Cases.Both Males.Both Females.Opposite Sexes.
1946518164173181
1947529190162177
1948522166169187
1949532188155189
1950540168192180

The five cases of triplets in 1950 comprised two of three males and three of one male and two females. The one case of quadruplets comprised 3 males and 1 female.

AGES OF PARENTS.—Information as to the relative ages of parents of legitimate living children whose births were registered in 1950 is shown in the following tables.

Age of Mother, in Years.Age of Father, in Years.
Under 21.21 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and under 50.50 and under 55.55 and under 65.65 and over.Total Cases.

* Including 46 legitimate cases where twins would have been registered had not one child been still-born.

† Including 5 cases of triplets and 1 case of quadruplets.

Single Births
Under 212501,275785169481161  2,545
21 and under 25922,5784,8911,603433742183 9,703
25 " 3096506,2584,7531,7494141243819214,016
30 " 35 429343,6162,9671,055273883169,012
35 " 40 12855671,9991,38344515374104,728
40 " 45 16372215773621165341,377
45 and over   1413442411 97
    Totals3514,55812,95910,7467,4213,5271,2754281912241,478*
Multiple Births
Under 2131491      27
21 and under 25 37541851  1 116
25 " 30 6586023811  157
30 " 35  154839233   128
35 " 40  17273611 2 84
40 " 45    14542 16
45 and over           
    Totals35713713495722055 528
    Grand totals3544,61513,09610,8807,5163,5991,2954331962242,006

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS.—Information as to the previous issue of the existing marriage, required in connection with the registration of births in New Zealand, is useful not only for record purposes, but also as providing valuable data for statistical purposes. Tables are given in the annual Report on Vital Statistics containing detailed information as to number of previous issue in conjunction with (1) age of mother and (2) duration of marriage. The table under the first heading for the year 1950 is here summarized.

Age of Mother, in Years.Number of Previous Issue.Total Legitimate Cases.
0.1.2.3.4.5.6 and under 10.10 and under 15.15 and over.

* This number represents 41,478 single cases and 528 multiple cases.

Under 212,0034917161    2,572
21 and under 255,2263,1641,11625246132  9,819
25 " 304,0445,4322,9141,13641515577  14,173
30 " 351,5612,5242,3841,33868032331218 9,140
35 " 406199541,01989453932142442 4,812
40 " 451652152292151641212245911,393
45 and over11915119121810297
    Totals13,62912,7897,7483,8521,8549451,057129342,006*

In computing previous issue, multiple births have been given their full significance, the numbers at the head of the columns relating to children born alive. In the following table this procedure has been followed not only for the previous issue but also for children covered by the 1950 registrations, who are also taken into account in the computation of the averages.

Age of Mother, in Years.Total Mothers.Total Issue.Average Issue.
Under 212,5723,2271.25
21–249,81916,2331.65
25–2914,17331,7642.24
30–349,14027,0792.96
35–394,81217,6823.67
40–441,3936,2444.48
45 and over975285.44
    Totals42,006102,7572.45

It should be stressed that the averages are no more than they purport to be—viz., the average number of children (including those registered in 1950) born up to the present time to those mothers of legitimate children whose births were registered during the year. They do not purport to represent, nor do they represent, the average issue of all women of the ages shown. Furthermore, they include issue born to the existing marriages only. The averages for recent years were as follows: 1945, 2.58; 1946, 2.44; 1947, 2.34; 1948, 2.40, and 1949, 2.42. In 1915, the earliest year for which reliable comparative figures are available, the average issue was 3.11. This falling trend in the average issue of women giving birth to children is some indication of the tendency towards smaller families. The 1943 average, for the first time since these figures were compiled, reversed the trend, and a further increase was recorded in 1944, but with the increase in the proportion of first births in the three following years the average declined, although a slight improvement was noted for the years 1948–50.

FIRST BIRTHS.—Of a total of 207,907 confinements resulting in legitimate births during the five years 1946–50, the issue of no fewer than 74,801 or 36 per cent., were first-born children. In 30,800, or 41 per cent., of these cases the birth occurred within twelve months, and in 54,881, or 73 per cent., within two years after the marriage of the parents. In the remaining 27 per cent. of cases where there was any issue to the marriage, two years or more had elapsed before the birth of the first child.

The annual number of first births registered naturally follows closely the movement in the marriage-rate. With the steady decline in the marriage-rate during the middle war years 1941–43 a fall in the number of first births was to be expected. This was accompanied by a marked downward movement in the actual proportion of first births to total births due in some measure to the sustained figures of total births during those years. It would appear, therefore, that the war period was responsible for at least a temporary trend towards larger families.

With the return of men from service overseas there came a heavy increase in the number of marriages, and correspondingly the proportion of first births rose steeply to 40.03 per cent. in 1947; a rate very little below the record figure of 41.69 per cent. established in 1940. Since 1947, however, a downward tendency has been evident. An interesting feature of the birth statistics for 1947 and 1948 is the high proportion of first births occurring within two years after marriage—75.62 per cent. of all legitimate first cases recorded in 1947 and 75.44 per cent. in 1948 falling in this class. These are the highest figures recorded since 1929.

The proportion of first births occurring within one year of the marriage of the parents which showed appreciable rises after the war up to a peak in 1947 has now declined.

Year.Total Legitimate Cases.Total Legitimate First Cases.Proportion of First Cases to Total Cases.First Cases within One Year after Marriage.First Cases within Two Years after Marriage.
Number.Proportion to Total First Cases.Number.Proportion to Total First Cases.
   Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
194639,53414,88237.646,18541.5610,32369.37
194742,56617,03940.037,29342.8012,88575.62
194842,00515,16436.106,24441.1811,44075.44
194941,79614,08733.705,65940.1710,26972.90
195042,00613,62932.455,41939.769,96473.12
Totals for five years207,90774,80135.9830,80041.1854,88173.37

Although the period of time elapsing before the birth of the first child has varied considerably during recent years, mainly as a result of war and post-war influences, there would appear to be little evidence to indicate that the long-term decline in the proportion of first births occurring within one year of marriage has been arrested. The following table compares the 1950 figures with those for earlier years, and illustrates the movement in the duration-of-marriage factor in first births.

Duration of Marriage, in Years.Proportion per Cent. of Total First Births.
1914.1924.1934.1944.1950.
Under 1 year52.9550.0646.2538.4739.76
1 and under 2 years28.6226.6426.7926.3033.36
2 " 3 "9.0210.4310.2411.2812.30
3 " 4 "3.435.516.167.885.88
4 " 5 "1.883.033.967.183.22
5 " 10 "3.263.365.497.364.14
10 years and over0.840.971.111.531.34
  Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

For the years covered by the foregoing table the average duration of marriage before the birth of the first child was—1914, 1.63 years; 1924, 1.76 years; 1934, 1.85 years; 1944, 2.22 years; and 1950, 1.91 years.

An item of interest extracted from the 1950 birth statistics is a table of first births occurring to mothers in different age-groups, expressed as a proportion per cent. of the total first births. A comparison has also been computed on the same basis for the years 1914, 1924, 1934, and 1944.

FIRST BIRTHS, BY AGE OF MOTHER

Age of Mother.First Births, Proportion per Cent. at each Age-group to Total First Births.
1914.1924.1934.1944.1950.
Under 206.737.558.907.338.25
20 and under 2535.8938.1640.3941.7944.79
25 " 3035.0132.5932.7929.5429.67
30 " 3515.6114.6813.1014.6111.45
35 " 405.525.333.795.364.54
40 " 451.161.590.991.341.22
45 and over0.080.100.040.030.08
    Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The figures of average ages of mothers at the birth of their first child are as follows for the above years: 1914, 26.55; 1924, 26.39; 1934, 25.90; 1944, 25.18; and 1950, 25.67.

ILLEGITIMACY.—The numbers of illegitimate births registered during each of the years 1940–50, with the percentages they bear to total births registered, were as follows:—

Year.Number.Percentage of Total Births.
19401,2843.92
19411,2813.65
19421,3393.99
19431,4674.84
19442,0206.01
19451,8244.93
19461,8244.36
19471,7273.85
19481,6863.82
19491,6713.80
19501,7683.99

War influences, resulting in unusual movements of the population and the influx of servicemen to the more heavily populated centres, no doubt are responsible for the high figures recorded during 1943–46.

The long-term trend in the rate of illegitimate births is indicated by the movement in the proportion of illegitimate births per 1,000 unmarried women—i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women—at the reproductive ages. The figures for each census year from 1891 to 1945 are as follows:—

Census Year.Unmarried Women 15 and under 45 Years of Age.Illegitimate Births.Illegitimate-birth Rate per 1,000 Unmarried Women.
189168,0306389.38
189688,3338349.44
1901103,6529379.04
1906114,0961,1329.92
1911120,7781,0788.93
1916125,4611,1599.24
1921136,5391,2589.21
1926148,5511,4739.92
1936167,7811,1266.71
1945156,3261,82411.67

Included in the total of 1,768 illegitimate births in 1950 were eighteen cases of twins, the number of confinements being thus 1,750. From the following table it will be seen that of the 1,750 mothers 543, or 31 per cent., were under twenty-one years of age.

Age.Cases.
Years. 
131
144
1510
1639
1778
18111
19135
20168
21134
22131
23115
2497
2571
2687
2773
2867
2960
3057
3138
3234
3329
3434
3534
3642
3722
3821
3916
4015
418
428
431
443
455
462
  Total1,750

The Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1930, directed the omission of the word “illegitimate” from the register when the birth of an illegitimate child is registered. The word “illegitimate” appearing in any entry made prior to the passing of the Act is deemed to be expunged and deleted, and must also be omitted from any certified copy of an entry.

The Legitimation Act.—An important Act was passed in 1894 and re-enacted in 1908, intituled the Legitimation Act. Under this Act any child born out of wedlock whose parents afterwards intermarried was deemed to be legitimated by such marriage on the birth being registered in the manner prescribed by the Act. For legitimation purposes a Registrar was required to register a birth when called upon to do so by any person claiming to be the father of an illegitimate child; but such person was required to make a solemn declaration that he was the father, and was also required to produce evidence of marriage between himself and the mother of the child.

Prior to the passing of the Legitimation Amendment Act, 1921–22, legitimation could be effected only if at the time of the birth of the child there existed no legal impediment to the intermarriage of the father and mother, but the legal-impediment proviso was repealed by that amendment.

The amendment of 1921–22 also provided for legitimation by the mother in the event of the death of the father after the intermarriage of the parents. In such a case the application for legitimation was heard by a Magistrate, and upon his certifying that it had been proved to his satisfaction that the husband of the applicant was the father of the child, the child was registered as the lawful issue of the applicant and her husband.

Important changes were made by the Legitimation Act of 1939, which repealed previous legislation on the subject. This Act stipulates that every illegitimate person whose parents have intermarried, whether before or after the passing of the Act, shall be deemed to have been legitimated from birth by reason of such marriage. The Act requires the parents or surviving parent of any person legitimated under the Act to register with the Registrar-General the particulars of the birth of that person, showing that person as the lawful issue of the parents. Application for registration was required to be made within six months after the date of the passing of the Act in cases where the marriage took place prior to that date. In cases where the marriage has taken place subsequent to the passing of the Act, application for registration must be made within three months after the date of the marriage.

Where the Registrar-General has reason to believe that any person has been legitimated under the terms of the Act, and no application for registration has been made within the prescribed time, he may require the responsible parents or parent to make an application within a specified period of not less than seven days after receiving notice to do so. Any failure to comply with the notice requiring application for registration within the time specified renders the person or persons responsible liable on summary conviction to a fine of £5. If no application for registration is made within the appropriate time specified in the Act or in the notice received from the Registrar-General, application for registration of the particulars of the birth of any legitimated person may be made by that person, or by one of his parents, or by any other person.

The number of legitimations registered in each of the last eleven years, and the total since the Act of 1894 came into force, are shown in the following table. The effect of the Legitimation Act of 1939 is evident in the figures for 1940, while the necessity for prompt registration in order to participate in family benefits under the Social Security Act has accentuated the falling-away of the not previously registered cases to nil in 1950.

Year.Number of Children legitimized.
Previously registered.Not previously registered.Total.
1940409104513
194137957436
194239634430
194340037437
194433934373
194539411405
194648615501
19474964500
19485183521
19494112413
1950401 401
    Totals from 1894 to 195010,9173,29414,211

ADOPTIONS.—The Births and Deaths Registration Act contains provision for the registration of adopted children. The Clerk of the Court by which any adoption order is made is required to furnish to the Registrar-General particulars of the order, including the full name and place of birth of the child, as well as the full names and addresses of both the natural and the adopting parents. An entry is made in the prescribed form in the register of births, particulars of the adopting parents being given in lieu of those of the natural parents. If the child's birth has previously been registered in New Zealand a note of the adoption order is made on the original entry. An amendment to the Infants Act in 1939 extended the age at which a child might be legally adopted from under fifteen years to under twenty-one years.

The adoption of a Maori child is required to be registered in the same manner as that of a European child unless the adoption order is made under the Maori Land Act, 1931.

The following table shows the number of adoptions which have been registered during the eleven years ended in 1950.

Year.Number.
Males.Females.Total.
1940293339632
1941293268561
1942397376773
1943279298577
19446316821,313
19455965951,191
19466806931,373
19476806591,339
19486986641,362
19496545951,249
19506296261,255

Of the 1,255 adoptions registered in 1950, 695 were children under the age of one year, 238 were between one and five years, 180 were between five and ten years, and 142 were aged ten years or over.

Statistics of adoptions registered have been available in New Zealand since 1919, and these indicate that the numbers are considerably influenced by the economic condition of the country, the lowest total, 329, being recorded in 1931, followed by 332 in 1933 and 337 in 1932. The highest total prior to 1940 occurred in 1921, when 584 adoptions were registered, this, no doubt, being the result of influences operating after the First World War. Possibly various factors arising out of the Second World War have had a bearing on the high totals for recent years, but the extension of age at which a child might legally be adopted is also of importance in this connection. It should also be noted that the unprecedented totals since 1944 are associated with the extremely high number of illegitimate births occurring in these years.

STILL-BIRTHS.—The registration of still-births was made compulsory in New Zealand as from the 1st March, 1913. Although it is necessary to effect a birth-registration entry for a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. Section 15 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1946, amending the Births and Deaths Registration Act, 1924, stipulated, however, that a medical practitioner or a midwife in attendance at a confinement where a still-birth occurs must furnish a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the still-birth. Particulars of causes of still-births will be found in Section 4C relating to deaths. A still-born child is defined as one “which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue.” Still-births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths.

The registrations of still-births during each of the years 1940–1950 were as follows:—

Year.Males.Females.Totals.Male Still-births per 1,000 Female Still-births.Percentage of Still-births to
Living Births.All Births.
19405284379651,2082.942.86
19415244479711,1722.772.69
19424824098911,1782.652.59
19434503678171,2262.702.62
19444373627991,2072.382.32
19454634028651,1522.342.28
19465304019311,3222.222.18
19475014109111,2222.031.99
19484833518341,3761.891.85
19494493477961,2941.811.78
19504893768651,3011.951.92

Masculinity is in general much higher among still-births than among living births, the rate for still-births in 1950 being 1,301 males per 1,000 females as compared with 1,048 for living births.

The percentage of illegitimates among still-born infants was in 1950, 5.10, and among infants born live 2.32.

Of the living legitimate births registered in 1950, 32 per cent. were first births, while of legitimate still-births 38 per cent. were first births. Statistics over many years indicate that there is a considerably greater probability of still-births occurring to mothers having their first confinement than to those having subsequent confinements.

4 B—MARRIAGES

MARRIAGE may be celebrated in New Zealand only on the authority of a Registrar's certificate, either by a person whose name is on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act, or before a duly appointed Registrar or Deputy Registrar of Marriages. Marriage by an officiating minister may be celebrated only between 8 o'clock in the morning and 8 o'clock in the evening. Marriage before a Registrar can be celebrated at any time during the hours the office of the Registrar is open for the transaction of public business. Prior to the passing of the Marriage Amendment Act, 1920, the limits in all cases were 8 a.m. and 4 p.m.

Notice of intended marriage must be given to a Registrar of Marriages by one of the parties to the proposed marriage, and one of the parties must have resided for three full days in the district within which the marriage is to be celebrated. In the case of a person under twenty-one years of age, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parent or guardian is necessary before the Registrar's certificate can be issued. A schedule to the Guardianship of Infants Act, 1926, sets out the person or persons whose consent is required in various circumstances. In cases where double consent is required, section 8 provides for dispensing with the consent of one party if this cannot be obtained by reason of absence, inaccessibility, or disability. In similar cases where the consent of only one person is necessary, consent may be given by a Judge of the Supreme Court. Consent of the Court may also be given in cases of refusal by any person whose consent is required.

If, in any particular case, a declaration is made that there is no parent or lawful guardian resident in New Zealand, then a certificate may be issued by the Registrar (without the necessity of Court proceedings) fourteen days after the date on which the notice of intended marriage was given.

The system of notice and certificate has operated in New Zealand since 1855. Officiating ministers and Registrars are required to send to the Registrar-General returns of all marriages celebrated, and as the returns come in they are checked off with the entries in the Registrars' lists of notices received and certificates issued. In case of the non-arrival of a marriage return corresponding to any entry in the list of notices, inquiries are made as to whether the marriage has taken place.

The marriage of a man with his deceased wife's sister was legalized in New Zealand in the year 1881, and the marriage of a woman with her deceased husband's brother in 1901. Marriage with a deceased wife's niece or a deceased husband's nephew was rendered valid in 1929.

Marriage is forbidden between persons within certain degrees of relationship. The present law is contained in the Marriage Amendment Act, 1946. Any such marriage is declared void. The prohibition applies whether the relationship is by the whole blood or by the half-blood and whether the relationship is legitimate or illegitimate.

An amendment to the Marriage Act in 1939, which repealed a similar provision passed in 1933, stipulates that a Registrar may not issue a certificate of marriage where either of the intending parties is under sixteen years of age. No marriage shall be deemed to have been unduly solemnized, however, by reason only of this provision. The 1933 amendment made provision enabling women to become officiating ministers for the purposes of the Marriage Act.

The Marriage Emergency Regulations 1944 provided for the keeping in New Zealand of a special register of Service marriages solemnized out of New Zealand between parties, one or both of whom were members of the New Zealand Armed Forces. These regulations were replaced by the Marriage Amendment Act, 1946, which, in addition, provides for the validity of Service marriages, thus replacing the United Kingdom Act of 1823, upon which their validity hitherto depended.

Particulars regarding divorce will be found at the close of this subsection.

NUMBERS AND RATES.—The movement of the marriage-rate over a lengthy period of time may be observed from the statistical summary appearing towards the end of this Year-Book. In a country with a growing population, the annual number of marriages celebrated naturally shows a rising trend. This has been the experience in New Zealand, with the exception of the periodical interruptions occasioned by war and adverse economic conditions. The numbers and rates of marriages during each of the last twenty years are here given.

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Population.
19319,8176.81
19329,8966.81
193310,5107.18
193411,2567.64
193512,1878.23
193613,8089.25
193714,3649.55
193815,32810.09
193917,11511.12
194017,44811.28
194113,3138.65
194212,2197.91
194311,5797.53
194413,1258.43
194516,16010.14
194620,53512.39
194718,52510.94
194817,1929.96
194916,7859.53
195016,5049.19

Both the marriage-rate and the number of marriages in 1946 were the highest on record. The main reason for this was the return from overseas of many thousands of men in the most prolific marriage age-groups. An appreciable decline, however, in both the number of marriages and in the marriage-rate took place in 1947 and 1948 and has continued in 1949 and 1950, although the decline was less pronounced in the later years.

Changes in the available marriageable population, together with factors arising out of the war, have affected the marriage-rate in recent years.

Comparison with Other Countries.—Marriage-rates for certain countries for 1950 are given below (these particulars have been taken from the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, issued by the Statistical Office of the United Nations).

Country.Rates per 1,000 Mean Population.
Israel14.0
United States of America11.2
Puerto Rico9.3
New Zealand9.2
Australia9.2
Austria9.1
Canada9.0
Norway8.3
Belgium8.2
Netherlands8.2
France8.0
Switzerland8.0
United Kingdom8.0
Chile7.9
Portugal7.6
Sweden7.6
Italy7.5
Spain7.4
Ceylon6.8
Venezuela5.1
Panama3.3

STANDARDIZED MARRIAGE-RATE.—In a country like New Zealand where the age-constitution of the population has altered considerably, the crude marriage-rate based on the total population does not disclose the true position over a period of years. Even if only the unmarried (including widowed and divorced) population over twenty in the case of men and over fifteen in the case of women be taken into account, the rates so ascertained would still not be entirely satisfactory for comparative purposes as between various periods, owing to differences in sex and age constitution, divergences between rates for different age-groups, and variations in the proportions of marriageable persons in the community. A better plan is to ascertain the rate among unmarried females in each age-group and to standardize the results on the basis of the distribution of the unmarried female population in a basic year.

This has been done for each census year from 1881 to 1945, the year 1911 being taken as the standard. The course of the standardized rates as shown in the following table varies materially from that of the crude rates.

Year.Marriage-rate per 1,000,Index Numbers of Marriage-rates. Base: 1911 (=100).
Total Population.Unmarried Female Population 15 and over.Total Population.Unmarried Female Population 15 and over.
Crude.Standardized.Crude.Standardized.
18816.673.980.776125137
18866.055.160.46993102
18916.048.350.3698285
18966.847.348.0788081
19017.850.249.0908583
19068.555.653.7989491
19118.759.159.1100100100
19167.550.754.3868692
19218.759.763.9100101108
19267.953.162.69190106
19369.357.168.010797115
194510.165.088.1117110149

The index numbers of the three classes of rates over the series of years enable the effect of standardization to be seen at a glance. Comparing, for instance, the years 1881 and 1911, it is seen that whereas the crude rate per 1,000 of total population was nearly one-fourth less in 1881 than in 1911, the crude rate, when only the unmarried female population of fifteen and over is considered, was one-fourth greater, and the standardized rate more than one-third greater.

Between the censuses of March, 1936, and September, 1945, the numbers of unmarried women aged fifteen and under thirty-five (the ages within which most women marry) fell by over 11,000. This decline, which was largely a result of the high marriage rate in 1937–40 and 1945, appears to be chiefly responsible for the remarkably high standardized marriage-rate of 1945. A contributory cause was the slightly higher ages of 1945 brides, 11.63 per cent. being over thirty-five in 1945, as compared with 9.40 per cent. in 1936.

Owing to staff difficulties arising out of the war situation, no detailed marriage statistics were compiled for the years 1941–44 inclusive. The statistics and information contained in the following pages relate in most cases to the years 1946 to 1950 both inclusive.

CONJUGAL CONDITION.—The total number of persons married during the year 1950 was 33,008, of whom 28,732 were single, 1,670 widowed, and 2,606 divorced. The figures for the five years 1946 to 1950, showing the sexes separately are given in the table following.

Year.Single.Widowed.Divorced.Total Persons married.
Bridegroom.Bride.Bridegroom.Bride.Bridegroom.Bride.
194618,19218,1299129611,4311,44541,070
194716,15416,1868998861,4721,45337,050
194814,79914,9208978321,4961,44034,384
194914,48014,5848707811,4351,42033,570
195014,28014,4528947761,3301,27633,008

The position is more easily seen by studying the percentages given in the next table.

Year.Bridegrooms.Brides.
Single.Widowed.Divorced.Single.Widowed.Divorced.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
194688.594.446.9788.284.687.04
194787.204.857.9587.384.787.84
194886.085.228.7086.784.848.38
194986.275.188.5586.894.658.46
195086.525.428.0687.574.707.73

During the five years 1946–50 the number of divorced persons remarrying increased from 70 to 76 per 1,000 persons married.

Reference to the divorce statistics at the end of this subsection will show that the number of divorces over the last five year period has been at a high level; as a matter of fact, the number of decrees absolute in the period 1946–50 was 9,628, as compared with 4,907 in the five years 1936–40, an increase of 96 per cent. The increase in the number of divorced people remarrying is therefore not surprising. The number of widowed persons remarrying, which was 39 per 1,000 in 1940, has risen to 51 per 1,000 in 1950.

The relative conjugal condition of bridegrooms and brides for each of the five years 1946 to 1950 is next given.

Year.Marriages between Bachelors andMarriages between Widowers andMarriages between Divorced Men and
Spinsters.Widows.Divorced Women.Spinsters.Widows.Divorced Women.Spinsters.Widows.Divorced Women.
194616,763512917454288170912161358
194714,856430869428302169902154415
194813,582390827434279184904163429
194913,336327817385302183863152420
195013,271285724378330186803161366

The relative proportions of divorced men and divorced women remarrying during the last three years has changed but little compared with ten years earlier. During the three years 1938–40 the number of male divorcees remarrying was 2,066, as compared with 2,169 females, which gives a rate of 95 males for every 100 females. In 1948–50 the respective numbers were 4,261 males and 4,136 females and the corresponding rate 103 males for every 100 females. In the case of widowed persons remarrying, however, there has been a marked change in the figures. In the three-year period 1938–40, 2,420 widowers remarried but only 1,619 widows, whereas in 1948–50 there were 2,661 widowers and 2,389 widows who remarried, the number of widowers per 100 widows being 149 in the former period and 111 in the latter period. It is probable that the increase in the proportion of widows remarrying is due in some measure to the numbers of young women who were widowed as a result of the war.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED.—Of the 33,008 persons married in 1950, 4,666 or 14 per cent., were under twenty-one years of age; 12,216, or 37 per cent., were returned as twenty-one and under twenty-five; 8,012, or 24 per cent., as twenty-five and under thirty; 4,957, or 15 per cent., as thirty and under forty; and 3,157 or 10 per cent., as forty years of age or over. The following table relates to the year 1950.

Age of Bridegroom, in Years.Age of Bride, in Years.Total Bridegrooms.
Under 21.21 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and over.
Under 214911901721  701
21 and under 252,1792,9685366110 25,756
25 " 301,0622,4471,293239491345,107
30 " 351715815933541092671,841
35 " 404721331829223070191,189
40 " 4510401001471569947599
45 and over521481081692197411,311
Total brides3,9656,4602,9051,20372442782016,504

There have been some considerable changes in the proportions of persons marrying at the various age-periods. To illustrate the extent to which these figures have varied since the beginning of the century, a table is given showing the proportions of men and women married at each age-period to every 100 marriages in quinquennia from 1900 to 1939 and for 1946–50.

Period.Under 21.21 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and over.Totals.
Males
1900–041.6724.7538.4218.638.053.584.90100.00
1905–091.7923.4239.2518.788.473.384.91100.00
1910–141.9422.0438.0420.758.543.904.79100.00
1915–193.2621.4033.0419.6710.475.027.14100.00
1920–243.1324.6632.2117.7310.245.436.60100.00
1925–293.4928.0434.4914.337.704.487.47100.00
1930–343.4627.2837.0215.146.103.617.39100.00
1935–392.6825.9138.2616.466.753.226.72100.00
1946–503.9031.8531.8513.967.263.847.34100.00
Females
1900–0416.9239.7527.339.263.401.531.81100.00
1905–0916.1537.1028.5310.184.211.802.03100.00
1910–1415.6034.9028.5211.575.042.052.32100.00
1915–1915.2135.0126.1711.396.062.983.18100.00
1920–2415.9935.4726.2110.665.532.983.16100.00
1925–2918.6137.8823.678.934.652.823.44100.00
1930–3418.6738.5124.798.223.852.403.56100.00
1935–3917.1038.2626.308.863.912.023.55100.00
1946–5021.2639.3920.058.054.432.504.32100.00

A perusal of the above table reveals the fact that greater proportions of marriages are now being celebrated at both the younger and the older age-groups. There is also a decline over the whole period in the 25 and under 30 age-group. This has become very marked in the 1946–50 period, and is mainly due to the fact that the outbreak of war induced a number of earlier marriages which has resulted in fewer unmarried people entering this age-group.

For many years the average age (arithmetic mean) at marriage for both males and females, more particularly the latter, showed a tendency to increase. However, after reaching its maximum in the three years 1917–19, the average age recorded a slight but fairly constant decline during the next decade, since when it has fluctuated within narrow limits. The figures for each of the years 1940 and 1945–50 are as follows:—

Year.Bridegrooms. (Years.)Brides. (Years.)
194029.4125.97
194530.5226.75
194629.7326.18
194729.7126.11
194829.9626.32
194929.8926.30
195029.6726.14

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown in the preceding table, which covers all parties and is naturally affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average ages of grooms and brides of the various conditions in each of the last five years were:—

Year.Bridegrooms.Brides.
Bachelors.Divorced.Widowers.Spinsters.Divorced.Widows.
 Years.Years.Years.Years.Years.Years.
194627.8039.6352.5924.7634.0641.22
194727.5439.3952.7624.4434.5742.83
194827.5539.6053.6324.4235.4144.63
194927.4239.8952.8224.3135.4245.46
195027.1540.0654.4624.1935.5946.90

The foregoing figures give the average ages at marriage, but these do not correspond with the modal or popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. For several years prior to 1918 age 26 held pride of place for bridegrooms and age 21 for brides. The latter has continued right through to 1950 without alteration, but in the case of bridegrooms the most popular age has varied, and for 1950 was 23.

Marriages of Minors.—Of every 1,000 men married in 1950, 43 were under twenty-one years of age, while 240 in every 1,000 brides were under twenty-one.

In 491 marriages in 1950 both parties were given as under twenty-one years of age, in 3,474 marriages the bride was returned as a minor and the bridegroom as an adult, and in 210 marriages the bridegroom was a minor and the bride an adult.

The proportion of minors among persons marrying declined continuously from 1932 to 1936, probably a result of the depression. Since 1936 there have been substantial increases in the actual numbers of minors marrying, although the number of brides coming within this category in 1945 was considerably below the 1940 figure, due to war conditions. Figures for the years 1946 to 1950 are contained in the following table:—

Year.Age, in Years.Totals.
16.17.18.19.20.Number.Rate per 100 Marriages.
Bridegrooms
1946 12621824767323.56
1947211782183876963.81
1948214572054126904.01
1949 26681684126744.02
195029741954217014.25
Brides
1946782836541,2071,5483,77018.36
1947923037041,1551,5183,77220.67
19481023266991,1631,4853,77521.95
19491113037441,1411,4563,75522.37
19501003017771,2741,5133,96524.02

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS CHURCHES.—Of the 16,504 marriages registered in 1950, Church of England clergymen officiated at 4,282, Presbyterians at 4,673, Roman Catholics at 1,968, and Methodists at 1,538, while 3,110 marriages were celebrated before Registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the largest churches in each of the years 1940 and 1945–50.

Church.Percentage of Marriages.
1940.1945.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
Presbyterian26.1027.8828.3528.2628.8628.0728.31
Church of England27.4527.9427.6826.5326.5525.8025.95
Roman Catholic12.2311.5811.8512.2511.8112.1711.93
Methodist10.1710.359.789.589.259.199.32
Others7.045.885.745.185.505.785.65
Before Registrars17.0116.3716.6018.2018.0318.9918.84
  Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The foregoing figures must not be taken as an exact indication of the religious professions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that both (or even one) of the parties are adherents of the Church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before Registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any or none of the churches. Of the total population (exclusive of Maoris) at the general census of 1945, 37.53 per cent. were recorded as adherents of the Church of England, 23.38 per cent. Presbyterian, 13.45 per cent. Roman Catholic, 8.12 per cent. Methodist, and 17.52 of other religions or of no religion, or who objected to state their religious profession.

The proportion of civil marriages in 1950 was slightly lower than in 1949, the actual number showing a decrease of 78. The year recording the highest proportion was 1917, when 24.77 per cent. of marriages took place before Registrars.

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS.—The number of names on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act was (January, 1951) 2,634, and the churches to which they belong are shown hereunder.

Church.Number.
Roman Catholic Church550
Church of England488
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand444
Methodist Church of New Zealand315
Salvation Army165
Ratana Church of New Zealand147
Baptist108
Ringatu Church48
Seventh Day Adventist39
Brethren37
Latter Day Saints36
Associated Churches of Christ35
Commonwealth Covenant Church28
Congregational Independent27
Apostolic Church14
Jehovah's Witness14
Liberal Catholic Church13
Assemblies of God9
Evangelistic Church of Christ8
Churches of Christ8
Evangelical Lutheran Concordia Conference8
Spiritualist Church of New Zealand7
Pentecostal Church of New Zealand7
Church of Te Kooti Rikirangi7
United Maori Mission6
Christadelphian6
Absolute Maori Established Church5
Hebrew Congregations4
Four Square Gospel Church of Christ4
Unitarian3
Te Maramatanga Christian Society3
Christian Spiritualist Church2
Church of God2
Four Square Gospel Mission2
Star of Hope Mission of New Zealand2
Revival Fire Mission2
Greek Orthodox Church in New Zealand2
International Bible Students' Association1
Others28
  Total2,634

The Ratana Church of New Zealand, the Ringatu Church, the Te Maramatanga Christian Society, the Absolute Maori Established Church, the United Maori Mission, and the Church of Te Kooti Rikirangi are Maori organizations.

DIVORCE.—The provisions as to dissolution of marriage are contained in the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act, 1928, which consolidated and amended the then existing legislation on the subject.

A brief historical account of divorce legislation is given in the 1931 issue of the Year-Book; the present position is outlined in the following résumé.

Any married person, domiciled in New Zealand for two or more years at the time of filing the petition, may obtain a divorce on one or more of the following grounds:—

  1. Adultery since the celebration of the marriage.

  2. Wilful and continuous desertion for three years or more.

  3. Habitual drunkenness for four years, coupled with (wife's petition) failure to support or habitual cruelty, or with (husband's petition) neglect of, or self-caused inability to discharge, domestic duties.

  4. Sentence to imprisonment for seven years or more for attempting to murder, or for wounding or doing actual bodily harm to, petitioner or child.

  5. Murder of child of petitioner or respondent.

  6. Insanity and confinement as a lunatic for seven out of ten years preceding the petition.

  7. Insanity for seven years, and confinement for three years immediately preceding the petition.

  8. Failure to comply with a decree of Court for restitution of conjugal rights.

  9. Parties have separated under an agreement, written or verbal, which has been in full force for not less than three years.

  10. Parties have been separated by a decree of judicial separation or a separation order which has been in force for three years. (An amendment in 1930 removed the restriction imposed by the principal Act—which permitted only New Zealand decrees or orders—and extended the provision to cover similar decrees or orders made in any country.)

  11. Husband guilty of rape, sodomy, or bestiality since marriage.

A deserted wife whose husband was domiciled in New Zealand at the time of desertion is considered, for the purpose of the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act, 1928, as retaining her New Zealand domicile. Where a wife petitions on grounds (i) and (j), her New Zealand domicile is retained if her husband was domiciled in New Zealand at the date of the agreement, decree, or order.

The amending Act of 1930 establishes a New Zealand domicile for a wife petitioning for divorce where she has been living apart from her husband for three years, if she has been living in New Zealand for three years preceding the petition, and has the intention of residing in New Zealand permanently.

The Matrimonial Causes (War Marriages) Act, 1947, makes special provisions in respect of war marriages where one of the parties was domiciled outside New Zealand by: (1) extension of jurisdiction of the Supreme Court to certain marriages irrespective of domicile; (2) recognition of decrees and orders (in relation to such marriages) made in the United States of America; and (3) shortening the period of desertion or separation as ground for divorce in such cases from three years to twelve months.

By authority of the Act, previous legislation on the subject embodied in the Matrimonial Causes (War Marriages) Emergency Regulations 1946 was revoked, accrued rights being protected.

Figures showing the operations of the Supreme Court in its divorce jurisdiction during recent years are as follows. About 50 per cent. of the decrees granted in any year relate to petitions filed in prior years.

Year.Dissolution or Nullity of Marriage.Judicial Separation.Restitution of Conjugal Rights.
Petitions filed.Decrees Nisi.Decrees Absolute.Petitions filed.Decrees for Separation.Petitions filed.Decrees for Restitution.
19401,1891,0421,0593 112106
19411,11599695661114100
19421,1779889625314294
19431,6411,3981,10041302227
19441,9921,8211,63072499421
19452,2111,9151,725112550461
19462,3632,1372,133106562463
19472,1912,0512,11771430371
19482,1601,9741,853207355300
19492,0011,8241,892151331262
19501,9121,7071,633114304217

As was to be expected, the later years of the war witnessed a marked increase in the incidence of divorce. However, it was not anticipated that the high level of decrees absolute granted in 1945 would be exceeded by approximately 400 in each of the two succeeding years. A slight falling off for the first time in six years was recorded during 1947 followed by a further small decrease in 1948, and this was followed by much more pronounced decreases in 1949 and 1950. It is worth noting, however, that for every ten marriages solemnized during the latter year, one was dissolved.

The next table gives the grounds (dissolution or nullity cases) of petitions and decrees during 1949 and 1950.

Grounds.Petitions Filed.Decrees Absolute Granted.
Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.Husbands' Petitions.Wives.' Petitions.
1949.1950.1949.1950.1949.1950.1949.1950.
Adultery237234132144185178127104
Bigamy2565 464
Desertion183161149167176137159134
Drunkenness, with cruelty, failure to maintain, &c. 1615  68
Insanity121224111231
Rape      1 
Sodomy   1   1
Non-compliance with order for restitution of conjugal rights18516367472021727154
Separation for not less than three years456441560510395347547474
Non-consummation3 113  2
Affinity   1   1
  Totals1,0781,017923895972850920783

The figures shown for decrees absolute cover all such granted during the year, whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in the same or in a previous year.

The principal grounds on which petitions were filed during 1950 showed the following increases compared with 1938, a normal pre-war year: Adultery, 175 (86.2 per cent.); desertion, 116 (54.7 per cent.); non-compliance with restitution order, 101 (92.7 per cent.); and separation, 316 (49.8 per cent.).

In 634 of the 1,912 cases where petitions for dissolution were filed during 1950 there was no living issue of the marriage. The number of living issue was 1 in 519 cases, 2 in 372 cases, 3 in 214 cases, 4 or more in 162 cases, while the number of issue was not stated in eleven cases.

The table which follows shows the duration of marriage in all cases for which petitions for dissolution were filed in the five years 1946 to 1950.

Duration of Marriage, in Years.Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.
1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
Under 5240213197204191167158169137141
5 and under 10480404308334296343334340282255
10 " 15245218243198212204191243217202
15 " 20166140126128121140122133114128
20 " 30145141162148139141152141127121
30 and over48615655554456343643
Not stated  7113 11105
  Totals1,3241,1771,0991,0781,0171,0391,0141,061923895

The number of children affected by the divorce petitions of their parents during each of the last five years was as follows: 1946, 3,120; 1947, 2,978; 1948, 3,108; 1949, 2,885; and 1950, 2,682.

4 C—DEATHS

REGISTRATION.—The history of the early legislative requirements in regard to the registration of deaths in New Zealand is similar to that in relation to births, particulars of which will be found on page 56.

Until the year 1876 the only particulars provided for in the death-registration entry were the date, place, and cause of death, and the name, sex, age, and occupation of deceased. The Registration of Births and Deaths Act, 1875, required information to be recorded as regards parentage, conjugal condition, and issue of deceased. Particulars as to burial had also to be entered, as well as more detailed information regarding cause of death. Subsequent amendments to the Act made it requisite to give additional information concerning issue, and, in the case of married males, age of widow. The Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 consolidated and amended previous legislation on this subject.

Every death occurring in New Zealand is required to be registered within three days after the day of the burial. There is a penalty up to £10 for neglect, the funeral director in charge of the burial being solely responsible for registration. Prior to 1913 the funeral director was primarily responsible for registration, but, in addition, the occupier of the house and every other person present at the death were also responsible parties.

The law does not impose any limit of time after which a death may not be registered as it does in the case of a birth. Although it is necessary to effect a birth-registration entry in the case of a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. The principal Act stipulates, however, that a medical practitioner or a midwife in attendance at a confinement where a still-birth occurs must furnish a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the still-birth.

New provisions in the 1951 Act include prohibition of burial at sea of a person dying in New Zealand except upon the authority of a Coroner, and providing for the registration of the death of a person whose body is removed for anatomical examination under Part II of the Medical Act, 1908, or is removed for burial outside New Zealand.

Any person burying, or permitting or taking part in the burial of the body of any deceased person without a certificate of cause of death signed by a duly registered medical practitioner, or a Coroner's order to bury the body, renders himself liable to a fine of £50.

From the 1st April, 1952 (reverting to the system followed prior to 1937), it is incumbent upon a medical practitioner to give the certificate of cause of death to the person required to supply information for the purpose of registering the death (the funeral director in charge of the burial). During the intervening period the medical practitioner was required to deliver the certificate direct to the Registrar. The practitioner is required to report forthwith to the Coroner any case where, in his opinion, the death has occurred in any circumstances of suspicion.

The Act provides for the correction of errors (clerical, of fact, of substance, or of omission) in the register in the manner authorized by the Registrar-General.

Deaths of Members of the Forces while Overseas.—The Registration of Deaths Emergency Regulations 1941, which superseded 1940 regulations of similar title, required the Registrar-General to compile a War Deaths Register of persons of New Zealand domicile who died while out of New Zealand on service in some capacity in connection with the Second World War. Members of the New Zealand Naval Forces were excluded from the regulations, special provision having previously been made in their case. These Regulations were revoked by the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1947, which made statutory provision in this connection. The amendment required the Registrar-General to compile a register of all persons who have died while out of New Zealand on service with any of the Armed Forces of His Majesty and who at the time of their deaths were domiciled in New Zealand. Deaths registered in the War Deaths Register were not taken into account in arriving at the number and rate of deaths in New Zealand, nor were deaths of visiting overseas servicemen or prisoners of war in New Zealand. Deaths of New Zealand servicemen which occurred in New Zealand were, however, included. The Births and Deaths Registration Act, 1951, requires the Registrar-General to compile a register containing particulars of all persons who have died while out of New Zealand on service with any Commonwealth force within the meaning of the Army Act, 1950, and who at the time of their deaths were domiciled in New Zealand.

Registration of Maori Deaths.—Registration of the deaths of Maoris are effected with the Maori Registrars in the various districts set up for this purpose. Statistics relating to the deaths of Maoris are not included in this subsection, and may be found treated fully in Section 4 D.

NUMBERS AND RATES.—The following table shows the number of deaths and the death-rate per 1,000 of the mean population during each of the last twenty years.

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.
193112,0478.35
193211,6838.04
193311,7017.99
193412,5278.50
193512,2178.25
193613,0568.75
193713,6589.08
193814,7549.71
193914,1589.20
194014,2829.24
194115,1469.84
194216,38510.60
194315,44710.04
194415,3639.87
194516,05110.07
194616,0939.71
194715,9049.39
194815,8129.16
194916,0129.09
195016,7159.31

New Zealand has been noted for many years for its favourable death-rate. In the early history of the country the high proportion of immigrants to total population contributed very materially towards the establishment of a comparatively low death-rate, while the favourable climate also was, and still is, an important factor. The effect of immigration in causing a high ratio of persons in the early adult ages—at which ages mortality experience is most favourable—more than counterbalanced the effect on the death-rate of the hazards inherent in the pioneering activities typical of the economy of the country in those days. The influence of immigration on vital statistics has, however, waned very considerably in the later decades.

The fact that the death-rate is still comparatively very low, despite the older age-constitution of the population, is probably due, inter alia, to improvements in medical techniques, expansion of health services, &c. This progress has been reflected for example, in a relatively low incidence of serious outbreaks of the more important epidemic diseases (which were much more prevalent in the early years of colonization) and in a remarkably low infant-mortality rate.

As observed in the subsection on births, the general trend of the birth-rate in New Zealand has been downwards for several decades. The initial effect of a falling birthrate on the mortality experience of a population is to lower the death-rate, the age constitution becoming more favourable towards a low death-rate, since there are fewer infants and a relatively higher ratio of persons of the younger adult ages. That this has been a very material factor contributing to New Zealand's low death-rate is obvious; for a death-rate of 7-99 per 1,000—the low point which was reached in 1933—would connote an expectation of life of almost 125 years if it applied to a population of stable age-distribution. Since then, however, the rate increased considerably up to 10.60 in 1942, but, with the exception of 1945 and 1950 the trend was again downward, the 1949 rate being the lowest since 1936.

A factor contributing to the increase in the death-rates during the earlier war period, particularly the male rates, was the absence overseas of considerable numbers of men of early adult years, which, as stated earlier, are the age-groups at which mortality experience is most favourable. It is possible that the very high rates for deaths in the older age-groups during 1942 may be associated with the wartime stresses of that year. Some validity can be given to this view owing to the sharp rise in deaths resulting from diseases of the heart and nervous system; The return of servicemen from overseas, social security benefits, the absence of any severe outbreak of epidemic diseases, together with exceptionally low infant-mortality rates, are the principal factors responsible for the decline in the death-rate during the recent years.

The death-rates of males and females for each of the years 1940-50 are shown separately in the next table.

Year.Deaths per 1,000 of Mean Population.Male Deaths to every 100 Female Deaths.Male Rate expressed as Index Number of Female Rate (= 100).
Males.Females.Total.
194010,188,289,24124123
194111,038,699,84123127
194211,809,4710,60119125
194311,308,8110,04119129
194411.328,539,87123133
194511,378,8410,07122129
194610,658,869,71118119
194710,508,289,39127127
194810,178,149,16125125
19499,948,249,09121120
195010,238,389,31123122

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES.—An international comparison of death-rates is made in the following table. They are the average of the five years 1945–49 and are taken from the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics issued by the United Nations.

Country.Rates per 1,000 of Population.

* European population only.

Union of South Africa*8.9
Norway9.2
Canada9.3
New Zealand9.5
Netherlands9.5
Panama9.5
Denmark9.6
Australia9.9
United States of America10.1
Sweden10.4
Switzerland11.1
United Kingdom11.6
Italy11.7
Finland11.9
Spain11.9
Puerto Rico12.4
Costa Rico13.1
Czechoslovakia13.4
Belgium13.5
France13.8
Portugal13.8
Venezuela14.0
Austria15.3
Ceylon16.5
Japan17.0
Chile17.9
Mexico18.0
India18.7

DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS OVER THE YEAR.—An examination of the total number of deaths registered in each quarter of the period 1940-50 gives the following averages: March quarter, 3,388; June quarter, 3,888; September quarter, 4,562; and December quarter, 3,927.

A classification according to month of death shows that in 1950 the months during which the greatest number of deaths occurred were June, July, and August, with totals of 1,501, 1709, and 1,729 respectively. Excluding December, a proportion of deaths occurring in that month not being registered till January, February had the least number of deaths, 1,123, followed by November and April, with 1,251 and 1,268 respectively.

The lowest number of deaths on any one day, again excluding December, was 23, this number occurring on the 29th January. The greatest number (72) occurred on the 26th June.

AGE AT DEATH.—The deaths registered during the year 1950 are tabulated below according to age.

Age.Males.Females.Totals.
Under 1 month422312734
1-2 months393271
3-5 "544195
6-11 "5454108
1 year463884
2 years272451
3211738
420626
5-9"503787
10-14 "461864
15-19 "8535120
20-24 "10454158
25-29 "7765142
30-34 "9695191
35-39 "157118275
40-44 "168160328
45-49 "285237522
50-54 years406291697
55-59 "5914301,021
60-64 "8836201,503
65-69 "1,2599112,170
70-74 "1,4481,0882,536
75-79 "1,2951,0212,316
80-84 "9059401,845
85-89 "4885681,056
90-94 "138233371
95-99 "385896
100"314
101 "123
102 "112
105 " 11
Totals9,2077,50816,715

The following table indicates the changes that have occurred over a period of forty years in the age-distribution of persons dying. The movement in the proportions of deaths occurring at the different age-groups is very striking. The results of three main factors are illustrated—viz., health measures, which have achieved an immense saving of young life; the heavy fall in the birth-rate over the period; and the great increase in the proportion of old people in the community.

Age. In Years.Number of Deaths.Percentage of Total.
1910.1920.1930.1940.1950.1910.1920.1930.1940.1950.
Under 11,7601,5499249901,00818.2612.797.576.936.03
1 and under 54785803272051994.964.792.681.441.19
5 " 1018727116798871.942.241.370.690.52
10 " 15117155105108641.211.280.860.760.38
15 " 202012373351511202.091.961.821.060.72
20 " 252983133372471583.092.582.581.730.95
25 " 303803983372701423.943.292.761.890.85
30 " 354264523372901914.423.732.762.031.14
35 " 403755363743202753.894.433.072.241.65
40 " 453406014783623283.534.963.922.531.96
45 " 503555736404725223.684.745.253.303.12
50 " 553956107947986974.105.046.515.594.17
55 "604956128811,1451,0215.135.057.228.026.11
60 " 655297621,0031,4611,5035.496.298.2210.238.99
65 " 706998741,0771,6972,1707.257.228.8311.8812.98
70 " 758999221,1711,7722,5369.337.619.6012.4115.17
75 " 808551,0961,2421,5562,3168.879.0510.1810.8913.86
80 and over8501,5681,8052,3403,3788.8212.9514.8016.3820.21
  Totals9,63912,10912,19914,28216,715100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

During the earlier period covered by the next table the fall in the death-rate was common to all ages and to both sexes. In more recent years, however, there have been some fluctuations in the rates for the higher age-groups, but the 1950-figures again reflect a declining tendency. Of special significance are the low rates recorded in the childhood and early adult life age-groups in 1950 and the high percentage reduction effected during the longer period. The female rate for the various age-groups is almost invariably lower than the male rate. The rapid increase in the death-rate (per 1,000 of population) at successive age-groups is well exemplified.

Year.Under 1.*1 and under 5.5 and under 15.15 and under 25.25 and under 35.35 and under 45.45 and under 55.55 and under 65.65 and under 75.75 and over.

* Per 1,000 live-births in this case.

Males
190178.606.811.893.523.976.1611.9423.1250.59141.67
191163.485.361.912.423.876.2711.0220.8353.22130.58
192153.104.781.852.443.565.559.6119.9646.17128.60
193138.212.831.352.282.774.648.6918,2544.18130.57
194132.562.140.991.982.623.768.7920.6746.31137.85
195025.091.300.631.471.302.516.7819.2445.80125.83
Females
190163.875.501.643.584.726.7010.6219.4443.32127.98
191148.745.371.482.764.344.928.3817.8940.44119.60
192142.314.491.312.343.384.468.0014.8836.81120.23
193125.672.470.971.853.203.816.8415.3636.83122.87
194126.852.040.711.352.053.14658.14.5538.06116.57
195020.291.020.370.731.192.205.2812.7631.68104.63
Beth Sexes
190171.406.171.773.554.336.4011.3721.6347.87135.71
191156.315.361.702.584.095.649.8219.5547.74126.13
192147.824.641.582.393.475.108.8517.5941.90124.84
193132.152.651.172.072.984.227.8016.8840.56126.87
194129.772.090.851.652.323.447.6517.6842.20126.76
195022.751.160.501.111.252.366.0415.8838.51114.34

The average (arithmetic mean) age at death of persons of either sex at ten-yearly intervals since 1901 and during each of the last ten years was as follows:—

Year.Males. (Years.)Females. (Years.)
190141,6437.68
191146.1742.37
192148.4546.97
193154.1455.48
194158.6559.60
194259.1361.20
194358.9261.01
194459.5460.31
194559.2461.76
194660.0361.66
194759.3161.82
194861.6262.33
194960.4362.94
195062.1564.37

There was a striking upward movement in the average age at death between 1901 and 1941; the last ten years, however, have been marked by fluctuations within fairly narrow limits, although there has been an increase over the period. A noticeable feature is that in the earlier years the age for females was considerably lower than that for males, the margin gradually narrowing until virtual equality was reached in 1927-28, since when the female average age at death has been higher than the male.

EXPECTATION OF LIFE.—Life tables based on the mortality experience of New Zealand, ranging from 1880 to 1922, have been published at various times in previous issues of the Year-Book. In addition, two tables have been constructed by L. I. Dublin, Ph.D., and A. J. Lotka, D.Sc., of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. of New York, from the following data supplied by the Census and Statistics Department: (1) the 1926 population figures, together with the deaths for the years 1925-27; (2) the 1931 intercensal population age-estimates, together with the deaths for the year 1931. The 1931 census was not taken, and the latest investigation was based on the 1936 census combined with the deaths for the years symmetrically disposed about the census year—namely, the five years 1934-38. It should be understood that the New Zealand life tables do not take into consideration the Maori population. The following table shows the (complete) expectation of life at various ages according to the periods for which the life tables have been compiled.

Age.1891-95.1896-1900.1901-05.1906-10.1911-15.1921-22.1925-27.1931.1934-38.
Males
055.2957.3758.0959.1760.9662.7663.9965.0465.46
160.1661.8962.3163.1363.8565.0565.7266.6166.92
260.2661.7462.0762.8463.3464.5165.0965.9166.23
359.7161.0961.4362.1762.6463.8164.3865.1165.44
459.0460.3460.7061.4161.8463.0163.5364.2464.59
558.2959.5459.9160.5861.0162.1762.6663.3563.70
1054.0955.1955.5756.1456.5357.7358.1158.7559.11
2045.4746.3446.7447.2047.6148.6648.9349.6149.89
3037.5437.1938.4738.7839.0339.9840.1540.7840.94
4029.6030.1030.2830.5430.6931.5631.5432.0732.03
5021.8822.3522.4822.6722.7823.5123.3023.7323.64
6015.0615.3315.4015.5115.5416.0315.7916.2216.06
709.539.539.399.389.319.919.679.879.82
805.695.695.295.294.965.335.085.455.35
Females
058.0959.9560.5561.7663.4865.4366.5767.8868.45
161.9963.5763.9764.8265.5967.0307.8768.6469.46
261.9863.3363.7164.5065.1166.4467.2767.8968.76
361.4462.6663.0663.8464.3965.7266.5267.0467.91
460.7761.9062.3263.0563.5764.9065.7166.1867.01
560.0361.0961.5362.2162.7264.0564.8365.3066.10
1055.8256.6957.1357.7558.2659.5060.2360.6761.45
2047.1947.9148.2348.7749.1450.3650.9651.2852.02
3039.3339.7240.0640.4840.5341.7642.1642.4542.98
4031.5831.7331.9532.3732.2633.2333.4733.8034.05
5023.8223.9324.0024.3024.1924.9125.0125.2425.47
6016.5516.5416.6416.7716.7217.2917.2317.3017.49
7010.3710.3710.3110.3110.1110.5710.4910.6310.73
805.885.885.825.825.885.785.755.635.85

The effect of the lowered infant-mortality rate and the efficacy of the health services generally is clearly demonstrated by the figures. The expectation of life at age 0 has risen by 10-17 years in the case of males and by 10-36 years in the case of females during the period covered by the table. Again, the expectation of life at age 5 in the earlier periods was actually greater than at age 0, the difference in the case of males amounting to 3-00 years in 1891-95, whereas in 1934-38 it was less to the extent of 1-76 years. Even at age 20 there has been an increase in the male expectation of 4-42 years between the first and the latest period, and an increase of 4-83 years in the case of females.

A comparison of the expectation of life at age 0 for various countries is now given. In selecting comparable tables from the experience of other countries due regard was had to securing the most recent figures available. The countries selected are for the most part those of similar racial stock.

 Males.Females.

* White population.

New Zealand (1934-38)65.4668.45
Australia (1946-48)66.0770.63
Union of South Africa (1935-37)*58.9563.06
England and Wales (1949)66.0170.63
United States of America (1948)*65.671.0
Netherlands (1947-49)69.471.5
Denmark (1941-45)65.6267.70
Sweden (1941-45)67.0669.71
Belgium (1928-32)56.0259.79
Finland (1941-45)54.6261.14
France (1946-48)62.568.0
Switzerland (1939-44)62.6866.96
Canada (1940-42)62.9566.29

STANDARDIZATION OF DEATH-RATES.—Except where specifically stated, all death-rates quoted throughout this section are crude rates—i.e., those ascertained by applying the mean population for the year to the total deaths registered during the year.

In New Zealand the age and sex constitutions of the people have changed very materially within a comparatively short span of years, so that death-rates for recent years relate to a differently constituted population than do death-rates for earlier years. This factor has had a marked influence on the risks—and causes—of dying. In order to eliminate the effect of a changing age constitution from other causes influencing the death-rate, the device of standardization is resorted to. The principle of this method is to compute death-rates on the assumption that the sex and age composition of the population has not varied. A “standard” population is selected, and the mortality experience of any particular year is weighted according to the age-distribution of that standard population.

The standardized death-rates thus calculated for each of a number of countries, or for a number of years for the same country, may then be regarded as indices of the relative mortalities free from the distortion which might arise through differences in their respective sex or age constitutions. New Zealand can no longer be regarded as immature as far as the age-constitution of the population is concerned. A comparison of the relative proportions of population in various age-groups between New Zealand and England and Wales, for instance, shows this country to be very similarly constituted to the relatively much older countries.

A system of standardization of death-rates was introduced some years ago in New Zealand, the age and sex constitution of the population as disclosed at the Census of 1911 being taken as the basis. The following table gives both recorded and standardized death-rates per 1,000 of population (on the 1911 standard population) for each fifth year from 1875 to 1950.

Year. Recorded Rates.Standardized Rates.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
187516.5615.0715.9219.0315.3617.30
188012.0510.7311.4613.8111.4712.70
188511.519.6710.6713.3810.0612.36
189010.618.689.6612.2610.1111.25
189510.818.899.9112.2610.0711.22
190010.338.439.4311.049.2910.21
190510.188.249.2710.498.619.60
191010.678.639.7110.678.469.62
191610.197.879.0610.197.879.09
192011.119.1510.1610.838.849.89
19259.107.488.308.686.787.78
19309.427.698.578.666.487.63
19358.957.528.257.685.786.78
194010.188.289.247.955.676.87
194511.378.8410.077.965.406.75
195010.238.389.316.944.555.81

Standardized death-rates are computed for New Zealand for a number of causes, and details covering a ten-yearly period have been included in the annual Report on Vital Statistics. The standard population used is that of England and Wales at the census of 1901, in order that the death-rates so calculated may be comparable with those published for these countries.

INFANT MORTALITY.—Over a long period of years, New Zealand has been renowned for its low rate of infant mortality, a fact attributable partly to such matters as climate, virility of the race, comparative absence of densely settled areas, &c., and partly to legislative and educative measures—the latter conducted by the State as well as by various organizations, (one of the most important of which is the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children which was founded in 1907).

Particulars of deaths of infants under one year of age for each of the years 1940-50 are shown in the following table.

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000 Live Births.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
194057341799034.0726.1430.21
19415864591,04532.5526.8529.77
194258737796434.0523.0828.71
194355140095135.0327.4331.37
19445784341,01233.5926.4730.12
19456074291,03632.0323.7627.99
19466314621,09329.3122.7126.10
19476244981,12227.2522.7225.04
194856940197025.1618.5921.95
19496004461,04626.3920.9823.78
19505694391,00825.0920.2922.75

In the following table New Zealand's infant-mortality rate is shown in comparison with that of other countries. The figures are taken from the United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics. It is interesting to observe that the distinction of having the lowest infant-mortality rate in the world now belongs to Sweden, who achieved the phenomenally low ratio of 20 infant deaths per 1,000 live births in 1950, as compared with New Zealand's 23 for the same year. In the case of the Union of South Africa and New Zealand the European population only has been taken into account.

Country.Quinquennium.Deaths Under 1 Year Per 1,000 Births.
Sweden1946-5024
New Zealand1946-5024
Australia1945-4928
Netherlands1946-5031
United States of America1946-5032
Norway1945-4933
Union of South Africa1946-5037
Israel1945-4937
United Kingdom1946-5038
Switzerland1945-4938
Denmark1945-4941
Canada1945-4946
Finland1946-5051
Panama1945-4956
Belgium1946-5064
Republic of Ireland1945-4967
Japan1946-4969
France1945-4970
Cyprus1945-4972
Austria1946-5075
Spain1946-5077
Italy1946-5077
Czechoslovakia1945-49105
Mexico1945-49105
Portugal1946-50107
Ceylon1945-49112
Chile1945-49117
Hungary1945-48122
India1945-49137
Rumania1943-47179

The male rate of infant mortality is considerably above the female rate, and this holds almost without exception for each of the four divisions of the first year of life shown in the next table.

Year.Male Deaths per 1,000 Male Births.Female Deaths per 1,000 Female Births.
Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.
194621.362.322.283.3516.671.871.332.85
194719.872.182.842.3616.201.872.012.65
194817.552.522.432.6613.950.931.991.72
194918.961.802.992.6414.911.982.022.07
195018.611.722.382.3814.421.481.902.50

The number of female deaths in each age-division expressed as a percentage of the male deaths for the five-year period 1946-50 is as follows, due allowance having been made for the larger number of male births: under one month, 79; one and under three months, 77; three and under six months, 72; six and under twelve months, 88. For the twelve months as a whole the figure was 79 female per 100 male deaths.

The rates per 1,000 births for the two sexes in conjunction are now given for each of the last five years.

Year.Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.Totals under 1 Year.
194619.082.101.823.1026.10
194718.082.032.432.5025.04
194815.801.742.222.1921.95
194917.011.892.522.3623.78
195016.571.602.142.4422.75

Causes of Infant Mortality.—Infants who die in the first year of life may be grouped roughly into two main classes—viz., those dying within one month of birth and those surviving the first month of life but dying before the first anniversary of their birth. Deaths amongst the first class are due principally to causes associated with gestation and parturition. The second group covers those infants who have succumbed in the main to causes arising from post-natal influences such as the various epidemic diseases, diseases of the respiratory system, faulty feeding, and other environmental factors. The first group presents the greater problem to the public-health worker of to-day, but the history of the rapid decline in infant-mortality rate is a measure of past successes in combating the post-natal causes of deaths in infants.

The next table shows that, whereas in the quinquennium 1946-50 the death-rate for children under one month of age was 42 per cent. lower than in the quinquennium 1881-85, the rate for children who had survived the first month of life was only approximately one-ninth as high as in the “eighties.” In other words, whereas formerly over sixty children out of every 1,000 who survived the first month of life died before reaching one year of age, now only seven such deaths occur. While the decline in the under-one-month group has been progressive for some years, it was among infants who had survived the first month of life that the most marked reductions were achieved. In the “thirties” however, the reduction of this rate was arrested and in the quinquennium 1941-45, an increase was recorded for the first time. For some years it had been considered that any further substantial decrease in the total infant mortality rate would have to be achieved in the under-one-month group. The figures for 1946-50, however, indicate that whereas this group recorded a decrease of 13 per cent. from 1941-45, the one-month-and-over group declined by 31 per cent.

Period.Deaths per 1,000 Births.
Under 1 Year.Under 1 MonthBetween 1 and 12 Months.
1881-188590.6029.7760.83
1886-189084.0927.5756.52
1891-189587.6030.3457.26
1896-190080.0630.3849.68
1901-190574.7730.6444.13
1906-191069.6230.2839.34
1911-191553.6329.2824.35
1916-192048.6228.1620.46
1921-192542.7527.4815.27
1926-193036.7024.8211.88
1931-193531.8822.349.54
1936-194031.8322.519.32
1941-194529.5320.019.52
1946-195023.9217.316.61

The accompanying diagram further illustrates the reduction in the infant-mortality rate that has taken place during the last seventy years.

It would appear that on the one hand the diseases that can be combated openly, such as epidemic diseases, respiratory diseases, and diseases due to faulty nourishment, &c. (i.e., diseases of the digestive system), have shown a definite response to the strenuous campaigns launched against them; while, on the other hand, many infants are evidently non-viable at birth. More than four out of every five deaths during the first month of life occur within the first week, and over two out of every five on the first day. The following table shows the infant death-rate for subdivisions of the first month.

Year.Under 1 Day.1 Day and under 2 Days.2 Days and under 1 Week.Totals under 1 Week.1 Week and under 2 Weeks.2 Weeks and under 3 Weeks.3 Weeks and under 1 Month.Totals under 1 Month.
19468.222.964.9416.121.810.720.4319.08
19478.032.974.5115.511.350.710.5118.08
19486.672.924.1213.711.090.610.3915.80
19498.212.984.0215.211.000.460.3417.01
19507.313.114.2014.621.170.570.2116.57

Some remarkable changes are disclosed by the next table, which gives the infant mortality rates for various groups of causes in quinquennial periods commencing with the years 1872-76. If a comparison be made between the averages of the first and last five-yearly periods given—i.e., 1872-76 and 1942-46—it is found that the general infant mortality rate shows a decline of 74 per cent., while even greater decreases are recorded for tuberculosis (98 per cent.), convulsions (99 per cent.), gastric and intestinal diseases (95 per cent.), epidemic diseases (92 per cent.), and respiratory diseases (78 per cent.). The rate for epidemic diseases still continues to decline, and it is interesting to note that very nearly half the total under this heading in the years 1947-50 were due to whooping-cough, while an additional 25 per cent. were assigned to influenza. During the three year period, 1948-50, there were only two deaths of infants from diphtheria and one death due to scarlet fever.

The increase shown for malformations and the decrease for tuberculosis are probably somewhat less than is indicated by the figures. In the earlier years covered by the table the latter heading included all deaths from hydrocephalus, many of which were no doubt due to congenital hydrocephalus, which is now included among the malformations. A proportion of the deaths from hydrocephalus in the earlier years would also probably be due to meningitis. The following table shows quinquennial average death-rates of infants under one year of age, per 1,000 live births.

Period.Epidemic Diseases.Tuberculosis.Infantile Convulsions.Respiratory Diseases.Gastric and Intestinal Diseases.Malformations.Early Infancy.Other Causes.Totals.
1872-187613.55.59.712.924.21.225.017.3109.3
1877-188110.25.27.512.319.81.421.915.393.6
1882-18869.34.77.911.819.11.225.512.391.8
1887-18918.93.76.310.518.51.324.78.882.7
1892-18969.83.36.611.016.61.424.911.284.8
1897-19016.12.66.610.017.21.526.29.778.9
1902-19065.51.54.19.715.31.327.67.972.9
1907-19115.91.33.37.615.51.926.76.368.5
1912-19163.60.62.25.17.43.926.23.552.5
1917-19213.20.61.94.74.54.326.12.948.1
1922-19261.80.41.34.32.84.822.43.341.1
1927-19311.50.30.53.71.75.019.43.135.2
1932-19361.50.20.63.31.25.017.52.431.7
1937-19411.40.20.23.11.36.517.42.531.6
1942-19461.10.10.12.91.24.616.12.628.7
1947-1950 (Four yrs.)0.60.10.12.10.83.913.82.023.4

In accordance with international practice, New Zealand's infant mortality rate represents the number of deaths of infants actually born alive, expressed as a proportion per 1,000 live births. This method, however, takes no account of still-births which, together with deaths in the first month of life, are for the most part associated with ante-natal influences and child-birth. Still-births and neo-natal deaths are therefore considered together in the next table and are computed as rates per 1,000 total births. Three out of every four deaths of infants under one year of age are due to causes coming within the groups “early infancy” and “malformations.” From 1950 onwards infant deaths are classified according to the Sixth (1948) Revision of the International Classification of Diseases. This system provides for the fact of prematurity to be recorded as a contributory cause when death is assigned to a disease peculiar to early infancy. The effect of this is to reduce considerably the number of deaths which under the previous classification would have been assigned to prematurity. In 1950, 224 deaths of infants under 1 month were assigned to premature birth, whilst in an additional 144 cases prematurity was stated as a contributory cause. This makes a total of 368, or 50 per cent. of neo-natal deaths associated with premature births.

Year.Still-births.Neo-natal Deaths.Neo-natal Deaths plus Still-births.
Number.Rate.Number.Rate.Number.Rate.
194693121.7579918.671,73040.42
194791119.9281017.711,72137.63
194883418.5269815.501,53234.02
194979617.7774816.701,54434.48
195086519.1573416.251,59935.40

Recent years have shown a definite trend towards improvement in the combined rate, and the figures for the last three years are indeed remarkably low.

CAUSES OF STILL-BIRTH.—A still-born child is defined in New Zealand as one "which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue."

The registration of still-births has been effected in New Zealand since 1913, but no information regarding the causes of still-births was required for registration purposes until 1947. Lack of such information represented a gap in our records. There is still lacking information on birth-weight and period gestation, both of normal and premature children. It is hoped that this will be remedied shortly.

To reduce effectively foetal and maternal losses resulting from still-births, health authorities and medical research workers need considerably more information in regard to the magnitude of the problem and a knowledge of the underlying fœtal and maternal conditions associated with still-births.

In the United States of America, Canada, and a few other countries, statistics are already available concerning the various causes of still-births and throw some interesting light on the problem. While the number of countries that register stillbirths and compile statistics thereof is not great, the number is increasing, and numerous classification lists of causes of still-births have been developed, especially in the United States of America.

The subject received considerable attention at the International Commission for Revision of the International List of Causes of Death in 1938. This Commission recommended that all countries which obtain records of still-births should consider introducing a certificate of the causes of still-births.

To enable New Zealand to make its contribution towards international uniformity in this matter, and also to assist in research work in this country, legislation was introduced in 1946 (section 15, Statutes Amendment Act, 1946) requiring the medical practitioner or, if there was no medical practitioner, the midwife in attendance at a confinement where a still-birth occurs to furnish a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the still-birth. This requirement came into force as from 1st January, 1947.

Provision was made in the certificate for the insertion of information concerning both fœtal and maternal causes of the still-birth. Of the 865 still-births registered during 1950, in 39 cases (5 per cent.) the cause was not known or not stated. Fœtal causes only were specified in 473 cases (55 per cent.); maternal causes only in 142 (16 per cent.); while for 211 still-births, or 24 per cent. of the total, there were both fœtal and maternal causes present.

The following table shows the 865 still-births registered during 1950 classified (a) according to fœtal causes and (b) according to maternal causes.

Causes of Still-birth.Number of Cases.
Males.Females.Total.
(a) Maternal Causes
Chronic disease in mother13922
Acute disease in mother5510
Diseases and conditions of pregnancy and childbirth8883171
Difficulties in labour8252134
Other causes in mother9716
No maternal cause292220512
  Totals489376865
(b) Fœtal Causes
Placental and cord conditions188128316
Birth injury151227
Congenital malformation of fœtus5756113
Diseases of fœtus, and ill-defined causes125103228
No fœtal cause10477181
  Totals489376865

CAUSES OF DEATH.—Since 1908 the classification of causes of death in New Zealand has been on the basis of the international classification initiated by Dr. Jacques Bertillon. Almost all countries are member States of the World Health Assembly, and the International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death has world-wide application.

The sixth (1948) revision of the classification was applied in New Zealand to the deaths for 1950. At the same time a departure was made from the previous arbitrary rules of selection when more than one cause of death was entered on a certificate, to an assignment according to what is termed the underlying cause of death. This may be defined as (a) the disease or injury which initiated the train of morbid events leading directly to death, or (b) the circumstances of the accident or violence which produced the fatal injury. The responsibility for indicating the train of events is placed on the physician or surgeon signing the medical certificate of death.

The following table shows the numbers of deaths and death-rates per 10,000 of mean population according to the Abbreviated List of 50 Causes (Sixth Revision, 1948). In order to provide a comparison with the year 1950 the individual causes for each of the years 1946 to 1949 were, wherever possible, reassembled under the headings of the 1948 revision of the classification. It should be observed that no allowance was possible for the alteration in method of primary cause selection.

The statistics for tuberculosis, cancer, puerperal causes, and violent causes, which are of special interest and significance are discussed later on in this subsection.

Cause of Death.Numbers.Rates per 10,000 of Mean Population.
1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.

* Comparative figures not obtainable.

Tuberculosis of respiratory system4604414083653512.772.602.362.071.95
Tuberculosis, other forms100826170610.600.480.350.400.34
Syphilis and its sequelæ1201108271910.720.650.470.400.51
Typhoid fever793320.040.050.020.020.01
Dysentery, all forms723350.040.010.020.020.03
Scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat113 10.010.010.02 0.01
Diphtheria49203540.300.120.020.030.02
Whooping-cough134621160.010.200.030.120.09
Meningococcal infections1789790.100.050.050.040.05
Acute poliomyelitis49521320.020.050.300.070.01
Measles16142430.100.010.020.140.02
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic64615655850.390.360.320.310.47
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissues2,3572,4312,5632,5882,65214.2214.3614.8414.6914.77
Benign and unspecified neoplasms65642346550.390.380.130.260.31
Diabetes mellitus3383283473552282.041.942.012.021.27
Anaemias51264029570.310.150.230.160.32
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system****1,824****10.16
Nonmeningococcal meningitis19142015180.110.080.120.090.10
Rheumatic fever191369140.110.080.030.050.08
Chronic rheumatic heart disease1932102512582331.161.241.451.461.30
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart-disease5,6195,5675,4305,74459533.8932.8831.4432.613.31
Other diseases of heart Hypertension with heart-disease    653    3.64
Hypertension without mention of heart****162****0.90
Influenza111335145770.670.190.300.260.43
Pneumonia5385235785544143.253.093.353.152.31
Bronchitis1531701311281500.921.000.700.730.84
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum1401491491471460.840.880.860.830.81
Appendicitis52513740340.310.300.210.230.19
Intestinal obstruction and hernia1171061231151270.710.630.710.650.71
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis and colitis, except diarrhœa of the newborn83686585860.500.400.380.480.48
Cirrhosis of liver43404256540.260.240.240.320.30
Nephritis and nephrosis****212****1.18
Hyperplasia of prostate117127 1061490.710.75 0.600.83
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium86485645400.520.280.320.260.22
Congenital malformations2432602062172991.471.541.191.231.66
Birth injuries, post-natal asphyxia and atelectasis    270    1.50
Infections of the newborn682688585640254.114.063.393.630.14
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy, and immaturity, unqualified682688585640254.114.063.393.630.14
Senility without mention of psychosis, ill-defined and unknown causes3283032122061861.881.791.231.171.04
All other diseases****1,334****7.43
Motor vehicle accidents1752041811952121.061.201.051.111.18
All other accidents5155006185475003.112.953.583.112.78
Suicide and self-inflicted injury1661351811711651.000.801.050.970.92
Homicide and operations of war15101920210.090.660.110.110.12
Totals16,09315,90415,81216,01216,71597.0793.9391.5790.9293.08

NOTE.—The following diseases, cholera, plague, smallpox, typhus, and malaria are not normally encountered in New Zealand.

TUBERCULOSIS.—The death-rate from tuberculosis of the respiratory system has shown a declining tendency for many years, but the reduction by almost one-third in the space of the five years 1946-50 is a noteworthy achievement. The rate for 1950, 1.95 per 10,000 of population, is a record low rate for this country.

In addition to the 351 deaths from tuberculosis of the respiratory system during 1950, there were 61 deaths from other forms of tuberculosis, comprising—

Tuberculosis of meninges and nervous system24
Tuberculosis of intestines, peritoneum and mesentery3
Tuberculosis of bones and joints13
Tuberculosis of lymphatic system2
Tuberculosis of genito-urinary system10
Tuberculosis of adrenal glands1
Tuberculosis of other organs1
Disseminated tuberculosis7

The following table shows the number of deaths from tuberculosis in 1950, classified according to sex and age-groups. Of those dying from this cause in 1950, persons under the age of 45 years formed 45 per cent.

Age, In Years.Males.Females.Totals.
Under 513417
5 and under 10156
10 " 15 44
15 " 20527
20 " 2581523
25 " 3041620
30 " 35191534
35 " 40191837
40 " 45211839
45 and under 50311445
50 " 5528735
55 " 6025833
60 " 65241236
65 " 7021930
70 " 7517623
75 " 8012517
80 and over426
  Totals252160412

CANCER.—A special report on cancer is issued annually by the Medical Statistics Branch of the Department of Health. Besides a section dealing with cancer as a cause of death there are analyses of returns received from the various cancer clinics established in New Zealand under the auspices of the British Empire Cancer Campaign Society. These returns, together with those of patients treated in the public hospitals of New Zealand, provide for reasonably wide coverage. A system of registration enables a follow-up of each patient to be maintained which will eventually enable survival rates by site and method of treatment to be compiled. Special articles and statistical tables on the subject of cancer are contained in the 1917 and 1926 issues of the Year-Book, while the 1949 report of the Department of Health contains data covering the twenty-six years from 1924 to 1949.

Attention is drawn to the transference, under the 1948 Revision of the International Classification, of Hodgkin's disease, leukaemia, &c., into the category of malignant diseases. This classification was introduced in 1950, and all cancer figures quoted for that year include these conditions.

Cancer is annually responsible for more deaths in New Zealand than can be assigned to any cause other than diseases of the heart. While it is most prevalent in middle and old age, it exacts a heavy toll throughout the life-span. With the inclusion of Hodgkin's disease and leukaemia under the cancer heading the disease assumes a very high position as a cause of death among children and adolescents. It is interesting to compare the decline in the death-rate from tuberculosis with the rise in the cancer death-rate. These rates are set out in the following table and diagram. The fall in the tuberculosis rate may be said to reflect the achievements of the public health service whilst the rise in the cancer rate portrays the increasing age of the population.

This is illustrated by the following figures:—

 Average Death-rates per 10,000 of Population.
Period.Tuberculosis.Cancer.
1880-8912.353.42
1890-9910.625.44
1900-099.106.79
1910-196.998.22
1920-295.699.30
1930-394.1711.17
1940-493.4613.56
19502.2914.77

The relative movements in the death-rates from cancer and tuberculosis are further illustrated in the following diagram, which shows the rates at five-yearly intervals since 1875.

In 1950 there were 2,652 deaths from cancer in New Zealand, a proportion of 14.77 per 10,000 of mean population.

Year.Number of Deaths from Cancer.Recorded Death-rate.Standardized Death-rate.*

* Standard population used for standardized rates—England and Wales 1901.

Includes Hodgkin's disease, leukaemia, &c.

19401,85812.028.04
19412,02813.188.58
19422,02913.138.31
19432,13113.858.67
19442,18214.028.58
19452,21313.888.42
19462,26813.688.48
19472,31513.678.30
19482,45314.218.65
19492,47214.048.69
19502,65214.778.99

A summary showing the location of the disease in deaths from cancer during 1950 is as follows:—

Site of Disease.Numbers.Rates per 10,000 of Mean Population.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
Buccal cavity and pharynx5215670.580.170.37
Oesophagus4117580.460.190.32
Stomach2921524443.241.702.47
Intestine, except rectum1421943361.582.171.87
Rectum77651420.860.730.79
Larynx195240.210.060.13
Trachea, and of bronchus and lung not specified as secondary170281981.890.311.10
Breast22492510.022.781.40
Cervix uteri 7777 0.860.43
Other and unspecified parts of uterus 5353 0.590.30
Prostate134 1341.49 0.75
Skin3218500.360.200.28
Bone and connective tissue198270.210.090.15
All other and unspecified sites2982875853.313.203.26
Leukaemia and aleukaemia58471050.640.520.58
Lymphosarcoma and other neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic system60411010.670.460.56
  Totals1,3961,2562,65215.5114.0214.77

The standardized figures for recent years suggest that cancer, while undoubtedly increasing in numerical incidence, is not doing so out of proportion to the population exposed to the cancer risk. Improvement in diagnosis has been responsible for some of the numerical increase in the recorded deaths from cancer, though this factor has new become more stabilized. A classification according to sex and age-groups for 1950 is now given.

Age, in Years.Males.Females.Totals.
Under 510818
5 and under 1010414
10 " 157411
15 " 20336
20 " 259211
25 " 309716
30 " 3641822
35 " 40252853
40 " 45265076
45 " 504877125
50 and under 558499183
55 " 60121149270
60 " 65156131287
65 " 70255199454
70 " 75257190447
75 " 80209145354
80 and over163142305
    Totals1,3961,2562,652

Ninety-one per cent. of the deaths from cancer during 1950 were at ages 45 years and upwards, and 59 per cent. at ages 65 years and upwards. Approximately one death in every six of persons who die after the age of 50 years is due to cancer.

PUERPERAL CAUSES.—In point of numbers of deaths, puerperal accidents and diseases do not rank high among causes of death. Nevertheless, deaths from puerperal causes are of special importance and significance. The rate per 1,000 live births in each of the last twenty years is shown in the following table.

Year.Proportion per 1,000 Live Births.
19314.77
19324.06
19334.44
19344.85
19354.21
19363.70
19373.61
19384.07
19393.64
19402.93
19413.36
19422.53
19432.21
19442.71
19452.24
19462.05
19471.07
19481.26
19491.02
19500.90

A survey of the death-rate from puerperal causes since 1872 shows that for a period in the early part of the twentieth century there was a tendency for the rate to decline. Then followed a definite upward movement, culminating in a rate of 6.48 per 1,000 live births in 1920, the third highest on record this figure having been exceeded only in 1884 and 1885. Comparatively high rates persisted until 1931, since when the decline has been more or less steady. The efficacy of new drugs and methods of treatment is reflected in the extremely low rates recorded in recent years, the figure for 1950 of 0.90 being a new record. This low rate has been achieved mainly by a reduction in the number of deaths from septic abortion and puerperal toxæmia, the latter being a cause which has hitherto been particularly resistant to preventive measures. Deaths from complications of childbirth were also unusually few during 1949 and 1950.

It is generally conceded that in years of high birth-rates the maternal-mortality rate tends to rise, probably due to the abnormally high proportion of first births in the total of births, upon which the death-rate for these causes is based. In common with most countries for which recent figures are available, the reverse has been the experience in New Zealand during the last four years. Possibly a contributory factor in this reversal has been the rise in the proportion of births taking place in institutions, more particularly in special annexes attached to the larger hospitals, where every facility for the care of the patient is more readily available.

Details of deaths from deliveries and complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium for the two years 1949 and 1950 are shown in the following summary. The disease headings conform to the 1948 Revision of the Classification introduced in 1950 and the 1949 maternal deaths have been regrouped to enable a comparison to be made with the later year.

Causes of Death.Number of Deaths.Rate per 1,000 Live Births.
1949.1950.1949.1950.
Toxæmias of pregnancy12130.320.30
Placenta prævia2 0.05 
Other hæmorrhage of pregnancy110.020.02
Ectopic pregnancy510.110.02
Other complications arising from pregnancy2 0.05 
Abortion without mention of sepsis or toxæmia110.020.02
Abortion with sepsis380.070.18
Delivery complicated by placenta prævia or ante-partum hæmorrhage310.070.02
Delivery complicated by retained placenta120.020.05
Delivery complicated by other post-partum hæmorrhage 50.050.11
Delivery complicated by disproportion or malposition of fœtus1 0.02 
Delivery with other trauma 1 0.02
Delivery with other complications of childbirth3 0.07 
Sepsis of childbirth and the puerperium 2 0.05
Puerperal phlebitis and thrombosis310.070.02
Puerperal pulmonary embolism510.110.02
Puerperal eclampsia 3 0.07
Other and unspecified complications of the puerperium1 0.02 
  Totals, including septic abortion45401.020.90
  Totals, excluding septic abortion42320.950.72

A summary of maternal mortality from all puerperal causes, in triennial periods since 1927, is now given.

Cause.1927-29.1930-32.1933-35.1930-38.1939-41.1942-44.1945-47.1948-50.
Number.
Puerperal sepsis1285839444630125
Eclampsia and other toxæmias10197939480586244
Septic abortion4785916858613317
Accidents, hæmorrhage, and other mortality124124104911359411079
  Total maternal mortality400364327297319243217145
  Maternal mortality excluding septic abortion353279236229261182184128

This information, in the form of deaths per 1,000 births for the same periods, is portrayed graphically below.

DEATHS FROM EXTERNAL CAUSES.—Deaths from external causes, apart from suicide, claim approximately 4 per cent. of the total deaths. The following table shows deaths from external causes for the two years 1949 and 1950 according to the Intermediate List of the 1948 Revision of the International Classification. It is necessary to refer to the detailed list of circumstances of accident or means of injury if a comparison with years prior to 1949 is required, as the inclusions under the headings below differ considerably from past practice.—e.g., drowning from boats and ships or from horseback whilst crossing rivers are included below as transport fatalities, as also are falls on board ship and from horseback.

Cause of Death.Number of Deaths.Rate per Million of Mean Population.
1949.1950.1949.1950.
Motor-vehicle accidents195212111118
Other transport accidents108856147
Accidental poisoning161799
Accidental falls1481498483
Accident caused by machinery18311017
Accident caused by fire and explosion of combustible material2011116
Accident caused by hot substance, corrosive liquid, steam, and radiation1814108
Accident caused by firearm1319711
Accidental drowning and submersion78644436
All other accidental causes1281107362
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons (not in war)2017119
Injury resulting from operations of war 4 2
  Totals762733433408

The number of deaths recorded from all accidental causes in 1950 was 712, corresponding to a rate of 3.96 per 10,000 of population. By comparison with 1935, there was an increase of 99 in the number of deaths, but the death-rate has decreased by 0.17 per 10,000 of population.

In classifying deaths attributable to transport accidents under the various subheadings shown in the following table, the rule of assignment is that in fatalities due to collisions of railway-trains and electric tram-cars with motor-vehicles, the death is assigned to the railway-train or electric tram-car as being the heavier and more powerful vehicle. In the case of collisions between motor-vehicles and horse-drawn vehicles, the death is assigned to the motor-vehicle.

The number and rate of deaths resulting from railway, tramway, motor-vehicle, and aircraft accidents during each of the last eleven years are as follows:—

Year.Deaths due to Accident.Rate per 10,000 of Mean Population.
Railway.Tramway.Motor-vehicle.Aircraft.Railway.Tramway.Motor-vehicle.Aircraft.
1940355183180.230.031.180.12
1941405159500.260.031.030.32
19425116125580.330.100.810.38
1943749113970.480.060.730.63
19443611129410.230.070.830.26
19453611104270.230.070.650.17
1946402215730.240.130.950.02
194739918780.230.051.100.05
1948347175240.200.041.010.14
1949287190250.160.041.080.14
195030719860.170.041.100.03

Deaths arising out of aircraft accidents fell off steeply after 1945. This was to be expected, since the figures include Air Force accidents in New Zealand as well as civilian casualties. In 1948 the crashing on Mount Ruapehu of a National Airways Corporation plane with the less of 13 lives was the principal cause of the high figure for civil air transport accidents in that year. New Zealand's worst air disaster occurred in 1949, when fifteen lives were lost in a crash at Waikanae. The figure of 25 deaths is the highest total recorded in a non-war year. The sharp increase in 1943 in deaths due to railway accidents is accounted for by one serious accident near Hyde in Central Otago, which resulted in twenty-one deaths. In 1948 a derailment near Blenheim resulting in the loss of six lives was a substantial contribution to the total in that year.

Deaths from motor-vehicle accidents recorded an appreciable increase up to 1930, but this trend was reversed during the depression years, largely due to a great reduction in the number of motor-vehicles on the roads during that period. With the advent of more prosperous times, the toll of the motor-vehicle again mounted, although, fortunately, not in proportion to the tremendous increase in motor-vehicular traffic on the highways. The 1938 total was the highest ever recorded in New Zealand. An appreciable drop, however, was experienced during the war years on account of there being less traffic on the roads owing to restrictions in the use of motor-spirits and rubber tires. With the gradual resumption of normal traffic since the war, the number of fatalities from motor-vehicle accidents is again increasing.

The figures given for deaths from motor-vehicle accidents (which do not include deaths of Maoris) are exclusive of accidents where persons have been killed in collisions between motor-vehicles and trains or trams, these being assigned to the heavier vehicle. For 1950 there were 14 deaths from such accidents, bringing the total number of deaths in cases where a motor-vehicle was involved up to 212. The corresponding figure for 1949 was 195. Further data regarding accidents will be found elsewhere in this volume (see Index). A later section is devoted wholly to statistics of industrial accidents.

SUICIDES.—Suicidal deaths in 1950 numbered 165—males 121, females 44—the death-rate per 10,000 of mean population being 0.92.

Year.Number of Suicidal Deaths.Rate per 10,000 of Mean Population.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
1946113531661.370.641.00
194799361351.170.420.80
1948131501811.520.581.05
1949114571711.290.650.97
1950121441651.340.490.92

The following table presents, for annual averages of various quinquennia, the suicide-rate per 10,000 of mean population.

Annual Average duringMales.Females.Both Sexes.
1895–991.480.310.93
1900–041.660.311.02
1905–091.620.341.02
1910–141.830.411.16
1915–191.790.401.10
1920–241.920.461.20
1925–292.170.561.38
1930–342.290.551.44
1935–391.630.571.10
1940–441.440.560.99
1945–491.380.570.97
19501.340.490.92

4 D—MAORIS

IN each of the preceding subsections, Maoris have been excluded from the statistical tables presented. The standard of registration of Maoris is still below that of the European section of the population of New Zealand. This is due partly to difficulties of language, educational status, &c., and partly to problems of access. This latter difficulty arises from the fact that the greater portion of the Maori population is resident in country districts not so well served with modern facilities as regards transport, medical and nursing services, &c. Consequently, registration of vital facts regarding the Maori race as a whole cannot be maintained at the same high level of accuracy as obtains for the European population.

MAORI BIRTHS.—In the successive Registration Acts special provision was made for exemption from the necessity of registration in the case of births and deaths of Maoris, though registration could be effected if desired. Section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1912 (now section 52 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act, 1951), empowered the making of regulations to provide for the registration of births and deaths of Maoris. Regulations were made accordingly, and Maori births and deaths became registrable as from 1st March, 1913. The number of Registrars of Maori Births and Deaths in New Zealand is over 250, most of these being in the North Island, where the great majority of the Maori population is located. Every Maori settlement of any size is within reach of one of these Registrars. Maori registrations are entered in a separate register, which does not, however, make provision for as many particulars as is the case with registrations of Europeans.

The number of births of Maoris registered during 1950 was 5,105 (2,606 males, 2,499 females). The Maori birth-rate in 1950 was almost twice the European birth-rate (24.56 per 1,000). Registrations of Maori births in each of the last five years were as follows:—

Year.Number of Maori Births.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.
Males.Females.Totals.
19463,0072,7695,77656.81
19472,5412,4474,98847.46
19482,5892,3674,95645.97
19492,5102,4074,91744.48
19502,6062,4995,10545.07

Prior to 1946 there was reason to believe that the number of Maori births was somewhat understated and this view was confirmed by the registration figures for 1946, the year in which the provision of family benefits under the Social Security scheme was extended to cover all children under sixteen years of age irrespective of the income of the parents. Of the 5,776 Maori births registered during 1946, no fewer than 1,447, or 25 per cent. had actually occurred before 1945—i.e., over a year before registration.

For population purposes, half-castes and persons between half and full blood rank as Maoris; but it is not always possible to ensure that this practice is followed in the registration of births (and of deaths).

MAORI MARRIAGES.—In cases where both parties to a marriage were of the Maori race there was no necessity under the Marriage Act to comply with the provisions of that Act, though the parties were at liberty to take advantage thereof. Considerable inconvenience, however, was found to exist on account of the non-registration of Maori marriages, and a section was inserted in the Maori Land Act, 1909, and re-enacted in 1931, whereby it was laid down that Maori marriages must be celebrated either under the provisions of the Marriage Act or in the presence of a registered officiating minister, but without complying with the other requirements of the Marriage Act. Ministers solemnizing either class of marriage must send returns to the Registrar-General. A marriage between a Maori and a European must be celebrated under the provisons of the Marriage Act, and does not rank as a Maori marriage.

A complete change has been brought about by the Maori Purposes Act, 1951. The view was taken that the Maori race had now reached a stage where such special dispensations were no longer justifiable. After 1st April, 1952, all Maori marriages will be subject to the ordinary laws affecting European marriages. No subsequent marriage according to Maori custom will be held valid. As a result it will not be possible in future to distinguish marriages of Maoris from those of Europeans and Maori marriage statistics will lapse.

Returns of 595 marriages in which both parties were of the Maori race were received during the year 1950. The figures for each of the last five years are as follows:—

Year.Under Maori Land Act.Under Marriage Act.Totals.
194651150561
194746854522
194851840558
194955019569
195056926595

The number of Maori marriages declined considerably during the earlier war years, reaching a low point in 1943, and although there has been some increase since, it is still below pre-war proportions.

MAORI DEATHS.—Registrations of Maori deaths during each of the last five years have been as follows:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Maori Population.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
19468377901,62716.0315.9716.00
19477967421,53814.7414.5214.63
19487896841,47314.2513.0413.66
19497977691,56614.0314.3114.17
19507346351,36912.6211.5212.09

The rates for the two sexes are much more nearly equal for Maoris than for the rest of the population, the female rate being indeed higher than the male in some years. The total Maori death-rate has shown considerable improvement during recent years, with a decline from 20.59 in 1941 to 12.09 in 1950.

Apart from mere numbers by sex, statistics of Maori deaths are not available prior to 1920, but annual tabulations are now made on the bases of age and cause of death. The ages of Maoris whose deaths were registered during the year 1950 were as shown in the following table.

Age, in Years.Males.FemalesTotals.
Under 1188168356
1 and under 57259131
5 " 10261844
10 " 15151732
15 " 20283159
20 " 25243761
25 " 30243155
30 " 35241539
35 " 40243256
40 " 45302050
45 " 50252449
50 " 55302151
55 " 60332154
60 and under 65392463
65 " 70383270
70 " 75362561
75 " 80382058
80 " 8519827
85 " 9091524
90 " 956511
95 " 1004610
100 and over 55
Unspecified213
  Totals7346351,369

Causes of Maori Deaths.—With the exception of diphtheria and scarlet fever, epidemic and infectious diseases generally exact a much heavier toll proportionately among Maoris than among the European population, the most noteworthy examples being tuberculosis, particularly of the respiratory system, and typhoid fever. Other diseases of the respiratory system also show much higher rates for Maoris than for Europeans, and the same state of affairs is disclosed for diarrhœal diseases and stomach complaints.

On the other hand, there is a much lower mortality rate among Maoris from certain diseases which rank high as causes of death among the European population. Principal among these are cancer, heart-disease and other diseases of the circulatory system, nephritis the group of general diseases which includes diabetes and exophthalmic goitre, and the group of diseases of the nervous system which includes apoplexy and cerebral hæmorrhage. Malformations show lower rates for Maoris than for Europeans, but the indefinite nature of the data in the registration entries covering the deaths of many Maori infants may be partly responsible, as the figures of deaths from malformations and the group “early infancy” taken in conjunction indicate a much higher rate for Maoris from these causes as a whole than for the European population.

A summary is here given showing Maori deaths for the five years 1945 to 1949 from the principal causes and groups of causes on the basis of the Fifth (1938) Revision of the International Classification of Causes of Death.

Cause of Death.Number of Deaths.Rate per 10,000 of Mean Maori Population.
1945.1946.1947.1948.1949.1945.1946.1947.1948.1949.
Typhoid fever7712440.690.691.140.370.36
Measles42712290.402.660.100.192.62
Whooping-cough8 1528310.79 1.432.602.80
Diphtheria21108352.080.980.760.280.45
Influenza21371522122.083.641.432.041.09
Dysentery1275751.190.690.480.650.45
Pulmonary tuberculosis29229327620820428.9828.8226.2619.2918.45
Other forms of tuberculosis851027469658.4410.037.046.405.88
Cancer55587369755.465.706.956.406.78
Cerebral hæmorrhage33143621323.281.383.431.952.89
Convulsions (under five years)1134341.090.300.380.280.36
Heart-diseases26923225527128126.7022.8224.2625.1425.42
Bronchitis27243131232.682.362.952.882.08
Broncho-pneumonia13017712413117812.9017.4111.8012.1516.10
Pneumonia851028177778.4410.037.717.146.97
Diarrhœa and enteritis1148671547111.328.466.765.016.42
Nephritis25241415242.482.361.331.392.17
Senility50464032234.964.523.812.972.08
Violence—          
  Suicide775650.690.690.480.560.45
  Accident65839389946.458.168.858.258.50
Homicide233180.200.300.290.090.72
Ill-defined or not specified1141612181.090.391.521.111.63
Other causes30128128631829829.8827.6427.2129.4926.96
  Totals1,6351,6271,5381,4731,566162.29160.02146.35136.62141.66

The Introduction of the Sixth (1948) Revision of the International Classification of Causes of Death in 1950, together with the change to assignment according to the underlying cause of death, prevent accurate comparisons being made between the 1950 mortality tabulations and those for antecedent years in the above table. The following table shows the Maori deaths for 1950 classified according to the Abbreviated List of the 1948 Revision.

Cause of Death.Number of Deaths, 1950.Rate per 10,000 of Mean Maori Population, 1950.
Tuberculosis of respiratory system19417.13
Tuberculosis, other forms605.30
Syphilis and its sequelæ90.79
Typhoid fever50.44
Dysentery, all forms70.62
Scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat10.09
Diphtheria  
Whooping-cough70.62
Meningococcal infections  
Acute poliomyelitis  
Measles  
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic100.88
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms of lymphatic and hæmatopoietic tissues655.74
Benign and unspecified neoplasms40.35
Diabetes mellitus40.35
Anæmias10.09
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system312.74
Nonmeningococcal meningitis181.59
Rheumatic fever90.79
Chronic rheumatic heart-disease383.36
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart disease14112.45
Other diseases of heart464.06
Hypertension with heart-disease90.79
Hypertension without mention of heart20.18
Influenza201.77
Pneumonia16514.57
Bronchitis272.38
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum20.18
Appendicitis50.44
Intestinal obstruction and hernia100.88
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhœa of the newborn504.41
Cirrhosis of liver50.44
Nephritis and nephrosis191.68
Hyperplasia of prostate10.09
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium121.06
Congenital malformations211.85
Birth injuries, postnatal asphyxia, and atelectasis554.86
Infections of the newborn80.71
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy, and immaturity unqualified756.62
Senility without mention of psychosis, ill-defined and unknown causes272.38
All other diseases968.48
Motor-vehicle accidents262.30
All other accidents746.53
Suicide and self-inflicted injury70.62
Homicide and operations of war30.26
  Totals1,369120.87

From 1925 onwards information has been obtained as to whether the cause of death has been certified by a medical practitioner or a Coroner's inquest. As an indication of the improvements achieved in the specifying of the causes of deaths of Maoris, it may be said that in 1925, out of a total of 867 deaths, 446 or 51 per cent. were definitely shown to have been certified, while in 1950 the number so certified was 1,276 out of 1,369 registrations, equivalent to 93 per cent.

MAORI INFANT MORTALITY.—As regards infant mortality, the Maori rate is much higher and more variable than the European, principally owing to the ravages of epidemic diseases, tuberculosis, respiratory diseases, and diarrhœal diseases. The infant mortality rate for the first year of life was, for the five years 194–50, 76 per 1,000 births in the case of Maoris, as compared with 24 per 1,000 among European infants. The decrease in the Maori infant mortality rate during the years 1946 and 1947 is more apparent than real as the birth figures on which they are based include a considerable number of late registrations of hitherto unregistered births (see p. 101).

The numbers and rates per 1,000 live births for the last eleven years are given in the next table.

Year.Maoris.Europeans.
Number of Deaths under One Year.Rate per 1,000 Live Births.Number of Deaths under One Year.Rate per 1,000 Live Births.
194037287.2299030.21
1941517125.061,04529.77
194242497.9296428.71
194339989.8695131.37
1944461102.261,01230.12
194541388.931,03627.99
194643174.621,09326.10
194736573.181,12225.04
194838076.6797021.95
194942285.821,04623.78
195035669.741,00822.75

The next table shows for the year 1950 the principal causes of death of Maori infants, in the various subdivisions of the first year of life. The classification is according to the Sixth (1948) Revision of the International Classification of Causes of Death.

Cause of Death.Under 1 Day.1 Day and under 2 Days.2 Days and under 1 Week.1 Week and under 2 Weeks.2 Weeks and under 3 Weeks.3 Weeks and under 1 Month.1 Month and under 2 Months.2 Months and under 3 Months3 Months and under 6 Months.6 Months and under 9 Months.9 Months and under 12 Months.Totals.
Tuberculosis        1517
Syphilis  1   2    3
Typhoid fever          11
Dysentery, all forms      1 31 5
Whooping-cough     1  3 37
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic   3 1     4
Malignant neoplasms          11
Nonmeningococcal meningitis      122117
Disease of the heart        1  1
Influenza        73 10
Pneumonia, except of newborn      5935242497
Bronchitis        2417
Intestinal obstruction and hernia      2   13
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhœa of newborn      2 1010729
Congenital malformations315   12 2 14
Birth injuries1197211     31
Postnatal asphyxia and atelectasis687    111 24
Infections of the newborn1 24 1     8
Immaturity unqualified341053 2     54
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy42411 3231 21
Ill-defined conditions11    1  126
Accidents   11 3112 9
Other diseases        5117
  Totals60313114362117745643356

Of the total of 8 deaths in the above table due to infections of the newborn, 6 were defined as diarrhœa and 1 as pneumonia. Immaturity unqualified accounted for 54 infant deaths but in a further 17 deaths due to diseases peculiar to early infancy, prematurity was an associated condition.

The great achievement in reducing the infant mortality rate for the European population has been accomplished during the period after the first month of life up to the end of the first year. Conversely, the causes of the extremely high Maori mortality rates are to be found in the same period of life. This is indicated in the next table, which contrasts the mortality rates per 1,000 live births for European and Maori infants respectively for the last twenty years.

Year.Europeans.Maoris.
Under One Month.One and under Twelve Months.Total under One Year.Under One Month.One and under Twelve Months.Total under One Year.
193122.699.4632.1514.7180.8895.59
193221.309.9231.2222.2273.2295.45
193322.818.8331.6423.0769.5492.61
193422.869.2532.1117.1176.4893.59
193522.0310.2332.2624.3084.90109.20
193622.318.6530.9622.3287.60109.92
193722.219.0031.2121.6670.5192.17
193824.1511.4835.6330.32122.94153.26
193921.859.2931.1432.0782.85114.92
194022.038.1830.2123.9263.3087.22
194120.009.7729.7726.8598.21125.06
194218.739.9828.7119.4078.5297.92
194321.2710.1031.3718.9270.9489.86
194420.609.5230.1219.3082.96102.26
194519.598.4027.9926.0562.8888.93
194619.087.0226.1018.3556.2774.62
194718.086.9625.0425.4647.7273.18
194815.806.1521.9528.8547.8276.67
194917.016.7723.7822.7863.0485.82
195016.576.1822.7528.4141.3369.74

The principal causes of death of Maori infants responsible for the high mortality rates after the first month of life are diarrhœa and enteritis, broncho-pneumonia pneumonia, and other diseases of the respiratory system.

4 E—TOTAL POPULATION, INCLUDING MAORIS

THE principal reasons for excluding Maoris from the published vital statistics of New Zealand have already been outlined in the preceding subsection. Late registration is another important factor which prohibits the publication in general of Maori data in conjunction with vital statistics for the European population. It is, however, desirable that a complete coverage of the vital statistics for the country as a whole should be available. Furthermore, the introduction of the medical and related benefits under the social security legislation, which covers Maori and European alike, renders it more important that a health picture of the total population in a single category should be presented. There is evidence also, that, as a result of certain information being essential for the claiming of social security benefits, the standard of Maori registration has shown a gradual improvement in recent years.

The statistical data presented in this subsection contains details concerning vital statistics covering the entire population of New Zealand (including Maoris).

TOTAL BIRTHS.—As mentioned previously, registrations of Maori births are somewhat less accurate (although improvement has been manifest recently) than those of the European population. Consequently, in considering the birth statistics of the whole population, allowance must be made for the element of inaccuracy and incompleteness affecting a proportion of the figures.

For instance, owing to the extensive time-lag in the receipt by the Registrar-General of a considerable number of registrations, the statistics of Maori births relate to the number of registrations received during the year, whereas the European figures cover actual registrations effected during the year. The following table shows the numbers and rates of European, Maori, and total births for each of the last twenty years.

Year.Numbers.Rates per 1,000 of Mean Population.
European.Maori.Total.European.Maori.Total.
193126,6222,31228,93418.4532.2619.11
193224,8842,74527,62917.1237.2818.09
193324,3342,94827,28216.6338.8417.72
193424,3222,98127,30316.5138.1017.60
193523,9653,25127,21616.1740.3617.42
193624,8373,63028,46716.6443.7918.07
193726,0143,97129,98517.2946.6418.86
193827,2493,69330,94217.9342.3719.26
193928,8334,11632,94918.7346.2020.23
194032,7714,26537,03621.1946.8722.62
194135,1004,13439,23422.8144.7824.06
194233,5744,33037,90421.7345.8423.12
194330,3114,44034,75119.7045.7821.25
194433,5994,50838,10721.5945.3223.01
194537,0074,64441,65123.2246.1024.58
194641,8715,77647,64725.2656.8127.08
194744,8164,98849,80426.4747.4627.70
194844,1934,95649,14925.5945.9726.79
194943,9884,91748,90524.9844.4826.13
195044,3095,10549,41424.6745.0725.88

The abnormal increase in the number of Maori births shown for the year 1946 is mainly accounted for by the late registration of births which occurred prior to 1946 (see p. 101).

The inclusion of Maoris raises the level of the birth-rate all through the period covered, but in no case does it reverse the trend of the rate on the normal published basis—i.e., the birth-rate of New Zealand, exclusive of Maoris. In an international comparison for the quinquennium 1945–49, the inclusion of Maoris raises New Zealand's position from fifteenth to thirteenth in a total of twenty-nine countries covered.

TOTAL NATURAL INCREASE.—The birth and death rates of the European population are not subject to violent fluctuation, and consequently the natural-increase rate—i.e., excess of births over deaths—for this section of the population follows an even trend in the twenty years covered by the next table, with a gradual decline from 1931 to 1936, followed by a steady rise from 1937 to 1941. A temporary decline was experienced during the next two years, but regular and substantial increases were evident in each of the following years up to 1947. Since then a regular decline has been noted each year. The Maori population, on the other hand, evinces sudden changes in both birth and death rates, with a resultant considerable fluctuation in the natural-increase rate, especially in some years where the respective rates exhibit violent changes in opposite directions. The effect of combining the two sections of the populations is to smooth out the variations in the Maori rate of natural increase, and occasionally to reverse the trend of the European rate. The following table shows the numbers gained by natural increase, together with the rate per 1,000 of mean population for each of the years 1931–50.

Year.Numbers.Rates per 1,000 of Mean Population.
European.Maori.Total.European.Maori.Total.
193114,5751,29715,87210.1018.1010.48
193213,2011,55314,7549.0821.099.66
193312,6331,78714,4208.6423.559.37
193411,7951,69813,4938.0121.708.70
193511,7481,80413,5527.9222.408.67
193611,7812,02813,8097.8924.468.76
193712,3562,41414,7708.2128.359.29
193812,4951,57314,0688.2218.058.76
193914,6752,34117,0169.5326.2810.45
194018,4892,67221,16111.9529.3612.92
194119,9542,23322,18712.9724.1913.61
194217,1892,59819,78711.1327.5012.07
194314,8642,76517,6299.6628.5110.78
194418,2362,82221,05811.7228.3712.71
194520,9563,00923,96513.1529.8714.14
194625,7784,14929,92715.5540.8117.01
194728,9123,45032,36217.0832.8318.00
194828,3713,48331,85416.4332.3117.37
194927,9763,35131,32715.8930.3116.74
195027,5943,73631,33015.3632.9816.41

In the twenty years, 1931–50, New Zealand has gained by natural increase of the population a total of 414,341, comprising 363,578 Europeans and 50,763 Maoris.

TOTAL MARRIAGES.—The following table shows the numbers of European, Maori, and total marriages celebrated during each of the last twenty years.

Year.Numbers.Rates per 1,000 of Mean Population.
European.Maori.Total.European.Maori.Total.
19319,81743710,2546.816.106.77
19329,89659610,4926.818.096.87
193310,51055711,0677.187.347.19
193411,25653211,7887.646.807.60
193512,18755712,7448.236.918.16
193613,80864014,4489.257.729.17
193714,36460914,9739.557.159.42
193815,32863115,95910.097.249.93
193917,11567617,79111.127.5910.92
194017,44863618,08411.286.9911.04
194113,31351713,8308.655.608.48
194212,21955612,7757.915.897.79
194311,57944212,0217.534.567.35
194413,12552113,6468.435.248.24
194516,16053316,69310.145.299.85
194620,53556121,09612.395.5211.99
194718,52552219,04710.944.9710.59
194817,19255817,7509.965.189.67
194916,78856917,3579.535.159.27
195016,50459517,0999.195.258.96

The fluctuations in the Maori marriage-rate, and hence, to a lesser extent, in the total marriage-rate, cannot be taken at their face value, as elements of Maori psychology play no small part on occasions in influencing the number of Maori marriages registered as distinct from the number actually celebrated. Apart from these factors, the differences observed in the movements of the respective rates are, of course, considerably affected by variations in the application of social and other legislation to the Maori race and the European population respectively. As a result of legislation introduced in 1951, it will not be possible after 1st April, 1952, to distinguish marriages of Maoris from those of Europeans (see p. 101).

TOTAL DEATHS.—The effect of including Maoris is to increase slightly the total death-rate for New Zealand, as is seen in the following table.

Year.Numbers.Rates per 1,000 of Mean Population.
European.Maori.Total.European.Maori.Total.
193112,0471,01513,0628.3514.168.63
193211,6831,19212,8758.0416.198.43
193311,7011,16112,8627.9915.298.35
193412,5271,28313,8108.5016.408.90
193512,2171,44713,6648.2517.968.75
193613,0561,60214,6588.7519.339.31
193713,6581,55715,2159.0818.299.57
193814,7542,12016,8749.7124.3210.50
193914,1581,77515,9339.2019.929.78
194014,2821,59315,8759.2417.519.70
194115,1461,90117,0479.8420.5910.45
194216,3851,73218,11710.6018.3411.05
194315,4471,67517,12210.0417.2710.47
194415,3631,68617,0499.8716.9510.30
194516,0511,63517,68610.0716.2310.44
194616,0931,62717,7209.7116.0010.07
194715,9041,53817,4429.3914.639.70
194815,8121,47317,2859.1613.669.42
194916,0121,56617,5789.0914.179.39
195016,7151,36918,0849.3112.099.47

Although the Maori death-rate is consistently and appreciably higher than the European rate, the inclusion of Maoris does not raise the general death-rate to a substantially higher level. Countries with lower death-rates (in 1949) than New Zealand included Netherlands, 8.1; Denmark, 8.9; Norway, 9.0; and Union of South Africa (European population only), 9.1.

Total Deaths by Causes.—Numbers and rates for principal causes of death over the five years 1945–49 are given in the following table. This table follows the Abridged International List of Causes of Death (Fifth Revision, 1938) and includes Maoris. Similarly based figures covering the same five years will be found for the Maori population separately on page 103 of Section 4D and for the European population by reference to page 87 of Section 4C of the 1950 edition of the Year-Book.

Cause of Death.Number of Deaths.Rates per 10,000 of Mean Population.
1945.1946.1947.1948.1949.1945.1946.1947.1948.1949.
Typhoid and paratyphoid fever101421770.060.080.120.040.04
Scarlet fever141 4 0.080.01 0.02 
Whooping-cough1614934520.090.010.270.190.28
Diphtheria6359286100.370.340.160.030.05
Tuberculosis of the respiratory system7897537176165694.664.283.993.363.03
Other forms of tuberculosis1912021561301351.131.150.870.710.72
Syphilis10013512595830.590.770.700.520.44
Influenza741484873570.440.840.270.400.30
Measles144326530.080.240.010.030.28
Other infective and parasitic diseases1321311311621230.780.740.730.880.66
Cancer and other malignant tumours2,2682,3262,3882,5222,54713.3813.2213.2813.7513.61
Non-malignant tumours55726925510.320.410.380.140.27
Chronic rheumatism and gout30302329270.180.170.130.160.14
Diabetes mellitus3243473323553631.911.971.851.931.94
Alcoholism743660.040.020.020.030.03
Avitaminoses, other general diseases, diseases of the blood, and chronic poisoning2702602502362521.591.481.391.291.35
Meningitis, and diseases of the spinal cord80817796840.470.460.430.520.45
Intracranial lesions of vascular origin1,6711,6131,6951,6981,6559.869.179.439.268.84
Other diseases of the nervous system and organs of special sense2121801561731691.251.020.870.940.90
Diseases of the heart5,9246,0156,0085,9396,28334.9634.1933.4132.3733.57
Other diseases of the circulatory system3002632623142801.771.491.461.711.50
Bronchitis2081772011621511.231.011.120.880.81
Pneumonia and broncho-pneumonia7208407508128284.254.774.174.434.42
Other diseases of the respiratory system2342042282071971.381.161.271.131.05
Diarrhœa and enteritis2391591271101421.410.900.710.600.76
Appendicitis64585746450.380.330.320.250.24
Diseases of the liver and biliary passages130121981281400.770.690.540.700.75
Other diseases of the digestive system3763063343393432.221.741.861.851.83
Nephritis4424754143853992.612.702.302.102.13
Other diseases of the genitourinary system2582152452271941.521.221.361.241.04
Puerperal infection29351818130.170.200.100.100.07
Other diseases of the puerperal state63744147490.370.420.230.260.26
Diseases of the skin and cellular tissue, and of the bones and organs of locomotion42373122320.250.210.170.120.17
Congenital debility, malformations, premature birth, and other diseases of early infancy9459991,0499059505.585.685.834.935.08
Senility5133693432412293.032.101.911.311.22
Suicide1821731401871761.070.980.781.020.94
Homicide27181320280.160.100.070.110.15
Automobile accidents1321872311952160.781.061.281.061.15
Other accidental deaths5205865666936203.073.333.153.783.31
Cause of death not specified or ill-defined1891615200.110.050.090.080.11
Totals17,68617,72017,44217,28517,578104.36100.7196.9994.2193.91

Although the incidence of different diseases as causes of death varies considerably as between the Maori and European sections of New Zealand's population, the only important disease to show a marked influence on the general death-rate by the inclusion of Maoris is tuberculosis. The average death-rate from tuberculosis (all forms) for the five years covered by the above table was 4.8 per 10,000 of mean population, as against 3.1 for the European death-rate. New Zealand has for many years had a comparatively low tuberculosis death-rate for the European section of its population, but when Maoris are included the latest triennial international figures available (1947–49) show New Zealand to be sixth out of a total of thirty-one countries. With Maoris excluded, New Zealand's position would be second for the same period.

Total deaths for the year 1950 according to the Abbreviated List of the Sixth (1948) Revision of the International Classification of Causes of Death are contained in the following table. Comparative tables for the European and Maori population separately may be found by reference to page 92 of Section 4C and pages 103–4 of Section 4D respectively.

Cause of Death.Number of Deaths.Rate Per 10,000 of Mean Population.
Tuberculosis of respiratory system5452.85
Tuberculosis, other forms1210.63
Syphilis and its sequelæ1000.52
Typhoid fever70.04
Dysentery, all forms120.06
Scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat20.01
Diphtheria40.02
Whooping cough230.12
Meningococcal infections90.05
Acute poliomyelitis20.01
Measles30.02
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic950.50
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms of lymphatic and hæmatopoietic tissues2,71714.23
Benign and unspecified neoplasms590.31
Diabetes mellitus2321.22
Anæmias580.30
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system1,8559.72
Nonmeningococcal meningitis360.19
Rheumatic fever230.12
Chronic rheumatic heart disease2711.42
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart disease4,91625.75
Other diseases of heart6413.36
Hypertension with heart disease6623.47
Hypertension without mention of heart1640.86
Influenza970.51
Pneumonia5793.03
Bronchitis1770.93
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum1480.78
Appendicitis390.20
Intestinal obstruction and hernia1370.72
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhœa of the newborn1360.71
Cirrhosis of liver590.31
Nephritis and nephrosis2311.21
Hyperplasia of prostate1500.79
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium520.27
Congenital malformations3201.68
Birth injuries, postnatal asphyxia, and atelectasis3251.70
Infections of the newborn330.17
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy and immaturity unqualified3932.06
Senility without mention of psychosis, ill-defined, and unknown causes2131.12
All other diseases1,4307.49
Motor-vehicle accidents2381.25
All other accidents5743.01
Suicide and self-inflicted injury1720.90
Homicide and operations of war240.13
  Totals18,08494.73

TOTAL INFANT MORTALITY.—The establishing of the vital statistics of New Zealand on a total basis by the inclusion of Maoris has the greatest influence upon the infant-mortality rate. The infant-mortality rate of the European population of New Zealand held pride of place in the world for many years, and recently has declined to a particularly low level. The Maori rate, on the other hand, always a high one, has not shown any noticeable improvement in recent years. It is also subject to violent fluctuations owing to the ravages of certain epidemic diseases, which have relatively very little effect on the European rate. The European, Maori, and total infant-mortality figures for the last twenty years are given in the next table.

Year.Numbers.Rates per 1,000 Live Births.
European.Maori.Total.European.Maori.Total.
19318562211,07732.1595.5937.22
19327772621,03931.2295.4537.61
19337702731,04331.6492.6138.23
19347812791,06032.1193.5938.82
19357733551,12832.26109.2041.45
19367693991,16830.96109.9241.03
19378123661,17831.2192.1739.29
19389715661,53735.63153.2649.67
19398984731,37131.14114.9241.61
19409903721,36230.2187.2236.78
19411,0455171,56229.77125.0639.81
19429644241,38828.7197.9236.62
19439513991,35031.3789.8638.85
19441,0124611,47330.12102.2638.65
19451,0364131,44927.9988.9334.79
19461,0934311,52426.1074.6231.99
19471,1223651,48725.0473.1829.86
19489703801,35021.9576.6727.47
19491,0464221,46823.7885.8230.02
19501,0083561,36422.7569.7427.60

The inclusion of Maoris not only places the infant-mortality rate for New Zealand on a considerably higher level, but also replaces the general downward movement by a much more fluctuating trend.

It also has a considerable effect on the position occupied by New Zealand among the countries of the world. In the quinquennium 1946–50, New Zealand's infant-mortality rate (exclusive of Maoris), with an average of 24, was the second lowest of thirty countries for which reliable figures were available, whereas the inclusion of the Maori population relegated it to third place, with Sweden clearly in the lead and Australia in second place.

4 F—MORBIDITY

COMPARISONS of healthiness of a community over a period of years which are based on death-rates do not fully take into account the effect of the advance of medical science in recent years. It is common knowledge that many diseases regarded a few decades ago as incurable now show a fair percentage of recoveries. Similarly, the death-rates in epidemics are in general much lower now than formerly, owing partly to the steps taken to prevent the spread of the disease, partly to the necessity of early notification in most countries, and partly to increased medical knowledge. Again, many diseases seldom or never result fatally. Death-rate statistics are therefore supplemented by data relating to illness.

The principal source of statistics of illness in New Zealand, apart from that resulting in death, comes from the public hospitals, to which some 85 per cent. of all hospital in-patients are admitted. Information is collected about every person discharged from a public hospital, except from a mental hospital, tabulated (from 1st January, 1950) in accordance with the International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries and Causes of Death, and published annually in the Health Department's publication Medical Statistics. Similar information was formerly published in the Annual Report on Vital Statistics issued by the Census and Statistics Department. At present no attempt is being made to bridge the gap between illness where there was admission to a public hospital and illness where there was no such admission. Plans are being drawn up to collect similar statistics from mental hospitals. Other morbidity statistics in New Zealand are those concerning certain notifiable diseases, elaborated on in the next paragraph, and about industrial accidents reported in Section 43, benefits granted under the Social Security Act reported in Section 26, and sickness in members of Friendly Societies mentioned in Section 31.

NOTIFICATION OF DISEASES.—The numbers of all notifiable diseases reported during the calendar year 1950 are shown in the following table; the European figures are given month by month, with the totals for Maoris being shown in the last column.

Disease.Europeans.Maoris.
January.February.March.April.May.June.July.August.September.October.November.December.Totals.Totals only.
Scarlet fever: streptococcal sore throat75771011081029810980896375541,0316
Diphtheria 16329646464515
Typhoid and paratyphoid fever1415241 41833448
Pulmonary tuberculosis671061159398108121147105130126781,294475
Other tuberculosis18222026132014311929261525393
Meningococcus meningitis41411024124411483
Acute poliomyelitis6918559314172702
Pneumonic influenza3      1112 8 
Erysipelas49851389141119135118 
Puerperal fever—              
Following childbirth 312441 2345295
Following abortion8444 264315445 
Eclampsia238654410678366 
Tetanus13346  21562336
Hydatids212 11344264308
Trachoma 3  1       42
Ophthalmia neonatorum1   1   2 1 51
Lethargic encephalitis   1        1 
Food poisoning121526167037 3543141550811
Bacillary dysentery725202517591063 413159
Amœbic dysentery31335133483340 
Undulant fever142256232925432
Lead poisoning  1 1  111139 
Malaria  2 1   1 1 5 
Anchylostomiasis  1        12 
Actinomycosis   1  1     2 
  Totals2152915813003623182963303293223052113,860734

Total notifications for each of the last five years for Europeans and for Maoris for some of the notifiable diseases are shown in the following table.

Disease.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
Scarlet fever: streptococcal sore throat European1,4548661,1061,0381,031
Maori1154116
Diphtheria European1,5775061548351
Maori106401265
Typhoid and paratyphoid fever European49109402434
Maori4940275648
Pulmonary tuberculosis European1,5301,3961,3561,2171,294
Maori449412404476475
Meningococcus meningitis European8742393848
Maori136683
Acute poliomyelitis European11213091434670
Maori154992
Erysipelas European193185167150118
Maori104658
Puerperal fever and septic abortion European1421591388174
Maori76165

Scarlet Fever: Streptococcal Sore Throat.—In 1950 there were 1,037 cases (Europeans, 1,031; Maoris, 6), compared with 1,049 in 1949 and 1,110 in 1948. Contrary to usual experience, the incidence of this disease has remained at a uniformly low level for several years.

Diphtheria.—A new record was set in 1950 with a total of only 56 cases (Europeans, 51; Maoris, 5), compared with 89 cases in the previous year. Seven health districts did not have any cases of diphtheria during the year, and there has been no case in the Dunedin district during the past four years. The policy of immunizing school children and pre-school children is an important factor in this connection.

Enteric Fever.—In 1950 there were 60 cases of typhoid fever (Europeans, 24; Maoris, 36), and 22 cases of paratyphoid fever (Europeans, 10; Maoris, 12). The corresponding figures for 1949 were 60 cases of typhoid fever and 20 cases of paratyphoid fever. The cases were well distributed throughout the year and, as usual, occurred mostly in the North Island. The cases were all of a sporadic nature.

Acute Poliomyelitis.—Between November, 1947, and July, 1949, New Zealand experienced its fourth major epidemic of poliomyelitis in a space of thirty-four years. Prior to 1916 nothing more than sporadic cases had been recorded in this country. Each of these four outbreaks began in the early summer and the first three (1916, 1924–25, and 1936–37) began to die away with the approach of winter although the 1936–37 epidemic was rather more drawn out than the two earlier ones. The latest outbreak, however, first appeared in November, 1947, and continued with undiminished intensity throughout 1948, and only died down in the middle of 1949, although it was less intense than the previous epidemics.

In the period November, 1947, to July, 1949, the number of cases and suspected cases notified was 1,720, of which 1,406 proved positive. Of these 805 showed evidence of paralysis or paresis and there were 77 deaths from the disease.

The attack rate varied considerably in different parts of the country and the incidence in the New Plymouth Health District (22.43 per 10,000 of population) was markedly higher than elsewhere. The epidemic took approximately one year to travel from Auckland to Dunedin, although air transport covers the distance in a few hours. The outbreak in Wellington was unusual in that it was almost entirely a winter outbreak, whereas elsewhere the incidence showed a lessened intensity in the winter months.

As indicated earlier, there were differences between the four major epidemics of poliomyelitis in respect of their duration, and this applies also to their intensity, severity, and distribution by age-groups.

Taking the duration of the epidemics as the periods during which the number of cases continuously reached double figures in any month, the duration and monthly incidence of the four epidemics is compared in the following table:—

Epidemic.Month of Epidemic.
1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.
19161193193201674419     
1924–2559224340366120542210   
1936–378570531072441639530141410
1947–491710955437696117648585117
Epidemic.Month of Epidemic.
12.13.14.15.16.17.18.19.20.21.Totals.
1916          988
1924–25          1,195
1936–3711         896
1947–49778069946684331810111,406

The next table shows the attack rates for the different age-groups for the 1947–49 epidemic:—

Age-group.All Cases.Paralysed Cases.
Cases.Rates per 10,000 in Age-group.Cases.Rates per 10,000 in Age-group.
0–4 years29813.81858.5
5–9 years41624.521212.3
10–14 years24818.41178.7
15–19 years1329.7835.9
20 years and over3122.62081.7
  Totals1,4067.678054.38

The youngest age-group (0–4 years) which in 1916 and 1924–25 suffered the highest attack rate dropped to third place in 1947–49. The incidence in the higher age-groups was greater than in previous epidemics.

The number of deaths in the 1947–49 epidemic was 77, of whom 42 were males and 35 females. These numbers included 5 Maori males and 1 Maori female. The case mortality for all cases was 5.1 per cent. for males, 5.9 per cent. for females, with a combined rate of 5.5 per cent. For paralysed cases the mortality rates were: males, 9.3 per cent.; females, 9.9 per cent.; combined, 9.6 per cent. The highest mortality rates were in the higher age-groups, particularly in females over thirty years of age.

In 1950 there was a total of 72 cases (Europeans 70, Maoris 2). Of these, 17 were cases of paralysis with 2 deaths, while 55 suffered no paralysis. The previous year's figure was 355 cases.

Just as the last major epidemic was unusually drawn out, and extended over twenty-one months, likewise it has taken longer than usual for the customary low incidence of the inter-epidemic period to establish itself. In fact, there were 33 cases in the first quarter of 1950, compared with 27 cases in the last quarter of 1949. The great majority of the cases (60 out of 72) were confined to the Auckland district.

Venereal Disease.—In the early war years the incidence of venereal disease increased considerably but after 1941 there was an appreciable decrease. This trend was not sustained, however, and a new peak for gonorrhœa was reached in 1946, while the incidence of syphilis also increased substantially. The 1947 and 1948 figures for gonorrhœa showed some improvement, but an increase of nearly 11 per cent. over the previous year was recorded in 1949. New cases of syphilis rose very steeply in 1948, but there was a considerable reduction in 1949, and a further substantial reduction in 1950. Gonorrhœa also appears to be decreasing once more. The following table shows the number of persons seen for the first time at the venereal-disease clinics in the four main centres of Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, during each of the years 1946–50, and found to be suffering from gonorrhœa or syphilis.

Gonorrhœa.Syphilis.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19461,1574151,57215268220
19471,1063901,49610789196
19489933601,353161111272
19491,1043961,500107107214
19508183131,1316487151

Tuberculosis.—With an intensification of case-finding by all tuberculosis workers in recent years, the position regarding notification of tuberculosis has improved to a degree that enables a reasonable picture of the disease to be presented as it affects this country. From a study of the returns over the last few years, there is reason to believe that the annual increase in notifications of the disease has reached stability, and that an addition of approximately 250 cases (including Maoris) per year in the national total of notified cases can be expected. The Department of Health is continuing its efforts to reduce both incidence and mortality. The corps of District Health Nurses available for tuberculosis case-finding work has been increased, and hospital clinics in the charge of chest specialists have now been provided to give a wider coverage. The responsibilities of the Department of Health in case-finding and domiciliary care are being co-ordinated with that of the Hospital Boards, which are responsible for diagnosis and treatment.

The medical officers of the Department of Health assist the District Nurses in the examination of contacts and arrange tuberculin tests and x-ray examinations. One mass miniature x-ray unit has been in operation for over two years in Taranaki, a unit is established in Christchurch and other units are available for Auckland, Wellington, and Dunedin. Special investigation by these methods are directed towards those groups of the population which are likely to show a high incidence of the disease, and this type of work is being extended. Cases that are found to be tuberculosis, or suspected of having the disease, are referred to hospital chest clinics, which assess the diagnosis and prescribe treatment. The supervision of “after care” on discharge from a hospital or sanatorium then becomes the joint responsibility of the District Nurse and the hospital clinic staff.

As a contribution to prophylaxis, health education is being stimulated, and B.C.G. vaccination against tuberculosis has been commenced in hospital staffs and contacts and certain post-primary school pupils and is about to be extended to other suitable age-groups of the population on a voluntary basis.

The following figures reflect the work performed by the district nursing service and school medical officers in this connection during the five years 1946–50:—

New tuberculous homes brought under control1946. 1,7061947. 1,4671948. 1,2701949. *1950. *

* Not available.

Total number of homes under control9,5959,0709,2839,6879,880
Number of new contacts brought under supervision during year2,9152,275*5,4235,121
Total number of contacts under surveillance during year—     
  Found to be tuberculosis   272476
  Removed from list   3,2382,582
  Remaining under supervision   23,10324,194
    Totals   26,61327,252

The Department of Health has established a Tuberculosis Register, which attempts to classify all known cases, and a clearer conception of the type, form, and extent of the disease is being obtained as workers become more accustomed to provide the necessary information. The number of cases on the Register (inclusive of Maoris) at 31st December, 1950, was 10,409 of which 9,035 were pulmonary, 988 non-pulmonary, and 386 mixed pulmonary and non-pulmonary. The number of new cases notified in 1950 was 2,115 of which 1,547 were European and 568 Maori. Of the European cases, 1,294 were pulmonary and 253 non-pulmonary, and in the Maori cases the figures were 475 and 93 for pulmonary and non-pulmonary respectively. Some of these cases have proved non-tuberculous and have been deregistered.

The known incidence for the European population is 4.24 per 1,000 of population, while for the Maori population it is 24.62 per 1,000 of Maori population. The combined race incidence for 1950 is 5.45 per 1,000 of total population.

PUBLIC HOSPITALS: PATIENTS TREATED.—The public hospitals to which the following statistics relate include all hospitals under the control of the various Hospital Boards; several hospitals which are also old people's homes; special infectious diseases hospitals; the various tuberculosis institutions and special sanatoria; and such public maternity hospitals as also have provision for emergency general cases. Special military hospitals, and additions made to hospitals to accommodate military patients only, were also included during the war years. All St. Helens Hospitals, private hospitals, and solely maternity hospitals, are excluded. Out-patients are not covered by the statistics, which, however, relate to all in-patients—whether European or Maori. Inmates of old people's homes or infirmaries controlled by the Hospital Boards, for whom hospital benefits under the Social Security Act are payable for treatment received in such homes, are included in the statistics of patients treated.

During the year 1949 the total admissions to public hospitals in New Zealand numbered 152,235. There were 8,489 patients in hospital at the beginning of the year, the total cases dealt with during the year thus being 160,724, equal to 859 per 10,000 of mean population, including Maoris. In other words, the equivalent of one person out of every twelve in New Zealand received some degree of treatment in public hospitals in 1949, although, of course, the total of cases mentioned includes an unknown number of multiple admissions of the same persons.

The following table shows for each of the last eleven years the total number of patients treated, and the rate per 10,000 of the population.

Year.Total Patients treated.Rate per 10,000 of Mean Population.
1939112,502690
1940127,839781
1941139,486855
1942171,4831,046
1943160,118979
1944160,990972
1945163,653966
1946163,558930
1947160,426892
1948155,418847
1949160,724859

From 1932 to 1942 there was a continuous and substantial increase in the number of patients treated, with the one exception of 1937, when a small decrease of 200 was recorded. In 1938 the epidemic of measles with its accompaniments of ear troubles and respiratory diseases (chiefly broncho-pneumonia and pneumonia) accounted for nearly 6,000 of the 9,000 increase of that year. The further gain of 5,000 in 1939 cannot be attributed specifically to any disease or group of diseases, and it seems probable that some of this increase may have had its origin in the introduction of the hospital benefit under the social security scheme.

The tremendous increases during the next three years can probably be attributed partly to the same cause, but the great majority of these increases were due to the admissions of Armed Services personnel, particularly in 1942, when the number of persons under arms in New Zealand was greatly increased consequent upon the entry of Japan into the war. In general, all military personnel ill over forty-eight hours were transferred to hospital, and outbreaks of such minor epidemic diseases as measles, chicken-pox, mumps, &c., commonly associated with military camps, would result in a great number of persons entering hospital who, in normal times, would be treated in their own homes. The great bulk of such cases were transferred to emergency wards of public hospitals adjacent to the camps.

The figures would also include a substantial number of patients who entered hospital for remedial treatment to enable them to be passed fit for military service. Members of the services returned from overseas who were admitted to public hospitals for further treatment are also included. The decrease in the total for 1943 no doubt reflects the beginning of the decline in the numbers of mobilized forces in New Zealand. Certain statistical data relating to Armed Forces personnel treated in hospitals were given on pages 101–102 of the 1947–49 issue of the Year-Book.

It is probable that there would have been a further decrease in the number of hospital patients in 1944 but for the severe epidemic of scarlet fever experienced in that year.

Hospital staff problems necessitating the closing of wards in some cases and the introduction of a system of waiting-lists for non-urgent cases kept the numbers of in-patients down in the immediate post-war years. The further substantial decrease in 1948 was at least in part attributable to the change in policy whereby infants born in hospital without sickness, and in some cases, normal confinements were excluded from the figures of patients treated. It is difficult to explain the rise in total patients in 1949, but it is possible that the improving staff position and the closing of some private maternity hospitals and the opening of maternity annexes at the public hospitals may have contributed to this reversal of the trend of recent years.

Condition on Discharge.—Of the 160,724 persons treated as in-patients in public hospitals in 1949, 84,321 were discharged as recovered, 48,332 as relieved, and 12,037 as unrelieved in respect of the disease for which admitted. Deaths in hospital numbered 7,595 and 8,754 patients were still in hospital at the end of the year. The tabulations for 1950 had not been completed when this section was prepared.

The numbers of admissions, discharges, and deaths for each of the last five years available were:—

Year.Admissions.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.

* Deaths resulting from disease for which admitted.

1944151,99191,02944,7528,2167,478151,475
1945154,41389,48048,2298,8197,939154,467
1946155,07490,23348,0948,6397,710154,676
1948146,94181,48347,45910,9657,022*146,929
1949152,23584,32148,33212,0377,280*151,970

Commencing with the year 1947, provision was made on the statistical returns received from public hospitals, for the condition on discharge of the patient to be stated for each disease treated, while the patient was in hospital. In previous years the general condition of the patient on discharge was stated. The figures in the above table for the years 1948 and 1949 therefore relate to the condition on discharge of the principal disease treated and are not strictly comparable with those for earlier years. For this reason also, the number of deaths in this table for 1949 do not compare with the figure given on the previous page which relates to the actual total deaths that occurred in hospital during the year. Figures for 1947 are not at present available.

The following percentage analysis of total cases dealt with during each of the five years is of interest.

Year.Discharged asDied.Remaining at End of Year.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.
194456.5427.805.104.655.91
194554.6829.475.394.855.61
194655.1729.405.284.715.44
194852.4330.547.054.525.46
194952.4630.077.494.535.45

Sexes of Patients.—For many years males considerably outnumbered females among hospital patients. In 1932, for the first time, and in each of the three following years, females were in the majority. From 1935 onwards, however, the proportion of males again showed a tendency to increase. This excess of male patients became especially pronounced in the figures for the war years, reflecting the large number of military patients admitted to hospital during those years. The peak in this connection was reached in 1942, in which year 101,279 males and 62,487 females were discharged from, or died in, public hospitals. By 1944, the number of males had fallen to 76,306, a decrease of 24.7 per cent., but the number of females involved had risen to 75,169, an increase of 20.3 per cent. From 1944 to 1946 the male total was fairly consistent, but females have tended to increase in numbers, probably affected to a certain extent by the increased facilities offered by public hospitals for normal maternity cases. In 1948 there was a sharp decline in the male total only. The death-rate is invariably higher among male than among female patients, chiefly due to a higher average incidence of serious types of diseases and of accident cases among male patients. The large number of military personnel admitted to hospital for comparatively minor complaints, however, resulted in a greatly decreased male death-rate during the four years ended in 1943, and in 1942 the female death-rate exceeded that for males. The decline of the numbers of men in the Armed Forces stationed in New Zealand from 1943 onwards would result in the proportion of minor cases treated in hospital falling considerably. This factor, combined with a greater number of seriously wounded men returning from overseas probably accounted for the increase of the male case-fatality rate in later years as compared with 1942.

Year.Discharges and Deaths.Deaths.Death-rate per 1,000 Cases.
Males.Females.Males per 100 Females.Males.Females.Males per 100 Females.Males.Females.
193851,09150,5641043,5832,3761517047
193954,17252,5131033,3782,1901546342
194064,75356,5021153,5012,3241515441
194171,37461,1261173,8362,6751435444
1942101,27962,4871624,1872,8861454146
194382,10069,0191194,2953,0771405245
194476,30675,1691024,4003,0781435841
194577,94776,5201024,6333,3061405943
194676,44378,233984,3603,3501305743
194868,85478,075884,2943,0581406239
194970,67781,293874,3103,2851316140

Ages of Patients.—The ages of patients who were discharged from or who died in public hospitals during 1949 were as shown in the following summary. The proportions of the population at each group which the discharges and deaths represented are also given.

Ages of Patients, in Years.Males.Females.Total.Proportion per Cent. of Total Mean Population.
Males.Females.Total.
Under 59,9747,61417,5888.736.977.87
5 and under 106,3865,03811,4247.255.926.59
10 " 154,3583,2977,6556.144.805.48
15 " 2510,91616,42727,3437.7312.149.89
25 " 358,37618,49626,8726.0913.149.65
35 " 457,14810,59017,7385.428.316.84
45 " 556,6316,38913,0206.606.366.48
55 " 656,3505,63911,9897.976.797.37
65 and over10,4347,70118,13512.978.8910.85
Totals (including unspecified)70,67781,293151,9707.538.718.12

With the exception of the war years, there has been a pronounced excess of females over males in the age-groups 25–34 and 35–44. This is attributable to the fact that these two age-groups contain the majority of the very large numbers of women admitted to public hospitals for normal confinement or for treatment of diseases and accidents of pregnancy, labour, and the puerperal state. There is an increasing tendency for women to have confinements in public hospitals. This is evident from the above table, in spite of the fact that for some hospitals normal child-birth cases were excluded from the returns received during the year 1949.

In 1939 the number of female patients in the 25–34 age-group was 11,442, and the proportion of total female hospital population was 8.85 per cent. The corresponding figures for 1949 were 18,496 and 13.14 per cent.

Principal Diseases.—A summary is now given of the principal diseases treated in public hospitals during the year 1949, the latest year for which detailed statistics of diseases treated are available. All figures given (including deaths) are inclusive of Maoris.

It should be noted that the disease or condition for the treatment of which a patient is admitted to hospital is not necessarily that which would rank as the cause of death in the death statistics. Cystitis, for instance, ranks comparatively high in hospital cases as the condition immediately affecting the patient, but is frequently only the consequence of some more important disease, which would take precedence over cystitis in the statistics of causes of death. As indicated earlier, the hospital returns now show each disease for which the patient was treated during his stay in hospital, but the classification for statistical purposes has been made on the basis of the principal disease for which he was admitted, regardless of what other diseases may have been present or developed during the stay of the patient in hospital. In the death statistics, on the other hand, the primary cause of decease is of paramount importance. In the hospital statistics a case admitted on account of the fracture of any bone is treated and classified as “fracture.” Should the patient die, however, the death would be classified in the mortality statistics according to the cause of the fracture—e.g., motor-car accident, accidental fall, &c. The morbidity code, with a few exceptions and a considerable extension of the accident group, follows the mortality code fairly closely, and a comparison of the morbidity and mortality statistics can be obtained without difficulty.

SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL DISEASES TREATED IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS DURING 1949

Diseases.Total Deaths Registered.Total Cases In Public Hospitals.Deaths In Public Hospitals.*
Number.Proportion of Total Deaths.Proportion of Total Cases In Public Hospitals.

* Relating to condition on discharge of patient, in respect of principal disease treated.

† See letterpress.

‡ Excluding leukæmia, aleukæmia, and Hodgkin's disease.

    Per CentPer Cent.
Typhoid and paratyphoid7917100.007.69
Meningococcus meningitis853787.5013.21
Measles539421528.301.59
Scarlet fever : streptococcal sore throat1625   
Whooping-cough523082038.466.49
Diphtheria1081990.0011.11
Influenza578062238.602.73
Erysipelas 17910.56
Acute poliomyelitis165341593.752.81
German measles 16610.60
Mumps13026.67
Pulmonary tuberculosis5692,94128650.269.72
Tuberculosis meningitis571236552.85
Other forms of tuberculosis789726076.926.17
Venereal disease835712327.714.03
Septicæmia (non-puerperal)105010100.0020.00
Hydatids13132323.082.27
Cancer2,5474,3761,22147.9427.90
Leukæmia and aleukæmia1021746967.6539.66
Non-malignant tumours352,6543394.291.24
Diabetes3631,2337420.396.00
Exophthalmic goitre43506613.951.19
Diseases of the spinal cord531362241.5116.18
Intracranial lesions of vascular origin1,6551,65183450.3950.51
Diseases of the heart6,2835,7041,75928.0030.84
Diseases of the arteries22357816674.4428.72
Bronchitis1511,7627348.344.14
Broncho-pneumonia5811,97028549.0514.47
Pneumonia2472,2673112.551.37
Pleurisy243601458.333.89
Asthma581,0853763.793.41
Ulcer of the stomach and duodenum1481,4786745.274.53
Diarrhœa and enteritis1421,7175538.733.20
Appendicitis455,7552760.000.47
Hernia, intestinal obstruction1193,5578268.912.31
Diseases of the liver (excluding hydatids)701574462.8628.03
Diseases of the gall-bladder and biliary passages702,2674970.002.16
Peritonitis3861820.93
Nephritis39960115639.1025.96
Urinary calculi16666850.001.20
Diseases of the bladder8580162.76
Diseases of the prostate1101,0147669.107.50
Diseases of the female genital organs155,0181386.670.26
Septic abortion3222266.660.90
Other puerperal diseases and accidents (including normal childbirth)5919,7772949.150.15
Diseases of the skin176,364250.39
Osteomyelitis8833562.500.60
Congenital malformations2331,75812352.797.00
Diseases of early infancy7171,22823032.0818.73
External causes1,04018,33233031.731.80
Other diseases97747,50075577.281.59
  Totals17,578151,9707,28041.424.79

Chapter 5. SECTION 5—PUBLIC HEALTH, HOSPITALS, ETC.

5 A—PUBLIC HEALTH

DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICES IN NEW ZEALAND.—Before 1872 there was no public health service in New Zealand. A few local authorities appear to have exercised a crude form of negative sanitary government, but otherwise little seems to have been done. Certainly no attempt was made to cope with outbreaks of diseases, even when they assumed epidemic proportions.

In 1872 the first Public Health Act became law. Under it a Central Board of Health was set up in each province and power was given to each Central Board to set up Local Boards of Health as required.

The Central Boards each consisted of the Provincial Superintendent, the Provincial Executive Council, and three other members. They acted mainly in a supervising capacity and took little active part in initiating or controlling preventive health measures. They were required to make periodical reports to the Governor of the colony, but, in fact, few were made.

The local Board of Health was usually the local authority for the area concerned. The Board was usually financed from rates, though if appointed by the Central Board it could be financed by parliamentary appropriation. In general its function was to administer the Public Health Act in its district, and it had power to appoint a medical adviser who was in all cases a part-time officer.

The abolition of the provinces in 1876 brought the disappearance of the provincial Central Boards of Health and the establishment of one Central Board of Health for the whole colony. Otherwise there was practically no change in the system which had existed since 1872.

The first period of public health administration in New Zealand came to an end in 1900. It is doubtful whether at any time during these twenty-eight years the administration of the 1872 Act and the later consolidating Act of 1876 was marked by much energy or thoroughness. Local Boards were hampered by lack of finance and by lack of zeal and knowledge. The powers of their Medical Officers (where appointed) were limited, and often the advice given by these officers was disregarded. The incidence of typhoid fever, a good index to the sanitary standards of a community, remained high throughout the whole of this period.

In 1900 the outbreak of Bubonic plague in Australia stimulated the authorities to action. In that year a Bubonic Plague Prevention Act was passed which, later in the same year, was repealed and embodied in the Public Health Act, 1900. Under this Act public health administration in New Zealand was put on a much more satisfactory basis. A separate Department of Public Health was set up under its own Minister; the country was divided into a number of health districts, and properly trained and qualified staff were appointed to administer the Act. In the years following the establishment of the Department steady progress was made in the building-up of a public health organization. Acts were passed dealing with the sale of food and drugs; the registration of medical practitioners, pharmacists, nurses and midwives, plumbers; the prevention of quackery; and the control of venereal disease. Sanatoria were established to help in the prevention and treatment of tuberculosis. Attention was given to problems of maternal welfare. Medical supervision of school-children came into operation, at first under the control of the Education Department, though in 1921 it was transferred to the Health Department.

In 1909 a closer link between curative and preventive medicine was forged by merging the Hospitals and Charitable Aid Department into the Department of Public Health's organization.

During the years 1900 to 1920 there was also an increasing public interest being taken in health matters. As a result a number of voluntary health organizations were established with the objects of diffusing knowledge of infant welfare, first aid, and home nursing.

The 1918-19 influenza epidemic brought to light a number of defects in the public health organization, particularly the need for a simplification of existing health legislation and the need for a clear definition of the duties of local authorities, Hospital Boards, and the Department of Health. The result of this experience was the passing of the Health Act, 1920, under which, with its amendments, the Department of Health has since operated.

Following the passing of this Act, new health districts were created and the existing activities of the Department were expanded. Among the more important of the new activities of the Department were the establishment of a School Dental Service in 1920, the building-up of health publicity work, and, in 1937, the institution of the Medical Research Council. Registration was also widened to include dentists, opticians, and masseurs.

The interest of the general public in health matters continued to expand after 1920, and was marked by the establishment of additional voluntary health organizations.

Recent developments have included a more positive attack on the problem of tuberculosis marked by the passing of the Tuberculosis Act, 1948, and the completion of plans for the establishment of a National Health Institute. At the end of 1947 the Mental Hospitals Department ceased to be a separate Department of State, and became the Division of Mental Hygiene of the Department of Health.

A more detailed outline of the development of public health services in New Zealand up to 1939 will be found in the annual report of the Department of Health for that year.

PRESENT ORGANIZATION OF PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICES.—Local Authorities : Part II of the Health Act, 1920, lays definite obligations on local authorities in regard to public health. Each local authority must either appoint its own Sanitary Inspectors or contribute to the salary of an Inspector of the Department of Health. Each Inspector must hold a certificate of the Royal Sanitary Institute (or certain equivalents) before he can be appointed. A local authority's responsibility in health matters is wide. It must promote and conserve the public health within its district—a function which includes regular inspections of its district; abatement of nuisances as defined in the Health Act; provision of efficient refuse, nightsoil, and sanitary services; protection and purification of water-supplies; closing and demolition of insanitary buildings; registration and regulation of cattle saleyards; and the enforcement of certain minimum sanitary requirements for residences and business premises. It may also make by-laws dealing with public health matters.

In certain circumstances some local authorities may be exempted from the above duties, but in such cases the Health Department must do whatever is necessary for the promotion and conservation of public health in that district. All expenses incurred are recoverable from the local authority concerned.

Department of Health: The chief administrative officer of the Department is the Director-General of Health. He is assisted by two Deputy Directors, and the work of the Department is divided among the following Divisions—Public Hygiene, Hospitals, Child Hygiene, Nursing, Clinical Services, Tuberculosis, Maternal Welfare, Dental Hygiene, and Occupational Health. There is also the Division of Mental Hygiene, the activities of which are described in Section 5c. New Zealand as a whole is divided into fourteen health districts, each under the control of a Medical Officer of Health, who must be a medical practitioner with special qualifications in sanitary science.

The Department is required to take whatever steps are necessary to secure the preparation, effective carrying out, and co-ordination of measures necessary to promote public health. It administers all Acts relating to public health; it advises local authorities on matters relating to public health; it must do whatever is possible to prevent, limit, or suppress disease; it promotes research into matters connected with public health and the prevention and treatment of disease; it conducts health publicity and organizes and controls medical, dental, and nursing services paid from public funds. With the authority of the Minister, a Medical Officer of Health may exercise very wide powers in the event of an outbreak of infectious disease, including the requisitioning of land and buildings, prohibition of public gatherings, and controlling the movements of cases and contacts of any infectious disease. Certain diseases, mostly infectious, but including some non-communicable, must be notified by medical practitioners. Provisions relating to quarantine are included in the Health Act; and extensive power is given to make regulations relating to the conservation and promotion of public health.

The Department's organization includes a Board of Health, which usually acts in an advisory capacity, but may in certain circumstances require local authorities to carry out prescribed works.

In addition to the Health Act, 1920, a full summary of which is given in the 1927 issue of the Year-Book, the following Acts are administered by the Department:—

Cemeteries Act, 1908.
Dangerous Drugs Act, 1927.
Dentists Act, 1936.
Dietitians Act, 1950.
Food and Drugs Act, 1947.
Hospitals Act, 1926.
King George V Memorial Fund Act, 1938.
Medical Act, 1908.
Medical Advertisements Act,1942.
Medical Practitioners Act, 1950.
Medical Research Council Act, 1950.
Mental Defectives Act, 1911.
Nurses and Midwives Act, 1945.
Occupational Therapy Act, 1949.
Opticians Act, 1928.
Physiotherapy Act, 1949.
Plumbers Registration Act, 1912.
Poisons Act, 1934.
Radioactive Substances Act, 1949.
Social Hygiene Act, 1917.
Social Security Act, 1938 (Part III).
Tuberculosis Act, 1948.

A detailed report of the activities of the Department of Health is given in the annual report of the Director-General of Health (parliamentary paper H-31).

The actual expenditure on the activities of the Department of Health for the years ended 31st March, 1950 and 1951, and the estimated expenditure for the year ended 31st March, 1952, are given in the following table.

Expenditure, Year Ended 31st March, 1950.Expenditure, Year Ended 31st March, 1951.Estimated Expenditure, Year Ended 31st March, 1952.

* Provision now made In the estimates of the Marketing Department—for 1951-52 estimated expenditure is £480,000.

 £££
Salaries, departmental officers826,673874,8941,024,402
Health education and publicity28,78528,04530,000
Medical bursaries19,46521,50519,500
Supply of milk to school-children320,328368,066*
Subsidies under Hospitals Act5,018,0176,312,8367,229,625
Medical research work21,01932,45740,000
Grants to voluntary organizations73,59972,702103,966
Departmental institutions266,560266,148346,253
Other costs of administration524,042460,356697,915
Expenditure from Consolidated Fund7,098,4888,437,0099,491,661
Maternity benefits871,386885,316918,700
Medical benefits2,524,2902,661,1662,800,100
Hospital benefits2,011,6492,018,9632,145,000
Pharmaceutical benefits2,043,8432,097,0002,269,000
Supplementary benefits1,009,9411,060,9381,136,200
Expenditure from Social Security Fund8,461,1098,723,3839,269,000
Total expenditure by Department15,559,59717,160,39218,760,661

In accordance with an amendment to the Health Act, 1920, as from 25th November, 1947, the Mental Hospitals Department became the Division of Mental Hygiene of the Department of Health. The above figures do not include expenditure on mental hygiene, which, for the year ended 31st March, 1950, was £1,766,659; for the year ended 31st March, 1951, £1,810,285; and which was estimated to be £2,008,339 for the year 1951-52.

PUBLIC HEALTH ACTIVITIES.—This account covers measures relating to “ preventive ” medicine, as distinct from activities in “ curative ” medicine, which are dealt with elsewhere in this volume—see Section 5B (Hospitals) and Section 5c (Mental Hospitals). Information on medical, hospital, and other related benefits, which are administered by the Department of Health, is given in Section 26 (Social Security, Pensions, Superannuation, &c.).

It is convenient to consider public health activities under headings which correspond to certain of the divisions within the Department of Health. These headings are—

Public Hygiene.Dental Hygiene.
Tuberculosis.Maternal Welfare.
Child Hygiene.Occupational Health.

PUBLIC HYGIENE.—The Health Act places responsibility for the maintenance of the public health largely on the Department, but local authorities have powers and duties to perform in a number of sanitary and inspection services. New Zealand is divided into fourteen heal districts, each being under the control of a Medical Officer whose duties include the administration of all enactments relating to Public Health and who can provide local governing bodies with expert advice in this field. Public Hygiene is concerned more particularly with the control of infectious disease, environmental hygiene, foods and drugs, narcotic drugs and poisons, and burial and cremation.

Disease: The control of disease is based on a system of notification which has long been in force. The present list of notifiable diseases is as follows:—

Notifiable Infectious Diseases

Acute poliomyelitis (infantile paralysis).
Anthrax.
Cerebro-spinal fever (cerobro-spinal meningitis, meningococcus meningitis).
Cholera.
Dengue.
Diphtheria.
Dysentery (amœbic and bacillary).
Encephalitis lethargica.
Enteric fever (typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever).
Erysipelas.
Fulminant influenza.
Leprosy.
Ophthalmia neonatorum.
Plague (bubonic or pneumonic).
Pneumonic influenza.
Puerperal fever (puerperal septicæmia, puerperal sapræmia).
Other Notifiable Diseases
Actinomycosis.
Anchylostomiasis (hookworm disease).
Bilharziosis (endemic hæmaturia,
Egyptian hæmaturia).
Beriberi.
Eclampsia.
Puerperal fever, involving any form of puerperal sepsis other than, or in addition to, puerperal septicæmia and puerperal sapræmia.
Septicæmia consequent upon abortion or miscarriage.
Septicæmic influenza.
Any form of sepsis or sapræmia consequent upon abortion or miscarriage.
Smallpox (variola, including varioloid, alastrim, amaas, Cuban itch and Philippine itch).
Streptococcal sore throat (including scarlet fever).
Trachoma (granular conjunctivitis, granular ophthalmia, granular eyelids).
Typhus.
Undulant fever.
Yellow fever.
Hydatids.
Food poisoning (botulismus, ptomaine poisoning).
Chronic lead poisoning.
Malaria.
Phosphorus poisoning.
Tetanus.

All forms of tuberculosis are notifiable under the Tuberculosis Act, 1948.

Venereal Diseases: Venereal diseases, while scheduled infectious diseases, are only notifiable if the patient discontinues treatment before cure is effected. The Venereal Diseases Regulations 1941, which revoked earlier regulations dealing with these diseases give adequate powers for the examination and treatment of persons suspected of suffering from the diseases. Free treatment has been established in the larger cities and treatment is available to seamen at the main ports in accordance with the Brussels Agreement. Restrictions are also placed on the nature of the employment such persons may undertake if they are suffering from the diseases in a communicable form.

In the administration of the regulations, every precaution is taken to ensure secrecy and the avoidance of publicity.

Environmental Hygiene is concerned with the provision and proper maintenance of public water-supplies and sewerage systems, the disposal of refuse, the condition of dwellinghouses, the control of offensive trades, and the hygiene of premises in which food is manufactured and sold, including eating-houses. These matters are primarily the responsibility of the local authorities, but the Department of Health acts in a general advisory capacity. In the case of many of the smaller local authorities the necessary inspections are made by departmental Inspectors on behalf of and by arrangement with the local authorities.

Food and Drugs: Legislation relating to the sale of food and drugs has been in force since 1908. The Act at present in force is the Food and Drugs Act 1947. It provides for the analysis, by analysts appointed under the Act, of any article of food or drink, or of any drug, which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any food or drug intended or sale. If any such article be proved to be unfit for human consumption heavy penalties may be inflicted on the person or persons responsible. Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration of food, drink, or drugs, and for the inspection of places where such goods are manufactured or packed. Control is also established over all utensils and appliances coming into contact with foods and drugs.

Considerable progress has been made in implementing the purposes of the Act. All the common foodstuffs are standardized, and the labelling of packages is controlled by regulations, which are revised and added to as the necessity arises. Regular sampling of foods, particularly milk, is undertaken by departmental Inspectors, and these samples are analysed in the Dominion Laboratory and its branch laboratories.

An important provision of the Act controls all kinds of publicity concerning any food or drug whereby a purchaser would possibly be deceived in regard to the properties of such food or drug, whether or not it is standardized by regulation. This matter is also covered by the Medical Advertisements Act, 1942, which is referred to later.

The definition of “drug” includes medicines used externally or internally by man—anæsthetics, soaps, and disinfectants.

Any person may, on payment of the prescribed fee, together with the cost of the sample, require any authorized officer to purchase a sample of any food and submit it for analysis.

A new power contained in the 1947 Act enables any drug to be withheld from the public except when prescribed by a doctor, dentist, or veterinary surgeon.

Dangerous Drugs and Poisons: In order to carry out New Zealand's obligations under international conventions relating to habit-forming drugs, the Dangerous Drugs Act, 1927, was enacted. The dealing in and the use of prepared opium are prohibited, and the production, manufacture, sale, and distribution of other dangerous drugs are restricted to persons licensed by the Director-General of Health. The importation of these drugs is controlled by the Customs Department. Provision is made to prevent illicit traffic in drugs of a habit-forming nature. Suitable regulations are in force to give effect to the provisions of the Act, and are similar to the regulations in the United Kingdom and Australia.

The Poisons Act, 1934, controls the proper labelling and packing of poisons, and in particular requires that all liquid poisons be packed in bottles of distinctive colour and shape. It is an offence to pack poisons in bottles that are ordinarily used for food, drink, or medicine. The Act also provides for the control of certain poisonous drugs by preventing their sale to the public except on the prescription of a doctor, a dentist, or a veterinary surgeon. The regulations under the Poisons Act follow the corresponding legislation in force in the United Kingdom.

Hydatid Prevention: In January, 1937, an amendment to the Dogs Registration Act, 1908, came into force requiring local authorities to keep a supply of approved remedies for the care or prevention of disease in dogs caused by infection from the parasite echinococcus granulosus. At the time of registration every person registering a dog receives a sufficient amount of an approved remedy to enable him to treat the dog every three months until the ensuing date of registration, and also printed instructions for the use of the remedy. The approved remedy at present supplied is arecoline hydrobromide. The Act is administered by the Department of Internal Affairs.

Medical Advertisements Act, 1942: This Act, which repealed the Quackery Prevention Act, 1908, came into force in January, 1943. Under it the word “advertisement” is defined broadly, but does not include any advertisement or scientific matter distributed only to members of the medical and allied professions.

The Act sets up a Medical Advertisements Board, which is given power to control all medical advertisements. The Board may require the claims or statements made or implied in any medical advertisement to be substantiated to its satisfaction. Subsequent publication of such an advertisement is prohibited until after the Board has notified its decision. For the purpose of protecting the public, the Board is given power to publish privileged statements concerning the subject-matter of any medical advertisement.

Regulations issued under the Act limit the nature of the subject-matter which may be included in any medical advertisement, and include a list of diseases concerning which no advertisement may make a claim to cure.

Cemeteries: The law governing burial and cremation in New Zealand is found in the Cemeteries Act, 1908, and its amendments of 1912, 1922, 1926, and 1950.

Widespread provision for cemeteries has been made in the past by the reservation of areas of Crown land for this purpose, but apart from this the Cemeteries Act makes it clear that local authorities are charged with ensuring that in their districts there exists adequate provision for the disposal of the dead.

In most rural areas and in the smaller centres the local authority either acts as trustee or else has been delegated the power of appointing individual trustees to carry out the provisions of the Act. For some cemeteries established on Crown reserves, trustees are appointed by the Governor-General. In the larger centres local authorities have acquired land for the establishment of cemeteries.

The law provides that cremation may be carried out subject to the conditions that the deceased was not known to have left any written direction to the contrary and that the cremation is effected in conformity with the regulations. The latter impose stringent precautions against cremation being used for any criminal purpose. Crematoria have been established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Wanganui, Hastings, and Nelson.

TUBERCULOSIS.—In the 1947-49 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 110-112) is given an account of the developments in the control of tuberculosis in this country, which led to New Zealand being one of the first countries to have special legislation dealing solely with this disease. In addition to giving the background to the Tuberculosis Act, 1948, the account mentions the work of the Tuberculosis Division of the Department of Health and refers to the recommendations of the World Health Organization.

Briefly, the control of Tuberculosis is based on—

  1. Accurate notification and registration of cases.

  2. Adequate supervision and reclassification.

  3. Segregation of active infectious cases.

  4. Instruction and treatment of individual patients.

  5. Rehabilitation of convalescent and arrested cases.

There is statistical evidence to suggest that these methods of control are resulting in a decrease in the death rate and the incidence of the disease, although it will be several years before this can be confirmed.

In the past year a programme of vaccination with B.C.G. Vaccine has been commenced on a voluntary basis in certain sections of the population, particularly nurses and contacts of cases of tuberculosis. The numbers treated in this, way are insufficient to have any appreciable effect upon the incidence of the disease.

The 1950 amendment to the Tuberculosis Act, 1948, empowers Inspectors of Health, in addition to those classes of persons already specified, to make inspections of residences or places of work of persons known or suspected to be suffering from tuberculosis or to be a contact of such a sufferer. The principal Act is also amended by strengthening those powers relating to isolation, in certain cases, of persons likely to spread infection.

CHILD HYGIENE.—The Division of Child Hygiene is responsible for the supervision of all measures for safeguarding the health of school-children and ensuring a satisfactory environment at school. The medical oversight of pre-school children from age eighteen months is also provided for.

The professional staff of the Division consists of a Director, who is a medical practitioner, and seventeen full-time and ten part-time Medical Officers. The Medical Officer in charge of a health district is responsible, within the limits of the policy laid down and the instructions he receives, for the direction and control of all child hygiene work done in his district.

The Division aims at giving each primary-school child at least three physical examinations during his primary-school life. The first, as an entrant, is carried out by the Medical Officer, and the others, in Standard 2 and Form II, by the District Nurse, who refers any departure from normal for a special examination by the Medical Officer. Special medical examinations by the Medical Officer are also made whenever parents, teachers, the District Nurse, or the Medical Officer consider them to be necessary. Children found to be suffering from defects are kept under observation until the necessary treatment is obtained. Mentally backward and feeble-minded children are given special attention, arrangements being made for their entry into special schools, special classes, or other institutions as may be necessary.

An effort is being made to have each pre-school child examined once a year, but if the child is normal and of good physique this period may be lengthened and the parent asked to return only if the child shows any departure from normal in the meantime. The examination of pre-school children is carried out at kindergartens and, assisted by the District Nurse, at school clinics, or at Plunket Rooms in conjunction with the Plunket Nurses.

A start has been made on the more detailed medical examination of post-primary school children and of physically handicapped children enrolled with the Education Department's Correspondence School.

Throughout its work the Division tries to secure the interest and co-operation of parents, because only in this way can the work be made effective. With this object in view parents are invited to be present at the medical examination of their children, an opportunity of which the majority take advantage.

Prevention of Disease: The activities of the Division are not confined to the routine medical examination of school-children. In addition, certain positive measures are taken to prevent disease and correct physical defects. The more important of these measures are—

  1. Typhoid Inoculations.—Maori children in the North Island are inoculated annually against the typhoid group of diseases.

  2. Diphtheria Immunization.—Protection against diphtheria is a routine procedure and is provided for by a home visit from the District Nurse, who will herself immunize the child at age from six months to twelve months, or arrange for a medical practitioner to do so. Diphtheria immunization of children who have been missed during the first year of life is undertaken by medical officers at the pre-school clinics. Booster doses are also given by the medical officers when the child enters school.

  3. Vaccination against Whooping-cough is offered at pre-school clinics to children six months to two years of age.

  4. Goitre Control.—The use of iodized salt and iodine-rich foods are advocated by the officers of the Division.

  5. The Milk-in-schools Scheme aims at maintenance of nutrition and convalescence.

  6. Health Camps are established to which children are admitted for convalescence or correction of malnutrition.

The object of the Milk-in-schools Scheme is to supply to each school-child in New Zealand half a pint of high-grade pasteurized milk on each day the school is open. The milk is delivered at the school bottled and is consumed through a straw from the original container. To ensure that the milk delivered to the schools is of the best possible quality, the sources of supply are inspected regularly and the processing and distribution of the milk is subject to close supervision. If for any reason it is not possible to supply a school with milk under the scheme, then powdered malted milk is supplied, provided that it can be served under hygienic conditions.

Health camps cater for delicate and undernourished children. The service selects the children to attend the camps (which are maintained by an independent organization—The New Zealand Federation of Health Camps) and, as necessary, re-examines them before admission and after discharge. In the camps the children live under an orderly and disciplined routine, they cat plain, well-cooked food, and they get plenty of rest and sunshine. In practically all cases a child who attends a health camp benefits both physically and mentally.

DENTAL HYGIENE.—The Division of Dental Hygiene, which was instituted in 1921, is concerned with the administration of the various dental activities of the Government, and in particular—(a) The national dental service which comprises (i) the School Dental Service and (ii) the Adolescent Dental Service; (b) The Dentists Act, 1936, and Regulations; (c) Dental bursaries; (d) Inspection of dental departments of Public Hospitals; and (e) Dental research.

The Division of Dental Hygiene has at its head a Director (a dental surgeon), who is responsible to the Minister of Health, through the Director-General of Health. The Director is assisted by a Deputy Director, an Assistant Director, a Principal Dental Officer (Health Education), and a Principal Dental Officer (Orthodontics). A Senior Executive Officer is responsible for the secretarial services. Also attached to the Director's staff is a Dental Field Research Officer, who is seconded from the New Zealand Medical Research Council.

The service is organized in seven units, each of which is controlled by a senior dental officer, who is directly responsible to the Director. These officers are the Principal of the Dominion Training School for Dental Nurses, and the Principal Dental Officers in charge of the six dental districts into which New Zealand is divided.

The School Dental Service is staffed by trained School Dental Nurses and the Adolescent Service by Dental Surgeons.

The School Dental Service.—Briefly, the functions of the Service are to improve the standard of dental health of school-children (and of pre-school children) by affording them regular and systematic treatment at six-monthly intervals, commencing from the primer classes (or earlier where possible), and continuing through to the highest class of the primary (or intermediate) school. Thereafter they are eligible for enrolment in the Adolescent Service. At present an unprecedented increase in the school population is being experienced as a result of the unusually high birth-rate in recent years. Until the number of Dental Nurses can be increased proportionately, children are being transferred to the “adolescent” service at an earlier stage, in order to enable the Dental Nurses to maintain six-monthly treatment for the younger children. This is a temporary phase, pending the training of more Dental Nurses.

The other main function of the School Dental Service is health education—the instruction of the children and of the general public in the principles of oral hygiene and the prevention of dental disease. For this purpose there is within the Division an organization for health education, to which further reference is made under a later heading.

The Dominion Training School in Wellington is the main training centre for School Dental Nurses. A second training school for dental nurses at Auckland has now been established. Two years are devoted to their theoretical and practical training. Approximately two hundred Student Dental Nurses are in training at the one time. The course is carefully graduated, and is in the hands of a staff of Dental Surgeons and Dental Tutor Sisters. Private dental practitioners are represented on the examining board for the final examination. During the period of training Student Dental Nurses reside in hostels owned and controlled by the Department of Health.

On completing her training, a School Dental Nurse is posted to a school dental clinic, where she becomes responsible to the Principal Dental Officer of her district for the dental treatment of a group of approximately five hundred patients. She is visited at intervals by the Principal Dental Officer or one of his staff, who discusses current problems, and assists the Dental Nurse to maintain a high standard in the conduct of her work.

Dental treatment comprises fillings in both temporary teeth and permanent teeth, cleaning and scaling of the teeth, extractions where necessary, and sodium fluoride treatment. There were 226,350 children under regular treatment by the School Dental Nurses during the year 1950–51. The aim of the Service is to promote dental health by conserving the natural teeth and preventing dental decay. Only a Small number of teeth have to be extracted as unsaveable, about seven for every hundred saved by suitable treatment.

Orthodontic treatment is carried out principally in Wellington, where an orthodontic section is established at the Wellington Dental Clinic. Dental officers on field clinics undertake a limited amount of orthodontic treatment of a simple nature.

Adolescent Dental Service.—The original aim was to provide dental service for adolescents through the medium of a full-time salaried service, but while the present shortage of dental surgeons continues progress towards this objective will be slow. In addition to the service provided by a number of clinics controlled by the Department of Health dental care for adolescents is in the meantime being provided by 513 of the 681 private practitioners as a dental benefit under the Social Security Act, the practitioners being reimbursed on a fee-for-service basis.

Eligibility for dental treatment as an adolescent is contingent upon a person having undergone regular dental care up to within three months of the time of application, either at a school dental clinic or from a private dental practitioner.

Treatment of adolescents is in effect a continuation of the treatment provided by the School Dental Service, and is continued until a patient has reached his nineteenth birthday, or such earlier age as the Minister may from time to time appoint. For the present the maximum age has been fixed as the sixteenth birthday.

Treatment is essentially of a nature designed to conserve the natural teeth. Dental supervision of adolescents is on a basis of examination and treatment at six-monthly intervals. There is free choice of dentists, and dentists have the right to decline patients.

The treatment (other than treatment requiring special approval) which may be provided as dental benefits, and the fees payable, are indicated in the 1951 Schedule to the Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1946. Dentists are free to exercise their professional judgment, and, if in their opinion a case demands a form of treatment that is not provided for in the schedule, there is provision, with certain limitations, for such treatment to be approved as a charge on the Social Security Fund.

At the 31st March, 1951, the number of adolescents enrolled for dental benefits, amounts paid for dental benefits, and the number of completed treatments for the year 1950–51 were—

 Number.Amount Paid, 1950–51. £Completed Treatments, 1950–51.
For general dental benefits107,529368,249129,949
For special dental benefits5,48415,5046,718

Dental Health Education.—The dental health education activities of the Department are under the control of the Principal Dental Officer (Health Education), who is responsible for the production of posters, pamphlets, sound films, film strips, radio talks, newspaper advertisements, and all other types of advertising media. In the departmental health exhibit is a dental section which is staffed when on tour by a Dental Tutor Sister (Health Education) and by School Dental Nurses from the locality in which the exhibit is on view.

Officers of the Service are kept in touch with health education and other matters by means of the national Dental Service Gazette, which is published bi-monthly.

Dental Officers and School Dental Nurses are expected to impress on their patients the necessity of maintaining a high standard of oral health. To further this end every opportunity is taken of distributing health educational literature, displaying posters, and devoting reasonable clinical time to instruction in oral hygiene. Opportunities to address meetings of various kinds are availed of wherever possible.

Dental Research.—By arrangement with the New Zealand Medical Research Council, a Dental Field Research Officer is attached to the Service. Primarily, this officer is engaged in a long-term programme of field research on dental problems, but his services are also available to assist the dental administration in carrying out short-term research projects when information is required for a specific purpose.

In addition to this work, the investigation of dental materials and methods of using them goes on constantly, and provides useful data for the selection and use of materials for the Service.

Dental Bursaries.—The Government grants between twenty and thirty bursaries each year to selected students to assist them to qualify as dentists. The bursaries are of a value of £70 per annum, plus free tuition the value of which is £50 and are tenable for five years, subject to satisfactory reports from the University authorities. An additional allowance of £40 per annum is payable to students who have to live away from home in order to pursue their studies. Students who are granted bursaries must enter into an agreement to pursue their studies diligently, and on graduating, to enter the service of the Crown or of a Hospital Board appointed by the Crown for a specified period not exceeding three years.

MATERNAL WELFARE.—Maternal- and infant-welfare work in New Zealand is based on co-operation between the Department of Health, Hospital Boards, the medical profession, and the Plunket Society.

The Director of Maternal Welfare is a medical practitioner. He supervises the inspection of maternity hospitals, the techniques in use in these hospitals, and, generally, the promotion of all aspects of maternal welfare.

The Medical Officers of Health, through their staff of Nurse Inspectors, exercise a general supervision over the work of midwives and closely control the many private hospitals throughout the country. All private hospitals are required to be licensed under the Hospitals Act, 1926, and the Department of Health sees that standards regarding the buildings, equipment, and staff are observed.

Except in an emergency, no persons other than registered medical practitioners and registered midwives are allowed to conduct confinements, and only registered midwives and registered maternity nurses are permitted to nurse women in childbirth. Approximately 95 per cent. of all confinements take place in the various types of maternity hospital—a maternity annex to a public hospital, a St. Helens Hospital, or a private maternity hospital.

Important contributions to maternal welfare are made by the Division of Nursing, which includes in its duties the supervision of the training of midwives and maternity nurses, and by the Hospitals Division, which includes in its duties the approval of plans for accommodation to be provided by the various types of maternity hospital. The work of these two Divisions is surveyed elsewhere in this section.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH.—In 1944, a Medical Inspector of Factories in Great Britain was seconded to the Department of Health in order to undertake a survey of conditions of work in New Zealand factories. In his report he suggested "that consideration be given to the formation within the Department of Health of a Division of Industrial Hygiene to include the factory inspectorate, relieved of all other duties and to administer those parts of a new Factories Act and such other legislation as is concerned with the health, welfare, and safety of the industrial worker."

The principle of a Division of Industrial Hygiene was accepted, and the first medical appointment to the new Division was made during 1946, the appointee taking up his duties in January, 1947. The name of the Division has since been changed from “Industrial Hygiene” to “Occupational Health,” the new title giving a better indication of the scope of the work that might well eventually be covered. Four District Industrial Medical Officers have also been appointed to work in the four main centres, and a fifth will commence in Palmerston North in early 1952. Between them they cover the whole of New Zealand, under the general direction of the Director of the Division at the Head Office of the Department of Health.

A prominent characteristic of the diversification of New Zealand industry is that it is of recent growth and is contained in small units. In many of the small factories, on account of the high per caput cost, amenities tend to be of a lower standard than in the average large factory. A substantial proportion of small factories, in addition to a number of the larger ones, fail to conform to the 1946 Factories Act standards, and the first objective of the Industrial Health Service, therefore, must be to assist the Department of Labour and Employment to establish the minimum standards required by the Act. In this, the District Industrial Medical Officers need to work in close co-operation with the inspectors of the Department of Labour and Employment and in order to facilitate this liaison, office accommodation has been provided in most centres for the medical officers in the District Labour and Employment offices.

The Factories Act, 1946, section 78, gives to Medical Officers of Health or other authorized officers of the Department of Health the same powers and authorities as Inspectors of Factories with regard to the health and welfare sections of the Act. The Act gives the officers of the Department of Health no legal standing in relation to the provisions for safety, although the lost time caused by accidents demands more preventive work in which medical men and nurses with an industrial training should play a part.

The Division has also the more confined objective of guarding the health of those workers who are exposed to the special health risks, such as those handling lead salts, or liable to breathe dangerous fumes, or those who are in contact with skin-irritants. Inevitably there is a great deal of ignorance and lack of consciousness on the part of management and workers of the dangers and hazards associated with their work. Education on these matters, together with publicity and propaganda, will do much to raise the level of understanding and is properly a function of the Division.

In 1947 an industrial nursing course was incorporated into the syllabus of the Postgraduate Nurses' Training School, and this has been repeated in subsequent years. Nurses completing this course have been appointed to the Department of Health, attached to the staff of the District Industrial Medical Officers, or to Government Departments such as the Railways and Post and Telegraph. These nurses have had special training in blood examination of workers at risk from lead-absorption, and their duties include the monthly blood examination of such workers required under the Lead Process Regulations. Other groups of workers at special risk from health hazards, such, for example, as those in electro-plating shops, are included under the regular supervision of the nurses, who are also available for any special work that may be required in looking after juveniles, pregnant women, or physically handicapped workers.

In addition, a number of industrial nurses are employed by the larger private firms. A Nurse Inspector appointed by the Department of Health regularly visits these nurses in order to advise them in their work and to co-ordinate and broaden the conception of a health service in industry. Part of this officer's time is occupied as tutor at the Post-graduate Nurses' School in Wellington.

In 1949 a full-time one-year course was inaugurated at the Wellington Technical College for Health and Labour Department inspectors and recruits. This course includes instruction in industrial health, in addition to the subjects required for the Certificate of the Royal Sanitary Institute.

In 1950 a Technical Advisory Officer was appointed to the Division, who had formerly acted as Technical Advisory Officer to the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents in Great Britain. He had also had some years' experience as a factory Inspector there.

The Division is concerned with the health of all workers, not merely those covered by the Factories Act, and from time to time surveys are undertaken of working conditions in specific industries. As a result of inspections and reports on conditions of work of waterside workers at Wellington and Lyttelton, industrial health centres have been set up at each of these ports, staffed by the Department's industrial nurses and under the supervision of the Industrial Medical Officer for the area. An industrial health centre has been established in the Woolston area of Christchurch to serve industries in the neighbourhood, and similar centres are planned for other industrial areas.

Radiation Protection.—An important step was taken with the passing of the Radioactive Substances Act, 1949. Although the dangers associated with the generation and use of X-rays have long been realized, there had previously been no statutory authority for specific control of X-ray plants and their operators. The hazards arising from the high voltages employed have been well known, but it was not until 1944, when the Electrical Wiring (X-ray) Regulations were drawn up, that these hazards became subject to specific control. With the increasing use of radium in medicine and the possibilities that have appeared in the last few years of radioactive elements being used in fundamental research there has come about a need for legislation designed to protect all persons from harmful radiations. Factors contributing to the realization of this need have been that X-ray equipment of old design was still being used and that X-rays have found an increasing use in industry and even in some special branches of merchandising, such as the fitting of footwear.

The Radioactive Substances Act, 1949, established a special council of radiologists and physicists, who will advise the Minister of Health on all questions of a technical nature. The Act set up a very thorough licensing system for all users of irradiating apparatus and radioactive substances, and gave very wide powers for the making of specific regulations. These latter, known as the Radiation Protection Regulations 1951, have specific requirements relating to the health of those persons whose work is likely to expose them to harmful radiations, ventilation of rooms in which these radiations are produced, quantitative limitations on the exposure of persons to radiation, and generally those precautions and protective devices which will all contribute to safe practice. The same regulations require full records to be kept of various uses of radiations, in order that long-term effects on a person's health may later be traced. Separate regulations, the Transport of Radioactive Substances Regulations 1951, have been made to deal with all aspects of the packing, shielding, labelling, and transport of radioactive substances, and, in addition, the Department has issued to all radiation workers, to supplement the regulations, a booklet entitled "Recommendations for Protection from Radiation Hazards."

In all problems associated with the use of irradiating apparatus and radioactive substances the Dominion X-ray and Radium Laboratory at Christchurch is playing an important part.

NURSING.—The Nursing Division is responsible for the supervision of the training, the examination, and the registration of the following classes of hospital employees:—

Nurses.Nursing aids.
Maternity nurses.Psychiatric nurses.
Midwives.Male nurses.

Post-graduate training for selected registered nurses is conducted at the Post-graduate School, Wellington, the courses given at present being—

  • Public health nursing.

  • Hospital and nursing school administration.

  • Industrial nursing.

  • Medical-social work.

  • Obstetrical nursing.

In addition, post-certificate courses are given at several of the main hospital centres in—

  • Plunket nursing.

  • Plastic surgical nursing.

  • Neuro-surgical nursing.

Regular inspection of all public hospitals, including those which are training schools, is carried out. The Division also organizes and controls the district nursing services conducted by the Department of Health and it supervises the district nursing services conducted by the various Hospital Boards throughout New Zealand.

MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL.—Under the Medical Research Council Act, 1950, a Medical Research Council has been set up with the following functions:—

  1. To foster medical research and to prepare and publish such reports on these matters as may in its opinion be necessary or of value to teachers or other persons.

  2. To furnish information, advice, and assistance to persons and organizations concerned with medical research.

This Council has taken over and will develop the work of a departmental committee, bearing the same name, which had been in existence since 1938. At the end of 1951, research in the following subjects was in progress:—

Microbiology.Neuropathology and neurophysiology.
Tuberculosis.Dentistry.
Clinical medicine.Obstetrics.
Nutrition.Endocrinology.

The Council maintains liaison with the research work being carried out by the Travis Trust Laboratory for tuberculosis research and the New Zealand Branch of the British Empire Cancer Campaign Society.

REGISTRATION COUNCILS AND BOARDS.—Medical Practitioners: The Medical Council of New Zealand, constituted under the Medical Practitioners Act, 1950, consists of the Director-General of Health, the Dean of the Faculty of Medicine in the University of Otago, and five other registered medical practitioners. One of the five members is appointed on the recommendation of the New Zealand Branch of the British Medical Association.

The Council deals with all applications for registration under the Act, which prescribes that every person shall be entitled to conditional registration who satisfies the Council that he is a graduate in medicine and surgery of the University of New Zealand; or registered on the register kept in accordance with the provisions of the Acts regulating the registration of medical practitioners in the United Kingdom or the Republic of Ireland; or the holder, after a course of not less than five years of a foreign diploma approved by the Council. The Council may, however, refuse to approve any diploma (even in the case of persons registered in the United Kingdom or the Republic of Ireland) unless it appears that New Zealand graduates are, without further examination, entitled to registration in the country granting the diploma. It may also require the holder of a foreign diploma to attend a course and pass an examination in medicine and surgery.

An applicant who is refused registration as a medical practitioner has the right of appeal to the Supreme Court. The fee for registration is £5, which is payable on deposit of evidence of qualifications. Each year every registered medical practitioner who is not specially exempted under the Act and who is actually practising medicine in New Zealand is required to obtain an annual practising certificate, the fee payable being £1.

The Medical Council is vested with disciplinary powers, including the suspension of a medical practitioner from practice. Right of appeal to the Supreme Court is provided. The Supreme Court, on the motion of the Medical Council, may order the removal of a name from the register in cases where a medical practitioner is guilty of grave misconduct, or is convicted of an indictable offence punishable by imprisonment with hard labour for a term of two years or upwards. The Medical Council is also given power to hear appeals against the decisions of the Medical Practitioners Disciplinary Committee also set up under the Medical Practitioners Act, 1950. Any person involved who feels aggrieved by the decision of the Medical Council on an appeal from the Disciplinary Committee may appeal to the Supreme Court against the Council's decision.

The Medical Council has been given power to institute an internship scheme in New Zealand. Up to the present (February, 1952) this power has not been exercised.

The number of medical practitioners on the register at 30th June, 1951, was 2,463.

Dentists: The Dentists Act, 1936, provides for the constitution of a Dental Council, the functions of which are to examine and approve of the qualifications of applicants desiring registration as dentists and to exercise disciplinary control over registered dentists.

The Dentists Register is kept by the Director-General of Health, to whom applications for registration are addressed. The applications are submitted by the Director-General of Health to the Dental Council for consideration and direction regarding acceptance for registration. The Director-General of Health may issue to any person who has applied for registration as a dentist a provisional practising certificate which entitles the person to practice dentistry pending consideration of his application by the Dental Council.

Every adult person is entitled to be registered as a dentist who satisfies the Dental Council that he is the holder of a qualification in dentistry obtained from the University of New Zealand; or that he is the holder of a qualification approved by the Dental Council and obtained from a University or other institution in the United Kingdom or in some other part of the British Commonwealth (in the latter case, however, the Council may require a further examination); or is the holder of an approved foreign qualification, but the Council may refuse to approve any foreign qualification if New Zealand graduates in dentistry are not accepted for registration without further examination in the country concerned, or the Council may require the applicant to pass a further examination.

The fee for initial registration is £2. If a provisional practising certificate is required, there is a further fee of 5s. A fee of £1 per annum is payable for an annual practising certificate.

The number of private dental practitioners holding annual practising certificates at 31st March, 1951, was 681.

Physiotherapists.—Under the Physiotherapy Act, 1949, is constituted the Physiotherapy Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health, the Principal of the New Zealand School of Physiotherapy, Dunedin, the Inspecting Physiotherapist of the Department of Health, one registered medical practitioner nominated by the Minister, and three practising physiotherapists nominated by the New Zealand Trained Masseurs Association (Inc.).

The Board is concerned with the training, examination, registration, and conduct of persons engaged in the practice of physiotherapy in New Zealand.

The training period is three years. Full-time training for male or female students at the New Zealand School of Physiotherapy, Dunedin, occupies two and a half years of the course, and is followed by a period of six months training at a public hospital approved by the Board as a subsidiary training school. At the conclusion of the course of training students are required to pass the State examination in Physiotherapy in order to qualify for registration. The fees payable for examination and registration are prescribed by regulations under the Act.

Every person registered under the Act and engaged in the practice of physiotherapy must hold an annual practising certificate. The fee payable is 10s. per annum.

The Act also provides for the admission to the register of overseas personnel whose standard of training is acceptable to the Board.

Occupational Therapists.—Under the Occupational Therapy Act, 1949, is constituted the Occupational Therapy Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health as Chairman; the Director, Division of Nursing as Registrar; the Director, Division of Mental Hygiene; the Medical Superintendent of a mental hospital; the Supervisor of Occupational Therapy; a Medical Superintendent of a public hospital; a representative of the Red Cross Society; a representative of the Occupational Therapists' Association, and one other person appointed by the Minister.

The Board is concerned with the training, examination, registration, and conduct of persons engaged in the practice of occupational therapy in New Zealand.

The training period is at least two years, and is undertaken at the School of Occupational Therapy, Avondale, Auckland.

Every person registered under the Act and engaged in the practice of occupational therapy in New Zealand must hold an annual practising certificate.

The Act also provides for the admission to the register of persons trained outside New Zealand, whose standard of training is acceptable to the Board.

Nurses, Midwives, and Maternity Nurses: Under the Nurses and Midwives Act, 1945, is constituted the Nurses and Midwives Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health (Chairman), the Director, Division of Mental Hygiene, the Registrar (Director, Division of Nursing), one registered medical practitioner, a representative of the Hospital Boards' Association of New Zealand, two registered nurses, one registered midwife, and one registered psychiatric nurse. Members other than official members are appointed on the recommendation of the Minister of Health, the nursing personnel being nominated by the New Zealand Registered Nurses' Association.

The functions of the Board are—

  1. To determine the courses of training and instruction to be undergone by candidates for examination.

  2. To approve hospitals and other institutions at which training or any portion of training may be received.

  3. To conduct examinations; to appoint examiners and make all necessary arrangements for examinations; to issue suitable certificates of registration.

  4. To receive applications for registration and to authorize registration in proper cases.

  5. To have regard to the conduct of persons registered under the Act, and, within the scope of its authority, to do whatever may be necessary for the effective administration of the Act.

Under the Act, regulations authorized by the Governor-General by Order in Council may be made, the current regulations being the Nurses and Midwives Regulations 1947.

Registration.—The Nurses and Midwives Act, 1945, requires that the following registers be kept by the Registrar, who is defined by the Act as the person who holds the position of Director, Division of Nursing—

  1. Register of Nurses.

  2. Register of Midwives and Maternity Nurses.

  3. Register of Male Nurses.

  4. Register of Psychiatric Nurses.

  5. Register of Nursing Aids.

Every person trained in New Zealand who satisfies the Board that she or he has served the stipulated training period, has passed the prescribed qualifying examination, and has complied with the other conditions laid down by the Act is entitled to have her or his name entered in the appropriate register. In addition, persons trained outside New Zealand who satisfy the Board that their training and qualifications are equal to the equivalent New Zealand training and qualifications are entitled to be registered in the appropriate New Zealand registers.

In the case of New-Zealand-trained nurses the fee payable for the qualifying examination includes the registration fee. Overseas-trained nurses whose applications for registration have been approved by the Board are required to pay a fee of £1 for the initial qualification and a further fee of 10s. for each additional qualification.

The total number of names on the various registers as at 1st July, 1951, was—

Nurse2,526
Nurse and Midwife1,183
Nurse and Maternity2,732
Nurse and Psychiatric31
Nurse, Midwife, and Psychiatric20
Nurse, Maternity, and Psychiatric46
Maternity Nurse483
Maternity Nurse and Nursing Aid1
Maternity Nurse and Psychiatric4
Midwives260
Psychiatric Nurses428
Nursing Aids120
Male Nurses70
Male Nurse and Psychiatric1

Dietitians: Under the Dietitians Act, 1950, is constituted the Dietitians Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health as Chairman; the Dean of the Faculty of Home Science of the University of Otago; the Director, Division of Nursing, Department of Health; the Nutritionist, Department of Health; Inspecting Dietitian, Department of Health; two dietitians nominated by the New Zealand Dietetic Association (Incorporated); and one other person appointed by the Minister of Health.

The functions of the Board are (a) to advise and make recommendations to the Minister of Health in respect of any matter affecting the profession of dietetics, (b) to determine courses of training and instruction to be undergone by candidates for examinations, (c) to approve hospitals and allied institutions as training schools, (d) to conduct examinations, (e) to effect registration, (f) to have regard to the conduct of persons registered under the Act, and (g) to effectively administer the Act.

The training period is not less than one year and not more than two years six months, and is undergone in a hospital or other institution approved as a training school by the Board.

Opticians: The Opticians Act, 1928, provides for the constitution of an Opticians Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health (the Registrar), three persons engaged in practice as opticians in New Zealand (one of whom must be practising as an employee of another registered optician), and a registered medical practitioner with special knowledge of diseases of the eyes.

The Board deals with all applications for registration under the Act. On payment of the prescribed fee (£5), every person is entitled to registration as an optician who satisfies the Board that—

  1. He has received satisfactory training qualifying him to practise as an optician, and is the holder of a certificate of qualification recognized by the Board; or

  2. He has passed an examination under the Act, both theoretical and practical, after a course of not less than three year's approved training in New Zealand as prescribed by regulations, or produces evidence of satisfactory training overseas.

Under the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), an annual practising certificate (fee, £1) is required.

Regulations pursuant to the Opticians Act, 1928, prescribe the conditions and period of training and the syllabus for the examination conducted by the Opticians Board.

The number of opticians on the register at 31st December, 1950, was 280.

Plumbers: The Plumbers Board of New Zealand, constituted under the Plumbers Registration Act, 1912, consists of five members—viz., the Director-General of Health or his deputy (Chairman), the Director of Education, a city or borough engineer nominated by the Municipal Association of New Zealand, and a master plumber and a journeyman plumber elected by their respective associations.

The Board is concerned with the examination and registration of plumbers. Once registered under the Act, a plumber is not required to pass any further examination or pay licence fees to local bodies.

The Plumbers Registration Amendment Act, 1950, removed the former limit of 5s. on the fee for registration and the limit of £1 on the fee for examination, and leaves the amount of all such fees to be fixed by regulations.

The total of names on the register at 31st March, 1951, was 3,852.

Pharmaceutical Chemists: There are about 1,200 names on the Register of Pharmaceutical Chemists in New Zealand. All “registered chemists” automatically become members of the Pharmaceutical Society of New Zealand, the Society's affairs being managed by the Pharmacy Board constituted by the Pharmacy Act, 1939.

The Board consists of twelve members, one of whom is appointed by the Minister of Health, nine are elected on a district basis by registered chemists, and two by persons, not necessarily registered chemists, who have served an approved apprenticeship and who, at the time of the election, are employed in pharmacy. The main function of the Pharmacy Board is to administer the Pharmacy Act and generally to protect and promote the interests of the profession of pharmacy and the interests of the public in relation thereto.

It is a specific requirement of the Pharmacy Act that pharmacies in New Zealand be at all times maintained under the immediate supervision and control of a registered chemist, either in the capacity of proprietor or enrolled manager.

During the year 1950, 381 reports on inspections of pharmacies were considered by the Pharmacy Board.

The Board has reciprocal arrangements with the pharmaceutical authorities of Great Britain, Northern Ireland, Republic of Ireland, and all the Australian States in the matter of registration. Any person registered as a pharmaceutical chemist in any of these places is eligible for registration in New Zealand. Persons registered as chemists in New Zealand, similarly, are eligible for registration in the countries mentioned.

The Board conducts the examinations prescribed in the Pharmacy Regulations. Persons completing these examinations, as well as an approved apprenticeship of four years, qualify for registration as "registered chemists."

The College of Pharmacy in Wellington was taken over as a function of the Society at the beginning of 1944 after having been conducted privately for a period of eleven years. In 1950 there were 392 students enrolled with the college for tuition either personally or by correspondence. All persons indentured after the 1st October, 1944, are obliged to attend personally at the college for a period of three weeks during their final year of apprenticeship.

Pharmacy is now subject to the provisions of the Industrial Efficiency Act, 1936, every open shop being under licence. No company or individual may open a pharmacy or change his premises without consent from the Licensing Authority, namely, the Bureau of Industry. There are approximately 650 pharmacies at present licensed.

VOLUNTARY WELFARE ORGANIZATIONS.—Over the years voluntary welfare organizations have made valuable contributions to the solution of certain problems of public health. In many cases they are encouraged and assisted in their work by grants from public funds. Among the more important of these organizations are the Plunket Society, the New Zealand Federation of Health Camps, St. John Ambulance (N.Z.), the N.Z. Red Cross Society, the Crippled Children Society, and the N.Z. Federation of Tuberculosis Associations.

The Plunket Society—the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children—trains its own baby-welfare nurses, conducts baby-welfare clinics throughout the country, and maintains four Karitane Hospitals for premature babies or difficult feeders, but not catering for the sick baby. The oversight of the healthy baby is left to the Plunket Society, except in those areas where there is no Plunket clinic. In these areas the Health Department District Nurse does baby-welfare work.

The New Zealand Federation of Health Camps was formed in 1936, and to-day maintains a chain of permanent health camps for delicate and undernourished children. The Federation works in close co-operation with the Department of Health. It is the means whereby the voluntary nature of the various organizations is preserved, while ensuring that the available resources are utilized to the best advantage. Much of the finance for the Federation's activities is derived from the proceeds of the annual health stamp appeal.

The St. John Ambulance (N.Z.) has divisions throughout the country carrying out free ambulance work and instruction in first aid and home nursing. It is a branch of the Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem.

The New Zealand Red Cross Society, a part of the International Red Cross Committee, has centres and sub-centres throughout the country. It gives training in first aid, home nursing, hygiene and sanitation, and emergency transportation of the injured. Graduates of these classes form voluntary aid detachments that in peacetime are recruited as aids in hospitals, and in wartime may be recruited for service overseas as well.

The Crippled Children Society keeps a register of all crippled children, helps them to acquire all possible medical treatment, and undertakes vocational training and home education where this is required.

The New Zealand Federation of Tuberculosis Associations looks after the interests of the tuberculosis. It assists the Health Department with health education of the public regarding tuberculosis and concerns itself with after-care and vocational training and guidance.

NATIONAL PHYSICAL WELFARE AND RECREATION.—Because of the abundant natural facilities for popular recreation, New Zealand citizens have always been characterized by a love of outdoor sporting and recreational activity. Although, compared with the older countries of the world, there are large areas available as playing-fields, even in the cities, the demand still exceeds the supply. On the other hand, the long coastlines and frequent mountain ranges enable most people to enjoy outdoor life. A temperate, equable climate ensures the use of facilities on a year-round basis.

The most popular summer sports are swimming and surfing, tennis, cricket, athletics, lawn bowls, and cycle touring, while softball is becoming popular with both sexes throughout the country.

Rugby football is the premier sport in winter, but there are enthusiastic and numerically large followings for hockey, association football, tramping, ski-ing and mountaineering, outdoor and indoor basketball, badminton, and table tennis. Both professional and amateur boxing and wrestling are quite popular winter sports, whilst the game of indoor bowls, hitherto confined to isolated areas, is attracting increasing numbers.

Generally speaking, facilities for indoor sports are inadequate in the face of the growing interest and participation in such sports as indoor basketball, badminton, table tennis, and indoor bowls. There is a growing realization of this inadequacy, and steps are being taken, usually in conjunction with community-centre movements, to provide and maintain indoor sporting facilities of a high standard.

All sporting activities in New Zealand are organized on a district basis, with representatives from each district forming a national controlling body. In this way every sport has a number of associations, unions, sub-associations, &c., which control the sport in each district from the strictly local aspect, while a New Zealand association (or union) is the controlling body in all matters of nation-wide significance in that particular sport.

An exception to this arrangement, whereby each sport is responsible for its own administration, is that of selection of representatives for the Olympic and the Empire Games. There exists in New Zealand an Olympic Council made up of representatives of all sports bodies interested in Olympic and Empire Games competition. It was this Council, for instance, which decided upon Auckland as the venue for the 1950 Empire Games when the International Association allocated the games to New Zealand.

The plan of the Physical Welfare and Recreation Branch of the Internal Affairs Department is to assist and encourage the development of recreation in New Zealand. It owes its origin to the passing of the Physical Welfare and Recreation Act, 1937, which in the preamble succinctly states the purpose of the Branch: "To provide for the development of facilities for, and the encouragement of, physical training, exercise, sport, and recreation, and to facilitate the establishment of centres for social activities related thereto."

To implement the above Act, Physical Welfare and Recreation Officers have from time to time been appointed. These officers are located at fourteen strategic points throughout New Zealand. The work of the officers varies according to local requirements and district trends in sport and recreation, but the principal activities of the Branch as a whole may be summarized as follows:—

  1. Leadership Training for all sport and recreation groups, the emphasis to date being on the training of leaders for social recreation groups such as those organized by churches and clubs. Youth organizations such as Boy Scouts, Boys Brigade, and similar institutions have also received assistance in this direction. As at the 28th February, 1951, a total of 741 persons have received Leadership Training Certificates, signifying the successful completion of a full training course conducted by the Physical Welfare and Recreation Branch. Many thousands of others have been trained to a lesser degree during the normal work of Branch officers. In the field of leadership training in sport, the Branch's efforts have been directed towards the raising of the standard of sports coaching and officiating at sports meetings, a need made apparent by the increased participation in sports generally.

  2. Organization and Promotion of Recreational Activity within each community as made evident by local needs and requirements. A specific activity with priority in all districts is promotion of recreation clubs in rural areas.

  3. The Promotion of Holiday Camps and Training of Camp Leaders.—Camps have been conducted directly by Branch officers, while on many occasions the services of Physical Welfare and Recreation Officers have been made available, particularly in children's camps, to organize and conduct recreational activities.

  4. Encouraging Tramping and Mountaineering.—The Department of Internal Affairs has constructed and maintains a chain of huts in the Harper Pass area of Canterbury.

  5. Organization of Industrial Recreation.—To date this has for the most part taken the form of organizing and promoting associations which are calculated to provide sport and recreation (cultural and social) for a variety of employed groups. Organizations formed in this way are located chiefly in cities and larger towns and take the form of business firms' recreation associations, trade-union sports associations, and Public Service sports associations. Recreation activity for the most part takes the form of inter-unit sports tournaments, but there is ample room for development along cultural lines and in the broader field of recreation.

  6. Organization and Conduct of Group Travel Tours.—The introduction of New Zealanders, as well as tourists, to New Zealand is relatively well provided for. The Tourist Department, some commercial travel organizations, and the Physical Welfare and Recreation Branch each have their respective fields of activity.

  7. Organizational and Practical Assistance in Learn-to-swim and Fitness Campaigns.—Extensive “Learn to Swim” campaigns are conducted each summer by the Education Department (for school-children) and by the Physical Welfare and Recreation Branch in conjunction with swimming associations (for adults). Frequently the two organizations combine in specific district campaigns.

During the last two summers an extensive publicity campaign has been conducted in an effort to decrease the incidence of deaths by drowning.

  1. Production of Sports Coaching and Information Material.—Recreation information bulletins are published from time to time by the Head Office of the Physical Welfare Branch. A library is maintained and photographs and films are loaned to interested organizations through district officers. Active steps are being taken to provide literature on a wide variety of topics relating to sport and recreation, and a library is being built up of films and photographs of use to sports and recreational institutions to assist in coaching those interested in particular activities. General recreational material is distributed to all certified recreation leaders.

  2. Advice and Information.—Physical Welfare and Recreation Offices may be termed “District Bureaux” to provide advice and information on all recreational matters to interested inquirers. In addition to such general duties, Physical Welfare Officers provide a liaison not only between the Government and local recreation authorities, but also between associations, the local authorities, and other interested societies and clubs. In addition to assisting the local Councils of Sport in every possible way, officers also assist sporting clubs and societies requesting such assistance.

A most important feature of the liaison work is that of establishing contact between children leaving school and adult sporting and recreational organizations. This is achieved through direct interviews with senior pupils of schools and colleges and through the distribution of illustrated brochures advertising the work of the Branch and indicating that assistance in the taking-up of any form of sport or recreation is available from the Physical Welfare Officers of the district concerned. A similar service is tendered to all immigrants.

  1. Community Centres.—A noteworthy trend in New Zealand of recent years has been the formation and planning of community centres in many districts. This trend has been facilitated by the Government subsidy on a pound-for-pound basis for such “living” war memorials as community centres, halls, and play areas. In addition to conforming to the requirements for a living war memorial, projects must be sponsored by the local authority in order to ensure future maintenance.

Physical Welfare Officers have assisted established community centres with advice and practical instruction to keep-fit classes, sports clubs, and similar bodies, and in the provision of printed material conveying information on community centres both in New Zealand and overseas.

  1. Training of Officers.—Though in-service training has been the rule since the inception of the Physical Welfare and Recreation Branch in 1939, there has been a growing realization that specialized and specific training is required for officers. Training schemes for junior officers embracing a two-year training period have been carried out since 1946. Up to the present junior women officers only have undergone training, but it is intended to include junior male officers in future. In addition, the Branch has now been granted three bursaries at the School of Physical Education, Otago University.

  2. Financial Assistance for Sport and Recreation.—Provision was made in the Physical Welfare and Recreation Act, 1937, for the making of grants by the Government to assist sport and recreation. Such grants are not made for honoraria, travelling-expenses, personal uniforms, or general administrative expenses, nor where it is considered that an organization can carry out a project without grant assistance—i.e., grants are made only for additional capital expenditure. For the year 1951–52 an amount of £10,000 was voted to cover requirements in this respect.

5 B—HOSPITALS AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS

HISTORY.—Authentic information regarding the earliest steps taken to establish public hospitals is meagre. In July, 1841, mention is made in the New Zealand Government Gazette of the appointment by the Government of the first Colonial Surgeon with Auckland as his headquarters. Apparently there was some institution in existence for European patients who obtained admission by applying to the Colonial Secretary, who was the only person having this authority. In the case of Maoris it was different; all that was required of them was to present themselves at the institution.

Due to Governor Grey's efforts, which were at first criticized by many, the Government in 1846 consented to grant money for the erection of hospitals in each of the four centres—Auckland, Wellington, Wanganui, and Taranaki—for the treatment of sick and destitute Europeans and free treatment for all Maoris. The foundation stone of the Wellington Hospital was laid in November, 1846, whilst the Auckland Hospital was founded the following year.

It is recorded that the first Dunedin Hospital was built in 1851, and that Christchurch was first served by a hospital at Lyttelton known to have been operating in 1853.

In 1854 control of public hospitals was vested in the six Provincial Councils of Auckland, Taranaki, Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago, but in 1876, following the abolition of the provinces, the hospitals reverted to the General Government.

As the result of a conference between local authority representatives and the Government in 1878 the first two hospital districts as they are now known were formed. They were based respectively on the hospitals of Dunstan (Clyde) and Cromwell. However, hospitals generally remained under Government control until 1885 when the first Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act was passed. By it New Zealand was divided into thirty-eight hospital districts, each under the control of its own Board.

In 1886 the Hospital and Charitable Institutions Amendment Act was passed giving power to two or more hospitals to join into a united district and control their own affairs. The legislation followed a recommendation of the Inspector of Hospitals that thirteen of the thirty-eight hospitals be closed as the population in some districts was insufficient to support a fully-equipped hospital. Instead of taking advantage of this legislation districts have moved in the opposite direction, and by amending legislation, the number of districts gradually increased until by 1909 there were forty-seven; amalgamations since that date have reduced the number to thirty-seven, at which it now stands. In 1948 the title of the Act was changed to the Hospitals Act.

CONSTITUTION.—A “hospital district” comprises one or more counties and includes boroughs and town districts within the boundaries of the county or counties. The County Councils, Borough Councils, and Town Boards are the “contributory local authorities” within the hospital district.

Districts vary in size from Auckland with a population of 378,010 down to Maniototo which has only 2,865 people.

A Board consists of one or more representatives of each contributory local authority, the number being fixed by the Governor-General by Order in Council having regard to the relative populations and relative values of rateable property of the local authority districts. The total number of members of any Board must in no case be less than eight or more than twenty.

Board members are elected by the electors of the various contributory districts in the hospital district, and the term of office is three years. Formerly electors in counties required a ratepayer's qualification, whereas electors of boroughs and town districts required only a residential qualification, and this applied even though the elected members sat on the same Board. Legislation in 1946 made the residential qualification universal.

POWERS.—A Hospital Board has power to establish, control, and manage any of the following institutions: hospitals, charitable institutions, maternity homes, convalescent homes, sanatoria, habitual inebriates' homes, reformatory institutions for women and girls, residential or day nurseries, and any other institutions for any purpose which the Governor-General by Order in Council may declare to be a public charitable purpose.

A Board cannot do the following without the consent of the Minister of Health:—

  1. Borrow money for the purpose of erecting buildings, or of making additions or alterations to buildings, or of purchasing land or for paying off any loan, or for any other purposes of capital expenditure.

  2. Expend more than the sum of £250 on the purposes described in (a).

  3. Sell or exchange land.

  4. Close an institution.

AUTHORITY OF DIRECTOR-GENERAL OF HEALTH.—It is the duty of every Hospital Board to provide and maintain such hospitals as the Director-General of Health considers necessary in any part of the district for the reception, relief, care, treatment, isolation, and removal to hospital or “other place” of persons who are suffering from infectious or other disease or from injury and for maternity cases.

A Board must appoint such number of medical practitioners, dentists, nurses, dental nurses, midwives, and other officers as the Director-General may from time to time deem necessary for the care and treatment of persons in the district of the Board, whether within an institution under the control of the Board or elsewhere within the district. The Director-General is authorized to visit and inspect hospitals and to appoint Assistant Inspectors, and is required to report to Parliament through the Minister on the administration of the Hospitals Act.

FINANCE.—When Boards were first established in 1885 they obtained their revenue from the following sources:—

  1. Voluntary contributions and bequests.

  2. Government subsidy £1 for £1 on voluntary contributions and bequests.

  3. Patients' fees.

  4. Levy on contributory local authorities by rate on the capital value of land.

  5. Government subsidy on levies paid from general taxation.

Voluntary contributions and bequests and subsidy thereon at no time formed an important part of Board revenue, and in 1932 the subsidy in this connection was abolished.

In the earliest days public hospitals were meant only for the destitute sick, but as time went on the standard of service was greatly improved and gradually was availed of by all sections of the community. The hospitals charged a fee which covered cost of maintenance, and patients able to pay were expected to do so. Fees collected were usually found to form about one-third of a Board's total revenue.

Until 1923 the subsidy on levy was paid at the rate of £1 for £1 for both capital and maintenance purposes, but in that year the subsidy on account of maintenance was amended to a scale which had relation to the burden of levy on the rates of local authorities: the Board with the highest burden was paid 26s. subsidy; the Board with the lowest burden was paid 14s. subsidy; the average of all Boards remained at 20s. subsidy.

Under the Social Security Act, 1938, a charge was made on all salaries and wages and other income, and the proceeds were paid into a special fund named the Social Security Fund. The charge was fixed at 1s. in the pound, and in 1946 it was raised to 1s. 6d. in the pound. The Act was to provide, inter alia, “a system whereby medical and hospital treatment will be made available to persons requiring such treatment.” Hospital benefits for in-patients were inaugurated in 1939. The effect of this change was to transfer the liability for payment of patients' fees from the patient to the Social Security Fund. The charge on the Fund was initially fixed at 6s. per patient per day being the average collection made by the Boards from patients. To keep up with the rising cost of maintenance the rate in 1943 was increased to 9s. per day.

At this stage the proportions of revenue derived from the three main sources of Social Security Fund, levy on local authorities, and Government subsidy from general taxation were almost even. Rising costs led to increases in the levies on local authorities and property owners complained that they were being asked to carry an unfair burden as compared with other sections of the community. As a result legislation was passed in 1946 limiting the levy on contributory local authorities to 0.5d. in the £1 of rateable capital value and this had the immediate effect of transferring a substantial portion of Boards' cash requirements from levy to the subsidy paid from general taxation. Also it followed that any further increases in cost would fall solely on the subsidy except to the extent that increases in rateable capital value of property increased the amount of levy. In consequence of this development the proportions of revenue derived from the main sources have changed. The approximate position for 1950–51 was, Social Security Fund, 25 per cent.; levy, 15 per cent.; subsidy, 55 per cent. The Hospitals Amendment Act, 1951, provides for the abolition of the levy on contributory local authorities by an annual reduction of the rate of levy during the next five years; the first reduction is to be made for the year ended 31st March, 1953, when the rate will be 5/12d. on the capital value.

Board expenditure is subject to a measure of control by the Minister of Health. Boards are required in the month of April each year to make an estimate of their expenditure for both capital and maintenance purposes and to have the estimates confirmed at a special meeting of the Board. The Minister may, if he thinks it necessary so to do, require the Board to amend the estimate submitted.

Receipts.—Following is a summary of the actual receipts and payments of all Hospital Boards for the years ended 31st March, 1949 and 1950.

1948–49.1949–50.
 ££
Voluntary contributions and bequests6,7799,051
Payments from Social Security Fund and by inmates of old people's homes2,734,3242,722,816
Levies1,413,9621,503,821
Subsidies4,881,8325,181,968
Rent, interest, and dividends39,14142,518
Sale of capital assets18,15711,809
Miscellaneous49,85359,577
Loans for capital works9,144,048 697,1959,531,560 508,296
    Totals9,841,24310,039,856

Payments.—Actual payments during the same two years (excluding payments between Boards) are now given:—

1948–49.1949–50.
 ££
Hospital maintenance6,919,5257,443,021
Old people's homes: maintenance183,057166,397
Charitable aid: Outdoor22,56520,152
Subsidies to private hospitals, grants to Ambulance Association, &c.46,17253,832
District nursing63,20467,966
Administration211,252229,373
National Provident Fund contributions81,87882,155
Miscellaneous—  
  Maintenance86,13382,686
  Capital1,51617,526
Interest on loans202,483199,033
Amortization of loans330,481364,084
Capital works other than "loan"678,605625,478
Loan works8,826,871 568,4609,351,703 502,165
    Totals9,395,3319,853,868

Hospital Maintenance Costs.—The average annual cost of maintenance in general hospitals per occupied bed in the eleven-year period 1939–40 to 1949–50 was as follows:—

Year.Provisions.Surgery and Dispensary.Domestic and Establishment.Salaries and Wages.Miscellaneous.Totals.
 ££££££
1939–4042.721.061.8142.54.7272.7
1940–4142.322.261.9153.35.2284.9
1941–4245.823.064.6170.76.2310.3
1942–4348.527.065.9180.66.2328.2
1943–4452.427.871.4187.06.3344.9
1944–4555.028.969.9195.26.0355.0
1945–4660.033.682.9231.27.0414.7
1946–4764.739.097.3243.48.8453.2
1947–4873.747.2117.4291.411.2540.9
1948–4981.356.1137.9351.011.2637.5
1949–5086.156.5153.9364.912.8674.2

Charitable Aid.—The Act of 1885 laid down for the first time that charitable aid should be associated with hospitals and Hospital Boards are charged with the administration of charitable aid. Aid was both “indoor” and “outdoor,” the indoor being mainly the provision of homes for aged and destitute people and the outdoor the provision of food, clothing, &c., for people in necessitous circumstances.

The passing of the Social Security Act, 1938, reduced materially Boards' charitable-aid activities. Practically all people over the age of sixty without means or having only limited means are entitled under this Act to an age-benefit.

The introduction of invalidity benefits in 1936 and sickness and unemployment benefits in 1938 also relieved Boards of an appreciable amount of expenditure on outdoor relief.

Expenditure over the past ten years on old people's homes and outdoor relief is set out hereunder:—

Year.Maintenance, Old People's Homes.Outdoor Relief.
 ££
1940–4177,79147,087
1941–4282,82043,730
1942–4380,96837,238
1943–4483,54037,460
1944–4594,35538,197
1945–46112,26132,536
1946–47121,72221,687
1947–48137,49320,028
1948–49151,07720,361
1949–50168,53518,963

Cost to Local Authorities and Government.—The following is a comparative statement of levies on local authorities and subsidies paid by Government during each of the five financial years from 1945–46 to 1949–50:—

Year.Levies.Subsidies.Total.
 £££
1945–461,544,6761,645,3233,189,999
1946–471,889,0451,937,5713,826,616
1947–481,347,4413,321,3784,668,819
1948–491,413,2494,941,8296,355,078
1949–501,503,7354,725,2146,228,949

The reduction in levy in 1947–48 with corresponding increase in subsidy is due to the limiting of the levy to 0.5d. in the £1 of rateable capital value as from 1st April, 1947.

Loans.—Boards have been authorized by the Minister of Health to raise loans to cover a very extensive building programme, but in recent years building progress generally has been slow because of shortage of labour and materials. In consequence, many loans authorized have not yet been floated or have been floated only in part.

The position of loan liability is as under:—

Year.Amount Floated.Repayment.Balance.Reducible by Sinking Fund.
 ££££
1945–46406,659213,2994,616,151101,957
1946–47366,718241,5994,741,270115,320
1947–48425,425276,6704,889,845111,769
1948–49768,981372,5935,285,579121,756
1949–50547,205372,4815,460,301101,488

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.—Section 4F contains statistics of in-patients treated at public hospitals other than purely maternity hospitals. In the following table the figures are inclusive of maternity hospitals, sanatoria, &c., and relate to the financial year instead of to the calendar year.

Year.In-patients treated.Average Number of Occupied Beds.Beds available.
Total Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Population.Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Population.Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Population.
1945–46177,167103.511,2916.613,8708.1
1946–47179,903101.510,9476.213,8227.8
1947–48174,81496.410,2975.714,1237.8
1948–49181,34898.010,7065.814,2217.7
1949–50187,25999.010,9025.814,1297.5

The average number of occupied beds, per thousand of population, in hospital districts varies from three to ten. Most of this variation can be accounted for by the relative distribution of population as between urban and rural areas and also by the fact that many hospitals to a varying extent draw patients from other districts. Other factors which influence the figures are the availability of medical practitioners and their habits in sending patients to hospital or retaining them for home treatment, the availability of private-hospital beds, housing facilities, domestic assistance, and private or district nursing assistance, and the efficiency of the out-patient department.

The number of institutions coming under the heading of public hospitals for the year ended 31st March, 1950, was 182, comprising 78 general hospitals (6 of which were also old people's homes, and 3 special hospitals), 1 chronic hospital, 4 convalescent hospitals, 87 maternity hospitals, 6 tuberculosis sanatoria, 1 tuberculosis prevention institution, 2 chronic-tuberculosis hospitals, 1 tuberculosis dispensary, and 2 infectious-diseases hospitals. A comparison of beds and patients is as follows:—

 1945–46.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.

* In addition, dental cases treated during the year and attendances were: Auckland, 1,939, 9,290; Wellington, 14,644, 20,443; Lower Hutt, 5,490, 10,881; Christchurch, 4,506, 20,206; and Timaru, 762, 2,190.

Number of institutions155164172176182
Number of beds—     
  General8,6578,4098,5438,3468,361
  Children's cots1,5371,5251,6221,7131,685
  Maternity1,1301,4281,5421,7161,770
  Tuberculosis1,7631,7201,7001,6921,631
  Infectious disease783740716754682
    Totals13,87013,82214,12314,22114,129
Average number of occupied beds per day11,29110,94710,29710,70610,902
In-patients treated during year177,167179,903174,814181,348187,259
Deaths during year7,6857,5567,0587,2607,553
Out-patients—     
  Number414,023444,486447,548535,681552,068*
  Attendances1,176,5101,191,0741,171,2451,264,6691,335,405*

PRIVATE HOSPITALS.—The control and licensing of private hospitals is provided for in Part III, Hospitals Act, 1926. With specified exceptions every house in which two or more patients are lodged must be licensed. No premises are so licensed unless the Director-General is satisfied that they are suitable. Staffing and other requirements are governed by regulations, and all private hospitals are subject to regular inspection by the Health Department.

The total number of private hospitals licensed in New Zealand at 31st March, 1951, was 184, providing 590 maternity beds and 1,814 beds for general cases.

The Social Security Act, inter alia, provides for the payment to licensees of private hospitals (who have entered into contracts under the Act) of prescribed amounts in respect of hospital treatment afforded by them. Particulars are contained in Section 26, "Social Security, Pensions, Superannuation, &c."

HOSPITAL ACCOMMODATION.—The total number of hospitals (public and private, but exclusive of mental hospitals) at the 31st March, 1951, was 374 compared with 380 two years earlier. Of the total of 374, 183 were the responsibility of Hospital Boards (an increase of 15 over the 1949 figure), 7 continued under the control of the Health Department, and the remaining 184 (a decrease of 21 since 1949) were operated as private hospitals.

The number of available beds for the last five years in all classes of hospitals, except those in mental hospitals and those in a few institutions maintained by religious and charitable organizations, are given in the following table:—

Number of Hospital Beds as at 31st March,
1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
Hospital Board and Health Department hospitals14,09714,04914,35014,43214,340
Private hospitals2,7822,7172,6412,4882,442
  Totals16,87916,76616,99116,92016,782
Number per 1,000 of population9.99.59.49.18.9

Not all of the beds shown as available are in fact correctly so described. A recent survey places the number of beds temporarily closed on account of staff shortages at approximately 800 beds.

MATERNITY SERVICES.—Benefits under the Social Security Act, 1938.—The Social Security Act, inter alia, makes provision for payments from the Social Security Fund to hospitals, medical practitioners, and nurses for services in connection with maternity cases.

Particulars of maternity benefits provided under the Act will be found in Section 26, "Social Security, Pensions, Superannuation, &c."

At the end of 1950 there were 229 maternity hospitals with a total available bed accommodation of 2,303 made up as follows:—

Public hospitals1,563
Private hospitals614
State (St. Helens) hospitals107
Alexandra Home (Wellington)19
  Total2,303

The total number of confinements in maternity hospitals in 1950 was 47,267, of which 31,810 were in public maternity hospitals, 12,607 in private hospitals, 2,354 in St. Helens Hospitals, and 496 in the Alexandra Home, Wellington. Of the total confinements 45,295 were confined at the full term and 1,972 at from 7–9 months. In addition, there were 3,472 admissions for ante-natal treatment. These figures are inclusive of Maoris.

State Maternity Hospitals.—There were four State maternity (St. Helens) hospitals operating at the 31st March, 1951, these being located in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Invercargill. Prior to the advent of the maternity benefits under the Social Security Act, the use of these hospitals was restricted to cases where the husband's income did not exceed £5 per week, and in cases of large families £6 per week. There are now no restrictions in this respect, and all service is free to the patient. The main function now served by these hospitals is to provide extended training for maternity nurses, so that they may qualify for the more responsible work of midwives.

This service is given under the supervision of a Medical Superintendent, who is also responsible for the conduct of all abnormal cases and for the supervision of the ante-natal and post-natal care of all patients attending. There is also an out-patient department attached to each hospital, which provides nursing services for patients not entering the institution. During the 1950–51 year the St. Helens hospital at Wellington was made an “open” hospital.

District Midwives and Maternity Nurses.—A considerable number of Hospital Boards have district nurses, who in most cases carry out some obstetrical work in conjunction with other health work. In addition, there are Health Department district nurses appointed for the purpose of attending the Maori population, part of their work being attendance on Maori women during confinement.

Ante-natal Services.—Since maternity benefits have been provided free to patients under the Social Security Act and medical men have been paid a fee under that Act for giving ante-natal, neo-natal, and post-natal attention, the bulk of the ante-natal attendance has been provided by the patient's own medical attendant, this being one part of the service for which he receives a fee. The doctor's attendance, if desired, is supplemented by that of the midwife in charge of an ante-natal clinic. These free ante-natal clinics are established in connection with the four St. Helens Hospitals, all public maternity hospitals or maternity wards, and a number of clinics conducted by the Plunket Society. In the case of women living far from the main centres of population, the work is also supplemented by the district nurses who are employed by the Health Department or by Hospital Boards.

The majority of women now realize that ante-natal care is as essential to their welfare as attendance during their delivery and lying-in period by a doctor and trained maternity nurse or midwife. The Department has supplemented the service by the free distribution of a pamphlet “Suggestions to Expectant Mothers,” which has served its purposes as propaganda for ante-natal care.

Every effort is being made to impress the public with the importance of parental hygiene and systematic ante-natal care throughout pregnancy. Addresses and lectures are delivered by Medical Officers of the Department of Health to nurses and societies interested in this subject. So that there will be definite co-operation between the midwife and the ante-natal clinic, and in order that the midwife may be informed of the clinical methods adopted by the Health Department, refresher courses of lectures, particularly on ante-natal work, are available to all registered midwives and maternity nurses.

BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS AND ORPHANAGES.—For some years returns were collected from benevolent and orphan institutions, the information covering such particulars as admissions, discharges, deaths, ages, orphanhood status, and the class of authority controlling the institutions. The collection was discontinued as from 1948, and the statistics for earlier years will be found in previous issues of this publication and in the annual reports on Vital Statistics.

In April, 1950, Government approved a policy under which, provided-certain conditions were complied with, religious or charitable organizations could be granted up to 50 per cent. of the cost of establishing homes for old people.

The Health Department is responsible for the administration of this policy, and during the year 1950–51 the payment of subsidies totalling £155,456 was approved. This commitment was spread over eight Church organizations and will result in the provision of homes of a capital value of over £340,000 to accommodate approximately 180 old people.

Benevolent and orphan institutions, which are conducted by Hospital Boards, religious bodies, and other public or semi-public organizations, are alike in that they provide accommodation on a benevolent or charitable basis, but differ largely in the classes of persons to whom they afford assistance. The generic name covers old people's homes, maternity and refuge homes for women and girls, orphanages, homes for the infirm or afflicted, “prison-gate” homes, and an institute for the blind. Some of the orphanages deal with cases similar to those dealt with by the special schools under the control of the Education Department, and a few of the women's institutions receive offenders committed to them by the Courts.

A substantial decrease in the number of inmates of charitable institutions has occurred during recent years, but the actual position is obscured by the fact that certain inmates of institutions under the control of Hospital Boards are now supported by hospital benefits from the Social Security Fund.

In many cases there is a variation in the class of inmate provided for by the different controlling bodies. For instance, none of the homes under the supervision of the Presbyterian Church, the Methodist Church, the Baptist Church, or the Brethren are maternity homes of any description. The four churches mentioned control children's homes and orphanages only, while the Church of England and the Roman Catholic Church provide chiefly for children, although some maternity cases are dealt with. The Hospital Boards concentrate chiefly upon old people's homes, while the Salvation Army deals with all types, and is the only body that conducts extensively the “prison-gate” or industrial type of institution. Factors such as these affect the demands made upon the different institutions for accommodation or relief.

5 C—MENTAL HOSPITALS

THE legislative authority relating to mental hospitals is the Mental Defectives Act, 1911, and its amendments, its administration under the direction of the Minister of Health devolving upon the Mental Hygiene Division of the Department of Health. Hospital Boards have no jurisdiction over mental hospitals which are under the direct control of the Mental Hygiene Division.

There are eleven public mental hospitals in New Zealand maintained wholly or in part out of the public revenue. There is also one private hospital licensed for the reception of the mentally afflicted.

The patients on the register at the end of 1950 were distributed as shown below. Numbers given throughout this subsection are inclusive of Maoris. Figures for Maoris are also given separately toward the end of the subsection.

Statistics showing the numbers of voluntary patients are excluded from the following series of tables, though they are given later under the appropriate heading.

Mental Hospital.Males.Females.Totals.
Auckland7697511,520
Kingseat (Papakura)451410861
Raventhorpe (Drury)3239242
Tokanui413383796
Lake Alice (Marton)46 46
Levin Farm21575290
Porirua6586811,339
Nelson5884571,045
Seaview (Hokitika)228242470
Sunnyside (Christchurch)7307501,480
Seacliff and Waitati6084421,050
Ashburn Hall (private mental hospital)151530
  Totals4,7244,4459,169

The number of patients remaining at the end of each of the last five years is shown in the following table. During the period covered by the table the number of patients shows an increase of 567 or 6.6 per cent., but the proportion per 10,000 of population has fallen from 48.89 to 48.03.

Year.Patients remaining at 31st December.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
19464,5564,0468,60251.8645.9348.89
19474,5674,1418,70850.7646.1048.42
19484,6124,2208,83250.2046.0748.14
19494,6864,3489,03449.9246.5948.27
19504,7244,4459,16949.3046.7548.03
  Average of five years4,6294,2408,86950.3846.2948.34

The total number of patients under supervision, care, or control during 1949 and 1950 was 10,475 (5,327 males and 5,148 females) and 10,751 (5,478 males and 5,273 females) respectively. The average number resident in mental hospitals was 8,287 in 1949 and 8,384 in 1950.

ADMISSIONS.—The total admissions to mental hospitals during the year 1950 was 1,523 (680 males and 843 females), this number not including 194 transfers from one institution to another. The principal causes of insanity as assigned on admission for the years 1949 and 1950 were as follows:—

Cause.1949.1950.
Heredity1317
Congenital176160
Previous attack335313
Puerperal state2720
Senility254317
Involution3814
Mental stress8296
Syphilis129
Cause.1949.1950.
Constitutional398430
Alcohol1318
Epilepsy2426
Organic brain disease2313
Physical disorders8790
  Totals1,4821,523

Of the 1,523 persons admitted to mental hospitals during 1950 those admitted for the first time to any mental hospital in New Zealand numbered 1,205 (547 males, 658 females), and those readmitted 318 (133 males, 185 females). First admissions for the year 1949 totalled 1,146 (514 males and 632 females), and readmissions 336 (140 males and 196 females).

The figures for 1950 represent one first admission for every 1,584 persons of the mean population of New Zealand. The number of first admissions and the rate per 10,000 of mean population for each of the last five years were as follows:—

Year.Number of First Admissions.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
19465446211,1656.197.056.62
19475976161,2136.646.866.75
19485246101,1345.706.666.18
19495146321,1465.486.776.12
19505476581,2055.716.926.31
Average of five years5456271,1725.936.856.39

AGES OF INMATES.—A summary is given showing the ages of patients in mental hospitals at the end of 1950.

Age, in Years.Males.Females.Totals.
1 and under 5442872
5 " 1013780217
10 " 15154112266
15 " 20245148393
20 " 305934671,060
30 " 408426731,515
40 " 508247481,572
50 and under 607067861,492
60 " 706707731,443
70 " 80391469860
80 " 90101143244
90 and over729
Unknown101626
  Totals4,7244,4459,169

Probably symptomatic to some extent of the ageing of the New Zealand population, the number of patients aged sixty years or over has formed a greater proportion of admissions during recent years. Of those remaining in mental hospitals at the end of 1950, patients in this age group numbered 2,556—i.e., 27.9 per cent. of the total.

DISCHARGES AND DEATHS.—The next table gives the average number resident, those who were discharged as recovered, and those who died, during the period 1946–50.

Year.Average Number resident.Discharged as recovered.Died.
Number.Percentage of Number admitted.Number.Percentage of Average Number resident.
19467,97245331.615506.90
19478,06256137.185657.01
19488,14553537.365536.79
19498,28751134.485496.64
19508,38455836.646167.35
  Average of five years8,17052335.455666.94

The recovery rate has been satisfactorily maintained, particularly when it is considered that 20 per cent. of the admissions for the year suffer from senility and a further 10 per cent. suffer from congenital conditions.

The table following shows the duration of residence in mental hospitals of patients who died and of patients who were discharged as recovered during the year 1950. Of those discharged as recovered, 63 per cent. had been inmates for less than one year.

Duration of Residence.Patients who died.Patients discharged as recovered.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
Under 1 month392766131629
1 month and under 3 months3531666173134
3 months and under 6 "1528435153104
6 " 9 "212546282351
9 " 12 "12921122133
1 year and under 2 years2432564391134
2 years and under 3 "81725121931
3 " 5 "21274851318
5 " 7 "411153912
7 " 10 "182038235
10 " 12 "10818 33
12 " 15 "51015 11
15 years and over64501143 3
Died during absence242145   
Totals300316616233325558

Old age and diseases of the circulatory system are the principal causes of death among mental hospital patients. The figures for the principal causes and groups of causes for the years 1949 and 1950 are as follows:—

Cause.1949.1950.
Tuberculosis2236
Cancer1215
Other general diseases911
General paralysis of the insane62
Epilepsy1415
Other diseases of the nervous system3563
Diseases of the circulatory system168195
Diseases of the respiratory system11887
Cause.1949.1950.
Diseases of the digestive system82
Diseases of the genite-urinary system75
Old age117138
External causes58
Died during absence2839
  Totals549616

PRIVATE MENTAL HOSPITAL.—A licence may be granted to enable a private mental hospital to receive patients for treatment. Stringent conditions are attached to the issue of such a licence, which may be revoked at any time. The Director of the Mental Hygiene Division of the Health Department has wide powers in the regulation and control of private institutions, which are placed practically on the same footing as public mental hospitals in regard to inspection and other matters.

There is only one licensed private mental institution in New Zealand, that at Wakari (Ashburn Hall), near Dunedin, established in 1882. Particulars of admissions, discharges, deaths, and patients remaining, for the last five years, are as follows. These figures are included in preceding tables.

Year.Admissions (Including Transfers).Discharges (Including Transfers).Deaths.Patients Remaining at End of Year.
194692339
19472216738
19481015429
19491510430
1950119230

MAORIS IN MENTAL HOSPITALS.—The number of Maoris admitted as patients to mental hospitals is small. The figures for the last five years were:—

Year.Admitted During Year.Remaining at End of Year.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
1946171734135106241
194724153914196237
1948262753125104229
1949232447128104232
1950241943134115249

The above figures are also included in the tables covering all inmates of mental hospitals.

The number of Maoris remaining in mental hospitals at the end of 1950 represented a rate of only 21.84 per 10,000 of the mean Maori population, as compared with a rate of 48.03 in the case of the European population.

VOLUNTARY PATIENTS.—A person labouring under mental defect, but capable of understanding the meaning of the procedure, may seek admission to a mental hospital as a voluntary boarder. At the beginning of 1950 there were 466 such patients on the books (207 males, 259 females), and during the year 907 (424 males, 483 females) were admitted. If a voluntary boarder should after admission show mental defect sufficiently pronounced and sustained to render it improper to classify him any longer as such, application for a reception order is made to a Magistrate. During the year 1950, 23 (15 males, 8 females) were transferred from the voluntary to the ordinary register, and 11 males and 16 females died, while 855 (402 males 453 females) were discharged, leaving 468 (203 males, 265 females) on the records at the end of the year.

A feature of interest has been the tendency for voluntary admissions to increase, both in absolute numbers and also in proportion to total first admissions. The following series illustrates this trend.

Voluntary Patients First Admissions.
Numbers.Percentage of All First Admissions.
1915324.7
1920648.1
192512314.1
193023620.2
193521719.2
194025221.5
194535924.3
194646228.4
194753430.6
194857833.8
194957633.4
195059533.1

EXPENDITURE, ETC.—The total expenditure on maintenance of public mental hospitals (not including the cost of new buildings and additions) and particulars of receipts during the last eleven financial years are shown in the next table. As from 1st April, 1939, free maintenance and treatment have been provided in all public mental hospitals in accordance with the provisions of the Social Security Act, 1938. The consequent loss of revenue through the operation of the Act was recoverable from the Social Security Fund, but as from 1st April, 1945, such recoveries ceased, and from that date all maintenance expenditure has been borne by the Consolidated Fund. The amounts shown as receipts on account of patients' fees for the years subsequent to 1939–40 represent the recovery of accounts outstanding at 31st March, 1939. The Mental Defectives Amendment Act, 1950, provides that the cost of maintenance of any person who is not ordinarily resident in New Zealand and who is detained in any public institution shall be a debt due to the Crown. These provisions became effective on and after 23rd November, 1950.

Year Ended 31st March,Total Expenditure.Receipts.Net Expenditure.Gross Average Cost per Patient.
Patients' FeesSale of Produce, &c.Social Security Fund.
 ££££££ s. d.
1941685,60520,29368,641171,000425,67186 11 4
1942709,88714,96472,832181,451440,64089 9 4
1943738,20413,03068,870181,869474,43592 12 5
1944766,53013,21866,198183,199503,91595 4 2
1945827,1288,20767,433187,942563,546100 6 1
1946940,1675,85970,500 863,808113 8 2
19471,072,1308,22887,065 976,837128 10 2
19481,243,3328,95888,397 1,145,977147 12 3
19491,476,7687,99338,427 1,430,348173 13 11
19501,766,6591,602177,152 1,587,905203 0 0
19511,810,2852,956125,771 1,681,558206 0 0

In the period covered by the foregoing table, total expenditure increased by £1,124,680, or 164 per cent., while the gross average cost per patient rose by £119 8s. 8d. per annum, or 137 per cent.

As already stated, the expenditure included in the foregoing table does not include amounts spent on new buildings, additions, &c., the cost of which is met by the Ministry of Works. The sums spent in this connection fell away considerably in the later war years. Expenditure for the last three financial years, however, has amounted to £187,022 in 1948–49, £171,443 in 1949–50, and £234,085 in 1950–51, while the aggregate expenditure from 1st July, 1877, to 31st March, 1951, was £4,125,248.

Chapter 6. SECTION 6—EDUCATION

Table of Contents

THE education system of New Zealand can be understood only when it is seen against its historical background. The first settlements in the new colony were relatively isolated units each of which had to make its own provision for the education of its children. In some places the provision of schools was left to the churches, in some to private enterprise, and in others to public associations. When the provinces were established in 1852, the Provincial Councils took over education as one of their functions, but this brought no degree of uniformity to New Zealand schools, for each province tended to foster the type of school organization already established in its area. The provinces varied considerably in the efficiency of their school systems; but, in spite of some success in the face of difficulties in certain areas, at the end of the provincial period in 1876 not more than half the children between the ages of five and fifteen were attending school at all.

The present national system of free, secular, and compulsory* education is based on the Education Act of 1877. This Act followed upon the abolition of the provinces, but the provinces, though dead as political units, left their mark upon the school system. A fierce struggle between the protagonists of central and of local control ended in a victory for the provincialists, and the public schools were placed under the control of District Education Boards, which were for the most part the same bodies as the old Provincial Education Boards. The Colonial Government, however, had to provide all the finance in the form of capitation grants, and a small Department of Education was set up in Wellington, very largely for the purpose of distributing the grants. For every school district constituted under the Act there was a School Committee, elected by householders, which, subject to the control of the Board, had “the management of educational matters within the school district.” The School Committees elected the members of the Education Board.

As far as mere structure is concerned, this still remains the pattern of the system of school administration in New Zealand, but there have been, in the intervening years, great changes in the relative functions of the three authorities. The general tendency has been for final power and responsibility to shift from the Committees to the Boards and from the Boards to the Department. The Committees, in fact, through lack of professional executive officers and independent sources of revenue, from the very beginning were unable to take over the full powers that the 1877 Act obviously intended them to have, and for the first twenty years of national education the Education Boards were the predominant authorities in the system.

* Every child (with certain statutory exemptions) between the ages of seven and fifteen years has to be enrolled as a pupil of either a public or a registered school.

From just before the beginning of this century the Education Department began to play an increasingly important part in educational administration, partly as a result of improved means of communication. Under the Act of 1877 the Boards had been given wide powers: to administer funds from endowments and departmental grants, to appoint and remove teachers, to pay teachers' salaries according to their own scales, to establish scholarships and provide for secondary education in district high schools, and to control the inspectorate. Legislation, beginning with the establishment of a national scale of primary school salaries and staffing in 1901 and culminating in the Education Act of 1914 (still the basic measure under which the education system is administered), concentrated these powers more and more in the hands of the Department, which began to take a more detailed interest in expenditure by the Boards. The original freedom of the Boards in the expenditure of building grants was taken away, and the present system, requiring special departmental authorization for each new building, gradually became established. From 1901 onwards the Department paid over to the Boards the exact sum required for teachers' salaries, thus leaving a much-reduced capitation grant to be used by the local authorities at their own discretion. In 1914 the Department took over the control of the primary-school inspectorate.

The centralization of the inspectorate made possible a further change affecting the powers of the Boards. In 1920 a New Zealand grading scheme was instituted under which all primary-school teachers were annually awarded grading marks by the Inspectors. A teacher's total marks give him a place on a numerically graded list. Since all ordinary appointments are decided on the basis of this list, the system of appointment is in effect a national one, and the Boards have very limited powers of discretion although they make the appointments and the teachers are servants of the Boards. In 1940 biennial grading was substituted for annual grading, thus freeing the inspectors of schools in alternate years to give more time to schools. The provision of an annual grading number for teachers was, however, retained.

It does not follow, however, since the Boards and the School Committees have lost many of their original powers, that they have ceased to play an important part in the system. The Committee's primary function is the care of school buildings, grounds, and equipment, but, in addition to this, many interest themselves very keenly in the general activities of the school and provide in each district a focusing-point for local opinion on educational matters. The Education Boards are still the initiating bodies on matters of buildings, sites, conveyance of pupils, consolidation, and provision of school facilities generally; and, although the final word often lies with the Minister of Education or the Department, the Boards have no small influence in the fixing of policy within their districts. The schools are legally their schools and the teachers their teachers, and, although in general the Boards' choices of applicants are limited by the grading system, they have much more discretion in the selection of applicants for special or key positions. The teachers' class-room activities are under the control of the Inspectors, but their general responsibility is to the Boards, and their professional life tends to centre on the Boards rather than on the Department. In spite of the apparent clumsiness of the administrative structure and of periods of strong feeling in the past, the system at present functions remarkably smoothly, and has achieved a balance, workable if not ideal, between the claims of local initiative and national efficiency.

Post-primary education, with the exception of that given in the district high schools, was not brought by the Act of 1877 within the province of the Education Boards. Several secondary schools had been established in various ways before 1877, and these continued under their own Boards of Governors, which were in no way related to the Education Boards. The Education Reserves Act, 1877, set aside one-fourth of the educational reserves for secondary education, vesting the remainder in the Education Boards for primary-school purposes. Thus there was introduced into the colony that cleavage between elementary and secondary education that was characteristic of the English system. In the years immediately following the Act of 1877, a series of Acts set up a number of local High School Boards, each in control of its own land endowments. No effective provision was made for the inspection of these schools by any outside authority or for the co-ordination of their work with any other part of the school system.

Further secondary schools, and, from 1902 onwards, technical high schools, were from time to time established. Before 1901, fees had been charged even in district high schools. In that year free places were instituted in district high schools, and in 1902 secondary schools were offered special capitation grants if they would provide free places for deserving scholars. Under the Education Act of 1908 free places at the technical schools were granted on a more liberal basis, and by 1914 all State post-primary schools were obliged to give free places for two years at least to any pupil who had passed the Proficiency examination. In 1936 the Proficiency examination was abolished and free post-primary education to the end of the year in which he reached nineteen years of age became available to every child completing a primary-school course or on attaining fourteen years of age.

A direct effect of this movement towards free post-primary education was that the Department began to exercise an increasing degree of control over the schools. The Education Amendment Act, 1920, authorized the establishment of New Zealand staffing and salary scales for post-primary schools, and instituted the system—already operative in the case of the Education Boards—of paying over to the schools the exact sum required for salaries plus a capitation grant for incidental expenses, less the amount received from local secondary-school endowments. This, in effect, nationalized these endowments, and spread more evenly the benefits resulting from the foresight of the early settlers. As from 1st April, 1949, all revenue received by the schools was handed over to the Crown and the total cost of salaries and incidental expenses met from the Consolidated Fund. The endowment reserves themselves were vested in the Crown as from the beginning of 1950.

THE SCHOOL SYSTEM.—Perhaps the best method of sketching the outline of the school system as it now stands is to trace the career of a child as he passes through the system. He may at the age of three enter a free kindergarten under the control of the Free Kindergarten Association. At the age of five he may enter, and at seven he must enter, either a primary school under one of the nine Education Boards, or a registered private primary school, or if living in an isolated area, or physically handicapped, the primary department of the Education Department's Correspondence School. All state primary schools are co-educational. The child passes through the infant classes and Standards 1, 2, 3, and 4. This normally takes six years. The remaining two years of the primary course will be taken either in Forms I and II at the same primary school or, if there is one conveniently situated, at an intermediate school. The intermediate school is a comparatively recent development within the primary-school system, the first of these schools being established in 1922. It is a centrally situated school which pupils enter from the surrounding primary schools (called in these circumstances "contributing schools") after they have completed the primary school course as far as Standard 4. Because the intermediate school comprises a fairly large number of pupils (usually between 300 and 600) who are mainly between the ages of eleven and thirteen years, it is possible to classify them into groups of approximately equal ability, provide a good range of optional courses, and utilize specialist teachers and advanced equipment to the full. As at this point in his school career the pupil's social and intellectual interests have developed, he is ready to take full advantage of the varied and enriched courses provided. Where the number of pupils in an area is not sufficient to justify the establishment of a separate intermediate school an intermediate department may be attached to the local post-primary school, and thus utilize the special facilities available at the senior school. In some intermediate schools a third-year course (Form III) is provided to give a rounded-off education to pupils who do not intend to proceed to a post-primary school.

On satisfying the requirements of his headmaster in Form II the child is granted a Primary School Certificate, on the receipt of which, or on reaching the age of fourteen, he becomes entitled to free post-primary education until the age of nineteen is reached. The Education Amendment Act, 1920, made provision for the raising of the school-leaving age from fourteen to fifteen years, but this change was not brought into operation until February, 1944, and all children are now required to attend school until the new leaving-age is reached. This means, in effect, that some period of secondary education is now compulsory for nearly all children. The only provision for exemption is inability to profit from the further period of education.

When a country child leaves the primary stage he may have no alternative but to enter Form III of a district high school (which is really a secondary top to a primary school and is under the same control), or enrol in the Correspondence School. In more thickly populated areas there will be either a secondary school or a technical high school available. In some towns a secondary school and a technical high school have been amalgamated to form a combined school. To those not understanding the peculiar character of the New Zealand technical high school this may seem a strange union, but the differences between schools of the two types are, except in the larger centres, relatively slight.

The School Certificate Examination conducted by the Education Department is now regarded as the accepted test of a completed post-primary education for the great bulk of the pupils who do not desire to proceed to University. The School Certificate Examination is normally taken at the end of the third year of the post-primary course, and the School Certificate is awarded to pupils who pass the examination and, in other respects, have complied with the regulations governing the award of the certificate.

Provision is contained in the Education (Post-primary Instruction) Regulations 1945 for endorsement of School Certificates on satisfactory completion of an advanced course of instruction for one year. The regulations also provide for the award of Higher School Certificates. In general this certificate is awarded after a five years' course to pupils who have been awarded a School Certificate and satisfactorily complete an advanced course of two years; and to pupils who have been accredited for or have passed the University Entrance Examination and satisfactorily complete an advanced course of one year.

The technical schools, combined schools, and a few of the secondary schools run evening classes, particularly in practical and vocational subjects, which an adolescent may attend after he leaves full-time day school. Apprentices in some trades are required to attend evening classes as a part of their trade training. In 1948 approval was given to the establishment of day classes for apprentices. Classes in motor engineering, plumbing, and baking were commenced in 1949. In some of the larger technical schools part-time students may take professional courses in engineering, architecture, accountancy, pharmacy, &c.

Prior to 1944 all pupils desiring to undertake a University course were required to sit and pass the University Entrance Examination conducted by the University of New Zealand. In 1944 a system of accrediting came into operation. Under this system pupils attending certain approved schools may be accredited for matriculation purposes provided they have completed a four years' post-primary-school course. The University Entrance Examination is still conducted by the University of New Zealand, and pupils not accredited for entrance to University may qualify in this manner. The standard of the present entrance examination is somewhat higher than that maintained prior to the introduction of the accrediting system.

Pupils who have been accredited for, or who have passed the University Entrance Examination, may, without further post-primary education, receive tuition fees to the extent of £20 per annum for a period of four years at a University college.

The University of New Zealand, whose controlling body is the University Senate, is constituted of University colleges in Auckland, Wellington, and Canterbury, and the University of Otago (which does not itself grant degrees). Massey and Canterbury Agricultural Colleges, associated with the University of New Zealand, are open to students specializing in agricultural studies.

The five teachers' training colleges, although they work in conjunction with the four University colleges, are organically related to them only through their Boards of Studies. The Education Boards in the four main centres are the controlling authorities of the training colleges.

The State system also caters for the needs of certain special groups of children. Maori children may attend the public schools, but there are also public Maori village schools provided for their primary education. There are also a few private mission schools remaining from the pre-Maori War system established with the help of Government subsidies. For his post-primary education the Maori child may go free to any available public post-primary school or Maori district high school. If he lives in a remote area he may gain a Maori scholarship awarded by the Education Department which will enable him to attend a denominational Maori secondary school. These are boarding schools of which five are for boys and five for girls. Some of them are partly financed out of public endowments originally provided for the purpose of Maori education.

As mentioned earlier children living in isolated areas or prevented in other ways from attending school may be enrolled in the Correspondence School for both primary and post-primary work.

In order to meet the requirements of children who are retarded in their development owing to physical or other defects, special classes have been established. These classes provide for children in certain public hospitals, for hard-of-hearing children and speech defectives, for under-nourished and physically defective children, and for children who are unable to benefit from ordinary class instruction.

Provision is made for blind children and also for blind adults at the New Zealand Institute for the Blind in Auckland. This institute is administered by a board of trustees on which the Government is represented.

Finally there are several special schools and smaller homes, administered by the Education Department's Child Welfare Branch, to take care of deaf-and-dumb, backward, or delinquent children. These are referred to under the heading, Child Welfare and Special Schools (p. 172).

* Except for Maori “Government pupils” in the denominational secondary schools.

In addition to the various State schools described, a parent may send his child to a private school, either primary or secondary, conducted by either religious bodies or private individuals. No Government free place is tenable at these schools,* but a Secondary School Bursary (referred to on p. 169) may be tenable at a private school, while assistance for transport by rail and road and a boarding-allowance under certain conditions may also be given to pupils attending private schools, whether primary or post-primary. All private schools must be registered, and are subject to an annual colleges, pupils and students of both sexes attend together. The majority of the State secondary schools particularly in the larger centres, however, and—with a few exceptions—all the registered private secondary schools, are single-sex schools.

SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS.—The number of scholars and students receiving instruction in the educational institutions of New Zealand is shown in the following summary. The table refers to roll numbers as at the end of the year (except in the case of technical classes, which are as at 1st July).

Class of Institution.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.

* Exclusive of children in kindergartens (4,398 in 1950).

† There were also 1,806 students taking part-time courses.

‡ Part-time students, excluding 981 part-time students (865 in 1949), enrolled with the Technical Correspondence School.

§ Includes 540 students taking short courses at the Agricultural colleges in 1950.

Primary Education     
Public (State) schools218,305226,806233,008241,742254,266
Intermediate schools and departments     
Maori village schools12,65413,17013,25413,28813,426
Maori mission schools730784744805826
Registered private primary schools30,77631,82032,61634,15535,922
Lower departments of secondary schools185197199187172
Correspondence classes (primary)1,8571,9721,7841,7491,673
Chatham Islands schools1241059710995
  Totals, primary*264,631274,854281,702292,035306,380
Post-primary Education     
Secondary schools17,89617,81917,97218,40019,352
Combined schools3,3643,3513,4013,5103,472
Secondary departments of district high schools6,6566,6666,8957,3206,992
Technical high schools11,71212,32812,13612,50413,859
Maori secondary (boarding) schools563622668777813
Registered private and endowed secondary schools8,5328,9688,8279,1129,341
Correspondence classes (secondary)678618601533494
  Totals, post-primary49,40150,37250,50052,15654,323
Technical Classes (excluding Technical High Schools and Technical Day Schools)     
Conducted by Education, Secondary School, or High School Boards4,1945,6847,7458,1208,467
Conducted by Technical School Boards12,33012,72012,26212,84412,708
Conducted by University colleges333293298262 
  Totals, technical16,85718,69720,30521,22621,175
University Education     
University colleges9,8079,9009,9069,6829,809
Canterbury Agricultural College719695824600507
Massey Agricultural College737738597476557
Students exempt from lectures1,1861,4311,5141,3621,182
  Totals, University12,44912,76412,84112,12012,055§
  Totals, scholars and students*343,338356,687365,348377,537393,933

During the period 1939–44 the number of pupils attending primary schools remained almost stationary, but there was an increase of approximately 5,000 in 1945, followed by further increases of slightly over 10,000, in each of the next two years. In 1948, however, the increase amounted to 6,848 only, a reflection of the fall in the number of births five years earlier. In 1944 the number of births was back to the 1942 level, and an increase of over 10,000 was recorded in the primary-school population in 1949. The 1950 increase amounted to 14,345, the main contributing factor being a rise of approximately 3,500 in the number of births in 1945. Since 1946 the number of births has assumed record proportions, and further substantial increases in the numbers of school children may be expected for some years.

The numbers of full-time post-primary students fell away during the earlier war years, due, no doubt, to the demand for wartime labour. There was an increase of 3,086 in 1943, followed by a further increase of 6,283 in 1944, the raising of the school-leaving age being largely responsible for the latter. Since 1944 there have been further increases, but on a very much lower scale than in the case of primary schools. In 1948 there was an actual decrease in numbers attending technical high schools, registered private and endowed schools, and in the number receiving tuition per medium of the post-primary correspondence classes, but in 1949 an increase was recorded in all categories except correspondence classes. The total for 1950 showed an increase of 2,167, but the numbers attending combined schools and district high schools decreased, and a further fall was recorded in the correspondence classes.

The number of part-time students attending technical classes also fell away during the early war years, the 1942 figure being 38 per cent. less than in 1939. Each year from 1942 to 1949 recorded an increase, and the number in 1949 was 3,998 greater than in 1939, and 10,561 above the 1942 total. A slight decrease was recorded in 1950.

University students fell from 5,979 in 1939 to 4,373 in 1942, but from then to 1946 there was a series of remarkable increases the total number reaching over 12,000 in that year. Following negligible increases after 1946 the numbers decreased by over 700 in 1949, and a further slight fall was recorded in 1950. The figures from 1945 onwards have been affected to some extent by the numbers of ex-servicemen students, many of whom have been granted special facilities and assistance for university study.

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS.—The number of candidates who actually presented themselves for the various examinations conducted by the Education Department and also by the Trades Certification Board during the last five years is given below.

Examination.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
Teachers' Certificate237265260257279
School Certificate8,3008,7068,5929,3529,479
Special Bursaries196205263260296
London University106665
Handicraft Teachers' Certificate2429343728
Homecraft Teachers' Certificate4051656732
Technological176249309224167
City and Guilds of London 1071076884
Naval Cadetships107   
  Totals8,9939,6259,63610,27110,270
Trades Certification   1,3501,978

The University of New Zealand conducted examinations in 1950 in the faculties of arts, science, medicine, dentistry, home science, law, engineering, commerce, agriculture, music, architecture, and divinity; for diplomas in journalism, in banking, and in fine arts; and for admission to the legal and accountancy professions. There were 13,813 entrants for the degree and professional examinations in 1950, compared with 15,077 in 1949 and 16,021 in 1948.

The number of entries for the University Entrance Examination in 1943 was 5,152, but the introduction of the accrediting system in 1944 (see p. 157) saw the number in that year reduced to 543. Comparative figures for the following six years were: 1945, 973; 1946,1,773; 1947,1,656; 1948,1,839; 1949, 1,874; and 1950, 1,766. The numbers accredited since the system has been in operation have been as follows: 1944, 308; 1945,1,213; 1946,1,484; 1947,1,844; 1948,1,872; 1949, 1,954; and 1950, 1,987. In addition, 1,320 students were granted a special concession pass on the results of the School Certificate Examination in the initial accrediting year (1944).

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION.—The following table shows the expenditure (after recoveries have been deducted) from public funds on each branch or service of education for the three years ended 31st March, 1951.

Expenditure Year Ended 31st March,
1949.1950.1951.
Expenditure from vote, Education—£££
General1,048,5391,278,1001,331,131
Buildings, land, furniture, and equipment591,282891,1471,565,648
Primary education3,954,3114,714,4065,145,548
Post-primary education1,736,7972,076,3482,276,896
Higher education659,246779,823991,556
Training of teachers521,432772,392880,500
Maori schools256,458304,054311,969
Education of the blind12,44020,23228,733
Special schools59,90785,15887,957
Child welfare339,171373,606369,417
Miscellaneous grants91,873106,460117,666
National Library Service114,888118,357132,015
  Totals, vote Education9,386,34411,520,08313,239,036
Expenditure from other sources— Vote, Education Buildings1,629,3252,296,5561,821,128
Secondary education, reserves revenue7,347  
Revenue from reserves vested in post—primary schools—period, 1st April, 1949, to 31st December, 1949 71,679Cr.29,963Cr.
  Grand totals11,023,01613,744,96015,030,201

The foregoing figures do not include revenue received by University colleges from endowments, fees, &c., which are available for educational purposes. The direct income from reserves vested in University colleges was approximately £15,800 in 1949-50.

By the Land Act 1948, all education reserves were declared Crown land, and the revenues received as from 1st April 1949, were paid into the Land Settlement Account. Such reserves revenue amounted to £112,603 for the year 1948—49. The reserves vested in post-primary schools were also declared by the Education Lands Act 1949, to be Crown land subject to the Land Act, 1948, and the amounts of £71,679 received in 1949-50 and £29,963 in 1950-51 were paid into the Consolidated Fund.

There is now given a series of comparative figures which shows the cost of education during the period 1940-41 to 1950-51.

Year Ended 31st March,Expenditure from Public Funds.Expenditure per Head of Mean Population.
 ££ s. d.
19415,355,3933 5 6
19425,218,6183 3 10
19435,038,3953 1 5
19445,221,3893 3 9
19456,216,9473 14 8
19467,853,0494 11 10
19478,711,6374 18 5
19489,950,8185 10 1
194911,023,0165 19 7
195013,744,960761
195115,030,2017 16 9

PRIMARY SCHOOLS.—The primary-school system consisted in December, 1950, of 1,908 public schools (including district high schools and intermediate schools or departments), 159 Maori village schools, 310 registered private primary schools (which included 10 Maori mission schools), and 4 lower departments of secondary schools. There were also 115 free kindergarten schools.

Lower departments of secondary schools may be run for pupils who have not passed Form II, provided that no part of the cost of instruction or of the maintenance of the department is met from public moneys. At the end of 1950 the total number of pupils in the four departments mentioned in the preceding paragraph was 172 with 5 teachers.

The curriculum of the primary school, as set out in the syllabus of instruction, includes English, arithmetic, social studies in geography and history, drawing and handwork (including needlework), nature-study and elementary science, physical education, moral instruction and health, and singing. Elementary science, agriculture, and, in some schools, dairy work are taught by the regular staff under the supervision of specialist itinerant instructors. At the Forms I and II levels woodwork and metal-work instruction is given to boys at manual-training centres, and girls are taught domestic subjects, including cookery and hygiene.

The whole of the curriculum is being systematically revised by a number of committees representative of the Education Department and of teachers' organizations. The report of the Arithmetic Syllabus Revision Committee was the first to be adopted, and during 1944 a series of arithmetic text-books was issued to primary schools. Since then revised syllabuses in oral expression, written expression, health education, spelling, history and geography, needlework, and nature study have been published and adopted in the schools. A new set of basic readers for primer classes and English and arithmetic text-books up to Form II have been distributed. These text-books are issued free of charge to pupils in all schools, both State and private.

At the end of the primary course a pupil may receive from the headmaster a Primary School Certificate to the effect that he has completed the work of Form II as prescribed in the Public Schools Syllabus. This certificate replaced the Proficiency Certificate which was abolished in 1936.

Kindergartens.—Children below the age of five are not enrolled in the State primary schools. They may be enrolled, however, at free kindergartens controlled by local Free Kindergarten Associations. In 1947 a Supervisor of Pre-school Services was appointed to the Department of Education. In 1948 the Department undertook the payment of the salaries of kindergarten teachers, trainees, and full-time teachers at training centres, and the system of payment of capitation grants to the local Associations was discontinued. Subsidies on voluntary contributions raised for the purchase of land, erection of buildings, and purchase of initial equipment are paid by the Department. The number of trainees in 1950 was 159.

At the end of 1950 there were 4,398 children on the rolls of 115 free kindergartens. In 1949 the corresponding figures were 3,894 and 96 respectively. As yet the system is far from universal.

Public (State) Schools.—The figures tabulated below refer to pupils in public schools—i.e., all pupils in primary schools and intermediate schools and departments. Pupils in the secondary departments of district high schools are not included.

Year.Population at 31st December (excluding Maoris).Number of Schools (Including Intermediate Schools and Departments).Pupils at End of Year.Mean of Average Weekly Roll.Average Attendance, Whole Year.Average Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll.
19461,677,4982,030218,305208,035181,00587.1
19471,711,1201,963226,806220,808199,44390.0
19481,744,5511,932233,008223,565202,91490.8
19491,780,2281,905241,742231,913207,19989.3
19501,812,9461,908254,266246,869224,27790.8

Of the 1,908 schools shown above for 1950, 1,159 had rolls of not more than seventy, and of these 524 had rolls ranging from one to twenty-four.

In each of the education districts are located Inspectors of Primary Schools who form part of the staff of the Education Department. The total number of Primary-school Inspectors on the 31st March, 1951, was 48, allocated as follows: Auckland, 15; Hawke's Bay, 3; Taranaki, 3; Wanganui, 3; Wellington, 6; Nelson, 2; Canterbury, 8; Otago, 5; Southland, 3. These figures exclude one Chief and two Inspectors in the Head Office of the Department.

The following table relates to pupils on the rolls of the public primary schools and Forms I and II only of intermediate schools at 1st July in each of the years shown.

Age, in Years.1948: Total Pupils.1949: Total Pupils.1950.Percentage of Total Pupils.
Boys.Girls.Total Pupils.1948.1949.1950.
5 and under 624,08628,24015,32814,50929,83710.912.212.4
6 " 730,45026,44615,85914,70630,56513.711.512.7
7 " 830,69930,59613,68812,92526,61313.813.311.0
8 " 927,38830,63315,69814,91230,61012.413.312.7
9 " 1024,37027,64115,71814,86430,58211.012.012.7
10 " 1123,75224,53214,17413,19527,36910.710.611.4
11 " 1222,32423,20512,30612,05924,36510.110.010.1
12 " 1320,57420,82811,71911,10122,8209.39.09.5
13 " 1411,99412,4147,0915,55312,6445.45.45.2
14 " 155,0745,1022,9321,8144,7462.32.22.0
15 " 168169375222697910.40.40.3
16 and over1001546048108 0.1 
  Totals221,627230,728125,095115,955241,050100.0100.0100.0

In 1950 a total of 17,241 pupils (8,761 boys and 8,480 girls) left public primary schools, as compared with 16,011 (8,126 boys and 7,885 girls) in 1949. Of those leaving in 1950, 15,880, or 92.1 per cent., had gained the Primary School Certificate. The effect of the raising of the school-leaving age in 1944 is reflected in the numbers who proceeded to full-time post-primary schooling. Of those leaving in 1950, 89 per cent. (boys, 87 per cent., girls, 91 per cent.) went on to post-primary schools, as compared with 76 per cent. (boys 74 per cent., girls 78 per cent.) in 1943. Of the pupils who left intermediate schools and departments in 1950, 91 per cent. went on to post-primary schools.

The next table gives the number of public primary schools in each education district as at 31st December, 1950, classified according to roll numbers. The number of intermediate schools and departments is also shown.

Roll-numbers.Education District.
Auckland.Taranaki.Wanganui.Hawke's Bay.Wellington.Nelson.CanterburyOtago.Southland.Totals.
1–84 6383681048
9–24912253545726963938476
25–3033810974181213114
31–701804540393421794043521
71–11072121513196291613195
111–15039107108558799
151–1902365563105467
191–230131134667243
231–27072459 32133
271–31093328 93239
311–35013 233 61129
351–39062142224225
391–430711410 55 33
431–47081232252227
471–5101012 4133 24
511–5501022 5 31225
551–5906 1 213 114
591–630813 5 41 22
631–6708  1  2  11
671–71031  2 1  7
711–7506 1   1  8
751–7901  11 1  4
791–8303     11 5
831–8701  11    3
871–9102     2  4
911–950          
951–9901        1
Intermediate schools and departments16 224 24131
  Totals580118161162201803021621421,908

Primary Schools for Maoris.—Over 60 per cent. of the Maori children in New Zealand are educated in the public schools. At the end of 1950 there were 18,699 attending public schools out of a total of 31,006 Maori children receiving primary education in State schools.

The language of instruction in the Maori schools is English, but the schools are not completely English in outlook, for Maori arts and crafts, song, legend, and history are taught.

Methods of teaching are practical, and objectives closely related to the special needs of the Maori people. In many of the Maori schools, such equipment as woodwork-rooms, cookery-rooms, model cottages, baths, hot and cold showers, and laundries is supplied. Elementary agriculture and health education feature in every Maori school.

The number of pupils on the rolls of the 159 Maori village schools at the end of 1950 was 13,426 (including 1,119 European children), while the total roll number of the ten Maori mission schools was 826.

The following table gives the principal statistics of Maori village schools during the last five years.

Year.Number of Schools at End of Year.Roll at 1st July.Average Attendance, Whole Year.Average Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll.Number of Teachers.*
Maori.European.Males.Females.

* Includes Junior Assistants (16 males and 101 females in 1950).

194615911,30591310,64786.2177357
194716011,5551,04211,15988.0193294
194815911,9891,03711,38587.0199333
194916011,9511,08911,48887.1214306
195015911,9051,06411,64387.8220329

Four Inspectors of Schools attached to the Education Department are engaged in the inspection of Maori schools, mission schools, and secondary schools for Maoris.

Intermediate Schools.—Pupils on the rolls of the seventeen intermediate schools and fourteen intermediate departments at the end of 1950 numbered 11,802. The progress that is being made with the establishment of this type of school may be gauged from the fact that ten years earlier (1940), the number of pupils was 5,532. Of all children in Forms I and II of public (primary, and intermediate) schools at the end of 1950,25 per cent. were enrolled at the intermediate schools. The average attendance during the year was 11,120. The ages of pupils on the roll at 1st July of each of the last three years were:—

Age, in Years.1948.1949.1950.
Boys.Girls.Total.Boys.Girls.Total.Boys.Girls.Total.
Under 116912319270115185115138253
11 and under 121,1821,2902,4721,2491,4682,7171,3971,6933,090
12 " 132,1352,0614,1962,1452,1564,3012,3892,3014,690
13 " 141,4421,1512,5931,5611,1922,7531,5131,1742,687
14 " 156714841,1556604441,1045784341,012
15 " 16100611611185517312444168
16 and over8715131023171027
  Totals5,6075,17710,7845,8165,44011,2566,1335,79411,927

Private Schools.—No private school may be established unless application is first made to the Department of Education for registration. Certain standards of efficiency and suitability of staff, premises, equipment, and curriculum have to be fulfilled.

The following table contains the principal statistics of private primary schools for each of the last five years. The figures include Maori mission schools which are also shown separately in the summary table on p. 159.

Year.Number of Schools.Roll at End of Year.Average Yearly Attendance.Teachers.
Boys.Girls.Totals.Males.Females.Total.
194630815,16316,34331,50627,5451328771,009
194730715,66416,94032,60429,4591348801,014
194830916,11317,24733,36029,8431418951,036
194930617,01717,94334,96030,9691509061,056
195031017,88918,85936,74832,6071619221,083

The majority of the schools included in the preceding table are Roman Catholic Church schools, of which there were 240 at the end of 1950, with 30,504 pupils (15,027 boys and 15,477 girls) and 818 teachers (73 males and 745 females). The average attendance was 26,946. The remaining private schools comprised 55 church schools of other denominations with 216 teachers and 5,340 pupils, and 15 undenominational schools with 49 teachers and 904 pupils.

POST-PRIMARY SCHOOLS.—Over a lengthy period of years, one of the most striking features of New Zealand education has been the proportion of pupils who proceed to some form of post-primary schooling at the conclusion of the primary course. In 1943, approximately 76 per cent. of the children leaving public primary schools and intermediate schools and departments went on to full-time post-primary schooling. Mainly as a result of the raising of the school leaving-age, this percentage had risen to 89 per cent. in 1950. The movement towards free secondary education for all began in 1901, when free places were introduced in the district high schools. In 1903 it became obligatory on all State post-primary schools to provide some free places, and from 1914 every child who had passed the Proficiency Examination was entitled to free education for at least two years in any State post-primary school. The final step was taken in 1936, when the Proficiency Examination was abolished and every child gaining a Primary School Certificate or attaining the age of fourteen years became entitled to free post-primary education until the end of the year in which he reached the age of nineteen years. Extension beyond the age of nineteen is allowable in special cases approved by the Minister of Education.

Post-primary schools are either public (State) or private. The following table shows the number and types of post-primary schools in existence during each of the last five years.

Year.State Secondary Schools.Combined Schools.Secondary Departments of District High Schools.Technical High Schools.Maori Secondary Schools.Endowed and Private Secondary Schools.Totals.
194640710325872255
194740710728973264
1948407108281073266
1949407111281073269
1950407110291073269

All types of post-primary schools are required by regulations made in 1945 to give to all pupils during the first two years of post-primary course a minimum number of units of instruction in the following subjects: English and social studies, general science and elementary mathematics, music and craft or fine art, and physical education.

A combined school is an amalgamation of a secondary and a technical school under a single governing body. District high schools are public primary schools with a secondary “top” and the basic course is academic, as in the normal secondary school. Where staffing and equipment allow, special courses are provided in agriculture, commercial work, and domestic science. Technical schools are described later in this section.

Until 1904, secondary schools were established by special (local) Acts of the General Assembly, and the majority of schools giving post-primary education have been established in this manner. At the present time the provisions of the 1914 Education Act allow the Minister of Education to establish such schools. State secondary schools and combined schools are controlled by Boards of Governors, and district high schools by the Education Boards.

The inspection of State post-primary schools is carried out by Inspectors of Post-primary Schools attached to the Department of Education. Commencing in 1947, these Inspectors took over the inspection of secondary departments of district high schools which were previously inspected by Primary-school Inspectors. There were (in 1951) 27 Inspectors and one Chief Inspector of Post-primary Schools.

The number of pupils at the end of each of the last five years is shown in the following table. No account is taken of lower departments of secondary schools, and in the case of district high schools only the secondary departments are included.

Year.State Secondary Schools.Combined Schools.District High Schools.Technical High Schools.Maori Secondary Schools.Endowed and Private Secondary Schools.Correspondence School.Totals.
194617,8963,3646,65611,7125638,53267849,401
194717,8193,3516,66612,3286228,96861850,372
194817,9723,4016,89512,1366688,82760150,500
194918,4003,5107,32012,5047779,11253352,156
195019,3523,4726,99213,8598139,34149454,323

In addition to the foregoing, there were, in July, 1950, 21,175 part-time students attending technical classes, 2,559 students receiving part-time tuition from the Correspondence School, and 981 students receiving part-time instruction from the Technical Correspondence School.

The numbers of each sex attending post-primary schools at the end of 1950 were: State secondary schools, 9,704 boys and 9,648 girls; combined schools, 1,944 and 1,528; secondary departments of district high schools, 3,251 and 3,741; technical schools, 7,839 and 6,020; endowed and registered private secondary schools, 4,189 and 5,152; Maori secondary schools, 423 and 390; and full-time at correspondence school, 187 and 307.

Technical Schools.—The technical schools fall roughly into two types: (a) those in the small centres, which provide for all the post-primary needs and are distinguishable from secondary schools only by having in general a rather more strongly developed practical side; and (b) the large technical schools in the main centres, in which there is less evidence of the generalized academic curriculum, since this is adequately provided by the city secondary schools.

However, even in the latter type most of the courses in the day schools are still designedly pre-vocational and not genuinely “technical” in character. Technical schools are normally controlled either by a Board of Managers or by the Education Board of the district acting in a similar capacity.

There were twenty-nine technical schools in 1950. The following table shows the number of pupils taking the different courses available (as at 1st July in each of the last five years).

Course.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
Industrial5,0975,0664,7044,9865,275
Commercial and general5,0505,3855,3005,3456,190
Domestic2,3672,6022,6992,6712,862
Agricultural8559299689631,115
Fine Arts452411411320124
  Totals13,82114,39314,08214,28515,566

Technical Classes.—The number of centres at which technical classes for part-time day and evening students are provided was 113 in 1950.

The number of individual students including apprentices attending day classes in 1950 was:—

Classes conducted by Education or High School Boards8,467
Classes conducted by Technical School Boards or by Managers12,708

Of the total of 21,175 students, 15,073 (9,675 males and 5,398 females) held free places.

The above figures do not include 3,540 part-time students at 1st July on the rolls of the Correspondence and Technical Correspondence Schools.

Probable Destination of Post-primary Pupils.—An indication of the vocations intended to be followed by pupils leaving public post-primary schools during 1950 is contained in the next table. Of the totals, 5.4 per cent. of boys and 2.4 per cent. of girls intended to proceed to full-time university studies, while a further 2.5 per cent. of boys and 6.4 per cent. of girls stated their intention of entering the teaching profession. Clerical occupations (including typing) claimed 13.5 per cent. of boys and 29.6 per cent. of girls; shops and warehouses, 8.3 per cent. and 14.9 per cent.; manual trades, 29.3 per cent. and 2.4 percent.; farming 21.9 per cent. and 1.1 per cent.; 1.8 and 18.4 per cent. intended to stay at home; various other occupations claimed 10.6 per cent. and 19.7 per cent.; while 6.7 per cent. and 5.1 per cent. of boys and girls respectively did not know their future vocations at the time.

Occupation.Secondary Schools.Combined Schools.Technical High and Day Schools.District High Schools.Totals.
Boys.Girls.Boys.Girls.Boys.Girls.Boys.Girls.Boys.Girls.
University college3591536524752633502206
Teaching or training college1293221948561022977233549
Professional engineering, surveying, architecture60 5 42 5 112 
Clerical (including typing)—          
  (a) Government and local body187239555014016698186480641
  (b) Banks, insurance, legal, commercial houses, shops, and warehouses50382981141142662602547861,886
Shop and warehouse assistants22441767923244611632967781,266
Manual trades—          
  (a) Government and local body71315 1696481330322
  (b) Building135 46 360 95 636 
  (c) Motor engineering127 46 256 64 493 
  (d) General engineering50 38 238 31 363 
  (e) Printing4128 5016 1053
  (f) Other trades237676424038913219836177
Farming51236217471333608202,05093
Factory operatives4211141511915550117215398
Other occupations24056342832304001522276641,273
At home4653439570456494851681,570
Not known1971171713312397676621433
    Totals3,1663,3937925553,7182,7961,6691,7739,3458,517

Duration of Stay at Post-primary School.—The following table gives particulars of pupils who left public post-primary schools in 1950, classified according to years of attendance. The approximate average length of stay at the various types of school was: secondary schools, 3 years 2 months; combined schools, 2 years 11 months; technical high and day schools, 2 years 4 months; secondary departments of district high schools, 2 years 4 months; all post-primary schools, 2 years 8 months.

Year of Attendance.Secondary Schools.Combined Schools.Technical High and Day Schools.District High Schools.All Schools.
Number.Per Cent.Number.Per Cent.Number.Per Cent.Number.Per Cent.Number.Per Cent.
First5238.014210.51,26319.478122.72,70915.2
Second1,78527.243732.52,74642.21,36239.66,33035.4
Third1,72226.237928.11,65525.485824.94,61425.8
Fourth1,40321.422516.75999.234710.12,57414.4
Fifth1,02415.615411.42293.5892.61,4968.4
Sixth and over1021.6100.8220.350.11390.8
  Totals6,559100.01,347100.06,514100.03,442100.017,862100.0

It has been mentioned earlier that, except in special circumstances, children are not permitted to leave school until they reach the age of fifteen years, and it would appear that many pupils entering post-primary schools remain there only as long as they are required to, as no less than 51 per cent. do not proceed beyond the second year of attendance.

Secondary Schools for Maoris.—At the end of 1950, 801 Maori pupils were receiving post-primary education at the ten Maori secondary schools, 289 of the total being Government scholarship-holders. In addition, there were 39 scholarship-holders enrolled in public post-primary schools.

A further step forward in the provision of post-primary education for Maoris was the approval of the establishment of Maori district high schools. These schools, unlike the private denominational schools, are controlled by the Education Department; they provide courses of a practical nature specially suited to the needs of the Maori pupils. There were 8 such schools at the end of 1950.

War Bursaries for Soldiers' Dependants.—Regulations which came into force in January, 1918, provided for the award of bursaries to dependants of members of the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces who were killed through active military service or who were disabled through such service. In 1941, bursaries were made available to dependants of members of the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force. To qualify for a war bursary a child must have gained the Primary School Certificate. The bursary is tenable at any post-primary school, or, if the holder has the necessary educational qualifications, at a University college. The tenure of a war bursary may be continued until the holder reaches the age of twenty-three years.

Secondary School Bursaries.—Under regulations made in 1943 bursaries of a maximum annual value of £40 and tenable for a period of up to two years may be granted to pupils obliged to live away from home in order to take a Sixth Form course at a post-primary school (public or private) which is approved for accrediting purposes. In order to qualify, applicants must be under eighteen years of age and must have passed either the School Certificate or the University Entrance Examinations or have been accredited for the latter.

Technical School Bursaries.—Bursaries of a maximum value of £40 may be awarded to pupils who have completed at any post-primary school a two years' course preparatory to a specialized course in agriculture, fine arts, engineering, building-construction, commerce, or home science which can be completed only at some technical school. The bursaries are tenable at post-primary schools approved for that purpose and may be held for a maximum of two years. Applicants must be under the age of seventeen years at the commencement of the specialized course and must be obliged to live away from home in order to receive satisfactory instruction in the courses to be followed.

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE.—Since 1938 full responsibility for the work of vocational guidance of pupils at post-primary schools, which for some years had been carried on almost entirely by voluntary organizations, has been taken by the Government. Eight vocational guidance officers (four men and four women) wore appointed, two to each of the four chief centres; and educational guidance officers, known as “careers-advisers,” were also selected at certain large post-primary schools to work in conjunction with the district vocational guidance officers. So far as the work of finding positions for children leaving school was concerned, the vocational guidance officers acted in collaboration during the war with the Man-power officers of the National Service Department, and in each of the four main cities a “Youth Centre” was established where the work of guidance and placement was undertaken jointly by officers of the Education and National Service Departments.

The Education Department assumed the full control of the youth centres in 1943, and the staffs of the centres (now called Vocational Guidance Centres) have been greatly strengthened and their activities expanded, including the provision of psychological clinics. So far, branch offices have been opened in the four main centres and in Lower Hutt. At Invercargill there is a part-time centre. The Vocational Guidance Officers are however in close contact with the post-primary schools in other centres. The Vocational Guidance Officers, acting in conjunction with headmasters and special careers-teachers in the schools, offer their services at any point in the child's career where a choice has to be made, whether of school course or of vocation. When a child has made his choice of career, the Vocational Guidance Officer will if requested find suitable employment for him and endeavour to follow up his progress until he is finally and satisfactorily settled in his line of work. Working in conjunction with the Education Committee of the Rehabilitation Board, the Vocational Guidance Officers at the conclusion of the last war assisted in the rehabilitation of returned servicemen particularly in the selection of suitable courses of study. This particular work has declined in recent years.

The centres are in frequent touch with a number of voluntary agencies such as “Heritage,” Crippled Children's Society, and lay T.B. Associations.

For the year ended 31st December, 1950, the total callers at the centres numbered 13,732. In addition, 6,311 pupils were interviewed individually in post-primary schools. Group interviews were carried out with 422 groups of children (numbering in the aggregate several thousands) interested in discussing particular vocations. Other activities, apart from attention to numerous inquiries by letter and the preparation of information sheets covering over one hundred occupations, included 824 visits to schools, addresses at 200 meetings, and 1,469 follow up visits to persons placed in employment.

RURAL EDUCATION: Consolidation of Schools.—In order to give children in country districts the advantages of special equipment and more specialized teaching in larger schools, the consolidation of the smaller rural schools has been encouraged wherever practicable. The extent of this consolidation will be evident from the act that, whereas in 1934 there were 2,532 public primary schools, the number in 1950 had fallen to 1,877. The fall in numbers is also due in part to the exclusion since 1946 of part-time and side schools from the totals. There were approximately 80 such schools in 1934 and 40 in 1946.

Transport and Board.—A natural consequence of consolidation is the provision of adequate transport facilities to bring children into the centres. Free passes on the railway to the nearest public or private school are granted to children living near a railway-line but out of reach of a primary school, and the same privilege is enjoyed by pupils having to travel to attend secondary schools, combined schools, district high schools, technical high schools, and private secondary schools, as well as to part-time pupils travelling to attend technical schools or classes, and pupils attending manual-training centres.

Where railway facilities are not available or sufficiently convenient, transport of pupils is by motor vehicle, horse, or ferry.

Transport by buses operated either by the Education Department or by private operators under contract with the Department is free.

Where neither a departmental nor contract bus service is available the cost of transport is met by payment of a conveyance or horseback allowance.

The expenditure on transport of pupils for the financial year 1950-51 was £814,201, as compared with £701,836 in 1949-50.

During the last three years the expenditure on board of pupils attending schools was:—

 1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.
 £££
Public primary and Intermediate8,3149,18612,351
Private primary4,5943,6514,444
State secondary38,60651,45472,166
Maori2,7103,8813,668
Private secondary21,36520,06532,112
  Totals75,58988,237124,741

The next table gives particulars of the number of children transported to school and the number in receipt of boarding-allowance as at 1st July, 1950, according to the type of school attended. Totals for the two preceding years are also shown.

Type of School.Number of Pupils OD Roll.Total Pupils Transported to School.Number Receiving Boarding-allowance.
Public primary schools229,34639,127290
Intermediate schools and departments11,98798517
Secondary departments of district high schools8,0234,156175
State secondary schools20,5714,0441,345
Technical high schools15,5665,828530
Combined schools3,789711442
Maori village schools12,9693,82658
Chatham Islands schools106308
Private primary schools35,7752,804349
Private secondary schools10,5111,1501,202
  Totals, 1950348,64362,6614,416
  Totals, 1949334,39057,1624,282
  Totals, 1948322,19452,4484,430

Correspondence School.—Since 1922, correspondence classes have been conducted for the primary education of children in very remote areas and of those unable to attend school on account of lengthy illness or other causes. In 1929, courses were extended to cover secondary education up to the stage of the University Entrance Examination. The usual subjects of the syllabus of instruction are taught at the school, and in addition pupils who require instruction which is usually available in a special class in a public school are taught by teachers on the staff of the school who are trained for the purpose. A corporate school spirit is developed through craft and club activities, weekly radio lessons, and personal visits from special travelling teachers. The work of the school has been greatly facilitated by the extension of the practice of visiting pupils in their homes. Vacation schools have been organized in various centres in order to give pupils the opportunity of doing practical work and of taking part in group activities.

Young persons in employment, including teachers of small public schools, junior assistants in Maori schools, Post Office cadets, and others who are unable to attend post-primary schools for evening classes, also receive tuition as part-time pupils of the Correspondence School. One of the features of the school is the provision of instruction for pupils taking practical subjects, such as needlework, woodwork, practical agriculture, and science subjects.

At the end of 1950 there were 3,973 pupils on the roll of the Correspondence School, 1,673 being in the primary department, and 494 full-time and 1,806 part-time students in the secondary department. The teaching staff of the school consists of a headmaster, 98 secondary, and 49 primary assistant teachers.

Technical Correspondence School.—In July, 1946, the Department took over the responsibility for the study courses previously conducted by the Army Educational and Welfare Service. A Technical Correspondence School was established in Wellington to develop these courses for men in the Armed Services, and also to provide correspondence instruction in vocational and technical subjects for apprentices and advanced students unable to attend technical schools or classes.

The number of students on the roll at 1st July, 1950, was 981. There were 18 full-time teachers besides the principal on the staff at the end of the year, 1950.

Agricultural Clubs.—More particularly in rural schools, practical interest in agriculture has been stimulated by the widespread formation of boys' and girls' agricultural clubs. The pupils undertake projects in live-stock rearing and crop growing which are adjudged annually on the club field-day, usually held at the school or local centre.

The Agricultural Instructors employed by the Education Boards play an important part in the formation of the clubs, and by giving technical advice do much to assure the successful completion of the various projects. The clubs receive active support from parents, teachers, and the farmers' organizations.

HEALTH SERVICES: Physical Education.—Physical education, including swimming and life-saving, is a recognized part of the primary and post-primary school curricula. In the public primary schools three half-hourly periods per week are devoted to the subject, and since 1945 in post-primary schools at least two hours a week. Corrective classes are held in the larger schools for the purpose of remedying physical defects of the children.

A Superintendent, to organize and control physical education in the schools throughout New Zealand, was appointed in 1939. Area organizers have also been appointed to develop still further the work in their respective districts, and assistants have been appointed to teach physical education in the schools to which they are attached and in neighbouring schools. In 1950 there were 77 area organizers in the primary and post-primary school system engaged full-time on physical education. Post-primary schools also appoint full-time physical education teachers.

Medical and Dental Treatment.—Information on the medical and dental inspection of school-children and the dental-clinic system is given in Section 5A (Public Health) of this Year-Book.

Free Issue of Milk.—The milk-in-schools scheme, for the free issue of a half-pint daily ration of milk to children, commenced on 1st March, 1937. Information concerning this scheme is also contained in Section 5A.

CHILD WELFARE AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS.—The Child Welfare Act of 1925 provided for the creation of a special branch of the Education Department, now known as the Child Welfare Division. The Act was passed to make better provision with respect to the maintenance, care, and control of children who are placed specially under the protection of the State, and to provide generally for the protection and training of indigent, neglected, and delinquent children.

An important section of the Act provided for the establishment of Children's Courts, to be presided over by Stipendiary Magistrates or Justices specially authorized to exercise jurisdiction in these Courts. Provision was also made for the appointment of honorary associates of either sex, whose function it is to consider all the facts concerning children brought before the Courts and to advise the presiding Magistrate or Justice as to what action should be taken. The appointment of Child Welfare Officers for the investigation of all cases coming before the Courts was also provided for. These investigations are carried out mainly by the regular officers employed by the Department, but in outlying districts the services of honorary child welfare officers are utilized for this important work. At 31st March, 1951, there were 208 men and women serving as honorary child welfare officers.

The principle of dealing with children in the privacy of the Magistrate's room had been followed for many years throughout New Zealand, and the Child Welfare Act was designed to give legality to such a practice. Very wide discretionary powers are given to these special Courts in dealing with children. The ordinary procedure of requiring the child to plead, of taking evidence on oath, and, indeed, of hearing the particular charge may be dispensed with altogether. Wherever practicable the Children's Court is held in premises apart from the ordinary Police Court, and no newspaper is permitted to publish either the names of children appearing before these Courts or any particulars that are likely to identify a child.

A child was originally defined for purposes of the Act as one under sixteen years of age. This age was raised to seventeen in 1927.

In order to provide for the greater protection of infants of unmarried mothers and for the assistance and guidance of the mothers themselves, there is provision for Child Welfare Officers, on being notified of such births, to investigate each case and to render such assistance as is required, either in placing the child in a suitable foster-home or in advising the mother in the matter of affiliation proceedings, or in assisting her in obtaining employment, &c. By an amending Act in 1927 provision was made for the inspection and registration of all private institutions for children.

In 1948 a further amending Act made provision for the placing of any immigrant and refugee children who may come to Now Zealand under the legal guardianship of the Superintendent of Child Welfare.

In addition to the work in connection with the maintenance and education of indigent, neglected, and delinquent children committed by the Courts, the Child Welfare Division (1) supervises all infants and young children under the age of six years who are living apart from their parents; (2) makes inquiry through its field officers, for the information of Magistrates, into nil applications for the adoption of children; (3) supervises all children and young persons placed under the field officers by order of the Court; and (4) controls institutions for deaf or for mentally backward children.

The following figures (which are exclusive of children dealt with as preventive cases, 796 in 1950–51) indicate the numbers under control during each of the last five years. In addition there were, in 1950–51, 14 children at the New Zealand Institute for the Blind, for whom the Education Department made payment.

Boarded out, in institutions and receiving-homes, and in hospitals, or convalescent homes, &c.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.
 3,8073,5383,4873,3773,156
Under supervision915879854906836
Infant-life protection788772832817846
Deaf children250251277297318
Mentally backward children172160173173160
  Totals5,9325,6005,6235,5705,316

The Child Welfare Act authorizes Children's Courts to place children under the supervision of Child Welfare Officers in cases where it appears undesirable or unnecessary to remove them from their own homes, and generally in all cases the friendly contact with the parents as well as the children is sufficient to bring about a readjustment of the home conditions or the correction of incipient anti-social traits in the children. In this important work the Department receives valuable assistance from private social service organizations.

The number of cases dealt with-by the Courts in 1950–51 was 1,953 and in 1949–50, 1,848. These figures included only those cases where the Court found the charge proved or upheld the charges. In years prior to 1949–50 all cases coming before the Courts were counted. The comparable figure for 1948–49 was 1,823 (1,883 on the old basis of calculation). Of those coming before the Courts, 629 in 1950–51 and 677 in 1949–50 were placed under supervision and dealt with as indicated in the foregoing paragraph. The number committed to the care of the Superintendent during the year was 462.

At 31st March, 1951, the number of children boarded out was 1,796, as compared with 1,771 at the end of the preceding year. The boarding-out rate is 27s. 6d. per week for children under twelve years, 30s. (including 1s. 6d. pocket-money) per week for children aged twelve to fourteen years, and 32s. 6d. (including 2s. 6d. pocket money) per week for children over fourteen years. The Department provides free dental treatment where not otherwise provided, and also school books and stationery.

Of the total children under control at 31st March, 1951, the number placed in employment was 566, of whom 197 were in farm situations, 69 in factories, 63 in shops and offices, 61 in domestic work, and 176 were in other occupations. A considerable number of the foregoing were receiving some assistance—e.g., with their board, clothing, books, fees—from the Department in the early stages of their employment. Except in a comparatively few cases these State wards receive standard rates of wages, the exceptions being entirely due to some physical or mental handicap which prevents the young people concerned from competing on equal terms with their fellows.

The Boys' Training Centre at Levin provides for boys of all ages who require a period of reformative detention in an institution. There are two distinct sections—a senior section for older boys (of approximately fourteen years and upwards), and a junior section at the Hokio Training School, which caters for boys of primary school age. There is a similar institution for girls at Burwood. A Girls' Hostel in Wellington and a Boys' Hostel in Auckland provide for young people under control who are in employment in these two cities.

An institution at Otekaike provides a special course of education for mentally-backward boys. The older lads, under capable supervision, are employed in farm-work, garden and orchard work, bootmaking, and carpentering. Girls are provided for at the Special School at Richmond, and are employed in housework and laundry-work, sewing, knitting, &c., and in outside occupations, such as gardening and flower-growing. Maori girls requiring training before placement in the community are provided for at an institution at Featherston. After a period of training they are placed in suitable situations where their supervision is continued under the local Child Welfare Officer.

Residential schools for the teaching of deaf children are located at Sumner and Titirangi. At 1st July, 1950, there were 298 children attending these schools. A registered private school in Wellington also caters for deaf children.

Infant-life protection is carried out under the supervision of trained nurses who are fully qualified in the care and feeding of infants and young children. Very many infants dealt with under this system are illegitimate.

TEACHING PROFESSION: Training of Teachers.—There are five training colleges available to students who desire to enter the teaching profession, and at the end of 1950 there were 2,302 students in training. Of these, 2,218 were “Division A” students and 84 “Division C” students. The minimum academic qualification for “Division A” is the University Entrance or School Certificate Examinations, while students of “Division C” must be University graduates.

The following table shows the number of students in training at the teachers' training colleges in December of each of the years 1946–1950.

Year.Men.Women.Totals.
19467548491,603
19477088561,564
19487841,0631,847
19499291,2652,194
19509431,3592,302

With the end of hostilities, there was a substantial increase in the number of male students in 1946, but this partially offset by a fall in the number of female students.

The normal course of training for “Division A” students is a period of two years at a training college, followed by a further period of one year as a probationary assistant attached to a public school. Third-year studentships, which entitle holders to an extra year's training, are available to selected students who wish to specialize in the teaching of certain subjects of the curriculum. There were 69 such students in December, 1950. For students of “Division C” the course is for one year. These students are university graduates who train for service in post-primary schools. To enable students to qualify to teach homecraft subjects, bursaries providing training at a teachers' training college and at a technical high school were instituted in 1943. There were 41 homecraft trainees in the Dunedin Training College in 1950.

In order to meet future staffing requirements due to the rapidly increasing school population a special training scheme was started in September, 1949, for selected trainees aged twenty-one years and over. In December, 1950, the number of trainees taking the special one-year course at the training colleges was 291 (185 men and 106 women). The corresponding figure in December, 1949, was 292 (174 men, 118 women). On completion of the special training-college course these trainees are required to serve for one year as probationary assistants before being granted trained teachers' certificates. These trainees are not included in the figures in the tabulation of students at training colleges shown on the preceding page.

Post-primary Teachers' Bursaries are awarded annually to students who have reached a standard of education at least equivalent to University Entrance, to enable them to attend full time at University to complete approved degree courses in preparation for entry into the post-primary teaching profession. The bursaries are of an annual value of £70 plus payment of tuition fees, with an additional £40 if students are obliged to live away from home to attend University. The tenure is for a maximum period of four years. On completing their University courses students may be required to attend a teachers' training college for one year as “Division C” students, and then to serve for a period of four to five years as teachers in post-primary schools. The number of these bursars attending University in 1950 was 110.

A maximum of twenty Physical Education Bursaries are awarded annually to students to enable them to attend she School of Physical Education at the University of Otago for a three-year diploma course in physical education. The bursaries are of the same value as the Post-primary Teachers' Bursaries, and the bursars may be required, on completion of the course, to undertake work for a period of four to five years either as teachers of physical education or as physical welfare officers under the Internal Affairs Department. The number of such bursars attending University in 1905 was 67.

Public Primary-school Teachers.—The following table shows the number of teachers in public primary schools in the various education districts as at 31st December, 1950, together with totals for 1949, 1948, and 1940.

Sole Teachers.Heads of Schools.Assistant Teachers.Probationary Assistants.Total Number of Teachers.Percentage of Male to Female Teachers.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
Education District—          
  Auckland13017396215051,2221191472,55781.7
  Taranaki34373858175112038285.4
  Wanganui5916741089215193651887.0
  Hawke's Bay621479591208263552098.5
  Wellington62151081220944885741,01384.5
  Nelson2694413499192225493.9
  Canterbury88381621222750890721,19789.8
  Otago511188899259703562199.0
  Southland4915734591381418370111.4
Intermediate schools and departments  18 200210  428103.8
  Totals, 19505611381,115811,5713,4824534597,86088.9
  " 19495861551,065881,5083,4392643767,48184.3
  " 19485702111,047931,4033,4042552687,25182.4
  " 19406443639911478862,8902274386,58671.6

Between 1940 and 1950 the total number of teachers increased by 1,274, male teachers contributing 952 of this increase and female teachers 322. The average number of pupils per teacher was 27.3 in 1940, 27.7 in 1949, and 28.5 in 1950.

Post-primary-school Teachers.—The following table indicates the number of full-time teachers employed in the post-primary schools mentioned. The principals are included except in the case of district high schools, the figures for which apply to assistants in the secondary department only.

Year.Secondary Schools.District High Schools.Technical High Schools.Combined Schools.Grand Totals.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
194640937020414242521891651,924
194746840023614045924791712,112
194847439625713247924697692,150
194948140229112649223099672,188
1950511421286110535251102682,284

Male teachers employed in post-primary schools fell from 908 in 1940 to 707 in 1942, this decrease being almost entirely due to enlistment in the Armed Forces. The position was slightly improved in 1943, and each succeeding year has shown a further advance, the number in 1950 being 1,434, an increase of 526 as compared with 1940. The number of female teachers rose from 630 in 1940 to 838 in 1945, this increase being partially due to the employment of women during the war period in positions normally occupied by men. There was a fall to 795 in 1946, but the number at the end of 1950 (850) was 220 in excess of the number employed in 1940. Teachers employed in private post-primary schools and Maori secondary schools are not included in the figures. In 1950, 545 full-time teachers (232 male, 313 female) were employed in these schools.

TEACHING AIDS.—In order to assist teachers to make their work more realistic, a Supervisor of Teaching Aids was appointed to the Education Department in 1941. His work includes the supervision of the work of the Education Officers in the museums and also of a library of films and film strips. He also represents the Education Department on the Advisory Committee for broadcasts to schools.

Broadcasting.—Regular broadcasting programmes for schools were initiated in 1931. A varied series of talks is given weekly from all the main national stations. A special feature is a music lesson broadcast to schools weekly. Special lessons are also broadcast for Correspondence School pupils.

Visual Aids.—The National Film Library, a branch of the Education Department, lends films free of charge to schools and to organizations having some educational purpose. More than a thousand schools have 16 mm. sound-projectors.

Film-strips are also available on free loan from the film-strip libraries in the offices of Education Boards. They can also be purchased for a nominal sum from the National Film Library. About two-thirds of the schools are equipped with film-strip projectors.

Museums.—To assist schools to make the fullest use of the museums, an education officer is attached jointly to the museum and the teachers' training college in each of the four main centres. Cases of exhibits are circulated amongst schools where pupils are unable to make regular visits to a museum.

Publications.—The chief reader in primary and intermediate schools is the School Journal, an illustrated monthly paper which is published in four separate parts suitable for pupils in the various standard classes. It is supplemented by primary-school bulletins which deal with topics of local interest. These publications are prepared in the Education Department and issued free to all primary and intermediate schools, both State and private. Vernacular Journals are also issued to schools in Western Samoa and the Cook and Niue Islands.

Post-primary bulletins are published fortnightly and issued free to all public and private post-primary schools. They provide background reading for subjects of the revised curriculum, particularly in social studies, science, literature, and music.

A monthly Gazette, mainly for the information of teachers, is published by the Department. It is a medium for the prompt dissemination of official information and for the advertisement of vacancies. Copies are distributed to educational authorities and to State schools throughout New Zealand.

As stated under an earlier heading, new text-books, which are being produced as a result of a systematic review of the primary-school curriculum, are issued free to all pupils in public and private primary schools.

HIGHER EDUCATION: New Zealand University.—Control of higher education in New Zealand is vested in the New Zealand University, founded by the New Zealand University Acts of 1870, 1874, and 1875.

The University was formerly an examining, not a teaching, body with four teaching institutions affiliated to it—the Auckland University College, founded in 1882; Victoria University College, founded in 1897 at Wellington; Canterbury University College, founded in 1873 at Christchurch; and Otago University, founded in 1869 at Dunedin. By the New Zealand University Amendment Act, 1926, the constitution of the University was altered so that it now actually consists of the four University colleges. Each of the colleges, besides providing the usual University courses, specializes in certain directions: Otago University has medical and dental schools, a school of mining and metallurgical engineering, a school of home science, and a school of physical education; Canterbury University College has a school of engineering (mechanical, electrical, and civil), and a school of fine arts; Auckland University College has a school of architecture, a school of fine arts, and a school of engineering which offers courses to the final years of the degree in certain branches of engineering; and Victoria University College specializes in law, has a school of public administration, and a school of social work. There are also two agricultural colleges—viz., Massey and Canterbury—associated with the University (see page 180).

In 1930 a New Zealand University Amendment Act was passed to enable the University to discharge its functions under the Law Practitioners Amendment Act, 1930. For this purpose a Council of Legal Education was established to make recommendations to the Academic Board of the University with respect to any matter relating to legal education. Further, the Senate of the University in making or altering statutes concerning legal education must first consider any recommendations made by the Academic Board or the Council of Legal Education.

By means of an amendment to its own statutes and with the consent of the colleges, the University has set up a University Grants Committee, through which applications for grants are placed before the Government.

In 1950 there were 10,873 students actually in attendance at the four University colleges and the two agricultural colleges. Of these, 978 were graduates, 8,249 undergraduates, and 1,646 unmatriculated students. Of the unmatriculated students, 540 were taking short courses at the agricultural colleges. A number of the unmatriculated students are returned servicemen, who are admitted under special terms. In addition there were 1,182 students attached to the various University colleges, but exempt from lectures. Comparable figures for the five years quoted are given in the following table.

Year.Students attending Lectures.Exempt Students.Totals.
Males.Females.Males.Females.
19469,1412,1221,01617012,449
19479,1772,1561,25118012,764
19489,0992,2281,30221212,841
19498,4902,2681,18417812,120
19508,2542,6191,01816412,055

The numbers of male students attending lectures in the last five years are substantially above those of pre-war years, although there was a decrease of 923 between 1947 and 1950. The peak was reached in 1947, the number in that year being 5,052 or 124.3 per cent. above 1939. The numbers of female students attending lectures have also increased, the number in 1950 being 1,334 or 103/8 per cent. higher than in 1939. Students exempted from attendance at lectures also increased substantially, although a slight falling-off was apparent in 1949 and again in 1950. The award of rehabilitation bursaries to ex-servicemen no doubt contributed to the high figures from 1946 to 1948. Holders of rehabilitation bursaries fell from approximately 3,400 in 1946 to 907 in 1950. Indications are therefore that an increased proportion of young people in the relevant age-groups is continuing education at the University level, so that the falling-off in numbers of ex-servicemen is being almost balanced by increases in numbers from other sources.

Professors attached to the various University colleges in 1950 numbered 84, of whom Auckland had 18; Victoria, 20; Canterbury, 16; Otago, 25; Massey, 3; Canterbury Agricultural, 2. In addition there was a considerably larger number of full-time lecturers, part-time lecturers, and assistants.

The following table gives particulars of courses taken by students who were taking definite courses, during 1950 and each of the preceding two years.

Course.1948.1949.1950.
Males.FemalesTotal.Males.FemalesTotal.Males.FemalesTotal.
Agriculture—         
  Degree158115915811591542156
  Diploma292529725182592837290
  Other59665126413085 85
Architecture—         
  Degree129 12912141251141115
  Diploma82 824324550454
  Other7263349 4958 58
Arts2,8501,4254,2752,9441,3984,3422,6291,4334,062
Commerce1,9191052,0241,756811,8371,573951,668
Dentistry197620319051952004204
Divinity404444825040747
Education: Diploma11826144105161219216108
Fine Arts: Diploma19416011324344109153
Engineering4601461442 442414 414
Home Science—         
  Degree 5454 4545 3737
  Diploma 5656 5555 4848
Horticulture: Diploma461763321850351348
Journalism: Diploma361753281341311142
Law604176215422056248822510
Massage: Diploma837455394444549
Medical Science2 21 13 3
Medicine507535604864953549547542
Mining: Diploma55 5552 5255 55
Music1181022209412021492105197
Physical Education: Diploma141630203050303767
Public Administration: Diploma14 1410 1011 11
Science (including Medical &c., intermediate)1,8243082,1321,8153202,1411,6742911,965
Social Science: Diploma      8816
Other courses741116117462672
  Totals9,5652,32711,8929,3452,26911,6148,7082,36811,076

Free University Education.—Free University education was instituted in 1911 for all holders of University Scholarships (gained by examination) and bursaries (since 1945, gained by accrediting). Scholarships awarded by the University of New Zealand are the University Junior Scholarships and University National Scholarships which are of the value of £80 and £70 per annum respectively plus tuition fees, and are tenable for four years. In the case of holders living away from home a further amount of £40 and £45 respectively is allowed. The number of University Junior and National Scholarships awarded each year is thirty (ten Junior and twenty National). Taranaki Scholarships are of such annual value (not less than £70) as the Senate may determine by statute, plus tuition fees, and the Senate may, at its discretion, extend the tenure from three to four or five years. University National Scholarships and Taranaki Scholarships are tenable with other scholarships and bursaries not awarded by the University of New Zealand, but the total value must not exceed £200 and £110 respectively in any year. The above scholarships are awarded on the results of the Entrance Scholarships Examination. There are also some thirty or forty local and privately endowed scholarships awarded on the results of the same examination.

Scholarships awarded during the degree course are the University Senior (£90 per annum) and John Tinline Scholarship (£90 per annum). The various colleges also have private scholarships for which their own students may compete. The chief scholarships awarded at the end of the University course are the Rhodes Scholarships, the 1851 Exhibition Scholarships, the Post-graduate Scholarships in Arts and Science, the Travelling Scholarships in Commerce, Law, Engineering, Architecture, Medicine, and Dentistry, the Macmillan Brown Agricultural Scholarship, and the Shirtcliffe Scholarships. All are tenable abroad. The University of New Zealand also awards Research Fellowships, the value of which is not fixed, but the normal grants have been approximately £300 per annum for a period of two years. Each University college may also award two Research Scholarships of an annual value of £200 tenable in New Zealand.

University National (ordinary and boarding), Special, Post-primary Teachers', and Physical Education Bursaries are awarded annually by the Education Department. Particulars of Post-primary Teachers' and Physical Education Bursaries are given on page 175.

In 1940 new regulations were made for the award of University National (ordinary) Bursaries, the holders of which were entitled to the payment of tuition fees, for approved courses. All students who have been accredited for, or who have sat and passed the University Entrance Examination may be awarded one of these bursaries and thus receive free tuition for a period of four years, or five years in the case of medical, dental, or engineering students, at a University college. Bursars who hold the Higher School Certificate receive, in addition, an annual cash payment of £30 if attending full-time at University.

In order to assist qualified students to pursue special University courses, Special Bursaries are available in agriculture, architecture, fine arts, engineering, science, and home science. The tenure of these bursaries is five years for engineering and four years for each of the other courses. Awards are limited to approximately 110 per annum. The annual value of special bursaries is tuition fees plus a cash payment of £30, and £40 boarding-allowance if the holder is required to live away from home.

Each year a maximum of 65 University National (boarding) Bursaries are awarded to candidates on the basis of marks gained in the University Entrance Scholarship Examination. The bursaries are awarded to candidates who have to live away from home in order to attend a University, or who, although not required to live away from home, are in need of the financial assistance afforded by the bursary. The annual value of these bursaries is tuition fees plus £70 boarding-allowance. The tenure of the bursaries is five years for medical, dental, and engineering students and four years for others. Of the bursaries awarded each year at least forty go to students who are required to live away from home in order to attend University.

The total number of University National (ordinary and boarding) and Special Bursaries current in 1950 was 3,661.

Bursaries, &c., are also awarded annually by other Government Departments and include Medical and Dental Bursaries (Health Department), National Research Scholarships and National Research Fellowships (Department of Scientific and Industrial Research), Rehabilitation Bursaries (Rehabilitation Department), Coal-mining Bursaries (Mines Department), Public Service Bursaries (Public Service Commission).

From the table given below will be seen the number of students, including those taking short-courses at agricultural colleges, who received free University education during each of the last five years.

Year.Junior University, University National, and Taranaki Scholarships.Senior University Scholarships.University National, (Ordinary and Boarding) and Special Bursaries.Training-college Studentships.Other.Totals.
1946104222,6937583,9117,488
1947115293,0607063,9467,856
1948115313,3017893,3427,578
1949109303,4048472,3986,788
1950107253,6617151,8206,328

Holders of rehabilitation bursaries numbered 907 in 1950, 1,727 in 1949, 2,655 in 1948, 3,028 in 1947, and approximately 3,400 in 1946.

Agricultural Colleges.—There are two agricultural colleges specializing in higher agricultural education—Massey Agricultural College, near Palmerston North, and Canterbury Agricultural College, near Christchurch. The colleges are separately governed, though both are attached to the University of New Zealand. The staff of Massey College consisted in 1950 of 3 professors, 41 lecturers and assistant lecturers, while that of Canterbury was made up of 2 professors, 26 lecturers and assistant lecturers. The total number of students at Massey College in 1950 was 557 and at Canterbury 507. These numbers include 232 students at Massey and 308 at Canterbury Agricultural Colleges taking short courses.

Encouragement in the development of higher agricultural education is given through Government grants to the Colleges, amounting to £119,480 in 1950—51. Various research projects at the colleges have been aided by expert assistance and grants from the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

In addition, special bursaries in agriculture (referred to on the previous page) are awarded to qualified candidates to provide them with practical training for positions as teachers or instructors of agriculture. During 1950, 23 bursars were in attendance at Canterbury Agricultural College, 28 at College, 4 at Canterbury University College, and 1 at Otago University.

COUNCIL FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH.—In 1933 the Carnegie Corporation of New York set up a committee to report on the proposal to found in New Zealand a Council for Educational Research. This committee called a conference of representative educationists to consider the proposal, and approached educational authorities for their co-operation. In view of the unanimous support given to the proposal, the committee recommended the foundation of the Council, and in November, 1933, the Carnegie Corporation appropriated a substantial grant for the purpose, payable in five yearly instalments, beginning in 1933—34. In 1938 the Corporation extended the grant to cover a second five-year period, from 1940 to 1944.

When the Corporation grants ceased in 1944 the Government passed legislation giving statutory existence to the Council, and since 1945 has made an annual grant of £3,000 to it.

The Council has concentrated on New Zealand problems, and many of its publications consist of critical surveys on various aspects of New Zealand education and of accounts of outstanding experiments in school practice. The work done under the auspices of the Council has been carried out not only by its own permanent staff but also by part-time investigators.

In addition to its activities as a research organization, the Council administers the finances of the Carnegie Museums Trust Fund and acts as a clearing-house for information on educational matters.

The Council's activities are under the control of a permanent officer (the Director), who is assisted by a staff of three. There are local Institutes for Educational Research in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

ADULT EDUCATION: National Council of Adult Education.—In 1938 an Education Amendment Act provided for the establishment of a Council of Adult Education to co-ordinate activities of adult education, to make recommendations to the Minister of Education concerning the amount and distribution of the annual grant, and to receive reports from the bodies to whom grants were made.

The Adult Education Act, 1947, which followed largely the recommendations of a Consultative Committee reporting in the same year, abolished the Council and set up a National Council of Adult Education with much wider powers. The functions of the National Council are—

  1. To promote and foster adult education and the cultivation of the arts; and

  2. To make recommendations to the Minister of Education as to the amount of the annual grant to be made to the National Council of Adult Education out of moneys appropriated by Parliament for the purpose, and to receive, administer, and control the expenditure of such moneys granted.

The National Council has power to appoint staff and to impose conditions on grants made by it. The full-time executive officer of the Council, the National Secretary of Adult Education, is located in Wellington. The National Council comprises the Director of Education, the Director of Broadcasting, the Director of the National Library Service, or their representatives; one member appointed by the Senate of the University of New Zealand; two members appointed by each of the four University Colleges; one member appointed by the Dominion Council of the Workers' Educational Association; one member appointed by the Minister of Education to represent the Maori race; and up to two members appointed by the Council itself.

Regional Councils of Adult Education.—Staff for field-work in adult education is employed by the Councils of the four constituent colleges of the University of New Zealand. Each College Council has the advice of a Regional Council of Adult Education, to which certain of the powers of the College Council are delegated. The four Regional Councils are differently constituted, but the 1947 Act requires that at least one-half of the members shall be persons appointed on the nomination of voluntary associations or organizations engaged or interested in adult education in the district. The teaching staff who work under the direction of the Regional Councils consists of a director, “general purpose” tutors, and specialist tutors. The work supervised by the Regional Councils covers a wide range of interests—lecture courses, discussion courses, and various forms of assistance to specially organized groups or groups formed originally for other purposes, in both town and country. An important recent development has been the establishment of the Community Arts Service, which arranges for visits of exhibitions, musicians, and drama and ballet groups to country centres. The Regional Councils also organize short term summer and winter schools in town and country.

Workers' Educational Association.—The Workers' Educational Association is the principal voluntary agency in New Zealand formed specifically for the promotion of adult education. It operates in conjunction with the University colleges, and on the administrative side consists of two parts—the District Council and the Tutorial Classes Committee. The former consists of representatives of affiliated bodies (such as trade unions) and members of classes, and seeks to promote interest in adult education and to organize classes. The latter is composed of equal representation from the District Council and the University colleges, and is responsible for the maintenance of academic standards and the appointment of tutors in classes specifically organized by the Workers' Educational Association.

The work of the Workers' Educational Association is carried on in the cities by means of tutorial classes, mostly one-year classes, covering a wide variety of non-vocational subjects. The usual practice is for the lecture to last an hour, followed by class discussion for an hour. Much of the country work formerly conducted by the Workers' Educational Association is now organized in the name of the Regional Councils of Adult Education, but there are still some Workers' Educational Association country groups.

The Workers' Educational Association is financed by grants from the National Council of Adult Education, University grants, and donations from local authorities, trade-unions, and private individuals.

Community Centres.—In 1938 an experimental Community Centre was established at Feilding under the supervision of two experienced educationists specially appointed to the staff of the Feilding Agricultural High School. Classes have been conducted in drama, child-care, literature, art appreciation, and physical welfare, both at the centre and in outlying areas. In 1944 a community centre was opened in a suburb of Christchurch. More recently experimental centres have been opened in Dargaville, Westport, Wakari, Mangakino, and the coal-mining districts of the Buller. All these receive some assistance, directly or indirectly, from public funds. There are, however, many other community centre schemes supported by voluntary effort.

The Adult Education Act, 1947, gives the Minister of Education power to establish or recognize community centres and to make grants to them.

NATIONAL LIBRARY SERVICE.—The establishment of a National Library Service by the Minister of Education in 1945 followed a recommendation by the New Zealand Library Association. The National Library Service has three divisions—the Country Library Service, the National Library Centre, and the Library School.

Country Library Service.—The Country Library Service, founded in 1938 under the control of the Minister of Education, is being extended through district offices for closer contact with participating libraries. It assists library authorities in country districts and towns with a population of less than 15,000 to give better service. Libraries in towns with a greater population, excluding the four main centres, receive assistance under certain conditions. Free loans of books are made to libraries controlled by local authorities which operate a free service locally and maintain it at a reasonable standard of efficiency. Subscription libraries in country districts—i.e., outside the area of boroughs and town districts—may hire books at the rate of £3 for 50. Four specially equipped vans, each carrying 1,600–2,000 books covering a wide range, travel over the whole territory so that both free and subscription libraries can make their own exchanges every four months. In between visits books go by post from the headquarters and district offices to libraries requesting them.

Hampers of books are sent to isolated groups of readers. An individual service is given by mail to people in districts too small for a group to be formed.

Free public libraries which extend their service to general hospitals in their area receive special collections of books for the use of patients.

A library service is given to lighthouses, and a service to Ministry of Works, State Hydro-electric, and New Zealand Forest Service camps has been given since 1949.

Tuberculosis patients in sanatoria and in tuberculosis wards of general hospitals are served from a special collection of books built up to meet their particular needs.

Mental hospitals receive collections of books which are exchanged regularly.

Prisons and borstal institutions receive books and change them on the four-monthly visits of the travelling book vans.

The number of libraries obtaining books from the Country Library Service on 31st March, 1951, was as follows: free libraries, 92; subscription libraries, 702; groups, 38; readers receiving individual service, including those in lighthouses, 1,107; Ministry of Works, State Hydro-electric, and New Zealand Forest Service camps, 44; tuberculosis sanatoria, 13; mental hospitals, 12; hospitals, 11; prisons and borstal institutions, 13.

School Library Service.—The launching of the School Library Service, operating on a circulating basis, has been a most important development. This service, which is financed by the Education Department and administered by the Country Library Service, aims at giving children access to the best literature.

At 31st March, 1951, the School Library Service was circulating loans of children's books to 2,063 schools, representing 159,743 children. The schools served are primary, intermediate, and district high schools, public and private, outside the four main cities, and include the Education Department's Correspondence School. The public libraries of the main cities receive bulk loans from the Service for circulation to the schools in their area.

A service is also available through which all schools, including post-primary, receive additional books on request. Approximately 42,980 requests were filled during the year ended 31st March, 1951.

National Library Centre.—The National Centre is responsible for various bibliographical projects, such as the maintenance of the Union Catalogue, the Union List of Serials and the Index to New Zealand Periodicals, and the development of a National Bibliography. Bibliographies and indexes on special subjects are furnished when required. The Centre's other main functions, developed in conjunction with the Book Resources Committee of the New Zealand Library Association, are concerned with problems of inter-library loan, and book and periodical coverage. The latter project is designed to guarantee that there will be available in the country at least one copy of all books of any consequence published in the English language and to maintain a continuous survey of holdings of books published in the past.

Library School.—The Library School was established in 1946, and at the end of 1950 one hundred and fifteen students had taken the course.

The school offers professional training to those holding University degrees or with equivalent education. The course lasts from February to November.

Students receive allowances equal to those paid to students of Teachers' Training Colleges.

Short courses for Librarians of smaller libraries were held in 1947, 1948, and 1950. A short course for Librarians of Government Departments was held in 1949, and in the same year, the Library School collaborated in holding a short course for teacher-librarians.

Chapter 7. SECTION 7—JUSTICE

Table of Contents

CIVIL CASES.—The law relating to Magistrates' Courts and to the jurisdiction of Magistrates in civil proceedings was consolidated and amended by the Magistrates' Courts Act, 1947. Under the new legislation the monetary limitation for claims determined in the ordinary civil jurisdiction of the Court was raised to £500 (previously £300), or, where the parties agree in writing that the Court shall have jurisdiction, claims involving any amount may be decided. The Act of 1947 also empowered the Court to grant equitable remedies, which formerly it could not grant.

The numbers of plaints entered and of cases tried, and the amounts sued for and for which judgment was recorded, in the lower Courts during the last eleven years are shown in the following table.

Year.Plaints Entered.Cases Tried.
Number.Total Amount Sued for.Number.Total Amount Claimed.Total Amount for Which Judgment Entered.
  £ ££
194061,828781,29439,953507,710421,302
194149,000687,77732,913427,536362,538
194232,484495,03821,582306,926253,296
194322,337353,73615,027215,764175,315
194420,800395,94614,016228,428181,262
194520,184412,32712,890277,579193,785
194624,407544,08414,507311,505241,523
194728,332694,87316,724422,046345,472
194834,927911,32120,218546,020437,240
194934,403994,29117,694550,362463,995
195035,7471,209,98818,09055,021460,910

The numbers of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the total amount for which judgments were recorded, in the Supreme Court of New Zealand in its civil jurisdiction during the eleven years ended in 1950 were as follows:—

Year.Number of Actions Commenced.Cases Tried.Judgments Recorded.
With Jury.Without Jury.Number.Amount.
     £
194082596205201112,534
19417516520219882,344
19425986517619277,634
19435555118215848,400
19447137719916665,067
194577986209159116,739
194688970255231109,252
19471,05584225197110,595
19481,342104301299136,857
19491,208108293241158,202
19501,05990268202108,132

INQUESTS.—The following is a table of inquests held over the eleven years 1940–50.

Year.Males.Females.Totals.Maoris (included in Totals).
19401,1575071,664122
19411,2925301,822145
19421,1835161,699126
19431,0463861,432121
19441,0103791,389131
19459754161,391138
19461,0714011,472154
19471,1153671,482136
19481,0854271,512112
19491,0864291,515146
19501,1503821,532173

For the same period inquests are classified hereunder according to the type of verdict returned.

Year.Disease and Natural Causes.Accident.Homicide.Suicide.Violent Deaths, Nature Unknown.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
19405643594651025384283915
194161739854885449836257
194246433156112119611257271
1943350176566165969336283
194439618445813379108424111
19453902334141031610112514319
19464362204821157597444917
194748618349813256103292317
194842419749316534125444017
19494072165241412911256417
1950490214509123113106323410

The most arresting feature of the statistics of suicide is the fact that the incidence among males is from two to three times greater than among females. Also of interest is the lower rate during the war, which confirms the experience of other belligerent countries.

Fire Inquests.—In case of fire causing the destruction of any building, ship, or merchandise, or any stack of grain, pulse, or hay, or any growing crop, a Coroner could formally hold an inquiry into the cause of such fire, the procedure being similar to that of inquests into causes of death. During the five years 1946–50, only one such inquest was held, the verdict being “cause accidental.” This power was not renewed in the Coroners Act, 1951.

POLICE FORCE.—The Police Force in New Zealand is a national body maintained wholly by the General Government. As at present constituted, it was established under the provisions of the Police Force Act, 1886, which came into operation on 1st September of that year. Prior to that date police duty in New Zealand had been carried out by members of the Armed Constabulary, which was then disbanded, some of its members being transferred to the newly constituted Police Force and others to the Permanent Militia. The Police Force Act, 1886, consolidated in 1908, was revised and brought up to date by the Police Force Act, 1913, and minor amendments were enacted in certain subsequent years. In 1947 an Act to consolidate and amend the law relating to the establishment and regulation of the Force was passed, and the Police Force Act, 1947, as amended in 1951, is the statute under which the Force now functions.

Organization and Duties.—The Commissioner of Police, with headquarters at Wellington, has, subject to the directions of the Minister in Charge of the Police Department, the general superintendence and control of the Police Force. Provision was made in the 1951 amending Act, for the appointment of an Assistant Commissioner. New Zealand is divided into fifteen districts, each under the charge of a Superintendent or Inspector of Police, who is responsible to the Commissioner for the maintenance of good order and the proper execution of police duty therein. Districts are divided into sub-districts under the charge of sergeants or constables, and cities and towns where regular beat duty is performed are divided into beats, patrolled by constables under the supervision of sergeants.

The principal duty of the Police Force as defined by the Police Force Act is “the preservation of peace and order, the prevention of crime, and the apprehension of offenders against the peace.” In addition to the enforcement of the criminal law and the provisions of the Police Offences and the Official Secrets Acts, there are several statutes of a regulatory nature which the police are called upon to administer, wholly or partly, such as the Arms Act, Licensing Act, Gaming Act, Dangerous Drugs Act, Transport Act, Pawnbrokers Act, Second-hand Dealers Act, &c. They also undertake inquiries and other duties on behalf of other Departments of the Government Service, principally the Social Security Department, Registrar-General's Office, Internal Affairs Department, and Education Department (Child Welfare Branch).

Police in country districts in many cases hold such additional appointments as Clerks and Bailiffs of Magistrates' Courts, Inspectors of Factories, Probation Officers, Inspectors of Sea-fishing, Kauri-gum Rangers, and Sub-enumerators of Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics.

Recruiting.—In general, recruits for the Police Force must be between the ages of twenty-one and thirty years, be not less than 5 ft. 9 in. in height, and have a normal chest measurement of not less than 38 in. There is provision, however, to accept suitable recruits from the age of nineteen years, and men with previous police experience up to forty years of age may also be admitted to the Force. Recruits must be the holders of a certificate of school attainment for Form II, or possess educational qualifications of an equal or higher standard. They must be of good moral character, smart, active, intelligent, and free from bodily complaint or infirmity. The selection of recruits is made by the Commissioner after exhaustive inquiries have been made into the character, antecedents, and qualifications of the applicants. Before appointment they undergo a course of training in the Training Depot, in which they are drilled and receive instruction in the duties they will be called upon to perform.

Appointments to vacancies in the higher ranks of the Force are made from those members of the next lower rank who have qualified by examination, efficiency, and seniority for such promotion.

Members who show an aptitude for detective duty are detailed for service in the Detective Branch, which is attached to each district headquarters and undertakes the investigation and detection of the more serious crimes.

Strength of Force.—In addition to the Commissioner, the strength of the Police Force on 31st March, 1951, was 1,567, an increase of 29 during the year. The total was made up as follows: 11 superintendents, 17 inspectors, 12 sub-inspectors, 61 senior sergeants, 161 sergeants, 1,037 constables, 158 temporary constables, 16 senior detectives, 49 detective-sergeants, and 45 detectives. There were also 12 police surgeons, 38 police-women, 9 matrons, and 1 district constable.

The following table shows the strength of the Police Force during the last eleven years.

As at 31st March,Officers.Non-commissioned Officers.Detectives.Constables.Totals.*Police to Population (including Maoris).Cost per Head of Population.

* Not including surgeons, police-women, matrons, &c.

       s. d.
194128155971,2291,5091 to 1,0847 11
1942291591051,3061,5991 " 1,0228 4
1943291751121,3241,6401 " 9968 9
1944311731161,3141,6341 " 1,0069 8
1945371681101,2501,5651 " 1,0739 3
1946341741031,1641,4751 " 1,1918 8
194738208971,1541,4971 " 1,19511 10
194836212941,1781,5201 " 1,20310 9
1949352241031,1791,5411 " 1,21011 8
1950352201061,1771,5381 " 1,23712 10
1951402221101,1951,5671 " 1,23712 11

Women Police.—By the Statutes Amendment Act, 1938, provision was made for the appointment of women police, it being enacted that the terms of the Police Force Act, shall apply to women appointees. The Police Force Act, 1947, which repealed the relevant section of the earlier legislation mentioned above, provided that the term Police Force was to include all members of either sex appointed under the Act. The first 10 appointees completed their training and commenced duty in October, 1941. The present strength is 38, all of whom are stationed in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, or Dunedin. These women police are attached to the detective staffs and do not wear uniform. Their duties consist mainly of investigating complaints in respect of women and children, and their work is confined largely to their own sex.

CRIMINAL CASES IN MAGISTRATES' COURTS.—Maoris are included in the statistics relating to Magistrates' Courts, as well as in those for the Supreme Court and for prisons. Separate figures relating to offences by Maoris are given towards the end of this section. Children's Court cases are excluded, however, and will be found under the later heading "Juvenile Offenders."

The following table shows the number of criminal charges dealt with in Magistrates' Courts during each of the last eleven years available.

Year.Number.Per 1,000 of Mean Population.
Against Males.Against Females.Totals.Against Males.Against Females.Totals.
194050,6602,56053,22061.573.1432.50
194143,8142,47846,29254.453.0028.38
194235,3532,71438,06744.103.2423.22
194334,2472,92137,16843.413.4522.72
194436,8803,16840,04846.163.7024.19
194539,5522,92242,47447.833.3725.06
194644,8632,69947,56251.063.0627.03
194746,3372,42548,76251.502.7027.12
194850,0062,75652,76254.433.0128.76
194954,7682,88357,65158.353.0930.80
195055,5362,91558,45158.183.0530.62

The next table gives the number of convictions in Magistrates' Courts, classified according to some of the more common offences or groups of offences for each of the years 1939–41 and 1947–49. The figures refer to total charges, with the corresponding number of distinct cases given following the totals for each year. Owing to shortage of staff, &c., it was found impossible to continue the collection and compilation of detailed figures for the five years 1942–46.

The more serious cases—such as those of a sexual nature or those involving grave bodily injury—are not tried summarily, but are sent forward to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence, and consequently do not appear in this table.

Type of Offence.1939.1940.1941.1947.1948.1949.

* Counting only the principal offence in cases where a person is charged simultaneously with two or more offences.

Common assault630631535588558617
Other offences against the person736657665276
Theft2,8783,2313,0612,7222,6642,540
Wilful damage534514642414404426
Other offences against property (including forgery)1,2401,3941,1791,1651,0611,102
Drunkenness (including drunk in charge, &c.)6,4415,9225,1002,7633,3143,828
Application for prohibition order1,2209821,041702771814
Offensive conduct or language, obstruction, &c., of police, and vagrancy1,7542,8642,4342,8442,7072,764
Minor traffic offences24,65218,50413,27419,12220,58226,316
Other offences against good order1,4921,3111,2951,1801,2001,312
Breach of probation159132148136160133
Unlawfully on licensed premises and other breaches of Licensing Act4,1773,8633,2002,6472,9122,415
Failing to furnish return and making false return of land and income305599212293319
Failing to pay maintenance1,6391,3511,4451,3491,4831,371
Deserting merchant ships15094103575618568
Breaches of price control orders 6120282649740
Other offences5,2195,1356,0034,2234,6914,659
    Totals52,28846,11039,63640,99044,11950,000
    Distinct cases*44,20838,27832,41934,60036,85842,092

The figure for total convictions (50,000) for 1949 represents a rate of 26.7 per 1,000 mean population.

The rise of 5,881 in the number of convictions in 1949 was occasioned mainly by the following increases: minor traffic offences, 5,734; drunkenness, 514; application for prohibition order, 43; common assault, 59; breaches of price control orders, 91. On the other hand theft, breaches of the Licensing Act, failure to pay maintenance, and deserting merchant ships, recorded decreases.

The subject of traffic offences—which accounted for more than half of the total convictions in 1949—is dealt with in greater detail towards the end of this section.

A table showing result of hearing and punishments inflicted on summary conviction for all cases during 1949 is now given.

Result of Hearing.Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.*Offences against Good Order.Other Offences.Totals.

* Including forgery and uttering.

Dismissed or withdrawn2395471,5703,3615,717
Admonished and discharged637117
Committed for trial226518164764
Committed for sentence2039295161,153
Released under Offenders Probation Act489521512551,406
Convicted and discharged749061,1744642,618
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence4615811882404
Committed to Borstal Institution, Salvation Army Home, &c.41203627187
Fined3741,01332,2996,93840,624
Imprisonment in lieu of fine5336453155
Peremptory imprisonment1388793635651,945
Bound over2 3 5
Order made278261,8212,656
    Totals1,3676,06536,63213,58757,651
    Distinct cases1,0563,10631,94710,81546,924

The 46,924 distinct cases were dealt with as follows: dismissed or withdrawn, 4,020; committed for trial or sentence, 796; released on probation, 970; convicted and discharged, 1,264; fined, 35,384; imprisoned, 1,641; otherwise, 2,849.

CRIMINAL CASES IN SUPREME COURT.—Criminal cases in the Supreme Court are of two classes—viz., those in which the accused person has pleaded guilty in the lower Court and has been committed to the Supreme Court for sentence, and those actually tried in the Supreme Court.

The following table gives a summary of criminal cases dealt with in the Supreme Court during each of the last five years. As previously mentioned, Maoris are included. Frequently a series of charges is preferred against the one offender, and this serves to explain the distinction between total cases and distinct persons.

Year.Tried in Supreme Court.Sentences in Case of Committal for Sentence.Total Sentences.
Indictments and Informations.Convictions.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.Totals.
(a) Total Cases         
19469601445441,204511,658551,713
19478292738871,529241,917311,948
19481,34630706141,549542,255682,323
194998335476201,201211,677411,718
19507594937181,178261,549341,583
(b) Distinct Persons         
1946316919944322063124655
19473091718765301771723740
19483441522574612468631717
194932416217114371165422676
19503151619574251562022642

Of the 331 distinct persons indicted during 1950, 202 were convicted and 124 acquitted, and no bill was returned or the prosecution was otherwise not proceeded with in 5 cases.

The next table summarizes the offences of persons convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the last five years.

Year.Total Convictions and Sentences.Distinct Persons Convicted and Sentenced.
Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Forgery and Offences against the Currency.Other OffencesTotals.Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Forgery and Offences against the Currency.Other OffencesTotals
19462921,277109351,7132064072517655
19473931,42976501,9482544481424740
19483191,692239732,3232004751626717
19493551,24288331,7182323972522676
19504091,08375161,5832793282510642

The table which follows shows the number of distinct persons sentenced in Supreme Courts during each of the years 1940–50, classified according to the principal types of offence.

Type of Offence.1940.1941.1942.1943.1944.1945.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
Murder1122 4336611
Attempted murder1 1 3 21   
Manslaughter 2323523124
Traffic offences involving death or injury4431679172437221930
Assaults and wounding3018371921212930293425
Sexual offences129134126106113122124149119155186
Other offences against the person820242423252227231623
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering192170137153200231263229234196183
Theft, receiving, and fraud738664130125140135214232177129
Other offences against property12195813189992416
Forgery and uttering2426222516172514162525
Other offences3335301834191724262210
  Totals547542457494560619655740717676642
Per 10,000 mean population3.343.322.793.023.383.653.724.123.913.613.36

From 1943 to 1947 there was a fairly marked increase in the incidence of serious crime, an experience not by any means confined to New Zealand. A similar trend was reported from many other countries, and might be regarded in part at least as an aftermath of war conditions. With the exception of offences such as murder and sexual offences, the general tendency has been for the number of serious offences to fall since 1947.

Apart from the increase in the number of Maoris arraigned and sentenced on serious charges, the influx of certain undesirable elements, principally through ship desertion, has been a minor but not negligible factor.

During 1950 the number of distinct offenders sentenced in the Supreme Court was 642, of whom Maoris numbered 108. Of the remaining cases, 438 (including 13 females) were born in New Zealand, 36 in England or Wales, 13 in Scotland, 4 in the Republic of Ireland, 23 in Australia, and 20 in other countries.

Sentences imposed in the Supreme Court during 1950 were as follows: Released under the Offenders Probation Act, 154; ordered to come up for sentence, 6; fined, 33; imprisonment, 218; reformative detention, 182; detention in Borstal institution, 47. Eleven of those sentenced to imprisonment received, in addition, a term of reformative detention, and twelve were declared habitual criminals during the year. Two persons were convicted and discharged.

Of the offenders, 91 were under twenty years of age, 168 between twenty and twenty-five, 123 between twenty-five and thirty, 119 between thirty and forty, 88 between forty and fifty, 34 between fifty and sixty, and 19 were sixty years or over.

By the Crimes Amendment Act, 1941, the death sentence for murder was abolished, life imprisonment with hard labour being substituted therefor. This amendment was an affirmation of governmental policy, all death sentences from 1936 onwards having been commuted to imprisonment for life. The same enactment also removed flogging and whipping from the list of sentences that may be imposed. The Capital Punishment Act, 1950, however, restored the death sentence for murder, exceptions being made in the case of expectant mothers and persons under eighteen years of age. The sentence in such cases is imprisonment for life and detention during Her Majesty's pleasure respectively.

JURIES.—By the Juries Amendment Act, 1951, provision was made to increase the number of persons available for service on juries. The amendment substitutes a new list of persons exempt from jury service for that previously in force, the principal change being that, with certain exceptions, persons in Government service will not be exempt unless they belong to a group specially exempted by Order in Council or are personally excused from attendance as provided for by the Act.

The following is a summary of persons who are exempted from jury service by the Act: Members of the Executive Council and Members of the House of Representatives; Judges of the Supreme Court, Judges or members of the Court of Arbitration, Judges or Commissioners of the Maori Land Court, the Judge or a member of the Land Valuation Court, the Judge of the Compensation Court, or a Magistrate; visiting prison justices; coroners; the Chairman of the Local Government Commission or the Chairman or a member of the Licensing Control Commission; officers of Parliament; clergymen; persons wholly engaged in teaching at Universities or schools, and school inspectors; barristers and solicitors; medical practitioners and dentists; registered chemists; members of the Armed Forces; members of the Police Force and Traffic Officers; pilots, masters, and crews of vessels,; members of fire brigades; and certain officers of the Department of Justice, including those engaged in Court or prison work.

COURT OF APPEAL.—Under the provisions of the Judicature Amendment Act, 1913, the Court of Appeal consists of two divisions, called the First Division and the Second Division, one division of which may consist of six Judges of the Supreme Court, and the other of five Judges of the Supreme Court, who are appointed as members of either division by the Governor-General in Council on the recommendation of three Judges of the Supreme Court, including the Chief Justice. The same division does not exercise the jurisdiction of the Court of Appeal at two successive sittings, but exercises its jurisdiction separately, except that in cases of importance involving special difficulty the Chief Justice and one other Judge may recommend, for the approval of the Governor-General in Council, that a joint sitting of both divisions be held. The Chief Justice or, in his absence, the senior Judge, presides. The decision of the Court must be in accordance with the majority of the Judges present but, if the Judges present are equally divided in opinion, the judgment, &c., appealed from is deemed to be affirmed.

Under an amendment of 1933, special sittings of the Court of Appeal may be held at times and places appointed by Order in Council. This authority may be exercised only on a certificate of not less than three Judges (of whom the Chief Justice shall be one) that it is not expedient to delay hearing the appeal or other proceeding. For a special sitting any three or more Judges may exercise the jurisdiction of the Court.

In addition to the ordinary appeals from the Supreme Court, certain other proceedings arising in inferior Courts may, on an order of the Supreme Court, be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final unless leave is granted to appeal to Her Majesty in Council (i.e., the Privy Council).

The law relating to appeals in criminal cases was amended by the Criminal Appeal Act, 1945, which repealed certain sections of the Crimes Act, 1908, and the Crimes Amendment Act, 1920. The Act provides that any person convicted on indictment (or committed for sentence) may appeal to the Court (a) against his conviction on any ground involving a question of law; (b) with the leave of the Court of Appeal or on the certificate of the Judge who tried the case on any ground involving a question of fact (or on any other ground deemed sufficient by the Court); (c) with the leave of the Court of Appeal, against the sentence passed, unless such sentence is fixed by law.

The new Act does not affect the Crown's prerogative of mercy, but contains a provision enabling the Governor-General to refer any application for the exercise of the prerogative to the Court of Appeal.

During the five years 1946 to 1950, 3 Crown criminal cases were brought before the Appeal Court. In 2 instances convictions were affirmed, and in 1 case the conviction was quashed. There were 105 civil appeals, of which 52 were allowed, and also 25 cases removed to the Appeal Court, resulting in 14 judgments for plaintiffs and 11 for defendants.

Particulars concerning applications during the last five years (1946 to 1950) appealing against sentences under the appropriate sections of the existing Acts were: Applications filed, 595; sentence varied, 116; appeal dismissed, 479.

PRISONS AND PRISONERS.—With the closure of Addington Women's Reformatory in June, 1950, there are now thirteen prisons and State reformatories and three Borstal institutions in New Zealand, as well as 21 minor prisons and police-gaols. In addition to these there are the police-stations which, under section 17 of the Statute Law Amendment Act, 1917, may be deemed to be prisons for any period (which must not exceed seven days) during which prisoners are detained there undergoing sentence.

A summary of receptions and discharges during the year 1950 is given below.

Males.Females.Totals.
In confinement at 1st January, 195096228990
Received during the year3,9561814,137
Discharged during the year:—   
  Transferred to other prisons or to the police1,521921,613
  On expiration of sentence1,342411,383
  Released on bail1282130
  Released on recommendation of Prisons Board44311454
  Released on special remission3172319
  Debtors60363
  Mental defectives12416
  Other61566
In confinement at 31st December, 19501,034491,083
Daily average number in confinement during year1,026401,066

The following table shows the number of persons in prison on 31st December of each of the last eleven years.

At 31st December,Persons in Gaol.Proportion per 10,000 of Population as at 31st December.
Undergoing Sentence.On Remand and awaiting Trial, &c.Total.Undergoing Sentence.Total in Confinement.
1940863328955.285.48
1941988271,0156.066.22
19421,034301,0646.326.50
19431,024531,0776.246.56
1944945489935.645.92
1945998421,0405.786.02
1946992401,0325.575.79
19471,088491,1375.996.26
1948986391,0255.325.53
1949940509904.975.23
19501,043401,0835.415.62

In the following table persons in confinement at the end of each of the last five years are classified according to nature of sentence.

Year.Hard Labour or Simple Imprisonment.Habitual Criminals.Detained for Reformative Purposes.Detained in Borstal Institution.On Remand, awaiting Trial, &c.Totals.
Under Three Months.Three Months and under One Year.One Year and over.

* Includes one debtor.

19469314026547240207401,032
194710217829348296171491,137
19486616528849281136391,025*
1949721072725230413349990*
19509012827749338161401,083

There were 4,137 receptions during 1950, counting each person once every time received, whether by the same prison or otherwise. These figures are made up as follows:—

Debtors and mental defectives71
Transfers between institutions1,011
Acquitted, fined, placed on probation, &c.727
Multiple receptions of the same prisoner257
Distinct prisoners received under sentence2,080
    Totals4,146
Less difference between number held on remand at beginning and end of year9
    Totals4,137

Of the different classes of receptions into prison shown above, the important figure is that of distinct prisoners received under sentence—i.e., counting each sentenced prisoner once only during the year, irrespective of the number of separate terms served. Of the 2,080 distinct prisoners received during 1950, 75 were females. Corresponding figures for 1949 were 1,788 distinct prisoners and 56 females.

An analysis of the distinct receptions according to nature of sentence for 1950 discloses that 1,665 prisoners were sentenced to hard labour or simple imprisonment, 251 to reformative detention, 113 to Borstal detention, 39 to hard labour and reformative detention, and 12 were declared habitual criminals and sentenced to hard labour.

Seven prisoners (6 males and 1 female), included in the foregoing, were received under a life sentence of imprisonment.

The number of distinct persons received into prison under sentence of imprisonment during the last eleven years, with the proportion per 10,000 of mean population, is given in the next table. Debtors and insane persons received into gaol are excluded.

Year.Number.Per 10,000 of Mean Population.
19402,20113.44
19412,36914.53
19423,02918.47
19432,48215.17
19442,09912.68
19452,06512.19
19462,21312.58
19472,35113.07
19482,18111.89
19491,7889.55
19502,08010.90

The exceptionally large increase in the number of persons sent to prison during the year 1942 was accounted for by the committal or transfer of over 500 military defaulters to prison, and approximately 400 persons involved in industrial disputes. None of the latter group actually served sentence, a remission being granted immediately after reception. The changes in the totals of receptions from 1946–50 are largely due to sentences imposed on ship-deserters, the 1949 total showing a relative fall in the number in this category.

Ages and offences of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1950 are summarized in the next table.

Age, in Years.Offences Against the Person.Burglary, Theft, and Fraud.Conversion, Wilful Damage, &c.Vagrancy, and Drunkenness.Other Offences.Totals.
Sexual Offences.Assaults.Other.
Under 201013 77251758200
20 and under 25243261835938220562
25 " 302625121423524149413
30 " 402922111451747150421
40 " 502923891432100287
50 and over151124556845191
Not stated   2  46
    Totals133126396851452267262,080
Maoris (included above)24365139545066374

The final table of this category supplies statistics of ages and length of sentences of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1950.

Age, in Years.Length of Sentence.
Under 1 Month.1 Month and under 3 Months.3 Months and under 12 Months.1 Year and under 3 Years.3 Years and under 5 Years.Over 5 Years.Indefinite or not Stated.Totals.
Under 214273351151833289
21 and under 251101807092183 473
25 " 30671509675223 413
30 " 409313010479141 421
40 " 506195645395 287
50 " 604042231532 125
60 and over201916101  66
Not stated23 1   6
Totals435692408440851732,080

Of the total of distinct prisoners received into prison during 1950 no less than 61.9 per cent. had been convicted for an offence on at least one previous occasion, (27.2 per cent. of these had been convicted more than six times), while 38.1 per cent. had not been convicted previously.

BORSTAL INSTITUTIONS.—Included among the 1,083 prisoners undergoing sentence at the 31st December, 1950, were 161 persons (129 males, 32 females) detained in Borstal institutions under the provisions of the Prevention of Crime (Borstal Institutions Establishment) Act, 1924. This Act, which is an adaptation of Part I of the Prevention of Crime Act, 1908 (Imperial), as amended by the Criminal Justice Administration Act, 1914, is designed to prevent crime, and provides for the detention of young offenders in a special class of reformative institution. An offender between the ages of fifteen and twenty-one years (twenty-three in certain cases), who would otherwise be liable to sentence of imprisonment by the Supreme Court or sentence of imprisonment of not less than one month by a Magistrate, may be made the subject of an order of detention of from two to five years by a Judge of the Supreme Court, and from one to three years by a Magistrate, without a conviction being recorded in the latter case. Inmates (if not over twenty-five years of age) may be transferred from prisons, reformatory homes, State reformatory institutions, and institutions under the Child Welfare Act, 1925, to Borstal institutions, and from Borstal institutions to prisons. The Minister of Justice has power to release an offender undergoing detention on condition that he is placed under the supervision or authority of a probation officer, or of a society or person (to be specified) who may be willing to take charge of the case.

PRISONS BOARD.—For the purposes of the Crimes Amendment Act of 1910 there is constituted a Prisons Board, the members of which are appointed by the Governor-General in Council for a period of three years, and may be reappointed. As at present constituted, the Board consists of a Judge of the Supreme Court, as President, and six other members.

It is the duty of the Board to make inquiry from time to time as to whether there is reasonable cause for belief that any habitual criminal, habitual offender, or other person under sentence of imprisonment or reformative detention is sufficiently reformed to be released on probation or discharged, or for granting discharge to any person who has been released on probation; and to make recommendations as to the release or discharge of any habitual criminal, habitual offender, or other person under sentence of imprisonment or reformative detention, and as to the conditions which may be imposed on any such release or probation. The Board is required to take into consideration, at least once a year, the case of every habitual criminal, habitual offender, or person under sentence of reformative detention. Other classes of prisoners may not apply for and are not entitled to consideration until they have served at least half the sentence (or five years in the case of those sentenced to terms exceeding ten years), and no case is to be considered until six months after the date of reception of the prisoner into prison.

The following table shows the number of cases considered by the Board during each of the five years quoted.

Year.Borstal Detention.Reformative Detention.Hard Labour.Habitual Criminals.Probationers.Totals.
Crimes Amendment Act.Offenders Probation Act.
1946371360249388151,041
1947352409232356131,047
19482514962483714101,056
19492314612383611281,005
19502855022253411201,077

Of the cases considered in 1950, recommendations were made for release on probation in 459 cases, and for discharge from prison in 6 cases. Eight probationers under the Offenders Probation Act were ordered to be discharged, 2 were granted modifications of the conditions of probation, while 2 probationers under the Crimes Amendment Act were recommended for discharge, and 1 was granted modified terms. Twenty-eight petitions were declined, while the remaining 571 cases were deferred.

PROBATION.—Legislation on this subject dates from 1886. Under the Offenders Probation Act of 1920 probation was extended to cover other than first offenders, and may be granted for “any offence punishable by imprisonment, whether on indictment or otherwise.” Formerly there were numerous important exceptions. The maximum period of probation was fixed in 1920 at five years.

The conditions of release on probation include the necessity for a person on probation to report to the Probation Officer on specified days not more than one month apart, and to notify his address and any change of address. The nature and place of his employment must be made known to and be approved of by the Probation Officer, and he must not commit any offence against the law. The Probation Officer may warn him not to associate with any particular person or class of persons.

A breach of the conditions of the probationary licence renders the offender liable to imprisonment or fine, and in addition he may, in respect of the original offence, be either committed to prison or again released on probation.

The following figures are taken from successive returns prepared by the Chief Probation Officer.

Year.Number admitted to Probation.
1940902
1941709
1942637
1943896
1944920
1945886
1946919
1947972
19481,036
19491,104
19501,098

The following table gives the ages and terms of probation of offenders dealt with under the provisions of the Act during the year 1950.

Age, in Years.6 Months or under.1 Year.18 Months.2 Years.3 Years.4 Years.5 Years.Totals.
Under 2021158219225  317
20 and under 25171871811012 1345
25 " 3015778427 1150
30 " 401071104812 2153
40 " 503336233  68
50 " 60219716   44
60 " 70 5 62 114
70 and over 11311 7
    Totals685517134062151,098

JUVENILE OFFENDERS.—Under the provisions of the Child Welfare Act, 1925, offences committed by juveniles are dealt with by Magistrates in special Courts. The Child Welfare Amendment Act, 1927, altered the definition of “child” to cover persons under seventeen years of age, instead of sixteen as formerly. Cases dealt with in Children's Courts are not now included in the statistics relating to Magistrates' Courts, and it is not the practice to enter a conviction against juvenile offenders.

The following table shows the number of cases dealt with in the Children's Courts during each of the years 1940–50, and also, where available, the number of "distinct cases"—i.e., excluding multiple charges against the same person. The collection of detailed information relating to cases heard in Children's Courts was resumed in 1947, after a lapse of five years.

Year.Total Cases.Distinct Cases.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.

* Not available.

19404,6904545,1442,6063882,994
19413,5963793,9752,1883362,524
19424,3576174,974***
19434,2625784,840***
19443,8505264,376***
19453,7324954,227***
19463,1754583,633***
19472,9413653,3061,6202851,905
19482,9484243,3721,6503431,993
19492,6753933,0681,5373211,858
19503,1854773,6621,7723642,136

Detailed statistics for Children's Court cases during each of the years 1940–41 and 1947–50 are as follows. The figures shown refer to total cases.

Type of Offence.1940.1941.1947.1948.1949.1950.

* Including forgery and uttering.

Sexual offences574370774361
Assaults322431384036
Other offences against the person297446
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering761383374223331288
Theft, receiving, and fraud1,9831,6391,4251,5661,3611,703
Unlawful conversion of vehicles364324283222167227
Wilful damage612469232305258329
Other offences against property*45445131101
Offences against good order592427266233251297
Indigent or delinquent child574417490546519606
Other offences1221967712784108
    Totals5,1443,9753,3063,3723,068 

The 3,662 cases heard during 1950 resulted as follows: dismissed or withdrawn, 172; admonished and discharged, 1,323; committed to care of Child Welfare Branch of the Department of Education, 695; placed under supervision, 1,210; committed to an institution, 74; fined, 101; otherwise dealt with, 87. Ten distinct persons under 17 years of age were received into prison during the year, all of whom were Borstal detainees.

OFFENCES BY WOMEN.—Of the 57,651 criminal charges dealt with in the Magistrates' Courts in 1949, 2,883 or 5.0 per cent. were against females. This figure shows a slight increase on the 1948 total of 2,756. The comparable figure for 1947 was 2,425, which was the lowest recorded since 1933.

Most of the offences for which summary convictions are entered against women in the lower Courts are of a trivial nature, such as minor breaches of traffic regulations, using unlicensed radios, &c.

Of the more serious offences for which convictions resulted during 1949 the most common were—attempted suicide, 8; common assault, 13; theft, 304; fraud and false pretences, 67; drunkenness, 122; offensive conduct or language, 36; and vagrancy, 44.

That women in general are of a law-abiding disposition is also exemplified by the Supreme Court statistics, which disclose that only 22 females (3.43 per cent. of the total) were sentenced in 1950 for criminal offences.

The number of distinct females received into prison under sentence during 1950 was 75, the principal offences of these being—vagrancy, 25; theft, 19; false pretences, 2; drunkenness, 4; selling liquor without a licence, 1; and breach of probation, 5. Corresponding figures for 1949, were 56, the principal offences being—vagrancy, 13; theft, 18; breach of probation, 7; fraud and false pretences, 4; and selling liquor without a licence, 2.

Prior to June, 1950, two reformatories (at Addington and at Tawa Flat near Wellington) housed women prisoners only. Since then, however, the Addington Women's Reformatory has been closed. There is also a Borstal institution at Tawa Flat for women only.

OFFENCES BY MAORIS.—As previously mentioned, Maoris are included in the statistical tables presented elsewhere in this section, the data given here being for purposes of comparison. According to the population estimate of 31st December, 1949, 4.56 per cent. of the total population of New Zealand aged fifteen and over were Maoris (i.e., full, three-quarter, or half-caste).

The number of summary convictions of Maoris brought before Magistrates' Courts for the years 1939–41, and 1947–49 is shown in the next table.

Year.Class of Offence.Percentage of Total Convictions in Magistrates' Courts.
Against the Person.Against Property.Against Good Order.Other Offences.Totals.
Drunkenness.*Other.

* Excluding prohibition-order cases.

19391314985991,1497083,0855.90
19401235296066478852,7906.05
19411397025859867103,1227.88
19471477453858009953,0727.49
19481137734168911,0083,2017.26
19491517284379345782,8285.66

The 2,828 convictions entered against Maoris during 1949 related to 2,182 distinct offenders (2,030 males and 152 females).

The total number of Maoris convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court during the five years 1945–49 was 638, or 18.7 per cent. of the total of 3,407.

Of the 108 Maoris (including 8 females) sentenced during 1950, 88 were committed from Magistrates' Courts, and 20 were tried and convicted in the Supreme Court. The following table shows the number of Maoris sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the last eleven years, together with the percentage of Maori offenders to total persons sentenced in each case.

Year.Offences Against the Person.Offences Against Property.*Total Offences.
Sexual Offences.Other.
Maoris Sentenced.Percentage of Total Sentences.Maoris Sentenced.Percentage of Total Sentences.Maoris Sentenced.Percentage of Total Sentences.Maoris Sentenced.Percentage of Total Sentences.

* Including forgery and uttering.

† Includes other offences.

19402317.81214.35116.98715.9
19412317.245.65016.67914.6
19422217.51723.33013.27015.3
19432624.5916.74113.47815.8
19442522.1711.94512.77813.9
19453932.01318.18921.914323.1
19463427.41518.36916.012418.9
19473221.51918.88718.714018.9
19482420.21417.38417.112717.7
19493220.61519.55713.510415.4
19504122.01111.85615.910816.8

The number of distinct Maoris received into prison under sentence during 1950 was 374 (18.0 per cent. of the total committals). Forty females are included in this figure. Of the 1,083 prisoners held in custody at the 31st December, 1950, 220 (20.3 per cent.) were Maoris. Corresponding figures for 1949 were: received under sentence during year, 340 (19.0 per cent. of total committals), twenty-five females being included in this figure; held in custody at the 31st December, 1949, 990, of which 225 (22.7 per cent.) were Maoris.

The increase in serious crime among Maoris in recent years is partly explained by the youthfulness of the Maori population, and the noticeable drift to the cities and towns, where temptation to crime is relatively greater.

DRUNKENNESS.—The following table shows the number of convictions for drunkenness, together with the rate per 1,000 of mean population for each of the years 1939–41 and 1947–49.

Year.Convictions for Drunkenness.Per 1,000 of Mean Population.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
19396,2741676,4417.590.213.96
19405,7521705,9226.990.213.62
19414,9451555,1006.150.193.13
19472,683802,7632.980.091.54
19483,1741403,3143.450.151.81
19493,7011273,8283.940.142.05

Repeated charges against the same person are included in the totals shown in the preceding table, but the figures do not include technical convictions in cases of applications for the issue of prohibition orders, of which there were 814 in 1949. The remarkably low rate for 1947 of 1.54 convictions for drunkenness per 1,000 mean population had never been approached in New Zealand since official statistics of this nature have been available, the lowest rate previously recorded being 2.16 in 1935. In 1895 the proportion was 6.52.

TRAFFIC OFFENCES.—The number of traffic offences dealt with in Magistrates Courts during 1949 was 28,362, resulting in 27,081 convictions. For 1948 corresponding figures were 22,374 cases and 21,305 convictions. Comparative figures for the years 1942–46 are not available, and in any case the indirect effects of petrol rationing and the shortage of tires rendered any valid comparison with pre-war years impossible.

The most noticeable features of the 1947–49 figures are the striking increases in excessive speeding and parking offences. The latter increase, however, is not surprising in view of the problem of traffic congestion in the main centres of population.

No less than 54.16 per cent. of all convictions in Magistrates' Courts during 1949 related to traffic offences.

The following table shows convictions in Magistrates' Courts for traffic offences during each of the years 1939–41, and 1947–49.

Offence.1939.1940.1941.1947.1948.1949.
Negligent driving causing injury    23
Failing to stop motor-vehicle after accident involving bodily injury    54
Unlawfully converting vehicle to own use384471430458315336
Drunk in charge of motor-vehicle670533419331394416
Drunk in charge of other vehicle1720183712
Excessive speed in motor-vehicle3,3892,4671,3841,9863,0875,312
Negligent or dangerous driving of motor-vehicle4,6243,2831,6783,4033,2733,593
Negligent or dangerous driving of other vehicle451467295282395339
Breaches of regulations for the lighting of vehicles2,3581,8541,3912,7462,3153,040
Offences relating to the registration, &c., of motor-vehicles2,3071,9387591,3701,5032,238
Offences relating to driver's licence2,2791,9841,9021,3311,3101,669
Breaches of parking regulations3,4981,7791,4324,9554,6645,719
Other traffic offences5,7464,7324,4333,0494,0354,400
    Totals25,72319,52814,14119,91421,30527,081
Convictions per 1,000 of mean population15.8011.938.6711.0711.6114.47

In addition to the offences punishable on summary conviction there are the more serious cases involving death or injury, which are almost invariably sent on to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence. Sixty such cases were sent forward in 1949, resulting in 19 persons being sentenced as follows: negligent or drunken driving causing death, 8; negligent or drunken driving causing injury, 4; failing to stop after accident involving injury, 7. The sentences imposed (in addition to fine, imprisonment, &c.) include 12 cases of cancellation of driving licence.

Figures showing the number of persons sentenced in the Supreme Court for serious traffic offences during each of the years 1940–50 will be found on page 190.

OFFENCES REPORTED TO THE POLICE.—So far all criminal statistics in this section have referred to offenders brought before the Courts, no account being taken of those cases where offences have been reported to the police but in which no arrest or summons resulted.

The following figures relating to offences reported are taken from the reports of the Police Department for the years 1946–50.

Year.Number of Offences Reported.Offences in Which Arrests or Summonses Resulted.
Number.Percentage of Those Reported.
194634,01628,81884.72
194734,62829,23884.43
194837,04631,46684.94
194934,38129,26385.11
195035,38329,93884.61

It will be seen that, in cases where a crime is definitely established as such and reported to the police, an arrest or summons usually follows. The proportion of arrests and summonses varies, however, with the offence. Offences against the person, as might be expected, yield a much higher proportion of arrests or summonses than offences against property, in which detection of the lawbreaker is relatively more difficult.

Also taken from the annual reports of the Police Department, the following table shows, in respect of some of the principal offences, the number of offences reported during the last four years, and the number of arrests and summonses which resulted.

Offences.1947.1948.1949.1950.
Reported.Resulting in Arrest or Summons.Reported.Resulting in Arrest or Summons.Reported.Resulting in Arrest or Summons.Reported.Resulting in Arrest or Summons.
Murder and attempts1514161514121413
Manslaughter8611118899
Negligent driving causing death or injury4644454256535249
Attempted suicide7069848066636858
Assaults, wounding, &c.820780840812908826906838
Sexual offences434394424388446379449417
Robbery, breaking and entering, theft and receiving10,8856,44811,3116,81910,3046,1909,7735,786
Forgery, embezzlement, and fraud9658841,5051,4321,2501,1671,074969
Arson and attempts2417363532272218

Chapter 8. SECTION 8—DEFENCE

Table of Contents

CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION OF DEFENCE.—In New Zealand control and co-ordination of defence activities are obtained through the Defence Council, the appointment of one Minister of Defence in charge of the three Services, and through a series of inter-Service committees. The comparative simplicity of defence problems in New Zealand has required neither the appointment of a Minister of Defence directing subordinate Ministers in charge of each Service nor the establishment of a Department of Defence superior to the Navy, Army, and Air Departments. Co-ordination is facilitated by the presence in the Prime Minister's Department of a Defence Secretariat serving the main policy-forming committees and performing some of the functions which in other countries are handled by Departments of Defence.

Defence Council.—The Defence Council consists of the Prime Minister, the Minister of Defence, and other Ministers concerned with various aspects of national security. The Chiefs of the Naval, General, and Air Staffs and the Secretaries of the Treasury and of External Affairs attend meetings of the Council in a consultative capacity. The purpose of the Council is to keep defence policy and organization constantly under review, including questions of co-operation on defence with other countries of the British Commonwealth and military questions arising as a result of New Zealand membership of the United Nations.

Chiefs of Staff Committee.—The Chiefs of Staff Committee, comprising the Chiefs of the Naval, General, and Air Staffs, is responsible for advising the Government on defence policy and strategic questions. It is served by several inter-Service committees dealing with various subjects such as strategic and operational plans, intelligence, and communications.

Principal Administrative Officers' Committee.—This Committee consists of the Senior Personnel, Supply, and Finance Officers of each of the Services and a representative of the Treasury. For the convenient exercise of its functions the Committee normally divides into separate Supply and Personnel Committees, each of which is assisted by subordinate committees considering particular problems such as medical arrangements, recruiting, and the design and provision of clothing and other stores.

Co-operation With Other Countries.—In order that contact might be maintained with other countries, New Zealand Joint Service Liaison Staffs are stationed in London, Melbourne, and Washington. Similarly, both United Kingdom and Australia have Service Representatives in Wellington attached to the Offices of their respective High Commissioners and there is a Military Attaché on the staff of the United States Embassy in Wellington.

Industrial War Potential.—Planning in respect of the demands which in war or on the threat of war the Services would make on industry is the task of the Joint War Production Committee. This Committee, which reports to the Government through the Minister of Industries and Commerce. is centred in the Department of Industries and Commerce. It consists of the Secretary of the Department of Industries and Commerce (Chairman), and representatives of the Treasury, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the Prime Minister's Department, and the Senior Supply Officers of the Services.

Defence Science.—Defence Science activities in New Zealand are guided by an executive committee comprising the Chiefs of Staff and the Secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and known as the Defence Science (Policy) Committee. Research projects are carried out at the direction of the Defence Science (Policy) Committee under the ægis of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, either within its existing laboratories or, if need be, an organization is brought into being. To foster basic research in fields having defence implications the University colleges are assisted in a limited number of approved projects by grants from defence science funds contained in the vote of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

The Defence Science (Policy) Committee is aided by scientific advisory and working party groups which, with the Policy Committee, are known as the New Zealand Defence Research Organization. This Organization and the research activities in the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research are administered by a Secretariat located in that Department. The Defence Research Organization comprises a group of advisory members consisting of Government and non-Government scientists and experts, the Advisory Aeronautical Research Committee, and the Joint Plans Committee (Science), comprising senior Service and Department of Scientific and Industrial Research officers with certain technical sub-committees. The Joint Plans Committee (Science), under the direction of the Policy Committee, is responsible for the planning and implementation of defence research projects.

In order to build up a group of scientific workers with an insight into Service requirements the Defence Scientific Corps of the New Zealand Military Forces has been established. The purpose of the Corps is to aid New Zealand and Commonwealth defence research. These men are recruited to one of the Services on a short-term commission basis of five or six years. After an initial Service training period of up to six to nine months they undertake post-graduate studies at University colleges, or research training at appropriate establishments for two to three years. For the remaining period of their commission they are employed in New Zealand or wherever is most appropriate within the Commonwealth on problems related to defence requirements. Twenty-one appointments have been made from the formation of this Corps in 1948 up to the 31st March, 1951.

The Defence Science programme is co-ordinated with Commonwealth requirements, and a number of scientists have been seconded to work on projects in other Commonwealth countries.

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND NAVY.—The legislative authority for the New Zealand Naval Forces exists in the Naval Defence Act, 1913, and its later amendments.

Command and Administration.—The Navy Department is controlled by the Naval Board, which consists of—

  • The Minister of Defence as Chairman.

  • The Chief of the Naval Staff (First Naval Member).

  • The Naval Member for Personnel and Material (Second Naval Member).

  • The Naval Member for Supply and Transport (Third Naval Member).

  • The Navy Secretary.

The Royal New Zealand Navy is based on Devonport, Auckland, where repair and refit facilities are available in H.M.N.Z. Dockyard. Originally the base was vested in the Auckland Harbour Board, but certain important rights therein were allowed the Admiralty in terms of two contracts entered into between the Admiralty and the Board in 1899 and 1903. These contracts gave full use of the machinery at the base and priority of use of the Calliope Dock. In 1936 a new agreement was drawn up vesting all land and buildings in the Crown, with the exception of the dock itself, a dock shed, and the pumphouse. Considerable expansion of the facilities has taken place to the present day standard.

State of the Navy.—A review now follows giving the state of the Navy as at 31st March, 1951.

In Commission:

BellonaCruiser.
Rotoiti, Kaniere, Taupo, Tutira, HaweaFrigates.
Rotoiti, Kaniere, Taupo, Tutira, HaweaFrigates.
LachlanSurvey ship.
KiwiA/S M/S trawler-training ship.
Eleven motor-launchesFishery protection, training, harbour duties, survey work, and R.N.Z.N.V.R. Divisions.
Arataki, Manawanui75 ft. tugs.
EndeavourPower lighter.
PhilomelDepot ship, Auckland. Responsible for recruiting, drafting, and discharge of personnel, also for the training of the Gunnery, Torpedo, and Antisubmarine, Communications and Mechanical Branches.
Philomel IINavy Office, Wellington.
TamakiNew-entry training establishment, Auckland. Responsible for basic training of all new entries.
Naval W/T Station, Waiouru. MaoriR.N.Z.N. Headquarters, London.

In Reserve:

Black PrinceCruiser.
PukakiFrigate.
Tui, Killegray, Inchkeith, Scarba, Hinau, Sanda, RimuA/S M/S Trawlers.
Tui, Killegray, Inchkeith, Scarba, Hinau, Sanda, RimuA/S M/S Trawlers.
ToiaTug.
TasmanT.A.S. school and Naval Base, Lyttelton.

An A/S M/S trawler, the Manuka, is under charter to the Chatham Islands Fisheries.

Personnel.Officers: The policy of the New Zealand Naval Board is to man the Royal New Zealand Navy entirely with New Zealand officers and men. At present, to make up the deficiency, a number of officers, especially of the higher ranks, are serving on loan from the Royal Navy. These are being replaced gradually as Royal New Zealand Navy personnel become available through the following sources:—

  1. By promotion direct from the lower deck to permanent commissions in the Executive, Engineering, Electrical, and Supply and Secretariat Branches.

  2. By promotion of experienced ratings to Commissioned Officer (Branch List).

  3. By direct entry as Naval Cadet in the Executive, Engineering, Electrical, and Supply and Secretariat Branches.

  4. By direct entry of men with civilian professional qualifications for short-service commissions in the Medical, Dental, Education, and Special Branches, and as Chaplain.

Officers who have made the Royal New Zealand Navy their career serve up to certain specified retiring ages and qualify for superannuation. They are then placed on the Retired List and have a liability to serve again in the event of war or emergency.

R.N.Z.N. Cadets: A limited number of vacancies occur each year for direct entry as Officer Cadet. There are two schemes of Cadet entry: (a) the Cadet Midshipman scheme under which the Cadets train for two years at the Royal Australian Naval College, Melbourne, thence proceeding to England to undergo training in various establishments of the Royal Navy. No educational certificates are required, but candidates must have at least three years at a secondary school and be between 15 years and 16 years 3 months of age. (b) Special Entry Cadetship. Candidates for this entry must have passed the School Certificate or University Entrance Examination and be between the ages of 17 years and 18 years 8 months at date of entry Soon after entry the Cadets are sent to England to undergo training at the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth; Royal Naval College, Greenwich; and various training establishments of the Royal Navy. After completion of their training they, as also scheme (a) Cadets, return to New Zealand as fully qualified officers and serve as permanent officers of the Royal New Zealand Navy. Candidates for both schemes of entry must pass competitive entrance examinations, and Selection and Medical Boards.

Royal Navy Cadets: The Admiralty make provision for the nomination of a limited number of New-Zealand-born youths into the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, and of special-entry Cadets to the Naval College and to the training oruiser; candidates are required to pass medical and educational examinations. The age qualification now ruling is sixteen years for Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, and seventeen years eight months to eighteen years four months for special-entry Cadets. These New-Zealand-born officers serve permanently in the Royal Navy.

Ratings: Recruiting of New Zealand boys and men is open and continuous. At present there is a limited number of Royal Navy men on loan to the Royal New Zealand Navy, and, like the officers, these will be replaced by New-Zealand-entry personnel. The term of engagement is eight years from the age of eighteen years on the active list, and the men on release to civilian life have a liability to serve in the Royal New Zealand Naval Reserve until the age of forty years is reached. The initial engagement may be followed by others, a total of twenty years' service qualifying for superannuation.

The branches in which men serve are: Seaman; Communication (visual signalling and radio); Stoker Mechanic; Sick Berth; Supply and Secretariat (writers, stores assistants, cooks, and stewards); Electrical (electrical artificers, radio electrical artificers, electricians, and radio electricians); Engine-room Artificer; Ordnance Artificer; Shipwright; Joiner; Blacksmith; Plumber; Painter; and apprenticeships in Ordnance, Electrical, Engine Room, and Shipwright Branches.

All ratings are eligible for advancement to Leading Seaman, Petty Officer and Chief Petty Officer rates in their branches.

Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service: A place has been given in the peacetime Royal New Zealand Navy for a limited number of women who serve as members of the Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service in shore establishments. The initial engagement is for two years, with the option of serving for further periods. They are trained to replace men in the Communications and Supply and Secretariat Branches. Entry is made in the rating of Probationary Wren, and all Wrens are eligible for advancement to the rating of Chief Wren.

The Royal New Zealand Naval Reserve: This consists of officers of the Merchant Navy who are prepared to be called up for service in the Navy in the event of emergency. Its strength at the 31st March, 1951, was 18 officers. The (inactive) branch of this Reserve consists of all rates of the Royal New Zealand Navy who have been discharged from a regular engagement until they reach forty years of age. At the 31st March, 1951, its strength was 433 ratings.

The Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve: This originally consisted of those who did not follow the sea as a profession but who were desirous of serving their country in time of war or emergency in a naval capacity. There are four Divisions established at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

Compulsory military service trainees who opt for service in the Navy are affiliated with the Volunteer Reserve. The trainees carry out their full time training in H.M.N.Z.S. Tamaki and are then attached to one of the Reserve Divisions. The strength of this Reserve was 85 officers and 310 ratings at the 31st March, 1951 (excluding compulsory trainees).

The Royal New Zealand Naval Emergency Reserve: This consists of men who have served with the Royal New Zealand Navy in the Second World War and who have expressed their willingness to serve again in the Royal New Zealand Navy in the event of an emergency. Ex-members of the Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service are eligible for enrolment. These reservists perform no service or training in peacetime. At the 31st March, 1951, the strength of the Reserve was 572.

The Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Supplementary Reserve: This Reserve comprises discharged Reserve officers of the Second World War who have expressed their willingness to serve in the Royal New Zealand Navy in the event of an emergency. The Reserve totalled 280 officers at the 31st March, 1951.

Strength of the Navy.—At the 31st March, 1951, the Navy strength was 253 officers and 2,416 ratings, a total of 2,669 and an increase of 30 officers and 132 ratings on the 1950 figure. Royal Navy personnel on loan included in these figures were 78 officers and 63 ratings.

Activities During the Year Ended 31st March, 1951.—The surveying ship nearly completed the survey of Foveaux Strait, Cook Strait, and Port Nicholson approaches, and new charts are being prepared for publication. Two New Zealand frigates spent six months on the Mediterranean Station, and in exchange two Royal Navy Frigates were on the New Zealand Station for a similar period. In addition to providing assistance in Korea, ships of the New Zealand Squadron paid visits to the Pacific Islands and carried out regular visits to service the outlying meteorological stations on Raoul Island (Kermadec Group) and on Campbell Island. Other duties carried out by H.M.N.Z. ships outside the normal Service routine were fishery protection patrols and servicing of lighthouses in the Hauraki Gulf. The combined exercises with the Australian Fleet and units of the Commonwealth Navies were carried out off Australia in February and March, 1951, but were curtailed by the withdrawal of H.M.N.Z. ships on account of the industrial hold-up on the waterfront.

Navy Expenditure.—During the year ended 31st March, 1951, the sum of £3,327,338 was expended on the Royal New Zealand Navy. Of this sum, £3,231,362 was expended from vote “Navy” and £95,976 from vote “Maintenance of Public Works and Services—Subdivision No. VII—Defence: Construction and Maintenance.” The total expenditure for the previous financial year was £3,138,223.

THE ARMY.—The New Zealand Army is raised, maintained, and organized under the authority of the New Zealand Army Act, 1950.

The Army consists of the Regular Force, the Territorial Force, the Army Reserve, the Cadet Corps, and military forces raised in time of war or other like emergency.

The Force for service in Korea in fulfilment of the obligations undertaken by New Zealand in the Charter of the United Nations was raised originally under the authority of the Emergency Forces Act, 1950, but as the power to raise and maintain such a force is now contained in the New Zealand Army Act the relevant provisions of the Emergency Forces Act were repealed.

The New Zealand Army comprises the following Corps:—

  • The Royal New Zealand Artillery.

  • The Royal New Zealand Armoured Corps.

  • The Royal New Zealand Engineers.

  • The Royal New Zealand Corps of Signals.

  • The Royal New Zealand Infantry Corps.

  • The Royal New Zealand Army Service Corps.

  • The Royal New Zealand Army Medical Corps.

  • The Royal New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps.

  • The Royal New Zealand Electrical and Mechanical Engineers.

  • The Royal New Zealand Dental Corps.

  • The Royal New Zealand Chaplains Department.

  • The New Zealand Army Pay Corps.

  • The New Zealand Army Legal Department.

  • The New Zealand Army Provost Corps.

  • The New Zealand Army Nursing Service.

  • The New Zealand Women's Army Corps.

  • The New Zealand Cadet Corps.

The New Zealand Army Act as far as possible places the officers and soldiers of the Regular and Territorial Forces on the same footing.

Command and Organization.—The Army Board consists of—

  • The Minister of Defence, as President.

  • The Chief of the General Staff (First Military Member).

  • The Adjutant-General (Second Military Member).

  • The Quartermaster-General (Third Military Member).

  • The Army Secretary; and

  • A Territorial Officer (Associate Member).

The Board is charged with the administration and, through the officers appointed for that purpose, the command of the Army.

The Army in peace is so organized, trained, and equipped that, in the event of war, it can undertake rapidly and efficiently the tasks which will fall to it. Based on this principle, the higher grouping within the Army is:—

  • Army Troops, which include Army Headquarters, the Army Schools, and base units. In general, Army Troops contain the machinery for the higher command and administration of the Army.

  • District Troops, which include District and Area Headquarters, District Training Camps, and such other units as are placed under command. These comprise the home defence and training elements of the Army.

  • New Zealand Division, which is a formation for employment within or outside New Zealand as the situation may demand.

Liability for Periods and Conditions of Service.Regular Force: All officers and soldiers of the Regular Force are liable at all times for service within New Zealand and, with the exception of minors, overseas.

Enlistment in the Regular Force, which is voluntary, is for a period of eight years of which the first five are served on the Active List and the remaining three on the Reserve.

Territorial Force: In time of war or other like emergency the Governor-General may, by Proclamation, transfer the Army Reserve or any specified portion thereof to the Regular Force or to the Territorial Force, and declare the Territorial Force liable for continuous service within New Zealand or overseas during the continuance of such state of war or emergency.

Territorial soldiers on completing their obligations for whole time and part-time training under the Military Training Act, 1949, will be posted to the Army Reserve, which will provide the trained man-power if and when, in any future war, an Expeditionary Force is required.

The New Zealand Army Act also empowers the Governor-General to accept the offer of any officers or soldiers of the Territorial Force or the Army Reserve, or of any other persons, to render themselves liable, or to enlist in the Army, as the case may be, for service within or outside New Zealand.

The Military Training Act, 1949.—Under the Military Training Act, 1949, every British male subject ordinarily resident in New Zealand is liable to be called upon to serve three terms of service on attaining the age of eighteen years. Provision is made for exemptions principally in the case of conscientious objectors and also for deferment, in the cases of students and others.

The service is as follows:—

  1. A period of whole-time service of fourteen weeks, which is served in a training camp.

  2. A period of part-time service of three years during which the soldier must serve for a total of sixty days made up of fourteen days in-camp and six days out-of-camp training each year.

  3. A six-year term of service in the Army Reserve, during which the soldier has no training liabilities.

The 1951 amendment to this Act extends its operation to men who were over the age of eighteen years but under the age of twenty years on the 1st November, 1949. Those over eighteen but under nineteen on that date are to be liable for service in the normal way, and those over nineteen but under twenty years are to be liable to register and be medically examined, and to serve four years in the Reserve.

Training.Regular Force: Except in cases of special entry from the Universities and of personnel who have had active-service experience, Regular officers are commissioned, in the rank of Lieutenant, on graduation from the Royal Military College, Duntroon, Australia. They receive specialist and refresher training in New Zealand, while in certain cases their advanced training is carried out at British Army schools. Promotion to Captain and Major is gained after six and thirteen years commissioned service respectively, providing that the prescribed promotion examinations are passed. Candidates for Staff College must pass the same entrance examinations as officers of the British Regular Army.

Regular other ranks are trained at the Army Schools in New Zealand. In certain cases advanced training is received in the United Kingdom.

Territorial Force: The annual obligatory training prescribed for Territorial personnel consists of—

  1. Annual training camp—fourteen days.

  2. Out-of-camp training—six days, made up of whole-day or week-end parades, plus a proportion of evening parades in the form of instructional classes.

Attendance for a further twenty days training annually, including courses at Army or District Schools, is authorized for officers and non-commissioned officers.

Before promotion officers are required to qualify at the prescribed courses and examinations for the next higher rank.

Training Establishments.Army Schools: Headquarters, Army Schools, commands and administers a group of Army Schools which provide courses for all ranks of the Regular Force as well as officers and specialist non-commissioned officers of the Territorial Force.

The group consists of the Tactical School, Regular Force Depot, School of Army Administration, School of Artillery, Armoured School, School of Military Engineering, School of Signals, School of Infantry, Medical Corps School, Royal New Zealand Army Service Corps School, Royal New Zealand Electrical and Mechanical Engineering School, the Regular Force Cadet Unit, and the Regular Force Cadet School.

The Regular Force Depot provides basic recruit and instructor courses for all arms of the Regular Force, including Regular Force Cadets.

The Regular Force Cadet School provides academic training for cadets between the ages of sixteen and eighteen years.

District Schools: Each military district has a small training school at which are held courses for Territorial officers and soldiers, and for personnel of the New Zealand Cadet Corps.

New Zealand Division.—On the 1st May, 1951, the headquarters of the New Zealand Division was established at Linton Military Camp, and as from the 1st June, assumed normal functions of command and administration of the formations and units of the Division. Both Regular and Territorial officers have been appointed to the headquarters staff.

Since the introduction of compulsory military training the formation of Divisional Headquarters is an important move in the furtherance of the policy of having a New Zealand Army organized and trained in peace so that it can efficiently take over its tasks and responsibilities in time of war.

New Zealand Armed Forces Serving in Korea.—As a signatory of the Charter of the United Nations New Zealand has a general obligation to co-operate with other members in the prevention of aggression and the restoration and maintenance of peace.

New Zealand is currently discharging this obligation by providing Naval and Army forces to participate in United Nations action in Korea. The New Zealand Army “Kayforce,” enlisted from special volunteers and comprising a field regiment of artillery and auxiliary units, has been serving in Korea since January, 1951.

During the year 1951, the Army in New Zealand, in addition to its other training commitments, was engaged in training successive reinforcements for service in Korea. With the formation of the 1st Commonwealth Division in Korea additional New Zealand units were required, mainly in the form of Army Service Corps, Signal, and Electrical and Mechanical Engineer Units, these being also trained during the year. A more detailed account of New Zealand Armed Forces raised for service in Korea is given on pages 215–216 of this issue.

New Zealand Cadet Corps.—One hundred and twenty-one secondary schools have cadet units. These units are designated by the name of the school. Service is voluntary and annual training approximates thirty drills, each of one and one-half hours. All units are basically infantry, but provision is made in the larger units for such specialist activities as Sea Scouts, Artillery Troops, Signal Troops, and Air Training Corps Flights. All units can take part in certain Empire shooting competitions, and have had marked success in this respect. In 1950 New Zealand was second in the King George V trophy, and had thirty-nine teams in the first one hundred Empire teams. Courses for officers and non-commissioned officers are held at District Schools, and units hold camps or barracks annually.

Rifle Clubs and Associations.—All Rifle Clubs and Associations (including the parent body, the National Rifle Association of New Zealand) must be formally recognized by the Army Board. There are 165 Rifle Clubs and 11 Rifle Associations in New Zealand.

The planning, construction, and maintenance of rifle ranges, and safety precautions to be observed in conducting rifle practices and competitions, are governed by orders issued by the Army Board.

Army Expenditure.—The following table shows Army expenditure for the financial years 1949–50 and 1950–51:—

Year Ended 31st March,£

* Closed as from 1st April, 1950.

1950 War Expenses Account*—Army255,047
Consolidated Fund—Vote "Army"2,609,409
1951 Consolidated Fund—Vote "Army"5,729,217

Strength of the Army.—The strength of the Army as at 31st March, 1951, was as follows:—

(a) Regular Force— 
  Officers426
  Other ranks2,840
      Total3,266 (includes 220 women)
(b) Territorial Force— 
  Active officers1,163
  Active other ranks7,084
      Total8,247
  Reserve officers808
  Grand Total9,055
(c) Kayforce— 
  Officers66
  Other ranks1,070
      Total1,136

NOTE.—Kayforce totals are exclusive of 9 regular officers and 9 regular other ranks included in (a) above.

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND AIR FORCE.—The Royal New Zealand Air Force is raised, maintained and organized under the authority of the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act, 1950 (replacing the earlier New Zealand legislation, namely, the Air Force Act, 1937, and its later amendments), and provides for the following:—

  1. The Regular Air Force.

  2. The Territorial Air Force.

  3. The Air Force Reserve.

  4. The Air Training Corps.

  5. The Women's Auxiliary Air Force.

Command and Administration.—The R.N.Z.A.F. is administered by the Air Board, which consists of—

  • The Minister of Defence, as President.

  • The Chief of the Air Staff.

  • The Air Member for Personnel.

  • The Air Member for Supply.

  • The Air Secretary.

The Regular Air Force provides commanders and staffs at headquarters, liaison offices overseas, stations in New Zealand and Fiji, and instructional staffs for all elements of the R.N.Z.A.F.

The Regular Air Force: Service in the Regular Air Force is voluntary, and normal entry to the ranks for males is through an initial engagement of eight years (for skilled and semi-skilled trades), or five years (for unskilled trades), plus a Reserve liability of four years in each case. Opportunities exist for extension of service to complete a total of twenty-four years' service for pension. For females the initial term of service is for two years with no Reserve obligation, and with opportunities for extension. Recruitment for the Regular Air Force is effected through four R.N.Z.A.F. Recruiting Offices in New Zealand, and through R.N.Z.A.F. Headquarters in London for those ex-servicemen and ex-servicewomen in the United Kingdom who are to be enlisted and embarked for service with the R.N.Z.A.F.

Candidates for commissions will be drawn largely from the ranks, and an element with higher educational and specialist qualifications will be commissioned on joining the service. Commissions are either permanent or short-service, the latter of five years' duration and carrying an obligation for service with the Air Force Reserve.

Retiring-ages for officers holding permanent commissions in the General Duties Branch are: Squadron Leader and below, forty-five years; Wing Commander, forty-eight years; Group Captain and above, fifty-three years; while those for other branches are forty-nine, fifty-one, and fifty-three years respectively.

R.N.Z.A.F. Non-Regular Air Force: During 1948 the non-Regular Forces of the R.N.Z.A.F. were combined for administrative and directive purposes. The Territorial Air Force, Active Reserve, General Reserve, and Air Training Corps are co-ordinated by the Directorate of Reserves at Air Force Headquarters. The detailed administration of all non-Regular activities in their areas is the responsibility of Reserve Wings which have been established on R.N.Z.A.F. Stations, Whenuapai, Ohakea, and Wigram.

The Territorial Air Force consists of four ground attack fighter squadrons established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

Membership of the Active Reserve has been confined to senior officers who can be placed in command or administrative appointments in the event of mobilization, to officers with approved flying instruction qualification, and to certain skilled tradesmen.

The General Reserve comprises a list of officers and other ranks with previous Service experience who have indicated their desire to serve with the R.N.Z.A.F. in an emergency.

The Air Training Corps continues to provide a valuable source of recruits for the Regular Air Force. The scheme of flying training for selected cadets at aero clubs provides a welcome incentive to service in the Air Training Corps, and is a sound basis for further training under the Military Training Act, 1949.

Under the Compulsory Military Training Scheme young men are selected for training as pilots and ground staff to meet the requirements of the Territorial Air Force and Reserve.

Training Establishments.—Regular Air Force flying training activities are centred at Wigram in the following units:—

  1. No. 1 Flying Training School (for the training of ab initio pilots).

  2. Air Navigation School (for the training of ab initio navigators).

  3. Central Flying School (for the training of Flying Instructors). This school also provides refresher flying courses, instrument/weather courses, and multi-engine conversion courses.

Under the Compulsory Military Training Act, compulsory military training for aircrew is carried out at Taieri, where all C.M.T. Cadets undergo a fourteen-week Initial Ground Training and Flight Grading Course.

Recruit and General Service Training is also centred at Wigram in the Aircraftmen and Aircraftwomen Recruit Training School, Cadet Entrants' School, and N.C.O. School of Instruction.

Officer training is done at the Officers' School at Whenuapai. Training in the Administrative trades is also given at Whenuapai in the School of Administration.

Technical training is carried out at Hobsonville, except for those trades catered for by the Electrical and Wireless School at Wigram.

Strength of the Air Force.—The strength of the R.N.Z.A.F. at the 31st March, 1951, was—

Regular Air Force3,500
Women's Auxiliary Air Force321
Territorial Air Force296
Air Training Corps4,239

Air Force Activities During the Year Ended 31st March, 1951.—During the past year liaison has been maintained with the R.A.F. and R.A.A.F. by the exchange of officers, and by the posting of R.N.Z.A.F. officers to various Staff College and Specialist Courses. A number of visits have been made also by aircraft and crews from R.A.F. and R.A.A.F. Operational Schools.

In New Zealand the year has been marked by a steady consolidation and building up of both Regular and non-Regular Forces. Early in 1951 normal activities were interrupted by the declaration of a state of emergency, and the necessity for diverting a considerable proportion of the Service manpower to work on the waterfront.

Operational Units.—Operational activities throughout the year have included the following: search and rescue missions and flying-boat training by No. 5 Squadron in Fiji; internal and overseas transport flights, and operations in support of Security Forces in Malaya, by No. 41 Squadron, and operational training by No. 75 Squadron. No. 14 Squadron, which previously was responsible for multi-engine conversion training, was temporarily disbanded in November, 1950, pending re-equipment with new aircraft.

Re-equipment.—During 1950 orders were placed overseas for a number of types of new aircraft with which it is intended to re-equip the Operational Squadrons.

Units of the R.N.Z.A.F.—Units at present comprise:—

R.N.Z.A.F. Station, Lauthala Bay (Fiji)No. 5 Flying-boat Squadron.
R.N.Z.A.F. Station, HobsonvilleTechnical Training School. Detached flight of No. 5 Flying-boat Squadron.
R.N.Z.A.F. Station, WhenuapaiNo. 41 Transport Squadron. Officers' School. School of Administration. Northern Reserve Wing. T.A.F. Squadron.
R.N.Z.A.F. Station, OhakeaNo. 14 Squadron. No. 75 Bomber Squadron. Central Reserve Wing. T.A.F. Squadron.
R.N.Z.A.F. Headquarters Unit (Shelly Bay)Provides accommodation and administrative services for personnel of Air Force Headquarters.
R.N.Z.A.F. Station, WoodbourneAircraft Storage Depot.
R.N.Z.A.F. Station, WigramFlying Training School. Central Flying School. The Signals and Air Navigation School. Electrical and Wireless School. General Service Training Schools. Southern Reserve Wing. T.A.F. Squadron.
R.N.Z.A.F. Station, TaieriT.A.F. Initial Training School. T.A.F. Squadron.

In addition, there are stores depots at Te Rapa and Weedons.

Air Force Expenditure.—The total expenditure on the Air Force for the year ended 31st March, 1951, was £5,573,027. The comparable figure for 1949–50 was £4,135,222. Payments included in the 1949–50 figure, which were a charge on the Consolidated Fund, amounted to £4,074,496, the remaining £60,726 being payments from the War Expenses Account, this latter account being closed as from 1st April, 1950.

SUMMARY OF WAR-TIME ACTIVITIES OF ARMED FORCES.—In the following pages, a condensed account of the war-time activities of the three armed services is given. A more detailed account is given on pages 203–206 of the 1950 issue of the Year-Book. Post-war armed forces raised for duties overseas are given at the end of this summary.

Army Expeditionary Forces.South African War: New Zealand supplied ten contingents for service during the South African War, comprising a total of 6,500 officers and men.

First World War, 1914–18: Immediately the First World War of 1914–18 broke out an Expeditionary Force was despatched to Western Samoa and occupied those islands, while a larger force in the form of a mixed brigade was despatched to Europe. The latter force was, however, landed in Egypt, and took part in the defence of the Suez Canal. It gave a good account of itself in the desperate campaign on Gallipoli, and after being withdrawn to Egypt was expanded into a Division and a Mounted Brigade. The Division then went to the Western Front, while the Mounted Brigade continued to operate in Palestine. Both forces became famous for their military qualities, and took part in practically all the great actions of their respective theatres up to the Armistice.

A total of 98,950 troops left New Zealand for service with the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces, and, of these, 16,697 lost their lives on active service. In addition to the 98,950 of all ranks of the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces, 944 British Army Reservists, British Naval Reservists, and others left New Zealand to rejoin their units in the United Kingdom or in a theatre of war. It is also known that 3,370 (not included above) left New Zealand during the period of the war and joined units of the British Forces or the Expeditionary Forces of other Commonwealth Countries.

On the Armistice. being declared in November, 1918, New Zealand had 52,000 troops in the field, while 10,000 more were ready to embark or were under training.

The tremendous amount of transport work involved in the conveyance of these forces to Egypt, France, Britain, Gallipoli, and Samoa was carried out with extraordinary success, not one New Zealand transport having been lost while conveying troops.

The troops provided for foreign service represented nearly 10 per cent. of the total population of New Zealand in 1914, and over 40 per cent. of the male population between the ages of twenty and forty-five years. These percentages do not take into account New Zealanders who served in the British or Australian Naval or Military Forces.

Second World War, 1939–45—Middle East Theatre: Shortly after the outbreak of war with Germany on 3rd September, 1939, the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force consisting of an Infantry Division with numerous auxiliary units and its own base and hospital services was formed.

This Force which was commanded by Major-General B. C. Freyberg, V.C., left New Zealand in three Echelons, the First Echelon sailing on 5th January, 1940, and proceeding to Egypt. The Second Echelon was diverted to England in May, and the 2nd Division was first concentrated in Greece in March, 1941, a few days before the German invasion. In the Greece Campaign the Division fought severe rearguard actions at the Servia Pass, Katerini Pass, Platamon, and Peneios Gorge. The 6th Brigade was evacuated to Egypt, 4th and 5th Brigades to Crete. General Freyberg took command of all the forces in Crete, which included 7,150 New Zealanders when the German airborne invasion began on 20th May. After a week of hard fighting, especially at Maleme and Galatos, the ill-equipped troops were forced to retreat across the mountains to Sphakia, where most were evacuated.

After reorganization and a period of training the Division took part in the campaign in Cyrenaica and the relief of Tobruk, in which it played a prominent part. Severe actions were fought at Sidi Rezegh, Belhamed, Capuzzo, and Gazala. Early in 1942 the Division moved to Syria. It returned to Egypt by a notable move of 900 miles in the height of summer to meet the German invasion of Egypt after the fall of Tobruk. During the summer of 1942 it fought costly actions at Minqar Qaim, Ruweisat, El Mreir, and Alam Halfa, and made an important contribution to the defence of Egypt.

On 23rd October it was one of the assaulting Divisions in the decisive battle of Alamein. It then took part in the pursuit to Tripoli, fighting several actions en route, in the defensive battle of Medenine, and in the subsequent advance to Tunis, fighting severe actions at Tebaga Gap and Takrouna-Enfidaville. The campaign in Africa ended on 13th May, 1943, with the surrender of all the Axis forces, and the Division returned to Egypt.

In September, 1943, the Division moved to Italy and was constantly and heavily engaged until the end of the war. The most notable battles in which it took part were: Orsonga (Nov.-Dec., 1943), Cassino (Feb.-May, 1944), the advance to Florence (Jul.-Aug., 1944), Rimini (Oct.-Nov., 1944), Faenza (Dec., 1944), and the final Battle of the Senio and pursuit to Trieste (Apr.-May, 1945). The German armies in Italy surrendered on 2nd May, 1945.

Total casualties in the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force, Middle East and Pacific, were 6,793 deaths from all causes, 16,543 wounded, and 6,690 wounded and missing: total 30,026.

Pacific Theatre: A detachment of 2 officers and 30 other ranks occupied Fanning Island, to protect the cable station there, immediately on the outbreak of war and until relieved by United States troops in May, 1942.

The 8th Brigade Group was despatched to Fiji in November, 1940. It was reinforced by the 14th Brigade Group in January, 1942, and became the 3rd New Zealand Division, which was relieved by United States troops and returned to New Zealand in July, 1942. New Zealand officers and non-commissioned officers trained, and to a large extent commanded, the three Fijian Battalions and two Commandos which had distinguished service with American troops in Bougainville and other Pacific islands.

One New Zealand battalion garrisoned Tonga and a second one, Norfolk Island.

The 3rd Division, under command of Major-General H. E. Barrowclough, moved to New Caledonia in November, 1942, and in August, 1943, to Guadalcanal. Under United States Command it carried out successsful amphibious operations on Vella Lavella, the Treasury Islands, and Nissan. Owing to man-power difficulties it was withdrawn to New Zealand in 1944 and disbanded in October, the personnel returning to industry or going to the Middle East to reinforce the 2nd Division. Casualties in the Pacific operations were 111 killed in action, 213 wounded, and 26 taken prisoner.

Royal New Zealand Navy.Second World War, 1939–45: H.M.N.Z.S. “Achilles,” a light cruiser, took part in the Battle of the River Plate, the first occasion on which the New Zealand ensign was flown in action.

"Achilles" was thereafter employed in patrol and escort duties in New Zealand waters and in the Pacific under United States command. She was severely hit by a bomb off Guadacanal on 5th January, 1943, and sustained 21 casualties. She was paid off at Portsmouth on 21st September, 1943, and recommissioned on 23rd May, 1944. In the last months of the war she served in the British Pacific Fleet and took part in several bombardments of Japanese island positions.

H.M.N.Z.S. “Leander,” a light cruiser, was employed on patrol and escort duties in New Zealand waters until May, 1940, when she sailed for the Middle East for escort duty in the Red Sea. While operating later in the Indian Ocean she sank the Italian raider “Ramb I” after a short action. Between June and September, 1941, she took part in several actions off the Syrian coast. After Japan came into the war she was employed in the Pacific and in the Battle of Kolombangara on 13th July, 1943, was severely damaged, with 43 casualties.

H.M.N.Z.S. “Monowai,” armed merchant cruiser, was employed in patrol and escort duties in the Pacific and in New Zealand waters.

H.M.N.Z.S. “Gambia,” a light cruiser, was commissioned as a unit of the Royal New Zealand Navy by the officers and ship's company of the “Achilles” on 22nd September, 1943. After service in the North Atlantic she joined the British Eastern Fleet on 19th February, 1944, and took part in all the major operations of that Fleet and of the British Pacific Fleet. She was present at the signing of the Japanese surrender in Tokyo Bay.

25th Minesweeping Flotilla was organized in April, 1941. On 14th May, 1941, while the flotilla was clearing a minefield in the Hauraki Gulf, the “Puriri” struck a mine and was sunk with 5 casualties. In December, 1942, this flotilla came under American command. On 29/30th January, 1943, the “Kiwi” and “Moa” sank a large Japanese submarine off Guadalcanal after a sharp action. The “Moa” was later sunk by air attack with 21 casualties. In August, 1943, the “Tui” took part in the sinking of another big submarine.

Forty minesweeping and anti-submarine vessels, 12 Fairmile launches, 16 harbour defence motor-launches, and about 100 other motor-boats served in the Royal New Zealand Navy in New Zealand waters, doing much arduous service.

New Zealanders in the Royal Navy: Approximately 7,000 New Zealanders served in the Royal Navy, the peak of 1,242 officers and 3,659 ratings being recorded in September, 1944. They saw service in every type of ship from battleships and aircraft carriers to submarines and motor torpedo-boats and took part in notable actions and operations in every theatre of war. Deaths totalled 458, the heaviest casualty list being 148 New Zealand ratings and two officers lost when the cruiser “Neptune” was sunk in the Mediterranean on 18/19th December, 1941.

Royal New Zealand Air Force.Second World War, 1939–45: Until Japan came into the war the R.N.Z.A.F. was mainly concerned with escort and convoy duties in New Zealand waters and with training aircrews for service in the R.A.F.

Operational aircraft began to arrive from the United States in 1942, and eventually 26 squadrons were formed and saw service in the Pacific, under American command. They took part in offensive operations in the Solomons, on Bougainville, New Ireland, and against Rabaul, and carried out much supply dropping and convoy escort work and many anti-submarine patrols and survivor searches.

Ninety-nine enemy aircraft were shot down by R.N.Z.A.F. fighter squadrons and four by bomber squadrons. One submarine was sunk, many barges and small craft were destroyed, and 10,700 tons of bombs dropped.

Casualties in the R.N.Z.A.F. in the Pacific were 345 killed, 58 seriously injured, and 4 taken prisoner, 3 of whom died. In New Zealand 335 were killed, 100 died from natural causes, and 44 were injured.

New Zealanders in the Royal Air Force: Seven squadrons with a New Zealand identity and a majority of New Zealand personnel served with and as part of the Royal Air Force. They were 75 and 487 Bomber squadrons, 489 Torpedo Bomber squadron, 485, 486, and 488 Fighter squadrons, and 490 Flying-boat squadron.

All took part in very numerous operations and sustained and inflicted heavy losses.

The great majority of the 9,000 New Zealanders who served in the Royal Air Force were scattered in Royal Air Force squadrons, and there were some in every important operation carried out by the Royal Air Force. Their casualties were extremely heavy—3,267 killed, 128 seriously injured, and 571 taken prisoner. Of the 500 New Zealanders serving in the Royal Air Force on the outbreak of war in September, 1939, 327 were killed and 8 died while prisoners of war.

New Zealand Mercantile Marine.—Five New Zealand merchant ships were lost by enemy action—the “Awatea,” 13,482 tons; “Limerick,” 8,724 tons; “Hauraki,” 7,113 tons; “Komata,” 3,900 tons; “Holmwood,” 546 tons.

110 seamen were killed and 123 interned.

POST-WAR ARMED FORCES EMPLOYED OVERSEAS.—A brief summary of forces raised after the termination of hostilities in the Second World War and employed overseas is new given.

New Zealand Contingent of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan.—After the capitulation of Japan in August, 1945, New Zealand agreed to join with the United Kingdom, India, and Australia in the despatch of a British Commonwealth Force to take part in the occupation of Japan. The objects of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (B.C.O.F.) were to represent worthily the British Commonwealth in the occupation of Japan; to maintain and enhance British Commonwealth prestige and influence in the eyes of the Japanese; and to illustrate to, and impress on, the Japanese people, as far as was possible, the democratic way and purpose of life. The military role of B.C.O.F., under the direction of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers and within its allotted area, was: the safeguarding of all Allied installations, and of all Japanese installations awaiting demilitarization; the demilitarization and disposal of Japanese installations and armaments; and military control (which did not include military government).

The Army Component of the New Zealand Contingent was constituted as the Japan Section of the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force. It was formed in Italy late in 1945, from the 9th Infantry Brigade and other units of the Second New Zealand Division, some 4,239 personnel being found from the single members of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Reinforcements, which were already in the Mediterranean theatre. The New Zealand Force sailed from Naples in February and arrived in Kure, Japan, on 19th March, 1946. Its allotted area of occupation included the Hiroshima Prefecture.

The original members of the Force were repatriated to New Zealand in July, 1946, their places being taken by volunteers from New Zealand who had enlisted for twelve months' service in Japan. In 1947 a further relief of personnel, enlistments again being on a voluntary basis, took place, and for reasons which included the diminishing nature of the military tasks connected with the occupation, the strength of the Force was reduced to 2,400.

Early in 1948, by agreement with the other Commonwealth Governments concerned and with the concurrence of the Government of the United States of America, the New Zealand Government decided to withdraw the Force, without relief, between July and October of that year.

The Air Component of the New Zealand Contingent comprised No. 14 (Fighter) Squadron R.N.Z.A.F. This Squadron, which initially comprised 33 officers and 239 other ranks, was formed on 1st December, 1945, and together with its Corsair aircraft was transported to Japan in March, 1946. In Japan it formed part of the British Commonwealth Air Group (B.C. AIR) and was stationed initially at Iwakuni and later at Bofu. Operational flying began early in May, 1946, and included surveillance patrols over the B.C.O.F. occupation area, searches for shipping bringing Koreans illicitly to Japan, and on occasion operational exercises with other units of B.C. AIR. The tour of duty for personnel was planned to be not more than one year, and reliefs were carried out progressively.

Air Courier Service: In addition to the provision of the Army and Air components of the New Zealand Contingent of B.C.O.F., an air courier service was maintained between New Zealand and Japan from March, 1946, to June, 1948. This service was undertaken by No. 41 Squadron, R.N.Z.A.F., and carried mail for the New Zealand Contingent, together with freight and personnel for the relief of No. 14 Squadron. A number of Army personnel were also carried.

New Zealand Armed Forces for Service in Korea.—As a result of an appeal from the Secretary-General, United Nations, for assistance in the operations in Korea, the Prime Minister announced on 29th June, 1950, that units of the Royal New Zealand Navy would be made available for service in that area. Two frigates, the H.M.N.Z.S. “Tutira” and H.M.N.Z.S. “Pukaki,” accordingly left New Zealand waters on the 3rd July, 1950.

As a result of a further appeal from the United Nations, for each member country to examine its capacity to provide more fighting forces, particularly ground troops, the Prime Minister announced on the 26th July, 1950, that New Zealand was offering to the United Nations, a special volunteer combat force for service with other ground forces in Korea.

Recruiting opened on the 27th July, and closed on the 5th August, 1950. The force, consisting of a regiment of artillery and ancillary units, entered camp in late August, 1950. A small advance party left Wellington on the 24th November, and a further advance party, including the commander of Kayforce, Brigadier R. S. Park, left by air on 7th December, 1950. The main body left by the “Ormonde” on the 10th December, 1950.

The First Reinforcements sailed with the main body on 10th December, 1950. The Second Reinforcements completed training in New Zealand late in May, 1951, and were flown in batches to Sydney for onward passage to Korea in June. The Third Reinforcements entered camp on 27th September, 1951, to undergo twelve weeks training before embarkation for Korea.

On 1st May, 1951, the Minister of Defence made a broadcast statement to the effect that, with the formation of the 1st Commonwealth Division in Korea, additional New Zealand units would be required. This additional commitment was to be mainly in the form of Army Service Corps, Signal, and Electrical and Mechanical Engineer Units.

On 2nd August, 1951, a total of 17 officers and 564 other ranks embarked on s.s. “Wahine” at Wellington en route to Korea. On 15th August s.s. “Wahine” ran aground on Masela Island, 320 miles north-west of Darwin. Troops returned to Darwin on the tanker “Stanvae Karachi,” and were later flown in batches to Japan.

On 28th July the 1st Commonwealth Division became operational, and it included all British and Commonwealth forces serving under the United Nations Unified Command.

Army casualties in Kayforce up to 31st December, 1951, totalled 58, including killed in action, 8; died of wounds, 3; died of sickness, 4; wounded. 42; and prisoner of war, 1.

New Zealand Frigates in Korea.—New Zealand's first contribution to the United Nations Naval Forces in the Korean area, the frigates H.M.N.Z.S. “Tutira” and “Pukaki,” sailed from Auckland on 3rd July, 1950, almost immediately after the outbreak of hostilities. In Japan they were assigned to a task-force unit with ships of other nations. Their duties at first consisted of patrolling and escorting troops and supplies from Japan to Pusan. Subsequently the duties of the naval forces were extended. The New Zealand frigates also acted as escorts for the Inchon landing. A steady blockade patrol has been kept up on the west coast of Korea; junk traffic has been controlled, such vessels often being stopped and searched for enemy troops or supplies. Minesweeping has also been carried out in conjunction with Republic of Korea minesweepers.

Neither “Pukaki,” who was relieved by “Rotoiti” in November, 1950, nor “Tutira,” relieved by “Hawea” in April, 1951, had occasion to commence an engagement. However, “Rotoiti,” "Hawea," and “Taupo” (who relieved “Rotoiti” in September, 1951) have been able to vary patrol duties with forays up the navigationally difficult Han River and bombard enemy gun positions, supply columns, troop concentrations and lines of communication. Ratings from H.M.N.Z.S. “Rotoiti” underwent commando training and took part in three landing parties when they destroyed enemy positions and took prisoners.

A very large proportion of the time of the New Zealand frigates is spent at sea, often for three to four weeks, and occasionally longer, without a respite. A brief visit to a Japanese port for fuel and stores is then made before taking up patrol duties again. Many thousands of miles have been steamed both under summer and winter conditions.

Up to the 31st December, 1951, the Navy had suffered three casualties on account of operations in Korean waters.

Strengths of the Armed Services, 1939–51.—Approximately 60,000 men volunteered for service before conscription was introduced in July, 1940.

The net intake of men to the Armed Forces—i.e., exclusive of transfers between the Services and of re-entries—was 194,000, equivalent to 67 per cent. of the male population between the ages of eighteen and forty-five years. In addition, approximately 10,000 women served in the Forces.

The following table shows the approximate strength of each of the Services from the outbreak of war in September, 1939, at yearly intervals until March, 1951, and also in August, 1945, when hostilities ceased. The figures at July, 1942, are also shown, as that month marked the peak for mobilization, there being 151,073 men in the Armed Forces at that time, representing approximately 43 per cent. of the male population of military age.

As at 31st March,Navy.Army.Air Force.All Services.Total.Female Personnel (Included in Previous Columns).
In New Zealand.Overseas.

* Exclusive of Territorial Force (or service equivalent) and Reserves.

† Not available.

1939 (September)1,32018,0001,48620,39241420,806 
19401,79129,3003,80827,6287,27134,89918
19413,57975,14810,21354,99733,94388,940202
19425,605109,38918,22882,20151,021133,2222,356
1942 (July)6,110124,77323,666104,49050,059154,5493,476
19437,657104,08733,77782,74062,781145,5217,302
194410,01872,66241,59555,03969,236124,2757,942
194510,41246,69835,00442,73149,38392,1145,609
1945 (August)10,46640,94231,57836,96246,02482,9864,632
19464,52814,1296,91819,2146,36125,5751,838
19471,6327,1643,6577,4105,04312,453577
1948*1,6574,7462,8966,4652,8349,299435
1949*2,2672,5683,0497,884498
1950*2,5113,0963,4959,102684
1951*2,6694,4023,50010,571645

The establishment of the Emergency Reserve Corps in August, 1940, consisting of (1) the Home Guard, (2) the Emergency Precautions Services, and (3) the Women's War Service Auxiliary, provided for the effective utilization of civilian personnel in the case of emergency. The Home Guard, which was constituted a part of the Defence Forces on 30th July, 1941, reached its peak in April, 1943, with a total strength of 124,194 men, while the total numbers involved in the Emergency Precautions Services at one stage reached 150,000. The New Zealand Naval Auxiliary Patrol Service commenced operations in December, 1941, and attained its maximum strength of 463 ratings in August, 1942. None of these figures is included in the table given.

CASUALTIES ON ACTIVE SERVICE.—The following table gives particulars of casualties suffered on active service by members of the New Zealand Armed Forces and Mercantile Marine from the outbreak of war in September, 1939, up to 31st December, 1946. The figures shown for the Navy and Air Force include New Zealand personnel serving with the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force respectively. Deaths and injuries due to accidental causes while on active service are included in the figures of deaths and wounded respectively. The number shown as “missing” refers to the number so classified as at 31st December, 1946.

Deaths (Including Died as Prisoner of War.)Wounded and Injured.Prisoners of War.Wounded and taken Prisoner of War.Interned.Missing.Totals.
Navy57317054 3 800
Army6,79315,3246,6441,219 4630,026
Air Force4,1492555203223 4,979
Mercantile Marine110   123 233
      Totals11,62515,7497,2181,2511494636,038

In addition to the above figures, there were 11 deaths reported in the 2nd N.Z.E.F. (Japan) up to 31st December, 1948.

New Zealand casualties recorded as a result of service with the United Nations forces in Korea from the commencement of service up to the 31st December, 1951, are as follows.

Class of Casualty.Casualties in Korean Theatre to 31st December, 1951.
Royal New Zealand Navy.Army.Total.
Killed in action189
Died of wounds 33
Drowned1 1
Died of sickness 44
      Total deaths21517
Wounded14243
Prisoner of war 11
      Total casualties35861

HONOURS AND AWARDS.—A table showing, as far as available records permitted, the numbers of honours, decorations, &c., for distinguished or gallant conduct, devotion to duty, &c., which were awarded to New Zealand personnel serving with H.M. Forces from the outbreak of the Second World War up to 31st December, 1946, will be found on page 201 of the 1947–49 issue of the Year Book. Also shown were those honours and awards won by members of the New Zealand Mercantile Marine over the same period.

Chapter 9. SECTION 9—EXTERNAL TRADE

9 A—GENERAL

DATA regarding the overseas trade of New Zealand possess a special significance in view of the country's relatively high degree of dependence upon its external trade. According to the latest figures, New Zealand's total trade per caput is one of the highest in the world.

In the official annual statistics of the trade of New Zealand the twelve-monthly period adopted is the calendar year. Summarized trade statistics over a long period of years are included in the Statistical Summary towards the end of this volume. The latest figures covering the principal items of export and import are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics, so that summarized figures are available for any twelve-monthly period ending in March, June, September, or December. As the farm production year ends about June and the financial year on 31st March, it is desirable to record trade for years ended 30th June and 31st March as well as for calendar years.

The following table relates to merchandise only—i.e., it excludes specie, particulars of which will be found on page 227. Up to the end of 1929 New Zealand currency and sterling were at virtual parity, but thenceforward New Zealand currency was at a discount with sterling up to 20th August, 1948, when it was restored to parity with sterling (see Section 29—Banking and Currency). Consequently figures of total merchandise trade have been converted to a sterling basis, and a summary covering the last twelve years follows.

Year.Year Ended 31st December.Year Ended 31st March.Year Ended 30th June.
Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.

* Provisional.

† Not yet available.

 £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
194073,741,13348,997,66959,683,93845,571,77465,858,63646,070,033
194167,479,41349,167,01071,179,43047,918,22465,766,53046,184,967
194281,284,63753,856,01269,163,12150,589,65274,039,15151,377,986
194371,862,59395,242,33076,112,38360,967,78871,711,92971,958,098
194477,786,94686,397,21275,252,14895,849,75473,235,27497,490,448
194581,631,27605,088,18079,352,30781,611,31386,922,97367,734,502
1946101,302,26671,571,33389,061,80057,003,13491,003,68962,662,103
1947*129,406,264128,724,841107,431,95681,732,896122,075,07890,959,929
1948*147,822,862128,200,692140,126,012138,390,294146,620,681146,926,568
1949*147,290,491119,713,138148,290,206119,101,015149,071,197110,158,303
1950*183,752,509157,896,051154,611,954134,505,032162,083,814140,383,852
1951*££197,173,271152,311,567207,708,616164,855,056
 £(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)
194058,993,00039,198,00047,747,00036,457,00052,687,00036,856,000
194153,984,00039,334,00056,944,00038,335,00052,613,00036,948,000
194265,028,00043,085,00055,330,00040,472,00059,231,00041,102,000
194357,400,00076,194,00060,890,00048,774,00057,370,00057,566,000
194462,230,00060,118,00060,202,00076,680,00058,588,00077,992,000
194565,305,00044,071,00063,482,00065,289,00060,538,00054,188,000
194681,042,00057,257,00071,249,00045,603,60072,803,00050,130,000
1947*103,525,000102,980,00085,946,00065,386,00097,660,00072,768,000
1948*125,377,000140,592,000112,101,000110,712,000117,297,000117,541,000
1949*147,290,000119,713,000134,821,000108,508,000144,928,000106,774,000
1950*183,753,000157,896,000154,612,000134,505,000162,084,000140,384,000
1951*197,173,000152,312,000207,709,000164,855,000

TRADE PER HEAD.—The next table shows the total merchandise trade, exports, and imports per head of the population. Values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency.

Year.Exports.Imports.Total Trade.

* Provisional.

 £ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.
193123 1 817 10 040 11.8
193223 6 516 2 1039 9 3
193326 12 816 12 443 5 0
193430 10 320 4 050 14 3
193529 15 923 4 1153 0 8
193636 0 728 1 1164 2 6
193741 19 235 6 577 5 7
193836 6 834 9 1070 16 6
193935 12 1130 6 665 19 5
194045 0 929 18 674 19 3
194141 7 630 2 1171 10 5
194249 11 632 16 1182 8 6
194343 18 958 4 7102 3 4
194446 19 752 3 799 3 2
194548 3 532 10 280 13 7
194657 11 640 13 698 5 0
1947*71 19 371 11 8143 10 11
1948*80 11 569 17 7150 9 0
1949*78 13 1063 19 2142 13 0
1950*96 5 082 14 2178 19 2

The year 1950 produced figures far in excess of those recorded for any previous trade year. Prior to 1947 the highest figure of total trade per head was £102 3s. 4d. in 1943, but it should be remembered that included in the total for that year were heavy imports of a non-commercial character—munitions and war stores. The latter class of import did not figure largely in the trade accounts of recent years, the great bulk of imports representing the record demand of purely commercial buyers.

VISIBLE BALANCE OF TRADE.—As a debtor country New Zealand has normally a substantial excess of exports over imports, imports having exceeded exports in only five (calendar) years since 1885—viz., in 1908, 1920, 1926, 1943, and 1944. The figures for the last twenty years—merchandise only—are as follows:—

Year.Visible Excess of Exports.

* Excess of Imports.

† Provisional.

‡ As from the 20th August, 1948, New Zealand currency was appreciated to parity with sterling.

 £(N.Z.)£(Stg.)
19318,452,5477,695,000
193210,963,9139,967,000
193315,424,55312,340,000
193416,003,29512,803,000
193510,221.1148,210,000
193612,493,05410,035,000
193710,552,6848,476,000
19382,954,0942,373,000
19398,662,1336,929,000
194024,743,46419,795,000
194118,312,40314,650,000
194227,428,62521,943,000
1943-23,379,732*-8,704,000*
1944-8,610,266*-6,888,000*
194526,543,09321,234,000
194629,730,93323,785,000
1947681,423545,000
194819,622,17014,765,000
194927,577,35327,577,000
195025,856,45825,856,000

NOTE.—The 1942–45 figures include imports of lend-lease supplies which did not involve normal transactions in monetary exchange (being cancelled by reciprocal aid provided in New Zealand). To show the true balance of trade they should be eliminated, giving approximate export surpluses for the four years as follows (New Zealand currency): 1942, £38,000,000; 1943, £4,000,000; 1944, £13,000,000; 1945, £34,000.000.

A pronounced fall in exports from the previous year's level was responsible for the low excess of exports in 1938. The improvement in 1939 was effected by a reduction in imports under the policy of import selection and control which was inaugurated at the beginning of that year. Extremely large import totals, mainly us the result of the huge expansion of the importation of defence materials and supplies under lend-lease arrangements (which to a large extent invalidates comparisons with earlier years) were responsible for the excess of imports in 1943 and 1944. A substantial fall in imports of defence materials and lend-lease supplies and an increase in exports combined to produce the heavy balance in 1945. Imports in 1946 exceeded the 1945 total by £13,180,000 despite the cessation of imports of defence materials, but a new record visible excess of exports of £29,730,933 was achieved owing to the fact that the exports increased to an even greater extent.

The value of experts in 1947 was 28 per cent. higher than in 1946 but imports increased in value between the two years by no less than 80 per cent. so that the excess of exports fell away to only £681,423. Continuing substantial increases in the values of exports (partly disguised in the New Zealand currency figures by the appreciation of the £N.Z. to parity with sterling), accompanied by less marked increases (except in the 1950 year) in the values of imports, have resulted in the 1948, 1949, and 1950 figures for the visible excess of exports being of a high order, the total for 1949 being second only to that shown for 1946.

The visible balance of trade—i.e., the excess of exports over imports or vice versa—is an essential record valuable for numerous purposes, but with very definite limitations.

In the first place the trade statistics themselves contain inevitable errors. For example it is necessary in many instances to assess the value of exports where goods are not sold until arrival at their destination. The possible error arising from this cause will not normally be important, but in periods when world prices are changing rapidly it may appreciably affect the total of export valuations for a given year. Again, in the case of imports, the basis of valuation used is the same as that for Customs duty purposes, in which an arbitrary assessment of 10 per cent, to cover freight, insurance, &c., is added to the current domestic value of the goods in the country of origin. It is considered that in most years this basis of valuation gives a figure for total imports representing approximately 95 per cent. of the actual “c.i.f.” cost of the goods. For year to year comparisons of the value of imports this understatement is of no statistical significance, but it does result in a significant error in the residual visible balance of exports or imports, especially so when this balance is small.

There are additional difficulties where trade with individual countries is concerned. The ultimate destination of goods exported is sometimes not known at the time of export. In particular, it is evident from the United Kingdom trade statistics that a considerable proportion of New Zealand's exports to continental countries in normal times is recorded in the New Zealand statistics among exports to the United Kingdom. Such produce may be sold on the United Kingdom markets to continental purchasers; while, again, goods may be diverted to continental markets after arrival in the United Kingdom.

Various factors arising out of the war further obscured the position in those years particularly during the period that the Lend-Lease and the Canadian Mutual Aid Agreements wore operating. In considering the 1942.45 balances, the effect of the inclusion in imports of lend-lease supplies should be noted. With the mutual cancellation of any obligations under lend-lease and reciprocal-aid arrangements as announced in the final settlement, it will be apparent that lend-lease imports were not the subject of ordinary transactions in monetary exchange, and their inclusion in imports conveys a false impression in so far as balances of payments are concerned. A further complication in this connection arose during the war period in connection with exports. Considerable quantities of foodstuffs and equipment were exported for the use of Allied Forces, &c., at the direction of the United Kingdom Government. In accordance with the general practice, such exports were credited to the country of final destination—e.g., Egypt, Algeria, Iraq, Italy, India, &c.—although the responsibility for payment rested with the United Kingdom Government.

This position, goods exported to one country being paid for by the nationals of another country, arises also where operators deal internationally in commodities. Thus a national of one country may purchase, say, wool, but consign it to another country for processing. In the trade statistics the wool would be shown as exported to the country of consignment, not that of the national who purchased it. Similarly, the import of a commodity, say, motor-spirits, from one country will not necessarily involve any direct payment to a national, or in the currency, of that country.

Of still greater importance is the fact that the visible trade is not the only factor to be taken into account in considering the balance of payments between countries. Debt services, capital transfers, charitable and other personal remittances, freight payments, tourist expenditure, and the like, are vitally important factors which frequently reverse a credit visible balance of trade into a debit balance of payments. A statement of New Zealand's overseas receipts and payments is given later in this section.

The following table shows for the year 1950 the amount of merchandise exports to, and imports from, each of the principal countries trading with New Zealand. Exports are valued f.o.b. New Zealand ports, and imports at New Zealand import values—i.e., current domestic value in country of shipment plus 10 per cent. allowance for freight, &c. As mentioned above this basis of valuation gives results which may differ from the true c.i.f. cost; to what extent is dependent on the type of commodity (generally the understatement is greatest for those goods with a low value-to-weight ratio) and the country of shipment. Even without this difference in basis of valuation the New Zealand trade statistics will yield different results, in respect of her trade with any given country, to those obtained from the trade statistics of that country, since in the latter New Zealand's exports will normally be valued c.i.f. in the given country and New Zealand's imports f.o.b. in that country. This is the accepted practice internationally in statistics of trade.

TRADE BY COUNTRIES, 1950*

* Provisional.

Country.Exports.Imports (by Country of Origin).
New Zealand Produce.Total.
 £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
United Kingdom121,343,344121,684,96494,896,591
Ceylon9861,4381,984,772
Republic of India759,182763,3752,231,233
Pakistan202,384202,38431,882
British Borneo5,5195,5191,396,745
Federation of Malaya337,454343,0041,459,438
British West Africa23,66723,667610,772
Union of South Africa279,848289,7421,001,456
British West Indies563,027563,027281,078
Canada3,553,9633,556,9163,566,477
Australia4,535,6164,779,36819,029,780
Fiji242,701293,8741,118,887
Nauru23,96534,016256,100
Western Samoa188,298240,016304,034
Other British Commonwealth countries300,887386,299632,116
      Totals, British Commonwealth countries132,360,841133,167,609128,801,361
Republic of Ireland185,172185,27515,535
Belgium2,951,6372,952,0991,097,168
Czechoslovakia1,004,2701,004,270131,167
Denmark900,291900,29188,176
France8,061,3178,076,5931,222,782
Germany (Federal Republic)5,938,8655,939,445209,691
Greece451,507451,507298
Italy1,897,0721,900,362267,293
Netherlands3,419,2203,419,220604,461
Norway283,890283,895612,799
Poland1,563,5781,563,5784,428
Russia (U.S.S.R.)1,034,5871,034,58783,065
Switzerland77,42877,428392,811
Sweden390,638394,5931,233,761
Yugoslavia585,694585,706884
Bahrein Islands2,9522,9521,674,147
China132132295,548
Indonesia1,2351,8273,359,166
Iran127,470127,4703,654,102
Japan996,828996,828477,379
Tunisia  429,563
United States of America18,368,72918,387,38911,460,505
Mexico363,303363,3038,646
Tuamotu Archipelago39,78249,621586,684
Remaining countries1,277,4311,281,7851,184,631
      Totals, other countries49,923,02849,980,15629,094,690
      Ships' stores58,283604,744 
      Totals, all countries182,342,152183,752,509157,896,051

The progress of, and the trends in the direction of New Zealand's overseas trade, are illustrated by the accompanying diagram. Among the features portrayed are the extent to which New Zealand is dependent on the United Kingdom as a market for its exports, and the huge expansion that took place in commodity trade during 1947 to 1950.

BALANCE OF OVERSEAS PAYMENTS.—For many years the Census and Statistics Department prepared a statement of New Zealand's international balance of payments—that is, receipts from and payments to overseas countries. While reasonably accurate information was available for imports and exports, Government and local authority interest payments and debt movements, and miscellaneous Government receipts and payments, there were a number of important items for which it was necessary to make estimates, all more or less unsatisfactory. It was, for example, extremely difficult to estimate investments of private capital in New Zealand and the amount of outgoings by way of interest or dividends on such capital. Hardly more satisfactory was the position regarding tourist expenditure, both by tourists to New Zealand and by New Zealand tourists abroad. Altogether, the statement did not amount to anything more than a rough approximation.

Since the institution of exchange control in New Zealand, it became possible through the Reserve Bank, which administers exchange control, to give a detailed statement of the foreign exchange transactions of the country.

The first table shows, in summary form, figures relating, to overseas receipts and payments for the last five years.

Year Ended 31st December,
1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.
 £(N.Z.) (000)£(N.Z.) (000)£(N.Z.) (000)£(N.Z.) (000)£(N.Z.) (000)
Receipts
Exports129,045145,270139,203194,786254,135
Other receipts35,47629,53819,53118,79021,999
      Totals164,521174,808158,734213,576276,134
Payments
Imports, excluding payments in respect of Government imports115,190108,189109,657140,816201,293
Government imports56,39846,57928,42622,03818,915
Government debt and other services6,40611,079
Other payments18,88125,23227,14029,86128,790
      Totals190,469180,000165,223199,121260,077

NOTE.—An alteration in the exchange-rate to parity with sterling came into operation on the 20th August, 1948.

It is not practicable to give comparable figures in respect of the items listed prior to the 1950 year and those listed in that year owing to the adoption of a revised classification from October, 1949. In the following table, also drawn from Reserve Bank statistics, details are given for the 1950 and 1951 calendar years, the items being in accordance with the revised classification. As in the preceding table, the figures cover New Zealand and island territories.

Item.Year Ended 31st December,
1950.1951.
Receipts.Payments.Receipts.Payments.
Merchandise—£N.Z.(000)£N.Z.(000)£N.Z.(000)£N.Z.(000)
  Exports194,786 254,135 
  Licensed imports 138,832 81,545
  Decontrolled imports 683 117,993
  Other imports 23,339 20,670
      Totals, merchandise.194,786162,854254,135220,208
Transport—    
  Freights, fares, ships' charters1,0182,5161,7302,976
Travel—    
  Private and business (exclusive of fares)1,2295,5641,3745,838
Insurance—    
  Insurance4586391,114734
  Reinsurance 367 607
      Totals, insurance4581,0061,1141,341
International investment income—    
  Interest, dividends, and other private investment income2,3354,7182,4585,679
  Interest on Government and local authority loans 2,744 2,749
      Totals, international investment income2,3357,4622,4588,429
Government transactions—    
  Current expenditure by New Zealand Government overseas 3,935 4,215
  Current receipts by New Zealand Government and expenditure by other Governments in New Zealand1,128 2,496 
      Totals, Government transactions1,1283,9352,4964,215
Miscellaneous current transactions—    
  Commissions, royalties, rebates, &c.8641,4601,2941,869
  Films and entertainments 591 622
  Unilateral transfers (migrants' transfers, personal remittances, charitable, legacies, &c.)4,9856,7146,7295,493
  Expenses of business firms1,9181,3265751,571
  Other current transactions510301491375
      Totals, miscellaneous current transactions8,27710,3919,0899,930
Capital transfers—    
  Private3,3064,7143,6302,477
  Government   4,358
  Local authority 679 304
      Totals, capital transfers3,3065,3933,6307,139
Unidentified1,040 108 
      Grand totals213,576199,121276,134260,076

INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE AND VOLUME OF TRADE.—The table following facilitates appreciation of the movement of external trade in recent years, both in value and in physical volume. Volume of exports and effect of price changes upon exports are dealt with at greater length in the succeeding subsection.

INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE AND VOLUME OF TRADE. Base: 1936–38 (= 100)

Year.Value.Volume.
On Gold Basis.On Sterling Basis.On New Zealand Currency Basis.Exports.Imports.Total Trade.
Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.Total External Trade.

* Provisional.

193014716989102748579778279
1931100886558585155785166
193279646654594754865070
1933765567496849591014977
193480627860786070986181
193576707770777074967285
1936948694859485901028996
1937110108110108110108109102106104
193895106961079610710197105100
193987879595969595989496
19401027912194122941091087995
194193791119411195104977085
1942112871341031341041201147495
19439915411818311918314996128111
194410713912816612816614699105102
194511188134106135106121956481
19461361131661371671381541127595
1947*174202213247214248229119116117
1948*211217258265244247245123114118
1949*233214303287243230237128117123
1950*211211377378303304304123140131

The statistics for the war years 1940–45 need careful interpretation owing to (a) the inclusion of lend-lease supplies in imports, (b) the fact that imports include defence materials and ordnance stores, which rose greatly in wartime, and (c) the supply of very large quantities of New Zealand produce to United States Forces in the Pacific under reverse lend-lease, such supplies not being recorded in the external trade statistics.

The total values of exports and of imports (on a New Zealand currency basis) in 1950 were more than thrice those of the averages of the pre-war years, 1936–38. Although price changes have contributed most to these record values of commodity trade, there have also been considerable increases in volume, particularly in regard to imports since 1947. Compared with 1936–38, the volume index of exports for 1949 showed an increase of 28 per cent. which fell to 23 per cent. in 1950. For the same two years the volume index of imports was 17 per cent. and 40 per cent. respectively higher than the 1936–38 level.

IMPORT AND EXPORT CONTROL.—A decline in overseas assets commenced during 1936–37 and—allowing for seasonal fluctuations—continued steadily until 28th November, 1938, when the net overseas assets of the Reserve Bank and the trading banks were under £(N.Z.)8,000,000.

With a view to conserving overseas assets, so as to ensure that overseas debt services would be met and that sufficient funds would be available for essential imports, regulations—effective from 7th December, 1938, and known respectively as the Import Control Regulations 1938, and the Export Licences Regulations 1938—were made by Orders in Council of 5th December, 1938.

The Import Control Regulations prohibited the importation of goods except in pursuance of a licence under the regulations or of an exemption granted by the Minister. Under the Export Licences Regulations, goods (with certain minor exceptions) could not be exported except under licence.

Three classes of export licences are provided for—viz., particular, general, and purchaser's. The particular licence applies to an occasional shipment; the general licence is issuable to exporters who make regular or frequent shipments; and the purchaser's licence is for cases where goods have been purchased for export by means of credits made available from overseas. A condition of the issue of any export licence is that the overseas credits arising from the sale of the goods (or used to finance their purchase) must be sold to a New Zealand bank in exchange for New Zealand currency.

For imports the licensing schedule issued in the latter half of each year contained items which could be divided into three main groups—viz., (a) items virtually excluded from importation, (b) items allowed to be imported only after close examination of each individual application, and (c) items allowed to be imported on a “basic allocation” dependent on the previous “import history” of the applicant. In the consideration of a licence the factors taken into account include such matters as past imports, probable demand and overseas supply, local availability (actual or potential), and Government policy in relation to protection of industry or special and specific limitation of consumption of certain types of goods. A further important feature of the policy has been the desire to give the greatest possible preference to the goods of United Kingdom manufacturers.

In May, 1950, the Government made provision for the issue of “no-remittance” import licences authorizing the importation of goods of such classes as were deemed desirable on the grounds of relative essentiality and inadequacy of supplies to meet normal requirements. Official overseas funds of banking institutions were in no case to be called on for the financing of “no-remittance” import licences, but provision was made for the transfer of private funds held overseas within the sterling area, such transfers to be made at the current rate of exchange.

The appointment of a representative Import Advisory Committee in May, 1950, for the purpose of examining the import-licensing system and recommending improvements in its administration, was followed in July by an announcement freeing some 326 import items, aggregating £45,000,000 in value, from licensing control in relation to soft-currency areas.

The Board of Trade Act 1950 established a Board of Trade to replace the Import Advisory Committee and advise the Government on matters relating to industrial and trade development, import licensing and export licensing (except agricultural and pastoral products), tariffs and trade negotiations, the marketing and distribution of products, and the acquisition of raw materials and other goods for use in industry.

In December, 1950, the Government acting on the advice of the Board of Trade announced the freeing of a further 87 import items from licensing control in respect of soft-currency sources, and the basic allocations for 37 other import items of importance were substantially increased. The estimated aggregate value for 1951 of import items freed from licensing was thus brought up to £115,000,000.

During 1951 manufacturers were given the opportunity of objecting to the removal of licensing from imports which would compete with their own products. After consideration of these objections by the Board a large number of items of a kind manufactured in New Zealand were decontrolled.

The 1952 Import Licensing Schedule considerably increased the group of items (first appearing in the 1951 Schedule) which were free of control in respect of import from soft currency areas. The controlled items numbered only 351 compared with approximately 1,000 two years previously. By December, 1951, the number of controlled items had been further reduced to 300, and of these one-third were only residual portions of items which had been partially decontrolled.

A new departure announced in December, 1951 was “world exemption” of six items, which meant that these items were free to be imported from any country without licence.

In order to assist in measures for strengthening the sterling area reserves and the balance of payments generally the Government of New Zealand announced in March, 1952, certain decisions designed to ensure an increased surplus in New Zealand's overall balance of payments with non-sterling countries from an estimated £5 million for 1952 to £25 million on an annual basis (June year, 1952–53). Measures listed affecting import licensing cover the cancellation of licences issued for imports from all “scheduled” countries (the United States of America, Canada, and Japan are the countries with which New Zealand is principally concerned), new licences being required for all future imports from these countries; the importation of motor vehicles from all countries is to be brought under import licensing control; there is, however, to be no general imposition of import licensing in respect of sterling area countries.

MOVEMENT OF SPECIE.—Although there is a fairly considerable production of gold bullion, there is no Mint in New Zealand. Uncoined gold, therefore, ranks as an ordinary export, along with wool, dairy-produce, and other merchandise.

The following table shows exports and imports of specie stated at face value for each of the eleven years 1940–50.

Year.Specie Imported.Specie Exported.Excess of Specie Imports (+) or Exports (-).

* Provisional.

 £££
194036,646 +36,646
1941205,40910,015+195,394
1942147,01025,375+121,635
1943461,8001,240+460,560
1944159,640400+159,240
1945208,1484,400+203,748
1946418,9704,532+414,438
1947*184,99010,375+174,615
1948*624,75555,169+569,586
1949*1,051,114570,220+480,894
1950*169,823514,455-344,632

GOVERNMENT CREDITS FOR FINANCING WOOL PURCHASES.—Financial agreements designed to facilitate the sale of New Zealand wool to France and Czechoslovakia were entered into by the New Zealand Government and the French and Czechoslovakian Governments—the former on the 2nd July, 1947, and the latter on the 22nd January, 1948.

The French agreement made available to France a credit up to £5,000,000 sterling for use in the purchase of New-Zealand-grown wool during the five years ending 30th June, 1952. Other produce could also be brought under the scheme, if mutually agreed. Credit was made available to the Government of France to the value of one-half of the cost of wool purchased by French buyers, the remaining one-half being financed in the normal manner. At 31st March, 1951, the total drawings on the account amounted to £(N.Z.)5,018,750. The total advances are to be repaid not later than 31st December, 1957, and interest at the rate of 2½ per cent. per annum is payable.

The Czechoslovakian agreement made available to Czechoslovakia a credit up to £1,000,000 in New Zealand currency for use in the purchase of New-Zealand-grown wool during the four years ended 30th June, 1951. Credit was made available to the Government of Czechoslovakia to the value of one-half of the cost of the wool purchased by its buyers, with the proviso that the total credit drawn to the 30th June, 1948, was not to exceed £(N.Z.)250,000, to the 30th June, 1949, £(N.Z.)500,000, and to 30th June, 1950, £(N.Z.)750,000. The total drawings on the credit at 31st March, 1951, were £(N.Z.)928,096. The total advances are to be repaid not later than 30th June, 1954, and interest at the rate of 2½ per cent. per annum is payable.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE CONFERENCE.—The Economic and Social Council of the United Nations, by a resolution dated 18th February, 1946, resolved to call an International Conference on Trade and Employment for the purpose of promoting the expansion of the production, exchange, and consumption of goods.

This Conference was ultimately held at Havana, Cuba, from 21st November, 1947, until 24th March, 1948, and a résumé of the main provisions of the Charter as finally drawn up at Havana is given on pages 210–212 of the 1947–49 issue of the Year-Book. This Charter has not, however, been ratified by any country.

At the second session of the Preparatory Committee (to prepare the ground for the International Conference) held in 1947 at Geneva, negotiations for a multilateral trade agreement embodying tariff concessions by the participating countries took place. Further concessions were agreed to in negotiations held at Annecy (1949) and Torquay (1950–51). The resulting concessions are contained in schedules to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Act, 1948 and amendments thereto. Details of this as it affects New Zealand are given in Section 9D, “Customs Tariff and Revenue” of this Issue.

BULK PURCHASE OF PRIMARY PRODUCE BY UNITED KINGDOM GOVERNMENT.—The bulk purchase of New Zealand's primary produce by the United Kingdom Government originally commenced with the 1939–40 season's produce. It was a wartime measure whereby the United Kingdom Government became the sole purchaser of imported foodstuffs, and in New Zealand the Marketing Department became the authority for the bulk purchase and shipment of most of the produce concerned. The principal products which came within this bulk purchase plan were wool, butter, cheese, meat, tallow, and woolly sheepskins.

With the conclusion of the war, so ended the bulk purchase agreements for wool and sheep-skins, the sale of these products reverting to the open market. Dairy-produce and meat contracts, however, were continued under the bulk-purchase scheme as part of peacetime marketing, and in 1948 new agreements were signed in London extending these contracts up to 1955. A detailed account of these agreements will be found in Section 18A, "Agricultural and Pastoral Production."

STERLING AREA TRADE ARRANGEMENTS WITH JAPAN.—The representatives of the Supreme Commander Allied Powers, acting in respect of occupied Japan and the representatives of five British Commonwealth countries, formally concluded an arrangement by which trade to the minimum value of £55,000,000 sterling would be carried on between these countries and occupied Japan from 1st July, 1948, to 30th June, 1949. The British Commonwealth participants were Australia, India, New Zealand, and the Union of South Africa, as well as the United Kingdom and its colonies, except Hong Kong.

The arrangement aimed at increasing trade between, and maintaining an approximate balance of exports and imports by, the two parties in order to avoid dollar expenditure on either side. It provided that all trade between the two parties should be conducted on a sterling basis in accordance with the terms and provisions of the over-all sterling payments arrangement which was in force between the Supreme Commander and the sterling area.

The trade plan, which formed the basis of the arrangement, was not a hard-and-fast one and was not intended to constitute commitments binding on either party. It represented, in the light of the best information available to the two parties, the volume of trade which might be expected to flow between them and the character it was most likely to assume.

Subsequent annual agreements were for larger sums; that for 1949–50 envisaged trade between the parties to the value of £72,000,000 each way, and that for 1950–51, trade each way to the value of £136,000,000. The provisional estimates of New Zealand's trade with Japan which were made for the purposes of these agreements were respectively, £625,000, £830,000, and £940,000; the actual trade which eventuated corresponded only very approximately with these figures.

The arrangements were not renewed in 1951, when the existing overall sterling payments arrangement was superseded by a new agreement negotiated between the United Kingdom and the Authorities in Japan aimed at creating more normal payment relationships, and so facilitating trade, between Japan and the sterling area.

9 B—EXPORTS

IN New Zealand the Department of H.M. Customs requires for every package exported a declared statement of the contents, value, and destination, the export statistics being compiled from the analysis and summation of these statements.

Exports are valued in New Zealand currency “free on board at the port of shipment,” except re-exports ex bonded warehouse or under drawback of duty which are recorded at the original import values. Where goods are not sold till arrival at their destination, values are assessed at current prices at time of shipment. New Zealand currency was below parity with sterling from the beginning of 1930 to 19th August, 1948, when it was again restored to parity (see section on Banking and Currency). A table in the preceding subsection gives the values in sterling of total exports for the years 1940 to 1950.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as is practicable, but it is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in the country of destination. In the trade records a distinction is made between exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports of imported goods.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXPORTS.—The total merchandise exports (i.e., excluding specie) are given in broad classes in the following table covering the last eleven years.

Year.Food, Drink, and Tobacco.Raw Materials and Articles Mainly Unmanufactured.*Articles Wholly or Mainly Manufactured.Live Animals.Parcels Post.Total Merchandise Exports.

* Including uncoined gold and silver.

† Provisional.

 ££££££
194048,864,00023,736,000982,000118,00041,00073,741,000
194145,988,00020,565,000772,00061,00093,00067,479,000
194252,279,00027,332,0001,536,00017,000122,00081,285,000
194345,405,00022,035,0004,274,00016,000133,00071,863,000
194442,849,00021,667,00013,136,00035,000100,00077,787,000
194551,890,00021,406,0008,110,00086,000139,00081,631,000
194659,594,00037,521,0003,746,000152,000289,000101,302,000
194776,956,00048,564,0003,274,000272,000340,000129,406,000
194884,608,00057,585,0004,677,000241,000712,000147,823,000
194985,522,00058,971,0002,336,000186,000276,000147,290,000
195090,160,00091,079,0002,185,000160,000169,000183,753,000

Easily the most important class is that for food, drink, and tobacco. In New Zealand's exports this is composed almost wholly of foodstuffs, the principal items being butter, cheese, and frozen meat. Of the total exports during the eleven years shown in the table, this class accounted for 59 per cent., but the proportion has been falling in recent years and amounted to only 49 per cent. in 1950. The only other class of any magnitude in normal times is that covering raw materials (mainly wool, hides, skins, seeds, tallow, and gold), which during the last eleven years constituted 37 per cent. of the total exports. This class has registered a substantial increase over recent years owing to abnormally heavy shipments of wool, partly of accumulated war-time stocks, in the immediate post-war years and, more recently, to higher wool prices. Prior to the outbreak of war, manufactured goods had not figured very prominently in New Zealand's exports, and during the three years 1937–39 accounted for only 1 per cent. of the total. However, during the five years 1942–46, this percentage rose to 8, mainly as a result of demands by the Armed Forces for certain manufactured articles including clothing and footwear, fire-fighting appliances, nails and tacks, hardware, concretemixers, electrical and wireless apparatus, cardboard, wallboard, leather, brushware, soap, and ordnance supplies. This last item was by far the heaviest, exports for 1944 amounting to approximately £10,000,000 of which £5,000,000 were re-exports. In 1950 manufactured articles represented only 1 per cent. of the total, and even then, it should be remembered, this class includes the bulk of New Zealand's re-exports.

New Zealand's reliance upon grassland farming for her exports is indicated by the figures in the next table showing exports of pastoral products and the percentage which they represent among total exports of New Zealand produce. The percentage supplied by this group was high in the late “nineties,” but after 1898 fell relatively, owing mainly to increased exports of agricultural and mining products. From 1902 onwards, however, the percentage increased almost continuously, till in 1924 and 1925 it amounted to 94 per cent. of the total. The percentage dropped noticeably in the depression years, owing to the relatively greater fall in prices of pastoral products, particularly wool, but recovered in subsequent years with the advent of improved prices. Shipping difficulties were mainly responsible for the decline recorded in the aggregate value of pastoral products exported in 1941, the stocks of a number of items held in New Zealand at the end of that year being heavier than usual, and this factor contributed to the high total for 1942. During the next three years considerable quantities of meat and dairy-produce were supplied locally to the United States Forces, by way of reverse lend-lease. The approximate value of this produce, which was not treated as an export, even when subsequently shipped to the United States Forces in the Pacific, was: 1943, £7,000,000; 1944, £10,000,000; 1945, £8,000,000. The withdrawal of this produce from export resulted in decreased quantities of most of the principal pastoral products being exported in 1943 and 1944, and this, together with the substantial increase in the export of manufactured articles mentioned earlier, and increased agricultural exports (notably peas and seeds), caused the percentage of pastoral exports to fall to its lowest level since 1913.

From 1945 to 1950 the value of pastoral produce exported has risen enormously, reaching a total of £174,320,000 in 1950, an increase of 207 per cent. as compared with the average of the three pre-war years 1937–39. The total value of pastoral produce exported in 1950 also represents a record percentage of 95.6 per cent. of the total value of exports of New Zealand produce. The high figures for recent years are attributable to increased export prices and heavy shipments of butter, cheese, dried and condensed milk, and wool.

EXPORTS OF PASTORAL PRODUCTS

Year.Value.Percentage.*

* Of total exports of New Zealand produce.

† Provisional.

 £ 
193041,369,00093.6
193132,115,00093.6
193232,112,00091.8
193337,111,00091.8
193443,351,00092.7
193542,647,00092.6
193652,686,00093.6
193762,549,00094.5
193854,299,00093.9
193953,744,00093.6
194069,057,00094.6
194162,238,00093.0
194274,361,00092.3
194361,029,00086.9
194458,948,00082.2
194568,112,00087.0
194689,582,00089.3
1947120,160,00094.1
1948137,738,00094.0
1949138,890,00095.1
1950174,320,00095.6

In the first two decades of the present century exports of crops and orchard products were relatively insignificant; but from 1926 onwards there was a considerable development in the export of apples, pears, peas, and, to a lesser extent, grass- and clover-seeds, and tobacco. Owing to the available refrigerated shipping space being required for the more essential commodities, the export of apples and pears was practically discontinued during the war period, and it was not until 1948 that the export of these fruits was fully resumed. In recent years, the export of unmanufactured tobacco has practically ceased. The quantities of peas and grass- and clover-seeds exported has increased enormously since 1939, and under the stimulus of a wartime demand, a new commodity (linen-flax) achieved some importance. Over a long period of years kauri-gum was the principal item of the forest-produce group, but in later years exports of this commodity have been on a very much reduced scale. Timber exports, which fell to low levels during the depression period, recovered somewhat in 1934 and 1935, but in 1944 recorded their lowest value for over sixty years. Since then there has been steady recovery and over the last three years, the quantities have been in advance of pre-war proportions. Mining products recorded a marked increase after 1931 due to the enhanced price of gold, which led to greater activity in the gold-mining industry, but war and post-war factors have resulted in an appreciable decline in the production of this metal since 1940.

Quantity figures of exports of the principal items of New Zealand produce are next given for the years 1947 to 1950. For some purposes, especially for comparisons between recent and more remote years, quantities are preferable to values, since the latter are affected by price-variations.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce).1947.*1948.*1949.*1950.*

* Provisional.

† Ounces of the fineness of 20 carats and upwards

The mine—    
  Coal (ton)28,03518,91321,5755,066
  Pumice, sand and stone "2,4101,7351,4191,326
  Gold (oz.)98,55758,40063,854110,486
  Scheelite (cwt.)325554560580
  Silver (oz.)109,436147,17389,639107,618
  Cement (cwt.)37,97839,31044,43422,990
The fisheries—    
  Fish (cwt.)54,32666,72476,26075,924
  Fish and fish liver oils (gal.)  17,45219,733
  Whale oil "206,685114,698111,094120,907
The forest—    
  Kauri-gum (ton)1,2011,0891,0461,178
  Timber, sawn and hewn (sup.ft)9,493,04722,767,51724,592,40014,878,957
Pastoral products—    
  Butter (cwt.)2,552,4672,712,3872,952,0392,749,540
  Butterfat, dry "1,7002959926,157
  Casein "51,83382,471109,204110,754
  Cheese "1,740,8791,512,4681,878,7561,997,801
  Edible fats "551,590177,248157,754190,965
  Inedible fats "401,260382,040434,320
  Hair not made up "109961,225825
  Honey (lb.)80,506197,096157,262852,972
  Live cattle and sheep (number)2,510946321547
  Live horses "266336274304
  Canned meats (cwt.)142,917120,754111,473107,662
  Meat extract (lb.)809,2021,200,0651,083,056332,046
  Frozen and chilled meats (cwt.)6,955.6036,869,9446,882,0236,761,682
  Other preserved meat "115,124132,04812,861339,809
  Meat meal "  32,74534,372
  Milk dried and condensed (lb.)44,753,71059,448,66577,033,42691,015,251
  Sugar of milk "1,131,7761,532,7486,199,4085,748,561
  Inedible offals "  16,19916,430
  Neatsfoot oil (gal.)86,83340,02036,734146,400
  Sausage-casings (cwt.)43,62947,08148,44050,157
  Cattle and horse hides(number)479,997480,184335,309368,737
  Calf-skins "757,186665,5221,121,657870,402
  Deer-skins "93,03963,11160,23265,982
  Opossum-skins "692,908270,374290,249503,123
  Rabbit-skins "16,654,49613,471,29810,269,1049,918,514
  Sheep-skins and pelts "17,040,13817,157,29817,415,57317,461,162
  Wool (lb.)375,093,061420,966,409429,657,252393,973,500
Commodity (New Zealand Produce).1947.*1948.*1949.*1950.*

* Provisional.

† Not available.

Agricultural products—    
Biscuits (cwt.)4,5543,068
  Fresh apples (lb.)230,71939,309,36021,357,09938,594,576
  Fresh pears "8,505894,6407,1888,076
  Peas (cental)409,497459,816508,984494,613
  Hops (lb.)40080,5201,070180
  Oatmeal "5,505,6821,652,720795,100227,100
  Onions (ton)1,2482,5491,6441,275
  Potatoes "1,8372,1971,9807,185
  Pastes alimentary cooked (lb.) (canned)5,6395801,752,31449,348
  Canned vegetables "  416,4402,622,715
  Seeds (grass and clover) (cwt.)147,011174,843161,992164,115
  Linen-flax fibre and tow "15,2445,4049,415824
  Phormium fibre and tow (ton)  4787
Miscellaneous—    
  Ale, stout, and cider (gal.)209,241213,871183,832228,293
  Cocoa (lb.)  185,334250,159
  Tobacco, manufactured "79,51264,16073,81765,690
  Footwear (doz. prs.)3,2921,36338863
  Sugar (cwt.)11,3418,3717,1378,759
  Metals, scrap (not " precious)253,32948,06671,53083,767
  Clothes pegs and pins (gross)  91,77376,184

The values of principal exports are given in the following table.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce).1947.*1948.*1949.*1950.*

* Provisional.

† Including items not enumerated.

The mine—££££
  Coal77,43054,96371,65918,445
  Pumice, sand and stone11,72010,18910,9029,187
  Gold1,035,406609,259607,6961,311,095
  Scheelite5,97514,23410,89513,539
  Silver25,79436,44120,19328,302
  Cement10,43216,76716,8379,173
The fisheries—    
  Fish358,268494,694521,342617,038
  Fish and fish liver oils  116,205124,617
  Whale oil48,76929,67030,43034,472
The forest—    
  Kauri-gum120,256109,802102,877125,893
  Timber, sawn and hewn184,451508,949554,743371,557
Pastoral products—    
  Butter28,835,89833,758,18835,449,91835,566,993
  Butterfat, dry22,0074,54118,245121,198
  Casein370,549597,911600,740657,090
  Cheese11,621,08811,197,02412,674,35914,535,757
  Edible fats2,577,2411,072,272848,462780,370
  Inedible fats2,154,2011,845,0571,518,623
  Foods, infants' and invalids'128,541230,121226,978150,636
  Hair not made up36744019,11315,596
  Honey3,0537,3137,76941,958
  Live cattle and sheep64,37544,01118,30931,492
  Live horses 176,440134,844123,455
  Canned meats1,147,237925,948848,738874,699
  Meat extract237,717296,938232,40329,943
  Frozen and chilled meats29,353,33128,623,95527,229,68428,629,192
  Other preserved meat1,204,942997,29483,49497,006
  Meat meal  90,95090,067
  Milk, dried and condensed1,651,3962,209,8052,866,1163,321,883
  Sugar of milk56,20276,556251,189223,409
  Inedible offals  105,100130,549
  Neatsfoot oil50,36427,56317,67444,621
  Sausage-casings1,526,9242,238,2682,044,8672,660,834
  Cattle and horse hides2,017,6421,988,2811,286,8731,623,430
  Calf-skins917,866909,6071,069,400994,803
  Deer-skins120,66555,98141,55173,176
  Opossum-skins145,73665,78977,581200,822
  Rabbit-skins1,120,219754,651318,589346,865
  Sheep-skins and pelts6,014,1945,657,9203,855,6296,736,162
  Wool31,933,08644,496,13046,553,15174,653,007
Agricultural products—    
  Biscuits29,18822,28422,21615,126
  Fresh apples4,067851,587382,980678,992
  Fresh pears19322,040202251
  Peas894,0751,023,0851,004,540873,953
  Hops9010,62822339
  Oatmeal114,58337,08119,9994,419
  Onions31,92645,61030,91831,618
  Potatoes32,88839,56434,350112,431
  Pastes alimentary cooked (canned)2463972,1252,067
  Canned vegetables  14,441121,017
  Seeds (grass and clover)1,663,3651,700,6441,523,4262,083,620
  Seeds (various)215,756144,459118,10873,329
  Linen-flax fibre and tow140,26540,89082,0853,088
  Phormium fibre and tow  343,379
Miscellaneous—    
  Ale, stout, and cider48,39850,75241,96651,439
  Cocoa  19,27619,513
  Tobacco, manufactured24,56621,77520,13317,668
  Dairying machinery59,92230,76564,38960,003
  Fire-fighting appliances6,41412,73712,8694,299
  Electrical apparatus75,201117,45970,38935,107
  Manures2,3791,87641320,685
  Sugar24,48219,39915,26521,027
  Metals, scrap (not precious)37,30617,75616,24223,223
  Apparel and ready-made clothing181,1214,8192,9362,642
  Leather67,94726,02830,34310,330
  Footwear26,3506,5221,862252
  Soap31,48637,237137,42365,517
  Soup and soup powder16,9625,460288,70821,245
  Ordnance stores, explosives, &c.159,753133,69026,242356
  Books, papers, &c., printed46,24340,83632,41528,893
  Cardboard, wallboard, &c.14,88527,30339,23251,704
  Chinaware and earthenware21,1719,34730,72425,656
  Clothes pegs and pins  20,87318,282
  Fancy go and toys  15,33911,601
  Vitamins and vitamin concentrates11974112,8979,836
      Totals, New Zealand produce127,713,184146,469,226146,112,531182,342,152

DESTINATION OF NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS.—The first exports from New Zealand went naturally to the earlier-developed sister colony, and for a considerable time Australia had a monopoly of our trade. In 1865, 70 per cent., and even in 1871, 44 per cent., of the total exports went to Australia. But since the establishment of direct shipping lines the United Kingdom has absorbed the bulk of New Zealand exports, having taken during the forty years 1875–1914, £365,880,997 (78 per cent.) of a grand total of exports amounting to £469,347,969. This percentage, prior to the First World War did not vary greatly from year to year, but there have been considerable variations since 1914. In each of the three years 1915–17 approximately 80 per cent. of exports went to the United Kingdom, but there was a sudden drop to 64 per cent. in 1918. By 1921 the percentage had risen to 86, but a continuous decline then commenced, reaching a low point of 73 in 1928. Particularly high figures in this respect were recorded during the depression period, the peak being reached with 88 per cent. in 1932. From 1933 to 1937 the general trend was downwards, but the following year saw a sharp rise, with a further increase in 1940. The war years brought marked changes in the distribution of New Zealand's exports. The proportion sent to the United Kingdom fell steadily from 1940 to 1943, the fall in the latter year being particularly heavy. This was compensated for by appreciable increases in the export trade to Egypt, India and Pakistan, Canada, Russia (U.S.S.R.), and the United States of America. The year 1944 saw a substantial rise in the value of exports to the United Kingdom with a corresponding increase in the percentage, and this was maintained in 1945. A feature of the export trade in 1946 was the resumption of activities with European countries, notably France and Germany, and this resulted in a fall in the percentage exported to the United Kingdom despite an increase of £12,280,361 in value. The distribution of exports in 1947 was not dissimilar to that of the immediate pre-war years, the United Kingdom taking 77 per cent. of New Zealand's exports (80 per cent. in 1936–38), while exports to British Commonwealth countries accounted for 84 per cent. of total exports, as compared with 86 per cent. in 1936–38. With the return from the abnormal trading conditions that operated through the war years, exports to India and Pakistan have decreased substantially but are still higher than pre-war figures.

Sharp declines in the proportion of exports to the United Kingdom and, in particular, to the British Commonwealth countries as a whole, were evident in the 1948, 1949, and 1950 figures, the latter group of countries receiving the lowest percentages of total New Zealand exports on record. European countries, principally Belgium, Czechoslovakia, France, German Federal Republic, Italy, Netherlands, Poland, and Russia, were responsible for the increases shown for other countries in 1948 and 1949. The share of the United States of America, which fell sharply in 1948 and 1949, rose steeply in 1950 to the highest percentage yet recorded for that country.

It should be noted that exports to certain countries during the period 1940–45, particularly Egypt, Italy, and Algeria, and to a lesser extent India, consisted mainly of food, clothing, and munitions and war stores for the use of the Armed Forces. These supplies were exported on the requisition of, and paid for by, the United Kingdom Government.

The nomenclature used in the following tables in regard to the countries of destination refers generally to status and territories in the years indicated and not necessarily to the present position.

The principal destinations of New Zealand's exports of merchandise (including re-exports) during the last twenty years are given in the table below.

Year.United Kingdom.Canada.Australia.France.Germany.United States of America.Other Countries.*Total Merchandise Exports.

* Including ships' stores.

† Provisional.

 ££££££££
193130,739,976256,8901,167,403419,016309,847920,9311,136,63534,950,698
193231,344,670244,1601,444,860508,960289,917690,0151,087,33735,609,919
193335,275,909560,8751,393,311738,176376,8861,188,9721,471,79041,005,919
193438,629,240697,8651,882,5161,228,699944,3101,250,3642,709,85347,342,847
193538,921,568656,9841,781,811484,610165,3042,468,0662,060,03846,538,381
193645,492,9891,103,0081,843,4751,646,168272,4812,877,7523,516,06756,751,940
193750,705,5911,678,4031,824,1831,014,941919,1484,784,0995,787,01466,713,379
193848,897,9901,127,1242,189,4541,015,456890,9761,421,6302,833,65358,376,283
193946,689,198963,7102,256,0071,579,176390,0062,847,1583,324,06158,049,316
194064,129,1061,709,1692,159,339716,752 2,825,8982,200,86973,741,133
194152,395,5382,822,3342,400,266  5,190,6134,670,66267,479,413
194260,471,0983,616,6462,717,619  5,900,0678,489,20781,284,637
194346,367,9404,535,2072,849,125  6,385,40211,724,92471,862,598
194455,426,5331,939,8143,092,981  5,062,60812,265,01077,786,946
194558,643,4112,250,8624,195,24746,965 7,984,6968,510,09581,631,276
194670,923,7722,803,2823,630,7503,465,3751,639,1299,715,7519,124,207101,302,266
194798,677,7773,059,6604,095,9814,447,17478,2948,174,45710,872,921129,406,264
1948107,922,3772,990,8143,955,9608,308,1892,724,8347,272,63914,648,049147,822,862
1949107,709,9702,196,3523,753,4267,657,8992,993,5035,507,63817,471,703147,290,491
1950121,684,9643,556,9164,779,3688,076,5935,940,23918,387,38921,327,040183,752,509

The statistics quoted in the foregoing table indicate the destination of New Zealand exports as recorded by the Customs Department. In some instances the ultimate destination of exports is not known at the time of export, such goods being entered as exported to the country to which they are being shipped. This consideration applies more particularly to wool, considerable quantities of which are shipped to the United Kingdom, and, in normal times, subsequently re-exported to the Continent. It should be observed, however, that in all instances where the final destination is known at the time of export the exports are credited to that destination in the New Zealand trade statistics. It is possible, of course, that the destination of goods may be changed while in transit; and this, in fact, happens occasionally in the case of wool. In such cases the actual destination will be different from that to which the goods have been credited in the statistics; but it is quite impossible to keep a record of movements of this nature.

A further point of some importance is the fact that an appreciable quantity of wool is exported on an “optional” basis—United Kingdom, option Continent. In these cases, however, subsequent information is received by the Customs Department as to the actual destination of the goods, and the entries are amended.

It will be realized from the considerations outlined above that the actual final destinations of New Zealand exports may vary appreciably from the classification shown in the table. For these reasons it is probable that our exports to Continental countries are normally somewhat higher than the figures indicate; conversely, our exports to the United Kingdom for retention in that country are lower than the totals quoted in the table.

The table which follows shows for each of eleven years the percentage of total exports (excluding specie, and ships' stores), taken by each of the principal countries trading with New Zealand.

Country.1940.1941.1942.1943.1944.1945.1946.1947.*1948.*1949.*1950.*

* Provisional.

 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
United Kingdom87.6078.1574.9764.8871.7572.2870.3576.6673.3073.3966.44
Republic of India1.061.551.283.595.273.623.070.380.540.650.42
Pakistan0.11
Union of South Africa0.030.040.020.040.060.240.060.050.060.090.16
Canada2.344.214.486.352.512.772.782.382.031.501.94
Australia2.953.583.373.994.005.173.603.182.692.562.61
Fiji0.260.260.470.780.460.480.310.340.280.360.16
Other British Commonwealth countries0.450.630.490.720.841.011.641.191.000.890.87
      Totals, British Commonwealth countries94.6988.4285.0880.3584.8985.5781.8184.1879.9079.4472.71
Netherlands     0.010.491.331.931.661.87
Belgium      0.471.551.021.241.61
Czechoslovakia      0.030.010.090.040.55
France0.98    0.063.443.455.645.214.41
Germany      1.630.061.852.043.24
Italy    1.150.760.290.520.510.981.04
Poland     0.050.010.060.140.820.85
Russia (U.S.S.R.) 0.992.431.28  0.010.391.731.980.56
Egypt0.092.204.478.906.842.960.410.160.140.170.08
Japan0.110.07      0.030.530.54
United States of America3.867.747.438.936.559.849.646.354.943.7510.04
Remaining countries0.270.580.590.540.570.751.771.942.082.142.50
      Totals, other countries5.3111.5814.9219.6515.1114.4318.1915.8220.1020.5627.29

Exports to each country, 1947–1950.—The table following shows the exports (including re-exports, but excluding specie) according to the countries of destination. Reference should be made to remarks made earlier regarding re-exports of New Zealand produce from the United Kingdom.

Country.1947.*1948.*1949.*1950.*

* Provisional.

British Commonwealth of Nations, Protected States, and Trust Territories££££
United Kingdom98,677,777107,922,377107,785,848121,684,964
Europe—    
  Eire58,85193,950  
  Gibraltar 3,160  
  Malta615,2709,1985,614
      Totals58,912102,3809,1985,614
Asia—    
  Aden1,3666081,451 
  British Borneo5981202,9565,519
  Burma136,604   
  Ceylon62,35437,4581,7021,438
  Hong Kong118,955121,380173,16694,811
  Republic of India491,387791,982883,652763,375
  Pakistan72,239202,384
  Malaya and Singapore318,455297,780290,744343,004
  Palestine17,71315,573  
  Other6,3433651701,393
      Totals1,153,7751,265,2661,426,0801,411,924
Africa—    
  Union of South Africa65,06489,103132,934289,742
  British West Africa5,2553,2268,88823,667
  Kenya and Uganda1,5919,8954,0692,282
  Other8,44413,8742,60418,079
      Totals80,354116,098148,495333,770
America—    
  Bermuda11,20058,52548,4251,362
  British West Indies133,598237,778212,058563,027
  Canada3,059,6602,990,8142,196,3523,556,916
  Other1,9061,9192,04934,593
      Totals3,206,3643,289,0362,458,8844,155,898
Pacific—    
  Australia4,095,9813,955,9603,753,4264,779,368
  Fiji441,099413,974522,946293,874
  Gilbert and Ellice Islands79,99040,63644,06850,159
  Nauru Island65,55653,00151,26034,016
  Norfolk Island16,7144,85428,99223,460
  Papua3,76412,58526,60222,611
  Solomon Islands5,4074,43115,57215,567
  Tonga110,783139,522107,546114,653
  Western Samoa349,348320,183287,671240,016
  Other1,0141,7243,1331,716
      Totals5,169,6564,946,8704,841,2165,575,440
Other Countries££££
Europe—    
  Austria14,94731,844160,538183,586
  Belgium1,991,0101,496,2941,817,6902,952,099
  Czechoslovakia8,603103,82962,9011,004,270
  Denmark451,547512,400446,169900,291
  Finland44,09556,36714,23236,518
  France4,447,1748,308,1897,657,8998,076,593
  Germany78,2942,724,8342,993,5035,940,239
  Greece106,176111,473211,637451,507
  Italy665,590753,1111,439,1771,900,362
  Netherlands1,717,4092,838,8912,438,4193,419,220
  Norway73,44659,771170,708283,895
  Poland83,184208,1701,203,5661,563,578
  Portugal15,3987,284  
  Republic of Ireland  134,026185,275
  Russia (U.S.S.R.)504,6072,544,3822,910,7381,034,587
  Sweden342,142670,249448,324394,593
  Switzerland274,960253,524253,65077,428
  Yugoslavia16,85461,629104,397585,706
  Other12,26447,12991,7723,306
      Totals10,847,70020,789,37022,559,34628,993,053
Asia—    
  Burma 102,00452,04626,944
  China207,77912,37813,007132
  French Indo-China22,00941,425  
  Iran 639,572127,470
  Israel  60,031769
  Japan56,62746,575780,748996,828
  Indonesia130,4895,2934,070 
  Philippines99,36035,18894,08160,851
  Saudi Arabia9803,40420162,316
  Siam7,1646,72216,94262,062
  Syria121,44744,80216,162
  Turkey28,02497,44211,56837,360
  Other7,5037,29158,43523,439
      Totals559,947359,2321,145,5031,414,333
Africa—    
  Belgian Congo 7,05020,7104,119
  Egypt201,110199,545249,476153,117
  Morocco162,923169,26652,0251,079
  Other1,0844,9355,7651,176
      Totals365,117380,796327,976159,491
America—    
  Argentina38,53421,524451,224
  Brazil5 961 
  Chile45094017,615 
  Mexico9645,63510,555363,303
  Netherlands Antilles28,860135,350189,709208,614
  Panama10101,02460,216150,433
  Panama Canal Zone79,75163,95829,446
  United States of America8,174,4577,272,6395,507,63818,387,389
  Uruguay21,87512,50810,9773,961
  Venezuela371,9915,72719,226
  Other  13,1747,072
      Totals8,265,1657,631,3625,880,57519,170,668
Pacific—££££
  Hawaii8433,01141,81912,325
  New Caledonia26,66018,2621,749327
  Society Islands199,765219,98686,233103,261
  Tuamotu Archipelago50,64452,53348,83149,621
  American Samoa73,59593,52373,52669,743
  New Hebrides1,8104,62130,7297,334
      Totals352,558421,936282,887242,611
Ships' stores668,939598,139500,361604,744

Destination of Main Exports.—The table which follows shows quantities and values of the principal exports of New Zealand produce sent to various destinations during the years 1949 and 1950.

Country to Which Exported.1949.*1950.*
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.

* Provisional.

Wool
 lb.£lb.£
United Kingdom215,623,05021,816,892178,974,04634,041,363
Union of South Africa628,13273,810994,584234,305
Republic of India2,806,869322,7891,880,164332,190
Canada14,260,5631,636,23811,161,0922,178,677
Australia6,594,415676,8315,822,363987,201
Republic of Ireland431,00742,224605,257119,560
Norway996,007150,651938,913237,563
Sweden2,381,117346,6011,387,550306,448
Denmark3,138,344413,2782,896,260768,375
Finland27,0784,11753,71914,939
Russia (U.S.S.R.)24,032,4852,910,7246,238,7451,034,587
Poland5,991,883904,1724,666,5621,278,917
Germany22,752,4962,620,79526,145,0055,160,686
Netherlands11,731,9441,326,32614,201,9632,666,879
Belgium12,361,9721,502,42114,077,4952,479,004
France67,980,3597,455,66938,267,9327,216,157
Switzerland41,1724,490301,71961,576
Italy7,318,2861,113,8098,108,6831,564,945
Czechoslovakia583,50762,6714,448,7591,004,124
Yugoslavia566,51672,5602,419,864520,913
Bulgaria432,91864,027  
Greece1,133,117177,9991,884,381443,532
Morocco442,06952,018  
Egypt821,32184,514365,15365,451
China58,6937,800  
Japan5,674,340661,4734,535,002749,891
Mexico56,08210,5451,903,996363,297
United States of America20,617,7452,019,90461,608,21610,802,062
Other countries173,76517,80386,07720,365
      Totals429,657,25246,553,151393,973,50074,653,007
Frozen and Chilled Meat
 Cwt.£Cwt.£
United Kingdom6,831,31626,996,6986,670,80528,208,248
British West Indies4,48520,34914,02464,226
Fiji9,27033,5078,47531,111
Gilbert and Ellice Islands2611,6633772,528
Tonga1,1934,3681,0043,845
Western Samoa2,0978,4391,4706,492
Nauru Island4122,34490621
Belgium3,57516,004  
Germany  30,842107,789
Saudi Arabia  5,83757,952
Netherlands Antilles26,677133,04824,670128,382
Society Islands6472,6253691,931
Tuamotu Archipelago177921102582
American Samoa1,8289,3691,3157,698
Other countries853492,3027,787
      Totals6,882,02327,229,6846,761,68228,629,192
Canned Meat
 Cwt.£Cwt.£
United Kingdom59,264455,52661,701499,751
British West Indies1241,31310,856103,061
Western Samoa12,76794,0507,88859,255
Fiji7,14058,2194,19635,950
Tonga3,26325,3762,64721,076
Gilbert and Ellice Islands1,60412,3832,61219,112
Italy7,90955,8618575,240
Israel2,94916,283  
New Hebrides1,94015,2117385,762
Society Islands6,88654,9576,81658,145
Tuamotu Archipelago7415,7661,28810,907
American Samoa5,27039,3765,65742,100
Other countries1,61614,4172,40624,340
      Totals111,473848,738107,662884,699
Butter
 Cwt.£Cwt.£
United Kingdom2,882,24134,452,1282,638,93033,967,417
Hong Kong5798,2594005,586
Republic of India7,592125,0303,54751,355
Pakistan2,97550,4834787,828
Malaya and Singapore1,80022,9392,00027,975
British West Africa  6649,339
Bermuda3,99947,388  
British West Indies9,812121,23319,105262,970
France  40,000519,500
Germany  10,201195,342
Italy  10,003129,914
Switzerland20,000239,251  
Burma1,23823,88837672
Japan  1,35310,702
 Cwt.£Cwt.£
Philippines4,05363,1233,81254,495
Egypt4005,5307209,544
Netherlands Antilles2,31236,0924,35265,970
Panama3,69360,0396,948129,717
Panama Canal Zone2,75259,9461,45027,325
Venezuela3124,95683814,128
Hawaii1,81735,548114
Society Islands3675,8515297,656
Other countries6,09788,2344,17260,544
      Totals2,952,03935,449,9182,749,54035,566,993
Cheese
 Cwt.£Cwt.£
United Kingdom1,826,20412,223,2791,785,15212,832,476
Union of South Africa1,67313,278  
Republic of India7377,4912112,132
British Guiana1441,3101,56712,512
British West Indies3,40727,1994,92044,104
Canada  42,063352,483
Australia82510,1603103,201
Norway9976,6151,2138,955
Germany16,001139,41818,829139,826
Italy2,81628,281  
Belgium8,47156,25511,31280,411
Philippines2,40427,3582653,131
Egypt11,21193,1894,50550,643
United States of America110125,934981,660
Other countries3,86540,5161,52024,223
      Totals1,878,75612,674,3591,997,80114,535,757
Milk (Dried, Condensed, &c.)
 lb.£lb.£
United Kingdom55,759,4532,031,86771,669,9122,588,261
Republic of India6,693,451258,3834,337,234156,247
Pakistan312,78410,37047,5201,697
Malaya and Singapore6,129,984236,9044,433,960186,368
Hong Kong487,04017,6741,303,56046,396
British West Indies602,56023,356656,01024,973
Canada  341,60014,719
Australia281,27410,268501,12019,208
Fiji216,56311,509141,9266,981
Netherlands299,39218,389112,0003,350
Belgium682,25031,0481,619,20051,599
Germany69,7005,028311,10022,443
Italy800,00028,604  
Egypt300,66812,600142,3368,912
Israel812,11737,019  
Syria289,60010,994122,4642,656
Kuwait, Muscat, and Oman585,50021,887  
Siam440,92816,6501,822,50060,912
Burma856,64428,134768,03026,139
Society Islands116,1604,656393,67216,652
Other countries1,297,35850,7762,291,10784,370
      Totals77,033,4262,866,11691,015,2513,321,883
Edible Fats
 Cwt.£Cwt.£
United Kingdom152,959828,181161,380632,580
Republic of India  24,108120,438
Pakistan  1,4387,259
Fiji2,50010,2991,4346,639
Other countries2,3489,9822,66713,454
      Totals157,807848,462191,027780,370
Inedible Fats
 Ton.£Ton.£
United Kingdom18,9921,833,65021,3181,483,062
Fiji11011,405675,286
Other countries 233130,275
      Totals19,1021,845,05721,7161,518,623
Cattle-hides
 Number.£Number.£
United Kingdom18,65953,60281,929312,028
Australia7,75723,43015,58057,060
Sweden8082,7302,69611,443
Finland  2,11014,635
Poland64,175296,24656,574284,124
Germany20,88387,91027,518105,603
Netherlands122,393454,64752,864225,472
Norway2,4129,5037,82532,101
France2,82510,1827,35028,427
Italy19,76369,78311,30035,226
Austria39,492145,24336,736171,507
Bulgaria3,32817,984  
Yugoslavia  7,00041,162
Turkey1,7225,1896,72037,360
Egypt  2,00011,205
Japan20,90882,62936,429203,311
United States of America  3,91111,672
Other countries2,64111,0834,77724,036
      Totals327,7661,270,161363,3191,606,372
Calf-skins
 Number.£Number.£
United Kingdom406,355386,805226,770225,380
Canada36,00045,512114,117141,699
Australia1,9461,71412,37216,722
Belgium1,2001,10017,00026,749
Netherlands409,216380,128126,807176,847
France10,10512,355  
Italy81,67065,68066,750107,385
United States of America153,910156,281300,326291,586
Other countries21,25519,8256,2608,435
      Totals1,121,6571,069,400870,402994,803
Rabbit-skins
United Kingdom2,433,67685,4693,915,244127,522
Canada143,13910,64124,1631,650
Australia85,9063,054  
Netherlands167,6404,414  
Belgium166,3686,761245,50612,178
France141,9609,662129,6088,160
United States of America6,699,130184,6475,603,993197,355
Other countries431,28513,941  
      Totals10,269,104318,5899,918,514346,865
Sheep-skins (with Wool)
 Number.£Number.£
United Kingdom356,575185,829265,667241,175
Canada21,68012,1275,6623,038
Australia1,906592944581
Belgium34,06220,6439,9679,689
France255,84471,209322,101264,712
Germany6,8025,0912,5603,615
Netherlands11,6323,560227375
Italy18,4337,1295,3867,450
United States of America88,39864,17057,94549,668
Other countries160122  
      Totals795,492370,472670,459580,303
Sheep-skins (without Wool)
 Number.£Number.£
United Kingdom3,595,016829,7672,718,5301,197,172
Canada446,48673,832290,59396,231
Australia160,23222,409157,80140,134
Sweden304,53371,78967,79424,407
Belgium134,99037,343161,24187,344
France164,29850,34318,5544,636
Germany  70,43530,043
Italy23,6486,88110,2007,266
Netherlands422,003105,039194,82599,304
Japan121,39331,5171,698778
United States of America11,222,2762,252,44213,092,3544,565,762
Other countries25,2063,7956,6782,782
      Totals16,620,0813,485,15716,790,7036,155,859
Sausage-casings
 lb.£lb.£
United Kingdom3,679,1511,530,9612,386,3541,156,411
Canada838,941295,8401,220,227620,868
Australia489,99838,610346,90124,731
Republic of Ireland14,4006,41034,32919,922
Denmark39,89720,948161,907115,976
Belgium57,30930,946  
Netherlands31,33015,024128,77876,717
Sweden12,1935,04369,03145,152
United States of America261,543100,8971,238,521582,521
Other countries48918831,49518,536
      Totals5,425,2512,044,8675,617,5432,660,834
Peas (Unprepared)
 Cental.£Cental.£
United Kingdom443,040852,778333,925604,757
Union of South Africa6081,3944,5919,066
Australia41,074109,956111,519191,184
Papua46865751,134
Fiji1,5642,6917251,270
Republic of Ireland9092,6297821,387
Denmark1083296721,179
Belgium6,2659,66524,30533,163
France  3361,048
Netherlands5041,376  
Egypt10,47516,764  
United States of America3,9706,06216,35527,911
Other countries4218108281,854
      Totals508,341,004,540494,613873,953
Apples (Fresh)
 lb.£lb.£
United Kingdom16,995,888299,34229,852,160513,886
Hong Kong  80,0001,850
Malaya  256,0005,715
British West Indies  184,0004,485
Canada1,183,24022,1861,127,84021,147
Fiji312,4415,755168,0363,575
Western Samoa48,5241,10430,200683
Belgium1,668,00031,535  
Germany  5,573,160102,755
United States of America1,117,56022,3511,308,44024,533
Other countries31,44670714,740363
      Totals21,357,099382,98038,594,576678,992
Seeds (Grass and Clover)
 Cwt.£Cwt.£
United Kingdom56,860556,84487,1211,253,297
Canada4,04354,8533,14953,020
Australia29,401214,45540,232355,327
Republic of Ireland6,40175,2922,48935,659
Denmark1843,809  
Germany7,49067,8763823,126
Belgium8,42441,9884,43535,542
France4,90828,7782,12610,946
Netherlands7,72390,7196,44867,572
United States of America32,416373,14816,392256,494
Other countries4,14215,6641,34112,647
      Totals161,9921,523,426164,1152,083,630
Timber (Sawn and Hewn)
 Sup. ft.£Sup. ft.£
United Kingdom4,50920821,220828
Australia23,898,499535,46713,979,620340,021
Papua9,871390404,85914,691
Solomon Islands3,78611645,0992,338
Tonga103,8342,98271,6242,315
Western Samoa449,51211,213297,8389,128
New Hebrides101,8213,64917,765539
Other countries20,56871840,9331,697
      Totals24,592,400554,74314,878,958371,557

EXPORTS FOR YEARS ENDED 30th JUNE.—As indicated elsewhere in this section (page 230) farm products account for an extremely high proportion of exports from New Zealand. The farm-production export season fits much more closely to a June year than to a calendar year. The flush of the dairy-production season is spread over the months of October to March, while the whole harvest season, and most of the wool-selling season, occur in the early months of the calendar year. By 30th June, in normal times, the great bulk of the season's farm-produce destined for export is shipped, except held-over wool and a certain amount of dairy-produce and frozen meat kept in cool store to equalize shipments. It is desirable, therefore, for some purposes to tabulate New Zealand exports for years ending in June instead of December, a desideratum which, it may be observed, applies to most countries in the Southern Hemisphere.

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE (QUANTITIES) FOR YEARS ENDED 30TH JUNE

Commodity.1947–48.*1948–49.*1949–50.*1950–51.*

* Provisional.

Buttercwt.2,541,0992,948,9202,963,5302,729,394
Butterfat, dry" 1825,6762,016
Casein"75,802101,09795,987101,682
Cheese"1,664,5211,667,1821,780,1131,921,445
Fish"60,34369,22280,03847,780
Honeylb.90,130180,860478,072598,161
Beef, frozencwt.1,259,5971,099,7381,064,345733,255
Lamb, frozen (whole carcases)"3,714,0863,980,6683,281,1933,380,125
Mutton, frozen (whole carcases)"1,427,3411,428,973997,856963,533
Pork, frozen"217,499193,358167,915172,100
Veal, frozen"156,666163,232159,172156,415
Other frozen meats"392,007384,535449,599332,608
Meats, canned"123,172124,763106,365108,852
Meat-extractlb.837,3441,076,333911,580795,459
Sausage-casings"5,576,7805,388,0585,185,8944,223,777
Milk, preserved"18,054,20026,299,63324,483,41817,421,725
Milk, dried"32,700,23245,904,94757,292,40368,062,110
Apples, fresh"35,697,26623,746,28936,817,35024,578,536
Pears, fresh"883,45517,5906,72811,036
PeasCental559,819456,799449,848383,339
Potatoescwt.38,25224,19629,700152,560
Calf-skinsNo.848,437818,796917,2631,001,584
Cattle-hides"481,875444,122339,719321,033
Rabbit-skins"15,440,86110,788,41911,139,9188,542,612
Opossum-skins"305,252271,056239,592599,926
Sheep-skins, with wool"1,175,420794,103677,388605,359
Sheep-skins, without wool"15,396,12914,045,00218,659,40111,781,654
Woollb. (000)422,582437,419406,758263,723
Linen-flax (fibre and tow)cwt.9,7456,1304,9241,537
Seeds, grass and clover"157,945167,570167,247117,806
Tallowton22,33023,69722,53820,040
Coal"22,50618,66511,5503,016
Kauri-gum"9231,1951,2061,050
Goldoz.90,12345,22175,45670,491
Silver"152,471110,82450,42347,295
Timber, sawnsup. ft.13,054,71228,720,78316,018,72411,519,613
Sugar of milklb.1,378,9163,913,0065,215,1357,188,226

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE (VALUES) FOR YEARS ENDED 30TH JUNE

Commodity.1947–48.*1948–19.*1949–50.*1950–51.*

* Provisional.

† Including commodities not enumerated.

 ££££
Butter31,491,65435,121,67837,041,93037,365,795
Butterfat, dry 2,842111,40839,095
Casein542,518593,204513,913664,794
Cheese12,254,36111,276,93212,561,67514,535,255
Fish436,701479,708577,865447,112
Honey3,2816,87623,39929,014
Beef, frozen4,005,0183,197,7023,034,4802,229,542
Lamb, frozen (whole carcases)19,195,11318,745,74116,038,70917,374,104
Mutton, frozen (whole carcases)3,859,3953,800,5992,905,0572,855,814
Pork, frozen1,248,4621,086,037970,0601,154,163
Veal, frozen521,235395,253479,028493,797
Other frozen meats1,837,8601,479,1931,562,3871,307,575
Meats, canned952,742945,890809,2231,005,019
Meat-extract230,372264,916177,571112,670
Sausage-casings2,115,5681,971,5962,310,4512,363,477
Milk, preserved594,107876,524835,622606,196
Milk, dried1,314,2431,786,9372,212,1932,440,714
Biscuits31,66620,83016,98718,112
Apples, fresh780,386431,352654,111538,263
Pears, fresh21,722466196360
Peas1,194,726967,735838,519692,689
Potatoes34,94339,38829,252119,297
Calf-skins1,194,863828,316897,2541,208,112
Cattle-hides2,098,0881,737,4341,385,1191,661,757
Rabbit-skins977,105659,113304,014348,616
Opossum-skins71,48265,01358,779278,046
Sheep-skins, with wool734,029399,391397,955937,350
Sheep-skins, without wool5,010,6513,675,3405,129,0865,003,467
Other hides and skins116,18788,29484,525210,530
Wool42,849,11447,248,22560,133,566102,995,294
Linen-flax (fibre and tow)79,09852,87640,2947,086
Seeds, grass and clover1,359,6571,680,6201,564,7501,781,032
Tallow2,280,5752,437,6582,447,7091,622,654
Coal64,04555,87442,58713,787
Kauri-gum97,583117,513121,915119,262
Gold940,532401,712860,962838,350
Silver38,02524,66811,23812,748
Machinery and machines249,569298,970163,324137,792
Timber, sawn285,952625,133394,064288,852
Sugar of milk70,002167,179202,057269,579
      Totals145,043,498147,882,392160,871,534206,258,080

RE-EXPORTS.—Until recent years the forwarding trade of New Zealand has never been of great significance. In most years, ships' and international aircraft stores, in which aviation spirit, and bunker and lubricating oils loom largely, make up between a third and a half of the total re-exports. The balance is mainly comprised of various classes of machinery and metal manufactures, motor-spirits, textiles, and cinematograph films. Munitions and war stores comprised the bulk of the large totals for 1943, 1944, and 1945.

There is a genuine entrepôt trade with the islands of the Pacific, the amount of which is, however, comparatively small. Exports to Cook Islands and Niue, which are treated as part of New Zealand, are not included in the figures of either exports or re-exports.

RE-EXPORTS (EXCLUDING SPECIE) FROM NEW ZEALAND

 £

* Provisional.

1930731,111
1931631,454
1932633,532
1933597,168
1934571,554
1935486,648
1936488,135
 £
1937505,322
1938575,657
1939601,286
1940767,597
1941532,477
1942739,063
19431,627,900
 £
19446,105,148
19453,114,747
1946994,612
1947*1,693,080
1948*1,353,636
1949*1,177,960
1950*1,410,357

The destination of this re-export trade is shown in the following table.

Country.1947.*1948.*1949.*1950.*

* Provisional.

 ££££
United Kingdom284,746145,017147,286341,520
Hong Kong41,3037,7192,1883,655
Republic of India4,47716,3062304,193
Pakistan4,193
Canada10,1604,7093,2032,953
Australia350,027378,653259,733243,752
Fiji98,66584,044159,79251,173
Nauru Island27,08427,25320,66110,051
Norfolk Island14,9581,87320,82416,144
Tonga32,62135,80732,10550,242
Western Samoa67,93860,59449,46751,718
France1,200498 15,276
Indonesia125,090  592
United States of America21,16120,08428,91218,660
Society Islands7,26713,9172,6443,792
Tuamotu Archipelago9,91710,59210,8329,839
Other countries42,66741,91330,29140,336
Ships' stores553,799504,657409,792546,461
      Totals (excluding specie)1,693,0801,353,6361,177,9601,410,357

EFFECT OF PRICES ON NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS.—Price fluctuations render the currency aggregates of a country's trade of little value as indicators of movement in the volume of trade—i.e., from a quantity point of view. By taking the average export unit-values of any particular year, and applying to them the quantities exported for any other year, a reliable indication of changes in the volume of exports between those two years is obtained. A computation on the above basis is particularly applicable in the case of New Zealand, as normally approximately 97 per cent. of the exports are treated quantitatively. Even in the war years, with high munition exports being recorded, this percentage did not fall below 90.

Comparisons of movement in the volume of exports are usually made over short periods in New Zealand, and therefore a computation of value of exports on the basis of unit-values of the previous year is of interest not only as indicating the effect of price-changes from year to year, but also in that it gives a reliable indication of year-to-year changes in the volume of exports. By establishing the relationship of the various years with their immediate predecessors link relatives are obtained and the application of these link relatives to a given base year or period gives a series of chain relatives (index numbers) permitting longer term comparisons. Index numbers on the base 1926 (= 100), and computed by the method indicated above, are given in the next table. As explained earlier however, considerable quantities of New Zealand produce supplied to the United States Forces by way of reverse lend-lease during the years 1943–45 were not included in the export figures, and the volume index for those years has been affected accordingly.

Year.Total Exports (New Zealand Produce).Effect of Price Changes.Index Numbers of Volume of Exports (N.Z. Produce).
Recorded Value.Value at Prices of Previous Year.Gain.Loss.

* Provisional.

 £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)1926 (=100)
192644,33954,696 10,357100
192747,57148,094 523109
192854,66049,0915,569 112
192954,17656,465 2,289116
193044,20955,656 11,447119
193134,31944,630 10,311120
193234,97638,128 3,152133
193340,40940,999 590156
193446,77139,0397,732 151
193546,05245,695357 147
193656,26449,1727,092 157
193766,20855,96710,241 157
193857,80162,934 5,133149
193957,44858,703 1,255151
194072,97463,5599,415 167
194166,94765,1421,805 149
194280,54678,5392,007 175
194370,23567,3702,865 147
194471,68268,0973,585 142
194578,51771,5386,979 142
1946100,30894,8165,492 172
1947*127,713106,12221,591 182
1948*146,469132,38614,083 188
1949*146,188153,345 7,157197
1950*182,342140,72641,616 190

The gain or loss shown for individual years represents the increase or decrease in value due to rising or falling prices. The effects of the appreciation (to parity with sterling in August, 1948) and subsequent depreciation (concomitantly with sterling in September, 1949) of New Zealand currency are apparent in the above table. The first mentioned depressed the value of exports in New Zealand currency while the second raised them: the buoyant prices for wool in 1950 (apparent in the next table) reinforced this effect. The comparison of the value figure for each year, calculated on the basis of the prices of the previous year, with the recorded value for the previous year shows the increase or decrease resulting from volume movements between the two years. In the last column these volume movements are linked to give a continuous volume index.

A study of the figures given in the Statistical Summary towards the end of this book, showing quantities and values of the principal commodities exposed over a lengthy period of years, will give a good idea of the relative effects of increased volume and of price-movements in the huge growth of external trade over the period as measured by the total value of exports.

The following comparison between the years ended 30th June, 1950 and 1951, is of interest as showing the influence of altered prices on the value of exports of principal commodities. As mentioned earlier, June years are in many respects preferable to calendar years, as they afford a comparison between one season and another.

Commodity.Twelve Months Ended 30th June, 1950.*Twelve Months Ended 30th June, 1951.*
Recorded Value.Value at Prices of Previous Year.Recorded Value.Value at Prices of Previous Year.

* Provisional.

 £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
Butter37,04235,29637,36634,115
Cheese12,56212,04114,53513,559
Beef, frozen3,0343,0952,2302,088
Lamb, frozen16,03915,45217,37416,522
Mutton, frozen2,9052,6542,8562,805
Pork, frozen9709431,154994
Veal, frozen479385494471
Meats, canned8098061,005828
Sausage-casings2,3101,8982,3631,882
Milk, condensed836815606594
Milk, dried2,2122,2152,4412,469
Peas839953693715
Calf-skins8979241,208981
Cattle-hides1,3851,3711,6621,342
Rabbit-skins304681349233
Sheep-skins with wool398354937341
Sheep-skins, without wool5,1294,8835,0033,239
Wool60,06644,097102,87238,957
Grass and clover seeds1,5651,6761,7811,104
Tallow2,4392,3181,6232,168
Gold861670838804
      Totals of above items153,081133,527199,390126,211

Exports during 1950–51 of the commodities dealt with realized £73,179,000 more than they would have at prices ruling in 1949–50. In 1949–50 the corresponding gain was £19,554,000. In each case the movement in wool prices was the preponderant factor. The aggregate recorded value of the items listed above represents 97 per cent. of the total exports of New Zealand produce for the year ended 30th June, 1951, the corresponding figure for the previous year being 95 per cent.

EXPORTS TO COOK ISLANDS AND NIUE.—Trade with the Cook and associated Pacific Islands is not regarded as external to New Zealand, but merely as interchange between different parts of the country, and it is therefore not included in the account of the external trade. The trade of these islands with other countries is also omitted from New Zealand trade statistics. Separate returns are made of the transactions between New Zealand and these islands, and exports to the islands are summarized below.

Year.Exports.

* Provisional.

 £
194075,445
194175,814
194273,673
1943103,760
194493,229
1945133,012
Year.Exports.
 £
1946166,496
1947*254,461
1948*291,227
1949*278,487
1950*209,983

Further particulars regarding the trade of the Islands will be found in the section of this book dealing with Island Territories.

9 C—IMPORTS

THE statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed at the Customs. The value shown for all merchandise imported is the current domestic value in the country of export at the time of exportation, plus an allowance of 10 per cent. to cover freight, insurance, &c. Import values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency. In Section 9A will be found (in conjunction with export figures) a summary of import totals for recent years, expressed both in New Zealand currency and in sterling, together with a series of index numbers of the volume of import trade and of value, expressed in terms of gold, sterling, and New Zealand currency. Import totals are exclusive of specie, except where the contrary is expressly stated.

IMPORT CONTROL.—A brief discussion of import control appears in Section 9A. A more detailed discussion of this and the licensing system appears in the 1950 and earlier issues of the Year-Book, particularly the 1946 issue on pages 846–849.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS.—A classification of imports under four broad divisions is given in the following table for the last eleven years. As in the case of exports where a similar table is shown, the figures for previous years have been amended to bring them into line with the classification employed by the United Kingdom Board of Trade. Imports by “parcels post” are classified under the several headings instead of being shown as a separate item as in the case of exports. To enable a proper comparison to be made over the period as a whole, imports of direct war materials as covered by the import item “Ordnance stores and military and naval equipment” have been eliminated from the table for the years 1940–45. Taken in conjunction with a table based on the same classification which is given in Section 9B (Exports), the figures show plainly how New Zealand's export trade is derived predominantly from the products of her primary industries, and her import trade consists very largely of manufactured or partly manufactured goods. The effect of the policy of import selection and control introduced towards the end of 1938 is indicated in the low figures for imports of manufactured articles in 1940, but the further decline in 1941 and 1942 was mainly due to inability to secure supplies owing to war conditions. Lend-lease supplies played a large part in the increases shown during 1943 and 1944, but the pent-up demand for consumer goods was only met to any substantial degree in the post-war period. It should be noted, however, that the figures for value cannot be taken as an accurate indication of changes in the volume of imports, as prices have risen very substantially, particularly during the last few years.

Year.Food, Drink, and Tobacco.Raw Materials and Articles Mainly Un-manufactured.Articles Wholly or Mainly Manufactured.Live Animals.Totals.

* Munitions and war stores excluded for these years.

† Provisional.

 £££££
1940*6,461,0002,469,00037,453,00037,00046,420,000
1941*6,083,0002,494,00035,278,00019,00043,874,000
1942*6,884,0001,967,00030,541,00015,00039,407,000
1943*5,740,0002,807,00040,022,00018,00048,588,000
1944*6,987,0002,722,00046,751,00057,00056,516,000
1945*9,120,0002,181,00040,006,00072,00051,379,000
194610,117,0002,763,00058,572,000119,00071,571,000
194715,416,0005,047,000108,170,00091,000128,725,000
194814,280,0005,378,000108,444,00099,000128,201,000
194913,779,0006,485,00099,257,000192,000119,713,000
195019,421,0007,524,000130,783,000168,000157,896,000

The principal groups of commodities normally imported are clothing and textiles, manufactured fibres and yarns, metals and machinery, sugar, tea, fruits (dried and fresh), wheat, alcoholic liquors, tobacco, paper and stationery, oils, motor-vehicles and accessories, chemicals and drugs, fertilizers, and timber. It will be seen from the above table that in most years articles wholly or mainly manufactured account for upwards of 80 per cent. of total merchandise imports. It should not be assumed, however, that items included in this class necessarily compete with New Zealand manufactures. In the first place, a large proportion of imports of manufactured commodities is comprised of goods which cannot be produced economically in New Zealand or products of industries which have never been established in New Zealand. A further point to be taken into consideration is the fact that many imports of manufactured or semi-manufactured goods form the raw material of further factory processes in the country—e.g., piece-goods.

Since 1914 the statistics of both imports and exports have been classified according to the nature of the commodity, the items being assembled in well-defined classes as shown in the following table, covering merchandise imports for the years 1948, 1949, and 1980. In January, 1949, the list of individual trade items within each class recorded for statistical purposes was greatly extended, and the contents of a few of the classes were slightly altered. In this table the content of the classes for 1948 has been altered from that then existing (and published previously) in order to give comparability with the figures for 1949 and 1950.

No.Class.1948.*1949.*1950.*

* Provisional.

  £££
IFoodstuffs of animal origin1,018,193932,2691,073,533
IIFoodstuffs of vegetable origin7,895,9148,186,79212,586,993
IIIBeverages, non-alcoholic, and materials therefor3,231,8432,502,9892,630,877
IVSpirits and alcoholic beverages810,612780,4701,338,464
VTobacco and manufactures thereof1,323,2431,414,9721,827,135
VILive animals, birds, and fish98,627192,172167,506
VIIAnimal substances (mainly un-manufactured) inedible383,979832,806839,679
VIIIVegetable substances and un-manufactured fibres1,769,7441,411,2431,835,931
IXApparel, footwear, and minor articles therefor3,328,1602,327,5773,715,494
XTextile piece goods and drapery20,751,54417,968,06424,439,139
XIManufactured fibres and miscellaneous textile manufactures3,952,4855,615,5436,318,445
XIIOils, greases, waxes, and inedible fats9,678,4338,260,88211,741,492
XIIIPaints, colours, and varnishes922,337750,492947,635
XIVStone, earth, ores, and non-metallic minerals449,333666,901872,075
XVIMetals16,870,53510,660,75611,890,147
XVIIMetal manufactures other than machinery5,384,4737,272,988
XVIIIMachinery21,064,22221,706,23327,586,521
XIXRubber and manufactures n.e.i.872,253817,1401,619,378
XXLeather and manufactures n.e.i.318,925421,982766,409
XXITimber1,169,6141,259,1181,192,417
XXIIWood, cane, and wicker manufactures172,911203,272259,705
XXIIIChinaware, earthenware, glassware, and stoneware2,280,4001,645,9362,329,104
XXIVPaper4,584,7353,020,7104,117,023
XXVStationery and paper manufactures2,356,0942,068,2822,560,602
XXVIFancy goods, jewellery, sporting requisites, and timepieces1,044,7071,010,5481,451,724
XXVIIOptical, surgical, dental, and scientific instruments and materials, photographic goods1,796,4881,522,2712,102,396
XXVIIIChemicals, drugs, and druggists' wares3,419,5653,197,0063,923,721
XXIXManures1,910,9102,151,2713,069,183
XXXVehicles and rubber tires11,669,7529,477,49813,815,900
XXXIMiscellaneous3,055,1343,323,4703,604,435
 Totals, merchandise imports128,200,692119,713,138157,896,051

The next classification presented is that according to the purpose or use of commodities, particulars being given for the years 1945–48. It should be mentioned that the absence of essential information in regard to actual purpose or use of a number of commodities has created certain difficulties, necessitating the employment of arbitrary decisions in some instances. Also, where certain commodities are used for more than one purpose it has not been possible to segregate the portion applicable to each. In such cases the whole import has been assessed according to the principal use of the article or commodity in New Zealand.

Class of Merchandise.1945.1946.1947.*1948.*

* Provisional.

Producers' materials—££££
  Building and construction2,242,0003,337,0004,952,0005,888,000
  Farm1,382,0002,256,0002,529,0002,081,000
Manufacturing—    
  Food5,623,0005,239,0007,113,0007,423,000
  Beverages84,000196,000239,000145,000
  Tobacco1,055,0001,251,0001,109,000869,000
  Textiles (apparel or household goods)10,378,00011,823,00020,655,00018,303,000
  Other8,860,00011,731,00020,467,00022,789,000
  Fuels and lubricants3,357,0003,756,0006,445,0008,505,000
  Auxiliary aids to production1,117,0001,210,0003,474,0003,540,000
Producers' equipment—    
  Farm1,530,0002,120,0002,142,0004,197,000
  Commerce and industry7,001,00010,428,00016,925,00018,072,000
Transport equipment—    
  Railway304,000648,0001,426,0002,089,000
  Road1,596,0005,296,00012,931,00011,347,000
  Other44,00078,000286,000314,000
Consumers' goods—    
  Food1,192,0001,273,0002,374,0002,226,000
  Beverages1,349,0001,802,0003,066,0003,412,000
  Tobacco80,000820,0001,979,000535,000
  Clothing and accessories516,0001,159,0004,718,0002,949,000
  Household equipment1,096,0002,366,0006,826,0006,184,000
  Other2,569,0004,295,0007,804,0006,767,000
  Munitions and war stores3,709,000487,0001,264,000550,000
  Unclassified1,0001,000 15,000
        Totals, merchandise imports5,088,00071,571,000128,725,000128,201,000

In the next table particulars are given of New Zealand's import trade for the years 1945–48 according to the stage of production or degree of manufacture of commodities, the divisions used, following the classification of the former League of Nations, being “crude,” "simply transformed," and “more elaborately transformed.” The inclusion of munitions and war stores during the war years has obscured the position, and in this and the following table these special items have been excluded for the year 1945.

1945.1946.1947.*1948.*

* Provisional.

† Including unclassified items and munitions and war stores except for 1945, from which figures munitions and war stores are excluded.

Producers' materials—££££
  Crude6,086,0006,597,0009,020,0007,939,000
  Simply transformed6,824,0008,938,00012,834,00016,110,000
  More elaborately transformed16,714,00020,298,00035,209,00033,451,000
Fuels and lubricants—    
  Crude980,000934,0001,844,0002,496,000
  Simply transformed2,377,0002,822,0004,601,0006,009,000
  More elaborately transformed    
Auxiliary aids to production—    
  Crude    
  Simply transformed    
  More elaborately transformed1,117,0001,210,0003,474,0003,540,000
Producers' equipment—    
  Crude72,000118,00089,00096,000
  Simply transformed73,00090,00089,000259,000
  More elaborately transformed8,386,00012,340,00018,890,00021,914,000
Transport equipment—    
  Crude    
  Simply transformed122,000226,000576,000502,000
  More elaborately transformed1,821,0005,797,00014,067,00013,248,000
Consumers' goods—    
  Crude1,919,0002,344,0003,783,0003,915,000
  Simply transformed70,00034,000223,000174,000
  More elaborately transformed4,813,0009,337,00022,762,00017,983,000
        Total merchandise imports    
  Crude9,057,0009,993,00014,736,00014,446,000
  Simply transformed9,466,00012,110,00018,322,00023,054,000
  More elaborately transformed32,856,00049,468,00095,667,00090,700,000
        Totals, all merchandise51,379,00071,571,000128,725,000128,201,000

An indication of the changes that have occurred during the same period is contained in the next table, which gives the figures for each of the divisions as percentages of total imports.

1945.1946.1947.*1948.*

* Provisional.

† Including unclassified items and munitions and war stores except for 1945, from which figures munitions and war stores are excluded.

Producers' materials—Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
  Crude11.99.27.06.2
  Simply transformed13.312.510.012.6
  More elaborately transformed32.528.527.326.1
Fuels and lubricants—    
  Crude1.91.31.41.9
  Simply transformed4.63.93.54.7
  More elaborately transformed    
Auxiliary aids to production—    
  Crude    
  Simply transformed    
  More elaborately transformed2.21.72.72.8
Producers' equipment—    
  Crude0.10.20.10.1
  Simply transformed0.10.10.10.2
  More elaborately transformed16.317.714.717.1
Transport equipment—    
  Crude    
  Simply transformed0.20.30.40.4
  More elaborately transformed3.68.110.910.3
Consumers' goods—    
  Crude3.73.33.03.1
  Simply transformed0.20.10.20.1
  More elaborately transformed9.413.117.714.0
        Total merchandise imports    
  Crude17.614.011.511.3
  Simply transformed18.416.914.218.0
  More elaborately transformed64.069.174.370.7
        Totals, all merchandise100.0100.0100.0100.0

The abnormal conditions of 1945 and 1946 are reflected in the high proportions of producers' materials and equipment imported and correspondingly low proportions of consumers' goods. Apart from factors due to the war, however, there is discernible a long-term trend in this direction, indicating a steady growth in New Zealand's manufacturing potential. The policy of import control no doubt gave a definite impetus to this tendency.

The proportion of commodities described as “crude” and “simply transformed” both rose during the war years at the expense of those classified as “more elaborately transformed,” but in recent years the percentage of “crude” items has fallen away to pre-war dimensions.

The “more elaborately transformed” group, after declining during the war years, rose to 74.3 per cent. of the total in 1947, compared with 69.2 per cent. in 1939, but by 1948 had receded almost to the pre-war level.

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE.—The import trade of New Zealand, though spread over more countries than the export trade, is confined mainly to the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States of America, and Canada. For the pre-war years 1938 and 1939 these four countries accounted for 82 and 80 per cent. respectively of the total imports of New Zealand. During the war period, mainly as a result of the severance of trade with Japan, Indonesia, and most European countries, this concentration of New Zealand's imports was even more marked, and in 1946 the percentage was 85. In the following years, mainly because of the resumption of imports from certain European countries, the proportion fell to normal, being 81 per cent. in 1949 and 1950.

In the early years of settlement Australia was the source from which the young colony drew most of its supplies, and for a long period imports from Australia overshadowed imports from the United Kingdom. The proportion of imports from Australia, however, decreased steadily from 60 per cent. in 1862 to 7 per cent. in 1929. For some years prior to the outbreak of war the trend had been upwards, but particularly heavy imports from certain other countries, notably the United States of America, in 1943 and 1944, caused a sharp fall in the Australian percentages for those years. In 1949, 12.8 per cent. of total imports were of Australian origin, amounting in value to approximately four times that of New Zealand exports to Australia.

Imports from the United Kingdom comprised between 60 per cent. and 70 per cent. of total imports during the “eighties” and "nineties"; so that, at that time, the United Kingdom and Australia between them supplied approximately 80 per cent. of the total imports of New Zealand. With the disruption in trading relations during the First World War other countries—notably the United States of America and Japan—increased their share of New Zealand's import trade. This trend was accentuated by the appearance of new industrial products, in which the United States occupied a dominant position, and by severe foreign competition in staple United Kingdom manufactures such as the textile industry. In the circumstances, it is not surprising to find that the proportion of goods of United Kingdom origin included in New Zealand's imports of merchandise fell from about 60 per cent. before the First World War to about 46 per cent. in the late "twenties."

From 1930 onwards there was a definite improvement in the relative position of the United Kingdom in New Zealand's import trade, partly due to New Zealand's tariff policy, in which preference to Commonwealth countries plays an important part. During each of the five years, 1931–35, over 50 per cent. of our imports of merchandise were of United Kingdom origin, this recovery having been made despite the growth in imports from Australia of certain goods—e.g., iron and steel—which were formerly almost entirely imported from the United Kingdom. From 1935, however, the proportion again declined, particularly during the war years, owing to difficulties of supply and abnormal imports of lend-lease material from the United States. With the return to more normal trading conditions in 1946, imports from United Kingdom (£34,186,982) rose to 48 per cent. of the total. Increased imports from Canada and the United States of America during 1947, plus the re-opening of many pre-war continental markets, resulted in the percentage dropping to 43 in 1947, but since then the imperative need to restrict expenditure in non-sterling areas and the increased availability of British goods for export has resulted in the United Kingdom resuming its pre-war position as the supplier of more than half New Zealand's import requirements (60 per cent. in 1950).

The United States of America was sending goods to New Zealand almost from the foundation of the colony, and the share of the imports received from that country steadily increased till in the first decade of the present century it was 11 or 12 per cent. The adoption of Imperial preference seems to have caused a temporary drop in the figure to about 7 per cent., though the proportion maintained a steady increase for several years after the First World War, and, indeed, considerably surpassed its old level. From 1933 to 1940 about one-eighth of the total imports came from the United States of America. The cutting-off of supplies from the United Kingdom and certain other countries owing to the exigencies of war and the necessity of obtaining war materials resulted in imports of United States of America origin showing large increases in the later war years. In 1943 imports from this quarter totalled £34,889,239, or 37 per cent. of the total, as against £32,615,873 from the United Kingdom. However, with the decline in munitions and lend-lease supplies, imports from the United States of America fell to £11,744,688 in 1946, 16 per cent. of the total, but rose again in 1947 to £23,329,104, 18 per cent. of the total. Both these percentages are well above those of the immediate pre-war years. In 1948, 1949, and 1950 the acute shortage of dollar exchange imposed, of necessity, a drastic restriction in imports of United States of America origin, which fell progressively to 11, 10, and 7 per cent. of the total.

Imports of Canadian origin gradually rose to 10 per cent. of the total (in 1929), but fell during the depression period to 4.5 per cent. (in 1932). By 1939 the proportion had risen to 9 per cent., but a very irregular movement prevailed during the war years, the 1943 figures reaching the high proportion of 12 per cent. Imports from Canada, as a “hard” currency area, fell to a marked degree during 1948, 1949, and 1950, the percentages of total imports being 5, 4, and 2.

It should be noted that the nomenclature used in the following tables in regard to countries of origin of imports refers generally to status and territories in the years indicated and not necessarily to the present position.

The table which follows shows imports during the last eleven years from the United Kingdom, other British Commonwealth countries, and other countries.

Year.Country of Shipment.Country of Origin.Total Merchandise Imports.
United Kingdom.Other British Commonwealth Countries.Other Countries.United Kingdom.Other British Commonwealth Countries.Other Countries.

* Provisional.

 £££££££
194023,111,97415,105,58010,780,11522,945,38614,760,75311,291,53048,997,669
194121,045,40715,947,95412,173,64921,179,81315,433,04512,554,15249,167,010
194220,072,32217,028,60416,755,08620,156,85116,505,55617,193,60553,856,012
194332,606,53226,419,80436,215,99432,615,87326,230,46136,395,99695,242,330
194434,926,90920,782,35430,687,94934,883,15520,556,19830,957,85986,397,212
194519,712,41318,642,81416,732,95319,842,89118,312,94616,932,34355,088,180
194634,167,30721,155,59416,248,43534,186,98220,830,94516,553,40671,571,333
1947*55,387,51738,658,09434,679,23055,038,98538,236,40735,449,449128,724,841
1948*67,421,28334,266,10326,513,30667,088,57733,795,09327,317,022128,200,692
1949*66,585,73530,727,61322,404,79065,998,92629,611,99424,102,218119,713,138
1950*95,700,00035,100,00027,100,00094,896,59133,904,77029,694,690157,896,051

The next table shows in more detail the principal countries from which New Zealand draws its imports, figures on the basis of country of origin being given for the years 1947 to 1950.

Country.1947.*1948.*1949.*1950.*

* Provisional.

British Commonwealth of Nations, Protected States, and Trust Territories££££
United Kingdom55,038,98567,088,57765,998,92694,896,591
Europe—    
  Eire53,03618,947  
  Other1,5548464935,658
Asia—    
  British Borneo244,4771,228,685948,8011,396,745
  Burma3,774   
  Ceylon1,949,3112,319,9951,689,8811,984,772
  Hong Kong71,98262,72773,429152,546
  Republic of India4,710,5213,558,4173,055,7552,231,233
  Pakistan16,89731,882
  Malaya and Singapore502,880778,880899,3921,459,438
  Palestine148,0802,345  
  Other7,3642,454763946
Africa—    
  British West Africa423,202636,979591,415610,772
  Kenya and Uganda78,282128,04826,696122,141
  Rhodesia46,16046,86131,50726,696
  Seychelles41667,42238,9421,701
  Tanganyika Territory36,821104,85730,809112,429
  Union of South Africa498,685725,818476,8021,001,456
  Other8,58410,0836,74224,693
America—    
  British West Indies170,370198,763230,831281,078
  Canada11,609,4606,897,8324,635,8403,566,477
  Newfoundland23,50415,745
  Other7,0152,5385554,464
Pacific—    
  Australia14,942,15414,194,17215,314,83019,029,780
  Fiji2,176,5212,208,671925,4041,118,887
  Gilbert and Ellice Islands57,49621,60561,76591,936
  Nauru Island78,229260,798260,373256,100
  Tonga31,63635,92821,25530,748
  Western Samoa332,836234,686221,702304,034
  Other22,05730,99151,11558,158
      Totals, British Commonwealth countries93,275,392100,883,67095,610,920128,801,361
Country.1947.*1948.*1949.*1950.*

* Provisional.

† For 1947 and 1948 figures see "British Commonwealth Countries."

Other Countries    
Europe—££££
  Austria2,39730,85914,02069,245
  Belgium2,440,2471,532,4101,853,2051,097,168
  Czechoslovakia185,173464,715128,958131,167
  Denmark28,88442,99247,55088,176
  Finland398,005256,37343,215107,620
  France874,399937,466406,3671,222,782
  Germany23,23093,982339,899214,143
  Republic of Ireland8,06015,535
  Italy418,268292,307170,131267,293
  Luxemburg2,40216,851112,16251,474
  Netherlands611,476365,152282,689604,461
  Norway312,954477,102396,186612,799
  Portugal130,26981,12362,36096,431
  Russia (U.S.S.R.)24,26135,63465,84683,065
  Spain80,82347,60526,78035,372
  Sweden1,148,4001,527,272667,0491,233,761
  Switzerland558,374456,601367,473392,811
  Other5,40116,14615,56610,645
Asia—    
  Bahrein Islands1,089,0391,285,3551,512,8981,674,147
  Burma 11,9551,02868,530
  China233,368226,794221,962295,548
  Iran1,883,0982,099,6321,789,0993,654,102
  Iraq68,69692,10699,613173,830
  Israel88 
  Japan6,10559,157353,523477,379
  Indonesia28,1791,577,0102,314,3503,359,166
  Siam19,4083,74571338,244
  Turkey48,94451,11441,47685,665
  Other26,161112,715145,42136,444
Africa—    
  Algeria66,52351,199879
  Belgian Congo19,88520,8124,35911,834
  Egypt98,38697,32312,07698,124
  Morocco148,60482,29912,93222,667
  Portuguese East Africa 108,59715,17115,581
  Tunisia22,53894,13888,957429,563
  Other1,19885814,96023,965
America—    
  Argentina22,1446,4726322,431
  Brazil74,89931,14750,09792,587
  Chile69,54544,54650,21472,740
  Dominican Republic1,747324569297
  Peru21,66226610748
  United States of America23,329,10413,822,43411,511,67611,460,505
  Uruguay86,592233,661177,52526,136
  Other60,9497,38917,41043,598
Pacific—    
  Tuamotu Archipelago766,210564,566651,027586,684
  Other11,5028,2525,1179,348
      Totals, other countries35,449,44927,317,02224,102,21829,094,690
      Totals, all countries128,724,841128,200,692119,713,138157,896,051

The following table shows for the last eleven years the percentage of total imports (excluding specie) received from each of the principal countries trading with New Zealand.

IMPORTS (COUNTRY OF ORIGIN)

Country.1940.1941.1942.1943.1944.1945.1946.1947.*1948.*1949.*1950.*

* Provisional.

 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per CentPer Cent.
United Kingdom46.8343.0837.4334.2440.3836.0247.7742.7652.3355.1360.10
Ceylon1.942.874.230.500.991.582.041.511.811.411.26
Republic of India2.922.763.383.073.784.792.963.662.782.551.41
Pakistan0.010.02
Malaya and Singapore0.840.880.10   0.030.390.610.750.92
Union of South Africa0.240.270.390.100.100.450.310.390.570.400.63
Canada5.896.234.3612.085.909.256.519.025.383.872.26
Australia15.9616.3215.1210.6711.9015.1114.5611.6111.0712.7912.05
Fiji0.120.272.280.630.580.951.751.691.720.770.71
Other British Commonwealth countries2.211.790.780.550.541.110.941.432.422.192.21
Totals, British Commonwealth countries76.9574.4768.0761.7964.1769.2676.8772.4678.6979.8781.57
Belgium0.830.04    0.341.901.201.550.69
France0.330.03    0.100.670.730.340.77
Germany0.100.020.01    0.020.070.280.14
Sweden0.420.04 0.02 0.230.700.891.190.560.78
Bahrein Islands0.75     0.610.851.001.261.06
Iran 0.270.05 0.140.500.641.461.641.492.31
Japan1.650.440.02     0.050.300.30
Indonesia4.484.210.850.01  0.010.021.231.932.13
Netherlands Antilles 0.370.75 0.781.050.41    
Peru  1.220.751.533.011.240.02   
United States of America12.4418.5827.8036.6332.2323.7216.4118.1210.789.627.26
Tuamotu Archipelago 0.300.500.400.451.131.130.600.440.540.37
Other countries2.051.230.730.400.701.101.542.992.982.262.62
Totals, other countries23.0525.5331.9338.2135.8330.7423.1327.5421.3120.1318.43

It will be seen that the great bulk of New Zealand's imports of merchandise are of British origin, the proportion of total imports derived from British countries in normal times being approximately 75 per cent. although for reasons already outlined this proportion fell during the war years. Compared with pre-war years, however, most British Commonwealth countries have increased their share of the New Zealand import market.

The proportion of total imports supplied from sources outside the Commonwealth has decreased appreciably during the last three years.

Origin of Principal Imports.—The table which follows shows by main countries of origin details of the principal imports into New Zealand for the years 1947–50.

Country of Origin.1947.*1948.*1949.*1950.*

* Provisional.

 ££££
Egg-pulp
Australia437,373435,362379,063296,028
Other countries2,03151 74
      Totals439,404435,413379,063296,102
Fruits (Dried)
Union of South Africa26,87595,64970,555217,510
Australia490,999563,265632,904505,736
Iraq67,53291,43199,465173,830
Turkey33,54531,80913,93048,908
United States of America447,03331,08071,067112
Other countries44,68934,57073610,360
      Totals1,110,673847,804888,657956,456
 ££££
Fruits (Fresh)
British West Indies26,24555,228129,94253,970
Australia348,198318,518391,887355,285
Fiji57,76362,60854,89658,713
Tonga26,54924,13816,17723,329
Western Samoa41,09146,35528,13745,490
Other countries11428841,462
      Totals499,960506,875621,123538,249
Wheat
Australia2,092,7982,118,2182,428,3924,301,467
Other countries  80 
      Totals2,092,7982,118,2182,428,4724,301,467
United Kingdom 9,635293,983550,423
Australia337,9880,6081,345,7092,456,733
Fiji2,004,3112,051,434695,698949,369
United States of America162,96357,62318,34410,237
Netherlands11,31162,10710,69326,381
Other countries21,682646163218
      Totals2,538,2203,062,0532,364,5903,993,361
Tea
Ceylon1,896,1492,261,7551,621,4711,855,258
Republic of India207,254355,123158,955186,526
Pakistan  
China1,2021,88610,69814,213
Other countries18391376
      Totals2,104,6232,618,8031,791,2612,056,003
Tobacco and Preparations Thereof
United Kingdom1,232,060398,621222,296422,806
Union of South Africa16,2733,024199 
Canada532,28382,381256 
Australia23 1,4803
United States of America1,064,674831,3101,189,3921,397,831
Other countries8,7377,3741,3496,495
      Totals2,854,0501,322,7101,414,9721,827,135
Spirits (Beverages)
United Kingdom356,970349,089336,098514,462
Union of South Africa19,16814,07018,13427,288
British West Indies18,18311,89626,25560,140
Canada58,1992,5721,3453,420
Australia171,029163,780126,771241,108
France34,19744,33473,571200,886
Netherlands18,21419,85316,03737,902
Other countries8,7537,8616,49212,867
      Totals684,713613,455604,7031,098,073
Hosiery
United Kingdom870,270560,603632,7001,137,517
Canada52,6403,69731
Australia96,8996,9931931,224
Czechoslovakia53,8491,211128 
Italy37,7092,969198 
United States of America412,7512,35072624
Other countries20,4934,202229
      Totals1,544,611582,025633,9701,138,775
Hats, Caps, and Millinery
United Kingdom343,807253,084237,041323,794
Canada124,17362,8067,8882,512
Australia25,47415,26812,25423,338
Czechoslovakia2,0214,2569,94710,703
France6111,0112446,921
Italy12,09913,85620,92140,336
Switzerland43,39321,15020,05140,791
China10,75832,36027,52219,699
Indonesia 2,2226,7832,666
Japan 51574,693
Ecuador9,6159095,1825,953
United States of America5,8542,2572,2031,133
Other countries2,6858,4608,53711,058
      Totals580,490417,644358,730493,597
Miscellaneous Apparel and Ready-made Clothing
United Kingdom1,426,533957,020897,2561,342,572
Republic of India1892157,7467,672
Pakistan  
Canada10,1702,6711,393362
Australia82,61033,51541,69064,207
Belgium3,2241,6125052
Italy23,94815,00645671
United States of America15,1479,34238,79032,647
Other countries8,9127,0042,80111,496
      Totals1,570,7331,026,385989,7711,459,579
Footwear
United Kingdom179,068346,356156,555270,306
Hong Kong4,43610,540193,860
Republic of India19,55534,8928834,085
Pakistan  
Rhodesia28,94913,789405 
Canada379,762205,62518,46815,611
Australia2,38514,4351,0962,422
Other countries12,80215,8952,5873,552
      Totals626,957641,532180,013299,836
Made-up Textiles
United Kingdom516,532954,8121,523,8501,982,151
Hong Kong  8715,588
Republic of India24,45249,27423,97111,986
Pakistan  
Canada13,0507,6301,40320
Australia11010475,09088,372
Belgium149,234112,3666129
Czechoslovakia16,4218,64177 
Netherlands15,26219,329978473
China371415,81210,806
Japan106019,3822,638
United States of America16,85311,229160661
Other countries9,2319,7477212,742
      Totals761,1921,173,3331,652,1432,115,446
Floor-coverings
United Kingdom1,376,2891,862,8151,382,5082,290,442
Hong Kong16,1342,7512,8403,760
Republic of India259,55851,69530,83037,586
Pakistan  
Canada30,23520,7381,14746
Belgium465,07179,0995,1812,499
France23,538   
United States of America57,37332,189799349
Other countries14,80614,2551,6915,697
      Totals2,243,0042,063,5421,424,9962,340,379
Cotton, Linen, and Canvas Piece-goods
United Kingdom4,691,2195,652,3877,048,6808,204,270
Canada259,020202,49242,53054,851
Australia4,4031,3083,70042,117
Republic of India275,555215,824496,168657,726
Pakistan  
Belgium232,29459,91370,03882,897
France22,40517,2708,43416,448
Netherlands147,82524,8218,26421,520
Switzerland55,71215,8362,5304,213
Japan3163690,78424,285
United States of America1,074,374381,17422,073 
Other countries30,05937,37444,68329,259
      Totals6,792,8976,609,0357,837,8849,137,586
Silk, Rayon, and Synthetic Piece-goods
United Kingdom3,118,8073,277,2143,457,9035,224,853
Canada487,72649,2534,038189
Australia5064527,464151,851
Belgium29,92418,2535,5423,374
Czechoslovakia11,8019,5479,99812,433
France222,31976,19721,65396,122
Italy152,63151,46450,212117,069
Netherlands35,2842,8799242,400
Switzerland44,89524,3905,4751,331
Japan545310128,351233,881
United States of America1,053,45796,27710,9847,396
Other countries3,7997,0421,5174,196
      Totals5,161,2383,613,4713,724,0615,855,095
Woollen Piece-goods
United Kingdom1,793,7683,328,2993,050,5625,025,976
Australia636,474372,985194,108148,791
Belgium132,112110,4182,1662,415
Czechoslovakia13,08628,852  
France25,62020,6123973
Italy46,71333,663 80
Netherlands15,1441,496  
United States of America34,955 175
Other countries69,82611,2341,7951,226
      Totals2,767,6983,907,5593,249,0455,178,496
Bags and Sacks
Republic of India2,173,0621,418,1051,460,327520,698
Pakistan1,460,327520,698
Australia5,9352,776141,377199,179
Other countries58037,79412,9648,584
      Totals2,179,5771,458,6751,614,668728,461
Years
United Kingdom821,4901,681,3541,494,2292,078,128
Republic of India3,846 2,4234,398
Pakistan  
Tanganyika   20,213
Canada192922,16911,092
Australia502,880410,259229,733327,603
Italy22,4316,3261,905 
United States of America204,38932,69310,1481
Other countries17,63759,87810,49114,380
      Totals1,572,6922,189,8491,771,0982,455,815
Motor-spirits
British Borneo103,462689,502836,9201,186,283
Malaya and Singapore  113,2731
Bahrein Islands924,6201,088,3011,376,7171,499,536
Iran1,052,5841,102,9271,177,6251,874,561
Indonesia 665,6231,348,2531,805,197
Saudi Arabia  103,580 
United States of America1,099,464662,858208,9563,842
Other countries59190953472
      Totals3,180,1894,209,4015,166,2776,369,892
Other Fuel Oils
British Borneo113,828453,18778,475135,394
Malaya and Singapore  41,22338,506
Australia309,131 1 
Bahrein Islands164,419196,984109,012169,479
Iran725,694822,457517,2331,653,650
Indonesia 943,117603,5471,061,900
Saudi Arabia  15,5587,827
Peru19,758   
United States of America335,044119,45329,768952
Other countries  55001
      Totals1,667,8742,535,1981,394,8723,077,809
Mineral Lubricating Oils and Greases
United Kingdom10,54518,17012,81733,074
Australia7,66511,2681,58522,037
Iran1,9103,50312,54911,304
United States of America1,098,1751,225,885605,1271,166,603
Other countries402947442,588
      Totals1,118,6971,258,920632,8221,235,6
Paints and Varnishes
United Kingdom312,569535,228543,416693,864
Union of South Africa7,05427,97418,23197
Canada43,473107,22317,2206,151
Australia99,950110,20996,260130,334
Belgium12,24637,6973,873120
Netherlands11,8269,18420,8727,192
United States of America151,07290,69642,841104,818
Other countries30114,3287,7795,059
      Totals638,491932,539750,492947,635
Iron and Steel—Bar, Bolt, and Rod
United Kingdom98,695211,419676,611980,520
Canada23,4629,95016,6128,251
Australia346,980267,989161,259208,536
Belgium1,810143,926368,35134,405
Luxemburg1,05116,16747,2821,727
United States of America971907154,828120,927
Other countries  39,2111,034
      Totals472,969650,3581,464,1541,355,400
Iron and Steel—Plate and Sheet
United Kingdom992,0761,469,6031,895,3632,045,188
Australia261,785266,052180,333220,989
Belgium4503,26859,4898,873
United States of America579,374515,014436,537252,008
Other countries146824,8774,414
      Totals1,833,8312,254,0192,576,5992,531,472
Iron and Steel—Tubes, Pipes, and Fittings
United Kingdom257,412504,534561,584814,156
Canada77,08561,973129,869337,580
Australia364,192435,611267,870296,282
France   167,739
United States of America11,3591,017174,44434,958
Other countries  7,2386,467
      Totals710,0481,003,1351,141,0051,657,182
Artificers' Tools
United Kingdom423,652549,553515,735791,433
Canada139,222142,019116,365172,612
Australia201,773172,221148,332193,534
Germany  526972
Sweden11,85918,77913,7349,825
United States of America263,150114,78773,18979,910
Other countries3,3507,1764,8476,386
      Totals1,043,0061,004,535872,7271,254,672
Fending-wire—Plain and Barbed
United Kingdom43,40285,57992,546261,149
Australia107 3892.438
Belgium7,202187,050540,8482
Czechoslovakia3,6942,70024,2586,673
France  4,81358,170
Germany 12,201228,995 
United States of America45,08291,242118,90345,778
Other countries10 5,667 
      Totals99,497378,7721,016,419374,210
Iron Wire (other than fencing)
United Kingdom222,711303,692351,394672,699
Canada 6,896993228
Australia119,80995,87464,801101,834
Belgium 151,691122,0142,632
Czechoslovakia18,050295,66652,34736,559
Germany  15,0774.220
United States of America50,873101,530146,042137,297
Other countries26513,1233,4697,912
      Totals411,708968,472756,137963,381
Railway and Tramway Plant
United Kingdom1,077,6631,524,439981,3062,037,999
Australia66,18058,70746,83144,795
United States of America22,42523,79560,48117,816
Other countries3068307 
      Totals1,166,5741,606,9491,088,9252,100,610
Agricultural Machinery
United Kingdom131,208330,242508,538758,702
Canada62,71957,46645,44230,697
Australia113,949142,337136,528216,538
Sweden7311,0954,09927,482
United States of America342,243334,464380,753720,932
Other countries9262,97897914,677
      Totals651,776868,5821,076,3391,775,028
Dairying Machinery
United Kingdom67,74392,150210,358197,744
Australia31,43921,13436,68532,972
Denmark7,5147,9083,4653,260
Germany 19710,79513,233
Sweden76,55454,89359,85165,693
United States of America44,85031,91710,6587,387
Other countries3249,9292,5257,646
      Totals228,424218,128334,337327,935
Electrical Machinery and Equipment (including Telephones and Accessories)
United Kingdom3,937,6775,516,9085,991,0397,163,358
Hong Kong37,18419,04920,23135,887
Republic of India20,4735,762883982
Pakistan883982
Canada825,376337,204211,888255,091
Australia285,807314,272319,119378,706
Belgium13,28449,43154,656190,677
Netherlands41,61063,84552,40470,441
Sweden32,66167,08585,80293,756
United States of America1,469,450839,008290,577253,780
Other countries6,3226,06513,29128,201
      Totals6,669,8447,218,6297,039,8908,470,879
Gas and Oil Engines
United Kingdom244,155334,918491,620691,845
Canada67,12019,86159,739145,373
Australia29,99530,30241,63346,875
United States of America431,491150,256335,807366,659
Other countries2,8126,5411,5692,502
      Totals775,573541,878930,3681,253,254
Wireless Apparatus
United Kingdom131,646142,187222,854349,708
Australia63,126106,424182,197124,624
Netherlands3,67147,74725,72456,576
United States of America273,52586,66331,16822,714
Other countries8,9913,3412,212130
      Totals480,959386,362464,155553,752
Traders (including Parts)
United Kingdom201,6521,676,0141,677,0962,894,542
Canada1,97621,72942,75645,868
Australia96,81168,23343,21965,503
Germany  79536,938
United States of America990,7541,192,9161,563,5271,663,446
Other countries4664334609,070
      Totals1,291,0592,959,3253,327,8534,715,367
Metal, and Wood Working Machines, and Tools
United Kingdom719,608877,517747,678995,789
Canada70,68249,39714,65221,372
Australia231,732207,350193,595237,584
Sweden11,53323,46118,05786,498
United States of America385,410225,181173,644163,468
Other countries9,07511,60517,17117,163
      Totals1,428,0401,394,5111,164,7971,521,874
Leather and Leather Goods (excluding Footwear)
United Kingdom294,578251,273263,288622,949
Republic of India8,48815,60028,61142,251
Pakistan28,61142,251
Canada27,74518,69735,3319,651
Australia95,01328,55662,34775,218
United States of America284,10028,29723,9013,489
Other countries18,98811,6338,33212,851
      Totals728,912354,056421,810766,409
Race Rubber and Manufactures (other than Tires)
United Kingdom308,129340,697359,879471,556
Ceylon16,47415,66511,95934,401
Malaya and Singapore300,486309,714337,7451,011,808
Canada155,82280,81625,20415,851
Australia71,78067,27552,23752,621
Sweden1433737610,429
United States of America101,42349,62328,96521,190
Other countries15,7876,446781,522
      Totals970,044870,273816,4431,619,378
Timber
Canada552,727243,725382,220281,466
British West Africa 7314,78514,370
Australia366,120721,593643,454634,622
Sweden 1,4082,08616,840
Japan 19,03871,992170,803
United States of America127,845106,848144,59462,258
Other countries13,38117,0609,98712,058
      Totals1,060,0731,110,4031,259,1181,192,417
Table Earthenware and Chinaware
United Kingdom814,792758,465524,560804,901
Japan449477111
Other countries1,8941,4001,9661,324
      Totals817,135760,342526,527806,236
Glass and Glassware
United Kingdom639,448788,373602,936818,524
Canada47,60519,19942,08938,501
Australia175,830142,290103,885149,792
Belgium103,651107,97520,97431,031
Czechoslovakia21,52622,0616,8739,936
United States of America59,23631,50127,73224,730
Other countries4,53820,0293,6243,489
      Totals1,051,8341,131,428808,1131,076,003
Printing-paper
United Kingdom266,052330,991312,114776,454
Canada1,408,1961,114,3101,001,111826,751
Newfoundland21,35915,412
Czechoslovakia17,68131,287835342
Finland37,72128,6937561,600
Norway49,400105,58260,10876,833
Netherlands84,0459,7762,4011,443
Sweden29,28370,28717,32849,207
United States of America350,846105,9669,6706,764
Other countries14,10836,5562,485 
      Totals2,278,6911,848,8601,406,8081,739,394
Paper, other than Printing
United Kingdom781,874826,886767,5731,098,314
Canada591,897320,059172,671194,092
Australia90,56252,61549,50763,735
Finland244,89984,67720,15833,408
France57,05536,5289,78020,042
Netherlands22,50511,8315,582 
Norway204,100151,869102,697113,943
Sweden353,185254,942139,101225,428
United States of America300,82759,87120,40546,157
Other countries38,84266,94012,73816,844
      Totals2,745,7461,866,2181,300,2121,811,963
Books, Papers, and Music
United Kingdom806,434865,723927,5081,171,518
Australia459,802369,443392,396463,485
United States of America262,469126,603144,728141,109
Other countries11,66313,46813,91623,954
      Totals1,540,3681,375,2371,478,5481,800,066
Miscellaneous Stationery and Paper Manufactures
United Kingdom520,339476,305499,273624,335
Canada46,14914,2761,9963,264
Australia78,12572,11668,202103,999
France212,575386,1507412,317
United States of America37,72629,85217,28119,371
Other countries7,4322,1582,2417,260
      Totals902,346980,857589,734760,546
Timepieces
United Kingdom104,74799,052132,552238,439
Canada27,036  731
Australia2,479 20,26162,008
France3,5318,25213,22224,421
Switzerland259,419199,705171,977204,477
United States of America10,2909,9205,8033,176
Other countries231125181,060
      Totals407,733317,054343,833534,312
Manures (including Raw Sulphur)
United Kingdom78,67170,71651,757170,632
Palestine115,228   
Seychelles 67,32038,9421,701
Canada13,29834,33335,15320,178
Gilbert and Ellice Islands51,41121,60561,76291,925
Nauru Island84,265260,790260,071256,100
Belgium188,000142,904355,031596,099
France15,58156,037146,218302,510
Netherlands   12,283
Algeria66,523   
Egypt45,99153,23111,98197,760
Morocco132,66079,35312,27221,430
Tunisia22,53881,63888,501425,303
Chile68,20843,76047,55358,940
Tuamotu Archipelago766,210554,123651,027586,684
United States of America706,099444,754381,750421,154
Other countries5963469,2536,484
      Totals2,355,2791,910,9102,151,2713,069,183
Parts of Motor-vehicles
United Kingdom452,600831,993525,646884,448
Canada197,795216,134104,519205,658
Australia115,499128,376120,829163,776
United States of America386,030330,437264,637382,022
Other countries3,2385,5562,7832,632
      Totals1,155,1621,512,4961,018,4141.638,536
Motor-cars
United Kingdom4,308,8423,385,5862,724,2454,679,428
Canada1,286,958359,376413,26713,092
United States of America352,53737,69341,63227,138
Other countries6891321,2082,914
      Totals5,949,0263,782,7873,180,3524,722,572
Motor Lorries, Trucks, Vans, and Buses
United Kingdom1,071,2051,805,6581,986,7812,532,045
Australia1001,7405,7082,077
Canada1,091,232535,062275,21552,175
United States of America345,208309,830104,38212,867
      Totals2,507,7452,652,2902,372,0862,599,164
Tires and Tubes for Motor-vehicles and Motor-cycles
United Kingdom818,2571,561,118479.401515,670
Republic of India131,640110,27927,137 
Pakistan27,137 
Union of South Africa22,309337,42755029,004
Canada387,806340,72122,54911,499
Australia686,70744,6931401,746
Italy 94,75726,869 
United States of America328,412139,58718,92023,273
Other countries9926,12277 
      Totals2,375,2302,654,704575,643581,192

IMPORTS FROM COOK AND ASSOCIATED ISLANDS.—Trade with the Cook and associated islands is not included in the export and import totals for New Zealand, but is shown separately in official publications. The following table shows imports into New Zealand from the group. Further particulars of the trade of the islands will be found in the section dealing with Island Territories.

Year.Imports.

* Provisional.

 £
194090,292
194186,073
194267,562
194388,859
194497,980
194589,055
Year.Imports.
 £
1946124,644
1947*129,177
1948*185,408
1949*188,445
1950*177,875

The principal articles imported into New Zealand from the Cook and associated islands are as follows:—

Item.1947.*1948.*1949.*1950.*

* Provisional.

Fruits, fresh—££££
  Bananas312161,5171,468
  Oranges19,30313,71021,52210,778
  Tomatoes12,30734,62111,4219,634
  Other2,9169756,1182,692
Copra50,64495,28289,858100,726
Apparel7,31113,01323,98327,045
Cinematograph films (reimports)4,3252,9852,5952,817
Arrowroot4,9555,1649141,037
Hats and caps7,5769,9821,504 
Wickerware3,9781,5944,0294,335
All other items15,5308,06624,98417,343

9 D—CUSTOMS TARIFF AND REVENUE

THE TARIFF.—The rates of Customs and excise duty in force in New Zealand are set The Customs Tariff of New Zealand," published

Customs tariff of New Zealand, setting forth changes from earliest times to 1930, will number of the Year-Book. Considerations of space preclude a detailed account of the rates of duty now levied on goods imported into New Zealand, and only a brief survey of the nature of the tariff and of developments since 1930 can be given here.

The basis of Customs taxation is principally ad valorem, but specific duties are applied to some lines, including several of the principal revenue items such as alcoholic beverages, tobacco, tea, sugar, and motor-spirits.

As the rates of duty on goods vary according to their country of origin as well as their classification, the form of tariff, is “multi-column,” listing rates of duty under the British Preferential Tariff, agreements with certain Commonwealth countries, the Most-favoured-nation Tariff (under which goods from all countries adhering to the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs are admitted), and the General Tariff.

Briefly the Customs tariff, apart from the obtaining of revenue, has for its objects the following:—

  1. The development of New Zealand industries.

  2. The maintenance and extension of markets for New Zealand produce.

  3. The encouragement of intra-Commonwealth trade.

Under the Ottawa Agreement of 1932, New Zealand, in common with the other Commonwealth countries, was committed to hold an inquiry into the tariff and, if necessary, to revise it in accordance with certain explicitly stated principles. New Zealand undertook to afford protection against United Kingdom products only to those New Zealand industries which were reasonably assured of sound opportunities for success, and to grant protection only to such an extent as would enable the United Kingdom producer to compete on the basis of the relative cost of economical and efficient production.

As a result of the Ottawa Conference, dutiable goods, the produce of the United Kingdom or of any British Commonwealth country except Canada (including Newfoundland), the Union of South Africa, the Republic of Ireland, India and Pakistan, were exempted from the surtax on duty previously payable. Reductions were made in the rates of duty charged on confectionery, apparel, hosiery, and silk and artificial silk piece-goods, and an additional preference to British Commonwealth countries was granted by the imposition of a duty or an increase in the existing rate on foreign cocoabeans, raw coffee, cigars, rum, asphalt and bitumen, certain unground spices, and paper.

A Tariff Commission was set up in 1933 to inquire into the Customs tariff and to recommend for the consideration of the Government any alterations therein with a view to implementing the agreement made at Ottawa, and having regard, inter alia, to the financial, economic, and industrial conditions in New Zealand.

The revision which followed the report of this Commission was the last complete revision of the tariff undertaken and the resultant new Tariff, enacted by the Customs Acts Amendment Act 1934, is in the main still in operation, although extended in its scope by subsequent trade treaties. Some of the principal alterations made in the British preferential rates at that time were listed in the 1946 and earlier issues of the Year-Book.

This tariff retained the surtax payable since 1930 on foreign goods and some goods of British origin, of nine-fortieths of the duty in some cases but one-twentieth in the case of a few lines, notably spirits, tobacco, timber, sugar, and motor-spirits. Surtax is not payable in respect of goods qualifying for entry as the produce of the United Kingdom or any British Commonwealth country except Canada (including Newfoundland), the Union of South Africa, the Republic of Ireland, India, and Pakistan. The primage duty of 3 per cent, from 31st July, 1931, on most goods not otherwise dutiable also remained but the list of exemptions from primage has subsequently been extended.

The following is a list of the principal items which, regardless of their country of origin, are entirely free of duty or subject to primage only:—

Live animals; barley (if to be used as stock-food); bran; pollard; seeds; vegetable butters or fats; currants; dates; figs; prunes; glucose and caramel; nuts, except walnuts; rice; acids, other than acetic; inorganic salts of metallic elements, and many other drugs and chemicals; certain surgical appliances; bags and sacks of jute, &c.; woolpacks; raw cotton; hatmakers' materials; buttons; needles and pins; wadding; cotton piece-goods for meat-wraps and cheese-bandages; umbrella-makers' materials; upholsterers' materials; coir, flax, and jute yarns; grindery; leather made from goat and kid skins; patent leathers; bricks, other than firebricks; marble in the rough; grindstones and whetstones; cinema films (subject however to film-hire tax); book-binders' materials; cardboard and similar boards; parchment and greaseproof paper; printed books, papers, and music; beekeepers' apparatus; percussion caps, detonators, and explosives; hay-rakes, reapers and binders, mowers, and certain other agricultural implements; certain dairying machinery; sewing-machines; iron and other metal in ingots, pigs, or billets; fish and vegetable (other than linseed) oils; kerosene and other refined mineral oils not exceeding in specific gravity 0.860 at 60°F. (other than motor-spirits); waxes; cork; crude tanning materials; manures; skins and hides.

The following are entirely free or subject only to primage duty if British but dutiable at varying rates if of foreign origin:—

Tea in bulk (from 2nd September, 1951); bananas; oranges, mandarins, and grapefruit; raisins; infants' and invalids' foods; mustard; salt; cocoa-beans; raw coffee; sago and tapioca; cornflour; macaroni; acetic acid; cream of tartar; disinfectants; chloroform and other anæsthetics; antiseptics; manufactured dyes; most surgical, dental, optical, and scientific instruments and materials; felt, cotton, linen, and canvas piece-goods; silk and artificial silk piece-goods; leather-cloth; oil baize; sewing, &c., cottons and threads; elastics; plain tape; tailors' lining materials; cotton, silk, and artificial silk yarns; plain tablecloths, towels, and similar plain articles; belting (other than leather); children's boots and shoes; gum boots; rubber hose; most rubber manufactures, except tires for motor-vehicles; sheet glass; lenses; watch-glasses; pianos and certain other musical instruments; gramophone records; artists' materials; paperhangings; sensitized surfaces; waxed paper; paper (other than wrapping) in large sheets or rolls; ball bearings; bolts and nuts; rivets and washers; buckles; chains; fire-engines, fire-extinguishers, and other fire-extinguishing appliances; adding and computing machines; typewriters; most electrical apparatus; measuring, testing, &c., appliances; sheep-shearing machines; tractors; artificers', &c., tools; machinery peculiar to industrial processes; iron and other metal in bars or sheets; wire and wire netting; metal cordage; rails for railways and tramways; under-carriage springs and metal fittings for vehicles; asphalt and bitumen; table chinaware.

With the object of reducing the cost of building in order to relieve the shortage of dwellings in particular and buildings in general, prefabricated houses, from 20th April, 1951, and Portland cement, from 6th July, 1951, were temporarily exempted from all duty, regardless of their origin, and it is intended that the exemption shall continue until the end of 1952.

It is impossible to give here an account of the range of duties payable on all of the numerous tariff items, but the duties as at the beginning of September, 1951, on some of the principal commodities in general use are mentioned hereunder. It should be noted that, in addition, surtax or primage may also be payable.

Tea.—Tea in bulk, when of British origin, was placed on the free list as early as 1907, when the duty on foreign tea was fixed at 2d. per lb. In 1917 a duty of 3d. per lb, was imposed on British tea, the foreign rate being increased to 5d. per lb. British tea in bulk was again placed on the free list in 1923, and the duty on foreign tea reduced to 2d. Rates of 3d. and 5d. per lb. respectively were reinstated as from 31st July, 1931. On and after 26th July, 1948, a duty of 4d. per lb. was introduced on tea in bulk imported from most-favoured nations, and from the same date all tea imported under the British preferential tariff was exempted from surtax. Tea in bulk of British origin was exempted from all duty and the rates on foreign tea reduced by 3d. per lb., both operative from 3rd September, 1951.

Sugar.—Sugar also was placed on the free list in 1907, prior to which the duty was 1/2d. per lb. Refined sugar of foreign origin was charged 1/2d. per lb. under the 1921 tariff, the rate being altered in 1923 to 5/16d. and in 1924 to 1/2d., irrespective of origin. The duty on refined sugar was increased to 3/4d. per lb. in 1931; and raw sugar, which is imported for refinement at Auckland, was made dutiable at 1/2d. per lb., or, alternatively, 1/2d. per lb. excise duty on manufacture. An additional 1/2d. per lb. on both refined and raw sugar was imposed as from 9th February, 1933.

Tobacco.—Prior to the imposition of special war-taxation in 1939, the duties on tobacco were as follows: Cigarettes, exceeding in weight 2½lb. per 1,000, 10s. 6d. per lb.; cigarettes, not exceeding 2½lb. per 1,000, 25s. 6d. per 1,000; cigars, 12s. per lb. under the British preferential tariff and 14s. or 16s. under the general tariff; manufactured tobacco, cut, 6s. 10d. per lb., and plug, 6s. 8d. per lb.; unmanufactured tobacco for the manufacture of cigarettes, 3s. per lb.; and unmanufactured tobacco for the manufacture of tobacco, cigars, or snuff, 2s. per lb. In order to assist in financing the expenses of the war, further duties, in addition to those set out above, and equal to 25 per cent. of the duties, were levied as from 27th September, 1939. As from 1st May, 1942, this war impost was replaced by the following specific duties additional to the ordinary revenue duties quoted above: Cigarettes, exceeding 2½ lb. per 1,000, 8s. per lb.; cigarettes, not exceeding 2½ lb. per 1,000, 20s. per 1,000; cigars, 8s. per lb.; tobacco, cut and plug, 7s. 2d. per lb.; tobacco, unmanufactured, for cigarettes, 9d. per lb.; tobacco, unmanufactured, for the manufacture of tobacco, 6d. per lb. As from 31st October, 1947, the duties on unmanufactured tobacco were consolidated and the one rate of 3s. 9d. per lb. now applies to all unmanufactured tobacco imported for manufacturing purposes in a bonded tobacco-factory. As from 26th July, 1948, surtax was removed from the duty on all cigarettes and unmanufactured tobacco imported from most-favoured nations or from any British Commonwealth country. A duty of 1/2d. British preferential tariff or 3/4d. general tariff is levied on each sixty cigarette tubes or papers or the equivalent thereof. The excise duties on tobacco, &c., made in New Zealand are shown later under "Excise Duties."

Alcoholic Beverages.—Prior to the imposition in 1939 of special taxation for war purposes, the rate of duty payable on most spirituous beverages was 40s. per proof gallon, except rum of foreign origin, which was dutiable at 44s. per proof gallon. Sparkling wine was liable to a duty of 10s. per gallon under the British preferential tariff, 9s. 6d. under the trade agreement with the Union of South Africa, and 13s. or 15s. under the general tariff. Australian and South African still wines were liable to a duty of 5s. 6d. per gallon, the duty under the British preferential tariff was 4s. and under the general tariff, 6s. The duty on imported beer was ls. 9d. per gallon under the British preferential tariff, and 3s. under the general tariff. In order to assist in financing the expenses of the war, further duties, in addition to those set out above, and equal to 15 per cent. of the duties, were levied as from 27th September, 1939; these were increased to 50 per cent. as from the 1st May, 1942, except in the case of beer, on which the additional duty is Is. 3d. per gallon.

On 26th July, 1948, rum, brandy, and gin imported from British Commonwealth countries and most-favoured nations were exempted from surtax and a special most-favoured-nation rate of 15s. per gallon (including the additional 1942 duty) was established for champagne. The excise duty on beer produced in New Zealand is given under "Excise Duties."

Apparel.—Most apparel pays duty at the rate of 20 per cent. or 25 per cent. under the British preferential tariff and 65 per cent. under the general tariff. The duties on apparel of Canadian and Australian origin vary from the British preferential rates to 40 per cent., 45 per cent., and 55 per cent.

Timber.—Certain types of timber, including Australian hardwoods, if imported in logs, or rough sawn or rough hewn, are admitted free or pay primage only. Some species of oak timber pay primage duty only under the British preferential tariff, and are dutiable at 6s. per 100 sup. ft. under the general tariff. Other kinds of timber, such as Douglas fir (Oregon pine), redwood, Baltic pine, are subject to the following rates: Logs, round, unworked, 25s. per 100 cubic ft; rough sawn or rough hewn, 7s. 6d. or 9s. 6d. per 100 sup. ft. under the British preferential tariff, and 9s. 6d. or 11s. 6d. under the general tariff; dressed, 19s. per 100 sup. ft. British preferential tariff, and 21s. general tariff. As from 26th July, 1948, the following special rates were fixed in respect of imports from most-favoured nations and in each case surtax was removed from the British preferential rate: redwood and Douglas fir, rough sawn or rough hewn, in large sizes, 8s. 6d. per 100 sup. ft.; Douglas fir, rough sawn or rough hewn, in smaller sizes, 10s. 6d. per 100 sup. ft.; Douglas fir and hemlock, dressed, £1 per 100 sup. ft. On 27th May, 1950, these concessional rates were applied to all coniferous timbers.

Motor-vehicles.—Motor-vehicles imported in an unassembled or completely knocked-down condition are dutiable at 5 per cent. under the British preferential tariff, 40 per cent. under the most-favoured-nation tariff and 50 per cent. under the general tariff. Assembled motor-vehicles are subject to a duty of 15 per cent. if admissible under the British preferential tariff, 50 per cent. under the most-favoured-nation tariff and 60 per cent. if liable to the general tariff. Rates intermediate between the British preferential and the most-favoured-nation tariffs apply to vehicles of substantially Canadian origin.

Tires for Motor-vehicles.—Previously dutiable at 10 per cent. ad valorem under the British preferential tariff and 40 per cent. under the general tariff, these were in 1934 made subject to a duty based on the weight of the tires. Pneumatic rubber tires for motor-vehicles, inner tubes of rubber therefor, and moulded rubber strip for repair of such tires are now dutiable at 2½d. per lb. under the British preferential tariff and 8d. per lb. under the general tariff. Solid rubber tires are liable to a duty of ld. per lb. and 4d. per lb. under the British preferential and general tariffs respectively.

Motor-spirits.—Towards the end of 1927 the Motor-spirits Taxation Act of that year imposed a duty of 4d. per gallon (increased in 1930 to 6d.) on motor-spirits. The proceeds of this tax were devoted to reading purposes. In 1931 and 1933 an increase in duty of 2d. per gallon in each year was made, and an additional 4d. per gallon duty was imposed as from 2nd August, 1939. The total duty on motor-spirits remained at 1s. 2d. per gallon (plus a surtax of one-twentieth of the duty if of foreign origin) until 3rd September, 1951, when it was reduced by 2d. per gallon.

PROHIBITED AND RESTRICTED IMPORTS.—Full particulars of the goods which are prohibited or restricted from being imported into New Zealand are contained in the publication entitled "The Customs Tariff of New Zealand."

The Import Control Regulations 1938 (made by Order in Council of 5th December, 1938) prohibit the importation of any goods except in pursuance of a licence under the regulations or of an exemption granted by the Minister of Customs. A considerable number of items were exempted from import licensing during 1950 and 1951, and of approximately 1,000 items in the earlier import licensing schedules, only 351 remained in the 1952 schedule. Some of these items were residual portions only of entries appearing in the previous schedules (see page 227).

EXCISE DUTIES.—An important excise duty is that on beer, which up to 1915 was charged at the rate of 3d. per gallon. In that year the beer duty was altered so as to increase according to the specific gravity of the worts used, the rate being 3¾d. per gallon when the specific gravity did not exceed 1,047, and increasing by 1/16d. per gallon for every unit of specific gravity up to 1,055, and by 1/3d. thereafter. On the 2nd August, 1917, the minimum rate of duty for beer was increased from 3¾d. to 4¾d. per gallon, and further (on the 15th September, 1917) to 5¾d., with a maximum of 6d. per gallon. In 1921 a rate of 11½d. per gallon (increased to ls. in 1930, and to 1s. 6d. in 1931) was imposed where the specific gravity of the worts used did not exceed 1,047, the rate being increased by 1 /16d. for every unit of specific gravity above 1,047. The basic rate of excise duty on beer was reduced from 1s. 6d. to 1s. 3d. per gallon by the Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1934, but was increased to 1s. 9d. per gallon as from 2nd August, 1939. In order to assist in financing the expenses of the war, a further increase to 2s. per gallon was made as from 27th September, 1939. The duty was again increased on the 11th May, 1942, when provision was also made for a lower alcoholic content. When the specific gravity of the worts was 1,036 the new duty was 3s. per gallon, rising by 1d. for every unit of specific gravity above, and falling by ld. for every unit below, 1,036, but subject to a minimum of 2s. 3d. per gallon. These duties were further amended as from 22nd August, 1947, by abolishing the reduction of ld. in the basic duty for every unit of specific gravity below 1,036, so that the duty is now 3s. per gallon where the specific gravity of the worts does not exceed 1,036, increased by ld. for every unit of specific gravity above 1,036. The specific gravity of distilled water at 60° F. is taken as 1,000, and the specific gravity of the worts is determined in relation thereto.

Prior to the introduction of special taxation for war purposes, cut tobacco was charged an excise duty of 4s. 6d. per lb.; other tobacco, 4s. 4d. per lb. Cigars and snuff paid 6s. per lb., and the excise duty on cigarettes made in New Zealand was 13s. 6d. per 1,000 on cigarettes not exceeding in weight 2½ lb. per 1,000, and 5s. 6d. per lb. on cigarettes over 2½lb. per 1,000. A war surcharge of 25 per cent. of the excise duty on tobacco, cigars, cigarettes, and snuff was levied as from 27th September, 1939, but this was replaced on the 1st May, 1942, by additional taxation similar to that imposed on imported tobacco, &c. (see page 271). An excise duty of 1/2d. is levied on each sixty cigarette tubes or papers or the equivalent thereof.

The Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1931, imposed an excise duty of 1/2d. per lb. (increased to ld. per lb. from 9th February, 1933) on sugar manufactured in New Zealand.

Excise duties were formerly levied direct on certain manufactures the preparation of which involved the use of a considerable proportion of spirits. In lieu of excise duty on the finished manufactured article, however, a special schedule of duties has been provided since 1921 on imported alcohol used in manufacturing these articles in licensed warehouses. The present rates are: On alcohol used in the manufacture of—perfumed spirits, 36s. per proof gallon; toilet preparations, 34s.; culinary and flavouring essences, 20s.; medicinal preparations containing more than 50 per cent. of proof spirit, 4s. 6d. per gallon. In similar medicinal preparations containing less than 50 per cent. the alcohol used is duty-free.

EXPORT DUTIES.—The Gold Duty Act of 1858, amended from time to time, first imposed an export duty on gold. Under the Gold Duty Abolition and Mining Property Rating Act of 1890, the export duty on South Island gold was replaced by a system of rating mining property. The consolidating Gold Duty Act of 1908 maintained an export duty of 2s. per ounce of 20 carats fineness on gold produced in or exported from the North Island. A further export duty of 6d. per ounce (on gold of New Zealand origin only, and exclusive of gold produced by alluvial or dredge mining) was levied by the Mining Act of 1926, and this additional duty applied also to South Island gold. The Customs Acts Amendment Act passed in February, 1933, imposed an additional export duty of 12s. 6d. per ounce troy weight of gold of the fineness of 20 carats and upwards, and covered all gold, with certain minor exceptions, wherever produced or exported. Provision was made for reduction, by Order in Council, of the rate of duty in the event of a reduction in the value of gold in New Zealand. In order to assist in financing the expenses of the war, a further duty was imposed as from 27th September, 1939, of an amount equal to 75 per cent. of the excess of the London market value of gold (expressed in New Zealand currency), as on the date when the gold was laden upon the exporting ship or when it was posted to an overseas address, over the value of that gold if it was computed at the rate of £9 5s. 8d. (New Zealand currency) for every ounce troy weight of gold of the fineness of 24 carats. This percentage was reduced to 40 per cent. as from 7th December, 1945, and on the 16th August, 1946, the remainder of this additional duty was removed. On gold exported after 19th August, 1948, the duty of 12s. 6d. per ounce imposed in 1933 was also removed, and the duties levied under the Gold Duty Act, 1908, and the Mining Act, 1926, were in turn abolished in October, 1949. There are therefore now no export duties on gold.

An export duty was also imposed on timber (white-pine and kauri) by Acts of 1901 and 1903, and still operates. The present rates of 5s. per 100 superficial feet on logs, and 3s. or 5s. per 100 superficial feet on flitches, were imposed by the Timber Export Duty Order of 23rd June, 1937. This duty is not payable in respect of sawn timber in smaller sizes.

The Wool Industry Act, 1944, provides for a levy on all wool exported or delivered to a wool-manufacturer for use in New Zealand and the proceeds, less cost of collection, &c., are payable to the New Zealand Wool Board established under the Act, to enable it to carry out its functions. At the present time, however, the provisions in regard to the payment of the levy are suspended, but an equivalent amount is received by the Board from the contributory charge imposed by the Wool Commission Act, 1951 (see Section 18A). Prior to the passing of the Wool Industry Act, 1944, a similar levy was payable under the authority of the Wool Industry Promotion Act, 1936, on wool exported only.

CUSTOMS REVENUE.—In the earlier years of New Zealand's history the revenue derived from Customs and excise duties represented a greater proportion of the total revenue from taxation than it does to-day. For a considerable period prior to 1914, there was a constant tendency for this proportion to decrease, and the taxation legislation of the First World War period temporarily accelerated the movement. From 1921–22 to 1925–26 the percentage rose continuously, but did not regain its former proportions. A gradual decline then commenced and, with one slight interruption (1935–36) continued up to and including 1945–46. The low percentages following the year 1938–39 were the result of the huge increase in taxation imposed for war purposes, only a small proportion of which was derived from Customs and excise duties. The amount of war taxation received by way of Customs and excise duties in 1945–46 was only £4,574,021 out of a total war taxation of £51,416,847. The higher figures shown in the last four years are accounted for by a substantial increase in dutiable imports. The figures for the last twenty years are as follows:—

Year Ended 31st March,Total Taxation.Customs and Excise Duties.
Amount.Percentage of Total Taxation.
 ££Per Cent.
193217,407,8296,545,42837.60
193319,705,6766,785,64134.43
193421,473,4067,140,47833.25
193524,739,4098,094,60532.72
193625,478,5988,876,20334.84
193731,181,60310,340,83833.16
193836,798,97111,737,17031.90
193937,797,90411,727,22431.03
194044,522,02811,734,78426.36
194161,360,84011,258,37018.35
 Customs and Excise Duties.  
Year Ended 31st March,Total Taxation.Amount.Percentage of Total Taxation.
 ££Per Cent.
194268,163,25610,622,09215.58
194387,940,84412,342,11514.03
1944100,839,48413,922,57413.81
1945108,681,81414,869,44913.68
1946114,954,87315,682,63713.64
1947113,119,04619,970,49217.65
1948122,275,91128,794,93223.55
1949130,440,24923,666,86018.14
1950135,556,31926,296,87319.40
1951157,946,97528,636,20718.13

The figures for Customs and excise duties are exclusive of tire-tax, and the highways proportion (6d. per gallon) of the motor-spirits tax, two classes of taxes collected through the Customs and paid to the Consolidated Fund, sums at least equal to these amounts being allocated for road-maintenance purposes. Such taxation is, however, included in total taxation. Figures given under the heading of Customs and excise duties include for 1939–40 and subsequent years the amounts received on account of additional rates imposed on certain commodities for war purposes. Most of these additional rates are still in operation.

The Customs and excise duties received during the last three financial years available are shown in more detail in the next table. The figures have been rounded off to the nearest thousand and are provisional. Primage duties and surtax are included, but not tire-tax or the highways proportion of motor-spirits tax, which do not really represent Customs taxation, although levied on imports and for the sake of convenience collected through the Customs. The additional revenue received as the result of wartime increases in the rates and now incorporated in the tariff are included.

1948–49.*1949–50.*1950–51.*

* Provisional.

Customs Duties—£££
  Wines and spirits1,097,0001,440,0002,008,000
  Cigars, cigarettes, snuff, and tobacco1,628,0001,688,0001,512,000
  Motor-spirits4,075,0004,570,0005,051,000
  Other duties, including primage and surtax6,604,0007,259,0008,485,000
      Totals, Customs duties13,404,00014,957,00017,056,000
Excise Duties—   
  Alcohol used in perfumed spirit, &c., in New Zealand44,00045,00048,000
  Cigarette papers and tubes46,00065,00080,000
  Tobacco, cigars, cigarettes, snuff, New Zealand manufactured4,902,0005,506,0005,666,000
  Beer, New Zealand4,555,0004,822,0005,036,000
  Sugar716,000902,000750,000
      Totals, excise duties10,263,00011,340,00011,580,000
      Grand totals, Customs and excise duties23,667,00026,297,00028,636,000
Revenue per head of population—£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.
  From Customs duties7 3 97 17 28 16 0
  From excise duties5 10 15 19 25 19 6
      Totals12 13 1013 16 414 15 6

PREFERENCE AND RECIPROCITY.— Preference to British Commonwealth countries in respect of certain commodities was provided for in the earliest tariff in force in New Zealand—that introduced in 1841. The amended tariff of 1844 involved the dropping of this preference to British goods, but two years later preference was again introduced.

The first definite attempt at reciprocity was made in 1870, when the Colonial Reciprocity Act gave power to the Government to make reciprocal agreements with the Australian States, including Tasmania; but this Act failed to receive the Royal assent and consequently lapsed.

In 1895, however, the Customs Duties Reciprocity Act received the Royal assent, and ratified an agreement which had been tentatively proposed with South Australia, besides giving power to the Government to make further agreements with the other Australian States. In 1907 the New Zealand and South African Customs Treaty was negotiated. A tariff agreement with the Australian Commonwealth has been in operation since 1922, and with Canada since 1932.

Imperial preference proper was introduced in New Zealand by the Preferential and Reciprocal Trade Act, 1903, which followed the lead given by Canada. At first only a few items were covered by the extra duties levied upon goods of foreign origin, but the Tariff Act of 1907 extended this additional preferential duty to a great number of items. The effect of the 1921, 1927, 1930, and 1934 tariffs has been to widen the disparity in the duty as between goods of British Commonwealth countries and those of foreign origin. Under the Ottawa agreement, New Zealand undertook to preserve the existing margins of preference on United Kingdom goods where the margin of preference did not exceed 20 per cent., and where the margin exceeded that figure not to reduce it below 20 per cent. without the consent of the Government of the United Kingdom. In the tariff of 1934, where reductions in duty were made under the British preferential tariff, the rates of duty under the general (foreign) tariff were, except in a few cases, retained.

The following are the classes of goods which are deemed to be the produce or manufacture of countries and which are entitled to be entered for duty at British preferential rates:—

  1. Goods wholly the produce of such countries:

  2. Goods wholly manufactured in such countries from unmanufactured raw material and/or from one or more of the imported partly manufactured raw materials which are enumerated in the regulations:

  3. Goods partially manufactured in such countries, provided that the final process of manufacture has been performed in such countries, and also that the expenditure in material produced in such countries and/or labour performed within such countries in each and every article is not less than one-half of the factory or works cost of such article in its finished state.

The conditions applying to British Commonwealth countries, the products of which are admissable under the British preferential tariff pursuant to agreements made by New Zealand with such countries, may be varied to suit the provisions of such agreements.

Prior to the 1st April, 1926, the minimum mentioned in paragraph (c), which is now one-half, was one-fourth.

In the calculation of the proportion of produce or labour none of the following items is to be included or considered:—

  1. Manufacturer's profit, or the profit or remuneration of any trader, agent, broker or other person dealing in the article in its finished condition:

  2. Royalties payable in respect of the finished goods:

  3. The cost of outside packages or any cost of packing the goods thereinto:

  4. Administrative and general office expenses:

  5. Any cost of convoying, insuring, or shipping the goods subsequent to their manufacture:

  6. Any other charges incurred subsequent to the completion of the manufacture of the goods.

Tea to be free of duty must have been grown in some part of the British Commonwealth, and the final process of manufacture must also have been performed in some country of the British Commonwealth.

Certain imports from Australia and Canada pay more than corresponding items from other Commonwealth countries.

Reciprocity with the Union of South Africa.—As already stated, there was inaugurated in 1907 a reciprocal arrangement with the Union of South Africa whereby products of that country, when imported direct, were admitted into New Zealand at reduced rates of duty, in return for similar concessions granted by South Africa in respect of New Zealand products. This agreement was revised in 1922, the duties on wines being increased, and tobacco being deleted from the list. A further alteration, whereby maize and dried apples were deleted from the list, was made in 1925. Dried fruits formerly came under the agreement, being admitted free when the general tariff was 4d. per pound and the British preferential rate 2d. On 1st January, 1934, however, the general tariff was reduced to 2d. and the British rate made free.

The items specially provided for in the agreement were feathers, fish, fresh fruit, dried fruit, tea, and wine; while in the case of all other dutiable goods, with the exception of spirits and tobacco, a reduction of 3 per cent. of the duty payable was made.

The legislation giving effect to the arrangement with the Union of South Africa was revoked by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Act, 1948, although that Act provides for the continuation of most of the concessions previously granted.

The following table shows the merchandise trade with the Union of South Africa during the eleven years ended in 1950.

Year.Merchandise Imports.Merchandise Exports to Union of South Africa.
From Union of South Africa.Of Union of South Africa Origin.

* Provisional.

 £££
1940112,478118,14221,699
1941135,571131,16124,205
1942207,426210,17319,521
194391,27393,38926,882
194482,35686,88148,033
1945237,849247,035193,899
1946221,582220,86659,161
1947*494,169498,08565,064
1948*753,936725,81889,103
1949*456,420476,802132,934
1950*1,000,0001,001,456289,742

Reciprocity with Australia.—A trade agreement between Australia and New Zealand was first entered into on the 11th April, 1922, Under this agreement each country granted to goods of the other the benefits of its British preferential tariff, except with regard to certain classes of goods on which special rates were fixed.

During 1933 a Minister of the Commonwealth Government visited New Zealand to discuss the commercial relations between the two countries. A provisional agreement was reached in April, 1933, and confirmed by the Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act, 1933. The new agreement came into operation from 1st December, 1933.

The agreement provided for lower duties than those under the British preferential tariff on many lines of New Zealand products entering Australia e.g.—Stilton cheese: fresh and frozen fish and fish pastes; dried peas; hay; chaff; fresh, smoked, and preserved meats; onions; lucerne-seed; wine; furs; hats; caps; floor-rugs; various agricultural and dairying implements; whale oil; casein; sugar of milk; and timber.

Goods which are partially manufactured in Australia or New Zealand shall not be regarded as the produce or manufacture of Australia or New Zealand unless the expenditure in material produced in either country and/or labour performed within either country represents not less than one-half of the factory or works cost of the goods in their finished state.

Merchandise trade between New Zealand and Australia during the eleven years ended in 1950 has been as follows:—

Year.Merchandise Imports.Merchandise Exports to Australia.
From Australia.Of Australian Origin.

* Provisional.

 £££
19408,219,3677,817,6012,159,339
19418,865,8128,023,6982,400,266
19428,789,8048,142,2732,717,619
194310,354,78610,160,3802,849,125
194410,483,55510,277,3733,092,981
19458,651,5438,326,4944,195,247
194610,733,49510,423,8863,630,750
1947*15,476,83414,942,1544,095,981
1948*14,701,83514,194,1723,955,960
1949*15.980,41015,314,8303,753,426
1950*19,800,00019,029,7804,779,368

Article IX of the agreement provides that, where with respect to any goods not specially enumerated in the agreement the rate of duty thereon under the New Zealand British preferential tariff is less than the duty under the Australian British preferential tariff, the New Zealand Government may request the Australian Government to admit into the Commonwealth New-Zealand-produced goods of such class at the rate of duty chargeable on goods of that class under the New Zealand British preferential tariff. If within three calendar months after the receipt of the request the Australian Government does not comply therewith, the New Zealand Government may, without further notice, impose on such goods of Australian origin a rate of duty not being greater than the rate of duty for the time being in force in Australia on the like goods under the Australian British preferential tariff. A similar provision is made with respect to the admission of Australian-produced goods into New Zealand.

The rates of duty payable on Australian goods imported into New Zealand and not specifically mentioned in the agreement are automatically affected by changes in the New Zealand British preferential tariff. A modification of the agreement was made in May, 1935, whereunder the duty on certain Australian goods which would otherwise have been reduced or removed from 1st June, 1936, following changes made in the British preferential tariff by the Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1934, remained unaltered.

The duties on many Australian goods were increased as from 1st March, 1938, by an Order in Council made on the 26th February, 1938, while the duties on fresh grapes, canned pineapples, slippers, boots and shoes, and certain types of refrigerating units were reduced as from 26th July, 1948, by the Trade Agreement (Australia) Order 1948.

Reciprocity with Canada.—From October, 1925, reciprocal trade arrangements with respect to certain items of Canada - New Zealand trade were in force, but ceased in May, 1930.

Negotiations between the Canadian and New Zealand Governments bore fruit in a trade agreement which came into force in both countries for a period originally of one year, as from the 24th May, 1932. This agreement has been extended from time to time, and is now to continue in force indefinitely.

By Order in Council dated 21st July, 1948, the duties on canned fish and certain types of refrigerating units were reduced as from 26th July, 1948, and the duties on slippers, boots and shoes, and motor-vehicles were consolidated by the absorption of surtax into the ad valorem rate.

Under the present Canadian tariff on New Zealand produce are included, inter alia: Butter, 5 cents per lb.; cheese, 1 cent per lb.; and lamb and mutton, 1/2 cent per lb.; while sausage-casings, hides and skins, wool, apples, seeds, kauri-gum, and phormium fibre are amongst commodities admitted free.

The rates of duty payable in New Zealand on certain imports from Canada are as under: Canned fish, 1½d. per lb.; silk or artificial silk or nylon stockings, 55 per cent.; electric cooking and heating appliances, 30 per cent.; certain agricultural implements, 35 per cent.; timber, 7s. 6d. or 9s. 6d. (rough sawn) and 19s. (sawn and dressed) per 100 sup. ft. Canadian goods not mentioned in the agreement enter New Zealand at the ordinary British preferential rates of duty. In some instances where the British preferential rates of duty were reduced by the 1934 tariff the rates on certain Canadian goods mentioned in the agreement were also reduced to the British preferential level. Special duties are payable on motor-vehicles of Canadian origin, these duties varying according to the Canadian content.

Merchandise trade with Canada during the eleven years ended in 1950 is shown in the following table.

Year.Merchandise Imports.Merchandise Exports to Canada.
From Canada.Of Canadian Origin.

* Provisional.

† Includes Newfoundland.

 £££
19402,869,1792,887,3001,709,169
19413,045,9613,065,4382,822,334
19422,350,0182,351,2623,616,646
194311,453,20311,455,1474,535,207
19445,103,4385,104,5061,939,814
19455.079,0275,094,3532,250,862
19464,650,1504,657,0752,803,282
1947*11,579,72511,609,4603,059,660
1948*6,862,2726,897,8322,990,814
1949*4,623,2494,635,8402,196,352
1950*3,600,0003,566,4773,556,916

Other Trade Arrangements.—New Zealand is also a party to certain commercial treaties, conventions, or arrangements with countries other than those referred to above. Particulars of the trade agreements with certain European countries are contained in the 1940 and previous issues of the Year-Book, but, owing to the war with Germany and its subsequent effects, these agreements became largely inoperative. In certain instances the agreements referred to became applicable to New Zealand automatically as a member of the British Commonwealth, while in others New Zealand became a party by signifying her willingness to adhere to treaties negotiated by the United Kingdom. New Zealand also in some cases entered into agreements with foreign countries by direct negotiation with those countries, and in others the United Kingdom acted for New Zealand in making trade agreements on her behalf. In some instances the trade involved is insignificant.

By Order in Council of the 21st February, 1934, the duties and exemptions from duty provided for in the Trade Arrangement (Belgium and New Zealand) Ratification Act, 1933, were applied to similar goods being the produce or manufacture of the following countries: Argentina, Brazil, China, Czechoslovakia, Egypt, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Norway, and Spain. Sweden was added to the list of countries by Order in Council of the 7th June, 1935, and Greece by Order in Council of 22nd October, 1936. By an Order in Council of the 28th October, 1941, Japan was eliminated from the above list, and after a further Order in Council of the 17th October, 1945, had taken effect, four more countries were eliminated—viz., Finland, Germany, Hungary, and Italy.

Direct trade arrangements were also entered into with the Netherlands and Switzerland.

The Customs (Tariff Preference and General) Regulations, 1936, set out the classes of goods from foreign countries which may be entered at concessional rates of duty applying to any such countries as a result of treaty obligations between New Zealand and such countries, viz:—

  1. Goods wholly the produce of such a country:

  2. Goods wholly manufactured in such a country from unmanufactured raw materials:

  3. Goods partially manufactured in such a country, provided (1) that the final process of manufacture has been performed in that country or in any British country the produce or manufactures of which are entitled to be entered under the British preferential tariff otherwise than pursuant to any agreement or arrangement made between New Zealand and such country; (2) that the expenditure in material the produce of that country, and/or in labour performed or that country, on each and every article is not less than one-half of the factory or works cost of such article in its finished state.

GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GENEVA).—At its first meeting in February, 1946, the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations set up a Preparatory Committee to prepare the ground for an International Conference on Trade and Employment, and New Zealand was appointed a member.

At the Committee's first session in London during October and November, 1946. the important step was taken of drawing up a procedure for the negotiation of a multilateral trade agreement embodying tariff concessions by the participating countries.

These tariff negotiations took place during the second session of the Preparatory Committee in Geneva in 1947, and the concessions given by each country were embodied in schedules to a General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. The tariff negotiations themselves were bilateral but all the concessions were applied multi-laterally, so that New Zealand receives the benefit of reductions made by all participants, and, conversely, New Zealand's concessions apply to all the other countries which took part. In addition, existing commitments required that they should be extended to several non-participating countries to which New Zealand had already granted most-favoured-nation treatment.

Concessions are of two kinds—actual reductions of duties and bindings of duties against increase.

The Agreement was applied provisionally by New Zealand on 26th July, 1948.

The existing arrangements with Belgium and the Netherlands have been superseded by the General Agreement.

Further negotiations took place at Annecy (1949) and Torquay (1950-51).

The countries to whose products the concessional rates of duty apply (i.e., the most-favoured nations) were proclaimed in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Provisional Application Order, 1948, and with later additions and deletions are now as follows: Argentina, Austria, Belgium (including overseas territories), Brazil, Chile, China, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Egypt, Federal Republic of Germany, Finland, France (including overseas territories), Greece, Haiti, Italy, Liberia, Luxemburg, Netherlands (including overseas territories), Nicaragua, Norway, Peru, Republic of the United States of Indonesia, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, United States of America, Uruguay.

Some of the more important products of those countries in respect of which concessions have been made are as follows: onions; tea; raw coffee; raisins; oranges; certain canned fruits; spices; sago; matches; tapioca; cornflour; cigars; cigarettes; tobacco; rum; brandy; gin; wines; flavouring essences; surgical and dental instruments; carpets; linoleum; lace; sewing cotton; woollen piece-goods; belting for machinery; leather manufactures; chinaware; glassware; clocks; fancy goods; toys; sporting requisites; certain musical instruments; gramophones; cameras and photographic goods; toilet preparations; tobacco pipes; paperhangings; certain types of paper; adding and accounting machines; cash registers; typewriters; duplicating-machines; certain lawn-mowers, power operated; engines for motor-cycles, other motor-vehicles, and tractors; certain electrical machinery and appliances; certain mining and quarrying machinery; tractors; certain industrial machinery; refrigerators; hardware; wire; certain pipes and tubes; wire netting; bicycles; motor-cycles; motor-vehicles; certain timbers.

Chapter 10. SECTION 10—SHIPPING AND TRADE OF PORTS

Table of Contents

THE tonnage of all shipping arriving at or departing from New Zealand ports is recorded by the Customs authorities. On the arrival or departure of an overseas merchant vessel, foreign or coastwise, the master or owner must “enter” or “clear” the vessel with the Collector of Customs of the port concerned. The same procedure is followed in recording the movement of coastal shipping.

The figures given in this section include all registered merchant vessels trading at New Zealand ports: thus they exclude naval vessels when engaged in their normal duties, private launches, lighters engaged in loading or unloading vessels in roadsteads, trawlers and other fishing vessels, and yachts when not employed in trading. Merchant vessels used in the transport of troops are included.

OVERSEAS SHIPPING.—In recording the following statistics only one entry and one clearance is counted for each voyage: at the first port of call and the port of final departure, regardless of the number of ports visited by the vessel while in New Zealand waters. Movements of overseas shipping between ports in New Zealand are treated as coastwise shipping.

However, statistics are also compiled (see page 284) showing the relative overseas trade of the various ports, wherein every overseas vessel is recorded, whether entered or cleared, overseas or coastwise.

The following table gives the number and net tonnage of overseas vessels entering and clearing New Zealand ports during the years 1940–50, distinguishing those entered and cleared “with cargo” from those "in ballast."

Year.With Cargo.In Ballast.*Total.
Vessels.Tonnage.Vessels.Tonnage.Vessels.Tonnage.

* “In ballast” means (a) inwards—"having no cargo for discharge in New Zealand"; (b) outwards—"having no cargo loaded in New Zealand."

Entered
19405182,172,55782662,8106002,835,367
19414081,712,45398604,6755062,317,128
19423631,414,632155883,5075182,298,139
19433201,230,295161834,1994812,064,494
19442951,067,532151721,1554461,788,687
19452751,096,385138722,5744131,818,959
19463441,485,419118656,1074622,141,526
19474141,812,70352245,2884662,057,991
19484461,857,82560279,6565062,137,481
19495092,186,69254285,9645632,472,656
19505492,464,09348224,1305972,688,223
Cleared
19403891,917,720212916,7796012,834,499
19413231,539,473185769,8415082,309,314
19422921,319,805225969,6565172,289,461
19432501,019,3902221,026,8884722,046,278
1944227918,463230864,5234571,782,986
19452551,108,877158727,8504131,836,727
19462841,343,658151689,1694352,032,827
19472961,285,440167769,2434632,054,683
19483301,420,401164721,9104942,142,311
19493821,703,993174740,9755562,444,968
19503631,713,242212911,6475752,624,889

The ballast figures include vessels embarking and disembarking passengers only, or entering for, or clearing with, bunkers and stores only, as well as the normal ballast movement.

Ports of Arrival and Departure.—The next table shows the extent to which various ports were made the first port of arrival or the last port of departure by overseas vessels during the last three years. The figures should not be regarded as indicating the relative overseas trade of the various ports.

Port.Entered.Cleared.
1948.1949.1950.1948.1949.1950.
 Net Tons.Net Tons.Net Tons.Net Tons.Net Tons.Net Tons.
Auckland1,026,8081,148,9651,190,936832,541923,480994,137
Tauranga 6566 5,0445,723
Gisborne  328   
Napier82,81469,59584,51696,249120,73499,464
New Plymouth59,065106,77696,45062,27556,55274,317
Wellington697,353840,485954,332665,190818,123979,887
Picton    3,206 
Nelson  26520,68217,29619,328
Westport166 79 1,860155
Greymouth321 1553,8132,6992,561
Lyttelton157,340182,990223,350200,871231,766180,816
Timaru11,48120,80431,58227,42713,11924,851
Dunedin73,99662,66179,401163,486206,882163,669
Bluff28,13739,72426,82369,77744,20779,981
      Totals2,137,4812,472,6562,688,2232,142,3112,444,9682,624,889

Figures for the last three years show that 80 per cent. of overseas vessels (on a tonnage basis) arriving in New Zealand made Auckland or Wellington their first port of entry.

For the same period, and again on a tonnage basis, 72 per cent. of overseas vessels finally departing from New Zealand were cleared from either Auckland or Wellington.

Direction of Overseas Shipping.—Particulars of the number and net tonnage of vessels entered and cleared between New Zealand and various countries during 1949 and 1950 are given in the following table.

1949.1950.
Entered.Cleared.Entered.Cleared.
No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.
United Kingdom83531,641131856,209108701,294131870,352
British Borneo838,062943,4591259,8771260,657
Republic of India417,455517,771413,960522,826
Malaya and Singapore1672,0001053,2002086,447736,598
Union of South Africa837,064  315,279  
Canada1897,8111058,1541693,661970,417
Australia225857,139227774,430232896,546224805,745
Fiji2042,4412352,5482048,2582041,417
Gilbert and Ellice Islands520,874938,745624,819521,667
Nauru Island2277,0262068,81928103,07535129,382
Belgium412,40615,286626,817  
France    14,380312,164
Sweden23,843  312,463  
Bahrein Islands1167,258744,169955,787849,547
Iran29150,7551998,47834170,68131160,038
Indonesia1056,8761687,6391269,1931793,022
Japan26,511211,698311,29917,053
Portuguese East Africa417,378  418,073  
Tunisia23,456  521,491  
United States of America37176,4031466,39633136,0751767,234
Tuamotu Archipelago24101,2972396,6561563,6221771,344
Other countries2984,9603071,3112355,12633105,426
      Totals5632,472,6565562,444,9685972,688,2235752,624,889

The net tonnage of all vessels entered in 1950 was 9 per cent. greater than in 1949, while the number of vessels was higher by 6 per cent. The tonnage entered from Australia in 1950 represented 33 per cent. of the total and was higher than from any other country. However, although there has been a considerable recovery in the last few years, figures of Australian-New Zealand shipping are still well below those immediately prior to 1939. The tonnage entered from the United Kingdom showed an increase in 1950 over the previous year of 32 per cent., while clearances for the United Kingdom were 2 per cent. above the 1949 figures.

The next table shows the net tonnage of shipping between New Zealand and certain principal countries for the five years 1946–50.

Year.Australia.United Kingdom.United States of America.Canada.Pacific Islands.
Entered
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
1946575,340445,084420,240125,235201,639
1947591,634416,824342,533137,267177,384
1948655,447478,149178,16172,622221,342
1949857,139531,641176,40397,811259,043
1950896,546701,294136,07593,661242,361
Cleared
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
1946461,364779,348228,50354,938163,472
1947576,481772,882230,57044,717181,708
1948609,602792,437160,32150,432196,919
1949774,430856,20966,39658,154274,756
1950805,745870,35267,23470,417305,502

Nationality of Overseas Shipping.—The table following shows the nationality of vessels arriving in New Zealand during the years 1945–50. In normal times British Commonwealth ships account for over 80 per cent. of the total overseas tonnage recorded. The number of vessels registered in the United Kingdom represented 69 per cent. of the total tonnage recorded in 1950; the remaining British Commonwealth countries accounted for 17 per cent. and other countries for 14 per cent.

A feature of the table is the relatively small totals shown for shipping registered in New Zealand, the figures for which were considerably higher prior to the Second World War.

OVERSEAS SHIPPING INWARDS (Thousand tons net)

Country of Registry.1945.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
British Commonwealth—      
  United Kingdom1,1131,4741,4041,5051,7391,848
  New Zealand126110153141262290
  Other British Commonwealth12513186150171183
  Cargo7881,1281,4661,5841,8992,117
  Ballast576587177212273204
        Total, British Commonwealth countries1,3641,7151,6431,7962,1722,321
  Percentage of total758080848886
Other—      
  Norway883577790164
  Netherlands482116724
  Panama895036564479
  United States of America2593143001359239
  Remaining countries141950576862
  Cargo308357346273288347
  Ballast1466968681320
      Total, other countries454426414341301368
  Percentage of total252020161214
  Grand totals1,8182,1412,0572,1372,4732,688

TRADE OF PORTS.—The following matters dealing with the trade of ports are covered below: shipping tonnages, cargo statistics, transhipments, and value of imports and exports.

Shipping Tonnages.—This section deals with the tonnage recorded by the various ports in New Zealand and includes overseas and coastal shipping, irrespective of whether the former had been entered or cleared overseas or coastwise. Thus overseas vessels have been recorded as overseas arrivals and departures on every visit to a New Zealand port, instead of only at the first port of call and the final port of departure as under the earlier heading.

The movement of overseas and coastal vessels on the New Zealand coast is well illustrated in the following table, which gives the aggregate number and tonnage of the total calls made during each of the years 1940–50.

Year.Overseas Vessels.Coastal Vessels.Total.
Number.Net Tonnage.Number.Net Tonnage.Number.Net Tonnage.
19402,0827,826,04316,2614,583,52818,34312,409,571
19411,6175,018,64815,0174,342,04716,6349,360,695
19421,6665,491,68813,6103,786,53615,2769,278,224
19431,3794,526,54212,0504,007,17913,4298,533,721
19441,0833,729,63112,1613,981,70013,2447,711,331
19451,0883,827,78012,3693,756,87113,4577,584,651
19461,1914,774,61312,7703,709,35713,9618,483,970
19471,1444,966,08812,8084,528,94113,9529,495,029
19481,1734,857,98213,3334,579,30014,5069,437,282
19491,5285,939,29213,1174,298,38814,64510,237,680
19501,5296,364,06812,8334,366,17014,36210,730,238

Using the figures for 1939 as a standard pre-war guide to the volume of shipping at New Zealand ports, the war years showed a remarkable decline in the number of vessels and net tonnage, particularly in the overseas section. The 1944 figures for the latter represented a fall of nearly 57 per cent. in the number of vessels and 62 per cent. in tonnage. In addition to the large decrease in overseas arrivals in the country during the war period, as shown in the table on page 281, a contributory cause was the limited number of ports visited by overseas vessels, shipping, as a war necessity, being concentrated at the main ports.

Figures for the last five years show a substantial recovery in both the overseas and coastal trade of ports, although the coastal trade on this basis showed a decrease in 1949 as compared with 1948. This may be accounted for by the additional calls made by overseas vessels in 1949, thus lessening the need for transhipments. This assumption is supported by the transhipment figures quoted later in this section.

The following table shows the average number of calls made by overseas ships arriving in New Zealand, based on total arrivals and total entrances in New Zealand ports.

Overseas Vessels.1939.1944.1945.1947.1948.1949.1950.
Total number entered New Zealand634446413466506563597
Total entrances at New Zealand ports2,4901,0831,0881,1441,1731,5281,529
Average number of calls at New Zealand ports3.92.42.62.52.32.72.6

This table is only intended to show the reason for the fall in overseas shipping tonnage of ports, and not the actual average calls made. Many vessels—as, for instance, those engaged in the transport of timber and coal, and those merely touching at a New Zealand port while en route between Australia and America—call at only one port in New Zealand; on the other hand, vessels engaged in the United Kingdom trade, which, in the pre-war period, generally called at a number of ports, have curtailed their visits, as evidenced by the figures.

The following table shows for the three years 1948–50 the number and net tonnage of overseas vessels arriving at New Zealand ports, and covers vessels entered overseas or coastwise.

Port.1948.1949.1950.
Number.Tonnage.Number.Tonnage.Number.Tonnage.
Whangarei46,7661118,566510,715
Auckland3351,295,9014691,587,8794551,718,239
Onehunga    2526
Raglan    1328
Tauranga32,852128,83797,745
Gisborne  288121,066
Napier46234,53559262,04571333,597
New Plymouth38183,05852270,49066312,525
Wellington3171,439,5883801,743,2343981,921,271
Picton  56,01511,340
Nelson1133,4931433,0731032,418
Westport57974620102,754
Greymouth84,5992020,44084,653
Lyttelton184776,320218913,793203906,383
Timaru27112,13345157,79654198,155
Oamaru35,32811,43046,392
Dunedin146574,810173680,664168675,965
Bluff46187,80263233,52962229,996
      Totals1,1734,857,9821,5285,939,2921,5296,364,068

Overseas vessels are shown to have called at 14 ports in 1948, 16 in 1949, and 18 in 1950. In the pre-war years 1936–38, approximately 24 New Zealand ports were visited by overseas vessels. During the war years the concentration of overseas shipping at the main ports was most marked. This concentration is still noticeable, though gradually lessening, over the last five years. This is demonstrated in the following table, which shows the percentages of overseas shipping tonnage recorded at the ports of Wellington, Auckland, and Lyttelton for the years 1939 and 1947–50. In 1939 these three ports handled 63 per cent. of the overseas shipping tonnage, as compared with 72 per cent. in 1948, and 71 per cent. in 1949 and 1950.

Port.1939.1947.1948.1949.1950.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Auckland27.328.726.726.727.0
Wellington24.527.029.629.430.2
Other North Island15.49.38.89.410.5
      North Island67.265.065.165.567.7
Lyttelton11.316.916.015.414.2
Other South Island21.518.118.919.118.1
      South Island32.835.034.934.532.3
      New Zealand total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

The table below shows for the years 1948–50 the total shipping traffic handled inwards at the various ports. Overseas and coastal vessel calling at more than one port in the course of a single voyage have been recorded as entered at every port visited.

Port.1948.1949.1950.
Number.Tonnage.Number.Tonnage.Number.Tonnage.
Parengarenga1305,2091668,4671549,971
Awanui1087,5761339,65315410,991
Mangonui747,031565,907606,124
Whangaroa16413,92815715,32314212,650
Russell664,827565,952645,591
Hokianga403,029322,394161,223
Whangarei1,016116,408888110,7771,095124,470
Auckland4,5771,716,0264,7061,912,8234,5662,018,050
Onehunga11914,8997713,1514812,096
Raglan152,360173,591173,950
Kawhia68401160  
Thames54411,51868818,09266918,103
Coromandel1212,9111226,252562,988
Whitianga761,705932,253801,845
Tauranga9413,45510518,72210620,284
Whakatane12810,88710410,193838,781
Opotiki545,491484,959454,738
Tokomaru Bay11619,3519818,9328414,834
Tolaga Bay3710,823349,120174,380
Gisborne16558,09815855,67317455,711
Napier259291,217259320,837243427,474
New Plymouth114211,857131303,372121331,928
Patea777,88811812,167969,870
Wanganui27661,08925455,97023548,919
Wellington2,4023,073,2562,4743,267,8902,3653,492,834
Picton298149,503282140,580363152,346
Wairau1339,6561098,184695,272
Nelson901280,144850256,732857316,517
Motueka18816,83717015,59318720,612
Waitapu713,158763,661602,985
Westport223157,962172141,937172148,492
Greymouth164119,980136117,555140116,393
Hokitika14644161,12214924
Lyttelton8121,832,3438991,968,9568691,959,713
Akaroa183    
Timaru131193,338149238,820138259,970
Oamaru6248,8116452,2885647,641
Dunedin276680,456293786,003271757,419
Bluff322253,275329298,672341282,438
Half-moon Bay13219,41312514,94713511,711
      Totals14,5069,437,28214,64510,237,68014,36210,730,238

In 1950 Wellington ranked as the first port of New Zealand as regards aggregate tonnage of shipping entered, followed by Auckland, Lyttelton, Dunedin, Napier, New Plymouth, Nelson, Bluff, and Timaru in that order.

It should be remembered in any comparison of port statistics of shipping tonnages that certain ports are termini of inter-Island passenger services, and this factor adds considerably to the volume of shipping traffic credited to these ports—viz., Wellington, Lyttelton, Picton, and Nelson.

Cargo Statistics.—In order to obtain statistics of the total trade of each port, a system of monthly returns from the various port authorities was instituted in 1922 showing under a number of headings the quantity of goods handled, distinguishing inwards and outwards cargo, coastal and overseas, and transhipments. The resultant statistics show on a tonnage basis the total trade of each port, including all exports, whether placed on the overseas vessel there, sent to a central port for shipment overseas, or despatched coastwise to another port for consumption in New Zealand. No figures were collected during the years 1943–45.

The following table gives a summary of the tonnage of cargo handled at all ports for the years 1940–42 and 1946–50.

Year.Inwards.*Transhipments.Outwards.*Total Manifest Tonnage.
Coastal.Overseas.Coastal.Overseas.

* Excluding transhipments.

 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
19402,124,2052,269,300286,0362,094,7721,015,9818,076,330
19412,210,2701,903,044310,7142,173,675875,1937,783,610
19422,182,6731,980,120350,4302,092,3381,137,4408,093,431
19462,062,8832,077,881209,9112,008,9711,112,8647,682,421
19472,114,9642,790,934231,6411,943,3891,099,1508,411,719
19482,034,8502,956,793264,0561,952,1141,150,3858,622,254
19491,922,3393,266,667227,5011,884,1671,108,1958,636,370
19501,923,2573,504,580229,5881,897,1001,203,2038,987,316

The next table shows for each port the total cargo inwards and outwards in 1950. The high proportion of transhipments in the case of Wellington is very noticeable.

Port.Inwards.*Transhipments.Outwards.*Total Manifest Tonnage.
Coastal.Overseas.Coastal.Overseas.

* Excluding transhipments.

 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Mangonui5,747  2,415 8,162
Russell1,155  340 1,495
Hokianga1,445  1,052 2,497
Whangarei54,1098,669172103,690 166,812
Auckland610,5831,516,84629,343235,858408,4222,830,395
Onehunga21,475327527,74919349,754
Raglan9,141502 595 10,238
Thames3,415  816 4,231
Tauranga15,1891,024 3,50110,92430,638
Whakatane11,347  11,097 22,444
Opotiki7,075  4,697 11,772
Tokomaru Bay3,645 4,124724 12,617
Tolaga Bay699  717 1,416
Gisborne53,458  18,639 72,097
Napier56,88468,13015,5819,537105,977271,690
New Plymouth29,617250,086 4,81873,184357,705
Patea1,204  16,033 17,237
Wanganui52,968  29,010 81,978
Wellington452,896895,712166,522303,063292,8562,277,571
Picton34,539 339,208 73,753
Wairau5,084  5,592 10,676
Nelson92,65619,9612,98678,445 197,034
Motueka6,490 8223,655 30,309
Waitapu3,062  1,253 4,315
Westport7,168  310,551 317,719
Greymouth14,46030 234,5912,313251,394
Hokitika1,040  1,848 2,888
Lyttelton193,916397,610108246,780106,853945,375
Timaru28,22419,215 60,50157,987165,927
Oamaru4,7905,162 25,4643035,446
Dunedin91,850277,78610,66275,90560,858527,723
Bluff45,46943,520 17,59683,606190,191
Half-moon Bay2,457  1,360 3,817
      Totals1,923,2573,504,580229,5881,897,1001,203,2038,987,316

In any consideration of these statistics it is advisable to note that the term “ton” does not invariably denote a weight of 2,240 lb. For a portion only of the goods handled is it practicable to obtain the actual weights involved. In other cases close approximations are made by applying uniform formulæ as to the number of bales, cases, sacks, &c., to the ton. In a few instances the tons are “short” tons of 2,000 lb. A considerable portion of trading goods, however, is recorded in “measurement” tons, 40 cubic feet of space being regarded as the equivalent of a ton. As the practice is uniform, comparisons from year to year are not appreciably affected, nor are comparisons between ports, unless there is a radical difference in the class of trade carried on, in which case recourse should be had to consideration of items of trade. Since a much larger proportion of imports are in “measurement” tons, thus artificially swelling the figures, direct comparison of import cargo tonnage with export is invalid.

The penultimate column of the preceding table shows, excluding coastal to overseas transhipments, the quantity of cargo placed on board the overseas vessels at the respective ports, while a table on page 285 shows the number and tonnage of overseas vessels calling at each port. These tables give a good indication of the extent to which each port enters directly into the overseas trade of New Zealand. The following table shows for the year 1950 the total shipments from each port overseas and coastwise (including transhipments) of nine principal commodities exported overseas by New Zealand, and thus shows the extent to which the various ports handle overseas exports, although the goods may be sent outwards coastwise for transhipment at another port.

Port.Wool.Frozen Meat.Canned Meat.Butter.Cheese.Milk Products.Tallow.Hides, Skins, and Pelts.Seeds.All Other Goods.Totals.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Mangonui112  354   8 1,9412,415
Russell24        316340
Hokianga74  58776  2 3131,052
Whangarei699  4,780 821219 98,270103,862
Auckland33,94172,09313,163126,86116,50775,63411,10211,130528312,664673,623
Onehunga 153 146367 3127,37627,947
Raglan1    412   182595
Thames9     115 791816
Tauranga14        14,41114,425
Whakatane167  6,1331,262245527 3,25811,097
Opotiki220  2,881 3365637 1,1674,697
Tokomaru Bay1,3162,920    290224 984,848
Tolaga Bay480        237717
Gisborne5,3442,319293176  1,0127401418,61418,639
Napier39,21853,9042682,455347 4,8564,00035025,697131,095
New Plymouth1,35625,382 11,96828,1144,4362,1581,306 3,28278,002
Patea    16,026    716,033
Wanganui12,880  2,4687,960 417585 4,70029,010
Wellington54,73779,72534418,35747,7227,7015,97610,712948536,219762,441
Picton5933,255  412 21018 34,72339,211
Wairan57       4535,0825,592
Nelson1,0501,801 71566915640444712176,06881,431
Motueka118      5123,61323,737
Waitapu192  719     3421,253
Westport      22  310,529310,551
Greymouth      352 236,867236,904
Hokitika       2 1,8461,848
Lyttelton23,48928,0143219001,562 5,0814,7057,476282,193353,741
Timaru13,01330,041 1,15088762,4031,1561,92867,904118,488
Oamaru4   93  914825,24025,494
Dunedin22,77319,594702062,0131,2241,5902,9524,13492,869147,425
Bluff16,39143,0102151559,8634,7414,3381,9772,24618,266101,202
Half-moon Bay26        1,3341,360
      Totals228,298362,05914,727180,865133,65995,34039,97840,07118,4752,216,4193,329,891

Transhipments.—Transhipments of cargo during 1950 totalled 229,588 tons, of which 166,522 tons were transhipped at Wellington. The total manifest tonnage in 1950 was 8,987,316, as compared with 8,636,370 tons in 1949.

Transhipments fall into the following four classes:—

  • Coastal to Coastal.—Cargo which has been loaded in a vessel at one New Zealand port and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge at another New Zealand port.

  • Coastal to Overseas.—Cargo which has been loaded in a vessel at a New Zealand port and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge at a port outside New Zealand.

  • Overseas to Coastal.—Cargo which has come from overseas and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge at a New Zealand port.

  • Overseas to Overseas.—Cargo which has come from overseas and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge outside New Zealand.

The first class represents purely coastal trade while goods in the last class do not enter New Zealand, but each of the others may be added to the appropriate figures of overseas trade shown previously, to ascertain the total tonnage of goods arriving from or departing overseas. Thus the total inward tonnage from overseas in 1950 was 3,613,596, and the total outward tonnage going overseas 1,304,204. Comparative figures for 1949 were 3,368,683 and 1,209,721 tons respectively.

The following table shows for 1949 and 1950 the transhipment trade of each port affected.

Port.Coastal to Coastal.Coastal to Overseas.Overseas to Coastal.Overseas to Overseas.Totals.
1949.1950.1949.1950.1949.1950.1949.1950.1949.1950.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Whangarei    800172  800172
Auckland2,8901,7417,1733,29421,66621,7703,7612,53835,49029,343
Onehunga40570     1105
Raglan16       16 
Tokomaru Bay5,0824,1243     5,0854,124
Gisborne7       7 
Napier45 12,84312,7471,2372,834  14,12515,581
Wellington7,8546,75681,33384,96075,11874,4148392164,313166,522
Picton 3       3
Nelson2,6122,986      2,6122,986
Motueka4682      4682
Lyttelton9891754 25391  1,296108
Dunedin60992750 2,9429,735  3,60110,662
      Totals20,19016,641101,526101,001102,016109,0163,7692,930227,501229,588

The next table shows the various items of merchandise, &c., which comprised the transhipment trade in 1949 and 1950.

Item.Coastal to Coastal.Coastal to Overseas.Overseas to Coastal.Overseas to Overseas.Totals.
1949.1950.1949.1950.1949.1950.1949.1950.1949.1950.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Beans and peas5853,6484,132144174  3,8504,311
Butter  2,8824,707    2,8824,707
Cement     44 56 100
Cheese4 27,57423,851    27,57823,851
Coal5,4502,6381,885295    7,3352,933
Flour560391 1258 13090948482
Fruit, preserved1241921832,9494,4351233,0874,640
Fruit, fresh53014,29224,7293,0451,634  17,34226,393
Hemp, fibre and tow   4     4
Hides, skins, and pelts2051582,2521,683  27142,4841,855
Manures, artificial148356  4,39310,416  4,54110,772
Meat, frozen (beef, mutton, and lamb)3,8672,9008,32010,346    12,18713,246
Motor-spirits, kerosene, and other fuel oils 27 18,65424,371 27618,66124,649
Seeds1167760067233561 750805
Sugar23286   2031235107
Tallow3852512,5372,088    2,9222,339
Timber1601431,6081,0738,64312,79413011410,54114,124
Wines, spirits, and beer11184  796749138171,045850
Wool71482132,23524,30510 266 33,22525,126
All other goods8,0518,6803,6842,93263,09154,3233,0622,35977,88868,294
      Totals20,19016,641101,526101,001102,016109,0163,7692,930227,501229,588

Value of Imports.—With the recent closing of the Customs Houses at Kaipara, Patea, and Hokitika, New Zealand now has seventeen ports of entry for Customs purposes—seven in the North Island and nine in the South Island, plus the port of Waitangi in the Chatham Islands.

The following table gives the total value of imports of merchandise for the several ports of entry during the five years 1946–50. Waitangi had no overseas imports during this period.

Port.1946.1947.*1948.*1949.*1950.*

* Provisional.

 £££££
Auckland27,401,54849,933,28447,281,29743,278,68459,043,019
Tauranga4,5472,0214,53922,15234,755
Gisborne62,647135,694131,467119,175180,622
Napier417,430857,181862,6611,189,8741,790,884
New Plymouth855,7441,277,6861,213,6651,698,1122,514,937
Patea11,72819,18422,43020,68227,223
Wanganui207,978394,584453,802415,453514,032
Wellington28,804,95449,602,35847,940,10245,101,81558,934,271
Wairau (including Picton)18,13133,72040,94736,44439,448
Nelson146,465268,604280,471296,935507,009
Westport14,49615,66130,29875,529137,115
Greymouth44,79982,420125,12892,224114,013
Hokitika1,4343,0342,7584,424 
Lyttelton7,723,83315,403,23017,381,94715,864,42020,414,349
Timaru204,748476,057260,845417,042390,467
Oamaru32,46456,41468,18154,918229,692
Dunedin5,012,9169,057,42410,720,8979,729,74311,348,402
Invercargill605,4711,106,2851,379,2571,295,5121,675,813
      Totals71,571,333128,724,841128,200,692119,713,138157,896,051

Three-quarters of the total imports usually come in by way of Wellington or Auckland. For some years prior to the Second World War the value of imports received at Wellington exceeded the Auckland figure by a considerable margin, but in recent years there has been little difference between the two ports in this respect. On the basis of import values, the next most important ports are Lyttelton, Dunedin, New Plymouth, Napier, and Invercargill.

Perhaps it should be mentioned that imports by air are credited to the port in whose district the air-port is located, Thus goods coming in through Mechanic's Bay and Whenuapai are included in the Auckland figures, imports through Evans Bay in the Wellington figures, and through Harewood in the Lyttelton figures.

Value of Exports.—From 1914 to 1921 the Customs Department allocated exports, as far as possible, to the appropriate district of production, whether exported through the port for such district or not, and no complementary figures are available to show the export trade from each individual port for this period.

The system, however, did not prove satisfactory in practice, and the method of recording exports according to the port at which the goods are placed on board the vessel by which they leave New Zealand was reverted to from the 1st January, 1922.

The following table shows for the years 1946–50 the value of total exports according to the port at which they were actually placed on board the overseas vessels.

While, in the case of imports, goods received through parcels-post are allocated according to ports of entry, similar treatment is not possible in the case of exports. The total of goods exported by parcel-post is accordingly shown under the heading "parcels-post."

Port.1946.1947.*1948.*1949.*1950.*

* Provisional.

 £££££
Auckland34,089,09842,129,05551,624,66352,593,28456,018,542
Tauranga  23,710163,229126,852
Gisborne 106 125639
Napier8,392,90812,685,90214,710,82914,766,17220,710,860
New Plymouth4,957,9988,050,8358,089,9348,622,73610,600,710
Patea  35  
Wanganui 11414162342
Wellington23,532,18331,260,49032,421,36930,521,33643,346,253
Wairau (including Picton)125,88010 32,23714,310
Nelson50,6371,275 7857
Westport   7,780 
Greymouth555,793374,637287,16452,30358,950
Hokitika175,180228,58227,332  
Lyttelton11,826,51212,916,40615,320,01413,527,91116,407,330
Timaru3,296,7474,429,9555,405,2495,767,0988,509,571
Oamaru1531,57343 2,055
Dunedin7,052,7078,236,7578,947,4608,972,56613,189,461
Invercargill6,957,6878,751,07910,252,79711,986,39714,597,940
Parcels-post288,783339,488712,249276,370168,687
      Totals101,302,266129,406,264147,822,862147,290,491183,752,509

Auckland occupies a commanding position in the export trade of New Zealand, usually one third of the value of all exports going through that port. Wellington occupies second place with approximately one fifth, followed by Napier with 11 per cent., Lyttelton, 9 per cent., Invercargill, 8 per cent., Dunedin, 7 per cent., and New Plymouth, 6 per cent. The concentration of the export trade in the ports of Auckland and Wellington is less marked than with the import trade, the proportion for these two ports in 1950 being 54.1 per cent. for exports and 74.7 per cent. for imports.

NEW ZEALAND SHIPPING REGISTER.—The number and tonnage of vessels on the New Zealand register at 31st December, 1950, were as follows:—

Port of Registry.Sailing-vessels.Steam-vessels.Motor-vessels.
Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.
Auckland331,9891,599389,0454,22323518,6448,866
Napier   321412793,0751,516
Wellington837529849121,74863,9224449,02626,772
Nelson   78,8873,788133,8891,650
Lyttelton31,7021,62862,9321,077163,3181,641
Timaru   19424881113
Dunedin   910,5595,629117,8414,321
Invercargill   31,0584301028885
    Totals444,0663,525116155,38579,68433986,09244,854

Auckland is the port of registry of the majority of the vessels forming New Zealand's “mosquito” fleet, the average net tonnage of the 306 vessels on the Auckland register being only 48 tons. At Auckland, Wellington, and Dunedin a number of the vessels of the Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand are registered, while several are also registered in Australia. The figures for vessels registered in New Zealand as at the end of each of the last eleven years are as follows:—

Year.Sailing-vessels.Steam-and Motor-vessels.Totals.
Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.
1940474,1343,592449185,77695,197496189,91098,789
1941454,0873,553439179,98792,252484184,07495,805
1942454,0873,553429175,34389,623474179,43093,176
1943454,0873,553410159,62580,606455163,71284,159
1944454,0873,553407159,51780,552452163,60484,105
1945454,0873,553406159,20380,376451163,29083,929
1946444,0753,541419161,68581,728463165,76085,269
1947454,0913,547433181,28991,542478185,38095,089
1948434,0493,515430190,38896,655473194,437100,170
1949444,0663,525438201,797102,079482205,863105,604
1950444,0663,525455241,477124,538499245,543128,063

In the next table vessels registered in New Zealand at the end of 1950 have been classified according to whether employed in the coastal or the foreign trade. The totals given therein do not agree with those shown above, as vessels employed exclusively within “restricted limits” have not been included.

Size of Vessel.Employed in the Coastal Trade only.Employed partly in the Coastal and partly in the Foreign Trade.Employed in the Foreign Trade only.
Number of Vessels.Net Tonnage.Number of Vessels.Net Tonnage.Number of Vessels.Net Tonnage.
Under 50 tons36743    
50 and under 100 tons241,723    
100 " 200 "263,4543458  
200 " 300 "51,353    
300 " 400 "144,945    
400 " 600 "41,929    
600 " 800 "85,81617531744
800 " 1,000 "19321944  
1,000 " 1,200 "44,587  11,100
1,200 " 1,500 "810,65922,65911,293
1,500 " 2,000 "610,16511,866611,519
2,000 tons and over26,023  1140,019
      Totals13852,32986,6802054,675

The number of vessels coming within the above category was 166, of an aggregate net tonnage of 113,684, as compared with 186 vessels and 83,832 tons in 1939. The decrease in the number of vessels is confined mainly to those engaged in the coastal trade only, 138 in 1950, as against 155 in 1939, but the employment of a larger type of vessel in this trade is reflected in the aggregate net tonnage, 52,329, as compared with 32,091. Compared with the position prior to the Second World War, vessels employed partly in the coastal trade and partly in the foreign trade show a reduction of 1 in number and of 1,356 in aggregate net tonnage, while the number of vessels employed in foreign trade has decreased by 2 but the net tonnage has increased by 10,970 tons.

MARINE OFFICERS' CERTIFICATES.—The examinations for masters, mates, engineers, &c., of vessels are controlled by the Marine Department, and the regulations relating to these examinations are based upon those of the United Kingdom Ministry of Transport with such modifications as are necessitated by local conditions; but such Ministry recognizes only the following New Zealand certificates as of Imperial validity: extra master; master, first mate, and second mate; first- and second-class steam engineers; and first- and second-class motor engineers. It is a condition of such recognition that candidates must possess service qualifications and pass examinations similar and not inferior to those prescribed by the United Kingdom Ministry of Transport.

New regulations for the examination of marine engineers were issued by the Ministry of Transport in the year 1938, and corresponding regulations were made in this country and came into force on the 1st October, 1939. These regulations provide for the issue of combined steam- and motor-engineers' certificates (Imperial validity). Provision is also made whereby candidates for first- and second-class examinations (Imperial validity) may take the examinations in two parts. Amendments to the rules for the examination of masters and mates were brought into force on 11th October, 1940.

During the year ended 31st March, 1951, 147 examinations for certificates as masters and mates were held, compared with 130 in the previous year. A review of the results of these examinations is as follows, with figures for the 1949–50 year shown in parentheses. Of the 100 (91) who passed, 49 (47) obtained certificates as masters and mates of foreign-going ships, 20 (21) as masters and mates of home-trade ships, 11 (7) as masters of river steamers, nil (4) for compass deviation, 1 (1) for fore and aft endorsement, 15 (11) as master of an oil engine vessel under 6 tons register, 3 in 1950–51 for square-rigged endorsement, and 1 for New Zealand coastal pilot. In addition, 17 (19) secured a partial pass in the examination for foreign-going masters and mates, and 10 (8) for home-trade masters and mates.

For the examinations of marine engineers during 1950–51 and 1949–50 (figures for the latter shown in parentheses), 166 (165) candidates presented themselves for certificates of Imperial validity, of whom 47 (48) secured a full pass and 37 (50) a partial pass. There were 211 examinations for certificates of New Zealand validity only, and 159 certificates were issued, in each year. These included 69 (74) third-class steam, 8 (2) river steam, 33 (26) first and second coastal motor, and 49 (57) river oil certificates.

SURVEY OF SHIPS.—Survey certificates were issued in 1950–51 and 1949–50 (figures for the latter in parentheses) for 4 (3) foreign-going passenger ships, 4 (3) steam and 14 (7) motor foreign-going cargo ships, 32 (28) steam and 102 (80) motor home-trade ships, and 35 (30) steam and 325 (311) motor restricted-limits ships and launches. Surveys were also made in 328 (282) cases for seaworthiness, efficiency of equipment, tonnage, radio-telegraphy, &c., under section 226 of the Shipping and Seamen Act, 1908.

LIGHTHOUSES.—Along the New Zealand coast there are sixty-two coastal lights of various types. In twenty-eight cases the lights are watched or attended lights and the apparatus is classed as of the dioptric order—i.e., a central lamp sending its ray through a combination of surrounding lenses—while the remaining thirty-four coastal lights, exclusive of harbour entrance lights, are automatic lights. The buildings housing the lights are of varying kinds, as necessitated by their respective situations.

Fog-signals of the diaphone type are established on Tiri Tiri Island, at Pencarrow Head, Godley Head, and Taiaroa Head; while radio beacons have been established at Cape Reinga, Tiri Tiri Island, Portland Island, Cuvier Island, Mokohinau, Baring Head, Stephen's Island, Cape Campbell, and Puysegur Point.

The most powerful light is that of Stephen's Island, which, placed some 600 ft. above high water, is visible at a distance of 32 nautical miles. Next in order come Cape Reinga (altitude 542 ft.), visibility, 31 miles; Cape Brett (altitude 490 ft.) and East Cape (505 ft.), both visible at 30 miles; Cuvier Island (altitude 390 ft.) and Mokohinau (altitude 400 ft.), both of which have a visibility of 26 miles; Godley Head (altitude 317 ft.) and Portland Island (altitude 300 ft.), both visible at 24 miles. Nine other lights have a range of 20 miles or over, being Centre Island, Baring Head, Kaipara (North Head), and Akaroa, all 23 miles; Cape Palliser, Brothers, and Nugget Point, all 22 miles; Tiri Tiri Matangi, and Cape Saunders, 20 miles each. The remaining 11 watched lights have visibilities as follows, the distance being recorded in miles: Moeraki and Castlepoint, 19 each; Manukau (South Head), Cape Campbell, Dog Island, and Puysegur Point, all 18 miles; Kahurangi and Cape Egmont, 16 miles each; Farewell Spit, 15 miles; Waipapa, 14 miles; and French Pass, 8 miles.

All manually-attended coastal lighthouses are equipped with signalling flags and lamps, the keepers being competent to transmit or receive messages. In addition, there are nine of the principal lighthouses equipped with radio-telephone systems of communication. Coastal lights—i.e., those outside the bounds of the various harbour authorities—are maintained by the Marine Department.

The expenditure on all lighthouses under the control of the Marine Department during the year 1950–51 was as follows: Salaries and wages, £31,320; stores and general maintenance, £61,381; radio-beacons, improvements, &c., £5,505; working-expenses of tender, £4,464; administrative expenses, £7,031; depreciation, £25,018; total, £134,719. Light dues for 1950–51 totalled £99,723, an increase of £3,557 on the previous year.

WRECKS.—In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in New Zealand waters a Collector of Customs, Superintendent of Mercantile Marine, or other person empowered by the Minister of Marine, institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a Magistrate, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer from whose wrongful act or default damage has resulted.

Should any wreck occur on the coast, the Receiver of Wrecks for that district, usually an officer of the Customs, has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and property.

The numbers of shipping casualties reported to the Marine Department during the years ended 31st March 1950 and 1951, were 40 in each year, of which 31 in the earlier and 39 in the later year occurred on or near the coasts of New Zealand. There was 1 total loss in 1949–50 and 2 in 1950–51. No lives were lost during the earlier year but there were 32 lives lost in the later year principally as a result of a launch tragedy at Mt. Maunganui and the loss of two yachts during the Wellington–Lyttelton yacht race. A summary of the casualties is given for the two years.

Class of Casualty.1949–50.1950–51.
No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.
Strandings—    
  Total loss  3111
  Damaged74,99551,442
  Undamaged55,156310,749
Collisions—    
  Total loss    
  Damaged1520,7761120,866
  Undamaged2232266
Fires—    
  Total loss16  
  Damaged19,44124,584
  Undamaged16,243  
Miscellaneous87,048149,852
      Total casualties4053,6884047,870

Chapter 11. SECTION 11—RAILWAYS

Table of Contents

RAILWAY history in New Zealand dates from the year 1860. In that year a contract was let for the construction of a line from Christchurch to Lyttelton, and the first portion of this line was opened on the 1st December, 1863. A line from Invercargill to Bluff Harbour was opened on the 5th February, 1867. The Provincial Council of Auckland in 1863 began the construction of a line from Auckland to Drury.

Although practically the whole of the railways are now State-owned, some were built by private enterprise. Of these the more important were constructed by the Midland and the Wellington-Manawatu Railway Companies.

In the year 1876 the railways of New Zealand passed from the control of the Provincial Governments to the Public Works Department. A few years later the opened lines were handed over to the Working Railways Department, and in 1889 a Board of three Railways Commissioners was appointed. This form of management, however, lasted for only five years, at the end of which period a General Manager, responsible to the Minister of Railways, took over the administration, and this system continued for nearly thirty years. In 1925 the system of railway management was reorganized under the control of a Railways Board of three members, but in 1928 the system of control by a General Manager was reverted to. Three years later legislation was passed constituting the Government Railways Board of five members. This form of management was in operation from 1st June, 1931, to 31st March, 1936, after which date the system of control by a General Manager, responsible to the Minister of Railways, was again introduced.

The Government announced on the 23rd January, 1952, that a Royal Commission was to be appointed to investigate the present situation of the Railways and their future development and sphere of operation.

MILEAGE OF STATE RAILWAYS.—At the 31st March, 1951, there were 3,531 miles of State railways open for traffic, divided into three distinct sections, as follows:—

Section.Length (Miles).
North Island main line and branches1,688
Section.Length (Miles).
South Island main line and branches1,783
Nelson60
      Total, South Island1,843

Government railways are constructed by the Ministry of Works, and are transferred to the Railways Department when completed.

The gauge is 3 ft. 6 in., and the standard rail, adopted in 1937, for heavy-traffic main lines, weighs 85 lb. per lineal yard. The previous standard for main lines was 70 lb. per lineal yard. There are 273 miles of track laid with 85 lb. rails and 1,844 miles with 70 lb. rails. In 1950 it was decided to adopt new standard rails weighing 91 lb. per lineal yard for main lines and 72 lb. per lineal yard for secondary and branch lines. Sleepers, which are laid down to the number of 2,400 to the mile, are principally of Australian hardwood and New Zealand silver pine and totara.

RAILWAY DEVELOPMENT.—The Christchurch–Lyttelton section of railway, including the Lyttelton Tunnel, was electrified in 1928–29, the Otira - Arthur Pass section, including the Otira Tunnel, in 1923, the Wellington–Johnsonville section in 1938, and the Wellington–Paekakariki section in 1940.

Work is proceeding on the electrification and duplication of the line, approximately 20 miles, between Wellington and Upper Hutt. Portion of this line, between Petone and Haywards, will be re-routed over the Hutt Valley suburban branch line, which is now open to Taita for steam-train services.

Construction of a tunnel through the Rimutaka Range in the North Island has commenced. This tunnel, 5 miles 36 chains in length, will be part of a deviation to eliminate the difficult hill section between Upper Hutt and Cross Creek. The proposed route deviates from the existing line at Upper Hutt and links with it again near Featherston. The new section will obviate the use of the special Fell engines and vans, with centre rail equipment, at present operating between Summit and Cross Creek.

Extensive exotic forests planted in the Putaruru-Taupo district of the North Island have reached a millable stage, and to handle the output from the timber-mills a branch railway of approximately 18 miles is being constructed from Putaruru to Kinleith. For this purpose a private tramway serving portion of the area has been taken over and is being reconstructed to railway standards. The first section of 5 miles from Putaruru to Lichfield was opened for traffic on 12th June, 1950. It is also proposed to construct a branch line of approximately 38 miles from Edgecumbe to Murupara to serve the timber and paper-pulp industries being established to exploit the resources of the Kaingaroa exotic forest.

COST OF CONSTRUCTION.—The capital cost of State railways as at the end of each of the last five financial years is given below.

31st March, 1947.31st March, 1948.31st March, 1949.31st March, 1950.31st March, 1951.

* Equal to £22,907 per mile of open line.

Open for traffic—£££££
  Railway72,099,79073,838,31775,364,18277,624,30380,885,096*
  Lake Wakatipu steamer service20,39620,39620,39621,87821,878
  Subsidiary services3,224,1613,220,4223,401,8463,895,6864,075,223
  General9,8969,8969,8969,8969,896
      Totals75,354,24377,089,03178,796,32081,551,76384,992,093
Lines under construction1,587,6551,569,8971,371,9191,738,7222,282,738
      Grand totals76,941,89878,658,92880,168,23983,290,48587,274,831

So varied are the geographical features of New Zealand that a great disparity exists in the cost of constructing the individual sections of lines. The numerous mountain-chains and the innumerable rivers make railway-construction in general both difficult and expensive. The Otira Tunnel is 5 miles 26 chains long, and the Rimutaka Tunnel, which is now under construction, is to be 5 miles 36 chains. The length of the longest bridge, over the Rakaia River, 5,720 ft., and the largest viaduct, the Mohaka, is 887 ft. long and 318 ft. above water-level.

ROLLING-STOCK.—Information as to the rolling-stock in use on the State railways as at 31st March, 1951, is given in the following table.

* In addition, there are 5 battery electric shunting locomotives in use in workshops, 46 diesel and petrol shunting tractors in use at stations, and 3 Hunslett locomotives used mainly by the Way and Works branch.

Locomotives— 
  Tender466
  Tank165
  Electric21
  Diesel shunting4
      Total*656
Passenger-vehicles— 
  Sleepers15
  Combination day-sleepers3
  First-class138
  Second-class1,246
  Composite48
  Rail cars21
  Electric multiple units71
  Postal8
  Ambulance5
      Total1,555
Wagons— 
  Horse-boxes218
  Cattle897
  Sheep3,333
  Frozen and chilled meat1,194
  Cool-storage1,118
  Covered goods874
  High-side20,113
  High-side bogie352
  Low-side1,717
  Flat-top bogie943
  Brake-vans468
  Other3,974
      Total35,201

From 1901 to 1939 most of the rolling-stock, including carriages, diesel-mechanical rail cars, wagons, and locomotives, was built in the Department's workshops. Special types were imported from England, notably multiple unit electric coaches and the prototypes of electric locomotives.

In anticipation of heavy Centennial Exhibition traffic, forty J type locomotives were imported from England in 1939.

During the war years the resources of the Railway workshops were directed towards munitions and the urgent repairs of rolling-stock. Construction programmes consequently fell far behind schedule and little headway has since been made owing to staff and material shortages. To alleviate an acute post-war wagon shortage, orders were placed in England for 3,000 four-wheeled LA wagons; deliveries commenced in 1947 and were completed in 1949. The final assembly of these wagons was carried out in New Zealand Railway workshops. Further increases in traffic have made it necessary to import additional rolling-stock, and during the last three years orders have been placed for a total of 4,880 wagons of various types; 820 of these wagons had been delivered by April, 1951. Also on order overseas are 16 JA oil-burning locomotives, 7 electric locomotives, 31 diesel-electric main-line locomotives, and 15 diesel-electric shunting locomotives. To provide fast passenger-train services where traffic warrants 35 diesel-mechanical twin-car sets are being imported. Some of these rail cars are being manufactured with a centre rail brake to permit their use on the Wellington-Wairarapa service via the Rimutaka incline.

The heaviest types of locomotive used in New Zealand have been designed and built in the New Zealand Railway workshops, the K class weighing 140 tons in working trim, the KA 145 tons, and KB (with booster) 146 tons. The twenty-first locomotive of a programme of 35 class JA (109 tons) was completed at Hillside in June, 1951. This type is similar to the imported J-class locomotives.

The following steam locomotives of comparatively recent construction haul most of the traffic.

Class.Type.Traffic.Weight.Tractive Force.
   Tons.lb.
AB4–6–2 superheated; simple, with tenderMixed8720,000
G4–6–2 superheated; simple, with tenderMixed9825,800
J and JA4–8–2 superheated; simple, with tenderMixed10924,920
K4–8–4 superheated; simple, with tenderMixed14030,815
KA4–8–4 superheated; simple, with tenderMixed14530,815
KB4–8–4 superheated; simple, with tender (fitted with booster)Mixed14636,815
WAB4–6–4 superheated; simple tank engineMixed7422,250
C2–6–2 superheated; simple, with tenderShunting6615,330

Standard carriages are 56 ft. in length, fitted with chair seats to accommodate thirty-one to fifty-six passengers, steam-heated, and lighted by electricity. Some 760 carriages were equipped with electric light at 31st March, 1951.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.—The total revenue from and expenditure on the railways (including subsidiary services) during each of the years 1940–41 to 1950–51 were as follows:—

Year Ended 31st March,Gross Revenue.Expenditure.Net Revenue.

* The losses were recovered in full as a subsidy from vote, "Economic Stabilization."

 £££
194111,160,2189,465,5741,694,644
194211,938,33810,056,0341,882,304
194314,128,99311,302,4132,826,580
194415,325,30612,757,3362,567,970
194514,459,75013,260,2771,199,473
194615,444,84714,384,8441,060,003
194715,680,05715,944,270-264,213*
194817,070,87217,710,897-640,025*
194918,597,72819,700,594-1,102,866*
195019,541,18420,596,740-1,055,556*
195122,085,49122,079,7015,790

Although net revenue was £5,790 in 1950–51, interest on capital liability amounted to £2,882,476, interest charges thus exceeding net revenue by £2,876,686. A sum of £1,871,266 was set aside in 1950–51 for depreciation and track-renewals, while expenditure from these funds amounted to £997,820. The amounts standing to the credit of the Depreciation and Renewals Accounts at 31st March, 1951, were £4,623,753 and £548,613 respectively.

The revenue and expenditure for the last five years, distinguishing between railway operation and other items, are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31st March,Gross Revenue.Expenditure.Net Revenue.
Railway Operation.Subsidiary Services, &c.Railway Operation.Subsidiary Services, &c.Railway Operation.Subsidiary Services, &c.

* Net loss.

 ££££££
194712,823,7842,856,27313,644,7792,299,491-820,995*556,782
194813,964,2803,106,59215,090,0912,620,806-1,125,811*485,786
194915,338,8823,258,84616,788,2562,912,338-1,449,374*346,508
195016,062,0663,479,11817,360,9133,235,827-1,298,847*243,291
195118,500,3443,585,14718,725,4163,354,285-225,072*230,862

The various subsidiary services now conducted by the Railways Department, with the revenue and expenditure of each during the last two years, are shown below. Full working-costs, including interest, are charged against these services, and the interest so charged is taken into miscellaneous receipts as revenue.

Service.Revenue.Expenditure.
1949–50.1950–51.1949–50.1950–51.
 ££££
Lake Wakatipu steamers14,79816,82420,03820,803
Refreshment service367,917368,880386,083390,496
Bookstall service247,707244,233244,171241,370
Advertising service62,94559,62747,07349,708
Departmental dwellings181,260188,273380,454425,805
Leases of bookstalls, &c.64,49671,63354,46366,086
Road services—Passengers and goods2,033,8912,107,5132,103,5452,160,017
Miscellaneous receipts506,104528,164  
      Totals3,479,1183,585,1473,235,8273,354,285

Revenue.—In the following table the railway operating revenue during 1950–51 and each of the preceding ten years is classified according to the class of traffic, &c., from which it was derived.

Year Ended 31st March,Passenger-fares.Parcels, Luggage, and Mails.Goods and Live-stock.Labour, Demurrage, &c.Totals.
 £££££
19412,345,718317,8196,818,603212,0509,694,190
19422,658,778325,8977,174,060225,14510,383,880
19433,710,509397,1428,044,563262,86612,415,080
19444,275,482435,9288,479,387274,18213,464,979
19453,504,453411,0218,261,087271,74612,448,307
19463,912,509426,6198,515,673249,78613,104,587
19473,253,748440,7318,903,762225,54312,823,784
19482,687,767553,36610,486,744236,40313,964,280
19492,759,478560,59311,747,129271,68215,338,882
19502,847,925480,86912,434,487298,78516,062,066
19512,662,987532,55614,978,599326,20218,500,344

As from 14th September, 1947, passenger fares (excluding suburban) were raised by 15 per cent., and goods and parcels rates by 20 per cent. Increases in freights ranging from 12½ per cent. to 33⅓ per cent. took place as from 15th May, 1950, and other freight adjustments from the 8th October, 1950, while further increases in freight rates varying from 5 to 20 per cent. were made as from 16th December, 1951. Suburban season tickets were increased by 15 per cent. from 15th May, 1950, and nearly all passenger fares (including suburban) increased by 15 per cent. as from 2nd March, 1952. Single service-car fares also rose by up to 8⅓ per cent. as from the latter date. These increases were made necessary by the continued upward trend of expenditure.

The revenue from passenger-fares during the year 1950–51 represented an expenditure on railway travel of £1 7s. 9d. per head of mean population, including Maoris. The total railway operating revenue was equal to £9 12s. 11d. per head.

Expenditure.—The total railway expenditure in 1950–51 represented 99.97 per cent. of the gross earnings, and the operating-expenses 101.22 per cent. of operating revenue. It is of interest to trace the movement over a series of years, as in the following statement. The figures show the percentage of operating expenditure to operating revenue.

Year Ended 31st March,Per Cent.
193194.47
193291.56
193390.54
193486.65
193586.98
193688.46
193791.81
193896.05
193995.73
194090.66
194186.72
194285.73
194380.71
194484.41
194593.96
194695.77
1947106.40
1948108.06
1949109.44
1950108.09
1951101.22

The operating expenditure under various heads is now given for 1950–51 and for each of the previous ten years.

Year Ended 31st March,Maintenance of Ways and Works.Maintenance of Signals.Maintenance of Rolling-stock.Locomotive Transportation.Traffic Transportation.Head Office and General Charges.*Totals.

* Including superannuation subsidy.

 £££££££
19411,544,202213,6232,043,9762,043,9962,322,492238,5018,406,790
19421,615,382238,1692,211,4762,113,9182,479,852243,7958,902,592
19431,829,311271,4992,380,2602,430,3472,862,653245,58910,019,659
19442,146,448326,1902,868,0062,555,9563,207,782261,53511,365,917
19452,250,736332,0152,839,5912,473,5813,460,705340,26711,696,895
19462,524,485375,4993,055,3032,627,8683,618,584347,98512,549,724
19472,466,020376,4583,241,1392,996,0164,138,817426,32913,644,779
19482,528,407426,8413,298,7003,786,7564,550,376499,01115,090,091
19492,904,028482,4923,885,4934,032,8644,956,482526,89716,788,256
19502,966,062540,0743,889,1524,064,9015,355,345545,37917,360,913
19513,171,856566,6874,217,9514,605,6955,615,272547,95518,725,416

The increase in expenditure in recent years has been due chiefly to an increased wages bill, mainly the result of higher rates of pay and improved conditions of employment, to the high cost of locomotive fuels, and to a general rise in the price of stores. In an endeavour to overcome an unsatisfactory coal position, the Department has been obliged to import coal from overseas and, in addition, has converted seventy-seven locomotives to burn oil-fuel.

PASSENGERS AND GOODS.—The tonnage of goods carried, including live-stock, increased steadily up to 1929–30, but from then until 1932–33 successive declines were recorded, due mainly to the world economic depression and to motor competition. Commencing in the following year, however, goods-tonnage has recorded an almost continuous upward trend, a slight reduction having occurred in 1944–45 through a falling off in military freights.

The freight ton-mileage in 1950–51 was 1,026,935,424, compared with 1,021,137,543 in 1949–50, an increase of 0.57 per cent. (1 ton of freight hauled for 1 mile equals 1 ton-mile). Although goods tonnage decreased by 3.34 per cent. from 9,948,261 tons in 1949–50 to 9,615,857 tons in 1950–51 (as a result of industrial disputes), the average haul of goods increased from 103 miles to 107 miles. In 1950–51 goods revenue amounting to £14,978,599 represented 80.96 per cent. of total operating revenue.

During the period 1926–33 there was a rapid falling off in passenger journeys, due mainly in the earlier years to intensive motor competition and later to the economic depression. This period was followed by an upward trend as a result of the improvement in economic conditions. After the outbreak of war in 1939 passenger traffic increased sharply, due to the movement of members of the Armed Forces and to the curtailment of road services and partial immobilization of private motor-cars, the result of restrictions placed on the use of motor-spirit and rubber tires. Following the cessation of hostilities passenger journeys receded considerably owing to the large decline in Armed Forces traffic, intensified road and air competition, and in recent years to the difficulty in obtaining sufficient coal to run full passenger services. In 1950–51 passenger journeys decreased by 1,071,178 or 4.14 per cent. compared with 1949–50 and by 4,045,060 journeys or 14.01 per cent. compared with 1946–47. The decline in passenger traffic in recent years has been largely offset by a substantial increase in the numbers carried by the Railways Department's road services although a fall was recorded in 1950–51 as compared with 1949–50. These services carried 20,364,278 passengers in 1946–47, 25,696,036 in 1949–50, and 24,090,928 in 1950–51.

Year Ended 31st March,Length open (Miles).Train-mileage (Revenue).Passengers.Season Tickets issued.Goods and Live-stock.*
Including Season-ticket Holders.Excluding Season-ticket Holders.

* Live-stock converted to equivalent tonnage.

      Tons.
19413,39013,559,64626,276,9239,440,0871,055,7428,426,182
19423,39013,978,96128,610,94511,105,6271,167,1158,473,765
19433,46015,139,88236,133,26817,171,2141,377,8258,887,089
19443,50415,328,98738,611,26718,317,3231,518,0459,026,626
19453,50412,802,53632,994,52913,629,5231,394,8178,954,239
19463,52813,454,50832,417,67513,553,0831,369,5729,210,466
19473,52813,169,23328,869,13510,222,3251,358,4539,329,333
19483,52613,712,10325,887,1898,111,4171,347,6719,524,043
19493,52613,895,48826,167,8457,708,0491,387,9619,666,130
19503,52614,420,85225,895,2537,881,2551,402,7899,948,261
19513,53114,153,21124,824,0757,574,2751,338,4359,615,857

Passenger train-miles run during 1950–51 totalled 5,000,074, and the passenger revenue received represents 127.82d. per passenger train-mile and £754 per mile of line operated.

The number of ordinary passenger journeys in 1950–51 decreased by 3.89 per cent. and the tonnage of goods hauled by 3.34 per cent. compared with the previous year.

Live-stock carried in 1950–51 was equivalent to a tonnage of 644,827, and included 768,620 cattle, 777,776 calves, 8,191,786 sheep, and 441,294 pigs. Comparative figures for 1949–50 were 711,142 tons, 780,202 cattle, 771,389 calves, 9,681,653 sheep, and 504,762 pigs.

Detailed figures showing the number of rail passengers carried during the last five years are given in the following table.

1946–47.1947–48.1948–40.1949–60.1950–51.
Ordinary5,045,2284,625,4654,317,6124,353,2724,023,850
Suburban2,348,1812,226,1552,196,1352,177,2782,307,079
Other reduced fares2,828,9161,259,7971,194,3021,350,7051,243,346
      Totals10,222,3258,111,4177,708,0497,881,2557,574,275
Season tickets issued—     
  Suburban weekly:—     
  Twelve-trip429,249427,358473,225477,366462,060
  Ten-trip    7,227
  Workers' weekly81,93670,02071,67164,49457,789
  Weekly twelve-trip62,18551,80240,73240,95735,222
  Bearer twelve-trip58,10905,73262,86855,79056,697
  Bearer six-trip650,227662,552667,562696,857656,483
  School22,17118,31620,16117,82718,087
  Tourist6745453221
  Travellers' annual214147121113101
  Other54,29551,69951,57649,35344,748
      Totals1,358,4531,347,6711,387,9611,402,7891,338,435

The following table gives interesting information as to the constitution of the goods traffic for the year 1950–51. The figures are exclusive of steamer traffic on Lake Wakatipu.

Commodity.Tonnage.Revenue.
Tons Carried.Percentage of Total.Tons, One Mile (000 omitted).Average Haul.Total Gross.*Per Ton-Mile.

* Refunds not deducted.

 No.Per CentNo.Miles.£d.
Grain and seeds313,7383.2621,24468324,8573.67
Meals100,8481.058,06680118,1023.51
Fruit and vegetables77,6820.8115,678202193,9442.97
Root crops and fodder159,9371.6618,791117222,6062.84
Cattle, calves, horses295,0943.0728,30396484,9114.11
Sheep and pigs349,7333.6437,694108740,7374.72
Meat, fresh and frozen331,9083.4514,33343484,7488.12
Butter134,7271.4012,92196247,0784.59
Cheese98,6311.036,10762138,0665.43
Wool219,2532.2818,08082450,5565.98
Dairy by-products64,0780.675,84691118,5194.87
Fat, hides, and skins57,4110.606,039105130,4945.19
Fish12,5140.132,41319332,1233.20
Agricultural lime665,3656.9254,83282473,9172.07
Coal, New Zealand hard721,1527.5054,51476574,5432.53
Coal, New Zealand brown1,147,6411.93150,8761311,302,8402.07
Road-metal74,7040.785,7897769,8592.90
Timber, imported27,6860.292,4688949,2234.79
Timber, New Zealand780,3188.11125,0111601,366,0492.62
Firewood, posts, &c.113,6841814,212125126,2632.13
Motor-spirits, kerosene357,4203.7233,34693822,8495.92
Cement161,0881.6823,430145314,7943.22
Manures989,02310.2899,6931011,082,3962.61
Miscellaneous2,362,22224.56267,2491135,170,7504.64
      Totals9,615,857100.001,026,93510715,040,2243.51

The next table shows the tonnage of goods carried, freight train-miles run, and net ton-miles run, together with the respective averages for each of the last eleven years.

Year Ended 31st March,Tonnage carried.Freight Train-miles.Tons One-mile (000 omitted).Gross Revenue.
Per Ton.Per Freight Train-mile.Per Ton-mile.
    s. d.£ s. d.d.
19418,426,1827,710,091659,72416 50 17 82.52
19428,473,7657,996,572688,70917 30 18 32.54
19438,887,0898,758,310781,37918 60 18 92.52
19449,026,6268,873,974832,59419 20 19 62.50
19458,954,2398,199,598814,90618 101 0 62.48
19469,210,4668,646,417842,54218 101 0 12.47
19479,329,3338,516,995883,66419 51 1 32.46
19489,524,0439,002,450937,42222 41 3 82.73
19499,666,1309,157,049970,75624 81 6 02.94
19509,948,2619,326,9931,021,13825 11 6 92.93
19519,615,8579,153,1371,026,93531 51 12 113.51

A classification of goods traffic for the eleven years ended 1950–51 is now given, the figures quoted being in thousands of tons.

Year Ended 31st March,Agricultural and Pastoral Produce.Agricultural Lime and Manures.Timber and Firewood.Coal.Motor-spirits and Kerosene.Other.
Agricultural Produce.Dairy produce.Meat, Fish, and Livestock.wool.
19415962321,0281651,6296642,0341781,900
19425892741,1251881,3776532,0861961,986
19436962881,2142221,1497582,0491802,331
19447572521,1962191,2407572,0842022,320
19457522551,1942051,4027152.0842052,142
19467952501,2552501,4576922,0972212,193
19477332491,2122331,6477012,0622612,231
19487592601,2022221,5347932,0882982,368
19497362771,1572201,5358602,0843052,492
19506892941,1312261,6378822,1313302,628
19516522971,0472191,6549221,8693582,598

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES.—The average number of persons employed by the State railways throughout the year ended 31st March, 1951, was 25,673. The staff is divided into two divisions—namely, the salaried or clerical division, and the general or out-of-door division—and is further classed in five branches, as shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31st March,Traffic.Maintenance.Locomotive Running.Workshops.Other Branches.Totals.
19478,2184,5743,6226,1733,49026,077
19488,1964,5783,5726,0123,59225,950
19498,3114,7513,5905,9653,70726,324
19508,3474,9343,6445,9283,92726,780
19518,0844,6913,5315,5513,81625,673

A system of classification, first introduced in 1896, and revised at various times since, applies to railway employees. An Appeal Board is constituted to hear grievances of members dissatisfied with decisions in regard to promotion, loss of status, or breaches of discipline. The Board consists of a Magistrate and two members of the Railways service, one appointed by the Minister of Railways, and the other elected by the members of the Department. The Government Railways Amendment Act, 1944, provided for the establishment of a Tribunal of three members whose principal functions are to prescribe scales of salaries and rates of wages for railway employees; conditions in regard to hours of work, overtime, &c.; and terms and conditions in regard to leave of absence, railway travel concessions, &c. This tribunal, known as the Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, is deemed to be a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act, 1908. The members, who must not be members of the Railways Department or of any of the railway employees' organizations, are appointed for a term of three years.

A superannuation fund in connection with the Railways service was established in 1903, but was merged with other State superannuation funds, as from 1st April, 1948, all moneys standing to the credit of the fund being transferred to the newly created Government Superannuation Fund as from that date. Information concerning this is given in the section dealing with “Social Security, Pensions, Superannuation, &c.” A sick-benefit fund, providing for the payment of weekly allowances for periods up to fifty-two weeks to employees other than salaried staff who are incapacitated by sickness, was instituted in 1929. The fund is subsidized by the Department up to a maximum of £28,000 per annum. The amount claimed in 1950–51 was £12,500. The Sick Benefit Society had a membership of 14,889 at 31st March, 1951.

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS.—The history of the railways in New Zealand has been one of comparative freedom from train accidents of a serious nature. Of two which may be termed disasters, the first occurred near Ongarue in 1923, when seventeen passengers were killed and twenty-six injured as a result of an express train colliding with a fallen boulder on the line; the second was a major derailment of a passenger-train near Hyde on 4th June, 1943, which caused the deaths of twenty-one passengers and more or less serious injuries to forty-six others.

A further serious accident occurred on 25th February, 1948, when the Picton-Christchurch passenger express became derailed two miles south of Seddon Station. A Board of Inquiry set up under the Government Railways Act, 1926, found that the cause of the accident was the overturning of the engine and tender due to entering a curve at a speed far in excess of that authorized. Six passengers were killed and 61 injured, some seriously. The fireman and driver were also injured.

During the year ended 31st March, 1951, 24 persons were killed and 471 were injured in all kinds of accidents arising from train-working and movements of rolling-stock. Comparative figures for the previous year were 39 killed and 533 injured. These figures do not include employees who were killed or injured whilst engaged on other duties—e.g., railway workshops.

Of the 24 persons meeting with fatal accidents in 1951, 5 were passengers and 5 were employees; of the remainder who were neither passengers nor employees, 8 were killed at railway-crossings, 1 in an accident on the line, and 5 whilst trespassing. Of those injured, 48 were passengers, 350 were employees (chiefly minor accidents), and 73 were neither passengers nor employees. Of the 73 other persons, 54 were injured in crossing accidents.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS.—There are a number of private railways in New Zealand, chiefly lines of light construction serving colliery and sawmilling areas. On the timber tramways, special rolling-stock is used for log-haulage with various types of locomotive, many of interesting design according to the nature of the work required of them The longest of the private lines connecting collieries to the State system is the 11 miles 67 chains of railway between Birchfield and Wairio, operated by the Ohai Railway Board.

No accurate information is available concerning the mileage of these railways.

Chapter 12. SECTION 12—ELECTRIC TRAMWAYS AND ASSOCIATED TRANSPORT

Table of Contents

SYSTEM AND OWNERSHIP.—There are now six electric tramway systems operating in New Zealand, the Wanganui system having ceased operations in September, 1950. These systems serve Auckland, New Plymouth, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill, and are controlled by local authorities under powers conferred by the Tramways Act, 1908. In Auckland and Christchurch the authorities are boards, namely, the Auckland Transport Board and the Christchurch Tramway Board; control of the other four systems is exercised by the City Councils concerned.

Motor-bus services are run in conjunction with each of the electric tramway services, and in Wellington and Dunedin the City Councils also operate cable tramways. Five of the electric tramway services are supplemented by trolley-buses, which in some cities are now operating on routes formerly served by tramways.

REVIEW OF OPERATIONS.—The two tables following present a summary of the operations of each of the above forms of transport during the year ended 31st March, 1951.

System.Passenger-vehicles In Use.Passenger Capacity.Miles Run.*Passengers Carried.Passengers Per Mile Run.Average Fare Per Passenger.

* By passenger vehicles, including trailers.

Electric Tramwaysd.
Auckland22611,7746,389,69675,653,26011.843.05
New Plymouth10356285,4192,211,9817.752.80
Wellington2007,0183,337,91842,207,61812.643.18
Christchurch1376,1042,267,48413,934,9626.154.34
Dunedin551,9941,234,94514,764,50711.963.29
Invercargill16512260,0771,669,4606.422.81
      Totals64427,75813,775,539150,441,78810.923.23
Trolley-buses
Auckland19789288,0705,946,28120.641.79
New Plymouth416838,766277,6647.163.08
Wellington10420243,3361,601,6416.583.37
Christchurch11424328,4982,877,3048.763.61
Dunedin416033,043304,3989.213.27
      Totals481,961931,71311,007,28811.812.57
Motor-buses
Auckland893,9752,574,75911,477,2554.464.38
New Plymouth12424229,8231,014,6134.413.79
Wellington532,491958,0525,551,1345.793.76
Christchurch652,8131,680,0947,532,0974.483.58
Dunedin391,652938,0126,259,8736.673.80
Invercargill3123104,517491,0394.702.80
      Totals26111,4786,485,25732,326,0114.983.93
Cable Tramways
Wellington6190122,5301,733,34414.151.83
Dunedin19526139,6122,353,53816.863.20
      Totals25716262,1424,086,88215.592.62

The next table deals with financial transactions during the same year.

Employees Paid Out of Revenue.Salaries and Wages Paid.Total Revenue.Total Expenditure.Per Mile Run.
Revenue.Expenditure.
 No.£££d.d.
Electric Tramways
Auckland1,414752,999972,766681,29736.5436.86
New Plymouth5426,39426,33035,58522.1429.92
Wellington744398,476569,659560,67140.9640.96
Christchurch422223,630269,744327,11428.5534.62
Dunedin270158,405204,972231,59139.8345.01
Invercargill5020,78620,40631,25118.8328.84
      Totals2,9541,580,6902,063,8772,176,50935.9637.92
Trolley-buses
Auckland4125,51644,50243,63737.0836.36
New Plymouth52,0913,5614,30622.0526.66
Wellington2314,30222,51522,38422.2122.08
Christchurch3418,68645,93341,44233.5630.28
Dunedin42,0854,1919,74830.4470.80
      Totals10762,680120,702121,51731.0931.30
Motor-buses
Auckland206133,650211,524250,43319.7123.34
New Plymouth2111,26416,32124,92917.0426.03
Wellington9644,52086,965111,05321.7927.82
Christchurch181100,818130,014183,73918.5726.25
Dunedin8049,173102,484113,66226.2229.08
Invercargill62,9345,8939,75413.5322.40
      Totals590342,359553,201693,57020.4725.67
Cable Tramways
Wellington2310,80413,53814,12826.5227.67
Dunedin3823,67631,54340,96354.2270.42
      Totals6134,48045,08155,09141.2750.44

ELECTRIC SYSTEMS.—Details of tramway and trolley-bus services are combined in this series of tables which covers the operations of each of the electrically-driven systems during the year ended 31st March, 1951.

It should be noted that, as both tramways and trolley-buses sometimes traverse portions of the same routes, it is not possible to obtain from this table details of tramway routes only.

System.Length of Road Traversed as at 31st March, 1951.
By Tramways and Trolley-buses.By Trolley-buses Only.
 M. ch.M. ch.
Auckland44 602 74
New Plymouth4 432 40
Wellington26 7710 19
Christchurch38 159 36
Dunedin16 174 10
Invercargill6 42 

Electric-power Consumption.—This table shows the quantity of electric-power (direct current) used by each system during the year 1950–51.

System.Kilowatt-hours.
Auckland24,087,641
New Plymouth566,545
Wellington9,785,929
Christchurch7,384,825
Dunedin3,037,295
Invercargill437,120
      Total45,299,355

The power used by all systems, with the exception of Christchurch, was purchased. The Christchurch system generated 1,519,870 kWh. (alternating current) and purchased the balance. The other systems purchase direct-current power, but Christchurch purchases alternating current and converts it to direct current as required.

Capital Outlay.—At 31st March, 1951, the capital value of the six systems was made up as follows:—

System.Land and Buildings.Tracks and Overhead Equipment.Vehicles.Other Assets.Totals.
 £££££
Auckland205,968311,625142,601220,954881,148
New Plymouth9,04572,59223,8952,184107,716
Wellington286,068646,016598,98486,1231,617,191
Christchurch193,665546,406343,132204,3671,287,570
Dunedin92,441289,137154,99427,997564,569
Invercargill7,90645,98139,6091,70595,201
      Totals795,0931,911,7571,303,215543,3304,553,395

Accrued funds and reserves at the same date are shown in the next table.

System.Sinking Fund Reserves.Depreciation Reserves.Accident Reserves.Other Reserves.Totals.
 £££££
Auckland227,066754,49513,462629,1111,624,134
New Plymouth 7,531 72,60380,134
Wellington66,847283,781145,659121,807618,094
Christchurch63,91149,59378,3941,051,1321,243,030
Dunedin12,745222,4209,490305,534550,189
Invercargill3,99454,960 65,947124,901
      Totals374,5631,372,780247,0052,246,1344,240,482

Revenue and Expenditure.—The following tables show that total expenditure exceeded total revenue by £113,447 in 1950–51. It should be borne in mind, however, that expenditure includes charges and appropriations to reserve funds and the amounts so charged could affect considerably the loss or surplus shown.

The source and amount of revenue for each system is now presented.

System.Passenger Fares.Other Revenue.Totals, Revenue.
Cash.Concession.

* Includes sale of electric-power, £14,288.

 ££££
Auckland792,463214,8949,9111,017,268
New Plymouth19,37410,01350429,891
Wellington249,273332,85210,049592,174
Christchurch198,97296,23320,472*315,677
Dunedin117,45989,1502,554209,163
Invercargill12,1127,42187320,406
      Totals1,389,653750,56344,3632,184,579

The major items of expenditure for 1950–51 are given in the following table.

System.Operating Expenditure.Capital Charges.Other Expenditure.Totals, Expenditure.
 ££££
Auckland941,77469,80813,3521,024,934
New Plymouth32,6425,9711,27839,891
Wellington515,36566,32410,366592,055
Christchurch280,26380,5687,725368,556
Dunedin198,63640,4962,207241,339
Invercargill26,5844,20746031,251
      Totals1,995,264267,37435,3882,298,026

An analysis of operating expenditure shown in the preceding table is provided in the next table.

System.Power.Traffic.Vehicle-maintenanceTrack-maintenance (including Electrical Equipment).Management and Office Expenses.Totals, Operating Expenditure.
 ££££££
Auckland52,190645,622169,46454,36320,135941,774
New Plymouth1,50424,5514,5834231,58132,642
Wellington13,480338,53396,68450,19016,478515,365
Christchurch36,865162,77848,54418,78813,288280,263
Dunedin8,627122,11335,85516,66415,377198,636
Invercargill1,50415,5657,4746981,34326,584
      Totals114,1701,309,162362,604141,12668,2021,995,264

Review of Operations.—The operations of all the electric systems during the years 1948–49, 1949–50, and 1950–51 are summarized in the next table.

Item.Year Ended 31st March,
1949.1950.1951.

* By passenger vehicles, Including trailers.

SystemsNo.776
Passenger vehicles in useNo.690705692
Passenger capacityNo.29,31729,98429,719
Miles run*No.16,151,33015,785,43314,707,252
Passengers carriedNo.182,126,164177,771,906161,449,076
Passengers per mile runNo.11.2811.2610.98
Average fare per passengerd.2.792.903.18
Employees paid out of revenueNo.3,4433,2473,061
Salaries and wages paid£1,575,0871,597,0991,643,370
Electric-power usedkWh.48,592,12549,149,02945,299,355
Capital outlay—    
Land and buildings£743,049825,727795,093
Tracks and overhead equipment£2,122,9622,127,8951,911.757
Vehicles£1,259,4071,281,3731,303,215
Other assets£442,910567,425543,330
      Totals£4,568,3284,802,4204,553,395
Accrued funds and reserves—    
Sinking funds£802,528585,061374,563
Depreciation reserves£1,553,2401,420,2831,372,780
Accident reserves£252,536251,487247,005
Other reserves£3,148,0923,730,2232,246,134
      Totals£5,756,3965,987,0544,240,482
Revenue—    
Passenger fares—    
Cash£1,526,5511,482,7241,389,653
Concession£590,694668,920750,563
Other revenue£42,58137,88044,363
      Totals£2,159,8262,189,5242,184,579
Revenue per mile rund.32.0833.2835.65
Expenditure—    
Operating expenditure£1,950,1482,008,4561,995,264
Capital charges£344,658354,617267,374
Other expenditure£30,58934,29435,388
      Totals£2,325,3952,397,3672,298,026
Expenditure per mile rund.34.5436.4437.50

Trolley-buses.—Financial details of the operations of the various trolley-bus systems for the year ended 31st March, 1951, are shown in the following tables. It should be noted that this information is also included in the previous tables relating to electric systems as a whole. Revenue details are as follows:—

System.Passenger Fares.Other Revenue.Totals, Revenue.
Cash.Concession.

* Includes sale of electric-power, £1,974.

 ££££
Auckland28,31116,06912244,502
New Plymouth2,1511,410 3,561
Wellington9,98412,531 22,515
Christchurch28,06415,1682,701*45,933
Dunedin2,9551,191454,191
      Totals71,46546,3692,868120,702

Details of expenditure for the year 1950–51 are shown in the next table.

System.Operating Expenditure.Capital Charges.Other Expenditure.Totals, Expenditure.
 ££££
Auckland36,5646,62844543,637
New Plymouth3,3478361234,306
Wellington21,2591,125 22,384
Christchurch31,5408,2291,67341,442
Dunedin3,5556,168259,748
      Totals96,26522,9862,266121,517

MOTOR-BUSES.—Total revenue from the operation of motor-bus services associated with tramway systems during the year ended 31st March, 1951, amounted to £553,201 while expenditure totalled £693,570. This deficit of £140,369 exceeds the deficit in the previous year (£80,336) by £60,033, although the revenue for the latest year exceeds that of the previous year by £145,718.

Details of revenue for 1950–51 are as follows:—

System.Passenger Fares.Freight.Other Revenue.Totals, Revenue.
 ££££
Auckland209,3701911,963211,524
New Plymouth16,0321027916,321
Wellington86,965  86,965
Christchurch112,19744217,375130,014
Dunedin99,061 3,423102,484
Invercargill5,73871485,893
      Totals529,36365023,188553,201

The major items of expenditure are now given.

System.Operating Expenditure.Capital Charges.Other Expenditure.Totals, Expenditure.
 ££££
Auckland217,48431,2281,721250,433
New Plymouth21,3131,2002,41624,929
Wellington100,99610,057 111,053
Christchurch156,55027,189 183,739
Dunedin100,74010,8862,036113,662
Invercargill7,0751,3781,3019,754
      Totals604,15881,9387,474693,570

Review of Operations.—This table summarizes the operations of motor-buses during the three latest years.

Item.Year Ended 31st March,
1949.1950.1951.
SystemsNo.776
Passenger vehicles in useNo.187253261
Passenger capacityNo.7,64211,08311,478
Miles runNo.3,699,4564,756,6536,485,257
Passengers carriedNo.20,974,85025,744,55432,326,011
Passengers per mile runNo.5.675.414.98
Average fare per passengerd.3.433.663.93
Employees paid out of revenueNo.365465590
Salaries and wages paid£191,059257,284342,359
Value of vehicles£436,034545,539483,338
Revenue—    
Passenger fares£299,922393,231529,363
Freight charges£249382650
Other revenue£11,29013,87023,188
      Totals£311,461407,483553,201
Revenue per mile rund.20.2120.5620.47
Expenditure—    
Operating expenditure£344,277417,416604,158
Capital charges£49,95064,69581,938
Other expenditure£2,6295,7087,474
      Totals£396,856487,819693,570
Expenditure per mile rund.25.7524.6125.67

CABLE TRAMWAYS.—There were three cable tramway systems in operation in 1950–51, one in Wellington and two in Dunedin. The Kelburn system, in Wellington, is electrically operated, while of the two Dunedin systems one (Mornington) is electrically operated and the other (Roslyn) obtains its power from steam. The total length of track in use by the three systems amounts to 3 miles 21 chains.

Operations during the year ended 31st March, 1951, resulted in a total deficit of £10,010, all three systems showing a loss. Details of revenue and expenditure are set out in the next table.

Systems.Passenger Fares.Other Revenue.Total Revenue.Operating Expenditure.Capital Charges.Total Expenditure.
 ££££££
Wellington13,18635213,53813,57255614,128
Dunedin31,40114231,54332,4758,48840,963
      Totals44,58749445,08146,0479,04455,091

Review of Operations.—Principal statistics for the three latest years are as follows:—

Year Ended 31st March.
1949.1950.1951.
SystemsNo.333
Passenger vehicles in useNo.252525
Passenger capacityNo.716716716
Miles runNo.297,217293,671262,142
Passengers carriedNo.4,831,0994,548,8064,086,882
Passengers per mile runNo.16.3015.4915.59
Average fare per passengerd.2.222.402.62
Employees paid out of revenueNo.596061
Salaries and wages paid£32,30333,22734,480
Capital outlay—    
Land and buildings£20,59420,59720,597
Power plant£15,56415,46515,465
Tracks and overhead equipment£48,50348,50348,503
Vehicles£13,61413,61413,614
Other assets£19,27319,37019,355
      Totals£117,548117,549117,534
Accrued funds and reserves£7,3244,7823,958
Revenue—    
Passenger fares£44,56045,54744,587
Other revenue£410397494
      Totals£44,97045,94445,081
Revenue per mile rund.36.3137.5541.27
Expenditure—    
Operating expenditure£41,62244,30846,047
Capital charges£9,3059,4579,044
      Totals£50,92753,76555,091
Expenditure per mile rund.41.1243.9450.44

Chapter 13. SECTION 13—ROADS AND ROAD TRANSPORT

Table of Contents

ROADS AND BRIDGES.—The total mileage of formed roads in New Zealand at 31st March, 1950, was 53,816, in addition to which there were 5,604 miles of bridletracks and 17,525 miles of unformed legal roads. Details are given in the following table.

Counties.Boroughs.Town Districts.Road Districts.Totals.

* Includes 5 miles of wood or stone.

† Includes 7 miles clay and shell.

‡ Includes 221 miles of pumice roads.

Formed roads and streets, paved or surfaced with—Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.
Bituminous or cement concrete20025367466
Bitumen or tar4,9892,296*107247,416
Metal or gravel36,7721,3262394538,382
Unmetalled formed roads and streets (i.e., not paved or surfaced)7,25917882337,552
      Totals, formed roads49,2204,05343410953,816
Bridle-tracks5,51293805,604
Unformed legal roads17,16232438117,525
      Totals, all roads71,8944,38647519076,945

The formation of roads in many parts has been attended with considerable expense and difficulties, arising from the configuration of the country and the abundance of rivers. As illustrating the latter aspect, the following table, showing the number and lengths of bridges incorporated in the roads system as at 31st March, 1950, is of interest. Only bridges 25 ft. or over in length have been taken into account, no official enumeration having been made of the innumerable culverts and short bridges.

Material of which Bridge constructed.Counties.Boroughs.Town Districts.Road Districts.Totals.
No.Total Length.No.Total Length.No.Total Length.No.Total Length.No.Total Length.
  Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft.
All concrete or stone1,412135,536849,04185683871,507145,232
Steel and concrete33538,343476,6346720  38845,697
Steel, concrete, and timber49142,531315,849185  52348,465
Steel and timber77262,406173,401    78965,807
Australian hardwood2,201210,629889,0274250  2,293219,906
Native timbers2,610158,677443,7451259051432,671163,155
      Totals7,821648,12231137,697312,21382308,171688,262

ROADS ADMINISTRATION.—The main statutes covering roads administration in New Zealand are the Public Works Act, 1928, the Counties Act, 1920, and amendments, and the Main Highways Act, 1922, and amendments. The latter receives specific mention later.

Roads which have been declared to be Government roads are under the immediate jurisdiction of the Minister of Works. Urban roads and streets are controlled by city, borough, or town district authorities, and rural reading is controlled by County Councils and Road Boards.

Apart from Government roads, which are maintained by the State, roads and streets are maintained by the respective local authorities out of their own revenue resources. The Government does not assist in financing general road maintenance except in regard to roads which, as is explained under the next heading, have been gazetted as main highways under the Main Highways Act, 1922, or as State highways under an amendment of 1936. In the case of extraordinary maintenance arising from storms or floods, the Minister may give special assistance to rural local authorities by way of subsidy or grant from the Consolidated Fund according to the severity of the damage and the financial position of the authority concerned.

The Government assists towards the construction of roads and bridges in counties and road districts, particularly in areas where better reading facilities are required in the interests of settlement and primary production. The financial assistance granted by the State for this purpose may be by way of free grant or, more generally, on a subsidy basis. County Councils and Road Boards are invited each year to make application for grants and subsidies on roadworks. Finance available is allocated in the first instance by means of revote to cover commitments already entered upon in previous financial years; the balance is then allocated to new works in order of priority determined by the District Commissioner of Works and local authority officials. In some instances construction is carried out by the Ministry of Works, although usually the respective local authorities arrange for work to be undertaken. In the latter case the standard of construction, &c., must first be approved, and departmental supervision exercised, before the grant or subsidy can be uplifted.

Wherever possible, County Councils arrange to finance their reading operations from revenue, but as a general rule the construction of roads and bridges necessitates the raising of loans. Such borrowing is subject to the approval of the Local Government Loans Board.

A special committee was set up by the Minister of Works in March, 1952, the order of reference of which contains a general direction to the Committee to recommend to the Government what standard of reading is adequate to provide and maintain an efficient road transport system. It is also to report on the financial implications.

MAIN HIGHWAYS.—Prior to the advent of the motor-vehicle only a small proportion of the total road-mileage outside of boroughs was permanently surfaced. The development of motor-traffic, however, entirely changed the complexion of the roading problem in New Zealand, as elsewhere, and better roads were demanded as motor transport became popular. It was found that under the strain of motor traffic the roads, particularly those between the main centres running parallel with railways were deteriorating, while the necessity for changes in both construction and administration became more and more obvious. To meet the situation the Main Highways Act was passed in 1922, under which provision was made for the declaration of roads as main highways, and thus the control of arterial roads became primarily a national concern.

For the administration of the Act the Main Highways Board was constituted. The Board consists of six members—viz., two members appointed by the Government, an officer of the Ministry of Works, two representatives of County Councils, and one representative of owners of motor-vehicles. The Board administers the main highways system, but in most cases delegates its powers of maintenance, control, &c., to the local authority concerned, though at the same time exercising supervision over the standard of work. At 31st March, 1951, the length of main highways totalled 12,743 miles, compared with a total of 12,724 miles at the end of March, 1950.

Under an amendment to the Act of 1922, passed in 1936, the Board was empowered, with the approval of the Minister of Works, to classify any main highway as a “State highway,” the whole cost of maintenance and construction of such a highway (with certain exceptions) being borne by the State. Prior to 1st April, 1947, these costs were met from the Main Highways Account, but since the abolition of that account as from 1st April, 1947, maintenance expenditure is met from the Consolidated Fund and construction expenditure from the Public Works Account. Of the 12,743 miles of main highways, 5,224 miles, comprising the principal arterial traffic routes, have been classified as State highways, this being a decrease of 4 miles from the 1950 total.

Highway Districts.—In terms of the Act the Board has divided New Zealand into twenty highway districts, composed of counties grouped according to geographic situation and community of interest. For each highway district there is an advisory body, known as the District Highways Council, which is constituted to include an engineer of the Ministry of Works and one representative of each constituent county. The principal function of these councils is to make recommendations to the Board each year as to which roads within the several districts should be declared main highways and the works which should be undertaken.

Finance.—Under the original Act there were two separate funds within the Main Highways Account—viz., the Revenue Fund and the Construction Fund, but from 1st April, 1936, these funds were amalgamated into the Main Highways Account.

Section 3 of the Finance act (No. 2), 1947, abolished the Main Highways Account as from the 1st day of April, 1947, and all moneys standing to the credit of that account were transferred to the Public Works Account. All moneys that were previously paid into the Main Highways Account are now paid into the Public Account to the credit of the Consolidated Fund. All moneys that were previously payable out of the Main Highways Account are now payable out of moneys from time to time appropriated by Parliament for the purpose.

Section 7 of the Finance Act, 1948, provided that if the total amount appropriated in any financial year under section 3 of the Finance Act (No. 2), 1947, was less than the net revenues derived in that year which would have been payable into the Main Highways Account if that section had not been passed, the amount so appropriated shall be deemed to be increased to the amount of these net revenues.

Specific revenue for main highways purposes is obtained from the following sources of motor taxation:—

  • Tire-tax (sections 13 and 14, Main Highways Act, 1922).

  • Motor-spirits tax (section 9 of the Motor-spirits Taxation Act, 1927).

  • Motor-registration licences, fees, &c. (section 24, Motor-vehicles Act, 1924).

  • Mileage-tax (section 8, Finance Act, 1946).

From August, 1939, to September, 1951, the tax on motor-spirits was 1s. 2d. per gallon for British imports, of which 8d. was ordinary Customs revenue, and 1s. 2 7/10d. for foreign imports, of which 8 7/10d. was ordinary Customs revenue. Since September, 1951, both rates have been reduced by 2d. per gallon, the decrease being in the Customs revenue portion. Ninety-two per cent. of the revenue from the remaining 6d. per gallon was credited to the Main Highways Account until 1st April, 1947, and since then to the Consolidated Fund, while the other 8 per cent. is distributed on a population basis among cities and boroughs having a population of 6,000 or more, for expenditure on streets forming continuations of main highways. For the year ended 31st March, 1950, the amount distributed among these cities and boroughs was £227,360, and for the 1950–51 year £240,453. For those vehicles whose motive-power is not wholly derived from motor-spirits, and for trackless trolley-buses, a mileage-tax is levied, the revenue from this source being divided on a basis similar to the motor-spirits revenue.

All receipts from special taxation of motor-vehicles were not credited to the Main Highways Account (abolished since 1st April, 1947), nor are all such receipts now appropriated from the Consolidated Fund for highways purposes. As already stated, 8 per cent. of the highway-purposes share of the motor-spirits tax and a similar percentage of the mileage-tax is distributed among certain cities and boroughs, and, in addition, receipts from drivers' licences and heavy-traffic fees are collected and retained by local authorities. The following table gives a summary of the returns from special taxation of motor-vehicles for the last five financial years.

Yield of1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–60.1950–51.

* Share for highway-purposes only (first 6d.).

† Under Transport Act, 1949, as from 1st November, 1949.

‡ Provisional.

 £££££
Tire-tax210,029246,912241,13664,34926,745
Motor-spirits tax*2,268,2722,496,6212,598,8702,823,3693,104,211
Fees, &c., under Motor-vehicles Act, 1924479,412768,898736,386705,576805,160
Mileage-tax14,32313,48815,97419,99725,932
Heavy-traffic fees485,619572,639651,308734,820862,492
Drivers' licences107,400112,505117,058123,551129,752
      Totals3,565,0554,211,0634,360,7324,471,6624,954,292

In the following table are shown the amounts which have been expended on main highways construction, renewal, or maintenance by the Main Highways Board during the last five years. Maintenance figures include the cost of flood damage restoration when applicable.

Class of Expenditure.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.
 £££££
Construction and improvement577,4311,411,0302,070,2882,246,7361,765,143
Renewal250,683316,830287,384436,450417,334
Maintenance, repairs, &c.1,795,7962,386,2812,635,8962,508,9452,685,893
      Totals2,623,9104,114,1474,993,5685,192,1314,868,370

An analysis of the actual expenditure on maintenance in each Island, as compared with the number of motor-vehicles in each Island at 31st March of each of the last five years, appears in the following table, the percentages relating to New Zealand totals.

1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–501950–51.
Percentage of New Zealand Totals
North Island—     
  Maintenance expenditure67.5669.9969.4870.0769.67
  Motor-vehicles66.1666.3366.2166.2666.75
South Island—     
  Maintenance expenditure32.4430.0130.5229.9330.33
  Motor-vehicles33.8433.6733.7933.7433.25

The following table shows the mileage of main highways in the North and South Islands as at 31st March, 1951, together with a classification as to the type of construction or surface.

Length of Main Highways.
Dustless Surface.Gravel or Macadam Surface.Clay or Pumice Surface.Totals.
 Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.
North Island3,0293,9021807,111
South Island1,6743,958 5,632
      Totals4,7037,86018012,743

Assistance to Local Authorities.—In terms of the Act of 1922, the Main Highways Board was required to provide one-half of the cost of construction or reconstruction of main highways and one-third of the cost of maintenance and repairs. By subsequent legislation, the rate of assistance was increased, and eventually the Board was empowered to determine the basis of subsidy. Since 1st April, 1931, the standard maintenance subsidy rate has been £3 for £1, and only in exceptional circumstances is this increased. The construction or renewal of bridges was subsidized at £2 for £1 until 1st April, 1938, but from that date it was increased to £3 for £1.

In special circumstances the Board may advance money, by way of loan, to local authorities to provide for the proportion of cost payable by a local authority in respect of the construction or reconstruction of a main highway. Such loans must be repaid by instalments extending over a period (not exceeding ten years) to be agreed upon between the Board and the local authority, and interest is payable at a rate approved by the Minister of Finance.

The Board is also empowered to sell roadmaking machinery, plant, and equipment to local authorities on such terms as it thinks fit, including terms for the repayment of the purchase-money by instalments extending over not more than four years, with interest on the unpaid balance at such rate as is fixed by the Board. Since this scheme was introduced, plant, &c., has been purchased to the value of £723,991, of which sum £156,607 was outstanding at 31st March, 1951.

Main Highway Standards.—In order to qualify for financial assistance, local authorities are required to carry out works to a standard approved by the Main Highways Board. Subsidies are not payable unless the approved standard is observed, although work of a higher standard may be undertaken provided that the additional expenditure involved is found by the local authorities concerned. From time to time the Board's standards are revised to meet the latest developments in highway practice and engineering design and also to cater for the requirements of increasing traffic. Roadmaking materials used in highway works are subject to standard tests, and during recent years advances have been made in the direction of framing standard specifications which allow of a wider use of certain local materials which formerly were not accepted.

Activity During the Year Ending 31st March, 1951.—During the year ended 31st March, 1951, 216 miles of new sealing were completed, giving a New Zealand aggregate of 4,703 miles, or 37 per cent. of the total mileage of main highways. In addition, a length of 317 miles of existing sealed surfaces received a maintenance coat.

New bridging totalled 3,533 lineal feet, compared with 5,591 lineal feet in the previous year. Bailey bridging-material has aided considerably in restoring communications that had been severed by storm damage or other causes.

Motor-ways.—Legislation by means of the Public Works Amendment Act, 1947, as amended by section 44 of the Public Works Amendment Act, 1948, makes provision for the declaration of limited-access highways or, more shortly, motor-ways. It is emphasized that motor-ways are not merely better all-purpose highways. Although work is continually in progress to improve the arterial roads of the country, such improvements will not create the characteristics or allow of the functions of a motor-way.

In addition to providing the most efficient and economic transport service, the main distinguishing features of a motor-way are the control of access and the total elimination of ribbon development, both of which will go far to improve road safety and prevent obsolescence.

The proportion of motor-vehicles to population in New Zealand was greater than in any other country of the world except the United States of America, Alaska, and Hawaii in 1950. With the continuing increase of motor-vehicles on the highways, particularly passenger-buses and heavy haulage trucks, it has become apparent that the capacities of the existing main routes adjacent to the chief cities are already being overtaxed. This increases the direct costs of transportation and, of greater importance, adds to the accident potential of these roads.

Hitherto when a route became overtaxed it was a common practice to construct an ordinary new highway to by-pass the town or other congested area. This new highway immediately attracted mushroom settlement, and tended to depreciate values of existing townships by movement of population to the new route, with the result that congestion and high accident rates again occurred. Avoidance of these mistakes will be achieved by means of the new legislation, for until its passing no legal authority was available to prevent ribbon development along new roads or to confer the right of building highways for the exclusive use of motor-vehicles.

By restricting access to specially designed junctions and by prohibiting any building development fronting and stretching out along the by-pass motor-ways, the present community balance will not be disturbed.

Motor-ways are constructed generally as four-lane routes, with a central strip separating the two up lanes from the two down lanes. Not only are there such obvious safety features as avoidance of head-on crashes and collisions caused by glare from headlights, &c., but congestion caused by a slow-moving vehicle holding up a column of traffic is also prevented.

All roads, ordinary highways, and railways will be separated from motor-ways by overbridges or subways, thus eliminating the prolific source of accidents resulting from intersection collisions. As the motor-ways are restricted to usage by motor-vehicles, this will constitute an additional safety measure, since between 40 per cent. and 50 per cent. of road accidents involve pedestrians or cyclists. At the same time, vehicular traffic will be removed from the residential areas and townships.

Considerable savings in transport costs will ensue from the provision of motor-ways, by virtue of economies in travelling-time and cost of travel.

There is no intention of building motor-ways throughout New Zealand, for motorways are not considered justified until traffic intensities reach an average of three thousand vehicles per day. Only small proportions of the total routes extending over the length of either the North or the South Island carry a volume of traffic of this extent. The first section of the Wellington-Foxton motorway, being the three-mile portion between Johnsonville and Takapu Road, was opened for traffic on the 23rd December, 1950.

TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON ROADS BY GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND LOCAL AUTHORITIES.—The following table compiled from Transport Department sources shows the total expenditure upon roads, streets, and bridges for the years quoted. The amounts expended on maintenance and construction of main highways differ from those given on page 315 since the figures given in the table presented here are inclusive of local authority expenditure on roads classed as highways, whereas the earlier data refer only to funds expended by the Main Highways Board on this account.

1945–46.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.

* The bulk of interest is an estimate of interest on local-authority and public road-liability.

Maintenance—££££
  Rural main highways1,858,5562,243,5212,911,8553,319,561
  Urban roads and streets570,321611,391683,668744,220
  Other rural roads1,581,9701,747,9001,770,0921,859,514
      Totals4,010,8474,602,8125,365,6155,923,295
Construction—    
  Rural main highways363,249883,7341,831,6172,511,323
  Urban roads and streets578,419628,404740,799891,055
  Other rural roads295,347376,052516,044623,317
      Totals1,237,0151,888,1903,088,4604,025,695
Interest* and Sinking Fund Charges—    
  Rural main highways717,536562,951561,852558,701
  Urban roads and streets723,237641,841662,230661,663
  Other rural roads914,9971,183,0391,169,1081,167,705
      Totals2,355,7702,387,8312,393,1902,388,069
      Totals, New Zealand7,603,6328,878,83310,847,26512,337,059

The total expenditure shown in the preceding table was made available from the following sources of revenue.

1945–46.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.

* This item covers sources of revenue other than receipts by way of loans, local rates, Government grants, and motor taxation, the latter including receipts from motor-drivers' licences and heavy traffic fees.

All roads—££££
  Loans568,4541,129,3582,165,0442,991,903
  Local rates3,061,2243,162,4033,348,6713,510,751
  Government grants49,87437,10117,39414,095
  General taxation*1,075,098984,9161,105,0931,675,766
  Motor taxation2,848,9823,565,0554,211,0634,144,544
      Totals7,603,6328,878,83310,847,26512,337,059

REGISTRATION AND LICENSING OF MOTOR-VEHICLES.—Before the Main Highways Act was passed, the Government, by the provisions of the Customs Amendment Act, 1921, and the Finance Act, 1921–22, recognized and applied the principle that motor-vehicle owners should contribute toward the cost of the construction and upkeep of the road-surfaces which were required principally for them. By these Acts an import duty was levied on tires and tubes, the funds so obtained being used for highway construction and maintenance.

Amongst the funds specified by the Main Highways Act as being available for the Revenue Fund was a sum to be derived from the licensing of motor-vehicles. When the Main Highways Act was passed it was expected that a Motor-vehicles Act dealing with the registration and licensing of motor-vehicles would be simultaneously passed, but owing to the difficulty of co-ordinating all interests it was not until November, 1924. that the Motor-vehicles Act became law. This Act provided for the registration and annual licensing of all motor-vehicles. The Transport Act, 1949, however, repealed the Motor-vehicles Act, 1924, and as from the operating date of the 1st November, 1949, the Transport Act became the statutory authority dealing with these requirements.

Registration fees are 10s. for a motor-cycle and 20s. for any other motor-vehicle. Licence fees are as follows: Motor-cycle, 11s.; motor-car, £2 1s.; motor-omnibus, £3 1s.; trade motor (pneumatic tired), £2 1s.; trade motor (solid tired), £3 1s.; traction-engine, £5 1s.; motor-vehicle not otherwise specified, £2 1s.; trailers (two or more axles), £3 1s.; trailer (other), £1 1s. Other fees include drivers' licences, 5s.; changes of ownership, 5s. 6d.; and dealers' licences. All such fees, except that for a driver's licence, which is payable to the local authorities, and certain sums determined by the Minister of Finance (2s. 6d. for each motor-vehicle licence, and for each change of ownership, fees for supplying registration plates or licences and certification fees of particulars recorded in any register) and paid into the Post Office Account, are, in terms of the Transport Act, 1949, credited to the Consolidated Fund. Heavy-traffic fees which are referred to under the next heading, are now levied under the Transport Act, and receipts therefrom, as previously, are distributed among local authorities.

The 1949 Act provides that the annual licence may take the form of new registration-plates or be in such other form as prescribed by regulation. The Motor-vehicles (Registration and Licensing) Regulations 1949 replacing earlier emergency regulations, authorize the permanent alternative of a licensed label system instead of an annual change of registration plates. The sum of 6d. has been the charge for licence stickers. and 2s. 6d. for each set of two number-plates and 1s. 3d. for each single number-plate on issue or replacement of number-plates.

The following table shows the numbers of the various types of motor-vehicles licensed as at 31st March in each of the last five years.

Type of Vehicle.Licensed as at 31st March,
1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.
Cars201,155216,450225,093233,812251,122
Light trucks (i.e., 2 tons and under, laden)33,13436,59140,53643,18646,714
Heavy trucks (i.e., over 2 tons laden)25,37528,83931,82334,44038,207
Passenger trucks1,9972,1002,1822,2252,143
Omnibuses1,1331,2671,3971,4941,583
Taxis1,9121,9741,9702,0212,116
Rental cars8281,0471,0561,2001,393
Private-hire cars235257239266308
Service-cars637679692689734
Trailers22,78825,25429,29332,86036,471
Dealers' cars1,2821,4211,6141,6511,677
Local authority, &c., vehicles14,45117,54922,00928,55734,509
Government vehicles8,2968,4559,06210,14911,036
Motor-cycles17,63418,99519,91420,73321,048
Dealers' motor-cycles6571758089
      Totals330,922360,949386,955413,363449,150

War-time restrictions, &c., had the effect of reducing the number of vehicles licensed in the mid-war period, although there were slight increases in the goods-carrying categories in the later war years. Total figures for the last five years, however, show the effect of the gradual lifting of restrictions and the further importations of motor-vehicles. This was particularly reflected in the 1947–48 and 1950–51 figures of cars licensed. The abolition of motor-spirits rationing as from the 1st June, 1950, is the culmination of the gradual lifting of wartime restrictions on the use of motor-spirits. The increase in the number of local authority and other vehicles exempted from the annual licence fee should not necessarily be taken as an indication of the increase in the number of local authority vehicles, as it includes a miscellaneous collection of machines such as farmers' cars and trucks used solely on the farm, excavators, scoops, trench-diggers, logging machinery, cranes, &c.

The next table shows the estimated total consumption of motor-spirits in New Zealand, together with the quantity consumed by motor-vehicles, for each year during the period 1940 to 1950.

Calendar Year.Consumption of Motor-spirits.
By Motor-vehicles.Total Consumption.
 Million Gallons.Million Gallons.
194074.183.8
194167.082.3
194246.156.5
194350.259.4
194453.762.7
194565.674.6
194686.596.6
1947103.3117.0
1948102.6118.3
1949111.5132.6
1950122.5145.8

Consumption of motor-spirits for civilian purposes reached its lowest level in 1942, successive increases occurring from then until 1948, which was influenced by reversion to a modified form of the war-time rationing. Later years also recorded increases principally owing to the abolition of rationing in 1950 and to the greater number of vehicles on the roads in the latest year. Consumption by the Armed Forces was excluded from the figures from 1939 to 1947 inclusive.

The following diagram illustrates the movement that has taken place in the number of motor-vehicles licensed, and in the consumption of motor-spirits by motor-vehicles since 1931. The fall in consumption of motor-spirits during the depression period, the effects of rationing during the war years, and the post-war recoveries, are clearly demonstrated.

The following table gives particulars of the numbers of motor-vehicles registered during each of the last five financial years. It must not be assumed, however, that the figures are a record of the number of new vehicles introduced into the country's traffic system each year, since they include an unknown number of vehicles which have been brought back into commission after having been removed from the register. In this connection it may be mentioned that dormant registrations—i.e., vehicles the registrations of which have not been cancelled, but which have not been re-licensed for the current year—may be cancelled after the expiration of that year. If, however, a vehicle is again brought into use after its registration has been cancelled, it is treated as a new registration.

Year Ended 31st March,Cars.Motor-cycles.Other Motor-vehicles.Total Registrations.
19479,4943,69816,84030,032
194818,4552,96418,00239,421
194911,6622,15721,45035,269
195011,7762,79123,77038,337
195119,2012,93725,66047,798

The most outstanding feature in the above table is the marked increase in the number of motor-car registrations in 1947–48 and in 1950–51.

ROAD TRANSPORT.—The period following the First World War ushered in a rapid development of an already considerable road motor transport which has necessitated extensive legislation, not alone for its control but also for the provision of adequate road-surfaces. Certain principal enactments are referred to briefly in chronological order.

The Customs Amendment Act, 1921, among numerous tariff changes, imposed a tire-tax on rubber tires and tubes, previously duty free. The proceeds were credited to the Main Highways Account until 31st March, 1947, and since then to the Consolidated Fund. For an account of the moneys derived from this and other highways taxation see Section 25B (Taxation).

The Main Highways Act of 1922, referred to earlier in this section, constituted the next landmark. Two years later came the Motor-vehicles Act, 1924 (this being repealed by the Transport Act, 1949). At the same time the Public Works Amendment Act, 1924, was passed (later included in the 1928 consolidation of that Act). Under it regulations could be made fixing in respect of commercial vehicles of over 2 tons gross weight, heavy-traffic fees payable to local authorities for road-maintenance purposes, and also classifying roads and providing other measures. Regulations to this effect were made in 1925, and are now embodied in the Heavy Motor-vehicle Regulations 1950, replacing 1940 regulations of similar title. In the financial year 1950–51 local authorities received £862,492 by way of heavy-traffic fees, the amount in the previous year being £734,820. Present quarterly licence fees under the Heavy Motor-vehicle Regulations range from £1 6s. to £18 15s. for a pneumatic-tired vehicle. Heavy-traffic fees, less the cost of collection, &c., are apportioned among the local authorities having control of roads within each heavy-traffic district, either as may be mutually agreed upon by such local authorities or, in default of such agreement, by the Minister of Transport.

With the object of controlling motor-omnibus competition with tramways, regulations under the Board of Trade Act were issued in 1926. In the same year they were superseded by the Motor-omnibus Traffic Act, itself later repealed by the comprehensive Transport Licensing Act, 1931 (amended in 1933, 1935, 1936, 1939, and 1948). All this legislation was consolidated in 1949 by the Transport Act, 1949.

The Motor-spirits Taxation Act, 1927, imposed a duty of 4d. per gallon (raised in 1930 to 6d. per gallon; further subsequent increases are not connected with road taxation). As previously mentioned, from the net proceeds 8 per cent. is distributed on a population basis among cities or boroughs of a population of 6,000 upwards.

In 1927 the administration of the Motor-vehicles Act, 1924, was transferred to the Public Works Department, which subsequently issued in draft form regulations containing a uniform code of rules for motor-traffic in New Zealand. After full opportunity for criticism by interested parties the regulations were brought into force in 1928; they were later reissued through the Transport Department as the Traffic Regulations 1936.

The Public Works Act, 1928, contained extensive provisions relating to the construction, maintenance, and use of roads. Almost simultaneously came the Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act, 1928—refer Section 30B (Accident Insurance).

In 1929 the Transport Department Act constituted the portfolio of Minister of Transport, and also constituted the Transport Department under a Commissioner of Transport. The Act placed the administration of the following Acts under the Transport Department: Motor-vehicles Act, 1924; Motor-omnibus Traffic Act, 1926; Motor-spirits Taxation Act, 1927; Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act, 1928; and Public Works Act, 1928, in so far as it related to heavy traffic or to motor-vehicles. The Transport Licensing Act, 1931, was also under the administration of the Department. The Transport Act, 1949, consolidated all previous legislation and repealed the Acts quoted.

TRANSPORT LICENSING.—The Transport Act, 1949, which repealed the Transport Licensing Act, 1931, and its amendments, provides that any authority under the Act when dealing with an application or any other matter concerned with road transport or harbour-ferry services, is to have regard to the following:—

  1. The provision of modern transport facilities best suited according to the nature of the service to meet the needs of national production and living standards and of national defence:

  2. The fair and impartial regulation of all forms of public transport in order to develop and maintain transportation facilities adequate to meet the needs of New Zealand and of national and Commonwealth defence; and, for these purposes, to administer such facilities so as to recognize and preserve the inherent advantages of each form of transport; to promote safe, adequate, economic, and efficient service, and the fostering of sound economic conditions in transportation; to encourage the establishment and maintenance of reasonable transport charges without unjust discrimination, undue preference or advantage, or unfair or destructive practices; and to promote good working conditions for workers.

The more important provisions of the 1949 law are described in the paragraphs now given, most of these being the re-enactment of existing legislation.

The constitution of transport, goods-service, and harbour-ferry service districts was provided for in the Act, together with the establishment of a Licensing Authority for each district. For the four metropolitan transport districts, the Licensing Authorities appointed are the Auckland Transport Board and the Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin City Councils respectively. Goods-service districts may be identical with a transport district or be a part of the latter. The Minister of Transport may also declare any specified harbour or harbours or parts thereof to be a harbour-ferry service district.

The Licensing Authority for any transport district may also be declared to be the Licensing Authority for the goods-service district. The Act provides for the appointment of a Licensing Authority for each harbour-ferry district instead of the former practice under which the Licensing Authority for the transport district to which the harbour is contiguous was to be the Licensing Authority for the harbour-ferry district. The Minister may authorize any specified Licensing Authority to exercise jurisdiction in respect of licences which would otherwise come within the jurisdiction of some other Licensing Authority.

The Licensing Authority, other than a Metropolitan Authority, is to consist of either one or three persons as the Minister may determine, who are appointed for a term of up to three years duration. Members are also eligible for reappointment. The sole member or the Chairman (where the Authority consists of three members) has the authority and privileges of a Magistrate in respect of proceedings.

Passenger and goods-services and harbour-ferry services are only to be carried on under licence. In the case of other than a common carrier, goods-services operating on a route between two places in which there are 30 miles or more of an open Government railway, are to be licensed unless (a) the route including the railway is longer by one-third than the shortest road route available, or (b) the owner of the motor-vehicle is a farmer or market gardener who is carrying goods in connection with his farm, or (c) the Crown or local authority or public body owns the vehicle.

A transport licence is not required (1) for the carriage to and from school of schoolchildren and their teachers only, (2) the carriage by a contract vehicle or a harbour-ferry of a private party on a special occasion, (3) carriage of workmen to and from work by the Government or a public body, where the vehicle is not designed principally for the carriage of persons and such service has been approved by the Minister for this purpose, (4) carriage of passengers in a trackless trolley omnibus, (5) in connection with funerals, carriage of newspapers, or repair and wreckage of vehicles which have met with mishap, (6) by farmers for cartage of milk, cream, or whey to and from dairy factories for their neighbours where a licensed goods-service is not available, (7) for relieving or assisting inhabitants of a locality affected by flood, earthquake, or fire, (8) carriage of showman's goods, &c., by a vehicle owned by the showman, and (9) goods-services otherwise exempted by Order in Council.

In considering applications for licences, the Licensing Authority is to have regard to the extent to which any proposed service or improved service is necessary or desirable in the public interest, and the needs of the district concerned. If further consideration be then given, factors to be taken into account are existing services, financial ability of applicant to carry on the service, provision and maintenance of a reasonable standard of living and satisfactory working conditions in the transport industry, the manner in which a service has already been carried on, or the likelihood of satisfactorily carrying on a service, time-tables and frequency of service, vehicles or ferries to be used, conditions of roads, routes and load restrictions, speed, &c., and representations that may be made by various bodies, persons carrying on transport services and likely to be affected, and petitions of twenty-five or more adult persons of the locality concerned, &c.

Preference is to be given to applications by Government and local authority or other public body under certain conditions, chiefly where no existing services are available or where the proposal is for an extension of an existing service, or if the new service is wholly within the applicant's district in the case of a local authority, &c., or where there will be no competition with an existing service to the same locality by means of another route.

The Licensing Authority is to prescribe the terms and conditions of the licences such as class (continuous, seasonal, or temporary), commencement date, localities and routes, time-tables, &c.

Additional requirements may be prescribed for taxicab licences to ensure the control of the service in the interests of efficiency and of the public—e.g., complying with roster of duties, joining an organization for the purpose of obtaining telephone facilities, &c. Licences are transferable subject to certain conditions, while the maximum duration of a harbour-ferry service licence is to be ten years, and that of road transport licences to be five years.

Certificates of fitness are required for each passenger service or goods-service vehicle and all trucks with gross laden weight exceeding two tons.

The Transport Act, 1949, provided that the fixing, altering, or reviewing of charges in respect of any transport service should be carried out solely by the Transport Charges Committee or the Transport Charges Appeal Authority established under the Act. The 1950 amendment, however, abolished the Transport Charges Committee and provides that charges are to be fixed in the case of a service owned by a public body, by that body itself, and in the case of any other service, by the Commissioner of Transport, there being a right of appeal to the Transport Charges Appeal Authority in either case.

The Transport Charges Appeal Authority, as in the case of the Transport Licensing Appeal Authority, also established under the Act, is to be either a Judge of the Supreme Court or the holder of any office under any Act who is entitled to the equivalent rights and tenure of office as a Judge of the Supreme Court.

Applications to fix road and harbour-ferry charges may be made by the holder of, or an applicant for, the licence; any other person whose interests are affected, being the holder of a licence, an applicant, the permanent head of a Government Department, a local authority, or a public body; any twenty-five or more adult residents of a locality in which the charges are or would be in force; all parties to a contract for the carriage of passengers or goods by any such services; and incorporated bodies whose members have a special interest in the type of transport concerned or whose principal objects are the protection of the interests of transport operators. The power to fix fares to be charged on any road passenger service carried on by the Minister of Railways to which the Government Railways (Wellington to Johnsonville) Act, 1935, applies, is expressly excluded from the jurisdiction of the charge-fixing bodies or Appeal Authority.

The principles to be observed in determining transport charges include: the promotion and maintenance of the economic stability of New Zealand; desirability of increasing national production by granting concessions on the carriage of producers' goods; desirability of providing special fares for all regular users of passenger services and that children under four years be carried free, with children from the age of four years and under fifteen years at half adult rates; desirability of maintaining a reasonable standard of living and satisfactory working conditions in the road transport and harbour-ferry industries; and the maintenance of efficiency of the transport services to which the proceedings relate.

Included in the general provisions is one under which the owner of any motor-vehicle licensed for passenger services or goods-services and involved in an accident attended by serious injury to any person or serious damage to the property of any person shall notify the Commissioner of Transport within forty-eight hours of the occurrence.

Operations of Licensed Goods and Passenger Services.—The following tables review the operations of licensed road transport services to which the preceding paragraphs relate. The first of these tables gives the estimated overall figures concerning licensed road goods services for the years ended 31st March, 1949 and 1950.

Road Goods Services.Year Ended 31st March, 1949.Year Ended 31st March, 1950.
Total costs£12,339,000£13,665,000
Revenue£14,629,000£16,532,000
Drawings and wages included in costs£5,292,000£5,299,000
Capital£11,289,000£13,560,000
Outside liabilities£3,340,000£4,030,000
Total vehicle-miles143,594,000150,177,000
Vehicles owned (number)11,14711,750
Vehicles usefully employed (number)10,50610,957
Number of operators4,3244,711
Average cost per vehicle-mile20.62d.21.84d.
Average revenue per vehicle-mile24.45d.26.42d.
Average miles per vehicle (number)12,88112,781
Average capital per operator£2,611£2,878
Average liabilities per operator£772£855

The second table shows traffic data, operating expenses, revenue, and profit of the road passenger services operating in New Zealand and inclusive of services in the four Metropolitan Transport Districts for each of the three years ended 31st March, 1948, 1949, and 1950.

Road Passenger Services.1948.1949.1950.
Traffic statistics—   
  Number of vehicle journeys4,521,0424,757,3014,736,728
  Passengers carried90,270,667100,901,488102,177,874
  Average number of passengers per vehicle journey202122
  Vehicle-miles46,419,62249,497,64053,365,724
Operating expenses—£££
  Running costs1,773,1471,880,1542,036,327
  Standing charges1,599,4471,865,8752,040,321
  Overhead421,108464,761544,881
      Total operating costs3,793,7024,210,7904,621,529
Total revenue4,110,5914,602,8944,900,419
Total operating costs, in pence per mile19.6120.4221.18
Total revenue, in pence per mile21.2522.3222.46
Average fare paid per passenger journey10.0d.10.1d.11.5d.
Number of vehicles included2,1132,2592,352

ROAD SAFETY.—During 1947 the New Zealand Road Safety Council was reconstituted. This body was first set up in 1936 to advise the Government on matters of road safety. Sub-committees have now been set up dealing with the following: the motor-driver, motor-vehicle, roads, traffic laws, traffic law enforcement, road accident statistics, road safety publicity, and child education in traffic.

Publicity directed towards road safety is carried out per medium of the press, posters, screen slides, and radio, concentrating on simultaneous presentation, as far as possible, of specific aspects of the problem. Other means employed in furthering road safety consist of traffic instruction in schools, inspection of motor-vehicles, and enforcement of traffic laws.

The Transport Act, 1949, as amended in 1950, contains several provisions designed to achieve greater safety on the roads. A maximum speed limit of 50 miles per hour is fixed, but lower limits are provided for special classes of vehicles—e.g., motor-cycles with pillion riders and heavy passenger vehicles, 40 miles per hour; vehicles drawing trailers, 35 miles per hour; and heavy goods vehicles, 30 miles per hour. A uniform speed-limit of 30 miles an hour is fixed in boroughs, town districts, or other localities which have been declared to be closely populated localities by notice published by the Minister of Transport in the New Zealand Gazette. The Act also gives the Minister power to exempt any road in a particular borough or town district from the provisions of the maximum speed-limit, and further exceptions are ambulances (fitted with a siren or bell) or police vehicles travelling on urgent duty, or fire-engines proceeding to a fire.

Persons convicted on indictment of negligent or reckless driving, or intoxication while in charge of a motor-vehicle, if injury to any person results from their actions, are liable to a maximum penalty of five years' imprisonment or a fine of £500. Where no person is injured or where the offence as above results in summary conviction, the maximum penalty is three months' imprisonment or a fine of £100. Where any person is convicted of negligent or reckless driving or of intoxication while in charge of a vehicle the Act provides that, unless the Court directs otherwise, an order must be made cancelling the offender's licence and disqualifying him from obtaining another for a period of at least one year from the date of conviction. By the 1950 amendment application may be made after six months to the Court imposing this penalty for removal of the disqualification. The Transport Act, 1949, also prescribed penalties for careless or inconsiderate driving and the carriage of intoxicants in a public vehicle, and also makes compulsory the reporting to the police of all motor-vehicle accidents involving injury.

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS ON ROADS.—Motor-vehicle accidents involving death or personal injury are required by law to be reported to the police, and since 15th March, 1937, very full particulars of all such accidents have been furnished to the Transport Department. For the year ended 31st December, 1950, 4,647 such accidents were reported, resulting in 232 fatalities, and in injuries to 6,314 other people. Comparative figures for the 1949 and 1948 years were (1948 figures are given in parentheses): number of accidents, 4,092 (3,593); fatalities, 218 (196); persons injured, 5,317 (4,706). The increase in the traffic flow over the last few years, caused partly by the progressive easing of the restrictions on the use of motor-spirits, is reflected in the corresponding increase in road accidents. New Zealand probably has the lowest traffic death rate (based on deaths per 10,000 licensed motor-vehicles) of any of the motorized countries, the New Zealand figure for 1950 being 6.03. Details of the number and nature of road accidents for the five calendar years ended in 1950, which have been compiled by the Transport Department, are as follows:—

Nature of Accident.Number of Accidents.
1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
Collisions—     
  Between two motor-vehicles9731,1771,1161,3781,590
  Between motor-vehicle and bicycle689771825878902
  Between motor-vehicle and pedestrian740725763806928
  Between motor-vehicle and fixed object134145154208249
  Between motor-vehicle and animal or horse-vehicle2935342836
  Between motor-vehicle and railway-train3240303933
  Between motor-vehicle and tram4651343937
  Multiple and other collisions110145145122188
      Total, collisions2,7533,0893,1013,4983,963
Non-collisions—     
  Drove off road86121114151177
  Went over bank101144126162182
  Overturned on roadway100113159151187
  Person fell from vehicle867873114112
  Other3725201626
      Total, non-collisions410481492594684
      Total accidents3,1633,5703,5934,0924,647

Particulars of fatal motor-vehicle accidents included in the foregoing table are now given. It should be noted that the figures relate to the number of accidents and not to the number of deaths, which, as stated above, numbered 232 in 1950.

Nature of Accident.Number of Fatal Accidents.
1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
Collisions, motor-vehicle with—     
  Pedestrian5448564557
  Motor-vehicle2341285046
  Train12106109
  Tram31   
  Bicycle2321272722
  Horse-vehicle or animal11112
  Fixed object91091416
  Other968512
Went over bank or drove off roadway2426303135
Otherwise1624221524
      Totals174188187198223

Statistics of deaths resulting from motor-vehicle accidents are available for many years from vital statistics, these figures being discussed briefly on pages 98–99.

The next table shows the distribution of motor accidents on the system of roads and streets during the calendar year 1950.

Classification of Locality.Fatal Accidents.Non-fatal Accidents.All Accidents.
Number.Percentage of Total.Number.Percentage of Total.Number.Percentage of Total.
Four main centres4721.21,66337.51,71036.8
Secondary cities (8)177.654112.255812.0
Boroughs 6,000–20,000 population114.93778.53888.3
Small boroughs, town districts, and closely populated localities3013.447410.750410.9
      Total in built-up areas10547.13,05568.93,16068.0
State highways6830.587619.994420.3
Main highways2913.02936.73226.9
Other rural roads219.42004.52214.8
      Total, open-road accidents11852.91,36931.11,48732.0
      Total accidents223100.04,424100.04,647100.0

The next table gives an analysis of the main causes of accidents in which motor-vehicles were involved during the year ended 31st December, 1950.

Cause.Percentage of Accidents Where Motorists Considered Responsible.Percentage of Accidents Where Pedestrians Considered Responsible.Percentage of Accidents Where Cyclists Considered Responsible.Percentage of all Miscellaneous Causes.
Failure to yield right of way26 23 
Failure to keep left12 11 
Driver/rider inattentive12 17 
Excessive speed8   
Passing or overtaking negligently3   
Skidding3   
Pedestrian crossing roadway heedless of traffic 54  
Pedestrian emerging from behind vehicle or object 13  
Pedestrian stepping into roadway without due care 10  
Pedestrian intoxicated 7  
Pedestrian confused by traffic 7  
Pedestrian walking on roadway when footpath available 3  
Swerving negligently  11 
Failure to give proper signal  8 
Reckless emergence from another road  6 
Door opened in moving vehicle   14
Animals on roadway   11
Passenger riding in insecure position   9
Road surface slippery from rain   7
Narrow road   7
Excessive depth of loose metal   6

Chapter 14. SECTION 14—CIVIL AVIATION AND AIR TRANSPORT

Table of Contents

ADMINISTRATION.—The administration of civil aviation in New Zealand is vested in the Civil Aviation Branch of the Air Department. The position of Director of Civil Aviation is constituted by the Civil Aviation Act of 1948, which Act also provides authority for the regulation of civil aviation in New Zealand and in addition gives effect to the Convention on International Civil Aviation which was signed on behalf of the New Zealand Government in Chicago on 7th December, 1944.

The Civil Aviation Branch is organized into three divisions, namely, Operations, Airworthiness, and Airways. The functions of these divisions include the examining and licensing of flight crew and aircraft maintenance engineers, the operation of an airways communication and air traffic control system, surveying and issuing certificates of airworthiness for civil aircraft, collaboration with the Ministry of Works on airport projects, provision of radio aids to air navigation, and the dispensing of aeronautical information. Close liaison with the R.N.Z.A.F. in matters of common interest is maintained by the Civil Aviation Branch.

With the expansion of air services in New Zealand the number of radio aids to air navigation has been increased. At present the following radio aids are in commission in New Zealand:—

Radio beacons21
Responder beacons8
Radio ranges3
High frequency direction-finding stations3

In addition the Civil Aviation Branch has installed and maintains radio aids in Fiji, the Cook Islands, and Western Samoa as part of New Zealand's commitments in the South-west Pacific.

STAFF.—The total number of staff employed as at 31st March, 1951, was 565. Of these 74 were stationed in Fiji, Western Samoa, and the Cook Islands.

At that date the airport at Fuaamotu in Tonga was also controlled by New Zealand but since then the various facilities and staff have been withdrawn and the air service to those islands has been terminated.

Air Transport.—Prior to the passing of the Air Services Licensing Act, 1951, the operation of air transport services in New Zealand was vested in the New Zealand National Airways Corporation by the National Airways Act of 1945, but permission to operate new services could be granted to other concerns under the provision of the National Airways Corporation Amendment Act, 1948.

At present the New Zealand National Airways Corporation operates over an unduplicated route mileage of 2,947 miles (not including Pacific Island services).

The Air Services Licensing Act provides for the establishment of the Air Services Licensing Authority of three members, the principal functions of which are to hear and determine applications for the granting, renewal, or transfer of air service licences. No air service may be carried on unless a licence has been granted under the Act, with the exception of the carriage of passengers by any club affiliated with the Royal New Zealand Aero Club (Inc.).

Expenditure.—The following particulars of expenditure on civil aviation for the year ended 31st March, 1951, have been extracted from the Annual Report of the Air Department for that year (parliamentary paper H-37). The figures are on a net basis, i.e., departmental receipts have been deducted where applicable and only expenditure properly chargeable to civil aviation has been taken into account. For example the total gross expenditure for the year on “Meteorological Services” was £228,458 but it is estimated that of this expenditure only £72,115 was on account of services to civil aviation. The main items of expenditure were as follows:—

 ££
Subsidies to aero clubs 16,442
Meteorological services 72,115
Share South Pacific Trunk air route 120,000
Capital expenditure—  
Aircraft, fire-tenders, motor-vehicles, &c.19,276 
Aerodrome construction and development293,331 
Building construction32,400 
Housing39,734 
Telecommunications equipment16,064 
  400,805
Recurrent expenditure—  
Salaries, allowances, &c.322,467 
Aeronautical information service2,861 
Operation and maintenance of aircraft, fire and crash protection service, and motor-vehicles33,220 
Maintenance of aerodromes, buildings, &c.163,323 
Operation and maintenance of telecommunications79,974 
Other expenditure42,334 
  644,179
Subsidies to airline operators—  
B.C.P.A. (balance 1948–49)11,303 
N.Z.N.A.C. (financial year 1949–50)—  
Internal services230,553 
Pacific regional service109,145 
  351,001
      Total £1,604,542

NATIONAL AIRWAYS CORPORATION.—Provision for complete control of air transport as a national service was contained in the New Zealand National Airways Act, 1945, and its 1948 amendment, but as indicated earlier a licensing authority has been established under the Air Services Licensing Act, 1951, and licences may be granted to other operators. The 1945 Act provides for the establishment of the New Zealand National Airways Corporation with a capital of £1,000,000, to be paid by the Minister of Finance as and when required.

The general functions and duties of the Corporation are described in the Act as follows:—

  1. For the purpose of this Act and subject to the provisions thereof, and with full regard to the safety, efficiency, and economy of operation, the Corporation may do all that is necessary or convenient to be done for, or as incidental to, in relation to, or in connection with, the establishment, maintenance, or operation by the Corporation of air services for the transport, for reward, of passengers and goods by air within New Zealand.

  2. It shall be the duty of the Corporation to exercise the powers conferred by the last preceding subsection as fully and adequately as may be necessary to satisfy the need for air services within New Zealand and to carry out the purposes of the Act.

  3. The Corporation may act as agent for any organization engaged in the provision of air-transport services.

The Corporation is also given power to exercise, in relation to air services between New Zealand and overseas countries, powers similar to those possessed in relation to air services in New Zealand. It is also empowered to acquire shares or other interests in any organization operating an air service between New Zealand and any overseas country. The Corporation was authorized to acquire by compulsion any aircraft or other property owned by any organization which on the passing of the Act was the holder of an aircraft-service licence.

One of the initial actions of the Board of Directors of the Corporation after appointment in August, 1946, was to acquire the interests of Union Airways of New Zealand, Ltd., the principal commercial airline operator within New Zealand. It was not considered desirable for the Corporation, as such, to operate services under the New Zealand National Airways Act until its regulations and by-laws were actually gazetted. These were gazetted in March, 1947, and the Corporation first commenced to operate under its own licences on 1st April, 1947. The remaining commercial operator, Air Travel, New Zealand, Ltd., was taken over during 1947.

At 31st March, 1951, the capital liability consisting of amounts advanced by the Government in terms of the New Zealand National Airways Act was £1,200,000, on which the Corporation pays interest at the rate of 3½ per cent. per annum. Particulars of operating revenue during the year ended 31st March, 1951, with the corresponding figures for 1949–50 in parentheses are as follows: passenger fares, £1,008,753 (£840,727); excess baggage, £10,516 (£8,227); freight £95,472 (£51,103); mail-money, £47,311 (£45,026); charters, £123,132 (£81,587); and incidental revenue, £26,609 (£24,323); total, £1,311,794 (£1,050,993).

The most important factor affecting the revenue proceeds for the last two years was the transfer of services from Rongotai and Mangere Aerodromes to Paraparaumu and Whenuapai respectively, adding considerably to the total time spent on short flights, and making the increased facilities offered by alternative means of transport more attractive to potential customers. Increased costs also arose out of these transfers, while other factors contributing to heavier costs were increases in the price of fuel and in the total of salaries and wages paid. In 1949–50 also, poor winter loadings followed upon an accident in March, 1949.

Operating expenditure (including depreciation on flight and ground equipment) amounted to £1,326,137, as compared with £1,335,248 in 1949–50. Thus a greatly improved result was attained in 1950–51, the operating loss being only £14,343 as against £284,255 in the previous year. Interest on capital advances in 1950–51 was £42,812, so that the net deficit for the year was £57,155, the comparable figure for 1949–50 being £328,676.

CIVIL FLYING OPERATIONS: Domestic Services.—Scheduled air transport operations over specific routes were first commenced in New Zealand in December, 1934, on the route Inchbonnie–Hokitika–Franz Josef Glacier on the West Coast of the South Island. In April, 1935, services were commenced between Gisborne and Napier, while later in that year services across Cook Strait between Wellington-Blenheim and Nelson were being operated. Subsequent extensions of services up to the outbreak of war in September, 1939, had covered almost the whole of New Zealand.

On the outbreak of war a total of ten aircraft was taken over from the three operating companies—Union Airways of New Zealand, Ltd., Cook Strait Airways, Ltd., and Air Travel (N.Z.), Ltd. As a result, Cook Strait Airways, Ltd., ceased operations, but the other two companies maintained services on a reduced scale.

During 1946 and 1947 the New Zealand National Airways Corporation absorbed all existing scheduled commercial services, and by adding to the fleet of aircraft was able to commence new services.

At 31st March, 1951, domestic scheduled services were being operated on the following routes—

Route No.Terminating Sector Points.Intermediate Stops.Route Miles.Scheduled Frequency.
1Auckland–KaikoheWhangarei1121 return trip daily.
 Auckland–KaitaiaKaikohe1421 return trip daily.
 Auckland–WhangareiNil723 return trips daily.
2Auckland–DunedinWellington–Christchurch7032 south and 3 north trips daily.
 Auckland–ChristchurchNil4791 return trip daily.
 Auckland-ChristchurchWellington5052 return trips daily.
 Auckland–WellingtonNil2871 southbound trip daily.
 Palmerston North–WellingtonNil521 return trip daily.
 Wellington–ChristchurchNil2181 return trip daily.
 Wellington–DunedinChristchurch4161 southbound trip daily.
3Dunedin–InvercargillNil1073 return trips daily.
4Auckland–WellingtonHamilton – Palmerston North3091 return trip daily.
 Hamilton–RotoruaNil552 return trips daily.
 Auckland–RotoruaNil1341 return trip weekly.
5Auckland–GisborneNil2231 return trip daily.
 Auckland–GisborneTauranga2261 return trip daily.
6Gisborne–WellingtonNapier – Palmerston North2261 return trip daily.
7Auckland–WellingtonNew Plymouth – Palmerston North3321 return trip daily.
8Wellington–BlenheimNil724 return trips daily.
 Wellington–NelsonNil965 return trips daily.
9Nelson–WestportNil951 return trip daily.
10Westport–HokitikaGreymouth781 return trip daily.
11Hokitika–HaastWhataroa–Waiho1252 return trips weekly.
12Wellington–Blenheim (N.Z.R. Freight Service)Nil728 return trips weekly (others as required).

Revenue traffic statistics for those routes for the year ended 31st March, 1951, were—

Route No.Hours Flown.Miles Flown.Passenger Miles Flown.Available Seat-miles Flown.Passenger Load Factor.
 Hr. Min.   Per Cent.
13,157 25303,7211,967,0112,430,99280.91
216,156 152,324,80139,433,32448,218,52081.78
32,025 55204,691847,6541,057,48180.16
42,502 25283,6192,433,7273,433,76070.88
52,049 45291,9743,877,8305,019,82377.25
61,388 55160,7902,576,9583,024,35985.21
71,617 50210,0313,285,7454,412,25774.47
83,243 20412,5764,575,4986,236,11073.37
9491 2557,372591,297866,37568.25
10618 1548,22876,029143,95552.81
11814 3071,50579,550211,75537.57
Sub-totals34,066 004,369,30859,744,62375,055,38779.60
N.Z. Railways Freight Service
122,781 05320,514   
      Totals36,847 054,689,82259,744,62375,055,38779.00
Route No.Ton-miles Flown.Available Capacity Ton-miles Flown.Overall Load Factor.
Passenger.Excess Baggage.Freight.Mail.Total.
       Per Cent.
1153,4402,1884,469977161,074248,48864.82
23,356,54859,496446,557106,8903,969,4915,252,22375.58
368,5185584,2911,91575,282106,76470.51
4195,9203,18011,4781,724212,302347,54261.09
5315,9295,77617,8423,551343,098499,71668.66
6218,7193,67814,4093,132239,938319,82475.02
7274,4433,93325,6172,870306,863501,32361.21
8365,3025,70640,5253,209414,742680,13760.98
947,3217213,9181,07853,03892,35957.43
106,073617644517,34912,36359.44
116,5241513,4993,12613,30017,99173.93
Sub-totals5,008,73785,448573,369128,9235,796,4778,078,73071.75
N.Z. Railways Freight Service
12  1,045,558 1,045,5581,.89.72
      Totals5,008,73785,4481,618,927128,9236,842,0359,244,174.01

During the year ended 31st March, 1951, 238,405 passengers, 37,017,670 lb. of freight, and 916,688 lb. of mail were carried on these services. (Of the total amount of freight carried 31,293,329 lb. was transported by the New Zealand Railways Rail/Air Freight Service.)

Aircraft used in the operation of services on these routes were—

Lockheed Lodestar8
Douglas D.C. 310
Douglas C. 47B (freighter)3
D.H. 89B Dominie6
D.H. 83 Fox Moth3
      Total30

Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service.—The New Zealand Railways Air Freight Service was commenced officially in February of 1947 following a number of special inter-island freight flights which had been carried out by the Royal New Zealand Air Force at the request of the Railways Department to meet a shipping emergency. With the introduction of the Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service delays caused by lack of shipping space and industrial troubles were somewhat alleviated. The service was conducted by the R.N.Z.A.F. operating Dakota aircraft until June, 1947, when the service was handed over to the New Zealand National Airways Corporation which continued to operate with Dakotas. In 1950 the Railways Department decided to allow private enterprise the opportunity of tendering for the contract to run the service and the successful tenderer was Straits Air Freight Express, Limited, which took over on 1st April, 1951. Straits Air Freight Express, Limited (S.A.F.E.), had purchased two Bristol Freighter aircraft in the United Kingdom, but these aircraft could not be delivered until the end of May, 1951, and in the meantime air cargo was piling up at both terminals (Woodbourne and Paraparaumu) due to the industrial dispute then in progress. The company therefore arranged with Civil Air Transport, Incorporated (C.A.T.), an American air transport organization based in Formosa, to operate the Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service in the interim. C.A.T. despatched two of their Curtis Commando C. 46) aircraft to New Zealand followed later by a third, and operated the service at first on their own and later when the Bristol Freighters arrived, in conjunction with S.A.F.E. Towards the end of their operations C.A.T. introduced a fourth Commando into the service. At the present time (October, 1951) the Rail/Air Freight Service is being maintained by a Bristol Freighter and Dakotas chartered from N.A.C. as the second Freighter is temporarily out of commission due to a landing accident. The frequency of service at present is 8 scheduled return trips per day. During the period of the industrial dispute the amount of air freight lifted between the two islands reached very large figures, the peak week being that ended on 30th June, when 977 tons of air cargo was carried.

Traffic statistics for this freight service for the years 1947 to 1951 are as follows:—

Year Ended 31st March,Trips Flown.Hours Flown.Miles Flown.Freight. (lb.)Freight Ton-miles.
194729917322,5852,040,10171,297
19481,7861,114138,26613,081,232448,891
19492,2301,482181,63017,286,265600,682
19503,0181,949232,04221,789,779745,781
19514,2972,781320,51431,293,3291,045,558

The following table gives the summarized results of the operations of scheduled commercial air services during the last eleven years. Statistics for the New Zealand Railways Freight Service are included for 1947 and later years.

Year Ended 31st March,Hours Flown.Miles Flown.Passengers.Freight.Mail.Passenger-miles.Freight Ton-miles.*Mail Ton-miles.

* Includes excess baggage ton-miles for 1947–48 and later years.

† Does not include miles flown, freight or mail carried by R.N.Z.A.F. Air Transport.

    lb.lb.   
19415,036645,70237,023206,936130,8064,373,8229,58512,555
19425,206688,72338,058194,858165,6705,062,0389,43417,616
19435,576685,95330,634174,757220,5274,655,7749,42323,887
19446,421832,96637,435191,113244,6146,371,00711,42629,677
19457,129965,78751,754272,251313,0139,299,97918,82444,040
19468,5411,108,13460,193338,950428,70910,158,22122,58752,935
194716,6161,525,079110,7672,674,596605,08621,870,438161,76885,387
194827,8493,459,258154,32914,292,577597,23135,695,285574,90197,310
194932,8684,197,461174,83619,220,891752,49244,323,199843,528108,580
195037,1984,740,348204,70724,547,480873,30549,478,3651,096,956121,251
195136,8474,689,822238,40537,017,670916,68859,744,6231,704,375128,923

Non-Scheduled Air Services.—In addition to the scheduled services mentioned above, charter and taxi flights were carried out by New Zealand National Airways Corporation as well as by other companies including Tasman Empire Airways, Limited, which operated flights to the Chatham Islands as required. Aero clubs also operated air services on a charter basis. The following is a traffic summary of these services for the year ended 31st March, 1951.

Commercial Companies.Aero Clubs.Total.
Number of flights3,9166,59110,507
Hours flown2,6434,8817,524
Miles flown289,339438,337727,676
Passengers carried10,13810,18020,318
Freight carried (lb.)1,181,65121,2781,202,929

Aerial Work Operations.—The rapid development of aerial work operations has continued during the past year and there are now 30 companies and aero clubs engaged in the various types of aerial work. The following is a summary of aerial work operations carried out during the year ended 31st March, 1951.

Type of Work.Material Dropped.Amount Dropped.Hours Flown.Area Covered.

* Not available.

Top-dressingSuperphosphate100,703,602 lb.16,080428,737 acres.
Spraying and crop-dustingBluestone5,712 lb.16*
Weedone488 gal.*
Cobalt Solution88 gal. 
D.D.T.528 lb.16
Seed-sowingGrass seed107,184 lb.10816,269 acres.
Rabbit poisoningPhosphorized pollard798,984 lb.1,015*
Aerial photography and surveyNot applicableNot applicable35844,515 air miles.

In addition to the above, there has been an increase in the supply-dropping operations which have been carried out in remote areas. This type of work has covered the dropping of supplies to deer cullers, and the dropping of fencing materials. A total of 315,770 lb. of material was dropped by aircraft during the year ended 31st March, 1951.

International Services.Tasman Empire Airways.—An air service from Australia to New Zealand across the Tasman Sea is the last stage of an air route from the United Kingdom to New Zealand. The first survey of this route was undertaken by Imperial Airways, Ltd., of London, in 1937. Subsequently, a company, known as Tasman Empire Airways, Ltd., was formed to operate a proposed trans-Tasman air service. The initial share capital of the company was subscribed by the three Governments in the following proportions: United Kingdom, 38 per cent.; Australia, 23 per cent.; New Zealand, 39 per cent.; these proportions being later adjusted to 20, 30, and 50 per cent. respectively.

On 30th April, 1940, the Auckland–Sydney service commenced. In June, 1950, the company took over from New Zealand National Airways Corporation the Auckland–Suva service which continues to Labasa under charter to the Government of Fiji. The Wellington–Sydney service was inaugurated on 3rd October, 1950. Short S.45 flying-boats with a seating capacity of 42 persons are used on all routes with the exception of Christchurch-Melbourne on which Douglas Skymaster (DC4) aircraft are employed.

The Christchurch-Melbourne service did not commence until 28th June, 1951.

Details are as follows:—

Route No.Route.Route Miles.Frequency.
1Auckland–Sydney1,3426 return trips weekly.
2Wellington–Sydney1,3424 return trips weekly.
3Auckland–Suva1,3101 return trip weekly.
4Christchurch–Melbourne1,5021 return trip weekly.

Revenue traffic statistics for the year ended 31st March, 1951, are given below.

Item.Auckland–Sydney.Wellington–Sydney.Auckland–Suva.Total.
Hours flown5,0891,3475907,026
Miles flown960,872253,162111,3501,325,384
Passengers22,6186,4392,17631,233
Passenger-miles30,353,3568,641,1382,850,56041,845,054
Available seat miles36,874,1349,606,0364,142,22050,622,390
Passenger load factor (per cent.)82.3289.9668.8282.66
Cargo—    
Freight (lb.)380,91189,62626,749497,286
Excess baggage (lb.)47,55613,8113,12664,493
Mail (lb.)371,43482,3647,994461,792
Ton-miles flown—    
Passenger2,872,013804,507269,0613,945,581
Excess baggage28,5288,3231,87138,722
Freight227,88153,61816,002297,501
Mail222,21449,5424,782276,538
      Totals3,350,636915,990291,7164,558,342
Available capacity ton-miles4,167,1411,052,331451,6165,671,088
Overall load factor (per cent.)80.4187.0464.5980.38

The following is a summary of traffic statistics for Tasman Empire Airways, Ltd., for the last eleven years and includes services flown by other airlines under charter to the company.

Year Ended 31st March,Hours Flown.Miles Flown.Passengers.Freight.Mail.Passenger-miles.Freight Ton-miles.*Mail Ton-miles.

* Includes excess baggage ton-miles.

    lb.lb.   
19411,181174,2001,50718,80078,1792,019,38011,24646,768
19421,382211,9201,95932,230167,2752,625,06019,280100,066
19431,265192,9602,25635,195101,7413,023,04021,05460,863
19441,502229,1402,92440,02494,1063,918,16023,94350,296
19452,798427,4605,80384,189142,8127,796,02050,36385,432
19463,270493,7646,10099,584214,7928,174,00060,019128,492
19474,863778,70411,648176,687278,78915,698,320105,697166,776
19486,128991,91618,792223,229331,92625,194,933122,506198,556
19497,2021,215,10324,597377,178345,71533,004,924207,749207,324
19506,6601,183,64422,579361,623405,58730,301,018216,337243,046
19517,0261,325,38431,233561,779461,79241,845,054336,223276,538

New Zealand National Airways Corporation.—The Corporation continued to operate services in the South-west Pacific over the following routes using Douglas D.C. 3 aircraft and one Short Sunderland on the Auckland–Labasa route until it was taken over by Tasman Empire Airways in June, 1950.

Route No.Route.Route Miles.Frequency.
1Auckland–Labasa (via Suva)1,4531 return trip weekly up till 31st May, 1950.
2Auckland–Norfolk Island6611 return trip weekly.
3Auckland–Rarotonga (via Norfolk Island, Nandi, Nausori, Tonga, Faleolo, and Aitutaki)3,8201 return trip fortnightly.

Revenue traffic statistics for these routes for the year ended 31st March, 1951, are as follows:—

Item.Auckland–Labasa.Auckland–Norfolk Island.Auckland–Rarotonga.Total.

* Not available for individual services.

Hours flown1505321,4552,137
Miles flown23,24881,964221,481326,693
Passengers***4,439
Passenger-miles412,2331,009,3472,266,0933,687,673
Available seat miles604,8531,210,9612,942,3364,758,150
Passenger load factor (per cent.)68.1583.3577.0277.50
Cargo—    
Freight (lb.)***63,486
Excess baggage (lb.)***9,151
Mail (lb.)***29,043
Ton-miles flown—    
Passenger34,98286,346190,300311,628
Excess baggage2134321,4132,058
Freight2,1874,09824,70730,992
Mail1,13053316,04917,712
      Totals38,51291,409232,469362,390
Available capacity ton-miles67,404115,946301,366484,716
Overall load factor (per cent.)57.1478.8477.1474.76

Pan American World Airways Inc.—The service between San Francisco and Auckland via Honolulu, Kingman Reef, and Pago Pago commenced by Pan American Airways after a survey flight from Honolulu to Auckland in December, 1937, was discontinued after an accident to a Clipper aircraft on 11th January, 1938. The service was resumed in 1940 on a reduced schedule, the first flight terminating at Auckland on the 18th July, 1940. Operations ceased in December, 1941, after the outbreak of hostilities with Japan.

This organization recommenced services in the Pacific on 6th June, 1946. The frequency as at the 31st March, 1951, was two return trips per week over the route Auckland—San Francisco (via Fiji, Canton Island, and Honolulu). Aircraft employed are D.C. 4's (Skymaster) on the stage Auckland–Fiji; over the remainder of the route Boeing Strato-cruisers are used.

Revenue traffic to and from New Zealand for the years ended 31st March, 1950, and 1951, were—

 1949–50.1950–51.
Hours flown3,6945,894
Miles flown770,2661,251,156
Traffic entering New Zealand—  
  Passengers903883
  Freight (lb.)40,22935,509
  Mail (lb.)21,37826,661
Traffic leaving New Zealand—  
  Passengers704764
  Freight (lb.)77,4265,583
  Mail (lb.)1,3551,634

British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines Ltd.—The decision to establish British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines was made at a conference held in Wellington during February and March, 1946, the company being formed to operate an air service between Australia and North America, and between New Zealand and North America. The organization was set up on a tripartite basis comprised of the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand. In order to commence operations at an early date, Australian National Airways were chartered and the first flight from New Zealand left on 25th April, 1947, travelling over the following route: Auckland, Fiji, Canton Island, Honolulu, San Francisco, and Vancouver.

British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines commenced operating on its own account in April, 1948, using D.C. 4 (Skymaster) aircraft and operating one return trip per fortnight. On 22nd February, 1949, the frequency was changed to one return trip per week with D.C. 6 aircraft.

A formal agreement between the Governments of the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand for the formation of British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines, Ltd., was signed at Canberra on 4th August, 1947. The initial capital was subscribed by the three Governments in the following proportion: Australia, 50 per cent.; New Zealand, 30 per cent.; United Kingdom, 20 per cent.

Traffic to and from New Zealand during the years ended 31st March, 1950, and 1951, were—

 1949–50.1950–51.
Hours flown2,8152,846
Miles flown750,887755,808
Traffic entering New Zealand—  
  Passengers1,3361,494
  Freight (lb.)95,79223,066
  Mail (lb.)4,3724,080
Traffic leaving New Zealand—  
  Passengers1,0481,316
  Freight (lb.)67,38811,404
  Mail (lb.)7,82811,381

SUMMARY.—A summary of civil aviation activities for each of the last five financial years is contained in the following table. It should be noted that where the information is available non-scheduled services have been included, and in this respect the figures differ from those quoted previously. The operations of Aero Clubs are included for 1950–51 but not for previous years. Aerial work operations are not included.

1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.
Domestic services—     
  Hours flown15,52528,76934,80541,83744,371
  Miles flown1,894,8113,555,6454,411,4315,126,2545,417,498
  Passengers carried110,767157,528182,737213,511258,723
  Mail (lb.)607,125597,231752,492873,305916,688
  Freight (lb.)2,769,38014,465,53519,663,55325,219,87338,220,599
  Passenger-miles21,870,43835,695,28544,323,19949,478,36559,744,623
  Mail ton-miles74,48697,311108,579121,251128,923
  Freight ton-miles128,704574,902843,5281,096,9561,704,375
International—     
  Hours flown7,64913,29116,87015,93317,903
  Miles flown1,322,0062,384,2793,018,3893,129,4653,659,041
  Passengers carried13,44823,55234,72332,96440,129
  Mail (lb.)307,403368,593389,930465,162534,591
  Freight (lb.)232,809374,432568,669725,752709,978

AERO CLUBS.—Practical interest in aviation was greatly stimulated by the first trans-Tasman flight of Kingsford Smith and Ulm in 1928, and to this flight the aero-club movement largely owes its inception. The steady progress made by the movement has been in a great measure due to the scheme initiated by the Government of subsidizing a limited number of light aeroplane clubs. This subsidy (abolished from the 31st March, 1937) took the form of the loan of light aircraft and payments to clubs on account of pupils qualifying for their “A” flying licences, and for male pilots renewing their licences. The payment of subsidy was discontinued on the institution of the Civil Reserve scheme, by which the Government entered into an agreement with approved clubs for the training of civil reservists and Air Force candidates. On the outbreak of war in September, 1939, the Government took over all aircraft suitable for training purposes, so that training operations of the clubs had, in most cases, to be suspended. The remaining clubs continued operations until December, 1941, when, after the Japanese entry into the war, all civil flying with the exception of commercial scheduled services, was prohibited under Proclamation issued by the Governor-General. This prohibition was lifted on 24th December, 1945. After the cessation of hostilities, an immediate resumption of club activities was not possible because of non-availability of accommodation at aerodromes and the shortage of qualified instructors. However, by 31st March, 1946, there were four clubs again in operation, the number rising in later years to the present figure of 25 aero clubs affiliated to the Royal New Zealand Aero Club.

The aircraft which had been purchased from the aero clubs by the Government at the outbreak of war were resold to the clubs to facilitate an early resumption of their activities. Assistance was also given to the clubs through the Air Training Corps flying training plan. This plan, which was inaugurated in 1947, provides for training by the clubs of selected Air Training Corps cadets, and Government subsidies are paid in connection therewith. The additional revenue received by the clubs for Air Training Corps instruction for the year ended 31st March, 1951, amounted to £16,500. A total of £4,000 was also received by clubs not participating in the Air Force training plan.

The following table shows in summarized form, the commercial activities of the aero clubs for the last five years, together with totals since the inception of aero club flying in 1928.

Year Ended 31st March,Aircraft in Use.Trips.Passengers.Hours Flown.Miles Flown.
1947733,1725,5121,514151,636
19481016,72111,8193,459348,711
19491085,65111,2924,174417,400
19501065,1669,5555,019501,900
1951846,59110,1804,881438,337
  Totals from 1928 to 31st March, 1951 63,293106,80930,9512,863,687

The next table gives a summary of the training activities of aero clubs for the last five years.

Year Ended 31st March,Clubs OperatingMembership.Aircraft in Use.Hours Flown.Ab Initio Pupils Under Training.
Associate.Flying.Dual.Solo.
1947182,1852,401733,29510,818332
1948222,8682,7281017,32219,270396
1949243,3592,6861087,48118,504454
1950243,9602,5771067,78418,939411
1951223,4672,613846,06015,937348

The types of aircraft used by the clubs include the following—D.H.: 82 (Tiger Moth), 90, 94, and C. 1. (Chipmunk); Miles: Whitney Straight, Magister, Gemini, and Messenger; Percival: Proctor and Vega Gull; and Auster, Beechcraft, Waco, Wackett, and Chrislea Super Ace.

LICENCES.—A summary of licences and certificates current at 31st March, 1951, is given below. During 1950–51 the provisions of the Air Navigation Regulations 1933 and the procedures for licensing flight crew personnel were altered to conform with the Standards and Recommended Practices of the International Civil Aviation Organization (I.C.A.O.). The latter type licences came into force in January, 1951, and will gradually replace those issued under the Air Navigation Regulations, 1933.

Flight Crew—(Air Navigation Regulations, 1933)Current as at 31st March,
Pilots—1951.
"A" Licences800
"B" Licences247
Flying Instructor Authorities70
Provisional Instrument Ratings136
Navigators— 
First-class Licences29
Second-class Licences33
Aircraft Radio Telegraph Operators— 
First-class Licences14
Second-class Licences1
Third-class Licences119
Special-class Licences  
Aircraft Radio Telephone Operator Licences29
Flight Engineer Licences13
Aircraft Maintenance Engineer Licences239

Flight Crew—(I.C.A.O. Type)

Pilot Licences— 
Student Pilot228
Private Pilot96
Commercial Pilot46
Senior Commercial Pilot1
Airline Transport Pilot19
Commercial Glider Pilot 
Pilot Licence Ratings— 
Instructor5
Instrument 
Navigator Licences— 
Cadet Flight Navigator 
Flight Navigator4
Licences to operate Radio Equipment in Aircraft— 
Cadet Flight Radio Operator 
Flight Radio Operator1
Flight Radio Telephone Operator15
Flight Engineer Licences— 
Cadet Flight Engineer 
Flight Engineer1

Other Licences, Certificates, &c.

Aircraft— 
Certificates of Registration329
Certificates of Airworthiness236
Aerodromes— 
Public Licences25
Authorities in Lieu of Passports— 
Crew member certificates (for stewards, &c.)51
Special endorsements (for licenced flight crew)28
Air Service Certificates— 
Scheduled Air Services3
Charter, Air Taxi and freight services32
Air Service Permits— 
Aero clubs22
Other Operators7

METEOROLOGICAL FACILITIES.—The provision of meteorological information for the use of civil and military aircraft operating within New Zealand or on trans-ocean routes in the South-west Pacific region is one of the functions of the New Zealand Meteorological Service. The head office and general forecast office are located at Wellington and branch forecasting offices are maintained principally for aviation purposes at Nandi (Fiji), Auckland, Ohakea, Paraparaumu, Christchurch, and Taieri (Dunedin).

Weather reports are collected by telegraph and radio at three-hourly or six-hourly intervals from approximately 120 stations within New Zealand and 40 on islands of the South-west Pacific. Most of the reports are prepared by airfield, telegraph, or lighthouse officials. Twenty airfields report hourly. In addition, routine measurements of the temperature and humidity in the upper atmosphere are made by balloon-borne radiosondes released from four stations, and radar tracking of balloons is employed for wind measurement at four stations. The collected reports are broadcast from Wellington and Nandi for the benefit of neighbouring Services. Similar information is received from Australia and other Pacific administrations.

Forecasting and other services for aviation are provided in accordance with recognized international procedures and agreements. Detailed written forecasts are made available to all scheduled commercial aircraft and supplemented where possible by personal discussion.

Pilots operating from airfields not staffed by meteorological personnel may obtain forecasts and other information by telephone.

AIR MAILS—Inland.—From 1920 onwards various attempts were made to operate air-mail services, but it was not until the inauguration of a service between Hokitika and South Westland in January, 1934, that a service of any permanency was established. The district served in this instance is one which possesses very poor transport facilities; and, though the population is sparse and the area small, the carriage of mails by air has great advantages over a land service. It is for this reason that no surcharge is made on the mail-matter carried by this service.

On the 16th March, 1936, the first regular air-mail services linking up the larger centres of population were established between Palmerston North and Dunedin, and between Nelson, Blenheim, and Wellington. As air services increased in frequency and extent the air-mail facilities were correspondingly expanded.

The rate of postage for inland air-mail correspondence was originally 2d. per ounce, but from October, 1939, to 29th February, 1952, it was 3d. per half-ounce. Since 1st March, 1952, the rate has been fixed at 4d. per half-ounce. For parcels up to 28 lb., the rates range from 2s. 3d. to 13s.

The numbers of letters and parcels carried by air in New Zealand during the years 1940–41 to 1950–51 are shown hereunder.

Year Ended 31st March,Letters.Parcels.
19411,785,8005,688
19422,214,0607,356
19433,705,00013,825
19444,436,92018,760
19457,055,90025,690
19467,968,92032,204
194711,368,00048,298
194813,008,08065,205
194913,542,72077,607
195013,839,60091,226
195114,206,00099,575

Overseas.—Although mails had been carried by air across the Tasman on the occasions of special flights in 1934, and one mail was despatched by air across the Pacific, via Pago Pago and Honolulu, to the United States of America in January, 1938, permanent facilities for the despatch of mails by air from New Zealand were not established until April, 1940.

The first flight of the trans-Tasman service took place on the 30th April, 1940, connection being made at Sydney with the Empire service to London. The Empire service had been extended to Sydney in December, 1934, but until the establishment of the direct air link across the Tasman in April, 1940, it was necessary for air mails to be forwarded by sea from New Zealand to Sydney. On the 4th October, 1948, the postage-rate was reduced to 1s. 3d. a half-ounce to the United Kingdom and North America. From the 1st March, 1952, the rate to Australia and the Pacific islands is 6d. per half-ounce. In June, 1940, the through service from New Zealand to London was interrupted with the entry of Italy into the war, and it was necessary for air correspondence from New Zealand for the United Kingdom to be forwarded by air via Egypt to South Africa and thence by sea to destination. Following the entry of Japan into the war, the service beyond Australia was totally interrupted in March, 1942; and it was not until the 30th June, 1944, that the through service from Australia to the United Kingdom was restored.

The service, in 1951, was being operated four times weekly between Sydney and London, the transit time Auckland-Sydney-London being normally five to six days.

With the commencement of direct flights between Wellington and Sydney in October, 1950, in addition to the existing Auckland-Sydney service, facilities are available in most normal weeks for nine to twelve despatches weekly.

During the year two flights were also made between Christchurch and Sydney, on the 18th December, 1950, and the 7th January, 1951. In 1950, 26,149,275 letters and 69,308 lb. of second-class mail and parcels were flown by the trans-Tasman air-mail service.

The trans-Pacific service operating on a regular fortnightly schedule commenced on the 20th July, 1940, the route followed being via Noumea, Suva, Canton Island, and Honolulu. This service, which was operated by Pan-American Airways, ceased on the entry of Japan into the war in December, 1941, and it was not until the 20th September, 1945, that arrangements of a temporary nature were made for the resumption of the conveyance of civilian air-mail correspondence for North America by the Royal Air Force Transport Command service, the route followed being via Suva, Canton Island, and Honolulu. The Royal Air Force Transport Command service ceased on the 18th December, 1945. The Pan-American air service was recommenced on the 6th June, 1946, and is now on a regular twice weekly schedule, the route being via Suva, Canton Island, and Honolulu to San Francisco. On the 25th April, 1947, British Commonwealth Pacific Airways commenced a direct service from Auckland to Vancouver, via Suva, Canton Island, Honolulu, and San Francisco, the service being a fortnightly one. In February, 1949, the frequency was increased to once weekly. Mails by the British Commonwealth Pacific Airways planes are also forwarded via Sydney to connect with services operating between Sydney and Vancouver, thus giving a twice-weekly service to North America by B.C.P.A. planes.

Services to Norfolk Island, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, and the Cook Islands operated by the R.N.Z.A.F. in the immediate post-war period were placed under the control of the National Airways Corporation on the 1st November, 1947. Tasman Empire Airways took over from the National Airways Corporation the regular weekly air-mail service Auckland-Suva on the 6th November, 1950.

During the year ended 31st March, 1951, there has been an increasing use made of overseas air-mail facilities. Approximately 60 per cent. of overseas letters now go by air. New services of benefit to the public are the overseas second-class air-mail and air parcel post services.

Chapter 15. SECTION 15—POSTAL AND TELEGRAPHIC

Table of Contents

POSTAL BUSINESS.—At the 31st March, 1951, there were 1,495 post-offices in New Zealand. In addition there were 398 offices at which telephone business only was transacted.

The following table shows the numbers of articles posted during the years ended 31st March, 1947 to 1951.

Year Ended 31st March,Letters, Letter-cards, and Post-cards.Accounts, Circulars, Newspapers, Packets, &c.Parcels.
1947160,680,000126,044,0007,602,000
1948159,778,000133,555,0007,734,000
1949162,131,000148,959,0008,139,000
1950169,798,000165,041,0008,185,000
1951178,857,000171,487,0007,839,000

Compared with the year ended 31st March, 1950, letters, lettercards and postcards posted during the year ended 31st March, 1951, showed an increase of 9,059,000 (5.3 per cent.); and accounts, circulars, &c. an increase of 6,446,000 (3–9 per cent.). Parcel postings dropped by 346,000 during the year. The whole of this decrease can be attributed to postings of overseas food parcels which were 374,000 less than last year.

The average numbers of letters, &c., posted in New Zealand per head of population during the year ended 31st March, 1951, were: letters, lettercards, and postcards, 92; accounts, circulars, newspapers, packets, &c., 88; parcels, 4.

RURAL MAIL DELIVERY.—The rural-mail-delivery system was instituted in New Zealand about 1900, but owing to the high comparative cost little progress was made with it until 1922. As from the 1st January of that year a scheme was introduced whereby a nominal fee was charged for this service; the rates are 10s. per annum for a delivery thrice weekly or less frequently, or £1 for a delivery having a greater frequency. These charges do not bear heavily on the farmer, and they enable the Post Office to extend rural-mail-delivery benefits to districts which were previously without such amenities. Every comparatively well-settled district now has its network of deliveries. The rural-mail carrier delivers and collects correspondence and parcels at or near the gates of farmers, sells postage-stamps, and obtains, as required, money-orders and postal notes.

At the end of March, 1951, there were throughout New Zealand 54,680 rural boxholders, an increase of 2,853 on the figures for the previous year. The number in 1920 was 8,700.

AIR-MAIL SERVICE.—Details of the New Zealand air-mail service are given at the end of the preceding section.

OVERSEAS PARCEL-POST.—The facilities afforded for the transmission of parcels through the Post Office to places within and beyond New Zealand have proved of much convenience to the public. The regulations admit of parcels up to 22 lb. in weight being sent to Great Britain and Northern Ireland and many other countries (rates range from 3s. for up to 3 lb. to 10s. for 22 lb.), but to Australia, South Africa, and a few other countries the weight limit is 11 lb. Inland parcels may weigh up to 28 lb. Particulars of overseas parcels received and despatched in 1945 and in each of the years 1947 to 1950 are contained in the following table. Similar information for 1946 is not available.

Year.Overseas Parcels received.Overseas Parcels despatched.
Number.Weight.Declared Value.Customs Duty.Number.Weight.

* Not available.

  lb.££ lb.
1945277,3001,325,494800,810107,304971,0004,864,710
1947265,5542,154,5032,489,309370,8831,365,00012,062,384
1948238,9821,716,9962,882,789309,4131,446,58212,786,454
1949290,5212,204,010**920,3579,235,946
1950340,0822,679,932*539,265572,4055,369,425

NEWSPAPERS.—In September, 1951, there were 280 publications on the Post Office Register of Newspapers. Of these 43 are published daily, 10 being morning papers and 33 evening papers. Fourteen appear three times per week, 16 twice per week, 61 weekly, 16 fortnightly, 129 monthly, and 1 at irregular intervals.

MONEY-ORDERS.—A money-order issued for payment in New Zealand is limited to a maximum of £100, the commission payable being 7d. for the first £10 and 3d. for each additional £5. A money-order transmitted by telegraph also bears a telegraph fee of 1s. 6d. A maximum of £40 is imposed on a money-order issued for payment overseas (some countries £10), the commission varying according to the country in which the order is payable.

Of the total money-orders issued in New Zealand during 1950, 51,157 representing an aggregate value of £194,666, were for payment overseas. Of that amount, £106,161 was payable in the United Kingdom, £84,781 in other British Commonwealth countries, and £3,724 in other countries. Money-orders issued overseas for payment in New Zealand in 1950 numbered 26,856, the total value represented being £121,130. Of this amount £62,961 was issued in the United Kingdom, £48,745 in other British Commonwealth countries, and £9,424 in other countries.

The following table gives particulars of all money-orders issued and paid during each of the last five years.

Calendar Year.Number of Offices at End of Year.Money-orders issued.Money-orders paid.
Number.Value.Commission.*Number.Value.

* Prior to the 20th August, 1948, overseas exchange on money-orders was included in commission.

   ££ £
1946923903,36910,624,44041,724898,03810,692,472
1947933917,29010,804,31443,877913,46810,869,381
1948936942,65410,842,86539,114942,77910,897,406
1949970952,21410,855,64831,393934,26210,821,786
1950975977,00011,638,09133,577948,49111,540,875

POSTAL NOTES.—Postal-notes in 39 denominations ranging from 1s. to 20s. are issued in New Zealand, the poundage payable being as follows: 1s. to 2s. 6d., 2d.; 3s. to 7s. 6d., 3d.; 8s. to 15s., 4d.; and 15s. 6d. to 20s., 5d. Postal notes are negotiable and sometimes enjoy a certain length of life as currency.

Information regarding the issue and payment of postal notes is given below.

Year Ended 31st March,Number of Offices at End of Year.Postal Notes Issued.Postal Notes paid.
Number.Value.*Commission.Number.Value.

* Value figures are inclusive of commission shown in next column.

   ££ £
19471,1052,354,4771,028,11133,3942,329,605985,968
19481,1062,464,7831,071,61334,8282,417,1491,035,315
19491,1292,483,9291,106,47935,9482,479,8101,072,201
19501,1232,460,7621,119,66736,4012,457,2031,078,641
19511,1302,371,5771,083,97734,6592,386,3541,049,851

British postal orders issued in New Zealand during the year ended 31st March, 1951, numbered 76,455, for a total value of £42,341. Those paid numbered 34,813 and represented £26,112 in value.

TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE SERVICES.—Up to the 31st March, 1951, a total sum of £23,440,202 had been expended on telegraph construction, including the construction of telephone exchanges. The amount expended during the financial year 1950–51 was £3,450,924.

During the year ended 31st March, 1951, the revenue from telegrams and toll communications was £3,150,594, of which £614,059 represented ordinary telegrams, £100,718 press telegrams, and £2,435,817 toll communications. To these figures should be added £3,464,099 revenue of telephone exchanges and £209,207 miscellaneous receipts, making a total telegraph and telephone revenue of £6,823,900.

Year Ended 31st March,Number of Paid Telegrams and Toll Messages Forwarded During the Year.Revenue (Including Miscellaneous Receipts).Total Value of Business.
Telegraph and Toll.Telephone Exchange.
  £££
194730,604,7452,612,5642,050,3134,662,877
194831,482,0892,671,4312,210,0874,881,518
194932,955,1792,845,1142,380,7155,225,829
195034,983,3352,922,4782,540,1245,462,602
195134,866,6633,359,8013,464,0996,823,900

The number of paid telegrams forwarded in 1950–51 was 7,705,847, a decrease of 223,152 (2.8 per cent.) as compared with 1949–50, while the number of toll communications (27,160,816) showed an increase of 106,480 (0.4 per cent.).

The charge for ordinary telegrams on week-days is 1s. for eight words or less, and 1d. for each additional word. The charge for letter-telegrams, which are delivered by post on the morning following the day of lodgment, is a flat rate of 1s. 3d. for twenty-two words, and 1d. for each additional two words. On Sundays and departmental holidays the rate for ordinary telegrams is 1s. 6d. for eight words or less, and 1½d. for each additional word, the total charge being taken to the next penny where necessary. An additional charge of 8d. is made for an urgent telegram, irrespective of the number of words contained in the message.

TELEPHONE-EXCHANGE SERVICE.—At the 31st March, 1951, there were 364 telephone exchanges in New Zealand. Of this number, 325 were of the magneto type, 2 central battery, and 37 automatic.

The following statement shows the automatic-exchange equipment installed and in use in New Zealand on the 31st March, 1951.

 Capacity of Equipment Installed. No.Lines Connected. No.
Individual lines100,78095,308
Party-lines11,96510,316
      Total lines112,745105,624
Individual-line stations95,308
Party-line stations30,632
      Total of main stations125,940
Extension stations72,426
Total number of automatic-telephone stations connected198,366

The following table indicates the growth of the New Zealand telephone-exchange service (the figures are as at 31st March of each year shown).

1943.1944.1945.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.

* Represents separate instruments (excluding private stations) connected to main telephone system.

Exchanges349347347347348350360358364
Subscribers' main stations174,088178,707188,175194,508206,337219,185234,874253,458268,365
Service stations2,9423,0103,0143,0053,1683,3193,4183,5763,570
Toll stations1,9921,9821,9111,8541,8291,8361,8271,7841,765
Public call stations1,3681,4201,4061,4131,4561,5501,6401,8021,958
Extension stations54,15155,63458,12060,78365,25170,66276,83283,80490,536
Telephone station totals*234,541240,753252,626261,563278,041296,552318,591344,424366,194

The total number of telephone-stations shows an increase of 131,653, or 56 per cent., during the period covered by the table, the net gain for each of the last five years being 16,478, 18,511, 22,039, 25,833, and 21,770 respectively. The increase in subscribers' main stations during the same period amounted to 94,277 or approximately 54 per cent., while extension stations show an increase of 36,385, or a little over 67 per cent.

In addition to the above, there are 3,795 stations connected by private telephonelines with departmental toll-stations, making a grand total of 369,989 telephone-stations in New Zealand on the 31st March, 1951.

The “party” line system of telephone service is extensively used, particularly by those whose premises are situated at a distance from an exchange. In March, 1951, the number of “party” lines was 33,926 serving a total of 128,431 stations.

According to the latest comparative data available (January, 1951) compiled by the Chief Statistician of the American Telephone and Telegraph Co., New Zealand ranks fifth equal in the number of telephones per 100 of population, the leading countries being the United States of America (28.1), Sweden (23.9), Hawaii (21.9), Canada (20.8), New Zealand (19.1) and Switzerland (19.1). Although, as indicated earlier, there have been substantial increases in telephone subscribers, inability to procure the necessary equipment has greatly retarded expansion in recent years, and it is anticipated that the latest figure of 19.1 telephones per 100 of population at 31st March, 1951, will be considerably increased when adequate supplies of equipment become available and waiting applicants are provided with service.

The first public call offices (coin-in-the-slot telephones) erected in New Zealand were installed at Wellington in August, 1910 and a total of 1,864 such instruments were in use at the 31st March, 1951. The revenue of these slot telephones during the year ended 31st March, 1951, was £119,194. In addition, there are 94 multi-coin slot telephones in use, the first of which was installed at Christchurch in October, 1938. These instruments take penny, sixpenny, and shilling coins and are used for effecting toll calls.

The capital expenditure on the equipment, &c., of the telephone exchanges up to the 31st March, 1950, was £15,752,347.

The following table shows the classification of telephone-exchanges and the annual rental rates for different classes of connection.

Class of Exchange.Class of Connection.Annual Rate.
Business.Residential.
  £ s. d.£ s. d.
Special (Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin)Individual21 0 012 0 0
 2-party16 0 010 0 0
 3-party14 0 09 5 0
 4-party12 0 08 10 0
Class I (Over 3000 subscribers)Individual16 0 010 0 0
(Typical exchanges are Gisborne, Hamilton, Napier, New Plymouth, and Invercargill)2-party12 0 08 10 0
 3-party11 0 08 0 0
 4-party10 0 07 10 0
Class II (2001 to 3000 subscribers)Individual14 0 09 10 0
(Typical exchanges are Hawera, Oamaru, and Tauranga)2-party11 0 08 0 0
 3-party10 0 07 10 0
 4-party9 0 07 0 0
Class III (1001 to 2000 subscribers)Individual13 0 09 0 0
(Typical exchanges are Cambridge, Marton, and Waimate)2-party10 10 07 10 0
 3-party9 10 07 0 0
 4-party8 10 06 10 0
Class IV (201 to 2000 subscribers with continuous attendance)Individual12 0 08 10 0
 2-party10 10 07 0 0
(Typical exchanges are To Kuiti, Piopio,3-party9 0 06 10 0
Waipawa, and Rangiora)4-party8 0 06 0 0
Class V (Up to 1000 subscribers with restricted attendance and automatic exchanges with less than 200 subscribers)Individual10 0 07 10 0
 2-party8 0 06 0 0
 3-party7 10 05 10 0
(Typical exchanges are Akaroa, Kawhia, Te Akau, and Waitotara)4-party7 0 05 0 0

There is no differentiation in the rentals as to the type of telephone in use.

The night concession rate (i.e., 6 p.m. to 8 a.m.) is a rate of two-thirds of the normal day rate; the maximum charge for a three-minute call is 6s.; while the slot telephone charge is 2d. for a three-minute call.

OCEAN CABLES.—Telegraphic communication between New Zealand and Australia was first established by means of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company's cable from Wakapuaka in 1876, this cable being duplicated in 1890. Subsequent developments were the opening in 1902 of the Pacific cable between Auckland and Canada via Norfolk Island and Suva, with a connection linking Norfolk Island to Brisbane; the laying of a cable direct between Auckland and Sydney in 1912; shifting of terminals from Wakapuaka to Wellington in 1917; laying a cable direct between Auckland and Suva in 1923 and duplicating the Suva-Canada cable in 1927. In 1929 a merger of British cable and wireless companies resulted in the overseas cable services being brought under the control of one authority, and as a consequence one cable to Australia was partly lifted and partly abandoned, and the route of another was altered to terminate in Auckland instead of Wellington. One of the two direct Auckland-Sydney cables later became faulty and has not been repaired. The overseas cables from New Zealand are now (a) one Auckland-Sydney direct; (b) one from Auckland to Norfolk Island linking into either the Norfolk Island -Brisbane-Sydney or Norfolk Island - Suva-Canada cable as required; and (c) one Auckland-Suva direct, linking into the second Suva-Canada cable.

RADIO COMMUNICATION: Government Stations.—The first wireless-telegraph station in New Zealand for communicating with ships at sea was opened at Wellington on the 26th July, 1911.

The principal stations under the control of the New Zealand Government are at Awarua, Wellington, and Auckland on the New Zealand mainland, at Apia in Western Samoa, at Rarotonga and Nine in the Cook Islands, and at the Chatham Islands. Smaller stations are established at certain lighthouses on the New Zealand coast and also on a number of adjacent islands. Marine radio beacons are operated at the lighthouses at Cape Reinga, Cuvier Island, Puysegur Point, Tiri Tiri Island, Mokohinau, Portland Island, Stephen's Island, Baring Head, and Cape Campbell.

Communication is effected with outer islands in the Cook Group by Rarotonga-Radio through small feeder-stations at Aitutaki, Atiu, Mangaia, Manihiki, Mauke, Palmerston, Penrhyn, and Pukapuka. Small stations at Aleipata, Atafu, Fagamalo, Sataua, Palauli, Fakaofo, Nukunono, Salailua, and Tuasivi communicate with Apia-Radio. Niue communicates with Apia-Radio, Rarotonga-Radio, and Wellington-Radio.

By means of the radio-stations at Wellington, Apia, Rarotonga, and Nine, communication is maintained between New Zealand and the Pacific islands, the last three stations mentioned having direct communication with New Zealand. Wellington-Radio has also direct communication with Papeete-Radio (Tahiti), Nukualofa (Tonga), Noumea (New Caledonia), and San Francisco (United States of America).

The radio business, exclusive of free (service) messages, transacted by the New Zealand coast stations during the last five years was as follows:—

Year Ended 31st March,Forwarded.Received.
Messages.Words.Post Office Revenue.Messages.Words.Post Office Revenue.

* These amounts represent the coast wireless-station charges on messages exchanged with ships at sea and New Zealand island territories as well as the land-line charges on all wireless traffic.

   £  £
194727,712630,67410,74260,8601,474,14928,050
194826,717636,37410,02065,7971,306,96319,164
194925,644545,6587,10661,6341,197,71714,309
195028,896581,9617,64373,3661,365,07016,416
195132,219608,3586,824*76,9191,493,13411,683*

The drop in revenue is caused by the exclusion of the amount of coast wireless-station revenue on traffic exchanged with Papeete-Radio, Nukualofa, Noumea, and San Francisco which, under the Commonwealth Telecommunications Agreement, 1948, accrues to the Overseas Telecommunications Branch Account of the Post Office from the 1st April, 1950.

Facilities exist for the despatch of radio-telegrams to vessels at sea, and special rates operate for vessels registered in New Zealand.

Other Radio Services.—Telephone communication by radio is now available to thirty countries in addition to certain inter-island and trans-Tasman vessels. There has also been a remarkable expansion of the Post Office very-high-frequency radiotelephone service for mobile units introduced first in 1948. It is now operating in seventeen centres for a total of 795 mobile units. Ambulance services, fire boards, traffic officers, taxi companies, veterinary services, and motor-transport companies are the principal users of the service. Radio-telephone services continue to provide essential service for isolated communities which cannot reasonably be reached by land-line—e.g. isolated settlers, alpine huts, &c. There is also a free radio-medical service for ships at sea and for lighthouses on the New Zealand coast for use in emergency cases.

Private Stations.—Private radio-stations are governed by the Radio Regulations, which were gazetted on the 21st July, 1932.

The licences for radio receiving-stations (i.e., ordinary radio licences) are designed to provide for experimental reception as well as for reception from broadcasting stations, and may be obtained at any postal money-order office on payment of the prescribed fee. Further reference to these licences will be found in Section 16, dealing with radio broadcasting.

The licences for private experimental (amateur) stations are intended to provide facilities for experimental transmission to those interested in radio science, and are issued only to holders of amateur operators' certificates.

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.—The receipts and payments of the Post and Telegraph Department for the last three financial years are now shown.

Receipts1948–49.1949–50.1950–51
 £££
Postages3,133,2053,022,8193,315,751
Money-order and postal-note commission71,99667,24467,808
Private-box and bag rents and rural delivery fees89,93794,064108,669
Miscellaneous receipts1,446,8081,400,3431,480,604
Telegrams653,382673,780714,777
Tolls1,854,1111,990,1312,351,637
Telephone-exchange rentals2,270,2132,399,4793,284,891
      Totals£9,519,652£9,647,950£11,324,137
Payments£££
Salaries4,178,8154,371,0425,048,602
Conveyance of mails by sea and air547,522494,758512,647
Conveyance of mails by road244,834277,230304,616
Conveyance of mails by railway211,101213,760237,784
Maintenance and renewal of telecommunication system844,331917,998788,106
Motor services and workshops542,769520,911484,346
Miscellaneous2,108,6732,411,5642,552,346
Interest on capital liability659,045704,000811,128
Sick-benefit Fund11,81612,97812,670
Post Office buildings350,652375,005227,881
Superannuation Fund Subsidy177,937192,605206,000
      Totals£9,877,525£10,491,851£11,186,126

Receipts and payments for the last eleven years are shown by the following figures.

Year Ended 31st March,Receipts.Payments.
 ££
19415,106,1944,338,903
19425,388,0134,574,136
19435,863,6215,089,889
19446,251,2425,105,982
19456,694,9015,970,244
19467,068,3976,478,956
19478,672,6407,374,561
19488,974,4488,956,316
19499,519,6529,877,525
19509,647,95010,491,851
195111,324,13711,186,126

WORK PERFORMED FOR OTHER DEPARTMENTS.—In addition to its natural functions, the Post and Telegraph Department performs an immense amount of work for other Government Departments, its widespread organization being of inestimable value in this respect. Among the principal activities in this connection are the receipt and payment of moneys on behalf of the various Departments, the more important of which are enumerated below.

  • Receipts.—Department of Inland Revenue (land-tax, income-tax, and social security charge), National Provident Fund, State Advances Corporation, Department of Agriculture (inspection fees, orchard-tax, &c.), Education Department, Labour and Employment and Marino Departments (inspection of machinery fees), Public Trust Office, New Zealand Broadcasting Service (radio-licence fees, subscriptions to New Zealand Listener).

  • Payments.—Treasury Department, National Provident Fund, Social Security Department (social security benefits and war, &c., pensions), Health Department (refunds of medical expenses), Government Superannuation Board, Public Trust Office, Reserve Bank (dividend warrants and interest coupons).

Other services performed by the Post and Telegraph Department are the control of licensing of, and issue of licences in respect of, motor-vehicles and radio apparatus, provision of advice and service on radio matters to the Marine Department and the Civil Aviation Branch of the Air Department, and provision of a fleet of motor-vehicles in the larger centres for hire by other Departments. In the smaller centres Postmasters act as Registrars of Births, Deaths, and Marriages, Registrars of Electors, and agents for the Government Life Insurance Department, State Fire and Accident Insurance Office, and Customs Department.

Other activities, not strictly departmental, include the receipt of the Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) premiums under the Transport Act, 1949, and the issue of fishing and game licences on behalf of acclimatization societies.

STAFF.—The large volume and varied nature of the business of the Post and Telegraph Department entail the employment of a large staff. The Department is administered by the Postmaster-General and Minister of Telegraphs, with the Director-General as executive head. The staff at 31st March, 1951, was as follows: Permanent, 12,507; temporary, 4,724; non-classified, 262; total, 17,493. In addition there were 1,114 country postmasters and telephonists who acted as such in conjunction with other pursuits and did not rank as officers of the Department. There were also 69 officers of the Railways Department who acted as postmasters.

Chapter 16. SECTION 16—RADIO BROADCASTING

Table of Contents

DETAILS of the history and development of the radio broadcasting service in New Zealand are given in the 1942 and earlier issues of the Year-Book.

NEW ZEALAND BROADCASTING SERVICE.—The Broadcasting Act of 1936 established the National Broadcasting Service as from the 1st July, 1936, and vested its control in a Minister of the Crown. All property, rights, liabilities, and engagements of the pre-existing controlling authority (the Broadcasting Board) were transferred to the Crown.

The administration of the Service was placed in the hands of a Director of Broadcasting, appointed by the Governor-General in Council to hold office for a period not exceeding three years. Permanent officers in the employ of the pre-existing Board became officers of the Public Service as from the 1st July, 1936, and the Act contains other provisions relating to the appointment to the Public Service of any other persons who are possessed of technical or other expert knowledge in relation to broadcasting.

Section 9 of the Act allows for the appointment of an advisory body, called the Broadcasting Advisory Council, to consist of not more than five members to be appointed from time to time by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister. Appointment to the Council is for a period of three years, except that members may be reappointed or removed from office by the Governor-General.

The Broadcasting Act, 1936, also authorized the Minister of Broadcasting to establish and operate commercial broadcasting-stations from which advertising matter might be broadcast. For every locality that is served by a commercial station the Minister is required to provide an alternative service from at least one non-commercial station. Advertising over the air is forbidden except from the commercial stations authorized under the Act. The Broadcasting Amendment Act, 1937, made legislative provision for the establishment of a National Commercial Broadcasting Service. This provision was repealed by section 4 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1943, and from the 26th August, 1943, the National Commercial Broadcasting Service became a division of the National Broadcasting Service. In 1946 the designation was changed to the New Zealand Broadcasting Service, which comprises two divisions, the National and the Commercial.

Stations and Programmes.—There were at the 31st March, 1951, four short-wave stations and twenty-nine medium-wave broadcasting-stations. Two of the medium-wave stations are privately owned (2XM and 4XD), five are national advertising stations—marked “ (a),” and six are local stations carrying advertising four hours daily, Monday to Saturday, the balance of programme time carrying no advertising—these stations are marked" (b)," the complete list being given below.

Station.Aerial Energy.Frequency.Normal Hours of Transmission per Week.

* Operates during period when 2YA is broadcasting proceedings of the House of Representatives.

 Kilowatts.Kilocycles.Hr. Min.
SHORT-WAVE STATIONS
ZL2, Wellington7.59,540115 35
ZL3, Wellington7.511,780115 35
ZL4, Wellington7.515,280115 35
ZL10, Wellington7.515,220115 35
MEDIUM-WAVE STATIONS
1XN, Whangarei (b)2.0097049 0
1YA, Auckland10.00760121 20
1ZB, Auckland (a)10.001,070126 0
1YD, Auckland0.751,25046 0
1YC, Auckland10.0088031 0
1XH, Hamilton (b)2.001,31049 0
1YZ, Rotorua10.00800108 30
2XG, Gisborne (b)2.001,01049 0
2XM, Gisborne0.091,18016 30
2YZ, Napier5.00860108 30
2XP, New Plymouth2.001,37021 0
2XA, Wanganui (b)2.001,20049 0
2ZA, Palmerston North (a)2.0094065 42
2YA, Wellington60.00570121 20
2YX, Wellington1.001,400*
2YC, Wellington60.0066037 0
2ZB, Wellington (a)10.00980126 0
2YD, Wellington0.501,13021 0
2XN, Nelson (b)2.001,34021 0
3YZ, Greymouth10.00920108 30
3YA, Christchurch10.00690121 20
3ZB, Christchurch (a)10.001,100126 0
3YC, Christchurch10.0096037 0
3XC, Timaru (b)2.001,16049 0
4YA, Dunedin10.00780121 20
4ZB, Dunedin (a)10.001,040126 0
4YC, Dunedin10.0090037 0
4XD, Dunedin0.061,43013 0
4YZ, Invercargill5.00720108 30

Station 2AP, Western Samoa, is operated by the New Zealand Broadcasting Service for the Western Samoan Administration.

The aggregate transmission time of all stations, National, Commercial, and shortwave, amounted during the year ended 31st March, 1951, to 114,564 hours. Of the scheduled time, 45 hours were lost owing to technical defects in equipment, and 107 hours on account of failures of the main power-supply, making a total of 152 hours.

At the request of the authorities responsible for the conservation of electric power, broadcasting in recent years has been curtailed at peak hours, more particularly in the winter.

All programmes to be transmitted from the private broadcasting-stations are supervised, and the Minister has authority to prohibit the broadcasting of any programme or part of a programme which in his opinion is unsuitable for broadcasting.

The programmes of the various stations are published in the New Zealand Listener, a weekly paper which was first issued on 30th June, 1939.

Development of the Service.—The development plans of the Service, formulated in 1947, provided for the following network of stations:—

  1. International short-wave stations (Radio New Zealand)—ZL2, ZL3, ZL4, and ZL10.

  2. National station—to provide a means of broadcasting Parliament, events of national importance and outstanding artists—2YA.

  3. District stations—stations designed to serve the larger districts of New Zealand, to supply the best artists to the National station and broadcast the best of the “local” artists, to rebroadcast the National station, and sometimes to be rebroadcast by the National station—1YA, 1YZ, 2YC, 2YZ, 3YA, 3YZ, 4YA, and 4YZ.

  4. Alternative stations in main centres—to present alternative programmes to those of the “district” stations—1YC, 1YD, 2YD, 3YC, 4YC and 2YX.

  5. Local stations—small coverage stations located in smaller and populated areas—to serve the immediate locality, to search out and encourage talent, and to act as a feeder of suitable talent to the “district” stations—1XH, 1XN, 2XA, 2XG, 2XN, 2XP, and 3XC.

  6. Commercial stations—to provide programmes of the lighter type and also to provide a further alternative programme to that available from the “district” stations in the main centres—1ZB, 2ZB, 3ZB, 4ZB, and 2ZA.

  7. Mobile units—to cover districts not within convenient distance of broadcasting-stations; units designed to tour the districts recording artists, musical and dramatic organizations, as well as recording talks and local activities for broadcasting from appropriate stations.

The most important development during the year 1950–51 was the introduction of a new programme scheme in the four main centres. This provides for three distinct types of programmes in Auckland and Wellington and two in Christchurch and Dunedin, in each case apart from the commercial programme. This new arrangement is designed to give listeners the choice of programmes planned on a consistently high level from the YC stations, stations appealing to a wider range of tastes from the YA stations, and light programmes from the YD and ZB stations. These three types are however, intended to be flexible enough both to allow the greatest possible variety of programme material within each and to encourage listener to pursue their interests from one to another. Greater opportunities are provided for programme planning and for the more advantageous use of broadcasts by overseas and New Zealand artists.

Television.—A departmental committee was set up in July, 1949, by the Minister of Broadcasting, to advise him on the development of television overseas and on the problems involved in the establishment of a television service in New Zealand. This committee has completed its preliminary investigations.

As several major systems are in use in other countries, the comparison of overseas television equipment, methods, and technical standards is desirable in order that the system most suitable for New Zealand conditions, both economic and technical, may be determined.

In March, 1951, a basic set of technical equipment with operating staff enabled a series of public demonstrations to be carried out in the broadcasting studios in both Wellington and Auckland.

SHORT-WAVE DIVISION—The short-wave service provided by Radio New Zealand is now well established, with a wide listening audience in Australia, the Pacific Islands, and even as far afield as Western Europe, the United States of America, and Japan.

Broadcasts by New Zealand artists are increasing in number each year. Features include the broadcasting of the National Orchestra; spoken material informing listeners of life in New Zealand—e.g., in such documentary programmes as “Felling the Timber,” "Big Game Fishing in the Bay of Islands," &c.; and a daily news service for New Zealand forces serving in Korea.

NATIONAL DIVISION.—An analysis of the combined programmes of the National stations for a sample week in February, 1951, showed that, of the total transmitting time, 20.19 per cent. was devoted to serious music; 45.13 per cent. to light music; 7.45 per cent. to modern dance music; 7.20 per cent. to plays, sketches, and dramatic serials; 2.18 per cent. to sporting commentaries; 5.86 per cent. to talks, general and educative; 7.44 per cent. to news and commentaries; 2.00 per cent. to church and devotional services; and 2.55 per cent. to children's sessions.

The practice is followed of giving broadcasting engagements to the best musical and other talent available in New Zealand. During the year ended 31st March, 1951, there were 5,267 broadcasts by local artists, musical societies, bands, and other musical combinations.

The writing and production of dramatic and other special features in which local actors and actresses are employed are carried out by the Productions Branch of the New Zealand Broadcasting Service, and encouragement is being given to New Zealand writers, 31 scripts by such writers having been purchased during the year. There were also 74 scripts purchased from overseas authors.

The recording facilities are a valuable adjunct and the studios are engaged daily in recording plays and programmes written by overseas and New Zealand authors; talks and news bulletins broadcast overseas which are rebroadcast in New Zealand at more convenient times; and historical talks, events, and other features.

The proceedings of the House of Representatives are broadcast from Station 2YA in order to acquaint the public with the provisions of the various Bills and the views of their representatives.

Regular broadcasting programmes for schools are undertaken. The weekly schedule consists of three hours, and the following subjects are dealt with: music appreciation, singing, rhythm for juniors, literature, history through literature, nature-study, book reviews, talks on news, social studies and science, and French lessons for post-primary pupils. The Education Department's Correspondence School also broadcasts three half-hour programmes per week.

Time signals from the Seismological Observatory are broadcast through station 2YA or 2YC each day. The signals take the form of a series of six “dots” at intervals of one second, the last “dot” being the exact minute.

Fuller details of this time service may be obtained from the article on time service arrangements published in the Miscellaneous section of this Year-Book (post).

Financial Statistics.—The following table shows the expenditure of the national stations for the last five financial years.

 1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.
 £££££
Programmes139,689160,684204,393238,331210,957
Maintenance of plant20,07019,13915,88535,80030,113
General administrative and running expenses150,488169,723250,371283,550309,507
Subsidies to private “B” stations225225225225225
Depreciation of assets18,41626,74728,30348,02367,222
Other expenses5,8403,8992,335573500
      Total expenditure£334,728£380,417£501,512£606,502£618,524

Income for the year ended 31st March, 1951 amounted to £572,100, including radio-licence fees, £534,324. The total income for each of the preceding four years was: 1946–47, £490,635; 1947–48, £507,320; 1948–49, £531,095; and 1949–50, £548,237.

COMMERCIAL DIVISION.—Following the coming into operation of the Broadcasting Act, 1936, the State purchased Station 1ZB, Auckland, which had previously operated as a “B” station, and commenced the broadcasting of programmes which included advertising-matter. Commercial stations were subsequently established at Wellington (2ZB), Christchurch (3ZB), and Dunedin (4ZB), all of which were opened in 1937, while Station 2ZA (Palmerston North) was opened in 1938.

In January, 1949, a station (3XC) was opened at Timaru. This station was the first to broadcast both commercial and non-commercial programmes. Similar stations have since been opened at Whangarei (1XN), Hamilton (1XH), Gisborne (2XG), Wanganui (2XA), and Nelson (2XN).

Advertising constitutes the only source of revenue of the Commercial Division, no portion of the radio-licence fees being allocated to this section. For the year 1950–51 income totalled £464,716, and expenditure £430,271, making a net profit for the year of £34,445. Corresponding figures for the previous financial year were: Income, £408,093; expenditure, £375,459; net profit, £32,634.

The programmes of the commercial stations contain a high percentage of entertainment, as compared with commercial announcements or direct advertising.

Sessions of informative value and services such as the broadcasting for missing cars and persons are provided in addition to the normal programmes.

STATISTICS OF RADIO LICENCES.—The growth in the number of radio-receiving licences is apparent from the following table. Free licences, which are referred to later, are included in the figures. The licence fee for a receiving-station, which from 1st April, 1925, had been £1 10s. per annum, was reduced to £1 5s. per annum as from 1st April, 1935.

As at 31st March,Auckland.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago.New Zealand Totals.Licences per Hundred of Population.
1941116,454126,04665,32747,614355,44121.72
1942122,220131,38667,02850,577371,21122.71
1943121,194130,45365,93550,539368,12122.53
1944124,855133,84566,04650,666375,41222.84
1945126,716133,70068,15550,612379,18922.57
1946130,445139,24371,36751,943392,99822.35
1947139,487143,81274,47257,452415,22323.16
1948144,646146,48474,16455,689420,98322.95
1949148,742150,37375,38557,589432,08923.07
1950155,797155,58578,28659,679449,34723.86
1951160,743160,97380,79560,907463,41823.89

A summary of all radio licences in force in New Zealand as at the 31st March, 1951, follows.

District.Receiving-stations.Radio-dealers.Private Experimental.Other.Total Licences.
Amateur.Research.
Auckland160,743688677721162,136
Wellington160,973691787740162,498
Canterbury80,79532433533681,493
Otago60,90727025532061,455
      Totals463,4181,9732,05420117467,582

Licences are issued free of charge to institutions for the blind and also to any blind person. In addition, public hospitals, benevolent and orphan institutions, and other charitable institutions are granted free licence privileges, provided that the sets are used for the benefit of patients or inmates. Free licence privileges have also been extended to the operation of receiving-sets in schools, where such sets are used for educational broadcast purposes. The number of free licences as at the 31st March of each of the last five years was: 1947, 1,787; 1948, 1,837; 1949, 1,951; 1950, 2,043; and 1951, 2,274.

A penalty is attached to the operating of unlicensed radio apparatus.

Chapter 17. SECTION 17—LAND TENURE, SETTLEMENT, ETC.

17 A—GENERAL

OCCUPATION OF LAND.—The total area of New Zealand, excluding the island territories comprising Cook and associated islands and Tokelau Islands, and exclusive of the trust territory of Western Samoa, but inclusive of the minor islands since these form parts of land districts, is 66,390,700 acres. Of this total, 43,253,908 acres were returned in 1950 as being in occupation, including reserves and Maori lands leased, but excluding areas within borough boundaries, holdings of less than 1 acre in extent, and Maori land held on the communal system.

According to information furnished by the Lands and Survey Department, the following was the condition of the land in New Zealand as at the 31st March, 1948.

 Acres.Percentage of Total.

* The greater part of this land is unsuitable for settlement.

† Includes certain areas alienated by sale to Europeans.

Total area sold or granted and held on freehold21,869,10032.9
Total area reserved for public purposes16,661,60025.1
Total area of Crown lands leased under all tenures (exclusive of reserves leased by the Crown)15,890,70023.9
Total area of Crown land available for future disposal*2,327,3003.5
Total area of Maori land4,477,5006.8
Land unfit for settlement, including rivers, lakes, roads, &c.5,164,5007.8
      Totals66,390,700100.0

The number of holdings and percentages of total holdings in occupation, grouped according to size, as returned in each of the years 1941 and 1946–49, are given below.

Area, in Acres.Number of Holdings.Percentages of Total.
1941.1946.1947.1948.1949.1941.1946.1947.1948.1949.
1 and under 1011,26511,38011,45011,56611,40313.0413.2013.2413.3013.16
10 " 5014,58514,01414,83813,74113,61116.8916.2516.0015.8015.63
50 " 10012,73912,81212,82412,91212,96214.7514.8014.8314.8414.89
100 " 20016,64616,69916,92617,13117,25019.2719.3019.5719.6919.81
200 " 3209,8619,8629,91110,06010,08411.4211.4411.4611.5711.58
820 " 64010,20210,39210,48010,53710,05311.8112.0512.1212.1112.23
640 " 1,0004,1544,1544,1304,1374,2154.814.824.784.764.84
1,000 " 5,0005,8335,8825,8816,8775,8278.816.820.806.766.69
5,000 " 10,0005445565415405380.630.640.630.620.62
10,000 " 20,0002942872922822780.340.330.340.320.32
20,000 " 60,0001451451511451440.170.170.170.170.17
50,000 and over55565351510.060.060.060.060.06
      Totals86,37386,23986,48380,98587,076100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

Although approximately 44 per cent. of holdings in 1949 were less than 100 acres in extent, the total area of such holdings represented only a little over 3 per cent. of the occupied land of New Zealand. A further 20 per cent. of the holdings ranged between 100 and 200 acres, but the aggregate area of these amounted to only a little over 5½ per cent. of the total. At the other end of the scale it is found that 66 per cent. of the occupied land was held in areas of 1,000 acres and upwards, although the number of such holdings was only 8 per cent. of the total. Holdings of 5,000 acres and upwards, of which there were 1,011 in 1949, accounted for 39.5 per cent. of the total area of occupied land.

Area of Holdings, In Acres.1941.1946.1947.1948.19.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1 and under 1052,52552,93853,06653,69253,053
10 " 50374,038356,797350,939347,340344,548
50 " 109925,878936,146937,483944,077949,958
100 " 2002,330,8672,338,3152,368,6162,401,6902,417,342
200 " 3202,476,2092,468,8172,481,3042,520,9442,527,401
320 " 6404,614,3254,697,2904,741,9774,765,1574,823,068
640 " 1,0003,307,7313,302,2243,289,7423,290,5593,349,984
1,000 " 5,00011,517,58211,498,50711,496,56111,481,58711,377,539
5,000 " 10,0003,707,1753,793,5913,676,2003,668,7593,661,138
10,000 " 20,0004,133,4004,012,3854,083,1863,959,3673,891,586
20,000 " 50,0004,406,4094,408,2094,615,9104,469,8764,457,035
50,000 and over5,042,1985,214,7895,004,8404,889,0054,864,847
      Totals42,888,33743,080,00843,099,82442,792,05342,717,499

Preliminary results of the special Census of Agriculture conducted in 1950 show that 90,192 holdings of 1 acre and over were situated outside borough boundaries on 31st January, 1950.

The following additional details collected in 1950 are not normally obtained in the annual collection:—

Holdings at 31st January, 1950.Number.Percentage of Total.
Occupied by Maoris4,3344.81
Worked on share system2,6332.92
Lying entirely idle and unused2,2622.51
Status of occupier—  
  Owner55,06061.05
  Lessee17,81919.76
  Manager2,5242.80
  Partner1,2351.37
  Shareworker2,2512.49
  Part owner, part lessee11,30312.53

Tenure of Occupied Lands.—The area of land in occupation as at 31st January. 1950, classified according to tenure, was as follows:—

 Acres.
Crown land (including leases and licences)18,377,458
Freehold (including all land held on deferred payment)21,137,131
Leased from private individuals2,016,387
Leased from public bodies586,313
Leased from Maoris1,136,619
      Total occupied area43,253,908

Lands in occupation are not strictly comparable with Crown lands alienated or in process of alienation, for certain lands which were never made waste lands of the Crown have passed into the hands of Europeans. It must also be remembered that not all of the freehold land is in occupation, while (as stated previously) holdings within boroughs or under 1 acre in extent are excluded from the annual statistics.

Condition of Occupied Land.—The land in occupation in New Zealand at the 31st January, 1950, was classified according to condition and use as follows:—

 Acres.Percentage of Total.

* Includes areas also sown with grasses and clovers.

In cereals and crops for threshing*430,3631.00
In green, root, and other crops*720,0311.66
In fallow90,9990.21
In sown grasses and clovers—  
Cut for hay, seed, or ensilage778,5861.80
Not cut for hay, seed, or ensilage17,167,64339.69
In vineyards and orchards20,0070.05
In passion-fruit vines84 
In hop-vines605 
In market gardens and nurseries15,0110.03
In private gardens and pleasure-grounds97,3640.23
In plantations907,7412.10
      Total area in cultivation20,228,43446.77
Unimproved land23,025,47453.23
      Total area in occupation43,253,908100.00

Of the 18,192,328 acres under sown grasses on 31st January, 1950, 10,942,250 acres (60 per cent.) were stated as being capable of cultivation by ploughs or discs. An area of 14,713,181 acres or 34 per cent. of the total area in occupation (43,253,908 acres) was similarly considered as able to be cultivated by ploughs or discs.

Land in cultivation (under crop and in pasture) forms the subject matter of the section on agricultural and pastoral production immediately following. An indication of the condition and geographical distribution of unimproved land is afforded by the following table, which relates to the position in January, 1950.

Land District.Phormium (New Zealand Flax).Tussock and Naturally Established Native Grasses.Fern, Scurb, and Second Growth.Standing Native Bush.Barren and Unproductive Land.Total Unimproved Occupied Land.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
North Auckland1,51379,051904,708284,41363,3571,333,042
South Auckland1,35339,495961,792403,494101,0621,507,196
Gisborne1529,193218,457171,77921,534440,978
Hawke's Bay146272,170409,360112,47832,456826,610
Taranaki362,405169,339237,60716,324425,711
Wellington6,853353,628686,660300,443102,2581,449,842
Marlborough3,4561,391,234238,215120,276287,5872,040,768
Nelson2,912184,830358,208223,19616,949786,095
Westland10,30658,716240,503351,643113,463774,631
Canterbury2,2173,942,336224,718144,132602,5364,915,939
Otago4,7815,250,338496,843448,384472,6986,673,044
Southland12,8251,325,731315,172135,67662,2141,851,618
      Totals46,41312,929,1275,223,9752,933,5211,892,43823,025,474

SCENIC RESERVES, PUBLIC DOMAINS, AND NATIONAL PARKS.—The consolidating Scenery Preservation Act, 1908, with its amendments of 1910, 1915, 1926, 1933, 1938, and 1940, contains the major legislation dealing with the reservation of land, Crown or private, for scenic, thermal, or historic reserves. The Act is administered by a Scenery Preservation Board through the Department of Lands and Survey.

The Public Reserves, Domains, and National Parks Act, 1928, to which there have been numerous amendments, was also a consolidation of earlier measures. For the purposes of this Act public reserves do not include scenic reserves (supra), State forests (refer Section 19—Forestry), land reserved under the Kauri-gum Industry Act, 1908, or reserves under the Tourist and Health Resorts Control Act, 1908. The Act declares the general right of the public to free access to recreational reserves, but gives limited powers—extended by the Local Authorities Empowering (Aviation Encouragement) Act, 1929—to charge for admission.

Any public reserve for health or recreational purposes vested in or acquired by the Crown may be declared a public domain. Public domains are generally administered by Domain Boards, many of which are already existing local authorities. Domain Boards may purchase land, and land may also be taken for recreation-grounds under the Public Works Act, 1928. In certain limited instances power is given to charge for admission to public domains.

National parks are administered by National Park Boards, which have power. subject to ministerial approval, to fix fees for camping or picnicking within the parks.

The following data are as at 31st March, 1951:—

 Number.Acres.
Reserves under Scenery Preservation Act1,299939,110
Public domains85682,091
National parks73,050,138

Public reserves not vested in trustees or in a local authority may be leased under the Public Reserves, Domains, and National Parks Act, 1928, for any term not exceeding twenty-one years, with right of renewal for a further term. The freehold of the land cannot be acquired.

LAND TRANSFER AND DEEDS REGISTRATION.—Under the land transfer system introduced in 1870 the title to land is not affected by the execution of documents. Registration is the fundamental principle, and it is only on registration that any interest passes. The Lands and Deeds Registry assumes all responsibility for the registration, and any person named in the register as taking an interest under a registered instrument acquires a practically indefeasible title.

The land transfer system of title by registration has great advantages over the older system of title by deeds, even when the deeds are duly registered. The state of a land transfer title can be ascertained by a search of the register with very much greater facility than can the state of a title under the deeds system, and the powers vested in Registrars under the Land Transfer Act enable them to keep the register simple, clear, and free from doubts; the simplicity of searching and of the preparation of instruments under the land transfer system enables transactions with land under that system to be carried out at less cost than under the deeds system; and under the land transfer system there is the State guarantee of a practically indefeasible title, as mentioned previously.

These considerations led to the passing in 1924 of the Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act, which has for its object the bringing under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act, 1915, of all land alienated by the Crown and not already under the provisions of that Act, except lands held by Maoris under their customs and usages.

The work of bringing all land titles under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act as required by the Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act, 1924, has been completed for all practical purposes. There are in each district, however, several titles that it has been considered unwise to deal with at present owing to grave doubts as to ownership, or for some other reason.

Deeds Registration.—Provision has existed since 1841 and is now contained in the Deeds Registration Act, 1908, for the registration of deeds and instruments affecting land which is not subject to the provisions of the Land Transfer Act. Registration is not essential to the validity of the instrument, but it is highly important as a record and to secure priority. The Act provides that every deed shall be void as against any person claiming for valuable consideration under any subsequent deed duly registered, unless the earlier deed was registered before the subsequent one. The Department is not responsible for the form or matter of the instruments registered beyond seeing that they are duly stamped and contain a sufficient description of the land to identify it. Provision is made for the deposit of instruments in the Deeds Registry Office for safe custody and reference, and such deposit operates as a release from any covenant for production. The Deeds Index and all recorded and deposited instruments are open to public inspection, and certified copies may be obtained on payment of the prescribed fees. (This system of deeds registration is now for all practical purposes obsolete.)

Information as to transactions under the Deeds Registration Act for each of the years 1940–41 to 1950–51 is given in the following statement.

Year Ended 31st March,Deeds Recorded.Fees.
1941488435
1942257256
1943263205
1944261236
1945196187
1946221200
1947139152
1948135148
194979100
19506173
19518488

Land Transfer.—Information as to applications to bring land under the Land Transfer Act during each of the last five years is given in the next table.

Year Ended 31st March.Number.Area.Value.
Town and Suburban.Country.
  Acres.Acres.£
1947136994,825
1948135711819,185
194941477740
195097355,830
19511053225,654

The table next following shows transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act during each of the last eleven years.

Year Ended 31st March,Town and Suburban Properties.Country Properties.All Properties: Total Consideration.
Number.Area.Consideration.Number.Area.Consideration.
  Acres.£ Acres.££
194122,7238,08415,460,3586,1051,102,75210,277,86325,738,221
194223,22511,40516,261,0004,982915,2047,000,19123,261,191
194322,8938,50517,251,8844,764733,1986,883,48624,135,370
194426,7799,82524,563,7406,9221,404,83413,581,41838,145,158
194526,3779,68421,359,3266,9071,282,03611,099,58232,458,908
194631,23910,93825,393,0896,8211,310,55712,961,05238,354,141
194734,68512,22127,208,1588,3091,844,04817,764,34244,972,500
194832,08011,41925,039,5056,7211,756,58815,413,01340,452,518
194930,49410,95424,802,8436,0701,691,74313,607,15938,410,002
195033,18210,82227,629,1795,8761,783,38713,033,53040,662,709
195149,88014,06361,536,9708,0581,457,70617,822,81879,359,788

The numbers of transfers shown in the table relate only to transfers of land on sale—i.e., they do not include transfers of land from trustees to beneficiaries or to new trustees, transfers of mortgages, easements, &c.

Land-transfer transactions were on a particularly heavy scale during the second half of 1943, but following the introduction of the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act, 1943, they fell away considerably in the first two months of 1944. The totals for the year ended 31st March, 1944, however, showed a substantial increase over the previous year, both town and suburban and country properties contributing to the increase. In the following year the numbers of transactions in regard to both town and suburban properties and country properties were only slightly below the 1943–44 figures, but in both instances there was a marked fall in the amount of consideration, 13 per cent. in the case of the former and 18.3 per cent. in the latter. In 1945–46 a substantial increase was shown in the number of town and suburban properties transferred, with a corresponding increase in the amount of consideration, while country properties showed a slight decrease in number but a noticeable increase in the amount of consideration. Further substantial increases were recorded in 1946–47, particularly in relation to country properties, but slight recessions were recorded in 1947–48 and in 1948–49.

The downward movement was arrested in 1949–50, and in 1950–51 the number of transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act reached the record figure of 57,938. The greatest number of transfers recorded previously was in 1921, when 55,764 were registered. It is of interest to note that although the number of transfers in 1951 exceeded that of 1921, the consideration involved was £2,430,275 less than the 1921 total.

Transfers of town and suburban properties in 1950–51 increased in number by 16,698 or 50.3 per cent., and in consideration by £33,907,791 or 122.7 per cent., over 1949–50. Country transfers reversed the trend indicated in the previous year by an increase in both number and consideration while showing a decline in the area involved. The increases in number and consideration were 2,182 and £4,789,288, or 37.1 per cent. and 36.7 per cent. respectively, while the decline in area was 325,681 acres or 18.3 per cent.

The large increase in the number of transfers recorded for 1950–51 as compared with 1949–50 was no doubt contributed to by the exemption of town and suburban properties from control by Order in Council operative from the 23rd] February, 1950, and by the relaxation of control on farm lands by the enactment] of the Servicemen's Settlement Act, 1950, which came into force on the 1st November, 1950. This Act replaced the former legislation relating to servicemen's settlement and land sales, details of which may be found on pages 361–362.

As all classes of properties are included, land-transfer figures do not give a precise indication of any changes that may take place in property values. In the case of town and suburban properties, however, the numbers involved are sufficient to smooth out changes from year to year in the proportions of different classes of property included in the total. The average amount of consideration per town and suburban property transferred in 1939–40 was £627, and this rose by successive stages to £917 in 1943–44, the year in which the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act was introduced. In 1944–45 the average fell to £810, a decrease of £107 as compared with 1943–44, while the low point for subsequent years was £781 in 1947–48. Increases were recorded in the next three years, the averages being £813 in 1948–49, £833 in 1949–50, and £1,234 in 1950–51.

Further particulars relating to country properties from the year 1940–41 onwards are contained in the next table, but in this instance freehold properties only have been taken into account. From these figures in conjunction with those of the preceding table, it will be seen that leasehold properties form a very small proportion of the total transferred in any one year. As indicated previously, very diverse types of property are included in the figures, and the averages should not be taken for more than they purport to show. This is particularly so in the case of country properties, where the number of transactions is comparatively small.

Year Ended 31st March,Number.Area.Consideration.Average Value per Transaction.Average Value per Acre.
  Acres.£££
19415,495918,4059,760,5731,77610.63
19424,523746,4796,545,4611,4478.77
19434,390607,6866,583,0571,50010.83
19446,3991,209,13813,106,9932,04810.84
19456,3391,045,83310,504,3131,65710.04
19466,2121,063,73812,091,1271,94611.37
19477,4981,466,56516,631,8822,21811.34
19486,0381,462,98214,539,0972,4089.94
19495,5011,289,34112,663,6272,3029.82
19505,3361,268,76312,288,8852,3039.69
19517,4191,161,92616,885,9822,27614.53

Monthly statistics of transfers on sale of land registered under the Land Transfer Act are available and are published regularly in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Certificates of Title issued.—The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the last five years.

Year Ended 31st March,In lieu of Crown Grants.Under Transfer Act of 1924.Ordinary.Total.
194754737615,08516,008
19486645919,14919,872
194991013016,26217,302
195090135518,40019,656
195194030120,55321,794

SERVICEMEN'S SETTLEMENT AND LAND SALES ACT, 1943.—This Act had the dual purpose of providing machinery for the compulsory acquisition of land for the settlement of discharged servicemen and the control of sales and leases of land. Its application in regard to the former aspect is dealt with in the next subsection, and a brief outline of the main provisions in respect of the control of sales and leases is given hereunder.

The Act established a Court of record called the Land Sales Court, and a number of district Land Sales Committees. The Land Valuation Court Act, 1948, however, abolished both the Court and the Committees, as from 1st January, 1949, and established the Land Valuation Court and Land Valuation Committees, which exercise the powers and functions previously held by the Land Sales Court and the district Land Sales Committees. All transactions for the disposal of any land, whether by way of sale, transfer, or lease, were required to have the consent of the Court before they could be completed. Each application to the Land Valuation Court for consent was referred to a Land Valuation Committee, which, in considering it, was enjoined to have regard to the desirability of facilitating the settlement of discharged servicemen and of preventing undue increases in the price of land, the undue aggregation of land, and its use for speculative or uneconomic purposes.

Except in cases where the Committee decided that it was not necessary to determine the basic value or basic rent, no application for the consent of the Court was granted if the purchase-money, rent, or other consideration exceeded the basic value or basic rent of the land, as the case may be.

In the case of farm land the basic value was deemed to be the productive value, increased or reduced by such an amount as the Committee deemed necessary in order to make it a fair value for the purposes of the Act. The productive value was deemed to be an amount equal to the net annual income that could be derived from the land by the average efficient farmer, capitalized at the rate of 4½ per cent. In arriving at the net income there was deducted from the gross income all expenses required to be incurred in producing such income, including rates and land-tax, provision for reasonable maintenance, reasonable remuneration for the work performed by the farmer in the production of the income, and interest on the average annual value of the stock and chattels used in the farming operations, computed at the rate of 5 per cent. per annum. The gross income was determined on the basis of the prices for farm products ruling on 15th December, 1942. In deciding whether it was necessary to make any increase or reduction in the productive value of the land the Committee was required to take into consideration such matters as the nature and extent of the estate or interest of the claimant or, as the case may be, of the vendor or lessor of the land, the extent to which the value of the improvements on the land exceeded or was less than the value of the improvements normally required, and any special value that the land might have by reason of its locality.

The basic value of land other than farm land was deemed to be the value thereof as at 15th December, 1942, increased or reduced by such an amount as the Committee deemed necessary to make it a fair value, taking into consideration such matters as the nature and extent of the estate or interest of the vendor or lessor in the land, and any increase or decrease since 15th December, 1942, in the value of the improvements on the land.

In determining the basic rent of any land the Committee was to have regard to the basic value of the land, the value of the lessee's interest (if any) in the improvements on the land, and all other relevant considerations, including the basic rent or the fair rent (if any) under the Fair Rents Act or the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942. In general the rents fixed by the Fair Rents Act and the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations were those ruling on 1st September, 1942.

With the passing of the Tenancy Act, 1948, repealing all Fair Rents legislation and revoking certain Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942, the basic rent or fair rent became that determined under the authority of this Act.

The above position obtained until 23rd February, 1950. Contracts entered into on or after that date for the sale or leasing of any land, not being farm land, were exempted from control under Part III of the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act, 1943, by the February, 1950, amendment to the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Regulations 1949. The position in regard to the relaxation of the control of sales of farm lands is described under the next heading.

SERVICEMEN'S SETTLEMENT ACT, 1950.—As from the 1st November, 1950, this Act replaced the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act, 1943, and its amendments.

The principal purpose of the new Act was to lift completely the controls imposed on the price at which property could change hands, at the same time protecting as far as possible the rights of ex-servicemen to a degree of preference for those farms coming on to the market and considered suitable for their rehabilitation. It will be remembered that, by Order in Council, contracts entered into on or after the 23rd February, 1950, for the sale or lease of any land, not being farm land, were exempted from control, and the purpose of the new Act was to extend this privilege as from the operative date of the Act to all contracts in respect of farm land as well. All such contracts still require the consent of the Land Valuation Court, and the definition of “1942” basic value is still retained because of the fact that eligible and graded ex-servicemen who are to be assisted on to properties through the Rehabilitation Board will be settled on the basis of 1942 values.

The power to acquire land compulsorily for ex-servicemen settlement was retained also; in fact, it was extended to cover the acquisition of leases of West Coast settlement lands.

In other respects, the new legislation follows on a similar pattern to the previous enactments, but provision is made that the Act shall remain in force until the 30th June, 1952, and shall then expire.

APPLICATIONS TO TRANSFER UNDER THE SERVICEMEN'S SETTLEMENT AND LAND SALES ACT, 1943.—The Servicemen's Settlement Act, 1950, repealed the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act, 1943, and as from 1st November, 1950, applications to transfer farm properties were no longer subject to control under this Act. Sales of other than farm land had already been exempted by Order in Council dated 23rd February, 1950, and this exemption was confirmed with the repeal of the old Act. The final figures show that during the period of control 260,891 applications to transfer were considered by Land Sales and Land Valuation Committees, and reductions amounting to £13,922,793 were directed in 84,545 cases. The details are set out in the following tables.

Registry.Brought Forward From Previous Year.Received During Year.Granted Without Hearing.Granted After Hearing.Granted Subject to Conditions.Refused or Withdrawn.Total Dealth With.

* Applications concerning other than farm land shown as being received during the year were in effect applications to have the status of the land as urban or farm defined. The applications were subsequently withdrawn or transferred to farm applications, depending on the decision of the Committee.

† Amended total on receipt of final returns.

Return of Applications for the Year Ended 31st March, 1951
Farm lands—       
Auckland77713230147162251790
Hamilton115484401468144599
Gisborne2597945518122
Napier4011110522420151
New Plymouth3522715316345262
Wellington57279199 6176336
Blenheim66353241069
Nelson2714511722825172
Hokitika9261917835
Christchurch5240531825087457
Dunedin66253123 12373319
Invercargill49237178 6246286
      Totals5583,0401,9902085978033,598
Other lands—       
Auckland60551829959115
Hamilton1463350104115179
Gisborne15    1515
Napier66552131087121
New Plymouth201311 101233
Wellington1961131422150207
Blenheim952  1214
Nelson47 12282547
Hokitika3   123
Christchurch104 1331177104
Dunedin149 81327101149
Invercargill44 1  4344
      Totals859172*167641026981,031
Grand totals for the year1,4173,2122,1572726991,5014,629
Final Return of Applications from the Inception of the Act 18th October, 1943 to 31st March, 1951
Farm lands 35,83822,2151,8758,2723,47635,838
Other lands 225,053137,0668,66468,55310,770225,053
      Totals 260,891159,28110,53976,82514,246260,891

The following table shows the reductions in consideration directed by Land Sales Committees or Land Valuation Committees during the year ended 31st March, 1951, and also the total reductions directed since the inception of the Act to the 31st March, 1951.

Registry.Farm Lands.Other Lands.Totals.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
Year Ended 31st March, 1951
  £ £ £
Auckland16761,72192,08117663,802
Hamilton9555,00861,29210156,300
Gisborne103,825  103,825
Napier237,286123,0513510,337
New Plymouth6319,475103,6607323,135
Wellington6031,546235,4358336,981
Blenheim41,060  41,060
Nelson4411,99636914712,687
Hokitika61,150213081,280
Christchurch5016,511113,0986119,609
Dunedin12338,205222,31214540,517
Invercargill6526,886  6526,886
  Totals, 1950–51710274,6699821,750808296,419
  Totals, 18th October, 1943, to 31st March, 19518,9143,517,12175,63110,405,67284,54513,922,793

The next table shows the numbers of appeals against Committees' decisions lodged and dealt with during the same periods as in the preceding table.

Registry.Number Brought Forward From Previous Year.Number Lodged.Dismissed.Allowed in Part.Allowed in Full.Withdrawn.Referred Back to Committee or Adjourned.Total Number Disposed of.Number Remaining to be Dealt With.
Year Ended 31st March, 1951
Auckland 122 27 111
Hamilton24 2 2 42
Gisborne1  1   1 
Napier 4   2 22
New Plymouth         
Wellington1522 2 6 
Blenheim         
Nelson 11    1 
Hokitika         
Christchurch2 1  1 2 
Dunedin 201  19 20 
Invercargill12  12 3 
  Totals, 1950–5174875335 505
  Totals, 18th October, 1943, to 31st March, 1951 1,460386406117448981,4555

17 B—CROWN LANDS

THE Crown lands are now administered under the authority of the Land Act, 1948, and its amending Act of 1950. The principal Act consolidated into one Act all previously existing legislation relating to the lands of the Crown, and also made certain amendments thereto. The Acts so consolidated and amended were the Land Act, 1924, the Land for Settlement Act, 1925, those provisions of the Education Reserves Act, 1928, which relate to education reserves administered by a Land Board, the Hanmer Crown Leases Act, 1928, the Small Farms Act, 1932–33, and the amendments to those Acts. It also repealed, but did not re-enact, the Discharged Soldiers' Settlement Act, 1915, the Hutt Valley Lands Settlement Act, 1925, the Deteriorated Lands Act, 1925, the Fruit-farms Settlement Act, 1910, and the amendments to those Acts. The distinction that existed between Crown land subject to the various enactments mentioned was abolished by the new Act.

The Minister of Lands is charged with the administration of the Land Act, and his executive officer is the Director-General of Lands, who is the Permanent Head of the Department of Lands and Survey.

New Zealand is divided into twelve land districts, the executive officer for each district being a Commissioner of Crown Lands. Prior to the passing of the Land Act, 1948, there was a Land Board for each district, but the new Act abolished these Boards and vested their powers, rights, obligations, &c., in a central authority entitled the Land Settlement Board. This Board consists of the Minister of Lands (Chairman), the Director-General of Lands (Deputy Chairman), the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture, the Valuer-General, a representative of the State Advances Corporation, the Director of Rehabilitation, the Assistant Director of Lands, the Fields Director of the Department of Lands and Survey, a representative of the New Zealand Returned Services' Association, and not more than two other persons to be appointed by the Governor-General.

The duties of the Board are broadly defined in the Act as follows:—

"It shall be the duty of the Board to carry out the provisions of this Act for the administration, management, development, alienation, settlement, protection, and care of Crown land; and to carry out all negotiations for the purchase of land by the Crown under this Act, and the performance and completion of all contracts of purchase so entered into by the Crown."

To replace the District Land Boards, the Land Settlement Board is required to appoint one or more Land Settlement Committees for each land district, and sixteen of these Committees have been set up. Each Committee consists of three members, including the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district as Chairman. The Board may also appoint as an associate member of any Committee any person who in the opinion of the Board possesses expert knowledge of advantage to the Committee in the execution of its functions, but associate members have no voting-powers. The Committees have no functions expressly set out in the Act, but the Board has wide powers of delegating to Committees any of its functions.

METHODS OF ACQUIRING CROWN LAND.—A selector may purchase for cash, or on deferred payments, or may select on renewable lease. The normal practice is for applications to be invited for any vacant Crown lands, and for the successful applicant to be selected by ballot although in certain circumstances preferential allotment can be made. Under legislation introduced by the Land Amendment Act, 1950, any urban or commercial or industrial land may be offered for disposal by tender at a minimum price or rental value or by public auction at an upset price. Every applicant must be of the age of seventeen years or upwards, and may apply for Crown land solely for his own use or benefit, and not directly or indirectly for the use or benefit of any other person. Two or more persons may make application to purchase or take on lease or licence as joint tenants in common. No application for Crown land will be granted if, having regard to the land already owned, leased, held, or occupied under any tenure of more than one year's duration, the acquisition of additional land would, in the opinion of the Board, amount to undue aggregation of land. An application will also be refused if the Board considers that the land is intended to be used for speculation or for uneconomic purposes.

Crown land may be acquired on the following tenures:—

  1. Farm land or urban land—(a) On renewable lease; (b) for cash; (c) On deferred payments. A renewable lease is for a term of thirty-three years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term, and, except where otherwise provided for, with a right of acquiring the fee-simple. The Board may, however, determine that any specified land may be taken on renewable lease only, but without the right of acquiring the fee-simple.

  2. Commercial and industrial land—(a) On renewable lease for thirty-three years; (b) on lease for any term, but so that the aggregate term, including the renewals (if any), does not exceed fifty years. These lands may be now acquired in the same manner as urban or farm land including the right of freehold.

  3. Pastoral land—(a) On pastoral lease for a term of thirty-three years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term, but with no right of acquiring the fee-simple; (b) on pastoral occupation licence for a term not exceeding twenty-one years.

  4. Short tenancies for grazing or other purposes for a term not exceeding five years.

  5. Land for communal grazing—The Board may grant a lease or licence for any Crown land to any person or group or association of persons, or to any body corporate for use as communal grazing. The term is for a period not exceeding thirty-three years, with or without a right of renewal and subject to such conditions as the Board may decide.

  6. Unclassified Land.—Where in the opinion of the Board any Crown land available for disposal cannot properly be classified as farm land, urban land, commercial or industrial land, or pastoral land, the Board may sell or grant a lease for any term not exceeding thirty-three years, with or without a right of renewal, perpetual or otherwise for the same term.

Every holder of a lease or licence is required to effect within a certain specified period such improvements as the Board determines. In most cases the lessee or licensee of any farm or pastoral land is required to commence to reside on the land within one year after the date of his licence.

LAND DEVELOPMENT.—The Land Act empowers the Land Settlement Board to carry out such development works as may be required to improve the quality or condition of any Crown land or to make it fit for settlement. This includes the erection of buildings, and the Board may carry on all usual farming activities on land developed or being developed until the time is appropriate for the disposal of the land on permanent tenure.

The Board may also make advances or readvances to lessees or licensees of Crown land to assist them in the development of their holdings. Purposes for which advances may be made include erection, improvement, &c., of buildings; clearing, draining, fencing, cultivation, grassing; provision of electric power, telephone services, and water; purchase of fencing materials, fertilizers, implements, &c.; and purchase of live-stock.

SELECTIONS UNDER SETTLEMENT CONDITIONS.—As stated earlier, the Land Act, 1948, consolidated all enactments relating to lands of the Crown and abolished the distinctions between ordinary Crown land (that is, land subject to the Land Act, 1924), settlement land, Education reserve endowments, and small farms land; all these lands are now simply Crown land subject to and administered under the Land Act, 1948. The numerous tenures under which Crown land could be held (approximately forty different tenures) are replaced by four principal ones—sale for cash, sale on deferred payments, renewable lease, and pastoral lease or licence.

During 1950–51 there were 458 selectors who purchased for cash a total area of 8,751 acres, as against 192 selectors of an area of 6,574 acres during the previous year. There were also 1,772 selectors of leased lands, the area selected comprising 517,809 acres, the figures for the previous year being 1,255 selectors and 223,324 acres respectively. The total area selected for 1950–51 was 526,560 acres, the total number of selectors being 2,230. These figures cover both farm and urban land, and temporary tenancies are included in the areas leased. Details of selections in which the freehold was purchased for cash are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31st March, 1951.Number of Selectors.Total Area Selected.Purchase-price.
  Acres.£
Crown lands—   
  Farm land1848,49384,370
  Urban land26215447,305
  Commercial or industrial land95169,155
  Lands freeholded pursuant to section 67, Land Act353185
      Totals4588,751201,015

Corresponding details concerning selections made under leasehold are now given for the same period.

Year Ended 31st March, 1951.Number of Selectors.Total Area Selected.Annual Rental.Annual Instalment.

* Areas and rentals not included, as licences are on royalty basis only.

Crown lands— Acres.££
Renewable leases—    
Farm463238,79154,98861
Urban3314245 
Commercial or industrial711186 
Pastoral leases789,0741,759 
Pastoral occupation licences484,989626 
Deferred-payment licences—    
Farm10140,586 8,541
Urban6857 4,127
Special leases under section 67, Land Act5676149 
Special leases under section 165, Land Act*23   
Grazing and other leases (section 68, Land Act)1,05263,1649,876 
Sub-totals1,763517,36267,82912,729
Endowment lands—    
South Canterbury Catchment Board endowments240226 
Westport Harbour Board endowments5457 
Special leases under section 165, Land Act*2   
      Totals1,772517,80967,86212,729

CROWN LAND HELD UNDER LEASE OR LICENCE.—Since the Land Act, 1948, came into operation on the 1st April, 1949, any new leases issued have been under that Act. The following table shows the leases current as at 31st March, 1951. Part (a) gives details of those leases which have been issued under the Land Act, 1948, while Part (b) shows the leases issued under Acts prior to the Land Act, 1948, and which were still current at the 31st March, 1951. The numbers of leases in the second Part will gradually diminish as the leases concerned expire and lessees on renewal are given a new lease under the Land Act, 1948.

Number.Area.Annual Rent.Annual Instalment, Including Improvement Loading.

* Areas and rentals not included, as licences are on royalty basis only.

Part (a)—Tenures under the Land Act, 1948
Crown land— Acres.££
  Renewable leases—    
  Farm743418,94975,822139
  Urban7747563 
  Industrial1220486 
  Pastoral leases11161,1842,994 
  Pastoral occupation licences587,114370 
  Deferred-payment licences—    
  Farm26292,052 17,432
  Urban15799 5,936
  Special leases (section 67, Land Act)—    
  Renewable—    
  Farm4626139 
  Urban    
  Non-renewable—    
  Farm15010 
  Urban11210 
Licences for removal of minerals*39   
Miscellaneous licences3,803335,06715,294 
      Totals, Crown land5,1151,095,20995,88823,507
Endowment land, &c.    
Leases under section 169, Land Act376733 
Sundry tenures126624 
      Totals, tenures under Land Act, 19485,1301,096,04295,94523,507
Part (b)—Tenures under Acts Prior to the Land Act, 1948
Crown land— Acres.££
  Renewable leases7,4982,155,095259,7796,648
  Leases under section 5, Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1921–2212924,3728,409488
  Special tenure leases1,428370,66987,2701,491
  Leases in perpetuity6,7361,364,703154,99295
  Perpetual leases1337,950989 
  Mining District land occupation leases58513,7331,524 
  Pastoral Regulation licences (mining district)30259,6921,454 
  Small grazing-run leases6672,161,60469,306129
  Pastoral run licences5637,589,21072,58988
  Education reserves, Public Bodies' Leases Act3,019441,98977,678120
  Occupation with right of purchase licences32883,5566,59918
  Deferred-payment licences1,811370,754 56,448
  Miscellaneous licences3,266510,14819,815 
  Small farm leases803,483963 
  Hanmer Crown leases150327735 
  Agreement, sale, and purchase, Waikato Land Settlement Society221,902 2,557
  Cheviot grazing-farm leases1521,2314,963 
  Leases under Education Land Act    
  Leases479133,93931,525618
  Temporary tenancies933846,655 
  Sundry leases384,3171,41547
      Totals, Crown land27,34215,319,058806,66068,747
Endowment lands—    
  Westport Harbour Board Endowment60919,3181,727 
  Otago University Endowment30209,0715,735 
  Lower Clutha River Trust1641,3731,336 
  Thermal Springs Licences116160505 
  Sundry other endowments9852,1322,95710
      Totals, tenures under Acts prior to Land Act, 194828,21115,641,112818,92068,757
Grand totals, all tenures33,34116,737,154914,86592,264

LEASES FREEHOLDED OR CONVERTED TO OTHER TENURES.—With the coming into operation of the Land Act, 1948, several lessees and licensees have availed themselves of the opportunity to convert to a more satisfactory tenure with a right of freehold, a right which had not previously been available under some of the existing tenures. Details are given below of the conversions which were effected during the year 1950–51 as distinct from the applications lodged.

Conversions of Existing Leases to Tenures Under Sections 126 and 127 of Land Act, 1948.Number.Area.
Conversion to—  
Renewable leases— Acres.
  Farm lands2129,876
  Urban lands68
  Deferred-payment licences—  
  Farm lands1196
      Totals, conversions2830,080

In addition to the conversions already mentioned, 1,210 Crown lessees with holdings totalling 219,619 acres elected to acquire the freehold of their properties either for cash or on deferred payments during the year 1950–51, details being as follows. These cases relate only to applications which were actually completed at the 31st March, 1951, and do not cover the total number of applications lodged during the year, or those cases where the holders of deferred-payment licences have paid off the balances outstanding. This total represents an increase of 705 over those shown for 1949–50, the figures then being 505 cases of free holding over an area of 50,860 acres.

Leases and Licences Freeholded.Number.Area.Purchase Price.
For cash— Acres.£
  Crown lands959144,041726,333
  Endowment lands11255,534
On deferred payments—   
  Crown lands23775,562287,614
  Endowment lands312,348
      Totals, freeholdings1,210219,6291,021,829

PURCHASE OF LAND FOR SETTLEMENT.—The Land Act, 1948, authorizes the Land Settlement Board to purchase private land or the interest of any lessee or licensee in any Crown land or Maori land for the purposes of settlement as farming, urban, commercial and industrial, or pastoral land. The Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act, 1943, also authorized the purchase of privately-owned lands, and, in addition, gave power to acquire farm land compulsorily for the settlement of ex-servicemen. This latter power is now contained in the Servicemen's Settlement Act, 1950.

ASSISTING PRIVATE PURCHASE OF LAND.—Where the Land Settlement Board is satisfied that the area of Crown land held by any lessee or licensee is too small to be successfully occupied as a single unit it may authorize the making of an advance to enable him to purchase the interest of a lessee or licensee in any other Crown land which can be conveniently farmed with the land already held.

LAND FOR DISCHARGED SERVICEMEN.—Authority is contained in the Land Act, 1948, for the granting of a lease or licence over Crown land to a discharged serviceman without competition. The Act also provides that where there are simultaneous applications for Crown land and, in the opinion of the Land Settlement Board, there are two or more applicants who are equally suitable to be allotted the land, an applicant who is a serviceman or a discharged serviceman or the wife or widow of a serviceman or discharged serviceman shall have preference over all other classes of applicants.

Land is acquired by the Crown for the purposes of settling ex-servicemen under the following methods:—

  1. By the purchase of privately-owned properties:

  2. By the setting apart for the purposes of the Act of Crown lands subject to the Land Act, 1948:

  3. By the resumption by the Crown of land already held under Crown lease or licence:

  4. By the compulsory acquisition of farms in terms of section 31 of the Servicemen's Settlement Act, 1950, or by the compulsory acquisition of farm land in terms of Part I of the same Act. In the second case the owner, if farming the land himself for the support of himself and his dependants, has the right to retain any part of the land constituting an economic unit and containing the homestead (if any). These powers were formerly contained in the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act, 1943, which was repealed by the 1950 Act.

The following table contains particulars of land acquired for development and for the settlement of ex-servicemen under methods (a) and (d) during the year ended 31st March, 1951, and from the commencement of the scheme to 31st March, 1951; also shown are those areas made available for settlement and the balance on hand at the latter date. The figures do not include particulars relating to ex-servicemen who have been assisted by way of rehabilitation loans to purchase established farms on their own account. Further information concerning the settlement of ex-servicemen on the land will be found in Section 45, "Rehabilitation."

Year Ended 31st March, 1951.Total to 31st March, 1951.
Estimated Number of Units.Area.Estimated Number of Units.Area.

* After adjustment of surveys.

† Comprising some properties or portions thereof used for the following purposes: (a) For settlement of Maori ex-servicemen by the Maori Affairs Department; (b) for experimental purposes by the Department of Agriculture; (c) areas unsuitable for farming used for afforestation purposes by the New Zealand Forest Service; (d) for adjustment of boundaries with adjoining owners; and (e) areas requiring long-term development.

  Acres. Acres.
Purchased by voluntary negotiation13671,0651,576868,941
Acquired compulsorily under Part II, Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act, 1943, or by Part I, Servicemen's Settlement Act, 1950103,054390118,788
Acquired compulsorily under section 51, Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act, 1943, or by section 31, Servicemen's Settlement Act, 19502610,224466143,368
Properties where ex-servicemen substituted under section 31, Servicemen's Settlement Act, 195051,45651,456
      Totals, 1950–5117785,7992,4371,132,553
      Totals, 1949–50301153,316*  
Less areas utilized5160,641
Plus areas of Crown land set aside for early settlement by ex-servicemen381107,178
      Total area available for ex-servicemen settlement2,7671,179,090
Allotments to ex-servicemen up to 31st March, 1951—  
On fixed charges1,850716,118
On wages with promise of permanent allotment on completion of development13068,110
Balance remaining for allotment to ex-servicemen on completion of development787394,862

Rent under the small farms renewable lease is based on the unimproved value of the land at the date of the lease or renewal, and in the case of discharged servicemen is calculated at the rate of 2 per cent. of such unimproved value for the first year and 3 per cent. for the balance of the first term.

The amount of the value of the improvements on the land at the date of the lease is deemed to have been advanced to the lessee and is secured by mortgage of the lease, the mortgage being secured to the State Advances Corporation, which extends interest concessions and gives the same terms as are given in respect of mortgages of freehold properties. The State Advances Corporation also has power to make advances on its usual terms for stock, chattels, or further improvements.

Provision was made in the Land Amendment Act, 1950, for the granting of suspensory loans in cases where an ex-serviceman is settled on Crown Land after the commencement of the Servicemen's Settlement Act, 1950, and is granted rehabilitation assistance for the purpose. This loan which is not to exceed the difference between the 1942 value and the current market value, is not enforceable so long as the purchaser resides personally on the land and farms it exclusively for his own use, &c. If the purchaser carries this out for ten years, the loan is discharged.

17 C—MAORI LANDS

DEFINITION AND KINDS OF MAORI LAND.—Maori land is of two kinds—namely, customary land and Maori freehold land. Customary land is land which has never been the subject of a Crown grant and is held by Maoris under the customs and usages of the Maori people. It is land in respect of which the ancient customary Maori title as recognized by the appropriate provisions of the Maori Land Act, 1931, has not yet been extinguished. Such land, since it has not been Crown-granted, remains vested in the Crown, subject, however, to the customary title of the Maoris, and to their right to have the customary title transformed into a freehold title by the Maori Land Court. There is little of this class of land now left in New Zealand.

Customary land has always been restricted from alienation except in favour of the Crown. By the Treaty of Waitangi the exclusive right to purchase such land was reserved to the Crown, and in all statutes since passed the alienation of customary land to private individuals has been prohibited, and this prohibition is now extended to the Crown. Maori freehold land is the land held by Maoris under an ordinary freehold title, though subject to certain restrictions on alienation and other special incidents which are unknown to the ordinary law.

Whether land is Maori or European land depends upon the beneficial ownership of it, and not merely on the legal ownership. If land is held by a European in trust for a Maori, it is Maori land; if it is held in trust by a Maori for a European, it is European land. There are, however, four exceptions to this:—

  1. When land has once become European land, it never again becomes Maori land unless by special enactment.

  2. Land purchased by a Maori from the Crown for a pecuniary consideration is not Maori land. This does not include an exchange of land, with or without a payment of money by way of equality of exchange.

  3. Land held by a Maori in severalty may be declared to be European land by the Maori Appellate Court.

  4. Under certain circumstances (see p. 309 of 1942 Year-Book) the Maori owner may have been declared a European.

Even though one of many Maori owners may sell, the land remains Maori land until all have disposed of their interests, or until the purchaser has had his interests partitioned off. The term “Maori” includes a half-caste, or a person intermediate in blood between a Maori and a half-caste.

The Maori Land Act, 1931, and the Maori Purposes Act, 1931, are consolidations, with amendments, of previously existing legislation.

BOARD OF MAORI AFFAIRS.—The Board of Maori Affairs constituted under the Board of Maori Affairs Act, 1934–35, consists of the Minister of Maori Affairs, the Under-Secretary of the Department of Maori Affairs, the Director-General of Lands, the Valuer-General, the Financial Adviser to the Government, the Director-General of Agriculture, the member (if any), of the Executive Council representing the Maori Race, and such other members (not exceeding three) as the Governor-General may appoint.

The functions of the Board include, inter alia, the following:—

  1. The control of the development and settlement of Maori land or land owned or occupied by Maoris, undertaken pursuant to Part I of the Maori Land Amendment Act, 1936.

  2. The control of expenditure on farming operations undertaken by Maori Land Boards and the Maori Trustee.

  3. The control of investments by—(a) Maori Land Boards; (b) the Maori Trustee; and (c) the East Coast Commissioner.

  4. The control of negotiations for the acquisition of Maori lands by the Crown.

  5. The control of expenditure on housing operations under the Maori Housing Act, 1935, and its amendment of 1938.

MAORI LAND COURT.—The Maori Land Court consists of a Chief Judge and such other Judges as the Governor-General may think fit to appoint. All powers of the Court may be exercised by a single Judge, but there are certain important powers vested exclusively in the Chief Judge. Commissioners are appointed who exercise such jurisdiction of a Judge as the Governor-General authorizes. The chief matters within the jurisdiction of the Court are:—

  1. The investigation of title to customary land, and transforming it into Maori freehold land.

  2. The exclusive power of partitioning land among the owners.

  3. The sanctioning of exchanges for other Maori land and European land.

  4. Granting probates of wills and succession orders to Maoris.

  5. Making orders for the adoption of children.

  6. Appointing trustees for Maoris who are minors or under other disability.

  7. The incorporation of the owners of Maori land.

  8. The determination of various claims as between Maoris.

  9. To grant confirmation of alienation of Maori land.

The Maori Appellate Court consists of any two or more Judges of the Maori Land Court, provided that two Judges at least shall concur in every decision of the Court. With certain exceptions the Appellate Court determines appeals, whether on law or on fact, from all final orders of the Maori Land Court.

MAORI LAND BOARDS.—There are seven Maori Land Boards, each consisting of two members—viz., the Judge (or, if there be no Judge of the district, a Commissioner of the Court appointed by the Minister of Maori Affairs) and the Registrar of the Maori Land Court district, the Judge acting as President. The chief functions of a Maori Land Board are:—

  1. To administer certain large areas of Maori land vested in the Board in trust for the Maori owners, the Board having extensive powers of sale, lease, and management.

  2. To act as statutory agent of the Maori owners in respect of certain areas of Maori land set apart for Maori settlement.

  3. To control the administration and disposition of Maori land by resolution of the assembled owners.

  4. To assist Maoris in farming their lands.

In the administration of some 660,000 acres of vested lands, the collection and distribution of rents, royalties, and purchase-moneys from these lands, and from freehold areas which have been alienated, the operations of the seven Maori Land Boards are being fully sustained. Besides assisting Maoris to farm their own lands and in certain circumstances acting as agent for Maoris, the Boards are empowered to engage in any industry in the interests of Maoris, to act as receivers for the purpose of enforcing charges imposed by the Maori Land Court, and to deal with various matters affecting land by meetings of assembled owners.

The financial operations of the Maori Land Boards are shown in conjunction with those of the Maori Trustee in the following paragraphs.

MAORI TRUSTEE.—The administration of Maori funds and Maori reserves, formerly conducted by the Public Trustee, was by statute transferred to the Maori Trustee as from 1st April, 1921. This was part of a comprehensive scheme which seeks to rehabilitate the Maori by inducing him to farm and manage his own lands. As a further means to this end the Maori Trustee, with the approval of the Board of Maori Affairs, advances money to Maoris on the security of their lands, the expenditure of this money and the management of Maori farming-operations generally being supervised in a helpful and sympathetic manner. The Maori Trustee Act, 1930, consolidated existing legislation.

The Maori Trustee acts as trustee or agent for some 10,000 Maori beneficiaries; administers a large number of Maori reserves containing an aggregate area of 94,000 acres located in cities, towns, and rural districts; advances money to Maoris on the security of their lands; and is actively engaged on pastoral operations on a number of sheep-stations comprising a total area of 51,326 acres. The Maori Trustee accepts money on deposit from the Maori Land Boards and acts as banker for the Special Maori Housing Fund and the Maori Purposes Fund.

The following table contains a summary of the financial position of the Maori Trustee and the District Land Boards as at 31st March, 1949 and 1950. The particulars of receipts and payments are for the twelve months ended in those years.

1949.1950.

* Included in payments made during 1949–50 is the sum of £464,322 paid out to Maori beneficiaries.

 ££
      Total receipts1,467,3421,192,090
      Total payments1,475,2841,183,737*
Cash balances81,91975,584
Investments—  
On deposit with Maori Trustee549,097691,662
Government securities878,7771,139,221
Mortgages, charges, and advances on overdraft588,461522,995
Farming properties88,47881,652
Amounts held for Maori beneficiaries1,187,1311,293,508
Financial Reserves442,638428,466

POWERS OF ALIENATION.—The ordinary provisions as to alienation of Maori land do not affect the power to dispose of land by will, but a Maori cannot will to a European except it be a husband or wife or other relative of the person making the will. A Maori cannot dispose of customary land, whether by will otherwise. No alienation of Maori land by a Maori has any effect until it is confirmed by the Maori Land Court.

The Court, before confirming an alienation, must satisfy itself, inter alia, that it is not contrary to the interests of the Maori alienating; that no Maori is rendered landless by the alienation; that the consideration is adequate; that the purchase-money is paid or secured; and that the alienation is not otherwise prohibited by law.

A lease cannot be for a longer term than fifty years, and a mortgage must have the approval of the Minister of Maori Affairs and confirmation by the Maori Land Court.

With regard to Maori freehold land, the Court during 1950–51 approved of new leases comprising 39,725 acres to Europeans and 10,083 acres to Maoris, the previous year's figures being 31,057 and 13,781 respectively. It confirmed transfers (apart from sales to the Crown) affecting 7,114 acres of freehold land to Europeans and 1,776 acres to Maoris in 1950–51, the corresponding 1949–50 figures being 2,835 and 961 acres respectively. During the year ended 31st March, 1951, timber-cutting rights were confirmed by the Court in respect of 17,477 acres.

PURCHASE OF MAORI LAND FOR CROWN.—Since 5th April, 1935, the duty of undertaking, controlling, and carrying out all negotiations for the acquisition of Maori lands by the Crown, and the performance and completion of all contracts entered into, is imposed upon the Board of Maori Affairs.

Pending any purchase by the Crown the Governor-General may, by Order in Council, prohibit alienation other than to the Crown. Upon the purchase being completed the land is proclaimed Crown land, and is subject to administration under the Land Act, 1948. Where the land is subject to lease when purchased, there may be extended to the tenant the option of purchasing the land from the Crown or having a renewable lease granted to him.

The area of Maori land still held by Maoris in the North Island is estimated at 3,750,000 acres, and in the whole of New Zealand at 4,000,000 acres. In many cases the Maoris are utilizing their land for pastoral and dairying purposes. Other lands are being farmed for them by Maori Land Boards, by the Maori Trustee, and by the East Coast Commissioner.

MAORI LAND DEVELOPMENT.—In the year 1929 legislation was enacted giving sanction to a scheme for the development and settlement of lands owned or occupied by Maoris, Part I of the Maori Land Amendment Act, 1936, which replaced section 522 of the Maori Land Act, 1931, imposes on the Board of Maori Affairs the duty of undertaking and carrying out this work.

To overcome any delays or difficulties arising from the nature of the titles to the lands proposed to be developed, the Board of Maori Affairs is authorized to bring such land under the scope of a development scheme. Upon notification of the fact, the owners are prevented from interfering with the work of development, and private alienation of any land within the scheme is prohibited. The funds for development are provided by the Minister of Lands through the Land Settlement Account. The Board of Maori Affairs is armed with the most comprehensive powers, which it can exercise directly through the Department of Maori Affairs or delegate to any Maori Land Board or to the Maori Trustee. The Board is also empowered to direct a Maori Land Board or the Maori Trustee to use their funds for development. Power is also taken by arrangement between the Minister of Lands and the Board of Maori Affairs to develop Crown lands that adjoin or are surrounded by a Maori land-development scheme, thus removing a further obstacle in the way of development. Special legislative provision has also been made enabling one or other of the Maori Land Boards or the Maori Trustee to undertake farming of specified blocks on behalf of the beneficial owners. There are also six District Maori Land Committees with power to advise on all matters of Maori Land development in their districts, to report on areas suitable for development and to assist in dealing with the owners of the land.

The total area gazetted under Part I of the Maori Land Amendment Act, 1936, to 31st March, 1951, was 658,000 acres, of which 287,000 acres are in grass, and a further 197,000 acres are considered suitable for development purposes. Occupation has been granted to 1,769 settlers. The live-stock carried comprised 38,835 dairy cows, 23,007 other dairy stock, 36,323 run cattle, 194,604 breeding-ewes, and 133,690 dry sheep. In addition, sixteen Maori Trust stations and five Maori Land Board stations comprising 51,326 acres and 35,092 acres respectively are running the following stock: 98,208 sheep and 11,643 dry cattle. The Board of Maori Affairs also exercises a measure of control over sixteen stations of the East Coast Trust aggregating 112,807 acres and carrying 109,543 sheep and 15,134 cattle.

17 D—SURVEYS

INTRODUCTORY.—The surveys of Crown lands, Maori lands, land purchased under the former Settlements Acts and the Land Act, 1948, and lands acquired or taken for public works, are executed under the authority of the Minister of Lands, and are carried out by staff and contract surveyors registered by the Survey Board under the provisions of the Surveyors Act, 1938, which came into operation on 1st July, 1939. This Act provides that in order to undertake surveys, all registered surveyors must hold annual practising certificates, issued by the Secretary of the New Zealand Institute of Surveyors.

The surveys of private lands for the purpose of the Land Transfer Act are carried out by private surveyors similarly registered.

Statutory authority for the surveyor to enter upon any land and to place survey marks thereon is contained in several Acts, and the wilful destruction of these marks is subject to a severe penalty.

All surface surveys are made in accordance with regulations laid down and are subject to field check (if thought necessary) and to office examination prior to approval and deposit.

The standard of length is the chain of 22 Imperial yards divided into 100 links, and all linear measurements have to be expressed in terms thereof, and areas in acres, roods, and perches, with decimals of a perch. Standard comparison bands are available in each District Office, as well as at the office of the Surveyor-General.

SURVEY SYSTEM.—Control Survey: Until the abolition of the provincial system of government in 1876, the surveys of New Zealand were conducted by nine survey departments, each independent of the other, and working on no common system. At that date an amalgamation into one department was accomplished. Several of the provincial services had conducted their surveys on a trigonometrical basis, but, as the others were building one survey on another by traverse on magnetic or other azimuthal bearings, without any reference to true meridian or the independent check of triangulation, a state of considerable confusion and uncertainty had arisen in the survey records.

In these circumstances it was necessary to devise a system that would rapidly bring the surveys under control and record, so that settlers might be placed in secure possession of their land, and the Crown be safe to issue titles on reliable plans and descriptions.

The plan adopted was to divide the country into twenty-eight districts, designated “meridional circuits.” At the initial or main station of each, the astronomical meridian was determined from observations of circumpolar stars, and the latitude from observations of stars north and south of zenith. Lines of bearings on the true astronomical meridian of the initial station were extended throughout its circuit to the plains and valleys where surveys were in progress. Within three years these standard bearings had been so extended as to enable all the surveys to be conducted on the true meridian of their respective circuits; for, following immediately on this operation, a base-line was measured, and a minor triangulation of two- and three-mile sides, starting from one of the stations of the standard bearing, was spread over the country wherever most required for the check and connection of the settlement surveys. In this way New Zealand was placed very quickly under a system of correct recordable survey, readily adjusted to the requirements of a population rapidly spreading over areas widely apart. The intervening spaces have since been filled in. and the network of triangles is a continuous chain extending over the Islands from north to south, a distance of 1,100 miles. Simultaneously with the minor triangulation of the country, a topographical survey was carried on, giving the positions of rivers, plains, mountains, forests; best lines for future roads; altitudes of valleys, passes and mountains; and generally a correct representation of the features of the country, to a scale of 2 in. to the mile.

Sectional: Each meridional circuit was subdivided into squares with sides of 1,000 chains in length, the meridian and perpendicular through the initial station being taken as the starting-point. These squares, called “survey districts,” were further divided into sixteen squares called “blocks,” with sides of 250 chains in length. The sections for sale or lease were superimposed upon these and numbered consecutively in each block. Thus each section has for the purpose of record and title registration a complete indentification by means of its number, the number of the block, and the name of the district. Unfortunately, it was not found practicable to incorporate in this system the sections which had been alienated prior to 1876; and the provincial registration districts—parishes, hundreds, Crown grant districts, squares, &c.—were perpetuated.

In general, sections were surveyed before selection or disposal, and in these cases the sections were set off with due regard to the topography, thus making each section as far as possible a farm unit with good access, water-supply, and those other factors which make for the economical working of a farm.

The boundary-lines of the sections were marked at all corners by stout pegs and lockspits, with additional marks where lines were long and straight. In bush the lines were cut out and similarly marked at corners.

The main object of the survey is to enable the settlement of lands to proceed on a system which will give the settler the possession of a definite piece of land without fear of future rival claims. The Crown, which guarantees titles, is also freed from embarrassing claims for compensation caused by overlapping boundaries.

Office Computation and Records: The triangulation of each circuit was computed as plane, neglecting the curvature of the earth, and the triangulation stations were co-ordinated on the meridian and perpendicular passing through the initial station. Road and sectional surveys were made by traverses with theodolite and chain, rigidly connected to the triangulation stations, and the traverse points were similarly co-ordinated. All surveys were thus subject to complete mathematical check, and could be recorded by direct plot from co-ordinates. Areas generally were mathematically deduced, graphic methods being used only for those portions bounded by irregular lines such as streams. All surveys were recorded on index maps, on scales varying from 4 inches to a mile in rural districts to 1 chain to 1 inch in urban districts. The original survey plans, field notes, and co-ordinate tabulations are all carefully stored in fireproof strong-rooms and are readily available to surveyors requiring the use of the information contained.

In a new country it is of the first importance that all surveys should stand the mathematical test of reduction to the meridian and perpendicular of a governing trigonometrical survey, for, unlike the surveys of old countries, where time-honoured landmarks and a settled population conserve boundaries, the surveys of a new country have no such aid, but, instead, have to create boundaries in the unoccupied wilderness, which at best can only be marked by perishable surface marks. Then, again, the frequent changes of ownership of land in New Zealand facilitated by the Land Transfer system, and the responsibility of the Government in guaranteeing all titles under it, are cogent reasons why the rigid mathematical system of reduction of traverse to the meridian and perpendicular of the stations of a trigonometrical survey should be adopted and maintained.

GEODETIC SURVEY.—Increasing Accuracy: On completion of the original triangulation in the meridional circuits it was found that there were considerable discrepancies in the lines on the boundaries of the circuits, which were common to two or more. These discrepancies were caused principally by two factors—the accumulation of observational errors in the triangulation and the want of a common standard of length in the measurement of the bases. These differences were not sufficiently large to cause any embarrassment while traverses were made with the gunter chain and early pattern theodolite, but on the invention (by a New Zealander, Mr. A. Fairburn) of the long steel tape in the early “seventies,” and the increased accuracy of later model theodolites, part of the value of the triangulation was impaired. Thus, while the network of permanent marks still controlled the position of boundaries, the field traverses of equal or even greater accuracy than the triangulation sides could no longer be used as definite checks.

First Order Triangulation: Early in this century it was decided to throw over the country a network of large triangles with a high degree of accuracy and from this to recompute the original minor triangulation to conform. In 1904 twelve steel bands were obtained, each with a Board of Trade certificate as to its correct length at a defined temperature and tension. Base-lines were selected, and five in the North Island were measured between 1909 and 1914, when the outbreak of the First World War stopped further progress. In 1922 work was resumed, to be again stopped by the depression in 1931. After five years' cessation this work was resumed in 1936, the first order network observations being completed by the end of 1941, when it was necessary to divert the staff engaged thereon to the urgent task of topographical mapping for the Army. One of the three selected base-lines in the South Island was measured temporarily to provide a more adequate control for the plotting of the topographical map series in the Southland district.

Field operations of the geodetic triangulation were completed in 1948, when all the necessary longitude fixes were made. The measurement of the base-lines in the South Island was completed in the 1947 season.

The observational work has been done to an accuracy well within the limits set by the International Association of Geodesy for work of the highest precision.

Second and Third Order Triangulation: It was originally anticipated that the old minor triangulation could be utilized after readjustment to conform to the new first order, but after attempting to do this it was found that larger corrections than could now be tolerated were being introduced into the old work. In some instances this was undoubtedly due to actual displacement of old stations, but in the majority of cases the fault lay in the old triangulation not being of sufficiently high standard. It was therefore necessary to re-observe the old work, and this has been done in three of the circuits to date.

In this way accurate geographical results over New Zealand will be moulded into one harmonious whole on a co-ordinated system and on a basis which gives the correct relation of one part to another, with no possibility of overlapping where different circuits join.

In most districts, over selected areas, the geodetic survey party has simultaneously broken down the first order triangulation into second order and, where necessary, third order triangulation. Until this latter work has been completely related and adjusted to the main network it cannot be brought into general use for land-survey purposes. At present its use is limited to the control of the topographical map series.

Astronomical Positions: Latitude and azimuth observations have been taken in conjunction with the first order triangulation, about one station in every three being so observed. Longitude observations by wireless telegraphy have been made at stations 100 miles apart, so that in conjunction with latitude and azimuth these stations may be used for Laplace equations to control the entire triangulation.

Precise Levelling: Approximately 350 miles of precise levelling have been carried out for the purpose of correlating the level data of irrigation and drainage and other engineering works. This type of levelling has been carried out in accordance with international standards of accuracy—namely, .002 feet or .024 inches per mile.

These levels are at mean sea-level datum determined from the tidal records of the principal tidal stations or of tide gauges established specially for that purpose. The traverses are referenced at approximately ten-mile intervals by fundamental bench marks and at approximately one-mile intervals by permanent bench marks.

This work must be further extended to meet the requirements of national drainage, irrigation, hydro-electric, and river-control development, where related and co-ordinated levels in terms of a fixed datum are essential.

STANDARD SURVEYS.—In order to more adequately correlate and redefine old boundary marks for land-title purposes and to provide a permanent standard of reference for future surveys in cities and boroughs where land values are high, and on highways and on main arterial roads where modern road surfaces have eliminated survey marks, a precise survey is carried out, all intersections being referenced with permanent standard marks, normally concrete blocks protected by an iron cover.

These surveys are of two classes—(1) those in the cities and boroughs, being of standard of accuracy of 2 inches to the mile, the cost of which is borne partly by the local authority concerned and partly by the Department, and (2) those carried out on highways and arterial roads to a lesser standard of accuracy for the purpose of referencing survey marks lost or obliterated by road works and surfaces.

These standard traverses will in the future be correlated with precise levelling traverses, thus providing a standard level datum for engineering works.

AERIAL SURVEY AND TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPPING.—The incidence of war emphasized the need for up to-date topographical maps of New Zealand. The use of the aerial photograph for the production of topographical maps had at the same time revolutionized the methods of production, requiring the introduction of an entirely new technique.

Up to 1936 several thousand square miles of topographical mapping had been carried out by plane-table methods in scattered localities throughout the country. With the introduction of the aerial photograph for mapping purposes in 1935, a co-ordinated mapping policy was laid down by the Army authorities. A revised map series on a scale of 1 mile to an inch based on an approved map grid was adopted, and an annual output fixed by a co-ordinating committee set up to control the mapping policy of New Zealand.

Two plotting-machines were acquired by the Department, and at the outbreak of war in 1939 an area of 1,000 square miles had been mapped on a scale of 1 mile to an inch in the Hawke's Bay District, one map sheet being published in March, 1939.

During the war period the Department was made responsible for topographical mapping for military purposes. All the available resources of the Department and the services of a private aerial mapping company were concentrated on the production of maps in this connection.

Owing to post-war activities staff previously employed on topographical mapping are now engaged on other survey work mainly connected with land-settlement. However, arrangements are now in hand to build up field staff so that topographical mapping can again be put in hand and the remaining unmapped area completed.

Extensive use is made of the aerial photographs for other than purely mapping purposes. All types of land and engineering development, investigations into geological resources, afforestation, and town and rural planning are now based on data extracted from the aerial photographs. The Department is responsible for the maintenance of a complete library of aerial photographs which are made available for all national purposes. All orders for photography required by any Department of State are co-ordinated and priorities for such photography fixed by a co-ordinating committee. By such co-ordination it is expected that a basic photographic coverage of the whole country will be completed in the next few years.

Since the war additional plotting equipment for the production of maps from aerial photographs has been acquired, and, as staff is trained and becomes available, mapping operations will be extended to meet all national requirements.

TIDAL SURVEY.—The tidal work carried out by the Department at the commencement of the survey operations in New Zealand consisted of determinations of mean high-water mark (H.W.M.) for the purpose of defining the boundary of land abutting on tidal waters.

Later the adoption of mean sea-level as the datum of reference for the heights shown on the maps of trigonometrical and precise levelling surveys led to a more accurate system of tidal observations being initiated; but it was not until 1909 that a complete tidal survey was inaugurated, at the request of the Admiralty, to include the predictions of the times and heights of high and low water of the ports of Auckland and Wellington in the Admiralty Tide-tables.

The tidal observations are made mainly by self-registering tide-gauges, in which a curve is traced which shows the height of the water at any time above an arbitrary datum. This curve is decomposed, by a process devised by Lord Kelvin, and known as “harmonic analysis,” into its harmonic elements. These components are now computed for the ports of Auckland, New Plymouth, Wellington, Lyttelton, Dunedin, Bluff, and Westport, and from them the predicted times and heights of high and low water are obtained by means of the tide-predictor at the Tidal Institute, University of Liverpool, and published in advance in the “New Zealand Nautical Almanac,” the Admiralty Tide-tables, and several of the maritime publications of foreign nations.

The seven ports for which tide-tables are prepared serve as standards of reference on which to base, by means of tidal difference, the times and heights of high and low water of all the other ports in New Zealand.

GEOGRAPHIC BOARD.—The principal functions of the New Zealand Geographic Board, established under the New Zealand Geographic Board Act, 1946, are as follows:—

  • To adopt rules of orthography and nomenclature in respect of place-names in New Zealand.

  • To examine cases of doubtful spelling of place-names, and determine the spelling to be adopted on official maps.

  • To investigate and determine the priority of the discovery of any geographic feature.

  • To collect original Maori place-names for recording on official maps.

  • To determine what alien names appearing on official maps should be replaced by British names.

  • To investigate and determine any proposed alteration of a place-name.

The Board, which replaced the honorary Geographic Board previously in existence, consists of the Surveyor-General, two representatives of the Maori race, a representative of the New Zealand Geographic Society, a representative of the Federated Mountain Clubs of New Zealand, and two other persons.

MISCELLANEOUS.—The Department, in addition to the activities outlined above, carries out many miscellaneous functions, among which are the drawing of maps and diagrams for special publications, the periodic preparation of maps for census and electoral purposes, the copying of maps and plans by photostat process, the preparation of aerial photograph mosaics and enlargements for departmental purposes, the compilation of maps and data for town and regional planning purposes, the control and administration of the subdivision of land in counties required for housing, the preparation of special topographical maps for land-settlement, engineering and scientific development, the preparation of maps for air navigation requirements, the production of all maps for the Armed Services, and many other cognate duties requiring the services of the surveyor or the draughtsman.

PUBLICATIONS.—Reports: An annual report of the departmental activities is published as a parliamentary paper, C.-1A. At regular intervals a publication called “The Records of the Survey” is issued, the latest volume being numbered five. The publication of professional papers is now discontinued, these being incorporated in the Records.

Maps.—Map sales agencies are maintained at each of the district offices of the Lands and Survey Department. All maps for sale are listed in the “Catalogue of Maps” published by the Department. The catalogue lists maps under the following headings:—

  1. General and Miscellaneous Maps:—GENERAL MAPS NEW ZEALAND are small-scale maps of New Zealand and larger scale maps which are not included in the cadastral and topographical section of the catalogue.

    PACIFIC ISLANDS MAPS are of islands within the territories of New Zealand, the trust territory of Western Samoa, and Norfolk Island.

    MISCELLANEOUS MAPS are maps which have been prepared for special purposes, and in general include those of interest to mountaineers and tourists.

  2. Cadastral Maps:—The following series are published by the Department. The maps show land title boundaries and land designations:—

    1. Survey District Series—1 inch to 1 mile. 2 inches to 1 mile.

    2. County Series—1 inch to 1 mile.

    3. Town Map Series—At various scales from 40 inches to 8 inches to 1 mile.

  3. Topographical Maps:—The following medium and large scale maps are published:—

    1. 1: 63,360—1 inch to 1 mile.

    2. 1: 25,000.

    3. 1: 15,840—4 inches to 1 mile.

    4. 1: 10,000 to 1: 2,000—Street maps of towns.

    The 1: 63,360 series now covers approximately half of the country and embraces most of the settled areas. The 1: 25,000 series is as yet restricted to the closely settled areas at the main centres of population. The 1: 15,840 series is confined to certain areas of undeveloped lands which are being developed as farmlands.

  4. Mosaic Maps:—The sheet lines of the mosaic maps conform to the sheet lines of the 1: 25,000 topographic series. The mosaic maps are gridded and show place-names and are published at scale 1: 25,000 and at scale 1: 15,840 (4 inches to 1 mile).

  5. Aeronautical Charts:—Aeronautical charts published include—

    1. Aerodrome approach and landing charts.

    2. Plotting charts at scales 1: 1,000,000 and 1: 3,000,000.

    3. Aeronautical charts 1: 500,000.

Chapter 18. SECTION 18—AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL PRODUCTION

18 A—GENERAL

NEW ZEALAND is a pastoral country. Of the 43,250,000 acres occupied, sown pastures cover 18,200,000 acres and pastures of tussock and other native grasses a further 12,900,000 acres. These grasslands support 4,900,000 cattle (of which 1,800,000 are dairy cows in milk) and 33,800,000 sheep. After allowing for 10,000,000 acres taken up by areas in fern, scrub, and second growth, standing bush, and barren and unproductive land, approximately 2,000,000 acres are left, this comprising areas in field crops, private gardens, market gardens, orchards, and plantations of trees. Of the field crops, cash crops such as wheat, oats, barley, peas, linseed, and potatoes account for 326,000 acres and green fodder and root crops for winter and summer supplementary feed for stock 712,000 acres. In addition a further 130,000 acres are annually sown under wheat, oats, barley, and maize for the purposes of green fodder, or chaff, hay, and ensilage. From this an indication is obtained of the importance of the grazing animal in the economy of this country.

The natural tussock grassland, which occurs mainly on the hilly and mountainous country to the east of the Main Divide of the South Island, is used for extensive pastoral farming where the main product is wool and in some instances store sheep, while on the less steep country, particularly in the North Island where there is surface-sown grassland, both store sheep and cattle are additional products. The third type of grassland, that sown after ploughing, is found on the flat and gently undulating country of both Islands and is used mainly for the production of meat and dairy produce. It is in the latter area that considerable progress has been made over the past thirty years. Here farmers have exploited the use of certified strains of grasses and clovers and phosphatic fertilizers and lime.

With the development of the country's water resources for hydro-electricity most farming districts have been reticulated with electricity, which is being put to a variety of uses on the farm, but by far the most important is that of providing power for milking machinery. For instance, in the dairying districts of the North Island there are approximately 75,000 electric motors, which is 70 per cent. of the number used on farms in New Zealand.

The North Island.—Because of the temperate climate, which makes possible the grazing of stock outside all the year round, many parts of the North Island have proved very suitable for dairying. It is carried out on the flat and undulating land of Northland, the Waikato, Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, Manawatu, and Horowhenua districts, in which nearly 75 per cent. of the total dairy cows in the country are grazed. Pastures of high feeding value form the basis of the industry. The main winter supplementary feed is hay and silage made from the surplus spring and early summer growth of the pastures. The area saved for this purpose in these districts comprises nearly 70 per cent. of the total area saved in New Zealand. In most of the dairying areas fat-lamb raising is associated with dairying, particularly in the Waikato and the Bay of Plenty.

Various forms of sheep-farming are carried on throughout the Island, but it is most concentrated on the eastern section from the Wairarapa, through Hawke's Bay, to the hill country north of Gisborne. Approximately half of the sheep in the North Island are in this section. Extensive sheep farming is the main feature, the receipts from the sale of store sheep and store cattle contributing a considerable portion of the farm revenue.

Where climatic and soil conditions are favourable, orchard areas, market gardens, and other specialized types of farming are found. The Pukekohe district, 30 miles south of Auckland, provides that city with a considerable portion of its vegetable requirements as well as being the main onion-growing area of the Island. Wellington draws most of its vegetable supplies from the Otaki and Levin districts, while Ohakune, in the centre of the Island, with climate and soils suitable for the production of cabbages and broccoli, supplies both cities with these vegetables.

In the warm areas of the Island with suitable soils citrus fruits are grown, the principal areas being Kerikeri, in Northland; Tauranga, in the Bay of Plenty; and Gisborne. The main orchard area is located at Hastings, where there are approximately 3,000 acres of pip and stone fruits.

It is in the North Island that the principal areas of undeveloped land remain, these being situated mainly on the central plateau. The State is active in developing some of this land for farming.

The South Island.—Sheep-farming is carried on in practically all parts of the Island. On the tussock grasslands, particularly on the higher parts, extensive sheep-farming is practised. Merino and half-bred flocks predominate, with emphasis on the production of fine wool. Because of the comparatively severe climate—hot, dry summers and cold winters with occasional heavy snowstorms—there is a considerable risk of heavy sheep losses. On the easier hill country, in addition to returns from wool, a considerable portion of the revenue comes from the sale of store sheep, which are purchased by the farmers on the plains and undulating country for fattening and for flock-replacement purposes.

On the plains and downlands of Canterbury and in parts of Marlborough, Otago, and Southland, where the climate and soils are suitable, arable mixed farming is a feature. Approximately 93 per cent. of New Zealand's wheat acreage, 91 per cent. of the area in oats, and 86 per cent. of the barley acreage are in these districts. Associated with cereal production is fat-lamb raising, for sheep and lambs are fattened on the majority of these farms. On account of the dry summers and relatively severe winters, considerable areas (approximately 75 per cent. of the New Zealand acreage) of rape, kale, turnips, and swedes are grown for summer and winter supplementary feed.

Dairying is very localized and is concentrated near the cities to cater for whole-milk requirements. Districts where herds are run for dairy-factory supply are the plains areas of Southland, parts of Nelson and Westland, and Banks Peninsula, in Canterbury.

Market gardening is carried on near the cities, and on the rich soils near Christ-church some 1,700 acres are devoted to this purpose; also to the immediate south of Oamaru and on the Taieri Plains just south of Dunedin there are other areas aggregating 1,000 acres.

With its warm climate and more frost-free areas, the Nelson and Motueka districts are the most important orchard districts in the country, as well as being the centre of New Zealand's tobacco-growing industry. Around the Alexandra and Roxburgh districts in Central Otago, with its almost continental climate, is situated New Zealand's major stone-fruit-growing area.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.—Under the control of the Minister of Agriculture, the Department of Agriculture provides a service the main object of which is the advancement of the interests of primary production. Under a Director-General of Agriculture there are Directors of Divisions of Live-stock, Animal Research, Dairy, Extension, and Horticulture.

While the service is primarily educative, it also carries out important inspection work. Under the Live-stock Division all meat killed at meat-export slaughterhouses and abattoirs is inspected by qualified officers, and periodical inspections are carried out at registered slaughterhouses. The registration of town-milk-supply premises is a function of the Division, and the necessary inspection and supervision are carried out by its officers. A comprehensive service, diagnostic and remedial, is provided in regard to the health of all classes of live-stock. Cattle are examined for tuberculosis and other bovine troubles, and the Department's officers have power to condemn diseased stock. All stock exported and imported is examined by the veterinarians of the Department. Special instruction and advice are given in poultry-keeping, swine husbandry, and wool growing and handling, while other activities include the control of rabbits and noxious weed destruction.

The Animal Research Division, which was formed in 1939, works in co-operation with the Live-stock, Dairy, and Extension Divisions and is also in active collaboration with other institutions engaged in animal research, notably the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and Massey and Canterbury Agricultural Colleges. The Division has well-equipped laboratories at Wallaceville and at its research station at Ruakura, an important function of the former being the provision of a diagnostic service to the officers of the Live-stock Division, while the latter is concerned mainly with animal nutrition and breeding.

Instruction in the manufacture of butter, cheese, &c., is given by the Dairy Division. Dairy-produce is inspected and graded before shipment, a close supervision being also exercised over the moisture content of butter and cheese, as well as over the weights of such produce; dairy-farm premises are inspected; herd-testing is promoted, and a system of semi-official testing of pure-bred dairy cows is in operation. Milk samples are tested for dairy companies and farmers. The Division is also responsible for the administration of market milk treatment.

The Extension Division is concerned with research and advisory work in soil management, crop and pasture production, and farm management. A field staff of instructors in agriculture acts as a link between the research stations and farmers, and also carries out co-operative field trials and demonstrations on farmers' properties. The Division has special sections devoted to seed certification and agronomy, field experimental work, agrostology, farm management and economics, fertilizers and lime, rural sociology, home economics, farm engineering and machinery, and farm forestry. The Division controls the following stations: Seed-testing Station, Palmerston North; Rukuhia Soil Research Station, Hamilton; Experimental Area, Marton; Phormium plantations, Moutoa; Flock House Farm of Instruction, Bulls; Winchmore Irrigation Station, Ashburton; and Invermay Agricultural Research Station, Taieri.

The Horticulture Division is charged with orchard instructional work, instruction to beekeepers and tobacco-growers, and the inspection of fruit and trees imported and offered for sale. It also inspects orchards and apiaries, inspects fruit for export, and grades export honey. The Te Kauwhata Horticultural Station, in the lower Waikato district, is mainly devoted to vine growing and wine making, and the Levin Station in the Wellington district to research, mainly relating to small-fruit production. There are also several other smaller experimental and demonstration areas.

The instructional work on agriculture covers a comprehensive field, farmers being assisted by visits or by letters of advice. Numbers of farmers also co-operate with the Department in conducting experiments on their farms. The New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, is published monthly, and bulletins are frequently issued. Any farmer may obtain advice regarding his soil, have seed examined for germination capacity and purity, milk tested for butterfat content or for the presence of disease, plants identified, and diseases of either animals or plants described and remedies suggested, all these services being rendered free of charge. Among other responsibilities of the Department is the registration of live-stock brands, slaughterhouses, dairies, dairy factories, fertilizers, orchards, nurseries, market gardens, apiaries, &c.

SUBSIDIES, GRANTS, ETC.—For many years a considerable portion of the vote of the Department of Agriculture was spent in advances, grants, and subsidies to the farming industry. In addition, there was similar assistance from other sources, such as the subsidy to the wheat industry which was formerly paid from the vote of the Department of Industries and Commerce, and assistance to the Agricultural Colleges from the vote of the Education Department.

Although subsidies and grants to the farming industries have been considerably curtailed as compared with the war years, there are still a number paid on a fairly wide range of items. The position is complicated, however, by the fact that a large proportion of the major subsidies are recoverable from the various pool accounts of the farming industries and thus constitute the use of past savings rather than subsidies.

Subsidies paid during the war and immediate post-war years are available in earlier issues of the Year-Book.

The following tables give the items coming under some form of subsidy, the amounts paid during each of the past three years and the amounts recoverable from the Farm Stabilization Accounts.

Subsidy, Grant, &c.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.
 £££
Carriage of lime210,773231,883363,904
Carriage of fertilizers137,204152,95686,262
Imported phosphatic fertilizers 200,107275,717
Stock Act: Compensation and incidental expenses21,32921,97524,680
Milk marketing: Loss of production  1,008
Meat Act: Compensation17,74418,05417,074
Grants to agricultural colleges90,77497,466119,480
Subsidies to Rabbit Boards136,303175,673277,797
Grants to Rabbit Boards21,690231,940200,800
Eradication of noxious weeds27,87529,73126,178
Cow-testing organizations20,00020,00023,333
Destruction of wild pigs1,9181,7911,942
Destruction of kea463431261
Veterinary Services Council30,73531,59342,080
Maize18,03121,4181,652
Potatoes and onions178,42925,44542,023

Payment of certain of these subsidies in the war years was made with the general agreement of the farmers. Since the agreement between the Farmers' Federation and the Minister of Marketing on 18th June, 1943, subsidies on the proportions of farm-cost commodities used by the dairy and meat industries have been recoverable from the appropriate stabilization accounts, which are built up by increases of export prices over costs. Under this agreement, recoveries of farm subsidies from stabilization accounts have compared as follows with the total of direct farm subsidies (excluding the subsidies on wheat, potatoes, and onions). Particulars for the last three years are shown in the following table:—

1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.
 £(000)£(000)£(000)
Farm subsidies (March years)534727873
Recoveries from Farm Stabilization Accounts (July years)184424475

Comment on some of the more important items is necessary to explain their historical origin and present significance.

Fertilizer and Lime Subsidies.—These collectively form by far the largest items. The transport of lime has been subsidized for many years to encourage its wider use. The fact that transport costs constitute the major portion of total lime costs at the farmer's gate would otherwise act as a serious deterrent to the use of this essential commodity. Under the Lime Transport Assistance Scheme the aim is to give more assistance to those farthest from a lime works. Of the total cost, 85 per cent. is borne by the Farm Stabilization Accounts and the balance by the Consolidated Fund. The reason for these proportions is that they represent very approximately the proportions which should be respectively borne by the export and locally consumed portions of farm produce.

The subsidy on imported phosphatic fertilizers was first paid in 1949 and was designed to redress the wide difference in price between these fertilizers and locally manufactured superphosphate. It is recoverable in the same way as the carriage of lime subsidy.

Subsidy on carriage of fertilizers is now a special item and represents the difference between road and rail costs on fertilizers delivered by road because of the railway's incapacity to handle them at the required time. It is really a subsidy to the Railways Department during such time as it continues to be short of rolling stock.

Other Items.—Most of the remaining subsidies represent attempts to deal with specific problems of disease and pest control which are of importance to the whole community but the handling of which would impose a serious burden on individuals or small groups. Under this heading come such items as compensation for diseased stock under the Meat Act and Stock Act, grants and subsidies to Rabbit Boards and destruction of kea and wild pigs. Subsidies of this nature are mostly charges against the vote of the Department of Agriculture and are not recoverable. One exception is the subsidy on destruction of noxious weeds. In this case the item is in respect of the destruction of weeds on Crown lands and is in part recoverable by the Department of Agriculture from the other Departments concerned. Another exception is the item concerned with compensation for loss of production from those cows condemned under an amendment to the Stock Act, 1945, from herds supplying town milk. This additional compensation is a charge against the Marketing Department's vote.

The subsidy on potatoes and onions is in respect of supplies grown under contract but not actually sold, either through excess supply or difficulties of transport from the South Island. It is a charge on the Consolidated Fund and is administered by the Marketing Department.

GROSS FARMING INCOME.—Farming occupies such an important position in the economic structure of New Zealand that statistical information relating to farm-production is vested with special interest. The agricultural and pastoral statistics, which form the subject-matter of the next two subsections, deal mainly with the quantitative aspects of farm production; while, from these statistics and from cognate statistics for other industries, estimates are made of the value of commodity production as a whole—including farm production (see Section 47). Various other classes of official statistics—for example, statistics of national income and prices index numbers—throw some light on the economic position of the farming industry.

Statistics of quantitative farm production and prices received by farmers constitute the basic data used in the computation of estimates of aggregate receipts from sales of farm-produce. The figures do not purport to show the aggregate net income from farming after all expenses of farm operations have been met. They are intended to afford an indication of the income available to farmers as a whole to meet current expenses of farm-operation, living costs, interest payments, and all other costs. The estimates have recently been revised to take into account the real income or loss represented by changes in the numbers of live-stock on farms as between the various years.

Except in the cases indicated in the next paragraph, no attempt has been made to exclude from the scope of the compilations that portion of marketable farm-produce which may be consumed on the farm. Similarly, that portion of farm-produce which is sold to other farmers as material for further farm-production is in general included. For example, the value of production of grass-seeds is included under the heading “Agricultural Produce,” although—except for exports—almost the whole of this crop is used for the sowing or renewal of pasture lands. An exception, however, occurs in the case of stud stock sold for breeding purposes, no data being available on which to base an estimate of the aggregate annual value of such sales. With this exception, the totals shown for all farm-produce thus represent the total income (including receipts from sales to other farmers), plus certain allowances for farm-produce used on the farm. On the other hand, products of kitchen-gardens and of other activities more intimately associated with the home than with the farm do not come within the ambit of this inquiry.

Production of green-fodder crops, turnips, and mangolds is not included. The view taken is that production of these crops is a normal and essential part of farm routine to be regarded more in the nature of a farm cost than as production of a saleable commodity. Consequently, the unknown—but, it is believed, very small—proportion sold of the total production of this class of farm-produce is omitted from the totals shown. It is arbitrarily assumed that in the case of production of grasses and clovers 20 per cent. where cut for hay, and 5 per cent. where cut for ensilage, and in the case of grain crops cut for chaff, 25 per cent. of the total crop, comes within the scope of this inquiry, the remainder being omitted for reasons similar to those advanced in the case of green fodder, &c.

The division into the three groups — (1) Agricultural, (2) Pastoral, and (3) Dairying, Poultry, and Bees—has been made entirely on the basis of the nature of the produce.

The principal items included in the agricultural group are wheat, oats, and other grain crops, grass-seeds, potatoes, onions, tobacco, linen flax, orchard-produce, and produce of market-gardens, nurseries, hop-gardens, &c. The prices at which the various commodities are valued are, in general, the prices received by farmers in the early months of the year, when the crops are harvested.

The estimated cost of sacks, cases, and other containers is excluded, as also are transport charges from farm to market and commission on sales. The fact that the cost of containers is excluded might be regarded as a departure from the general practice adopted in this computation of omitting to take account of costs incurred on the farm. It should be noted, however, that price quotations for some important classes of agricultural produce—e.g., wheat—are in ordinary commercial practice on a “sacks extra” basis, so that the exclusion of the value of containers in the case of other crops has the merit of consistency.

The principal items included in the pastoral group are live-stock and wool-production. Slaughterings of live-stock have been assessed on the basis of values (alive) at freezing-works, deductions being made to cover the cost of transport from farm to works, saleyards, &c., and of commission on sales of live-stock. The value of store stock or young lambs sold by one farmer to another is counted only once—that is, when sold for slaughtering as fat stock.

It should be mentioned that the value of all live-stock production, including bobby calves, cull cows from dairying herds, and pigs, is included in the pastoral group.

Wool-production is valued at the average prices realized at sales or appraisals held during each season, the aggregate arrived at representing the value of wool produced in each season at average sale or appraisal prices ruling during that season. No adjustments are made to cover the unknown increase or decrease in the total ultimate return from the season's production due to higher or lower prices realized for wool carried over and sold in a subsequent season. Deductions have been made to cover the cost of transport of wool to selling centres, and of woolpacks.

The estimates for the pastoral group have been revised to take into account the value of real income represented by changes in the numbers of live-stock held on farms, which in individual years may represent a marked accretion or reduction in terms of real income.

The largest individual item included in the dairying, &c., group is the pay-out to suppliers by butter, cheese, and dried milk, &c., factories during each of the dairy seasons shown. An estimate of the value of human consumption of raw milk (at farm-gate prices) is also included, together with the value of butter produced on farms for home use or for sale. The available data permit of only a rough estimate of the value of poultry-products, which, with bee-products, are included in this group mainly for purposes of convenience.

The following table shows figures of gross farming income (in millions of £N.Z.) arrived at for each of the twenty-two production years for which the information is available. It also shows the relative contributions of the three groups in each year, in the form of percentages of the total of all farm production.

Production Year.Agricultural Produce.Pastoral Produce.Produce of Dairying, Poultry, and Bees.All Farm Produce.
Value.Per Cent.Value.Per Cent.Value.Per Cent.Value.Per Cent.
 £(m.) £(m.) £(m.) £(m.) 
1928–297.31135.85225.53768.6100
1929–307.41229.44824.44061.2100
1930–316.71518.94417.94143.5100
1931–326.51714.03717.44637.9100
1932–336.91814.63816.54438.0100
1933–347.01424.85017.83649.6100
1934–356.01322.34818.33946.6100
1935–367.41327.74723.94059.0100
1936–377.21039.55327.93774.6100
1937–387.31034.04829.84271.1100
1938–398.21229.94330.84568.9100
1939–409.41331.24233.84574.4100
1940–419.61139.94636.64386.1100
1941–4210.61338.54635.14184.2100
1942–4312.01439.04633.94084.9100
1943–4413.41638.64533.23985.2100
1944–4514.81546.04640.039100.8100
1945–4614.51545.64736.43896.5100
1946–4715.01453.54644.940113.4100
1947–4815.01168.45052.139135.5100
1948–4917.41271.14858.440146.9100
1949–5017.81099.25564.235181.2100

Index numbers have also been compiled showing the movements in volume of farm production. For the compilation of these index numbers, a computation has been made for each of the seasons 1928–29 to 1949–50 showing what the aggregate annual value would have been had 1938–39 prices been constant throughout the period. From the resultant aggregates, index numbers have been compiled which measure the movements in the volume of production; for, since prices were assumed to be constant, volume is the only variable factor in the aggregates. The volume indices of farm production entering into gross farming income have been revised and now cover the same items as the volume of farm production series which is quoted in Section 47 of this Year-Book. The index numbers of volume of agricultural and dairy production remain unaltered, but the coverage of the pastoral production series has been widened to include an allowance for changes in the numbers of live-stock on farms.

In the following table, index numbers of value and volume on the base: 1938–39 (= 100) are given, and these give a clearer idea of the extent of year-to-year changes.

Production Year.Agricultural.Pastoral.Dairying, &c.All Farm Produce.
Value.Volume.Value.Volume.Value.Volume.Value.Volume.
1928–298910712079837210079
1929–3090105988379788983
1930–3182113637958806384
1931–3279105477956835584
1932–3384136498654965596
1933–34851198391581027299
1934–3573104759059996896
1935–369012393937810487101
1936–37881111329791109108104
1937–388910611410197105103104
1938–39100100100100100100100100
1939–4011511910493110107108102
1940–41117126133114119115125116
1941–42129128129110114109122111
1942–43146139130106110102123108
1943–4416314812910210896124105
1944–45180160154110130105146113
1945–4617714215311311892140107
1946–47183152172108146102161110
1947–48183144221114169104193113
1948–49212156230112190113210117
1949–50217150332122208117263123

A record level for farm production both in value and volume was reached in 1949–50. The relatively greater increase in value than in volume over recent years reflects the increases in prices, or unit values, that have taken place. The substantial increase in wool prices in the 1949–50 season is especially apparent in the pastoral group.

THE SPREAD IN PRICE LEVELS.—The statistics quoted under the previous headings illustrate the growth in farm production since the 1928–29 season, and the changes in gross farming income. While the fall in gross farming income between 1928–29 and 1932–33, despite a considerably enhanced volume of farm production, suggests in itself a period of difficulty for the farming community, the divergence between price-levels of farm-products, most of which are sold in overseas markets, and internal price-levels generally is the real crux of the agrarian problem in time of depression. Prices of farm-products are particularly sensitive, since the demand for and the supply of most products of the soil are not easily equated. Changing demand conditions for farm products do not readily result in compensatory supply changes, nor do changing supply conditions readily bring about compensatory demand changes. The slack is normally taken up through fluctuating prices. On the other hand, the cost of debt charges does not fluctuate so readily, while prices of services and of manufactured goods in normal times are also less sensitive than prices of farm-products.

FARM PRODUCTION: EXPORTS AND NEW ZEALAND CONSUMPTION.—Estimates of the relative importance of exports and of consumption within New Zealand in the disposal of farm-produce have been compiled by utilizing the statistics of gross farming income, in conjunction with statistics of trade in farm-products.

In the paragraphs covering the statistics of gross farming income it is explained that these estimates were framed on the basis of “on the farm” values in order that they might indicate the gross receipts by the farmer, after making provision for transport charges and other expenses incurred in the marketing of produce.

In compiling the statistics of the relative importance of the New Zealand market and of export markets for farm-products, the value of exports has been assessed at the “farm” value of the commodities concerned, and not at the f.o.b. declared value for export. This adjustment has been made in order to ensure that both sets of statistics from which the comparison is made are on the same value basis. It will be realized, then, that the statistics of value given in this statement indicate the gross returns to the farmer from farm-products exported and from consumption of such products within New Zealand. With the revision of the estimates of gross farming income to include changes in the number of live-stock on farms, a necessary but somewhat arbitrary adjustment has been made to the New Zealand consumption figure for the purposes of this analysis and the following table.

The statistics of the return to the farmer in respect of New Zealand consumption of farm-produce have been obtained by deducting exports from total production. In these compilations exports of milk-products have been converted to a butterfat equivalent, the return to the farmer being computed on the basis of butterfat pay-out; while the slaughterings represented by exports of meat products have been taken as the basis on which to estimate the farmer's receipts from exports of meat. In instances where statistics of stocks are available adjustment has been made for the carry-over from one season to another. It has been assumed that stocks of wool, frozen meat, and butter and cheese carried over are held for export, and that stocks of wheat and oats are subsequently consumed within New Zealand.

Since the estimates of New Zealand consumption are the residual element in the process of compilation, any lack of correspondence between the statistics of production and of trade will affect the accuracy of these estimates. Statistics of production relate to the production-year for each commodity, or group of commodities, coming within the scope of this investigation. In many instances the production-years do not cover identical twelve-monthly periods, so that the aggregate of production of farm-produce includes statistics for a number of yearly periods ending in different months. Exports during any one year do not consist entirely of commodities produced within the same twelve-monthly period to which the export statistics relate. The effect of these various factors is, however, minimized by taking averages for three seasons rather than for individual seasons.

The following table, based on the averages of statistics for three production and three export seasons, shows the division of gross farming income into returns from exports of farm-produce and from consumption of such produce within New Zealand.

Three Production Years.Annual Average Gross Farming Income fromPercentages of Gross Farming Income from
Total Production.Exports.New Zealand Consumption.Exports.New Zealand Consumption.
 £(m.)£(m.)£(m.)Per Cent.Per Cent.
Agricultural Produce
1928–29 to 1930–317.10.76.41090
1933–34 " 1935–366.80.86.01288
1936–37 " 1938–397.60.86.81189
1942–43 " 1944–4513.43.310.12575
1943–44 " 1945–4614.23.610.62575
1944–45 " 1946–4714.83.111.72179
1945–46 " 1947–4814.82.212.61585
1946–47 " 1948–4915.82.213.61486
1947–48 " 1949–5016.72.614.11684
Pastoral Produce
1928–29 to 1930–3128.018.69.46634
1933–34 " 1935–3624.919.35.67822
1936–37 " 1938–3934.426.87.67822
1942–43 " 1944–4541.235.26.08515
1943–44 " 1945–4643.436.56.98416
1944–45 " 1946–4747.640.37.38515
1945–46 " 1947–4854.447.07.48713
1946–47 " 1948–4962.154.08.18713
1947–48 " 1949–5078.166.611.58515
Dairying, Poultry, and Bees
1928–29 to 1930–3122.615.27.46733
1933–34 " 1935–3620.014.75.37327
1936–37 " 1938–3929.520.49.16931
1942–43 " 1944–4535.723.012.76436
1943–44 " 1945–4636.524.212.36634
1944–45 " 1946–4740.427.512.96832
1945–46 " 1947–4844.530.114.46832
1946–47 " 1948–4951.835.616.26931
1947–48 " 1949–5058.240.118.16931
All Farm Produce
1928–29 to 1930–3157.734.523.26040
1933–34 " 1935–3651.734.816.96733
1936–37 " 1938–3971.548.023.56733
1939–40 " 1941–4281.655.026.66733
1940–41 " 1942–4385.157.028.16733
1941–42 " 1943–4484.856.228.66634
1942–43 " 1944–4590.361.528.86832
1943–44 " 1945–4694.164.329.86832
1944–45 " 1946–47102.870.931.96931
1945–46 " 1947–48113.779.334.47030
1946–47 " 1948–49129.791.837.97129
1947–48 " 1949–50153.0109.343.77129

Of the total gross farming income during the twenty-two production-years 1928–29 to 1949–50, 67 per cent. came from exports of farm-produce, while 33 per cent. was accounted for by consumption of such produce within the country.

MARKETING OF PRIMARY PRODUCE.—Prior to the First World War, internal arrangements for the marketing of primary produce destined for export were the subject of individual negotiation between producers and intermediaries. Government assistance in the marketing of primary products, however, had been given in many ways since organized settlement began, such as by monetary grants, by research and instruction, and by inspection and regulation in the public interest. Organized bulk marketing commenced in 1915 with the establishment of the Imperial Government Supplies Department in Wellington as agent for the New Zealand Government in controlling the export of the various items of primary produce, notably wool, butter, cheese, hides and skins, &c. After the termination of Imperial bulk purchasing by March, 1921, producers of meat and dairy-produce viewed more favourably participation in some form of common marketing organization, though wool-producers were much less favourably disposed, due to the different circumstances pertaining in regard to overseas markets for wool.

In 1922 and 1923 therefore, attempts to gain at least some of the advantages of organization were apparent in the establishment in the former year of the Meat-producers Board under the authority of the Meat-export Control Act, and of the New Zealand Dairy-produce Control Board in 1924 under the Dairy-produce Export Control Act of the later year mentioned. Other such Boards established include the Honey Export Control Board (1924), the Fruit-export Control Board (1924), the Kauri Gum Control Board (1925), the New Zealand Poultry Board (1933), and the Wheat Committee (1936).

The effect of the economic depression of the early “thirties” affected the operations of the Boards so seriously that after an investigation of a Royal Commission, an Executive Commission of Agriculture was created in 1934 by virtue of the Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act, 1934. The Commission was granted very wide powers, including those to take over the functions of various existing Boards, and to make regulations for the improvement of marketing methods in order to improve the prices at which farm produce was being sold.

In respect of the direct control and marketing of primary produce, the Executive Commission of Agriculture was superseded by the Primary Products Marketing Department in 1936, though it continued to function in an advisory and regulatory fashion, being, among other things, responsible for the zoning of dairy factory supply areas.

The Meat-producers Board arranged for the grading, handling, and storage of meat for shipment and the regulation of shipping, while no valid contract for shipment by exporters could be made without the approval of the Board. This practice continued until the early stages of the Second World War when recourse was again made to bulk purchase between Governments, the Marketing Department taking over the export of meat.

The Dairy Board in a similar manner became responsible for the control of shipping in respect of dairy-produce. As an experiment in 1927 it endeavoured to make use of its London office as the sole agent for the sale of butter and cheese, including the fixation of prices by the London agency in conjunction with distributors. This experiment was abandoned shortly thereafter, but a modified form of marketing organization was adopted in the early depression years by the preparation of a list of licensed wholesalers to whom allocations of dairy-produce were made. Further plans for the more complete control of export marketing by the Board were rendered void with the establishment by the Government of the Primary Products Marketing Department (later becoming the Marketing Department) under the Primary Products Marketing Act, 1936. The Department was empowered to acquire primary products and market these either in New Zealand or overseas. During the ensuing period up to the outbreak of war the operations of the Department were confined to dairy-produce, while throughout this period and subsequently, payments to butterfat-producers were based on the guaranteed-price scheme. Concurrently with the control of marketing of dairy-produce for export, the Department assumed the responsibility of marketing such products within New Zealand.

Legislation in 1937 established the Internal Marketing Division of the Primary Products Marketing Department, and the original Department became the Export Division of the Primary Products Marketing Department. The functions of the new Internal Marketing Division were rapidly expanded in various directions and it took over the processing and marketing of New Zealand standard lemons (1939); guaranteed a minimum price for kauri-gum (1937); provided a minimum guarantee for eggs and undertook an advisory service for the trade (1937); and in 1940 became responsible for the administration of regulations setting up egg depots in the four main centres and in Hastings. In 1938 regulations administered by the Division were introduced regulating the sale and disposal of bobby calves. In this year also the Minister of Marketing assumed the powers of the Honey Export Control Board. Honey in blended and packed form was distributed both within the country and to overseas markets. Upon the outbreak of war in 1939 and by agreement with the New Zealand Fruitgrowers' Federation, but actually commencing duty in 1940, the staff of the Fruit-export Control Board was taken over, the Board retiring from active participation, but remaining as an advisory committee. The growers were given a fixed return for their fruit, the Government undertaking to sell the whole crop within New Zealand, and to bear whatever losses were consequent upon such policy.

The existence of the Marketing Department was thus a factor in achieving a smooth change-over to a system of bulk-purchase agreements covering meat, dairy produce, wool, hides, tallow, &c., between the United Kingdom and New Zealand Governments. This procedure was to remain a dominant feature of marketing during the succeeding years. Shipping and storage difficulties associated with wartime conditions also led to the export of meat becoming a function of the Marketing Department.

In the case of wool, the Government utilized the services of organizations already in existence for the bulk sale of this product. General administration and the financial aspects were dealt with, however, by the Marketing Department.

The Meat Pool, Meat Industry Stabilization, and Dairy Industry Stabilization Accounts received the benefit of price increases occurring during the war years (the first mentioned, of increases in meat prices up to December, 1942; the second, thereafter). The surpluses remaining in the two latter accounts, after payment of subsidies, &c., designed to keep down farm production costs, constituted reserves intended to maintain producer incomes during periods of falling prices and, in the case of the Meat Pool surplus, for the future use of the industry. The Finance Act, 1950, amalgamated the Meat Pool and Meat Industry Stabilization Accounts to form the Meat Industry Reserve Account. In certain other industries, such as honey and lemons, the Marketing Department operates pool accounts within its main Marketing Account.

In 1947 the Dairy Products Marketing Commission Act was passed, the effect of which was to transfer the marketing of dairy-produce from the Marketing Department to the Dairy Products Marketing Commission (which includes Government and producer representation) established by the Act. The Commission was given the task of determining the guaranteed price to be paid out to producers, while the general conditions to be taken into account in its determination were also specified.

The present position may be summarized as follows: the Dairy Products Marketing Commission negotiates with the overseas buyers—(e.g., United Kingdom Ministry of Food)—in respect of contract prices and quantities of export dairy-produce, acquires and provides for the handling of the New Zealand dairy production, determines the guaranteed prices to be paid to local producers for dairy-produce, and regulates the marketing of butter and cheese in New Zealand.

In respect of meat, by arrangement with the Government in early 1948 the Meat-producers Board resumed the regulation of shipping and physical handling of meat and became responsible for the purchase of meat for export and the payment to the freezing companies for such meat. In negotiation of prices, contracts, &c., for the sale of meat and meat products overseas, the representatives of the Board act as advisers in association with the representatives of the New Zealand Government. Meat destined for local consumption is not dealt with by the Meat-producers Board.

The minimum-price system created by the Joint Organization for the disposal of war surplus stocks of wool was continued by the operations of the Wool Disposal Commission, which was prepared to buy at minimum reserve prices wool from current clips offered at public auction but in respect of which prices failed to exceed the reserve fixed. By the Wool Commission Act, 1951, the Wool Disposal Commission was abolished and a Wool Commission authorized with the principal function of assuring minimum prices for nearly all types of wool in accordance with the table of minimum prices (effective only after agreement with the Minister) for New Zealand wool sold in New Zealand or the United Kingdom at auction sales approved by the Commission. The Wool Disposal Account was abolished and its moneys together with those standing to the credit of the Wool Industry Deposit Account were transferred to the Wool Commission Account which was established by the Act. The marketing of wool is carried out by public auction, though a charge on the proceeds of sales is retained by the Wool Commission sufficient to cover administration costs and the amount of the levy imposed by the Wool Industry Act, 1944. The latter amount is expended by the Wool Board for the benefit of the industry as a whole.

The Apple and Pear Marketing Act, 1948, set up the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board, which consists of five persons, two appointed by the Government, two nominated by the industry, and a Chairman appointed by Government after consultation with representatives of the industry. In this case the Board does not itself declare the guaranteed price for apples and pears, its powers being limited in this respect to making recommendations to the Minister of Marketing, who declares the guaranteed average price. This price may vary by 6d. more or 6d. less per case from the cost of production, which is a separate figure declared by the Minister after consultation with the Board. The variation up or down is determined by various tests set out in the Act. The Apple and Pear Board does not employ its own staff, except for secretarial and investigational duties, the physical functions in assembly, distribution, and marketing being carried out by the Marketing Department as the agent of the Board.

The Milk Act, 1944, as amended in 1951, set up a Central Milk Council under whose general direction were to be established local milk authorities of various types according to conditions. The Marketing Department acts as the administrative agent of the Council. It also administers the National Milk Scheme under which local supply associations of farmers contract to supply the requirements in given areas at prices fixed from time to time by agreement between the industry representatives and the Government. The scheme controls prices and allowances for processing and distribution at all stages from the farm gate to the consumer.

The Potato Board, with equal representation of growers and merchants, was established by the Potato Growing Industry Act, 1950. Its principal function is to ensure that an adequate supply of main crop potatoes shall be available for consumption. Its powers include the making of contracts between growers and the Board and the appointment of wholesalers authorized to purchase from growers and to sell potatoes in respect of which contracts have been made with the Board. The Board replaced the Potato Advisory Committee of the Marketing Department from November, 1950.

In some industries of smaller volume though of considerable importance, in particular the honey, maize, and lemon industries, executive and financial powers involved in the marketing of the products are exercised through the Marketing Department, operations being carried on in full consultation with Marketing Committees set up under regulations, and on which the industry is represented. Honey for export is controlled by the Minister of Marketing, the latter having assumed the powers conferred on the Honey Export Control Board by virtue of the Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act, 1934, as modified by subsequent marketing legislation.

The sole authority for the importation of oranges, bananas, pineapples, and lemons was from 1938 to 1950, the Marketing Department. The sole right to import citrus fruits, bananas, and pineapples, however, from the 1st January, 1951, has passed to a newly formed company, Fruit Distributors, Limited.

Bulk Purchase of Primary Produce by United Kingdom Government.—The deterioration in the European situation during 1938 and 1939 had led to the formulation of plans in the United Kingdom and New Zealand for the supply of foodstuffs and other produce in the event of war. These plans, which were put into effect shortly after the outbreak of war, envisaged the United Kingdom Government becoming the sole purchaser of imported foodstuffs, and the Marketing Department becoming the authority in New Zealand responsible for the bulk purchase and shipment of the various food and other products.

In general, the arrangements for the purchase of produce were to continue for the duration of the war and a subsequent period to be agreed upon, except in the case of wool, where the period was fixed for the duration of the war and one season's clip thereafter. The bulk purchases of wool terminated with the sale of the 1945–46 season's clip, but early in 1944 long-term contracts were entered into in regard to butter, cheese, and meat, the period covered in the original agreement being the four production seasons 1944–45 to 1947–48. At the beginning of the 1946–47 season the period of the contracts was extended to 31st July, 1950, with arrangements to confer in 1948 on the desirability of a further extension. As a result of conferences held in 1948, new long-term agreements were entered into covering the period to the end of the production year which terminates in 1955. These agreements are referred to later under their respective headings.

The principal products which came within this bulk-purchase plan were wool dairy-produce, meat, tallow, and woolly sheep-skins. A brief history of the contracts entered into in regard to the three main items—wool, dairy-produce, and meat—and of the principal changes that have taken place since the inception of the scheme is given on pages 319–326 of the 1950 issue of the Year-Book. In the following pages only recent years are dealt with in the text together with ten-year summary tables.

Wool.—In the case of wool, the contract commenced with the 1939–40 season's clip and was for the duration of the war and one season's clip thereafter. It was subsequently agreed that the “duration of the war” related to the “global” war, so that, following the cessation of hostilities in August, 1945, the sale of the 1945–46 season's clip marked the end of the contract obligation of the United Kingdom Government. All wool not required for manufacture in New Zealand was covered by the terms of the contract.

As a result of the dislocation of normal trading conditions caused by the war, huge surplus stocks of wool purchased under contract from Australia, South Africa, and New Zealand had accumulated by the end of the contract period. The total stocks of United-Kingdom-owned wool at 30th June, 1945, were estimated at 3,245,000,000 lb., comprised of—

 Pounds (Millions).
63 per cent. Australian2,060
17 per cent. New Zealand540
20 per cent. South African645
      Total3,245

On an estimate that consumption of wool originating in the three countries might increase to a level of 20 per cent. above pre-war, the period required to dispose of existing stocks alongside new clips at the estimated rate of future production was estimated at thirteen years from June, 1945. However, owing to the increased world consumption of wool, the surplus stocks have been disposed of at a much faster rate than was anticipated, being at a rate of approximately 2,000,000 bales each year.

The problem of dealing with and disposing of the accumulated surplus in a manner that would not detrimentally affect future prospects of the trade resulted in the formation of a partnership between the Governments of the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. A Joint Organization was formed and incorporated in England as a private registered company, the capital consisting of eight shares, of which four were held by the nominees of the United Kingdom, two by nominees of the Government of Australia, and one each by nominees of the Governments of New Zealand and South Africa. The company had three subsidiaries acting on its behalf, one in each of the three wool-producing countries. The subsidiary in New Zealand was the New Zealand Wool Disposal Commission established under the Wool Disposal Act, 1945. This Act, which came into force on 1st January, 1946, approved the agreement entered into between the four Governments and established the necessary machinery for the carrying-out of the functions of the Joint Organization in New Zealand.

The Joint Organization bought, held, and sold wool as agent for the four Governments. The post-war wool clips were not acquired by it by way of bulk contracts—the method adopted by the United Kingdom Government during the war—but these, and existing surplus wool, were auctioned as before the war, subject to a system of minimum or reserve prices, at which the Organization itself would buy if no other buyer bid that price or better. Reserve prices were fixed prior to the opening of each wool season, or at such other times as might be required, not by the Joint Organization, but by representatives of the four Governments. The price-fixing powers of the Joint Organization were limited to the making of “minor” changes in the general price-level.

Stocks of wool taken over by the Joint Organization for disposal in 1945 amounted to 10,407,000 bales, the New Zealand share of this wool comprising 1,777,000 bales. By the 31st July, 1951, these stocks were liquidated with the exception of 4,494 bales held in New Zealand. At the October, 1951, wool sales, the remaining 4,494 bales were to be offered.

A total estimated profit of £19,000,000 will accrue to New Zealand as its share from the sale of wool under the Joint Organization scheme. An advance payment of £5,000,000 from profits has been received, paid into the Marketing Account and invested in Government securities, and is to be later expended for the benefit of the wool industry.

The operating expenses of the Joint Organization were borne equally by the wool-growers and the Joint Organization. The share of the wool-growers was paid from a contributory charge on all sales of current clip wool at auction sales or sales to the Joint Organization at reserve prices. The share of the Joint Organization was met by a deduction from the sales of wool held by it. The rate of the contributory charge in New Zealand was 7½ per cent. for 1946–47 season, 5 per cent. for 1947–48 and 1948–49, 2½ per cent. for 1949–50, and 1/2 per cent. for the 1950–51 season, this percentage being calculated on the sale value of all wool produced in New Zealand. In the case of scoured wool the rate was charged on the greasy equivalent, and in the case of sheepskins on the value of the wool on the skins.

The Wool Commission set up by the Wool Commission Act, 1951, and replacing the Wool Disposal Commission, is given the necessary powers to complete the winding-up of the Joint Organization referred to in the Wool Disposal Commission Act, 1945 (now repealed). The objective of the 1951 Act is to ensure that during each wool-selling season the growers selling wool at auction sales will receive for their particular types of wool at least the minimum prices prescribed from time to time in the table of minimum prices prepared by the Commission. This table is not to become effective except by agreement with the Minister of Marketing. The Commission is authorized to approve auction sales in New Zealand or the United Kingdom for the purposes of the Act, and where wool is sold at less than the minimum price at an approved sale, to supplement the sale price so as to increase it to the minimum price; alternatively, the Commission may buy such wool at a price not greater than the minimum price. Provision is also made in the 1951 Act for a charge on wool sufficient to cover the costs of administration of the Act and the levy imposed by the Wool Industry Act, 1944. All moneys standing to the credit of the Wool Disposal Account and the Wool Industry Deposit Account are transferred to the Wool Commission Account established by the Act.

The following table shows the movement in the average price per pound of greasy wool realized at the 1938–39 New Zealand auctions, through the period of bulk purchasing (1939–40 to 1945–46), and at auction sales held since the termination of bulk purchasing. The reserve prices mentioned earlier are also given for the seasons 1946–47 to 1950–51.

Season.Average Price per Pound of Greasy Wool.Reserve Price per Pound of Greasy Wool.
Payment to Producers Under Bulk Purchasing.*At Auction Sales.

* After deduction of payments to wool-appraisers, wool-brokers, costs to f.o.b., and administration expenses of Marketing Department. The above prices do not take account of those obtained for wool required for manufacture in New Zealand during the period.

† Minimum floor price.

 d.d.d.
1938–39 9.17 
1939–40, 1940–41, and 1941–4212.25  
1942–43, 1943–44, 1944–45, and 1945–4614.0875  
1945–46 14.51 
1946–47 17.8316.23
1947–48 25.1116.23
1948–49 25.8116.98
1949–50 37.9816.98
1950–51 87.8419.10
1951–52  24.00

Dairy-produce.—In previous issues of the Year-Book there is an account of the earlier bulk purchasing agreements, the following paragraphs relating only to agreements made in 1948 and later years.

Negotiations in June and July, 1948, between the United Kingdom Ministry of Food and the delegation representing the Dairy Products Marketing Commission resulted in a new long-term agreement (incorporating the unexpired term of the then current contracts) for the period throughout 1948 and up to 31st July, 1955. Agreement was also reached at these discussions in respect of prices for the 1948–49 season, followed by discussions in 1949 at which prices and quantities for the 1949–50 season were agreed upon. The salient features of the 1948 agreement for the ensuing seven-year period were as follows:—

  1. All purchases are to be f.o.b. New Zealand ports and the responsibility for providing shipping for transport rests with the United Kingdom Government.

  2. Payment is to be made in sterling in London as to 97½ per cent. on shipment and as to the remaining 2½ per cent. within sixty days after the date of the last bill of lading. If the lifting of available supplies is unduly delayed, the United Kingdom Government is to make interim payments.

  3. Prices, terms, and conditions of sale set out in the agreement are to apply throughout the period, unless before the 1st May in each year either party requires reconsideration for the ensuing season. Price variations in any one season are not to exceed 7½ per cent. of the previous season's price.

  4. The United Kingdom Government and the New Zealand Dairy Products Marketing Commission are to consult and agree upon the ratio of butter-production to cheese-production for the season and the quantities of butter and cheese which will be reserved for sale to other countries during the production season.

The agreement for the season 1947–48 had provided that New Zealand was to be at liberty to reserve for sale at her own discretion from that season's production up to 1,500 tons of butter and 1,000 tons of cheese. From this free allocation the Dairy Products Marketing Commission could, and did, sell direct, or through exporters acting as its agents, to other countries for the purpose of maintaining connections in those markets where New Zealand has in the past enjoyed an established trade, and of exploring new markets which are considered to hold prospects of permanent trade in the future. These free allocations are in addition to sales to specified colonies permitted by the United Kingdom Ministry of Food agreements with the Governments of the colonies concerned.

For the 1948–49 season, sales of butter and cheese to the United Kingdom Government, inclusive of the amounts for the colonies as above, were to be confined to not less than 97 per cent. of the exportable surplus of butter and cheese, calculated on a butterfat basis. There were no changes from the above quantities involved in the agreement for the 1949–50 season. For the 1950–51 season the agreement announced in April, 1951, provided for a full 7½-per-cent. increase in price for finest- and first-grade butter and a proportionate increase for finest- and first-grade cheese. There were no increases in the prices paid for second-grade butter or cheese or for whey butter. The quantity to be shipped was not to be less than 90 per cent. in butterfat equivalent of exportable surplus, with a maximum export of 12,000 tons of cheese to markets outside New Zealand and the programmed countries, the United Kingdom having the right to reopen the question of quantity during the season. Payment was also to be made in London as to 100 per cent. on shipment in lieu of the former 97½ per cent.

Agreement reached for the 1951–52 season provides for a 7½ per cent. increase in the price to be paid for New Zealand butter and an appropriate increase in the price for cheese. In respect of quantities, up to 15 per cent. of the exportable surplus of butter and cheese could be withheld for sale to other countries.

The question of long-term contracts for the sale and purchase of the exportable surplus of milk powders was also discussed in 1949 and an agreement reached by which the Ministry of Food undertook to purchase specified percentages of the exportable surplus of buttermilk powders and skimmed roller milk powder from participating dairy factories for the six-year period 1st August, 1949, to 31st July, 1955. For 1951–52 the prices for first-quality products are as follows, second grades being 5s. less: spray skim-milk powder in tins, 84s. 6d. sterling per hundredweight; roller skim in bags, 70s.; and roller buttermilk, in bags, 60s.

The following table shows the contract price in sterling per hundredweight of butter and cheese over the period 1941–42 to 1951–52.

Season.Butter.Cheese.
Creamery.Whey.Finest and First Grade (91 Points and Over).Second Grade.
Finest Grade (93 Points and Over).First Grade (90–92½ Points).Second Grade.First Grade.Second Grade.

* Excluded from contract price, as the processing of this butter into dehydrated butterfat in New Zealand for export to the United Kingdom was in view. First-grade butterfat was purchased at 156s. 9d. sterling per hundredweight. In the later season all whey butter was shipped frozen to the United Kingdom, dehydration being discontinued at the request of the Ministry of Food.

 s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.
1941–42112 6111 3107 6104 6100 670 068 0
1942–43117 0115 9112 0**73 071 0
1943–44143 1½141 10½138 1½**85 6¼83 6¼
1944–45150 6149 3145 6142 6138 689 087 0
1945–46150 6149 3145 6142 6138 689 087 0
1946–47175 0173 9170 0167 0163 0102 6100 6
1947–48205 0203 9200 0197 0193 0118 0116 0
1948–49235 0233 9230 0227 0223 0133 0131 0
1949–50252 6251 3247 6244 6240 6141 6139 6
1950–51271 6270 3247 6244 6240 6151 0139 6
1951–52292 0290 9282 0272 0267 0161 6151 6

Guaranteed Prices for Butter and Cheese.—The fixed prices in pence per pound of butter and cheese for export payable to dairy factories under the Marketing Act, 1936, and, as from the 1946–47 season, under the Dairy Products Marketing Commission Act, 1947, are as follows, the figures given including total farm- and factory-costs allowances.

Season.Creamery Butter.Cheese.
Finest, 94 Points and Over.Finest, 93–93½ Points (Basic Grade).First, 92–92½ Points.Second Grade.Finest, 94 Points and Over.Finest, 93–93½ Points.First, 92–92½ Points (Basic Grade).Second Grade.

* These prices were increased by 1.1457d. per pound of butter and 0.5226d. per pound of cheese for the last two months (June and July) of the 1948–49 season.

† These prices increased by 0.598d. and 0.2808d. per pound of butter and cheese respectively for the period May-July, 1950.

‡ These prices increased by 1.4311d. and 0.7058d. per lb. of butter and cheese respectively for the period 15th February, 1951, to the end of July, 1951.

 d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.
1941–4215.01514.8914.827514.148.576258.5458.428.17
1942–4315.51515.3915.327514.648.886258.8558.738.48
1943–4416.38416.25916.196515.5099.352259.3219.1968.946
1944–4518.18518.06017.997517.31010.3602510.32910.2049.954
1945–4619.05918.93418.871518.18410.7842510.75310.62810.378
1946–4721.56221.43721.374520.68712.0882512.05711.93211.682
1947–4823.97723.85223.789523.10213.2182513.18713.06212.812
1948–49*24.72324.59824.535523.84813.6822513.65113.52613.276
1949–5025.994425.869425.806525.119414.4019514.370714.245713.9957
1950–5127.283927.158927.096426.408915.1084515.077214.952214.7022
1951–5230.931630.806630.744130.056617.312517.215017.000015.8000

NOTE.—First grade (90–91½ points) creamery butter is 0.5d. higher than second grade; first grade (91–91½ points) cheese is 0.1875d. higher than second grade.

In the 1943–44 season a farm-costs allowance and a factory-costs allowance were made to butter- and cheese-manufacturing companies to cover increases that had taken place in the prices of dairy-farm and dairy-factory requisites, &c. In addition, a factory-labour allowance was granted to cover an increase in the wages of dairy-factory workers. In 1944–45 a farm-labour allowance was introduced to compensate for increased wages-costs on farms. These allowances were increased during the 1945–46 and 1946–47 years. As stated, these allowances have been included in the preceding table.

The prices quoted in the foregoing table enabled efficient dairy companies to pay to suppliers the following amounts in pence per pound of butterfat for butter or for cheese manufacture over the same period. Also given is the average payout to dairy-farmers per pound of butterfat supplied during this period, the amounts shown including farm-costs and farm-labour allowances.

Season.Price per Pound of Butterfat Used for—
Butter-making (Basic Price).Cheese-making (Basic Price).Butter-making (Average Payout).Cheese-making (Average Payout).

* Not yet available.

 dd.d.d.
1941–4215.88017.88016.01718.025
1942–4316.49018.49016.56918.577
1943–4417.25719.25717.59719.655
1944–4519.37721.37719.79022.055
1945–4620.39422.39420.56822.884
1946–4723.39125.39123.69125.753
1947–4825.90727.90726.22927.945
1948–49—    
August, 1948, to May, 194926.75128.75127.36929.190
June, 1949, and July, 194928.14630.146
1949–50—    
August, 1949, to April, 195028.24430.24428.72030.785
May, 1950, to July, 195028.97230.972
1950–51—    
August, 1950, to 14th February, 195129.67831.67830.56832.425
15th February, 1951, to July, 195131.40733.407
1951–5233.65536.155**

The structure of the basic price per pound of butterfat for butter manufacture over the period is given in the next table.

Season.Working-costs.Capital Charges.Labour Reward.Total Price per Pound Butterfat.
 d.d.d.d.
1941–425.3403.2408.84015.880
1942–435.5103.2409.28016.490
1943–446.1073.2409.45017.257
1944–456.7573.24010.92019.377
1945–467.2543.24011.44020.394
1946–478.0153.24013.67623.391
1947–4810.0113.24014.19625.907
1948–49—    
  August, 1948, to May, 194910.1793.24014.87226.751
  June, 1949, and July, 194910.1793.24016.26728.146
1949–50—    
  August, 1949, to April, 195010.1993.24016.34528.244
  May, 1950, to July, 195010.1993.24017.07328.972
1950–51—    
  August, 1950, to 14th February, 195110.9053.24017.07329.678
  15th February, 1951, to July, 195110.9053.24018.80231.407
1951–5212.3423.24019.61333.655

The total price given in each case is the figure arrived at after adding the three units allowed respectively for farm working and maintenance, capital charges, and labour reward, but after subtracting a return fixed at 1.540d. per pound of butterfat, this being a standard allowance for pigs. The price for butterfat for cheesemaking was 2d. a pound higher in each year from 1937–38 to 1950–51. For 1951–52 this price is 2½d. higher than the price of butterfat for butter manufacture.

Meat.—As in the case of dairy-produce, details of bulk purchasing agreements, &c. for earlier years may be found in previous issues of the Year-Book, the account presented now relating only to 1948 and later years.

An agreement was signed in 1948 covering the period October, 1948, to 30th September, 1955, the general scope of this long-term contract for the purchase of the exportable surplus of meat (after providing for domestic consumption and quantities to be mutually agreed upon for supply to other markets) being as follows:—

  1. The arrangement covers the total available supplies of beef, veal, mutton, and lamb, and the frozen sundries and edible offals thereof. All products named are to be as normally graded for export and available for shipment in the period 1st October, 1948, to 30th September, 1955:

  2. During the first four years of the agreement the quantity of pig-meat covered by the contract is to be the total available supplies, the United Kingdom to negotiate in advance the quantities required in the final three years:

  3. The prices are to be reviewed annually, but are subject to a maximum annual variation of 7½ per cent. above or below the previous year's price:

  4. Purchases are to be on an f.o.b. basis, and the responsibility of providing freight rests with the United Kingdom Government. Payment is to be made in sterling in London as to 97½ per cent. on shipment and the remaining 2½ per cent. within sixty days after the date of the last bill of lading. If the lifting of available supplies is unduly delayed, the United Kingdom Government is to make interim payments.

  5. The United Kingdom Government will progressively resume the importation of chilled beef from New Zealand as and when the shipping position permits.

Negotiations on meat prices for the 1951–52 season resulted in the United Kingdom Ministry of Food agreeing to make a special adjustment on all prices in view of certain circumstances and to pay an average price increase of 15 per cent. for lamb and approximately 10 per cent. for mutton for the 1951–52 season. Beef prices were also substantially increased.

A review of the contract prices under the bulk-purchase agreements for the period 1941–42 to 1951–52 is given in the following table. All prices are in sterling per pound. Where seasons are combined, this indicates that there was no change during the seasons concerned.

Item.Season.
1941–42.1942–43 and 1943–44.1944–45 and 1945–46.1946–47 and 1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.1951–52.

* These prices were increased by 0.5d. in the 1943–44 season.

† These prices were increased to 12.5349d. and 7.3420d. respectively for the period 23rd April to 30th September, 1951.

Lambs—d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.
  Downs (23–36 lb.)6.756.758.59.137510.837511.650312.400314.3866
  Canterbury (23–36 lb.)6.68756.68758.41669.047810.731211.536112.286114.2002
  Cross bred (23–36 lb.)6.56256.56258.258.868710.518711.307612.057713.9362
  Seconds (23–36 lb.)6.256.257.83338.42089.987510.736610.736612.4341
Wethers—        
  Prime (48 lb. and under)4.56254.5625*5.756.18127.33127.88117.88118.8336
  Seconds (56 lb. and under)3.93753.9375*4.91665.28536.26876.73896.73897.3039
Ewes—(64 lb. and under)3.03.0*3.66663.94164.6755.02565.02565.4906
Quarter beef— Ox and heifer G.A.Q.—        
  Hinds4.754.93755.83336.27087.43757.99539.034312.25
  Fores2.93753.1253.41663.67284.35624.68295.29169.5625
Ox and heifer F.A.Q.—        
  Hinds3.81254.04.58334.9275.84376.28206.282010.75
  Fores2.8753.06253.33333.58334.254.56874,56878.6875
Cow G.A.Q.—        
  Hinds3.6253.81254.33334.65835.5255.93945.93948.0574
  Fores2.81253.03.253.49374.14374.45454.45456.3555
Pigs—        
Porkers—        
  Full carcases (first quality)6.43757.7258.08338.992710.670111.470214.470219.2
  Sides (first quality)6.56257.8758.41679.363511.1111.943214.943220.8125
Baconers—        
Full carcases (first quality)6.57.78758.16669.085310.7811.588514.588517.2672
Sides (first quality)7.18758.6259.083410.105211.9912.889215.889220.2906

The f.o.b. prices (i.e., for bare meat only) paid to the exporters and freezing companies by the Meat-producers Board as agent for the marketing authority, the New Zealand Government, are fixed by the Meat-producers Board in consultation with the Government, factors such as contract prices, encouragement or discouragement of certain types of meat by means of price differentials, costs of production and movements therein being taken into account.

To the bare meat prices are added allowances for pelts, fat, and wool in the case of lamb and mutton and for fat, offal, and hides in the case of beef; deducted from the totals are the killing and freezing, processing, buying and administration, interest and insurance charges. The resultant prices are those paid to producers and are drawn up in the form of an “opening schedule” issued normally at the beginning of each season.

As the fat stock prices include allowances for pelts, wool, fat, and hides, adjustments to them are therefore made by the exporters and freezing companies during the currency of the season on account of wool growth and values.

The schedule for the 1941–42 to 1951–52 seasons is given below.

Item.Season.
1941–42.1942–43.1943–44.1944–45.1945–46.1946–47.1947–48 and 1948–49*1949–50.1950–51.1951–52.

* Schedule unchanged from 1947–48 except for boner beef, which rose to 31s.

† Owing to the late commencement of the season, figures quoted are the effective opening prices issued in December, 1950.

‡ From 1947–48 onwards price is given for 720 lb. and under.

Price of Lamb, Wether, and Ewe Mutton, in Pence per Pound          
Lambs—          
Downs (36 lb. and under)8⅜91011⅛11½1916¾
Canterbury (36 lb. and under)
Crossbred (36 lb. and under)8⅛10⅞11¼18¾16½
Seconds (36 lb. and under)7⅝9⅛9⅞10½17¾15
Wethers— Primes (48 lb. and under)—          
North Island7⅛10½10
South Island5556⅞109
Seconds (56 lb. and under)—          
North Island6⅜9
South Island556⅛9
Ewes (64 lb. and under)2⅝2⅝3⅛3⅝3⅝4⅛5⅛7
Price, in Shillings and Pence, per 100 lb. of Beef
Quarter beef—          
Ox—          
G.A.Q. (840 lb. and under)34 034 034 040 042 046 051 057 070 091 0
F.A.Q. (all weights)29 029 029 035 037 040 043 049 058 667 0
Heifer—          
G.A.Q. (840 lb. and under)32 633 033 039 041 045 050 056 070 091 0
F.A.Q. (all weights)27 028 028 034 036 039 042 048 058 667 0
Cow, G.A.Q. (all weights)26 627 027 633 635 638 041 647 658 064 6
Boner beef (cow)15 620 022 023 023 026 028 634 048 050 0

The substantial increases shown for recent years are largely due to higher allowances for skins, wool, and hides involved in the determination of opening prices. The 1950–51 season was the first season since 1938–39 in which pelt prices were not stabilized, while the allowance for wool reflects the substantial increase in values recorded in sales during the later years.

Tallow.—Bulk purchase by the United Kingdom of all surplus tallow available for export commenced during the 1939–40 season. Provision was made for the normal entitlement of export (not exceeding 4,000 tons) to India. On completion of the contract, arrangements were made through the Price Tribunal for the fixation of local prices for tallow conforming to the corresponding prices for export and incorporated in the Purchase of Tallow Order 1940. The sterling cost and freight price (less freight charge) was converted into New Zealand currency and after deduction of 4s. 6d. per ton to cover administrative and interest charges became the purchase price at f.o.b. from the New Zealand manufacturers.

The difference between subsequent contract prices and those payable to local manufacturers was paid into the Meat Pool and Meat Industry Stabilization Accounts (later the Meat Industry Reserve Account).

The exportable surplus of tallow was contracted for by the United Kingdom for each season from 1939–40. While the United Kingdom agreed to accept the whole exportable surplus for 1950–51, it also stated that New Zealand would be free to sell the exportable surplus of edible tallow to other markets if such were available. For 1951–52 the contract permitted the export of an amount (not exceeding 4,000 tons) of tallow to India. Though there had been some increases in the purchase price from New Zealand manufacturers during the period 1945–46 to 1949–50, commencing from the 1950–51 season full payments were made to the manufacturers—i.e., world parity for tallow sent to markets outside the United Kingdom and contract rates for tallow sent to the United Kingdom.

Since the 30th April, 1949, the Meat-producers Board acting on behalf of the Marketing Department, has carried out certain functions previously performed by the Department, in relation to the export of tallow, and has borne the administrative and general expenses relating to those functions.

The following table reviews the contract prices obtained for tallow during the period 1939–40 to 1951–52.

Grade.Sale Values Per Ton Cost and Freight Sterling.
1939–40 to 1943–44*1944–45 and 1945–46.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.1951–52.

* For two-thirds of quantities exported in 1941–42, prices averaged £3 10s. in excess of these rates; for 1942–43 and 1943–44, prices averaged £8 10s. in excess of these rates.

 £ s.£ s. d.£ s.£ s. d.£ s.£ s.£ s.£ s.
First beef28 044 2 688 5110 6 3121 088 1086 10115 5
First mutton26 1042 10 1085 0106 5 0117 085 1083 10111 5
Good colour mixed23 1040 2 680 5100 6 3110 080 1078 10104 15
Fair to good colour mixed23 039 10 079 098 15 0108 1079 077 0102 15
Good gut21 037 12 675 594 1 3103 1075 1073 1098 0
Medium gut20 036 12 673 591 11 3100 1073 1071 1095 5
Stearine, superior29 044 12 689 5111 11 3122 1089 1087 10116 15
Stearine, medium27 1043 2 686 5107 16 3118 1086 1084 10112 15
Lard (edible)42 056 17 6113 15142 3 9156 10114 0111 0148 0
Hog grease/pig fat (F.F.A. under 1 per cent.)35 043 17 687 15107 16 3120 1088 086 0114 15
Hide grease (F.F.A. under 1 per cent.)29 037 10 075 093 15 0103 075 073 097 5

NOTE.—The basis of freight for recent contract shipments (i.e., later than 1944–45) has been fixed at 125s. 6d. plus 15 per cent. sterling, any variation for buyers' account.

FARM INDUSTRY RESERVES.—In the preceding pages reference is made to amounts paid in to the various primary produce accounts, these normally accruing from the surpluses obtained after deducting from the contract or sterling prices received for primary produce, the amounts paid to producers by way of guaranteed prices, purchase prices, &c.

The following table shows the balances remaining in the various farm industry reserves during the period quoted, the source of the data being the parliamentary paper B-5, 1951.

Balances as at 31st July,Dairy Industry Stabilization Account.Meat Industry Reserve Accounts.Wool Capital Account.*Wool Contributory Charge.Wool Retention Moneys.

* Profits from disposal of wool stocks taken over by Wool Disposal Commission at the end of the war.

† This is a levy on all wool sold at auction.

‡ Estimated.

§ As at 30th September.

¶ Estimated total credited to individual wool retention accounts for 1950–51 wool season.

 £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
1942 749,801   
1943 1,883,547   
19441,066,5994,317,432   
19454,675,4469,159,084   
19464,703,24012,201,928   
19478,907,45918,222,1405,046,287 Dr.1,165,402 
194812,663,48725,628,635§1,047,385 Dr.2,592,618 
194915,331,08729,535,660§5,181,539 Cr.4,205,416 
195018,449,54735,337,273§12,933,244 Cr.5,563,391 
195123,000,00036,000,000§19,000,000 Cr.6,000,00032,000,000

THE NEW ZEALAND DAIRY BOARD.—A brief account of the history and functions of the New Zealand Dairy Board will be found on pages 893–894 of the 1947–49 issue of the Year-Book.

FARM MACHINERY ON OCCUPIED HOLDINGS.—Advantage was taken of the organization provided for the 1950 Census of Agriculture to obtain details of farm machinery on a much wider scale than ever before attempted in this country. In the following table, which gives detailed results of the collection, provisional figures are quoted for farm machinery on occupied holdings of 1 acre and over situated outside borough boundaries as at 31st January, 1950.

Number.
Threshing-mills347
Tin-mills277
Header harvesters3,130
Chaffcutters1,350
Reapers and binders8,521
Hay-sweeps24,220
Hay-rakes (including side delivery and dump rakes)26,476
Hay-stackers11,719
Hay balers and presses4,269
Mowers39,603
Drills— 
  Combine14,223
  Ridger5,974
Ploughs— 
  Mouldboard53,549
  Disk8,716
  Mole drain2,360
Harrows— 
  Tine (number of sets)46,246
  Disk (number of sets)29,230
  Chain (number of sets)30,528
Cultivators— 
  Inter-row10,309
  Field12,034
Manure sowers and spreaders31,435
Rollers16,737
Potato-planters827
Potato-harvesters1,067
Spraying-machines (power-driven)1,676
Motor-lorries and trucks25,378
Motor-cars48,096
Farm carts and drays41,715
Electric motors— 
  Number110,380
  Horse-power100,487
Internal-combustion engines— 
  Number29,841
  Horse-power84,701
Rotary hoes and garden tractors— 
  Number3,086
  Horse-power14,379
Agricultural tractors— 
  Diesel oil— 
    Crawler type— 
      Number1,302
      Horse-power42,330
    Wheel type— 
      Number1,228
      Horse-power39,639
  Petrol driven— 
    Crawler type— 
      Number1,797
      Horse-power41,156
    Wheel-type— 
      Number24,254
      Horse-power537,401
  Kerosene (paraffin) driven— 
    Crawler type— 
      Number651
      Horse-power16,425
    Wheel type— 
      Number5,451
      Horse-power131,316
Number of shearing sheds21,520
Night-pen capacity of sheds4,027,006
Number of flocks machine-shorn31,047
Number of flocks blade shorn7,457
Number of wool-presses18,754
Shearing-machines— 
Number of plants18,756
Number of stands40,535
Number of herds machine-milked35,084
Number of herds hand-milked35,782
Milking-machines— 
Number of plants36,316
Cow-capacity138,998
Number of cows in milk in herds actually machine-milked1,714,414
Power used in driving milking-machines— 
Electric motors31,221
Internal-combustion engines4,395
Other power94
Number of cream separators54,303

The following table gives details of farm machinery for those items where a comparison is available for the years 1939 and 1946 to 1950.

1939.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.

* Not available.

† This item covers only those machines actually used for threshing wheat or oats during the year specified.

Milking-machines28,97031,80532,59633,46134,11436,316
Cream-separators55,66547,78348,19448,45748,45154,303
Shearing-machines—      
  Plants10,06413,55414,56415,46816,39218,756
  Stands26,06332,16733,90735,44836,95240,535
Agricultural tractors9,63918,94021,15623,42327,44734,683
Rotary hoes and garden tractors*1,2241,6462,2532,6603,086
Electric motors51,34476,96482,72188,28294,047110,380
Internal-combustion engines22,60121,47323,10924,92226,19929,841
Threshing-machines7401,5201,6411,7082,0241,900

The figures for 1950 show a continuation of the trend towards more intensive mechanization of farm work that has been in evidence over a considerable period. During the war and early post-war years this movement was retarded through inability to procure the necessary equipment, but there has been a considerable speeding up in the last four years. Particularly noticeable are the increases in agricultural tractors and electric motors. The drop in the number of threshing-machines for threshing wheat and oats is accounted for by considerable decreases in the areas planted in these crops.

Milking-machines.—Information concerning milking-machines on farms was first collected in 1919, in which year there were 7,577 stands recorded. Since that year the use of milking-machines has expanded rapidly, although, as might be expected, the rate of increase slowed down somewhat during the war period. During the six years from 1933 to 1939 milking-machines increased at an average rate of 770 per year, while during the six-year period 1940–46, the average increase was 430 per year. The subsequent four years showed increases of 791, 865, 653, and 2,202 respectively. Of the 1,845,510 cows in milk on the 31st January, 1950, 1,714,414 or 93 per cent. were on holdings employing milking-machines. In 1949 the corresponding percentage was 94 and in 1939, 81.

The following table shows for the years 1940 and 1949 the number of farms with milking-machines, and the aggregate cow-capacity thereof, classified according to size of plant—i.e., cow-capacity. While a detailed analysis of the 1950 figures is not yet available, it is known that cows in milk were recorded on 70,866 of the 90,192 holdings covered by the collection. Machine milking was carried out on 35,084 farms and hand milking on 35,782.

Number of Machines.Individual Cow-capacity.Number of Farms.Aggregate Cow-capacity.
1940.1949.1940.1949.
One12881,0032881,003
 26,3207,43612,64014,872
 39,0408,81927,12026,457
 48,6849,43334,73637,732
 51,5841,8547,9209,270
 61,5082,9059,04817,430
 736118252826
 81399241,1127,392
 9 and over452154822,301
      Totals, one machine 27,64432,70793,598117,283
Two 7395815,5525,210
Three 8348957617
Four 2213358225
Five and over 138352176
      Grand totals 28,50133,357100,817123,511

A point of interest in the table is that while the total number of farms with milking-machines rose by 4,856, the number of farms with multiple plants dropped from 857 to 650. On the other hand, single-unit plants of 6 cow-capacity and upwards showed a greater relative increase than those below that number.

The following table shows, by size of herd in milk, both the number of farms equipped with milking-machines and farms with dairy cows in milk but no milking-plant. It will be noted that the only decreases in farms with milking-machines are confined to the larger herds, which would appear to follow the drop in multiple plants referred to earlier.

Size of Herd (Cows in Milk).Farms With Milking-machines.Farms Without Milking-machines.
1940.1949.1940.1949.

* This total includes 228 cases of farms with milking-machines but no cows in milk. Comparable figures are not available for 1940.

Under 5715859*22,75525,441
5 and under 108028,7904,947
10 " 201,6482,7685,7841,984
20 " 304,4624,5542,032543
30 " 405,3455,718562109
40 " 504,4975,17417420
50 " 603,3303,8537410
60 " 702,7073,09830 
70 " 801,8032,040375
80 " 901,1761,484
90 " 100842943
100 " 1251,1011,238
125 " 150416424
150 " 200289291
200 and over170111
      Totals28,50133,35740,23833,059

Sheep-farm Machinery and Equipment.—At the 31st January, 1950, there were 18,756 shearing plants recorded on holdings of 1 acre and over outside borough boundaries. Of the 90,192 holdings covered by the collection, sheep were recorded on 38,504, flocks being machine shorn in 31,047 cases and blade shorn in 7,457 cases.

Shearing sheds in use numbered 21,520 with a total night-pen capacity of 4,027,006, and average capacity of 187 sheep per shed.

Wool presses and sheep-dips in use numbered 18,754 and 13,175 respectively. Of the sheep-dips 12,941 were bath dips and 234 spray dips, the latter being a comparatively recent innovation in New Zealand.

Agricultural Tractors.—During the ten years from 1940 to 1950 the number of agricultural tractors employed on holdings of 1 acre and over outside borough boundaries rose from 11,278 to 34,683, an increase of 208 per cent. These figures do not include rotary hoes or garden tractors, of which there were 3,086 in 1950, but similar information is not available for the earlier year.

The increase in tractors has been accompanied by a decrease in the number of horses employed on farms, particularly those described as “draught and three-quarter draught.” The total number of horses in 1950 was 194,846, of which 71,811 were classed as draught or three-quarter draught, 26,252 as spring-cart or light artillery (including half-draught), 76,715 as hacks or light working horses, and 20,068 as thoroughbred or other. Comparable figures for 1940 were 258,567, 122,245, 48,561, 73,227, and 14,534 respectively. Incidentally, the number of agricultural tractors increased from 27,447 in 1949 to 34,683 in 1950, whereas the number of draught and three-quarter draught horses fell from 74,004 to 71,811.

In the following table, which gives particulars of tractors and horses as at 31st January of the years shown, horses described as “thoroughbred or other” have been excluded. The number of holdings on which tractors were located in 1949 was 24,416 out of a total of 87,076, whereas horses were present on 54,963 holdings. In 6,510 cases there were tractors but no horses, 37,057 cases in which there were horses but no tractors, while both tractors and horses were present in 17,906 instances.

Tractors, but no Horses.Tractors and Horses.Horses, but no Tractors.
One Tractor.More than One Tractor.One Tractor.More than One Tractor.
19463,09433512,2661,31143,285
19473,97537713,2811,43841,512
19484,82345714,1691,59039,812
19495,88762315,8932,01337,057

The 2,636 cases in 1949 in which there were more than one tractor were made up as follows: two tractors, 2,332; three, 250; four, 39; five or more, 15.

Threshing-machines.—Information collected in conjunction with the monthly threshing returns show that a total of 1,900 machines (1,762 header harvesters, 65 threshing-mills, and 73 tin-mills) were engaged in threshing either wheat or oats in 1950, as compared with a total of 873 machines in 1940. The increase in the total number of machines so used during the ten-year period is accounted for by the change in harvesting methods that has taken place, the mobile header harvester, which was first employed in New Zealand in the harvest of 1930, having largely supplanted the stationary threshing-mills.

The header harvester is used more extensively in connection with the wheat crop, many varieties of which are very well suited to heading, than in oat-threshing, where the threshing-mill still plays a part of major importance. In 1950 header harvesters threshed 90.8 per cent. of the wheat yield from 91.9 per cent. of the grain area. Threshing, mills and tin-mills accounted for 6.4 per cent. and 2.8 per cent. of the yield and 5.4 per cent. and 2.7 per cent. of the area respectively. Figures on a similar basis for oats are: header harvesters, 63.3 per cent. of yield and 67.1 per cent. of area; threshing-mills-23.6 per cent. of yield and 20.6 per cent. of area; and tin-mills, 13.1 per cent. of yield and 12.3 per cent. of area.

Of the 1,900 machines engaged in threshing wheat or oats in 1950, 1,211 (1,152 header harvesters, 35 threshing-mills, and 24 tin-mills) were located in the Canterbury Land District, which produced 66 per cent. of the total wheat yield and 48 per cent. of the oat yield. In Otago there were 251 machines, made up of 224 headers, 11 threshing-mills, and 16 tin-mills, while Southland recorded 210 machines (175 headers, 11 threshing-mills, and 24 tin-mills).

The following table shows the average yield per acre of wheat according to the type of threshing-machine used for the last five seasons. The percentages of threshing by each type of machine are also shown.

Header Harvester.Threshing-mills.Tin-mills.Totals.
Percentage of Total Yield.Average Yield per Acre.Percentage of Total Yield.Average Yield per Acre.Percentage of Total Yield.Average Yield per Acre.Percentage of Total Yield.Average Yield per Acre.
  Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
1945–4680.5431.0513.5542.785.9140.88100.0033.54
1946–4782.0739.9712.4545.285.4841.33100.0038.06
1947–4884.2735.4311.2642.794.4739.75100.0036.31
1948–4987.9539.957.2745.174.7843.42100.0040.44
1949–5090.8238.826.4246.352.7639.85100.0039.26

The foregoing analysis for 1949–50 is based on a total of 4,863 crops, covering approximately 79 per cent. of the total wheat area.

There would appear to be a tendency for header yields to be lower than the yields of crops threshed with threshing and tin-mills, but in the absence of such related matters as soil types, &c., no definite conclusions can be drawn. It is mainly on the heavier soil types that threshing-mills and tin-mills have been retained. This is particularly so in the case of the soft-chaffed wheats, Dreadnought and Hunters, which on the whole, are header-harvested only on lighter land.

A similar analysis to that given for wheat is now shown for oats. The number of crops covered in 1949–50 was 2,737, which represented approximately 72 per cent. of the oat area threshed.

Header Harvester.Threshing-mills.Tin-mills.Totals.
Percentage of Total Yield.Average Yield per Acre.Percentage of Total Yield.Average Yield per Acre.Percentage of Total Yield.Average Yield per Acre.Percentage of Total Yield.Average Yield per Acre.
  Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
1945–4636.0738.9349.7860.6314.1549.56100.0049.18
1946–4737.7740.7747.0757.6215.1649.45100.0048.78
1947–4840.9836.6042.4153.1816.6147.84100.0044.16
1948–4956.8243.1224.4155.7518.7753.52100.0047.48
1949–5063.3446.5623.6256.7413.0452.25100.0049.35

18 B—AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION

AS indicated in the general remarks included in the introductory portion of the preceding subsection, grassland products account for a very high proportion of the farm output of New Zealand. It must not be assumed, however, on this account, that cropping is of minor importance in the economy of New Zealand. Practically the whole of the internal requirements in respect of agricultural products are grown within the country, the only exceptions of note being tropical or subtropical products such as tea, sugar, cotton, bananas, &c. In most years also it has been found necessary to import certain quantities of wheat, local production being insufficient for the country's needs.

Fruit is grown on a considerable scale, home requirements of all the important fruits and berries grown in temperate zones being satisfied by New Zealand orchard production. Citrus fruits are grown in the sub-tropical northern portion of New Zealand, and grapes are also cultivated in certain localities with a favourable climate. In addition to the needs of local requirements, a substantial export trade in apples—and to a lesser extent in pears—is carried on in normal times.

In rural New Zealand and in many urban localities the kitchen-garden supplies a very considerable proportion of family requirements of vegetables, while there is a substantial area planted in market gardens, both inside and outside borough boundaries. The major commercial cash vegetable crops are potatoes and onions. Local supplies of potatoes are usually adequate but in recent years production has fluctuated, a surplus in one year and perhaps a shortage in the next. In most recent years the production of onions has also been more than sufficient for local requirements. Although the importance of vegetable-growing in agricultural production cannot be measured (a considerable, though unknown, proportion being non-commercial), it will be realized that this branch of crop-production is of some consequence in that the requirements of the people are supplied from New Zealand production.

Coincident with the growth of the stock-raising industries, there has been a considerable increase in areas sown for supplementary fodders. While practically throughout the whole of New Zealand animals can be grazed in open pasture for the full twelve months of the year, the winter growth of grass, except in certain favoured localities, requires to be supplemented in order to keep stock in good condition during the colder months, and in some districts supplementary fodders are necessary in the drier summer months. The supply of supplementary fodders is adequate both in quantity and in quality, so that New Zealand imports animal-feeding stuffs to a very minor extent only.

Hay and ensilage crops are grown almost exclusively on the farms where they are consumed, though there is some degree of localization in the growing of certain other supplementary fodder crops. The bulk of the supplementary fodders other than grass and clover, hay and ensilage is grown in the South Island since the colder climate necessitates more extensive supplementary feeding than in the North Island.

The renewal of pasturage requires the annual supply of very considerable quantities of grass-seeds, which are now grown almost entirely in New Zealand. There is a small import of certain classes of seeds, but this is almost negligible in relation to requirements: on the other hand, an appreciable export trade in some species of grass-seeds has been developed. A considerable expansion occurred in this trade during the later war-years and the quantity of grass and clover seeds exported in 1950 was over three and one-half times greater than in 1939.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.—Grain-growing is localized to a considerable extent, the Canterbury Land District, with its fertile plains, supplying in 1949–50, 66 per cent. of New Zealand's wheat crop, 48 per cent. of the oats threshed, and 73 per cent. of the barley yield. Maize-growing is largely confined to certain portions of the South Auckland and Gisborne districts. The commercial growing of peas is carried out extensively in Canterbury, and to a lesser extent in Marlborough and Otago, Canterbury alone producing just over half of the total yield. The districts of Canterbury, Otago, and Southland supplied in 1949–50, 73 per cent. of the total production of grass-seeds. The Canterbury district produces the bulk of the commercial potato crop, followed by Wellington, while the growing of potatoes for the early market is of importance in the North and South Auckland districts.

Commercial orchards in New Zealand are largely confined to certain areas suited by climatic and soil conditions, while access to markets is also an important factor, particularly in respect of small fruits. The Nelson district is famed for its apple- orchards, a high percentage of the crop from this district normally being exported. Central Otago is well suited to the growing of stone fruits—notably apricots. In several other districts commercial orchard production is successfully carried on; special mention may be made of citrus culture in certain northern districts.

Grape-growing is of importance in North Auckland and Hawke's Bay, and to a lesser extent in South Auckland. Tobacco-growing is mainly confined to the Waimea County, in the Nelson district, hop-growing also being largely concentrated in this area. Figures shown throughout this subsection for 1949–50 are provisional.

The total area devoted to each crop in the 1949–50 season and the proportions per cent. in each land district are given in the following table.

Name of Crop.Area.Land District Percentages.
North Auckland.South Auckland.Gisborne.Hawke's Bay.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago.Southland.
For threshing—Acres.            
  Wheat125,126     63  68149
  Oats52,645     12  541726
  Barley56,916  12 483 7291
  Maize7,229524637  1     
  Peas41,319  62 5191 5296
  Linseed7,535      1  731016
  Other crops8,914  2   3  69242
For chaff, hay, or ensilage—             
  Oats53,910 1 11442 462516
  Grasses and clovers578,46614392313912 746
  Lucerne52,027 1219 442 46211
  Other crops1,19171413 323 51133
Green fodder—             
  Oats55,11612 21553 62163
  Rape181,777 1 5 431 532310
  Kale (including chou moellier)101,062151264211  19814
  Other crops36,12439261821 312413
Root crops—             
  Swedes175,128218 14811 92234
  Turnips187,51126 11411 511518
  Turnips and rape27,18011 1 21  201757
  Potatoes17,7856326 17 2 5563
  Other crops4,45891136520 1 27171
Grasses and clovers for seed148,093  26 352 431524
Tobacco3,376       100    
Linen-flax2,791         81 19
Vegetable crops for processing1,95263 79   12    
Pumpkins and marrows (non-commercial)1,19511134035 1      
Other field crops15445 2     6227 
Orchards18,916218219 2320 817 
Grape-vines1,0914115439   1    
Passion-fruit vines8446495         
Hop-vines605       100    
Market gardens13,36919641411718 1911 
Nurseries1,6422119178937 1456

BUSHEL WEIGHTS.—For statistical and other purposes, it is at times necessary to convert bushel units to a weight basis. For New Zealand produce, conversion is effected by using the following weights per bushel for the commodities mentioned.

Produce.Weight of Bushel.
 lb.
Wheat60
Oats40
Barley50
Maize56
Peas60
Ryecorn54
Beans65
Grasses and clovers20

AREA UNDER CULTIVATION.—A general summary of the areas under cultivation during each of the last eleven years is given in the following table. The statistics quoted in this and other tables in this subsection relate to holdings of 1 acre or upwards outside borough boundaries.

In addition to the areas shown as under cultivation, there is a considerable area of occupied land still unimproved. In 1949–50 the total area of unimproved occupied land was 23,025,474 acres. Cultivated land accounted in 1949–50 for 47 per cent. of the total area in occupation, unimproved land accounting for the remaining 53 per cent. The area in phormium—a productive asset—is included in the total of unimproved land, while an appreciable proportion of tussock and other naturally established native grasses is of considerable economic utility, particularly in the South Island, where it is used for extensive pastoral farming.

Year.Pasture Land.*Field Crops.Plantations.OrchardsLying Fallow.Other Cultivated Land.Total Cultivated Land.

* Excluding areas of grasses and clovers cut for seed, hay, or ensilage, which have been included in field crops.

† Approximate.

 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1939–4016,632,6081,956,096839,90620,899112,19597,64519,659,349
1940–4116,788,1212,048,198852,19620,064104,18993,88819,906,656
1941–4216,742,1532,010,560857,93319,544110,49694,08819,834,774
1942–4316,992,3431,911,833851,25819,190110,00096,42619,981,050
1943–4416,774,3041,965,670859,73719,196110,000101,09219,829,999
1944–4516,619,7132,013,214867,45019,614110,000102,05819,732,049
1945–4617,036,8221,839,589861,00818,235121,03390,55519,967,242
1946–4717,013,0571,984,395869,95918,253123,65494,54520,103,863
1947–4817,088,8101,904,377871,35618,667122,81296,89220,102,914
1948–4917,033,7341,985,381884,07718,667100,270106,07020,128,199
1949–5017,167,6431,928,980907,74118,91690,999114,15520,228,434

In the following pages statistics of the principal crops are quoted with explanatory comment. In addition to summary tables, covering in each instance a range of related items, important individual crops are discussed under separate headings.

PRINCIPAL FIELD CROPS.—The areas under each of the principal field crops for the last five years have been as follows:—

Crop.1945–46.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.

* Including turnips and rape mixed.

† Excluding wheat, oats, barley, maize, and peas fed off.

 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
Wheat164,286144,006125,439148,653128,180
Oats182,123181,469177,252194,850161,671
Barley54,71762,84573,27570,80770,509
Maize15,28214,29813,30312,44812,235
Peas33,45052,18252,82749,81341,738
Linseed10,36112,29218,7287,7387,535
Linen flax4,5904,0704,5544,7172,791
Potatoes23,22819,27621,88718,94017,785
Turnips and swedes*380,693390,243400,486384,125389,819
Mangolds4,0923,3222,8793,0662,535
Onions1,3871,2021,5721,175887
Tobacco2,8833,0913,4023,4843,376
Green fodder242,158244,170246,336261,591298,082
Grasses and clovers for seed224,638254,268142,206160,057148,093
Grasses and clovers for hay or ensilage442,093540,016559,956601,384578,466
Lucerne for hay or ensilage41,41642,64246,30347,22452,027
Other crops12,19215,00313,97215,30913,251
      Totals1,839,5891,984,3951,904,3771,985,3811,928,980

The figures quoted in the foregoing table in respect of wheat, oats, barley, maize, and peas relate to the total areas under these crops for grain or fodder. It should be noted that a considerable portion of the area under certain crops, particularly oats, is cut for chaff or is fed off. In regard to peas it should also be noted that areas of this crop for canning and for domestic consumption in the form of green peas are included elsewhere.

GRAIN AND SEED CROPS.—Details of areas for threshing, total yields, and yields per acre of the principal grain and seed crops during the last five years are set out in the following table.

Year.Wheat.Oats.Barley.Maize.Peas.Lupins.
AREAS FOR THRESHING
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1945–46161,04957,27848,6467,03432,7402,109
1946–47141,40755,29753,0417,86551,4815,282
1947–48123,75163,15963,3987,34552,1383,677
1948–49146,70778,30058,7076,58849,1524,434
1949–50125,12652,64556,9167,22941,3194,538
TOTAL YIELDS
 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.
1945–465,439,0412,796,8771,872,316350,188816,89728,093
1946–475,368,1202,686,2112,026,786396,6221,231,182127,455
1947–484,539,0172,853,5172,087,900378,2471,139,32556,467
1948–495,958,0263,718,5972,256,362357,2701,195,19666,321
1949–504,897,6022,620,2522,433,485462,8331,242,73069,633
YIELDS PER ACRE
 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.
1945–4633.7748.8338.4949.7924.9513.32
1946–4737.9648.5838.2150.4323.9224.13
1947–4836.6845.1832.9351.5021.8515.36
1948–4940.6147.4938.4354.2324.3214.96
1949–5039.1449.7742.7664.0230.0815.34

Other crops for threshing in 1949–50 include the following, the resultant yield in each case being given in parentheses: linseed, 7,535 acres (69,002 cwt.); rape, 1,015 acres (376,584 lb.); kale (including chou moellier), 259 acres (109,047 lb.); white-fleshed (soft) turnips, 479 acres (304,727 lb.); mangolds, 220 acres (81,328 lb.); mustard, 94 acres (50,438 lb.); beans, 313 acres (8,045 bushels); and ryecorn, 1,831 acres (39,753 bushels).

It was the practice in pre-war years to import considerable quantities of small seeds, but the extension of the conflict in Europe, together with the rapid expansion of Japanese aggression in the Pacific, rendered this no longer possible, and it became necessary to make an effort to raise the full domestic requirements in this direction within the shores of New Zealand. The success of the effort is exemplified in the total areas planted in other crops for seed (i.e., crops other than the principal crops stated above, wheat, oats, barley, maize, peas, lupins, and linseed), which rose from 342 acres in 1938–39 to 6,674 acres in 1942–43. Although there has been some reduction from the peak figure of that year, the area is still substantial, being 4,376 acres in 1949–50 and 6,429 acres in 1948–49. These figures cover the other crops listed above except linseed, together with a variety of smaller areas relating to crops such as onions, vetches, tares, radish, silver beet, red beet, carrots, pumpkins, marrows, leeks, cauliflower, cabbage, parsnips, &c. It was found in most instances that the locally-produced seed was fully up to, and indeed, in some cases (e.g., swede and turnip seed), superior to the standard of that previously imported. It has been shown, for instance, that swede and turnip crops grown from locally-produced seed have been comparatively free from the widespread dry-rot disease which formerly attacked these crops when grown from imported seed.

WHEAT.—Wheat is the most important grain crop grown in New Zealand. The industry enjoys a sliding scale of Customs duties levied on imports of wheat and flour and also regulation of prices on a basis that is calculated to give the grower a satisfactory return for his produce.

Further efforts in encouraging wheat-growing with a view to making New Zealand entirely self-sufficient in respect of requirements of wheat and wheaten products were initiated by the Government in 1936. An Order in Council which came into force in March of that year prohibits the importation of wheat or wheaten flour, except under permit granted by the Minister of Industries and Commerce. With a view to reducing imports of Grade A wheat necessary for mixing purposes, the Wheat Research Institute has been endeavouring to encourage the growing in New Zealand of better-quality varieties which do not require blending with imported wheat. The Institute has already achieved satisfactory results, its most outstanding success being the development of a Tuscan variety known as Cross 7. Though not grown on a commercial scale until 1935–36, Cross 7 has for the last eight seasons held pride of place in the area grown for grain. Second and fourth places are taken by Fife Tuscan and Tainui respectively, these types also having been evolved by the Wheat Research Institute.

Despite the protection and encouragement given to wheat-growers, the results have, in the main, been disappointing. Appreciable increases occurred in the four seasons 1939–40 to 1942–43, but decreased sowings and a low average yield resulted in production for 1943–44 being 2,610,857 bushels below that for 1942–43. A further decline in the acreage sown for 1944–45 season resulted in a further drop in production, this despite the fact that the average yield was one of the highest on record. As an incentive to increased sowings for the 1945–46 season it was decided to pay a production bonus, linked to the attainment of an increased acreage.

However, a most unfavourable autumn and winter were instrumental in delaying the preparation of the soil, and consequently sowings, to such an extent that the area harvested was one of the lowest on record. In 1946–47 the position deteriorated further, the area for threshing, 141,407 acres, being, with one exception, 1919–20, in which 139,611 acres were threshed, the lowest devoted to the wheat crop since comparable data first became available in 1879. The 1947–48 area fell even below this figure, only 123,751 acres being threshed. Although an increase to 146,707 acres was recorded in 1948–49, the area in 1949–50 fell away to 125,126 acres, which was only slightly above the 1947–48 total, the latter being the lowest acreage yet returned. The average yield in 1948–49 (40.61 bushels) was the highest recorded in the history of New Zealand agriculture.

The following diagram shows the fluctuations that have occurred in the area sown in wheat during the last twenty-two years, together with the total yield and the average yield per acre.

Varieties of Wheat.—The choice of wheat varieties for sowing is influenced by their suitability to local conditions of climate, soil type, &c. Wheatgrowers receive valuable guidance regarding suitable varieties as the result of research work and field trials undertaken by the Wheat Research Institute and the Department of Agriculture. Particulars regarding varieties of wheat were obtained covering 79 per cent. of the total area of wheat threshed for the harvest of 1950. Of the three groups of varieties, Tuscan accounted for 95.5 per cent. of the area and 95.3 per cent. of the yield; Hunter's, 1.2 per cent. of the area and 1.6 per cent. of the yield; and Pearl, 3.3 per cent. of the area and 3.1 per cent. of the yield. Of the individual varieties, Cross 7, previously referred to, produced 72.3 per cent. of the total yield, while Fife Tuscan produced a further 8.3 per cent. These two varieties accounted for 72.6 per cent. and 9.1 per cent. of the total area respectively.

OATS.—Although, as stated above, wheat is the most important grain crop of New Zealand, the area under oats (for all purposes) exceeds that under wheat. The greater portion of the oat crop is usually converted into chaff without threshing, but the proportion so dealt with depends partly on the condition of the crop and partly on market conditions. There has been a considerable decrease in the area under oats during the last few years, the aggregate area for the five years ended 1949–50 (897,365 acres) being 391,709 acres or 30.4 per cent. less than the total for the preceding five-year period. This decrease, which is due in some measure to the decline in the horse population (referred to in the next subsection) is mainly confined to oats grown for chaff, hay, or ensilage. The area for threshing declined very slightly between the two five-year periods, while the proportion of the total crop threshed increased from 24.5 to 35.0 per cent.

The total and average yields of oaten-grain and of chaff, hay, or ensilage for the five seasons ending with 1949–50 were as follows:—

Season.Grain.Chaff, Hay, or Ensilage.
Total Yield.Average per Acre.Total Yield.Average per Acre.
 Bushels.Bushels.Tons.Tons.
1945–462,796,87748.83153,5321.78
1946–472,686,21148.58141,0581.85
1947–482,853,51745.18122,7161.76
1948–493,718,59747.49122,5181.82
1949–502,620,25249.77100,1981.86

Varieties of Oats threshed.—An analysis of the threshing returns relating to the season 1949–50 gave the following percentage distribution of varieties of oats threshed.

Variety of Oats threshed.Average Yield Per Acre.Percentage of Total Area.Percentage of Total Yield.
 Bushels.Per Cent.Per Cent.
White53.8576.8083.80
Algerian31.9812.378.02
Dun37.098.446.34
Black37.942.391.84
All varieties49.35100.00100.00

BARLEY.—For many years prior to 1940–41, the area planted in barley did not fluctuate to any marked degree, but the areas sown in 1940–41 and in 1941–42 were substantially above those of previous years, with a consequent increase in grain-production. The areas in the following two years, although still above the average, were well below that of 1941–42, but outstanding increases were recorded in the next four years, the area threshed in 1947–48 (63,398 acres) and the yield of grain (2,087,900 bushels) exceeding all previous figures. In 1948–49 there was a fall of 4,691 acres, but a particularly high yield resulted in a production record (2,256,362 bushels) being obtained. While there was a further fall of 1,791 acres in 1949–50, another exceptionally high yield resulted in a new production record of 2,433,485 bushels.

One of the reasons ascribed to the high sowings was that, owing to unfavourable weather conditions in certain years, land which had been intended for wheat could not be prepared in time for that crop and such land was then devoted to barley, which could be sown later. The principal reason, however, would appear to be the inability to procure supplies abroad. Prior to 1945, considerable quantities of barley were imported—mainly for use as stock-food, but the quantities imported in recent years have decreased considerably.

Of the total area grown, 81 per cent. was threshed for grain in 1950, the remaining 19 per cent. being used for stock fodder (mostly feeding off).

Malting varieties account for approximately 82 per cent. of the area sown in barley.

POTATOES.—The production of potatoes is usually adequate to meet the home market, but in recent years there have been considerable fluctuations, a surplus in one year being followed by a shortage in another. The problem of the disposal of surplus quantities is rendered difficult by import restrictions on New Zealand potatoes entering Australia, although certain quantities were admitted in 1940 and again in 1950 owing to shortages of supplies in that country. Strangely enough, in each of the years mentioned the area in potatoes in New Zealand was comparatively small, but particularly high yields resulted in surplus quantities being available.

A low acreage in 1940–41 and 1941–42 coincided with an increased demand in the form of requirements for the Armed Forces and the Government entered into contracts with growers, all potatoes produced under these contracts being paid for. This had the desired effect and the area planted rose from 15,201 acres in 1941–42 to 29,774 acres in 1944–45. Since then the trend has been downward and a low area in 1948–49 combined with a comparatively low yield resulted in potatoes being in short supply towards the end of the season and 3,181 tons were imported from Australia. The area planted in 1949–50 was 1,155 acres less than in 1948–49 but a particularly heavy crop produced an increase of 25,783 tons in the total yield.

The contract system was continued after the close of the war, but its application was limited to main-crop potatoes.

Under the Potato Growing Industry Act, 1950, a Potato Board was established consisting of seven members, three of whom are representative of the growers on an elective basis, three nominated by the New Zealand Grain, Seed, and Produce Merchants' Association, Incorporated, and one an officer of the Public Service acting in an advisory capacity.

The principal functions of the Board are to ensure that an adequate supply of main-crop potatoes are available for consumption in New Zealand, and for that purpose to enter into contracts with growers for the growing of main-crop potatoes. The Act provides that the Board may impose a levy not exceeding 13s. per ton on main-crop potatoes sold by growers, the proceeds of which are to be applied by the Board in payment of charges, &c., for which it may become liable in the exercise of its functions.

Figures for area and yield for the last five years are as follows:—

Year.Area.Total Yield.Yield Per Acre.
 Acres.Tons.Tons.
1945–4623,228140,2526.04
1946–4719,276115,7626.01
1947–4821,887155,0187.08
1948–4918,940109,6445.79
1949–5017,785135,4277.61

The 1949–50 yield was made up of 100,433 tons of table potatoes, 27,306 tons of seed potatoes, and 7,688 tons of pig, &c., potatoes. The corresponding quantities in 1948–49 were 77,857 tons, 24,573 tons, and 7,214 tons.

Since 1936 special statistics of areas and yields of potatoes, classified according to varieties as well as by origin of seed planted (Government certified or otherwise), have been compiled annually. The information is obtained from a special collection from growers in July, by which time the bulk of the crop has been harvested. The inquiry is limited in the main to growers of 2 acres and over, but the resultant details which cover approximately 55 per cent. of the total potato acreage can be taken as fully representative of the crop as a whole. “Government certified” seed is that for which a Government certificate has been issued in respect of purity, &c. Seed obtained from the ensuing crop cannot be so designated unless the requisite certificate is issued by the authorities. The following table gives particulars of this special collection for each of the last five years. Similar information for individual varieties is published in the annual Statistical Report on Agricultural and Pastoral Production.

Year.Government Certified.Uncertified.Not Stated.Totals.
Area.Total Yield.Yield Per Acre.Area.Total Yield.Yield Per Acre.Area.Total YieldYield Per Acre.Area.Total Yield.Yield Per Acre.
 AcresTons.Tons.AcresTons.Tons.AcresTons.Tons.AcresTons.Tons.
1945–464,56130,9456.786,63036,5915.526863,8105.5511,87771,3466.01
1946-475,67539,4216.954,82826,9055.579905,7525.8111,49372,0786.27
1947–485,90247,8158.105,40637,2886.903392,2246.6511,64787,3277.50
1948–495,45935,6966.544,78326,4235.526263,9576.3210,86866,0766.08
1949–505,31043,7948.253,74226,5937.115173,6197.009,56974,0067.73

The table plainly indicates the superior yielding-capacity of certified seed. The average yield per acre over the five years for certified seed was 7.35 tons, as compared with 6.05 tons for uncertified seed. The advantage of 1.30 tons per acre in favour of crops from certified seed represents a yield-superiority of over 21 per cent. It is also of interest to note the increasing use of certified seed. Of the areas for which the information was supplied in 1938–39 the proportion of certified seed used was 35.5 per cent., as compared with 55.5 per cent. in 1949–50.

ONIONS.—Areas in and yields of onions for the last five years are as follows:—

Year.Area.Total Yield.Yield Per Acre.
 Acres.Tons.Tons.
1945–461,38711,9968.65
1946–471,20211,0199.17
1947–481,57213,5858.64
1948–491,17510,6749.08
1949–508878,3869.45

In earlier years the production of onions was rarely sufficient to supply domestic requirements. As onions are a semi-perishable commodity it was found convenient to export in the flush of the New Zealand season, and to obtain supplies from overseas later in the year. However, a considerable improvement has been effected in the keeping qualities of the varieties grown, and no onions were imported into New Zealand during the six calendar years ended 1950.

LINSEED.—The area under this crop has fluctuated considerably over a long period. In 1917–18 an area of 1,456 acres was recorded under linseed. This rose to 12,119 acres in 1923–24, dropped to 2,800 acres in 1929–30, and rose again to 12,200 acres in 1930–31. After further fluctuations the area planted fell away to 354 acres in 1942–43, then rose in successive years to a peak of 18,728 acres in 1947–48. Though the figures recorded for the last two years are each less than half of the 1947–48 area there is nevertheless still an appreciable area under this crop. The 1949–50 area of 7,535 acres gave a yield of 69,002 cwt. of seed.

Areas for the last five years are as follows:—

Year.Area.
 Acres.
1945–4610,361
1946–4712,292
1947–4818,728
1948–497,738
1949–507,535

SUPPLEMENTARY FODDER CROPS.—Although grass is the main crop of the farmer in New Zealand, at certain periods during the year the pastures need supplementing in order that the grassland may not become unduly exhausted, and also in order to maintain stock in a satisfactory condition. In mid-winter the grass is at a low stage of productivity generally, while under dry summer conditions it loses part of its nutritive value. During these periods, it is necessary that some extra feed should be provided, and this is usually done either by cutting the grass for hay or ensilage when there is an ample surplus on the pastures during the flush of the growing season, or by the provision of green fodder or root crops.

The following table gives detailed figures of the areas of the supplementary fodder crops available during each of the last five years.

Year.Chaff, Hay, or Ensilage.Green Fodder.Root and Other Crops for Feeding to Stock.Total Area of Fodder Crops.
Cereal Crops.Grasses and Clovers, including Lucerne.Cereal Crops.Other Crops.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1945–4687,779483,50954,622242,868387,6821,256,460
1946–4778,099582,65866,909244,871396,5571,369,094
1947–4871,241606,25960,375247,025405,6661,390,566
1948–4969,098648,60867,358262,252389,3531,436,669
1949–5055,101630,49375,578298,501394,5411,454,214

In 1949–50 grasses and clovers cut for hay or ensilage totalled 578,466 acres and lucerne 52,027 acres. Oats was the only cereal crop utilized in any quantity for this purpose, the area of oats cut for chaff, hay, or ensilage being 53,910 acres. Oats, also, was the principal cereal crop fed off to stock, accounting for 55,116 acres out of a total of 75,578 acres utilized for this purpose. The principal green-fodder crops apart from oats are rape (181,777 acres) and kale, including chou moellier (101,062 acres). Swedes and turnips are the principal root crops grown in New Zealand, the total area sown in these crops in 1949–50 being 389,819 acres (including 27,180 acres of turnips and rape mixed). Other root crops included 2,535 acres of mangolds and 394 acres of carrots and parsnips. Pumpkins and marrows were grown for fodder to the extent of 1,195 acres.

The total and per-acre yields obtained from the various crops cut for chaff, hay, or ensilage during the 1948–49 and 1949–50 seasons are shown in the next table. In the cases of grasses and clovers cut for hay or ensilage, second or catch crops are taken into account in the yield figures, the total yield including crops from areas which had previously yielded some other crop in the season concerned. These areas are not counted twice in the statistics of acreage, and average yields cannot be obtained by the mere division of the total yield by the area figures.

Crop.1948–49.1949–50.
Total Yield.Yield Per Acre.Total Yield.Yield Per Acre.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Wheat1,8522.131,2791.85
Oats122,5181.82100,1981.86
Barley1,1401.707911.81
Maize2844.242494.08
Grasses and clovers for hay1,077,1982.021,002,3852.03
Grasses and clovers for ensilage283,1274.17404,1384.84
Lucerne110,9372.35124,0402.38

GRASS-SEED.—The total area of grasses and clovers cut for seed during the 1949–50 season was 148,093 acres, yielding 1,826,030 bushels of 20 lb., as against 1,913,743 bushels from 160,057 acres in 1948–49. Canterbury, Otago, and Southland land districts between them provided 82 per cent. of the area cut.

The areas and yields of grass and clover crops harvested for seed, distinguishing the principal varieties, during each of the five years 1945–46 to 1949–50 are given in the table following.

Crop.1945–46.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.
AREAS
Rye-grass—Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
Perennial58,34571,83344,78351,22643,743
Italian21,01321,1314,4184,0953,461
Short-rotation (H1)1,1935,3876,0218,6298,001
Cocksfoot18,94111,4826,6726,6804,915
Chewings fescue17,16117,66316,53719,43617,755
Crested dogstail9,60911,9074,9137,9135,690
Red clover (including cow-grass)34,56739,68121,43522,29620,061
White clover43,45147,95425,40927,30329,515
Other grasses and clovers21,55127,23012,01812,47914,952
YIELDS
Rye-grass—lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
Perennial20,642,06130,672,77816,784,43617,159,33317,550,046
Italian10,157,17810,444,1011,838,9031,818,7471,352,021
Short-rotation (H1)539,0892,665,0722,261,2323,015,3143,326,029
Cocksfoot3,107,2181,726,3311,051,1831,193,364769,634
Chewings fescue2,957,7053,375,6792,617,5685,264,6113,522,867
Crested dogstail1,759,3322,735,8981,182,8031,770,3771,093,211
Red clover (including cow-grass)3,784,1763,772,5553,540,7643,667,0043,431,961
White clover5,336,4815,932,1333,461,2843,544,7894,294,276
Other grasses and clovers1,746,0841,638,250745,981841,3271,180,554

A considerable export of grass-seed has been built up during recent years, especially with the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America. In 1947 a considerable quantity of grass-seed was exported to various continental countries, particularly to Belgium. The total quantity of locally-produced grass and clover seed exported to all countries in 1950 amounted to 164,115 cwt., with a recorded value of £2,083,630.

PASTURE GRASSES.—Researches and experiments in regard to pasture grasses are regular features of the activities of both the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. These experiments, which extend right on to individual farms throughout New Zealand, and are conducted in co-operation with the farmers themselves, are wide in their application, and cover all the major phases of pasture management, dealing in particular with such items as pasture mixtures, suitability as to soil types, methods of establishment and management, the efficient use of fertilizers, &c. The results are made available per medium of the Journal of Agriculture and such allied publications, as well as by special pamphlets which are distributed without charge. The farmer is thus enabled to avail himself of, and profit by, highly specialized knowledge and experience. In addition, a constant endeavour is being made not only to improve existing strains by such measures as seed certification and the provision of pedigree seed referred to on page 424, but also to evolve new strains. At the beginning of the year 1950 there were 18,192,328 acres under artificially sown grasses (including 778,586 acres cut for seed, hay, or ensilage during the season), and in addition 12,929,127 acres of occupied land still remained in tussock or naturally established native grasses, making a total of 31,121,455 acres of grassland in occupation. The following table shows the respective areas occupied by artificially sown grasses and by tussock and other naturally established native grasses during the five years specified.

Year.Artificially Sown Pasture Grasses.*Tussock and other Naturally Established Native Grasses.Total Area under Grass.*
Cut for Seed, Hay, or Ensilage.Not Cut for Seed, Hay, or Ensilage.

* Includes lucerne.

† Includes approximately 200,000 acres also sown with crops.

 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1945–46708,14717,246,86713,968,33031,923,344
1946–47836,92617,239,83113,827,11131,903,868
1947–48748,46517,342,57313,647,37931,738,417
1948–49808,66517,280,11213,543,91531,632,692
1949–50778,58617,413,74212,929,12731,121,455

TOP-DRESSING (PASTURE LANDS).—Additional information was collected in 1949–50 regarding quantities and types of fertilizers used in grassland top-dressing. As formerly, however, fertilizers used in connection with field crops were excluded. Details covering the year ended 31st January, 1950, are as follows:—

Nature of Top-dressing.Area Top-dressed.Total Quantity of Fertilizer Used.
Artificial fertilizers only—Acres. 
Straight superphosphate2,531,8496,227,289 cwt.
Basic, reverted, or serpentine superphosphate609,5421,773,191 cwt.
Ground rock phosphate and/or basic slag319,644999,245 cwt.
Other phosphatic fertilizers and mixtures233,189726,409 cwt.
Manufactured organic fertilizers55,648161,047 cwt.
Lime only591,718517,868 tons.
Both artificial fertilizers and lime1,389,014 
Quantity of fertilizer 3,287,892 cwt.
Quantity of lime 593,221 tons.
      Total area of grassland top-dressed5,730,604 

Top-dressing in New Zealand is carried out mainly on cattle-grazing areas, including, of course, dairy-farms; the North Island, which contains 86 per cent. of the total cattle, accounted in 1949–50 for 78 per cent. of the area top-dressed.

The following table shows particulars of areas of grassland top-dressed during the last five years.

Year.Area Top-dressed.
With Artificial Fertilizer only.With Lime only.With both Artificial Fertilizer and Lime.Total Area Top-dressed.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1945–461,757,762606,7441,288,7433,653,249
1946–472,237,300566,0181,456,6764,259,994
1947–482,654,421548,4611,481,3434,684,225
1948–492,981,899584,4271,496,0865,062,412
1949–503,749,872591,7181,389,0145,730,604

In the decade prior to 1941–42 top-dressing had been rapidly expanding throughout New Zealand, culminating in the high figure of 4,649,317 acres top-dressed in 1940–41. Subsequent decreases were mainly attributable to the cessation of supplies of rock phosphate from Nauru and Ocean Islands as a direct consequence of military operations in the Pacific.

Since 1946 supplies of artificial fertilizer have been coming to hand in greater quantities and the area top-dressed with artificial fertilizer in 1949–50, including cases where lime also was used, was 5,138,886 acres, an increase of 660,901 acres over the 1948–49 figure. A noticeable feature was the increased use of lime during the period that phosphatic fertilizers were in such short supply.

The activities of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research in the treatment of experimental plots from the various aspects of soil and crop requirements, and the subsequent data published thereon, have been an important factor in conveying to the farmer the many advantages to be derived from the scientific treatment of pastures.

GARDENS AND PLANTATIONS.—The figures for market gardens, plantations, &c., for the last five years are shown below. State gardens and plantations are covered by these figures. It should be noted that the statistics relate only to holdings of 1 acre or upwards outside boroughs.

Year.Market Gardens.Nurseries.Private Gardens, &c.Plantations.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1945–4613,16198275,022861,008
1946–4713,0291,12778,933869,959
1947–4813,5801,11880,518871,356
1948–4913,4361,24983,822884,077
1949–5013,3691,64297,364907,741

Market Gardens.—The mobilization of large numbers of troops for home-defence purposes early in 1942, the presence of considerable numbers of Allied servicemen in New Zealand, and the demand for vegetables for members of the Allied Forces in the South Pacific, resulted in a considerable expansion in vegetable-production during the 1942–43 season followed by further increases in 1943–44 and 1944–45.

With the passing of this special demand for vegetables, the area in market gardens fell from 16,826 acres in 1944–45 to 13,161 acres in 1945–46, but there has been little change during the following four years.

Additional information collected in 1950 shows that the 13,369 acres recorded were distributed as follows: Gooseberries, 146 acres; blackcurrants, 154 acres; red currants, 26 acres; raspberries, 830 acres; other small fruits and berries, 331 acres; and vegetable crops, 11,882 acres.

The Commercial Gardens Registration Act, which came into force on the 1st May, 1943, provides for the compulsory registration of all areas of 1/2 acre or over of certain specified vegetables for sale for human consumption. The following vegetables are covered by the Act: Asparagus, bean, beetroot, Brussel sprouts, cabbage, carrot, cauliflower (including broccoli), celery, cucumber, leek, lettuce, marrow, melon, parsnip, pea, pumpkin, radish, rhubarb, silver beet, spinach, squash, sweet corn, tomato. The annual report of the Department of Agriculture for the year ended 31st March, 1951, states that the total area of commercial gardens registered under the Act was 15,300 acres at 30th September, 1950, the number of growers being 2,987. The difference between this area and the corresponding figure in the preceding table would be largely accounted for by the fact that areas within borough boundaries are included in the registration figures.

Nurseries.—Since 1939, owners of nurseries raising for sale certain specific trees, shrubs, and plants, have been required to register their nurseries before being permitted to sell plants. The number of nurseries so registered in 1950–51 was 524.

The 1,642 acres recorded under nurseries on holdings of 1 acre and over outside borough boundaries in 1950 were divided into the following categories:—Flowers and ornamental shrubs, 818 acres; forest tree seedlings, 349 acres; seedling fruit trees, 254 acres; and vegetable seedlings, 221 acres.

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY.—A great impetus to the planting of fruit-trees was given by the discovery that tracts of land, principally in the Nelson land district, which formerly were regarded as being practically useless, were eminently suited for growing fruit, particularly apples. For a time, considerable areas of this and other land were annually added to New Zealand's orchards, but the acreage then declined until it became stabilized in the neighbourhood of 25,000 acres. However, a further decline set in after 1935–36, the 1949–50 figure of 18,916 acres showing a decrease of 6,156 acres as compared with the 1935–36 total of 25,072 acres. These figures refer to orchards of 1/4 acre or over on holdings of 1 acre or more situated outside borough boundaries.

The following table shows the area outside borough boundaries which has been returned as under fruit-trees at each of the last eleven annual enumerations.

Year.Acres.
1939–4020,899
1940–4120,064
1941–4219,544
1942–4319,190
1943–4419,196
1944–4519,614
1945–4618,235
1946–4718,253
1947–4818,667
1948–4918,667
1949–5018,916

The production of apples predominates, this crop accounting for over half the total area in orchards. The percentages (estimated) of areas under production of the principal kinds of fruit under cultivation are as follows: Apples, 51.8; pears, 6.4; stone-fruits, 31.0; lemons, 3.7; other citrus, 6.1; other tree fruits, 1.0.

The Orchard-tax Act, 1927 (amended in 1933 and 1934), continuing legislation dating from 1916, provides for the levying in each year of a tax of 2s. per acre on commercial orchards, with a minimum tax of 5s. Of the proceeds, £850 is paid over to the New Zealand Fruitgrowers' Federation, and the balance credited to the vote of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research for use as required in assisting the industry. Authority also exists for the imposition of a special orchard-tax in the case of apple, pear, and quince orchards in commercial fruitgrowing districts for the purpose of combating fireblight. Imposition is discretionary, however, on the part of fireblight committees elected by the fruit-growers in the various districts. While the tax may not exceed 5s. per acre, or part of an acre, the specific amount (within the above limits) is at the discretion of the committees, and is collected at their request by the Department of Agriculture. Neither tax is payable in respect of any orchard with fewer than 120 fruit-trees.

Commercial orchards registered at 31st March, 1951, numbered 3,147, of which 2,126 were taxable and 1,021 non-taxable.

The latest figures available show that the relative sizes of taxable orchards in New Zealand were:—

Acres.Number.
1 to 51,055
6 to 10575
11 to 15265
16 to 20117
21 to 2545
26 to 5058
Over 5011

The number of trees in commercial orchards—i.e., orchards with 120 trees or more—at 31st March, 1951, according to the principal varieties was as follows: apple, 1,089,000; pear, 134,000; quince, 19,000; peach, 308,000; nectarine, 34,000; apricot, 116,000; plum, 148,000; cherry, 24,000; lemon, 52,500; orange, 34,500; grapefruit, 49,500; mandarin, 1,500.

The growing of outdoor grapes is chiefly confined to the districts situated between the North Cape and Hawke's Bay, the total area returned in vineyards in 1950 being 1,091 acres. The greater portion of the crop is used for winemaking, several wines of excellent quality being manufactured.

Marketing of Apples and Pears.—Upon the outbreak of war in 1939, by agreement with the New Zealand Fruitgrowers' Federation, the Marketing Department assumed the functions of the Fruit-export Control Board established under the Fruit Control Act, 1924. The Board retired from active participation, but remained as an advisory committee. The growers were given a fixed return for their fruit, the Government undertaking to sell the whole crop within New Zealand and to bear any losses consequent upon such policy. This action was taken owing to the loss of export markets resulting from lack of shipping-space on account of war conditions. The Apple and Pear Marketing Act, 1948, and its amendment of 1950, established the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board consisting of five members, two of whom are nominated by the New Zealand Fruitgrowers' Federation. The principal functions of the Board are the purchase and sale of apples and pears and matters incidental thereto including export arrangements. The Board does not employ staff except for secretarial and investigational duties, the physical functions of assembly, distribution, and marketing, being carried out by the Marketing Department as agent for the Board.

The Act provides that before 31st March in each season the Minister of Marketing, after consultation with the Board, shall declare an average price to be paid to growers for apples and pears grown during that season. This price is based on the standard cost of production. Thus the total amount paid by the Board for fruit purchased by it from growers in any season is the average price multiplied by the total quantity of fruit purchased. The actual prices paid by the Board to individual growers is fixed by the Board having regard to varieties, grades, quality, &c., of the fruit supplied.

If in any season the total receipts from sales of fruit by the Board exceed the amount which the Board is required to pay to growers in accordance with the declared average price, the surplus, after deduction of costs and expenses incurred by the Board, is retained as a reserve fund. If sales in any season realize less than the amount the Board is required to pay, the deficiency is met from the reserve fund.

All apples and pears are not purchased by the Board, the Act making provision for private sales by growers in accordance with regulations issued thereunder. During the twelve months ended 31st December, 1950, a total of 38,594,576 lb. of apples, valued at £678,992, were exported.

HOPS.—According to returns covering holdings of 1 acre or over outside boroughs there were 605 acres under hop-vines in the season 1949–50. In addition, there are certain areas in boroughs, and the annual report of the Department of Agriculture states that the gross area at the 1950 harvest was approximately 700 acres.

Practically the whole of the hop gardens are located in Waimea County. Production per acre usually ranges between 1,200 lb. and 1,500 lb., and the aggregate crop is usually sufficient to satisfy local requirements as well as to provide a surplus for export. However, the industry received a severe setback in the 1946 season as the result of the incidence of black-root disease, which was responsible for a particularly low yield. Production in the 1949–50 season was 929,000 lb., compared with 767,000 lb. in the previous year. The increased yield in 1950, despite a small decrease in the area planted, was the result of a favourable season.

TOBACCO.—Although the cultivation of tobacco-leaf on a commercial basis was initiated comparatively recently, the industry has made marked progress and growers are becoming increasingly familiar with the methods and plant required for the production of cured leaf acceptable to manufacturers. Production rose from 1,197,161 lb. in 1935–36 to 5,000,470 lb. in 1948–49, an increase of approximately 318 per cent. The 1949–50 crop dropped to 4,711,613 lb., a decrease of 288,857 lb. Though a smaller area was planted in 1949–50 the decrease in total production was mainly due to heavy frost losses which were estimated to exceed 500,000 lb. Commercial tobacco-growing is confined to those to whom licences are issued by the Tobacco Board established under the Tobacco-growing Industry Act, 1935, to control the industry. Most of the tobacco produced is flue-cured, producing a yellow-leaf tobacco which is largely used for the manufacture of cigarettes, the balance, air-cured, being used mainly in the manufacture of smoking mixtures and pipe tobacco.

The following particulars relating to tobacco-production have been taken from the annual report of the New Zealand Tobacco Board. It should be noted that the figures relate to the total commercial tobacco-production and not merely to holdings of 1 acre or over situated outside borough boundaries, as is the case with most of the statistics contained in this section.

Season.Number of Growers.Area Planted.Production.
  Acres.lb.
1945–165533,4054,080,135
1946–476283,8054,706,723
1947–486614,3224,770,827
1948–496194,3935,000,470
1949–505413,8994,711,613

The production figures represent the weight of the leaf purchased from growers before redrying. Flue-cured leaf accounted for 97.15 per cent. and air-dried leaf for 2.85 per cent. of the 1949–50 crop.

PHORMIUM.—Large areas in various parts of New Zealand are covered with phormium, or New Zealand flax, the fibre of which is largely used for rope-making, &c. An area of 46,413 acres was returned as under phormium on occupied holdings in 1949–50.

LINEN FLAX.—As a result of the exigencies of war, an entirely new industry was inaugurated in New Zealand—the growing of linen flax. Linen fibre is extensively used commercially, but assumed special importance as an essential war commodity. As the United Kingdom had previously imported 90 per cent. of her requirements, mainly from Russia, attention was of necessity paid to the possibility of obtaining supplies elsewhere.

Investigations into the growing of linen flax in New Zealand were first instituted in 1936, and much valuable research work was carried out by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research in collaboration with the Department of Agriculture. These investigations demonstrated the possibility of the establishment of the industry in New Zealand, and led to an officer being sent abroad to study the industry at first hand and to purchase the necessary processing machinery for an experimental factory.

Though 403 acres of linen flax were grown in 1939–40, the industry was not established on a commercial basis till the 1940–41 season, when 13,118 acres were grown under contract to the Crown in response to a request received from the United Kingdom Ministry of Supply that New Zealand should grow 15,000 acres. A request that sowings be further extended resulted in 20,200 acres being grown in 1941–42, followed by 21,067 acres in 1942–43. Owing to easement of the position and as a result of discussions with the United Kingdom, it was decided to curtail the acreage in 1943–44, with the result that the area dropped to 9,755 acres. However, the area rose again to 12,686 acres in 1944–45.

With the cessation of hostilities the immediate necessity for linen-flax products for specific war requirements no longer became a vital factor and the demand naturally lessened, and the area sown in the next four years varied between 4,070 and 4,717 acres. A further sharp decline was experienced in 1949–50 when the area fell to 2,791 acres. A corporation was formed under the Linen Flax Corporation Act, 1945, to organize and develop the industry, to carry on the business of producing linen-flax products, and to market any such products in New Zealand or overseas. The Act transferred to the Corporation all assets and liabilities held by the Crown for linen-flax purposes, and prohibits the incorporation of any other body for similar purposes.

SEED CERTIFICATION.—Commencing with the certification of seed potatoes and seed wheat in 1928, the Department of Agriculture has extended its activities in this direction to include such crops as perennial rye-grass, Italian rye-grass, Short-rotation (H1) rye-grass, cocksfoot, timothy, brown-top, Phalaris tuberosa, white clover, cow-grass (broad red clover), Montgomery red clover, subterranean clover, oats, barley, ryecorn, sweet blue lupins, onions, chou moellier, rape, kale, turnip, and swede seeds.

The scheme was introduced to provide the buyer of certified seeds with a guarantee that the produce of such seeds would be true to type and free from seed-borne diseases.

In the early stages of the scheme, certification, which has relationship only to the type of the plant and not to the purity or germination of the seed itself, was based on the identification of superior strains of seeds appearing in certain districts as a result of natural selection. At the same time, however, a programme of scientific plant selection was instituted by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research in an endeavour to improve still further the naturally occurring strains. The results of this selection work now form the basis of seed certification as applied to most of the above-mentioned types.

The task of raising seed of artificially selected strains involves in the first instance the testing of a large number of individual plants of the particular species. Only the plants giving the best performance under trial are resown for further multiplication, possibly half a dozen out of thousands.

These plants are then seeded together to produce small quantities of seed of the selected strain. This seed, in turn, is multiplied until sufficient is available to sow areas on a field scale. At this stage the Department of Agriculture takes over the material available and multiplies the seed under contract with selected farmers.

The resultant seed is distributed by the Department, sales being made through the mercantile firms to those farmers most favourably situated to make the best use of it for further seed-production. From this stage the selected strain is multiplied under the Department's certification scheme through the stages of certified “Pedigree” seed and certified “Mother” seed to certified “Standard” or “Permanent Pasture” seed. These seeds are sold through the usual commercial channels.

While in the lower classes of some varieties of certified seed at the present time there may be included also seed from natural strains, the proportion of the latter is being steadily reduced. The purpose of the various classes is to obtain the greatest bulk of good-quality seed in the “Standard” or “Permanent Pasture” class in the shortest time. Thus, while the higher grades are important to seed producers, farmers sowing for pasture purposes only, need not concern themselves with other than certified “Standard” or “Permanent Pasture” seed.

18 C—PASTORAL PRODUCTION

SUMMARY OF LIVE-STOCK.—The numbers of live-stock of various kinds at each of the last five annual enumerations were as shown in the following table. Detailed statistics of live-stock, by counties and land districts, are contained in the Statistical Report on Agricultural and Pastoral Production issued annually by the Census and Statistics Department. This publication also contains the summary tables appearing in parliamentary paper H.–25, which is devoted exclusively to a statistical analysis of the annual sheep returns. These returns were not collected in 1946. It should be noted that, unless otherwise stated, the statistics quoted in the tables in this subsection relate to holdings of 1 acre or upwards situated outside borough boundaries.

1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.

* Includes those in boroughs and on holdings under 1 acre.

† Not available.

Horses216,335206,575203,885196,055194,846
Dairy-cows in milk1,661,9441,657,6901,713,5321,746,7531,845,510
Cattle (including dairy cows)4,666,7824,633,8004,716,2874,722,8364,948,809
Sheep shorn during season30,475,74030,214,77230,075,21330,277,55131,525,570
Lambs shorn during season5,335,0504,929,2635,697,4555,624,8956,332,148
Lambs tailed during season19,561,45818,642,29819,835,04619,805,88521,169,846
Sheep (including lambs) as at 30th April*32,681,79932,483,13832,844,91833,856,558
Breeding-ewes as at 30th April*20,743,78221,055,48221,499,70321,881,467
Pigs (total)549,391545,874548,177544,841552,373
Breeding-sows72,57367,93868,35468,30574,113

In the following tables the figures of live-stock are given for each land district. Horses, dairy cows in milk, total cattle, sows, and total pigs are as at 31st January, 1950. Sheep shorn, lambs shorn, and lambs tailed are for the season 1949–50, while breeding-ewes and total sheep are as at 30th April, 1950.

Land District.Horses.Dairy Cows in Milk.Total Cattle.Breeding-sows.Total Pigs.
North Auckland27,847413,902849,05417,294126,147
South Auckland41,202662,9321,362,16028,618214,220
Gisborne13,26843,719366,0592,42716,829
Hawke's Bay14,01252,552390,6062,06714,604
Taranaki12,217236,593429,7886,42251,793
Wellington27,095225,786855,4279,34566,108
Marlborough3,41213,71057,3376925,234
Nelson3,29532,69874,4961,75514,901
Westland1,39813,35853,6746606,425
Canterbury22,07863,323204,1233,32623,469
Otago15,42734,986131,2908677,086
Southland13,59551,951174,7956405,557
      Totals194,8461,845,5104,948,80974,113552,373
Land District.Sheep shorn.Lambs shorn.Lambs tailed.Breeding-ewes.*Total Sheep.*

* Includes those in boroughs and on holdings under 1 acre.

North Auckland1,191,318368,544722,665776,8831,218,550
South Auckland3,210,945949,9652,265,6372,379,4423,453,878
Gisborne2,052,098823,2921,064,9601,237,2212,140,750
Hawke's Bay4,137,0211,160,2842,775,2762,873,9284,376,120
Taranaki925,789287,870605,514622,480973,028
Wellington6,586,2652,213,9514,305,1674,337,1916,969,334
Marlborough971,88984,044496,599589,6601,019,344
Nelson376,15124,199184,840246,324415,467
Westland71,5687,61262,74256,63573,149
Canterbury4,944,932237,5643,620,8793,660,2745,459,268
Otago3,659,66066,2752,264,1032,479,0714,082,528
Southland3,397,934108,5482,801,4642,622,3583,675,142
      Totals31,525,5706,332,14821,169,84621,881,46733,856,558

The next table shows the proportion of the various kinds of live-stock in each land district. The figures reveal that the dairying and beef-production industries are both largely concentrated in the North Island, which has 86 per cent. of the total cattle and 88 per cent. of the dairy stock. Localizing the dairying industry still further, it is found that over half the milking cows of New Zealand are in the area comprised of the land districts of North and South Auckland. Taranaki and Wellington are practically equally important as regards the number of cows in milk: between them they account for over one-quarter of the total.

Taking the number of beef cows two years old and over as a guide to beef-production, Wellington Land District easily leads with nearly one-quarter of the New Zealand total. South Auckland is second, followed by Hawke's Bay, Gisborne, and North Auckland, in that order. These five districts together depasture 81 per cent. of cows reserved for beef-production.

Pig-farming is largely an adjunct of dairy-farming, and consequently the distribution of swine closely follows that of dairy cattle. Taranaki, however, which is mainly a cheese-producing district, has 12.8 per cent. of New Zealand's milking-cows, but only 9.4 per cent. of the pigs, while Canterbury, with only 3.4 per cent. of the cows in milk has 4.3 per cent. of the pig population.

Sheep-farming is more evenly distributed between the North and South Islands. The land districts of major importance are Wellington, Canterbury, Hawke's Bay, Otago, Southland, and South Auckland, in that order, these six districts accounting for 83 per cent. of the total sheep population in 1950.

The location of each class of live-stock is now given, the figures showing the percentage distribution in each land district.

Land District.Dairy Cows, Two Years Old and Over (in Milk).Cows and Heifers, Two years Old and Over (Other Than for Dairying).Total Cattle.Breeding-sows.Total Pigs.Total Horses.Sheep Shorn.*Lambs Shorn.*Lambs Tailed.*

* Sheep shorn, lambs shorn, and lambs tailed during 1949–50, remaining particulars for stock as at 31st January, 1950.

North Auckland22.439.8417.1623.3322.8414.293.785.823.41
South Auckland35.9216.8827.5338.6138.7821.1510.1815.0010.70
Gisborne2.3715.877.403.283.056.816.5113.005.03
Hawke's Bay2.8516.117.892.792.647.1913.1218.3213.11
Taranaki12.824.128.688.679.386.272.944.552.86
Wellington12.2322.2717.2912.6111.9713.9020.8934.9620.34
Marlborough0.741.801.160.930.951.753.081.332.35
Nelson1.771.051.512.372.701.691.190.380.87
Westland0.721.301.080.891.160.720.230.120.30
Canterbury3.434.154.124.494.2511.3315.693.7517.10
Otago1.902.682.651.171.287.9211.611.0510.70
Southland2.823.933.530.861.006.9810.781.7213.23

SHEEP.—Although the first permanent establishment of sheep took place in 1834, when a small flock of Merinos was brought from Sydney and landed on Mana Island, it was not till the early 1840's that flocks were established in the Canterbury and Wellington districts. Other districts followed soon after. These original flocks were Merinos, but experience showed that this breed was not suited to the wetter parts of the North Island. In many districts in the South Island, however, they became firmly established in the high country, where the Merino or Merino crossbred are the only sheep capable of standing up to the conditions occasioned by extremes of climate. In the following two decades a number of English breeds were imported, notably Romneys, Southdowns, Lincolns, and English and Border Leicesters. The Merino ewe furnished the foundation of the crossbred stock, which made Canterbury mutton and lamb famous on the British meat markets. Towards the end of the last century systematic inbreeding of Merino-longwool half-bred sheep resulted in the evolution of the now world-known Corriedale breed. The Romney Marsh has long been the most popular sheep, particularly in the North Island, where it accounts for no less than 92 per cent. of flock sheep other than crossbreds. The corresponding proportion in the South Island is 19 per cent., while over the whole country it amounts to 58 per cent.

The numbers of sheep enumerated as at 30th April, 1944, constituted a new high figure for New Zealand, being 821,524 above the previous record established in 1938. This was superseded by the 1945 figure of 33,974,612, which represented a further increase of 774,314. The collection of returns was suspended in 1946 owing primarily to printing difficulties but was again resumed in 1947. The number of sheep recorded as at 30th April, 1947, 32,681,799, showed a decrease of 1,292,813 as compared with the 1945 figure. This was attributed largely to heavy killings consequent on severe drought conditions prevailing in the summer and autumn of 1946. The 1948 figure of 32,483,138 showed a further decrease of 198,661. However, the number of breeding-ewes in 1948 rose by 311,700, and indicated that the fall in the total number of sheep was merely the temporary result of an increased killing programme in 1947–48. This was borne out by the results of the 1949 collection, the total number of sheep at 30th April of that year being 32,844,918, an increase of 361,780 as compared with 1948. A further increase of 444,221 in the number of breeding-ewes in 1949 was indicative of the further rise in the sheep population which transpired in 1950. The number of breeding-ewes rose by 381,764 reaching a new record level of 21,881,467 in 1950, while the total number of sheep increased by 1,011,640 to 33,856,558, only 118,054 below the record figure of 1945.

In the following table showing sheep distribution by Islands, the Chatham Islands are included in the South Island, as they form portion of the Canterbury-Kaikoura Sheep District. The figures include sheep in boroughs and on holdings under 1 acre.

Year.North Island.South Island.Total Sheep at 30th April.
193717,065,13514,240,68331,305,818
193817,705,99914,672,77532,378,774
193917,509,22214,387,86931,897,091
194017,075,05613,987,81931,062,875
194117,862,33013,889,33031,751,660
194418,899,65614,300,64233,200,298
194519,108,73314,865,87933,974,612
194718,123,77314,558,02632,681,799
194818,388,44614,094,69232,483,138
194918,600,06814,244,85032,844,918
195019,020,90214,835,65633,856,558

The following table shows the number of rams, wethers, breeding-ewes, dry ewes, and lambs in New Zealand for the last five years for which figures are available.

Year.Rams.Wethers.Breeding-ewes.Dry Ewes.Lambs.Totals.
Stud Sheep (entered in Flock-book)
194513,436 309,4476,230223,491552,604
194713,361 316,2037,250234,254571,068
194812,380 314,1456,092237,892570,509
194912,576 323,7046,966239,379582,625
195012,129 319,0776,249245,369582,824
Sheep of a Distinctive Breed but not entered in Flock-book
1945542,0631,035,7635,753,230265,6332,331,5159,928,204
1947554,1581,095,2756,044,814282,1472,180,88110,157,275
1948549,463903,1735,420,298212,5932,140,8519,226,378
1949559,009953,7465,818,439211,1612,134,2639,676,618
1950568,697982,8436,324,524232,6642,414,33910,523,067
Crossbred Sheep
19454,1701,490,02514,803,181646,2826,550,14623,493,804
19475,3601,396,79114,382,765641,4185,527,12221,953,456
19489,6341,345,68815,321,039441,9095,567,98122,686,251
194911,3371,521,66715,357,560417,1155,277,99622,585,675
195013,8561,493,41615,237,866404,5075,601,02222,750,667
Totals
1945559,6692,525,78820,865,858918,1459,105,15233,974,612
1947572,8792,492,06620,743,782930,8157,942,25732,681,799
1948571,4772,248,86121,055,482660,5947,946,72432,483,138
1949582,9222,475,41321,499,703635,2427,651,63832,844,918
1950594,6822,476,25921,881,467643,4208,260,73033,856,558

The average size of the flocks was 1,039 in 1945, 997 in 1947, 975 in 1948, 983 in 1949, and 1,008 in 1950. The subdivision of the large estates of the pioneering days and the practice of running small flocks on dairy-farms, a typical feature of recent activities, has resulted in a decrease in the average size of flocks as compared with earlier days. Since the beginning of the present century, however, there has been little variation. An upward tendency was evident between 1939 and 1945, due no doubt to the decrease in dairy stock during the war period. Decreases in 1947 and 1948 have been followed by slight rises in 1949 and 1950, probably as a result of increases in the price of wool. A classification according to size shows the following position.

Size of Flocks.1945.1947.1948.1949.1950.
1 to 2006,8517,1977,2087,1336,753
201 " 5007,1097,0117,3307,1817,094
501 " 1,0007,8718,0298,1768,2008,231
1,001 " 2,5008,0608,0878,1618,4298,980
2,501 " 5,0002,0641,9101,8391,8691,942
5,001 " 7,500440407365387384
7,501 " 10,000152124121119107
10,001 " 20,000120971089486
20,001 and over161591112
      Total flocks32,68332,87733,31733,42333,589

The numbers of different classes comprising the flocks in April, 1950, were as follows:—

Breed of Sheep.Stud Sheep entered in Flock-book.Sheep of a Distinctive Breed not entered in Flock-book.Totals.
Romney295,7816,429,8396,725,620
Southdown182,560302,413484,973
Corriedale42,5361,083,2131,125,749
Merino25,290777,392802,682
Border Leicester13,01923,57936,598
Halfbred5,4501,880,9781,886,428
Ryeland4,8358,38913,224
English Leicester4,3933,1987,591
Cheviot3,4696,3089,777
Lincoln2,9372,7125,649
Dorset Horn1,2052,3093,514
Suffolk7231,8382,561
Shropshire5427691,311
Other breeds84130214
Crossbred rams 13,85613,856
      Totals582,82410,536,92311,119,747
Flock sheep: Crossbreds and others not otherwise enumerated  22,736,811
      Grand totals582,82410,536,92333,856,558

WOOL-PRODUCTION.—Although sixth in order in actual size of flocks in 1949–50, in point of production of wool New Zealand was the third largest in the world and ranked second in the list of principal exporting countries. New Zealand specializes in the production and export of crossbred wool, and in this field her only serious competitors are Argentina and Uruguay. With the exception of a small annual consumption by local mills the whole of the wool produced in New Zealand is exported. The quantity on a greasy basis used by local mills prior to the war was from 7,000,000 lb. to 8,000,000 lb. per annum, but this was greatly increased during the war period, consumption in 1942–43 being 15,300,000 lb. and in 1943–44, 17,200,000 lb. By 1946–47, however, it had fallen to 13,400,000 lb. and has remained at a reasonably stable figure since, being 13,800,000 lb. in 1947–48, 13,100,000 lb. in 1948–49, 13,700,000 lb. in 1949–50, and 12,700,000 lb. in 1950–51.

The following are the figures of estimated production in each of the last eleven seasons.

Year Ended 30th June,Estimated Production.
 lb.
1941331,500,000
1942345,000,000
1943340,000,000
1944330,000,000
1945372,000,000
1946365,000,000
1947367,000,000
1948362,000,000
1949367,000,000
1950390,000,000
1951390,000,000

The above estimates have been obtained by a consideration of all available statistical information, and have been computed on a greasy basis.

The Wool Industry Act, 1944, which came into operation on 11th January, 1945, provides for the establishment of the New Zealand Wool Board of ten members, this Board replacing the New Zealand Wool Council established under the Wool Industry Promotion Act, 1936, which the present Act repealed. The Board's principal concern is the promotion of the wool industry, particularly in regard to markets, scientific and industrial research in relation to wool and sheep with a view to improvement in quality and quantity, and the discovery of new or improved methods of utilization. Specific matters in relation to which the Board may be called upon to exercise certain functions are the production, handling, pooling, appraising, storage, distribution, marketing, and disposal of wool. The Board is empowered to act in combination or association with other bodies established outside New Zealand functioning on similar lines. It is also represented on the Wool Commission established by the Wool Commission Act, 1951. For the purpose of providing funds to enable the Board to carry out its functions, the Act provides for a levy on all wool produced in New Zealand, the rate of the levy to be fixed each season by the Board. At the present time, however, the provisions in regard to the payment of the levy are suspended, but an equivalent amount is received by the Board from the contributory charge imposed by the Wool Commission Act, 1951, which replaced the Wool Disposal Act, 1945, under which a similar arrangement was in operation (see page 396).

CATTLE.—The total number of cattle recorded at the enumeration of 1950 was 4,948,809, as against 4,722,836 in 1949. The figures for 1949 and 1950 grouped according to the classification in use, were as follows:—

Dairy stock—1949.1950.
  Breeding-bulls, two years old and over57,52761,867
  Cows and heifers, two years old and over—  
    Cows in milk during season1,746,7531,845,510
    Heifers not yet in milk62,91858,177
    Cows not in milk during season, but intended to be used again for dairying43,08059,677
Heifers—  
  One and under two years old365,851394,224
  Under one year old373,432408,352
Bulls and bull calves under two years old to be used for breeding purposes31,86732,170
      Totals, dairy stock2,681,4282,859,977
Beef stock—  
  Breeding-bulls, two years old and over22,12922,358
  Cows and heifers, two years old and over756,354771,875
  Heifers—  
    One and under two years old197,930199,443
    Under one year old185,756206,870
  Steers, two years old and over446,689455,675
  Steers and bulls—  
    One and under two years old202,788207,929
    Under one year old229,762224,682
      Totals, beef stock2,041,4082,088,832
      Totals, cattle4,722,8364,948,809

Most of the leading breeds of the cattle of Great Britain are represented in New Zealand by herds bred on sound lines. Provision was made in the 1950 Census of Agriculture for the collection of breeds of cattle, the first collection of this nature since 1928. The following table shows details by breeds as at 31st January, 1950, separate figures being given for dairy and beef stock.

Breed.Purebred.Crossbred.Total.
Dairy Stock
Jersey107,1612,323,7242,430,885
Friesian (Holstein)12,956152,524165,480
Milking Shorthorn7,323155,942163,265
Ayrshire13,85577,02590,880
Red Poll5503,8904,440
Others794,9485,027
      Total Dairy stock141,9242,718,0532,859,977
Beef Stock
Polled Angus18,9951,376,6541,395,649
Hereford5,176451,668456,844
Shorthorn1,506145,545147,051
Jersey21735,75535,972
Milking Shorthorn7825,56425,642
Red Poll11112,93713,048
Friesian (Holstein)7211,87211,944
Others1722,5102,682
      Total Beef stock26,3272,062,5052,088,832

While a detailed comparison between the two collections is not possible as the method of collection has altered considerably between the years—e.g., the latest figures provide for a division between stock used for dairying as against stock for beef purposes, whereas this provision did not exist in 1928—a comparison between breed totals, though still not exact, shows some interesting trends as will be seen from the following table. Details for 1918, the first year in which a similar collection was undertaken, are also included.

Breed of Cattle.1918.1928.1950.

* Jersey and other Channel Island breeds.

† Milking Shorthorn and Shorthorn combined.

Jersey—   
  Purebred6,22839,379107,378
  Crossbred355,247*1,236,289*2,359,479
Polled Angus—   
  Purebred2,1054,26919,066
  Crossbred145,178351,1181,379,382
Hereford—   
  Purebred4,9934,2105,176
  Crossbred289,462426,241452,928
Milking Shorthorn—   
  Purebred5,2406,8297,401
  CrossbredIncluded in Shorthorn below440,585181,506
Friesian (Holstein)—   
  Purebred4,03310,67013,028
  Crossbred198,042231,022164,396
Shorthorn—   
  Purebred Included with Milking Shorthorn above1,506
  Crossbred1,660,274417,493145,545
Ayrshire—   
  Purebred1,3194,90513,981
  Crossbred49,81648,19278,878
Red Poll—   
  Purebred 831661
  Crossbred 6,90916,827
Guernsey—   
  Purebred 357
  CrossbredIncluded with JerseyIncluded with Jersey1,017
Devon—   
  Purebred321161
  Crossbred 2,121372
Galloway—   
  Purebred  46
  Crossbred  228
Alderney purebred535 
Other purebred cattle87  
Other dairy crossbreds66,7771,286 
Other beef crossbreds49,7896,164 
      Totals, purebred24,04271,279168,251
      Totals, crossbred2,814,5853,167,4204,780,558
      Grand totals2,838,6273,238,6994,948,809

The most significant feature of the change in breeds, apart from the continued steady gain by the Jersey strain, is the substantial increase recorded by Polled Angus. The rate of increase shown by this breed over the past twenty years rivals the rate of progress made by the Jerseys in earlier years.

Although an exact comparison between Milking Shorthorn and Shorthorn breeds is not possible, it is very evident that both these breeds have lost considerable favour since 1928.

For some time prior to 1933 the development of the beef breeds was somewhat checked, partly owing to the advance taking place in dairying operations and partly through the difficulties of competing with other countries in the British market; but the successful inauguration of chilled beef shipments to the London market led to a marked increase in beef animals. Although the wartime arrangement for the purchase by the United Kingdom Government of New Zealand meat available for export did not include chilled beef, the schedule of prices was so framed that the producers of animals of the type required for the chilled beef trade would not suffer on account of the temporary cessation of the industry. A condition of the long-term contract for the purchase of meat by the United Kingdom Government, referred to on page 400, is that the chilled beef trade is to be progressively resumed as and when the shipping position permits.

Up to 1935 the breeding of dairy cattle made great progress in New Zealand. From then on, up to 1944, with the exception of 1941, when a slight increase was recorded, a series of successive decreases was experienced. Decreases, although slight, were again recorded in 1946 and 1947, but in each of the succeeding three years substantial increases took place, the total for 1950 (1,845,510) being 38,133 above the previous highest figure of 1,807,377 recorded in 1935.

The following table shows the number of holdings with dairy cows in milk, grouped according to size of herd in milk, for the years 1945 to 1949. Particulars for 1950 are not yet available. The figures relate to holdings of 1 acre and over situated outside borough boundaries.

Year.Number of Cows in Milk.Total Holdings with Cows in Milk.
1–010–1920–2930–3940–4950–5060–6970–7980–8990–99100 and over
194532,0325,2855,3745,7664,7733,4452,8471,8701,4538142,05165,710
194631,3715,1485,4785,8594,7663,4382,7791,9491,3747841,99064,936
194732,0655,1355,4995,9474,8763,5222,7621,9461,3148141,89165,771
194832,3884,7865,2985,8105,1383,7452,8992,0161,4138782,03566,406
194931,8214,7525,0975,8275,1943,8633,1002,0431,4849432,06466,188

DAIRY-PRODUCE.—The Dairy Industry Act, 1908 (a consolidation of previous legislation), with its amendments, may in general terms be described as an Act to regulate the production, collection, treatment, preparation, and manufacture, under proper sanitary conditions, of dairy-produce—i.e., milk, cream, butter, cheese, and any other product of milk or cream—intended for sale for human consumption within New Zealand or for export.

Inspectors are empowered to inspect premises used for the production or manufacture of dairy-produce. Any defects affecting the cleanliness and sanitation of the premises, or of the plant, machinery, and apparatus used in connection therewith, may be ordered to be remedied to the satisfaction of the inspector, and until so remedied their use in the production of dairy-produce may be forbidden. Inspectors are authorized to condemn any dairy-produce considered unfit for human consumption, and the sale of unwholesome milk or other dairy-produce is prohibited.

Milk or cream purchased for the manufacture of dairy-produce and paid for according to the percentage of butterfat contained therein must have this percentage determined by the Babcock or the Gerber test. Dairy factories are required by regulations under the Act to pay different prices for different grades of milk or cream supplied for the manufacture of dairy-produce. Factories are also required to furnish to suppliers a certified annual statement of overrun, and provision is made for an independent investigation by the Audit Department where a supplier is dissatisfied with the statement received.

Dairy-produce intended for export must be sound and wholesome in all respects, and must comply with the requirements of the Act as to inspection, grading, and marking. The export of butter containing more than 16 per cent. of water or less than 80 per cent. of butterfat is prohibited. The export of cheese of which the water-free substance consists of less than 50 per cent. of fats wholly derived from milk is also illegal.

Wide powers are conferred to make regulations prescribing matters of detail with regard to the production, manufacture, sale, and export of dairy-produce. In particular, regulations may be made for the registration of dairies, the licensing of persons carrying on the manufacture of dairy-produce, the registration of brands to be used on dairy-produce, and for the inspection, grading, packing, marking, stamping, and labelling of dairy-produce.

The Co-operative Dairy Companies Act, 1949, which replaced similar legislation contained in the Dairy Industry Act, 1908, and its amendments, provides for the registration of co-operative dairy companies. No dairy company may include in its registered name the word “co-operative” unless it is entitled to be registered as a co-operative dairy company under the Act. A company registered under the Act is authorized to accept or to compel the surrender of shares issued in certain cases, subject to the rights of shareholders being safeguarded. This refers mainly to shareholders who have ceased to supply milk, cream, or butterfat to the company for a specified period. The Act provides for the establishment of the Co-operative Dairy Companies Tribunal of three members, the functions of which are to fix the fair value of shares surrendered in cases where the company and the shareholder are unable to agree as to the value of the surrendered shares and to fix the terms of repayment by the company.

Production of Dairy-produce.—The quantity of butterfat supplied to dairy factories from farms during 1950–51 was 431,955,000 lb., as compared with 406,037,000 lb. in the previous year, an increase of 6 per cent. The following series of tables show for the years 1945–46 to 1950–51 the quantities of butterfat received into dairy factories from farms, the utilization in manufacture, and the quantities of butter, cheese, and other dairy products made.

Factory Year.Butterfat received from Farms.Total Butterfat used in Manufacture.Butterfat recovered from Whey.
In Milk.In Cream.
 (000) lb.(000) lb.(000) lb.(000) lb.
1945–46106,447209,815316,2624,813
1946–47109,672239,680349,3524,408
1947–48114,949242,965357,9144,395
1948–49133,362261,180394,5424,872
1949–50143,714262,323406,0375,299
1950–51157,557274,398431,9555,550
Factory Year.Butterfat used in Manufacture of—
Creamery Butter.Whey Butter.Cheese.*Condensed and Dried Milk, &c.

* Includes residual butterfat in whey cream later used in manufacture of whey butter.

 (000) lb.(000) lb.(000) lb.(000) lb.
1945–46227,9565,05583,1524,912
1946–47263,2524,54380,9125,053
1947–48274,9534,54377,3195,493
1948–49299,1265,01888,5486,722
1949–50304,8315,49393,9337,079
1950–51328,4075,74696,6946,658
Factory Year.Creamery Butter Made.Whey Butter Made.Cheese Made.Other Whole-milk Products Made.Skim-milk Products Made.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
1945–462,479,26854,7491,890,607320,950241,211
1946–472,864,51350,2491,332,916353,747347,737
1947–482,990,42549,2051,728,902394,160377,295
1948–493,255,77754,5051,989,847451,418524,112
1949–503,317,25559,6552,107,520478,309655,317
1950–513,574,56162,6622,170,490460,147876,770

Changes in the usage of butterfat in dairy factories over recent years are indicated by the percentages in the following table.

Percentage of Total Butterfat.
1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.
Butterfat received into factories from farms and used for—Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
  Buttermaking75.476.975.875.576.0
  Cheesemaking23.221.622.522.822.4
  Condensed and dried milk, &c.1.41.51.71.71.6
      Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

In the next table the variations over the last eleven years in total butterfat production, including estimates for butterfat in milk and cream sold for human consumption, used and lost on farms, &c., are shown. The table also gives the number of dairy cows recorded as in milk, on farms of 1 acre or more, outside borough boundaries, and estimates of the average butterfat production per cow "at the pail."

Year.Total Butterfat.Dairy Cows in Milk.Average Production per Cow.

* Provisional.

 Million lb.(000)lb.
1940–414661,759262
1941–424371,757246
1942–434071,715234
1943–443871,648232
1944–454321,679254
1945–463721,662221
1946–474081,658243
1947–484181,714241
1948–494571,747259
1949–504711,846253
1950–51498*1,898260*

The next table shows the estimated utilization of total butterfat production for each of the last five seasons.

1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.*

* Provisional.

† Includes an estimate for butterfat contained in factory-separated skim-milk used in the manufacture of dried milk, casein, &c. These totals, therefore, differ slightly from those given in the table on page 434.

Million lb.
Supplied to dairy factories349.9358.7395.7406.6432.4
Home-separation losses4.94.85.25.25.9
Concentrated milk products not included under dairy factories0.20.20.30.30.3
      Total used in manufacture at factories (measured at pail)355.0363.7401.2412.1438.6
Human consumption: milk and cream34.135.036.540.741.4
Used in ice-cream0.60.60.60.60.6
Used in farm butter6.66.66.65.74.9
Fed to calves7.77.77.87.87.8
Spilt or wasted4.14.24.64.75.0
      Total production (at pail)408.1417.8457.3471.6498.3

The climatic conditions during the 1948–49 season were excellent throughout and total butterfat-production increased by 9⅓ per cent. over the previous year; the total of 457,000,000 lb. was the second highest on record, as also was the average yield per cow.

The 1949–50 season was very favourable and, up to the end of December, a new production record seemed assured. In January, however, an unfavourable dry spell, particularly north of Taranaki, set in and production declined steeply. However, total butterfat production “at the pail” beat all previous records, exceeding the 1940–41 figure by over 4,000,000 lb. Average production per cow, however, fell below the 1940–41 figure and was also less than in 1948–49.

Dairy production during the 1950–51 season was the highest ever recorded in New Zealand. Favourable weather, an increase in the number of dairy cows, and improved methods, all contributed to this result. Total butterfat production exceeded the previous record, set in 1949–50, by 6 per cent., and average production per cow was also higher than in any previous year. The quantity of butterfat processed by dairy factories was greater than had been hitherto recorded, and notable increases were shown in manufacture, particularly in the production of butter and of skim-milk products.

The following diagram shows the progress of the dairy industry during the last forty-five years, and also illustrates the disparity between the growth in the number of dairy cows and that of pigs.

PIGS.—For some years prior to 1937 a quickening of interest in pig-production as an adjunct to dairy-farming raised pig numbers considerably above those noted previously, culminating in the record figure of 808,463 in 1936. Since then, however, the general trend has been downward, although there were slight increases over the immediately preceding year in 1940, 1941, 1945, 1948, and 1950. The 1950 figure of 552,373 shows a decrease of 256,090, or 32 per cent. as compared with the peak figure of 1936.

As at 31st January,Pigs under Six Months Old.Pigs Six Months and under One Year Old.Boars One Year Old and Over.Sows One Year Old and Over.Total Pigs.
1946348,987114,66013,17172,573549,391
1947330,063135,18512,68867,938545,874
1948330,914136,13312,77668,354548,177
1949333,056130,64912,83168,305544,841
1950351,795112,33714,12874,113552,373

Particulars as to pig breeds were collected in 1950, the first time a collection of this nature had been carried out since 1928. The following table shows details by breeds as at 31st January, 1950, total figures where comparable also being given for 1928 and 1918.

Breed.1950.1928.1918.
Under 6 Months Old.6 Months and Under 1 Year.Boars, 1 Year Old and Over.Sows, 1 Year Old and Over.Total.Total.Total.
Berkshire17,2075,9283,4339,44136,00978,75866,610
Large White8,8542,5771,2803,25315,9648,5557,216
Tamworth15,3175,7452,1856,85230,09915,5564,400
Large Black7,3852,1358853,68314,088
Duroc Jersey1,1154542574602,286
Wessex Saddleback20  222
Crossbreds301,89795,4986,08850,422453,905476,835175,038
      Total pigs351,795112,33714,12874,113552,373579,704253,264

The popularity of the Berkshire breed has declined heavily. In 1924 this breed reached its highest level at 101,179, since when other breeds, notably Tamworth, have come into prominence, while both the Large White and Large Black have also made steady gains. The proportion of crossbred pigs has remained relatively constant at 82 per cent. between 1928 and 1950.

LIVE-STOCK SLAUGHTERING: The following table shows the numbers of the different classes of live-stock slaughtered for food during each of the last eleven September years. The figures are total killings—i.e., they include export-works, abattoirs, rural slaughterhouses, and killings on farms. Information in the case of the latter was not collected during the three years ended 30th September, 1945, but estimates have been included for those years.

LIVE-STOCK SLAUGHTERINGS (000 CARCASES)

Year Ended 30th September,Sheep.Lambs.Cattle.Calves.Pigs.

* Provisional figures.

19414,18511,6976541,0841,005
19424,79811,5607011,025926
19434,48811,5257601,065767
19444,84611,096632968727
19454,79011,159671973675
19465,41612,3246941,037656
19475,03611,8087281,084633
19484,64512,3757121,174638
19494,82812,3736621,204674
1950*4,97912,7896931,275677
1951*4,40011,6796911,310707

Sheep and Lambs.—As the United Kingdom takes the great bulk of the mutton and lamb exported from New Zealand, it is interesting to note the extent to which New Zealand contributes to this market in comparison with importations from other countries.

In the calendar year 1938 New Zealand supplied 63 per cent. of the total frozen mutton imported into the United Kingdom and 50 per cent. of the total imports of frozen lamb. Australia, the next largest supplier in 1938, contributed 23 per cent. of mutton imports and 29 per cent. of lamb imports, while Argentina, which ranked third on the list, supplied 16 per cent. and 13 per cent. respectively.

That New Zealand has more than maintained her position in this connection in the post-war years is evidenced by the figures for 1950. In that year New Zealand supplied 63 per cent. of the frozen mutton and 72 per cent. of the frozen lamb imported into the United Kingdom, whereas the proportions supplied by Australia fell to 18 per cent. for mutton and 15 per cent. for lamb. Imports from Argentina in 1950 amounted to 9 per cent. and 11 per cent. respectively.

Cattle.—New Zealand mutton and lamb form a substantial proportion of the meats imported into the United Kingdom, but New Zealand's frozen beef competes under difficulties with chilled and fresh beef from countries nearer the United Kingdom, with the consequence that the New Zealand share of the United Kingdom's beef imports has been relatively small. However, prospects for expansion brightened considerably when several trial shipments of New Zealand chilled beef were despatched to England in 1933. The experiments proved very successful, and were followed by larger shipments, the quantity shipped in 1938 being 350,606 cwt. During the first nine months of 1939, 311,112 cwt. were exported; but, with the outbreak of war, the necessity for conserving shipping-space resulted in the temporary cessation of the industry.

The development of the export trade in chilled beef was not at the expense of frozen beef. Quantities of frozen beef shipped to the United Kingdom in 1937, 1938, and 1939, were 531,160, 544,764, and 672,310 cwt. respectively, as compared with 484,628 cwt. in 1936.

During the war period a considerably greater proportion of beef exports was shipped in boneless form in order to conserve shipping space and this practice was continued into the immediate post-war years. Also much greater quantities were exported in canned form. Consequently, it is not possible to give an exact comparison with pre-war years. It may be mentioned however, that in 1950, New Zealand supplied approximately 15 per cent. of the United Kingdom's total imports of beef as compared with only 7 per cent. in 1938.

Pigs.—As in the case of other frozen meats, New Zealand pork in normal times is shipped almost exclusively to the United Kingdom.

In international trade, exports of bacon far exceed those of other pig products, with the United Kingdom normally absorbing most of the exports of other countries. Although New Zealand supplies a substantial proportion of the imports of frozen and chilled pork into the United Kingdom, her contributions of bacon are negligible. It should be mentioned, however, that the major portion of the carcases imported from New Zealand are “baconers” the curing process being carried out in the United Kingdom.

Calves.—Prior to the outbreak of the recent war, veal production was displaying evidence of rapid development, and exports of veal had increased appreciably, mainly as a result of the expansion of the “bobby” calf trade.

The term “bobby calf” is defined by regulations passed in August, 1947, as being "all calves that have a live-weight of less than 100 lb."

Meat Production and Disposal.—Particulars of the production and disposal of meat for the year ended 30th September, 1950, are shown in the following table. Carcase meat is shown at bone-in weight.

Total Production.Disposals.
Exports to United Kingdom.Other Exports and Overseas Ships Stores.For Canning.Local Consumption.
 Tons.Per Cent.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Beef164,22029.555,8103,64012,46092,310
Veal21,2103.815,540606554,955
Mutton131,17523.672,6153,75042554,385
Lamb200,57536.1192,225535 7,815
Pig-meat—      
Porkers11,4257.03,145735 7,545
Baconers25,2907,160180 17,950
Choppers2,245  2,245 
      Total carcase meat556,140100.0346,4958,90013,540187,205
Edible offal21,310 12,680405 8,225
Grand totals577,450 359,1759,30513,540195,430

Exports to the United Kingdom are as supplied by the New Zealand Meat-producers Board. Canned meat, equivalent to about 7,500 tons of carcase meat and raw offal, also went to the United Kingdom, which therefore received a total of 366,675 tons, or 63.5 per cent. of total production. The bulk of the remainder of canned meat was exported to the Pacific Islands.

The next table shows total meat production and exports to the United Kingdom for the three September years ended in 1949–50. Lamb production in 1949–50 was a record.

Total Production.Exports to United Kingdom.
1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.
Thousand Tons.
Beef165.8157.3164.271.153.655.8
Veal20.120.321.214.914.715.5
Mutton116.3122.8131.265.769.172.6
Lamb187.6195.3200.6181.4187.8192.2
Pig-meat—      
  Porkers9.010.411.43.72.93.1
  Baconers26.626.825.37.26.87.2
  Choppers1.82.02.2   
  Total carcase meat527.2534.9556.1344.0334.9346.5
  Edible offal21.921.321.311.712.412.7
  Total production549.1556.2577.4   
Canned meat (carcase weight equivalent)   9.06.57.5
      Total exports to United Kingdom   364.7353.8366.7
     Per Cent. 
      Percentage of total production   66.463.663.5

The decline in exports to the United Kingdom in 1948–49 in the face of increased production was attributable to higher local consumption, caused by the abolition of rationing at the end of the 1947–48 season, and in a lesser degree by the greater needs of a growing population. Local consumption in 1949–50 was 195,430 tons as compared with 190,200 tons in 1948–49, and 170,800 tons in 1947–48.

The following table shows the imports of meat into the United Kingdom for the year ended 31st December, 1950, by country of export.

Country.Beef.Mutton and Lamb.Pig Meat.Other Meat.Total all Meat and Meat Products.
(000) Cwt.Per Cent.(000) Cwt.Per Cent.(000) Cwt.Per Cent.(000) Cwt.Per Cent.(000) Cwt.Per Cent.
New Zealand1,23414.95,57868.01692.6361.57,31528.9
Australia1,59619.31,32016.1891.437315.73,56414.1
Canada    72711.3  7322.9
Other British countries and Republic of Ireland1672.010.0981.531013.07362.9
British whale fisheries        1490.6
Argentina3,97448.081810.060.1331.45,26720.8
Denmark140.2  3,08348.1291.23,35113.2
Uruguay1,07312.9841.0    1,3805.5
Poland    74511.61195.09313.7
Netherlands    4216.626611.28483.4
France    120.232113.55102.0
Sweden        260.1
Hungary      160.7160.1
United States of America        40.0
Chile  770.9    1330.5
Brazil370.4      820.3
Paraguay320.4      410.2
Other countries        2020.8
Not classified1591.93294.01,06516.687636.8Classified in totals above. 
      Totals8,286100.08,207100.06,415100.02,379100.025,287100.0

The importance of the part New Zealand plays in the supply of meat to the United Kingdom is shown in the above table, New Zealand being the leading supplier of total meat products; this country's share, 29 per cent., is 8 per cent. greater than that of Argentina, the next largest supplier.

HORSES.—The following table gives the number of horses in each class shown, excluding horses in boroughs, figures for which are not available.

1947.1948.1949.1950.
Draught and three-quarter draught86,69481,87174,00471,811
Spring-cart (including half-draught)34,92132,34631,38026,252
Hacks and light working horses71,31773,88273,70976,715
Thoroughbred and other horses13,64315,78616,96220,068
      Total horses206,575203,885196,055194,846

Since 1911, when the peak number of 404,284 was recorded, there has been, with two minor interruptions, a continuous decline in the number of horses in New Zealand. The two interruptions referred to occurred in the years 1916–18 and 1936–38, wherein slight increases were recorded.

During the last ten years the decrease has amounted to 58,206, or 23 per cent. The greater part of this decrease has occurred in draught and three-quarter draught animals, the numbers of which fell from 122,245 in 1940 to 71,811 in 1950, while those described as spring-cart (including half-draught) horses fell from 48,561 to 26,252. This decline in the numbers of horses of the heavy type has been accompanied by a marked increase in the use of mechanical traction for farm work, the number of agricultural tractors on farms in 1950 being 34,683, as compared with 11,278 ten years earlier. This subject is discussed in more detail in Section 18A.

Hacks and light working horses have decreased to a much lesser extent over the period; in fact, mainly as the result of an increase of over 4,000 in 1950, the number for that year was the highest recorded since 1938. The class described as “thoroughbred and other” fell away considerably during the war and early post-war years, but substantial increases were recorded in the last three years.

POULTRY.—A census of poultry has been an ancillary inquiry associated with the census of population from 1861 onwards, with the exception of the censuses of 1896 and 1901. Until 1936, however, poultry kept by Maori households had not been brought within the ambit of the census. The extension of the inquiry to Maori households in 1936 furnished probably the first statistics in existence on this subject. The total poultry flocks of the Maoris, however, are small (91,976 in 1945 and 107,361 in 1936), and their omission from earlier censuses does not appear to have been of significance.

The following table shows the numbers recorded at the last six censuses. All references to fowls, ducks, &c., are intended to cover both male and female birds.

Census.Number of Households keeping Fowls, Ducks, Geese, or Turkeys.Total Number of Fowls, Ducks, Geese, or Turkeys.Fowls.Ducks.Geese.Turkeys.

* Not available.

† Excluding Maori flocks.

‡ Including Maori flocks.

April, 1911*3,687,5833,215,031329,23045,38997,933
October, 1916134,2343,465,6383,141,354220,80846,95556,521
April, 1921145,9933,991,0093,491,567379,98846,23473,220
April, 1926158,8563,781,1453,308,384352,03043,87976,852
March, 1936159,0983,911,7153,415,793351,60861,41882,896
March, 1936166,3544,019,0763,488,516377,79166,66786,102
September, 1945152,2294,378,3904,006,780298,39937,66135,550
September, 1945159,3334,470,3664,070,683319,91841,90337,862

The comparability of the foregoing figures is affected by the fact that the censuses of 1916 and 1945 were taken in the spring, whereas the other censuses were taken in the autumn. Poultry numbers are subject to considerable seasonal fluctuations, the main breeding season being in the early spring, when there would be considerable numbers of young chickens included in the figures, whereas in the autumn the culling of old birds would have been more or less completed. The increase of 582,167, or 16.7 per cent. in the number of fowls recorded in 1945 as compared with 1936 should therefore be accepted with caution. The principal feature of the 1945 results is the decrease shown for poultry other than fowls, particularly turkeys and geese. Compared with 1936, the number of ducks showed a decrease of 57,873 (15.3 per cent.), geese a decrease of 24,764 (37.1 per cent.), and turkeys a decrease of 48,240 (56.0 per cent.). It will be noted, however, that both ducks and turkeys recorded substantial decreases between the census of 1911, taken in the autumn, and the census of 1916, taken in the spring.

Number and Size of Flocks.—Although poultry-farming is regarded as a definite branch of the farming industry, a classification as to sizes of flocks indicates that poultry-keeping is generally carried on merely as a sideline. Of the 159,333 households recorded as keeping poultry at the 1945 census, 330 cases were returned where geese or turkeys were kept but not fowls or ducks. Omitting these cases and in addition taking only fowls and ducks into consideration, it is found that 83.8 per cent. of households keeping poultry had less than twenty-five birds, the corresponding percentage in 1936 being 80.8. In 21,919 cases in 1945 the number of birds ranged from 25 to 99, making a total of 155,100 cases, or 97.5 per cent., in which the flocks consisted of less than 100 birds.

Of 490 flocks in which the number of birds was 1,000 or over, 334 ranged from 1,000 to 1,999, 82 from 2,000 to 2,999, 43 from 3,000 to 3,999, and 31 exceeded 4,000. In 1936 the number of flocks of 1,000 or over amounted to only 194, but here, as elsewhere, the remarks concerning seasonal fluctuations in poultry numbers made earlier should be taken into consideration. The larger flocks at the time of the 1945 census would be unduly swollen by the inclusion of young chickens held for sale, this being the source from which the small or “backyard” poultry-keeper mainly obtains his flocks.

Poultry on Farms.—The following table shows the numbers of fowls and ducks as returned at the annual collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics for the years 1948–49 and 1949–50. In this connection it should be noted that the figures refer to poultry on holdings of 1 acre or upwards situated outside borough boundaries. Consequently the figures are in no way comparable with those already quoted which refer to the total numbers in New Zealand.

Fowls—1949.1950.
  Hens1,370,7021,492,405
  Pullets839,467852,421
      Totals2,210,1692,344,826
Ducks—  
  Ducks160,000199,725
  Ducklings43,79625,311
      Totals203,796225,036

Poultry Control.—The Poultry Act, 1924, provides for the regulating of poultry-keeping and of the sale and export of poultry and eggs. Provision is made for the appointment of inspectors, on whom certain powers of entry are conferred for purposes of inspection of poultry or of eggs intended for sale or export. Poultry are required to be kept under sanitary conditions, and cruelty to poultry is made an offence. Every owner of poultry is required to notify an inspector of any outbreak of disease among his flock and to comply with the inspector's directions. It is an offence to sell diseased poultry. The Governor-General in Council is empowered to declare diseases, to appoint ports of export, and to appoint grading-stores.

In order to provide finance for the organization and development of the poultry industry, the Poultry-runs Registration Act was passed in December, 1933. The Act makes compulsory the annual registration of every poultry-run, which is defined as land used for the keeping of not less than twenty-five head of poultry (hens and ducks not less than six months old) and the production of eggs for sale. The fee payable annually for registration is 2s. 6d. if the flock is in excess of twenty-four but does not exceed one hundred head. For each additional hundred (or part thereof) an additional 2s. 6d. is payable. A Board is constituted for the administration of the Act. Figures supplied by the Board show that the number of poultry-runs registered at 31st May, 1951, was 6,884 covering an aggregate of 1,271,717 birds.

BEES.—The rich dairy pastures of New Zealand and other localities where cattle raising is carried on extensively are particularly favourable for apiculture and the production of high-grade honey for the local and export markets; thus the North Island, which contains 86 per cent. of the cattle population, accounts for 72 per cent. of the total apiarists. The export trade is, of course, small when compared with the main primary industries, but is capable of considerable development. It is estimated that the total production of honey during a favourable season in New Zealand is 75 lb. surplus per hive, amounting to 5,524 tons, based on the present registered apiary holdings. Though seasonal conditions for honey production were erratic in most parts of the country during the 1949–50 season fair to average crops were harvested in most districts. The estimated production in commercial and domestic apiaries for the year ended 31st March, 1951, was 6,035 tons of honey and 181,050 lb. of commercial beeswax, an increase of 1,518 tons of honey and some 45,500 lb. of beeswax on last year's production.

Registrations under the Apiaries Act (referred to later) show that as at 30th June, 1951, there were 6,700 beekeepers with a total of 12,376 apiaries and 186,832 established hives. Following is a summary of these registrations showing beekeepers in groups according to the number of hives kept.

Group.1–5 Hives.6–20 Hives.21–50 Hives.51 Hives and Over.
Beekeepers4,2471,491394568
Apiaries4,3551,7706935,558
Hives established9,71015,89813,085148,139

The Apiaries Act, 1927, which came into operation on the 1st January, 1928, was passed to consolidate and amend the law relating to the bee industry. Stringent regulations have been enacted in order to control foul-brood, bee moths, and other diseases of bees. Beekeepers are required to register all apiaries of one or more hives, and it is an offence to keep bees in an unregistered apiary. Only frame hives may be used, box hives being prohibited.

The introduction into New Zealand of bees, and used appliances for the keeping of bees and the harvesting of their products, is prohibited, save with the prior consent of the Minister of Agriculture. The consent of the Minister in regard to used appliances is restricted to such appliances as are necessary to serve as containers for bees so introduced.

Exports of honey for the last five years were:—

Year.Quantity. lb.Value. £
194667,1492,516
194780,5063,053
1948197,0967,313
1949157,2627,769
1950852,97241,958

A system of control on much the same lines as in the case of meat and dairy-produce was introduced by the Honey-export Control Act, 1924. The Board set up (after a poll of producers, who decided by a large majority in favour of the scheme) acts in conjunction with the Marketing Department. The Honey Export Regulations 1950 consolidated previous regulations and set out a uniform procedure for the grading of honey for export.

Prior to the issue of the Honey (1942–43 season) Emergency Regulations, apiarists had the option of disposing of their honey through the Marketing Department or through the ordinary trade channels. The regulations referred to, however, made it mandatory for a certain specified proportion of the honey produced during the 1942–43 season to be sold to the Marketing Department. Under the Honey Emergency Regulations 1944, apiarists were required to supply 30 lb. of extracted honey for each hive owned in excess of nineteen, provided that a minimum harvest of at least 40 lb. per hive had been achieved. Where the average production fell below 40 lb. the apiarist was entitled to retain the full production from nineteen hives and 10 lb. of extracted honey for every other hive owned by him. However, these regulations were not renewed in 1946, and the disposal of honey again became optional, though subject to a ceiling price. The facilities of the Marketing Department have been placed at the disposal of producers if they desire to avail themselves thereof.

Chapter 19. SECTION 19—FORESTRY

Table of Contents

NATIONAL FOREST POLICY.—The forest policy is essentially one of conservation and expansion—conservation of the indigenous forests for the three-fold purpose of erosion control, maintenance of amenity values, and timber production; and expansion of the exotic forests for the creation of a supplementary and additional timber-supply. Only by the integrated use of both upland and lowland forests for the preservation of their timber productivity and for the maintenance of their protective, scenic, and recreational values, can the objective of the national forest policy be achieved. The objective, put in its simplest form, is the maximum enjoyment by the public those economic and social benefits which forests alone can confer.

The salient features of the timber-supply situation are:—

  1. Most of the remaining virgin forests are overmature, with new growth being offset by decay and natural deaths.

  2. The problem of regenerating podocarp forests (which supply most of New Zealand's general purpose timbers) has not yet been solved, nor is there any real evidence that a practical solution will be found. Even if the difficulties of natural regeneration could be overcome, or alternatively, if podocarp forests could be grown artificially in plantation form, they would take 200 to 300 years to mature.

  3. Current timber demands are depleting the virgin indigenous forests at such a rate that without other provision being made, New Zealand would soon be faced with a permanent timber famine and would have to rely entirely on imports.

  4. The establishment of exotic forests to supplement and in a large measure to replace the indigenous forests is thus essential to the future well-being of the country.

  5. Fortunately, New Zealand is endowed with a climate which is particularly favourable to the development of several valuable exotic softwood species. Moreover, there are large areas of land which are marginal for agriculture (or in the past have been so considered) but which are entirely suitable for tree growth.

  6. So favourable are the climatic and soil factors in New Zealand that exotic softwood forests can be grown more quickly and hence more cheaply than in most other countries of the world. As a result New Zealand can look forward confidently to the development of a significant export trade in timber, wood-pulp, newsprint, and other forest-products.

FOREST RESOURCES: General.—Most of New Zealand was acquired by the Crown during the early days of settlement, apart from limited areas purchased privately from the Maoris; some land, mostly in the North Island, remained as Maori land. Subsequently the Crown granted freehold and leasehold titles of much tussock grassland country and of accessible forest areas, but it kept in reserve substantial forest areas for future settlement and for timber-supplies. Because of the mountainous nature of the country—three-quarters of the land surface lies above the 650 foot contour—and the limited farmable areas therefore available, the lowland and montane country was quickly cleared of forest under this system of settlement. The main mountain areas, however, remained forested, and before they could be deforested to any extent, the shortage of indigenous timber reserves became apparent and the dangers of erosion began to show on the steep country that had been cleared. Many of these areas were, therefore, made State forests quite early—this term being used for the first time under the Forests Act of 1874—and upon the formation of the State Forest Service in 1919, were administered by the Forest Service either as permanent or provisional State forests. The latter category included land that might be suitable for farming and which could be taken over for this purpose once the crop of timber had been cut from it. Substantial areas of indigenous forest were from time to time also declared national parks and reserves. By and large the general pattern of distribution of agricultural land and forest became defined about the end of the nineteenth century.

Most of the indigenous State forests, and forests on Maori land and national parks as well, now fall into the category of protection forest; that is, they are required for water and soil conservation, irrespective of what exploitable forest produce they contain.

The dwindling of indigenous timber supplies and the need to replace them was realized early. To provide for the future the State, therefore, commenced small planting operations with exotics at the end of the last century. These continued until the early 1920's, when sufficient experience of the most suitable species and planting sites had been accumulated to allow of a huge expansion of planting both by the State and by afforestation companies. In the peak year of this activity, some 50,000 acres were planted. This extensive establishment continued until about the year 1935 when it subsided, and planting of exotic species on a smaller scale was continued by the Forest Service. Latterly, this planting has been distributed in the old units as well as in a number of smaller units located in areas of wood scarcity.

The total forest covering at the 31st March, 1951, is as shown in the following table:—

State forests administered under the Forests Act, 1949 (includes 796,440 acres (gross) 454,000 acres (planted) of exotic forests)Acres. 9,481,000
Afforestation companies and communal exotic forests436,000
Maori land indigenous forests (estimate)1,500,000
Unoccupied Crown land indigenous forests (estimate)1,000,000
Unimproved occupied Crown land and freehold land indigenous forest2,200,000
Reserves and national parks indigenous forests (estimate)2,300,000
      Total16,917,000

Composition of Forests.—Indigenous forests of New Zealand may be divided very broadly into two formations, mixed temperate evergreen forest and southern beech forest; the former, in regard to its trees, being a mixed community of many species of broad-leaved trees and conifers, and the latter a pure community of one or more of the species of southern beech (Nothofagus). Between these two formations there are many intermediates, the one gradating into the other.

In general distribution, mixed temperate evergreen forest originally occupied mainly the coastal, lowland, and montane belts, except in the drier areas where it was replaced by southern beech forest; and the southern beech forest, besides occupying these drier areas, extended above the montane belt to the timber line. The upper altitudinal line of the mixed forest became gradually lower in proceeding from north to south.

Most of the mixed forest has been cut over for timber and cleared for farming purposes, whereas the southern beech forest, because of the difficult topography and the poor soils on which it most frequently grows, is largely intact. The following description gives in more detail the distribution and the present state of the main forest communities.

Kauri forest once occupied much of the area northwards from a line joining Port Waikato to Tauranga, but, except for limited reservations and small pockets, this forest has disappeared. The main secondary species of trees are taraire and tawa. Mixed podocarp forest, the principal podocarp being rimu, and important secondary ones totara, matai, and miro, extended throughout all three main islands. The heaviest commercial stands were on flat or near flat sites; in steeper country timber trees thinned out and secondary species became more plentiful. The remaining forest of this type consists of pockets, which will be worked for a few decades to come; some large areas on steep country, such as the Urewera, which can be classed mainly as protection forest; and fairly extensive forests in the centre of the North Island and on the West Coast of the South Island which contain most of the remaining indigenous softwood supplies. The main species of broad-leaved trees in these forests are kamahi, tawa, and rata. Kahikatea forest occupied low-lying swampy river silts, but this has almost disappeared to make way for farming.

Bog-forests, whose dominant trees are smaller podocarps of the silver pine group, occupy limited areas mainly in the central North Island and on the West Coast of the South Island. They have largely been cut over, at least once, for posts and sleepers.

Although most southern beech forests can be classified as protection forests, there remain substantial areas in lowland and montane regions that have been cut over and are regenerating, or that still have not been cut over and will be reserved for sustained yield management. Where southern beech forest is present in the lowland and montane belts of the North Island and northern Marlborough-Nelson, the species are hard beech (Nothofagus truncaia), and black beech (N. solanderi). In the upper belts, red beech (N. fusca), is abundant, but is usually accompanied by the silver beech (N. menziesii), which is the main tree at the highest altitudes, unless conditions are somewhat dry, when mountain beech (N. cliffortioides) replaces it. On the eastern slopes of the Southern Alps, there was once a belt of mountain beech forest, but this has been burnt except for pockets. On the western side of the Alps, beech forest is absent from the Taramakau River southwards for one hundred miles. In western Otago and Southland, silver beech is the main forest tree, with fair areas of mountain beech and small pockets of red beech. At the lower elevations, silver beech is extensively milled and much of the forest has disappeared.

Important forest trees at high elevations, and not already mentioned, are kaikawaka (Libocedrus bidwillii) and thin-barked totara (Podocarpus hallii).

In the undisturbed indigenous vegetation, there were limited transition areas between tussock grassland and forest proper that carried manuka (Leptospermum scoparium and L. ericoides), and sometimes bracken fern (Pteridium esculenium). With the destruction of much tussock grassland and forest, these belts have extended, and manuka has even occupied extensive areas of destroyed forest remote from any original manuka stands. These stands are important because they are often a stage in succession back to mature forest. Manuka is also a very useful fuel.

Much land now classified as forest consists of a second growth of broad-leaved shrubs and trees which have come in after milling operations or on abandoned farm land.

Exotic plantations of over ten acres in extent, now total 890,000 acres, besides which there is a large total acreage of smaller farm woodlots and shelter-belts. These areas of exotic species already provide a significant proportion of the country's timber requirements, and before many more decades have passed must supply most of it. In some poorly forested districts, shelter belts now provide a large part of the local timber-supply.

By far the greatest area of the larger exotic plantations are in the central North Island region. They were established with insignis pine (Pinus radiata) between the years 1925–1935. Other plantations are scattered throughout the country, although there are still some timberless districts without any sizable areas, notably Taranaki, Poverty Bay and the East Coast, and South Canterbury.

National Forest Survey.—For many years past it has been obvious that there is a need for a comprehensive and scientific stock-taking of the indigenous forest resources, both to provide up-to-date information on the extent of remaining timber supplies, and to assess the salient ecological facts upon which New Zealand's long term indigenous forest policy must be based. The National Forest Survey is a major fact-finding project designed to meet this need. The project was commenced in 1946 and is scheduled for completion, at least as far as its main objects are concerned, by 1956. The survey is based on a combination of aerial photographs and statistically controlled ground sampling. It will result in qualitative descriptions of the many forest associations present in New Zealand forest-type maps showing their distribution, and detailed estimates of the timber volume present.

FOREST AUTHORITY.—The administration of State Forests and related afforestation activities in New Zealand was for many years under the control of the Lands and Survey Department, but in 1919 a separate Forestry Department was formed. This was reorganized in 1920 as a Department of State, called the State Forest Service, and was given statutory recognition and administrative authority by the Forests Act, 1921–22, which provided for a Minister of the Crown to hold office as Commissioner of State Forests. The Forests Act, 1949, consolidated the previous legislation and changed the title of the Minister to Minister of Forests, and that of the State Forest Service to the New Zealand Forest Service.

The Act provides for the appointment of a Minister of Forests, a Director of Forestry and Conservators of Forests and other Officers. The Minister may delegate such of his powers as he thinks fit. The Act prescribes that the Forest Service shall have under the direction of the Minister exclusive responsibility in carrying out all matters of forest policy affecting State forest land and shall have exclusive control and management of—

  1. All State forest land, whether for the production of timber or other forest produce, or for the protection of the land with a view to water conservation or soil stabilization, or for ensuring the balanced use of the land, or for scientific purposes, or for recreational or amenity purposes not prejudicial to forestry;

  2. The establishment, culture and maintenance of forests on State forest land, and the harvesting, utilization, transport, sale or other disposal of forest produce from State forest land;

  3. The granting of licences, leases, permits, and other rights and authorities under the Act;

  4. The enforcement of the conditions of licences, leases, permits, and other rights and authorities granted under the Act or any enactment repealed;

  5. The collection and recovery of all purchase-moneys, rents, fees, royalties, charges, and revenues of the Service; and

  6. Generally the exercise of all powers, authorities, and duties conferred or imposed on the Minister or the Forest Service by the Act.

Central management and control of the Forest Service is exercised by the Director of Forestry, with the head office at Wellington. For the purpose of local administration New Zealand is divided into seven conservancies, each under the control of a Conservator of Forests, who is responsible to the Director of Forestry. Public convenience and economy are further achieved by the subdivision of conservancies into districts under the charge of Forest Rangers, who are under the direction of Conservators of Forests. Central administration of forest policy is achieved under divisions, each with an Inspector-in-Charge as principal officer. Five divisions have been set up—namely, management (working plans, silviculture, soil conservation, timber sales, &c.), commercial (logging, sawmilling and log sales), development (recruitment, training and research), engineering, and services (clerical, accounting and legal). One other division, industrial, has as yet only a token staff; and one, public and private forestry, remains yet to be developed. Research has been centralized at the Forest Research Institute, Rotorua, with which is associated the Forest Service Training Centre.

State Forests.—State forests are administered by authority of the Forests Act, 1949, and the Nassella Tussock Act, 1946. The powers conferred by the Forests Act, 1949, to deal with forest produce are subject to the provisions of the Coal Mines Act, 1925, the Mining Act, 1926, the Petroleum Act, 1937, and the Iron and Steel Industry Act, 1937. Section 23 of the Mining Amendment Act, 1934, provides for the payment to the Crown of compensation for damage to any land vested in the Crown resulting from mining operations. Such compensation in respect of State forests may be claimed by the Minister of Forests from time to time as damage is caused. The Minister of Forests also administers the Waitangi Endowment under powers set out in the Waitangi Endowment Act, 1932–33.

Mining Privileges and Coal-mining Rights.—After the coming into force of the Forests Act, 1949, a mining privilege or coal-mining right over State forest land may not be granted except with the consent in writing of the Minister of Forests and subject to such conditions as he may impose. Notwithstanding anything in the Mining Act, 1926, or in any licence, lease, title, right, privilege, or other authority under those Acts granted after the Forests Act, 1949, came into force, no person may cut or remove any timber or other forest produce on or from State forest land except in accordance with the provisions of the Forests Act.

Regulations.—The Forests Act, 1949, authorizes the appointment by regulation of committees to advise the Minister of Forests on specified matters. Regulations issued under this authority are the Timber Production Advisory Committee Regulations 1949, and the Sirex Advisory Committee Regulations 1950.

Other regulations in force are the Sawmill Registration Regulations 1942, the Timber Regulations 1948, and the Forest and Rural Fires Regulations 1951. The latter are issued under the authority of both the Forests Act, 1949, and the Forest and Rural Fires Act, 1947.

Fire Prevention and Control.—A complete coverage of New Zealand with respect to fire prevention and control is now provided by the Forest and Rural Fires Act, 1947, the Forests Act, 1949, and the Fire Services Act, 1949.

The Forest and Rural Fires Act, 1947, provides that each County Council is a Fire Authority for the county area under its control, and for the constitution of rural fire districts each to be administered by a committee or by the Minister of Forests as Fire Authority. The Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council is the Fire Authority for each soil conservation district. Rural fire districts, soil conservation districts, and urban fire districts are excluded from control by a County Council. The Forests Act, 1949, provides for the protection of State forest land not protected by rural fire districts. The Fire Services Act, 1949, provides for the protection of urban districts.

FOREST MANAGEMENT.—In the field of production forestry, as distinct from protection forestry, the management activities of the Forest Service are directed towards two ends:—

  1. To protect, conserve, and, if possible, perpetuate the remaining indigenous forests of the country.

  2. To create an exotic estate large enough and sufficiently diverse to supply the future needs of New Zealand in timber and other forest produce, and to provide an exportable surplus.

Indigenous Forest Management.—Conservation measures in indigenous production forests involve regulation and restriction of the permissible annual cut, protection against fire, a careful watch for trespass and the prosecution of offenders caught, rigid insistence on close utilization, both of forests and forest products, and finally block sales of carefully measured and appraised standing timber. Of these measures the last one is particularly important. The system of block sales introduced by the Forest Service in 1921 is in sharp contrast to the previous method of “royalty payment off the saw.” The present system encourages close utilization since the sawmiller is required to pay for all timber measured; the previous one encouraged unnecessary waste both in the forests themselves and in the subsequent milling processes. It is estimated that through this administrative reform the Forest Service has succeeded in conserving some 700,000,000 board feet of timber which would otherwise have been left to rot in the forests or been thrown away in slab heaps. A large part of the indigenous forest officers' work is in the routine administration of the block sale system—i.e., in the careful measurement and appraisal of trees for sale and in the periodic and equally careful inspection of milling operations to ensure that waste is not taking place.

Of equal importance to this policy of “conservation through close utilization” is that of rationing the cut of indigenous timbers. As far as podocarp forests are concerned there is little possibility of these ever being harvested as the foresters would like—i.e., on a sustained yield basis with natural regeneration following logging, an even distribution of age classes, and an annual cut equal in volume to the annual growth. The reasons for this should now be well known. They are briefly, the over-maturity of most podocarp forests wherein new growth is offset by decay and natural deaths; the tendency of the podocarp forests to give way naturally to a climax hardwood association; the silvicultural intractability of the species, which prohibits significant natural regeneration no matter what system of logging is used; the very great difficulties and exorbitant costs of raising artificial podocarp forests; and finally the extremely slow rate of growth of all species. For these and other reasons it is unrealistic to expect that, once the virgin stands have been exploited, the podocarp forests can ever again make any significant contribution to the timber-supply of the country. This is an unpalatable fact to many New Zealanders but nevertheless it must be faced. As a result the only sane and intelligent policy which can be adopted is to ration the cut of indigenous timbers so that the remaining supplies, particularly of high quality wood, are spread out over the years instead of being liquidated in a very short time. To this end the Forest Service formulates working plans for all major State forests and through them regulates the amount of timber that can be cut annually, both by individual forests and by districts. Consideration is given to the essential timber requirements of a district and to the extent to which these requirements can be met by the substitution of exotic species.

At the same time the possibility of ultimately regenerating podocarp forests and bringing them into a productive state is far from being overlooked. Research into the silvicultural properties of the species and into the ecology of the natural forest associations is being pursued; and in some instances logging of podocarp forests is being carried out by the Forest Service, with a view, inter alia, to the reservation of seed-bearing trees. Logged areas are protected from fire and grazing, thus encouraging the development of natural second growth associations which should in time act as a nurse crop for podocarp seedlings.

Parallel to the policy of rationing the cut, is that of making long-term log and timber sales. This has the effect of giving stability to sawmilling industries and to the communities dependent upon them. In one or two instances further stability is being sought by the practice of interplanting logged areas to exotic species (mainly Douglas fir and western red cedar), combined where possible with the planting up of adjacent areas of open country. By this means a sustained yield, part exotic, part indigenous, can be achieved, and the sawmilling industries and communities can look forward to a life in perpetuity.

In kauri forests plans for management on a sustained yield basis have been disrupted by the reservation of the largest remaining area, Waipoua Forest, as a forest sanctuary. Nevertheless the allowable kauri cut is very strictly rationed; a diameter limit (whereby no green kauri under 36 in. in diameter may be felled) is rigidly enforced; regeneration and advance growth is protected and tended; areas of natural regeneration are acquired; and nursery grown kauri seedlings are planted out. Kauri as a species is more amenable to silvicultural treatment than rimu and although the technique is not easy, it is possible to convert the present overmature forests into healthy vigorous stands and to manage them in perpetuity on a sustained yield basis. Unfortunately the kauri reserves have now dwindled to insignificant proportions and the work of kauri management can be on a small scale only.

In contrast to both kauri and rimu, the prospects of perpetuating and improving the beech forests of New Zealand are very good indeed. Both the major species, red beech and silver beech, when given the right conditions will regenerate freely; both grow sufficiently rapidly to be worked on a medium length rotation (100 to 130 years); and both show their optimum development on sites that are unsuitable for agriculture. Moreover there are large tracts of virgin forest still intact and in the case of red beech, extensive areas of young pole forest which have originated as a result of fire, windthrow, or mining activities. All the conditions, therefore, are favourable for sustained yield management. The only major difficulty is in localities where red deer are present in large numbers. Under these conditions the beech seedlings are continuously grazed and the development of regeneration is effectively prohibited. Work in the intensive management of the beech forests has been commenced in selected areas. In the case of virgin forests it consists of preparing the ground for the reception of seed; marking seed trees for retention; erecting deer-proof fences; felling and utilizing of merchantable trees; and finally, felling of remaining trees and shrubs other than the seed bearers. Simultaneously thinning operations are taking place in areas of natural regeneration and in the already established pole stands. On a more extensive scale the regeneration and improvement of the forests is being sought by the reservation of seed bearers and by the imposing of diameter limit restrictions which prohibit the felling of young vigorous trees.

As a result of these measures it is confidently expected that future generations of New Zealanders will become heir to beech forests as healthy and productive as any of the best hardwood forests in the old world.

Exotic Forest Management.—The establishment of State exotic forests dates from 1896 when an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island and at Rotorua in the North Island. Planting commenced in 1898, and proceeded at a slow rate until 1922, by which time 47,000 acres had been established. The formation of the New Zealand Forest Service as a separate department of state in the early twenties coincided approximately with an “afforestation boom,” and in the period 1923–1936 no less than 376,000 acres were planted. Since then plantings have again been on a modest scale and in the period 1937–1951 only a further 31,000 acres were established.

In the earlier years the areas selected for planting were often chosen with little consideration of the suitability of the site for tree-growing or of the proximity of the forests to existing and future markets. As a result there have been some partial or complete failures, and the geographical distribution of the forests leaves much to be desired. These faults are now being corrected by the establishment of new forests in timber-hungry districts and by the careful selection of areas where the climate, soil, and topography are all favourable to tree growth.

The original plantations contained a great variety of species, most of the common timber trees of the old world being represented as well as many from the new world, particularly North American conifers and Australian eucalypts. In general, except locally and on very good sites, the European hardwoods such as ash, oak, and sycamore were failures; and of the multitude of eucalypts tried only a few proved suitable for New Zealand conditions. The standard European softwood, Scots pine, was a complete failure as were many of the American pines, firs, and spruces. Norway spruce promised well for some years but was finally wiped out by insect attack. Austrian pine was planted extensively in the earlier years and developed into very poor stands; much later, similar results were obtained from extensive plantings of the scopulorum variety of ponderosa pine, and even worse results from the wide-scale and indiscriminate attempts to establish Californian redwood. The successes, however, were no less numerous than the failures and before long it became fairly obvious which would be the most suitable and profitable species. Pride of place went to insignis pine which showed the ability to grow rapidly on a wide range of sites and to produce fine stands of timber. It became, and still is, the major exotic conifer of New Zealand. Other major species, planted according to site, are Douglas fir, Corsican pine, and ponderosa pine. Of recent years the “Southern” pines, P. taeda, P. caribaea and P. palustris have found a place in the more northerly forests. Minor species planted on a restricted scale are larch, lodgepole pine, Pinus strobus, Pinus patula, Cryptomeria japonica, Lawson's cypress, Monterey cypress, and western red cedar. In round figures the species distribution is—

Species.Thousands of Acres.
Insignis pine187
Ponderosa pine81
Corsican pine61
Douglas fir46
Lodgepole pine16
"Southern" pines8
Larch8
Others and mixtures47
      Total454

Descriptions of the most important species and of their silvicultural characteristics are given later in this section.

In spite of the failures, New Zealand now has a large and valuable exotic forest estate. It is estimated that the annual growth is in the order of 65,000,000 cubic feet. This represents approximately 400,000,000 board feet of timber, or only a little less than the current total yearly consumption. New Zealand is thus well on the way to being nationally self-sufficient from State forests alone; with privately-owned forests taken into account the annual increment is sufficient to meet all local requirements and to give a considerable exportable surplus as well. Quantitatively, therefore, the position of exotic forestry in New Zealand is basically very sound; qualitatively the forests leave much to be desired. Their various shortcomings, due largely to past mistakes, now present problems which will tax the ingenuity of the forestry profession to the utmost. Specifically, management of the State exotic forests is rendered difficult and complex by reason of—

  1. The Bad Age-class Distribution: No loss than 65 per cent. of the total insignis pine area was planted in one ten year period; a similar proportion will thus mature in a ten year period, leading to a temporary over-supply of timber with shortages before and after. The position is much the same with the other major species.

  2. The High Proportion of Insignis Pine: Although only 40 per cent. of the total area is in insignis pine, the proportion in some individual forests and in some districts is much higher. A greater diversity of species would enable a wider range of forest products to be supplied and would lessen the risk of insect or fungal attack on an epidemic scale.

  3. The Considerable Areas of Low Productivity: The maximum value from the soil is not being obtained in areas which are occupied by poor species such as P. ponderosa var. scopulorum, Austrian pine, some races of lodgepole pine, Australian eucalypts, &c. Their replacement by more valuable species must be undertaken.

  4. The Low Stocking of Many Areas: Two causes are responsible—the practice during the boom afforestation period of planting at a wide initial espacement, and the failure during the same period to plant up gaps in original establishment. The resultant trees are often open grown and branchy and are producing firewood and pulping material rather than saw-logs.

  5. Lack of Tending: Large areas have received little silvicultural treatment since planting. Low pruning has been carried out on an extensive scale, but thinning, which is essential to the health and well-being of the stands, has been badly neglected. As a result many forests are stagnating and are failing to put maximum increment on the best final-crop trees. High pruning, which in a short rotation species is necessary for the production of clean timber and veneer logs, has also been carried out on a small scale only.

For these reasons management activities in State exotic forests are directed towards getting a better distribution of age-classes in the next rotation, which entails felling some stands before they are mature and leaving others to be carried on to over-maturity; towards converting areas of low productivity to well-stocked stands of more valuable species; and above all towards catching up with arrears of thinning. At the same time all these activities must be integrated with utilization projects so that the demand for forest products can be met and forest industries can have continuity of supply; and they must be so planned as to fit in to long-term schemes for sustained yield operation. Working plans, which when approved have Ministerial authority, are prepared for all exotic forests. They not only prescribe detailed planting, thinning, pruning, and felling operations for the next five years but also embody long-term plans of twenty to thirty years or even longer.

Clear-felling activities in State exotic forests commenced on a major scale in 1939, and have been confined almost entirely to insignis pine. In most cases natural regeneration has followed logging, and second rotation crops are now well established. In order to grow high-quality timber, to get the maximum production from the soil, and to lessen the chances of insect or fungal attack, these dense young stands must be thinned early and often. This work is given a high priority.

Production from State exotic forests is now over 6,000,000 cubic feet annually and is increasing rapidly. Sawlogs account for the greatest proportion but many other types of forest produce are produced, notably transmission and telephone poles, fencing posts and battens, mining timbers, stockyard rails, turnip-stakes, and firewood. Future production will include not only much greater quantities of saw-timber and other forest products, but also large quantities of chemical and groundwood pulp, and their derived products, newsprint, kraft, and writing papers.

FIRE PROTECTION.—The fire-protection policy of the Forest Service follows from the premise that, notwithstanding the generally favourable climate, fire is the greatest single menace to forests and protection vegetation in New Zealand; within a few hours fire can undo the work of decades in building up a soil and vegetation balance.

The fire risk in New Zealand cannot be measured by comparing the generally adequate and well distributed rainfall experienced in most districts with conditions in countries where droughts are frequent and severe and the summers commonly hotter and drier. New Zealand is a mountainous country, and the high winds and strong sunshine, which are characteristics of the New Zealand climate, will dry out the forest vegetation on exposed situations even in the heavy rainfall areas in a remarkably short time.

Although widespread hazardous fire conditions only occur at fairly long intervals there are few seasons during which there are not dry spells or near droughts in some part or other of the country, and very high fire hazards develop. The year 1946 brought the great fires of the central plateau of the North Island and in 1949 conditions were severe enough in the Auckland Provincial District to cause mortality in a number of native forest species from drought. During 1950, there were numerous forest fires on the West Coast of the South Island, and there was a long continued dry spell in the summer-rainfall districts of the extreme south.

The peculiar and almost unique feature of many New Zealand forest species in being extremely exacting in their requirements for regeneration to take place is of special significance. Forest fires in most countries mean the loss of a crop, in New Zealand a severely burnt forest usually means a destroyed forest. Even the beech species, which will regenerate freely under favourable conditions, can only do so after a severe fire under circumstances which are often quite fortuitous in character. Virgin mixed temperate forests admittedly do not burn readily during normal seasons, but the greater proportion of the remaining forests of this type have been logged for the commercial species. As cut-over forests they are very inflammable and when burnt become waste lands.

The consequences of the relatively small fires which occur all over the country every normal season are as serious in the long run, if not more so, than the spectacularly large fires common in some countries, in that the losses are accumulative because of the lack of recuperative powers of most of our forest species from fire damage.

The existing areas of protection vegetation on the headwaters of the main rivers are inadequate for the purposes of soil and water conservation, and unless they are protected and allowed to extend, abnormal flooding with costly river-control schemes will continue to be a heavy drain on the resources of the country.

The history of statutory provisions for the protection of forests from fire is a long one going back to 1874, but it was not until the Forests Act, 1921–22, established the present Forest Service that the protection of State forests was put on a satisfactory basis. This Act provided for the constitution of fire districts, and also for the protection of forests which because of administrative difficulties could not be protected by fire districts. The principle of fire districts was later extended to cover private forests and other lands.

This situation was satisfactory as far as it went, but it left large areas of inflammable vegetation over which there was no authority for controlling the lighting of fires during hazardous weather conditions. The need for legislation to deal with fire control on a national scale was realized, but it was not until the disastrous fires of 1946 that there was public support for such legislation, and the Forest and Rural Fires Act was passed in 1947.

The Forest and Rural Fires Act provides for land on which high fire hazards occur annually to be covered by Rural Fire Districts administered by Committees or by the Minister of Forests. The rest of the country, with the exception of certain areas, is placed under the control of the County Councils as the Fire Authorities, with powers to declare an emergency during periods of high fire hazard. State forests which are not covered by fire districts are protected by the Forests Act, 49. In effect, there is now no area of rural land for which there is not some Authority for the control and prevention of fire.

The Fire Protection Organization of the Forest Service operates over the whole of New Zealand, covering State forests, forests on other Crown lands, scenic reserves and national parks. The organization has also the responsibility of securing co-ordination and uniformity in the administration of the Forests and Rural Fires Act by other Fire Authorities.

An efficient fire-fighting service is maintained wherever the Department has fire-fighting responsibilities, according to the needs of each district. This reaches its highest level of organization in the larger exotic forests where standard Forest Service lookout cabins equipped with fire finders, radio, and telephones, are located. Trained fire-fighting crews with modern equipment can be brought into action at a minute's notice and controlled through a radio network. Aerial patrols operate during each fire season in the important Rotorua area.

The provision of a fire-hazard prediction and warning service is an essential function of the Fire Protection Organization. A nation-wide network of fire-weather and radio stations is maintained, and the fire-hazard situation in any part of the country is known at the Head Office of the Forest Service in Wellington each day during the season within an hour of the weather observations being taken at the stations. This enables appropriate action, such as advice to Fire Authorities and broadcasting of warnings, to be taken as the circumstances require.

SOIL CONSERVATION.—Through its ownership and control of some 6,000,000 acres of protection forest, the Forest Service is deeply involved in the vital national question of conserving soil and water resources. Ever since its inception the Forest Service has insisted that the maintenance of an adequate vegetative cover is the only possible means of preventing accelerated soil erosion and of regulating stream flow. It believes that the root of the problem lies in the headwaters and catchments of the rivers, and it is there, and not in the lower reaches that preventative and remedial action must be taken. Downstream engineering, necessary and valuable though it may be, does not strike at the cause of the trouble and can never be anything but a palliative. The departmental motto for soil erosion is this: "Look after the headwaters and the catchments, and the rivers will look after themselves."

In the light of these convictions the policy of the Forest Service in soil-conservation measures is clear cut. It is simply to initiate or encourage any action which would conserve or improve the existing cover, and conversely to prevent or discourage any action which would have the reverse effect. This policy dictates the management activities of all State forests where soil erosion is an important consideration; it is advocated by the Forest Service as the correct policy for all types of eroded land, irrespective of land tenure.

The forest management activities undertaken in protection forests are: protection from fire; prohibition and control of grazing; limitation of sawmilling activities; reservation of secondary species in some logging operations; extermination of animal pests; and in some cases, artificial re-establishment. Of these the most important are fire prevention and suppression (discussed earlier) and the control of introduced animal pests. The latter work is undertaken not by the Forest Service but by the Wildlife Branch of the Department of Internal Affairs. Close liaison, however, is maintained and the Forest Service gives the Wildlife Branch up-to-date information as to which forest areas are most critically in need of attention. In addition, the Forest Service undertakes its own control measures in exotic forests and in some selected indigenous forest areas.

Co-ordination in forest-protection work is achieved through the Department's representation on the Soil Conservation Council and on the twelve Catchment Boards now operating throughout the country; through the secondment of a professional forest officer to the staff of the Soil Conservation Council; and through the activities of the local land-use committees (representing the Agriculture and the Lands and Survey Departments and the Forest Service) which recommend the optimum land-use policy for marginal or doubtful areas.

PUBLIC AND PRIVATE FORESTRY.—The method first adopted in New Zealand for encouraging the planting of trees for the production of timber was by means of "land grants"—a settler being given a free grant of land if he planted a certain portion of his land with suitable trees. Several large plantations were established in Canterbury by this method which, however, was abandoned in the "eighties."

For some years prior to 1931, the Forest Service raised and sold trees to intending planters and further assisted with advice from officers specializing in this branch of forestry activity. In 1931 at the cogent request of the Horticultural Trades Association the State ceased the sale of trees and the work of the extension officers became incidental to the other duties of the general staff.

Private Forest Estate.—The area of planted forest owned by afforestation companies, local authorities, and private persons was reported in March, 1950, to be 435,600 acres.

Private and local authority ownership is estimated to account for about 100,000 acres of the above, and it was composed mainly of insignis pine with a proportion of longer rotation species. Many of the original plantings have been milled and some are in process of regeneration. Because most of the areas had received little or no care since establishment, the produce has been very knotty, but owing to its greater age (and consequent high heartwood content) it has found extensive use.

Afforestation companies boomed in the 1923–30 period when huge areas were planted—they are now estimated to cover approximately 335,000 acres. The species used was almost wholly insignis pine. Utilization was commenced some years ago in an endeavour to bring this short-period establishment into a normal series of age gradations, and the cut-over is already being regenerated.

Forest Taxation.—Taxation of forest land and forest income has been under critical review during the past four years, and recently was the concern of a special Committee of Inquiry. Several pressing reforms have been introduced, and a number of further anomalies are expected to be removed. The necessity for these reforms arose from the need to change a tax-system based largely on the habit of “devastation cutting” to one which recognized the importance of forest management.

Land tax is levied on the unimproved value and does not include the value of trees growing on the land. However, valuations for death duty purposes do include the value of growing trees.

Income from the sale of trees is taxable in the same way as other income with the following exceptions:—

  1. Intermittent income such as from the sale of farm woodlots may be spread over a period of five years in order to mitigate the effects of the higher graduated tax.

  2. Expenditure incurred by a farmer in planting and maintaining shelterbelts and woodlots may be offset against income for tax purposes.

RECLAMATION OF SAND-DUNES.—Sand-dune fixation which, since 1931, had been in the hands of the Ministry of Works has been transferred to the joint control of the Lands Department and the New Zealand Forest Service. The primary objective is the reclamation of land for agricultural and pastoral purposes. Trees are being established by the Forest Service on the protective zone and on such other dunes as have no agricultural or pastoral potential; and existing plantations are being thinned. Some useful forests will result. Sand-dune reclamation schemes may ultimately embrace a large part of the 290,000 acres of dunes in New Zealand.

FINANCE OF STATE ACTIVITIES.—The financial objective of the New Zealand Forest Service is to develop sufficient forests which will be free of debt when the production of mature timber commences and which will then be managed as revenue producing units for the benefit of general Government funds. None of the State exotic forests has yet fully reached this stage and forest revenue is therefore insufficient to meet the costs of development. The excess expenditure is met from general Government funds and, as far as possible, from current revenue (i.e., taxation, &c.), but the amount involved has been such that loan moneys from the Public Works Account have also been required.

Expenditure by way of general administration of forestry as distinct from the development of State forests for subsequent management is of course met in full from the Consolidated Fund.

Since this policy was adopted the excess of expenditure over forest revenue in connection with forest and allied development has been financed as follows:—

Year Ended 31st March,Excess of Expenditure Over Forest RevenueExcess Financed from—
Loans.Consolidated Fund.
 £££
19491,099,000813,000286,000
19501,638,0001,517,000121,000
19511,007,000720,000287,000

The following table provides a summary of receipts and payments from all sources for the last five financial years.

Item.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.

* These items ceased to be paid into or from the Consolidated Fund as from 1st April, 1948.

† Reimbursement of Working Railways Account in respect of costs of development of areas taken over for forestry purposes is now complete.

 £££££
Receipts
Indigenous forests receipts—     
  Timber sales155,208212,454194,934244,429254,553
  Timber royalties and trespass11,48114,58527,38227,73257,740
  Leases, grazing2,2292,0832,8223,2243,741
  Sawmill sites, industrial, &c.359378381500436
  Miscellaneous16,41916,52620,24733,92823,179
Log sales from managed forests62,43284,864129,983164,951174,941
Exotic forests: Poles, posts, firewood, log sales, &c.39,97552,52557,544204,148224,758
Utilization projects—     
  Sawn timber98,703109,716214,366257,673478,843
  Creosoted products17,8897,21611,67753,82380,673
  Box shooks134,839207,192187,212154,255188,681
  Miscellaneous12,84023,07216,1685,3222,336
Miscellaneous credits37,95332,66535,96032,08335,812
      Totals590,327763,276898,6761,182,0681,525,693
Receipts from national endowment indigenous forests (included in above)37,36652,911***
Payments
Allocation of revenue—     
  Consolidated Fund (portion of revenue from national endowment forests) 16,023***
  Working Railways Account (section 24 (1), Finance Act, 1936)3,5394,329
Local authorities23,75021,07829,21933,96744,886
General management charges—     
  Salaries187,714225,047283,869366,869397,645
  General expenses130,770144,973168,373178,979127,584
Land purchase18,29611,64034,18822,37212,418
Forestry projects under direct management—     
  Exotic710,376811,4951,039,6301,265,7011,058,691
  Indigenous79,023135,698157,503294,158202,070
Utilization: Sawmill, creosote plant, &c.174,379318,826500,694676,491799,330
Pulp and paper making12,36925,02323,67085,51712,343
      Totals1,342,2161,714,1322,237,1462,924,0542,654,967

The revenue from indigenous forests is now used to reduce loan-moneys required to finance forest activities under the Public Works Account, and statutory payments to local authorities are a charge on the Consolidated Fund.

FOREST UTILIZATION: Production of Sawn Timber.—Sawn timber is produced from two entirely distinct though nevertheless complementary sources—the indigenous forests and the exotic forests. From the days of the first European settlement the former have been subjected to destructive cutting, and because of the unduly long cycle of reproduction must from a commercial viewpoint be regarded as a wasting asset. Consequently, as far as the indigenous forest is concerned the sawmilling industry has had to follow a constantly receding forest edge—with the inevitable result that the industry has never been able to achieve any real measure of stability. Thus the production of indigenous timber has been based traditionally on rather primitive mills with poor living conditions for the working personnel; the forest could not be worked on a continuous cycle that would permit a sawmill to operate successfully on a permanent basis, hence there was no incentive to undertake more than the minimum of capital expenditure.

Up to about twenty years ago virtually the total output of sawn timber was produced in this way. The usual sawing equipment was a circular breaking-down saw for flitching the logs and a breast bench circular resaw. The characteristics of the product may be summed up by saying that while the quality of the timber itself was probably equal to any in the world the sawing was anything but accurate. The mills in general had a low cutting capacity and seldom did the annual sawn output per mill exceed 2,000,000 board feet. Up to the Second World War the total yearly production of sawn timber in normal years fluctuated around the level of 300,000,000 board feet.

In the “thirties” significant changes began to develop. On the one hand the easy abundance of indigenous timber had gone while on the other hand certain forests of exotic species, which had been established about the beginning of the century, had reached an age when cutting could commence. These exotic forests had been planted in conifers from the northern hemisphere to offset the depletion of the indigenous forests. They put on rapid growth under New Zealand conditions and the objective from the outset has been the management of those forests for sustained yield on the basis of permanent forest industries and modern communities with a normal range of amenities. In 1930 the production of exotic species was only 10,000,000 board feet but by 1939 had risen to 42,000,000 board feet. However, virtually the whole of this production came from farm shelter belts and woodlots and was sawn in the same type of primitive mill as that characteristic of the indigenous forest. The product was used almost entirely for rough temporary work and boxmaking as there was still ample indigenous timber for all better class requirements.

At the end of that decade the first major step was taken in the evolution of saw-milling from a primitive, shifting industry to a stable industry based on permanent, well constructed capital installations with modern equipment and good living and working conditions. The Forest Service established a modern mill of Swedish design at Rotorua with high speed gang frames and an annual cutting capacity of nearly 20,000,000 board feet. This mill is a permanent installation which will cut timber in perpetuity from the extensive exotic forests of the Rotorua region, and it represented a complete revolution in the approach to sawmilling in New Zealand. Since the Second World War two other mills of similar type have been constructed one by the Forest Service and one by private enterprise, while others are planned by private operators. Such mills represent a high capital investment, but on the other hand they have a permanent operating life, a high output with low unit costs, and yield an accurately sawn product.

At the present time, therefore, the production of exotic timber is increasing rapidly, and it is gradually finding acceptance for general building purposes and a wide range of other uses. By far the most important of the exotic timber species is insignis pine which accounts for about 95 per cent. of the total cut of exotics; larch, eucalypts, Douglas fir, and a few other species are produced only on a minor scale. Nearly two-thirds of the country's timber requirements still comes from the indigenous forests, however—though this proportion must inevitably fall steadily as cutting is gradually reduced to the point where a small sustained yield of indigenous timber can be maintained. In connection with even the indigenous forests, however, it should be noted that the policy of the Forest Service wherever possible is to arrange sales on such a basis as to give mills an operating life long enough to warrant the installation of modern plants and the provision of a good standard of housing and amenities.

Logging methods too have been changing from the traditional use of steam haulers and bush tramways, linking bush with mill, to tractor logging and motor truck haulage of logs, as the latter method permits the working of scattered and lightly-stocked stands of indigenous timber. Roads too are an essential feature of exotic forests for fire protection and forest management as well as for log haulage, and tractors are favoured for their dual role of roading and extraction.

The following table gives details of timber production by species for the past five years; quantities are quoted in board feet (i.e., units of 12 inches by 12 inches by 1 inch).

Species.Year Ended 31st March,
1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.

* Included in "other exotic."

Thousand Board Feet
Kauri2,2832,6091,4178191,050
Rimu and miro172,095198,727216,310227,051229,180
White pine15,11619,58017,69720,06620,050
Matai19,67425,97329,80632,82936,810
Totara9,62712,98313,41812,84013,440
Beech11,60715,08616,86717,16717,610
Tawa7,61512,3648,5339,38510,840
Other indigenous1,6732,9203,1413,5513,750
      Totals, indigenous239,690290,242307,189323,708332,730
Insignis pine111,591135,519157,938146,537182,910
Eucalypts1,2401,7492,2262,1202,970
Poplar9401,042373520530
Larch**4302,5002,410
Other exotic4942,0632,1892,9963,870
      Totals, exotic114,265140,373163,156154,673192,690
      Totals (all species)353,955430,615470,345478,381525,420

Details of the 7,620,000 board feet of “other” timber for the year ended 31st March, 1951, are as follows:—

Species.Board Feet.
Douglas fir1,873,000
Macrocarpa1,817,000
Pukatea593,000
Rewarewa579,000
Tanekaha506,000
Mangeao470,000
Hinau426,000
Species.Board Feet.
Taraire390,000
Rata315,000
Puriri163,000
Kaikawaka83,000
Other405,000
  Total7,620,000

Production of Pulp Products.—The pulping industry is only in its infancy in New Zealand, and at the present time no paper is made from locally manufactured pulp. Two private organizations are producing mechanical pulp, the one for the manufacture of fibre, building, and insulating boards, the other for the manufacture of container board. No chemical pulp is produced as yet, the small quantities of chemical pulp required for the manufacture of container board being imported. Both these producers are using insignis pine from their own exotic forests for their pulping operations; there is no pulping of indigenous species.

One paper mill is manufacturing wrapping paper from imported pulp. In addition a private organization has commenced the construction of a plant to produce sulphate pulp, while a comprehensive national scheme provides for the early establishment of both a sulphate pulp mill and a newsprint mill. The two sulphate mills and also the groundwood mill to furnish pulp for newsprint will use exotic species, mainly insignis pine, for their pulpwood requirements.

The quantity of wood pulp produced in New Zealand during each of the last five years has been as follows: 1946, 16,854 tons; 1947, 17,977 tons; 1948, 21,077 tons; 1949, 21,438 tons; 1950, 23,714 tons.

Plywood and Veneer Manufacture.—Four factories are engaged in the manufacture of plywood, and the total output for the year ending 31st March, 1951, when reduced to a uniform basis of 3/16 in. thickness was 30,200,000 square feet. Two other plants produce limited quantities of veneer only.

For the most part logs from the indigenous forests form the basis of the plywood and veneer industry, though the peeling of exotic species, particularly insignis pine, shows a good deal of promise and is likely to increase steadily in importance. Now that the indigenous forests have become so depleted the production of peeler logs for veneer and plywood manufacture is regarded by the Forest Service as having a first claim on the State forests; hence in its own logging activities the Forest Service aims at producing the maximum amount of peeler logs and has recently also adopted a policy of requiring sawmillers purchasing State indigenous forest to reserve logs suitable for peeling and divert them to the veneer factories.

Other Round and Split Products.—Considerable quantities of native timbers have been required also to meet the needs for mining, fencing timbers, firewood, and a proportion of sleeper, pole, and bridge timber requirements. It is logical that thinnings and small diameter logs from exotic forests should now be able to make useful contributions towards those needs and to justify the operation of commercial-sized preservative treating plants.

Wood Preservation, Grading, and Seasoning.—Apart from the Forest Service creosoting plants intended especially for timber for ground contact use, the more recent establishment of plants by private enterprise for treatment with water-soluble preservatives of sawn timber, has permitted far greater use in buildings of the nondurable grades and species from both indigenous and exotic forests. In this country, with its deeply-rooted conservatism in timber use, and accustomed to the extravagant use of indigenous softwood logs carrying a high proportion of heartwood with excellent durability, strength, and stability, and a minimum of defects, such developments together with those concerned with timber grading and improved seasoning techniques, have inevitably been slow. The significance of correct grading becomes more manifest as the use of exotic timbers extends. Another aspect of the more complete utilization of the sawn products of indigenous softwood logs was the recognition during the “thirties” of a need for accelerated and controlled seasoning in drying kilns. A further impetus has been given to this trend by the expansion of exotic timber utilization, as these woods dry easily and rapidly in kilns.

OVERSEAS TRADE.—New Zealand is self-sufficient in timber resources as far as quantity is concerned but has always found it necessary to import strong, hard, and durable Australian hardwoods for railway sleepers, poles, crossarms, wharf, bridge and constructional timbers, &c. In addition there has been a traditional demand for Douglas fir, redwood, and western red cedar from North America for structural uses and exterior joinery. Other imports are normally limited to Japanese oak for the furniture trade and small quantities of other species for specialty purposes.

While exports have fallen to quite low levels in recent years owing to the absence of any real surpluses of indigenous timber there is now a growing trade with Australia in insignis pine. Lack of shipping has to a large extent limited the quantity that could be exported. The export potential is, however, of the order of 150,000,000 board feet annually, though the attainment of this level is dependent on the large scale development of the exotic forests in the North Island and is not likely to be realized until the Murupara integrated sawmill, pulp, and paper scheme is in operation.

Details of overseas trade during the calendar year 1950 were as follows:—

Exports
 Board Feet.Value in £(N.Z.)
Rough sawn or hewn timber—  
  Beech394,70810,269
  White pine906,11224,106
  Matai579,70916,492
  Insignis pine9,025,815205,201
  Rimu2,259,06957,502
  Poplar138,0582,327
Sawn, dressed189,2497,650
Timber for cases1,366,07647,533
Other produce 550
      Totals14,858,796371,630
Imports
 Board Feet.Value in £(N.Z.)
Sawn or hewn timber—  
  Australian hardwoods5,908,000204,639
  Douglas fir7,620,000220,418
  Oak3,538,000170,561
  Redwood935,00059,391
  Cedar1,038,00060,420
  Other514,00033,972
Logs and poles4,967,000137,668
Sleepers9,314,000235,777
Other produce 69,571
      Totals33,834,0001,192,417

The following table gives a summary of exports and imports for the past five years.

Calendar Year.Exports of New Zealand Timber.Imports of Timber.
Quantity.Value.Sawn or Hewn Timber.Sleepers.Logs and Poles.Total Value.*
Quantity.Value.

* Includes split posts and other items.

 Bd. ft.£(N.Z.)Bd. ft.£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
19467,990,000162,35413,747,000294,650132,00033,050516,000
19478,857,000184,45121,625,000772,600153,100126,3001,060,100
194822,768,000508,94917,594,000533,000412,900127,0001,110,400
194924,428,000558,15526,406,000808,000296,900131,9001,259,100
195014,858,800371,63019,553,000749,400235,800137,7001,192,400

RESEARCH.—All forestry and forest products research undertaken by the Forest Service has, since 1947, been co-ordinated and administered by the Forest Research Institute located at Rotorua.

The complexity of the many indigenous and exotic forest problems necessitates the maintenance of an organization such as this, based on the principle of continuity of a co-ordinated programme of investigations.

While the onus is on the national forest authority (Forest Service) to bear the major share of forestry and forest products research, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the University of New Zealand, and private industrial organizations undertake both applied and pure research in certain aspects of forestry and forest products.

The scope of research, designed primarily by the Forest Service with due regard to achievement of the long-term objectives referred to previously under the sub-headings National Forest Policy, Forest Management and Forest Utilization, may be summarized as follows:—

Silviculture.—(a) Intensive study of the ecology of beech, kauri, and podocarp forests leading to the development of systems of silviculture which will provide the basis of sustained yield management.

(b) Establishment of a series of permanent sample plots in commercial exotic forests to study the response to various grades of thinning and to obtain data on growth and yield throughout the rotation.

(c) Research on quality and origin of seed in conjunction with tree type improvement based on genetical principles, involving vegetative propagation of desirable parent stock. Forest soils investigations (in collaboration with the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research) with particular reference to the long-term changes in pumice soils, and to the effect of chemical treatments on soils associated with poor tree growth.

(d) Development of national arboreta in geographically representative localities, and a central herbarium of forest vegetation.

Mensuration.—The compilation of volume tables for both standing forests and logs, in respect of both indigenous and exotic species. Yield tables for exotic species; increment studies; research on timber conversion factors and logscaling; and form-class investigations applicable to chief exotic conifers.

Forest Pathology.—The investigation of all organisms and factors harmful to the growth of forests, embracing both entomology (including biological control of insect parasites) and mycology, with particular reference to the fungi affecting insignis pine and beech forests.

National Forest Survey.—Administratively a function of the Forest Research Institute, the National Forest Survey has, in the interest of logical presentation, been described under the earlier sub-heading Forest Resources.

Forest Products.—Current research is centered upon evaluation of the inherent properties of those timbers, both indigenous and exotic, which must gradually replace the widely-used indigenous softwoods and imported timbers and forest products. In parallel with the basic studies are those relating to establishment of grading rules, to air-seasoning and kiln-drying, wood preservation, and wood use generally. As the direct result of such research, a number of Codes of Practice and Standard Specifications are being evolved to meet the needs of industry, while the more fundamental aspects are discussed in Forest Service publications and research notes. Some results of specialized work on wood chemistry, paint, and wood preservatives by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and on aspects of utilization of exotic forest timbers by non-Government organizations are also becoming available. Meanwhile the earlier research work by the Forest Service on the indigenous softwoods indicates the ways in which the dwindling resources may be used most intelligently and economically.

PRINCIPAL FOREST TREES.—A brief description of the chief forest trees with their distribution and the uses of their timber, is now given.

Hardwoods.—SILVER BEECH (Nothofagus menziesii): This species is widely distributed throughout both the North and South Islands, particularly in cold wet mountainous country, but it is also capable of occupying a very wide range of sites and soils from swamps to dry talus slopes, and from sea-level to the timber limits at 4,000ft. It frequently occurs in admixture with podocarps or with the other beech species but forms pure stands in high altitude forests and in the lowlands of western Southland. In this latter locality it attains its optimum development. In form it is an exceedingly plastic species varying, according to site, from a low branchy shrub to a tall massive tree, total height 80 to 90 ft., branch-free bole to 60 ft. (average 36 ft.), breast height diameter to 72 in. (average for commercial forest 24 to 36 in.). In virgin lowland forest the older trees, circa 350 years, are normally heavily defective. Such stands may carry up to 25,000 board feet per acre, averaging less than 10,000 board feet, but, under management, production of 50,000 board feet per acre on a 120-year rotation is anticipated. In general form and in its silvicultural characteristics under management, silver beech might best be compared with European sessile oak.

The Southland timber (averaging 34 lb. per cubic foot air-dry) is of a pinkish colour when first cut, changing to a light brown with exposure. It is straight in the grain, easily worked, and strong, but not durable in contact with the ground. The principal uses are flooring, interior finish, furniture, bentwood work, agricultural implements, bodies of motor-cars, billiard-tables, tool-handles, dowels, rifle-stocks, shoe-heels, casks, barrels, cheese-crates, and packing-cases. The denser silver beech from districts other than Southland air-seasons slowly but satisfactorily under cover, and is suitable for most of the less critical uses where the heavier weight (46 lb.) is not disadvantageous.

MOUNTAIN BEECH (N. cliffortioides): This is the characteristic tree of the drier inland and eastern mountain ranges, though it occurs also on a wide range of sites down to, and including, acidic bog soils and spray swept coastal cliffs. At high altitudes and in the bogs it is a small stunted tree or twisted shrub but on favourable lowland sites, particularly in western Southland, it attains a maximum height of 80 ft. with up to 60 ft. of clean evenly tapered bole, with a breast height diameter to 48 in. (average 18 to 24 in.). On such sites it displays rapid growth with a potential rotation period of 90 years. The total life-span is less than that for the other beech species and trees are overmature and defective at approximately 150 years. In many forests mountain beech is aggressive at the expense of other species. As with all the native beeches, heavy seed crops may be expected, particularly within the areas of optimum range, at three to four year intervals normally following hot dry summers. From the view-points of water-shed protection and soil conservation, mountain beech and silver beech are undoubtedly two of the most important trees in the country, but at the same time are the two species most susceptible to damage by exotic browsing animals.

The Southland timber is potentially important as a substitute for silver beech in many uses. It is intermediate in density between Southland silver beech and red beech, sharing with the former the advantages of an excellent density to strength relationship, and reasonable ease of seasoning. Evidence suggests that heartwood is durable in outdoor locations, but the indicated uses meanwhile will be those requiring a tough, straight-grained, and even-textured timber in motor-bodies, factory trucks, implement manufacture, gates, handles, and in industrial and domestic flooring. The timber is also very suitable for general building purposes.

BLACK BEECH (N. solanderi): Contrary to previous reports, black beech is of strictly limited occurrence. It has invariably been confused with lowland types of mountain beech to which it bears a close resemblance and with which it hybridizes freely. In the South Island the two species merge and become generally indistinguishable. The type can only be recognized with certainty on lowland sites in Nelson and Marlborough. In the North Island black beech characteristically occupies lower hill-slope and valley sites to the east of the main ranges, sites intermediate between the podocarp forests and the main bulk of the beech forests proper. Few, if any, extensive areas of pure black beech forest remain. In its behaviour under management it again resembles mountain beech though growing to a somewhat larger size than the latter. As with all the indigenous beeches, young vigorous trees are marked by smooth light coloured bark, and maturity or over-maturity by the development of rough fissured bark of darker colour.

The timber (49 lb. per cubic foot air-dry) is yellowish-white with black streaked heartwood, which is extremely durable in the ground. With its additional advantages of high strength, hardness, and excellent wearing properties, the heartwood is suitable for bridge-decking, bridge-timbers, and similar purposes, as well as for fence-posts. Sapwood clear of defect is suitable for dowels, handles, and bentwood, while other grades are suitable for building. The greatest obstacle to sawing black beech is the high silica content, which causes rapid blunting of saws. Supplies are relatively restricted.

RED BEECH (N. fusca): Red beech is a tree of very wide, though discontinuous distribution from the Thames mountains south almost to Foveaux Strait. In the far south it is clearly beyond its optimum climatic limits and is vigorous only on restricted special sites in western Otago. In the North Island it is generally restricted to montane forest on the inland and eastern ranges, typically in the Ureweras and in the Kaimanawas. The finest red beech forests are those of western Nelson and north Westland. Here the species is most vigorous, regenerates freely, displays its fastest growth, and reaches its maximum size. Red beech is a tall massive tree, total height 100 ft. or more with up to 70 to 80 ft. of clear bole, ranging in diameter to 72 or 84 in., but trees of this size are seldom sound. The average diameter is 40 in. Within its area of optimum range red beech can be managed under a simple uniform clear-cutting system with a rotation of less than 100 years. Second growth stands have been logged at 62 years. Red beech forests outside this optimum area will, for various reasons, require more skilled management under selection or shelterwood systems, techniques not yet economically possible on any considerable scale.

The timber when first cut is a pinkish-red in colour, turning to a light brown on seasoning; it is hard, strong, easily split, durable, and of about the same weight (about 44 lb. per cubic foot air-dry) as English ash. It is slow seasoning, and requires end coatings and a roof over the stack to prevent sun checks, warping, and internal checking. When good-grade stock is seasoned carefully, it is suitable for house-construction (framing is installed green), furniture, bentwork, handles, dowels; other established uses are sleepers, bridge-timbers, fence-posts, mineprops, boat-building, and flooring (domestic and industrial). Its excellent bending and even-wearing qualities are particularly significant in connection with the last two uses. Material containing sapwood is suitable for parts of buildings and other uses where there is no decay hazard.

HARD BEECH (N. truncata): A tree very similar in general appearance to red beech but normally somewhat smaller. The leaves are more coriaceous and the species favours the drier sites, red beech in the valleys and hard beech on the ridges. In geographic range it extends farther north than any of the other species and occurs in Northland in local association with kauri. Throughout the North Island its general distribution parallels that of red beech but is more markedly discontinuous. In the South Island it is not found outside Marlborough, Nelson, and north Westland. In these areas it occurs in admixture with red beech or, south of Westport, with rimu. This is its area of optimum range. Silviculturally it bears close comparison with red beech though growth rates are not so well known and may prove slower. In stem form it is not quite the equal of red beech. As with all the beeches, satisfactory form is assured only when stands are maintained in a heavily stocked condition, at the expense of volume increment, until height growth is completed. Red and hard beech hybribize readily but apparently not so freely as do either red or hard beech with either black or mountain beech.

Until recently its timber (48 lb.) was confused with that of the red beech, but it is harder and probably more durable. When first cut it is pinkish in colour. Its uses are the same as those of its near relative, the red beech. This species may be expected to become, with red beech, progressively more important as a local substitute for the durable Australian hardwoods in outdoor applications, as well as providing mining timbers. The timber is slow-seasoning and liable to warp and check unless seasoning technique is correct, with special emphasis upon protection from the sun.

TAWA (Beilschmiedia tawa): A shade-tolerant evergreen tree with graceful willow-like foliage and thin black bark widely distributed throughout the podocarp forests of the North Island and, locally, in coastal forests of Nelson and Marlborough. On certain hill sites and elsewhere, following the logging of the physiognomically dominant podocarps, tawa assumes dominance but the long-term stability of such tawa forest types is not known. Tawa regenerates freely though, in comparison with the beeches, growth appears somewhat slow. Mature trees reach a maximum height of 80 ft., averaging 50 to 60 ft., with breast height diameters up to 48 in., though generally averaging about 20 in. Stem form is not good, the bole tending to be irregular or forked and logs of length exceeding 20 ft. are seldom obtained. Tawa is important as the most widely distributed species of commercial significance residual in, or developing in, fully exploited podocarp forests. Its ultimate role under more intensive silvicultural management is, as yet, the subject of inquiry.

The timber (46 lb.) is light-brownish-white to cream in colour, hard, straight-grained, strong but not high in shock resistance. It deteriorates rapidly if left block-stacked in an unseasoned condition, but where rapid air-seasoning under cover is carried out under hygienic conditions degrade is slight. Kiln-drying green from the saw is the preferred, practicable method of seasoning. With its excellent machining and finishing qualities, combined with a high yield of dressing grade timber, tawa is a first-class furniture wood and very suitable also for all other interior woodwork and flooring and turned products such as dowels, rods, handles, and clothes-pegs. Treatment to give immunity from attack by the powder-post borer will extend its popularity for these uses. Lower-grade timber is suitable for framing, dunnage, and hardwood pulp.

Indigenous Softwoods.—KAHIKATEA or WHITE PINE (Podocarpus dacrydioides): This species is widely distributed according to a complicated pattern throughout New Zealand. It occurs on dry sites in hill podocarp forests in association with matai and totara and on such sites the trees are very large and very old. It occurs, also, in dense stands in swamp forests throughout the country. In the swamps kahikatea is vigorous, seeds freely, regenerates well (in certain localities prolifically), and displays comparatively fast growth. The saplings and poles are usually of excellent form and early develop long clean boles. Mature kahikatea are fine trees frequently exceeding 140 ft. in total height (though considerably less in the far south) with diameters breast height to 72 in. (averaging 30 to 40 in. in the hills and 20 to 30 in. in the swamps). Clear logs to 80 ft. in length are not exceptional. Only one factor has served to prevent the initiation of intensive sustained yield management. The swamps in which kahikatea is vigorous, when drained and developed, are the finest dairy lands in the country.

Logs from most lowland sites consist almost entirely of white sapwood from which long clear lengths in wide widths may be sawn. The timber is light (averaging 29 lb. per cubic foot air-dry) even-textured, of moderate strength, easily worked, and practically odourless; the last quality made it pre-eminent as a container for easily-tainted foodstuffs such as butter. With the advent of the fibreboard butter-box, the timber has become more readily available for kitchenware, miscellaneous woodware, kitchen furniture, vats, boat-building, and house-building (after preservative-treatment). Heartwood forms a significant proportion of old hill-grown logs; it is yellow, sometimes miscalled “yellow pine,” durable and is a useful substitute for heart kauri.

KAURI (Agathis australis): Kauri, the most celebrated of all New Zealand trees, is a species of most restricted distribution with but few outliers outside the Northland and Coromandei Peninsulas, but of the original areas only remnants remain. The giant dominants in virgin forest, up to 20 ft. in diameter with taperless smooth boles reaching to 80 ft. or more, are immensely old and are rightly regarded as national monuments. Yet, of all the native softwoods (saving only kahikatea in the swamps), kauri proves, silviculturally, the most amenable. Regeneration can be secured (by way of nurse crops of Leptospermum or by suitable shelterwood techniques), the species can be handled in forest nurseries, and growth rates are satisfactory. Kauri can be grown as specimen trees in Invercargill 1,000 miles to the south of its natural range. There, growth rates exceed those shown by rimu on sites of optimum quality. Under management in the north it should certainly prove possible to grow kauri on a rotation not exceeding 200 years for the production of logs up to 36 in. in diameter. Many minor details in connection with its silviculture remain for solution but successful domestication of this valuable timber tree can confidently be anticipated.

Production of sawn timber has fallen to about 1,000,000 board feet per annum of which the major proportion of first-quality timber is used for boat-building. Its rapid decline has emphasized the remarkable versatility of a timber whose capacity to yield long clear wides of heart quality has been a byword in world trade. The light yellowish-brown, lustrous heartwood, averaging 36 lb. per cubic foot air-dry, is straight-grained, strong, easily worked and finished, even-textured, remarkably stable and durable under most exacting conditions. It is used in vats for acids, tanning, and brewing, in textile mill machinery, laundry appliances, butter churns, printer's blocks, and sink benches. A wide range of general uses in building, furniture, bridge, boat and ship construction has absorbed the other grades “Medium” and “Seconds” (containing sapwood) as well as “Rough Heart” and "Shaky Heart."

MATAI or BLACK PINE (Podocarpus spicatus): This tree, resembling a hardwood in form though possessing yew-like foliage, occurs throughout New Zealand. In the south its distribution is strictly discontinuous and it occurs as solitary trees or in small stands scattered throughout the rimu forests, the lowland beech forests, and even the eastern grasslands. Here it possesses all the characteristics of a true relict species. Growth rates are very slow (50 or more rings to the inch), regeneration is rare even on exceptionally favourable sites, the trees are normally of great age (in some stands all exceed 800 to 1,000 years), and the degree of stunting and malformation increases from north to south. The major matai forests lie in the central portions of the North Island where the trees are of better form, total height to 80 ft. (averaging 60 ft.), diameters breast height to 60 in. (averaging 20 to 30 in.), growth rates are better (though seldom exceeding 1/10 in. per annum), and the dominants are younger. But even here regeneration is normally sparse to wanting. Matai forest soils are very fertile agricultural soils and are in demand for farming. Sustained yield management is a possibility only on restricted special quality sites in the north.

The narrow white sapwood band is clearly demarcated from the straw-coloured heartwood and boards which are partly or wholly sapwood are used principally for flooring (preservative treated), tallow casks, and similar containers. Heart timber, averaging 38 lb. per cubic foot air-dry, has outstanding qualities of being both hard- and even-wearing, durable and dimensionally-stable, which make it one of the best flooring timbers in the world for industrial as well as for domestic use; the same properties commend it for decking and sills. Other building uses include weather-boarding, framing timbers, and plywood. Reject logs provide excellent firewood.

MIRO (Podocarpus ferrugineus): Miro is found in close association with rimu throughout the entire range of the latter. It seldom, however, achieves co-dominance and very rarely and locally attains dominance. In comparison with the other major podocarps it is a small tree usually less than 70 ft. in height and 36 in. in diameter (averaging 24 in.). In contrast to the cupressoid foliage of kahikatea and rimu, the miro foliage is of the yew type. The large bright-red drupes are borne regularly and in abundance and are widely distributed by birds. Seedling miro are normally abundant throughout the forests but saplings are rare. Some, as yet unknown, factor prevents survival and satisfactory growth. Growth rates are extremely slow even in comparison with rimu and it is most unlikely that miro will ever prove a species of commercial significance in managed forests.

This timber resembles rimu in appearance, in the differentiation of three zones in the log (heartwood, intermediate zone, and sapwood), in many of its major properties, grading and uses, and is moreover marketed as rimu in many localities. Miro is stronger and harder than rimu, and is somewhat more liable to warp when handled carelessly.

RIMU or RED PINE (Dacrydium cupressinum): This, the principal timber tree of New Zealand, is likewise the most widely distributed, occurring in quantity from the Northland kauri region south to Stewart Island. It is present in all lowland beech forests and is the dominant tree over wide areas in the North Island and in Westland, though absent from high altitude forests and rare or local over the central eastern portions of the South Island. It is a tall tree up to 100 ft. in height, producing logs 70 ft. or more in length with breast height diameters up to 60 or 70 in. though these dimensions are reached more frequently in the north than in the south, and in the hill country forests rather than on the coastal plains. Despite its abundance, however, rimu has proved, silviculturally, a most recalcitrant species. In the hill forests, most noticeably in the south, there has been no significant regeneration for several centuries and rimu on such sites appears to be definitely a relict species. Growth rates are very slow. Many of the larger trees exceed 700 years in age while annual diameter increments, even on select sites, of 1/19 in. are rarely exceeded. Growth is equally slow in the coastal forests where the sparse regeneration obtained after logging is frequently impeded by rising ground water levels, a consequence of logging. Artificial re-afforestation with rimu is rendered abortive by the high cost of collection of the solitary seeds emplaced at the tips of the terminal twigs, by the dioecious habit of the species, by uncertain germination coupled with slow growth of the seedlings and heavy mortality on trans-plantation, and by the heavy growth of weed species that develops following logging. Rimu may be maintained indefinitely as a minor constituent of certain lowland beech forests or on select sites in the north of the North Island, but elsewhere the rimu forests are probably a non-renewable resource.

Current high production of rimu timber cannot be sustained for many years, and it is necessary to direct available supplies into those uses in which its properties and grades are used to best advantage. The timber possesses the qualities of even texture, medium density (averaging 37 lb. per cubic foot air-dry), good seasoning, machining, finishing, and painting qualities, and moderate strength and hardness. The light brown sapwood and intermediate zone may be preservative-treated to impart durability; heartwood is moderately durable, dimensionally stable, and often is highly figured. Building construction (practically all components), furniture, and plywood use the bulk of available supplies.

TOTARA (P. totara and P. hallii): These closely related species which hybridize freely are both widely distributed though in very different fashion. The distribution of P. totara, a tall massive tree with thick fibrous bark, up to 100 ft. in height (average 80 ft.) and up to 80 in. in diameter (average 30 to 40 in.), parallels that of matai and, like matai, it is stunted and malformed in the south. P. hallii, a much smaller tree with thin papery bark, is more widely distributed and occurs in both lowland and alpine podocarp and beech forests. In high altitude forests it is frequently no more than a shrub. Growth rates are slow particularly in the south though regeneration occurs more abundantly, for P. hallii if not for P. totara, than for matai. Such regeneration, however, is seldom of good form. Remarks on the silvicultural potential of matai apply to P. totara though prospects are somewhat brighter by virtue of freer regeneration and faster growth (up to 1/5 in. per annum). P. hallii is strictly a minor species of limited commercial importance though recent growth rate figures for this colder climate species when grown in the north show some small promise.

Brownish-pink heartwood is readily distinguished from the pale brown sapwood; the latter is regarded as more durable than sapwood of other indigenous softwoods and suitable without preservative treatment for a wide range of uses in building construction where its relative softness and brittle nature are not restrictive. The latter properties too are virtually the only disadvantages of heart totara which is light (averaging 30 lb. per cubic foot air-dry) easily worked, straight-grained, dimensionally-stable, free from warping, and of outstanding durability under the most adverse conditions, in poles, posts, sleepers, and wharf piles. High-grade stock today is required primarily for exterior joinery while reject logs continue to supply fence posts.

Exotic Softwoods.—DOUGLAS FIR (Pseudotsuga taxifolia): This was introduced in the early days of settlement from the Pacific coast of Canada and the United States of America where it forms very extensive forests both pure and in mixture with other species. Trees, when growing rapidly, are pyramidal in shape and with very dense, fragrant foliage on numerous, smallish branches. In the best of the Pacific coast forests, they reach immense sizes of 300 ft. in height and 40 ft. in girth. The species has been a highly successful introduction, both as an ornamental and as an afforestation tree. Fine old trees and plantations are to be seen along the foothills of Canterbury. Forest Service plantings date back to 1900 although large areas were not established until 1921–30. In all over 40,000 acres have now been planted in State forests as well as several thousand acres in private, company, and municipal plantations. The forests are successful and healthy from the Rotorua district to Southland, and at altitudes under 1,000 ft. in the south and up to 2,000 ft. in the north. The species grows in a wide range of soils, provided that they are well drained. It is a tree of hill country, and seldom does well on flats and plains; in general it prefers shady slopes. It will grow well in areas of moderately high rainfall, but cannot stand severe frosts.

Plantations put on large volume increments and yield profitable early thinnings for poles and posts. On good quality sites a height of 80 ft. can be attained in 30 years and a volume of 9,000 cubic feet to a 4 in. top. Only locally collected seed is now used for raising seedlings. In many areas trees or plantations will throw dense regeneration. To produce quality timber and maximum profit rotations will be at least 60 and probably 80 years or more.

The inherent features of locally-grown Douglas fir are not dissimilar from those characterising the species as grown in its native habitat. Heartwood is formed at a relatively early age, pinkish-brown in colour, with the distinctive Douglas fir smell and having moderate durability, including resistance to insect borers, in buildings. Sapwood is white. Growth rings are prominent with dense latewood bands contrasting with the more open-textured earlywood zones. In general, a high proportion of latewood in the growth rings is indicative of the higher density strong timber preferred for framing and structural timbers for building; on the other hand a low latewood percentage indicates light timber easily nailed and presenting fewer painting difficulties. The density range is from 27 lb. to 36 lb. per cubic foot air-dry. Thinnings are suitable after preservative treatment for use as poles and posts.

EUROPEAN LARCH (Larix decidua): This tree, one of the few deciduous conifers, is a native of Central Europe. The main New Zealand plantings were made during the years 1900–15; the area established to date totals 7,900 acres of which 5,460 are located in the North Island and 2,440 in the South Island. Best growth has been obtained on sheltered easy hill slopes at fairly low altitudes and on soils which are deep, well acrated, and moist. On such sites the root system is strongly developed and the bole is tall, clean, and tapering. Exposure to strong winds leads to the development of sabre butts. By the age of 30 years heights of 70 ft. have been attained and volumes per acre are estimated to be approximately 4,000 cubic feet. Seed cones are sparse and fertile seed is not borne until about the age of 25 years. Early plantings were made from stock raised from seed imported from Switzerland but now sufficiently mature stands are available from which to collect all requirements; one pound of seed produces in the nursery about 18,000 seedlings. Fortunately stands have escaped the serious diseases to which this species is subject in Europe. Being a strong light demander, larch requires early and frequent thinnings to prevent the stands from stagnating; thinnings are likely to be profitable. Only after a thinning that has been too long delayed has wind-throw occurred; otherwise the tree has shown itself to be wind-firm. Rotations will be 70 years or more. The tree never grows to a large diameter, but has characteristically small branches which die early, and can be readily cleared; knot free timber can thus be produced.

The small diameter logs available at present have been used after preservative treatment, mainly as natural round poles, props and posts, for which purposes their good strength and form are realized to advantage. Natural rounds without treatment are used also for mine props, rails, and rustic work. Sapwood is light in colour, narrow and clearly defined; heartwood is reddish-brown to light greenish-brown in colour and moderately durable. The timber is of medium density (averaging 35 lb. per cubic foot air-dry), strong and tough, and hence is very suitable for framing in buildings, for gates and other farm timber, and for scaffold planks. The well-defined growth rings with dense latewood present a painting problem, and floors subject to heavy wear tend to wear unevenly.

CORSICAN PINE (Pinus laricio): This tree, native of southern Europe, has adapted itself well to New Zealand conditions. Successful plantations have been established as far north as Waipoua and as far south as the Invercargill district, and from sea level to altitudes up to 2,500 ft. The species has not proved exacting as to soil requirements although the best stands are at lower altitudes on deep well-drained soils varying in texture from sands to clays. Plantations do not thin themselves naturally so that early thinnings are imperative if stagnation is to be avoided. Unthinned stands become very liable to wind-throw from an age of 45 years onwards.

Growth rates are slow as compared with insignis pine, but are rapid in comparison with European standards for Corsican pine. The rotation in New Zealand is likely to be 60 to 80 years. Because of the wide variation in tree types which exist special care must be taken in the selection of élite seed trees. In some localities there is promise of successful regeneration.

No stands have yet been clear-felled, but thinnings have been fully utilized.

Knowledge of this timber is limited mainly to small diameter logs of which the largest are sawn and others used for poles and posts after preservative treatment. Available logs contain only a small core of pink heartwood, and resinous pink knots contrasting with the creamy white sapwood. The timber is slightly denser and harder than insignis pine (averaging about 31 lb. per cubic foot air-dry), generally similar in strength properties, seasoning, machining, and finishing, and very susceptible to sapstain disfigurement during seasoning in both boards and natural round products. Pith is relatively insignificant, knots are smaller and more closely spaced than in insignis pine and the density variation within the log is less. Light and dark bands (earlywood and latewood) in the closely-spaced growth rings do not appear seriously to affect paint coat adhesion in weatherboards or wearing qualities in flooring, for which the timber is mainly used.

INSIGNIS PINE (Pinus radiata): Almost confined in its natural state to the limited area of the Monterey Peninsula in California it has been a truly remarkable tree for its successful introduction into southern hemisphere countries and its widespread use for afforestation. In New Zealand it has been the mainstay of all planting, both on farms and in plantations, and about 500,000 acres have been established with it, or over 60 per cent. of the acreage of all species planted. The present cut of timber is almost equal to that of rimu, hitherto the main indigenous building timber, and in the near future insignis pine will be by far the most important timber. It was introduced by the settlers in the early “sixties” and planted mainly for shelter.

By the 1920's its potentialities for afforestation were obvious and it was the species used mainly in the planting of the large areas of pumice country in the “boom” period 1925–30. The central North Island is now its stronghold but it is grown throughout the length and breadth of the country though it fares poorly in Northland and on the windswept shingle plains of Canterbury. It does well on a wide range of soil types, at altitudes from sea-level to 2,000 ft. and in rainfall varying from 30 in. to 70 in. per annum. The best stands are in the Rotorua, Nelson, and Tapanui districts, and in sand-dunes. Individual trees vary greatly in form, vigour, and in such botanical characteristics as size and shape of cones. The most remarkable feature of the species is its fast rate of growth; on good sites it will reach a height of 130 ft. in 30 years, and in the same period will commonly yield 50,000 board feet of sawn timber to the acre. Diameter growth is equally rapid and annual rings up to 1 in. wide are frequently seen.

Early in the life of stands, dominant trees take the lead and there is a continuous natural thinning so that stands do not stagnate. Seed is produced early and most of it is retained in the thick woody cones that stay on the trees. Natural regeneration usually follows clear-felling and is prolific after fires. Untended stands in the pumice country have been attacked by Sirex noctilio, in places severely. The insects Hylastes ater and Tortrix moth, and the fungi Armillaria mellea and Phomopsis also attack the species under certain conditions.

The inherent properties of the bulk of sawn timber produced from insignis pine are sufficiently good to justify confidence in the suitability of the timber for a very wide range of uses in building construction, provided that it is properly graded, protected from sapstain disfigurement during seasoning (by chemical dipping or kiln-drying green off the saw), and preservative-treated where a decay hazard may arise in service. In other parts of buildings where the timber is erected after thorough seasoning and remains dry in service, preservative treatment is unnecessary. Sapwood timber is creamy-white, light (average about 28 lb. per cubic foot air-dry), easily dried, machined, and finished, and strong for its weight; there is little heartwood present in logs from 25 to 30 year old trees. Knots, only slightly darker than the rest of the wood, are the main defects; there are long lengths of clear timber between whorls of knots in many logs. Boards containing widely-separated large defects find a logical use in furniture and interior joinery for the “clear cuttings” which they will yield with minimum waste; other boards with smaller dispersed defects are preferred for flooring and weatherboarding. Growth rings are characteristically broad with a gradual rather than an abrupt change from the earlywood to the denser latewood in each ring. In machining and finishing, and in wearing (in service), the timber is largely free from troubles associated with more uneven and textured woods. Nevertheless there is a slight tendency for the customary paint coats on weatherboards showing a prominent “slashgrain” to be eroded away from the latewood bands; special priming treatments to counteract this feature and also the knots are being studied. The pith, in itself a significant defect, and a core of low density wood surrounding it are taken account of, especially in members graded for strength. Apart from building uses, large quantities of timber are absorbed by boxes and crates, concrete boxing, core-boards and door cores, and a growing export trade. Pulping industries are using increasing quantities of small diameter material which is suitable for both groundwood and chemical pulps for paper as well as fibreboard and container board manufacture. Veneer production from selected logs is growing also.

LODGEPOLE PINE (Pinus murrayana): Lodgepole pine comes from the inland montane regions of Canada and the United States of America where pure forests of the species extend over large areas. It has a wide range of geographical races, several of which have been introduced into New Zealand. It has been used by the Forest Service mainly for the afforestation of high cold plateau country in the centre of the North Island. Over 16,000 acres have been planted, the greater part between 1926 and 1932. The species is hardy and frost resistant, and can be grown at a higher altitude than any other exotic pine in New Zealand. The best races develop well and indicate that the species has a place in New Zealand forest practice, provided that seed selection is carefully done. Poor races on the other hand produce stunted and excessively branched trees which are unlikely to produce commercial timber. The tree never grows to large diameters and may find its best use in pulpwood. Lodgepole pine is a remarkably early and prolific seeder, and it regenerates profusely; it is in fact already tending to colonize parts of the tussock country of the central North Island. These characteristics may lead to it being grown for protection rather than production purposes.

The characteristics of the timber from local sources are as yet imperfectly known as production is very small and limited to one or two localities. Timber sawn in North Canterbury has more clearly-defined growth rings and latewood bands than insignis pine, more closely-spaced growth rings due to its slower growth, and carries a significant proportion of heartwood distinguished from the creamy-white sapwood by its light pinkish-brown colour and distinctive smell. Pith is insignificant and knots are smaller, light brown in colour and more dispersed than in insignis pine. The timber appears in general to be slightly denser and harder than insignis pine but comments on the grading, seasoning, preservation and uses of the latter are a satisfactory guide to procedure with lodgepole pine.

PONDEROSA PINE (Pinus ponderosa): Ponderosa pine comes from the drier montane areas of western Canada and the United States of America. It is there a composite species comprising a number of geographical races which differ greatly in form and vigour and which extend over a wide area and range of conditions. In New Zealand the tree has been planted on a large scale, both by the Forest Service and by afforestation companies and on an area basis it is second in importance only to insignis pine. Being a hardy species its main use has been in the afforestation of difficult sites, particularly the “frost flats” of the pumice country where climatic conditions are too severe to permit the establishment of insignis pine. Unfortunately, mainly poor races have been introduced and the ponderosa forests are therefore not of high quality. Some small scale early plantings were from good races and these now show the possible value of the species. The tree will do well on poor soils and in climates characterized by low rainfalls and cold frosty winters. It grows slowly except on the best sites, and it will require a long rotation to produce mature high quality timber. Early thinnings have not been profitable. Ponderosa pine in New Zealand is generally healthy but it has shown some susceptibility to Sirex noctilio, Hylastes ater, and Tortrix moths. It does not seed early in life and natural regeneration as yet is almost non-existent.

It is impracticable to give a complete picture of properties and uses as the sawn production to date is small. Timber examined is generally of lower density and slightly weaker than insignis pine, but this may be counter-balanced in graded framing timber by the knots being smaller and more dispersed. The indicated disability of low density core timber with associated low strength and a warping tendency will require attention in grading. Heartwood forms an insignificant proportion of the small-diameter logs which have so far been sawn. Sapwood is whitish and growth rings are not well-defined.

Principal Strength Properties of New Zealand Timbers.—The following table shows the principal strength properties of New Zealand timbers, both indigenous and exotic species. The test samples were in the form of small clear specimens, the air-dry values being adjusted to 12 per cent. moisture content. In two of the exotic species, Douglas fir and insignis pine, tests of timber from two different localities are shown.

Common and Botanical Name of Species.Condition at Test.Weight per Cubic Foot (Pounds).Modulus of Rupture in Bending (Pounds per Square Inch).Modulus of Elasticity in Bending (1,000 Pounds per Square Inch).Maximum Crushing Strength Parallel to Grain (Pounds per Square Inch).Shear Strength Parallel to Grain (Pounds per Square Inch).
Indigenous Species      
Beech, black (Nothofagus solanderi)Green699,4001,7504,3001,280
 Air-dry4914,5001,9808,3001,870
Beech, hard (Nothofagus truncata)Green6910,3001,8704,6001,420
 Air-dry4813,7002,1007,0001,980
Beech, red (Nothofagus fusca)Green619,1001,7203,9001,260
 Air-dry4411,4001,9307,6001,850
Beech, silver (Nothofagus menziesii)Green557,6001,2803,400940
 Air-dry3412,2001,6706,1001,420
Black maire (Olea cunninghamii)Green7513,0501,5506,0001,810
 Air-dry6217,0002,0209,6002,360
Hinau (Elaeocarpus dentatus)Green708,8001,5904,3001,380
 Air-dry4512,3001,6106,6001,610
Kahikatea or white pine (Podocarpus dacrydioides)Green516,3009602,500810
 Air-dry299,5001,1405,1001,340
Kaikawaka (Libocedrus bidwillii)Green615,6006602,800750
 Air-dry276,4008704,100820
Kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa)Green557,8001,2503,4001,290
 Air-dry4010,8001,4205,8001,920
Kauri (Agathis australis)Green517,8001,5703,400940
 Air-dry3613,1001,8905,6001,220
Kohekohe (Dysoxulum spectabile)Green577,3001,2903,100790
 Air-dry3410,9001,4007,100840
Mangeao (Litsaea calicaris)Green627,6001,3303,3001,030
 Air-dry3913,3001,6206,6001,560
Matai (Podocarpus spicatus)Green689,0001,2304,0001,000
 Air-dry3810,8001,3206,8001,600
Miro (Podocarpus ferrugineus)Green548,4001,4203,8001,150
 Air-dry3612,9001,5706,6001,690
Pokaka (Elaeocarpus hookerianus)Green656,2001,0003,2001,260
 Air-dry3910,0001,1005,5001,730
Pukatea (Laurelianovae-zelandiae)Green614,2007302,500580
 Air-dry3011,8001,7004,9001,080
Rata, Northern (Metrosideros robusta)Green7211,3001,7105,2001,610
 Air-dry5518,2002,3409,2001,940
Rata, Southern (Metrosideros lucida)Green7913,0002,1505,8001,640
 Air-dry7123,0003,15011,5002,570
Rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum)Green617,4001,2203,300910
 Air-dry3711,0001,3105,4001,260
Silver-pine (Dacrydium colensoi)Green546,4007903,100840
 Air-dry398,5001,0705,8001,320
Taraire (Beilschmiedia taraire)Green728,6001,4103,9001,000
 Air-dry4213,0001,7906,6001,910
Tanekaha (Phyllocladus trichomanoides)Green689,3001,3904,6001,210
 Air-dry4214,1001,6206,5001,400
Tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa)Green679,7001,5904,4001,100
 Air-dry4615,7002,0608,4001,780
Totara (Podocarpus totara)Green596,5009203,100810
 Air-dry307,6001,0705,5001,120
Exotic Species      
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia), Mackenzie CountyGreen366,3001,1002,800830
 Air-dry279,0501,2604,9001,220
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia), Marlborough CountyGreen398,0001,2103,8001,030
 Air-dry3613,4002,0006,6001,340
Insignis pine (Pinus radiata), Rotorua CountyGreen585,9001,0602,600870
 Air-dry2811,2001,3405,6001,550
Insignis pine (Pinus radiata), New Brighton BoroughGreen516,1009102,8001,060
 Air-dry319,3001,0604,2001,370
Macrocarpa (Cupressus macro-carpa), Tuapeka CountyGreen508,0009703,8001,010
 Air-dry3110,9001,1805,9001,620
Larch (Larix decidua) Rotorua CountyGreen417,5001,3203,200830
 Air-dry3513,5001,7407,1002,060

Chapter 20. SECTION 20—FISHERIES

Table of Contents

THE principal characteristics of New Zealand's fisheries are the great length of the coast-line, extensive natural harbours, numerous sheltered bays, and narrow continental shelf. Off its more northerly coasts, which come within the influence of the south equatorial current, a rich variety of subtropical fish is found, as exemplified by such species as the flying-fish, the sunfish, the swordfish, and several shark species. On the other hand, its southern coasts, washed by the Antarctic drift, are the natural haunt of the fur-bearing seal, and yield varieties of fish which are characteristic of cold-water conditions.

Of the many kinds of excellent edible fishes the most important are the snapper (Pagrosomus auratus), which is the principal species in the catch (mainly by trawl) in the north-western part of the South Island, the west coast of the North Island and the east coast of the North Island to just south of East Cape; next in importance is tarakihi (Dactylopagrus macropterus), which is taken mainly by trawlers working off the east coast of the North Island and in smaller quantities off the west coast of the South Island. The groper or hapuku (Polyprion oxygeneios) is caught on lines in the deeper water from North Cape to Stewart Island, but principally in Cook Strait and on the rocky parts of the east coast of the South Island, while the blue cod (Parapercis colias) is the staple line-caught product of the southern line fisheries particularly about Foveaux Strait and Stewart Island.

The flounder and sole (Pleuronectidae) occur in the more shallow and sheltered waters.

The most productive grounds are in relatively shallow water, and, except for groper and ling fished for by means of deep long lines, most of the fishing is carried on at depths of less than 40 fathoms. Depths of over 100 fathoms occur at a comparatively short distance from the coast, and up to the present it is not known to what extent these deeper waters may be productive of marketable fishes. The principal methods of fishing are long-lining for groper (hapuku), ling, “hake” or “kingfish,” and snapper; hand-lining for blue cod; trawling and Danish seining, by which flounders, snapper, tarakihi, gurnard, john-dory, and a variety of other fish are taken. In bays and estuaries set-nets are used for flounders, snapper, and mullet, and seines are also employed principally for the capture of flat-fish and snapper. Sardines or pilchards (Sardinia neopilchardus) and other species of the herring family are known to occur in large shoals off some parts of the coast from time to time. There is no regular fishery for these kinds except where they have been periodically netted for bait by Cook Strait fishermen in the Marlborough Sounds. Attempts to commercialize these fish have been unsuccessful mainly because their appearances proved extremely irregular and inadequate in quantity.

In order to ascertain the economic position of the fishing industry an investigation committee was set up, under the Board of Trade Act, in 1937. This committee conducted exhaustive inquiries into all aspects of the industry, and reference to the committee's report (parliamentary paper H-44A, 1937–38) will give detailed information as to the conditions under which the industry then operated.

The fishing industry—that is, "the taking of fish and shell fish for sale"—came wholly under the control of the Marine Department by virtue of the Fisheries Amendment Act, 1945, which provides that any boat used in fishing for purposes of sale must be registered, and that the owner of such a boat must be the holder of a licence authorizing the boat to be so used. In addition, any person employed on a fishing-boat except as an engineer engaged wholly in connection with the propelling machinery, or wholly as a fireman, or as a cook, must be the holder of a crew licence.

STATISTICS OF FISHERIES.—Commencing with the year 1944, the Marine Department adopted the calendar year as a standard for the expression of statistics of fisheries in place of the year ended 31st March formerly in use.

The number of licensed fishing-vessels operating during 1950 was 841, a decrease of 14 as compared with 1949. The criterion as to whether a boat was regarded as operative was whether it earned more than £50 during the year. It is now proposed to include under the heading of operative vessels only those whose catch exceeds £200. During 1950 there were 635 vessels, as compared with 620 in 1949, whose catch exceeded £200 in value. The number of persons employed on these vessels was 1,356.

The estimated total quantity and value of the principal classes of fishery products marketed in the years 1949 and 1950 were as follows:—

Unit.Quantity.Value.
1949.1950.1949.1950.
    ££
Wet fishCwt.449,903440,179864,332918,051
WhitebaitCwt.7,8991,962204,26948,537
Oysters (dredged)Sack97,33675,04881,51975,048
Oysters (rock)Sack5,0765,1368,7448,984
MusselsSack14,84513,6574,9125,587
CrayfishCwt.36,77152,48299,034169,038
Whale oilTons97347436,00019,000
Fish-liverslb.783,307815,49331,00637,376
      Total value   1,329,8161,281,621

In the most important group, the "wet fish"—i.e., all the ordinary fishes caught by all the methods of sea fishing—the annual totals for successive years were as follows:—

Year.Quantity.Value.
 Cwt.£
1935–36363,448313,106
1936–37363,128360,406
1937–38355,687413,516
1938–39356,114424,643
1939–40339,231416,480
1940–41328,594440,308
1941–42326,863458,393
1942–43311,971442,976
1943–44294,445489,268
1944308,237522,954
1945331,773558,404
1946380,321660,096
1947438,300802,496
1948446,265838,334
1949449,903864,332
1950440,179918,051

As the industry got under way after the war years there was at first a marked increase in the quantity of wet fish produced, due in part to the resting of the grounds and in part to the re-engining and replacement of the boats, particularly the major units. During 1947, 1948, and 1949 these increases showed a marked tendency to taper off as the increased fishing potential stabilized itself about the increased level of production. The decrease which was apparent in nearly all ports in 1950 may in part be due to a continuation of this adjustment coupled with a seasonal variation and in part due to a number of boats having concentrated their efforts on crayfishing in view of the buoyant export market for crayfish tails.

Methods of Capture.—A table showing the total quantity of wet fish caught in 1950 by each of the common methods of fishing is shown below, with the figures for 1949 included for comparison.

Method of Fishing.Quantity.Percentage of Total Quantity.
1949.1950.1949.1950.
 Cwt.Cwt.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Trawl249,656270,78755.561.5
Danish seine65,29142,75814.59.7
Long and hand lines103,933100,85923.122.9
Set and drag net31,02325,7756.95.9
      Totals449,903440,179100.0100.0

The steam-trawlers landed a total of 78,363 cwt. (17.8 per cent.), while motor-trawlers landed 192,424 cwt. (43.7 per cent.). The drop in steam-trawler landings can in part be attributed to difficulties experienced from time to time in obtaining full crews.

The continued decrease in the quantity caught by Danish-seine boats is due to still more of these boats changing to trawling because of the high costs of operating Danish-seine gear, occasioned principally by the high cost and short life of the ropes or warps available at present. Some of these boats have even changed from Danish-seining to lining.

Landings at Ports.—Ports where the total landed catch was in excess of 10,000 cwt. are shown in order of importance in the next table. The percentage of the grand total is also included.

Port.Quantity.Percentage of Total Quantity.Value.Percentage of Total Value.
1949.1950.1949.1950.1949.1950.1949.1950.
 Cwt.Cwt.Per Cent.Per Cent.££Per Cent.Per Cent.
Auckland133,169122,93429.627.9193,504202,49622.422.1
Wellington50,61747,77211.310.9114,554102,53513.311.2
Port Chalmers41,35941,2489.29.465,26471,6327.57.8
Napier25,32024,1795.65.545,73041,3295.34.5
Timaru19,40323,3904.45.350,98574,0135.98.1
Bluff and Stewart Island19,19720,8394.34.754,14057,4816.36.3
Lyttelton15,22316,7683.43.833,67946,8763.95.1
Thames17,60215,7773.93.632,76432,6873.83.6
Nelson14,06915,7643.13.623,86326,8102.82.9
Tauranga12,94815,1012.93.420,57224,8032.42.7
Gisborne14,67513,3243.33.022,23321,8482.62.4

The quantity of fish landed at these ports totalled 357,096 cwt., which was 81.1 per cent. of the grand total.

Exports.—The totals for the principal classes of fishery products exported during the last three years are given below:—

Unit.Quantity.Value.
1948.1949.1950.1948.1949.1950.
     £££
Oysters, freshDoz.1,0201,9206303010735
MusselsCwt.759373531475531
Fish, frozenCwt.54,67161,36760,958340,441366,880375,761
Crayfish, frozenCwt.3,7316,38811,81444,46685,061199,930
Fish, smoked, dried, &c.Cwt.1,6251,04761511,4197,2333,913
Fish and shell-fish cannedlb.755,307798,955291,18896,84956,12734,191
      Total value    493,736515,883614,361

Fish-liver Oil.—This branch of the industry shows an increase again this year in the quantity of livers handled and in the quantity of oil produced, the figures being the highest yet recorded. The total weight of livers treated was 815,493 lb., an increase of 32,186 lb., and the fish-liver oil produced 37,544 gallons, an increase of 4,240 gallons as compared with the 1949 figures.

When this industry was first developed in New Zealand the fish-liver oils were required as sources of vitamins A and D, but with the manufacture synthetically firstly of vitamin D and now of vitamin A the future of this branch of the industry is not at all certain. The application first in Auckland and then in Wellington of molecular distillation as a means of producing a concentrate of vitamin A makes comparison of production and of exports with the earlier years very difficult. The industry is really concerned with the number of units of vitamin A rather than with gallons of oil, hence the reduced quantity of oil sent for export during 1950, 17,440 gallons, as compared with 18,747 gallons during 1949, is not strictly comparable because varying quantities of concentrate are included in these totals.

The total weights of livers treated and quantities of oil produced during the last five years are as follows:—

YearWeight of Livers Treated.Quantity of Oil Produced.
 lb.Gallons.
1946670,64429,923
1947698,38330,427
1948677,43524,083
1949783,30733,304
1950815,49337,544

OYSTER-BEDS.—The principal oyster-beds around the coast of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South and Stewart Islands, and the rock-oyster beds on the east and west coasts of the Auckland peninsula.

In South Island waters a close season is observed from 1st October to 14th February, and in North Island waters from 1st November to 30th April, in each year. The taking of oysters is governed by the Oyster-fishing Regulations 1946, and vessels operating commercially are subject to the Sea-fisheries (Boats and Licences) Regulations 1951. During the 1950 season 75,048 sacks of oysters were dredged from Foveaux Strait, compared with 97,336 sacks in 1949.

The rock-oyster beds of Auckland were worked for many years under a variety of systems, but, owing to stripping of the beds, close seasons had frequently to be proclaimed. From 1908 the picking and wholesale marketing of rock-oysters from the North Island beds has been undertaken by the State, private picking being prohibited.

Oyster-cultivation work is being systematically carried on by the Marine Department in the Hauraki Gulf, in the Bay of Islands, and in the Kaipara district.

Rock-oysters picked and sold by the State in 1950 totalled 5,136 sacks, compared with 5,076 sacks in 1949.

CRAYFISH.—Marine crayfish occur off many parts of the New Zealand coast and are caught in baited pots. Part of the catch of crayfish is sold in local markets for domestic consumption, part is exported as frozen crayfish tails and whole crays, while a small quantity is canned.

With the development of the export of frozen crayfish tails to the United States of America and the high price received for this product, the increase in the catch of crayfish has been phenomenal, but already some grounds are showing a reduced return for the gear worked compared with the peak pre-war catch of 12,212 cwt. The catch of crayfish over the last five years is as follows:—

Year.Quantity.Value.
 Cwt.£
194616,76630,801
194718,05242,134
194826,72463,272
194936,77199,034
195052,482169,038

WHALING.—With the enormous development of pelagic whaling that has taken place in recent years the whaling industry in New Zealand has greatly declined from the important position which it occupied in the early days of the colony. Only one shore station was in commercial operation during the 1950 whaling season. This station is situated in Tory Channel, Queen Charlotte Sound, and the season's catch in that area was 79 whales, all humpbacks. The total oil-production was 474 tons, while other products included 80 tons of bonedust.

The Whaling Industry Act, 1935, was passed in order to give effect to an International Convention for the regulation of whaling and matters incidental thereto.

SEALS.—The taking of seals in New Zealand waters has been on a restricted scale during the last fifty years, these animals being placed on the protected list in 1894. No sealing was then allowed until 1913, when there was an open season, but with certain restrictions. From 1916 a close season was observed until 1922, when the taking of seals was again permitted, but only till 1924, since when a close season was observed until 1946.

A short restricted open season was permitted during 1946 by the Seal Fisheries Regulations 1946, but a close season is again being observed.

BIG-GAME FISHING.—Swordfish (striped and black marlin, and occasionally broadbill), mako shark, and other big-game fish occur principally off the east coast of the Auckland Provincial District, and attract both New Zealand and visiting big-game fishermen. The principal centres for this sport are Whangaroa, Russell (Bay of Islands), Whitianga (Mercury Bay), and Tauranga, where specially designed and equipped launches in charge of experienced men may be hired. The season lasts from December to May, the best months usually being February and March. The world's record black marlin swordfish (976 lb.) was caught off the Bay of Islands in February, 1926.

To preserve this very important fishery, the Fisheries (General) Regulations 1947, superseded by the regulations of similar title issued in 1950, were gazetted prohibiting the taking of these fish by other than rod and line, and stipulating that the line was not to be heavier than “No. 39 linen thread line.” In addition, a limit bag of not more than four fish per day has been imposed.

WHITEBAIT.—A fishery that is peculiar to New Zealand with regard both to the product and to the methods of operation, carried on from July to November in the tidal reaches of many rivers, is the whitebait fishery. New Zealand “whitebait” are the young of Galaxias attenuatus, a species that lives for the greater part of its adult life in fresh water, descending to tidal water to spawn in late summer and autumn. The spawn is deposited among grass and similar herbage on the margins of the rivers above the ordinary high-water mark in a zone that is submerged only at the highest spring tides. Here it remains under cover of the herbage and secure from aquatic enemies until it is once more reached by a spring tide about a fortnight or, it may be, a month later. The young then hatch out, and are carried by the ebb tide to the sea. Here they remain until, at the age of about five months, the young fish, then about 2 in. long and still possessing the almost glassy transparency of the larval stage, migrate up the rivers in dense shoals. This is the time of the whitebait fishery, when they are caught in nets made of wire gauze or mosquito-netting. The cultivation and drainage of riparian lands have considerably diminished the extent of spawning and feeding areas that were available in earlier times. From these causes, as well as from the intensity of the fishing operations, there are now few rivers where the runs of whitebait show anything like the abundance of former years. The most productive whitebait fisheries are near the mouths of the rivers of the west coast of the South Island and in the lower reaches of the Waikato River. Normally the whitebait fishery gives employment to over three hundred regular fishermen, and a greater number of part-time fishers, and, over a period of years, produced an average of approximately 3,000 cwt. of whitebait. As a result of reasonably good seasons over a period of years, and with improved transport from the more remote rivers, in which aeroplanes have played an important part, a substantial whitebait industry has been developed. The quantity marketed in 1950 was, however, very much reduced compared with the previous year's figure.

FRESH-WATER FISHERIES.—Native Fishes: Of fresh-water fishes indigenous to New Zealand the species of most commercial importance at the present time is Galaxias attenuatus, which provides the whitebait fishery already mentioned. Other species of Galaxias are known in the streams and lakes of the country. With the exception of the eels, which frequently attain an extraordinarily large size compared with those of the Northern Hemisphere, all the native fresh-water fishes are small, and are therefore not considered to possess any sporting value except to the most juvenile of anglers. There are two species of eels—Anguilla australis, the short-finned eel; and Anguilla dieffenbachii, formerly known as Anguilla aucklandii, the long-finned eel. Recent investigations by Marine Department biologists have thrown new light on their distribution. It is now known that all male eels remain in tidal and brackish waters; female long-finned eels are found throughout all accessible fresh waters, while female short-finned eels are restricted to the warmer, deeper, and slowly-flowing waters, and in the South Island are found only in the lower reaches of rivers and in coastal lakes. Eels constituted an important food-supply to the Maoris, who devised very efficient traps for their capture as the adult eels migrated to the sea. This fishery is still carried on by the Maoris of some districts and during recent years some commercial fishing has taken place for home markets and for export. So far as available supplies are concerned, there is scope for considerable development in connection with eel utilization in New Zealand.

The following list shows the definitely known genera of indigenous fresh-water fish and includes all the principal species.

Scientific Name.European Name.Maori Name.Usual Maximum Size.
   Inches.
Galaxias attenuatus"Minnow"Inanga7
Galaxias fasciatusNative trout or mountain troutKokopu10
Galaxias brevipinnis"Gudgeon"Taiwharu or kokopu6
Galaxias huttoni Koaro6
Galaxias burrowsiiCanterbury mudfish 5 to 6
Neochanna apodaMudfishHauhau or waikaka8
Retropinna retropinnaSmeltParaki6
Prototroctes oxyrhynchusGraylingUpokororo12
Cheimarrichthys fosteriTorrent-fish or shark-bullyPapanoko7
Gobiomorphus gobioidesBullyToitoi6 Feet.
Anguilla australisShort-finned eelTuna3 to 4
Anguilla dieffenbachii (aucklandii)Long-finned eelTuna4 to 5
Geotria australisLampreyKoro-koro or kuna-kuna2

The “minnow,” smelt, grayling, and, of course, the eels and lamprey, are migratory fish which spend parts of their lives in the sea or in estuarine tidal waters, although at least one species of purely fresh-water smelt is known.

Acclimatized Fishes: Although most of the above-mentioned indigenous fishes—especially the eels, kokopu, and upokororo—provided an appreciable portion of the food-supplies of the Maoris, and have been a welcome addition to the camp provisions of surveyors, bushmen, and prospectors since the pioneering days, there were many among the early settlers to whom the New Zealand rivers and lakes appeared uninteresting and unproductive in comparison with their native salmon and trout streams. By means of private agency in some cases, and by more organized efforts on the part of Government and local acclimatization societies, attempts to introduce British salmon and trout were commenced in the early “sixties.” The brown trout was first established in 1867 by means of ova imported from Tasmania, where the species had been acclimatized a few years earlier from English stock. Importations of brown trout besides the Loch Leven and sea-trout varieties have been subsequently made, so that the species is now found in most of the fresh and tidal waters of New Zealand. Rainbow or steelhead trout, first introduced in 1883 from California, are also now widely distributed. In some lakes, notably Taupo and others in the Thermal Region, they have largely displaced the earlier brown-trout population. The American brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) was widely planted in the “seventies” and “eighties,” but is now found only in a few back-country streams in the South. The Mackinaw trout, or Great American Lake trout, has been naturalized in Lake Pearson, Canterbury, since 1906. Quinnat salmon, introduced from California in the first five years of the present century, after earlier attempts had failed, are now firmly established, and “runs” of these salmon take place annually between January and June in the larger east coast rivers of the South Island. They have been taken in smaller and more variable numbers in a few rivers on the West Coast and in the Wellington District. Sockeye salmon, imported at the same time, have given rise to a “land-locked” stock in Lake Ohau, no sea-run examples of this species having yet been identified. The introduction of European Atlantic salmon was attempted at various times in the earlier years, and was finally achieved after 2,000,000 ova had been imported in 1910–12 from British and Continental rivers. The species is now established in the Waiau river system and associated lakes (especially Lake Te Anau) in Southland. It is remarkable that, although there is unimpeded access to the sea, the species has largely adopted “land-locked” habits, most of the fish remaining to feed in fresh water until and after they have reached maturity. Relatively small numbers, however, enter the Waiau from the sea.

Besides the above-mentioned members of the salmon and trout family, other species of fish from the Northern Hemisphere which have been acclimatized in New Zealand are the European perch, tench, and carp, the North American catfish (Ameiurus catus), and the small viviparous Gambusia patruelis introduced about 1930 for its utility as a devourer of mosquito-larvæ.

With the exception of the Rotorua Acclimatization District in the thermal-lakes region and the Southern Lakes District in the South Island, which are under the control of the Department of Internal Affairs, the local administration and management of fresh-water fisheries are in the hands of acclimatization societies.

A fishing licence, for which the fee for the season (opens 1st October and continues for seven months) is £2 in the North Island and £1 10s. in the South Island, enables the holder to fish for acclimatized fish in any part of New Zealand except the Rotorua Acclimatization District (which includes the Taupo Trout Fishing District) and the Southern Lakes Acclimatization District. For fishing in the Rotorua area and the Southern Lakes District the local licence fee is £1 5s. for all male adults, but in the Taupo area of the Rotorua Acclimatization District, which is the most popular of all New Zealand angling resorts, the licence fees for the whole season are £1 10s. for residents in the area, £2 for other residents of New Zealand, and £6 for overseas visitors. For all acclimatization districts there is a reduced scale of licence fees for female and juvenile anglers. Half-season, monthly, weekly, week-end, daily, and single-river licences are also available.

Chapter 21. SECTION 21—MINING

Table of Contents

THE law relating to mining and quarrying is contained in the Mining Act, 1926, the Coal Mines Act, 1925, the Coal Act, 1948, the Petroleum Act, 1937, the Quarries Act, 1944, and the Atomic Energy Act, 1945. There have been numerous amendments to these Acts, the most recent of which are the Mining Amendment Acts of 1947 and 1948, the Coal Mines Amendment Acts of 1949 and 1950, and the Quarries Amendment Act, 1951. The Coal Mines Amendment Act of 1950 provides for the return to their previous owners of all coal and servitudes vested in the Crown by the Coal Act of 1948, but also ensures a greater measure of control of the working of privately-owned coal than that previously exercised. The Quarries Amendment Act, 1951, removed open - cast coal workings from the provisions of the Coal Mines Act and brought these within the scope of the Quarries Act, 1944.

MINERAL PRODUCTION.—The following statement shows the production of metals and minerals during 1949 and 1950.

Mineral.1949.1950.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
  £(N.Z.) £(N.Z.)
Fuels
Coal2,813,275 tons5,907,8782,669,451 tons6,247,341
Petroleum (crude)236,463 gals.7,389232,297 gals.7,258
Metals
Gold84,874 oz.836,00176,527 oz.929,414
Silver232,599 oz.54,587199,701 oz.53,729
Antimony-ore5 tons209  
Arsenic19 tons34410 tons188
Iron-ore4,352 tons9,7273,642 tons7,236
Copper-ore13 tons28610 tons10,303
Tungsten-ore25 tons7,88222 tons14,422
Manganese-ore305 tons1,879352 tons2,165
Non-metallics
Bentonite456 tons3,341289 tons2,616
Clay for bricks, tiles, &c.157,910 tons36,109193,396 tons36,612
Clay for pottery, fillers, &c.14,672 tons7,9348,364 tons6,304
Diatomite94 tons59119 tons252
Dolomite4,210 tons2,105665 tons333
Limestone, marl, &c., for cement465,026 tons89,208380,381 tons75,643
Limestone for agriculture1,100,126 tons554,4681,259,759 tons849,556
Limestone for industrial uses43,901 tons22,74744,348 tons27,374
Sand, gravel, &c., for roads and ballast2,509,576 tons822,1772,632,455 tons849,254
Sand, gravel, &c., for building aggregate440,697 tons150,315506,971 tons129,736
Dimension stone for building5,482 tons6,69813,169 tons18,084
Rock for harbour work66,269 tons12,59447,798 tons11,483
Magnesite559 tons391341 tons256
Pumice13,124 tons6,8459,716 tons4,581
Serpentine54,453 tons17,05749,493 tons19,925
Silica sand20,401 tons59,03222,343 tons68,981
Asbestos  41 tons2,218
Quartzite19 tons19  
      Totals 8,617,023 9,375,264

Kauri-gum, the (chiefly) fossilized resin of former kauri forests, is counted as a mineral, but is not included in the above table.

The next statement shows the value of New Zealand minerals and allied substances exported during the years stated.

Mineral.1948.1949.1950.Total from 1st January, 1853, to 31st December, 1950.
 ££££
Gold594,387598,2451,296,610120,080,812
Silver36,01919,29625,8953,881,724
Tungsten-ore14,23410,89513,539581,735
Antimony-ore380  55,700
Mercury   41,319
Other minerals12,80111,57216,148733,042
Kauri-gum109,802102,877125,89324,764,977
Coal (including bunker)54,96371,65918,4458,517,067

GOLD-MINING.—The gold-mining industry, which in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand, but which declined in importance with the exhaustion of the most accessible alluvial-gold deposits and of ore from the zones of enrichment, again came into prominence in the years immediately prior to the war on account of the enhanced price of gold and the revival of gold-dredging.

Gold-dredging possibilities presented an entirely new aspect not only on account of the price of gold, but also on account of the greater depths to which modern machines can work and their low cost of operation per cubic yard. The link-up of the West Coast in recent years with the main hydro-electric scheme of the South Island has been of special importance to dredging concerns by ensuring for the industry an adequate supply of cheap power.

The number of productive dredges operating in 1950 was nine, six of which were situated on the West Coast of the South Island and three in Otago. While production of gold by dredges is expected to continue at the present level for some years no marked expansion is possible seeing that the greater part of the ground suitable for dredging is now either under active or prospective exploitation.

Quartz-mining was until recently practically confined to the operations of the Martha Mine at Waihi, and the Blackwater Mine on the West Coast. Both of these mines have now ceased operations.

Alluvial-mining now occupies a relatively minor place in New Zealand gold-mining, and is confined to the West Coast of the South Island and to Otago and Southland.

Since 1940 there has been a steady decline in the production of gold. Naturally, the decreased importance of gold-mining to the community during the war period has been responsible for man-power problems and difficulties in securing equipment, and the result has been reduced production and discouragement of fresh enterprise. These difficulties were further accentuated by rising costs in the post-war years, and tax remissions to the extent of 34s. 8d. per ounce made by the Government, to meet such costs and the increased price of gold consequent upon the devaluation of sterling, have not been able to materially improve the position. The following table gives particulars of the estimated gold content of gold/silver/bullion production for the last three years.

Quantity.Value.
1948.1949.1950.1948.1949.1950.
 Oz.Oz.Oz.£££
Quartz-mining37,13536,43227,874372,610347,208340,768
Alluvial-mining2,1241,4421,75820,33413,40621,003
Dredge-mining54,64447,00046,895503,229475,387567,643
      Totals93,90384,87476,527896,173836,001929,414

SILVER.—Nearly the whole of the locally produced silver exported from New Zealand has been obtained from the refinement of bullion from the quartz-mines of the Hauraki goldfield, where gold and silver are found alloyed, the ratio of the two metals in the alloy varying greatly. No other silver-mining operations have been carried out profitably in New Zealand. Silver production in 1950 amounted to 199,701 oz., as compared with 232,599 oz. in 1949 and 232,563 oz. in 1948.

IRON-ORES.—The two main sources of iron available in New Zealand are the iron-ore deposits of the Onekaka region, Golden Bay, in the Nelson Provincial District; and the ironsands which are largely concentrated on the beaches of Taranaki, though not limited to that district.

As the result of a systematic prospecting programme of tunnelling and boring carried out by the State during the years 1938 to 1942, the ore reserves of the Onekaka deposits are estimated at 9,500,000 tons, assaying 40 per cent. iron.

Although the whole of New Zealand's iron-bearing sands have not been surveyed, there is no doubt that the total quantity is enormous. As a result of prospecting operations by the State, the titaniferous ironsands in the vicinity of Patea have been estimated as amounting to 45,500,000 tons, assaying 21 per cent. soluble iron, which, by magnetic separation, would yield 14,500,000 tons of concentrates assaying 53 per cent. soluble iron. Preliminary investigation at Wanganui and at Waitara has shown great quantities of sand, but of lower iron content, while deposits at Mokau, Awakino, and Manukau still await investigation.

Many attempts have been made to smelt Taranaki ironsand, but commercial success has not attended any of these efforts. Difficulty has been experienced owing to the fineness of the sand and also to the presence of titanic acid. However, it is considered possible that these sands can be economically smelted if mixed in the proportion of 1 part of sand to 4 of Golden Bay ore. In 1949 large-scale tests on the smelting of ironsands by means of an electric furnace and the use of char obtained from sub-bituminous coal were carried out at Onekaka under the supervision of overseas experts. The tests showed that pig-iron suitable for conversion to steel could be obtained from Taranaki ironsands by these means.

There has been a small annual production of iron-ore from the Onekaka deposits and certain small deposits in the North Auckland district for use in gas purification, the preparation of stock-licks, and in the cement industry. Production for these uses amounted to 3,642 tons in 1950, as against 4,352 tons in 1949.

TUNGSTEN.—The principal ore of tungsten in New Zealand is scheelite, though a little wolfram is found in Otago and Stewart Island, but not in economic quantities.

Scheelite occurs at numerous points frequently associated with gold in quartz-veins traversing the schists of Otago and Marlborough. It has also been identified in finely divided form in the concentrates from the gold-saving tables of dredges operating on the West Coast.

The scheelite-bearing quartz-veins are generally small and broken, while the scheelite is most erratically distributed in the veins, with the greatest concentration of scheelite situated close to the surface or at shallow depths. Further, many of the lodes occur at high altitudes, which allows of only a short working-season; access and transport present difficulties, and production costs are relatively high.

With the exception of one small parcel obtained from Macrac's Flat, production in 1950 was confined to the Glenorchy field. Other producing centres in Otago have been Stoneburn, Hyde, Barewood, and Waipori.

Production of scheelite concentrates, calculated to the basis of 65 per cent. WO3 per ton, was 27 tons in 1946, 22 tons in 1947, 25 tons in 1948, 25 tons in 1949, and 22 tons in 1950, the value of production in 1950 being £14,422. The total quantity of locally produced ore exported to 31st December, 1950, was 3,455 tons, valued at £581,735.

COPPER.—Ores of copper are found in New Zealand in no fewer than thirty-two localities, but during the last seventy years attempts at their successful exploitation have been unprofitable.

After many years of inactivity, mining was resumed during 1946, when operations were commenced at a copper-ore occurrence at Pakotai, in North Auckland. It was not, however, until 1947 that it was possible to make a shipment to Australia for smelting, when a parcel of 580 tons, averaging approximately 13 per cent. of copper, 3 dwt. of gold, and 33 dwt. of silver per ton, realized £6,255. In order to assist in determining whether sufficient ore existed to warrant the purchase of a furnace, a drilling programme was carried out by the Mines Department, while a geophysical survey of the area was carried out by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The results of these surveys were disappointing in not disclosing ore reserves of any magnitude, but mining operations were resumed in 1949, and another parcel of 610 tons of ore of similar grade to that of the first shipment was exported to Australia in 1950.

The total recorded copper export to the end of 1950 amounted in value to only £31,700, but it is estimated that the total production to the end of 1950 has amounted to 6,226 tons, valued at £122,161.

MANGANESE.—Manganese-ores are found in many localities, chiefly in the older sedimentary rocks. At Tikiora Hill (near Russell), at Parua Bay (near Whangarei), and especially at Waiheke Island, manganese deposits were mined many years ago, while of recent years there has been some production from deposits at Bombay, Moumoukai, and Otau, all in the Auckland district. Deposits are, however, generally small and shallow and capable of producing only limited tonnages of ore. During 1950, 352 tons, valued at £2,165, were produced from the Otau deposit, as against 305 tons, valued at £1,879, from the same deposit in 1949.

The total quantity of locally produced manganese-ore exported to the end of 1950 amounted to 21,588 tons, of a value of £70,867.

MERCURY.—Cinnabar, the principal ore of mercury, is widely distributed in New Zealand, but only in few localities is it found in quantities of economic importance. The most promising deposits of mercury-ore in New Zealand are those of the Puhipuhi district, where for many years efforts have been made to place the production of the metal on a commercial basis. During the war these efforts were revived and production recommenced, the ore being obtained by opencast mining and the mercury recovered in a modern treatment plant with a capacity of 50 tons of ore per day.

Owing to the drastic slump in the price and the need for additional earth-moving equipment, operations were discontinued in 1945. The total production from Puhipuhi during the war period was 33,204 lb. of an estimated value of £32,479.

The total quantity of mercury of New Zealand origin exported up to the 31st December, 1950, was 111,838 lb., valued at £41,319.

ANTIMONY.—The high price ruling for antimony-ores again directed attention to the deposits of these ores in Central Otago, and prospecting operations have been carried out at Mount Stoker in the Nenthorn Survey District, 5 tons of ore being obtained from these operations in 1949, as compared with 9 tons in 1948. There was no production in 1950.

TIN.—Cassiterite in the form of “stream tin” occurs near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island, and has been worked to some extent, though the deposits are of small extent. “Lode tin” has been found in the same locality, but the deposit is not of economic value. Small quantities of cassiterite have also been detected in the stream-gravels of the Reefton, Greymouth, and Westport districts. Among other localities in which traces of tin occur are Wet Jacket Arm (Otago) and Campbell Island.

PLATINUM.—In the published lists of minerals of New Zealand, platinum is stated to occur in several places, associated generally with gold in gravel. It is only from Southland, however, that platinum has been exported, but quantities produced have been insignificant, and of late years negligible. There has been no production since 1946 when 14 oz. were produced.

URANIUM.—A concentrated search for uranium-ores has resulted in the discovery that some of the auriferous gravels and sands of the West Coast of the South Island contain a small proportion of uranium bearing materials, in particular, uranothorite and monazite. These accumulate in greater concentration upon the gold-saving tables of the dredges, and it is considered that they may be regarded as a possible source of uranium. Investigation of other possible sources of uranium is still proceeding.

The mining and treatment of the ores of uranium and other elements which may be used for the production of atomic energy are now controlled by the provisions of the Atomic Energy Act, 1945.

SULPHUR.—Native sulphur occurs in the thermal districts of the North Island near Rotorua and Lake Taupo, and at White Island, but prospecting work has shown that there is not sufficient quantity to enable the deposits to be economically worked.

While there has been no production of sulphur for many years, exports of New Zealand origin in the past have amounted to an aggregate value of £13,241.

ASBESTOS.—Chrysotile-asbestos occurs at several points in the massive serpentines of Nelson and Otago, but the only deposits of importance so far located are those of Upper Takaka in the Nelson district. While these deposits have long been known, difficulties of access have prevented prospecting and exploitation, but of recent years an all-weather motor road has been formed giving access to the area. An experimental treatment plant has been installed, and a systematic prospecting programme of driving and crosscutting carried out. This programme was completed early in 1945, when active development was suspended. Operations have, however, been recently resumed, and 41 tons of asbestos valued at £2,218 were produced during 1950.

COAL.—Coal in New Zealand has for many years been mined in certain well defined areas, beyond which no coal is known to exist in any significant quantities. The major coal fields, with the ass of coal found in each are:—

Bituminous Coal (Coking): Greymouth, Westport (Buller Coalfield). Sub-bituminous Coal (Non-coking): Waikato (including North Taranaki), Otago (Kaitangata), Southland (Ohai, &c.), Reefton.

Lignite (Non-coking Low Grade): Southland (Mataura, &c.).

Minor coalfields from which coal is being mined, but which cannot be expected to provide an important contribution to our coal resources are:—

Sub-bituminous Coal: North Auckland (Hikurangi, Kamo), Nelson (Puponga, Westhaven).

Lignite: Canterbury (numerous small deposits), Otago, Charleston (Westport).

In recent years, the investigation of coal resources has been carried on by three organizations working in close co-operation. These organizations are (1) The Coal Survey, whose activities are mainly geological and chemical; (2) the Surveying and Prospecting Organization set up by the Mines Department to follow up the Coal Survey with detailed topographical surveys and shallow prospecting by means of cuts, pits, and hand drilling; (3) the Drilling Section of the Mines Department carrying out investigations by deep-core drilling.

As a result of the intensive work of these organizations during the past four years, considerably more information is now available than was the case in 1946 when the last estimate of the coal resources of New Zealand which appeared in the Mines Statement for the year 1945 was made. This matter has lately been considered jointly by officers of the Geological Survey and Mines Department, and a new estimate has been prepared based on information obtained from the Mines Department as to reserves of operating coal-mines and of closely drilled areas, and from the Coal Survey as to reserves of the districts surveyed. The classification accepted—" measured," “indicated,” and "inferred"—is that used by the United States Bureau of Mines and the Commonwealth Mineral Resources Survey. These terms are simply defined as follows:—

  1. "Measured coal" is coal for which tonnage is computed from dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, workings, and drill holes and for which the grade is computed from the results of detailed sampling. The sites for inspection, sampling, and measurements are so closely spaced and the geologic character is defined so well that the size, shape, and content are well established. The computed tonnage and grade are judged to be accurate within limits, and no such limit is judged to differ from the computed tonnage or grade by more than 20 per cent.

  2. "Indicated coal" is coal for which tonnage and grade are computed partly from specific measurements, samples, or production data and partly from projection for a reasonable distance on geologic evidence. The sites available for inspection, measurement, and sampling are too widely or otherwise inappropriately spaced to outline the coal completely or to establish its grade throughout.

  3. "Inferred coal" is coal for which quantitative estimates are based largely on broad knowledge of the geological character of the deposit and for which there are few, if any, samples or measurements. The estimates are based on an assumed continuity or repetition for which there is geologic evidence; this evidence may include comparison with deposits of similar type. Bodies that are completely concealed may be included if there is specific geologic evidence of their presence.

Although these terms are fairly close to the original terms—" proved," “probable,” and "inferred"—it was considered better to use the clearly and specifically defined terms as above that now have wide international acceptance.

The figures in all cases represent recoverable coal and not coal in ground.

The following are the total coal resources of New Zealand based on all available information at date (1950):—

Measured.Indicated.Inferred.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.
Bituminous28,000,00021,000,00058,000,000
Sub-bituminous52,000,00045,000,000502,000,000
Lignite13,000,00027,000,000366,000,000
      Totals93,000,00093,000,000926,000,000

It will be noticed, when compared with 1946 figures, that measured bituminous has increased, largely as a result of close drilling on the Buller field, and that a figure for inferred bituminous is presented. In both sub-bituminous and lignite the previous large quantities of proved coal have been considerably reduced, simply because there was no evidence to support such figures as measured coal according to the definition of this term. In both cases, inferred resources have been shown, which in 1946 were confined to sub-bituminous. The over-all total of 1,112,000,000 tons is fairly close to the previous 1946 estimate (1,158,436,000 tons).

From time to time concern has been expressed that reserves of measured, recoverable coal are of so low an order in New Zealand. It must, however, be recognized that to establish reserves of this type it is necessary either to block them out by underground development or to define them by close boring, and sound mining practice demands that such reserves should bear some relationship to the scale of the industry and the annual production required. Actually, measured reserves of coal in each class, bituminous, sub-bituminous, and lignite, are sufficient to maintain the present rate of production for a term of years far in excess of those demanded by recognized mining practice, and it is accordingly questionable whether, from some aspects, reserves are accordingly too high rather than too low and there is no justification for the concern expressed.

The rise in inferred lignite and sub-bituminous is the result of work in the Ohai and Kaitangata fields. It is considered that these figures represent a more realistic picture than did those of 1946.

The following table shows the quantitative groupings in the various coalfields of New Zealand, set out under the three rank divisions:—

Measured.Indicated.Inferred.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.
Bituminous
Buller14,000,0006,500,00024,300,000
Murchison  1,500,000
Garvey Creek1,000,0002,300,0002,200,000
Greymouth13,000,00013,000,00030,000,000
      Totals28,000,00021,800,00058,000,000
Sub-bituminous
Northland1,300,0001,700,0003,000,000
Huntly32,000,00018,000,00065,000,000
Maramarua5,000,00015,000,00020,000,000
Mangapehi1,500,000500,0001,000,000
Tatu300,000400,000 
Waitewhena400,000 12,000,000
Mokau  60,000,000
Nelson200,000 2,000,000
Buller Gorge  1,000,000
Reefton1,000,0002,700,0005,000,000
Fletcher Creek  3,000,000
Punakaiki  2,000,000
Kaitangata 6,000,000227,000,000
Ohai11,000,0001,000,000100,000,000
Orepuki  1,000,000
      Totals52,700,00045,300,000502,000,000
Lignite
Charleston6,000,0002,000,0008,000,000
Canterbury250,000 20,000,000
North Otago250,000 2,000,000
Central Otago250,000 15,000,000
Green Island250,000 3,000,000
Kaitangata1,000,0005,000,000156,000,000
Pomahaka  10,000,000
Mataura Valley5,000,00020,000,000152,000,000
      Totals13,000,00027,000,000366,000,000

The following table summarizes coal-mining operations—

Year.Output, (Tons).Persons Ordinarily Employed.Lives Lost by Accidents In or About Collieries.
Surface.Under-Ground.Totals.Per Million Tons Produced.Per Thousand Persons Employed.Lives Lost.
Prior to 194195,336,168     526
19412,639,5071,3583,6334,9911.510.804
19422,680,0411,3383,6594,9972.241.206
19432,787,8681,3753,9995,3742.871.508
19442,805,9701,6373,9585,5954.282.1412
19452,833,5761,6603,9325,5922.121.076
19462,793,8701,7383,8195,5571.430.724
19472,751,7251,7033,7395,4421.430.734
19482,775,8861,7403,8425,5821.800.905
19492,813,2751,8684,0095,8771.070.513
19502,669,4511,7733,8155,5881.120.543
      Totals122,887,337     581

It will be observed from the table that there has been a substantial decrease in production from the level maintained during the last seven years, and that the output is the lowest for any year since 1941. This decrease is due to a variety of causes including flood damage on the West Coast, insufficient coal-transport facilities, and lessened demand for lower-grade coals owing to unusual climatic conditions. Actually despite decreased production, coal-supply was adequate to meet requirements and at the end of the year stocks were on a more satisfactory basis than in recent years. Because of industrial troubles, however, the position deteriorated very considerably during the first six months of 1951, production for that period being 916,000 tons as compared with 1,310,000 tons in a similar period of 1950.

The output of the several classes of coal mined in each inspection district during 1950 together with the total output to the end of that year are shown in the next table. District totals for 1949 are also given.

Class of Coal.Northern District (North Island).West Coast District (South Island).Southern District (South Island).Total.Total Output to 31st December, 1950.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Anthracite  1,9591,95922,521
Bituminous 919,029 919,02964,192,206
Sub-bituminous979,509138,342350,5461,468,39750,666,094
Lignite 44,055236,011280,0668,006,516
    Totals for 1950979,5091,101,426588,5162,669,451122,887,337
    Totals for 19491,073,0581,108,526631,6912,813,275120,217,886

During 1950, 167 mines were in operation. Of these, 62 operated wholly or principally on freehold land and the remaining 105 wholly or predominantly on Crown land. Output from freehold land was 994,972 tons (37.3 per cent.) and output from Crown land 1,674,479 tons (62.7 per cent.), these proportions being similar to those recorded in the previous year. Production from underground mines in 1950 amounted to 1,956,955 tons and from open-cast mines 712,496 tons.

Underground Mines.—The following table gives particulars of the operations of underground mining during the last eleven years.

Calendar Year.Output. (Tons).Men Employed Underground.Tons Per Man Underground.Men Employed on Surface.Tons Per Man on Pay-roll.
19402,465,3363,7696541,241492
19412,585,3243,6337121,325521
19422,624,2673,6597171,291530
19432,725,8313,9996821,329512
19442,609,5163,9586591,395489
19452,380,8963,9326061,328453
19462,265,1703,8195931,313441
19472,107,0333,7395641,271421
19482,099,1583,8425461,285409
19492,071,2884,0095171,368385
19501,956,9553,8155131,334380

Commencing with the year 1939, there was a sustained increase in the output per man employed underground up to and including 1942, since when there has been an unbroken series of decreases. The fall between 1942 and 1950 is no less than 204 tons, or 28.4 per cent. The introduction of a seven-hour day early in 1948, instead of eight hours as formerly, is responsible for part of this decrease, but other contributory factors have been the shortage of experienced men and the more difficult mining conditions and longer haulages that have been encountered in some of the older mines. Of late years the output per hewer shift has remained remarkably constant, and the inference is that the over-all decrease is due to the greater number of men required in maintaining services and in transporting coal from the face to the surface. The Mines Statement (parliamentary paper C-2) for the year 1949 states that to maintain production at the present level and to meet the gradually increasing demand, it is essential that new mines be opened up to replace those approaching exhaustion, and development programmes to achieve this object have been planned.

Opencast Mines.—Production of coal from opencast mines in 1950 amounted to 712,496 tons, a decrease of 29,491 tons as compared with the record output in 1949. It was also the first year since modern opencast mining commenced in 1942 that production has not shown a considerable increase over the previous year's figures. The decline in production was due entirely to transport difficulties arising out of a shortage of railway wagons. There were forty-eight opencast mines in operation in 1950, and of these, twelve operated by the State produced 387,430 tons. All of these State mines have come into production since the beginning of 1944. The progress of opencast mining during the last eleven years is illustrated by the following table.

Year.Output, (Tons.)Men Employed.Tons Per Man Employed.
194050,763361,410
194154,183331,642
194255,774471,187
194362,037461,349
1944196,454242812
1945452,6803321,363
1948528,7004251,244
1947644,6924321,492
1948676,7284551,487
1949741,9875001,484
1950712,4964391,623

Coal Research and Derived Products.—The Government is keeping abreast of latest developments in regard to the production of oil from coal by the hydrogenation and the low-temperature carbonization processes. During 1950 considerable progress was made in systematic field surveys and mapping of the coal resources of New Zealand, combined with research work in State laboratories into the physical and chemical properties of the various coals. A large amount of investigation into fuel problems was also carried out, and many analyses of coal and other fuel samples were made.

Low-temperature carbonization works, using the Lurgi process, established at Rotowaro, 70 miles south of Auckland, in 1931, produced during 1950, 11,132 tons of carbonettes, 174,397 gallons of tar and oil, 311 tons of pitch, and 804 tons of char from 20,205 tons of slack coal, which was part of the output of a group of local mines.

The Sockburn plant, near Christchurch, produced during 1950, 31,342 gallons of tar, and 5,801 tons of coke.

Subsidy on Coal-production.—In May, 1940, coal-miners were granted increases of 5 per cent. in the rates for contract workers and 7½ per cent. in day-wages rates. These, with similar increases to colliery officials, were estimated to cost 1s. 1d. per ton on coal-production. Just prior to that date the Price Tribunal had examined applications to increase selling-prices of coal on account of the higher prices of colliery stores, and had advised the Government that costs had risen 5d. per ton on this account.

In accordance with its policy of stabilizing prices during the war period, the Government of the day decided to subsidize mine-owners to the extent of 1s. 6d. per ton to cover the increased cost of wages and stores, and thus avoid an increase in the selling-prices of coal. As the result of further increases of 5 per cent. in piece-work rates and 13.8 per cent. in wage rates as from 1st May, 1942, the Government introduced an additional subsidy on coal-production ranging from 6d. per ton to 2s. 7d. per ton, according to the localities in which mines were situated, and costs of production. Later, further subsidies of varying rates were granted to offset increases in production costs. Shipping companies were also granted a subsidy of 2½ per cent. on freight rates, which was later merged in the general subsidy of 15 per cent. payable through the Marine Department. Owing to a change in policy the subsidy on coal-production was abolished in May, 1950. During the period it was in operation, the total amount paid out was £10,315,472 of which £5,467,426 was in respect of State coal-mines and £4,848,046 in respect of privately owned mines. In addition the sum of £1,189,228 was expended under the guaranteed profit provisions of the Waikato Coal Mines Control Emergency Regulations 1942, making the total amount paid out by way of subsidy and guaranteed profits £11,504,700. In the last full year of the scheme, that of the year ended 31st March, 1950, the cost of the subsidy was £2,889,767.

Coal Utilization.—The approximate distribution of coal-consumption during each of the four years 1947–50 is shown in the following table. The total quantity is based on actual production in each year plus imports and minus exports (including bunker coal for overseas vessels). Where the information is available, adjustments have been made for stocks on hand at the beginning and end of the year.

1947.1948.1949.1950.

* Includes hospitals, hotels, &c.

 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Railways592,000577,000552,000478,000
Coastal shipping73,00077,00055,00049,000
Gasworks323,000323,000311,000301,000
Factories*1,226,0001,200,0001,288,0001,306,000
Households597,000620,000640,000600,000
      Total consumption2,811,0002,797,0002,846,0002,734,000

State Collieries.—The Coal Mines Act, 1901, provided for the purchase and working of State coal-mines in New Zealand under the direct control of the Minister of Mines. At 31st March, 1951, there were thirty-six State collieries working. These exclude Hillcrest State Opencast Mine which was worked out during 1950.

The outputs of coal produced from State coal-mines for the last two financial years are shown below:—

Name of Mine.1949–50.1950–51.
Gross Output.*Net Output for Disposal.Gross Output.*Net Output for Disposal.

* Including surplus stock brought on charge or excluding stock deficiencies written off.

† For six months from 1st October, 1950.

‡ 1949–50 production No. 2 Area; 1950–51 production from No. 5 Area from 19th June, 1950. Ceased production, 22nd May, 1950.

Underground MinesTons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Kamo56,84755,58752,52551,274
Alison and Rotowaro  50,95248,049
Renown  35,51934,679
Wilton87,19984,02071,27269,482
Mangapehi38,08036,53534,44532,959
Tatu38,22935,76827,36025,668
Denniston76,48764,10071,25561,331
Millerton51,97250,53246,02044,727
Stockton100,47396,42321,27620,169
Webb75,51871,592
Burke's Creek19,28418,13218,40117,437
Burnwell3,3863,3766,9306,891
Central4,4554,3923,5693,569
Garvey Creek14,69314,4516,6186,462
Blackball69,86065,99450,53847,100
Dobson74,27669,10863,25159,257
Paparoa31,21730,31725,34324,661
Wallsend55,84052,77140,57638,384
Liverpool102,03798,61789,33086,436
Strongman98,09990,98692,65886,481
Birchwood23,69522,44327,27226,193
Linton  62,71760,383
Mossbank25,96224,71221,04019,981
Star40,63638,79634,34532,676
Wairaki65,63460,35573,33168,390
      Totals1,078,3611,017,4151,102,0611,044,231
Opencast Mines    
Barker's  12,02011,988
Devlin and Bells'  6,9646,964
Thompson's  19,68019,680
Kimihia35,95335,92757,85657,813
Hillcrest§48,25348,0136,0295,980
Waitewhena39,19039,14838,50238,421
Stockton99,15396,51282,47978,190
Garvey Creek1871872,2702,216
Wangaloa41,02941,11136,31236,174
Black Diamond42,24242,17624,68824,684
Linton  12,47912,014
McLean's43,69043,69018,70218,702
Kemp's12,12512,125  
Opencast totals361,831358,889317,981312,826
Underground totals1,078,3611,017,4151,102,0611,044,231
Grand totals1,440,1921,376,3041,420,0421,357,057

The average number of persons employed in and about State mines during the year ended 31st March, 1951, was—underground, 2,625; surface, 1,216; total, 3,841. Surface workers include 211 employed at the twelve State opencast mines operated during the period. During the year ended 31st March, 1950, the men employed at State mines totalled 3,186.

Sales of coal, &c., through the medium of the depots totalled 1,340,618 tons (value £4,242,627) for the year ended 31st March, 1951. This compares with 1,159,054 tons (value, £2,552,233) for the year ended the 31st March, 1950, and 1,086,007 tons (value £2,162,318) for the previous year.

PETROLEUM.—Indications of the presence of petroleum are found on the surface in North Auckland, at Moturoa near New Plymouth and elsewhere in Taranaki, over wide areas on the eastern coast of the North Island, and in the South Island at Kotuku, near Murchison, and in the Cheviot district. In earlier years drilling had been carried out in Taranaki, Hawke's Bay, Canterbury, Southland, and Westland, the deepest hole being at Moturoa, near New Plymouth, which attained a depth of approximately 6,000 ft. Petroleum of good quality was proved to exist, but only in limited quantity.

After the passing of the Petroleum Act, 1937, as amended by section 55 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1939, and sections 59 to 63 inclusive of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1941, considerable interest was displayed by some of the major oil organizations, and practically all the potential oil-bearing lands in New Zealand were held under petroleum prospecting licences.

A great amount of geological and geophysical work was carried out on licensed areas and in addition to many thousands of feet of core-drilling for geological and geophysical purposes, thirteen deep holes were drilled on favourable structures located by the geological work. The deepest hole attained a depth of 10,925 ft., and the total footage drilled amounted to 73,565 ft. The results of this drilling were consistently disappointing, as all the wells proved dry.

Towards the end of 1950 geologists of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, assisted by members of the New Zealand Geological Survey, commenced a survey of all available information obtained from past oil-prospecting activities and a review of geological literature on the subject preparatory to a fresh assessment of New Zealand's oil resources.

Drilling operations in the Moturoa field were resumed during 1948 by New Zealand Oil Refineries, Ltd., and the Dobson No. 1 well was completed early in 1949 at a depth of 2,236 ft., oil-bearing sands being passed through between 2,222 ft. and the bottom of the hole with oil flowing under its own gas pressure at the rate of 1,200 gallons per day. The sinking of an additional well at Moturoa was commenced during the year 1950.

During 1950 a production of 232,297 gallons of oil was obtained from the New Zealand Oil Refineries Co.'s wells at New Plymouth, compared with 236,463 gallons in 1949. The total production of crude petroleum to the 31st December, 1950, is estimated at 4,218,613 gallons.

BENTONITE.—The most promising deposits of this mineral occur at Porangahau, in the Hawke's Bay district, and at Mangatu near Gisborne. Bentonite is mainly used in the preparation of foundry-moulding sands and drilling muds, but the mineral has many other uses. With the installation of treatment plants, bentonite in a marketable processed form is now available instead of the crude lump, sun-dried form previously produced. During 1950, 289 tons of bentonite were produced, of a value of £2,616. The total quantity produced to the end of 1950 was 3,338 tons, of a value of £19,232.

KAURI-GUM.—Production of kauri-gum has decreased in recent years. The industry suffered a severe setback through the restriction of European markets during the period of the First World War; and, while some recovery was made the five years immediately following the war, trade in this commodity has since been at a comparatively low level.

A system of control of the trade in, and export of, kauri-gum was provided by the Kauri-gum Control Act, 1925. The Finance Act (No. 2), 1933, provided for the repeal of the Control Act. The property of the Kaurigum Control Board was vested in the Crown, the Minister of Lands taking over the powers and obligations of the Board. The Internal Marketing Division of the Marketing Department, since 1937, materially assisted kauri-gum diggers by arranging minimum prices for various types and qualities of gum, and by assisting in the marketing of their product.

During 1950, 1,178 tons of kauri-gum, valued at £125,893 were exported, the total quantity of gum exported to the end of 1950 being 455,335 tons, valued at £24,764,977.

PHOSPHATE.—The occurrence of phosphate has been reported from many localities in New Zealand, but so far the deposits of Clarendon and Milburn have proved to be the only ones of economic importance. From 1902 to 1924 these deposits were actively worked, and 141,843 tons of medium grade phosphate rock were produced.

During 1942 this field was examined in some detail by officers of the Geological Survey. A new phosphate-bearing horizon was located, and an extensive drilling programme carried out over both horizons. The results of this work were rather disappointing, but active mining commenced again in 1943. During the years 1943 and 1944, 7,488 tons of medium-grade phosphate rock were produced, while from 1943 to 1947 the production of low-grade phosphate rock amounted to 40,887 tons. The resumption of imports of rock phosphates from Nauru coincided with the exhaustion of the more favourable sections of the deposit, and operations were terminated early in 1947.

SERPENTINE.—Serpentine, which in the South Island forms vast rock masses in Nelson and Otago, and which occurs in smaller amounts in the North Island, is now of value to the fertilizer industry in the preparation of serpentine superphosphate. Production at first was mainly confined to the smaller occurrences in North Auckland owing to ease of access and transport, but production has now been commenced at much larger deposits near Te Kuiti, in the North Island, and near Mossburn, in the South Island. Production in 1950 amounted to 49,493 tons and in 1949 to 54,453 tons. To the end of 1950, 346,974 tons of serpentine had been mined.

GREENSTONE.—The mineral nephrite, the “pounamu” of the Maori, a deep-green semi-transparent mineral with dark opaque patches, more popularly known as one of the varieties of “greenstone,” occurs as rounded segregations in the tale or tale-serpentine rocks of the Griffin Range of north Westland. The principal supply is obtained from the gravels of the Arahura and Taramakau Rivers, and from gold-sluicing claims of the Kumara district. Some of this has been cut and polished in New Zealand for personal and other small ornaments; the remainder has been exported. With the decline in sluicing operations, this mineral is now in short supply.

SALT.—An entirely new departure in mineral production is at present in its early stages at Lake Grassmere, in Marlborough, where salt is being produced by the solar evaporation of sea-water. The low rainfall, long hours of sunlight, and the wind conditions make this locality the most suitable one in New Zealand for this purpose.

BUILDING AND ORNAMENTAL STONES.—New Zealand possesses a great variety of handsome and durable building-stones scattered throughout both Islands. In Auckland there are basalt, andesite, porphyrite, and quartz biotite-diorite, known in the building trade as Coromandel “granite,” a hard, coarsely crystalline rock, capable of taking a fine polish. In addition there are the Whangarei limestone and the Raglan stone, the former an excellent building-stone, the latter a good freestone. Taranaki has the hornblende andesites of New Plymouth and Mount Egmont, and Wellington the andesites of Ruapehu.

In Nelson there are the granite of Tata Island and Tonga Bay and the marble or crystalline limestones of the Pikiruna (Riwaka) Range. West Nelson and Westland are well provided with granites and limestones of good quality, well adapted for building purposes; and in the Griffin Range, north Westland, there is found an abundance of finely coloured serpentine, unsurpassed as a decorative stone. Building-stone is scarce in Marlborough, but Canterbury is well supplied, having an abundance of Lyttelton bluestone (andesite) and Mount Somers stone, a limestone of exceptional quality. In Otago there is an abundance of excellent building-stone, ranging from the well-known Oamaru stone to the granite, gneiss, and limestones of Fiordland, all close to deep water. In Southland there are the so-called Ruapuke “granite,” the norite of the Bluff, and the granites of Stewart Island.

The lower story of Parliament Buildings is constructed of Coromandel granite, and the upper stories of Takaka marble.

The following table relates to quarries under the Quarries Act and shows the output for the year 1950. The classification given in this table differs in certain minor instances from that given on page 478.

Northern.Hauraki.West Coast.Southern.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 Tons.£Tons.£Tons.£Tons.£
Asbestos    412,218  
Bentonite  2892,616    
Chalk      1,238619
Clay (bricks, &c.)124,15616,4343,1691,1921,01090951,95112,425
Clay (pottery, &c.)    98020713,4227,270
Clay (other uses)    38061824,1455,742
Diatomite  50126  69126
Dolomite    665333  
Kaolin3251,134      
Limestone (cement)215,00042,625  76,3737,96858,36723,346
Limestone (agriculture)379,669202,5411,9132,17146,56813,201842,816643,039
Limestone (industry)6,6005,373    7,6708,807
Marl (cement)      21,2811,419
Marble (industry)    4,0911,8412512,510
Magnesite    341256  
Pumice1,1663258,1504,076    
Rock (harbour-works)    18,2402,28047,79811,483
Sand, gravel, &c., for roads and ballast1,391,105434,027316,863146,0606,039978897,445217,648
Sand (industry)     6,0953,606 
Sand, rock, or gravel for building aggregate271,12091,63620,87417,121  212,97765,082 
Serpentine  46,1189,800  3,37510,125
Silica sand  20,98066,8949,360285  
Stone (dimension) for building7,9003,377980  5,35014,054
Stonedust (mines)    1,1051,123  
      Totals2,397,041797,472418,415253,106165,79332,2172,194,2501,027,301

Number of men employed: Northern, 1,162; Hauraki, 269; West Coast, 128; Southern, 846.

The Quarries Act, 1944, which repealed the Stone-quarries Act, 1910, and its amendments, includes any place with a face of more than 15 ft. in depth, in which persons work in excavating any kind of material from the earth, with the exception of coal, (other than opencast coal workings), gold, scheelite, or petroleum. It does not apply to any road or railway cutting, or to excavations for buildings, but does include any tunnel of more than 50 ft. in length, in the construction of which explosives are used. The Quarries Amendment Act, 1951, places opencast coal workings under the scope of the Quarries Act, 1944.

PERSONS ENGAGED.—The following table shows the number of persons employed in or about mines and stone-quarries, during each of the last five years.

1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
Metalliferous mines1,1661,2081,058923946
Coal-mines5,5575,4425,5825,8775,588
Stone-quarries1,9602,1482,2152,2702,405
      Totals8,6838,7988,8559,0708,939

Accidents in mining and quarrying operations in 1950, with 1949 figures in parentheses, resulted in three (3) deaths in coal-mines, nil (4) in metalliferous mines, and nil (1) in quarries. In addition, thirty-three (25) persons were seriously injured in coal-mines, nil (2) in metalliferous mines, and two (3) in quarries.

STATE AID TO MINING.—State aid to mining in New Zealand is given in several forms—viz., (1) geological survey and bulletins; (2) financial aid to prospecting; (3) schools of mines; (4) subsidized roads to mining-fields.

During the year the Geological Survey continued regional geology in North Auckland, Huntly, Rotorua, Hawke's Bay, Canterbury, Westport, Buller, Kaitangata, Ohai, and west Southland, and also visited many places on urgent jobs, including water-supplies, cement materials, pozzolanas, dams, tunnels, limestone, geothermal steam and water, and mineral resources.

The coalfields have been re-examined in detail sufficient for a closer estimate in a later report on the coal resources of New Zealand which is now in preparation for the printer.

Many inquiries for and reports of sulphur minerals were received; but nothing of value was discovered. Information is still being sought. The following is a summary of work carried out at the Dominion Laboratory during 1950 in connection with mining industries:—

Cement Industry Investigations.—In connection with the survey of raw materials for cement-production being carried out in conjunction with Geological Survey, further samples of limestone and marl were examined, with particular reference to Te Kuiti, North Auckland, Kaikoura, and South Canterbury. Assistance was given to the Golden Bay Cement Company by analyses of raw materials used in the production of low-alkali cement and a study of the volatilization of alkalis in the cement-kiln was also made. This work has been completed and will provide the data necessary for deciding upon the most suitable location for a new works, should expansion of cement-production be decided upon.

Pozzolanas.—Investigation of deposits of siliceous glasses of volcanic origin for suitability for the production of pozzolanic cements for use in dam-construction was continued. Certain pumicites from the Waikato basin are decidedly promising, and larger-scale trials are being arranged. A source of supply of pozzolana for use in the South Island has yet to be found, and it is proposed to investigate the diatomite from Middlemarch, in the finely ground condition, for suitability for the purpose. Since pozzolanas are used to replace part of the cement used in concrete, considerable savings in cement used for dams may be possible.

Lead, Zinc, and Copper Ores.—Assistance was given to the Auckland Smelting Company, Ltd., by the analysis of a large number of samples for lead, zinc, and copper (also gold and silver) from Te Aroha. An officer from the Laboratory visited Te Aroha to inspect the workings, and advice was given on equipment necessary for assaying on the spot.

Ores from Fiji were also examined for lead, zinc, copper, gold, and silver.

Bentonite.—The certification of bentonite for export was continued during the year. Samples from the following districts were examined: Mangatu, Porangahau, Otane. Waimarama, and Waipiro Bay.

Ilmenite.—The ilmenite-bearing sands from Gillespie's Beach on the West Coast, South Island, were further investigated. A bulk sample of ilmenite concentrate, prepared by high-intensity magnetic separation, was analysed for titanium content and sent to an overseas firm for comment.

Phosphatic Fertilizer.—Experimental production of a phosphatic fertilizer by a fusion process, using green-sand as flux, was made during the year, and the effect of the incorporation of a small proportion of borax in the charge examined.

Coal.—The Coal Research Section of the Dominion Laboratory has analysed 1,582 samples, mainly drill samples taken by the Mines Department and mine-face and run-of-mine samples taken by the Coal Survey field officers.

Miscellaneous.—Among the many samples examined, mention may be made of the following:—

  • Feldspar from Baton River, Stewart Island, and Dart River.

  • Glass-sand from Parengarenga, Sheffield, Dargaville, and Whitecliffs.

  • Diatomite from Homo Gorge and Waikato.

  • Clays from Hyde, Mount Somers, Whangarei, Coromandel, Peel Forest, and Glenhope.

  • Serpentine from Silverdale, North Auckland.

  • Fluorspar from Wangapeka (Nelson district).

  • Mercury ore from Hukanui.

  • Tale from Nelson district.

  • Limestones for agricultural use.

  • Assays for gold and silver.

  • Stream tin from Tiromoana (Westport).

A large number of minerals were examined for nature, mineral waters and bore cores from Wairakei were analysed, superior rock analyses made for Geological Survey, and crude kaolin from Thames examined for pyrites content.

As an aid towards the development of the mining industry the Government offers varied and liberal assistance to prospectors in the form of subsidies, expert and technical advice, use of plant, &c. Subject to the provisions of the Mining Act, the holder of a valid miner's right is entitled to prospect for gold or any other metal or mineral (except coal) on any Crown land. He may also obtain authority from the Governor-General to prospect on Maori land, and he may also prospect on private land with the consent of the owner. Wardens in mining districts and Commissioners of Crown Lands in other districts may, with the consent of the Minister of Mines, grant prospecting licences for coal.

The total expenditure by way of direct assistance to mining in the year ended 31st March, 1951, with 1949.50 figures in parentheses, was £1,179 (£3,225), of which £414 (£282) was advanced to promote and maintain coal-production, and £765 (£256) to assist metal-mining. In addition, the Mines Department expended £23,163 (£37,783) in prospecting and development work.

For the education of prospectors and mining students seven schools of mines are subsidized by the Government, in addition to the Otago University School of Mines. The schools of mines are situated at Thames, Waihi, Huntly, Westport, Reefton, Runanga, and Ohai. The expenditure on these schools by the Government during the year ended the 31st March, 1951, was £6,693, as against £13,708 during the previous year.

The expenditure in the form of subsidies and direct grants upon roads and tracks to mining areas during the year ended 31st March, 1951, amounted to £12,485, as compared with £2,417 during the previous year.

Board of Examiners.—The Board of Examiners annually conducts examinations of candidates for certificates as first-class and second-class mine-managers, battery-superintendents, and dredgemasters under the Mining Act, and for certificates as first-class and second-class mine-managers, mine-surveyors, and electricians under the Coal Mines Act. Examinations of candidates for certificates as underviewers and firemen-deputies under the Coal Mines Act are held at intervals when necessary. No candidate is permitted to present himself for examination unless he holds an authority from the Secretary to the Board of Examiners. Sixty certificates were issued in 1950.

Coal-miners' Relief Fund.—The Coal Mines Act, 1925, required the owner of every coal-mine to contribute 1/2d. per ton on all coal sold, for the relief of coal-miners who may be injured while working, and for the relief of the families of coal-miners who may be killed or injured.

Section 4 of the Coal Mines Amendment Act, 1947, increased this levy from 1/2d. to 1d. per ton. This rise was made necessary by the imminent exhaustion of the fund, and during 1948 it was also necessary for the State coal-mines to pay £1,000 in levies slightly in advance of the due date so that the current outgoings could be met. These contributions are paid to the Coal-miners' Relief Fund established under the Act, the fund being administered by the Public Trustee with the assistance of local committees.

Receipts for the year ended 31st March, 1951, were £11,386, and expenditure for the year was £6,283. Interest earned amounted to £317, and the balance standing to the credit of the fund on 31st March, 1951, was £13,552. For the year ended 31st March, 1950, the figures were; receipts, £10,882; expenditure, £7,146; interest, £176; balance as at 31st March, 1950, £8,132. The financial position of the fund continues to improve as a result of the increased levy.

In 1950–51, the sum of £9,844 was expended in providing social amenities for mining townships, compared with £6,530 in the previous year. Such amenities in the future are to be financed by a levy of 3d. per ton on all coal produced in New Zealand.

Information concerning monetary benefits for miners incapacitated by miner's phthisis or any other occupational disease or heart disease contracted while working as a miner in New Zealand appears in Section 26 (Social Security, Pensions, Superannuation, &c.).

Chapter 22. SECTION 22—FACTORY PRODUCTION

Table of Contents

STATISTICS of factory production were collected in New Zealand from 1867 to 1916 in conjunction with the population census; but, commencing with the year 1918–19, the collection became an annual one. In regard to the production year 1948–49, the annual survey was carried out on a sample basis, only twenty major industries being covered. From the results of this collection, certain estimates for factory production as a whole were made, and these have been incorporated in this section, together with the data for those industries covered. An analysis of the statistics for recent years, with a brief summary covering the period 1910–11 to 1949–50. is given in the following pages. More complete statistics will be found in the annual Statistical Report on Factory Production.

It should be noted that the production year does not coincide with the calendar year, the 31st March generally marking the end of the accounting period. In the important semi-primary industries, butter, cheese, and condensed milk manufacture, and meat freezing and preserving, the financial years—and, incidentally, the periods covered by the returns from which the accompanying statistics are compiled—are in accordance with the production seasons ending respectively in the following June (or July) and September.

A review of the statistics of factory production for a number of years shows that, following the depression of the early nineteen-thirties, New Zealand industries had been making steady progress up to the outbreak of the Second World War; progress to which the establishment and growth of new industries had contributed considerably. This diversification and expansion, which received a further impetus as the result of the policy of import selection and control instituted by the Government towards the end of 1938, greatly increased the occupational range of factory employment, and local production of raw materials ceased to be the limiting factor in the growth of factory industries, local manufactures being able to meet the country's needs in many products which previously had been almost exclusively imported. This development stood New Zealand in good stead during the years of the Second World War when heavy calls were made on the industrial community to supply goods no longer obtainable from overseas for both the Armed Forces and civilian requirements. Not only were there large increases in the output of lines for which appropriate manufacturing facilities and skills were available, but new facilities were provided, locally and by importation, and new skills acquired for production in lines not previously attempted in this country. On the other hand, during the war and in the post-war period, labour shortages and difficulties experienced in obtaining overseas sources of supply of plant and raw materials have restricted the supply of certain commodities. Despite these obstacles, a continued expansion of New Zealand industries has been manifested in recent years.

The development of the country's hydro-electric power resources has been a potent factor in industrial growth. Until the outbreak of the Second World War curtailed deliveries of generating equipment and also led to heavier demands on available supplies owing to the expansion of industry, ample power was available in both Islands at rates comparing very favourably with those in other and more highly industrialized countries. The all-over price per unit retailed in 1949–50 was 0-84d., with much lower rates for industrial supply in the urban areas. Shortage of generating capacity has now necessitated continuous control on the growth of load, and restrictions on the use of current have been necessary at certain periods in recent years. The State Hydro-electric Department is now pressing forward extensive hydro-electric-development schemes in both the North and South Islands.

INDUSTRIES COVERED BY STATISTICS.—Under the regulations authorizing the collection of statistics of factory production a “factory” is defined as an establishment engaged in the manufacture, repair, or preparation of articles for wholesale or retail trade or for export, which employs at least two hands or uses motive power, with the exception of the following, which are expressly excluded: Bakeries, butcheries, laundries, smithies, waterworks, shops engaged in retail trade only, and farmers or others using motive power for their own individual and private use. The following are, however, required to furnish returns even though employing less than two hands and not using motive power: Tanneries; bacon, butter, cheese, soap, and candle factories; brickyards; and lime-works.

Such industries as jewellery and watch repairing, boot and shoe repairing, and saddlery repairing, come within the meaning of the term “factory,” and figures relating to these industries were at one time included in the statistics. Since 1919, however, they have been excluded unless they are also engaged in actual manufacture and have at least two persons engaged, or use motive power. Other classes of establishments formerly covered by the statistics but excluded from 1921–22 onwards are those engaged in dressmaking and millinery (unless manufacturing wholesale for sale in retail shops), bespoke tailoring, and establishments engaged in tea blending and packing, liquor-bottling, stone quarrying and crushing, asphalting, and monumental masonry. The latter industries were excluded to bring the statistics into conformity with those of other Commonwealth countries. In addition, returns are not required from plumbers, from undertakers, or from builders who make joinery solely for their own building contracts.

It should be noted that factory-production statistics do not cover, and do not purport to cover, all establishments registered as factories in New Zealand. “One man” businesses are excluded with the exception of tanneries, bacon, butter, cheese, soap, or candle factories, brickyards, or lime-works; and some small repair-shops (as explained previously) are excluded even though they may employ two or more hands. The effect of these limitations in the scope of the statistical inquiry is seen from the fact that while for the year 1949–50, 20,246 factories, employing 170,577 hands, were registered under the Factories Act, only 8,027 factories (with 144,309 persons engaged) were covered by the statistics of factory production.

GENERAL SUMMARY.—The statistics in the table following illustrate the growth of New Zealand's factory production to its present standing.

Year.Number of Establishments.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.Cost of Materials."Other Expenses" (i.e., Expenses of Operation other than Salaries and Wages and Cost of Materials).Value of Output.Added Value.

* Productive employees only.

† Not available.

‡ Estimates based on results of sample survey carried out during this year.

   £££££
1910–113,48345,924*4,786,698*18,782,92929,317,02310,534,094
1915–163,75548,744*5,791,704*30,197,78443,034,03312,836,249
1920–214,02269,68113,172,99652,933,49477,828,01324,894,519
1925–264,79478,70816,153,82251,668,1008,395,92182,358,85130,690,751
1929–305,16882,86116,846,28658,484,2459,954,86190,757,98132,273,736
1930–315,19477,91415,617,05248,458,3569,388,62677,745,24929,286,893
1932–334,99368,92112,048,14842,726,0438,097,04266,109,45523,383,412
1933–345,02872,65112,106,50047,067,5648,108,89071,770,87224,703,308
1934–355,27079,35813,244,37352,277,2858,809,91279,324,47327,047,188
1935–365,53686,58814,844,36760,172,8489,374,36990,014,74829,841,900
1936–375,72896,40118,333,07770,938,16510,481,253105,941,72235,003,557
1937–385,924102,34420,981,58775,371,55810,540,208113,691,55638,319,998
1938–396,146102,53522,270,01075,634,90310,001,804114,447,42638,812,523
1939–406,342108,72224,460,54985,243,38311,043,557129,061,82643,818,443
1940–416,395113,99926,916,79908,547,80411,978,820147,153,55948,605,755
1941–426,367117,21429,504,299102,260,86012,812,901155,566,19553,305,335
1942–436,127114,59032,256,071107,447,79913,331,973165,936,28458,488,485
1943–446,202117,86434,433,075112,883,93214,516,235175,686,68962,802,757
1944–456,485122,41437,379,062122,695,10615,481,351189,800,76467,105,658
1945–466,991128,20841,499,113123,508,43816,278,562195,258,61471,750,176
1946–477,642134,43545,336,217138,533,72218,247,043218,106,18279,572,460
1947–487,966140,26752,132,689181,773,21821,240,976272,155,33390,382,115
1948–498,000142,50056,000,000203,000,00023,350,000301,000,00098,000,000
1949–508,027144,30961,316,840221,228,64726,334,762331,703,908110,475,261

In the calculation of value of products, values at the factory are taken. Despite instructions to the contrary, however, it was found that some of the returns for 1937–38 and previous years contained an unknown amount of selling and distributing charges. As these charges have been excluded from the figures for 1938–39 and subsequent years, the value of output, added value, and other expenses of manufacture for these years are not strictly comparable with earlier years.

Factory production climbed fairly steadily from 1910–11 until a relatively high level was attained in 1929–30. During the depression of the early “thirties” there was a decided fall, but 1933–34 saw the commencement of a gradual recovery in industrial conditions. The pre-depression level was surpassed in 1936–37, and from then on each successive year has set new record high levels for factory production. During the Second World War there were temporary reductions in the numbers of establishments operating, and a fall in the number of persons engaged occurred in 1942–43 as a result of mobilization for home defence following the entry of Japan into the war. However, by 1944–45, recovery had more than made up for these reductions, and from that year New Zealand industries have maintained the rapid progress characteristic of the immediate pre-war years, despite difficulties in the form of labour shortages and of the supply of imported plant and materials.

In the 8,027 establishments recorded in 1949–50 the average number of persons engaged was higher by 4,042 or 2.9 per cent., than in the 7,966 establishments reported in 1947–48. The salaries and wages paid increased by £9,184,151, or by 17.6 per cent. The cost of materials used increased by £39,455,429, or 21.7 per cent., while the value of output rose by £59,548,575, or 21.9 per cent., resulting in the added value increasing by £20,093,146, or 22.2 per cent.

In making use of the following summary by provincial districts for the year 1949–50 it is necessary to keep in mind the differences in size and population of the respective provincial districts (refer to Section 3.—Population).

Provincial District.Number of Establishments.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.Cost of Materials.Other Expenses of Operation.Value of Output.Added Value.
   £££££
Auckland2,96955,39023,645,43491,739,29111,137,961134,860,54543,121,254
Hawke's Bay3554,9252,102,8889,319,504804,49813,106,3893,786,885
Taranaki3674,6032,211,70614,546,9701,021,82318,449,3523,902,382
Wellington1,79433,36314,355,85648,583,5235,873,42474,597,80226,014,279
Marlborough91748294,409995,423121,6951,507,763512,340
Nelson2462,4241,063,4462,540,009480,4904,350,8511,810,842
Westland1091,358622,575645,241218,5391,666,5771,021,336
Canterbury1,16324,3019,833,40929,561,0413,582,26646,899,21017,338,169
Otago—       
  Otago59512,5315,033,54113,401,2432,126,76222,240,3768,839,133
  Southland3384,6662,153,5769,896,402967,30414,025,0434,128,641
    Totals8,027144,30961,316,840221,228,64726,334,762331,703,908110,475,261

ESTABLISHMENTS AND EMPLOYEES.—There was an increase of 61 in the number of establishments reporting in 1949–50 over the 1947-48 total, compared with increases of 324 in 1947–48, and 651 in 1946–47. The increases recorded in the immediate post-war years were numerically the highest recorded and compare with the percentage increases recorded after the First World War. The same factors operated after both wars—viz., the re-establishment of businesses closed down during the war period and the opening of new businesses by returned servicemen. In addition, in recent years, the shortage of labour in the principal centres resulted in branch factories and workrooms being opened in secondary towns to tap the labour resources in those areas.

The following table shows the average (monthly) numbers of wage-earners and of total persons engaged in each of the principal industries and in all industries, and the number of establishments operating, during the year 1949–50.

Industry.Number of Establishments.Wage-earning Employees.Total Persons engaged.
M.F.M.F.

* Prior to 1949–50 the manufacture of plywood and veneer was included in sawmilling and wood-ware, &c.

† Prior to 1949–50 the manufacture of linseed oil was included in paint and varnish manufacture.

‡ Figures for rubber goods, &c., for 1949–50 include rubber footwear—prior to 1940–50 the latter goods were included in the boot and shoe industry.

Meat freezing and preserving519,75537110,974563
Ham and bacon curing425872070407
Butter, cheese, and other milk products3793,161923,922368
Fellmongering and woolscouring33469 5327
Tanning197491182031
Gasworks441,17641,542115
Electric supply963,146354,264490
Sawmilling, planing, &c.*5968,63959,812118
Lime-crushing and cement1041,143 1,31617
Brick, tile, and pottery581,2831291,400166
Grain-milling455552468561
Biscuit and confectionery841,2941,3321,4841,461
Ice cream5719098277139
Jam-making, sauces, pickles, and preserves43644426719475
Miscellaneous foods50312291398343
Brewing and malting471,280 1,46367
Aerated waters and cordials93369450239
Tobacco and cigarettes9.379774448823
Soap and candle23307172391209
Paint and varnish213843647179
Chemical fertilizers9943 1,05932
Woodware and joinery*2531,770372,17288
Paper bags and cartons45571508662609
Wallboard and building sheet89754290216
Concrete products1881,119 1,34924
Sheetmetal working1532,1023522,368432
General engineering5367,1501288,369430
Electrical and radio manufacture and repair1582,3745642,778732
Range-making118557191397
Printing and publishing3585,1161,5556,2362,127
Agricultural and dairying machinery661,108 1,27464
Motor-body building861,05921,21234
Motor and cycle repairs1,4097,595 9,392516
Motor-vehicle assembly101,446231,57451
Saddlery and harness, and leather goods129436591620643
Rubber products and vuleanizing811,2292331,465312
Furniture and cabinet-making5843,6454454,418583
Footwear manufacture1212,5671,6072,8492,109
Woollen mills221,6101,6101,9971,028
Hosiery and knitted goods698231,6309871,752
Clothing7502,21814,0413,15314,736
All other industries9409,6712,68421,4023,281
      Totals8,02791,98329,707108,97535,334

The distribution of the sexes among the persons engaged shows a considerable preponderance of males. In the five years prior to the Second World War the proportion of female employees in factories was steady at approximately 25 per cent. After rising rapidly to a peak of 31.5 per cent. in 1942–43 as a result of additional women being recruited for factory work and men being called for military service, the proportion then fell equally rapidly back to the pre-war figure.

In the smaller districts there are few industries employing female labour to any great extent; but the male preponderance is considerably smaller in the four main districts, where female labour is in greater demand. In Wellington and Otago the excess of males is less than in other districts, mainly on account of the comparative importance of their clothing and textile industries. Women and girls are chiefly found in the following industries: clothing, 14,736; printing, publishing, and bookbinding, 2,127; footwear manufacturing, 2,109; hosiery and knitted goods, 1,752; woollen-mills, 1,028; and biscuits and confectionery, 1,461.

The following figures show that in 1949–50 for approximately eleven wage-earners there was one proprietor (actively engaged), manager, or overseer.

Group.1947–48.1949–50.
Number of Persons.Per Cent. of Total.Number of Persons.Per Cent. of Total.
Proprietors actively engaged3,3002.32,8332.0
Managers, overseers, &c8,4656.08,3865.8
Accountants, clerks, &c11,4318.211,4007.9
Wage-earning employees117,07183.5121,69084.3
      Totals140,267100.0144,309100.0

A classification of the establishments, according to the number of persons engaged, is given for the years 1924–25, 1929–30, 1934–35, 1939–40, 1942–43 to 1947–48, and 1949–50.

Year.Factories with Persons Engaged Numbering—Totals.
10 or under.11–20.21–50.51–100.Over 100.
Number of Factories
1924–252,9727205701551214,538
1929–303,4768005911641375,168
1934–353,7257644961431425,270
1939–404,2189577722121836,342
1942–434,0388877572442016,127
1943–444,0658977912482016,202
1944–454,1391,0468332701976,485
1945–464,4061,1899212662096,991
1946–474,8891,2481,0092882087,642
1947–485,0241,3961,0442932097,966
1949–504,9931,4091,1063122078,027
Number of Persons Engaged
1924–2512,65810,69018,06711,09424,67477,183
1929–3015,47411,78517,97711,65825,96782,861
1934–3514,90111,32115,3099,71628,11179,358
1939–4017,21214,04823,31614,73739,409108,722
1942–4316,88113,08723,12316,80044,699114,590
1943–4417,60613,38424,54717,34744,980117,864
1944–4518,38215,54725,78718,80943,889122,414
1945–4619,81317,51928,34317,88644,647128,208
1946–4721,97418,29731,51619,99242,656134,435
1947–4823,24420,87732,18919,93444,023140,267
1949–5024,48120,60834,38621,30443,530144,309

The classification according to the number of persons engaged shows clearly that, judged according to the standards of highly industrialized communities, the average size of the industrial unit in New Zealand is small. Factories employing ten persons or under accounted for 62 per cent. of the total number of factories in 1949–50.

The changes brought about by a war economy had their greatest effect on the smaller establishments, the number employing ten persons or fewer having fallen by 215 between 1940–41 and 1942–43, while those employing from 11 to 20 hands fell by 80 in 1942–43. All groups, but particularly the smaller-sized establishments, have shown recoveries in the post-war period.

The two tables which follow give the numbers of male and female wage-earners employed in factories on the fifteenth or nearest representative day of each month of the years 1942 to 1947, of the first three months of 1948, and of the twelve months, April, 1949, to March, 1950. There are considerable and uniform seasonal movements apparent in the figures for male wage-earners, due almost entirely to the influence on the totals of the figures for the important and highly seasonal industries such as meat freezing and preserving, and butter, cheese, and other milk products making. Also apparent is the reduction in the male labour force in the earlier months of 1942 as a result of the mobilization of the home-defence Forces following Japan's entry into the war, but by mid-year 1943, male employment in factories was again back to the 1941 level. Accretions to the labour force became apparent in 1944, and accelerated to an annual gain of approximately 8,000 in 1946. This figure was not held in 1947, and subsequent years have recorded a further falling tendency.

MALE WAGE-EARNERS EMPLOYED IN FACTORIES, BY MONTHS

1942.1943.1944.1945.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
January71,38970,52773,23777,40583,86389,91694,485 97,427
February70,73970,77374,19077,82185,17390,18594,588 97,006
March70,29170,47773,00476,62485,22589,72593,533 95,873
April68,73371,02273,78077,82484,59189,838 93,746 
May66,88170,80773,35277,72184,55189,075 93,446 
June65,00269,16172,16475,91082,80188,186 91,502 
July62,77466,64569,8387269680,67586,670 89,709 
August62,60766,80070,01973,92181,14880,029 90,389 
September63,40166,93170,80473,82482,09186,714 90,716 
October63,53367,01370,80374,98582,42387,284 90,561 
November64,21567,46471,59676,43684,09288,001 91,324 
December68,22270,77575,53081,52087,93292,643 95,608 

In the case of female employment there are no marked seasonal or other cyclical movements to disguise the steady increases which were recorded from 1938 up to April, 1945, but it may be noted that January is generally the month of lowest employment, additions to the staff by mid-January being fewer than the losses sustained at the end of the previous year. The increases referred to reached their highest rate in the second quarter of 1940, and thereafter the rate of accretion fell. In the first quarter of 1946 the losses of female staff were running at a very high rate, consequent on the lifting of the man-power direction regulations. This rate of depletion fell rapidly, however, and a stable level of employment was reached later in the year. Later years have recorded a steady increase in monthly totals for female factory workers.

FEMALE WAGE-EARNERS EMPLOYED IN FACTORIES, BY MONTHS

1942.1943.1944.1945.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
January29,06029,81229,24029,44026,68326,03026,619 28,401
February29,94030,53830,45030,69427,49927,21627,804 29,789
March30,51130,79730,74630,86627,54827,43227,904 30,186
April30,75030,84530,97931,01627,46727,710 28,883 
May30,57730,72130,97730,83827,39028,008 28,824 
June30,50230,62430,94930,49727,34728,601 29,139 
July30,03830,48530,92530,39327,41423,311 29,300 
August30,09030,41030,90129,99727,33523,268 29,585 
September30,16830,36930,94229,87827,60228,372 29,763 
October30,22630,28430,88729,54527,68428,394 29,973 
November30,36730,35130,85529,38627,91928,670 30,454 
December30,57630,28730,92229,08227,78728,505 30,541 

SALARIES AND WAGES.—The figures relating to the amounts paid as salaries and wages include amounts paid as bonuses and for overtime. Figures illustrative of the rise in the aggregate amount paid in salaries and wages will be found in the first table of this section.

The amounts received by male and female employees (inclusive of all groups—executive, clerical. and wage-earning) and the average amount received per employee of each sex, as recorded in the last five collections, are set out below.

Year.Males.Females.Both Sexes.
Total.Average.Total.Average.Total.Average.
 ££££££
1944–4531,097,6443626,281,41817237,379,062305
1945–4634,964,7173776,534,39618441,499,113324
1946–4738,839,6453856,496,57219445,336,217337
1947–4844,760,9574217,371,73221652,132,689372
1949–5052,386,8294818,930,01125361,316,840425

The averages shown relate to all persons engaged, irrespective of age, industry, status, and personal occupation, and year-to year comparisons may be affected by changes in any of these factors. The figures do, however, give an indication of the increased earnings of factory workers in recent years, the average for males having risen by 89 per cent. and for females by 134 per cent. since 1938–39. Of interest also is the relative improvement in the earnings of female wage-earners over the same period; whereas in 1938–39 the figure for average earnings of females was 42.5 per cent. of the corresponding figure for males, in 1949–50 the ratio had increased to 52.6 per cent.

The table following shows the amount of salaries and wages paid in each of the principal industries and the total for all industries during the years 1947-48 and 1949–50.

Industry.1947–48.1949–50.
Males.Females.Males.Females.

* Prior to 1949–50 the manufacture of plywood and veneer was included in sawmilling and wood ware, &c.

† Prior to 1949–50 the manufacture of linseed oil was included in paint and varnish manufacture.

‡ Figures for rubber goods, &c., for 1949–50 include rubber footwear—prior to 1949–50 the latter goods were included in the boot and shoe industry.

 ££££
Meat freezing and preserving5,462,866142,4276,212,141147,905
Ham and bacon curing263,57616,271354,79219,444
Butter, cheese, and other milk products1,623,23880,2192,063,79684,965
Fellmongering and woolscouring248,8881,943280,6311,879
Tanning424,9514,994396,2236,775
Gasworks725,81323,125780,65226,334
Electric supply1,707,74591,1292,134,134125,771
Sawmilling, planing, &c.*3,830,83933,4824,732,25630,966
Lime-crushing and cement563,2103,362630,1954,029
Brick, tile, and pottery575,36051,670643,21647,126
Grain-milling297,68813,018335,67214,936
Biscuit and confectionery566,651262,370737,917367,556
Ice cream111,77526,861138,58834,216
Jam-making, sauces, pickles, and preserves297,948100,413327,870111,986
Miscellaneous foods133,68161,650198,51382,862
Brewing and malting719,63217,370765,75517,779
Aerated waters and cordials186,22510,275216,4599,537
Tobacco and cigarettes163,879176,056209,761214,322
Soap and candle178,36854,275181,42550,088
Paint and varnish215,98619,776248,42022,155
Chemical fertilizers503,0199,425582,4338,399
Woodware and joinery *924,20523,279912,66121,257
Paper bags and cartons265,374110,256314,101144,092
Wallboard and building sheet373,0232,731453,4553,136
Concrete products112,0255,140589,8206,062
Sheet metal working1,011,686108,7061,094,516115,946
General engineering3,185,90895,9143,857,796113,788
Electrical and radio manufacture and repair975,899146,0701,240,919196,140
Range-making400,47222,039451,61426,628
Printing and publishing2,596,121464,8403,072,241534,440
Agricultural and dairying machinery512,44215,073570,27517,140
Motor-body building3,921,668134,049521,6088,002
Motor and cycle repairs3,909,642125,355
Motor-vehicle assembly627,68918,116833,90517,181
Saddlery and harness, and leather goods266,046142,804273,007166,772
Rubber products and vulcanizing541,92249,363763,18381,290
Furniture and cabinet-making1,603,576114,7561,768,382129,822
Footwear manufacture1,227,070466,3741,364,759547,751
Woollen mills635,241245,095766,530290,044
Hosiery and knitted goods354,784331,452519,099446,055
Clothing1,318,4862,912,3301,578,1633,712,267
All other industries4,805,982763,2345,360,304797,813
      Totals44,760,9577,371,73252,386,8298,930,011

MOTIVE POWER.—A supply of cheap motive power is essential for industrial development. New Zealand industries were formerly somewhat handicapped in this respect, long railway hauls and, in some instances, sea-carriage being involved in the transport of coal from the mines to the factories. The difficulties in the way of obtaining a supply of cheap motive power have been met by the development by the State of hydro-electric schemes, for which New Zealand is topographically well suited. As mentioned earlier in these notes, restrictions in the supply have been necessary during recent years.

The following table shows the numbers and aggregate horse-power of each class of engine used in factories for 1927–28, 1937–38, and the last three years available.

Class of Engine.1927–28.1937–38.1946–47.1947–48.1949–50.
SteamNo.1,9111,5011,1841,128 
 H.P.125,792153,988133,168130,717 
GasNo.4001218484No.
 H.P.16,5186,8584,4183,9623,151
OilNo.3285641,2361,483 
 H.P.11,99439,51463,69072,576H.P.
WaterNo.2552621831681,071,259
 H.P.150,859450,633689,208768,261 
ElectricNo.12,42825,62662,83670,53486,523
 H.P.111,942181,757324,219344,423402,309
      TotalsNo15,32228,07465,52373,39789,674
 H.P.417,105832,7501,214,7031,319,9391,473,568

The figures relating to horse-power represent the indicated horse-power of the engines installed and not the horse-power actually used. The statistics include the horse-power of turbines, pelton wheels, and other engines used in the generation of electric current.

The following table shows the total number of engines and horse-power in use in the principal industries and the totals for all industries for the years 1939–40 and 1949–50.

Industry.1939–40.1949–50.
Number of Engines.Horsepower.Number of Engines.Horsepower.

* Not available.

† Prior to 1949–50 the manufacture of plywood and veneer was included In sawmilling and woodware, &c.

‡ Prior to 1949–50 the manufacture of linseed oil was included in paint and varnish manufacture.

§ Figures for rubber goods, &c., for 1949–50 include rubber footwear—prior to 1949–50 the latter goods were included in the boot and shoe industry.

Meat freezing and preserving2,65848,5155,09056,844
Ham and bacon curing1591,4943041,976
Butter, cheese, and other milk products2,99028,0975,11041,445
Fellmongering and woolscouring1861,7703742,572
Tanning3422,4068744,157
Gasworks**4545,290
Electric supply212611,659181974,431
Sawmilling, planing, &c.2,35944,0294,72699,484
Lime-crushing and cement66923,8941,11126,531
Brick, tile, and pottery3716,2459479,660
Grain-milling2815,7494286,448
Biscuit and confectionery8846,0531,4257,828
Ice cream2802,0128933,190
Jam-making, sauces, pickles, and preserves2711,1649432,661
Miscellaneous foods1505477572,152
Brewing and malting6384,0461,1185,878
Aerated waters and cordials3648965461,238
Tobacco and cigarettes151509361812
Soap and candle2021,1503831,943
Paint and varnish1339044482,627
Chemical fertilizers5978,02794711,929
Woodware and joinery1,0455,3342,69611,124
Paper bags and cartons2388091,0092,071
Wallboard and building sheet28945975,103
Concrete products1871,0168292,503
Sheetmetal working7453,1902,0815,731
General engineering2,08613,3408,17730,976
Electrical and radio manufacture and repair6431,2152,4994,968
Range-making1658114011,724
Printing and publishing3,14911,8834,84115,038
Agricultural and dairying machinery3211,7046942,870
Motor-body building3,3517,3796611,858
Motor and cycle repairs6,4169,355
Motor-vehicle assembly  8502,694
Saddlery and harness, and leather goods111259700492
Rubber products and vulcanizing§1899801,75017,631
Furniture and cabinet-making1,7375,1784,99911,778
Footwear manufacture§5131,7012,4543,735
Woollen mills4166,1321,2408,578
Hosiery and knitted goods2776501,5152,315
Clothing1,4472,4067,0366,467
All other industries3,81339,74710,80957,461
      Totals34,358902,99489,6741,473,568

A deficiency in the statistics arises from, the lack of information relating to the actual or estimated period during which the engines or motors were in use. This is an important aspect of considerations affecting the quantitative measurement of the motive power employed.

CONSUMPTION OF COAL.—During the year 1949–50, 1,221,198 tons of New Zealand coal were used in industries covered by the statistics of factory production, in increase of 61,550 tons over the 1,159,648 tons recorded in 1947–48. No imported coal was used in either year.

The gas-making industry accounted for 310,610 tons, or 25 per cent., of the total amount of coal used in industries covered by the factory production statistics. A further 45 per cent. was used by four industries—namely, butter, cheese, and other milk products making, 210,590 tons; meat freezing and preserving, 146,574 tons; lime-crushing and cement-making, 125,451 tons; and electric-supply, 65,853 tons.

MATERIALS.—The value of materials used or operated upon does not afford a very satisfactory basis of comparison as between one industry and another, for the reason that the changes wrought during the process of manufacture vary considerably in degree. As an instance, the factory constituent in the products of the three food-processing industries heading the tables shown in this section is comparatively small, whereas the aggregate cost of finished woollen fabrics is far in excess of the value of untreated wool.

The cost of materials used in the principal industries and in all industries during the years 1945–46 to 1947–48 and 1949–50 is given in the table hereunder.

Industry.1945–46.1946–47.1947–48.1949–50.

* Prior to 1949–50 the manufacture of plywood and veneer was included in sawmilling and wood, ware, &c.

† Prior to 1949–50 the manufacture of linseed oil was included in paint and varnish manufacture.

‡ Figures for rubber goods, &c., for 1949–50 include rubber footwear—prior to 1949–50 the latter goods were included in the boot and shoe industry.

 ££££
Meat freezing and preserving28,745,48531,952,83636,351,87243,491,288
Ham and bacon curing2,405,5562,202,6632,486,5563,181,664
Butter, cheese, and other milk products24,745,84727,602,25542,732,02953,404,540
Fellmongering and woolscouring2,925,6823,514,7394,281,8357,485,881
Tanning982,6741,090,3501,232,9191,268,852
Gasworks746,670768,305833,277965,320
Electric supply7,539,3098,360,2898,464,96510,082,315
Sawmilling, planing, &c.*3,087,8433,543,5354,314,1825,461,866
Lime-crushing and cement366,532350,173426,412592,658
Brick, tile, and pottery74,94082,091129,542168,252
Grain-milling2,275,2672,155,9572,309,9922,780,952
Biscuit and confectionery1,624,9171,820,7032,330,9153,321,820
Ice cream255,456286,236365,144447,542
Jam-making, sauces, pickles, and preserves1,372,5911,242,8561,545,7061,549,450
Miscellaneous foods1,068,132900,4491,162,6381,617,184
Brewing and malting1,883,3112,156,8422,286,5732,499,945
Aerated waters and cordials236,775286,962337,754384,912
Tobacco and cigarettes1,877,8201,880,2192,219,9863,412,991
Soap and candle649,898734,891855,196887,678
Paint and varnish 1,210,9011,459,8622,253,8781,957,828
Chemical fertilizers1,196,7551,470,8143,127,1633,827,128
Woodware and joinery *1,105,7471,299,8351,735,4371,798,125
Paper bags and cartons865,5201,048,1141,415,6141,616,292
Wallboard and building sheet555,102540,615683,253813,436
Concrete products355,364380,144483,726833,285
Sheetmetal working1,746,1391,933,5052,624,1842,773,970
General engineering2,828,7632,705,9663,490,3424,792,083
Electrical and radio manufacture and repair1,571,5891,965,6492,751,3793,836,311
Range-making213,945301,878399,230425,274
Printing and publishing2,372,1632,764,5173,511,2813,708,513
Agricultural and dairying machinery1,331,8311,051,4911,320,7761,724,138
Motor-body building3,203,1046,274,26711,381,668513,269
Motor and cycle repairs5,002,525
Motor-vehicle assembly   6,976,675
Saddlery and harness, and leather goods559,980741,751748,445308,394
Rubber products and vulcanizing 688,988964,760963,9081,340,965
Furniture and cabinet-making1,501,4772,006,0122,479,9372, 06,479
Footwear manufacture1,859,5492,000,7752,582,6642,696,470
Woollen mills941,007828,590884,9281,289,531
Hosiery and knitted goods1,259,8041,143,0261,555,5722,026,940
Clothing4,625,5105,279,3367,767,1099,561,604
All other industries10,650,51511,440,46414,945,23117,194,302
      Totals123,508,438138,533,722181,773,218221,228,647

In considering the cost of materials used it should be remembered that the semi-primary industries (e.g., meat freezing and preserving, and butter, cheese, and other milk products), account for a very large proportion of the total. In 1949–50, for example, the two industries mentioned accounted for £96,895,828 out of a total of £221,228,647 for cost of materials used. Constituting as they normally do close on one-half of the total cost of materials used in all industries, the figures for the semi-primary industries influence the total figures for any year. Indeed, a study of the total cost of materials over a number of years shows that frequent and wide oscillations in primary-produce prices are clearly reflected therein. In this connection, too, it should be mentioned that considerable increases in primary producers' costs during recent years have been met by direct and indirect subsidies rather than by higher prices. To some extent, then, the costs of materials of these two semi-primary industries are understated, with a consequent effect on the total cost of materials for all factory industries. Also, difficulty has been experienced in determining what actually constitutes materials in the electric-supply industry. For the purpose of factory-production statistics the figure for materials in respect of this industry is deemed to be the total expenditure for the year, less salaries and wages met out of revenue from the sale of energy.

The total cost of materials used during 1949–50, £221,228,647, was £39,455,429 or 21.7 per cent. above the 1947–48 record figure of £181,773,218. Higher prices as distinct from increased quantities of materials used would account for an appreciable proportion of this increase. Abnormal factors operating during 1947–48, particularly as regards the treatment of subsidies in the dairy industry, made the huge increase recorded in the cost of materials used for that year rather a fictitious one, by the extent of these subsidies. Previously, in the dairy industry, all increases in farm-costs over the 1942–43 level were met by direct payments to dairy-farmers, which were not shown in the accounts of the dairy factories. Since 1947–48, however, these subsidies have been incorporated in the guaranteed prices paid to dairy factories for butter and cheese, and the values given in these statistics for both materials used and products have risen accordingly. The large increase in the output of the motor-assembly industry during 1947–48 accounted for the marked increase recorded in cost of materials for the coach-building, motor and cycle engineering group. The withdrawal of subsidies to certain industries, notably chemical fertilizers, is also reflected in increased costs of materials and product values.

PRODUCTS.—The value of products is based upon the valuation of goods at the factory-door.

In making use of the gross value of products it must be borne in mind that the figures include the value of raw materials operated upon, which value normally constitutes approximately two-thirds of the value of products. Where the products of one industry—for example, sawmilling—are treated again in other industries, such as furniture-making, joinery, &c., part of the value of the timber shown as products of the former industry appears again as the materials of the latter industry and enters into the value of furniture and joinery made. Duplication of this kind is found in many industries.

The following table shows the gross value of products for the principal industries and for all industries as recorded in each of the collections for the years 1945–46 to 1947–48, and 1949–50.

Industry.1945–46.1946–47.1947–48.1949–50.

* Prior to 1949–50 the manufacture of plywood and veneer was included in sawmilling and wood-ware, &c.

† Prior to 1949–50 the manufacture of linseed oil was included in paint and varnish manufacture.

‡ Figures for rubber goods, &c., for 1949–50 include rubber footwear—prior to 1949–50 the latter goods were included in the boot and shoe industry.

 ££££
Meat freezing and preserving36,576,47440,482,86545,013,05355,271,073
Ham and bacon curing2,954,7812,715,5222,988,4053,857,225
Butter, cheese, and other milk products27,883,59731,504,08246,921,90158,681,778
Fellmongering and woolscouring3,279,8043,931,9174,804,5088,186,273
Tanning1,575,4951,722,1431,907,5331,960,114
Gasworks2,020,2632,058,6072,140,6212,430,147
Electric supply9,696,41810,403,07710,627,10612,790,466
Sawmilling, planing, &c.*7,861,7168,815,84011,023,96714,256,234
Lime-crushing and cement1,592,1961,606,7341,825,2982,441,372
Brick, tile, and pottery869,141997,6861,234,3621,587,862
Grain-milling2,888,3892,804,6443,032,9713,567,648
Biscuit and confectionery3,101,0093,890,3484,031,1965,460,020
Ice cream679,597706,921836,921974,379
Jam-making, sauces, pickles, and preserves2,250,7211,990,1632,335,6682,399,758
Miscellaneous foods1,476,8621,332,3201,695,5532,327,326
Brewing and malting3,573,8293,948,4264,011,6314,411,109
Aerated waters and cordials562,249652,320737,389868,645
Tobacco and cigarettes2,853,7442,964,7233,697,0424,817,724
Soap and candle1,157,9831,322,9601,375,7161,474,139
Paint and varnish 1,655,5821,966,9422,897,4762,663,867
Chemical fertilizers2,126,8242,582,5094,336,6925,352,237
Woodware and joinery*2,189,1862,509,7533,207,3573,429,444
Paper bags and cartons1,420,9641,701,8022,220,7832,546,396
Wallboard and building sheet1,160,2071,172,7201,501,3371,925,137
Concrete products799,897890,1721,151,0451,857,610
Sheetmetal working2,986,1473,414,1294,491,4994,886,273
General engineering7,125,5807,327,0748,731,89211,278,043
Electrical and radio manufacture and repair3,122,9203,564,7874,688,7306,323,650
Range-making764,442855,4711,011,1491,109,073
Printing and publishing6,857,0677,723,1589,003,33810,335,337
Agricultural and dairying machinery2,176,3022,049,8962,437,1532,806,254
Motor-body building7,506,45311,946,33019,016,4441,351,558
Motor and cycle repairs11,239,297
Motor-vehicle assembly8,586,806
Saddlery and harness, and leather goods1,114,0931,386,8511,329,2071,456,235
Rubber products and vulcanizing1,399,5931,852,6481,960,9033,065,519
Furniture and cabinet-making3,148,6764,107,5094,880,9705,602,176
Footwear manufacture3,562,3094,018,4714,920,5695,257,982
Woollen mills2,579,1712,389,2092,369,7053,036,517
Hosiery and knitted goods2,223,9072,276,2732,785,1623,826,985
Clothing9,161,59210,385,71913,783,07417,155,932
All other industries19,323,43420,638,46125,190,00728,848,288
      Totals195,258,614218,106,182272,155,333331,703,908

The substantial increase in the value of products in 1949–50, like that recorded for materials, is not solely due to increased production; other factors, mentioned in the last paragraph under the heading of “Materials,” also contributed largely.

ADDED VALUE.—As indicated under the heading of “Products,” the value of products is not always a satisfactory measure of either the absolute or the relative importance of a given industry, for the reason that only part of this value is actually created by the manufacturing processes carried on in the industry itself. In many cases by far the larger portion of the value of products represents the value of the materials used. From a manufacturing standpoint, the best measure of the importance of an industry is the value created by the manufacturing operations carried on within the industry. This value is obtained in New Zealand by deducting the cost of materials used from the gross value of the products, and is referred to as the “added value.”

The table given hereunder shows the added value for the principal industries and the totals for all industries for each of the years 1945–46 to 1947–48, and 1949–50.

Industry.1945–46.1946–47.1947–48.1949–50.

* Prior to 1949–50 the manufacture of plywood and veneer was included in sawmilling and wood-ware, &c.

† Prior to 1949–50 the manufacture of linseed oil was included in paint and varnish manufacture.

‡ Figures for rubber goods, &c., for 1949–50 include rubber footwear—prior to 1949–50 the latter goods were included in the boot and shoe industry.

 ££££
Meat freezing and preserving7,830,9898,530,0298,661,18111,779,785
Ham and bacon curing549,226512,859501,849675,561
Butter, cheese, and other milk products3,137,7503,901,8274,189,8725,277,238
Fellmongering and woolscouring354,122417,178522,673700,392
Tanning592,821631,793674,614691,262
Gasworks1,273,5931,285,3021,307,3441,464,827
Electric supply2,157,1092,042,7882,162,1412,708,151
Sawmilling, planing, &c.*4,773,8735,272,3056,709,7858,794,368
Lime-crushing and cement1,225,6641,256,5611,398,8861,848,714
Brick, tile, and pottery794,201915,5951,104,8201,419,610
Grain-milling613,122648,687722,979786,696
Biscuit and confectionery1,476,0921,569,6451,700,2812,138,200
Ice cream124,141420,685471,777526,837
Jam-making, sauces, pickles, and preserves878,130717,307789,962850,308
Miscellaneous foods408,730431,871532,915710,142
Brewing and malting1,690,5181,791,5841,725,0581,911,164
Aerated waters and cordials325,474365,358399,635483,733
Tobacco and cigarettes975,9241,084,5041,477,0561,404,733
Soap and candle508,085588,069520,520586,161
Paint and varnish444,681507,080643,598706,039
Chemical fertilizers930,0691,111,6951,209,5291,525,109
Woodware and joinery£1,083,4391,209,9181,471,9201,631,319
Paper bags and cartons555,444653,688805,169930,104
Wallboard and building sheet605,105632,105818,0841,111,701
Concrete products444,533510,028667,3191,024,325
Sheetmetal working1,240,0081,480,6241,867,3152,112,303
General engineering4,296,8174,621,1085,241,5506,485,960
Electrical and radio manufacture and repair1,551,3311,599,1381,937,3512,487,339
Range-making550,497553,593611,919683,799
Printing and publishing4,484,9044,958,6415,492,0576,626,824
Agricultural and dairying machinery844,471998,4051,116,3771,082,116
Motor-body building4,303,3495,672,0637,634,776808,289
Motor and cycle repairs6,236,772
Motor-vehicle assembly1,610,131
Saddlery and harness, and leather goods554,113645,100580,762647,841
Rubber products and vulcanizing£710,605887,888996,9951,724,554
Furniture and cabinet-making1,647,1992,101,4972,401,0332,895,697
Footwear manufacture1,702,7602,017,6962,337,9052,591,512
Woollen mills1,638,1641,560,6191,484,7771,746,986
Hosiery and knitted goods964,1031,133,2471,229,5901,800,045
Clothing4,536,0825,106,3836,015,9657,594,328
All other industries8,672,9399,197,99710,244,77611,653,986
      Totals71,750,17679,572,46090,382,115110,475,261

The development of factory production in New Zealand from 1919–20 onward is clearly portrayed in the following diagram, which also shows the relationship between, cost of materials, added value, and value of output.

EXPENSES OF OPERATION.—Total operating costs of factory production for the year 1949–50 amounted to £308,880,249, of which salaries and wages accounted for £61,316,840, cost of materials for £221,228,647, and other expenses for £26,334,762, while value of output totalled £331,703,908.

The table below shows the principal items comprised in the figure for expenses of operation, other than salaries and wages and cost of materials, for the years 1945–46 to 1947–48, and 1949–50.

Item.1945–46.1946–47.1947–48.1949–50
 ££££
Cost of coal1,169,2131,189,6691,390,2011,851,028
Cost of other fuel and power1,526,2191,592,1191,816,0532,139,735
Insurance1,095,2031,196,1741,446,7311,688,555
Depreciation2,835,4673,531,3844,252,6045,808,258
Repairs and maintenance All other expenses9,652,4603,702,9114,286,9965,146,922
All other expenses7,034,7868,048,3919,700,264
      Totals16,278,56218,247,04321,240,97626,334,762

The amount paid in insurance premiums by factory industries has more than doubled since 1938–39. This is mainly attributable to the increase in the amount of wages paid, employers' liability premiums being based on this factor, while the Earthquake and War Damage Act, 1944, provides for compulsory insurance against earthquake and war damage.

The Land and Income Tax Amendment Act, 1945, provided for additional special rates of depreciation on premises and plant acquired, erected, or installed after 1st April, 1945. The effect of this provision and of the higher post-war price level for capital equipment is reflected in the greatly increased figure for depreciation recorded in the last three years shown.

CAPITAL INVESTED AND ASSETS.—Information as to the amount of capital invested in manufacturing industries was collected for some years, but the figures obtained were found to be unsatisfactory. The chief factors militating against the collection of reliable information have been the methods of accounting in use in many of the smaller establishments, and the difficulty of apportioning capital where an establishment is only partly manufacturing.

A more satisfactory indication of the capital investment in the manufacturing industry is obtained from figures of manufacturers' fixed assets. Not only are the figures more reliable than those for capital invested, but they do not suffer from the understatement of capital (from the economic viewpoint) which occurs in those cases where the factory premises, or, in some few cases, even the plant, is not owned by the manu manufacturer, but is rented. In these cases an estimate of the value of the rented asset has been obtained by capitalizing the annual rental shown. Approximations in the figures for fixed assets are also made where one building houses two or more factories carrying on different industries, necessitating an apportionment as between the industries. In most instances, too, fixed assets are stated at their book value, and this may be an overstatement due to insufficient allowance having been made for depreciation, obsolescence, &c., or an understatement owing to appreciated site-value, excessive allowance for depreciation, or currency depreciation resulting in the assets being understated in terms of their present earning-capacity or replacement cost. It is necessary to bear in mind these limitations to the accuracy of the figures of fixed assets appearing in the following table, which shows the values of these assets for each of the last ten available years together with an analysis by principal industries for 1949–50. For the year 1949–50, information is also shown by principal industries of the amounts expended during the year by way of capital additions and alterations.

Industry.Capital Additions and Alterations During the Year.Value at End of Year (Including Estimated Value of Rented Assets).
Land and Buildings.Plant and Machinery.Totals.Land and Buildings.Plant and Machinery.Totals.

* Prior to 1949–50 the manufacture of plywood and veneer was included in sawmilling and woodware, &c.

† Prior to 1949–50 the manufacture of linseed oil was included in paint and varnish manufacture.

‡ Figures for rubber goods, &c., for 1949–50 include rubber footwear— prior to 1949–50 the latter goods were included in the boot and shoe industry.

Totals—££££££
1939–40   28,544,17752,029,29880,573,475
1940–41   29,229,71954,525,41883,765,137
1941–42   30,199,29856,928,63487,127,932
1942–43   30,892,66857,361,10488,253,772
1943–44   31,733,70459,006,65390,740,357
1944–45   33,932,72758,058,55296,91,279
1945–48   35,921,26067,969,258103,899,518
1946–47   38,060,76475,459,261113,520,025
1947–48   42,592,98190,219,732132,812,713
1949–50—      
Meat freezing and preserving613,276429,7941,043,0705,234,8992,209,8267,444,725
Ham and bacon curing16,11731,06747,184325,400140,475465,875
Butter, cheese, and other577,782908,5171,486,2992,988,0153,397,9586,385,973
milk products      
Fellmongering and wool-scouring6,753211,32636,079233,883172,163406,046
Tanning9,81525,96935,784178,682170,977349,659
Gasworks12,631264,881277,512530,0254,076,5164,606,541
Electric supply153,5248,395,3038,548,8276,087,21673,570,25279,657,468
Sawmilling, planing, &c.*172,837490,649663,4861,906,9972,844,8974,761,894
Lime-crushing and cement71,875152,121223,996574,719769,8401,344,559
Brick, tile, and pottery17,71660,61778,333501,395466,452967,847
Grain-milling8,51843,60452,122512,731295,124807,855
Biscuit and confectionery230,044273,138503,182980,434848,8081,829,242
Ice cream2,00549,10351,108275,523324,618600,141
Jam-making, sauces, pickles, and preserves13,53948,43661,975445,405348,424793,829
Miscellaneous foods13,05340,62153,674341,235243,432584,667
Brewing and malting26,789224,031250,820839,040987,4181,826,458
Aerated waters and cordials11,76860,81772,585273,415272,815546,230
Tobacco and cigarettes59,669105,670165,339404,599355,380759,979
Soap and candle15,07638,01853,094245,463210,520455,983
Paint and varnish38,33553,56891,903307,465186,012493,477
Chemical fertilizers20,010153,470173,480501,192747,8111,249,003
Woodware and joinery*39,96867,671107,639595,538375,557971,095
Paper bags and cartons3,97274,44778,419337,554376,300713,854
Wallboard and building sheet11,13565,98977,124418,914416,902835,816
Concrete products14,93038,07353,003286,970266,636553,606
Sheetmetal working127,310101,223228,533879,624508,1171,387,741
General engineering103,037302,336405,3732,451,4511,914,9404,366,391
Electrical and radio manufacture and repair37,677101,114138,791932,392467,2331,399,625
Range-making12,90310,64523,548118,72279,731198,453
Printing and publishing46,414434,824481,2382,551,2892,156,9294,708,218
Agricultural and dairying machinery8,40017,94526,345327,303170,806498,109
Motor-body building14,58515,85230,437397,579114,417511,996
Motor and cycle repairs91,981192,774284,7553,892,4091,440,3155,332,724
Motor-vehicle assembly4,64633,15237,798340,484182,116522,600
Saddlery and harness, and leather goods3,53214,38317,915344,32480,176424,500
Rubber products and vulcanizing£206,689324,810531,4991,397,2961,984,0203,381,316
Furniture and cabinet-making22,76572,26895,0331,225,037529,6741,754,711
Footwear manufacture.12,09667,33079,426674,748525,1261,199,874
Woollen mills18,683140,440159,123512,809699,0921,211,901
Hosiery and knitted goods101,178219,032320,210929,202816,3661,745,568
Clothing22,739196,283219,0223,151,689983,4714,135,160
All other industries544,888895,4701,440,3585,850,3394,263,06210,113,401
      Totals3,540,66015,264,78118,805,44151,303,406110,990,704162,294,110

The classification indicating the amount of capital investment in the various classes of industry is of interest. Since electric-supply undertakings and gasworks require heavy expenditure on construction work, plant, machinery, reticulation, &c., it is not surprising that the combined value of fixed assets for these two industries is such a large proportion of the whole, being actually 52 per cent. of the total recorded for all industries in 1949–50. Vet, for the same year, these industries contributed less than 5 per cent. of the total value of output recorded.

ORGANIZATION OF INDUSTRY.—New Zealand's industrial progress has been fairly rapid, but industry is as yet organized on a relatively small scale.

The law in New Zealand restricts the membership of a partnership to not more than 20 persons, a private company to not fewer than 2 or more than 25 persons, and a public company to not fewer than 7 persons. Co-operation is characteristic of certain industries engaged in the processing of primary products, mainly butter and cheese manufacturing. Municipal enterprises are confined mainly to public-utility industries—e.g., gasworks and the generation and distribution of electricity—while the State operates the chief central hydro-electric generating stations, and the Government Printing Office.

Information as to the character of organization of the establishments engaged in factory production during 1949–50 is given in the following table.

Character of Organization.Number of Establishments.Persons engaged.Horsepower available.Cost of Materials used or operated upon.Value of Manufactures or Products.Added Value.
Total.Per Establishment.

* Average of totals.

   H.P.££££
Individual1,6127,89621,4123,965,1518,605,3874,640,2362,879
Private firm or partnership8605,07217,3132,541,2575,725,9623,184,7053,703
Public registered company84743,927194,62462,442,86099,446,22637,003,36643,688
Private registered company4,06474,665219,75087,031,667142,374,37555,342,70813,618
Co-operative and miscellaneous4034,71140,39853,773,30359,087,4555,314,15213,186
Municipal and Government2418,038980,07111,474,40916,464,5034,990,09420,706
      Totals8,027144,3091,473,568221,228,647331,703,908110,475,26113,763*

As would be expected, the average size of establishments operated by public registered companies is larger than in any other type of industrial organization, the added value per unit being three times as high as that for the next highest non-governmental type (private registered companies). Private companies, however, occupy a very high place, both numerically and in the share they contribute to the total added value created in New Zealand factories (50 per cent. in 1949–50, as compared with 33 per cent. in the case of public companies). Municipal and general governmental enterprises accounted for 5 per cent. of the total added value in 1949–50.

Examination of the statistics of added value over a series of years indicates that private companies have increased appreciably in relative importance, while the individual and partnership types of organization have declined. Very little change has occurred in the percentage of total added value attributable to the operations of public companies, or municipal and general governmental undertakings

CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES.—In the tables which follow, a classification of industries, according to the nature of the work carried on, is presented. Four classes are distinguished:—

  • Group I comprises those industries in close association with and dependent on pastoral farm production, being engaged in the processing of pastoral products for the market. The raw material undergoes only slight changes in the factory or works, and consequently the added value is small in relation to the cost of materials. The specific industries falling within this category are meat freezing and preserving; ham and bacon curing; butter, cheese, and other milk products making; sausage-casing making; fellmongering and wool-scouring; and boiling down and manure making.

  • Group II includes those industries which provide public utility services under monopoly conditions so far as competition within the industry is concerned; they are gasworks and electricity generation and supply.

  • Group III consists generally of those industries classed as extractive, being concerned with the utilization of natural resources. The added value in these industries is large in proportion to the value of output, and represents principally wages. The following industries come within this group: fish-curing; sawmilling; lime crushing and burning and cement-making; brick, tile, and pottery making; pumice-insulation making; and phormium-flax milling. The processing of the agricultural product, linen flax, is also included in this group.

  • Group IV comprises all industries for which statistics are available and which do not come under the previous groups. It includes several industries. such as grain-milling, &c., which may be considered to be on the borderlines of Group I or Group III, and also several industries, such as motor and cycle engineering and repairing, &c., where repair work rather than manufacture in the narrow sense of the term predominates. In the industries in this group the raw material is, generally speaking, subjected to detailed and elaborate processing, and the “added value” is therefore relatively high.

An important purpose served by this classification of industries is the analysis of all factory production in New Zealand to permit of its segregation into the three functional production classes. These three classes are—

  1. “Primary” production, which consists of the production of the farm or extraction from mine, quarry, forest, &c., of raw material and its preliminary processing for the market. The product may be either food in consumable form (e.g., meat and fish) or merely the raw material for further processing. Of the groups distinguished above, I and III fall into this class and would be considered with statistics for farming and mining in assessing primary production in New Zealand.

  2. “Secondary” production comprises the more complete processing or trans formation in factory or workshop of raw material derived from primary production into the final form required by the consumer (e.g., clothing or prepared foodstuffs) or producer (e.g., machinery). The industries in Group IV come into this class and may be said to cover practically all secondary production in New Zealand, with the exception of building construction.

  3. “Tertiary” production is the term given to the value produced by the transport, communication, wholesale and retail trade and other service industries. Group II industries, which fall into this class, measure a small part of production in this field.

It will be noted that the terms “primary,” “secondary,” and “tertiary” are indicative of function and not of economic importance; in fact, the more developed is the economy the higher are the proportions of workers engaged, and of value produced, in the “secondary” and “tertiary” production fields relative to the “primary.”

The following table shows the principal statistics for the various groups for the years 1947–48 and 1949–50.

Group.Persona engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.Materials used.Other Expenses of Operation.Products.Added Value.Land, Buildings, Plant, and Machinery.
  ££££££
1947–48
I17,8778,163,92387,167,7194,920,011101,784,66614,616,94712,398,285
II6,1202,547,8129,298,242438,78312,767,7273,469,48568,517,689
III12,5235,362,1975,239,4442,916,13814,926,3009,686,8565,939,931
IV103,74736,058,75780,067,81312,966,044142,676,64062,608,82745,956,808
Totals140,26752,132,689181,773,21821,240,976272,155,33390,382,115132,812,713
1949–50
I17,7079,439,212108,249,4765,932,788127,256,99719,007,52115,062,413
II6,4113,066,89111,047,635553,65615,220,6134,172,97884,264,009
III13,3306,298,4876,422,4843,647,47318,787,38112,364,8977,326,852
IV106,86142,512,25095,509,05216,200,845170,438,91774,929,86555,640,836
Totals144,30961,316,840221,228,64726,334,762331,703,908110,475,261162,294,110

The next table shows for the years 1939–40 and 1949–50 the principal statistics of factories coining within Group IV—classified according to the value of output.

Factories with Value of Output as under.Number of Persons engaged.Value of Products.Output per Person engaged.
1939–40.1949–50.1939–40.1949–50.1939–40.1949–50.
Number.Per Cent. of Total.Number.Per Cent. of Total.£Per Cent. of Total.£Per Cent. of Total.££
££         
Under 5004050.52170.02117,4740.215,6000.00290329
500– 9991,2251.571210.11463,0130.8357,9290.03378479
1,000– 2,4994,9366.351,7811.672,255,8964.061,316,8740.77457739
2,500- 4,9996,5428.405,7155.353,354,5636.045,173,8533.04513905
5,000- 9,9998,79211.2911,26410.544,828,2508.6911,464,8796.735491,018
10,000-14,9996,3908.218,2277.703,806,8286.859,167,0615.385961,114
15,000-19,9994,5135.805,9085.532,754,6484.967,122,2314.186101,206
20,000-49,99916,36221.0221,38320.0110,649,36019.1728,343,57816.636511,326
50,000-99,9999,40712.0817,21916.117,361,43413.2525,726,10015.097831,494
100,000 and over19,27824.7635,22632.9619,968,14535.9482,060,81248.151,0362,330
  Totals, Group IV77,850100.00106861100.0055,559,611100.00170,438,917100.007131,595

The position of the larger scale establishments in this group of industries is striking in respect of both value of products and output per person engaged.

More detailed statistics of the foregoing groups are contained in the annual Statistical Report on Factory Production.

VOLUME OF FACTORY PRODUCTION.—In connection with the preparation of the series of index-numbers of volume of production, as given in Section 47 of this Year-Book, a special series covering volume of production of the factory industries has been constructed. Index-numbers have been computed from 1929–30 onwards for the factory industries as a whole, and also for each of the four groups into which these industries are divided under the immediately preceding heading. A description of the method adopted in computing these index-numbers of volume of factory production is given in the Statistical Report on Factory Production. The 1948–49 index-numbers are based on the sample survey of factory production carried out in that year and to which reference has been made earlier in this section.

INDEX-NUMBERS OF VOLUME OF FACTORY PRODUCTION

Base: 1938–39 (= 100)

Production Year.Group I.Group II.Group IIIGroup IV.All Groups.
Total.Per Person engaged.Total.Per Person engaged.Total.Per Person engaged.Total.Per Person engaged.Total.Per Person engaged.
1929–3075817397959870917492
1930–3178877695779164886990
1931–3282987493498755856090
1932–33921067495468357886394
1933–3493947492548759896592
1934–35961017794648769937495
1935–3698998297799276938196
1986–371031028797888991989298
1937–381011009399949196979797
1938–39100100100100100100100100100100
1939–4011010711010610397111104110103
1940–4112010611911510499114102114103
1941–4212210212412510396116100116102
1942–43124104130137111103120106120107
1943–4411899138145118103126109125108
1944–45127103143145114102130107129108
1945–4612498147139112101134105131105
1946–4712899154141113104146107140106
1947–4812896158147131110159112151110
1948–4913199167151138111163113155112
1949–50136103174155143113172117164117

The low level of factory production during the depression period and the subsequent. recovery and expansion are illustrated in the accompanying diagram. The diagram is divided into two parts, the first referring to those industries coming within Group IV, as described under the previous heading, and the second to all factory industries. In addition to volume of production, added value is also shown, the index numbers employed being on the same base 1938–39 (= 100).

OVERTIME.—The amount of overtime worked in industries gives a useful indication as to whether an industry has been busy or slack, and statistics of this phase of factory production have been collected for an number of years.

Overtime for the purpose of this collection is defined as all time worked in excess of the normal daily or weekly hours as prescribed under Arbitration Court awards, which now uniformly prescribe an eight-hour day and forty-hour week for all factory industries. The instructions expressly exclude from overtime all time worked within an employee's forty hours but paid for at special rates, instances being shift and week-end work. Nevertheless, it is possible that persons filling in returns may have counted some such time as overtime, but the error on this account should not be appreciable.

The following table summarizes overtime worked in factories in respect of wage-earning employees during the years 1944–45 to 1947–48, and 1949–50.

Year.Overtime.Average Overtime Works Per Wage-earner.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.
 Hours.Hours.Hours.Hours.Hours.
1944–4514,339,4822,659,61216,999,09418887
1945–4612,028,3091,868,34213,896,65114168
1946–4712,250,9291,394,97213,645,90113751
1947–4812,841,4621,133,31813,974,78013741
1949–5014,290,3031,269,17015,559,47314443

Approximately 61 per cent. of the total overtime worked in 1949–50 was contributed by thirteen industries, the figures quoted being in hours—viz., meat freezing and preserving, 2,505,991: sawmilling. 1,135,164; general engineering, iron and brass founding, 1,185,673; electric supply, 556,401; motor-vehicle assembly, 399,709; motor and cycle repairing. 480,974; printing and publishing, 564,069; butter, cheese, &c., manufacture. 658,351; clothing, 492,491; tinplate and sheet-metal, 438,859; brewing and malting. 397,002; chemical fertilizers, 330,858; and biscuit and confectionery, 369,837.

The position in regard to overtime worked is further illustrated by the accompanying diagram, the period covered being 1930–31 to 1949–50.

SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS.—The following table contains an analysis of production costs in 1949–50, together with the value of products for each of the principal industries and for all industries.

Industry.Production Costs.Value of Products.Surplus Prior to Providing for Taxation.*
Salaries and Wages.Cost of All Materials Used.Other Expenses of Operation.Total.

* Excess of value of products over production costs.

† Prior to 1949–50 the manufacture of plywood and veneer was included in sawmilling and woodware, &c.

‡ Prior to 1949–50 the manufacture of linseed oil was included in paint and varnish manufacture

§ Figures for rubber goods, &c., for 1949–50 include rubber footwear—prior to 1949–50 the latter goods were included in the boot and shoe industry.

Meat freezing and preserving£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
Ham and bacon curing3743,1822013,7573,857100
Butter, cheese, and other milk products2,14953,4052,91158,46558,682217
Fellmongering and woolscouring2837,4861797,9438,1868,186
Tanning4031,2691541,8261,960134
Gasworks8079655542,3262,430104
Electric supply2,26010,082 12,34212,790448
Sawmilling, planing, &c.4,7635,4622,21012,43514,2561,821
Lime-crushing and cement6345938282,0552,441386
Brick, tile and pottery6901685231,3811,588207
Grain-milling3512,7812433,3753,568207
Biscuit and confectionery1,1053,3224834,9105,460550
Ice cream173448176797974177
Jam-making, sauces, pickles, and preserves4401,5492272,2162,400184
Miscellaneous foods2811,6171722,0702,327257
Brewing and malting7842,5005173,8014,411610
Aerated waters and cordials226385126737869132
Tobacco and cigarettes4243,4132624,0994,818719
Soap and candle2328881511,2711,474203
Paint and varnish2711,9581462,3752,664289
Chemical fertilizers5913,8275334,9515,352401
Woodware and joinery9341,7982803,0123,429417
Paper bags and cartons4581,6161912,2652,546281
Wallboard and building sheet4578132761,5461,925379
Concrete products5968331911,6201,858238
Sheetmetal working1,2102,7743764,3604,886526
General engineering3,9724,7921,38510,14911,2781,129
Electrical and radio manufacture and repair1,4373,8365225,7956,324529
Range-making4784251091,0121,10997
Printing and publishing3,6073,7091,4118,72710,3351,608
Agricultural and dairying machinery5871,7241622,4732,806333
Motor-body building5305431421,2151,352137
Motor and cycle repairs4,0355,0021,24810,28511,239954
Motor-vehicle assembly8516,9773048,1328,587455
Saddlery and harness, and leather goods440808911,3391,456117
Rubber products and vulcanizing§8441,3416832,8683,066198
Furniture and cabinet-making1,8982,7064435,0475,602555
Footwear manufactures§1,9142,6664385,0185,268240
Woollen mills1,0571,2904562,8033,037234
Hosiery and knitted goods9652,0274543,4463,827381
Clothing5,2909,5621,18416,03617,1561,120
All other industries6,15617,1962,92026,27228,8502,578
      Totals61,317221,22926,335308,881331,70422,823

DETAILS OF CERTAIN PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES.—The principal statistics regarding leading factory industries for the last three years available are set out in the following pages. Fuller details are given in the annual Statistical Report on Factory Production.

1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.

*Includes boned mutton: 1949–50 totals 116,062 cwt., valued at £351,633.

Meat Freezing and Preserving
Number of—    
  Works 525151
  Persons engaged 11,82111,56411,537
Salaries and wages paid£5,605,2935,825,7546,360,046
Cost of materials used£36,351,87237,072,18743,491,288
Other expenses£2,158,2512,162,0212,473,372
Mutton carcasesNo.2,824,7242,772,9622,831,203
 £3,405,8193,476,1383,857,036
Lamb carcasesNo.12,209,17412,068,64512,450,404
 £17,251,52118,286,74419,352,178
Mutton and lamb pieces*Cwt.93,196124,238147,835
 £206,308312,730388,996
Quarter beef (bone-in weights)Cwt.1,397,5801,012,4571,037,896
 £3,638,2042,843,6563,052,003
Boner beef (boned-out weights)Cwt.477,402488,069518,112
 £1,163,9701,351,4471,455,472
Bobby veal (boned-out weights)Cwt.167,087180,731191,466
 £370,119451,541548,755
Other veal (bone-in weights)Cwt.38,58527,71530,809
 £79,21561,39868,186
PorkCwt.394,127425,681434,924
 £2,041,2032,159,2652,369,397
Edible offalsCwt.369,115360,456379,055
 £1,297,1571,277,8721,362,647
Canned and dehydrated meatsCwt.183,385160,653161,301
 £1,380,9351,304,8331,374,402
Wool1b.45,290,00346,293,36047,856,460
 £5,117,2455,489,69310,394,394
TallowCwt.669,471655,302695,975
 £1,275,0681,242,5521,663,094
Meat-mealCwt.287,535272,905288,834
 £213,111226,241248,608
ManuresCwt.588,258568,531649,436
 £274,872270,161339,007
Hides—    
  Ox and cowNo.503,907406,738429,506
 £812,195671,0831,084,217
  Bobby calfNo.1,074,3621,084,2341,195,256
 £1,129,516984,8591,232,683
  Other calfNo.24,56218,16418,456
 £24,90918,72523,188
PeltsNo.15,678,76315,580,94516,141,420
 £2,339,6533,094,6273,473,129
Rabbit carcases and skins£559,843429,479249,519
Runners and casings£1,732,1521,674,9532,196,681
      Total value of output£45,013,05346,188,64355,271,073
Ham an Bacon Curing
Number of—    
  Works 434242
  Persons engaged 666716771
Salaries and wages paid£279,847310,456374,236
Pigs dealt with—    
CarcasesNo.355,631354,499408,517
Cost£2,167,7742,379,2562,785,608
Cost of other materials used£318,782363,464396,056
Other expenses£157,253161,841200,966
Ham and baconCwt.282,008283,277300,669
Frozen porkCwt.73,70472,65586,298
LardCwt.14,83313,57615,396
Small goodsCwt.91,09995,840113,600
Other fatsCwt.7,4815,0538,028
      Total value of output£2,988,4043,300,6643,857,225
1947–48.1948–49.1949–50

*Includes Australian flour for blending: 230 tons in 1947–48, and 3,554 tons in 1948–49.

Butter, Cheese, and Condensed-milk Factories
Number of—   
Factories385383379
  Persons engaged4,0884,2404,290
Salaries and wages paid £1,703,4571,963,1202,148,761
Number of suppliers53,82253,93053,612
Buttermaking—   
Butterfat in milk purchased 1b.(000)32,13738,09242,702
Butterfat in cream purchased 1b.(000)242,816261,034262,129
Butterfat in whey-cream purchased 1b.(000)1,6101,8822,229
Butterfat recovered from factories own whey 1b.(000)2,9343,1363,264
Cheesemaking—   
Quantity of milk 1b.(000)1,774,4602,002,0912,113,452
Butterfat in milk 1b.(000)77,31988,54893,933
Butterfat used in condensed and dried milk. &c. 1b.(000)5,4936,7227,079
Butterfat in whole cream sold 1b.(000)2,0232,2752,700
Cost of butterfat £40,714,71546,630,10650,773,539
Cost of other materials £2,017,3142,510,0082,631,001
Milk and cream cartage £629,768698,083756,642
Other expenses £1,641,8411,904,2042,154,243
Creamery butter—   
Quantity Cwt.2,990,4243,255,7763,317,255
Value £32,634,43336,753,51139,438,297
Whey butter—   
Quantity Cwt.49,20554,50559,655
Value £512,759586,791675,562
Cheese—   
Quantity Cwt.1,728,9021,989,8462,107,521
Value £10,022,71611,970,63113,360,117
Condensed and dried whole milk 1b. £39,037,88246,753,21948,258,058
£1,547,2231,910,8042,028,260
Skim-milk powder 1b. £  45,262,101
£  1,427,894
Buttermilk powder 1b.££8,831,157
£2,204,7702,647,765209,711
Casein Cwt.  105,145
£  530,718
Other products £  1,011,219
      Total value of all products £46,921,90153,869,50258,681,778
Grain-mills
Number of—   
Mills454545
  Persons engaged739727746
Salaries and wages paid £310,706312,921350,608
Wheat used Bushels7,153,0747,040,3117,421,349
      Total grain £2,044,7582,078,9662,194,774
Cost of other materials £265,234464,445586,178
Other expenses £195,787208,625243,299
Flour produced* Tons162,702162,334164,769
Wheatmeal and wholemeal Tons9,5519,2098,920
Bran and pollard Tons41,05640,45444,085
Oatmeal and other oaten products for human consumption Tons9,3217,8258,114
      Total value of output £3,032,9713,279,9943,567,648
1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.

*Not included in 1948–49 sample survey.

† Quantity in gallons.

‡ Including beer duty.

Biscuit and Confectionery Factories
Number of—    
  Works 738084
  Persons engaged 2,5232,6822,945
Salaries and wages paid£829,021917,5191,105,473
Flour usedTons10,1819,82310,828
Sugar usedTons8,76110,01711,589
Cost of all materials used£2,330,9152,865,0013,321,820
Other expenses£358,418392,914483,106
Biscuits, grain products, and Tons 16,34816,44418,814
ice-cream cones    
ConfectioneryTons12,63514,45316,472
      Total value of output£4,031,1964,592,2515,460,020
Jam-making and Fruit- and Vegetable-preserving Factories
Number of—    
  Works 292829
  Persons engaged 916940871
Salaries and wages paid£291,603325,918313,561
Fruit usedTons8,1858,9665,835
Vegetables usedTons12,20712,57910,849
Sugar usedTons4,9444,5593,327
Cost of all materials£1,275,7591,551,7541,242,780
Other expenses£152,571151,800168,966
Jams and jelliesCwt.133,462118,34976,215
Canned or bottled fruitCwt.33,91744,87436,810
Pulped fruitCwt.15,97314,10217,628
Canned vegetablesCwt.124,132196,568130,924
      Total value of output£1,860,0442,157,6811,856,669
Sauce, Pickle, and Vinegar Factories*
Number of—    
  Works 18 14
  Persons engaged 341 323
Salaries and wages paid£106,758 126,295
Cost of materials used£269,947 306,670
Other expenses£53,807 57,910
Pickles—In bottlesDozen65,643 67,453
Pickles—In bulkGallons10,651 8,835
Sauces—In bottlesDozen199,766 240,165
Sauces—In bulkGallons28,588 47,179
VinegarGallons708,231 721,197
      Total value of output£475,624 543,089
Breweries
Number of£   
Establishments 383737
  Persons engaged 1,4861,4751,426
Salaries and wages paid£673,378696,266728,123
Barley used in production of Bushels 386,201468,783480,786
malt    
Malt purchasedBushels758,579746,558763,779
Hops usedCwt.7,0486,9167,027
Sugar usedCwt.24,34620,38238,446
      Total cost of materials used£1,902,3011,927,3882,152,838
Beer duty£4,425,2444,451,2564,889,079
Other expenses£511,998572,286482,204
Ale brewedGallons29,525,53930,180,37833,450,667
Stout brewedGallons973,714898,561790,752
Value of output£7,938,6808,015,1658,862,799
1946–47.1947–48.1949–50.

*Not included in 1948–49 sample survey.

† Quantity in gallons.

Aerated-water and Cordial Factories*
Number of—   
  Works9910293
  Persons engaged524538541
Salaries and wages paid £173,865196,500225,996
Sugar used Tons1,9262,1322,589
      Total cost of materials used £286,962337,754384,912
Other expenses £82,822100,307126,208
Aerated waters—In bottles Dozen4,271,0554,054,9253,976,617
Aerated waters—In bulk Gallons105,206174,286155,540
Cordials—In bottles Dozen118,049125,126250,074
Cordials—In bulk Gallons18,11433,33939,378
      Total value of output £652,320737,389868,645
Soap and Candle Works*
Number of—   
  Works252423
  Persons engaged732701600
Salaries and wages paid £220,327232,643231,513
Cost of materials used £734,891855,196887,678
Other expenses £121,993112,662150,547
Soap Tons10,2977,2007,758
Toilet soap Tons2,6812,8982,403
Soap-powder (including washing-powder) Tons7,1547,0327,885
Candles 1b.1,043,1041,458,318483,840
      Total value of output £1,322,9601,375,7161,474,539
Printing and Publishing Establishments*
Number of works358 358
  Persons engaged8,227 8,363
Salaries and wages paid £3,060,961 3,606,681
Cost of materials used £3,511,281 3,708,513
Other expenses £1,215,442 1,411,282
Newspaper revenue £3,616,719 4,306,185
Job-printing £4,090,190 4,490,419
      Total value of output £9,003,338 10,335,337
Fellmongering and Woolscouring*
Number of—   
  Works332833
  Persons engaged £534534539
Salaries and wages paid £212,288250,831282,510
Cost of materials used £3,514,7394,281,8357,485,881
Materials operated upon—   
Sheep-skins No.765,473619,793608,390
Greasy wool 1b.55,572,68954,728,43653,938,246
Other expenses £96,233126,528178,930
Principal products—   
Scoured and slipe wool 1b.38,598,88637,875,00839,172,887
Pelts No.96,260117,165593,905
Pickled pelts No.676,934475,996 
      Total value of output £3,931,9174,804,5088,186,273
1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.

* Included in total leather produced.

† In the three years above, the operations of small and part time operators were not collected, estimated cut by these sawmillers being: 1947–48, 2,500,000 ft. b.m.: 1948–49, 5,800,000 ft. b.m.: and 1949–50, 5,700,000 ft, b.m.

‡Not included in 1948–49 sample survey.

Tanning
Number of—    
  Works 201819
  Persons engaged 993909851
Salaries and wages paid£429,945408,438402,998
Cost of materials used£1,232,9191,092,2311,268,852
Materials operated upon—    
Sheep-skinsNo.466,873120,489124,587
PeltsNo.885,786634,920675,790
Hides (calf and yearling)No.326,317356,836319,569
Other hidesNo.376,381388,828359,674
Tanning materials£125,333130,004159,269
Other expenses£152,500153,968153,544
Output—    
Leather sold by weight1b.7,580,3077,176,182*
Leather sold by areaSq. ft.15,487,82614,086,006*
      Totals (estimated)1b.12,266,50010,917,80110,152,657
Basils1b.93,27950,214*
Scoured and slipe wool1b.292,71038,48620,400
      Total value of output£1,907,5331,695,2971,960,114
Sawmills, Sash and Door Factories
Number of—    
Mills 594557596
  Persons engaged 8,6929,4799,930
Salaries and wages paid£3,864,3214,371,7714,763,222
Cost of materials used£4,314,1824,482,8705,461,866
Other expenses£1,782,2822,017,4292,210,402
Sawn timber—    
QuantityFt. b.m. (000)428,114464,545472,681
Value£6,521,0107,689,2978,376,626
Posts, rails, &c.£459,270479,775614,583
Planed flooring, skirting, &c.—    
QuantityFt. b.m. (000)63,21876,18276,215
Value£1,858,1352,380,3492,579,831
Doors and sashes£341,878276,028465,797
Other products£1,843,6741,982,0062,219,397
      Total value of output£11,023,96712,807,45514,256,234
Furniture-making Works
Number of—    
Factories 595 584
  Persons engaged 5,122 5,001
Salaries and wages paid£1,718,332 1,898,204
Cost of materials used£2,447,745 2,706,479
Other expenses£367,940 442,647
      Total value of output£4,826,933 5,602,176
1914–48.1948–49.1949–50.
Gasworks
Number of—   
  Works444444
  Persons engaged1,7781,7941,657
Salaries and wages paid £748,938816,967806,986
Coal used—   
Quantity Tons323,428317,877310,610
Cost £823,903953,474946,482
Cost of other materials £9,37410,65518,838
Other expenses £438,783468,716553,656
      Total gas generated cub. ft. (000)5,457,4985,462,7455,540,649
Gas sold cub. ft. (000)4,768,8824,692,3704,668,214
Coke sold Tons91,60594,35593,419
Tar sold Gallons2,545,1242,578,4442,695,238
      Total expenditure £2,020,9982,249,8122,325,962
      Total revenue £2,140,6212,321,5772,430,147
Tobacco and Cigarette Manufacture
Number of—   
  Works899
  Persons engaged1,0891,2171,271
Salaries and wages paid £339,935395,233424,083
Cost of materials used £2,219,9863,017,0013,412,991
Other expenses £188,528230,626261,697
Materials operated on—   
Tobacco leaf 1b.7,949,4799,024,0219,435,050
Products—   
Cigarettes No. (000)1,353,9061,445,3121,647,684
£2,221,3912,546,0042,858,357
Tobacco 1b.4,026,6884,927,7964,963,165
£1,460,6341,883,5511,902,204
Lime and Cement Works
Number of—   
  Works100101104
  Persons engaged1,3761,3971,333
Salaries and wages paid £566,572579,412634,224
Cost of materials used £426,412814,304592,658
Other expenses £644,666687,939827,624
Cement Tons226,837243,124245,597
Agricultural lime Tons1,011,8981,029,4081,193,241
      Total value of output £1,825,2982,337,7072,441,372
Brick, Tile, and Pottery Works
Number of—   
  Works585658
  Persons engaged1,6101,5961,566
Salaries and wages paid £627,030669,894690,342
Cost of materials used £129,542180,646168,252
Other expenses £369,447462,115523,160
Bricks manufactured—   
Common No. (000)25,11828,50434,324
Fire No. (000)2,0493,4652,793
Other No. (000)1,8291,531917
Value of all bricks £277,193389,958404,800
Drainpipes £373,429419,670497,137
Roofing-tiles £110,543144,518157,436
Porcelain insulators £144,352183,901148,404
Domestic earthenware £205,058230,762217,600
      Total value of output £1,234,3621,438,1161,587,862
1946–471947–48.1949–50.

*Not included in 1948–49 sample survey.

† Several small firms (repairing only) have been transferred from this industry in 1949–50 to general engineering.

Tinware and Sheet-metal Works*
Number of—   
  Works144152153
  Persons engaged £2,7412,9012,800
Salaries and wages paid £940,1671,120,3921,210,462
Cost of materials used £933,505.2,773,970O
Principal—   
Tin canisters and containers £1,275,8041,857,3701,937,325
Other tinned ware £322,358280,806297,048
Copperware £273,967366,582604,726
Leadware £235,435438,660151,497
Spouting, ridging, and down-piping £135,170153,760168,404
Other galvanized ware £192,267220,464247,086
      Total value of output £3,414,1294,491,4994,886,273
General Engineering, Iron and Brass Founding*
Number of—   
  Works432450536
  Persons engaged8,2378,3968,799
Salaries and wages paid £2,933,9543,281,8223,971,584
Cost of materials used £2,705,9663,490,3424,792,083
Other expenses £934,4191,070,1321,384,960
      Total value of output £7,327,0748,731,89211,278,043
Agricultural and Dairying Machinery and Implement Making*
Number of—   
  Works848166
  Persons engaged1,4771,4041,338
Salaries and wages paid £494,916527,515587,415
Cost of materials used £1,051,4911,320,7761,724,138
Other expenses £113,936144,257161,561
      Total value of output £2,049,8962,437,1532,806,254
Motor and Cycle Repairing and Bodybuilding*   
Number of—   
  Works1,5571,5961,555
  Persons engaged10,72311,53811,154
Salaries and wages paid £3,378,0794,055,7174,564,607
Cost of materials used £4,072,7735,639,2215,545,794
Other expenses £1,005,1671,284,8331,389,857
Value of work done—   
Bodybuilding £559,991710,065770,992
Motor repairing £8,659,58111,120,30411,819,863
      Total value of output £9,219,57211,830,36912,590,855
Motor Assembly   
Number of—1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.
  Works5610
  Persons engaged1,3971,4221,625
Salaries and wages paid £645,805679,877851,086
Cost of materials used £5,742,4476,700,4196,976,675
Other expenses £289,502279,225303,676
Products—   
Motor vehicles—   
Cars No.10,4089,9779,731
Buses No.1049186
Lorries, trucks, vans, &c. No.4,4746,2836,668
Value of all assembly work done £7,057,8298,034,3238,563,233
Other work done £128,24687,71823,573
      Total value of all products £7,186,0758,122,0418,586,806
1947–48.1948–49.1949–50

* Statistics for the year 1949–50 exclude the manufacture of rubber footwear which has been included in rubberware manufacturing

Chemical-fertilizer Works
Number of—   
  Works999
  Persons engaged1,1111,1491,091
Salaries and wages paid £512,444543,762590,832
Rock phosphate used Tons347,766356,579376,846
Sulphur Tons64,06964,11471,195
Nitrate of soda Tons2,3042,4192,595
Potash Tons8439521,526
Serpentine rock Tons31,68840,41543,064
      Total cost of materials used £3,127,1634,114,2013,827,128
Other expenses £424,508509,208533,205
Fertilizers Tons619,377631,313682,639
Superphosphate content of Tons fertilizers (estimated)553,889557,653616,382
      Total value of output £4,336,6925,495,3905,352,237
Footwear Factories*
Number of works113124121
Number of persons engaged5,2595,2834,958
Salaries and wages paid £1,693,4441,805,2201,912,510
Cost of materials used—   
Upper leather—   
Imported £352,623325,2491,094,269
New Zealand £657,946715,144
Sole leather £511,518463,836623,947
Other materials £1,060,5771,082,542948,254
      Total £2,582,6642,586,7712,666,470
Other expenses £389,335415,306437,964
Output—   
Adults' boots and shoes Pairs (000)2,2152,2102,234
Children's and infants' Pairs (000) boots and shoes (including sandals)916844:750
Sandals (adults' only) Pairs (000)168178209
Slippers Pairs (000)2,0651,7931,940
      Total value of output £4,920,5694,996,3935,257,982
Woollen-mills
Number of—   
Mills202022
  Persons engaged2,6702,6562,725
Salaries and wages paid £880,336935,3731,056,574
Greasy wool used—   
Quantity 1b. (000)9,1639,7479,639
Cost £649,420654,998791,470
      Total cost of materials used £884,928929,5671,289,531
Other expenses £358,451379,933456,625
Output—   
Tweed and cloth Yards2,247,0022,282,1122,223,392
Flannel Yards459,712516,621497,651
Blankets Pairs124,667124,228132,358
Hosiery Doz. pairs86,06792,22187,591
Rugs and shawls No.8,56010,78817,796
Yarn 1b.1,417,0171,353,6471,766,053
Knitted garments £237,908259,376279,242
      Total value of output £2,369,7052,509,3783,036,517
1947–18.1948–49.1949–50.

*Including full-fashioned hose, 180,421 dozen pair for 1949–50.

† Including ankle-length hose, 86,549 dozen pair for 1949–50.

‡ Not included in 1948–49 sample survey.

Hosiery and Knitted Goods Factories
Number of—   
  Works606469
  Persons engaged2,2012,4532,739
Salaries and wages paid £686,236801,319965,154
Cost of materials used £1,555,5721,732,1572,026,940
Other expenses £290,560400,567453,967
Output—   
Hose * Doz. pairs243,965219,321333,465
Half-hose Doz. pairs316,921295,357250,525
Knitted garments £1,658,9191,898,7472,354,427
      Total value of output £2,785,1623,166,5773,826,985
Clothing Factories
Number of works647 750
Number of persons engaged16,571 17,889
Salaries and wages paid £4,230,816 5,290,430
Cost of materials used £7,735,844 9,561,604
Other expenses £879,696 1,184,424
Output—   
Suits No.155,356 226,180
Overcoats—   
Men's and boys' No.195,877 150,247
Women's and girls' No.405,483 423,416
Men's sports coats, blazers, No.265,035 265,535
&c.   
Women's costumes, suits, No122,093 96,474
&c.   
Skirts No.76,849 116,374
Slacks, women's No.46,769 69,261
Trousers—   
Men's No.746,969 883,091
Boys' No.473,618 587,310
Dresses—   
Women's No.996,434 926,271
Girls' No.200,425 196,237
Men's and boys' shirts Dozen207,270 221,066
Men's and boys' pyjamas Dozen45,627 60,093
Women's and girls' nightwear Dozen64,629 73,177
Underclothing—   
Men's and boys' Dozen178,499 283,651
Women's and girls' Dozen405,688 484,293
Hats and caps—   
Men's and boys' Dozen46,059 41,552
Women's Dozen72,021 77,985
Neckties Dozen105,354 128,606
Dressing gowns No.132,746 126,716
Overalls—   
Men's Dozen82,458 34,733
Women's Dozen22,306 12,477
Corsets Dozen46,972 36,157
Brassieres Dozen38,024 63,129
      Total value of output—   
Where own materials used £11,585,629 14,718,977
Amount charged for making up clients' materials £2,140,757 2,436,955
      Totals £13,726,386 17,155,932

Chapter 23. SECTION 23—BUILDING, CONSTRUCTION, AND HOUSING

Table of Contents

WITHIN the short span of a century New Zealand has been transformed from a virgin wilderness into a country whose community enjoys the amenities of modern social and industrial life. In the pioneer stages of colonization, the development of the resources of the country demanded an almost mushroom growth of building and construction activity in the formation of railways, roads, and harbours, in addition to provision for the housing needs of a rapidly growing population. More recently the utilization of available resources of water-power has involved major schemes of construction of hydro-electric stations in various parts of New Zealand, and the reticulation of practically the whole of the inhabited portion of the country. Land-settlement and the growth of factory industries have both required extensive building and construction works, rural and urban, while the increasing housing needs of a growing population are reflected in a steady long-term increase in the building of dwellings. The increase in trade and industry, with the resultant growth of the towns, has been accompanied by extensive construction of factories, shops, offices, warehouses, &c.

With the passing of the early stages of social and industrial development, replacements of obsolete and obsolescent structures and general maintenance will occupy a larger place in building and construction activity than was the case formerly, although there have been new avenues of industry requiring further major building and constructional operations. For example, the development of aviation in New Zealand required the formation of a chain of landing-grounds and air-ports, a work which became more urgent with the outbreak of war. The increase in motor traffic has necessitated a reorientation of reading policy, much new construction and extensive alterations to the surfaces of existing roads being required. The diversification of factory industries in recent years has involved extensive building operations—particularly in the engineering trades—while modernization of factory equipment and of shop and office accommodation has been responsible for a further appreciable proportion of building activity.

The building and construction industry is particularly sensitive to cyclical fluctuations in business conditions, and it is not surprising to note that in New Zealand marked changes in building activity coincide with the ebb and flow of trade and industry. Governmental policy in regard to public-works construction is, and has been, directed towards accelerating State activity in this direction in times of depression and in the slack seasons of the year with a view to alleviating unemployment. While considerable success has been achieved on various occasions, at other-times the expansion of public works has been limited for financial reasons. Private building suffered severely during 1931–33, but revived substantially, particularly after 1935, to reach its pre-war peak in 1938–39. Thereafter a progressive decline in the importation of essential materials, notably steel and iron, took place, with consequential effects on normal large-scale construction. After 1941, however, the full effect of war began to have its effect, while Japan's entry into the war accentuated the diversion of men and building-materials to aerodromes and other defence constructional work. This diversion was maintained as the necessity arose to provide accommodation for Allied Forces using New Zealand as a base for operations in the Pacific area. The cumulative effect of these circumstances may be gauged from the record low level of building permits for urban districts in 1942–43, the value of which, £2,661,947, may be compared with the 1938–39 figure of £12,126,458. Thereafter, with the completion of the major portion of defence programmes, a distinct revival of civil building took place, the improvement being progressively maintained despite the hampering effects of shortages of skilled labour and many essential building commodities. By 1944–45 the annual value had exceeded the highest pre-war figure, although it would appear-that much of the increase over earlier years was a reflection of higher costs. If the number of permits for new dwellings can be safely used as a guide, then by the 1946–47 year building activity both in volume and value had by far exceeded pre-war figures. Since then, building activity has continued at higher levels in each successive year.

The value of building permits in urban districts for 1949–50 totalled £30,365,528, this figure being surpassed in 1950–51 with a value of £35,030,647.

The following table is of interest in that it illustrates, over a period with general characteristics of rising costs and prices, the increasing cost of building. This information has been drawn from the Ministry of Works Statement for the year ended 31st March, 1951 (parliamentary paper D-1).

Cost in Year Stated.Percentage increase.
1939.1945.1950–51.1939 to 1945.1945 to 1950.51.1939 to 1950.51.
State-rental house (976 square feet)£1,061£1,479£2,1723.647104
Accommodation on works—      
Single men£30£125£16531632450
Married men£135 £1,000  715
Buildings (reinforced concrete): for£10,000£15,700£25,1005760151
similar size and type      
Tunnelling, per lineal foot£8 5s. £17 5s.  109
Bridge: concrete, per cubic yard£12 2s.£19 7s.£31 7s.6062160
Fencing (labour only), per chain10s. 6d.£1£1 17s. 6d.9087257
Steel structure: contract prices for steel supplied, fabricated, and erected—      
Main centres, per ton£33£73£8710919148
Rural areas, per ton£50£102£12510424150

NOTE.—In the above table the full effects of the 15-per-cent. Increase in 1951 have not been experienced. As far as living accommodation is concerned, the increase is due not only to higher costs of building, but also to building to higher standards with associated improvement in amenities.

General building materials over the same period have shown an average increase of 70 per cent., whereas some particular lines have increased as much as 300 per cent.—e.g., timber (general lines), £1 9s. to £2 14s.: hardwood sleepers, 7s. to 19s. 6d. each; structural steel, £11–£14 to £45–£60 per ton; 70 lb. steel rails. £6 10s. to £13 each; and cement, £4 8s. 3d. to £11 per ton (average).

An interesting feature of building and construction activity in New Zealand is the absence of a marked seasonal decline in the winter months, since winters are not sufficiently severe, except in a few districts, to interfere materially with the building of dwellings or other construction work.

The function of the State in the stimulation of building and construction enterprise is twofold. Public works, involving both new construction and the maintenance of existing works, are in themselves responsible for a large percentage of the total annual building and construction activity. Furthermore, the State encourages private building in various ways—for example, the State Advances Corporation (see Section 25D of this Year-Book) has done much to facilitate home building and land development. As will be seen under a subsequent heading, a comprehensive programme of house-building by the State has been in operation since 1937.

Borough Councils are authorized under the Municipal Corporations Act to provide loans for housing purposes up to a limit of £2,020; to subdivide for such purposes any land vested in a Council and not held by it in trust for any particular purpose other than housing; to sell or lease allotments for housing purposes; and to borrow money to meet the cost of acquiring, subdividing, and developing the land and constructing streets.

A collection of annual statistics of building permits issued in cities, boroughs, and town districts was initiated in 1921–22, while a monthly collection on a more restricted scale was begun in 1926, and enlarged in April, 1951, by the inclusion of a further 21 local authorities. From 1925 to 1941 an annual collection of returns from builders and contractors was obtained, affording, inter alia, an analysis of costs, &c., not available from the building permit statistics. The results of a further collection undertaken in 1948 are shown at the end of this section, the next collection being scheduled for 1951–52.

THE HOUSING SITUATION.—As will be obvious from a perusal of the statistics of building permits and building construction given later in this section, building operations fell to small proportions during the depression years. With the advent of better times, accompanied by a large increase in the number of marriages and a growing tendency to discontinue the sharing of homes by two families, there arose in many cities and towns a housing demand far in excess of the available supply. The position was aggravated by the fact that a considerable proportion of the existing dwellings did not comply with modern standards of comfort, convenience, and sanitation.

Although the Government's housing programme, inaugurated in March, 1937, had made substantial progress and had added considerably to the numbers of houses that were being built, the outbreak of war further aggravated the problem. The transfer of men and materials to urgent defence works, referred to earlier, reduced dwelling construction to almost negligible proportions for a period. The years 1939 and 1940 witnessed a substantial increase in the number of marriages, and, although there was a considerable fall during the next three years, the termination of the war saw a substantial rise, culminating in a new record in 1946. These factors, together with the rehabilitation of ex-servicemen generally, resulted in an unprecedented demand for housing accommodation. According to the annual report of the State Advances Corporation for the year 1950–51, there were 35,866 unsatisfied applications for tenancies of State rental houses at 31st March, 1951. The report states, however, that not all of these can be considered as being from persons genuinely in need of housing accommodation as many of them are already reasonably housed.

Statistics of 1951 Census.—The following summary gives the provisional results of dwellings as recorded for the 1951 census:—

 Number.
A. Occupied dwellings505,673
B. Uninhabited dwellings— 
Untenanted dwellings7,922
Occupants temporarily away9,416
Baches (week-end or summer dwellings)15,181
      Total, uninhabited32,519
C. Dwellings in course of erection9,346

For census purposes a dwelling comprises an erection used for human habitation. The above figures (further analysis of which is not possible at this stage) thus include, besides the ordinary private residence, flats, living-quarters, hotels, institutions, residences of temporary character, and other types. The overall total of occupied dwellings increased by 77,003 or 17.98 per cent. between the censuses of September, 1945, and April, 1951.

Statistics of 1945 Census.—The data given in the following tables, which present further 1945 census results to those shown on pages 43–55, afford a general background to much of the building and construction activity, particularly in the direction of housing, outlined elsewhere in this section.

The table presented below affords a detailed classification of those dwellings which were inhabited at the date of the census, while the numbers of uninhabited dwellings and those in course of erection have also been incorporated in the table.

NATURE OF DWELLING

Nature of Dwelling.Numbers.Percentage of Total Inhabited.
1936.1945.1936.1945.
A. Dwellings Occupied by Europeans    
Permanent private dwellings—    
Private house, not partly sub-let310,524351,03486.1585.07
Private house, partly sub-let1,2431,6970.340.41
Flat12,92328,0083.596.79
Combined shop and dwelling7,5307,3642.091.78
Rooms attached to offices, &c.2,2399790.620.24
Bach15,22213,2594.223.21
Other (including mobile residence)2249930.060.24
      Totals349,905403,33497.0797.74
Temporary dwellings: Totals2,8643670.800.09
Non-private dwellings—    
Hotel (licensed or private), boardinghouse, apartment-house, &c.5,6327,1721.561.74
Hospital, public or private4825190.130.12
Camp (military, P.W.D., &c.)8663570.240.09
Other (including residential club, gaol, educational7068930.200.22
institution, barracks, &c.)    
      Totals7,6868,9412.13217
Grand totals, dwellings occupied by Europeans360,455412,642100.00100.00
B. Maori Dwellings    
Dwellings occupied by Maoris13,79316,028  
C. Uninhabited Dwellings    
Dwellings with occupants temporarily absent5,7845,919  
Week-end or summer dwellings8,43511,047  
Untenanted dwellings6,5947,136  
      Totals20,81324,102  
D. Building    
Dwellings in course of erection1,4845,362  

Chief points of interest emerging from this table are the 41,000 additional private houses, the greater proportion of flats in the total of inhabited dwellings, decreases in rooms attached to offices, &c., and camps, and an increase in the group total covering hotels, boardinghouses, apartment-houses, &c., in 1945 as compared with 1936.

The flat increment was not occasioned solely by augmented construction, but was largely a function of subdivision of larger premises. A glance at the table illustrating changes in the size of private dwellings discloses that houses of seven or more rooms declined from 11.56 per cent. of the total in 1936 to 7.73 per cent. in 1945. A considerable portion of the actual decrease in numbers recorded must have gone to swell the total of flats, apartment-houses, &c. In fact, construction of new flats approximated only one-quarter of the difference between the 1936 and 1945 totals.

The smaller totals associated with rooms attached to offices, &c., camps, and temporary dwellings must be considered against the background of the 1936 figures. During the depression years many camps had been established in various rural areas, while a revival of gold-seeking had been responsible for the inhabitation of many temporary dwellings. The same factor of depression probably inflated the numbers of rooms attached to offices, &c., used as places of habitation. The return of more prosperous conditions and the withdrawal of civilians for the armed services and urban essential industries doubtless accounted for the reductions effected.

Permanent Private Dwellings.—In the tables following which deal with tenure, size of dwelling, total occupants, electricity supply, material of outer walls, amenities, and distances from neighbourhood shopping facilities, public transport service and public primary school, the tabulation is restricted to permanent private dwellings occupied by Europeans; certain details of dwellings occupied by Maoris will be found following these tables.

TENURE OF DWELLING

Tenure.Numbers.Percentage of Total Specified.
1936.1945.1936.1945.
Renting or leasing135,194142,71738.8335.44
Free with job37,18424,69010.686.13
Loaned without payment6,4751.61
Buying on time payment or with table mortgage57,61872,21716.5517.93
Buying with flat mortgage54,49554,26515.6513.47
Owned without mortgage63,651102,35818.2925.42
Not specified1,763612  
      Totals349,905403,334100.00100.00

The intercensal period has been one of interesting changes in the development of the different forms of tenure. The principal change occurs in the relative importance of rented or leased dwellings when compared with those owned without mortgage or being bought on time payment or table mortgage. In 1936 the two latter classes comprised 34.84 per cent. of total inhabited dwellings, as against 38.83 per cent. rented, &c., dwellings. By 1945 the rented class had lost its dominant position, constituting only 35.44 per cent., compared with 43.35 per cent. of those owned outright or subject to table mortgage. The following influences were probably among those most responsible—namely, generally prosperous conditions enabling direct purchase in some instances, and a decline in speculative building other than for sale, while there appears to have been a preference towards purchase by means of table rather than by flat mortgage. In fact, there were 230 fewer dwellings with flat mortgages in 1945 than there were recorded in 1936. On the other hand, dwellings subject to table mortgages increased by 14,599.

The 1936 figures for dwellings provided free with the job or loaned without payment were probably greater than usual due to the check on the urban drift imposed by depression conditions and the fact that this class of tenure is mainly found in rural areas. However by 1945, under the impetus derived from a world war, the urban drift had been accelerated, thus tending to lower the numbers of rent-free dwellings. The difference was approximately 6,000 over the period. No doubt the change-over from a March to a September census played some part also, while the economic situation of recent years would tend to reduce the proportion of rent-free dwellings in any case.

SIZE OF DWELLING

Number of Rooms.Numbers.Percentage of Total Specified.
1936.1945.1936.1945.
19,7437,9392.791.98
214,32616,1354.114.02
321,55631,7566.187.90
489,666112,50525.7228.00
5107,247136,93830.7634.08
665,80865,44418.8816.29
722,79219,4946.544.85
89,6046,8662.751.71
93,7902,4001.090.60
102,0581,1510.590.29
11 and over2,0681,1450.590.28
Not specified1,2471,561  
      Totals349,905403,334100.00100.00

The outstanding feature of the above table lies in the marked concentration of medium-sized dwellings. Single-roomed dwellings decreased by 1,804, while those with six or more rooms were 9,620 fewer than in the earlier period. Although there were 53,429 additional private dwellings inhabited since 1936, the three-to five-roomed category gain was 62,730, clear evidence that not only was new construction largely confined within this range, but also that some larger units had undergone subdivision in the interim (note reference made in comments on the table on page 527). As a proportion of the total, dwellings of from three to six rooms rose from 81.54 per cent. in 1936 to 86.27 per cent. in 1945.

OCCUPANTS OF DWELLINGS

Total Occupants.Number of Cases.Percentage of Total.
1936.1945.1936.1945.
127,06236,5767.739.07
265,68490,43418.7722.42
372,98087,42820.8621.68
468,58479,79019.6019.78
549,48352,92714.1413.12
630,94628,9268.857.17
718,26114,4005.223.57
88,4416,8062.411.69
94,2783,2331.220.80
10 and over4,1862,8141.200.70
      Totals349,905403,334100.00100.00
Average occupants per dwelling3.903.60  

In common with the decline in the proportion of larger-sized dwellings, the number of cases in which total occupants per dwelling was of the order of 6 or more persons tended to decrease in favour of those with 5 or less persons.

A note of caution must be sounded here, for not only were there 44,081 European members of the Armed Forces overseas at the time of the 1945 census, but the Armed Forces in New Zealand either in camps or stations or on demobilization leave, &c., totalled many thousands in addition. Occupancy figures must therefore be considered in the light of this circumstance.

Other factors relevant in this connection are now given brief mention. Flats, which on the average tend to have both fewer rooms and less occupants, had more than doubled in number by 1945; their higher proportion of the total must have exerted a downward influence on the figure of average occupants per dwelling. Further, with the improvements in transport—e.g., in speed, frequency, and coverage—many former seaside baches have been utilized as permanent inhabitations, while wartime and post-war restrictions on this class of building, aided by more stringent by-law requirements, have alike prevented compensatory new construction of baches. Again, the fall in the birthrate, which had been continuing for many years until recently, would result in a relative increase in the number of houses occupied by those married couples whose families had grown up and left the house.

ELECTRICITY SUPPLY TO DWELLING

Source of Supply.1945 Census.
Number of Dwellings.Percentage of Total Specified.
Public supply366,34290.88
Private supply2,8130.70
Company supply4,5731.13
Nil29,3987.29
Not specified208 
      Totals403,334100.00

The information disclosed by the 1945 census shows that 92.7 per cent. of the dwellings in New Zealand were served with electricity, public supply being an overwhelming proportion of the total. Of the 29,398 dwellings recorded as having no electric supply available or connected, the great bulk (86.7 per cent.) were located in rural areas.

MATERIALS OF OUTER WALLS

Material of Outer Walls.Census.
1936.1945.
Wood302,204326,853
Stone1,0261,069
Concrete (including concrete blocks)6,94810,050
Brick13,30325,841
Brick and wood2,7272,965
Wood and iron7,3724,632
Iron5,0044,658
Asbestos1,186992
Proprietary wallboards1,4577,830
Rough cast on wood or lath and plaster1,3681,838
Rough cast, n.o.d.1,7495,858
Other materials4,5675,739
Not specified9945,009
      Totals349,905403,334

Over 80 per cent. of dwellings in New Zealand are of wooden construction, but concrete, brick, proprietary wallboards, and rough cast all showed substantial increases in numbers since 1936.

DWELLING AMENITIES

Means of Cooking.Numbers.(1945 Census).Per Cent.
Electric range, stove120,27829.95
Electric cooker, stovette, rangette, plate, ring, &c.9420.23
Gas range, stove95,62623.81
Gas cooker, stovette, ring, &c.8310.21
Coal, wood, coke, range151,28037.66
Oil range, stove3900.10
Oil, other, including primus stove1610.04
Electric range and gas range1,7110.43
Electric range and coal, wood, coke, range10,2112.54
Gas range and coal, wood, coke, range17,7304.41
Other, including open fire, camp oven, &c.2,5080.62
Not specified1,666 
      Totals403,334100.00

The 1945 census was the first occasion in New Zealand in which a question on means of cooking was asked. The coal, wood, or coke range holds pride of place where only one means is used. Including cases where alternatives of electric range or gas range are also present it will be seen that 44.6 per cent. of the dwellings in the country are equipped with coal, wood, or coke ranges.

Of the 403,334 dwellings enumerated, 317,736 bad water laid on to the dwelling, 84,685 were without this service, and in the remaining 913 instances no information was supplied. For the purpose of this inquiry rain-water tanks were not counted as “water laid on.”

The census questionnaire also included a query as to whether the dwelling had hot-water service, bath or shower, and flush toilet. The results of this inquiry showed that 302,898 dwellings were equipped with hot-water service, 369,083 dwellings had either bath or shower, or both, and 280,721 dwellings possessed flush toilets.

At the census of 1945 a question on the dwelling schedule dealt with the distance that the particular dwelling was from: (a) the nearest neighbourhood shopping facilities, (b) the nearest public transport service, and (c) the nearest public primary school.

The following table gives a summary of the information obtained in this way.

DWELLINGS—DISTANCES FROM NEAREST NEIGHBOURHOOD AMENITIES

Distance (Miles).From the Nearest. Neighbourhood Shopping Facilities.From the Nearest Public Transport Service.From the Nearest Public Primary School.
Under 1/4118,155204,19454,238
1/4 and under 1/299,29680,54395,441
1/2 " 3/455,82337,38697,348
3/4 " 18,7915,62720,141
1 " 1 1/232,94022,10055,480
1 1/2 " 210,0556,73615,491
2 318,12412,69824,575
3 413,8398,71115,733
4 59,5255,5847,877
5 1023,51713,30512,868
10 and over12,9785,5383,515
Not specified291912627
      Totals403,334403,334403,334

Maori Dwellings—The total number of dwellings occupied by Maoris at the 1945 census was 16,028, compared with 13,793 in 1936, an increase of 2,235, or 16.2 per cent. During the same period the Maori population increased by 16,418, equal to 19.9 per cent., but if Maori members of the Armed Forces overseas are included the increase would be 17,718 or 21.5 per cent. The following summary shows the various types of dwellings enumerated.

NATURE OF DWELLING

Nature of Dwelling.1945 Census.
Numbers.Per Cent.
Ordinary private house (three or more rooms)11,12569.44
House or whare (one or two rooms)2,96118.48
Kauta (one or two rooms)2341.46
Flat1671.04
Bach (not part of a camp), hut1,0266.41
Other private dwellings of a permanent character700.44
Temporary dwellings and tents2481.55
Non-private dwellings1891.18
Not specified8 
      Totals16,028100.00

In the tables which follow, temporary dwellings and tents have been omitted.

TENURE OF DWELLING

Tenure.1936 Census.1945 Census.
Numbers.Per Cent.Numbers.Per Cent.
Owned8,46470.518,59254.84
Rented2,25018.744,93031.47
Rent-free1,29010.752,14413.69
Not specified261 114 
      Totals12,265100.0015,780100.00

SIZE OF DWELLING

Number of Rooms.1936.1945.
Numbers.Per Cent.Numbers.Per Cent.
12,43719.971,87811.94
22,39619.632,47115.71
31,95216.002,91518.53
42,77922.774,25827.06
51,34811.052,41115.32
67746.341,1267.16
72832.323932.50
81301.071621.03
9 and over1040.851180.75
Not specified62 48 
      Totals12,265100.0015,780100.00

OCCUPANTS OF DWELLINGS

Number of Occupants.1936.1945.
Numbers.Per Cent.Numbers.Per Cent.
16855.581,2187.72
21,0158.281,3358.46
31,43511.701,79411.37
41,59513.001,99012.61
51,62013.212,01312.76
61,39111.341,68010.65
71,29510.561,5309.69
89988.141,2497.91
97466.089926.29
10 and over1,48512.111,97912.54
      Totals12,265100.0015,780100.00

The Maori schedule also included a question on dwelling amenities, and the results of this inquiry are given below.

DWELLING AMENITIES

Number at 1945 Census.
Dwellings with— 
  Electric light5,584
  Water laid on5,273
  Rain-water tanks8,231
  Hot-water service3,133
  Bathroom5,644
  Flush toilets 

Many of the Maori dwellings are without household amenities customary in European dwellings; however, the Maori dwells mainly in rural areas, where some of the amenities are not readily available.

STATE HOUSE-CONSTRUCTION.—A programme of direct home-building by the Government was commenced in March, 1937. The purpose of this branch of the Government's activities is to provide homes of a modern standard of comfort to be let at reasonable rentals to people in the medium and lower income groups. The legislative provision for this programme is contained in the Housing Act, 1919, the administration of which was transferred to the State Advances Corporation by the State Advances Corporation Act, 1936. To give effect to the Government's policy, a special Housing Construction Branch of the State Advances Corporation was set up in September, 1936. Early in 1944 the control of the Housing Construction, Branch was transferred to the Ministry of Works.

The State Advances Corporation Act, 1936, made provision for a special Housing Account with the Reserve Bank, and the Statutes Amendment Act, 1936, provided the necessary authority to acquire land under the Public Works Act, 1928, for the purpose of housing. The actual construction work is mainly carried out by contractors, tenders being called for the various contracts. The Housing Division has also built a number of houses by trainees under the scheme for the rehabilitation of returned servicemen. Up to 31st March, 1951, contracts had been arranged with the Rehabilitation Department for the labour involved in 4,347 houses situated in 41 towns. While most of these houses are situated in the larger towns, in a few instances the rehabilitation trainees have been employed in isolated districts where the Housing Division has been unable to engage private contractors. In past years shops were built in some State housing settlements for letting purposes, but the current policy is to sell sites (with a preferential allocation in favour of ex-servicemen) for the erection of shops under private ownership. On completion, houses are handed over to the State Advances Corporation for administration. It also administers the shops built in earlier years.

In addition to the general scheme, the organization of the Housing Division is utilized for the purpose of erecting houses for other Government Departments, and building operations have been effected for 26 Departments of State. Units completed under this arrangement totalled 3,133 up to 31st March, 1951, with a further 635 in the constructional stage. Two subsidiary schemes within this general framework are of interest. The first covers the erection of houses and other farm buildings for returned servicemen. The schemes are recommended by the Farm Sub-committee of the Rehabilitation Department and approved by the Land Settlement Board. The land is purchased, subdivided, developed, and the houses and other buildings taken over by the Lands and Survey Department. Each farm is valued on the basis of production, and the tenants, who are chosen by ballot, have the option of purchase or lease. At the 31st March, 1951, 748 houses and 2,243 ancillary farm buildings had been completed, while under-construction figures were 125 and 99 respectively. The second scheme was inaugurated in 1946 to attract hush workers and improve the conditions of these men. Sawmillers who were eligible could apply up to 1st September, 1949, to the Timber Production Advisory Committee, which makes its recommendations, based on quantity of timber to be milled, to the State Advances Corporation. The Housing Division constructs portable pre-fabricated houses to meet the special conditions found in the timber-milling industry. There is a twenty-years hire-purchase agreement between the State Advances Corporation and the millers, who pay 15s. a week for two-bedroom houses and 17s. 6d. for three-bedroom houses. The balance of the cost is collected by a levy of 6d. per 100 ft. of timber sold. By the 31st March, 1951, 591 of these units had been completed and erected and 54 more were in course of erection.

The following table shows the cumulative progress, since the inception of the present housing scheme, at the 31st March of each year given.

Cumulative Totals to 31st March,Contracts Let.Houses Completed and Handed Over to—House-unit Sections Acquired.
State Advances Corporation.Other Government Departments.
 Units.Units.Units.Units.
194113,64710,3378823,953
194216,52213,52510828,990
194316,79914,61927336,613
194419,48715,47529740,184
194522,34917,39234942,061
194625,33120,24847845,838
194728,42422,59073148,751
194832,12825,4651,06650,510
194936,35528,8791,84551,426
195040,58632,2672,46454,470
195142,51235,6333,13352,666

The total labour force employed directly by the Housing Division and contractors at 31st March, 1951, was 3,963, as compared with 6,552 in 1950 and 3,645 in 1945.

The next table gives particulars of the cumulative expenditure, since its inception, of the Housing Division at the 31st March of each year given.

Cumulative Totals to 31st March.Land and Services.Dwelling Construction.Plant and Equipment.Interest During Construction.Administration.Total.
Housing Branch.Other Departments.
 £££££££
19412,549,10013,075,300128,40066,60052,200406,40016,278,000
19423,086,40016,376,500191,40065,00093,500539,80020,352,600
19433,665,50017,316,200325,20068,300117,600685,70022,178,500
19444,212,30018,326,200523,70069,800154,000659,10023,945,100
19454,934,00021,690,600678,60076,300226,200785,00028,390,700
19465,621,00025,840,8001,203,50088,500276,400985,80034,016,000
19476,518,50030,050,5001,864,000105,800353,1001,228,50040,120,400
19487,347,10034,629,3002,632,600148,100402,3001,600,00046,759,400
19498,522,40040,515,8004,000,500168,700472,2001,966,10055,645,700
19509,881,80047,686,9005,643,600190,200582,2002,369,60066,354,300
195111,115,70054,278,4007,210,300193,200687,3002,723,50076,208,400

In addition to the cumulative net expenditure of £76,208,400 to 31st March, 1951, liabilities and commitments at that date amounted to a further £6,203,488.

The total cost of administration (exclusive of interest charges) from the inception of the scheme to 31st March, 1951, was £2,723,500, or 3.74 per cent. of the net expenditure (excluding administrative costs and interest). This percentage for the year ended 31st March, 1951, was 3.77.

In general, the size of dwelling units built by the Housing Division is determined by the size of the families seeking accommodation. The tendency in later years has been to build a higher proportion of larger-sized houses than formerly. The following table provides an analysis according to the number of bedrooms contained in units built during 1949–50 and 1950–51, together with the total to the end of March, 1951.

Units Completed.
1949–50.1950–51.Total to 31st March, 1951.
Number of Units.Percentage of Total.Number of Units.Percentage of Total.Number of Units.Percentage of Total.
Bed-sitting room    2310.6
One bedroom751.91313.22,6816.9
Two bedrooms1,41635.31,33333.015,73940.6
Three bedrooms2,40860.12,11352.417,67145.6
Four bedrooms and over1082.745911.42,4446.3
      Totals4,007100.04,036100.038,766100.0

In addition to the activities briefly outlined above, the housing policy of the Government includes the provision of loans to local authorities at 3 per cent. per annum for the furtherance of municipal and other housing schemes. There is provision under the Housing Act for the granting of loans to employers, and this has provided an avenue of assistance for such branches of industry as dairy companies and lime-works. The Rural Housing Act, 1939, and subsequent amendments thereto, provide facilities for the granting of financial assistance to farmers requiring new houses for themselves or their employees, or desiring to improve their existing houses. The County Councils have been charged with the duty of investigating the loan applications, and provided they are satisfied with the security, &c., they have authority to approve a loan subject to the prior consent of the Board of Management of the State Advances Corporation. Loans are made to local authorities bearing interest at 3 per cent. and are repayable on the amortization system over terms of up to thirty-five years. This enables a rate of 3 1/2 per cent. to be charged to farmer applicants, and such loans are usually repayable over a term similar to that on which the local authority has borrowed. The amount that may be advanced for the erection of a house under this scheme has recently been raised from £1,500 to £2,000, and the suspensory loan benefits described on page 602 are available to applicants who comply with the conditions laid down. The response to the benefits offered by this legislation has so far been poor. Of the 125 County Councils in New Zealand, only 44 have applied for loans, and of authorized loans totalling £815,550 at 31st March, 1951, only £272,427 (in respect of 369 houses) had been uplifted.

Where any farm is situated within any borough, town district, or road district, similar powers are conferred on the local authority concerned.

Reference to the provisions made for the governmental financing of home-building on behalf of private owners is contained in the section of this Year-Book dealing with State Advances (Section 25D).

MAORI HOUSING.—Separate provision for housing of Maoris is made under the Maori Housing Act, 1935, reference to which now follows. The Maori Housing Act. 1935, with its amendments, makes provision for the better housing of the Maori people, and for that purpose provides for the erection of dwellings and for improved housing-conditions for Maoris. The Board of Maori Affairs is empowered under the Act to make advances, out of moneys appropriated by Parliament, for the erection, repair, alteration, or improvement of any dwelling upon the security of an interest in Maori land and an assignment of rents from Maori land, or any other moneys payable to a Maori. Section 18 of the Maori Housing Amendment Act, 1938, established a fund called “the Special Maori Housing Fund” to provide houses for those Maoris unable to furnish the security or to make the payments which the Board of Maori Affairs would ordinarily require. From 1945 these houses have been built by a departmental building organization specially created for this purpose.

In addition to the provision of housing for Maoris under the Maori Housing Act, dwellings are provided in the ordinary course of the Maori land-development schemes, while housing loans for Maori ex-servicemen are provided under the Rehabilitation Department's appropriation.

The following summary shows the number of houses built and the number of renovations and additions to houses, &c., from the inception of the various schemes to 31st March, 1950, and 1951.

Total to 31st March,
1950.1951.
Houses erected2,5592,943
Other building-works (renovations and additions to houses, cowsheds, and other buildings)2,1182,409
      Totals4,6775,352

BUILDING PERMITS: Annual Statistics.—Statistics of building permits issued in cities, boroughs, and town districts during each March year have been collected for 1921–22 and subsequent years—for use, inter alia, as an aid in compiling inter-censal estimates of population. These statistics afford a conspectus of changes in building activity from year to year. There is, however, a factor which may affect to some extent the accuracy of the figures as a guide to short-period fluctuations in building activity. This applies more particularly to buildings other than dwellinghouses, and is found in the fact that the value shown represents, in the great majority of instances, the total contract price or estimated cost of the whole building. A permit for a large building involves building activity spread over months, or even years, whereas in the permit statistics the value is shown wholly for the year or month in which the permit is issued. This qualification applies with greater force to the monthly statistics than to the annual statistics.

The scope of the collection was widened by the inclusion in 1926–27 of three road districts—increased to six in 1927–28—in Eden County (suburban to Auckland), and was further extended in 1928–29 by the addition of two counties —increased to four in 1929–30—adjacent to Wellington and Christchurch. Of the six road districts in Eden County, two were amalgamated with Auckland City from 1st April, 1928 and two became boroughs, one from 1st April, 1930, and the other from 29th September, 1947.

As a result of the extended scope of the returns, the comparison has been somewhat impaired, and the next table shows the figures under two heads—viz., one giving the totals for all districts covered in the particular year and the second giving the totals for only cities, boroughs, and town districts.

Commencing with the year 1937–38, returns have been obtained, where possible, and data compiled in respect of building activity in rural areas (see later in this section)

The following table contains the principal statistics in regard to building permits (including State building operations) issued in urban districts since the inauguration of the collection in 1921–22.

Year Ended 31st March,All Urban Districts Covered.Cities, Boroughs, and Town Districts.
Number of New Private Dwellings.Value of New Buildings: All Classes.Total Value All Buildings (Including Alterations and Additions).Number of New Private Dwellings.Value of New Buildings: All Classes.Total Value All Buildings (Including Alterations and Additions).
  ££ ££
19224,3304,602,8345,283,0124,3304,602,8345,283,012
19235,0256,124,4397,101,6815,0256,124,4397,101,681
19246,2457,708,9339,146,4796,2457,708,9339,146,479
19255,8057,823,3319,304,1605,8057,823,3319,304,160
19266,8508,613,54910,169,5306,8508,613,54910,169,530
19277,1799,357,97711,019,3896,7528,944,33410,575,535
19285,6908,127,7329,665,2165,3887,843,7739,353,055
19295,2127,326,4649,054,4214,8716,988,4088,691,962
19305,7477,917,3499,959,8775,2287,362,9989,336,301
19313,4634,240,2385,473,3953,2004,056,2745,260,620
19321,5551,936,4472,728,4861,4151,847,5082,620,651
19331,4961,874,7952,474,8661,3061,773,3132,341,690
19342,6493,141,8973,889,8902,4162,987,7733,718,717
19352,8922,742,4953,643,6882,6552,612,6843,492,062
19364,1404,695,7365,929,8033,8354,468,1265,674,198
19374,5554,927,3266,581,2334,2074,675,3636,273,444
19386,0438,217,40010,291,6135,5687,876,3529,909,225
19398,09310,196,47612,126,4587,4259,555,74711,431,491
19408,0869,790,11811,418,4347,4299,156,67010,714,396
19417,1479,147,88511,060,1016,0998,024,5959,763,200
19425,5036,958,9978,984,1774,9896,436,1138,185,669
19438631,363,0912,661,9477671,269,3302,500,240
19443,6045,528,5838,309,8613,2204,975,3257,587,983
19456,69810,405,11512,756,9996,1709,583,53911,800,649
19467,73614,314,68616,944,3957,02713,230,58115,736,941
19479,51617,626,54321,159,5048,35615,450,53418,773,002
19489,85418,280,33421,426,6258,89016,618,95719,559,814
194911,10221,971,60226,430,4539,58518,835,61423,045,773
195011,53024,219,48730,365,5289,61320,720,77226,513,536
195111,37927,679,69435,030,6479,51023,789,84130,659,763

The figures shown for “cities, boroughs, and town districts” cover the districts existing in the year to which the statistics refer. Since these statistics were inaugurated, however, several new boroughs and town districts have been created and are accordingly included, while a few town districts have been excluded consequent on their abolition as town districts and their merger into counties. The net result has, however, been a gradual accession which has tended to raise slightly the figures for later years.

The accompanying diagram, which relates to dwelling permits for all urban districts covered, shows the low level to which building operations fell during the depression period. The subsequent gradual recovery, accelerated by the Government's programme of house-building which commenced in 1936–37, the effect of war conditions, and the post-war impetus to building, are all clearly illustrated.

Prior to 1936–37 each block of flats was included as a single dwelling, but since then more information became available and each individual flat is now counted as a separate dwelling. Blocks of flats so included in all districts prior to 1936–37 numbered 34 in 1928–29; 36 in 1929–30; 9 in 1930–31; 4 in 1931–32; 4 in 1932–33; 6 in 1933–34; 34 in 1934–35; and 22 in 1935–36.

The following are the details of blocks of flats included from 1936–37 onwards.

Year Ended 31st March,All Urban Districts Covered.Cities, Boroughs, and Town Districts.
Blocks,Number of Flats.Blocks.Number of Flats.
19379842196417
1938128519118490
19399237481341
19408132778319
1941110431105414
1942137611133595
1943211111671
19444116139149
19458839885390
19468236879353
19478124080238
19487526574263
19497025767236
19506318262174
19515415251141

These figures cover only buildings erected as blocks of flats. Where conversion of existing private dwellings into flats has taken place, the value is included in alterations and additions.

The statistics quoted in the preceding paragraphs relate only to the main types of building activity. More detailed statistics are included in the annual Statistical Report on Population and Buildings, where, inter alia, permit statistics for individual towns, counties, &c., are given.

Building operations in the year 1949–50 showed a substantial increase over 1948–49. This upward trend was continued in the year 1950–51, and the value of building operations in that year constituted a record for the thirty years during which building statistics have been collected.

BUILDING PERMITS ISSUED—URBAN DISTRICTS

1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.
Private dwellings—   
  New buildings—   
  Number11,10211,53011,379
  Value£19,047,899£20,822,500£22,990,985
  Value of alterations and additions£1,937,576£2,436,717£2,883,287
Other buildings—   
  New buildings—   
  Number7361,0991,294
  Value£2,923,703£3,396,987£4,688,709
  Value of alterations and additions£2,521,275£3,709,324£4,467,666
      Total—   
  New buildings—   
  Number11,83812,62912,673
  Value£21,971,602£24,219,487£27,679,694
  Value of alterations and additions£4,458,851£6,146,041£7,350,953
Grand total: Value£26,430,453£30,365,528£35,030,647

The following table arranges districts with building values of over £200,000 in 1950–51 in descending order.

1950–51

Auckland City2,885,498
Christchurch City1,750,316
Wellington City1,572,406
Waimairi County1,521,602
Dunedin City1,449,857
Hamilton City1,167,505
Hutt County1,139,229
Lower Hutt City1,019,389
Palmerston North City954,788
Mount Roskill Borough949,689
Makara County735,754
New Plymouth City721,690
Timaru City713,348
Invercargill City705,158
Takapuna Borough632,014
Wanganui City628,680
Nelson City619,734
Mount Wellington Road 
District607,246
Gisborne Borough544,890
 £
Hastings Borough504,266
Upper Hutt Borough500,740
Napier City496,952
Papatoetoe Borough492,356
Tauranga Borough450,678
Onehunga Borough373,915
Levin Borough361,773
Whangarei Borough350,442
Rotorua Borough314,564
Masterton Borough302,134
Petone Borough294,243
Heathcote County294,201
Howick Town District274,453
Mount Albert Borough257,075
New Lynn Borough245,340
Manurewa Borough232,942
Ellerslie Borough206,202
Blenheim Borough202,197
One Tree Hill Borough200,390
Glen Eden Town District200,149

Building Permits in Rural Districts.—In view of the importance of the housing question, a collection of data from counties was inaugurated in the year ended 31st March, 1938. For some years building statistics had been obtained from the counties of Hutt, Makara, Waimairi, and Heathcote, and the two road districts (Mount Wellington and Panmure Township) of Eden County. The great majority of the population in these counties and road districts is urban, and they were included in order to obtain more complete statistics of building activity for the urban areas of Auckland, Wellington. and Christchurch.

The collection for rural districts was therefore confined to the remaining counties, with the exception of three (Taupo, Sounds, and Fiord) in which the Counties Act is not in operation. Road Boards are functioning within Sounds County and on Waiheke Island, and these are included in the collection. Most rural districts were able to supply the information required, which, in their ease, was limited to the number of private dwellings and the total value of all buildings. In the few instances where counties were unable to furnish reliable building data for 1949–50 and 1950–51, the Building Controller's authorizations have been incorporated in the statistics. The use of these figures will result in a slight overstatement if any authorizations are not proceeded with, but it provides complete coverage for rural districts.

Data are available for all Government building in rural districts and have been included in the total for rural building.

Excluding the four counties and two road districts which are included in urban districts, the total of rural building amounted to £12,111,887 in 1949–50 and £13,738,957 in 1950–51. The number of new dwellings included was 6,127 and 6,470 respectively. The following table arranges counties with building values of over £200,000 in 1950–51 in descending order.

1950–51

County.£
Waitemata1,406,330
Manukau727,933
Waimarino592,791
Hawke's Bay523,437
Southland497,942
Tauranga473,378
Tuapeka469,312
Waimea442,200
Rotorua438,037
Matamata395,948
Paparua355,426
Whakatane341,403
Waikato297,240
Waipa280,635
Waitaki279,169
Taieri227,429
Taupo223,889
Inangahua207,548

The total value of building for the four counties and two road districts included in the total for urban districts in 1949–50 was £3,851,992, and the number of new dwellings 1,917. In 1950–51 the total value was £4,370,884, and the number of new dwellings 1,869.

State Building Operations.—The erection of houses by the Housing Division of the Ministry of Works was commenced in March, 1937, with 22 units in Wellington City. Details of units commenced for each year are as follows.

Year.Urban Districts.Rural District Total Units.Grand Total.
Single-unit Dwellings.Multiple Dwellings.*Total Units.

*Including blocks of flats.

† Not available.

1936–3722 22 22
1937–381,6381251,89051,895
1938–392,6213793,432133,445
1939–402,7685123,840303,870
1940–412,2335993,486843,570
1941–421,4214422,546592,605
1942–431574628385368
1943–441,3152381,845711,916
1944–152,0564963,194613,255
1945–461,7963492,6232522,875
1946–472,0312852,6031662,769
1947–482,1112652,6514143,065
1948–493,6274844,111
1949–504,0647524,816
1950–511,9647902,754

Houses are also erected by the Maori Affairs Department under its various development schemes, particulars of which will be found earlier in this section.

In addition to the above schemes, dwellings are erected by or for the Ministry of Works, Railways Department, Mines Department, Education Department, &c.

In all, a total of 5,395 Government houses (4,163 in urban and 1,232 in rural districts) were commenced in 1949–50 and 3,298 (2,057 in urban and 1,241 in rural districts) in 1950–51.

The following table shows urban districts in which thirty or more houses were commenced during 1949–50 and 1950–51 by the various Government Departments concerned.

New Dwellings.
1949–50.1950–51.
Cities and boroughs—  
  Whangarei47 
  Takapuna6886
  Auckland City122212
  Mount Albert53 
  Mount Roskill301164
  Onehunga49 
  Papatoetoe32 
  Huntly47 
  Hamilton City14369
  Taumarunui30 
  Tauranga46 
  Rotorua51 
  Gisborne4758
  Napier City6834
  Hastings68 
  New Plymouth City.9248
  Wanganui City6144
  Feilding35 
  Palmerston North City14766
  Levin36 
  Lower Hutt City395184
  Masterton38 
  Nelson City55 
  Westport52 
  Riccarton5946
  Christchurch City68 
  Ashburton33 
  Timaru City10352
  Dunedin City11587
  Mosgiel73 
  Invercargill City31 
  Other679466
      Totals3,2441,616
Independent town  
districts—  
  Johnsonville34 
  Other3623
      Totals7023
Dependent town districts52
Road districts and counties—  
Mount Wellington Road292105
District  
Hutt County10836
Makara County156136
Waimairi County284139
Other4 
      Totals844416
      Totals, urban districts4,1632,057

Rural districts in which the number was thirty or more were, in 1949–50, Waipa County 32, Rotorua County 86. Taupo County 43, Whakatane County 55, Hawke's Bay County 53, and Tuapeka County 118, and in 1950–51, Rotorua County 42, Taupo County 118, Whakatane County 46, Waimarino County 214, Waitaki County 66, and Tuape***nty 288.

In addition to the 5,395 houses (value. £9,414,372) commenced in 1949–50, 101 new business premises, &c. (value, £1,016,763) were commenced. Alterations and additions amounted to £699,451. The total value of all State building operations covered in these statistics in 1949–50 was therefore, £11,130,586. In 1950–51, in addition to the 3,298 houses (value £6,477,587), 79 new business premises, &c. (value £843,787) were commenced. Alterations and additions amounted to £1,156,177, and the total value of all State building operations was £8,477,551.

Monthly Permit Statistics.—While the annual statistics of building permits issued afford an indication of year-to-year changes in the value and volume of building activity, short-period movements in building activity are of considerable interest, particularly in times of rapid economic change. With the purpose of providing information as to current changes in building activity, the Census and Statistics Department initiated in 1926 the collection of monthly statistics of building permits issued in the larger centres.

The population growth of some boroughs and increases in building activity in some counties adjacent to the main cities has made it desirable to widen the coverage of these statistics by the inclusion of an additional twenty-one local authorities. The change has been made as from 1st April, 1951; accordingly figures from April, 1951, onwards are not comparable with those for earlier periods.

These returns now cover 61 per cent. of the total population, but represent a considerably higher proportion of the total New Zealand building.

BUILDING PERMITS IN LARGER CENTRES

Month.New Buildings.Alterations to Existing Buildings.Totals.
Dwellings only.Totals.No.Value.No.Value.
No.Value.No.Value.

* Refer to letterpress above.

1950 £ £ £ £
January455856,410490939,824968370,4951,4581,310,319
February5721,077,2096141,183,9261,194489,9481,8081,673,874
March7801,468,6778462,037,0361,711685,0332,5572,722,069
April5951,202,9936391,290,5161,275308,1711,9141,598,687
May7401,447,7308021,641,6441,832493,1952,6342,134,839
June6501,321,7987011,490,9291,504432,1132,2051,923,042
July7031,436,0127681,802,3421,517769,7592,2852,572,101
August8001,651,4728651,851,7271,708609,5662,5732,461,293
September6651,388,2857541,844,0491,544522,6802,2982,366,729
October6171,267,7546941,525,0471,577467,7172,2711,992,764
November6561,356,3057311,589,0691,493472,0562,2242,061,125
December456987,0704981,249,4651,165340,0981,6631,589,563
1951        
January438990,0494841,217,311960304,3831,4441,521,694
February5691,282,8286391,696,0001,294593,6411,9332,289,641
March5621,182,6536301,830,3191,419734,8712,0492,565,190
   Revised Basis*     
April9342,009,2151,0002,726,9121,939504,9022,9393,231,814
May9772,175,3091,0602,950,1882,199621,3713,2593,571,559
June9532,147,7161,0502,519,3861,909544,4332,9593,063,819
July9692,112,1361,0472,493,0832,130563,2163,1773,056,299
August1,0452,396,2361,1642,846,3422,231758,6733,3953,605,015
September1,0172,345,6751,1372,940,0121,9241,067,4993,0614,007,511
October9592,196,1561,0952,526,6441,997679,6163,0923,206,260
November9432,116,7841,0453,206,7222,294747,9213,3393,954,643
December6391,473,8987301,855,2391,710439,2942,4402,294,533

Dwelling Units Completed.—Local authorities which supply building-permit figures were also requested to supply the number of new dwelling units which were completed in their districts during the years ended 31st March, 1949, 1950, and 1951. In a few districts local authorities were unable to comply with the request, and in these cases estimates have been made derived from authorities issued and other sources. All dwellings completed by the Government are included.

The results of this collection of statistics of new dwelling units completed are:—

District.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.
Urban districts10,50010,60010,900
Rural districts4,7005,2005,500
      Totals15,20015,80016,400

While absolute accuracy cannot be claimed for these statistics it is believed that they will give reasonably approximate results, and satisfactorily enable a comparison of year-to-year changes to be made.

BUILDING PRODUCTION.—The results of a collection of building statistics taken in 1948 are given in the material now presented, which shows, largely in tabular form, the operations of persons and establishments regularly engaged in the building trade. A statement summarizing the activities of owner-builders is given separately, details for this class of building construction being excluded from the tables relating to regular builders.

The next collection of building statistics of this nature is scheduled for the 1951–52 year.

The scope of the collection represented a reasonably complete coverage of the industry, permits issued by local authorities forming the principal means through which the majority of builders engaged were traced and the required information obtained.

The statistics given in the tables, which refer generally to the year ended 31st March, 1948, do not include the construction of railways, roads, streets, bridges, wharves, buildings, &c., by the General Government or by local authorities, except where, in the case of bridges, wharves, buildings, and other similar types of construction, the work was carried out by contract.

All Government building operations carried out by private individuals (State houses, schools, transit camps, hostels, &c.) are included with the exception of Maori housing and the activities of rehabilitation trainees. In regard to the latter, the total number of houses or units completed during the year 1947–48, was—Maori housing, 196; houses completed by rehabilitation trainees, 688.

Building Activity by Regular Builders.—The following table gives a summary of the principal statistics relating to the operations of regular builders during the year 1947–48, together with the comparable figures for the pre-war year, 1938–39.

Item.Unit.1938–39.1947–48.Percentage Increase.
EstablishmentsNo.1,5792,34448.4
  Persons engagedNo.14,04015,1537.9
Salaries and wages paid£3,532,6875,869,46866.1
Materials used and sub-contracts£8,952,70215,392,71571.9
Other expenses£451,1391,103,370144.6
Value of work done£13,306,07223,805,18678.9

The amounts shown in the preceding table for value of work done are subdivided according to the class of construction in the table which follows.

Class of Construction.1938–39.1947–48.
 ££
Buildings10,732,96418,844,749
Bridges, wharves, and jetties278,543348,416
Other construction work240,692655,157
Alterations, additions, repairs2,053,8733,956,864
      Totals13,306,07223,805,186

Buildings completed during the year (whether commenced during the year or in a previous year), classified into private dwellings by size, business premises, and other buildings, are shown for the two years 1938–39 and 1947–48 in the following table.

Type of Building.1938–39.1947–48,
Number.Value.NumberValue.
Private dwellings— £ £
1 room464,8324615,124
2 rooms10628,839147127,945
3297184,832417413,624
41,9271,715,6412,2973,381,407
52,6852,786,5873,9976,828,311
6695850,1138691,773,626
7110181,023120333,750
83372,0882587,910
9720,447413,483
10 or more rooms and multiple2486,508341534,269
unite    
      Totals5,9305,930,9108,25313,509,449
Blocks of flats95270,440104521,940
Business premises4441,821,0633651,975,659
Other buildings1,9561,038,5211,7981,949,564
      Totals8,4259,060,93410,52017,956,612

The average value per private dwelling erected in 1938–39 was £1,000, compared with £1,637 in 1947—48, an increase of 63.7 per cent.

Building Activity by Owner-builders.—As a substantial number of persons, other than those regularly engaged in the building trade, took out building permits to a value of £500 or more during the year 1947–48, it was deemed desirable to obtain particulars of their activities in order to obtain a more complete picture of the building industry in New Zealand.

A complete measure of building activity during the year is not obtained, however. by these means, for the reasons that no information is available regarding the operations of owner-builders who were working in 1947–48 on permits taken out in the preceding year and, secondly, permits for less than £500 in 1947–48 were not taken into consideration.

The results of the survey carried out are shown in the following summary:—

  1. 1,636 houses were commenced during 1947–48, of which 797 were completed before the end of the year.

  2. The 797 houses completed were valued at £1,127,949, while for the 839 houses still in course of construction at the end of the year the value of work done at that stage was £562,616.

  3. Other building work done, including jobbing and repair work, alterations and additions, amounted to £740,619 in 1947–48.

The valuations shown above for owner-builders' operations include the actual expenditure of the owner plus an estimate for his own labour, if any.

The average value per house completed by this class of builder was £1,415 for a dwelling with an average of 4.6 rooms. This value was based on total expenditure plus an estimated value for the owner-builder's labour, if any. Comparable figures for an equivalent house of 4.6 rooms completed by persons or organizations engaged in the building trade, recorded an average value of £1,674.

Chapter 24. SECTION 24—ELECTRIC POWER

Table of Contents

ELECTRIC power distributed for public use in New Zealand is generated principally by water-power, most of the fuel plants in operation being maintained for stand-by purposes and to meet peak loads. During the year ended 31st March, 1950, a total of 3,030,270,334 kWh. was generated, of which 2,907,449,336 kWh. (96 per cent.) was generated by water-power, 119,082,838 kWh. by steam engines, and 3,738,160 kWh. by Diesel engines. By far the major portion of this generation is undertaken by Government-owned plants, which, in the period under review, generated 2,688,606,676 kWh. by the use of water-power, 47,678,454 kWh. by use of steam engines, and 1,186,930 kWh. by use of Diesel engines.

Since 1941, principally as a result of war conditions and subsequent shortages of materials, construction work on new generating stations has not proceeded as fast as was anticipated, and the quantity of power available has lagged behind the demand, which in turn has necessitated various restrictions on the use of power. Although it has not been sufficient to meet the full demand, the supply has, nevertheless, been more than doubled since 1939, as can be seen from the following table of index numbers (base 1938–39 = 100) compiled from the daily average quantity of power retailed or supplied free of charge by supply authorities.

Year Ended 31st March,North Island.South Island.New Zealand.
1939100100100
1940116114115
1941132126130
1942140136139
1943148144147
1944154155155
1945159166161
1946165178169
1947172198179
1948177198183
1949195221203
1950206242216

LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND.—The earliest legislation concerning the supply of electricity for public use was contained in the Counties Act and Municipal Corporations Act of 1886, which authorized such local bodies to arrange for the supply of electric power in their areas. In 1896 the passing of the Electric Motive Power Act marked the beginning of the State's connection with hydro-electricity, by authorizing inquiries into the feasibility of using water-ways to supply motive power on the goldfields, but did not actually commit the Government to anything more than inquiries. The Water-power Act, 1903, carried matters further and reserved to the Crown, with the exception of certain rights already acquired, the sole right to generate electricity by water-power. Finally, in 1910, the Aid to Water-power Works Act authorized the Government to borrow £500,000 for the purpose of hydro-electric development, and the first project was commenced at Lake Coleridge in the following year.

The provisions of these earlier Acts were consolidated in 1928 in the Public Works Act, placing all hydro-electric development under the control of the Public Works Department and authorizing that Department, in certain circumstances, to delegate the right to use water-power for the generation of electricity. Amended regulations concerning delegation of this right were published in 1934, and in 1945 the Electricity Act was passed, creating the State Hydro-electric Department which, under this Act, took over the control of hydro-electric development previously exercised by the Public Works Department.

EARLY DEVELOPMENT.—In 1887 the first public electric supply plant to operate in New Zealand commenced supplying the gold-mining town of Reefton, in Westland (it is understood that a private plant had been installed by the Phœnix Quartz Mining Co., near Skippers, in 1885). The plant, which was driven by the waters of the Inangahua River, consisted of a 20 kW. dynamo, and supplied power to the residents, presumably for domestic lighting. This was followed in 1888 by the installation of a generating plant in Wellington, for street-lighting, this consisting at the time of five hundred 20-candlepower lights. This plant was extended in 1892, and supply was then given to private consumers. Stratford, in Taranaki, was next, with a hydro-electric plant set up in 1898, and in 1902 both Christchurch and Dunedin were preparing plans and specifications for hydro-electric schemes. Auckland's first power station, a steam plant. commenced supply in 1908.

DEVELOPMENT OF WATER-POWER—North Island.—The Waihi Gold-mining Company, Limited, constructed the first large hydro-electric scheme at Horahora, which supplied power for the operation of a quartz battery at Waikino and the mine at Waihi, supply commencing in 1913. This station was purchased by the Government in 1919, and its capacity of 6,300 kW. was increased to 10,300 kW. in 1925, work being commenced on the Arapuni Station (also on the Waikato river) at about the same time. These two stations were linked when Arapuni came into operation (with one unit) in 1929, but Horahora was closed down between 1930 and 1932 as a result of damage caused by an earth movement. By 1946 Arapuni had eight units operating with a total capacity of 157,800 kW., while construction work was in progress at Karapiro (commenced 1940) and Maraetai (commenced 1945). Karapiro station came into operation in 1947 with three units, each of 30,000 kW., the Horahora station ceasing generation prior to its site being submerged by the newly-formed Karapiro lake. This artificial lake is 14 miles long and extends up river to Arapuni.

These three stations, Arapuni, Karapiro, and Maraetai (which is not yet completed) are the first of ten stations which the Government proposes to construct on the Waikato River. Some work has already been done at Whakamaru, which is the next station to be constructed, and others will eventually be built at Waipapa, Atiamuri, Ohakuri, Parariki, Aratiatia, and Huka Falls. The stations will make use of practically the whole fall of the Waikato River from Lake Taupo to Cambridge. This river constitutes the principal power source in the North Island, having, in its course of 200 miles from Lake Taupo, a total fall of 1,170 ft. and a final discharge of over 10,000 cusecs. The rate of flow from Lake Taupo is controlled by works constructed in 1941 to conserve the water previously lost in the heavy spring and summer run-off.

The Mangahao station, of 19,200 kW. capacity, was actually the first station constructed in the North Island by the Government. It is situated in the Tararua Ranges, and commenced supply to the surrounding area at the end of 1924.

After the Mangahao station was completed a commencement was made, in 1926, on the development of the Waikaremoana scheme, which consists of three stations, Kaitawa, Tuai, and Piripaua. The first station completed, Tuai, commenced supply in 1929 with a capacity of 32,700 kW., increased in 1939 to 52,000 kW.; Piripaua station (40,000 kW.) was completed in 1944; and Kaitawa station (32,000 kW.) in 1948. The three stations are within a distance of five miles, and the power generated by each is collected and transmitted from Tuai, the centre station.

The Waikato, Mangahao, and Waikaremoana stations are linked and operate as one system. Connections also exist with all the larger non-Government generating stations (steam and hydro) and steam and Diesel plants maintained by the Government.

South Island.—The Lake Coleridge station was commenced in the year following the passing of the Aid to Water-power Works Act, 1910, and completed in 1915. This was the first station wholly designed and constructed by the Government. Its initial capacity was 4,500 kW., but in 1930 this was increased to 34,500 kW. The next station, Waitaki, commenced in 1928, came into use in 1935, and is the largest station in the South Island, its capacity being 75,000 kW. This capacity is being increased by the addition of a further two units of 15,000 kW. each. Further use of the Waitaki River at Black Jack's Point is envisaged, where a station of 320,000 kW. capacity is planned. Control works at Lakes Pukaki and Tekapo, to ensure an adequate water-supply to Waitaki station during the winter, are nearly completed, and a single unit of 25,200 kW., which was incorporated in the control works at Lake Tekapo, is in action. Another single unit, also of 25,200 kW., was installed in 1945 at Highbank to make use of the surplus water available in winter from the Rangitata irrigation race.

In 1936 the Government took over the Southland Electric-power Board's system, including the generating station at Lake Monowai, and in 1938 acquired from the Grey Electric-power Board the Arnold station at Kaimata.

Construction of the Cobb River station, with a capacity of 12,000 kW., was commenced by a private company, but the project was taken over and completed by the Government. Supply from this station, which is now being expanded in capacity to 30,000 kW., commenced in 1944.

The Roxburgh station now under construction on the Clutha River will ultimately have a capacity of 320,000 kW.; investigation and access roading work is also being carried on at Lake Rotoroa in connection with the proposed Braeburn scheme of about 30,000 kW. capacity.

A grid system similar to that in the North Island was established in 1939, when the Lake Monowai, Arnold, Lake Coleridge, and Waitaki stations were linked. Work is now in progress on a link to connect Nelson and Marlborough with this network, which will then cover the whole South Island, and include Government stand-by plants and most local authority plants.

Government Hydro-electric Stations.—The following table covers all Government hydro-electric plants in operation or for which contracts for machinery have been let, and shows the present and ultimate installed capacity, together with the static head.

Name of Station.Present Installed Capacity.Ultimate Installed Capacity.Static Head (Feet).
No. of Units.kW.kVA.No. of Units.kW.kVA.

* Under construction.

Arapuni8157,800180,0008157,800180,000175
Karapiro390,000100,000390,000100,000100
Maractai*   5180,000200,000200
Mangahao519,20024,000519,20024,000895
Waikaremoana—       
Kaitawa232,00038,000232,00038,000443
Tuai352,00062,200352,00062,200676
Piripaua240,00044,400240,00044,400370
Cobb River412,00015,000632,00037,2201,876
Arnold23,0603,60023,0603,60045
Lake Coleridge934,50040,640934,50040,640493
Highbank125,20028,000125,20028,000330
Waitaki575,00083,3337105,000116,66570
Lake Tekapo125,20028,000125,20028,00080–105
Roxburgh*   8320,000355,555150
Lake Monowai36,0007,05036,0007,050154

GEO-THERMAL STEAM.—Investigations are being made into the use of geo-thermal steam for the generation of electricity. Drilling has been carried out, at Wairakei, to a depth of 1,000 ft., and new equipment is being obtained to increase the depth of bores to 2,000 ft.

ELECTRIC-POWER BOARDS.—The Counties Act and Municipal Corporations Act. passed in 1886, empowered county authorities and municipal corporations to arrange for the supply of electricity in the areas under their control, and until 1918 no provision was made for the constitution of bodies to attend solely to electric supply matters. The authority given to counties was more limited than that given to municipalities, and as their districts were comparatively sparsely settled they were unable, for financial reasons, to provide the same electrical facilities as those enjoyed by the towns. It was estimated by the Public Works Department that in March, 1919, about 90 per cent. of the people using electricity lived in the cities and larger boroughs, while probably less than 1 per cent. lived in country areas. To enable the country districts to be supplied with electricity it was evident that some other form of administration was necessary, and the Electric-power Boards Act, 1918, was designed to cope with this problem. The Act permitted two or more districts to combine as an electric-power district, and to establish a Board for the purpose of dealing exclusively with electric supply matters within the new district. Electric-power Boards consist of members representing the constituent districts, and possess rating powers. Previous legislation was consolidated and amended in the Electric-power Boards Act, 1925, and subsequent amendments.

While this development made power available to more people outside the towns, the supply to remote areas still presented difficulties because of the high cost of reticulation in comparison with the revenue from power sold. It was later agreed by the supply authorities that a council should be set up with power to make a levy of 1/4 per cent. on the gross revenue of all supply authorities and Government-owned electrical undertakings and to employ these funds in the form of subsidies to meet the cost of reticulation in remote areas. The Rural Electrical Reticulation Council was set up under the Electricity Act, 1945, and up to 31st March, 1951, had approved subsidies on 1,806 route-miles of line, to supply 3,185 consumers. At this date 731 miles of line were completed. and 1,429 consumers connected. The total capital expenditure is estimated to be £1,016,786, and the annual subsidy approved amounts to £49,381.

The average capital cost of reticulation by Power Boards prior to the passing of the Act was £60 per consumer, this reticulation excluding sparsely populated areas in which unreasonably large guarantees would be required. The extension of supply to these sparsely populated areas, as approved by the Rural Electrical Reticulation Council, is now being carried out at an average cost of £320 per consumer.

An Act of 1930 established an Association of Electric-power Boards and other electric supply authorities under the title of the Electric-power Hoards and Supply Authorities Association of New Zealand, this title being changed by the Statutes Amendment Act, 1951, to the Electrical Supply Authorities Association of New Zealand. The licensed areas under the control of the Boards and other authorities on 31st March, 1950 covered an area of 82,755 square miles, with a population of 1,885,410 people, amountin to 98.5 per cent. of the total population of New Zealand.

Of the forty-four Electric-power Boards in existence at the 31st March, 1950, one was not actively functioning, fifteen operated generating stations as well as distributing power, and the remaining twenty-eight distributed power purchased in bulk, mainly from Government stations. Only two Boards generated sufficient power to meet fully their entire needs; two others found it necessary to purchase small quantities; but the other eleven which operated generating stations purchased most of the power distributed by them.

REVIEW OF OPERATIONS—Government Establishments.—The following table gives details of the operations of Government establishments generating and distributing electricity during the years 1947–48, 1948–49, and 1949–50.

Year Ended 31st March,
1948.1949.1950.
EstablishmentsNo.141414
  Persons engagedNo.1,3821,5121,594
Salaries and wages paid£635,751683,021795,408
ConsumersNo.19,25620,28321,426
Prime movers—    
  Hydrob.h.p.690,900781,900781,900
  Thermob.h.p.65,60560,10562,170
      Totalsb.h.p.756,505842,005844,070
Generators (capacity)—    
  Main A.C.kW.466,160543,160546,760
 kVA.535,222623,223626,223
  Standby A.C.kW.45,06041,31042,750
 kVA.55,97651,42653,226
      TotalskW.511,220584,470679,449
Route-miles of linesMiles.6,0336,2356,315
Revenue—    
  Sales of power—    
  Retail£417,872425,615449,419
  Bulk and interchange£2,855,4893,222,9393,519,349
  Other£39,97841,97838,580
      Total revenue£3,313,3393,717,5324,007,348
Expenditure—    
  Power purchased (including interchange)£421,787520,364398,774
  Generating costs£414,613432,399524,056
  Transmission and distribution costs£340,955430,244476,945
  Management and general£321,134367,685466,975
  Capital charges£1,644,1471,786,6731,918,877
      Total expenditure£3,142,6363,537,3653,785,627
Appropriations (including taxation)£170,703180,167221,721
Capital outlay—    
      Total expenditure to date£39,603,84344,982,39551,272,005
Expenditure during year£5,020,8815,534,2126,289,610
Generation (000)kWh.2,349,2572,554,1722,737,472
Generation per head of mean populationkWh.1,2961,3801,447
Retail sales (000)kWh.139,590145,737132,726

Electric-power Boards,—This table gives similar information concerning generation and distribution by Electric-power Boards.

Year Ended 31st March,
1948.1949.1950.
EstablishmentsNo.424243
  Persons engagedNo.1,7781,8331,983
Salaries and wages paid£708,825818,963926,098
ConsumersNo.303,290318,662335,688
Prime movers—    
  Hydrob.h.p.18,37619,07618,776
  Thermob.h.p.7,7656,5655,957
      Totalsb.h.p.26,14125,64124,733
Generators (capacity)—    
Main A.C.kW.8,9449,3749,144
 KVA.10,64811,18810,898
Standby D.C.kW.735435315
A.C.kW.8,7017,5017,301
 kVA.10,9979,4229,172
      TotalskW.18,38017,31016,760
Route-miles of linesMiles23,76727,13129,106
Revenue—    
Sales of power—    
Retail£4,329,0134,886,0745,233,111
Bulk and interchange£247,825265,079284,659
Other (including rates)£85,749105,414115,413
      Total revenue£4,662,5875,256,5675,633,183
Expenditure—    
Power purchased (including interchange) 2,027,0522,335,6282,536,182
Generating costs£46,29336,73035,464
Transmission and distribution costs 615,492683,738740,208
Management and general£453,915491,415556,149
Capital charges£1,130,5421,236,0171,328,338
      Total expenditure£4,273,2944,783,5285,196,341
Appropriations (including taxation)£301,772335,586430,002
Capital outlay—    
      Total expenditure to date£19,249,76020,806,87222,458,688
Expenditure during year£1,361,9311,566,5801,621,967
Generation (000)kWh.55,46959,37960,104
Generation per head of meankWh. population313232
Retail sales (000)kWh.1,202,6611,356,9941,428,775

All Establishments.—The next table sets out the same information in respect of all establishments engaged in the generation and distribution of power. These consisted at the 31st March, 1950, of fourteen Government-owned establishments, three limited liability companies, forty-three Electric-power Boards, ten city councils, twenty borough councils, four county councils, and two town boards.

Year Ended 31st March,
1948.19491950.
Establishments No.979696
  Persons engaged No.4,3424,5094,754
Salaries and wages paid £1,798,8742,005,5112,259,905
Consumers No.511,781533,434554,640
Prime movers—   
Hydro b.h.p.767,271858,971858,121
Thermo b.h.p.121,683114,503116,310
      Totals b.h.p.888,954973,474974,431
Generators (capacity)—   
Main D.C. kW.191191191
A.C. kW.509,088586,285589,855
kVA.588,241676,492679,428
Standby D.C. kW.1,9641,6161,496
A.C. kW.91,72186,73487,774
kVA.113,890107,735108,913
      Totals kW.602,964674,826679,316
Route-miles of lines Miles35,52738,34140,516
Revenue—   
Sales of power—   
Retail £7,031,5057,873,7038,431,221
Bulk and interchange £3,423,1503,929,1074,149,425
Other (including rates) £172,451210,400209,820
      Total revenue £10,627,10612,013,21012,790,466
Expenditure—   
Power purchased (including interchange) £3,487,2234,019,3734,173,815
Generating costs £776,223902,097894,424
Transmission and distribution costs £1,361,0261,564,0591,693,240
Management and general expenses £991,5491,088,7391,260,093
Capital charges £3,203,1973,476,7553,687,310
      Total expenditure £9,819,21811,051,02311,708,882
Appropriations (including taxation) £626,305757,626863,123
Capital outlay—   
      Total expenditure to date £67,401,02774,776,53083,303,494
Expenditure during year £6,699,7217,541,1558,548,827
Generation during year (000) kWh.2,589,6202,834,1553,030,270
Generation per head of menu population kWh.1,4281,5311,602
Retail sales (000) kWh.2,035,7112,277,9472,403,798

Employment.—The foregoing table includes only those employees whose salaries and wages are paid directly out of revenue from the sale of electric power. Further details concerning the number of these employees and the salaries and wages paid to them are given in the following table covering the year ended 31st March, 1950.

Persons Engaged.Salaries and Wages Paid.
Males.females.Totals.To Males.To Females.Totals.
 No.No.No.£££
Secretaries, managers, engineers215 215167,903 167,903
Clerical staff9034551,358415,501116,811532,312
Wage-earning employees3,146353,1811,550,7308,9601,559,690
      Totals4,2644904,7542,134,134125,7712,259,905

Similar details of other employees whose salaries and wages were not paid directly out of revenue from the sale of electric power are given in the next table.

Persons Engaged.Salaries and Wages Paid.
Males.females.Totals.To Males.To Females.Totals.
 No.No.No.£££
House-wiring140 14051,858 51,858
Trading departments1361515160,5473,95364,500
New construction work1,378121,390653,1823,304656,486
      Totals1,654271,681765,5877,257772,844

Capital Outlay.—The following figures of capital expenditure during 1949–50 and of capital outlay to 31st March, 1950, include capital invested in trading departments and in other activities.

Class of Expenditure.Expenditure during Year Ended 31st March, 1950.Total Capital Outlay to 31st March, 1950.
 ££
Land in connection with power-house9,4331,000,038
Headworks, pipe-lines, &c.698,92312,113,033
Power-house buildings, cottages, &c.Cr. 71,9443,129,586
Generating plant52,4725,037,555
Special standby plant64,1741,592,294
Main transmission-line and main substations1,802,55118,401,055
Distribution system, substations, land, cottages, &c.1,522,10419,604,209
Public (street) lighting24,545527,839
Office and store buildings, workshops, garages, houses, and service buildings216,0351,957,592
Loose tools, meters, instruments, furniture, trucks, motorcars, equipment, and stocks348,6944,053,912
Interest during construction442,8463,490,000
Loan conversion premiumsCr. 57262,227
Miscellaneous (work under construction, cost of raising loans, law-casts, &c., and other capital expenditure)3,439,56612,334,154
      Total capital outlay8,548,82783,303,494
Capital cash on hand and investments of capital 463,114
Capital funds used to finance advances to consumers and trading departments 177,125
      Total capital assets 83,943,733

Additions to the capital value of all electrical systems during 1949–50 totalled approximately £8,550,000, while deductions—i.e., sales and amounts written off-amounted to approximately £73,000. The previous table shows for each item the net expenditure only during the year, including amounts transferred for work completed, previously shown as work under construction, and totalling approximately £50,000.

Of the total capital additions of £8,650,000 during 1949–50, £6,300,000 was contributed by the Government, £1,600,000 by Electric-power Boards. £630,000 by other local authorities, and negligible amounts by companies. The chief items of Government expenditure were: major works under construction, £3,500,000: other additions to generation system, £700,000; transmission system, £1,500,000; distribution system, £80,000.

Local-authority expenditure during 1949–50 included £1,040,000 on distribution systems and £210,000 on transmission systems.

Capital Receipts.—The various sources for the capital expenditure shown in the previous table are summarized in the following table:—

      Total loans raised—££
Loan liability at 31st March, 195061,707,451 
Reserve created by loan repayments to date14,925,615 
  76,633,066
Appropriations from revenue 6,920,858
Other capital reserves—i.e., capital profits and accretions 82,128
Temporary advances, capital creditors, &c. 307,681
      Total capital receipts £83,943,733

The loan liability was increased by £7,317,146 during 1949–50, representing new loans raised during the year together with Government expenditure, and reduced by £1,113,166, representing loan repayments during the year.

Where assets have been scrapped or written clown, and the capital expenditure thereby reduced, corresponding amounts have been written off the appropriate capital reserves—i.e., reserves created by loan repayments and the capital expenditure out of revenue.

General Balance Sheet.—The following table summarizes the general assets and liabilities—i.e., capital items are excluded—as at 31st March, 1960, in addition to setting out the reserves and invested funds.

Liabilities£
Sundry creditors 2,478,416
Advances from capital for trading departments, &c. 200,295
Reserves—£ 
  Sinking fund reserve1,545,961 
  Depreciation reserve3,646,026 
  Renewal fund reserve1,447,027 
  General reserve1,126,545 
  Other reserves347,853 
  8,113,412
Credit balance, net revenue accounts1,808,199
  £12,600,322
Assets£
Trading Department assets, stocks, &c.3,312,864 
Cash, debtors, and other current assets3,438,029 
Invested Reserve Funds— £
  Sinking funds1,433,239 
  Depreciation funds1,789,039 
  Renewal funds1,351,450 
  Other reserve funds1,225,701 
  5,849,429
  £12,600,322

Power Plant.—Particulars relating to the power plant in use during the year ended 31st March, 1950, are set out hereunder.

Source of Power.Main Plant.Standby Plant.Totals.
 No.B.H.P.No.B.H.P.No.B.H.P.
Steam-engines  1886,0441886,044
Water-turbines83844,9093113,212114858,12]
Gas-engines  41,47541,475
Oil-engines89563727,8354528,791

Power.—The following table sets out the number of units generated and their disposal, the second and third columns comprising power sold in bulk by one authority (in most cases the State Hydro-electric Department) and purchased by another (e.g., an Electric-power Board). The excess of bulk purchases over bulk sales represents the surplus generation of certain freezing-works, collieries, &c., which is bought in by supply authorites, usually through the State Hydro-electric Department. This supply, generated by other than public supply authorities, finds no place in either of the first two columns of the table.

Year Ended 31st March,Kilowatt-hours.
Generated.Sold in Bulk.Purchased in Bulk.Net Totals.Sold (Retail).Lost in Transmission, &c.*

* Includes power supplied free of charge amounting to 26,247 thousand kWh. in 1949–50.

Thousand kWh.
19462,364,9602,058,3232,060,2882,366,9251,891,227475,698
19472,520,6262,233,6852,241,2292,528,1701,997,873530,297
19482,589,6202,284,1052,293,8672,599,3822,035,711563,671
19492,834,1552,541,5582,551,8082,844,4052,277,947566,458
19503,030,2702,621,4212,621,3443,035,7712,403,798631,973

Analysis of Units retailed.—The following table gives a classification of power retailed according to the various purposes for which it was sold. In this table “Domestic” includes domestic water-heating units, and “Commercial” both commercial and dairy water-heating units.

Year Ended 31st March,Sales (Kilowatt-hours).
Domestic.Commercial.Electric Motors.Street Lighting.Tramways.Electric Railways.Other Purposes.Total.
Thousand kWh.
19461,021,548297,849476,70613,07356,49214,5747,9851,891,227
19471,122,401315,787471,50611,93251,95316,4437,8511,997,873
19481,140,878303,609508,21711,16449,42515,9966,4222,035,711
19491,306,517340,295545,33813,14749,46716,1037,0802,277,947
19501,376,138362,468576,70114,25349,71916,6487,8712,403,798

The following diagram portrays the growth in the use of electric power since 1930–31, and shows also the principal purposes for which it was employed.

Revenue.—Revenue is derived chiefly from the sale of power, and in 1949–50 this source was responsible for 96 per cent. of the total. The following table sets out the revenue of all stations for the years 1946–47 to 1949–50.

Year Ended 31st March,Sale of Power (Retail).Profits, Sale of Apparatus.Miscellaneous.Interest.Rates.Totals*

* Excluding revenue from interchange of power.

 ££££££
19476,816,25360,80386,70716,5602,2016,982,524
19487,031,50568,30189,56511,2243,3617,203,956
19497,873,70384,035113,6069,0973,6628,084,103
19508,431,22176,812120,3319,6773,0008,641,041

Expenditure.—Of the total expenditure of £7,559,506 (excluding cost of interchange of power in hulk) recorded in the year ended 31st March, 1950, 65.4 per cent. represented overhead costs (comprising management expenses and capital charges), while operating-expenses or prime costs stood at 34.6 per cent.

Power may be sold more than once in hulk before reaching the retailing authority. and in these tables the revenue from such interchange of power between authorities is set off against the cost, the net figure for cost of power purchased representing the cost to the industry of purchases from outside sources. In this connection mention may be made of certain contracts existing between the Government and some local authorities, whereby the latter are required to maintain their standby plants and to operate them, whenever called upon, to supplement the State hydro-electric supply. The units so generated, often by fuel plants, are purchased by the Government and resold, in most cases to the generating authority, for distribution.

The table following gives an analysis of expenditure.

Item.Year Ended 31st March,
1947.1948.1940.1950.

* Does not include the interchange of power between supply authorities.

Operating Expenditure
 ££££
*Cost of power purchased41,21664,07352,53324,439
Cost of generation219,018225,853279,721336,144
Fuel500,145374,643458,775396,775
Stores1,7281,9032,2761,796
Repairs37,64929,81033,42471,331
Standby plant139,608144,014127,90188,378
Cost of transmission276,595308,106379,692403,742
Cost of distribution976,6021,026,3781,152,7181,253,976
Public (street) lighting34,06926,54231,64935,522
      Totals2,226,6602,201,3222,518,6892,612,103
Miscellaneous Expenditure
 ££££
Cost of management758,989881,990962,5931,125,878
Insurance38,75043,62446,50547,989
Losses from trading4,1315,0371,8813,775
Other expenditure52,82860,89877,76082,451
      Totals854,698991,5491,088,7391,260,093
Capital Charges
Interest1,453,5761,621,4451,653,0711,699,174
Sinking fund546,140578,734366,342382,044
Renewals112,834124,167127,740162,110
Depreciation564,541471,421553,399521,848
Loan repayment291,742404,852775,421920,885
Exchange35,4312,6787821,249
      Totals3,004,2643,203,1973,476,7553,687,310
      Grand totals6,085,6226,396,0687,084,1837,559,506

The distribution of the expenditure per unit sold retail is given hereunder.

Year Ended 31st March,
1947.1948.1949.1950.
 d.d.d.d.
Operating-expenses0.2670.2590.2650.261
Miscellaneous expenses0.1030.1170.1150.126
Capital charges0.3610.3780.3660.368
      Totals0.7310.7540.7460.755

Appropriation of Surplus.—The following table shows the appropriations of net surplus for years ended 31st March, 1947–50.

1947.1948.1949.1950.
 ££££
Renewal fund71,29556,10963,15270,325
Reserve fund41,23141,36540,00362,303
Taxation252,639177,476186,420229,781
Other514,056351,355468,051500,714
      Total appropriated879,221626,305757,626863,123

HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER IN USE.—The following table shows the hydro-electric horse-power actually developed in the various machinery inspection districts at the 31st March in each of the years 1946 to 1950. The figures cover all hydro-plants exceeding one horse-power, whether main or standby, with the exception of plant not exceeding six horse-power used exclusively for fanning purposes.

District.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
 H. P.H. P.H. P.H. P.H. P.
Auckland North Auckland4,0744,0744,0744,0744,074
Auckland South206,950236,950305,750347,750347,700
Gisborne Hawke's Bay140,040140,040140,040166,035166,023
Taranaki North14,46514,46514,46514,46514,465
Taranaki1,5921,5921,5921,5921,682
Wellington North32,02032,02032,02032,02032,020
Wellington Marlborough3,0353,0353,0353,4033,423
Nelson19,37519,37519,37519,37518,725
Westland9,2509,2509,2709,7999,811
Canterbury     
Canterbury South95,55495,55495,75495,75495,754
Otago121,209121,209128,744152,414152,414
Southland11,44611,44611,44611,44611,438
      Totals659,010689,010765,565858,127857,529

The following table gives an analysis of the purposes for which plants were generating power as at the 31st March, 1950.

District.Mining.Electric Supply.Farming.Freezing-worksPaper-mills.Miscellaneous.Totals.
 H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.
Auckland North 4,0704   4,074
Auckland South 347,700    347,700
Gisborne Hawke's Bay 166,00023   166,023
Taranaki North 14,460   514,465
Taranaki 1,6271  551,682
Wellington North 32,020    32,020
Wellington Marlborough 3,423    3,423
Nelson 18,725    18,725
Westland3179,430   649,811
Canterbury 95,7459   95,754
Otago 152,015183  216152,414
Southland 9,686 7501,000211,438
      Totals317854,9012197501,000342857,529

The figures shown in the above table do not, of course, indicate the ultimate consumption of hydro-electric power in the industries specified, since by far the greatest proportion of the total horse-power used in industry would be drawn from the electric-supply stations and not generated in separate plants.

Chapter 25. SECTION 25—GENERAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

25 A—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE

THE legislation relating to the custody, administration, and audit of the public moneys and securities is contained in the Public Revenues Act, 1926, which consolidated and amended the then existing enactments on the subject. All public moneys, excepting those payable to or received by the Post and Telegraph Department, the Government Insurance Department, the Public Trust Office, the Maori Trust Office, the State Advances Corporation, the State Fire and Accident Insurance Office, the Government Superannuation Fund, the National Provident Fund, the Broadcasting Account, the Iron and Steel Industry Account, the Meat Industry Account, the Marketing Account, and other special accounts under the Marketing Act, are paid into one account at the bank called the “Public Account,” and are carried to one or other of the following funds or accounts in the books of the Treasury: The Consolidated Fund, the Public Works Account, and separate accounts or funds specially created, including the Social Security Fund. The War Expenses Account was created in September, 1939, but from the 1st April, 1950, it was, in effect, abolished. Another subsidiary account, the War Damage Fund, was established in 1941. This fund was replaced in January, 1945, by the Earthquake and War Damage Fund under the Earthquake and War Damage Act. 1944. The National Development Loans Account was initiated from 1st April, 1942, for the purpose of co-ordinating and simplifying the raising of loan-moneys for public works and other capital purposes. The Electric Supply Sinking Fund Account was abolished as from 31st March, 1944, while the New Zealand Loans Amendment Act, 1947, provided for the abolition of the Public Debt Repayment Account and its incorporation in the Loans Redemption Account from 1st April, 1947. The separate accounts were further reduced by the Finance Act, 1947, and Finance Act (No. 2), 1947, which abolished the Bank of New Zealand Shares Account, and the Main Highways Account respectively, both as from the 1st April, 1947. The Air Defence Fund (now the Defence Fund) was created in June, 1948, while the State Forest Account was abolished from the 1st April, 1948, by the Forest Amendment Act, 1948. The Land Act. 1948, abolished the Land for Settlements Account and established the Land Settlement Account as from 1st April, 1949. From the 1st April, 1950, the Deposits Account, which was formerly part of the Consolidated Fund, has been constituted a separate account.

The statistical material presented in the ensuing pages relates solely to those accounts or funds included within the framework of the Public Account. However, a consolidated review of Government receipts and expenditure on current account has been prepared and made available in the section on National Income and Expenditure. This review has accordingly taken into consideration the net surpluses or deficits of trading and other accounts not within the Public Account. Present data are insufficient to show the details of the capital account for the Government sector of the economy.

The financial year commences on the 1st day of April and ends on the 31st day of March. The receipts of any financial year represent the money received into the Public Account at the bank at Wellington within the year, together with that received into the Public Account at London of which advice is received in time for inclusion in the accounts for the year. The payments represent the money paid (a) at the Treasury within the year, (b) by imprestees, of which accounts are received at the Treasury within the year, and (c) at London, of which advice is received in time for inclusion. The Public Account, formerly held at the Bank of New Zealand, was taken over by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand from 1st August, 1934.

At the end of each financial year the Appropriation Act of that year lapses, but the Minister of Finance is authorized for a period of three months from the commencement of the next financial year to pay money in respect of any service, provided that the amount does not exceed the unexpended balance voted for that purpose in the previous year, together with an amount equal to one-fourth of such vote.

The normal practice is for Parliament to meet at the end of Juno in each year and to vote supplies from month to month until the estimated expenditure for the year has been approved and the annual Appropriation Act is passed. Where a later session of Parliament is foreseen, a temporary amendment to the provisions set out in the preceding paragraph is made. In the event of a mid-session adjournment, supplies in anticipation of the Appropriation Act may be voted for more than one month.

AUDIT OF EXPENDITURE.—In the audit of expenditure both the pre-audit and post-audit systems are in operation. Pre-audit is applied to vouchers in respect of payments on account of salaries of new appointees: officers claiming more than one month's salary at any time; interest, loan transactions, and return of deposits; unauthorized expenditure; transfers between Government accounts; or expenditure chargeable against the accounts of local authorities. Post-audit is applied to all other payments.

Vouchers must be certified as correct by the proper officer, and forwarded by him to the head of his Department for approval. Vouchers subject to pre-audit are then forwarded to the Audit Office, and on being found correct are sent on to the Treasury to be entered on requisitions for payment. Vouchers subject to post-audit are transmitted by the head of the Department direct to the Treasury. Payment is made by the Treasury, and the claim is afterwards submitted for audit.

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE.—A system of departmental balance-sheets and statements of accounts was inaugurated on commercial lines in 1920 to show the true cost of the various Departments and services, as distinct from payments out of appropriations on the basis referred to at the beginning of this subsection. These balance-sheets and statements of accounts were published annually in parliamentary paper B-1 [Part IV], to which the reader is referred for details of income, expenditure, &c., in respect of certain Departments and services. The publication of these detailed accounts for a number of Departments has now been discontinued.

For a number of years up to and including the financial year 1937–38 statements of income and expenditure, combining the revenue accounts of most Government Departments, and a State balance-sheet, were published. For various reasons the preparation of these documents for years subsequent to 1937–38 has been suspended.

ACCOUNTS AND FUNDS WITHIN THE PUBLIC ACCOUNT.—The records of the Public Account in the books of the Treasury consist of a number of ledger accounts for the special subsidiary funds or accounts including the Consolidated Fund, the Public Works Account, the Social Security Fund, and a number of other accounts established by statute or kept by Treasury under authority of the Public Revenues Act, “to make better provision for accounting for moneys in the Public Account.” In these accounts are recorded for each separate fund or account the receipts, payments, and cash balances so that the bank balance in the Public Account is apportioned among the funds and accounts, and balanced itemized statements of the receipts and payments for each of the funds or accounts are prepared for publication.

The use of the terms “fund” and “account” implying some significant distinction is hardly justified. The use of the term “Social Security Fund,” for example, does not imply any technical accounting distinction between the Social Security Fund and the Public Works Account or the other accounts within the Public Account.

In addition to those mentioned above, the following accounts and funds were included in the Public Account at the 1st April, 1951: Defence Fund, Deposits Account, Earthquake and War Damage Fund, Electric Supply Account, Land Settlement Account, Loans Redemption Account, National Development Loans Account, Remittances to London Account, Reserve Fund Account, State Coal Mines Account. Working Railways Account.

Particulars of some of the more important accounts are contained in the following pages, while others are dealt with in the appropriate sections of this volume. Certain of the accounts represent book entries only. For instance, practically the whole of the receipts and payments of the Loans Redemption Account are nominal, consisting in the main of entries duo to the renewal of loan-moneys. The Remittances to London Account merely covers the withdrawal of money in Wellington for remittance from New Zealand, and its crediting to the New Zealand Public Account, London. The Deposits Account represents only lodgments or withdrawals of (mainly) non-Government, moneys.

The figures shown under the various headings of this subsection are on the basis of receipts and payments. In some sections devoted to the operations of various Departments and activities, the figures are given on an income and expenditure basis and accordingly differ to some extent from those appearing here.

THE CONSOLIDATED FUND.—The Consolidated Fund covers the ordinary revenue and expenditure of the General Government—i.e., apart from capital items, commercial and special undertakings, advances, &c. In earlier years its operations afforded an excellent comparison of State revenue and expenditure from year to year, hut successive changes in system have largely destroyed the comparability of the figures.

Figures of receipts and payments of the Consolidated Fund over a long period of years will he found in the Statistical Summary near the end of this volume. For the years prior to 1937–38 they are there presented on the old or not basis—i.e., certain interest and other payments, now treated as receipts, were treated as credits in reduction of expenditure. For later years the figures are on a gross basis.

A summary of receipts and payments for the last eleven years is contained in the following table. Payments and balances for 1941–42,1942–43, 1943–44,1944–45, 1947–48, and 1948–49 do not include amounts of £1,726,000, £1,672,000, £4,200,000, £2,200,000, £4,611,000, and £1,786,000 respectively allocated to the then War Expenses Account from surplus funds; nor docs the 1950–51 year include the amount of £4,307,742 transferred to the Public Works Account, this amount being the surplus for the 1949–60 year.

Year Ended 31st March,Receipts.Payments.Surplus.Balance at End of Year.
 ££££
194150,980,57749,254,1531,726,4243,779,150
194254,552,70152,880,2391,672,4623,725,912
194355,075,96050,921,3824,154,5786,208,490
194457,561,40955,328,8292,232,5804,241,070
194559,928,87258,714,1531,214,7193,255,789
194663,913,64962,659,4991,254,1504,509,940
1947108,294,473103,683,4554,611,0189,120,958
1948117,116,115115,330,4031,785,7126,295,652
1949141,523,915138,893,1542,630,7617,140,701
1950124,996,634120,688,8924,307,74211,448,443
1951143,756,815135,503,5988,253,21715,393,919

Receipts.—Details of receipts of the Consolidated Fund are given in the next table. Taxation receipts represent only those amounts paid into the Consolidated Fund, and there are substantial amounts of special taxation which are paid to the Social Security Fund. Full details of taxation receipts are contained in Section 25 B.

Source.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.
Taxation—£££
  Customs19,111,48621,474,53323,600,062
  Beer duty1,555,3744,822,3405,036,145
  Sales tax14,105,22414,785,32016,827,106
  Film-hire tax108,285112,701106,702
  Highways3,613,7433,640,1163,996,629
  Stamp duties3,591,8663,853,8584,874,839
  Death (including gift) duties6,032,3905,713,7507,254,013
  Land-tax916,120967,3861,043,203
  Income-tax49,007,67248,483,45059,441,839
  Miscellaneous19,57910 
Interest on capital liability—   
  Electric supply1,539,5671,412,9771,640,594
  Housing543,430822,377795,352
  Housing construction69,896109,951105,110
  Post and Telegraph659,045704,000811,128
  Land Settlement584,455996,3941,206,229
  New Zealand National Airways Corporation  85,875
  Other accounts47,46011,380 
Interest on other public moneys1,771,9361,829,2761,922,002
Profits on trading undertakings2,197,3002,162,1111,770,351
Departmental receipts13,047,75713,094,70413,239,636
Other receipts1,330  
Stock issued for payment of liability to Reserve Bank due to exchange-rate alteration20,000,000  
      Totals141,523,915124,996,634143,756,815

The high figure for 1948–49 was principally due to the £20,000,000 received from stock issued for payment of the liability due to the Reserve Bank on account of the exchange-rate alteration in August, 1948. If this non-recurring item is disregarded, receipts in 1950 showed an increase of £3,473,000, principally as a result of higher receipts from customs duties and sales tax. The 1950–51 figures, however, show increases in nearly at categories, the most impressive of these being in income-tax (approximately £11,000,000 higher), stomp and death duties (£2,600,000 higher), customs and excise duties (£2,300,000 higher), and sales tax (£2,000,000 higher).

Payments.—Payments from the Consolidated Fund are divided into two main groups, according to whether they are made under permanent or under annual appropriation. The latter heading covers the payments under the various departmental votes, while the former covers interest on and amortization of the public debt. and payments under numerous special Acts.

Payments under the main heads of permanent appropriation and each head of annual appropriation during the last three years were as follows.

Head.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.

* An additional amount of £1,785,713 was allocated out of surplus funds for 1947–48 and paid in the 1918–49 financial year.

† Included under votes “Justice and Prisons” and “Land and Income Tax.”

‡ Included under vote “Justice and Prisons.”

§ Included under vote “Air”

¶ Expenditure of £1,308,427 on defence construction and maintenance is included in vote “Maintenance of Public Works and Services.”

Permanent appropriations—£££
  Civil List98,92397,09593,898
  Debt services—   
  Interest16,619,96016,736,82017,264,200
  Amortization9,183,1565,393,0418,727,529
  Administration and management225,961355,188322,257
  Highways: Payment to boroughs, &c.205,325234,026253,882
  Transfer to War Expenses Account2,000,000*  
  Superannuation (subsidy and contribution)2,530,0002,590,0002,850,000
  Other items322,410254,715510,455
  Payment to Reserve Bank for liability due to exchange-rate alteration20,576,207  
      Totals, permanent appropriations51,761,94225,660,88530,022,221
Annual appropriations—   
  Legislative177,521170,618192,084
  Prime Minister's Office221,449164,26311,792
  External Affairs621,151733,009736,638
  Finance—   
  Treasury354,096380,663388,070
  Stabilization11,687,13714,855,5889,371,508
  Customs329,713348,215359,857
  Land and Income Tax731,772770,560874,319
  Stamp Duties191,867209,517
  Audit108,419127,167142,596
      Totals, finance13,403,00416,691,71011,136,350
General administration—   
  Public Service Commission81,41381,07079,329
  Internal Affairs1,417,9351,595,2653,027,782
  Island Territories663,234838,083650,515
  Printing and Stationery676,010692,9421,084,355
  Marine480,571417,668394,552
  Labour and Employment1,479,1451,816,6291,651,448
  Maori Affairs521,219461,162787,600
  Valuation220,557256,375285,915
  Electoral20,094290,682
  Census and Statistics76,72991,700126,146
  Rehabilitation349,304342,0182,124,278
      Totals, general administration5,986,2116,883,59410,211,920
Law and order—   
  Justice and Prisons605,949707,328885,765
  Crown Law13,67916,67517,588
  Police1,073,9991,206,2071,238,966
      Totals, law and order1,693,6271,930,2102,142,319
Defence—   
  Navy2,300,5333,138,2233,231,362
  Army2,229,8762,609,4095,729,217
  Air5,857,9324,074,4964,981,727
      Totals, defence10,388,3419,822,12813,942,306
Maintenance—   
  Maintenance of Public Works and Services6,759,4757,711,7908,059,114
  Highways Maintenance3,920,7724,140,0124,044,935
      Totals, maintenance10,680,24711,851,80212,104,049
Development of primary and secondary industries—£££
  Lands and Survey1,238,6241,030,7151,507,784
  Forest Administration810,659695,9631,111,385
  Agriculture1,844,6312,161,4282,310,733
  Milk Marketing 308,596113,087
  Industries and Commerce520,271468,446344,203
  Tourist and Publicity596,541799,476931,198
  Scientific and Industrial Research774,433958,750961,739
  Mines132,438142,743118,109
  Transport317,7158359,996315,683
  Civil Aviation and Meteorological Services§1,525,1462,048,793
      Totals, development of primary and secondary industries6,235,3358,451,2599,762,714
Social services—   
  Health8,081,4578,865,14710,247,294
  Education9,588,98811,613,63013,345,564
  War and other Pensions4,926,0815,368,2285,597,335
  Payment to Social Security Fund15,000,00012,000,00014,000,000
      Totals, social services37,596,52637,847,00543,190,193
      Totals, annual appropriations87,131,21295,028,007105,481,377
Other services not provided for127,800482,4092,051,011
Grand totals138,893,154126,688,892135,503,598

The amounts shown under the head of “Education” do not represent the full payment on education services, expenditure under special Acts and from the revenue from certain endowments, &c., not being included. A statement of public expenditure on education is given in Section 6 (Education) of this volume.

PUBLIC WORKS.—For the prosecution of the policy of public works inaugurated in 1870 there was sot up a Public Works Fund. For many years all expenditure on public works was borne by this fund, but in course of time separate subsidiary accounts were established to deal with certain special activities. These subsidiary accounts became merged in the General Purposes Account of the Public Works Fund, or ceased to exist on the completion of the work for which they were called into existence. Under section 4 of the Finance Act No. 2, 1943, the Public Works Fund was abolished and a Public Works Account substituted as from 1st April, 1942. The Electric Supply Account and the Electric Supply Sinking Fund Account, which formerly ranked as part of the Public Works Fund, were then shown as separate accounts. The Electric Supply Sinking Fund Account was abolished as from the 31st March, 1944.

The Construction Fund of the Main Highways Account, which was established in 1923–24 to provide finance for the construction, reconstruction, &c., of main highways, was analogous to the Public Works Fund, and its operations were for some years included in the Year-Book statement of public-works receipts and payments. The Construction Fund of the Main Highways Account was later (1st April, 1936) combined with the Revenue Fund. With the abolition of the Main Highways Account as from the 1st April, 1947, however, receipts and expenditure on highways construction have been incorporated in the Public Works Account, and are accordingly shown in the amounts given below.

Receipts.—A summary of receipts of the Public Works Account for the last three financial years is contained in the following table.

1943–49.1949–50.1950–51.

* Includes amounts transferred from Consolidated Fund: Education (from vote “Education”) £650,000; Public buildings £250,000, and Soil Conservation, &c. £75,000, both from vote “Maintenance of Public Works and Services.”

 £££
Linen-flax, sale of produce, disposal of assets, and adjustments of processing costs142,58312,768500,181
Receipts—   
  Education Department21,07139,956706,307*
  Forest development467,827711,413823,328
  Highways construction35,94235,54341,399
  Housing construction1,148,1141,476,1161,950,878
  Irrigation, water-supply, and drainage166,941184,45027,811
  Lands, miscellaneous18,8823,28£2,879
  Lighthouses and harbour-works3,157Dr. 1,724 
  Public buildings123,157137,748256,830*
  Railway construction20,01917,65723,606
  Roads, &c.39,27757,74571,412
  Soil conservation and rivers control45,38870,406119,588*
Loan-money16,028,42517,791,27512,500,000
Transfer from Consolidated Fund, being surplus for previous year  4,307,742
Repayment of loans or capital advances, and recoveries of capital moneys (various)12,14711,44943,811
Miscellaneous8,7396,1878,328
      Totals18,281,66920,554,27421,384,100

Payments.—Particulars of payments from the account for the three financial years 1948–49 to 1950–51 are now given.

1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.

* Now included in Consolidated Fund, vote “Marine.”

† Purchase of shares in Tasman Empire Airways, Ltd.

 £££
Forest development1,423,8392,228,0911,543,581
Housing construction8,886,32210,708,6209,854,016
Irrigation, water-supply, and drainage286,110283,756381,163
Lighthouses and harbour-works8,11120,238*
Public buildings1,080,4631,096,958934,721
Educational buildings1,650,3952,336,5122,527,435
Railway construction128,725365,087597,187
Roads, &c.405,654464,649504,105
Soil conservation and rivers control464,942602,193375,653
Highways construction2,005,5692,342,1391,834,455
Christmas Island Phosphate Rights1,375,000 125,000
Other257,99828,8132,536
      Totals17,973,12820,477,05618,679,852

For the three years concerned, balances at the end of the year were: 1948–49, £1,221,641; 1949–50, £1,298,860; and 1950–51, £4,003,108.

In addition to expenditure on roads from the Public Works Account, there it. expenditure incurred in roading Crown lands and lands purchased for settlement, which is a charge on the Land Settlement Account.

ELECTRIC SUPPLY ACCOUNT.—As from 1st April, 1942, the Electric Supply Account, which formerly ranked as part of the Public Works Fund, became a separate account. The main items of receipts and payments of the Electric Supply Account for the last three years were as follows.

1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.
Receipts
 £££
Loan-money5,000,0006,250,0008,400,000
Sales of electrical energy and miscellaneous receipts3,905,3664,445,6014,520,702
      Totals8,905,36610,695,60112,920,702
Payments
 £££
Development of water-power, &c.7,524,5578,412,12610,998,699
Interest on capital liability1,539,5671,412,9771,640,594
Debt redemption191,402356,401309,382
Taxation—   
Income-tax 153,110192,716
Social security charge 23,04329,004
Subsidy to Government Superannuation Fund12,86218,94216,885
      Totals9,268,38810,376,59913,187,280

The balances in the account at the end of each of the three years were: 1948–49, £245,083; 1949–50, £564,085; and 1950–51, £297,507.

LAND-SETTLEMENT ACCOUNTS.—Through the closing of several accounts and the merging of these in other accounts or funds, there now remains only one account dealing primarily with land-settlement—viz., the Land Settlement Account, which covers numerous and diverse activities in connection with land-settlement.

The principal advances accounts, those relating to State advances to settlers. workers, &c., are, as stated earlier in this subsection, outside the Public Account and are not included hero.

A statement of receipts and payments of the Land Settlement Account for the years 1949–50 and 1950–51 is now given. The figures for the 1948–49 year are in respect of the former Land for Settlements Account, which was abolished as from the 1st April, 1949, by the Land Act, 1948, and the present account established in its place. Rents, royalties, and interest from Crown Lands previously credited to the Consolidated Fund became payable to the Land Settlement Account as from the 1st April, 1949.

1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.
Receipts£££
Loan-money2,450,0003,300,000500,000
Lands and Survey Department—   
  Capital receipts3,973,286541,1351,243,736
  Rents, interest, royalties, &c.917,982970,419
  Receipts from settlement of ex-servicemen3,143,4285,552,609
  Receipts from civilian development schemes300,176244,022
  Miscellaneous receipts448 
Transfer from Consolidated Fund199,92010,000500,000
Maori Affairs Department—   
  Receipts from land-development schemes1,267,9671,120,8631,436,759
  Repayment of advances under Maori122,047156,733
  Housing Act Receipts from rehabilitation of Maori ex-servicemen54,66883,725
  Receipts from other activities113,90884,778
Transfer from Consolidated Fund161,0004,000231,000
Other receipts83837,167
Balances from Deposits Account and amount received from Public Trustee in terms of Land Act, 1948 110,424 
      Totals8,052,2569,739,16211,010,943
Payments
 £££
Land for settlements 52,308   
Small farms development5,839,402  
Crown lands 800,353536,619
Settlement of ex-servicemen 5,637,5114,420,220
Maori land settlement1,613,9952,058,6432,268,499
Interest on capital liability584,455996,3931,206,229
Other interest charges107,91792,373 
Payment to Loans Redemption Account 1,265 
Payment in respect of land and improvements acquired for disposal under Land Act, 1948  457,362
Other51,43823,90810,538
      Totals8,249,5159,605,4468,899,467

The balances in the account for each of the three years were: 1948–49, £653,291; 1949–50, £787,007; 1950–51, £2,898,483.

TRADING ACCOUNTS.—Several important trading operations of the Government, are outside the scope of the Public Account, while certain others are included in the Consolidated Fund. The Electric Supply Account also covers both construction and trading operations. Trading accounts, other than those which might be so regarded but have already been dealt with under previous headings, are the Working Railways and the State Coal Mines Accounts.

Receipts and payments of the Working Railways Account during the last three years were as follows.

1918–49.1949–50.1950–51.
Receipts
 £££
Railway revenue18,086,43919,087,08921,627,316
Stabilization subsidy1,102,8661,055,656 
Miscellaneous receipts2,079,9763,219,2583,877,259
Transfer from National Development Loans Account1,746,0002,900,0003,300,000
Interest22,74113,75013,750
Railway Employees' Sick Benefit Funds13,40010,20012,500
      Totals23,051,42226,285,85328,830,825
Payments
Annual appropriations—£££
Working Railways21,458,28122,829,12624,628,862
Improvements and additions to open lines1,717,1322,763,4003,448,029
Subsidy to Government Superannuation Fund245,901291,464296,075
Subsidy to Railway Employees' Sick Benefit Fund13,40010,20012,500
Other  2,000
      Totals23,434,71425,894,19028,387,466

At the end of each year the following balances remained in the Account: 1948–49, £1,577,226; 1949–50, £1,968,883; and 1950–51, £2,412,248.

The corresponding statement of receipts and payments of the State Coal Mines Account for the last three years is now presented.

1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.
Receipts
 £££
Rents, royalties, sale of coal, &c.3,693,7591,796,6345,060,438
Transfer from National Development Loans Account1,500,000900,000560,000
Housing and other loans: repayment of principal and interest20,61920,89534,048
Realization of investments held by companies acquired by Crown276,22519,51974,151
Miscellaneous receipts15,96043,504156,222
      Totals5,506,5635,780,5525,884,859
Payments
Annual appropriations—£££
State coal-mines5,247,5925,321,9785,466,072
Services not provided for 170,873 
Transfer to Loans Redemption Account for redemption of securities358,153109,375131,327
Subsidy to Government Superannuation Fund2,3383,5494,501
      Totals5,608,0835,605,7755,601,900

Balances at the end of March for years 1948–49 to 1950–51 amounted to £121,751, £296,528, and £579,488 respectively.

SOCIAL SECURITY FUND.—The Social Security Fund was established as from the 1st April, 193D, under the authority of the Social Security Act of 1938. Receipts and payments of the fund during the last three years were as follows.

1948–49.1940–50.1950–51.
Receipts
 £££
Social security charge29,378,38531,702,57035,766,236
Miscellaneous receipts57,83952,64240,311
Transfers from Consolidated Fund15,000,00012,000,00014,000,000
Interest13717,6987,082
Deserted wives' maintenance (recoveries)64,10465,27366,900
Recoveries on account reciprocity arrangements  1,860
      Totals44,500,46543,838,18349,882,389
Payments
 £££
Administration expenses and emergency benefits980,6681,063,9771,140,555
Medical, hospital, &c., benefits7,875,4488,461,1098,723,383
Monetary benefits34,203,67536,891,73139,553,623
Balance of maintenance moneys580263117
Reciprocity benefits 1,7153,083
Services not provided for956,641 
      Totals43,060,46646,425,43649,420,761

The balances remaining in this account for the three years were as follows: 1948–49, £8,861,918; 1949–50, £6,094,665: and 1950–51, £6,556,293.

More detailed information concerning payments under the various headings are given in Section 26 of this Year-Book.

WAR EXPENSES ACCOUNT.—The War Expenses Account was set up under the provisions of the War Expenses Act of 1939, and all receipts and payments in connection with the war effort were dealt with through this account. Defence expenditure was previously included as an annual appropriation of the Consolidated Fund, and upon the War Expenses Account being brought into existence the unexpended balances of the 1939–40 appropriations under this heading were transferred to the new account.

Commencing with the 1946–47 financial year, the defence vote was restored to the Consolidated Fund, and current defence expenditure has since been met from that source. Expenditure arising from or consequent upon the Second World War, however, was paid from the War Expenses Account up to and including the financial year 1949–50, when the account was. in effect, abolished.

A summary of receipts and payments of the War Expenses Account from its inception to the 31st March, 1950, is given on page 479 of the 1950 Year Book. The balance of £2,365,374 in the account at the 31st March, 1950, was allocated during the year 1950–51 as follows: advances to State Advances Corporation to cover loans to ex-servicemen, £500,000; and transfer to the Loans Redemption Account for amortization of debt, £1,865,374.

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT LOANS ACCOUNT.—Since the inauguration of the National Development Loans Account in April, 1942, all loan-moneys raised for public-works and other capital purposes are first paid into this account and then transferred to the various accounts covering the activities for which the moneys are required.

Particulars of the amounts transferred from the National Development Loans Account during each of the last three financial years were as follows.

1946–49.1919–50.1950–51.
 £££
Public Works Account16,028,42517,791,27512,500,000
Electric Supply Account5,000,0006,250,0008,400,000
Land Settlement Account2,450,0003,300,000500,000
State Coal Mines Account1,500,000900,000560,000
Working Railways Account1,746,0002,900,0003,300,000
Post Office Account 2,500,0003,450,000
Purchase of shares in the British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines, Ltd. 241,935 
Purchase of shares in the British Petroleum Company of New Zealand, Ltd.765,000191,250 
Purchase of shares in Dominion Salt, Ltd. 50,00050,000
Transfer to New Zealand National Airways Corporation685,000275,000 
Transfer to Linen Flax Corporation110,000  
      Totals28,284,42534,399,46028,760,000

The balance in the Account at the end of March, 1951, was £5,215,419.

EARTHQUAKE AND WAR DAMAGE FUND.—The Earthquake and War Damage Fund, which replaced the War Damage Fund created by the War Damage Act, 1941, was set up under the provisions of the Earthquake and War Damage Act, 1944. Premiums paid into the fund during the threes years 1948–49 to 1950–51 amounted to £544,499, £587,765, and £688,205 respectively. Interest on investments amounted to £126,594, £170,325, and £186,417. Payments during the same years amounted to £383,974 (including £339,525 on account of adjustment of value of investments held in London occasioned by the exchange-rate alteration in 1948), £32,534, and £44,115 leaving balances of £6,109,959, £6,835,515, £7,666,022 in the fund at 31st March, 1949, 1950, and 1951 respectively.

A description of the provisions of the Act and further details of the fund will be found in Section 30D.

DEFENCE FUND.—In order to provide funds for the purchase of modern equipment for the Royal New Zealand Air Force, an Air Defence Fund was created in June, 1948. This fund has since been extended to cover the three Services, and the title has been changed to the Defence Fund. The amounts paid to the fund were £1,600,000 in 1948–49, £1,300,000 in 1949–50, and £3,950,000 in 1950–51, which, together with interest on investments totalling £133,451, left a balance of £6,983,451 in the fund at 31st March, 1951.

25 B—TAXATION

TOTAL TAXATION.—All revenue collected by means of taxation was until the end of the financial year 1921–22 paid into the Consolidated Fund and applied to general purposes. From 1922–23 to the 5th December, 1927, however, certain items were paid into the Main Highways Account to help defray the cost of improving and maintaining roads. From the last-mentioned date all such moneys were paid into the Consolidated Fund in the first instance, and (with certain exceptions) transferred to the Main Highways Account until the 1st April, 1947, when this account was abolished, and highways maintenance became a direct charge on the Consolidated Fund. Receipts from social security taxation are paid direct into the Social Security Fund, while a similar position obtained in the case of war taxation, receipts from this source having been paid direct into the War Expenses Account up to the 31st March, 1946, since when all receipts previously included under the heading of war taxation have been treated as ordinary revenue and paid to the Consolidated Fund. As will be seen from later headings, the principal war-time taxes have either been abolished or the rates considerably reduced.

A summary of taxation revenue during the last eleven years is given in the following table. In addition to total taxation the amounts received from direct taxes on income are also shown.

Year.Direct Taxes on Income (i.e., Income-tax and War and Social Security Charges on Income).Total Taxation.
Amount.Percentage of Total Taxation (All Sources).Amount.
Total.Per Head of Mean Population.Total.Per Head of Mean Population.
 ££ s. d. ££ s. d.
1940–4134,563,73721 2 756.361,360,84037 10 3
1941–4239,845,13024 8 958.568,163,25641 16 2
1942–4353,977,44132 18 261.487,940,84453 12 4
1943–4463,311,96538 13 362.8100,839,48461 11 4
1944–4568,438,47741 2 363.0108,681,81465 5 10
1945–4671,582,87041 16 1162.3114,954,87367 4 0
1946–4763,873,16236 1 756.5113,119,04663 18 0
1947–4863,581,24435 3 652.0122,275,91167 12 11
1948–4978,386,05742 10 360.1130,440,24970 14 11
1949–5080,186,02042 12 559.2135,556,31972 1 1
1950–5195,208,07549 12 1060.3157,946,97582 7 1

Excluding the special taxation levied for social security purposes, taxation revenue in 1950–51 amounted to £122,180,538, an increase of £18,327,074 on the 1949–50 figure. Of this amount, £59,441,839 or 48.7 per cent., a slightly higher proportion than the figure of 46.7 per cent. for the previous year, was received from direct taxes on income.

The following table shows receipts under the various heads of taxation during the last five years.

Head.Revenue for Year Ended 31st March,
1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.
Consolidated Fund—£££££
  Customs revenue15,718,98324,399,88119,111,48721,474,53323,600,062
  Beer duty4,251,5094,404,0514,555,3744,822,3405,036,145
  Highways taxation2,972,0363,543,9543,613,7433,640,1163,996,629
  Land-tax939,559851,456916,120967,3861,043,203
  Income-tax32,085,05736,632,58149,007,67248,483,45059,441,839
  Sales tax15,550,54715,945,81314,105,22414,785,32016,827,106
  Death duties5,503,1035,232,0625,587,0995,320,3676,778,379
  Gift duties448,573434,110445,291393,383475,634
  Racing taxation2,082,2532,198,2092,103,7602,268,4912,577,603
  Duty on instruments600,336579,674530,800596,9921,161,000
  Amusements-tax226,569221,209243,766256,716236,373
  Adhesive stamps230,581199,916182,721214,172339,806
  Impressed stamps293,244322,919339,555355,547386,436
  Other stamps taxation165,050194,455191,263161,940173,621
  National-security tax9,404,221772,029   
  Film-hire tax134,918111,156108,285112,701106,702
  Miscellaneous108,85461,67819,57910 
      Totals90,715,39396,099,153101,061,739103,853,464122,180,538
Social-security taxation—     
Social-security charge22,383,88426,176,63429,378,38531,702,57035,766,236
Registration fees, &c.19,769124125285201
      Totals22,403,65326,176,75829,378,51031,702,85535,766,437
      Total taxation receipts113,119,046122,275,911130,440,249135,556,319157,946,975
Taxation receipts per head of mean population—£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.
Ordinary (Consolidated Fund)51 4 1153 3 354 16 355 4 163 14 1
Social security12 13 114 9 815 18 816 17 018 13 0
      Totals63 18 067 12 1170 14 1172 1 182 7 1

During the early years of the depression period heavier imposts were made in existing fields of taxation and, in addition, new classes of taxation were imposed, the latter including a sales tax and a scheme of special taxation for the relief of unemployment and the promotion of employment. This employment-promotion tax was replaced in 1939–40 by social-security taxation. Later the need of finance for New-Zealand's war effort necessitated the imposition of new taxes and additional charges under many existing 1 endings. The figures for the post-war years reflect the higher levels of incomes, prices, &c.

Compared with 1949–50, revenue from taxation in 1950–51 showed an increase of £22,390,656 or 16.5 per cent.

Receipts from income-tax in 1950–51 were £10,958,389 or 22.6 per cent. above those of the previous year; other items which contributed to the large overall increase in taxation receipts included the social security charge, £4,063,666, Customs duties, £2,125,529, sales tax, £2,041,786, and death duties, £1,458,012. Taxation paid into the Consolidated Fund increased by £18,1127,074 (17.6 per cent.) as compared with the previous year, and social-security taxation by £4,063,582 (12.8 per cent.).

In 1950–51 taxation paid into the Consolidated Fund accounted for 77.4 per cent. of the total taxation receipts and social-security taxes for 22.6 per cent. If to the total of social-security taxes is added the £14,000,000 transfer from the Consolidated Fund. the 1950–51 taxation used for social-security purposes amounted to 31.5 per cent. of the total taxation receipts for the year.

The figures under the various headings in the preceding table are to a small extent swollen by the inclusion of penalties for late payment, and of lines for offences under the various taxation Acts.

The Social Security Act, 1938, provides that, in addition to the special taxation for the purposes of the Fund, payment may be made to the Fund of such other moneys as may be appropriated by Parliament from time to time, and a substantial amount has been transferred from the Consolidated Fund each year. Also, several substantial amounts were transferred from the latter Fund to the War Expenses Account. The total amount transferred to the Social Security Fund since its inception in 1939–40 to 31st March, 1951, was £103,009,367, while during the same period £40,489,987 was transferred to the now dormant War Expenses Account. The following table shows for each of the last eleven years the taxation receipts of the Consolidated Fund, the amounts transferred as indicated above, and the taxation receipts of the Social Security Fund and War Expenses Account plus the amounts of these transfers.

Year Ended 31st March,Consolidated Fund.Social Security Taxation Plus Transfers.War Expenses Taxation Plus Transfers.
Taxation Receipts.Transfers to—
Social Security Fund.War Expenses Account.

* Includes £4,611,018 and £1,785,713 respectively from surplus of previous year.

 £££££
194134,873,7323,200,000 13,941,86115,745,247
194235,161,9463,600,0003,226,00014,663,85625,163,454
194336,195,8653,800,0003,172,00015,988,64342,728,336
194442,107,6194,100,00011,700,00017,477,77357,144,092
194545,689,3964,500,0006,200,00018,760,06654,932,352
194648,370,7187,000,000 22,167,30851,416,847
194790,715,39318,000,0003,000,00040,403,6533,000,000
194896,099,15316,000,0006,666,018*42,176,75842,176,7586,666,018
1949101,061,73915,000,0004,238,143*44,378,51044,378,5104,238,143
1950103,853,46412,000,000 43,702,855 
1951122,180,53814,000,000 49,766,437 

A comparison of taxation revenue and total private income and national income is afforded by the following table, which also shows taxation as a percentage of private income and national income.

Year.Total Private Income.National Income at Factor Cost.Taxation Revenue.
Total.As a Percentage of—
Private Income.National Income.

* Provisional.

 £(m)£(m)£(m)Per Cent.Per Cent.
1940–41237.8232.461.425.826.4
1941–42259.4254.568.226.326.8
1942–43297.7293.587.929.529.9
1943–44332.8326.5100.830.330.9
1944–45340.9329.9108.731.932.9
1945–46364.5350.1115.031.632.8
1940–47395.7365.3113.128.631.0
1947–48445.5410.9122.327.529.8
1948–49462.0419.1130.428.231.1
1949–50528.4483.2135.625.728.1
1950–51626.9*577.6*157.925.2*27.3*

The following diagram shows the extent to which taxation has increased since the year 1924–25. The extent to which employment-promotion taxation and the later social-security taxation have contributed towards this increase and the huge impost for war purposes are also clearly portrayed.

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE TAXATION.—Revenue included under the heading of Customs is exclusive of receipts from tire-tax and from that portion of the motor-spirits tax which is imposed to provide funds for reading purposes, referred to under the next heading. Sales-tax receipts are not counted as ordinary Customs revenue, although collected by the Customs Department, nor were gold export duties up to their final removal in October, 1949. The following figures show Customs and excise revenue, for ordinary revenue purposes, for the last five years.

Year Ended 31st March,Customs Duties.*Beer Duty.Total Customs and Excise Duties.Proportion of Total Taxation (Excluding Social Security).

* Excise duties other than beer duty are here included with Customs duties.

 £££Per Cent.
194715,718,9834,251,50919,970,49222.01
194824,390,8814,404,05128,794,93229.96
194919,111,4864,555,37423,666,86023.42
195021,474,5334,822,34026,296,87325.32
195123,600,0625,036,14528,636,20723.44

Increases in the rate of beer duty and in the tax on motor-spirits, for general revenue purposes, were brought into operation on 2nd August, 1939. As from 27th September, 1939, additional duties were imposed on certain items (including beer and tobacco, which two items were subject to still further increases in duty as from 11th May, 1942); the additional revenue in these cases was appropriated for war purposes, and paid direct into the War Expenses Account, until the 1st April, 1947, and thereafter into the Consolidated Fund. The tax on motor-spirits was reduced by 2d. a gallon and the duty on tea reduced by 3d. a pound, both effective from the 3rd September, 1951. Information in regard to these increases and Customs and excise duties generally is contained in Section 9D, Customs Tariff and Revenue.

MAIN HIGHWAYS TAXATION.—The Main Highways Act, 1922, laid down that the Revenue Fund (the Revenue and Construction Funds merged as from 1st April, 1936) of the Main Highways Account was to be credited, inter alia, with—

  • All moneys received as Customs duties imposed in respect of rubber tires, rubber tiring, and inner tubes of rubber for pneumatic tires, n.e.i. (as per the Customs tariff):

  • All moneys received by the Crown under any Act in respect of the licensing of motor-vehicles.

The tire-tax was imposed by the Customs Amendment Act, 1921, prior to the passing of which tires had been admitted free. The licensing of motor-vehicles by the Crown became operative in the financial year 1924–25, consequent upon the passing of the Motor-vehicles Act, 1924.

A third class of taxation for main-highways purposes was introduced towards the end of 1927 by the Motor-spirits Taxation Act of that year, which imposed a duty of 4d. per gallon on all motor-spirits imported. The rate was increased to 6d. per gallon in 1930. The duty collected was paid into the Consolidated Fund in the first place, and after deduction of expenses of administration and of refunds (which are provided for in cases where the motor-spirits are used otherwise than for motor-vehicles) the residue was divided between (1) the Main Highways Account, and (2) boroughs with a population of 6,000 or over, in the proportions of 92 per cent. and 8 per cent. respectively. The Main Highways Account was abolished as from 1st April, 1947, but provision was made that amounts subject to appropriation by Parliament from the Consolidated Fund for highway purposes must not be less than the total of the net revenues which would have been available under the former system. An additional 2d. per gallon was imposed from 7th October, 1931, a further 2d. from 9th February, 1933, and a further 4d. from 2nd August, 1939, but these additional imposts (totalling 8d. per gallon, or 8 7/10d. with the surtax of 7/10d. per gallon on imports from foreign countries) are for general purposes, and the proceeds are treated as part of the ordinary Customs revenue. A reduction of 2d. per gallon in the rate of duty was made effective from the 3rd September, 1951.

By section 19 of the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), substituted later by section 4 of the Motor-vehicles Amendment Act, 1934–35, a mileage-tax was imposed on motor-vehicles using fuel other than motor-spirits. This tax is allocated in a similar manner to the tax on motor-spirits, part of the receipts being regarded as the equivalent of Customs taxation and the balance after deduction of administrative expenses and refunds, being regarded as part of the net revenues for highway purposes.

Taxation receipts for highway purposes have been as follows during the last five years.

Year Ended 31st March,Fees, &c., under Motor-vehicles Act.*Tire-tax.Motor-spirits Taxation.Mileage-tax.Total.

* Under Transport Act, 1949, as from 1st November, 1949.

 £££££
1947479,412210,0292,268,27214,3232,972,036
1948768,898246,9122,496,62113,4883,525,919
1949736,386241,1362,598,87015,9743,592,366
1950705,57664,3492,823,36919,9973,613,291
1951805,16026,7453,104,21125,9323,962,048

LAND AND INCOME TAX.—A brief history of the various changes in the rates of, and the law relating to, land-tax and income-tax between 1915 and 1939 is contained in the 1940 and previous issues of the Year-Book. The principal alterations which have taken place since 1936 are as follows.

A graduated scale of land-tax was reintroduced as from 1st April, 1936. An amended scale of income-tax, with somewhat heavier imposts, was also adopted, and various changes were made in regard to exemptions. Under the amended scale the reduction of exemptions with increasing income was discontinued, as was also the special flat-rate tax on incomes over £500. The 1936 amendment, superseded by the 1940 amendment. provides that tax-payers may be required to pay their income-tax by instalments instead of in one sum as formerly.

With a view to obtaining additional revenue for general governmental purposes, legislation was passed in 1939 reducing the general exemption from £210 to £200, and increasing the basic rates of taxation.

In connection with the provision of finance for war purposes, the War Expenses Act of 1939 increased all rates of income-tax for the 1939–40 tax-year by 15 per cent. This surcharge was retained at the same level for the succeeding two years, but was increased to 33 1/3 per cent. for the tax years 1942–43 to 1945–46. A reduction to 15 per cent. became effective in the 1946–47 tax year, the surcharge continuing at this rate until the 1951–52 tax year, when it was further reduced to 10 per cent.

Income derived from farm-lands of an unimproved value of under £3,000 (from 1931–32) was, up to the passing of the Land and Income Tax Amendment Act, 1939, exempt from income-tax. The 1939 Act provides for all profits or gains derived from the use or occupation of any land to be regarded as assessable income. This Act also made provision (amended in 1940 and 1941) for the taxation of income of “proprietary” companies—i.e., companies under the control of not more than four persons.

By the Land and Income Tax Amendment Act of 1940 certain State trading Departments, which were previously exempt, were made liable for the payment of income-tax; the special exemption in respect of children was extended to include children brought to New Zealand under any Government scheme and being supported by any taxpayer; unpaid land-tax, once registered, was constituted a first charge on land until all arrears were paid; and a new scale of basic rates of income-tax was provided.

The Land and Income Tax Amendment Act of 1941 brought the provisions for taxation of banking companies into line with those for other companies.

Under the Finance Act, 1942, the Commissioner of Inland Revenue (Taxes) is empowered to require any person to deduct income-tax from payments due to defaulting taxpayers and to pay every sum so deducted to the Commissioner.

The Land and Income Tax Amendment Act, 1944, increased the personal exemption of absentees from £50 to £200, and also made provision for deductions from assessable income in respect of deferred maintenance of assets where reasonable and proper maintenance was prevented by conditions arising out of the Second World War.

The Land and Income Tax Amendment Act, 1945, increased, commencing with the tax-year 1946–47, the special exemption in respect of a dependent wife or husband, or of a housekeeper whose duties included the care of a widowed or divorced taxpayer's child or children, from £50 to £100, and abolished the special exemption of £50 in respect of a dependent child. These adjustments were made as the result of the amendment to the Social Security Act which extended the family benefit to cover all children, irrespective of the income of the parents. Before the abolition of the exemption in respect of a dependent child could be carried into effect, however, the matter was again considered, and the exemption was restored by the Land and Income Tax Amendment Act, 1946. The 1945 amendment also modified the special exemption in respect of a dependent relative, and increased the personal allowance of absentees where the incomes of husband and wife are aggregated. It also made provision for a special depreciation allowance, commencing with the tax-year 1946–47, in respect of any premises, plant, or machinery acquired, erected, installed, or extended by a taxpayer on or after 1st April, 1945, and not later than 31st March, 1948. The period covered by this provision has since been extended to 31st March, 1953. This allowance is in addition to the ordinary depreciation allowance provided for by the principal Act. The 1945 amendment further provided that, where the income of a taxpayer had been unduly increased upon the sale or other disposition of any live-stock by reason of the adoption of a standard value that was less than the true value, the Commissioner might, upon application in writing before 30th June, 1946, reduce the assessable income for any particular year or years. Provision was also made for the names of persons convicted of tax evasion, &c., to be published in the New Zealand Gazette.

The Land and Income Tax Amendment Act, 1946, made provision for an agreement to be made with the Government of any territory outside New Zealand with a view to affording relief from double taxation. This amendment also abolished the excess-profits tax imposed by the Excess Profits Tax Act, 1940.

The Land and Income Tax Amendment Act, 1949, provided that in computing taxable income for the purposes of an aggregate assessment, a husband and wife are allowed a total ordinary exemption of £400 in all cases, irrespective of whether the income was derived from assessable or non-assessable sources. Other provisions included the deduction from a farmer's assessable income of expenditure on trees planted for shelter or to prevent erosion. &c., the spreading of income derived from the sale of timber from farms over a period of up to five years in all, the spreading of excess income derived from sale of a substantial part of the live-stock of a farming business where unduly low-standard values had been adopted, and that trading-stock sold for an inadequate consideration should be deemed to have been sold at the market-price current at the time of the sale, for the purposes of arriving at the assessable income of the person selling the stock.

The 1950 amendment to the principal Act abolished the 33 1/3 per cent. additional charge in the case of unearned income imposed by the 1931 amendment and later incorporated in the basic rates fixed by the Land and Income Tax Amendment Act, 1940. In effect, the former distinction for taxation purposes between earned and unearned income is removed. The same amendment also increased the special exemption from land-tax from an unimproved value of £500 to an unimproved value of £1,000.

The Land and Income Tax Amendment Act (No. 2), 1950, provides for a special income-tax rebate of £15 to persons who have attained the ago of sixty-five years; exempts from income-tax the income of societies formed for the purpose of advertising, beautifying, or developing any district with a view to attracting trade, tourists, or population, and not for private profit: enables a husband who is separated from his wife to claim an exemption in respect of his wife to the same extent as if she were a dependent relative; authorizes the Commissioner to grant an initial depreciation allowance of 30 per cent. in respect of new farm equipment or new accommodation for farm workers acquired after 31st March, 1950, and prior to the 1st April, 1953; and, subject to provisoes where the land is sold within live years, provides for an allowance for land-development expenditure to farmers, such as on eradication of animal or vegetable pests, foiling of bush, weed-destruction, and on swamp drainage, irrigation channels, rabbit-proofing of fences. &c., the allowable deduction not to exceed £200 in the aggregate of the latter class in any income year.

This 1950 Act as amended in 1951 also provides for testamentary annuities charged on property bequeathed by will, by Court order under the Family Protection Act, 1908, or by deed of arrangement, and paid out of income to be claimed as a deduction, and for income derived from Western Samoa, and chargeable with income-tax there, to be exempted from income-tax in New Zealand. Certain transfers or settlements of income (not including those made prior to 24th November, 1950) are to be disregarded for income-tax purposes and the transferor or settlor remains liable for tax as if these bad not been made. Other sections exempt the Christmas Island Phosphate Commission from taxation, and empower the Commissioner to grant relief from payment of income-tax of up to £100 without the necessity of obtaining the Minister's approval.

The 1951 amendment imposes a time limit of six months for requiring a case to be stated to a Magistrate; reduces the special rebate of £15 to £10 for taxpayers aged sixty-five or over, and provides that such taxpayers assessable as trustees are not entitled to rebates; and makes the New Zealand Forest Service liable for income-tax in respect of commercial enterprises. It also exempts from income-tax the pay of servicemen in operational areas: provides for universal superannuation to be assessable for income-tax; and that profits from dealing in property are to form part of assessable income. The definition of “trading stock” is amended, as are the provisions relating to its valuation. In suitable cases the Commissioner is authorized to extend the time for application to spread excess income derived on the sale of livestock where unduly low standard values have been adopted. Assessments may be remitted at any time where liabilities are remitted.

Statistics relating to the incidence of income-tax are given in Section 36 of this volume.

Land-tax.—Land-tax is assessed on the unimproved value of land after deductions provided for by statute have been made by way of special exemption. An owner of land, the unimproved value of which does not exceed £1,500, was hitherto allowed an exemption of £500, this being increased to £1,000 by the Land and Income Tax Amendment Act, 1950; and where the unimproved value lies between £1,500 and £2,500 there is a similar exemption, diminished, however, by £1 for every £1 over the £1,500 mark, so that no exemption is allowed when £2,500 is reached.

Where the land is subject to a registered mortgage an alternative scale of exemption is provided—viz., £7,500 in cases where the unimproved value does not exceed £7,500, the exemption of £7,500 being diminished by £1 for every £1 above the margin of £7,500 of unimproved value, and disappearing altogether at £15,000. Where the capital value of the mortgage is less than the amount of deduction provided, such capital value is deducted instead.

No special exemption is allowed in the case of land not situated in a borough when such land has been owned by a person for three years and not improved to the extent of £1 per acre or equal to one-third of the improved value, if in the opinion of the Commissioner it should have been so improved. In the case of such land also, the rate of land-tax is 50 per cent. more than the ordinary rate.

In lieu of the special exemptions set out above, the Commissioner has discretionary powers to grant relief in certain specified cases of hardship. Subject to deductions provided, life tenants are liable to tax, and joint owners are assessed jointly as regards the land held in conjunction, and are liable severally in respect of each owner's interest in such land and any other land. This liability for joint assessment also applies to companies owning land if half of the paid-up capital or half (in nominal value) of the allotted shares of each company is held by or on behalf of shareholders in the other.

In case of default by a taxpayer in respect of land-tax the amount of tax may be demanded from his successor in title, from a tenant of the taxpayer or his successor, or from a mortgagee of the estate or interest concerned. Land-tax constitutes a charge on the land, and, notwithstanding any disposition of it, such land continues to be liable in the hands of a purchaser or other holder thereof for the payment of the tax so long as the charge remains in force. Registration of the charge is required, and no disposition of the land or of any interest in it may be registered while the charge remains in force. Provision is made for relief, in cases of hardship.

Where the unimproved value on which land-tax is payable does not exceed £5,000 the present rate of land-tax is 1d. in the pound. This rate is increased by 1/8000d. for every £1 in excess of £5,000, with, however, a maximum rate of 6d. in the pound.

Income-tax.—Income-tax is payable on the full incomes of registered companies and certain public authorities, and in other cases on income in excess of £200 per annum. A deduction of £100 from assessable income is allowed in respect of a dependent wife, diminished at the rate of £2 for every complete £1 by which the personal income derived by the wife exceeds £50. A similar deduction is allowed in respect of a dependent husband, and an exemption of up to £100 is allowed a widower, widow, or divorced person in respect of a housekeeper whose duties include the care and control of a child or children in respect of whom the taxpayer is entitled to a special exemption; £50 deduction is allowed for each dependent child or grandchild under eighteen years of age, and also in respect of each child, brought to New Zealand under any Government scheme, who is dependent on the taxpayer; and amounts up to £50 contributed towards the support of a relative of the taxpayer are also deductible from assessable income, provided that such relative is not in receipt of a monetary benefit under the Social Security Act. Exemption up to 15 per cent. of assessable income, but with a maximum exemption of £150, is allowed for life-insurance premiums and National Provident Fund, superannuation, and similar contributions. With the exception of the personal exemption of £200, none of the foregoing exemptions is allowed to absentees. Allowance is made for depreciation of premises and plant used in the production of income, the revised scale of depreciation adopted as from 1st April, 1939, in the case of premises being 2 1/2 per cent. for wooden-frame buildings: 1 1/2 per cent. for brick, stone, or concrete walled buildings; and 1 per cent. for buildings of reinforced stone or concrete throughout and steel-framed buildings covered with iron, asbestos, or similar material. In addition to the foregoing, provision has been made for a special depreciation allowance commencing with the tax-year 1946–47 in respect of any premises, plant, or machinery erected, acquired, installed, or extended on or after 1st April, 1945, and not later than 31st March, 1948. The latter date has been subsequently extended to the 31st March, 1953. Any allowance made in this connection is to be in respect of the income derived during the live years from the date that the premises, &c., were first used in the production of assessable income. The amount of the deduction is limited in the aggregate to 30 per cent. of the total cost spread over the period as follows: first year, 10 per cent.; second year, 8 per cent.; third year, 6 per cent.; fourth year, 4 per cent.; and fifth year, 2 per cent. Where a taxpayer has been prevented from maintaining assets in a proper or reasonable manner by conditions arising out of the Second World War, a deduction from assessable income may be allowed in respect of deferred maintenance. The minimum amount that may be so allowed is £100, and the amount applied for is to be deposited with the Commissioner, and paid to the Consolidated Fund. At any time after the expiration of twelve months from the date of the deposit, the taxpayer may apply for a refund of the whole or a part thereof, but in no case may the amount of the refund be less than £50. Any amount so refunded is deemed to be assessable income for the income year in which the refund is made. A deduction may also be made in respect of any premium paid on account of leased machinery used in the production of income. Certain specified incomes are wholly exempt from taxation.

Income derived from debentures of companies, local authorities, and public authorities is taxable at the source unless a certified list of the debenture-holders (with certain other particulars) is furnished. Where such income is taxed at the source an adjustment is obtainable, so that no taxpayer need pay tax on debenture interest at a higher rate than on income from other sources.

Companies pay tax on their full income (at the appropriate rate for such income) before distribution of dividends. The recipient of income from dividends does not pay income-tax on such part of his income, but the amount is taken into account in fixing the rate of tax to be paid. This provision also applies in the case of income from “tax-free” Government securities or “tax-free” company debentures.

In respect of stock or debentures issued by the Government of New Zealand, or by any local or public authority, or by the Public Trustee as agent of a land-settlement association, interest is not liable to New Zealand income-tax if it is payable out of New Zealand to a person not resident in New Zealand.

Income-tax is payable on the taxable balance—i.e., assessable income less exemptions—and is assessed at the following basic rates, which were laid down in the Land and Income Tax Amendment Act of 1940 and amended by the Finance Act, 1942, and the Land and Income Tax Amendment Acts, 1950 and 1951. In addition, a surcharge of 10 per cent. (reduced from 15 per cent. as from the 1951–52 tax year), of the amount assessed is made, subject to a maximum rate of 15s. 6d. per £1.

Debentures issued by Companies and Local and Public Authorities.—(i) Where the income has been derived from debentures issued by a company on terms providing for the payment of income-tax by the company, the rate of tax is 8s. 8d. per £1; (ii) in other cases where the income has been derived by a company or a public authority, the rate of tax is 12s. per £1.

Companies and Public Authorities.—On income not included above, the rate of income-tax for every £1 of taxable income in the case of companies and public authorities is: (i) Where the taxable income does not exceed £6,300, 2s. 6d., increased by 1/150d. for every £1 of taxable income; (ii) where the taxable income exceeds £6,300, 7s. 9d., increased by 1/150d. for every £1 of the taxable income in excess of £6,300, but so as not to exceed in any case the rate of 8s. 8d. per £1.

Other Taxpayers.—On all income not included above, the rate of income-tax is as follows, subject to the concessions outlined below. On so much of the taxable income as does not exceed £100, the rate of tax per £1 is 2s. 6d.; for each succeeding £100 or part thereof the rate of tax increases by 3d. until it reaches a maximum of 12s. for every £1 in excess of £3,800. There is a limit of 15s. 6d. in any £1 of taxable income but this rate has not been reached since the surcharge was reduced from 33 1/3 per cent. The Land and Income Tax (Annual) Act, 1948, provided for a rebate in the assessment to the value of £10 from the tax payable, or where this was less than £10, a rebate of the amount of tax. Where an aggregated assessment was made under the Land and Income Tax Amendment Act, 1939, the rebate was to be equal to the sum of the rebates allowable as if the assessments for the husband and the wife had been made separately. This provision was continued in the 1949 and 1950 annual Acts, but was increased to £15 in the 1951 (Annual) Act. The Land and Income Tax Amendment Act (No. 2), 1950, also provides for an additional special rebate of £15 to persons aged sixty-five years or over, this being reduced to £10 by the Land and Income Tax Amendment Act, 1951.

The Finance Act, 1942, provided for a new method of assessing income-tax where two classes of income were involved—e.g.., earned and unearned, or earned and nonassessable. In the case of taxable income that was wholly earned or wholly unearned, however, the method remained the same. The Land and Income Tax (Annual) Act, 1947, repeated in the corresponding 1948 and 1949 Acts, granted some measure of relief from the addition of one-third of the tax on unearned income, in cases of persons on small incomes. Where the unearned taxable income, or the total of unearned and earned taxable income did not exceed £200, it was subject to earned rates of tax only. Where it exceeded £200 but was less than £400, the amount of unearned income to be treated at earned rates was not to be greater than the difference between the taxable income and £400. The 1950 Act abolished the one-third impost on unearned income which had been current since 1932, so that there is now no difference in dealing with the former two classes of income.

Legislative authority is given in the Land and Income Tax Amendment Act of 1940 for income-tax to be assessed for any year at the basic rates specified, any change required being in the form of an addition or deduction of a certain percentage.

The following table shows the amount of income-tax payable on various amounts of assessable income by individual taxpayers classified according to marital status (married or otherwise) and, in the case of married taxpayers, according to the number of dependent children under eighteen years of age. Limitation of space precludes the inclusion of cases where there are more than three children, but, as stated earlier, an exemption of £50 is allowed for each child. The amounts of tax shown are baaed on the rates in force (exclusive of the £15 rebate) for the tax-year 1951–52 and thus relate to incomes received during the income year 1950–51. In addition to the personal and dependant's exemptions, which have been allowed for in calculating the amount of tax payable, further deductions from the assessable income would be made in respect of life assurance premiums. National Provident Fund, superannuation, and similar contributions.

The opportunity has also been taken to show the amount of the social-security charge. This tax, which is payable in addition to income-tax, is referred to under a later heading. The present rate is equivalent to 1s. 6d. per £1 of income, and it should be noted that, unlike income-tax, there are no deductions (personal, dependent relatives, &c.), the charge being levied on the full amount of income.

Assessable income.Social-security Charge.Income-tax* payable by Persons
Unmarried.Married with Dependent Wife.Married with Dependent Wife and—
One Child.Two Children.Three Children.

* All amounts of income-tax shown in table are to be reduced by £15, this being the value of the rebate granted for the year 1951–52, and for persons aged sixty-five or over, by an additional £10.

££ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.
30022 10 013 15 0    
40030 0 028 17 613 15 06 17 6  
50037 10 045 7 628 17 621 6 313 15 06 17 6
60045 0 063 5 045 7 637 2 628 17 621 6 3
70052 10 032 10 063 5 054 6 345 7 637 2 6
80060 0 0103 2 682 10 072 17 663 5 054 6 3
90067 10 0125 2 6103 2 692 16 332 10 072 17 6
1,00075 0 0143 10 0125 2 6114 2 6103 2 692 16 3
1,500112 10 0286 0 0255 15 0241 6 3228 17 6213 2 6
2,000150 0 0457 17 6420 15 0402 17 6385 0 0367 16 3
2,500187 10 0664 2 6620 2 6598 16 3577 10 0556 17 6
3,000225 0 0904 15 0853 17 6829 0 6804 1 6780 6 3
3,500262 10 01,179 15 01,122 0 01,093 16 31,065 12 61,038 2 6
4,000300 0 01,489 2 61,124 10 01,392 17 61,361 6 01,330 6 3
4,500337 10 01,819 2 61,753 2 61,720 2 61,687 2 61,654 2 6
5,000375 0 02,149 2 62,083 2 62,050 2 62,017 2 61,984 2 6

In interpreting this table as an indication of the incidence of social-security and income taxation in New Zealand, it should be noted that under the provisions of the Social Security Act a family benefit of £26 per annum is paid in respect of each child under sixteen years of age, irrespective of the income of the parents. This has operated from 1st April, 1946. The family benefit is normally paid to the mother, but with her concurrence may be used as an offset against income-tax due. As examples of the effect of this benefit, it will be observed that a married man with an income of £500 per annum and one child would pay £37 10s. social-security charge and £21 6s. 3d. (less £15 rebate) income-tax. He would, however, receive £26 per annum in family benefit. A married man on an income of £500 per year with three children would pay £37 10s social-security charge and (with rebate) no income tax. The family benefit would amount to £78 per annum in this case, an amount of £10 10s. greater than his payments of income-tax and social-security charge.

DEATH DUTIES.—The law dealing with these classes of duty is embodied in the Death Duties Act, 1921, as subsequently amended. The main heads of taxation are estate and succession duties, which are generally referred to by the collective title of “death duties.” In addition to these there are gift duties and Maori succession duties.

Estate and succession duties are due and payable to the Deputy-Commissioner of inland Revenue (Stamp Duties) on assessment, an additional 5 per cent. penalty, together with interest at 5 per cent. per annum, being payable if duty is not paid within three months after death. On so much of the duties as is paid within fifteen months (this period may be extended in certain cases) after the date of death, however, the rate of interest is reduced to 4 per cent. per annum. Gift duties are payable at the time the gift is made, and Maori succession duties before the registration of the succession order by the Maori Land Court. Generally the decision of the Deputy-Commissioner in regard to matters of fact incidental to the assessment of duty is final, but there is an appeal on points of law or of fact by way of a case stated to the Supreme Court. An appeal on a question of law may be referred to the Court of Appeal.

Part III of the Finance Act, 1939, provides for a reduction in the amount of death or gift duty payable in eases where the margin above the limit of value on which a lower rate is payable is small.

The War Expenses Act, 1939, increased all rates of estate, succession, and gift duty by one-third, for the provision of war finance The increase in the rate of duty applied to the estates of all persons dying after the 26th September, 1939, and, in so far as it related to gift duty, applied to all gifts made subsequent to 26th September, 1939.

Part IV of the Finance Act, 1940, repealed the provisions of the War Expenses Act, 1939, mentioned previously, and established new and increased rates for all classes of death and gift duties. From the 1st April, 1940, to the 31st March, 1946, by section 8 of the 1940 Act, all revenue accruing from these duties was paid directly into the War Expenses Account. Since then such revenue has again been payable into the Consolidated Fund. Provision was also made for the exemption from death duties and gift duty, of gifts to the Government for war purposes.

The net revenue received from death and gift duties during each of the last five years was as follows.

Year Ended 31st March,Estate Duty.Succession Duty.Gift Duty.Total Death Duties.
 ££££
19474,236,6121,266,491448,5735,951,676
19484,071,1511,160,911434,1105,666,172
19494,285,4271,301,672445,2916,032,390
19504,086,1601,234,207393,3835,713,750
19515,280,8891,497,490475,6347,254,013

Estate Duty.—When the final balance of the dutiable estate of a deceased person, estimated as at the date of his death, exceeds £500, an estate duty is levied on the amount thereof. In the case of any estate the final balance of which does not exceed £10,000, any interest acquired by the wife of the deceased up to the value of £5,000 and, by the Finance Act, 1947, £500 for each child under 21 years, is exempt from estate duty, provided that the amount of deduction shall not in any case exceed the difference between the final balance and £10,000. The rate of duty on the whole estate must. however, be determined before any deduction is made. The principal Act, as amended in 1939, also provided that the wife, lineal descendant, or lineal ancestor of a soldier who met his death on account of either the First or Second World Wars is allowed £5,000 exemption from estate duty, but in the case of a wife or child these exemptions are in substitution for and not in addition to the exemption already mentioned. The value of any life-insurance policy or policies comprised in the estate was, by the Death Duties Amendment Act of 1925, deductible up to a maximum of £1,000, irrespective of the amount of the estate, but the Finance Act of 1939 repealed this provision as from 1st August, 1939.

Up to 1920 duty was leviable on property in excess of £500, and the scale of duties ranged from 1 per cent. in cases where the net estate was between £500 and £1,000 to a maximum of 15 per cent. for large estates. The amendment made to the scale in 1920 considerably increased the duty payable, the rates, which were embodied in the Act of 1921, ranging from 1 per cent. on estates not exceeding £2,000 in value to 20 per cent. on estates of more than £100,000. Part II of the Finance Act, 1930, imposed a rate of 30 per cent. on the amount by which the final balance exceeded £100,000. Part III of the Finance Act, 1939, imposed higher rates of duty, ranging from 1 1/2 per cent. on estates not exceeding £2,000 in value to 30 per cent. on estates exceeding £100,000 in value.

The War Expenses Act of 1939 increased all rates of estate duty by one-third, but Part IV of the Finance Act, 1940, provided a now scale of duties as follows:—

Final Balance of Estate.Rate Per Cent.

* Plus additional 1 per cent. for every £500 or fraction thereof in excess of £500.

† Plus additional 1/2 per cent. for every £1,000 or fraction thereof in excess of £7,000.

‡ Plus additional 1/3 per cent. for every £1,000 or fraction thereof in excess of £31,000.

§ Plus additional 1/10 per cent. for every £1,000 or fraction thereof in excess of £70,000.

£ £ 
Up to 500Nil
Over 500 to 5,0001*
" 5,000 to 6,00011
" 6,000 to 7,00012
" 7,000 to 31,00012
" 31,000 to 70,00024
" 70,000 to 100,00037§
" 100,00040

Succession Duty.—In addition to the estate duty referred to above, a succession duty is payable by any person who acquires a beneficial interest in the estate of a deceased person either by will or by intestacy. An exemption from duty is made in favour of charitable trusts, and special provision is made that the wife, lineal descendant, or lineal ancestor of a soldier who has met his death on account of either the First or (Second World Wars is allowed a £5,000 exemption in addition to the amounts otherwise provided.

The rates of duty vary according to the degree of relationship of the beneficiary to the deceased person. Part III of the Finance Act, 1939, effected a general increase in the rates, which had remained unaltered since 1920, while all rates were increased further by the War Expenses Act, 1939, and increased still further by the Finance Act, 1940.

The scales of duties as outlined in the Finance Act, 1940, and operative as from 30th June, 1940, are as follows:—

  • Wife.—The rate varies from 2 per cent. for amounts exceeding £5,000 but not exceeding £13,000, to 12 9/10 per cent. for amounts exceeding £70,000.

  • Husband.—From 2 per cent. for amounts exceeding £500 but not exceeding £2,000, to 16 3/5| per cent. for amounts exceeding £59,000.

  • Children, &c.—From 1 per cent. for amounts exceeding £500 but not exceeding £1,000, to 16 per cent. for amounts exceeding £61,000.

  • Parents, Brothers, Sisters. &c.—From 3 per cent. for amounts exceeding £200 but not exceeding £500, to 21 per cent. for amounts exceeding £61,000.

  • Other Relatives.—From 6 per cent. for amounts exceeding £200 but not exceeding £500, to 22 3/5 per cent. for amounts exceeding £57,000.

  • Other Cases.—From 10 per cent. for amounts exceeding £200 but not exceeding £500, to 31 9/16 per cent., for amounts exceeding £44,000.

In all the above cases provision is made to allow for a reduction in the amount of succession duty payable, so that it will not exceed the difference between the estate duty payable in respect of such succession and percentages of the succession ranging from 50 in the ease of wife or husband to GO in cases other than relatives.

In cases where the successor is a child of the deceased and is under the age of twenty-one years at the time of death of the deceased, no succession duty is payable on amounts up to £1,000, and in successions exceeding that amount the full amount of duty is payable only in cases where the balance will not be reduced below £1,000.

In respect of moneys exceeding £1,000 that may be payable to persons domiciled out of New Zealand, and where the beneficiary is not the husband or wife of the deceased or a relative of the deceased within the third degree of consanguinity, there is an additional rate equal to 10 per cent. of the excess over £1,000.

Maori Succession Duty.—Where any succession order is made by the Maori Land Court on the death of a Maori, no death duty in the ordinary way is payable on the property included in it, but a Maori succession duty of 2 per cent. is payable on the value of the property, with a general exemption of £200.

Gift Duty.—A gift means any disposition of property (situate in New Zealand at the time of the gift) which is made otherwise than by will, whether with or without an instrument in writing, without full and adequate consideration in money or its equivalent. No duty is payable on a gift which, together with the value of all other gifts (not exempt from duty by reason of their nature) made at the same time or within twelve months previously or subsequently by the same donor to the same or any other beneficiary, otherwise than by way of a charitable trust, does not exceed the value of £500. Exemption from gift duty is also provided in cases of voluntary discharge of a mortgage debt where the donor and beneficiary are not connected by tics of blood or marriage. Various other exemptions were made by the Death Duties Amendment Act, 1923. The Finance Act, 1951, also provided for some minor exemptions.

The amount of the gift duty is payable by either the donor or the beneficiary, but the beneficiary is entitled to be indemnified by the donor unless the terms of the gift provide otherwise. Particulars of any gift made are required to be furnished for assessment of duty within one month of the date of the gift, and in default an additional duty of 50 per cent. is payable. Where duty is payable, the rate (since 30th June, 1940) is based on the following scale.

Value of Gift.Rate of Duty. Per Cent.
Over £500 to £1,0005
" £1,000 to £5,0009
" £5,000 to £10,00015
" £10,000 to £20,00020
" £20,00025

Prior to 1920 there was a flat rate of 5 per cent. on all gifts exceeding £1,000 in value. Gifts between £500 and £1,000 were made dutiable in 1930.

STAMP DUTIES.—The term “stamp duties” covers a miscellany of items of taxation imposed by the Stamp Duties Act, 1923, and subsequent amendments. The 1951 Finance Act exempted comprehensive motor-vehicle insurance policies from stamp duty.

The receipts for the last five years are shown under the various heads of stamp duties revenue as used in the public accounts.

Year Ended 31st March,
1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.
 £££££
Adhesive stamps230,581199,915182,721214,172339,806
Duty on instruments600,336579,674530,800596,9921,161,000
Fines and penalties2,9862,3992,3632,3412,527
Impressed stamps293,244322,919339,555355,547386,436
Licences to companies101,819107,866115,984122,140136,988
Sharebrokers' licences1,4966,4261,5731,7401,683
Racing taxation2,082,2532,198,2092,103,7602,268,4912,577,603
Amusements-tax226,569221,209243,766256,716236,373
Lottery duty27,20027,36128,64927,87326,842
Oversea-passenger duty26,93846,13337,0362,598 
Mortgagees' indemnity foes1,8501,8101,7651,8341,917
Miscellaneous2,7612,4623,8943,4143,664
      Totals3,598,0333,716,3833,591,8663,853,8584,874,839

Several of the more important items included in the foregoing table are dealt with in more detail under subsequent headings.

RACING TAXATION.—The Government tax on totalizator (pari mutuel) investments is 5 per cent. of the gross amounts passed through the machines. This percentage was substituted in August, 1930 (by Part I of the Finance Act, 1930), for the former rate of 2 1/2 per cent., which had been in force since March, 1910, prior to which the percentage was 1 1/2. A refund of 2 1/2 per cent., raised from 1 1/4 per cent. by the Finance Act (No. 2), 1935, of gross totalizator takings (up to a limit of £500) could be made to a racing club, the Minister of Internal Affairs having the right to specify the purpose or purposes for which the amount refunded in any case is to be applied.

By the Finance Act, 1951, the tax on totalizator investments and the refund (up to £500 limit) provisions are combined, so that clubs will pay a reduced rate of duty (at the rate of 2 1/2 per cent. on the first £20,000 of gross totalizator investments received by a club in any year and 5 per cent. on the balance in excess of £20,000), but will not be entitled to any refund. The Consolidated Fund and the clubs will each receive the same amounts of revenue under the new system as they did under former arrangements.

For some years prior to 1939–40 special provision was made annually for the racing clubs to retain for their own use a proportion of the totalizator duty payable under the Stamp Duties Act. From 1st April, 1932, to 31st March, 1934, the proportion was one-fifth, for the next twelve months it was one-tenth, and from 1st April, 1935, to 31st March, 1939, the former proportion of one-fifth was in operation.

From the 1st November, 1915, a tax of 1 per cent. was imposed on the total value of all stakes, and a tax of 2 1/2 per cent. on totalizator dividends, in addition to the tax on totalizator investments. The tax on dividends is computed on the gross amount paid into the totalizator for any horse-race after deducting 12 1/2 per cent. (raised from 10 per cent. by the Finance Act, 1930) to cover the tar on totalizator investments and the club's commission. From the 22nd December, 1921, the tax on stakes was increased to 10 per cent. and that on dividends to 5 per cent. From the 1st April, 1924, the tax on stakes was reduced to 5 per cent., with a further reduction to 1 per cent. from 1st August, 1935.

The Gaming Amendment Act, 1950, makes provision for the Minister of Internal Affairs to grant totalizator licences for not more than 20 days of racing in addition to the existing number of 339 days in any racing year. The Totalizator Agency Board established by the Gaming Amendment Act, 1949, to conduct off-course Betting, is to receive 7½ per cent. of the investments made through totalizator agencies, and a levy for five years of an additional ½ per cent. of all totalizator investments prior to the payment of dividends is to be deducted by racing clubs and paid to the Board. The proceeds of this levy are to be used solely for capital expenditure, to moot operating losses, and to create reserve funds for these purposes, the proceeds being exempt from income and social security taxes.

The following figures relate to the racing year, which ends on the 31st July. As a war measure in the first instance, horse-racing was from April, 1942, confined to Saturdays and public holidays, and permits were reduced to 163 in the mid-war period. Although racing is still largely restricted to Saturdays and public holidays, permits bad been raised by 1947 to equal the pre-war totals.

Year Ended 31st July,
1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.

* Retained by the clubs.

† Eight months of year only.

Number of racing-days320319320338352
Number of races2,5542,5522,5602,7032,808
Amount of stakes1,246,5441,400,9781,406,6581,449,3771,545,685
      Totalizator investments21,999,37423,209,96822,837,19525,041,53227,129,454
Amount paid in dividends18,19,59619,189,80418,881,70020,706,41622,340,310
Government taxes—     
On totalizator investments1,099,9691,160,4981,141,8601,252,0771,356,472
On dividends962,3561,016,738998,9711,095,3341,181,487
On stakes12,46514,00014,06614,49415,457
      Totals2,074,7902,191,2362,154,8972,361,9052,553,416
Percentage of totalizator investments retained by clubs1,649,9531,740,7481,712,7901,878,1152,034,709
Unpaid fractions*91,500102,180101,874109,590111,491
Refunds of taxation granted to clubs56,42756,72459,72159,89453,886
Levy of 1/2 percent. for Totalizator Agency Board    104,985

For the financial year ended the 31st March, 1951, Government receipts from racing taxation amounted to £2,577,603, but £60,676 of this was paid back to clubs by way of refunds.

Of the amount invested on the totalizator in the racing year 1950–51, 82.3 per cent. was returned to investors by way of dividends, Government taxes less refunds absorbed 9.2 per cent., racing clubs retained 8.1 per cent. and the levy for the Totalizator Agency Board, covering eight months only of the year. 0.4 per cent. Of the 352 racing days in the 1959–51 racing year, 246 were devoted to racing (galloping) meetings and 106 to trotting meetings. It should be mentioned, however, that, a number of racing clubs include trotting events in their programmes, but there are no trotting clubs which enter in a similar manner for gallopers. Of the total amount invested during the year, £19,649,956 was invested at galloping meetings and £7,479,498 at trotting meetings, giving an average of £79,878 per day for racing clubs and £70,561 per day for trotting clubs. Stakes paid at galloping meetings totalled £1,079,634, the average amount per race being £551, while at trotting meetings the total was £466,051, and the average amount per race £550.

AMUSEMENTS-TAX.—A form of tax first introduced in 1917 is the amusements-tax, levied on payments for admission to entertainments. The present authority is the Amusements-tax Act, 1922, amended in 1923, 1930, 1937, and 1949. “Entertainment” is defined as “any exhibition, performance, amusement, game, or sport to which persons are admitted for payment.” The maximum admission charge on which no tax is payable was originally (fixed at 9d., but has been successively altered to 1s., 2s., and (in 1930) 1s. 6d. When the payment for admission exceeds 1s. 6d., but is not more than 2s., the tax is 3d.; thereafter, up to 3s., it is 4d.; up to 3s. 6d., 5d.; and above 3s. 6d. 1d. for each 1s. or part thereof, plus 2d. “Payment for admission” includes reservation charges. Provision is made for exemption in certain specified cases—viz., shows promoted by agricultural, pastoral, horticultural, or poultry societies; entertainments, the proceeds or the net proceeds of which are devoted to charitable, philanthropic, patriotic, or educational purposes; any entertainment promoted by any society or institution not established for profit, if the proceeds or net proceeds are devoted to the objects of the society or institution; and any swimming-sports meeting.

The following net amounts have been collected during the last eleven years.

Year Ended 31st March,Amount collected.
 £
1947226,569
1948221,209
1949243,766
1950256,716
1951236,373
194192,700
194294,416
1943107,433
1944148,225
1945165,943
1946178,450

FILM-HIRE TAX.—Part V of the Finance Act, 1930, imposed, as from 1st July, 1930, a film-hire tax, which is payable monthly by holders of renters' licences under Part IV of the Cinematograph Films Act, 1928.

The film-hire tax payable is assessed on the net monthly receipts derived by the renter from renting sound-picture films. On British Commonwealth films the tax is 10 per cent. and on foreign films 25 per cent., of the not receipts. Films made wholly in New Zealand are exempt from the tax. The film-hire tax yielded a revenue of £134,918 in 1946 47, £111,156 in 1947–48, £108,285 in 1948 19, £112,701 in 1949 50, and £106,702 in 1950–51.

SOCIAL-SECURITY TAXATION.—The Social Security Act, 1938, provided for the establishment of a Social Security Fund with special taxation (as from 1st April, 1939) superseding employment-promotion taxation, information concerning which will be found in the 1941 (p. 515) and preceding issues of the Year-Book.

Under the original Act the contributions to the Social Security Fund consisted of a registration fee and a charge on salaries, wages, and other income for all persons over sixteen years of age. For males over twenty years of age the registration fee was 5s. per quarter, and for all other persons over sixteen years of age 5s. per year: while for all persons over sixteen years of ago the charge on salaries, wages, and other income was 1d. in every 1s. 8d. or part thereof. The Finance Act (No. 2), 1945, abolished the registration fee, the effective date being 1st April, 1946. The same Act increased the social-security charge to 1 1/2d. for every 1s. 8d., the new rate applying to all salaries and wages in respect of any period after 12th May, 1946, and in the case of income other than salaries and wages to all such income derived during the year ended 31st March, 1916, and subsequent years. The income of companies was exempt from the former employment-promotion taxation, but is liable for social-security taxation.

Receipts from social-security taxation during each of the last live financial years have been as follows.

Year Ended 31st March,Charge on—Registration Fee, &c.Totals.
Salaries and Wages.Other Income.
 ££££
194713,519,8008,864,08419,76922,403,653
194816,105,49110,071,14312426,176,758
194916,744,52912,633,85612529,378,510
195018,766,78012,935,79028531,702,855
195120,650,97515,115,26120135,766,437

NATIONAL-SECURITY TAXATION.—National-security taxation was imposed by the Finance Act, 1940, for the purposes of war finance, came into operation as from 21st July, 1940, and was finally abolished in April, 1947, by the Finance Act of that year. Details of the changes in the rate of tax, and total amounts received will be found on page 497 of the 1950 issue of the Year-Book.

SALES TAX.—The 9th February, 1933, marked the inauguration of a Hales tax in New Zealand. Numerous classes of goods were exempt from the tax, these being, in the main, commodities of primary production, articles used in the primary industries, machinery for use in manufacture, and the more important foodstuffs for household consumption. Goods exported from New Zealand are exempt, as are also certain commodities (e.g.., motor-spirits) which are subject to special taxation.

The tax was at the rate of 5 per cent. of the sale value of the goods to which it applied, but in June, 1940, and again in May, 1942, increases of a further 5 per cent. and 10 per cent. respectively were made for war taxation, the extra revenue thus accruing being paid direct to the War Expenses Account. Certain items, such as apparel, footwear, woollen piece-goods and yarns, and certain additional foodstuffs, were exempt from the additional 10 per cent., but in the case of wine manufactured in New Zealand an additional charge of 20 per cent. was added until its removal dating from the 3rd September, 1951. As from 1st April, 1946, the total receipts from this tax have been credited to the Consolidated Fund. As from 16th August, 1946, a number of classes of goods previously subject to the tax have been exempted, the principal of these being building materials, furniture, clothing, and footwear. Further items exempted from sales tax, chiefly home labour-saving devices, were notified as from the 10th March, 1950. As from the 25th August, 1950, a wide range of articles commonly used in homes. together with some items more particularly used by farmers, were also exempted from sales tax. Discount ranging from 1 to 2] per cent. (reduced from 5 per cent. in June, 1940) of the amount of tax otherwise payable is allowed for prompt payment. The tax is not a turnover tax, being payable once only and, so far as possible, at the point where the goods pass to the retailer. The Sales Tax Act is administered by the Customs Department. The net amount yielded by the sales tax during each of the last live years has been: 1946–47, £15,550,547; 1947–48, £15,945,813; 1948–49, £14,105,224; 1949–50, £14,785,320; and 1950–51, £16,827,106.

Monthly figures of sales tax collected during the four calendar years 1948–51 have been as follows.

Month.Total Sales-tax Receipts.
1948.1949.1950.1951.
 ££££
January1,577,5911,159,8011,426,4811,782,801
February695,732716,187923,770843,794
March1,657,6091,369,4141,560,9631,782,749
April1,360,5721,144,905842,7221,117,713
May1,265,2911,181,1081,812,9301,768,255
June1,317,3551,160,8161,512,4551,571,168
July1,191,5041,187,1111,330,3101,696,082
August1,188,9601,189,4341,349,6371,855,780
September1,103,9031,263,5561,551,6451,004,563
October1,132,8071,129,1931,539,0872,595,317
November1,213,0221,361,6011,578,4012,023,101
December1,292,2731,521,8791,523,0311,669,598

The collections during a month relate in general to sales during the preceding month.

The foregoing statistics indicate, in a measure, the comparative distribution of merchandise trading operations throughout the year. The following table of receipts from the sales tax gives some indication of comparative trading operations in the principal centres. These figures and those in the preceding table, are compiled From monthly departmental returns and in most cases differ slightly from the final Treasury figures.

Year Ended 31st March,Auckland.Wellington.Rest of North Island.Christchurch.Dunedin.Rest of South Island.Total.*

* Includes receipts through Post and Telegraph Department.

 £££££££
19475,077,0495,698,620804,0962,022,6961,349,448519,86615,540,073
19484,571,7996,829,914842,6131,928,5521,186,310525,61215,942,001
19493,938,9626,456,314784,3511,570,0081,038,203482,18614,311,089
19504,284,6976,521,145914,6101,706,4191,042,899531,54015,050,817
19514,809,7117,957,916929,9341,948,2091,136,260604,42417,449,562

LOCAL TAXATION.—Local-governing authorities have power under various Acts of the Legislature to impose taxes for general or special purposes, as set out in Section 27 of this Year-Book. The amount of revenue collected by local authorities during the five years ended 31st March, 1950, was as follows.

Year Ended 31st March,Rates.Licences and other Taxes.Total.Per Head of Mean Population.
 ££££ s. d.
19468,633,329711,8259,345,1545 9 3
19479,541,133804,85210,345,9855 16 11
19489,806,859906,77310,713,6325 18 6
194910,797,0841,018,99911,816,0836 8 2
195011,643,6441,128,92212,772,5666 15 9

The figures are exclusive of wharfage dues, tolls, &c., received by Harbour Boards, such receipts being regarded as in respect of charges for services.

25 C—STATE INDEBTEDNESS

THE Minister of Finance may raise loans, when authorized by Parliament so to do, by the issue of debentures, or scrip, or stock, in New Zealand or elsewhere at his discretion. When raising a loan, the Minister may prescribe the mode and conditions of repayment, the rates of interest (not exceeding the maximum rate fixed by the authorizing Act), and the times and places of payment of principal and interest respectively. Power is given to convert debentures or scrip into consolidated stock, and the Minister may specify the terms of conversion at the time when a loan is raised, or arrange that terms shall be subsequently agreed upon. For the purpose of paying off or renewing at maturity any debenture, scrip, or other security, new debentures or other securities may be issued and disposed of if necessary. Authority also exists for the conversion of loan-money which has not yet matured, as well as for the redemption and cancellation of securities before maturity. Section 5 of the Finance Act (No. 2), 1934, authorized the Minister of Finance to transfer the management of the public debt to the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, and the transfer was effected as from the 1st October, 1936.

The money composing the public debt has been borrowed on the security of the public revenues of New Zealand. No portion of the public estate is pledged. for payment of either principal or interest.

During the First World War provision was made for the issue to the public of “Post Office investment certificates” of a face value of £1 and upwards, and in 1920 legislation which sanctioned a continuous issue of these certificates was enacted.

The proceeds of the sale of these certificates were paid into the Post Office Account, and the moneys were available for investment in any loan authorized by Parliament. The term of the certificates, formerly a minimum of five years, was altered in 1927 to such period as the Minister of Finance might determine. They were later issued with a definite currency of six years, the redemption value being calculated at 3 per cent. compound interest.

These certificates remained on issue until the passing of the National Savings Act, 1940, which made wider provision for the investment of savings. Although the Act provides that investments made in accordance therewith shall be applied in like manner to receipts from the sale of the Post Office investment certificates—i.e., available for the purposes of any loan authorized by Parliament—the immediate object was to assist in financing the Second World War. Two forms of investment were provided:—

  1. Deposits in national savings accounts with the Post Office and certain authorized trustee savings-banks;

  2. Purchase of national savings bonds.

These investments are approved trustee securities, and bear interest at the rate of 3 per cent. per annum.

Deposits in national savings accounts cannot be withdrawn at will, but are invested for a definite period. Moneys deposited up to 30th June, 1943, were repayable on 30th June, 1945, and each subsequent investment period is for a term of two years—i.e., deposits made during the year ended 30th June, 1951, are repayable on 30th June, 1953, and so on. National savings bonds are issued in three denominations—£1, £10, and £100—and are for a term of five years.

At the commencement of the financial year 1943–41 a change in practice was effected in regard to the treatment of exchange on overseas transactions. As from that date the cost of exchange has been treated as a part of the payment from which it arose, and not accounted for in the public accounts under the one heading of “Exchange,” as was the previous practice. For example, the cost of remitting interest to London, amounting to £1,314,757 in 1943–44, was included in the item “interest” on the expenditure side of the Consolidated Fund.

It was further decided that Government funds and investments held in the United Kingdom as at 1st April, 1943, and all subsequent overseas transactions were to be converted into pounds New Zealand at a fixed exchange rate of 25 per cent. and brought into the public accounts at the increased figure. Previously pounds New Zealand and pounds sterling were treated as if they were of the same value, despite the fact that New Zealand currency for many years had been at a discount on sterling.

In keeping with the foregoing decisions, that portion of the public debt domiciled in the United Kingdom, which was previously shown only at the sterling figure, has also been converted to pounds New Zealand, and the whole of the debt is shown in the debt tables in New Zealand currency in addition to the nominal amounts. The nominal increase resulting from the adjustment as at 1st April, 1943, was £39,568,574.

With the adjustment of the exchange-rate as from 20th August, 1948, New Zealand currency is once again on a par with sterling. To facilitate comparison over a period on a common basis the public debt tables in this section have, in general, been so shown that either nominal amounts or the amounts in New Zealand currency can be readily ascertained.

The National Development Loans Act, 1941, provided for the establishment within the Public Account, as from 1st April, 1942, of a National Development Loans Account into which all moneys raised by way of loans for national development are paid. The amounts so raised since the inception of this account to the 31st March, 1951, totalled £189,384,244, of which £34,399,460 was raised in the 1949–50 year, and £33,975,419 in 1950–51, this latter figure including £10,531,364 from national savings accounts. Moneys are transferred from this account as required, the amounts transferred during the last three years being given in Section 25A. The balance in the account at 31st March, 1951, was £5,215,419.

GROSS INDEBTEDNESS.—On only four* occasions in the history of New Zealand has a reduction in the gross public debt been effected during the financial year. The first occasion was in 1891–92, when the debt was reduced by £117,282; and the second in 1922–23, when another slight reduction (£101,661) was recorded. The third occasion was in 1934–35, when the floating debt of £22,856,981—comprising outstanding Treasury revenue bills amounting to £3,452,109 and Treasury bills for £19,404,872 in respect of the Hanks Indemnity (Exchange) Act—was entirely paid off. The fourth occasion was in 1947–48, the debt being reduced by £3,137,446 in New Zealand currency (having regard to exchange rate relationships existing prior to the 20th August, 1948). or £302,043 if nominal amounts only are taken into account.

The gross indebtedness of the General Government and the rate of indebtedness per head of population (inclusive of Maoris) for each of the last twenty years are given in the following table.

The figures are given in two series, the first showing the debt at the nominal amount throughout the period 1932–51, and the second, covering the same period, with the debt shown in New Zealand currency. In the latter case the amount of overseas debt has been converted to New Zealand currency at the rate of exchange ruling during the period.

As at 31st March,Amount.Per Head of Population.
A—Nominal Amounts
 ££ s. d.
1932281,942,800184 16 3
1933282,622,958183 15 2
1934302,791,996195 6 8
1935280,581,217179 14 11
1936282,561,098179 10 6
1937287,670,200181 4 10
1938290,201,342180 17 5
1939303,970,272187 1 10
1940322,907,536196 15 9
1941349,427,575213 11 2
1942385,397,733235 16 3
1943463,825,372283 16 10
1944526,717,061322 3 5
1945563,417,816335 7 6
1946594,331,519338 6 3
1947604,571,690337 17 0
1948604,269,647330 11 2
1949641,176,740343 17 6
1950670,071,342352 2 8
1951693,424,678357 16 0
B—In New Zealand Currency
 ££ s. d.
1932297,906,986195 5 7
1933322,973,135209 19 10
1934343,019,022221 5 8
1935320,019,413205 0 2
1936321,445,521204 4 8
1937326,070,769205 8 9
1938328,631,311204 16 5
1939343,183,526211 4 6
1940362,373,354220 16 9
1941389,020,472237 15 1
1942423,836,624259 6 8
1943503,393,947308 1 2
1944566,494,017344 12 1
1945603,238,412359 1 6
1946624,511,590355 9 10
1947634,751,761354 11 3
1948631,614,315345 10 4
1949641,176,740343 17 6
1950670,071,342352 2 8
1951693,424,678357 16 0

* See, however, page 603 of 1940 Year-Book.

It should be noted that the figures in the foregoing table are inclusive of £26,191,109 nominal (or in New Zealand currency £(N.Z.)32,738,886, in the years 1932–48—i.e., prior to the exchange rate alteration in 1948), in respect of which interest payments have been suspended by agreement with the Imperial Government from 1931. This amount consists of £24,100,200 (£(N.Z.)30,125,250 for 1932–48) advances from the Imperial Government funded in terms of the Finance Act, 1922, and £2,090,909 (£(N.Z.)2,613,636 for 1932–48) raised for State Advances purposes.

An amount of £1,833,720, representing outstanding advances by way of overdraft in respect of the purchase of foodstuffs and other commodities under the authority of section 5 of the Marketing Amendment Act, 1949, is not included in the public debt as at 31st March, 1951.

State guarantees cover such items as the guarantee to policy-holders of the Government Insurance Department under the Government Life Insurance Act, 1908; the guarantee to the Reserve Bank under the Finance Act, 1934, in respect of sterling exchange (which was exercised in the case of the adjustment of the New Zealand currency exchange rate to parity with sterling as from the 20th August, 1948); the guarantee under the Finance Act (No. 2), 1946, to the Reserve Hank in respect of moneys advanced to Governments of other countries to finance the purchase of New Zealand produce; guarantees to certain undertakings under the State Advances Corporation Act and certain local authority loans. There were also certain contingent State liabilities in respect of the various Government Superannuation Funds.

At. 31st March, 1951, the amount of guaranteed loans outstanding in respect of State Advances Corporation stock and debentures, the major portion of which is at present held by the State in consideration of the transfer of property securities from the State to the Corporation, was £73,822,590; and in addition there was a further amount of £1,067,936 in respect of loans to industries by the Corporation.

The Hutt Road Act. 1939, made provision whereby the Wellington City Council was to be kept indemnified from all liability in respect of certain loans which at the time of the passing of the Act amounted to £276,020. The amount outstanding under this agreement at 31st March, 1951, was £20,600, against which the Public Trustee held sinking funds totalling £14,866. The only other local authority loan subject to State guarantee at 31st March, 1951, was an amount of £14,362, in respect of the Oamaru Harbour Board.

In respect of the guarantee to the Reserve Rank for the purpose of financing purchases of New Zealand produce, credits granted as at 31st March, 1951, amounted to £5,018,750 to the Government of the French Republic and £928,096 to the Government of the Czechoslovak Republic for the purchase of wool.

CLASSIFICATION OF PUBLIC DEBT.—A broad classification of the public debt according to nature or purpose is contained in the following table, the distinction being made on the basis of whether raised for ordinary purposes, war purposes, or housing. It should be noted that the debt is expressed in terms of nominal amounts, these differing from figures in terms of New Zealand currency for the 1940 year only.

Class.Gross Debt as at 31st March,
1920.1930.1940.1950.1951.

* Includes debt due to Imperial Government (see letterpress above).

 £££££
Ordinary121,081,730197,599,818247,308,296360,357,600381,024,990
Housing  11,558,94557,330,72065,271,898
War loans (1914–18)80,089,02569,783,52560,954,24050,857,41748,488,957
War expenses (1939–45)  3,086,055201,525,605198,638,833
      Totals201,170,755267,383,343*322,907,536*670,071,342*693,424,678

The total of 1914–18 war loans amounted originally to £82,245,673, of which approximately £36,000,000 had been redeemed to 31st March, 1951. The amount per head of population for each class as at 31st March, 1951, was as follows: ordinary, £196 12s.; housing, £33 14s.; war, 1914–18, £25 0s.; war expenses, 1939–45, £102 10s.

A more detailed allocation of the debt us at the 31st March, 1960 and 1951, is now given.

 1950.1951.

* Includes debt duo to Imperial Government (see page 591).

 ££
Railways84,705,20488,497,016
Hydro-electric schemes43,974,08552,064,703
Post and telegraph services21,450,09825,157,453
Public buildings13,791,32912,746,894
Education buildings18,367,77520,191,975
Roads and highways48,453,71950,679,533
Harbours and lighthouses1,689,810648,000
Forests (State)8,307,3849,027,655
Housing57,330,72065,271,999
Land settlement and improvement28,730,48129,227,602
Soil conservation, irrigation, and drainage8,101,6418,352,476
Shares in Bank of New Zealand7,934,3657,908,560
New Zealand National Airways Corporation1,500,0001,200,000
British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines, Ltd.541,935541,935
British Petroleum Co. of New Zealand, Ltd.1,275,0001,275,000
Dominion Salt, Ltd.50,000100,000
Linen Flax Corporation of New Zealand300,000300,000
New Zealand Woolpack and Textiles, Ltd.150,000150,000
Investment in State Advances Corporation34,001,69734,001,697
Christmas Island phosphates1,375,0001,465,512
Mining6,136,7976,565,470
Tasman Empire Airways, Ltd.375,000375,000
Reserve Bank exchange adjustment20,000,00020,000,000
War Loans (1914–18)50,857,41748,488,957
War expenses (1939–45)201,525,605198,638,833
National Development Loans (balance) 5,215,419
Miscellaneous assets and services7,847,4201,429,881
Cash and investments in hand1,298,8604,003,108
      Totals£670,071,342*£693,424,678*

MOVEMENT IN PUBLIC DEBT DURING 1950–51.—A summary of transactions in connection with the public debt during the year ended 31st March, 1951, is as follows.

Amount outstanding at+ Increase; - Decrease.
31st March, 1950.31st March, 1951.
External debt—£££
  London104,330,631103,999,353-331,278
  Australia628,226 -628,226
Internal debt—   
  Long-term debt495,112,485522,425,325+27,312,840
  Floating debt70,000,00067,000,0003,000,000
      Totals670,071,342693,424,678+23,353,336

A more detailed statement which shows also the main purposes for which loan-moneys were raised during the year 1950–51 is now given:—

External debt decreases—

Repayments from Loans Redemption Account—

 £££
London331,278  
Australia628,226  
      Total decrease, external debt  969,504

Internal debt—

Increases—   
  New issues for—   
    National development purposes33,975,419  
    Repayments in New Zealand12,899,418  
      Total increases, internal debt 46,874,837 
Decreases—   
  Repayments from—   
    Loans Redemption Account7,568,386  
  New issues in New Zealand14,993,611  
      Total decreases, internal debt 22,561,997 
      Net increase in internal debt  24,312,840
Net increase in total public debt  £23,353,336

Of the amount raised during the year for national development purposes, only £28,760,000 had been allocated to the various undertakings, leaving a balance of £5,215,419 in the Account at 31st March, 1951.

PUBLIC DEBT CONVERSION SCHEMES AND NEW LOANS.—A scheme of conversion of practically the whole of the locally domiciled debt bearing interest higher than 4 per cent. was successfully carried out in the early part of 1933. Holders had the option of dissenting, but interest on the dissented portion was made subject to an interest-tax of 33 1/3 per cent. Holders who signified neither assent nor dissent were regarded as having assented.

Details of this conversion and of other conversions during the period up to 31st March, 1945, together with a schedule of war loans over the period 1940–45, are given on pages 503–504 of the 1950 issue of the Year-Book. Information covering conversions and new loans from 1st April, 1945, to date are given in the following paragraphs.

A conversion offer was made in London to holders of £7,580,907 4 1/2-per-cent. stock repayable on 1st March, 1945, and £9,657,280 3-per-cent. stock repayable on 1st April, 1945. New stock was offered at 3 1/4 per cent. maturing on 1st September, 1962–65, with a cash payment of 10s. per cent. to holders who converted. Applications for new stock totalled £14,904,247, and the balance of £2,333,940 was taken up by the Reserve Bank.

A conversion offer in respect of an internal 4-per-cent. loan totalling £8,931,480 maturing on 15th April, 1949, but in respect of which the Government had the option to repay on or after 15th April, 1946, was made in December, 1945. The new securities offered were 3-per-cent. stock issued at par and maturing on 15th April, 1960–63. Holders of the £2,426,365 of 4-per-cent. stock who did not accept the conversion offer were repaid in cash on 15th April, 1946.

A conversion offer was made in London in June, 1948, to holders of £16,000,000 sterling 4 1/2-per-cent. inscribed stock maturing on 1st March, 1958, with the option of repayment at par on or after the 1st March, 1948. Now stock at 3 per cent. maturing 1st September, 1966–68, was issued in exchange, while of a further amount of £3,225,465 4 1/2-per-cent. stock, £225,465 was repaid and the balance of £3,000,000 transferred to New Zealand domicile.

A £7,322,579 3 1/2-per-cent. loan domiciled in London and maturing on 1st February, 1949–54, was dealt with in Juno, 1949, by conversion of £7,000,000 into 3-per-cent. stock maturing 1st dune, 1973–77, and by repayment of the remaining £322,579 in cash.

In October, 1949, a conversion offer was made in London to holders of £6,000,000 of a total of £7,500,000 5-per-cent. inscribed stock maturing on 15th December, 1949. New stock at 3 1/4 per cent. maturing 15th December, 1963–66, was offered in exchange, while cash applications were used for the redemption of the remaining £1,500,000 of 5-per-cent. stock.

A conversion offer in June, 1949, in respect of three internal loans totalling £29,235,755 at par (2 1/2 per cent. maturing 15th Juno, 1947–49, 2 1/2 per cent. maturing 15th February, 1949–50, and 4 per cent. maturing 15th May, 1949–52) resulted in £15,111,380 being reinvested in either 3-per-cent. stock maturing 15th June, 1961–64, or 2 1/2-per-cent. stock maturing 15th June, 1954–55, and repayment in cash of £14,124,375.

A 5 1/2-per-cent. loan of £1,250,000 domiciled in London matured on 1st February, 1951. Of this amount £331,000 was repaid and the balance converted into 3 1/4-per-cent. stock maturing on 15th December, 1963–66. On 15th April, 1951, two internal 2 1/2-per-cent. loans matured, totalling £10,048,300. Conversion was effected of £7,900,000 before the maturity date, the remaining £2,148,000 being repaid in cash on the maturity date.

In addition to the above classes of conversion loans, during the period 1946–50 there were four “tap” issues at par as follows: In 1946, £18,319,590 of 3-per-cent. stock maturing 15th July, 1961–63 were issued: in 1947, £21,402,700 of 3-per-cent. stock maturing 15th July, 1962–64; in 1948, £24,918,600 of 3-per-cent. stock maturing 15th July, 1963–65; and in 1949–50, £19,288,825 of either 2 1/2-per-cent. stock maturing 15th May, 1955–56, or 3-per-cent. stock maturing 15th May, 1964–66.

The 1950 National Development Loan was initiated in May, 1950, the amount of £20,000,000 being oversubscribed by £941,670. Stock was offered either at 3 per cent. repayable 15th August, 1959–61, issued at 99 1/2 per cent., or at 2 1/2 per cent. repayable 15th August, 1954, issued at par. The 1951 National Development Loan was opened in May, 1951, and the amount of £10,000,000 was oversubscribed by approximately £3,200,000, the loan being closed earlier than the scheduled date of 27th June, 1951. The stock was offered at 3 per cent. at par and repayable 15th April, 1960–62.

DOMICILE OF DEBT.—The table following shows, for each of the eleven years ending 31st March, 1951, the amount of New Zealand's public debt domiciled in London, Australia, and New Zealand. All amounts shown are inclusive of the debt due to the Imperial Government to which reference has been made elsewhere in this subsection.

At 31st March,Amount.Percentage of Total on New Zealand Currency basis.
London.Australia.New Zealand.London.Australia.New Zealand.
 £(Stg.)= £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1941158,371,589197,964,486879,600190,176,38650.890.2348.88
1942153,755,563192,194,454862,300230,779,87045.350.2054.45
1943158,274,298197,842,873862,300304,688,77439.300.1760.53
1944159,107,828198,884,784862,300366,746,93335.110.1564.74
1945159,282,383199,102,979861,300403,274,13333.010.1466.85
1946120,720,283150,900,354861,300472,749,93624.160.1475.70
1947120,720,283150,900,354861,300482,990,10723.770.1476.09
1948109,378,675136,723,343779,000494,111,97221.650.1278.23
1949106,153,209106,153,209628,226534,395,30516.4550.1083.435
1950104,330,631104,330,631628,226565,112,48515.570.0984.34
1951103,999,353103,999,353 589,425,32515.00 85.00

During the period covered by the table the amount of the debt domiciled in London has decreased (on a New Zealand currency basis) by £93,965,133. Practically the whole of this decrease has occurred since 1945, the amount at 31st March of that year being £(N.Z.)199,102,979, as compared with £(N.Z.)103,999,353 at 31st March, 1951. The amount domiciled in New Zealand, on the other hand, has risen during the ten years by £399,248,939.

MATURITY YEARS OF DEBT.—The maturity years of the debt outstanding at the 31st March, 1951, are shown in the following statement, which distinguishes between the various countries of domicile. All amounts shown may be regarded as being either in New Zealand pounds or in nominal amounts.

Loans Maturing in Year Ended 31st March,*Debt maturing in—Total.
London.New Zealand.
Public.Departmental.

* In respect of many of the loans the Government has the option to redeem the securities at an earlier date on giving notice.

 ££££
Overdue 2,685 2,685
Treasury bills  67,000,00067,000,000
1952 2,138,15010,2652,148,415
1954 7,868,1156,649,28014,517,395
1955 7,411,6401,209,2808,620,920
195612,000,00018,547,6659,974,41540,522,080
1957 29,543,31014,018,09543,561,405
1958 2,252,135138,539,410160,791,545
1959 9,946,26073,283,55083,229,810
1960 6,964,41023,877,15030,841,560
19616,311,67918,693,1002,382,36527,387,144
1962 14,816,68026,834,54041,651,220
19647,339,65623,876,0905,952,29537,168,041
1965 17,078,93010,622,30527,701,235
196617,238,1876,160,74012,179,43035,578,357
19676,918,7227,036,4254,556,61018,511,757
196916,000,000  16,000,000
19725,000,000  5,000,000
19787,000,000  7,000,000
Imperial Government advances on which interest payments have been suspended since 193126,191,109  26,191,109
      Totals103,999,353192,336,335397,088,990693,424,678

DEPARTMENTAL INVESTMENTS.—As shown in the preceding table, £397,088,990 of the public debt outstanding at 31st March, 1951, was held by various Government Departments and quasi-Government organizations. A summary of these investments is as follows:—

 £
Investments held by accounts within the Public Account39,380,000
New Zealand Broadcasting Service1,350,000
Marketing Department5,078,890
Government Life Insurance7,418,530
Government Superannuation Board7,771,170
Maori Trustee894,830
National Provident Fund8,925,790
Post Office138,668,000
Post Office: National Savings50,050,000
Public Trustee4,267,510
Reserve Bank74,045,325
State Advances Corporation1,343,340
State Fire Insurance Office— 
  Accident Branch1,613,840
  Fire Branch1,298,300
Dairy Industry Account14,200,000
Meat Industry Account30,000,000
Wool Disposal Account10,783,465
      Totals£397,088,990

PRICES OF NEW ZEALAND STOCKS.—The following table gives the quotations in London for the principal now stocks (excluding accrued interest) in December of each of the years 1940–47 and at quarterly intervals from March, 1948, to June, 1951.

Date.3 Per Cent., 1952–55.3 1/4 Per Cent. 1962–65.3 1/2 Per Cent., 1949–54.3 1/2 Per Cent., 1960–64.5 Per Cent., 1949.5 Per Cent., 1956–71.

* Redeemed.

 £ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.
1940—Dec. 591 10 0 97 6 3 105 0 0111 15 0
1941—Dec. 491 18 0 99 6 3 105 10 0113 10 0
1942—Dec. 391 5 0 96 6 3 103 0 0108 1 3
1943—Dec. 297 5 0 99 6 3 108 0 0114 11 3
1944—Dec. 799 15 0 101 2 6104 16 3109 0 0116 10 0
1945—Dec. 699 17 6102 10 0101 12 6103 11 3107 2 6117 5 0
1946—Dec. 9104 12 6112 17 6103 3 9113 11 3109 5 0123 1 3
1947—Dec. 599 8 9103 3 9101 3 9106 1 3105 5 0116 1 3
1948—Mar. 2102 6 3104 0 0101 6 3106 2 6105 5 0116 10 0
June 4101 7 6103 18 9102 3 9106 6 3104 17 6116 6 3
Sept. 2102 1 0104 0 0101 16 3106 2 6104 8 9115 8 9
Dec. 2102 17 6104 18 9101 6 3106 13 9103 16 3110 8 9
1949—Mar. 3103 0 0104 11 3100 11 3106 15 0102 17 6115 8 9
June 2102 0 0103 18 9*106 0 0101 15 0114 1 3
Sept. 28100 7 699 15 0 102 0 0100 16 3111 2 6
Dec. 29101 10 098 15 0 100 18 9*110 16 3
1950—Mar. 2101 0 098 12 6 100 17 6 109 1 3
June 1101 7 699 2 6 101 2 6 110 6 3
Sept. 7101 13 9100 3 9 101 16 3 109 17 6
Dec. 1101 12 6100 0 0 102 2 6 110 12 6
1951—Mar. 5101 11 399 17 6 100 17 6 109 17 6
June 7100 10 097 17 6 99 16 3 108 0 0

INTEREST.—Of the public debt outstanding at 31st March, 1932, approximately 30 per cent. only of the total bore interest at a rate of 4 per cent. or lower. As a result of conversion operations and of a general decline in interest-rates for new money, the amount of debt bearing interest at a rate of 4 per cent. or under at 31st March, 1951, was £662,233,569, or 99 per cent. of the total debt exclusive of that portion on which interest payments have been suspended since 1931 by agreement with the Imperial Government, while on £581,392,480, or approximately 87 per cent., the rate did not exceed 3 per cent. Of the debt domiciled in New Zealand at 31st March, 1951, no less than 93 per cent. was at rates of 3 per cent. or under, the remainder (or 7 per cent.) being at rates which did not exceed 4 per cent. A classification of the public debt as at 31st March, 1951, according to the rates of interest payable and domicile, is contained in the following table, the values being in terms of New Zealand currency.

Rate of Interest, Per Cent.Debt maturing in —Total.Gross Annual Interest Charge.
London.New Zealand.
 ££££
Overdue 2,6852,685 
1 110,000,000110,000,0001,100,000
2 1/2 152,618,755152,618,7553,788,613
335,000,000283,771,040318,771,0409,563,130
3 1/2124,156,90920,410,86044,567,7691,448,452
3 1/213,651,3359,150,76522,802,100798,074
4 13,471,22013,471,220538,849
55,000,000 5,000,000250,000
      Totals77,808,244589,425,325667,233,56917,487,118
Imperial Government advances on which interest payments have been suspended26,191,109 26,191,109 
      Total debt103,999,353589,425,325693,424,67817,487,118

The total amount of interest payable on the effective public debt—i.e., the whole of the public debt less those portions upon which interest payments have been suspended by agreement with the Imperial Government—as at 31st March, 1951, was £17,487,118, which gives an average rate of £2 12s. 5d. per cent.

The amount of interest and the average rate per cent. payable on the debt domiciled in the respective markets were:—

 Amount of Interest.Average Rate.
 ££ s. d.
London2,562,8963 5 11
New Zealand14,924,2222 10 8

The total of interest payments from the Consolidated Fund during the year ended 31st March, 1951, was £17,264,200. Of this amount, £2,472,667 was paid in London, and £111,806 in New Zealand on account of debt domiciled in London. An amount of £(N.Z.)34,552 was paid in Australia in respect of debt domiciled in that country (all of which was repaid during the year), while £14,645,175 was paid in New Zealand in respect of internal debt.

The total amount of interest credited to the Consolidated Fund on account of capital liability of various enterprises during 1950–51 was £4,644,288, the contributing accounts being Post and Telegraph, £811,128; Electric Supply, £l,640,594; Housing Account, £795,352; Housing Construction, £105,110; Lund Settlement Account, £1,006,229; under section 31 (3) of Land Act, 1948, £200,000; and New Zealand National Airways Corporation, £85,875. Interest is also received from the investment. of other public moneys, the total under this heading being £1,922,002, including £1,245,373 from the State Advances Corporation, £370,000 from the Public Account Cash Balance Investments Account, £96,386 from the Christmas Island Phosphate Commission, and £72,286 from the British Phosphate Commission. The total interest receipts of the Consolidated Fund were thus £6,566,290, leaving the net interest charges for the year £10,697,910, as compared with £10,850,465 in 1949–50.

Certain changes in practice in the treatment of interest receipts and payments of the Consolidated Fund have to some extent invalidated a comparison of interest charges for recent years. Prior to the financial year 1943–44 the premium, or cost of exchange, on interest-moneys remitted abroad was not charged against interest, but was treated as a separate item. Also certain interest recoveries prior to 1944–45 were treated as credits in reduction of expenditure, whereas now all interest credited to the Fund is treated as receipts. In the following table which covers the last eleven financial years, the cost of exchange on interest paid in London has been added to the gross interest payments for the years prior to 1943–44, in order to bring them into line with subsequent years.

Year Ended 31st March,Gross Payments.Receipts.Credits In Reduction.Gross Payments, less Receipts and Credits.

* Included with receipts.

 £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
194112,279,0353,284,8462,798,4156,195,774
194212,833,8063,466,3642,781,0746,586,368
194313,834,8104,133,2772,844,0726,857,461
194415,613,2704,281,9223,250,6788,080,670
194517,323,3465,363,807*11,959,539
194618,584,4345,857,264*12,727,170
194717,558,8764,714,100*12,844,776
194817,825,0525,002,728*12,822,324
194916,619,9605,215,789*11,404,171
195016,736,8195,886,354*10,850,465
195117,264,2006,566,290*10,697,910

Administration and management charges in respect of debt services amounted to £322,257 in 1950–51, as compared with £355,188 in 1949–50.

AMORTIZATION OF DEBT: Public Debt Repayment.—With certain exceptions, the repayment of the public debt is now subject to the provisions of the New Zealand Loans Amendment Act, 1947, which repealed the Repayment of the Public Debt Act, 1925, and certain sections of various Finance Acts. For this purpose there is issued annually out of the Consolidated Fund a sum equal to 1/2 per cent. of the total amount of the defined portion of the public debt outstanding at the end of the preceding financial year, plus 4 per cent. of the total amount previously repaid or redeemed under the provisions of the Act. The bulk of the savings in interest on debt paid off is thus applied to further repayments of debt.

The annual contribution from the Consolidated Fund, formerly payable to the Public Debt Repayment Account and since the abolition of the latter as from 1st April, 1947, to the Loans Redemption Account, is utilized to redeem such securities as the Public Debt Commission determines, which are a charge upon the public revenues of New Zealand and which are included in the defined portion of the public debt. All other moneys raised or available for the purpose of repayment of any loan forming a charge on public revenues are similarly paid into the Loans Redemption Account and utilized for the redemption of such securities charged upon the public revenues as the Minister of Finance from time to time determines.

Transactions involving merely the exchange of one class of securities for another of the same rate of interest and term, or where the only variation is an extension of the term by not more than two years, are no longer recorded in the Loans Redemption Account.

Under the Repayment of the Public Debt Act, 1925, a capital fund was created termed “The Public Debt Redemption Fund.” Power was given by the New Zealand Loans Amendment Act, 1947, for the Public Debt Commission, constituted under this Act, to use the capital moneys in the Public Debt Redemption Fund for the redemption of public debt. This power was exercised during the 1947–48 financial year, and the result was the redemption of public debt by £11,287,988 and the extinguishment of the fund.

Repayment of the public debt under the provisions of the New Zealand Loans Amendment Act, 1947, during the year ended 31st March, 1951, totalled £8,533,112, including £1,422,178 utilized from the annual contribution from the Consolidated Fund to the Loans Redemption Account, and the remaining £7,110,934 (including £3,000,000 for redemption of Treasury bills) from other moneys in the Account.

The repayment scheme provided for under the New Zealand Loans Amendment Act, 1947, does not apply to the whole of the public debt, revenue bills and certain classes of the debt for which there are special amortization provisions being excluded. The latter include funded debt, loans raised for State Advances, and loans raised in respect of electric supply. Of the total gross indebtedness (inclusive of funded debt) of £693,424,678 at the 31st March, 1951, £583,258,078 was subject to the repayment provisions of the Act.

Amounts devoted to the redemption of the public debt during each of the last four years are set out below, together with a brief statement of the class of debt affected.

Year Ended 31st March,Amounts Utilized for Redemption.Class of Debt Affected by Redemptions.
Under Authority of Section 12 (b) of Loans Amendment Act, 1947.Under Authority of Other Provisions of Loans Amendment Act, 1947.Total Amount Utilized.Item.Amount.
 £££ £
19484,456,28024,629,87629,086,156War expenses debt Other debt10,154,247
   War expenses debt7,071,52318,931,909
    Other debt5,121,469
19493,899,77035,788,66539,688,435Exchange Adjustment—United Kingdom debt27,344,669
    Australian debt150,774
    War expenses debt1,772,795
19505,487,0651,815,9107,302,975War loans, 1914–183,714,270
    Other debt1,815,910
    War expenses debt766,834
19511,422,1787,110,9348,533,112Treasury bills redeemed3,000,000
    Other debt4,766,278

The following table shows the amounts available for redemption for each of the last four years under the repayment scheme provided for by the New Zealand Loans Amendment Act, 1947, the amounts utilized under section 12 (b) of that Act, and the nominal value of securities redeemed and cancelled to date under the provisions of the former Repayment of the Public Debt Act, 1925, and the present authority, the New Zealand Loans Amendment Act, 1947.

Year Ended 31st March.Balance of Amortization Contributions Unspent at Beginning of Year.Transfers from Consolidated Fund.Utilized to Redeem and Cancel Securities.Nominal Value of Securities Redeemed and Cancelled to Date Under the Provisions of the 1925 and 1947 Acts.
One-half per Cent. of Defined Portion of Public Debt Outstanding at Beginning of Year.Four per Cent. of Total Amount of Defined Portion of Public Debt Redeemed or Repaid to Beginning of Year.Total.
 ££££££
1948229,6952,713,3961,663,8274,377,2234,456,28046,051,960
1949150,6382,671,0781,842,0784,513,1563,899,77049,951,730
1950764,0242,724,9721,998,0694,723,0415,487,06555,438,795
1951 2,839,9772,217,5525,057,5291,422,17856,860,973

Amortization of Funded Debt.—At the 31st March, 1922, £27,532,164 of New Zealand's public debt was owing to the Imperial Government, all but £1,191,919 of this being on account of war expenditure. Arrangements were made with the Imperial Government in 1922 for the funding of this debt.

The funding was carried out on an annuity basis of 6 per cent., the total payment each year (payable half-yearly at 1st June and 1st December) being £1,651,930. Interest was at the rate of £4 19s. 5.88d. per cent., the balance of the 6 per cent. going to reduction of the debt.

Under the agreement the original amount of £27,532,164 would have been automatically discharged from the public debt by the end of the financial year 1958–59. The Imperial Government, however, following the Hoover proposals regarding war debts, voluntarily suspended New Zealand's obligations in respect of the funded-debt payments due in and since December, 1931. On the other hand, a provision that any part of the funded debt may be redeemed at any time was taken advantage of in 1924, when £200,000 was paid off the Naval Defence Loan.

At the date of suspension, total payments amounted to £15,067,370, of which £11,635,406 represented interest payments and £3,431,964 (including the £200,000 additional paid off Naval Defence Loan) reduction of principal, leaving the outstanding balance of the funded debt at £24,100,200 (sterling).

The provisions of the New Zealand Loans Amendment Act, 1947, do not apply to the funded debt. This amount, together with £2,090,909 sterling representing debt raised for State Advances purposes, for both of which interest payments have been suspended by agreement with the Imperial Government since 1931, is, however, included in all tables dealing with public debt given in this section.

Sinking Funds.—Special sinking funds exist in respect of certain classes of debts not covered by the New Zealand Loans Amendment Act, 1947.

NET INDEBTEDNESS.—While the sinking funds were annually increasing it was customary to regard the net-indebtedness figures as giving the best comparison of indebtedness between one year and another. The initiation of the present system of amortization, however, destroyed the comparison on this basis, and the gross figures (as shown at the beginning of this subsection) now afford a better and more comparable index. The figures of net indebtedness for the years 1941–51, both in nominal amounts and in New Zealand currency, after making an allowance for exchange on the debt domiciled in London, are as follows:—

As at 31st March,Amount.Per Head of Population.
Nominal Amount
 ££ s. d.
19411148,021,362212 13 11
1942384,555,798235 5 11
1943463,055,985283 7 10
1944525,542,185319 13 10
1945560,188,428333 9 0
1946589,885,558335 15 7
1947602,322,279336 11 10
1948600,055,810328 5 1
1949636,877,008341 11 5
1950665,928,628319 19 2
1951687,067,070354 10 4
New Zealand Currency
 ££ s. d.
1941387,614,259236 17 11
1942422,994,689258 16 4
1943502,624,560307 11 9
1944565,319,141345 15 8
1946600,009,024357 3 1
1946620,065,629352 19 3
1947632,502,349353 9 2
1948627,400,479343 4 3
1949636,877,008341 11 5
1950665,928,628349 19 2
1951687,067,070354 10 4

In general the net indebtedness shown in the foregoing table is merely the balance left after deducting from the amount of debentures and stock in circulation the accrued sinking funds, and the net balances of the Loans Redemption Account and also of the Public Debt Repayment Account until its incorporation in the Loans Redemption Account as from 1st April, 1947. No allowance is made for the fact that a portion of the debt is actually held by the Government itself. In the course of the year's financial transactions, securities are bought and sold by Treasury accounts, and the investments held as at the 31st March in each year, while forming part of the debt, do not represent amounts due directly or indirectly to the public. Public debt held by Treasury accounts as at the 31st March of the last five years has been: 1947, £25,470,995; 1948, £26,552,345; 1949, £29,807,345; 1950, £27,532,995; and 1951, £43,380,633.

In addition to the above, Government investments in corporations, &c., held at the 31st March, 1951 (shown in the return required by the Finance Act, 1947, and published in parliamentary paper B-1 [Pt. I]) are given in the following table:—

Investment.Amount at 31st March, 1951.
 £
Bank of New Zealand12,018,296
British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines, Ltd.541,935
British Petroleum Co. of New Zealand, Ltd.1,275,000
British Phosphate Commission483,900
Christmas Island Phosphate Commission1,465,512
Dominion Salt, Ltd.100,000
East Coast Farmers' Fertilizer Co., Ltd.15,000
New Zealand National Airways1,200,000
New Zealand Woolpack and Textiles, Ltd.150,000
Reserve Hunk of New Zealand1,500,000
State Advances Corporation37,798,014
Tasman Empire Airways, Ltd.375,000
Linen Flax Corporation300,000
      Total£57,222,657

GENERAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT DEBT.—The statistics given throughout this subsection refer to the indebtedness of the General Government only, and do not include the debt of local-governing authorities, which is dealt with in the section of this volume relating to local government.

Local-governing authorities had at the 31st March, 1950, a gross indebtedness equivalent to £(N.Z.)61,689,299, and if this amount be added to the gross debt of the General Government at 31st March, 1950—£(N.Z.)670,071,342—the aggregate becomes £(N.Z.)731,760,641. This latter total is inclusive of £(N.Z.)26,191,109 debt to the Imperial Government funded in terms of the Finance Act, 1922. Allowing for duplication on account of outstanding loans to local authorities from the State Advances Corporation and the Main Highways Board, and inscribed debt under the Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, the total is reduced to approximately £(N.Z.)725,950,031, which represents a rate of approximately £(N.Z.)382 per head of population.

The figures relating to local authorities' indebtedness in the foregoing paragraph are inclusive of Hospital Boards, and to this extent differ from those given in the section on local government. Hospital Board gross indebtedness at 31st March, 1950, totalled £5,460,301.

25 D—STATE ADVANCES

As early as 1892 the Government commenced the purchase of lands for cutting up for sale or lease to private individuals, and two years later the passing of the Advances to Settlers Act, 1894, marked the inauguration of a series of schemes for lending money to settlers, workers, &c., for the purchase of homes, the improvement of farms, and the development of resources and of industries. The schemes varied considerably in detail, but all lay in one of two main classes—those in which the money was advanced on security, and those in which the expenditure was incur ed by the Government itself in the first place and recouped from sales or leases. Advances to settlers, workers, and ex-servicemen are the principal examples of the former class, and the purchase of land for settlement (including the settlement of ex-servicemen) is the principal example of the latter.

STATE ADVANCES CORPORATION.—The Mortgage Corporation of New Zealand Act, 1934–35, authorized the creation of a Corporation under a Board composed of directors appointed partly by the State and partly by the shareholders of the Corporation.

By the State Advances Corporation Act, 1936, the private capital invested in the Mortgage Corporation was cancelled, provision being made for repayment to shareholders in respect of shares held in the Corporation. The capital of the Corporation was maintained at £1,000,000, however, by an investment from the Consolidated Fund, while all securities issued by the Corporation carry a State guarantee. The management of the Corporation is vested in a Board of Directors consisting of a managing director and deputy managing director appointed by the Governor-General in Council, one or more other directors similarly appointed, and an ex officio member (necessarily a Treasury official) appointed by the Minister of Finance. In the exercise of its powers, the Board is enjoined to have regard to any representations that may be made by the Minister of Finance. Every direction in writing given by the Minister is binding on the Board.

The change in administration and the institution of a State guarantee on securities issued by the Corporation represented the major alterations to the preexisting law. All the functions of the Mortgage Corporation were transferred to the new body, while certain extensions of function were made—e.g., the administration of the Housing Act, 1919. Following is a résumé of the principal functions of the State Advances Corporation:—

The Corporation administers the State Advances, &c., loans previously transferred to the pre-existing Mortgage Corporation, viz.—

  1. Mortgages in respect of advances to settlers or workers under the State Advances Act, 1913:

  2. Mortgages in respect of advances under the Rural Advances Act, 1926:

  3. Debentures or other securities vested in the State Advances Superintendent in respect of advances to local authorities under Part III of the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926, or corresponding provisions of former Acts:

  4. Crown mortgages in respect of advances to ex-servicemen of the First World War under the former Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, or any amendments thereof (including advances under section 11 of the Finance Act, 1933), and now under the Land Act, 1948.

In order to provide loan finance the Corporation may issue bonds, stock, or other securities which are State guaranteed.

The Corporation may advance on the security of a first mortgage on land, and normally such advances do not exceed two-thirds of the value of the security, but there is provision for the extension of that margin in certain cases, including the rehabilitation loans referred to later, and for such purposes as the erection of new houses. No loan-limit is laid down for cases where the amount of the advance does not exceed two-thirds of the value of the security, but loans over £2,500 are not usually granted on the security of dwellings. In cases where the normal margin i, exceeded with the approval of the Government, the Minister of Finance guarantees the Corporation against any loss attributable to the granting of advances in excess of two-thirds of the value of the security. For the purpose of erecting new homes, up to 90 per cent. of the security may be advanced, and the loan-limit for such cases was increased in 1950 to £2,00, including any suspensory loan that may be granted.

A suspensory loan, is in effect, a conditional subsidy towards the cost of building a home for personal occupation. These loans are repayable should the house be sold or otherwise disposed of within seven years; otherwise they are free of interest and will be converted into grants when the seven years have expired. They are limited to 10 per cent. of the cost, with a maximum of £200. If the cost is greater than £2,200 the amount of the suspensory loan is reduced by £1 for every £2 by which the cost exceeds £2,200, with no suspensory loan if the amount should fall below £50. Extended cost limits are allowed in the ease of families where there are more than two children. As with the increased loan-limit, the suspensory loan scheme applied to houses commenced on or after 1st December, 1949. The number of suspensory loans approved during the four months ended 31st March, 1951, was 126, involving £112,695.

The large majority of the loans granted by the Board are secured by table mortgages for terms varying from ten to forty-live years, but the Board has power to make advances on flat mortgage for a period of five years, though renewals of such mortgages cannot be extended for longer than one further period of five years. There is provision for varying the scheme of table mortgages in special circumstances, part of the mortgage (at least one-half) to he in the form of a table mortgage and the remainder a flat mortgage falling due on the date of the last instalment of the table mortgage.

A mortgagor may be required to effect a policy of life insurance as additional security, such policy to be assigned to the Corporation. A mortgagor may not give any subsequent mortgage or any other charge over land subject to any mortgage to the Corporation except with the written authority of the Board.

Each mortgagor is required to pay an amount equal to 2 per cent. of any mortgages granted by the Corporation as a contribution to the General Reserve Fund. These amounts, which may be borrowed as an addition to the principal sum if so desired, together with the surplus profits referred to below, and certain payments on account of mortgages transferred to the Corporation, form the General Reserve Fund.

The Board is required from time to time to fix the rates of interest to be paid under mortgages to the Corporation, so as to make adequate provision to cover the costs of administration and for all other matters incidental to the proper functioning of the Corporation. After such provision as the Minister of Finance thinks proper has been made for the depreciation of securities or other assets, and for such other matters as in his opinion are necessary for the efficient conduct of the business of the Corporation, the surplus for each financial year is to be paid into the Public Account unless the Minister, in his discretion, authorizes the Board to credit it, in whole or in part, to the General Reserve Fund of the Corporation.

In addition to its primary function of providing cheap long-term finance in the form of first mortgage on property, the Corporation has been authorized to make loans to local authorities out of the Housing Account for the purpose of erecting workers' dwellings or farm dwellings, and also advances to individuals for the development of existing industries or the establishment of new industries.

The Corporation is also authorized to act as agent for other Departments of State more particularly in respect of the inspection and supervision of properties and the collection of moneys payable to such Departments.

As stated earlier, the mortgages securing outstanding advances to ex-servicemen of the First World War were transferred to the Corporation some years ago and now form part of its general investments.

The Corporation acts as the agent of the Rehabilitation Board in obtaining valuations and preparing reports in respect of farm and residential property for submission to the Rehabilitation Loans Committee (or to District Loans Committees acting under delegated authority from the Rehabilitation Loans Committee), which has been appointed to consider and approve of loan applications lodged by ex-servicemen who are eligible for assistance under the Rehabilitation Act, 1941. The administration of such loans, when granted, is the subsequent responsibility of the Corporation. The classes of loans granted and the terms and conditions applicable thereto are set out in Section 45 (Rehabilitation). The securities taken in respect of rehabilitation loans for farms or houses are similar to mortgages taken for the purpose of securing advances made under the Corporation's ordinary lending activities, except that the Reserve Fund contribution on advances within the respective loan-limits is paid by the Consolidated Fund, which also meets interest concessions allowed in respect of these rehabilitation loans. These payments to the Corporation were formerly met from the War Expenses Account which was abolished as from 1st April, 1950. In respect of other types of rehabilitation loans such as for businesses and the purchase of furniture and tools of trade, the necessary loan finance was also provided from the War Expenses Account. When this account was closed a sum of £500,000 was transferred to the State Advances Corporation for the purpose of granting future loans of this nature. These loans are administered by the Corporation on an agency basis. The form of security taken and the terms as to repayment vary according to the typo of loan and the circumstances of the borrower.

By Order in Council dated the 5th March, 1937, the Board of Management of the State Advances Corporation was constituted the Rural Intermediate Credit Board established under the Rural Intermediate Credit Act, 1927, superseding the Public Trust Office, which had administered the Board's business since the inception of the scheme in 1927. This change in control took effect as from 1st July, 1937. In terms of the Rural Intermediate Credit Amendment Act, 1946, the business of the Board was absorbed by the Corporation as from 1st October, 1946 (see p. 606).

Reference to the Housing Act, 1919, and the Government's housing scheme, together with particulars of the numbers of houses erected, financial operations, &c., are contained in Section 23 (Building, Construction, and Housing).

Summary of Activities.—As already indicated, the Corporation, in addition to its normal lending functions, administers a number of other State activities, and a general summary of the business under administration as at 31st March, 1951, is as follows:—

 Number of Accounts.Principal Investment.
Mortgage investments— £
  Urban45,39940,987,278
  Rural22,89139,048,787
Loans to local authorities9384,391,068
Housing Account—  
  Dwellings let37,471£ 
  Shops, halls, and communal garages21760,120,882
  Dwellings sold7111,161,866
  Loans to local authorities101953,107
  Loans to employers2065,654
Rural Housing Act: Loans to local authorities42121,107
Advances under Rehabilitation Act, 1941—  
  Furniture, tools of trade, business. &c.36,1233,089,011
  Interest-free supplementary loans 1,972,445
Other principal agencies—  
  Agriculture Emergency Powers Act, 1941617,145
  Farmers' Loans Emergency Regulations 19401033,900
  Ministry of Works hutments rented to farmers196,684
  Rural Housing Scheme, 194413874
  Timber workers' housing—  
  Levies accounts594£ 
  Rental accounts117460,562
Miscellaneous rentals487 
      Totals145,159£152,430,370

Farm loans and residential loans to ex-servicemen under the Rehabilitation Act, 1941, are included with “Mortgage investments” above. Particulars of all rehabilitation loan authorizations will be found in Section 45 (Rehabilitation).

Financial.—Balance-sheet figures show that at 31st March, 1951, the authorized capital was £1,000,000, while stock and debentures outstanding were £73,822,590, an increase of £3,500,000 in the case of the latter compared with 31st March, 1950.

The General Reserve Fund, at 31st March, 1951, amounted to £5,691,503, and, in addition, there were specific reserves amounting to £2,733,476, making a total of £8,424,979, as compared with £8,105,881 at 31st March, 1950.

Mortgages and accrued interest at 31st March, 1951, totalled £79,799,783, an increase of £4,937,614 as compared with 31st March, 1950, while Government and local-authority securities and accrued interest at £5,784,045 were greater by £370,607.

The disposition and appropriation of profits in respect of operations during each of the last three financial years are given in the following table.

1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.
 £££
Gross income2,872,8753,137,4573,449,712
  Less interest on General Reserve Fund investments182,796180,285187,863
  Gross income (mortgage and temporary investments)2,690,0792,957,1723,261,849
  Interest on stock and debentures2,024,6502,208,4552,342,596
      Gross profit665,429748,717919,253
Management expenses321,058323,139370,858
Administration of rehabilitation advances90,090102,964102,821
Earthquake insurance12,42315,89417,098
Reserve for losses21,32520,00040,395
Transfer, General Reserve Fund42,498  
      Net profit178,035286,720388,081
Less reserve for taxes138,000236,300330,720
      Surplus payable to Crown40,03550,42057,361

The gross income of £3,449,712 in 1950–51 included £2,634,831 interest on mortgages and current accounts, £188,932 interest on Government and local-authority securities and temporary investments, and £625,305 recovery from the War Expenses Account on account of interest concessions to ex-servicemen on rehabilitation advances. Corresponding figures for 1949–50 were £2,414,327, £180,560, and £541,897 respectively.

New Business.—A summary of loan operations (new business) for the last two financial years is given in the following table.

Loans Authorized.1949–50.1950–51.
Number.Value.Number.Value.

* Excludes the number of Supplementary loans.

Urban securities— £ £
  Erection of dwellings2,2023,023,4174,6447,765,232
  Refinance and other purposes2,8862,732,0073,2683,692,428
  Supplementary(1,918)265,270(2,776)233,690
      Total urban5,088*6,020,6947,912*11,691,350
Rural securities—    
  Refinance and other purposes1,1175,219,6731,1736,622,372
  Supplementary(5)1,490  
Loans to industry81,034,090 67,280
Local authorities28376,4521966,620
Grand totals6,241*12,652,3999,104*18,447,622

The above figures include rehabilitation loans in respect of farms and houses. Other rehabilitation loans granted by the Rehabilitation Loans Committee and administered by the Corporation were as follows.

Loans Authorized.Year Ended 31st March, 1950.Year Ended 31st March, 1951.Total to 31st March, 1951.
No.Value.No.Value.No.Value.
  £ £ £
Business1,414910,091940630,5269,6676,124,487
Furniture7,283678,2925,908561,86749,6594,599,620
Tools of trade621,838391,2731,42346,765
Miscellaneous10917,43410027,124566120,386
      Totals8,8681,607,6556,9871,220,79061,31510,891,258

A statement is given below of the aggregate number and amount of loans approved by the Board of Management since the Corporation commenced business in 1935.

 Number.£
Farm (including Supplementary)13,16844,323,925
Residential (including Supplementary)55,92061,988,659
Local authorities6178,449,328
Industries371,711,385
      Totals69,742£116,473,297

The lending rate of the Corporation was maintained during 1950-51 at 4 1/8 per cent. Rehabilitation loans to ex-servicemen for houses and farms were, however, at 3 per cent., reducible to 2 per cent. for the first year, and for business loans at 4 per cent., reducible to 2 per cent. for the first year. The amount involved in interest concessions of this kind is now recouped from the Consolidated Fund. Loans granted under the Corporation's normal lending business are in general secured by table mortgages for varying periods. The following summary shows the annual cost—i.e., interest and principal payments—per £100 borrowed on table mortgage at 4 1/8 per cent. for the various periods.

Term.Annual Amount payable.
 £s.d.
Ten years1262
Fifteen years902
Twenty years7710
Twenty-five years690
Thirty years51610
Thirty-five years586
Forty years526
Forty-five years4182

Special plans prepared by leading architects are available in book form, and assistance in calling tenders and in the erection of the houses is available from the Corporation's expert officers.

RURAL INTERMEDIATE CREDIT.—The Rural Intermediate Credit Board, appointed in terms of the Rural Intermediate Credit Act, 1927, provided a source from which farmers could obtain loan finance on favourable terms for such purposes as the purchase of stock and plant and farm improvements.

Pursuant to the provisions of Part VI of the State Advances Corporation Act, 1936, the former Rural Intermediate Credit Board went out of office on 1st July, 1937, and was replaced by the Board of Management of the State Advances Corporation, whose members became the Rural Intermediate Credit Board.

In terms of the Rural Intermediate Credit Amendment Act, 1946, the business of the Rural Intermediate Credit Board was, as from 1st October, 1946, absorbed by the State Advances Corporation, the Board being abolished as from that date.

Under the Act farmers may obtain assistance in the following manner:—

  1. By borrowing through co-operative rural intermediate credit associations whoso formation (with not less than twenty members and with certain defined objects) is provided for by the Act. The application for the loan is received and considered by the association concerned, which, on approving it, applies to the Corporation for its confirmation and for an advance to cover the loan. These loans are repayable on demand, but it has been the policy to arrange for the borrower to repay the amounts advanced in five equal yearly instalments. Extensions beyond that period may ho approved in suitable cases. An association may, with the approval of the Corporation, arrange with a bank or other approved financial institution for a loan in eases where the term is not more than six months.

  2. Persons engaged in farming on their own account, trustees, executors, or administrators carrying on farming operations, may obtain loans direct from the Corporation, the conditions being similar to (a) above.

During the twenty-four years from the inception of the Rural Intermediate Credit system up to 31st March, 1951, advances exceeding £2,500,932 have been made.

At 28th February, 1951, there were ten active co-operative rural intermediate credit associations in operation. The loans authorized through this channel during the year 1950–51 amounted to £22,723, and there were 191 loans current at the end of the year for an aggregate amount of £33,893.

Loans granted direct by the Corporation in 1950–51 totalled £95,740, as compared with £105,362 in the previous year.

The interest fixed for advances other than to co-operative rural intermediate credit associations is now 5 per cent. per annum, except in the case of ex-servicemen eligible for rehabilitation assistance, where the interest rate is 4 per cent. per annum (rebated to 2 per cent. for the first year provided the loan conditions are fulfilled). In the case of loans to co-operative rural intermediate credit associations the rate charged is 4 per cent., so that associations may be in a position to make advances to their members at 5 per cent.

SALE OF STATE HOUSES.—In conformity with the Government's policy of encouraging private home ownership, State house tenants are being given an opportunity to buy the houses they occupy.

In the case of tenants occupying State rental houses on or before 31st July, 1930, the main sale terms are—

  1. A minimum deposit of 5 per cent. of the sale price.

  2. A suspensory loan assessed at 10 per cent. of the sale price, with a maximum of £200.

  3. A repayment period up to forty years for the balance of the purchase-money, together with interest, on an instalment-table basis.

  4. An interest charge of 4 1/8 per cent., reduced to 3 per cent. while the conditions of sale are complied with.

  5. Discount of 5 per cent. for payments of purchase-money in excess of the required instalments of sale, or in excess of the minimum deposit.

  6. Repayment insurance benefits applicable to all eases where the wage-earner in the purchaser's family is under sixty years at the time of purchase.

  7. If the purchaser wishes to resell the State house within seven years it must first be offered for sale back to the Crown.

The purchase terms available for new State houses occupied since 1st August, 1950, are similar to the loan terms for persons erecting new houses (see pp. 602–603). They include—

  1. Suspensory loans.

  2. A minimum deposit of 10 per cent. of the purchase-price or the balance of the purchase-money above £2,000 (including any suspensory loan).

  3. The balance of the purchase-money, together with interest, payable over a period of years on an instalment-table basis.

  4. Interest at 4 1/8 per cent.

  5. Provision for the property to be offered for sale to the Crown in the event of the purchaser wishing to resell within seven years.

From the inception of the sale of State rental houses up to the 28th March, 1952, the number sold to the tenants amounted to 4,235, for a total sale price of £8,579,410.

Chapter 26. SECTION 26—SOCIAL SECURITY, PENSIONS, SUPERANNUATION, ETC.

Table of Contents

SOCIAL SECURITY.—The Social Security Act, 1938, which came into operation on 1st April, 1939, may be said to have as its principal aim the provision for payment of superannuation and other benefits designed to safeguard the people of New Zealand from disabilities arising from ago, invalidity, widowhood, orphanhood, unemployment, sickness, or other exceptional conditions. Its two main objectives were:—

  1. To substitute for the previous system of non-contributory civil pensions a system of monetary benefits on a contributory basis:

  2. The inauguration of a system of medical and hospital benefits and of other related benefits.

The various classes of pensions, &c., which were superseded by monetary benefits of similar application were old-age pensions, widows' pensions, Maori War pensions, miners' pensions, invalidity pensions, and family allowances, while the unemployment benefit replaced the system of sustenance payments previously in force. A brief history of the introduction of the principal classes of pensions superseded by the social security scheme, and of the former Pensions Department which administered them, is given on pages 451–452 of the 1947–49 issue of the Year-Book. In addition, four new classes of monetary benefits were inaugurated—the orphans' benefit, the sickness benefit, the emergency benefit (for cases of hardship), and the universal superannuation benefit.

The Social Security Amendment Act, 1945, introduced a further important addition to the social legislation of New Zealand. It established the principle of universal family benefits, and from 1st April, 1946, each mother receives a benefit in respect of each of her dependent children irrespective of the family income or property.

A further development in 1948 occurred with the passing of legislation providing for reciprocity of social security benefits with Australia, and reciprocity in relation to family benefits with Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The respective Acts were entitled the Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act, 1948, the Family Benefits (Reciprocity with Great Britain) Act. 1948, and the Family Benefits (Reciprocity with Northern Ireland) Act, 1948.

The first mentioned of these three Acts repealed the Age Benefits and Invalids' Benefits (Reciprocity with Australia) Act, 1943, and came into force on the 1st July, 1949. In the 1948 Act the classes of benefit were extended and now cover the following: age-pensions and age-benefits, invalid pensions (including wives' and children's allowances) and invalids' benefits, widows' pensions and widows' benefits, child endowment and family benefits, unemployment benefits, and sickness benefits.

Administration.—The Social Security Act, 1938, established a Department of State entitled the Social Security Department, under the control of a Commission consisting of not more than three members. The Department administers, under the direction of the Minister of Social Security, Part II of the Act dealing with those monetary benefits to which reference has been made, while Part III of the Act dealing with medical, hospital, and other related benefits, is administered by the Health Department under the direction of the Minister of Health. Provision was made in the Social Security Amendment Act, 1947, for the Social Security Commission, with the written consent of the Minister of Social Security, to delegate to any Registrar or other officer of the Department any of its powers under Part II of the principal Act.

The Act states that the Social Security Department may be divided into two or more divisions, and two have been created each under the control of a Director, one dealing with unemployment and sickness benefits, and the second with all other monetary benefits. The War Pensions Act, 1943 (which consolidated and amended the previously existing legislation on the subject), and the War Pensions and Allowances (Mercantile Marino) Act, 1940, are also administered by the Social Security Department, one of whose directors is also designated Secretary for War Pensions. It should be noted, however, that, unlike the benefits under the Social Security Act which are paid from the Social Security Fund (referred to later), war pensions are paid through the Consolidated Fund from general taxation.

Financial Provisions.—Finance to enable the provisions of the Act to be carried out is provided for by the establishment within the Public Account of the Social Security Fund. The principal revenue of the Fund is derived from a charge on salaries, wages, and other income, including the income of companies, but the Act also makes provision for the payment to the Fund of such other moneys as may be appropriated by Parliament from time to time, and a substantial amount has been received from the Consolidated Fund each year.

The social security charge, which had been at the rate of 1d. for every 1s. 8d. or part thereof of income since the inception of the scheme, was increased in 1946 to 1d. for every 13 1/3d. or part thereof—i.e., 1s. 6d. in the £1. The increase, in the case of salaries and wages, became effective from and including 13th May, 1946, while “other” income received during the year ended 31st March, 1946, was subject to the increased rate.

A registration fee formerly payable (5s. per annum for females and males between sixteen and twenty years of age, and 5s. per quarter for males over twenty years of age) was abolished as from the 1st April, 1946.

In the case of salaries and wages the amount of the charge is deducted by the employer or other person by whom the wages or salaries are paid, while the charge on other income is payable by the recipient in equal instalments on 1st July and 1st November in the year following the financial year in which the income was derived.

The revenue of the fund for the financial years 1946–47 to 1950–51 was made up as follows.

1946–47.1947–43.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.

*Includes small amounts which are not chargeable against the amounts paid out under the heading of widows' benefits.

 £££££
Registration fees, &c.,19,769124125285201
Charge on salaries and wages13,519,80016,105,49116,744,52918,766,78020,650,975
Charge on company and other income8,864,08410,071,14312,633,85612,935,79015,115,261
Grants from Consolidated Fund (Social Security Act)18,000,00016,000,00015,000,00012,000,00014,000,000
Maintenance recoveries against defaulting husbands*44,55460,99664,10465,27366,900
Other receipts110,24896,88357,85170,05549,052
      Total revenue40,564,45542,334,63744,500,46543,838,18349,882,389

Payments from the fund during the year ended 31st March, 1951 (with 1949-50 figures in parentheses), totalled £49,420,761 (£46,425,436), of which monetary benefits accounted for £39,553,623 (£36,891,731), medical, &c., benefits for £8,723,383 (£8,461,109). emergency benefits £292,069 (£280,155), administration expenses £848,486 (£783,822), and other payments £3,200 (£8,619). Details of the various benefits in force and the amounts paid in respect thereof are given later in this section.

Monetary Benefits.—A brief description of the main provisions relating to the various monetary benefits under Part II of the Act is now given. The rates prescribed for several of the benefits under the principal Act were increased by way of bonus to the extent of 5 per cent. of the maximum rate payable in each case, as from 1st May, 1942. The Social Security Amendment Act, 1943, however, superseded these bonuses with permanent increases as from 1st July, 1943, and further increases were granted in most benefits as from 1st October, 1945. The Social Security Amendment Act, 1947, provided for a further increase in the rate of benefits payable, the effective date being as from 1st October, 1947. The same amendment gave the Commission power to continue superannuation, family, and miners' benefits without review for a period longer than the twelve months to which it was previously restricted. Other benefits subject to a moans test may not be granted, or renewed for a period exceeding twelve months, without further investigation as to changes in circumstances, The Social Security Amendment Act, 1949, also provided for an increase in the basic rates of monetary benefits as from the 1st June, 1949. On 2nd June, 1950, the Government announced that, in consideration of the effect of the removal of certain subsidies, it had been decided to increase social security benefits by a flat cost-of-living bonus representing a 5-per-cent. increase, or 2s. 6d. per week for single beneficiaries and 5s. per week for married couples, on existing rates. Benefits affected with retrospective payments as from 8th May, 1950, were age, invalids', miners', orphans', widows', sickness, unemployment, and emergency benefits. An earlier announcement (22nd December, 1949), stated that the amount of allowable income that could be earned by a beneficiary without affecting the benefit was to be increased from £1 to £1 10s. per week. This concession applies to age, invalids', and sickness benefits. These increases were later incorporated in the Social Security Amendment Act, 1950. This Act also provided that the reduction in the basic rates of benefit on account of accumulated property in those cases where it applied (age-benefits and invalids' benefits) was to be £1 for every £15 of value instead of £1 for every £10 as formerly. Further increases ranging from 2s. 6d. to 5s. per week for recipients of social security benefits who are not generally in regular employment were announced on the 9th February, 1951, the increases to date from the 15th February, 1951. A Christmas bonus of £10 was paid to certain classes of social security beneficiaries and war pensioners, information to this effect being announced on the 16th December, 1950. The rates quoted hereunder take recent increases into account and are those at present in force (April, 1952).

Payments of benefits, other than invalids'' or miners' benefits for which separate provision had been made earlier, during temporary absence from New Zealand was made permissible at the Commission's discretion by the Finance Act (No, 2), 1948.

Persons employed outside New Zealand will be deemed to be resident in New Zealand if employed on Government business, and may be so deemed at the Commission's discretion if employed otherwise, for the purposes of Part II of the principal Act, where liable for the payment of social security charge on their earnings. In each case the wife and children are also included. The 1950 amendment provided that persons employed by the Governments of Western Samoa and the Cook Islands are exempted from payment of the social security charge unless they remain ordinarily resident in New Zealand.

A person who is in receipt of a war disablement pension or a basic war widows' pension may be granted any social security benefit.

Superannuation Benefits.—Every person over the age of sixty-five years who satisfies the prescribed residential qualifications is entitled to a superannuation benefit without conditions as to income or property. The universal superannuation benefit is however, regarded as assessable income for income-tax purposes but is exempt from the social security charge. The residential qualifications are contained in section 12 of the Act, which reads as follows:—

  1. No person shall be entitled to a superannuation benefit under this Part of this Act unless he satisfies the following conditions, namely:—

    1. In the case of a person who was resident in New Zealand on the fifteenth day of March, nineteen hundred and thirty-eight (being the date of the passing of the Pensions Amendment Act, 1937), that he has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than ten years immediately preceding the date of his application for a superannuation benefit:

    2. In any case to which the last preceding paragraph does not apply, that he has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than twenty years immediately preceding the date of his application for a superannuation benefit.

  2. For the purposes of the last preceding Subsection, continuous residence in New Zealand shall not be deemed to have been interrupted by absence therefrom:—

    1. In any case to which paragraph (a) of the lust preceding subsection applies:—

      1. If the total period of absence from New Zealand does not exceed one year; or

      2. If the total period of absence from New Zealand exceeds one year but does not exceed that period by more than six months for every year of residence in New Zealand in excess of a period of ton years, and the applicant has been actually resident in New Zealand for the twelve months immediately preceding the date of his application:

    2. In any case to which paragraph (b) of the last preceding subsection applies:—

      1. If the total period of absence from New Zealand does not exceed two years; or

      2. If the total period of absence from New Zealand exceeds two years but does not exceed that period by more than six months for every year of residence in New Zealand in excess of a period of twenty years, and the applicant has been actually resident in New Zealand for the twelve months immediately preceding the date of his application.

Provision is also made to cover absence by a seaman serving on board any ship registered or owned in New Zealand and absence in any capacity as a member of any of Her Majesty's Forces.

A superannuation benefit is not payable in addition to any other benefit or war pension. For example, a superannuation benefit and an invalid's benefit cannot be paid to the one person. Similarly, a superannuation benefit and an age-benefit are not payable to the one person. If a beneficiary in receipt of a superannuation benefit is later granted an age-benefit, the maximum benefit payable is £149 10s., the amount of the superannuation benefit being merged in the amount of the age-benefit granted.

At the date of commencement on 1st April, 1940, and for the remainder of the year, the rate of benefit was £10 per annum, thereafter being increased by £2 10s. per annum. As from the 1st October, 1951, however, the amount payable for the balance of the year 1951–52 was raised from £37 10s. to £75 per annum, this amount increasing by £5 per annum at the 1st April of each succeeding year until the amount equals the full rate payable under the age-benefit. The present superannuation benefit should attain the rate of the age-benefit (£149 10s.) from the 1st April, 1966, and at this date the latter benefit will be replaced by the superannuation benefit for those aged sixty-five years or over.

The number of superannuation benefits in force at the 31st March, 1951, was 70,304, an increase of 948 above the total for the previous year. Expenditure on these benefits rose from £2,179,365 in 1949–50 to £2,336,275 in 1950–51.

Age-benefits.—Every person who has attained the age of sixty years is entitled to receive an age-benefit, subject to satisfying certain qualifications in regard to residence and character. The residential qualifications are the same as those set out under the preceding heading in regard to superannuation benefits. The character qualifications mainly relate to desertion of wife or husband or wilful failure in the case of a married man or widower to provide adequate maintenance for wife or for children under sixteen years of age.

The basic rate of the benefit is £149 10s. per annum, subject to certain deductions on account of income or accumulated property, &c. Particulars of additions to and deductions from the basic rate are as follows:—

  • Unmarried applicants: The basic rate is reduced by £1 for every complete £1 of income in excess of £78 per annum.

  • Married applicants: Where husband and wife are both entitled to the benefit, the basic rate is reduced by 10s. for every complete £1 of their combined incomes in excess of £78 per annum. In cases where only one of them is entitled to the benefit, the reduction is at the rate of £1 for every complete £1 of their total income (excluding a family benefit) in excess of £227 10s. per annum. A further provision allows of an extra payment, not exceeding £149 10s. per annum, to a male recipient when his wife is ineligible for any benefit under the Act. This is payable only up to a limit of the total income of the couple plus benefit of £377 per annum.

For the above purposes, income is deemed not to include amounts received by way of war disablement pension or basic war widow's pension.

Age-beneficiaries are entitled to surrender their benefits while their earnings are excessive and to apply for reinstatement immediately the employment ceases. The earnings received during the period that both husband and wife were not on age-benefits are not taken into account.

An age-beneficiary on attaining the age of sixty-five years is entitled to an increase in his allowable income of £6 10s. per annum for each complete year after attaining the age of sixty years during which he did not receive the benefit but was otherwise eligible so to do. The maximum allowable income under this provision is £110 10s. per annum. Appropriate adjustments are made to apply the same provision to a beneficiary whose benefit is reduced by reason of accumulated property, so as to place him in an equivalent position—i.e., the amount of reduction may be diminished by £6 10s. for each year of deferment.

In the six months from 1st October, 1950, to the 31st March, 1951, a total of 11,113 beneficiaries, or 9.1 per cent. of the total number of age-benefits in force at the end of March, 1951, received increases in their benefits on account of the deferment concession. The periods of deferment were: one year, 996; two years, 934; three years, 922; four years, 919; and five or more years, 7,342.

In computing the allowable income of any woman no account is to be taken of her personal earnings from domestic service in a private home up to £78 per year, provided that such earnings together with other allowable personal income does not exceed £156 per annum.

In addition to the foregoing, a special allowance not exceeding £13 13s. per annum may be paid to any person in receipt of an age-benefit who served as a member of a New Zealand contingent in connection with the South African War or in any of His Majesty's Forces in that war if he had been born in New Zealand or was domiciled therein at the commencement of the war: Provided that an allowance shall not be granted under this section of such an amount that the total amount from all sources (including the value of any benefits in kind) received by the beneficiary in any year shall exceed the sum of £227 10s.

The Commission may also, in its discretion, increase by an amount not exceeding £26 per annum the rate of any benefit under Part II of the Act (including the age-benefit) payable to any beneficiary who was one of the parents of a deceased member of any of His Majesty's Forces established in New Zealand whose death was attributable to service with the Forces. Similar powers exist in respect of a parent of a deceased member of the New Zealand Mercantile Marine within the meaning of the War Pensions and Allowances (Mercantile Marine) Act. 1940, whose death was attributable to the Second World War. The provision also covers from 1st April, 1949, the case of a deceased member of any Force or of the Mercantile Marine of any part of the British Commonwealth other than New Zealand, who was domiciled in New Zealand at the commencement of the Second World War and whose death was directly attributable to that war. At the 31st March, 1951, there were 1,953 of these allowances in force, an increase of 137 over the corresponding 1950 total.

In addition to the deductions on account of income set out above, the rate of the benefit is reduced by £1 for every £15 (this amount was raised from £10 by the 1950 amendment to the Act) of net capital value of accumulated property in excess of £500. The net accumulated property of a husband or wife for this purpose is half of the total net accumulated property of both.

In computing the net capital value of property no account is taken of the following, but any income derived therefrom is charged as income:—

  1. Any interest in land or house property, or mortgage or other encumbrance over such property:

  2. Any interest in any annuity or in any policy of life-assurance:

  3. Any furniture used in the homo of the applicant or any personal effects belonging to the applicant.

Income from a property and the value of the same property are not both charged to reduce the age-benefit—e.g., if shares worth £600 produce an income of £30 per annum, either the value of the shares or the income therefrom may be charged, whichever method provides for the greater reduction.

Where an applicant for an age-benefit is totally blind, the rate of the benefit together with any benefits and allowances payable to or in respect of the wife or husband of the applicant, is not to be less than the total of benefits and allowances that would have been paid if the applicant had been eligible for an invalid's benefit.

The number of age-benefits in force at the 31st March, 1951, was 122,187, an increase of 5,031 over the figure at the end of March, 1950. The 1951 total was inclusive of 7,642 husbands receiving benefits on account of dependent wives who were not eligible for benefits in their own right, and 455 males receiving the additional allowances of £13 13s. per annum paid to veterans of the South African War. The estimated number of persons in New Zealand at 31st December, 1950, who were aged sixty years or over was 254,200. Expenditure on age-benefits rose from £15,133,751 for 1949–50 to £17,150,839 for 1950–51.

The following table shows the estimated age distribution of persons who were granted new age-benefits during the year ended 31st March, 1951. The figures are exclusive) of renewals and transfers from widows' and invalids' benefits.

Age, in Years.Males.Females.Total.
606481,2081,856
61273396669
62285367652
63265322587
64236289525
      Totals, 60–641,7072,5824,289
65–691,2091,0302,239
70 and over1,1161,1482,264
      Totals4,0324,7608,792

Widows' Benefits.—Every widow who is the mother of one or more children under sixteen years of age is entitled to a benefit in respect of widowhood. In addition, any widow not being the mother of children under sixteen years of age who satisfies the following conditions is also entitled to the benefit:—

  1. A widow who has had one or more children, provided that the duration of her marriage was not less than fifteen years or, in the alternative, that the aggregate of the period of the duration of her marriage and any subsequent period during which she had the care of at least one of her children under sixteen years of age was not less than fifteen years:

  2. A widow who, on the expiration of not less than five years after the date of her marriage, became a widow after she attained the age of fifty years:

  3. A widow of not less than fifty years of age who became a widow after she had attained the age of forty years, provided that the duration of her marriage was not less than ten years and that not less than fifteen years have expired since the date of her marriage.

It will be noted that no widow under fifty years of age who has not had one or more children can qualify for the benefit.

Provision is also made for other classes of women (not being widows) to receive benefits as if they were widows. Particulars are as follows:—

  1. Any married woman who satisfies the Commission that she has been deserted by her husband and that she has taken proceedings against him for a maintenance order under the Destitute Persons Act, 1910. Either the beneficiary or the Commission may institute and prosecute proceedings for the enforcement of the order, or for an order cancelling, varying, or suspending the maintenance order. Any moneys paid by a husband, whether by way of maintenance order or otherwise, are set off against any benefit so granted:

  2. Any married woman in respect of whoso husband a reception order is in force under the Mental Defectives Act, 1911 (whether or not ho is detained in an institution under the Act), or whoso husband is for the time being detained in an institution under that Act, whether as a voluntary boarder or otherwise.

Except in the case of widows with one or more children under sixteen years of age, no widow is entitled to receive a widow's benefit unless she and her husband were both resident in New Zealand for not less than three years immediately preceding the death of the husband.

The term “children” does not include any child born out of New Zealand unless at least one of the following conditions is satisfied—namely, that—

  1. The mother of the child was only temporarily out of New Zealand at the time of its birth; or

  2. Both parents were resident in New Zealand for the three years immediately preceding the date of the father's death (in cases where the husband of the applicant is dead); or

  3. Both parents were resident in New Zealand for the three years immediately preceding the desertion of the applicant by her husband, or for the three years immediately preceding the making of a reception order in respect of the husband under the Mental Defectives Act or before his admission to an institution under that Act.

The term “child” includes a step-child or a child adopted during the lifetime of the husband of the applicant (in eases where the husband is dead) or adopted while the husband and wife were living together (in cases of desertion., &c.). It may also (at the discretion of the Commission) include any child who is being maintained by the applicant or was at any time maintained by the husband of the applicant.

No woman shall be entitled to receive a widow's benefit unless the Commission is satisfied that she is of good moral character and sober habits.

The rates of widows' benefits payable are—

  1. Widows with a child or children under sixteen years of age, £149 10s. per annum:

  2. Widows without dependent children, £149 10s. per annum.

In addition to the benefit payable to a widow with dependent children under sixteen years of age, she is entitled to receive a mother's allowance at the rate of £91 per annum.

Any income received, exclusive of war disablement or basic war widows' pension, is taken into account in computing the benefit payable, and where such income exceeds £78 the annual rate of benefit is reduced by £1 for every complete £1 of such excess. The maximum of income plus benefit in the case of a widow with dependent children is £318 10s. per annum, and in the case of a widow without dependent children £227 10s. per annum. A widow with dependent children will, of course, receive in addition the universal family benefit of 10s. per week for each child.

The provision relating to the allowable income of £78 per year gained from domestic service in a private home without affecting the amount of the benefit payable to women age-beneficiaries also applies to widows' benefits.

Where there are no dependent children, the benefit of widows attaining the age of sixty years is also reducible by £1 for every complete £15 of the accumulated property in excess of £500 computed as if she were an applicant for age-benefit. Widows' benefits cease on remarriage.

At the 81st March, 1951, there were 12,909 benefits in force, a decrease of 1,289 during the year. Expenditure totalled £2,142,232 in 1950–51, compared with £2,159,651 in 1949–50. Offset against these amounts were the sums of £66,783 and £65,010 respectively, being recoveries of maintenance from defaulting husbands.

The following table affords an analysis of widows' benefits in force at the 31st March, 1951.

With Dependent Children.Without Dependent Children.Total.
Widows3,8977,81011,707
Deserted wives7153561,071
Wives of mental hospital patients8942131
      Totals4,7018,20812,909

Orphans' Benefits.—A benefit in respect of complete orphanhood is payable in the case of a child under sixteen years of age who was born in New Zealand or whose last surviving parent was resident in New Zealand for a period of not less than three years preceding the dale of his or her death. A step-child or an adopted child conies within the definition of the term, and payment may be made to any person for the time being having the care and control of the child. No payment is made on account of any orphan maintained in a State institution, but payment may be made to the governing bodies of homes and orphanages of religious or other organizations.

The amount payable as an orphan's benefit is limited to a maximum of £78 per annum less any income received by or for the benefit of the orphan, but a lesser amount may be granted if it is considered that the circumstances of the case warrant it. In any case where the income of the orphan falls below £26 per annum, application may be made for a family benefit of 10s. a week in lieu of orphan's benefit. For the purpose of assisting in the further education of any child, the Commission may continue or grant the benefit until the end of the year in which the child reaches the age of eighteen years.

The number of benefits in force at the end of March, 1951, was 1134 (in respect of 461 children), a decline of 32 during the year. Expenditure increased from £31,176 in 1949-50 to £33,061 in 1950–51.

Family Benefits.—As from 1st April, 1946, the father or mother of any child or children under sixteen years of age may apply for a family benefit, irrespective of the income or property of the parents or children. Prior to 1st April, 1946, family benefits were payable subject to a means test.

The rate of the benefit is 10s. per week for each child, and in every case is paid to the mother of the children, unless in special circumstances the Commission considers that it should be paid to the father or to some other person for the benefit of the children.

If a beneficiary in receipt of an age or other monetary benefit is the parent of dependent children, payment in respect of the children is made by way of a separate family benefit.

The term “children” includes stepchildren and adopted children, but does not include—

  1. Any child who has attained the age of sixteen years unless such child is continuing its education as a lull-time day pupil at a school or college, in which case the Commission may grant or continue the benefit until it reaches the age of eighteen years.

  2. Any child who is not in fact maintained as a member of the family of the applicant.

  3. Any child in respect of whom any other benefit is payable under the Act.

The Commission may regard as a member of the applicant's family any child who, although not a child of the applicant, is being maintained as a member of the family. A benefit may also be continued beyond the age of sixteen years in respect of any child who is totally incapacitated from earning a living by reason of some physical or mental defect.

In order to qualify for a family benefit, at least one of the following conditions must be satisfied, namely—

  1. The child was born in New Zealand.

  2. The mother of the child was only temporarily absent from New Zealand at the time of its birth.

  3. The Commission is satisfied that the child is likely to remain permanently in New Zealand.

  4. The child has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than twelve months.

A benefit is not payable in respect of any child committed to the care of the Child Welfare Department nor in respect of any child residing in an institution under the care of the Division of Mental Hygiene of the Health Department. Family benefits are, however, paid to children of a member of any of Her Majesty's Naval, Military, or Air Forces.

A family benefit may be paid in cash, to the credit of the Post Office Savings-bank account of the mother, or to the Commissioner of Taxes to meet the income-tax payments of the mother or father. The number of family benefits being paid to Post Office Savings-bank accounts increased from 80,636 at 31st March, 1950, to 94,136 at the 31st March, 1951, and the amount lodged from £4,111,994 to £4,539,265 respectively. The number of benefits wholly or partly diverted in payment of income-tax continued to fall from 3,825 at the end of March, 1950, to 3,578 in 1951, the amount paid in the earlier year being £175,945 as compared with £162,519 during 1950–51.

The total number of benefits in force at the 31st March, 1951, was 263,493, covering 592,373 children, compared with the corresponding figures of 254,920 and 567,587 at the 31st March, 1950. Included in the 1950–51 total of children were 9,581 pupils and 79 incapacitated minors over the age of sixteen years. Expenditure increased from £14,850,959 in 1949–50 to £15,289,346 in 1950–51.

The next table gives the number of family benefits in force at the end of March, 1950 and 1951, classified according to the number of children receiving the benefit in each case.

Number of Children Receiving Benefit in Each Case.Number of Benefits at 31st March, 1950.Number of Benefits at 31st March, 1951.
194,62794,527
278,92483,062
343,57646,252
420,59021,840
58,9069,253
64,0784,252
72,1432,156
81,1781,203
9527538
10 or over371410
      Totals254,920263,493

The average number of children per family in respect of whom benefit was paid was 2.20 in 1948–49, 2.22 in 1949–50, and 2.25 in 1950–51.

Invalids' Benefits.—Subject to certain residential and other qualifications, every person of the ago of sixteen years and upwards who is not qualified to receive an age-benefit is entitled to an invalid's benefit if he—

  1. Is totally blind; or

  2. Is permanently incapacitated for work as the result of an accident or by reason of illness or of any congenital defect.

The other qualifications referred to are as follows:—

  1. That ho has resided continuously in New Zealand for a period of not less than ten years immediately preceding the date of his application. Continuity of residence is not deemed to be interrupted where the total period of absence does not exceed twelve months, or docs not exceed twelve months by more than one month for every year of residence in New Zealand in excess of ton years, if the applicant has been actually resident in New Zealand for the twelve months immediately preceding the date of his application. In the case of a totally blind person continuous residence is not deemed to be interrupted by absence for the purpose of vocational training or for treatment in respect of the eyes, or in other cases by any period of absence for the purpose of obtaining any special surgical treatment, if the Commission is satisfied that there were good and sufficient reasons for leaving New Zealand to obtain such special treatment.

  2. In the case of an applicant in respect of blindness, that he was born in New Zealand or became blind while permanently resident in New Zealand. In the case of every other applicant, that he was born in New Zealand with the condition to which his incapacity for work is attributable, or that he became incapacitated for work by reason of an accident happening in New Zealand or by reason of illness contracted in New Zealand. These restrictions do not apply to any applicant who was actually resident in New Zealand on the 4th day of September, 1936 (the date of the passing of the Pensions Amendment Act, 1936, which first made provision for invalidity pensions other than for blindness), or to any person becoming resident in New Zealand after that date, who has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than twenty years immediately preceding the date of his application for a benefit.

  3. That incapacity for work was not self-induced or in any way brought about with a view to qualifying for an invalidity benefit.

  4. Applicant must be of good moral character and sober habits.

Provision is made for a medical examination, when necessary, to determine the extent of incapacity. In the event of an application being declined on medical grounds, the applicant has the right of appeal, within three months after the decision of the Commission has been communicated to him, to a Board of three medical practitioners nominated by the Department. An invalid's benefit may be paid in respect of a period of absence from New Zealand not exceeding two years in the aggregate, if the Commission is satisfied that such absence was for the purpose of obtaining any special medical or surgical treatment, or in the case of blindness, for the purpose of undertaking vocational training or treatment in respect of the eyes.

The proscribed rates for invalids' benefits, together with the amounts of allowable income, exclusive of war disablement or basic war widows' pensions, are as follows.

Class of Person.Rate of Benefit.Allowable Income.
Weekly.Yearly.Weekly.Yearly.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Single, under twenty years2501170011007800
Widower with dependent children217614910011007800
Married man217614910      
Wife217614910011007800
Married woman2176149100476227100
All other persons217614910011007800

As in the case of other benefits, dependent children are paid for by way of the family benefit at 10s. per week each.

In each case the amount of the benefit is reduced by £1 for every complete £1 of income, exclusive of war disablement or basic war widows' pension, in excess of the amounts stated as allowable. Deductions on account of property are the same as for age-benefits, which are described under a previous heading. In computing the income for any blind person no account is taken of personal earnings up to £156 per annum. In addition, personal earnings of such blind persons are subsidized to the extent of 25 per cent. so long as the total income, including any benefit received, docs not exceed £331 10s. per annum. The maximum invalid benefit payable plus allowable income is £377 per annum.

Where an applicant is a married woman and, by reason of incapacity, necessary nursing or domestic assistance is required to be paid for, the Commission may increase the rate of anv benefit which may have been reduced on account of income or property to an amount not in excess of £149 10s. a year, but so that the total income of applicant and husband, inclusive of the benefit, does not exceed £9 5s. per week.

Any person in receipt of an invalid's benefit who, on the attainment of age sixty, becomes entitled to receive an age-benefit is required to relinquish his invalid's benefit and is granted an age-benefit in lieu thereof, but the aggregate amount payable for a blind beneficiary and his wife (if any) is not altered by this transfer.

Invalids' benefits in force at the 31st March, 1951, numbered 8,992, a decrease of 484 on the March, 1950, figure, while expenditure rose from £1,397,713 in 1949–50 to £1,429,276 in 1950–51.

Miners' Benefits.—Subject to the qualifications set out hereunder, a miner's benefit is payable to any person who, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, contracted miner's phthisis and is thereby permanently and seriously incapacitated for work, or to any person who contracted, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, any other occupational or heart disease and is thereby permanently and totally incapacitated for work. The term “miner's phthisis” means pneumoconiosis and includes tuberculosis of the lungs or any other disease of the respiratory organs commonly associated with, or a sequel to, pneumoconiosis. The necessary qualifications are—

  1. Employment as a miner in New Zealand for not less than two and a half years:

  2. Continuous residence in New Zealand for not less than five years immediately preceding the date of his application for a benefit. Continuity of residence is not deemed to have been interrupted by occasional absences aggregating not more than six months:

  3. Good moral character and sober habits and must not have deserted or wilfully failed to provide for his wife and children during the period of five years immediately preceding the date of application.

  4. That compensation under the Workers' Compensation Act in respect of the same disability is not being received.

The rates of miners' benefits are £2 17s. 6d. per week or £149 10s. per annum, increased by £2 17s. 6. per week, or £149 10s. per annum, for a wife. Dependent children under sixteen years are paid for by way of family benefit at the rate of 10s. per week each.

There is no reduction in the benefit on account of the income or property of the applicant and/or his wife.

Provision is made for medical examination where necessary to determine whether the applicant is permanently incapacitated for work, or the extent of his incapacity.

A special provision is made for the payment from the Social Security Fund of a reasonable contribution towards the funeral expenses of any person who dies while in receipt of a miner's benefit. The amount to be paid is at the discretion of the Commission.

If a person in receipt of a miner's benefit dies leaving a widow, such widow is entitled to a benefit of £2 5s. per week, or £117 per annum, during widowhood. This benefit is payable regardless of the circumstances of the widow, her income or property not being considered in the granting of a benefit.

Payment of benefits is not affected by a period of absence from New Zealand not exceeding two years in the aggregate.

Miners' benefits in force at the 31st March, 1951, numbered 592, 44 fewer than at the corresponding date in 1950. During 1950–51 the expenditure on this class of benefit was £125,189, compared with £120,061 in 1949–50.

Unemployment Benefits.—Subject to the conditions set out below, every person over the ago of sixteen years who is not qualified to receive an age-benefit is entitled to a benefit in respect of unemployment. An applicant is required to satisfy the Commission in respect of the following:—

  1. That he is unemployed:

  2. That he is capable of undertaking and is willing to undertake suitable work:

  3. That he has taken reasonable steps to obtain suitable employment:

  4. That he has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than twelve months.

An unemployment benefit is not payable in respect of the first seven days of any period of unemployment, except in special circumstances. In addition, the Commission may postpone, for a period not exceeding six weeks, the commencement of the benefit, or it may terminate the benefit in any of the following circumstances:—

  1. If the applicant has voluntarily become unemployed without good and sufficient reason:

  2. If the applicant has lost his employment by reason of any misconduct as a worker:

  3. If the applicant or beneficiary has refused or failed, without a good and sufficient reason, to accept any offer of suitable employment:

  4. In the case of a seasonal worker. if his earnings for the season are sufficient for the maintenance of himself and his family notwithstanding a period of temporary unemployment.

Unemployment benefits are payable in accordance with the following scale:—

 Weekly Benefit.
To applicants sixteen and under twenty years without£s.d.
dependants1150
To all other applicants2176
In respect of the applicant's wife2176

Dependent children are paid for by way of family benefit at the rate of 10s. per week each.

The benefit is payable so long as the beneficiary is unemployed or until he becomes eligible to receive another class of benefit, other than a family benefit—e.g., an age-benefit.

A married woman is entitled to receive the benefit only if her husband is unable to maintain her. If a beneficiary is not receiving a benefit in respect of a wife, an allowance may be made in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

The foregoing rates of benefits may be reduced, having regard to the income received or the property owned by the applicant or his wife.

The number of applications for unemployment benefits dealt with during the years ended 31st March, 1950 and 1951, were 498 and 172 respectively, 175 persons being granted a benefit in 1949–50 and 115 in 1950–51. At the end of March, 1951, 10 benefits were in force, compared with 12 at the end of the previous year. Expenditure for the year 1950–51 amounted to £5,355, as against £10,402 in 1949–50.

Sickness Benefits.—Every person over the age of sixteen years who has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than twelve months and who satisfies the Commission that ho is temporarily incapacitated for work through sickness or accident, and that by reason thereof he has suffered a loss of salary, wages, or other earnings, is entitled to a sickness benefit. The amount of the benefit is limited to the amount by which the weekly earnings of the applicant have been reduced by reason of his incapacity or to a maximum of £5 15s. a week payable to a man and his wife. Where a person is engaged in business on his own account and by reason of sickness or accident is obliged to employ a substitute during the period of incapacity, the remuneration paid to the substitute is regarded as loss of earnings. Every application for a benefit must be supported by a medical certificate, and no benefit is payable for the first seven clays of incapacity except under special circumstances.

A married woman shall be entitled to receive a benefit under this section only if the Commission is satisfied that her husband is unable to maintain her.

Subject to the foregoing remarks concerning amount of benefit, the rates of sickness benefits shall be computed as follows:—

  1. In the case of an applicant under twenty years of age without dependants, the benefit shall be at the rate of f1 15s. a week.

  2. In every other case the benefit shall be at the rate of £2 17s. 6d. a week, increased (in the case of an applicant with a wife) by £2 17s. 6d. a week in respect of his wife.

Any applicant who is maintaining a home and who is not drawing a benefit in respect of a wife, may receive a benefit at a rate not exceeding that for a wife, in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

Dependent children are paid for by way of family benefit.

The rate of benefit computed as aforesaid is reduced by 1s. for every complete shilling of the total income, exclusive of war disablement or basic war widows' pensions, of the applicant and of his wife or her husband, as the case may be, in excess of £1 10s. a week or, in any case where the applicant or his wife or her husband, as the case may be, is in receipt of a sick-benefit from a friendly society or a like benefit from any other source, in excess of £2 10s. a week.

The number of applications for sickness benefits dealt with during the years ended 31st March, 1950 and 1951, were 31,542 and 30,386 respectively. The number of persons granted sickness benefits were 28,803 in 1949–50 and 27,965 in 1950–51. Benefits in force at 31st March, 1951, totalled 4,504, compared with 4,931 at the end of March, 1950. Total expenditure for 1950–51 amounted to £1,042,050, an increase of £33,399 on the 1950–51 figure.

In the following table sickness benefits which ceased during the year ended 31st March, 1951, are shown according to the duration of the sickness benefit.

Duration of Sickness Benefit (Weeks).Number of Benefits.
Males.Females.Total.
1–49,9092,40412,313
5–127,0702,0439,113
13–252,7461,0703,816
26–521,3095271,836
53 and over628300928
      Totals21,6626,34428,006

Emergency Benefits.—An emergency benefit may be granted by the Commission on the grounds of hardship to any person who by reason of age, physical or mental disability, domestic circumstances, or any other reason is unable to earn a sufficient livelihood for himself and those dependent on him and is ineligible for any other monetary benefit.

The amount of the emergency benefit is at the discretion of the Commission, which fixes as nearly as possible an amount equal to that payable for the type of benefit for which the applicant most closely qualifies.

Emergency benefits in force at the 31st March, 1951, numbered 2,260, compared with last year's figure of 2,277. Expenditure in the 1950–51 year amounted to £292,069 and in 1949–50 to £280,155.

During the year ended 31st March, 1951, over 961 displaced persons arrived in New Zealand from Europe, and from the date of arrival on 17th October, 1950, until the end of the week in which they were placed in employment, they were assisted as required by way of emergency unemployment benefit. From the date of arrival to the date of closing of the camp on 16th February, 1951, 590 emergency unemployment benefits were granted.

Domestic Concession.—From the 1st October, 1950, female social security beneficiaries or the wives of social security beneficiaries have been allowed, in addition to the ordinary income exemption of £78 per annum, an income from domestic employment in a private home without reduction in their benefits of up to £78 per annum. During the six months this concession has been in operation, 145 applications had been received, of which 119 had been granted.

Reciprocal Benefits.—The Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act, 1948, which repealed the Age Benefits and Invalids' Benefits (Reciprocity with Australia) Act, 1943, is designed to provide for reciprocity in relation to a wide range of benefits between New Zealand and the Commonwealth of Australia. The Act came into force on 1st July, 1949. A similar Act was passed in Australia and came into force on the same date.

Part II of the Act covers the case of former residents of Australia and applies to any person who, having at any time resided in Australia, is permanently resident in New Zealand inasmuch as he either satisfies the Commission that ho is so permanently resident or has been in continuous residence in New Zealand for not less than six months (unless in this case the appropriate authorities in both countries agree that the residence is not to be regarded as permanent).

For the purpose of any application for a benefit in respect of a person covered by this Act, residence in Australia or birth in Australia will be regarded as residence or birth in this country.

Applicants for age, invalids', or widows' benefits must be qualified on residential grounds to receive the corresponding pensions under the Social Services Consolidation Act (Australia) as if their residence in New Zealand had been residence in Australia. No male person is entitled to receive an age-benefit unless he has attained the ago of sixty-five years. The Act also provides that the Commission shall treat blindness or permanent incapacity for work occurring in Australia as if it had occurred in New Zealand.

Part III of the Act deals with persons who, although ordinarily resident in New Zealand, are temporarily resident in Australia. Such residence is not a disqualification for a benefit. Benefits may be applied for and paid in Australia, although the Commission may, in its discretion, postpone payment of the whole or any part of the benefit until the return of the beneficiary to New Zealand.

The appropriate reciprocal provisions made in respect of Australia are contained in the Schedule to the Act.

Reciprocity exists in respect of the following classes of pensions, allowances, endowments, and benefits under the respective Acts governing social security provisions:—

  1. Age-pensions and age-benefits.

  2. Invalid pensions (including wives' and children's allowances) and invalids' benefits.

  3. Widows' pensions and widows' benefits.

  4. Child endowment and family benefits.

  5. Unemployment and sickness benefits.

The total reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand as at the 31st March, 1951, numbered 388, as compared with 341 at the 31st March, 1950.

As mentioned earlier, reciprocity in respect of family benefits between New Zealand and Great Britain and Northern Ireland was provided for by legislation during 1948, reciprocal family benefits in force at the 31st March, 1951, numbering 710, compared with the 1950 figure of 776.

Medical, Hospital, and other Related Benefits.—The part of the Act dealing with medical and like benefits is of general application to all persons ordinarily resident in New Zealand, and makes provision for medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, and other related benefits. The Act provided that the various benefits should be available on and after 1st April, 1939, or if for any reason arrangements for the effective administration of benefits of any of the prescribed classes could not be completed before that date, such benefits should ho available on or after such later date as might be determined by the Minister (being the earliest possible date on which arrangements for their effective administration could be brought into operation).

The Act also gives authority for the inauguration of supplementary benefits as and when the occasion for providing such benefits arises. Among the supplementary benefits contemplated were specialist and consultant services, radiological services, dental services, home nursing services, and domestic assistance All of these benefits have been introduced and are referred to under their respective headings.

Medical Benefits.—Under the provisions contained in the Act every person is entitled to such medical treatment as is ordinarily given by medical practitioners in the course of a general practice. Certain services are excluded, the principal of these being as follows:—

  1. The administration of anæsthetics:

  2. Medical services afforded in relation to maternity cases. (These services are covered by maternity benefits and are described under a later heading):

  3. Medical services involved in any medical examination of which the sole or primary purpose is the obtaining of a medical certificate:

  4. Medical services involved in the treatment of any venereal disease in a communicable form. (Treatment in this connection is provided for under the Health Act, 1920):

  5. Medical services involved in or incidental to the extraction of teeth by a medical practitioner:

  6. Medical services in respect of which fees are payable under the Social Security (X-ray Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1941, Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951, and Social Security (Laboratory Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1946—see later headings.

  7. Medical services afforded by means of advice given by telephone, telegram, or letter except under circumstances specifically approved by the Director-General of Health, and medical services not afforded by a medical practitioner in person.

The principal Act provided that a registered medical practitioner who wished to come within the scope of the scheme was required to enter into a contract with the Minister, and regulations issued on 19th February, 1941, prescribed the procedure in connection with the initiation of the scheme, the classes of benefits that were to be provided, the obligations of practitioners who undertook to operate the scheme, and the rates of remuneration payable to them. A person entitled to receive medical benefits was required to make application on the prescribed form, which he then presented to the medical practitioner of his choice. If the practitioner was willing to provide the necessary services for the person named in the form, he completed an agreement as between the applicant and himself by attaching his signature thereto. These completed agreements formed the basis of the practitioner's list of patients, for each of whom he was entitled to receive from the Social Security Fund a capitation fee at the rate of 15s. per annum, plus mileage fees in certain circumstances. This scheme came into operation on 1st March, 1941.

An important change in principle was made by the Social Security Amendment Ant, 1941, which provided an alternative to the capitation scheme. This amendment, which came into force on 1st November, 1941, and which was subsequently modified by the 1949 amendment to the principal Act, provides that every medical practitioner who renders any of the prescribed services shall be entitled to receive from the Social Security Fund a reasonable fee not exceeding 7s. 6d. for every occasion on which any such service is provided. Mileage fees are also provided for in certain cases. Regulations which came into force from the 1st September, 1950, and revoked the Social Security (General Medical Services) Regulations 1941, stipulate that where the practitioner is called upon to provide, in response to an urgent request, services on a Sunday or holiday, or between the hours of 8 p.m. and 8 a.m., the appropriate fee shall be a reasonable one not exceeding 12s. 6d. The Act also provides that the practitioner, instead of claiming from the Fund the amount to which he is entitled under the Act, may receive payment from the patient. This refund system, by virtue of the 1949 amendment, is not to apply unless authority is given by the Council of the New Zealand Branch of the British Medical Association after consultation with the Minister or where the amount is recovered from a registered friendly society. In such cases the patient is entitled to recover from the Fund (such recovery being limited to the prescribed fee), and the practitioner is required to provide the necessary receipt to enable this to be done.

The 1949 amendment to the Social Security Act prohibited practice under the capitation system and fee for service system at the same time. This amendment also laid down conditions in respect of the right to recover fees from patients and for reference of accounts to the Divisional Disciplinary Committee appointed under the Medical Practitioners Amendment Act, 1949. These provisions came into force as from the 1st April, 1950.

Pharmaceutical Benefits.—Persons claiming medical benefits ore entitled to receive, without cost to themselves, all such medicines, drugs, approved appliances, and materials as are prescribed for their use by a medical practitioner in the course of providing any medical services under the Act. This class of benefits was introduced on 5th May, 1941, regulations providing fur them having been issued on 22nd April, 1941. Under these regulations the proprietor of any pharmacy within the meaning of the Pharmacy Act, 1939, or any other person entitled to sell any drugs or pharmaceutical requirements, may be permitted to become a contractor under the scheme. The regulations stipulate that the Minister shall prepare a drug tariff, which shall contain particulars of maximum quantities, standards of quality, and prices of medicines, drugs, appliances, &c., that may be supplied and charged against the Fund. Hospital Boards are entitled to receive payment for pharmaceutical requirements supplied to out-patients, but not in respect of in-patients.

Hospital Benefits.—The Act provides for the payment to Hospital Boards and to the proprietors of licensed hospitals and other approved institutions (who have entered into contracts under the Act) of prescribed amounts in respect of hospital treatment afforded by them. The amount paid to a Hospital Board is in full satisfaction of its claim for the treatment of patients; in the case of licensed hospitals and other institutions the amount paid is in partial satisfaction of claims against the patients or other persons liable for the hospital charges.

These benefits came into force on 1st July, 1939, and the present rates (as from 1st April, 1943) are as follows:—

  1. Where treatment has been afforded on not more than two days, the sum of 18s.:

  2. In every other case, the sum of 9s. for every day on which any treatment is afforded:

    Provided that the day of admission to hospital and day of discharge therefrom shall together be counted as one day.

Prior to 1st April, 1943, the rates were 12s. and 6s. for (a) and (b) respectively.

The Act also provides that in lieu of payment being made in respect of individual hospital patients, the Minister may from time to time authorize the payment of a grant in respect of hospital treatment afforded in any private hospital or other approved institution.

In addition to the public hospitals and licensed private hospitals, there is another limited class of semi-public hospitals which, in accordance with the Act, has been approved for the purposes of hospital benefits. This class includes the Karitane Baby Hospitals (six), conducted by the Royal New Zealand Society for the Protection of Women and Children, more commonly known as the Plunket Society, and in addition a home for incurables operated under a charitable trust. Special rates were determined for these classes of hospital, and such payments must be accepted in full satisfaction of the claim of the institution authorities.

Hospital benefits are also available in respect of maintenance and treatment afforded to any in-patient of Queen Mary Neurological Hospital, Hanmer Springs, or of the Rotorua Sanatorium. The fees chargeable to patients of these institutions are reduced by 9s. per day, and corresponding payment is made from the Social Security Fund to the credit of the Departments controlling the institutions.

Regulations issued on 19th March, 1941 (since replaced by the Social Security (Hospital Benefits for Out-patients) Regulations 1947), made provision for free treatment of out-patients at public hospitals. “Hospital treatment” in relation to an out-patient of any public hospital covers the supply of artificial aids, including contact lenses (introduced 1st June, 1947), hearing-aids (1st November, 1947), and artificial limbs (1st April, 1948), and all medical, surgical, or other treatment afforded by the staff of the hospital; but does not include dental treatment or services in respect of which fees are payable under specific Social Security Regulations (X-ray diagnostic services, laboratory diagnostic services) referred to under later headings. The amounts to be paid to Hospital Boards from the Social Security Fund for providing out-patient treatment are determined by the Minister and may not be less than one-half of the expenditure or liability incurred in providing the services.

Mental Hospitals.—The principal Act made provision for the treatment of patients in public mental hospitals without charge as from 1st April, 1939. By section 10 of the Social Security Amendment Act, 1939, a licensed (private) mental hospital may be recognized and approved by the Minister as a hospital for the purposes of the Act, and hospital benefits in respect of treatment therein are payable accordingly.

All expenditure since 1st April, 1945, in connection with public mental hospitals has been borne by the Consolidated Fund.

Maternity Benefits.—Maternity benefits include ante-natal and post-natal advice and treatment by medical practitioners, and the services of doctors and nurses at confinements in maternity hospitals or elsewhere.

These benefits came into force on 15th May, 1939, but the maternity medical practitioner service was not in full operation until 1st October of that year. The principal Act required that medical practitioners, licensees of private hospitals, &c., and midwives and maternity nurses who wished to come within the scope of the scheme should enter into a contract with the Minister. While this provision remains in force in regard to hospitals and midwives and maternity nurses, the Social Security Amendment Act, 1939, provides that any medical practitioner, who renders medical services to a woman entitled to a maternity benefit, is thereby entitled to receive certain prescribed fees from the Social Security Fund. The scale of fees, which may be fixed by agreement between the Minister and the New Zealand Branch of the British Medical Association, or in default of such agreement by a special tribunal, is intended to cover the usual services performed in maternity cases. The amount calculated in accordance with the scale of fees for the time being in force shall be accepted by the medical practitioner in full satisfaction of his claims in respect of the services for which payment is made, except in the case of a practitioner who is recognized as an obstetric specialist in accordance with the terms of the Act. Such a practitioner, in addition to the fees payable from the Social Security Fund, may recover additional fees from the patient.

The main provisions in regard to maternity benefits apart from the medical practitioner service are as follows:—

  1. State maternity (St. Helens) hospitals: No charge is made for any services in the St. Helens Hospitals.

  2. Public maternity hospitals or maternity wards under control of Hospital Boards: Payment from Social Security Fund to Hospital Board us under:—

    1. £1 in respect of the day of birth of the child and for each of the succeeding fourteen days:

    2. A fee of £2 where any patient is actually attended during labour and at delivery by a medical officer employed by the Board.

      These amounts are to be regarded as in full settlement of all claims in respect of the maternity benefits afforded by the Board.

  3. Licensed (private) maternity hospitals: Licensees of licensed maternity hospitals who have entered into contracts under the Act are entitled to receive fees from the Social Security Fund at the same rates as stated in (2) (a) and (b) in regard to Hospital Boards. In some cases the licensee's contract requires him to accept such payment in full satisfaction of his claim in respect of the prescribed period, and in other cases he is permitted under his particular contract to make a specified additional charge on the patient.

  4. Midwives and maternity nurses: Approved midwives and maternity nurses, who are in attendance in cases where confinement takes place other than in a maternity hospital, are entitled to receive from the Fund fees at the rate of £1 for the day or days of labour (£2 in the case of midwives) and 13s. per day for each of the fourteen days succeeding the birth of the child or 5s. per day if a visiting obstetric nurse only. These. amounts are to be regarded as in full satisfaction of a nurse's claims in respect of the nursing services.

X-ray Diagnostic Services.—The first of the supplementary benefits was introduced by the Social Security (X-ray Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1941, which came into operation on 11th August, 1941. The benefits provided for by these regulations comprise the following:—

  1. The making of X-ray examinations with the aid of a fluorescent screen:

  2. The taking of X-ray photographs:

  3. The supply and administration of any drugs or other substances for the purposes of any such examination or photograph:

  4. The provision of medical services incidental to any such examination or photograph, except medical services of a kind not ordinarily performed by radiologists as such:

  5. The provision of any other incidental services for the purposes of any such examinations or photographs.

X-ray photographs or X-ray examinations made or taken for dental purposes or for the purposes of life assurance are not included in the services that may be provided.

In order to be recognized as a radiologist for the purpose of the regulations a medical practitioner is required to make application to the Minister specifying his academic qualifications and professional experience, and also the nature of the apparatus or equipment in his possession or available for his use in the performance of radiological work. The Minister may give absolute or limited recognition or may refuse recognition. Absolute recognition covers all classes of X-ray diagnostic services, whereas limited recognition may exclude any specified class or classes of service, or may be restricted to certain specified classes of service. An amended scale of fees payable from the fund in respect of services rendered by recognized radiologists is prescribed in a schedule to the Social Security (X-ray Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1941, Amendment No. 1, issued on 28th January, 1942. Where the service is rendered by a medical practitioner employed or engaged by a Hospital Board, the prescribed fees are to be accepted by the Board in full settlement, but in other cases the amount of such fees is deducted from the amount charged to the patient, who is responsible for the balance, if any.

Physiotherapy Benefits.—The second supplementary benefit introduced concerns physiotherapy treatment by private physiotherapists, and commenced on 1st September, 1942, the current regulations being the Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951. The general arrangement for these benefits consists of contracts with registered physiotherapists under which they are paid from the Social Security Fund a fee of 3s. 6d. for each treatment and undertake not to charge the patient any additional fees in excess of 6s. 6d. for treatment afforded in their rooms or 11s. 6d. for treatment afforded elsewhere.

No physiotherapy treatment is recognized for the purpose of the benefits unless it is given on the recommendation of a medical practitioner, and not more than six weeks' treatment may be given on a single recommendation.

Specialist Services.—The Finance Act (No. 2), 1942, brought specialist services within the scope of the medical benefits. Specialist services are defined as “medic services that involve the application of special skill and experience of a degree or kind that general practitioners as a class cannot reasonably be expected to possess.” An amount not exceeding 7s. 6d. is payable from the Fund (by way of refund to the patient) in respect of every occasion on which any such services have been provided. The Social Security Amendment Act, 1949, authorizes the making of regulations providing for benefits in respect of any class or classes of specialist medical services and for conditions governing the determination of a scale of fees.

Home-nursing Services.—Home-nursing services free of cost to the recipients were introduced by the Social Security (District Nursing Services) Regulations 1944, which stipulate that no charge may be made for district nursing services provided by any Department of State, Hospital Board, or subsidized association elsewhere than in a hospital or other institution. Provision is made for payment from the Social Security Fund to the Department of State, Hospital Board, or association providing district nursing services, of such amounts as the Minister of Health may determine, having regard to the costs incurred in providing such services.

Domestic Assistance.—The provision of monetary assistance to approved incorporated associations formed for the purpose of providing domestic assistance in homes, or whose objects include the provision of such assistance, is made by the Social Security (Domestic Assistance) Regulations 1944. Assistance in this connection is restricted by the regulations to the following classes:—

  1. Cases where there are one or more children under twelve years of age permanently residing in a home and the mother or other woman in charge of the home is wholly or partially incapacitated from undertaking her ordinary domestic duties by reason of pregnancy or maternity, or by reason of accident, sickness, &c.

  2. Cases where there are three or more children under twelve years of age permanently residing in the home, and any member of the household requires special care and attention by reason of sickness or infirmity:

  3. Cases where all members of the household of an age or condition to help in the home are wholly or partially incapacitated from work by sickness or otherwise:

  4. Cases where lack of domestic assistance in the home is a cause of undue hardship.

The terms on which the services of a domestic assistant are provided are to be determined by agreement between the association and the householder, and the association is deemed to be the employer.

In fixing the amounts to be paid from the Social Security Fund to any association the Minister shall have regard to the expenses incurred in providing the services of domestic assistants, including expenditure incurred in the organization of any scheme of registration or enrolment or in the training of the assistants, and to the amounts recovered from the householders to whom assistance has been rendered.

Laboratory Diagnostic Services.—The benefits concerning laboratory diagnostic services came into operation on 1st April, 1946, and comprise the supply of all materials or substances required for the purpose of providing laboratory diagnostic services, and the provision of medical services incidental to any laboratory diagnostic service, except medical services of a kind that are not ordinarily performed by pathologists as such, and the provision of any other incidental services for the purposes of laboratory diagnostic services.

The following services are not included:—

  1. Examination of specimens for public health.

  2. Post-mortem examinations.

  3. Laboratory services for dental purposes or for the purposes of life-insurance.

  4. The preparation of sera and vaccines.

The schedule of fees payable from the Fund provides for two scales, one covering fees payable to Hospital Boards and the other covering fees payable to recognized pathologists. In each case the prescribed fee shall be accepted in full satisfaction in respect of the services provided.

Dental Services.—The Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1946 made provision for the introduction office dental treatment as from a date to be appointed by the Minister. The regulations restricted the application of dental benefits to persons under nineteen years of age, and provided that they were to be introduced according to such age-groups as the Minister may determine. These benefits commenced on 1st February, 1947, and at present are confined to persons who, for the time being, are under sixteen years of age or were, in the last term of the immediately preceding calendar year, enrolled in a primary or intermediate school or department.

The regulations provide that the services may be provided—

  1. By a registered dentist or a State dental nurse in a State dental clinic; or

  2. By a contracting dentist pursuant to a contract under the regulations; or

  3. By a contracting authority in a dental department of a public hospital or in a dental school pursuant to a contract under the regulations.

A schedule to the regulations prescribes the nature of the benefits that may be provided and a scale of fees payable to contracting dentists and authorities in respect thereof.

Artificial Aids.—As stated earlier (page 624), the Social Security (Hospital Benefits for Out-patients) Regulations 1947 made provision for the supply of artificial aids. which term includes artificial limbs, hearing-aids, contact lenses, and other appliances for the physical aid or relief of persons as the Minister may from time to time prescribe, either wholly or partly at the cost of the Social Security Fund. Artificial aids at present prescribed for the purposes of the regulations, are—

  1. Contact Lenses.—These may be supplied in respect of the following optical disabilities: (a) conical cornea, (b) gas keratitis, (c) certain forms of irregular astigmatism and any other conditions which cannot be corrected by ordinary spectacle lenses and which show marked improvement with contact lenses. In each case the supply of such lenses must be recommended by an ophthalmologist employed or engaged by a Hospital Board and approved by the Director-General of Health, acting upon the advice of a medical referee appointed for this purpose.

  2. Hearing-aids.—Individual valve type hearing-aids may be supplied subject to the following conditions:—

    1. The patient possesses a hearing loss of at least 35 decibels in the better ear over the significant frequencies of speech or such other loss of a lesser degree as, in the opinion of an otologist employed or engaged by a Hospital Board, renders the use of an aid necessary.

    2. The patient's hearing loss is such that in the opinion of the otologist it is capable of correction or marked improvement by the use of the type of hearing-aid supplied or approved for the purpose of the benefit.

    It is provided that in respect of patients who satisfy all of the above conditions, but who do not wish to avail themselves of the hearing-aid issued free of charge by Hospital Boards, there may be paid a sum not exceeding £13 towards the purchase of any aid approved for the purposes of these benefits. If a patient has received a benefit for a hearing-aid within the preceding five years, the Hospital Board may pay half (or up to a maximum of £6 10s.) of the cost of replacement, provided that the replacement aid will assist hearing more than the existing aid and that the patient is otherwise eligible.

  3. Artificial Limbs.—The supply of artificial limbs is subject to the following conditions:—

    1. The patient has not obtained or is not entitled to obtain a limb as an ex-serviceman under the provisions of the War Pensions Regulations 1945 or under the provisions of section 46 of the Workers' Compensation Amendment Act, 1947:

    2. The supply of the limb is recommended by an orthopædic surgeon employed or engaged by a Hospital Board:

    3. The limb is of an approved typo and can, in the opinion of the supplier's orthopædic adviser, be satisfactorily fitted:

    4. Not more than 80 per cent. of the cost of the limb shall be borne by the Social Security Fund.

For the purposes of the regulations “artificial limb” includes artificial arms, artificial hands, artificial legs, and artificial feet, and includes an initial supply of not more than six pairs of limb socks for such limbs.

Benefits and Pensions in Force.—A summary showing particulars of the various social security benefits and the various pensions in force in each of the last three financial years is as follows.

Class of Benefit or Pension.Number in Force at 31st March,Annual Value at 31st March, 1951.Payments during
1949.1950.1951.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.

* The expenditure figures given under this heading are gross—i.e., not reduced by the amounts recovered under maintenance orders, widows' benefits.

Social Security Benefits—       
Monetary—   ££££
  Universal superannuation65,83969,35670,3042,495,7021,850,0792,179,3652,336,275
  Age116,254117,156122,18717,533,83513,790,97115,133,75117,150,839
  Widows'*14,88314,19812,9092,203,5601,910,4592,159,6512,142,232
  Orphans'37136633434,90027,62331,17633,061
  Family248,726254,920263,49315,415,10114,242,20314,850,95915,289,346
  Invalids'10,0519,4768,9921,444,9801,348,6161,397,7131,429,276
  Miners'660636592125,844113,659120,659125,189
  Maori War    102 
  Unemployment301210 8,94810,4025,355
  Sickness4,4264,9314,504 911,1071,008,6511,042,050
  Emergency2,0312,2772,260 251,409280,155292,069
      Totals463,271473,328485,58539,253,92234,455,08437,171,88639,845,692
Health—       
  Medical    2,306,8812,524,2902,661,166
  Hospital    1,997,3752,011,6492,018,963
  Maternity    916,120871,386885,316
  Pharmaceutical    1,793,1592,043,8432,097,000
  Supplementary    861,9131,009,9411,060,938
      Totals    7,875,4488,461,1098,723,383
War Pensions, &c.—       
  First World War (1914–18)19,32018,97618,5732,274,8512,104,6272,271,37112,311,606
  Second World War (1939–45)27,18726,53725,9011,938,8351,906,2322,010,8521,970,236
  South African War4139373,8883,8923,8263,726
  War Veterans' Allowances3,3673,9974,7761,051,675562,634743,999964,882
  Mercantile Marine2324262,1012,7002,4032,359
  Emergency Reserve Corps1011111,7101,4471,5881,628
      Totals49,94849,58449,3245,273,0604,581,5325,034,0395,254,437
Other—       
  Sundry pensions and annuities15917620537,79127,26229,74935,641
  Civil Service Act, 1908    39  
  Grand totals513,378523,088535,114 46,939,36550,696,78353,859,153

During the year ended 31st March, 1951, £17,750,810, or 44.5 per cent. of the expenditure on monetary benefits, was paid without a means test, the remaining amount being subject to a means test.

The following statement gives particulars of expenditure on the various classes of health benefits during the financial year 1950–51.

Medical Benefits.—Capitation fees, £65,622; general medical services, £2,453,516; special arrangements, £42,499; mileage fees, £145,396; purchase of sites, erection of medical officers' residences, &c., £13,133: total, £2,661,166.

Hospital Benefits.—Public hospitals, £1,722,338 (in-patients, £1,557,830; outpatients, £164,508); private hospitals, £246,199; approved institutions, £43,477; other payments, £6,949: total, £2,018,963.

Maternity Benefits.—Public hospital fees, £414,175; private hospital fees, £178,739; medical practitioners, £279,191; mileage fees, £7,851; nurses, £5,127; other payments, £233: total, £885,316.

Pharmaceutical Benefits.—Chemists, £2,036,990; medical practitioners, £6,803; institutions, £53,207: total, £2,097,000.

Supplementary Benefits.—Radiological services, £294,883; laboratory services, £128,546; physiotherapy services, £67,388; specialists' services (neuro-surgery), £4,089; district nursing services, £113,571; dental services, £385,612; domestic assistance, £3,520; artificial-aids benefits, £62,534; other payments, £795: total, £1,060,938.

A summary of pensions and social security payments during each of the last eleven years, together with the amount per head of mean population, is now given.

Year Ended 31st March,Payments during Year.
Total.Per Head of Mean Population.
Pensions and Social Security
 ££s.d.
194114,072,4988121
194215,159,961960
194317,736,06610163
194420,261,8791276
194522,489,25013103
194626,198,2481563
194740,660,62222194
194844,331,51024106
194946,939,3652592
195050,696,783261811
195153,859,1532818

WAR PENSIONS.—All pensions payable to or on account of members of the Forces are now governed by the War Pensions Act, 1943, and subsequent amendments with the exception of pensions under the War Pensions and Allowances (Mercantile Marine) Act, 1940. The principal features of earlier legislation which was consolidated and amended by the 1943 Act are given in the following summary. The War Pensions Act, 1915, provided for the payment of pensions on certain conditions to disabled members of the New Zealand Forces of the First World War, 1914–18 (as defined by the Act), and to dependants of disabled, deceased, or missing members of such Forces. The object of the War Veterans' Allowances Act, 1935, which was deemed part of the War Pensions Act, 1915, was to make provision for returned servicemen who, apart from any wounds or other disability not directly attributable to war service, were ageing prematurely or otherwise becoming unemployable by reason of mental or physical disability. The War Pensions Extension Act, 1940, extended the provisions of the 1915 Act to cover overseas service in the Second World War, overseas service in any other war in which His Majesty was engaged, and service within New Zealand. This brought Territorials and members of the Permanent Forces within the scope of the war pensions legislation. Pensions to veterans of the South African War were granted prior to 1940 under the authority of the Defence Act, 1909, but the Finance Act. 1940, transferred this authority to the War Pensions Extension Act, 1940.

Administration.—The Secretary for War Pensions, who under the Act must be an officer of the Social Security Department, is charged with the administration of war pensions under the general direction and control of the Minister of Defence. The Act also provides for the appointment of a War Pensions Board, which has the responsibility of granting or declining claims for pensions and allowances. This Board consists of not less than three and not more than four members, one of whom must be a registered medical practitioner and one a representative of returned servicemen. Claimants have the right of appeal to the War Pensions Appeal Board, also appointed under the Act. The Appeal Board consists of three members, two of whom must be registered medical practitioners and the third a representative of returned servicemen. The War Pensions Emergency Regulations 1944 made provision for the appointment of such number of additional War Pensions Boards and War Pensions Appeal Boards as the Minister deemed advisable. During the year ended 31st March, 1951, there were two War Pensions Boards and one War Pensions Appeal Board operating.

Grounds for Payment of Pensions.—Pensions in respect of the death or disablement of any member of the New Zealand Forces are payable to the dependants of the member (in the case of death) and to the member and his dependants (in the case of disablement) in any of the following cases:—

  1. Where death or disablement occurred while on service overseas as a member of the Forces in connection with any war in which His Majesty was then engaged, or is attributable to such service:

  2. Where death or disablement is attributable to service in New Zealand, or is attributable to service overseas otherwise than in connection with any war:

  3. In any ease where the condition which resulted in the death or disablement was aggravated by any service to which either of the last two preceding paragraphs relates.

Special provision is also made for pensions and allowances to members of the Emergency Reserve Corps and their dependants in respect of death or disablement attributable to their duties as members.

The provisions in regard to attributability were considerably liberalized by the new Act, which lays down that the onus of proving that death or disablement was attributable to service, or that the condition which resulted in death or disablement was aggravated by such service, shall not be on the claimant and that the War Pensions Board and the War Pensions Appeal Board shall give claimants the full benefit of all presumptions in their favour. A member who was graded fit for service when he entered the Forces is deemed to have been absolutely fit at that time unless any defects were noted then or within the first two months of service. This presumption docs not operate if the member failed to disclose any material fact to the medical examiner. The Act also states that the Boards are not to be bound by technicalities or legal forms or rules of evidence, but shall determine all claims in accordance with their merits.

Rates of Pensions.—The 1943 Act provided for the general rates of disablement pensions being increased by 50 per cent., and for increases in dependants' and economic pensions. Amendments passed in 1946, 1947, 1949, 1950, and 1951 further increased the rates of pensions for various categories.

The following table sets out the maximum weekly rates of pension at present payable (April, 1952) in respect of the death of a male member of the Forces.

Rank or Rating.To Widow.To Widow with Dependent Child or Children: Mother's AllowanceTo Each Child.
 £s.d.£s.d.s.d.
Ranks and ratings below commissioned rank2100200100
Lieutenant (Army); Sub-Lieutenant (Navy); Pilot Officer (Air Force)2150200100
Captain (Army); Lieutenant (Navy); Flying Officer, Flight Lieutenant (Air Force)300200100
Major (Army); Lieut.-Commander (Navy); Squadron Leader (Air Force)370200100
Lieut.-Colonel (Army); Commander (Navy); Wing Commander (Air Force)3160200100
Colonel (Army); Captain (Navy); Group Captain (Air Force)3180200100
Brigadier and upwards (Army); Commodore and upwards (Navy); Air Commodore and upwards (Air Force)400200100

In the case of total disablement of a male member of the Forces, the maximum weekly rates range from £3 10s. to £3 15s. (according to rank or rating) to the member, plus a flat rate of £2 17s. 6d. to a wife, together with 10s. for each dependent child.

The weekly rates for total disablement of a female member range from £3 10s. to £3 13., according to rank, while 10s. per week is payable in respect of each dependent child in the case of death or disablement.

The 10s. per week in respect of each dependent child may be paid either by way of monetary benefit or, alternatively, by way of war pension.

These rates may be increased by an amount not exceeding £2 10s. per week if the member is suffering from total blindness, or where the member has suffered two or more serious disabilities, or suffers from one extremely severe disability causing him to be bed-ridden or preventing normal social and recreational activities.

A schedule to the Act prescribes the rates of pensions payable in respect of partial disablement resulting from certain major disabilities. In other cases of partial disablement, the rates are decided by the War Pensions Board or the Appeal Board, regard being had in every case to the nature and probable duration of the disablement.

If a member, while in receipt of a permanent pension of an amount of not less than 70 per cent. of the maximum pension that would be payable in respect of total disablement, dies from any cause not attributable to service as a member of the Forces, a pension may be granted to his widow or dependent children as if death was attributable to service.

Other grants and concessions which may be made to disabled servicemen include the following:—

  1. An allowance not exceeding £6 12s. (id. per week where a pensioner is so disabled as to require the services of a paid attendant:

  2. Additional pensions by way of clothing-allowances of from £22 to £24 per annum to amputees and £16 to others who are obliged to use any mechanical or other appliance:

  3. A free pass on the New Zealand railways to members in receipt of full permanent pensions:

  4. A permit to travel first class at second-class rates on the New Zealand railways to amputees and others suffering locomotor disabilities to a degree of over 50 per cent. for which they receive permanent pensions:

  5. Free medical and surgical treatment in respect of pensionable disabilities.

    Surgical appliances such as artificial limbs, &c., are also supplied free and kept in good order and repair:

  6. Payment of an annual travelling-allowance of up to £26 to totally disabled pensioners who are unfit to travel alone:

  7. Payment of up to £100 towards the cost of structural alterations to provide special accommodation for a pensioner suffering from pulmonary tuberculosis:

  8. Payment may be made to a service patient of £1 10s. per week while ho is maintained in a hospital or other institution:

  9. An accommodation allowance of £1 10s. per day is payable to war pensioners reporting for medical examination or treatment, while compensation in respect of loss of earnings is 15s. per half-day.

In addition to pensions for wives and children, a pension may be granted to any member of a deceased or disabled serviceman's family who was in fact wholly or partially supported by him at any time within the period of twelve months immediately preceding the date on which the serviceman became a member of the Forces. A “member of the family” includes a parent, grand-parent, step-parent, grandchild, step-child, brother, sister, half-brother, half-sister, and mother-in-law. “Child,” in relation to any member of the Forces, means a child under the age of sixteen years, and includes an adopted child (subject to certain conditions as regards date of adoption) and an illegitimate child (also subject to certain conditions).

The amount of pension payable to a dependant other than a wife or child is governed by the value of the benefits received from the member of the Forces on whose case the claim is based during the period of twelve months immediately preceding the date upon which he became a member of the Forces. The rate, however, is limited to the maximum prescribed for the wife of a member, and in cases where a wife or any child is also in receipt of a pension, the rate must not exceed three-fourths of that amount.

The pension payable to a widowed mother, if wholly dependent on the member, is not to be less than the rate granted if the dependant were the wife of the member, or, if partially dependent, the rate is £1 10s. a week.

During the year ended 31st March, 1951, the Department received 5,155 applications for war pensions. Of these, 1,117 applications were lodged by ex-servicemen in respect of their own disabilities, the balance being made up of claims by dependants, applications for economic pensions, and war veterans' allowances. The total for the previous year was 5,621, of these 1,414 being in respect of the applicants' own disability.

The following is a summary of the disabilities attributed to war service from 1939 onwards and for which ex-service personnel had been granted pensions up to the 31st March, 1951.

Class of Disability or Disease.Type of Service.Total.Percentage of Total.
Overseas.“J” Force.New Zealand.
Infections and infestations1,91391122,0343.8
Nervous system9,616101,64911,27521.0
Eye, ear, and nose6,463151,3187,79614.5
Circulatory and blood system1,94829912,9415.5
Metabolism and endrocrine system38611725591.0
Lungs3,237471,0874,3718.1
Diseases of bones, joints, muscles, tendons, and ligaments5,05541,8236,88212.8
Digestive system3,87271,1315,0109.3
Generative system31821204400.8
Gunshot wounds and accidental injuries to bones, joints, and soft tissues6,016251,1847,22513.4
Skin2,358105222,8905.4
Tumours and neoplastic growths152 482000.4
Malformations300 1314310.8
Amputations474 184920.9
Urinary tract53621366741.3
Debility443 1095521.0
      Totals43,08713410,55153,772100.0

The following table shows for all classes of war pensions the number in force at the end of March in each year and the expenditure during the year for the eleven years, 1941–51.

Year Ended 31st March,First. World War* (1914–18).Second World War* (1939–45).War Veterans.South African War.Mercantile Marine.Emergency Reserve Corps.Total.

* Disability, dependants', and economic pensions.

Number in Force
194123,4585512,033479126,099
194222,8943,2971,888453228,129
194322,1617,6661,8074261931,701
194421,03813,0371,79144121035,932
194520,84920,5841,89245181243,400
194620,46026,9262,02946261149,498
194720,08130,0282,27742271052,465
194819,71528,2492,61742241150,658
194919,32027,1873,36741231049,948
195018,97626,5373,99739241149,584
195118,57325,9014,77637261149,324
Expenditure
 £££££££
19411,649,07614,376211,3251,85891631,877,554
19421,617,481178,135210,5751,5816171,0622,009,451
19431,574,062479,477224,9421,5043501,9852,282,320
19441,973,069917,855224,7052,5507191,4043,120,302
19452,046,0051,407,460242,5013,2431,6521,2283,702,089
19461,997,3901,662,227275,0293,5471,8791,3513,941,423
19472,036,8252,080,952346,6943,5022,9851,3364,472,294
19482,049,3912,031,194422,2753,6892,7271,3684,510,644
19492,104,6271,906,232562,6343,8922,7001,4474,581,532
19502,271,3712,010,852743,9993,8262,4031,5885,034,039
19512,311,6061,970,236964,8823,7262,3591,6285,254,437

The foregoing figures do not include the following: (a) costs of medical treatment mounting to £208,067 in 1950–51 and £216,762 in 1949–50; (b) railway and bus concessions to pensioners for total and permanent disablement and for locomotor disabilities for which a permanent pension of over 50 per cent. disablement bad been granted, costing £11,325 in 1950–51 and £14,548 in the previous year; and (c) loading on life assurance policies where the loading is due to war disabilities, expenditure under this heading being £1,299 in 1950–51 and £1,143 in 1949–50.

Medical fees and travelling-expenses of pensioners cost £21,978 in 1950–51, compared with £24,385 in the previous year; while administrative costs for 1950–51 in respect of war pensions and allowances amounted to £16,183, as against £17,581 in 1949–50.

Particulars of First and Second World War pensions in force as at 31st March of each of the last five years are given below.

At 31st March,Disablement Pensions.Dependants of Disabled ex-members. (No.)On Account of Death.Total. (No.)
Permanent. (No.)Temporary. (No.)Widows. (No.)Parents and other Dependants. (No.)
First World War, 1914–18
194714,1395262,7322,23944520,081
194814,0883242,6332,29137919,715
194913,8122772,5462,34733819,320
195013,5852302,5092,37727518,976
195113,3851262,3852,44323418,573
Second World War, 1939–45
19475,01421,0201,1142,10677430,028
19486,54517,9711,0001,84988428,249
19498,31015,3179871,62994427,187
195010,06513,0119231,58295626,537
195111,34411,2118961,46698425,901

Mothers' allowances were paid to 851 widows of deceased ex-servicemen during the year ended 31st March, 1951. The number of children for whom payments were made during 1950–51 but who were not included in the preceding table totalled 3,559, being 1,118 in respect of First World War pensions and 2,441 for Second World War pensions.

The next table shows the number of pensions in force at 31st March, 1951, classified according to percentage of disability.

Percentage of Disability.First World War.Second World War.
Permanent.Temporary.Total.Permanent.Temporary.Total.
1001,896131,9096268681,494
90–9963 63661884
80–89462246426694360
70–798914895369234603
60–697614765345228573
50–591,931191,9507525421,294
40–49911159267125331,245
30–391,911171,9281,3871,1092,496
20–293,297323,3293,5633,2476,810
10–191,212201,2323,2314,3387,569
Under 1050 5027 27
    Totals13,38512613,51111,34411,21122,555

Economic Pensions.—An “economic pension” is defined as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds and is in addition to any pension payable as of right in respect of death or disablement. In considering a claim for an economic pension, the Pensions Board is required to take into consideration the ability of the claimant to obtain and retain suitable employment, the personal income and ownership of any property, the cost of living, and other relevant matters. Personal earnings other than from regular employment may be disregarded in the case of a claimant who is in receipt of a total-disability pension.

The maximum weekly rates of economic pensions are £2 17s. 6d. to a member, £2 12s. 6d. to a widow with a dependent child or children (the mother's allowance of £2 a week is also payable, of course, in addition to the basic war widow's pension), and £2 17s. 6d. to any other war widow (the basic war widow's pension is also payable). A partially dependent widowed mother of a deceased member may he granted an economic pension of an amount not exceeding £1 17s. 6d. a week in addition to her ordinary pension. In the ease of total dependency on one son or partial dependency on two or more deceased sons the maximum economic pension is increased to £2 17s. 6d. a week. An allowable income of £1 10s. a week is permitted without reduction of the amount of economic pension to which entitled. The provisions fixing the maximum allowable income of the widowed mother of a deceased member of the Forces were repealed by the 1950 amendment.

Servicemen pensioned for minor disabilities do not receive economic pensions.

Details of economic pensions payable at 31st March, 1951, are now given together with the totals as at the 31st March, 1950. The figures contained therein are included in the tables shown under the preceding sub-heading.

Class of Tension.First World War, 1914–18.Second World War, 1939–45.
Number.Annual Value.Number.Annual Value.
  £ £
Ex-members with permanent pensions3,371441,77142553,459
Ex-members with temporary pensions101,20472993,950
Widows1,478120,66976262,079
Widowed mothers12835523,486
      Totals, as at 31st March, 19514,871564,4791,968212,974
      Totals, as at 31st March, 19504,816460,1602,072189,051

War Veterans' Allowances.—The object of the War Veterans' Allowances Act, 1935, which is now incorporated in the War Pensions Act, 1943, was to make provision for members of the Forces who, apart from any wounds or other injuries received during war service, were ageing prematurely or otherwise becoming unemployable by reason of mental or physical incapacity. The term “veteran” includes—

  1. Any male member of the New Zealand Forces who has served as such in actual engagement with the enemy:

  2. Any female member who has served overseas as a member of the New Zealand Forces:

  3. Any other person who, being domiciled in New Zealand at the commencement of any war in which members of the New Zealand Forces have served as such, has served in that war as a member of any of His Majesty's Forces, other than the New Zealand Forces, with a unit in actual engagement with the enemy.

A condition precedent to the granting of a war veteran's allowance is a minimum of five years' continuous residence in New Zealand immediately preceding the date of the claim. Continuous residence is not deemed to be interrupted by occasional absences not exceeding six months in the aggregate increased by one month for each year in excess of five that the veteran has resided in New Zealand; any absences as a member of the Commonwealth Forces are also disregarded.

Whether or not a claimant for an allowance is unfit for permanent employment by reason of mental or physical infirmity is a question of fact to be determined by the War Pensions Board. Claimants have the right of appeal to the War Pensions Appeal Board.

The War Pensions Amendment Acts, 1945, 1947, 1949, 1950, and 1951 provided for increases in war veterans' allowances, and the rates at present payable (April, 1952) are as follows:—

  1. Male veteran without a wife: £149 10s. per annum, diminished by £1 for every complete £1 of his annual income (exclusive of this allowance) in excess of £78:

  2. Male veteran with a wife: £149 10s. per annum in respect of the veteran's personal claim, £149 10s. in respect of his wife, diminished by £1 for every complete £1 of their combined annual income (exclusive of this allowance) in excess of £78:

  3. Female veteran without a husband: £149 10s. per annum, diminished as in (1) above:

  4. Other female veteran, £149 10s. in respect of her personal claim, diminished by £1 for every complete £1 of the combined annual income (exclusive of this allowance) of the veteran and her husband, in excess of £130.

No account is taken of the amount of war disablement pensions in the determination of the war veterans' allowances. A supplementary allowance of up to £78 per annum may be granted where both veteran and wife are aged sixty-five, or £39 where only one has attained that age.

The 1950 amendment authorizes the War Pensions Board in computing any war veteran's allowance to take no account of the personal earnings of any woman from domestic service in a private home up to £78 per year.

Where a veteran in receipt of an allowance dies leaving a widow in respect of whom an allowance is also being paid, a gratuity not exceeding twice the total annual allowance in force (in respect of the veteran and his wife) at date of death may, at the discretion of the board, be granted.

In conformity with the policy of granting family benefits under the Social Security Act, the War Pensions Amendment Act, 1945, abolished war veterans' allowances in respect of dependent children, and from 1st October, 1945, these allowances have been paid by way of family benefit.

The number of war veterans' allowances in force at the 31st March increased from 3,997 in 1950 to 4,776 in 1951, expenditure rising from a figure of £743,999 in 1949–50 to £964,882 in 1950–51.

Emergency Reserve Corps Pensions.—The War Pensions Act, 1943, incorporates that part of the Finance Act, 1940, which made provision for pensions to members of the Emergency Reserve Corps, established under the Emergency Reserve Corps Regulations 1940. These pensions are payable where death or disablement was suffered in the course of service, including training, as a member or was directly attributable to such service.

The rates of pension in respect of the death of a male member are the same as those prescribed for a private in the Army—viz., £2 10s. per week to the widow, plus a mothers' allowance of £2 per week to a widow with a dependent child or children, together with 10s. per week in respect of each dependent child. In respect of total disablement, the maximum weekly rates are £1 15s. for an unmarried member under twenty-one years of age and £3 10s. per week for other members, £2 17s. 6d. a week to a wife with or without dependent children, plus 10s. per week in respect of each dependent child. Pensions in respect of partial disablement are determined in each case by the War Pensions Board. An economic pension may also be granted.

As in the case of war pensions, the amount payable to a dependant other than a wife or child is limited to the average weekly value of the benefits received from the member during the period of twelve months immediately preceding the date of death or disablement, as the case may be. The 10s. per child may be paid either as a family benefit or, if so desired, as a pension.

At the 31st March, 1951, then were 11 pensions in force, which was equal to the number at the end of March, 1950. Expenditure totalled £1,628 for the later year, and £1,588 in the 1949–50 year.

South African Veterans' War Pensions.—The original authority for the payment of pensions in respect of service in the South African War was the Defence Act, 1909, but the Finance Act (No. 4), 1940, provided that pensions might be granted under Part III of the War Pensions Extension Act, 1940, in respect of death or disablement suffered by members of any New Zealand Contingent who served in South Africa in connection with the South African War. The War Pensions Extension Act, 1940, was repealed by the War Pensions Act, 1943, and pensions to veterans of the South African War are now payable under the general authority of the latter with its amendments. The provisions of the Act have been extended to include a member who served in any of His Majesty's Forces in the South African War if he had been born in New Zealand or was domiciled therein at the commencement of the war.

In addition to war pensions, a South African veteran who is in receipt of an age-benefit under the Social Security Act may receive an additional benefit of £13 13s. per annum, provided that his total income, including pension, does not exceed £227 10s. per annum. Such payments are included with social-security benefits and not with war pensions.

The number of South African War pensions in force at the 31st March, 1951, at 37, showed a decrease of 2 on the 1950 figure, and a fall in expenditure from the 1949–50 total of £3,826, to £3,726 in the 1950–51 year.

Mercantile Marine Pensions.—The War Pensions and Allowances (Mercantile Marine) Act, 1940, made provision for the payment of pensions and allowances to members of the New Zealand mercantile marine and their dependants in respect of death, disablement, or detention suffered as a result of the Second World War, this being a new departure as far as New Zealand's war-pension legislation is concerned. An amendment passed in 1943 extended the scope of the Act to permit of pensions being paid to members of any mercantile marine who are in receipt of similar pensions or allowances from any other Government within the British Commonwealth, provided that such members were, immediately prior to the commencement of the war, bona fide residents of New Zealand. A claimant under this new provision must be actually resident in New Zealand, and the amount of pension or allowance that may be granted is limited to a sum which, together with the amount granted out of New Zealand, will not exceed the pension or allowance that would have been payable had the claimant been a member of the New Zealand mercantile marine.

The maximum rates at present in force in respect of the death of a member range from £2 10s. to £3 7s. per week (according to the member's rank or rating and the tonnage of the vessel on which ho was serving) for a widow without dependent children, and in the cast of a widow with a dependent child or children there are additional payments of £2 per week by way of mother's allowance and 10s. per week in respect of each dependent child under sixteen years of age. In the case of total disablement, the maximum weekly rates are £3 10s. to the member, £2 17s. 6d. to a wife, plus 10s. per week in respect of each dependent child under sixteen years of age. The amounts payable in respect of partial disablement are determined by the War Pensions Board in each case. There ore no distinctions as regards rank or rating or the tonnage of the vessel in which the member was serving in the case of disablement pensions and allowances.

Where a member suffered detention as a result of his capture or the capture of his ship, the rates of allowances payable corresponded to the pensions payable in respect of total disablement.

In all cases pensions and allowances to dependants other than to a wife or a child are limited to the value of the benefits actually received by the claimant from the member during the twelve months immediately preceding his death, disablement. or detention, as the case may be. As stated elsewhere in regard to war pensions, allowances for dependent children may be paid either by way of family benefits or by way of war pension.

Mercantile Marino pensions and allowances in force at the 31st March, 1951, numbered 26, being two more than in 1950, but expenditure on this class of benefit fell from £2,403 during 1949–50 to £2,359 during 1950–51.

War Pensions Appeal Board.—A claimant may appeal to the War Pensions Appeal Board from a decision of the War Pensions Board within six months of the date on which the decision of the latter was communicated to him. Such an appeal can only be made in so far as it consists of—

  1. The rejection of any claim for a pension in respect of the death or disablement of a member of the Forces on the ground that the death or disablement was not attributable to his service as a member of the Forces or that the condition that resulted in his death or disablement was not aggravated by such service.

  2. The assessment of a pension granted to any member of the Forces in so far as the assessment is based on medical grounds.

The Appeal Board may confirm the decision of the War Pensions Board or may grant a pension, or, within the limits prescribed by the Act, may increase or reduce the amount of any pension. The number of appeals lodged each year has fallen steadily from the-peak of 2,661 in 1944–45 to 370 in 1950–51. Of the 418 appeals dealt with during the year ended 31st March, 1951, 157 or 37.6 per cent. were upheld, 224 dismissed, and 37 struck out or withdrawn.

MISCELLANEOUS PENSIONS, ETC.—In addition to the various classes of pensions enumerated in the foregoing part of this section there were 205 pensions at the 31st March, 1951, classed as “sundry pensions and annuities.” This class covers ex-officers of the Legislative Department, and ex-members of the Police, Defence, and Naval Forces, certain ex-members of the Legislature, and others, by way of compassionate allowance, &c.

The following payments, authorized by the Finance Act, 1951, were made by way of cash bonus to certain social security beneficiaries and others during the year 1951. An amount of £2,045,273 was paid to certain social security beneficiaries and war pensioners in accordance with the proposal of the Government announced on the 16th December, 1950. For superannuitants and others of that class whose income during the year ended 31st December, 1950, did not exceed £226 for a single person or £374 for married persons, a payment of £10 and £20 respectively was also made, with proportionately lesser amounts as the gross income increased until at £236 and £394 the bonus payments ceased. The amount paid out under the latter arrangement totalled £149,093. A family bonus of £5 per child was made in respect of children for whom the family benefit (or a pension benefit in lieu of family benefit) was payable at 30th June, 1951. The amount involved under this heading was £3,037,175.

SUPERANNUATION.—The Superannuation Act. 1947, repealed a considerable body of legislation dealing with superannuation. The former law on this subject was largely contained in the Public Service Superannuation Act, 1927 (and the Government Railways Act, 1926), which provided for payments to public servants on their retirement and embraced the State Railways, Post and Telegraph Department, Public Service (including Police), teachers, and Stipendiary Magistrates. A general scheme which was, and still is, available to all local authority employees is conducted by the National Provident Fund Board (refer later in this section).

Under the 1947 Act there was established the Government Superannuation Fund, which replaced (and absorbed the moneys belonging to) the former Public Service Superannuation Fund, the Teachers' Superannuation Fund, and the Government Railways Superannuation Fund. Revenues of the Government Superannuation Fund, which came into operation as from the 1st April, 1948, comprise contributions, subsidies from the Consolidated and other funds, interest accruing from the investment of moneys in the Fund, fines, all moneys that would have been paid into the three Funds mentioned if this Act had not been passed, and all other moneys that may be payable into the Fund.

Superannuation benefits are available for a greater number of persons in receipt of State emoluments than was the case under the 1927 Act. The 1947 legislation as amended in 1948 and 1950 provides for contributions from members of the Government Service, including in this term the Education Service, the Cook Islands Public Service, the Samoan Public Service, and the State Advances Corporation in addition to the Departments of State under the control of the Public Service Commission, the Railways Department, and the Post and Telegraph Department. Separate parts of the Superannuation Act, 1947, relate to the provision of superannuation for members of Parliament, permanent members of the regular Armed Forces, and for Magistrates and Maori Land Court Judges.

Contributions in the case of the Government Service range from 5 per cent. of annual salary if under thirty years of ago at commencement of contributory service to 10 per cent. where the age exceeds fifty years, the increase being at the rate of 1 per cent. per year for each five-year increase in age category at a commencement date. Retiring-allowance is computed at the rate of a one hundred and twentieth part of the annual salary for each year of contributory service, this amount being increased by a sum equal thereto, but in no case is the added amount to exceed £300, or be less than £3 15s. per year of contributory service. The annual salary for this purpose is deemed to be the average of that paid in each of the five years immediately preceding retirement. If a married contributor dies, whether before or after becoming entitled to a retiring-allowance, his widow may elect to receive a refund of the amount of his contributions less any sums received by him during his lifetime, or to receive an annuity at one-half of the rate of his retiring-allowance at the time of his death or to which he would have been entitled if he had then retired medically unfit. The amount of the widow's annuity is not to be less than £104 or greater than £300 per annum. In addition, £26 per annum is payable in respect of each child under sixteen years of age left by a deceased contributor. The above are general provisions only and need to be supplemented by reference to the Act, in which other provisions given must be considered in respect of age, length of service, sex, sickness, withdrawals, refunds, subsidiary benefits, &c. Contributions and retiring-allowances as above apply generally to permanent members of the Regular Armed Forces. Magistrates and Judges of the Maori Land Court are entitled to retiring-allowances, subject to age and length of service qualifications, equal to one-fortieth of the annual salary at the date of retirement for each year of service, but in no case is the retiring-allowance to exceed two-thirds of that salary. Contributions normally are at the percentages quoted above. A member of Parliament contributes at the rate of £50 a year, but if at the date of commencement of the retiring-allowance his contributions are less than £250 he is to pay the deficiency into the Consolidated Fund within such time and in such manner as the Minister of Finance may allow. His retiring-allowance, subject to nine years of service and attainment of the age of fifty years, is at the rate of £250 a year for the first nine-year period of his service, and for each additional year of service an increase of £25, with a maximum rate of allowance of not more than £400 a year.

Details of the transactions of the Government Superannuation Fund for the first year of operation are not yet available.

Information presented in the following pages review the operations of the Public Service Superannuation Fund and the Superannuation of Magistrates up to the date of merger with the Government Service Superannuation Fund, Corresponding information dealing with the Teachers' and the Railways Superannuation Funds is available in the 1950 issue of the Year-Book on pages 553–554.

Public Service Superannuation Fund.—At the 31st March, 1948, there were 24,753 contributors, paying £379,651 per annum into the Fund. The pensioners at the same date numbered 5,592, and were entitled to £1,000,093 per annum, made up as follows.

Number.Pensions.
Males.Females.Total.
    £
Retired for age or length of service2,5645053,069837,714
Retired for ill-health3977547266,969
Police injured on duty23 234,336
Widows 1,5631,56378,984
Children23323246512,090
      Totals3,2172,3755,5921,000,093

The following table contains particulars of the public servants who were contributing to the Fund at the 31st March, 1948, grouped according to their respective rates of contribution.

Rate per Cent.Number.Annual Salary.Annual Contributions.
Males.Females.Total.
    ££
519,2382,91622,1546,236,213311,811
61,281961,377506,89930,414
770059759300,87021,061
83039312124,5639,965
9112611853,0014,770
103213316,3021,630
      Totals21,6663,08724,7537,237,848379,651

Accumulated funds at the 31st March, 1948, amounted to £3,263,412. Total assets, which amounted to £3,301,229, included: investments, £2,934,002; interest, due and accrued, £34,569; contributions in course of transmission, &c., £92,734; cash in hand and at bank, £307,117. The investment figures do not include £28, 117 invested on Stipendiary Magistrates' account.

The total subsidies paid to the Fund from its inception to 31st March, 1948, amounted to £5,140,597, which included £511,738 to cover increased allowances to widows and children under authority of section 114, Public Service Superannuation Act, 1927. The total amount paid by Treasury to compensate for the statutory reduction in interest was £262,208. This amount is not included with subsidies.

All valuations of the Fund prior to 1924 were made on the basis of interest at 4 per cent., a 4 1/2-per-cent. rate being adopted for the next three periods. As the effective rate of interest earned on the funds had been steadily decreasing since the 1934 valuation and was then considerably below the 4 1/2-per-cent. mark, a 4-per-cent. rate was adopted for the latest valuation. The average rate of interest earned in each of the last ton financial years was as follows:—

Year Ended 31st March.Average Rate per Cent.
 £s.d.
1939452
1940414
1941449
1942463
1943433
1944404
19453195
1946444
1947427
1948402

The total revenue of the Fund for the year ended 31st March, 1948, was £1,596,713, including members' contributions £640,878, interest on investments and on contributions £18,835, and Government subsidy £812,940, the last-mentioned including a special payment of £60,473 on account of increased benefits to widows and children. The total amount expended during the year was £1,317,695, including retiring and other allowances £1,043,394, refunds of contributions £247,176, transfers to other funds £7,983, cost of administration £16,690, and other expenditure £2,452.

A table is now given showing the progress of the Fund for the last five years available.

Year Ended 31st March,Number of Contributors.Annual Contributions.Interest receivable from Investments.Contributions from Government.Annual Value of Allowances.Accumulated Fund.
  £££££
194430,873468,081136,129157,598625,1043,441,435
194530,531454,163131,222151,712705,9823,477,914
194629,521438,983134,663161,950842,7283,338,779
194726,925406,809123,503211,698930,9192,984,395
194824,753379,651118,835812,9401,000,0933,263,412

The Public Service Superannuation. Fund was abolished from the 1st April, 1948, its moneys being transferred to the Government Service Superannuation Fund as from that date.

Superannuation of Magistrates.—The scheme for Magistrates provided for the same rates of contribution as under the Public Service scheme, but gave an annual retiring-allowance for each year of service (whether continuous or not) equal to one-fortieth of the annual salary receivable at the date of retirement, with, however, a limit of two-thirds. The retiring-age was sixty-eight, instead of sixty-five as in the case of the Public Service scheme.

Members' contributions during the year ended 31st March, 1948, the figures for 1947 being in parentheses, totalled £2,070 (£2,077). and interest on investments amounted to £1,129 (£1,034), making the revenue £3,199 (£3,111), exclusive of Government subsidy. Expenditure for the year totalled £5,525 (£5,624), of which retiring-allowances accounted for £4,994 (£5,578), and administration expenses £69 (£42). The assets of the Fund amounted to £28,188 (£29,286). In common with the other State superannuation schemes, as from 1st April, 1948, the superannuation of Magistrates came under the Government Service Superannuation Fund.

NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND.—The National Provident Fund established by Act in 1910 came into operation on the 1st March, 1911. The Fund is administered by a Board comprising the Minister of Finance as Chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Health, the Valuer-General, the Superintendent of the Fund, and two other members appointed by and holding tenure of office during the pleasure of the Governor-General. The present legislative authority is contained in the National Provident Fund Act, 1950, which consolidated and amended previous legislation on this subject.

In addition to guaranteeing the benefits payable under the Act, the State provides a subsidy to the extent of one-fourth of the contributions paid into the Fund, and also meets all the administrative expenses.

The Fund provides two distinct services:—

  1. Public Fund Branch.—Pensions and subsidiary benefits for members of the general public, with extensions for members of approved friendly societies and employees of firms, trade unions. &c.

  2. Superannuation Branch.—Superannuation for employees of all local authorities and other statutory bodies.

Membership of the public portion of the Fund is open to any resident of New Zealand over the age of sixteen. Parents, guardians, or relatives of children may make advance deposits to secure the entry of the child to full membership when he attains the age of sixteen. No medical examination is required on entry. The method of joining is extremely simple: the applicant fills in a form at any money-order post-office, or local office of the Fund, and pays a first contribution. Subsequent contributions may be met by deduction from salary, wages, or a savings-bank account. A liberal discount is allowed where contributions are paid 157 weeks or more in advance.

Contributions for each 10s. step of weekly pension range from 9d. per week for persons joining the fund at age sixteen to 9s. 4d. per Meek for persons joining at age forty-nine; full subsidiary benefits attach to the first step pension. Any contributor may elect to increase the rate of contribution in accordance with attained age at date of election, so as to increase the rate of his prospective pension.

The following benefits are payable:—

  1. *On Incapacity of Contributor.—After five years' membership, for the fourth and subsequent months of total incapacity for work, an allowance of 10s. per week for each child under sixteen years of age. Contributions in respect of the first 40s. weekly pension are remitted during the receipt of this allowance, which abates in respect of other income in excess of £6 per week.

  2. *On Death of a Contributor.—After five years' membership, an allowance of 10s. per week for each child under sixteen years of age, and 10s. for the widow so long as any child is under sixteen years of age.

    *If the child remains at school, these allowances may be continued up to attainment of age eighteen years.

  3. On reaching age sixty (or sixty-five, subject to reduced contribution or increased pension rates), pensions ranging from 10s. to 120s. per week according to the scale of contributions; options as to joint and survivorship pensions and for refund of contributions in lieu of pensions are provided.

  4. On withdrawal, lapse, or death leaving no children under sixteen, a refund to contributor or to personal representative of all contributions paid, loss any benefits theretofore received.

The scope of the Fund was extended in 1914, the Board being empowered to entertain applications by local authorities for superannuation on behalf of their employees. In 1926 Hospital Boards became contributors on behalf of their nursing and clerical employees. With the consent of the Minister of Finance, State Departments contribute for nurses and other specialist officers, thus facilitating their transfer anywhere within the Government services without loss of pension rights.

To achieve uniformity in benefits and to make improved conditions of superannuation available to permanent employees of all local authorities, the Board was empowered in 1946 to vary the conditions and benefits in the original schemes and to issue a notice to all local authorities containing conditions and benefits under which any permanent employee might elect to become a contributing employee. Funds earlier established under the Local Authorities Superannuation Act, 1908, have been merged with the National Provident Fund, and there is now operating one uniform superannuation scheme to which all local authorities in New Zealand contribute; employees may move freely from employment in one local authority to another without sacrifice of accrued superannuation benefits.

The principle of voluntary membership introduced into State schemes extends to the National Provident Fund schemes and provision is made for the recognition, by agreement with the employing local authority, of General or Local Government service within the British Commonwealth or within New Zealand.

The Fund is the approved superannuation vehicle for statutory corporations and also provides facilities whereby registered educational institutions may provide superannuation for teachers, thus removing another artificial barrier to the free interchange of teachers in the educational services.

The benefits and contributions are similar to these operating in the Government Superannuation Fund, and there is provision where by employees may transfer from local authority to State employment, and vice versa, without loss of accrued rights.

On retirement there are several options as to joint and survivorship or variable pensions which enable the income payable after retirement being arranged to meet individual needs.

Since the inauguration of the Fund in 1911, 137,973 persons (96,729 males, 41,244 females) have joined the Fund, and of these 115,177 (78,337 males and 36,840 females) have discontinued for one reason or another, leaving 22,796 (18,392 males and 4,404 females) contributors at 31st December, 1950. Of the 3,419 discontinuances in 1950, 2,533 were on account of withdrawal, 309 on account of lapse or cancellation, 67 on account of death, 341 on account of attainment of pension age, and 169 on account of transfer.

The numbers of contributors for the various pension rates as at 31st December, 1950, wore as follows.

Pensions.Males.Females.Total.
10s. per week9,72752310,250
20s. per week2,1073032,410
30s. per week21252264
40s. per week590111701
Superannuation5,7563,4159,171
      Totals18,3924,40422,796

Summarized figures set out below for the years ended 31st December, 1940, 1945, and 1950, form a useful basis for comparative analysis. Increased contributions and total income figures are attributable mainly to expansion in the superannuation branch.

Year Ended 31st December,
1940.1945.1960.
New contributors2,9503,5012,231
Total of contributors28,30227,78822,796
Pensioners1,0251,5772,512
 £££
Contributions309,499368,615758,117
Interest (including fines)255,546281,019364,468
      Total income (including State subsidy)627,086775,4061,326,921
Pension payments89,737126,517246,032
Other benefits158,895262,600242,914
      Total payments251,567392,195490,979
Funds at end of year6,023,9348,116,04411,713,561
Hate of interest per cent. earned on invested funds£3 17s. 10d.£3 11s. 7d.£3 5s. 0d.

The amount of the subsidy paid by the State on contributions paid to the Fund during 1950 was £176,345.

The next table presents an alternative comparison, the period covered on this occasion being the five years ended 31st December, 1950.

Year.Number of Contributors.Annual Kate of Contributions Payable.Total Amount of Fund.Pensions and Allowances Paid During Year.
Incapacity.Retiring.Widows' and Children's.
  £££££
194627,405398,8468,985,36013,687143,65814,352
194725,722422,8719,586,61113,399168,37631,483
194824,456468,56510,181,85413,806203,00445,348
194923,815528,52010,877,61913,285226,17350,616
195022,796577,96711,713,56113,158246,03250,927

Of the accumulated fund of £11,713,561 at 31st December, 1950, £11,450,914 was invested, mainly in Government securities.

Chapter 27. SECTION 27—LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Table of Contents

LOCAL government throughout New Zealand is exercised by a number of local authorities constituted under various Acts of Parliament. These Acts provide for the creation of districts over which the local authorities exercise jurisdiction. Different types of district are distinguishable, each type being identified with a specific function or group of functions. Geographically, New Zealand is divided into 129 counties, which comprise its total area, except for certain small islands which are not included within the boundaries of the adjacent counties. Administratively. boroughs and independent town districts, which are contained within the areas of the several counties, are regarded as separate entities. From an administrative point of view, therefore, the fundamental districts are counties, boroughs, and independent town districts. Upon this foundation a considerable superstructure of districts of other types has been erected. These overlapping districts may be divided into two broad classes, viz.: (1) Districts formed from parts of counties—e.g., road districts; and (2) those which are comprised of a group of adjacent districts of other types united for a common purpose—e.g. electric-power districts. The number of local authorities actively functioning at 1st April, 1951, was 900, made up as follows: County Councils, 125; Borough (including City) Councils. 134: Town Boards (independent), 29; Town Boards (dependent), 18; Road Boards, 7; River Boards, 16; Catchment Boards. 12; Land-drainage Boards. 43; Urban Drainage Boards, 4; Water-supply Boards, 2; Fire Boards (including 119 where the Board is a Borough or County Council, &c.), 179; Local Railway Board, 1; Harbour Boards (including 23 where the Board is a Borough or County Council, &c), 47: Electric-power Boards, 43; Hospital Boards, 37; Tramway Board, 1; Transport Board, 1: Gas Board, 1; Rabbit Boards, 159; Milk Boards (including 31 where the Board is a Borough Council). 39; and Nassella Tussock Boards, 2. In addition to the foregoing there was one Joint Transit. Housing Committee constituted under the Local Legislation Act, 1949, and 18 District Councils of the Main Highways Board constituted under the Main Highways Act, 1922. These District Councils of the Main Highways Board, although not local authorities in the strict sense of the term, are nevertheless intimately connected with certain aspects of local government, and have power to make recommendations of considerable importance.

The Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act, 1941, as amended in 1945, 1946, 1947, and 1948, has for its objects the conservation of soil resources, the prevention of damage by erosion, and the making of more adequate provision than in the past for protection of property from damage by floods. A Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council is established for the general administration of the Act, while for local administration power is given for the constitution of catchment districts, each covering the catchment area of one or more river systems and under the control of a Catchment Board, which is armed with wide powers, including borrowing, rating, &c.

Under the Milk Act. 1944, as amended in 1945, 1947, 1948, 1949, and 1950, the Governor-General may by Order in Council constitute and declare any part or parts of New Zealand a milk district for the purpose of ensuring to the inhabitants of that district. an adequate supply of milk of a required standard of quality. The principal Act provided that for every milk district there shall be a Milk Authority which may be a Borough Council or a Metropolitan Milk Board, as circumstances require. In any case where the Milk Authority is a Borough Council, the Council is required to appoint a Standing Committee, known as the Milk Committee, and provision is made for the appointment of other persons to the Committee where the milk district includes any area outside the borough. Where the Milk Authority is a Metropolitan Milk Board, the members thereof are elected by the constituent districts comprising the milk district. The Milk Amendment Act, 1947, provides for the constitution of a District Milk Board in any case where the Council of any borough has declined to be the Milk Authority or where there is no borough situated wholly or partly within the district and it is found to be impracticable to establish a Metropolitan Milk Board. The members of a District Milk Board are appointed by the Governor-General from members of local authorities situated wholly or partly within the particular milk district.

Nassella Tussock Boards have been constituted in Marlborough and North Canterbury under the Nassella Tussock Act, 1946, and its 1948 amendment, to make provision for the control and eradication of the plant known as nassella tussock.

The Fire Services Act, 1949, consolidated and amended the law relating to Fire Brigades and provided for fire defence, the protection of life and property from fire, and the co-ordination of urban and rural fire services. The Fire Services Council was established for the general administration of the Act, while for local administration existing tire districts were declared United Urban Fire Districts or Urban Fire Districts according to their previous status, and, in addition, a considerable number of new Urban Fire Districts and Secondary Urban Fire Districts were created. In the case of these new districts the control is vested in the existing local authority (Borough Council, County Council, Town Board, &c).

The Hutt Valley Joint Transit Housing Committee was constituted under the Local Legislation Act, 1949, to control and administer the transit housing scheme established at Trentham Military Camp or any further temporary or transit housing scheme which the constituent local authorities may establish.

Detailed statistics relating to each local authority, other than Hospital Boards, are contained in the Local Authorities Handbook, an annual publication of the Census and Statistics Department. Hospital Boards, which supply their returns in different form, and to the Department of Health, are omitted from the statistics contained in this section, but summarized data relating to them will be found in Section 5B.

The local-authority year now uniformly ends on 31st March, except in the case of most Harbour Boards. In certain cases where the harbour is administered by a County or Borough Council, the year ends on 31st March, but in all other cases on 30th September.

The history of local government in New Zealand may be conveniently divided into two periods associated with two distinct forms of administration, namely—(1) The provincial system, in which the local government of each province was a function of the provincial authorities; and (2) the present county system, which arose on the abolition of the provinces in 1876, and in which the general responsibility for the local government of the whole country was undertaken by the Central Government.

THE PROVINCES.—Although New Zealand was at first (1848) divided into the two provinces of New Ulster and New Munster, it was not until 1853 that the provincial system really commenced. In that year, the two existing provinces were abolished and the colony was divided into the six provinces of Auckland, New Plymouth (altered to Taranaki in 1859), Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago. The number was later increased to nine by the separation of Hawke's Bay from Wellington (1859), Marlborough from Nelson (1860), and Southland from Otago (1861). Subsequently it was reduced to eight by the merging of Southland with Otago (1870), and restored to nine again by the separation of Westland from Canterbury in 1874, Westland having been a county independent of Canterbury from 1867. Each province was presided over by a Superintendent and Council, with power to legislate for its own territory, subject, however, to disallowance by the Governor, and also to the exclusion of such matters as Customs duties, postal affairs, Crown lands, superior Courts of law, coinage, and paper currency, which were to be controlled by the General Assembly (Central Government). The provinces received from the Central Government a capitation allowance for the maintenance of harbours, hospitals, asylums, charitable aid, and police; while each province was expected to provide for the construction and maintenance of roads, bridges, and other public works out of its own revenues, which were derived chiefly from the sale of waste lands.

The Provincial Councils, therefore, were virtually left with the whole responsibility of providing for the details of local administration. The Councils in turn delegated certain of their powers and functions to lesser authorities, and a number of boroughs, towns, road, and highway districts came into being. Owing, however to the lack of uniformity between the Ordinances of the various Councils on the subject of local government, considerable confusion arose and rendered impossible any satisfactory co-ordination beyond provincial boundaries. Thus main roads were frequently planned without sufficient regard to the linking-up of the country as a whole. With the rapidly increasing population, and consequent extension of settlements, the need for the development of communications along national instead of provincial lines became apparent. That the provinces had definitely outlived the period of their usefulness became abundantly clear during the prosecution of the Vogel policy of immigration and public works initiated in 1870, and in 1875 the Abolition of Provinces Act was passed in the face of strong provincial opposition.

CONSTITUTION OF LOCAL DISTRICTS.—In 1876 local government entered upon an entirely new phase, the Central Government assuming the general responsibility for the local administration of the whole country. All existing legislation on the subject was repealed and new measures were introduced, notably the Counties Act, 1876, which divided the country into sixty-three counties, with provision for administration by elective Councils having powers considerably less than those enjoyed by the Provincial Councils. Another important enactment of the same year was the Municipal Corporations Act, which provided for the incorporation of the thirty-six boroughs then in existence and for the creation of new boroughs. The powers of municipalities were also extended, permitting the construction of tramways, waterworks, and gasworks, while the borrowing-powers of boroughs were placed on a definite and uniform footing. While these measures have long since been repealed, it is upon them that the broad structure of the present system is based.

Since the inception of the county system there has been a great expansion of local government throughout New Zealand. With the growth of population there has been a steady increase in the number of counties, boroughs, and town districts, while entirely now typos of districts have been created to cater for special services. A description of each type of local authority may be found in the 1940 and previous issues of the Year-Book.

FRANCHISE.—The franchise in local government is a variable one, differing materially in certain respects as between urban and country districts. Prior to the passing of the Local Elections and Polls Amendment Act, 1941, the county franchise was based solely on property qualification, with a differential voting-power according to the value of property possessed, whereas in boroughs and town districts every adult possessing the necessary residential qualifications was entitled to be enrolled as an elector for the election of the local-governing authority. On any proposal relating to loans or rates, however, a ratepaying qualification was, and still is, necessary. The 1941 amendment to the Act made provision for tenants of State houses to be enrolled as electors as if they were ratepayers, but it entitled such persons to one vote only and conferred no voting powers in connection with any proposal relating to loans or rates.

An amendment passed in 1944 further extended the franchise in counties and road districts to include a residential qualification on the same lines as for boroughs, but did not interfere with the multiple voting power conferred by a property qualification. One vote only is allowed in boroughs and town districts, but it is possible, by virtue of property qualification, to have a vote in more than one district. The 1944 amendment introduced compulsory registration of electors for boroughs and town districts, all adult persons not entitled to enrolment by virtue of a property qualification being required to make application for enrolment within a prescribed time. The Act also removed the disability which prevented persons in the employ of local authorities from becoming members thereof. The Local Elections and Polls Amendment Act, 1946, provided that all general elections of local authorities were to be held on the third Wednesday in November of the year in which such elections were due, instead of in May as hitherto. The 1950 amendment altered this to the third Saturday in November, it also abolished the provisions of the 1946 amendment that any person could be entered on the local authority roll whose name appeared on the parliamentary roll with an address in that authority's district provided he or she had a residential qualification, and that, if not so entered, he or she could vote by declaration. Details of the franchise as it affects each type of local district are now given.

Counties.—Any person of twenty-one years of age and over who possesses any one of the qualifications mentioned hereunder is entitled to be enrolled on the county electors roll:—

  1. Rating qualification, which may be held by any person whose name appears in the valuation roll as the occupier of any rateable property within a riding of the county. One vote is allowed where the rateable value does not exceed £1,000, two votes where the value is greater than £1,000 but not in excess of £2,000, and three votes where the value exceeds £2,000.

  2. A residential qualification is held by any British subject who has resided for one year in New Zealand and has had permanent residence of not less than three months in the riding of the county to which the roll relates.

  3. The possession of a miner's right entitles a person to enrolment provided (a) the holder also holds a mining privilege and is actively engaged in mining, (b) the holder is resident in the riding of the county and has been continuously so resident for two months immediately preceding the nomination of candidates. The residential or the miner's right qualification entitles the holder to one vote only.

Boroughs.—Any person of twenty-one years of age and over who possesses any of the following qualifications is entitled to enrolment:—

  1. Freehold qualification—meaning the beneficial and duly registered ownership of a freehold estate in land of a capital value of not less than £25 situated in the borough, notwithstanding that any other person is the occupier thereof.

  2. Rating qualification, which may be held by any person whose name appears in the valuation roll as the occupier of any rateable property within the borough.

  3. A residential qualification may be held by any British subject who has resided for one year in New Zealand and who has had permanent residence during the last three months in the borough to which the roll relates.

An occupier's qualification, previously valid, was abolished by the Local Elections and Polls Amendment Act, 1946.

As already stated, no person is entitled to vote at a poll taken on any proposal relating to loans or rates by virtue only of a residential qualification.

Town Districts.—The franchise is the same as for boroughs, except that for county electoral purposes in the case of dependent town districts the county qualification is necessary.

Rabbit Districts.—The franchise is based on stock ownership, from one to five votes being allowed according to the number of stock units owned. A sheep is counted as one unit and cattle as five units each. For up to 5,000 units one vote is allowed; over 5,000 but not exceeding 10,000, two votes; over 10,000 but not exceeding 20,000, three votes; over 20,000, but not exceeding 30,000, four votes; over 30,000, five votes.

Other Districts.—Road districts, river districts, land-drainage districts, water-supply districts, and the local railway district all have a franchise similar to that of counties except that the residential qualification applies to road districts only.

Districts composed of a grouping of districts of other types united for a common purpose have a franchise as for the component districts. Such districts are urban drainage districts, electric-power districts, harbour districts, hospital districts, urban transport districts, catchment districts, and the gas district. In some cases—e.g., the Auckland and Hutt Valley Drainage Boards—the members are appointed or elected by the territorial local authorities included in the district.

In addition to ejected members, the constitution of Harbour Boards provided in most cases for certain nominated or appointed members (representatives of the Government, the waterfront industry, and the payers of harbour dues), but. the Harbours Act, 1950, which consolidated and amended previous legislation, provides that every Harbour Board shall now consist of members elected by the electors of constituent local authorities only.

GENERAL POWERS.—Local authorities in New Zealand derive their powers from the Acts under which they are constituted, and also from special empowering Acts. In addition to legislation providing for particular types of local authority or for individual local authorities, there are several statutory measures which are more or less applicable to all local authorities, such as the Local Elections and Polls Act, 1925, and the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926. In the case of Harbour Boards, there is in addition to a general Harbours Act a special Act for each Board, which is subordinate to the general Act. Certain types of local authority—Urban Drainage Boards, the Local Railway Board, the Tramway and Transport Boards, and the Gas Board—derive their principal powers from special constituting Acts.

Local authorities have general powers of entering into contracts for any of the purposes for which they are constituted; of selling and leasing land; and of taking or purchasing any land which may be necessary or convenient for any public work.

AMALGAMATION.—Various statutory provisions exist for the voluntary amalgamation of local authorities, and these have been availed of from time to time. There have been numerous amalgamations of contiguous boroughs, while the one-time numerous road districts which played a very important part in the scheme of local government in the essentially colonizing days of New Zealand are now largely merged in county areas. Prior to the passing of the Local Government Commission Act, 1946, no provision for compulsory amalgamation existed, although a measure entitled the Local Government (Amalgamation Schemes) Bill was introduced during the parliamentary session of 1936, but was not proceeded with.

The Local Government Commission Act, 1946, set up a Local Government Commission which is a permanent institution deemed to be a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act, 1908, whoso functions are to review from time to time the functions and districts of local authorities, and to investigate local-government boundaries in New Zealand, and recommend such changes as may be considered necessary. The functions and powers of the Commission are set out on pages 562-563 of the 1950 issue of the Year-Book.

BORROWING.—Under the Local Government Loans Board Act, 1926, all loan proposals of local authorities, except in regard to money borrowed in anticipation of revenue, require the sanction of the Local Government Loans Board. The Board consists of the Secretary to the Treasury, the Engineer-in-Chief of the Ministry of Works, and five other members appointed by the Governor-General. In eases where a poll of ratepayers is necessary preparatory to raising a loan the Board's consent must be obtained before the poll is held. In no case may the Board sanction any application unless provision is made to its satisfaction for repayment of the loan within such period as it deems reasonable, having regard to the probable duration and continuing utility of the works on which the loan-moneys are to be expended.

The principal legislation dealing with the borrowing-powers of local authorities is contained in the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926, which is mainly a consolidation of previous measures on the subject. A local authority is thereby empowered to raise a special loan for the construction of any public work, for the purchase of land or buildings, or for the purpose of engaging in any undertaking into which ft may lawfully enter. As explained previously, a loan proposal first requires the sanction of the Local Government Loans Board.

Prior to the passing of the Local Bodies' Loans Amendment Act, 1951, it also required the sanction of the ratepayers in most eases. The new procedure laid down in this amendment provides that as a general rule local authorities may raise a loan by special order and without a poll of ratepayers, but, in the case of a local authority that is a rating body, a poll of ratepayers is to be taken if—

  1. The Local Government Loans Board requires a poll to be taken; or

  2. If, before the date fixed for the meeting of the local authority to confirm the resolution to raise the loan, not less than 5 per cent. of the ratepayers demand a poll; or

  3. The local authority itself decides to take a poll.

A poll cannot be required in any of the following cases:—

  1. Loans raised for emergency expenditure by reason of flood, storm, earthquake, &c.

  2. Loans raised by a Borough Council for the purpose of its trading undertakings.

  3. Loans for work of national and local importance and carried out by an agreement between the Government and a local authority.

  4. Loans to meet liabilities to other local authorities or arising out of any Act.

Where a poll is required, the proposal is not deemed to have been carried unless at least three-fifths of the valid votes recorded are in favour of it, save in the case of boroughs and town districts, where a bare majority only is necessary. The properties and revenue of the local authority may be pledged as security for the repayment of any principal sum or interest thereon, or a special rate may be levied for the same purpose.

The borrowing activities of certain types of local authority are subject to special provisions. Under the Hospitals Act, 1926, a Hospital Board must first obtain the approval of the Minister of Health before exercising its power to borrow; under the Fire Services Act, 1949, the Boards of Urban Fire Authorities must obtain the prior consent of the Fire Services Council; and Rabbit Boards must first seek the approval of the Minister of Agriculture. Harbour Boards derive their authority to borrow for harbour-works from special empowering legislation, and similar authority is given for the capital works of certain other local authorities.

RATING.—Local authorities are largely dependent on revenue from rates to carry out their activities, and even loans raised for special purposes are, except where the assets purchased provide revenue to meet the loan charges, ultimately liquidated by rate revenues—known then as special rates. Three broad classes of rates are distinguished:—

  1. General, for general purpose.

  2. Separate rates levied for the construction of public works, for the acquisition of land or buildings, or for the benefit of the whole or part of a local district.

  3. Special rates imposed to secure the repayment of loan-money, being sufficient to produce interest and sinking fund, or interest and instalment of principal, as the case may be. Special rates can be levied only by resolution gazetted, and, unlike general and separate rates, are not subject to any statutory limit.

There are three main systems of rating: (1) Capital (land and improvements) value, (2) annual value, and (3) unimproved value. In a few cases rating is on an acreage basis, and in the case of certain Rabbit Boards the rate is according to the number of sheep and/or cattle owned.

The Rating Act, 1925, provides that the local authority of any district (other than a district wherein the system of rating on the unimproved value is in force) may from time to time by resolution determine whether the system of rating on the annual value or on the capital value shall be in force in the district. In the case of rating on the capital value the rating roll is based on the district valuation roll prepared by the Valuation Department. Where the rating is on the annual value the local authority generally prepares its valuation roll on the basis of valuations made by its own valuers. There is, however, provision that annual values may be prepared on the basis of the annual value being equal to £6 per cent. of the capital value and also that a rate of 1s. in the pound on the annual value is equivalent to 3/4 d. in the pound on the capital value. (See also the section on valuation of land, immediately following.)

Rating on Unimproved Value of Land.—The Rating on Unimproved Value Act, 1896, was passed to afford local authorities the opportunity of adopting the principle of rating expressed in the title of the measure. The Act is now incorporated in the Rating Act, 1925. It is entirely at the option of the ratepayers of local districts to adopt the system, and provision is made for a return to the old system of rating, if desired, after three years' experience of the new one. The poll is taken in the same manner as in the case of a loan poll required under the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926, as amended in 1951. Under the original Act it was necessary for a minimum number of one-third of the ratepayers to vote, and a majority of their votes carried the proposal. Now the question of adoption or otherwise is decided by a bare majority of the valid votes recorded, irrespective of the number of ratepayers who have voted.

A rescinding proposal can be carried at a poll by the same means as one for adoption, but not until after three years have elapsed; and, vice versa, rejection of a proposal bars its being brought forward for a similar period.

It should be noted that some local authorities automatically adopt rating on unimproved value. For example, a town district, borough, or another county formed from part of a county automatically rates on the system in force in the county at the time of the constitution of the new district; also two boroughs amalgamating adopt the system in force in the district with the greater population, unless their Councils agree to the contrary.

Distribution of Rating Systems in Force.—A table is given of rating systems in force during the financial year 1949–50, in those types of districts which have power to levy rates.

System of Rating.Total.
Unimproved Value.Capital Value.Annual Value.Acreage Basis.On Stork.

*Includes Chatham Islands County, for which import and export dues are charged in lieu of rates on land.

† Includes one various.

Counties6064   125*
Boroughs951821  134
Town districts22214  47
Road districts16   7
River districts69 7 22
Catchment districts 12   12
Land-drainage districts2916 1 46
Electric-power districts1429   43
Water-supply district 1   1
Urban drainage districts 2   3
Tramway district 1   1
Rabbit districts 1 1404145
      Totals227180261484586

The position in regard to the four major classes of local authorities at 1st April, 1950 (i.e., the beginning of the 1950–51 financial year), is set out in the following table.

Rating on Unimproved Value.Total for New Zealand.*Ratio of Unimproved Value to Total.
No.Population.No.Population.No.Population.

* Exclusive of migratory, &c., population.

† Includes the four counties (Eden, Taupo, Sounds, and Fiord) In which the Counties Act Is not wholly in force.

     Per Cent.Per Cent.
Counties (excluding all town districts)60328,280129671,45046.5148.89
Boroughs95825,8801341,209,30070.9068.29
Town districts (independent)1317,65402827,48046.4364.66
Town districts (dependent)93,690186,99050.0052.79
      Totals1771,175,4903091,915,22057.2861.38

For the purposes of the foregoing tables a district is deemed to rate on the unimproved value where the general rate is levied on an unimproved-value basis. In a number of instances, in particular of boroughs, certain of the subsidiary rates are levied on other systems.

TOWN-PLANNING.—The Town-planning Act, 1926, and its amendments provide for the making and enforcement of town, extra-urban, and regional planning schemes. Every town-planning scheme is required to have for its general purpose the development of the city or borough to which it relates (including the reconstruction of an area already built on) in such a way as to promote its healthfulness, amenity, convenience, and advancement. Extra-urban schemes have like objects in regard to their areas.

Regional planning schemes must be preceded by a comprehensive survey of the natural resources of the areas concerned, and of the present and potential uses and values of all lands in relation to public utilities or amenities. Regional schemes envisage the conservation and economic development of natural resources by classification of lands according to their best uses and by the co-ordination of all such public improvements, utilities, services, and amenities as are not limited to the territory of any one local authority.

The principal Act provided for a Director of Town-planning and a representative Town-planning Board, but the Government has since decided, instead of having a Director of Town-planning, to administer the Act through a town-planning section directly attached to the Government Department controlling town-planning—in this case the Ministry of Works. The Town-planning Board continues to operate. The Chairman of the Board, formerly the Minister of Internal Affairs, is the Minister of Works, the change having been effected by an amendment to the Act passed in 1948.

All cities or boroughs with a population of one thousand or over at the census of 1926, together with certain road districts, were required to prepare town-planning schemes and submit them to the Town-planning Board by the end of 1936. Other boroughs may be added by Order in Council, and smaller boroughs may submit schemes voluntarily. Provision is made for a combined scheme by two or more adjoining local authorities.

Counties, inclusive of smaller boroughs and of town districts, comprise rural areas for the purpose of extra-urban schemes. The authority responsible for the scheme is the County Council, or where more than one local authority is concerned a representative committee approved by the Board.

The Town-planning Amendment Act, 1948, provides that the Minister of Works may prepare and obtain approval for a town or extra-urban scheme in any case where a local authority under an obligation to prepare such a scheme fails to do so after being notified in writing, and also that a local authority may by agreement authorize the Minister to prepare and obtain approval for a scheme. In the former case the costs and expenses incurred by the Minister are recoverable from the local authority, or they may be deducted from any moneys payable from public funds to the local authority.

When a town or extra-urban scheme has been approved by the Board it is the duty of the local authorities having jurisdiction to enforce the requirements of the scheme in respect of all new works of any description. The provisions of a regional planning scheme are not obligatory, but are intended to serve as a guide to the local authorities within the region.

Under the town-planning legislation, betterment is defined as the increase in property values attributable to the approval or carrying-out of a town-planning scheme. It is provided that one-half of betterment increase in the value of rateable property constitutes a debt payable to the local authority by the owner of the land. Within prescribed limits, moneys from this source are to be applied, inter alia, to compensate persons whose lands are acquired for town- or extra-urban-planning schemes, or who are otherwise injuriously affected.

The 1948 Amendment Act provides that where a town-planning or extra-urban scheme has been approved by the Board the local authority may, with the prior approval of the Minister of Works, take, under the Public Works Act, 1928, any land in its district which, under the scheme, it considers necessary or expedient for the proper development or use of the land or for the provision or preservation of amenities. In such a case the local authority may raise a special loan for the purpose under the Local Bodies' Loans Act without the usual requirement of a poll of the ratepayers on the proposal.

HOUSING.—The Housing Surrey Act, 1935, was passed in October of that year, its purpose being to ascertain the extent to which the existing housing-accommodation in New Zealand fell short of reasonable requirements. The Act applied to every borough (or city) or town district whoso population was estimated by the Government Statistician to be not less than one thousand at 1st April, 1934, to two-suburban road districts, and to any other local authority prescribed by Order in Council. An analysis of the results of the survey carried out under the authority of the Act is contained in the 1946 and previous issues of the Year-Book.

Under section 28 of the State Advances Corporation Act, 1936, the Corporation is empowered to make loans to local authorities for the acquisition of land for the erection of workers' dwellings, or for any other purpose in relation to workers' dwellings. As part of the Government's housing plans, finance has been made available to local authorities at an interest-rate of 3 per cent. for the purpose of erecting municipally-owned workers' dwellings for letting at low rentals. Applications by local authorities for loans under this arrangement must be approved by the Local Government Loans Board and by the Minister of Finance.

By the Rural Housing Act, 1939, local authorities are empowered to advance moneys to a farmer for the purpose of enabling him to provide a dwelling for his own use or for the use of any farm worker who is principally employed by him, the money in the first place being supplied by the State Advances Corporation (refer p. 536 of this volume).

The Local Authorities (Temporary Housing) Emergency Regulations 1944 empower local authorities to establish and maintain transit housing centres for the purpose of providing temporary accommodation for persons who are awaiting the allocation of State rental houses or the provision of other housing accommodation.

Borough Councils are authorized under Part I of the Municipal Corporation Amendment Acts of 1948 and 1950 to provide loans for housing purposes up to a limit of £2,020: to subdivide for such purposes any land vested in a Council and not held by it in trust for any particular purpose other than housing; to sell or lease allotments for housing purposes; and to borrow money to meet, the cost of acquiring, subdividing, and developing the land and constructing streets.

RECEIPTS.—The sources from which the various classes of local authorities secure the moneys necessary to exercise their functions vary greatly, according to the nature of the statutory duties of the local authority concerned. Generally, however, receipts fall under one of four main classes, viz.: Rates; revenue from public utilities, licences, rents, &c., revenue receipts from the General Government; and receipts such as loan-money and special grants and subsidies from the Government which cannot properly be regarded as revenue.

The receipts of local authorities, divided into the various groups mentioned. are given for each of the last eleven years. As stated earlier, the figures quoted here and elsewhere in this section (unless specifically stated to this effect) do not cover the operations of Hospital Boards.

Year Ended 31st March,Revenue fromTotal Revenue.Receipts not Revenue.Total Receipts.
Rates.Public Utilities, Licences, Rents, &c.Government.
 ££££££
19407,289,24012,188,955480,57319,958,7686,772,32726,731,095
19417,344,05512,696,676447,54020,488,2714,651,63325,139,904
19427,441,70412,955,129444,23620,841,0693,175,46724,016,536
19437,764,67713,681,289401,53321,847,4992,640,25224,487,751
19447,823,73014,751,120393,62422,968,4742,053,62925,022,103
19457,895,87115,057,508415,01923,368,3982,086,27525,454,673
19468,633,32915,393,510450,29124,477,1302,743,83727,220,967
19479,541,13316,506,818512,02926,559,9803,737,37130,297,351
19489,806,85917,212,851611,21327,630,9234,408,01432,038,937
194910,797,08419,068,224679,98430,545,2925,458,23236,003,524
195011,643,64420,320,578753,02132,717,2437,358,41040,075,653

Local authorities received by way of rates in the financial year 1949-50 a total amount of £11,643,644, and the sum of £1,128,922 was raised by licences, making £12,772,566 altogether from taxation, which sum is equivalent to £6 15s. 9d. per head of the mean population (including Maoris).

During 1949–50 rates formed 35.6 per cent. of the revenue proper; public utilities, licences, rents, and other sources yielded 62.1 per cent.; and 2.3 per cent. came from the General Government.

Of the revenue proper of counties, which amounted to £4,733,626 in 1949–50, no less a sum than £3,290,038, or 69.5 per cent., was raised by way of rates. Town districts, road districts, river districts, catchment districts, laud-drainage districts, urban drainage districts, and the water-supply district also rely on taxation for the greater part of their income. In the case of boroughs, electric-power and transport districts, and Harbour Boards, on the other hand, rates supply a considerably smaller proportion of the total revenue. During 1949–50 this source of income accounted for 43.8 per cent. of the total revenue of boroughs, the corresponding proportions for Harbour Boards, electric-power districts, and urban transport districts being 11.5 per cent., 0.02 per cent., and 5.6 percent., respectively.

The next table shows the receipts for 1949–50 (classified as in the preceding table for each type of local authority).

Revenue fromReceipts not Revenue.Total Receipts.
Rates.Public Utilities, Licences, Rents, &c.Government.
 £££££
Counties3,290,0381,167,026276,5621,691,9126,425,538
Boroughs6,839,5998,481,200288,9822,706,20518,315,986
Town districts117,15464,5155,29344,163231,125
Road districts49,2647,6871,2417,13465,326
River districts70,82822,043 56,431149,302
Catchment districts181,86778,974 343,787604,628
Land-drainage districts80,7695,894 30,908117,571
Electric-power districts9335,632,250 1,201,2006,834,383
Water-supply district4,52093  4,613
Urban drainage districts391,23311,483 36,646439,362
Urban transport districts91,6621,548,957 650,9302,291,549
Railway district 27,558  27,558
Gas district 85,839 3,54989,388
Milk districts 23,819 2,21126,030
Nassella tussock districts 3,525 7,43410,959
Joint Transit Housing Committee 9,645 489,693
Rabbit districts192,184117,791172,325281,181763,481
Fire districts 474,2038,61861,859544,680
Harbour Boards333,5932,558,076 232,8123,124,481
      Totals11,643,64420,320,578753,0217,358,41040,075,653

Revenue proper in 1949–50 was £2,171,951 greater than in 1948–49, while receipts other than revenue increased to the extent of £1,900,178. Rates accounted for £846,560 of the revenue increase, public utilities, licences, rents, &c., for £1,252,354, and revenue from the General Government accounted for £73,037.

Of the total rates (£11,643,644) collected during 1949–50, general rates levied brought in £6,109,548 and other rates (including penalty on overdue rates) £5,534,096. Of the latter, £3,942,461 was received by boroughs and £1,226,095 by counties. The whole of the rates collected by Harbour Boards (£333,593) were classed as general rates.

It is of interest to note that for the year 1949–50 the total of all rates collected by counties was equal to £9.04 per £1,000 of rateable capital value (land and improvements). The corresponding figure for boroughs was £15.88, for independent town districts £13.02, and for dependent town districts £8.95 (excluding rates levied by County Councils).

Sections in successive Finance Acts from 1930 to 1936 authorized the remission or postponement in whole or in part of the 10-per-cent. penalty on unpaid rates. This authority then lapsed, but was reinstated on a permanent basis and made retrospective by the Statutes Amendment Act, 1938.

Public Utilities, Licences, Rents, &c.—As indicated earlier, rates are not the only form of local taxation. Local authorities derive a certain amount of revenue from publicans' licences, heavy-traffic foes, motor-drivers' licences, drivers' (other vehicles) licences, auctioneers' and hawkers' licences, building permits, dog-taxes, pound-taxes, &c. Sources of revenue not classed as taxation are rents, fines and penalties, sales of material, sales of light and power from gasworks and electric-supply works, tramway and omnibus receipts, interest on deposits, wharf dues, &c.

Of the total revenue of £8,481,200 accruing to boroughs under this head in 1949–50, £1,277,269 represented tramway and omnibus receipts, £2,956,549 sales of electric light and power, and £724,173 sales of gas. Comparable figures for 1948–49 were £7,953,451, £1,233,781, £2,801,761, and £678,153 respectively.

Receipts from General Government.—A statement of revenue receipts by local authorities from the General Government during the five financial years ended 31st March, 1950, is given in the next table.

Year Ended 31st March,
1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
 £££££
Rates on Crown lands6,1117,81511,32513,69433,287
One-third of receipts from land sold on deferred payment or hold on perpetual lease3,0731,9603,3353,1232,688
One-fourth of rents from small grazing-runs17216497813098
Timber and flax royalties17,43324,40931,11245,85634,326
Goldfields revenue and gold duty16,13915,83613,94213,84612,181
Subsidies on rates277,359276,809306,691375,745409,387
Motor-spirits tax115,892163,862202,775199,514227,360
Fees and fines4,92610,00112,21915,33018,306
Other revenue receipts9,18611,17328,83612,74615,388
      Totals, Revenue Account450,291512,029611,213679,984753,021
Loans from State Advances Corporation129,810261,658172,978520,947341,184
Loans from Treasury Department   56318,333
Loans from Ministry of Works   2,2565,236
Advances from Highways Votes3,1458,8276,11834,93122,941
Advances from Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council5,50042,17853,35058,19674,570
Grants for special works, &c.—     
From Labour and Employment Department89,95768,31863,53550,64054,748
From Highways Votes525,132703,159838,2541,036,9281,205,670
Other297,769364,105388,409570,613958,791
      Total receipts from Government1,501,6041,960,2742,133,8572,955,0583,434,494

EXPENDITURE.—The expenditure of local authorities during each of the last eleven years has been as follows

Year Ended Slat March,Works and Utilities (Construction and Maintenance).Hospital Hoard Levies.Administration.Interest on Loans and Overdraft.Other.Total Expenditure.
 ££££££
194017,413,2421,093,4791,350,0113,034,7532,817,71025,709,195
194116,120,898966,2211,371,4343,030,8023,237,27324,726,628
194215,114,2551,066,3831,439,9182,928,1723,523,36424,072,092
194313,802,8551,315,9971,385,2272,806,1463,918,19923,228,434
194414,222,5701,251,1831,404,1052,725,2834,198,05623,801,197
194515,428,5901,313,8441,560,7912,620,4064,300,01225,223,643
194617,516,4361,534,8191,676,5632,541,9294,084,88627,354,633
194720,319,3651,857,2731,844,1172,475,4573,982,96230,479,174
194822,550,6661,350,7112,066,0232,356,7954,133,13132,457,326
194925,614,1531,415,1352,314,5462,332,0334,128,01835,803,885
195029,084,1641,505,5762,411,6702,284,4474,360,85739,646,714

Included in the total of other payments for 1949–50 is an amount of £3,061,529 in respect of amortization of debt, which compares with the figure of £2,877,544 for the same purpose in 1948–49.

The main items of expenditure of the various classes of local authorities during 1949–50 is shown below.

Works and Utilities (Construction and Maintenance).Hospital Board Levies.Administration.Interest on Loans and Overdraft.Amortization of Debt.Total Expenditure.*

* Including other items.

 ££££££
Counties4,555,121694,892545,134216,676315,3156,375,698
Boroughs13,217,074789,072813,7271,048,3741,429,29617,963,593
Town districts147,44514,83727,20112,16119,704225,685
Road districts35,7866,7755,6912,5872,86955,539
River districts101,506 10,86810,66114,221139,118
Catchment districts402,995 76,50614,05726,286531,181
Land - drainage districts70,712 8,52611,66514,710106,382
Electric - power districts5,054,519 480,438439,508707,8226,939,006
Water - supply district2,525 6971717774,170
Urban drainage districts174,655 55,562103,65384,509422,045
Urban transport districts1,740,582 76,39261,58893,3492,177,012
Railway district22,097 4,0321,776 27,972
Gas district100,935 5,4389,32912,762128,975
Milk districts12,603 13,241  27,373
Nassella tussock districts7,417 7082 9,378
Joint Transit Housing Committee3,234 4424222,3696,467
Rabbit districts717,264 36,0181,873223759,793
Fire districts441,269 13,91817,24724,805517,762
Harbour Boards2,276,425 237,131332,697312,5123,229,565
      Totals29,084,1641,505,5762,411,6702,284,4473,061,52939,646,714

The table following gives, in respect of boroughs only, the expenditure on now works out of loan-money during the last eleven years, classified under various heads.

Year Ended 31st March,Roads, Streets, and Bridges.Drainage and Sewerage.Water-supply.Houses, Workers' Dwellings, &c.Parks, Gardens, Town Halls, Libraries, Art Galleries, and Flares of Public Recreation.Gasworks and Electrical Works.Other Public Works.Totals.
 ££££££££
1940148,191151,350142,910121,65973,49348,89355,950742,446
1941135,740103,297125,68717,97249,94482,97724,068539,685
194256,08349,003250,69812,8267,48438,42816,539431,061
194312,78914,066115,91332,2184,46723,2735,109207,825
194424,40423,018137,8914,3796,13518,92112,269227,017
194526,32435,816235,06421,03726,92154,75721,012420,931
194633,81017,744267,971126,65322,85282,32537,268588,623
194751,87231,905295,702317,80822,319115,11826,956861,680
194880,87476,713280,928205,50545,387110,763100,134900,304
1949191,602101,227349,66796,66197,078153,732116,0821,106,049
1950262,071158,406443,37876,12078,031322,126180,7791,520,911

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.—The assets and liabilities of local authorities at the end of the financial year 1949–50 were as shown in the table following.

Assets.Liabilities.
Cash Assets.Other Assets (as Estimated in Published Balance-sheets).Debentures and other Securities: Net Indebtedness.Inscribed Stock, i.e., Loans from Treasury under Local Bodies Acts.Other Liabilities (Bank Overdrafts, Temporary Loans, Outstanding Accounts, &c.).Total Net Liabilities.
 ££££££
Counties2,199,6244,289,2744,088,370129,090549,0424,766,502
Boroughs9,022,73945,871,35922,314,309116,2081,465,16323,895,680
Town districts137,574453,070256,527 24,989281,516
Road districts22,59748,43163,467 3,86267,329
River districts68,016172,113215,121 8,487223,608
Catchment districts259,820372,142374,310 44,661418,971
Land-drainage districts55,60253,868176,27814,0066,437196,721
Electric-power districts3,787,33323,944,01311,160,582 1,189,82012,350,402
Water-supply district2332,5103,658  3,658
Urban drainage districts260,6892,157,3131,893,145 8,7501,901,895
Urban transport districts934,0583,296,752910,980 130,2051,041,185
Railway district2,185236,111  45,14745,147
Gas district20,377342,536197,627 64,138261,765
Milk districts33,5307,156  4,3474,347
Nassella tussock districts5,4523,126  1818
Joint Transit Housing Committee3,30929,01325,733 38126,114
Rabbit districts244,613154,1238,264 80,09588,359
Fire districts175,1281,187,425373,779 41,255415,034
Harbour Boards2,737,270117,092,6116,332,987 343,7556,676,742
      Totals19,970,14999,712,94648,395,137259,30414,010,55252,664,993

The figures shown in the column “Other assets” are taken from the respective balance-sheets, but are far from complete, inasmuch as no valuations are made for certain items. This applies particularly to roads, which, although representing considerable wealth to the community, do not figure at all in the assets. In this connection it may be mentioned that the greater part of the expenditure of counties and road districts goes in this direction. In the case of boroughs, although the proportion is very much less, 13 per cent. of the loan-money expenditure during the last ten years was on roads, streets, and bridges. Assets of local authorities as returned for the last eleven years are as under.

As at 31st March,Cash Assets.Other Assets (estimated).
 ££
194010,679,40674,492,688
194111,119,95875,802,937
194211,324,47877,482,820
194313,718,19077,937,237
194415,627,86278,620,899
194517,202,78179,738,843
194617,936,37581,773,700
194718,183,14884,807,766
194817,481,78788,246,883
194919,153,95398,730,180
195019,970,14999,712,946

Cash assets are made up chiefly of loan balances, reserve investments, and cash in hand. Sinking funds, which amounted to £7,647,625 at 31st March, 1950, do not appear in the foregoing table, but are shown as a deduction from the gross loan indebtedness of local authorities. Other assets are comprised mainly of fixed assets and of stocks of stores and materials.

Boroughs are responsible for 46 per cent. of the total assets, electric-power districts for 23 per cent., and Harbour Boards for 17 per cent. Counties show the comparatively low percentage of 5, but this is due to the fact that practically the whole of county expenditure goes on roads, bridges, &c., for which no valuation is available.

Hospital Boards, which are not included in the foregoing figures, had assets (excluding outstanding fees and subsidies) amounting to £13,769,242 at 31st March, 1950, bringing the total (excluding sinking funds) for all local authorities to approximately £133,452,337.

INDEBTEDNESS.—Prior to 1935-36 it was customary to classify the local-authority debt into loans from the State Advances Corporation, loans from the Main Highways Account, inscribed debt—i.e., inscribed stock exchanged for debentures under the Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882—and non-governmental loans. The last-mentioned comprise by far the greater part of the debt, and consist mainly of debentures issued to the public. Owing, however, to the operation of the Local Authorities Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion Act, 1932–33, a considerable number of State Advances loans have lost their identity through being included in conversion schemes with non-governmental loans, so that it is no longer practicable to show them separately. Loans from the former Main Highways Account being comparatively insignificant in total, it was felt that no useful purpose was served by a separate classification. Commencing with 1935–36, therefore, the debt appears under two headings only: (1) Debentures and other securities, and (2) inscribed debt. The reason for retaining the identity of inscribed debt is that it is fundamentally different from Unusual type of loan. Originating in the early days of the present system of local government, it arose out of a recognition by the General Government that the primary functions of local authorities, such as roadmaking, were of national importance, and money was advanced on very favourable terms. The loans were for long terms at low interest-rates. with no provision for repayment, the position being that as soon as a local authority met its final instalment of interest the loan was extinguished. Loans of this nature are vastly different from what is usually connoted by the term.

The total gross debt of local authorities at 31st March, 1950, was £56,302,066, made up of: Debentures and other securities (including loans from the State Advances Corporation), £55,975,713; loans from Highways Votes, £67,049; and inscribed debt, £259,364. The net indebtedness (i.e., after deducting accumulated sinking funds from debentures and other securities, and making an actuarial estimate of the liability for inscribed debt on an assumed table-loan basis) was £48,407,363.

It is necessary to observe that figures of local-authority debt given herein are not quoted in uniform currency terms. Debt held in New Zealand (the great majority of the total) is expressed in New Zealand currency; that held in Australia is expressed in Australian currency; and that held in the United Kingdom is expressed in sterling. The total is ascertained by adding the three currencies together without conversion to a common basis. If the amount domiciled overseas is converted to New Zealand currency, the total gross debt at 31st March, 1950, at the then rates of exchange, was £(N.Z.)56,228,998.

After the passing of the Local Government Loans Board Act, 1926, borrowing was on a much lower scale than had been the case for some years previously. During the first four years of its operation (April, 1927, to March, 1931) the net increase in the debt aggregated £8,673,789, yearly average of £2,168,447, or less than half the average increase of the previous eight year. After 1930–31 there was an almost progressive decline for many years, the total decrease to the end of 1937-38 being £4,625,085. A sharp rise of £1,280,296 in 1939–40 was followed by a further decline of £13,184,904 during the next ten years—i.e., to 31st March, 1950. Part of the decrease following 1932–33 was due to conversion operations, in which accumulated sinking funds were utilized for repayment purposes, and it should be noted that in 1936 the whole of the debt of the Southland Electric-power Board (£1,638,134 gross, £1,237,307 net, at 31st March, 1936) was taken over by the General Government.

Reference to the next table will show that borrowing by local authorities was on a much heavier scale during the four years up to 1949–50 than for many years past, and the amount of outstanding debt may be expected to show an increase during the next few years. The low figures of the amounts sanctioned for new works during the period 1939–40 to 1945–46 may be ascribed to factors arising out of the war.

The following summary of the operations of the Local Government Loans Board during the last eleven years shows concisely the trend of local authority borrowing during that period. Hospital Boards are included in this instance.

Year.Total Applications.Sanctioned.
New Works.Redemption Loans.
 £££
1939–402,674,4501,701,460355,800
1940–415,336,6402,709,5051,602,670
1941–424,589,6531,898,0961,391,728
1942–433,336,7801,497,1201,121,000
1943–443,999,6651,349,3352,359,755
1944–453,242,3271,737,807698,120
1945–463,497,8202,643,935243,235
1946–479,843,5437,289,4361,106,430
1947–488,324,5796,022,0341,459,880
1948–498,934,7056,977,2891,542,177
1949–508,062,7586,602,220761,957

The outstanding loans of local authorities (other than Hospital Boards) at the end of each of the last eleven years are shown in the following table.

At 31st March,Debentures and other Securities.*Inscribed Debt.Total Debt.
Gross Debt.Net Debt (i.e., less accumulated Sinking Funds).Gross Debt.Present Indebtedness (actuarially computed).Gross Debt.Net Debt.

* Including loans from State Advances Corporation and from Highways Votes (formerly Main Highways Account).

 ££££££
194068,006,31958,041,7461,480,651314,61269,486,97058,356,358
194166,544,30757,631,5161,430,380268,72067,974,68757,900,236
194265,332,78556,555,4691,313,205223,63966,645,99056,779,108
194363,969,09655,148,5511,161,978180,35065,131,07455,328,901
194462,307,74353,394,194955,085143,20663,262,82853,537,400
194560,414,63851,354,680823,299112,38261,237,93751,467,062
194659,342,33250,029,520683,53285,62360,025,86450,115,143
194757,171,83248,954,703596,42763,42557,768,25949,018,128
194856,612,84548,295,879504,63043,38757,117,47548,339,266
194956,181,51648,171,038423,50826,83756,605,02448,197,875
195056,042,76248,395,137259,30412,22656,302,06648,407,363

In addition to the scheme of State advances, there exists a system whereby the State guarantee to the payment of interest and principal, in the event of default by the local authority, may be obtained by the borrowing authority. The amount outstanding in respect of local-authority loans guaranteed by the State has fallen to negligible proportions during recent years, being only £23,474 at 31st March, 1950. At 31st March, 1940, the amount of these guaranteed loans was £736,806, sinking funds in respect thereof totalling £463,335.

Of the total net indebtedness of £48,407,363 at the 31st March, 1950, boroughs were responsible for £22,320,036, which represents 4.6 per cent. of their rateable capital value. In the case of counties, which have a much less per caput expenditure on works, &c., the aggregate net indebtedness was £4,094,214 and the percentage of rateable capital value only 1.0.

The following table shows, per head of the population, the gross debt of local authorities and the annual charge thereon for the last eleven years.

As at 31st March,Population.Gross Debt.Annual Loan Charge.
Amount.Rate per Head.Amount.Rate per Head.
  ££s.d.££s.d.
19401,640,90169,486,970426114,726,0742177
19411,636,23067,974,6874110104,806,9019189
19421,634,33866,645,990401574,823,8472190
19431,634,09465,131,074391724,822,9752190
19441,643,90063,262,82838984,828,0292189
19451,679,97261,237,93736904,869,7492180
19461,756,75660,025,86434354,994,79221610
19471,789,47657,768,25932584,925,0342150
19481,828,02557,117,475314115,079,9942157
19491,864,56056,605,02430725,133,7222151
19501,902,88356,302,06629135,286,2292157

It should be noted that the debt of electric-power districts shown in the following table does not represent the complete local-authority debt on account of electric-power activities, since a considerable portion of the borough debt, and a small part of the county and town district debt also, was incurred for that purpose.

As at 31st March,Counties and Road Districts.Boroughs and Town DistrictsUrban Drainage Districts.Urban Transport Districts.Electric-power Districts.Harbour Boards.Other Districts.Totals.
 ££££££££
19407,156,11431,932,6002,750,2393,070,46513,114,6889,960,6391,502,22569,486,970
19417,095,90031,166,8012,751,3592,445,94513,106,7749,927,5781,480, 33067,974,687
19426,992,93030,722,0372,733,9172,397,45912,499,0469,796,6471,503,95466,645,990
19436,685,00029,811,3392,708,4182,232,18212,376,5589,790,6591,496,91865,131,074
19446,361,05029,060,0012,666,8792,160,04111,828,5089,700,9621,485,38763,262,828
19456,050,09928,334,8812,641,5851,757,78611,535,5229,496,7631,421,30161,237,937
19465,810,59227,896,9732,624,4581,720,62811,190,5369,365,1491,417,47860,025,864
19475,513,45027,270,5132,616,8831,659,28110,841,8138,406,3781,459,94157,768,259
19485,104,42726,985,3052,595,8521,593,23011,093,7228,234,1631,510,77657,117,475
19494,914,28326,405,0362,611,7311,534,12611,579,5138,046,4611,513,87456,605,024
19504,659,88826,482,2652,590,2741,199,64511,996,8327,785,2981,587,86456,302,066

The debt of rood districts at 31st March, 1950, which is included with that of counties. was £64,467; the town district debt at the same date was £290,823. The debt of “other districts” at 31st March, 1950, was mainly that of river districts (£241,086), catchment districts (£394,910), land-drainage districts (£243,461), gas district (£202,689), and fin-districts (£468,063).

Domicile of Debt.—A five-years summary of the domicile of loans outstanding, other than inscribed debt, is given hereunder.

At 31st March,Amount,Percentage of Total.
New Zealand.United Kingdom.Australia.New Zealand.United Kingdom.Australia.
 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
194651,253,2076,604,7251,484,40086.3711.132.50
194749,894,7245,990,3251,286,78387.2710.482.25
194849,386,7365,970,9001,255,20987.2310.552.22
194949,998,4285,481,000702,08888.999.761.25
195050,641,6195,035,800365,34390.368.990.65

During 1949–50 the amount domiciled in New Zealand increased by £643,191, while the amounts domiciled in Australia and the United Kingdom decreased by £445,200 and £336,745 respectively.

The alteration of the exchange rate effective from the 20th August, 1948, afforded an opportunity for some local bodies to effect worthwhile savings in debt charges by raising loans in New Zealand and applying the proceeds in the redemption of Australian-domiciled debt, upon which interest was being paid at a higher rate than that current in New Zealand.

Debt Charges.—Particulars of the annual loan charge of local authorities during each of the last eleven years are as follows.

At 31st March,On Debentures and other Securities.On Inscribed Debt.Total.
 £££
19404,674,02252,0524,726,074
19414,756,70150,2004,806,901
19424,777,85445,9934,823,847
19434,782,32440,6514,822,975
19444,794,67133,3584,828,029
19454,841,27928,4704,869,749
19464,970,90623,8864,994,792
19474,904,19120,8434,925,034
19485,062,36017,6345,079,994
19495,118,96914,7535,133,722
19505,277,0229,2075,286,229

Amortization charges are included in the above, the amount payable during 1930-51 on debt other than inscribed debt at 31st March, 1950, being £3,110,203. Interest charges payable during 1950–51 on the debt (other than inscribed debt) outstanding at 31st March, 1950, aggregated £2,166,819, payable according to countries of domicile, as follows: New Zealand, £1,898,867; Australia, £19,182 (on face value): United Kingdom. £248,770.

The loans outstanding, other than inscribed debt, at 31st March, 1950, are classified below according to domicile, and also according to rate of interest. Reference should be made to observations on page 658 in regard to the currencies in which local-authority debts are expressed.

Rate of Interest per Cent.Domiciled In New Zealand.Domiciled in United Kingdom.Domiciled In Australia.Totals.
 ££££
Free of interest49,892  49,892
2 1/427,100  27,100
2 1/237,300  37,300
2 3/435,100  35,100
32,463,766 9,9002,473,666
3 1/86,715,883  6,715,883
3 £9,512  9,512
3 1/48,635,747  8,635,747
3 5/162,123  2,123
3⅜1,015,598  1,015,598
3 7/1612,475  12,475
3 1/24,869,090  4,869,090
3 5/8302,577  302,577
3 7/1631,401  31,401
3 3/4916,810  916,810
3 7/8226,847  226,847
3 £345,931  345,931
4906,747  906,747
4 1/8300,742  300,742
4 1/422,974,803  22,974,803
4 2/5124,370  124,370
4 1/2213,4141,090,500 1,303,914
4 3/4231,561 15,000246,561
4 3/41,000  1,000
4 4/8182,192  182,192
51,9182,076,600 2,078,518
5 1/81,000  1,000
5 1/4 1,023,40051,5001,074,900
5 1/2720845,30036,740882,760
5 3/46,000 252,203258,203
      Totals50,641,6195,035,800365,34356,042,762

The average rates of interest work out as follows: New Zealand, 3.75 per cent.; United Kingdom, 5.03 per cent.; Australia, 5.53 per cent.; total, 3.88 per cent.

The interest-rates quoted are those applicable to the amount of debt outstanding. They have not been adjusted to the prices at which the respective loans were raised—e.g., where a loan was issued below par the rate of interest on the sum actually received (omitting the question of flotation expenses) would be higher than the rates quoted above.

Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion.—As part of a general policy of a reduction in interest-rates, the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, imposed, amongst other things, a stamp duty of 10 per cent. an interest derived from local-authority securities. The proceeds, less 5 per cent. as administrative charges, were paid to the respective local authorities. This duty was abolished by the Local Authorities Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion Act, 1932–33, which followed somewhat similar legislation dealing with the public debt. Interest-rates on local-authority securities in excess of 4 1/2 per cent. per annum were reduced by 20 per cent., or to a minimum of 4 1/2 per cent. Local authorities were also empowered to draw up individual conversion schemes at a lower and more uniform rate of interest. Dissentients to any such scheme were penalized by a reduction of 33 1/3 per cent. below the original rate.

The provisions of the Local Authorities Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion Act, 1932–33, ceased to operate on 31st December, 1935, at which date 90 per cent. of the debt convertible at the 31st March, 1933, had been converted; but provision was contained in section 20 of the Finance Act (No. 2), 1935, for voluntary conversion to be carried out under the provisions of the principal Act.

The Local Authorities Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion Amendment Act, 1934, limited future borrowings to an interest-rate not exceeding 3 1/2 per cent., with provision, however, for varying the rate by Order in Council under the Local Government Loans Board Act, 1926. In May, 1939, the maximum was raised to 4 1/4 per cent., but this has since been reduced and the present maximum rate is 3 1/4 per cent.

Loan Maturities.—The following table classifies loans outstanding at 31st March, 1950 (other than inscribed debt), according to years of maturity and countries of domicile.

Years of Maturity (Ended 31st December),New Zealand.United Kingdom.Australia.Total.
 ££££
Prior to and during 19501,764,772478,000252,242,797
1951–5512,137,352775,80056,88012,970,032
1956–6015,821,3773,080,00044,60018,945,977
1961–6511,231,063702,00029,83811,962,901
1966–705,502,043  5,502,043
1971–753,291,733 234,0003,525,733
1976–80749,628  749,628
1981–99143,651  143,651
      Totals50,641,6195,035,800365,34356,042,762

Table loans account for £17,874,293 of the above total, loans in which a number of debentures are redeemed each year for £23,696,768, and loans with one fixed maturity date for £14,471,701. In the case of table loans the year of maturity is taken as that in which the final instalment is payable. Practically the whole of the debt domiciled abroad is composed of loans with one fixed date of maturity.

EMPLOYMENT BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES.—Employment by local authorities comprises principally the construction and maintenance of roads and streets, and the operation and maintenance of public-utility industries (gas, electric supply, and tramways) and social services.

Particulars relating to wage-earning employees employed by the various classes of local authorities during the live-year period 1945–46 to 1949–50, are presented in the next table. The figures shown are averages of the numbers employed at 15th (or nearest representative day) of each month. The statistics do not cover Hospital Boards, Fire Boards, or Electric-power Boards. Employees of Electric-power Boards are included in the figures for manufacturing industries, published in the annual Statistical Report on Factory Production (their average number during 1949–50 was 1,848), while employees of Hospital Boards are shown in a subsequent table. There were 489 wage-earning employees of Fire Boards at 31st March, 1950.

Class of Local District.Number of Wage-earners (Average of Twelve Months Ended March)
1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
Counties3,4203,4963,5093,5023,458
Boroughs8,4408,9199,0179,0949,013
Town districts160143135126125
Road districts3940121316
River districts149132837982
Catchment districts638156240233
Land-drainage districts8481727764
Water-supply district17655
Urban drainage districts149163170183207
Urban transport districts1,7571,9592,0032,1172,083
Local railway district2019242219
Gas district6350453941
Milk districts    6
Nassella tussock districts   810
Rabbit districts3813894345691,042
Harbour Boards2,3102,3062,4802,6022,637
All districts16,97917,74218,14618,67619,041

The institutional staff of public hospitals and charitable institutions under the control of Hospital Boards was as follows for the five years ended 31st March, 1950.

Nature of Staff.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
Stipendiary medical660724751799886
Other professional and technical610655760951840
Nursing6,4136,6576,8857,3387,329
Indoor domestic4,0594,2704,4184,4846,517
Outdoor9149991,0451,083
Miscellaneous498537575631
      Totals13,15413,84214,43415,28615,572

There has been some increase in recent years in the visiting medical staff of Hospital Boards. The figures for the last available five years ended 31st March are as follows: 1946, 396; 1947, 466; 1948, 487; 1949, 537; and 1950, 543.

Chapter 28. SECTION 28—VALUATION OF LAND

Table of Contents

GENERAL.—The necessity for fixing equitable land values arises in many of the relations of the General Government and local governing authorities with the individual. En particular they are required in connection with the following:—

  1. The levying of land-tax.

  2. The apportionment of Hospital Hoards' and other similar rating levies over contributory local authorities.

  3. The levying of rates by local authorities.

  4. The advancing of money on mortgage by Government Departments and by trustees under the Trustee Act.

  5. The assessing of stamp, death, and gift duties.

  6. The fixing of prices payable by lessees to the Crown for acquiring the freehold of Crown lands.

  7. In assessing the compensation payable where land is taken under the Public Works Act. the Servicemen's Settlement. Act, and certain other statutes.

  8. In estimating the prices payable in alienations of Maori lands.

SYSTEM AND PROCEDURE.—Prior to 1896 the valuing of land was not conducted on a uniform basis. Each State Department and local authority employed as valuers such persons whom it thought fit, and estimates of values by different authorities varied considerably. To bring about some order the Government Valuation of Land Act, 1896, set up a separate Department of State charged with the duty of assessing the values of real estate for taxation and other purposes of the General Government and for local rating purposes. The present law relating to the valuation of land is contained in the Valuation of Land Act, 1925 (which consolidated previous legislation), as amended in 1926, 1927, 1933, 1940, 1945, 1946, 1948, and 1949, and in the Land Valuation Court Act, 1948.

The work of the Valuation Department is directed by the Valuer-General, the actual work of valuing being done by District Valuers and assistant valuers. The duty of a valuer is to examine each property and to estimate to the best of his ability (1) the unimproved value of the land contained therein, (2) the value of the buildings (if any) or other improvements (if any) upon such land, and (3) the capital value of the property.

Valuers are enjoined not to strain after high values, nor to accept special prices paid for land in exceptional circumstances, but to determine the value neither above nor below the fair selling value in view of the many and diverse purposes for which the values are used.

Generally, under the New Zealand law the increased value attaching to any piece of land which is due to the successful working of other lands in the district, or to State or local-body expenditure on public works, or to the general prosperity and development of the country, forms portion of the “unimproved value.”

“Improvements” on land are defined, with certain provisos, as any work done or materials used on or for the benefit of the land by any owner or occupier resulting in an increase in the value of the land.

The “capital value” is the sum of the “unimproved value” plus the value of “improvements.”

Notwithstanding the repeal of the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act. 1943, from the 1st November, 1950, the revaluations of county lands intended to come into force not later than the 31st March, 1951, were completed as if that Act had continued in force. Authority for this procedure was conferred by section 38 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1950.

THE VALUATION ROLL.—The Valuation of Land Act directs the preparation of a valuation roll for each district over which a local authority has rating jurisdiction, setting forth in respect of each separate property the following particulars:—

  1. The name of the owner of the land, and the nature of his estate or interest therein, together with the name of the beneficial owner in the ease of land held in trust:

  2. The name of the occupier within the meaning of the Rating Act:

  3. The situation, description, and area of the land:

  4. The nature and value of the improvements:

  5. The unimproved value of the land:

  6. The capital value of the land:

  7. Such other particulars as are prescribed.

Revision of Rolls.—District valuation rolls are revised by the Valuer-General at such dates as the Governor-General in Council from time to time directs. Previously there were no fixed periods between revisions. Since the necessity for revision depended upon the extent to which values had moved since the previous revision, the periods between revisions varied considerably between old-established and currently-developing districts. The considerable changes in land values over recent years have caused a wider realization of the need for up-to-date valuations, and it has now been provided that all revisions of district valuation rolls made after 31st March, 1947, must be again revised within five years unless the Governor-General in Council directs otherwise.

There is provision that in the revaluation of a borough rating on the unimproved value the Governor-General in Council may direct that the revision is to be confined either to the unimproved values only or to the value of improvements only, with consequent adjustments of the capital values.

Alterations During Currency of Rolls.—At any time between the revisions of district rolls the Valuer-General may readjust, correct, or bring up to date the entries therein in consequence of:—

  1. Any improvements being added to or removed from the land:

  2. Any change in the ownership or occupancy of the land:

  3. Any amended valuation being made on the requirement of the owner of the laud:

  4. Any land being omitted from the roll, or the name of the owner or the description or other particulars of the land being erroneously entered therein:

  5. Any subdivision of the land:

  6. Any lease or any other terminable charge or interest affecting the respective interests of the respective owners.

In now valuations as a consequence of (c) or (e) the aim is to preserve uniformity with the existing roll values of comparable parcels of land.

The Supplementary Roll.—There is in addition to the district valuation roll for each district, a supplementary roll for that district. The supplementary roll may be used for the same purposes as the district roll except that it may not be used for the assessment of land-tax or local rates. Generally, all special valuations of land made during the currency of a district roll for particular purposes—e.g., the granting of loans by Government Departments or trustees on the security of lands, the assessment of stamp, gift, and death duties—are entered on the supplementary roll, but not on the district roll. There is generally a right of objection to such special valuations procedurally similar to the objections discussed under the next heading.

Objections to Valuations.—When a district valuation roll is revised the Valuer-General addresses to each owner, and also to the owner concerned when any particular valuation in that roll is altered, a notice showing the now valuation and naming a date before which all objections (in writing) to the values must be lodged. In the case of a revision of a district roll the Valuer-General, any local authority, or any owner whose name appears on the roll, may object to any valuation thereon. Where a particular property only is revalued, only the owner has a right of objection.

The Valuer-General refers any objections to his District Valuers for reconsideration. He may then decide (1) of his own motion to refer the objection to the Land Valuation Court, (2) to alter the valuation to the extent claimed, (3) to alter the valuation to such extent as is agreed upon with the objector, or (4) decline to alter the valuation. If his decision is either (2), (3), or (4), he serves notice of it on the objector, and on the owner if other than the objector. Either of these may notify the Valuer-General within fourteen days that he desires the objection to be heard by the Land Valuation Court. If no such notice is received the Valuer-General's decision is deemed to be assented to, and the roll-is amended, if necessary, to give effect to his decision.

LAND VALUATION COURT.—The Land Valuation Court Act, 1948, established the Land Valuation Court, transferred to that Court the jurisdictions previously exercised by Assessment Courts under the Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1945, and abolished the latter Courts. Under the now legislation the Court consists of throe members appointed by the Governor-General in Council., one of whom is the Judge of the Court. In addition to its jurisdiction under the Valuation of Land Act, the Court hears claims for compensation under the Public Works Act, 1928, and determines values under the Servicemen's Settlement Act, 1950.

The Act also established Land Valuation Committees which, in the exercise of their powers and functions, are subject to the general jurisdiction of the Court. A local authority may appoint a person, other than a member or paid officer of a local authority, to be an additional member of the Land Valuation Committee exercising its functions in the district of that local authority. This provision is limited to cases where objections to valuations of property situated in that local authority's district are being heard.

The Valuer-General files with a Registrar of the Land Valuation Court a list of objections, including these which of his own motion ho has decided to refer to the Court and those which the objectors desire to be heard by the Court. Copies of the objections are filed with the list. The Registrar refers the objections to the appropriate district Land Valuation Committee for hearing, and the Committee embodies its determination in each case in a formal order which, after a lapse of fourteen days, is sealed by the Registrar and becomes an order of the Court. Within the period of fourteen days, however, either the Crown representative, or any one affected by the order, may appeal to the Land Valuation Court, or the Court of its own motion may amend the order. Except that the Judge of the Court may on the application of any party to proceedings, or of his own motion, state a case for the opinion of the Court of Appeal on a question of law, the decisions of the Land Valuation Court (either decisions of the Court itself or orders of the Committees scaled by the Registrar) are final.

In the case of an objection to a valuation being allowed, the new valuation dates back to the date at which the valuation objected to would have been effective had no objection been lodged.

If any owner who has objected to a valuation made at a revision of a district roll is not satisfied with the value of the land as fixed by the Land Valuation Court's order, he may, within fourteen days of the sealing of the order, give notice to the Valuer-General that he requires the capital value to be reduced to the value which he (the owner) considers to be the fair selling value as specified in his notice (but not loss than the aggregate amount owing on mortgages or other charges on the land), or the land to be acquired on behalf of Her Majesty, or sold, at that value. There is also provision that if the Valuer-General is of the opinion that the value has been fixed by the Court at less than the capital value, ho may within fourteen days after the sealing of the Court's order require the owner to consent to what ho (the Valuer-General) considers is the fair capital value, and, failing such consent being given within thirty days after notice is delivered, ho may, with the approval of the Governor-General in Council, acquire the property at that value on behalf of Her Majesty.

VALUATIONS IN RELATION TO RATING.—The district valuation roll so long as it continues in force is by law the roll from which the valuation roll of every local authority rating on the capital or on the unimproved value is framed.

Owing to the heavy decline in values during the early nineteen-thirties, and the impracticability of a universal revaluation, the provision enabling new valuations to be made was availed of by many owners with the object of reducing their rate payments. In order to maintain rating equity the Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1933, authorized local authorities to levy rates upon a proportionate part (not being under 75 per cent.) of values upon the roll. Where an individual owner had obtained a revaluation, the lower of either the new figure or the proportionate part of the previously existing figure was taken. Since 1945 the right of objection to such a new valuation is limited to the claim that uniformity has not been preserved with existing roll values of comparable parcels of land.

The Urban Farm Land Rating Act, 1932 (amended in 1933, 1935, and 1944), provides for rating relief for farm lands subject to rates levied by Borough (or City) Councils, Independent Town Boards, and certain Road Boards. The Act provides that these local authorities may assess valuations for rating purposes for such farm lands lower than the values for the same lauds appearing on the district valuation rolls. There are rights of objection to such valuations, either to a specially constituted Assessment Court where the valuations are to appear on a farm land roll, or to a Magistrate if special rateable values are being assessed for the ordinary rating roll. The values are generally revised at five-yearly intervals.

A heritage of the days of independent valuations by local authorities is the provision by which they can rate on the annual (rental) values of properties within their areas, these values being assessed by the local authorities' own valuers. The annual value is defined as the rent at which a property would lot from year to year reduced by 20 per cent. in the ease of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and by 10 per cent. in the case of land, but it may not be loss than 5 per cent. of the value of the fee-simple. A now valuation roll in this regard is prepared either annually or triennially.

CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF LAND.—General valuations of laud for the whole of New Zealand were made periodically up to the year 1897–98. Since that year no general valuations for the whole country have been made, but portions are revalued from time to time. As previously mentioned, however, it is now provided that every revision of a district valuation roll made after 31st March, 1947, shall be followed by a further revision within five years, unless such revision is postponed by Order in Council. The figures in the following table, showing valuations over a number of years, therefore represent general valuations up to 1897 only, while for subsequent years the figures include the latest valuation available of each division.

GROSS CAPITALAND UNIMPROVED VALUES

As at 31st March,Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
 ££
187899,566,67962,573,868
1882101,000,000 
1885113,270,649 
1888111,137,71475,497,379
1891122,225,02975,832,465
1897138,591,34784,401,244
1902154,816,13294,847,727
1905197,684,475122,937,126
1907236,644,536149,682,689
1909271,516,022172,759,948
1911293,117,065184,062,798
1913340,559,728212,963,468
1915371,076,683230,705,147
1916389,164,729241,322,255
1917405,466,071251,087,708
1918421,383,373260,921,812
1919445,533,445275,988,409
1920470,093,697290,880,264
1921518,584,318317,631,245
1922544,503,376329,174,337
1923553,403,794330,790,991
1924568,500,653333,869,581
1925587,349,575339,310,260
1926603,250,306341,047,952
1927618,264,093341,519,107
1928631,454,676335,217,075
1929655,906,887344,757,796
1930664,571,181338,887,411
1931667,911,212331,634,774
1932662,829,264321,798,700
1933653,707,517314,556,174
1934650,362,355309,770,390
1935637,604,203301,137,513
1936635,801,798295,695,574
1937632,229,720287,844,804
1938636,362,641282,326,015
1939652,898,894282,806,212
1940660,524,008278,880,855
1941673,118,250277,541,575
1942681,921,681276,884,859
1943684,180,966276,881,168
1944688,794,796277,038,582
1945697,365,953277,494,868
1946710,425,005279,214,040
1947746,412,38428,274,437
1948796,037,683291,617,238
1949889,268,331307,152,159
1950985,879,820324,465,347

The table shows a continuous decrease in land values from 1929 to 1943. Probably the lowest point in real values was reached about 1934, and the decreases shown after that year merely indicate that the now valuations being made were still at levels lower than the existing pre-depression figures. After 1943 land values were (stabilized through the operation of the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act, 1941, and the increases shown to 1950 mainly reflect the writing into new valuations, of increases which had occurred prior to 1943.

The fact that land valuations are not continuously up to date has the effect in the above table of delaying the appearance of other than the steepest movements and of reducing their apparent magnitudes. Consequently, the movements in the table cannot be regarded as indicative of the trends in land values at any given time. Rural land values are generally dependent on the prices received for our exports of primary products, and these prices are also the major influence affecting the country's economy and to some extent price levels generally. If it were not for the irregular periodicity of revisions of valuations, the movements in unimproved values in the preceding table could be expected to follow the trends of export prices shown in Section 37, though with less exaggerated movements and perhaps an upward bias due to improved efficiency in farming methods. growth of population, improved internal transport and other facilities, &c.

Capital values are influenced not only by the prices of primary products (in so far us they affect the unimproved value included in the capital value and indirectly by their effect on price levels generally), but also by the amount of activity in the building and construction industry.

The values shown in the foregoing table and in that following are the gross values; they include the value not only of rateable properties, but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt, from local rating.

GROSS VALUES

As at 31st March,Number.North Island.South Island.New Zealand.
Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Laud (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (Included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (Included in previous Column).
  ££££££
Counties
1946129225,338,40198,774,423115,188,41964,097,111340,526,820162,871,534
1917129234,652,422100,169,097117,908,08264,045,537352,560,504164,514,634
1948129247,745,879102,932,521123,192,81364,482,772370,938,692167,415,293
1949129274,237,441105,579,267127,359,70163,773,378401,597,145169,352,645
1950129303,181,716109,402,568138,793,19266,159,388441,974,903175,561,956
Boroughs
1946128251,669,26680,793,337110,146,76033,519,782361,815,026114,313,119
1947131272,886,96084,034,623113,596,80133,841,027386,483,761117,875,650
1948134297,233,26887,793,543120,586,03834,644,646417,819,306122,438,189
1949134346,941,20199,076,380132,119,85636,801,975479,061,057135,878,355
1950134379,021,605101,843,295154,936,33141,979,086533,957,938146,822,381
Independent Town Districts
1946346,829,6631,713,8161,252,496315,5718,082,1592,029,387
1947316,050,7471,565,9321,317,372318,2217,368,1191,884,153
1948295,753,0861,450,6851,526,599313,0717,279,6851,763,756
1949297,011,1001,605,2981,599,029315,3618,610,1291,921,159
1950297,880,1821,688,7502,066,794892,2609,946,9762,081,010
Grand Totals
1940 445,768,496179,372,355214,755,51299,508,500660,624,008278,880,855
1941 453,472,929178,916,147219,645,32198,625,428673,118,250277,541,575
1942 460,828,500179,174,197221,093,18197,710,662681,921,681276,884,859
1943 463,469,474179,191,184220,711,49297,689,984684,180,966276,881,168
1944 466,892,602179,335,535221,902,19497,703,047688,794,796277,038,582
1945 473,372,283179,701,239223,993,67097,793,629697,365,953277,494,868
1946 483,837,330181,281,576226,587,67597,932,464710,425,005279,214,040
1947 613,590,129186,069,652232,822,25598,204,785746,412,384284,274,437
1948 550,732,233192,176,749245,305,45099,440,489796,037,683291,617,238
1949 628,189,742206,260,945261,078,589100,891,214889,268,331307,152,159
1950 690,083,503215,934,613295,796,317108,530,734985,879,820324,465,347

RATEABLE VALUES.—The values quoted earlier in this section relate to gross values (i.e., the value of all property, whether exempt from local rating or not). The following summary indicates rateable values for counties, boroughs, and independent town districts as at 31st March, 1950.

North Island.South Island.New Zealand.
Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (Included In previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (Included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (Included in previous Column).
 ££££££
Counties271,843,989102,248,814127,674,94762,704,221399,518,936164,963,035
Boroughs340,963,26794,206,171140,115,74438,627,850481,079,011132,834,021
Town districts (independent)7,240,9011,547,8761,918,906366,9559,159,8071,914,831
      Totals620,048,157198,002,861269,709,597101,699,026889,757,754299,701,887

The next table shows the percentage distribution of area and population as at 1st April, 1950, and of rateable property values between the different typos of local authority districts as at the 31st March, 1950.

Local Authority District.Area.Population.Rateable Property Values.
Capital Value.Unimproved Value.Value of Improvements.

* Less than 0.05 per cent.

Percentage Distribution
Counties99.535.244.956.139.8
Boroughs0.563.454.144.359.0
Town districts (independent)0.0*1.41.00.61.2
      Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

It will be observed that there is a closer correlation between value of improvements and population distribution than in the case of unimproved values and population distribution, with capital values consequently taking up an intermediate position.

Particulars of values for each county, borough, and independent town district in considerable detail is contained in the Local Authorities Handbook, where similar data are also given for dependent (own districts and for road districts.

Chapter 29. SECTION 29—BANKING AND CURRENCY

Table of Contents

BANKING institutions operating in New Zealand may be enumerated as follows:—

  1. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand.

  2. Five trading banks.

  3. The Post Office Savings-bank.

  4. Five trustee savings-banks.

In addition, a number of trading companies, investment societies, &c., perform quasi-banking functions, accepting deposits and granting credits (short-term and long-term) to clients. In some instances deposits are repayable to the client's order at call—virtually a system of cheque-issuing.

Until the establishment of the Reserve Bank, which commented to function on 1st August, 1934, each of the six trading banks held the right of note-issue, but this right is now vested solely in the Reserve Bank.

A full description of banking practice in New Zealand is beyond the scope of a Year-Book section, but those desiring information on this subject may usefully refer to the report of the Parliamentary Monetary Committee, parliamentary paper B-3 (1934), and to its minutes of evidence, published as an appendix. For details of legislation governing banking a publication entitled “Banking Legislation in New Zealand,” published in 1948, may be obtained from the Reserve Bank of New Zealand. Wellington.

THE RESERVE BANK.—The Reserve Bank was constituted by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, 1933 (amended in minor respects by the Finance Act, 1934), with the primary object of exercising control, within defined limits, over monetary circulation and credit in New Zealand. As originally constituted, the Bank had a share capital of £500,000, composed of 100,000 publicly subscribed shares of £5, bearing a cumulative dividend of 5 per cent. Very important changes in the constitution of the Bank were made by the Reserve Bank Amendment Act, 1936, which, inter alia, abolished the subscribed share capital of the Bank, with provision for the repayment to shareholders (either in cash or in Government stock, at the option of the shareholder) of the value of shares held and accrued dividends. The General Reserve Fund of the Bank is maintained at £1,500,000, made up of a contribution of £1,000,000 by the Government at the passing of the original Act, and £500,000 to replace share capital after the passing of the 1936 Amendment Act. It will be seen that the whole of the reserve fund is now contributed by the State—the Bank being thus State-owned. Additional powers were conferred on the Reserve Bank by the Finance Act (No. 2), 1936, and further important changes were made by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Amendment Acts of 1939 and 1950.

The general function of the Bank, as defined in section 10 (1) of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Amendment Act, 1936, and as amended in 1950, is as follows: “It shall be the general function of the Reserve Bank, within the limits of its powers, to give effect as far as may be to the monetary policy of the Government as communicated to it from time to time by the Minister of Finance. For this purpose, and to the end that the economic and social welfare of New Zealand may be promoted and maintained, the Bank shall regulate and control credit and currency in New Zealand, the transfer of moneys to or from New Zealand, and the disposal of moneys that are derived from the sale of any New Zealand products and for the time being are hold overseas, and shall do all such things within the limits of its powers as it deems necessary or desirable to promote and safeguard a stable internal price-level and the highest degree of production, trade, and employment that can be achieved by monetary action.”

The provisions of section 10 (1) of the principal Act were amplified by section 2 of the amending Act of 1939, which read as follows: “In the exercise of their functions and powers under the principal Act, the Governor and Board of Directors shall have regard to any representations that may be made by the Minister of Finance in respect of any functions or business of the Reserve Bank, and shall give effect to any decision of the Government in relation thereto conveyed to the Governor in writing by the Minister of Finance.” This section was, however, repealed by the 1950 amendment, and the following section substituted: “In the exercise of their functions and powers under the principal Act, the Governor and the Board of Directors shall give effect to any resolution of the House of Representatives in respect of any functions or business of the Reserve Bank.”

The principal powers and functions of the Bank under the existing legislation are as follows:—

  1. Make and issue bank-notes (see heading in “Coinage and Currency,” post).

  2. Buy and sell gold and silver coin and bullion.

  3. Accept money on deposit or on current account.

  4. Discount, rediscount, buy, and sell: (a) bills, notes, &c., whether commercial or agricultural, maturing within one hundred and twenty days from date of document or ninety days after sight; (b) agricultural bills, notes, &c., maturing within six months of acquisition; (c) Treasury bills of any Government, or bills of any local authority in any British Commonwealth country, all such bills to be maturing within three months of acquisition.

  5. Grant advances, up to three months, against: (a) gold coin or bullion or relative shipping documents thereof; (b) Government, local authority, or other approved securities readily marketable in New Zealand; (c) bills, &c., as referred to above; (d) promissory notes of banks in New Zealand.

  6. Grant accommodation by way of overdraft (a) to the Government of New Zealand; (b) to any Department of State or statutory authority having power to carry on any business or to borrow moneys on overdraft; (c) to any Board or other authority having statutory powers in relation to the marketing of any New Zealand produce, for the purpose of financing and marketing of any such produce.

  7. Advance moneys to the Government of any other country in respect of the purchase of any New Zealand produce for export to that country, or guarantee any such advance that may be made by another bank. The amount outstanding in respect of any advances or guarantees in this respect shall not at any time exceed in the aggregate the sum of £10,000,000, and any loss suffered in respect of any such transaction is to be borne by the Consolidated Fund.

  8. Buy and sell securities of the New Zealand or United Kingdom Governments, or securities guaranteed by the Government of New Zealand or by the Government of the United Kingdom.

  9. Buy and sell currencies of other countries.

  10. By authority of the Governor-General in Council, underwrite any loan proposed to be raised by the New Zealand Government, or by the State Advances Corporation of New Zealand.

  11. Issue and manage loans for the Government or any local authority or public body in New Zealand.

  12. Borrow moneys outside New Zealand for any purpose connected with the issue, repayment, or conversion of any New Zealand Government securities.

  13. Keep a register of inscribed stock on behalf of a local authority or public body.

  14. Organize a clearing system.

  15. Act as a correspondent for overseas banks or as agent of other reserve banks.

  16. Do any other banking business not prohibited by the Act.

The following gives a summary of those restrictions upon the conduct business by the Bank as stated in the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, 1933, and in later amendments. It may not issue banknotes of a denomination less than ton shillings; engage in trade or otherwise have a direct interest in any commercial, industrial, or similar undertaking; purchase the shares of any other bank in New Zealand or elsewhere (except shares of the Bank of International Settlements) or grant loans on the security of any shares that the Bank is prohibited from purchasing; make unsecured loans or advances; purchase or make advances on the security of real property, except so far as may be required to enable the Bank to conduct its business; pay interest on any moneys deposited with the Reserve Bank by any other bank or pay interest on any other moneys placed on deposit or on current account with the Bank, except that it may pay interest to the New Zealand Government on Government funds held by the Bank outside New Zealand; allow the renewal of maturing bills of exchange, promissory notes, or other similar documents, purchased or discounted by or pledged to the Bank: draw or accept bills payable otherwise than on demand; and it may not grant accommodation to any state Department, local authority, or public body in excess of certain limits.

On the commencement of business on 1st August, 1934, the Public Account was transferred to the Reserve Bank, and the management of the public debt was taken over from the Treasury by the Reserve Bank as from the 1st October, 1936.

The net profits of the Bank are paid to the Consolidated Fund, provided that the Bank's General Reserve Fund is not less than £1,000,000. If the Reserve Fund falls below that level, part of the profits must be credited to the Reserve Fund. The net profits for the year ended 31st March, 1951, which were subsequently paid to the Consolidated Fund, amounted to £823,734, as compared with £774,833 for the previous year.

Any appreciation or depreciation of assets due to alteration in the exchange rate are to be credited to or borne by the Consolidated Fund. In accordance with this provision, the Reserve Bank was credited with the sum of £20,576,207 from the Consolidated Fund in early 1949 by the Government as a result of the alteration of the exchange rate to parity with sterling as from 20th August, 1948.

The provisions in regard to the maintenance of reserves wore amended by the 1950 amendment Act (see page 695).

Details of the liabilities and assets of the Bank at the end of June for the years 1947–51, and weekly averages for the calendar years 1941–51, are shown in the following tables.

LIABILITIESOF RESERVE BANK

Year.Capital and General Reserve Fund.Bank-notes.Other Demand Liabilities.Other Liabilities.Total Liabilities.
State.Banks.Other.

* On and after the 20th August, 1948, overseas assets and liabilities were converted into New Zealand currency at rate (Stg.) 100 = (N.Z.) 100.

 £££££££
Weekly Average for Calendar Year
19411,500,00022,045,9528,864,32411,955,995756,5031,121,87546,244,649
19421,500,00025,764,32212,091,83318,692,9221,412,1641,435,38860,896,629
19431,500,00032,586,60815,575,57136,704,0291,213,7581,763,47479,348,440
19441,500,00037,453,36713,234,44732,987,075916,3242,182,40888,273,621
19451,500,00041,122,77312,227,83043,971,5261,011,9492,561,206102,395,284
19461,500,00045,169,05017,302,43159,731,485523,8103,419,309127,641,085
19471,500,00047,682,43813,264,61557,102,327482,9363,110,632123,442,949
1948*1,500,00048,930,09713,227,57157,706,393380,4993,614,572125,359,132
19491,500,110051,311,53111,383,92973,837,108354,2833,868,401112,255,252
19601,500,00055,126,29015,445,85374,239,1491,231,7724,790,3111152,333,375
19511,500,00060,361,14518,843,65069,326,2744,928,7165,264,504160,224,289
At End of June
19471,500,00046,984,0069,710,48962,528,167356,4414,510,275125,589,378
19481,500,00047,790,75011,996,00762,125,037454,4363,341,089127,207,319
1949*1,500,00050,309,9387,5,88186,257,436605,7413,653,195149,868,191
19501,500,00054,147,57718,262,29476,879,1564,825,0374,534,109160,148,173
19511,500,00059,803,59711,589,09673,693,9814,792,3595,017,781156,396,814

ASSETSOF RESERVE BANK

Year.Reserve.Subsidiary Coin.Advances to State.Other Advances and Discounts.Investments.Other Assets.Total Assets.
Gold.Exchange.Marketing Organizations.Other Purposes.

*On and after the 20th August, 1948, overseas assets and liabilities were converted into New Zealand currency at rate £(Stg.)100 = £(N.Z.)100.

† Prior to 1950, the figures cover sterling exchange only: thereafter they include “other exchange” formerly shown under “other assets.”

 £££££££££
Weekly Average for Calendar Year
19412,801,87416,101,40763,4974,840,71817,057,21138,4623,795,2471,546,23316,244,649
19422,801,87822,468,31048,2266,787,03623,140,193 4,189,5861,461,40060,896,629
19432,801,87827,518,92045,8504,475,35432,786,808 8,964,9482,754,68279,348,440
19412,801,87833,719,80654,1952,760,05834,860,962 11,509,3202,567,40288,273,621
19452,801,87860,064,38229,2732,084,99424,162,642 11,797,1441,454,971102,395,284
19462,801,87881,332,47136,015961,24035,127,229 5,991,1981,396,054127,16,085
19472,801,87885,299,96246,6701,157,20328,510,4465,4584,575,7711,045,560123,442,948
1948*2,802,09565,090,053104,3721,698,05535,182,2072,437,04410,496,1177,549,189125,359,132
19493,222,77548,995,317193,1103,481,53037,628,0874,906,55441,855,3691,972,510142,255,252
19504,268,60051,575,759179,9235,095,79752,245,0565,378,21031,312,8742,277,156152,333,375
19515,138,61062,939,854472,6913,378,90751,133,7416,829,07927,107,125 160,224,289
At End of June
19472,801,87893,932,58947,491602,58923,577,677 3,868,093759,061125,589,378
19482,802,14779,521,722110,3531,838,09131,000,0003,202,6007,868,093864,313127,207,319
1949*3,359,31758,963,306208,1233,875,19129,522,2855,015,10048,094,301830,568149,868,191
19504,258,72658,651,639143,6175,093,54453,000,0005,433,45527,658,1425,909,050160,148,173
19515,156,81978,539,036485,6854,032,60850,000,0006,494,9197,974,2283,713,519156,398,814

TRADING BANKS.—The Banking Act, 1908, which consolidated the law of New Zealand relating to the general business of banking in this country, provides that the incorporation of banks by Royal Charter shall be as effectual within New Zealand as Acts of the General Assembly. The number of directors is prescribed by the Act, and authority is given to any bank to increase its capital on a resolution of the shareholders. Transfers of shares on which there is any liability must be approved by the directors or their duly appointed attorney or attorneys. A sworn copy of an entry in the books of a bank shall in all legal proceedings be evidence of such entry, and a bank is not required in any legal proceedings to which it is not a party to produce its books before a Court, unless ordered by a Judge for special cause. Provision is made for the destruction of cheques, drafts, bills of exchange, or promissory notes after, the expiration of ten years from the date thereof in the case of documents payable on demand or from the duo date in the case of other documents.

Part II of the Bills of Exchange Act, 1908, consolidated the law relating to cheques on a bank.

The provisions of sections 113–115 of the Companies Act, 1933 (relating to branch registers), apply to banks incorporated in New Zealand; and those of Part XIII (imposing restrictions on the sale of shares and debentures) apply to companies incorporated outside New Zealand for the purpose of carrying on banking in New Zealand or elsewhere; otherwise the Companies Act does not apply to banks.

With the establishment of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, which commenced to function on 1st August, 1934, there was inaugurated an entirely new era in banking practice in New Zealand. The function of note-issue was transferred from the trading banks to the Reserve Bank; while all gold coin or bullion hold by trading banks for their own account was required by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, 1933, to be transferred to the Reserve Bank in exchange for equivalent notes of the Reserve Bank or for credit with that Bank. The basis of payment was £3 17s. 10 1/2d. per ounce of standard—i.e., eleven-twelfths fine—gold content, which was the price at which such gold (in actual fact, coin only) had originally been acquired by the trading banks. Any profit derived from the sale of this gold overseas by the Reserve Bank accrues to the State and not to the Reserve Bank.

While the regulation of currency exchange is now a function of the Reserve Bank, commercial exchange transactions are still carried out through the medium of the trading banks.

Each trading bank is required to maintain with the Reserve Bank a balance of not less than 7 per cent. of its demand liabilities in New Zealand, and 3 per cent. of its time liabilities in New Zealand. These requirements may be varied by the Governor of the Reserve Bank, acting with the authority of the Minister of Finance, but not so as to be less than the percentages quoted above.

There are now five banks trading in New Zealand, two of these institutions—the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand—being incorporated by special Acts of the General Assembly of New Zealand. The other three banks, which are predominantly Australian institutions, have in the aggregate much greater capital resources, &c., than the two New Zealand banks. During the 1950–51 year amalgamation of two of the trading banks was effected. The close Australian affiliations of the Australian banks operating in New Zealand resulted in the past in an interlocking between the Australian and New Zealand financial structures, the separation of New Zealand business being one of the major motives leading up to the founding of the Reserve Bank.

Bank of New Zealand.—On the passing of the Bank of New Zealand Act, 1945, which came into operation on 1st November, 1945, the Bank of New Zealand became a State trading bank. Prior to the passing of the Act the Bank was partly State-owned, the New Zealand Government holding preference and certain long-term mortgage shares to the aggregate value of £2,109,375 out of a total paid-up capital of £6,328,125. The Act provided for the acquisition by the Crown of the whole of the remaining shares registered in New Zealand, and also made provision for the purchase by the Crown of shares registered in the United Kingdom or Australia.

The gross profit of the Bank for the year ended 31st March, 1951, was £2,575,680, while expenses amounted to £2,168,401, leaving a not profit of £407,279. Comparable figures for the previous year were £2,456,399, £2,052,739, and £403,660 respectively. The total assets at 31st March, 1951, amounted to £117,750,909, the principal items comprising this total being: coin, Reserve Bank notes, and deposits with bankers, £31,203,327; money at call and short notice, Government securities and other securities in London, £9,080,929; New Zealand Government securities, £6,866,382; and advances, &c., £51,866,549. The principal item of liabilities was deposits (£98,439,358), while bills payable, &c., amounted to £7,367,986. The reserve fund, which is invested in United Kingdom Government securities, amounted to £3,575,000, and provision for taxation to £680,000. The paid-up capital of the Bank remained unaltered at £6,328,125.

Liabilities and Assets of Trading Banks.—Statements of liabilities and assets of the trading banks were gazetted quarterly up to 1934. Since the Reserve Bank commenced operations the trading banks have been required to submit at monthly intervals a return of liabilities and assets in respect of New Zealand business. Monthly averages for calendar years, 1941–51, and figures as at the last Wednesday in June for the years 1947–51, are given in the next table.

LIABILITIESOF TRADING BANKS

Year.Demand Liabilities.Time Liabilities.Total Liabilities.
In New Zealand.Outside* New Zealand.In New Zealand.Outside* New Zealand.

*On and after 20th August, 1948, overseas liabilities were converted into New Zealand currency at rate £(Stg.)100 = £(N.Z.)100.

 £ (000)£ (000)£ (000)£ (000)£ (000)
Monthly Average for Calendar Year
194152,5201,66929,02925683,474
194263,56065528,59320393,011
194378,54949629,100121108,266
194488,64453930,481101119,765
194599,83669231,63488132,250
1946117,0711,33434,414100152,919
1947128,1154,87637,870317171,178
1948138,2116,94740,403295185,856
1949150,6997,05639,016439197,210
1950167,5267,03939,787428214,781
1951196,6637,67659,4052,378266,122
At End of June
1947131,7715,43837,18692174,487
1948137,9075,90041,646285185,738
1949153,6217,86138,666489200,637
1950165,4328,34440,194491214,462
1951211,8645,63857,4881,834276,825

ASSETSOF TRADING BANKS

Year.Coin and Bullion.Reserve Bank Notes.Balances held in Reserve Bank.Overseas Assets.*Securities Held.Advances and Discounts.Land, Buildings, &c.Total Assets.

*On and after 20th August, 1948, overseas assets were converted into New Zealand currency at rate £(Stg.)100 = £(N.Z.)100.

 £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000) £(000)
Monthly Average for Calendar Year
19417594,45312,46213,63321,02249,7011,932103,962
19426644,05119,08814,15928,10645,1291,961113,158
19436224,64527,65011,87337,67243,0211,931127,414
19447045,16533,51512,58638,56546,8061,921139,262
19456786,05845,66614,42731,80851,6181,928152,183
19467276,88060,18613,97628,46258,3421,857170,530
19479097,50057,63118,48823,03776,2472,118185,930
19481,4107,87259,53120,70618,89686,4702,180197,065
19491,5158,69775,90822,02114,67081,9812,278207,069
19501,6819,81375,18024,83013,40794,0652,557221,533
19511,52511,47670,27437,33013,243133,0793,085270,016
At End of June
19478907,14262,39117,95423,19173,9132,111187,592
19431,5157,25262,03022,35518,32786,8502,157200,486
19491,5578,04686,16121,97313,55480,0702,250213,611
19501,6949,13176,78727,44013,41891,5732,465222,508
19511,64911,36173,58146,96513,243132,7433,102282,646

Deposits and Advances.—The weekly averages of total deposits (together with the amount per head of mean population), and of total advances, and the ratio of advances to deposits for each of the last cloven calendar years, are given in the following table.

YearDeposits.Advances.
Not Bearing Interest (Free.)Bearing Interest (Fixed.)Ratio of Free to Fixed.Total.*Per Head of Mean Population.Total Amount.Ratio to Deposits.

*Including Government deposits. to its Long Term Mortgage Department.

† Exclusive of transfers by the Bank of New Zealand

 ££Per Cent.££s.d.£Per Cent.
194149,202,55930,747,779160.0280,720,1014991049,746,39761.63
194259,513,74430,320,628196.2890,880,3395510645,439,52050.00
194373,977,31931,152,857237.47106,323,897650143,249,58140.68
194483,680,12632,742,165255.57117,568,290710146,773,49839.78
194694,627,25234,197,628276.71130,137,939176151151,766,19539.78
1946111,289,14737,019,091300.63149,777,364852658,270,84338.90
1947122,068,10440,459,866301.70164,169,5209151076,475,73446.58
1948130,940,69242,690,257306.72175,668,6709515088,159,76450.19
1949142,597,89441,292,234345.34186,092,099998583,357,04244.79
1950157,571,26542,201,491373.38202,200,42310518394,715,11746.84
1951205,335,65342,500,225483.14250,722,6521281410132,916,94553.61

It will be observed that free deposits have shown a phenomenal increase over the period covered by the table, the difference in the average for 1951 as compared with 1941 being £156,133,094 or 317 per cent. Fixed deposits commenced to move slowly upwards in 1943, and this movement was maintained until 1948, since when they have been relatively stable. Advances reached a low point in 1943, after which there was an upward movement to 1948, an appreciable fall in 1949, followed by a sharp rise in 1950, with a much greater increase in 1951. The substantial excess of deposits over advances has resulted in the balances maintained by the trading banks with the Reserve Hank being greatly in excess of statutory requirements (see page 674). The average amount held during 1951 was £70,274,000, whereas the minimum requirements amounted to £15,549,000 only.

The following diagram illustrates the movements that have occurred in deposits and advances from 1930 onwards, the figures used, as in the foregoing table, being the weekly averages for calendar years.

The average amount on deposit during each of the quarter months since March, 1947, is shown in the next table.

Month.1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.
 £££££
March159,147,340175,225,327181,693,724200,731,186234,204,149
June167,044,348179,214,485189,566,588208,102,712266,551,791
September164,858,457173,980,340186,340,961196,349,451256,896,010
December166,421,470177,182,751189, 987,053213,099,894257,604,270

The average amount of advances outstanding (exclusive of transfers by the Bank of New Zealand to its Long Term Mortgage Department) during each of the quarter months since March, 1947, is next shown.

Month.1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.
 £££££
March71,907,99694,149,09088,945,51394,282,753133,079,705
June75,246,54289,330,02081,950,15491,637,951134,899,219
September79,189,87986,191,48181,085,84797,387,772132,776,112
December86,416,62982,929,49783,347,044109,892,879153,659,685

The following table shows the movement in advances, Government and other securities held, and deposits during the years 1941–51, she amounts Being the averages of the figures for the last. Monday of each month for the period 1941–46, and the last Wednesday of each month from 1947 onwards.

Year.Advances. (Including Discounts.)Securities Held.Total Advances and Securities.Total Deposits.Ratio of Advances (Plus Securities) to Total Deposits.
Government.Other.
 £££££Per Cent.
194149,701,24220,333,503688,86570,723,61081,269,15787.02
194245,129,21927,192,741913,45073,235,41091,705,84379.86
194343,020,53936,103,0481,569,00480,692,591107,151,32375.31
194446,805,74336,140,5652,424,29985,370,607118,484,54572.05
194551,617,72829,334,7212,473,17483,425,6231130,888,10963.74
194658,341,77226,168,2282,293,47686,803,476150,682,01457.61
194776,246,65820,913,0532,123,54999,283,260164,894,84060.21
194886,469,96016,953,4751,942,263105,365,698177,636,66059.32
194981,980,87412,856,2261,813,36396,650,4631188,385,16151.30
195094,065,05711,730,3021,676,714107,472,073205,295,05852.35
1951133,079,45911,716,0601,527,155146,322,674253,918,28057.63

The fall in the value of Government securities held by the trading banks in recent years reflects the policy of the Government, which has been to repay the trading banks' holdings of stocks as they mature and not to permit reinvestment of the proceeds in Government stocks.

An analysis of advances of the New Zealand trading banks at quarterly intervals is published by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, and the classification as at the last Wednesday in March for the years 1947–51 is given in the following table.

Advances toAt End of March,
1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.
Farmers—£ (000)£ (000)£ (000)£ (000)£ (000)
  Mainly dairy7,3097,2667,2106,7817,932
  Mainly wool6,8876,0765,7954,8835,397
  Mainly meat1,6371,3741,2031,1241,057
  Mainly agricultural616713680689805
  Mixed5,1784,6014,4243,8283,962
Industries allied to primary production—     
  Dairy companies, factories, &c.1,153846628497730
  Freezing-works, meat companies, &c.7,6947,4098,5849,41113,879
  Woollen-mills8661,4861,5271,4422,070
  Other3,7544,4906,4399,71615,509
  Other manufacturing and productive industries8,34714,18315,03714,77420,477
Merchants, wholesalers—     
  Mainly importers4,2627,9625,9257,57810,663
  Others1,4024,9242,1552,8293,129
  Retailers4,6459,5057,6598,25811,347
Transport—     
  Shipping50117181378622
  Other1,2001,6361,7131,7672,442
Local and municipal authorities, public-utility concerns6627229059891,566
Stock and station agents9726626446411,437
Hotels (public and private), restaurants, &c.2,1902,3672,2672,0822,570
Financial companies, societies, &c.1,1171,5411,7711,9252,454
Professional1,7131,9681,9992,0452,778
Private individuals7,6838,4588,3349,16314,563
Other3,3004,2143,6673,8505,342
      Total advances72,63792,52088,74594,649130,732

Advances Control Policy.—As part of the Government policy designed to combat inflationary tendencies during wartime, from 1943 onwards the trading banks were precluded from increasing their holdings of securities and existing holdings of Government stock were repaid as they matured. An earlier measure, from January, 1942, was the selective control of trading-bank advances by the Reserve Bank in co-operation with the trading banks. The general aim was to prevent the expansion of bank credit for speculative and other purposes considered inimical to the war effort. The necessity for such controls was also a feature of the immediate post-war years. The Reserve Bank issued statements in 1947 and 1948 outlining the existing policy in this respect, and indicating the inclusion in the restricted categories of advances for purely investment purposes, capital expenditure for business, industrial and commercial purposes, building, purchasing or refinance of dwellings, in addition to those speculative and other classes previously covered.

Marginal cases and others involving special circumstances were referred to the Reserve Bank, the trading banks from time to time being given more discretion in dealing with such cases.

In March, 1950, this discretion was extended so that marginal applications need only be referred to the Reserve Bank in cases where the term of the proposed advance exceeded two years and where the amount was also in excess of £2,000.

A major relaxation in the policy became effective from the 24th May, 1950. Advances for amounts up to £2,000 from each applicant were exempted from control while the discretionary limit was raised to an amount not greater than £4,000, the latter being in order to allow for the new situation in which the first £2,000 was freed from control.

The number of restricted classes has also been reduced. In 1947 temporary finance for one year for the building of dwellings, and again in August, 1949, advances to enable primary producers to purchase essential farm equipment and machinery up to the limit of £1,500, provided repayment was made within two years, were taken out of the restricted categories. As from the 24th May, 1950, advances for the following classes of purchase were excluded from control, irrespective of the amount concerned: (a) live-stock needed for primary production; (b) farm machinery, farm vehicles, and farm implements; and (c) tools of trade (exclusive of industrial machinery).

The Reserve Bank issued on the 17th December, 1951, a statement on advances control policy, the measures listed therein being designed to modify certain trends shown in aggregate bank advances and having some undesirable consequences—namely, (a) a high level of demand supported by bank credit was accentuating the tendency of prices to rise, (b) an abnormal volume of imports was being financed to a large extent by bank credit, (c) many business concerns were relying too much on their banks to provide working capital.

The measures contained in the statement include firstly, a request to trading banks: (a) to examine all accounts where trading limits exceeded £10,000, and where clients were relying too greatly on bank accommodation in proportion to their capital structure the necessary particulars were to be supplied to the Reserve Bank, which would take action, if required, after consideration of all relevant factors including the practicability of obtaining from non-banking sources finance on reasonable terms without undesirable economic or financial consequences; (b) applications for increased limits in the over £10,000 category were to be referred to the Reserve Bank where the trading banks considered the client was relying too greatly on bank accommodation; temporary increases where the excess was justified and which would be repaid within six months were left to the discretion of the trading banks. Secondly, except with the approval of the Reserve Bank in each case, increases would not be granted in any importer's current limit to enable the importer to buy overseas funds (discretion to grant temporary assistance limited to a maximum period of three months to cope with existing abnormal conditions was given to the trading banks). The third measure was to examine all existing advances to hire-purchase concerns (also advances to concerns which undertake hire purchase as a part of their main business) with a view to securing, wherever practicable, reductions in such advances or improvements to existing programmes of reduction. Finally, while limits exceeding £10,000 were under specific review, all trading-bank limits below this figure were to be watched closely, taking into consideration the relationship between overdraft and proprietors' funds; increases were to be avoided wherever possible and adherence was to be made to programmes of reduction.

Debits and Clearings.—The following table shows weekly averages of bank debits and clearings for each of the years 1941 to 1951.

Year.Debits other than Government.Government Debits.Clearings.
 £ (000)£ (000)£ (000)
194119,8442,59611,403
194220,0483,04812,165
194323,0083,60414,211
194424,5673,86015,205
194526,7914,27716,625
194631,9124,76419,388
194740,5474,92723,646
194843,0625,86225,251
194945,1616,32926,228
195056,2427,12033,829
195170,2348,49642,755

Debits represent the total amount debited to customers' accounts at all branches, and clearings show the total outward exchanges delivered at all branches. These figures, which have been compiled from the weekly returns furnished by the trading banks to the Government Statistician, give a reliable indication of changes in the volume of business. Following the depression “low” of 1932 there was a substantial recovery which continued until 1938, when a slight recession was recorded. The upward movement was resumed in 1939 and has since continued, the 1950 and 1951 increases being particularly sharp ones. The volume of ordinary debits increased by 25 per cent. in each of the last two years quoted, while clearings showed increases of 29 and 26 per cent. respectively. Government debits with trading banks fell to comparatively small proportions as a consequence of the opening of the Reserve Bank, but the upward movement in evidence since 1936 has been more marked over the last four years.

Averages of debits (other than Government) and of clearings for the four or live weeks ending on the last Wednesday of each of the quarter months from March, 1947, onwards are now given.

Month.1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.
 £££££
Debits, other than Government
March44,965,13150,681,40856,504,88064,796,60267,923,643
June39,005,99344,859,61844,197,84255,101,83669,359,131
September36,689,12641,622,50441,854,07850,180,42370,929,857
December48,292,53945,897,76648,242,36676,009,48175,562,122
Clearings
March28,587,47130,308,95434,659,91141,338,58948,080,537
June23,595,47627,344,14827,063,94934,658,70744,123,724
September21,397,76423,623,99023,736,60929,329,62341,911,876
December27,519,49726,356,21426,928,49845,303,01941,482,532

Unexercised Overdraft Authorities.—Particulars of aggregate unexercised overdraft authorities of trading banks are available from April, 1936. Following are the averages-for calendar years and the amount at the end of June for each of the years 1941–51.

Year.Average for Calendar Year.At End of June.
 ££
194132,319,79632,057,178
194234,394,49133,891,804
194335,847,50036,201,863
194437,120,06238,381,075
194540,273,68638,827,474
194645,040,51446,490,947
194746,669,29648,261,554
194850,649,89150,215,837
194957,686,12058,780,338
195064,177,79163,116,374
195172,229,73976,425,329

NOTES IN CIRCULATION.—As indicated elsewhere, the Reserve Bank assumed the note-issuing function on the 1st August, 1934. As from the 10th January, 1935, the notes of the trading banks ceased to be legal tender, while on 1st August, 1936, the liability for the remaining outstanding trading-bank notes was taken over by the Reserve Bank, thus completing the process of the transfer of the note-issue to the Reserve Bank. The following table shows the weekly-average note circulation for the calendar years 1941–51, and the position as at the last Wednesday in June for the years 1947–51.

Year.Total Note Issue.Notes Held by Trading Bunks.Net Note Circulation.
 £££
Average for Calendar Year
194122,045,9524,611,20117,434,751
194225,764,3214,267,62121,496,700
194332,586,6074,950,45727,636,150
194437,453,3675,351,39532,101,972
194541,122,7736,139,73234,983,041
194645,169,0506,970,70738,198,343
194747,682,4387,555,35640,127,082
194848,930,0978,133,75340,796,344
194951,311,5318,776,50142,535,030
195055,126,2909,898,34345,227,947
195160,361,14511,390,95048,970,195
At End of June
194746,984,0067,141,98139,842,025
194847,790,7507,251,37340,539,377
194950,309,9398,045,91442,264,025
195054,147,5779,130,68045,016,897
195159,803,59711,361,03248,442,565

The following diagram illustrates the expansion in the note issue since the year 1910.

The year 1935 witnessed the commencement of an almost continuous upward movement in the note circulation, due to more favourable economic conditions in association with such factors as the restoration of wage and salary cuts, higher wage-rates, greater activity on public works and housing, increased pensions, &c. Between the months of September, 1935, and September, 1939, the increase in the average note circulation was 98 per cent. Following the outbreak of war, the increase in the note circulation quickened, the expansion in 1942 and 1943 being particularly marked. The upward movement has since continued, but at a considerably lesser rate.

The following reasons have been given by the Reserve Bank for the increase in the net note circulation noted over recent years. The basic fact is the substantial increase in incomes and in the total volume of money (coin, notes, bank demand deposits), the proportion of notes to the total volume of money remaining at a level of approximately 20 per cent. Other reasons include a rise in the number of cash transactions and in price levels, an apparent fall in the velocity of circulation, expenditure of wartime accumulated savings and, with the greater availability of consumer goods, expenditure made more freely from current income.

The following table of index numbers published by the Reserve Bank illustrates the changes that have occurred in the active note circulation in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand for the calendar years 1948 to 1950, the base being August 1939 (= 100).

1943.1949.1950.
United Kingdom.*Canada.Australia.New Zealand.United Kingdom.*Canada.Australia.New Zealand.United Kingdom.*Canada.Australia.New Zealand.

*Notes and coin, excluding notes and coin held by Hank of England Reserve, London clearing banks, and Scottish and Northern Ireland banks.

† Chartered bank note circulation and Bank of Canada notes—average of daily figures.

January272486492346263513511350265514556382
February264487488342262510511344264512555375
March265494496342266519517346267517560372
April265497496343271529527357271521573382
May266500492343269523525355271517569380
June267501495342271524532356271517577380
July271509495342274526536357275524581382
August269510495345271522535360274523585382
September264522495343268531539360270529591381
October263535497345267537543369268535595385
November263531499345267531547372269537601385
December269534517358273536571392277546625406

An analysis of the net banknote circulation, as at the last Monday in June over the years 1941–46 and the last Wednesday in the same month for later years, is compiled by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, and the figures for the years 1941–51 are contained in the following table.

Last Balance Day in June.Reserve Bank Note Issue.Total Reserve Bank Issue in Circulation.Trading Banks' Notes Outstanding.Total Net Note Circulation.
10s.£1.£5.£10.£50.
 £ (000)£ (000)£ (000)£ (000)£ (000)£ (000)£ (000)£(000)
19417155,7178,5849491,45017,41539917,814
19427966,41010,5901,5421,74421,08238721,469
19439297,46614,1392,2932,31627,14338127,524
19449638,01017,2432,9792,75131,94637632,322
19451,0118,74019,3063,0612,00634,12437034,494
19461,1149,44321,6523,5101,75137,47036637,836
19471,1449,37322,5824,3452,03539,47936339,842
19481,1769,23623,0554,7491,96340,17936140,540
19491,2089,35324,1025,1372,10641,90635842,264
19501,2859,32825,8685,7732,40644,66035745,017
19511,2819,41227,8336,8652,69748,08835648,443

OVERSEAS ASSETS OF BANKS.—Under section 46 of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, 1933, the trading banks are required to supply returns to the Reserve Bank at monthly intervals, showing, inter alia, overseas assets held and liabilities incurred on account of New Zealand business. From these statements, published in the New Zealand Gazette, and the weekly gazetted statements of assets and liabilities of the Reserve Bank, the following table has been compiled. The figures for net overseas assets include, in addition to sterling exchange, the Reserve Bank holdings of foreign exchange and overseas investments, less its liabilities in other currencies.

Year.Trading Banks' Overseas Assets.Reserve Banks' Overseas Assets.Gross Overseas Assets.Overseas Liabilities ofNet Overseas Assets.
In London.Elsewhere.Sterling Exchange.Other Overseas Assets.Trading Banks.Reserve Banks.

* On and after the 20th August, 1948, overseas assets and liabilities were converted into New Zealand currency at rate £(Stg.)100 = £(N.Z.)100.

 £N.Z.(000)£N.Z.(000)£N.Z.(000)£N.Z.(000)£N.Z.(000)£N.Z.(000)£N.Z.(000)£N.Z.(000)
Monthly Average for Calendar Year
194111,0542,57915,8802,54032,0521,9261730,109
194211,3472,81222,9222,34739,4288584638,525
19439,9551,91827,6783,33342,8846179842,169
194410,6721,90633,8174,14250,53764012849,769
194512,4811,94661,7025,14781,2777807980,418
194611,6392,33783,2654,966102,2071,43552100,720
194713,9734,51685,0564,532108,0765,194248102,634
1948*17,6063,09964,1026,57891,3867,2426584,079
194918,0214,00048,7417,39778,1597,4954870,617
195020,5254,30451,2066,61382,6487,4684175,139
195132,0645,26661,53715,259114,12610,05450104,022
At End of June
194110,0222,87719,9672,69035,5571,7881333,755
194210,9922,56924,7232,03740,3209641439,343
19438,8192,34829,6853,76344,6146651843,931
19449,1632,23531,5974,87247,8676931,26445,910
194513,9101,92062,4175,68083,9276631983,246
194812,0411,57685,5205,584104,7211,46653103,203
194712,9225,03293,9334,316116,2035,5301,289109,384
194819,5932,76279,5224,340106,2176,18615100,017
1949*17,3124,66158,9637,44188,3778,3494179,987
195023,0144,42658,6529,79395,8858,8353387,016
195141,7745,19278,1205,820130,9057,473116123,316

Overseas assets declined heavily during the three years 1937–39, particularly after May, 1938, ascribable to three principal causes—(1) the repatriation of capital temporarily held in New Zealand, (2) over-importation, and (3) investment abroad of New Zealand capital. In December, 1938, the Government took action to check the fall in the sterling funds, and introduced import and export control and also the control of overseas remittances. These measures combined with the earlier crediting of the proceeds of the country's staple exports to the United Kingdom as a result of United Kingdom governmental purchases and other factors arising out of wartime agreements, brought about a marked improvement in the exchange position early in 1940. Although there were fluctuations from time to time, each subsequent year witnessed a further improvement in the general level until 1947 when the net amount was £102,634,000. Figures from 1948 to 1950 showed successive declines to an average of £75,139,000. The fall in these years was principally due to the financing of a greater volume of imports at higher prices, the repayment of debt domiciled overseas, and to the alteration in the exchange rate in 1948 mentioned elsewhere in this section. The 1951 totals showed a marked improvement and reflect the high prices ruling for primary produce, notably wool during the earlier part of the year.

The following diagram shows the movement in the net amount of overseas assets (revised series) from 1936 onwards. The low level to which they had fallen in 1938, the progressive accumulation up to 1947, the contraction during 1948–49, the recovery in 1950, and the strong upward movement during 1951, are strikingly illustrated.

OVERSEAS RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.—Since the institution of exchange control in New Zealand the Reserve Bank has been able to make a comprehensive statement of the foreign exchange transactions of the banking system for the period during which the control has been operating. A full classification of overseas receipts and payments for the calendar years 1950 and 1951, showing details for the sterling area, dollar area, and other countries separately in addition to the overall figures, is given below.

Item.1950.1951.
Sterling Area.Dollar Area.Other Countries.Total.Sterling Area.Dollar Area.Other Countries.Total.
Receipts £ N.Z.(000)
Current items—        
Exports—        
  Butter34,7152661,19636,17746,6561,2651,74249,663
  Cheese12,8421,56916314,57414,0221,43931015,771
  Meat31,15042231,19429,397805029,527
  Wool39,41316,71328,46384,58951,86626,07747,063125,007
  Other16,5938,5412,91928,05418,12310,9694,78733,879
      Totals, export receipts134,71327,13132,743194,588160,06539,83053,952253,847
Transport—        
  Freights100211131122971 300
  Fares2342 65    
  Other696887111,40610141,430
Insurance4131324581,08814121,114
Travel (excluding fares)1,11710391,2291,2779071,374
International investment income—        
  Interest and dividends9161319301,0681511,083
  Other investment income1,29583171,4051,3023371,375
Government receipts and expenditure by other Governments in New Zealand99842871,1292,322551192,496
Miscellaneous—        
  Commissions, royalties, and rebates749101138641,123136351,294
  Expenses of business firms1,85328371,918520496575
  Personal receipts, legacies, and immigrants' transfers4,657247814,9866,2323121866,729
  Other current transactions37955544037910210491
      Totals, current147,94028,08533,006209,033177,01040,71654,382272,109
Capital transfers—        
  Private2,8731153183,3063,441148413,630
  Government        
      Totals, capital2,8731153183,3063,441148413,630
Cook Islands exports11484 198136152 288
Unidentified889461051,04025578108
      Grand totals, receipts151,81728,33033,429213,576180,61241,02154,500276,134

Payments £ N.Z. (000)

Item.1950.1951.
Sterling Area.Dollar Area.Other Countries.Total.Sterling Area.Dollar Area.Other Countries.Total.

NOTE.—Minus sign (—) denotes a deficit.

Current Items—        
  Imports—        
  Licensed117,67417,3763,782138,83248,48927,5115,54681,545
  Decontrolled681 2683112,0869684,940117,993
  Government21,24361418122,03817,99475217018,916
  Other1,11626731,2151,516341491,699
      Totals, import payments140,71418,0164,038162,768180,08429,26510,805220,153
Transport—        
  Freights on exports43no 154565417127
  Fares446220 66680019491,003
  Ships' charter1,257 11,2581,676  1,676
  Other42216 438168  169
Insurance—        
  Insurance25971418010520 126
  lie-insurance366  36760412607
  Other4411624595002187608
Travel (excluding fares)5,336170585,5645,563216595,838
International investment income—        
  Interest and dividends1,903593142,5101,103698151,817
  Other investment income1,985158652,2083,499301623,868
  Government interest2,42644 2,4712,505  2,505
  Local authority interest273  2732421 244
Government expenditure overseas3,52540553,9353,736435444,215
Miscellaneous—        
  Commissions, royalties, and rebates8554141901,4609586152951,869
  expenses of business firms1,077233271,3261,249299231,571
  Film hire and entertainment18140665911654489622
  Religious and charitable401782491404766477
  Personal receipts, legacies, and immigrants' transfers5,0841811965,4613,9841982134,396
  Transfers by temporary residents7243247615793211621
  Other current transactions2721118301342249375
      Totals, current167,89121,0314,719193,641208,32332,82911,730252,883
Capital transfers—        
  Private4,345263434,7142,40247282,477
  Government    4,358  4,358
  Local authority6781 679304  304
      Totals, capital5,023273435,3937,06547287,139
Cook Islands imports6719 87478 55
Grand totals, payments172,98021,0795,063199,121215,43532,88411,758260,077
Surplus of receipts over payments-21,1637,25128,36614,455-34,8238,13742,74216,057

In order to assist in measures for strengthening the sterling area reserves and the balance of payments generally, the Government of New Zealand announced in March, 1952, certain decisions designed to ensure an increased surplus in New Zealand's overall balance of payments with non-sterling countries from an estimated £5 million for 1952 to £25 million on an annual basis (June year, 1952–53). Measures listed cover the cancellation of licences issued for imports from all “scheduled” countries (the United States of America, Canada, and Japan are the countries with which New Zealand is principally concerned), new licences being required for all future imports from these countries; the importation of motor-vehicles from all countries are to be brought under import-licensing control; there is to be no general imposition of import licensing in respect of sterling area countries: endeavours are being made to expand primary production for export by providing alternative sources of supplies of agricultural fertilizer on a larger scale; and the Murupara pulp and paper project for the production of newsprint and pulp for export is to be pressed forward.

From the 4th February, 1952, the sterling allowance to New Zealand citizens visiting the continent of Europe has been reduced from £100 to £50 for adults and from £70 to £35 for children.

The Reserve Bank has since announced a new measure to conserve overseas funds. Except with the approval of the Reserve Bank, trailing banks have been advised not to sell to any importer during 1952 more than 80 per cent. of the 1950 amount sold to him.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS-BANK.—The establishment of the Post Office Savings-bank was authorized by the Post Office Savings Banks Act, 1865, but actual business did not commence until 1st February, 1867. The present authority is contained in the Post and Telegraph Act, 1928. The minimum deposit receivable, except in certain specified cases, is 1s., and no interest is given on any sum of less than £1. The present rate of interest on so much of the deposit as does not exceed £500 is 2 1/2 per cent. per annum (from 1st June, 1942) and on so much as exceeds £500 and does not exceed £2,000 the rate is 2 per cent. No interest is payable to any depositor in respect of any amount of his deposit in excess of £2,000.

The Postmaster-General may pay deposits to a maximum of £200 to the legal representative of a deceased depositor without requiring him to take out letters of administration or to prove the will. This provision, together with another provision whereby a depositor may nominate one or more persons to receive part or all of the amount at credit after the depositor's death, enables a widow or orphan to obtain possession of perhaps much-needed funds without either delay or cost.

The number of post-offices open for the transaction of savings-bank business at 31st March, 1951, was 976.

The number of open accounts increased from 1,372,672 on the 31st March, 1950, to 1,407,241 on the 31st March, 1951. In the table now given covering the activities of the Post Office Savings-bank, the figures do not take into account the school savings-bank accounts, or national investment accounts which are referred to later.

Year Ended 31st March,Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits During Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals During Year.Excess of Deposits Over Withdrawals.Interest Credited.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.

* Includes balance of £11,447,754 to credit of War Gratuity Savings-bank accounts which matured on 31st March, 1949, and included with Post Office Savings-bank accounts as from that date.

† If the transactions in respect of the former war gratuity accounts be excluded, deposits for the year totalled £77,963,430, withdrawals £73,306,181, and the excess of deposits over withdrawals £4,657,249.

  £££££
1941992,79228,607,22125,319,1463,288,0751,666,71062,956,788
19421,039,78332,044,73425,376,7456,667,9891,820,60571,445,382
19431,086,99638,097,07026,889,33911,207,7311,816,82084,469,933
19441,128,93647,648,75435,580,16512,068,5892,075,67698,614,198
19451,161,88654,585,12042,158,65612,426,4642,451,628113,492,290
19461,203,18167,861,04255,626,41912,234,6232,787,413128,514,326
19471,239,94872,380,54362,747,0939,633,4503,094,491141,242,267
19481,277,26572,553,41468,660,4583,892,9563,307,081148,442,304
19491,311,29270,690,64067,722,7242,967,9163,438,790£154,849,010 *166,296,764
19501,372,67283,689,10982,824,706864,4033,821,285170,982,452
19511,407,24186,395,33185,190,0071,205,3243,915,006176,102,782

Under the War Service Gratuity Regulations 1945, war gratuity savings-bank accounts which matured on the 31st March, 1949, were deemed to be Post Office Savings-bank accounts on that date, and the total balance of the war gratuity accounts was amalgamated with the ordinary savings-bank figures as at the 31st March, 1949. The amount so transferred was £11,447,754, of which £7,654,908, at the option of the holders, was left in the savings-bank and £3,792,846 withdrawn. A total of £1,843,071 of the amount withdrawn was deposited in national savings investment accounts.

The withdrawal of the £3,792,846 from war gratuity savings-bank accounts after their amalgamation with the ordinary savings-bank figures had the effect of reducing the over-all excess of savings-bank deposits over withdrawals to £864,403.

The amount at the credit of depositors at the end of March, 1951, was £176,102,782, including £3,915,006 interest accruing to depositors for the year.

The average amount at credit of each depositor at the 31st March, 1950, and again at the 31st March, 1951, was £125. Although the total amount at credit of depositors at the end of the year increased by £5,120,330, there was a net increase of 34,569 in the number of accounts remaining open at the end of the year.

The securities standing in the name of the Postmaster-General on account of the Post Office Savings-bank Fund on the 31st March, 1951, represented a nominal value of £176,466,905. A summary of the investments is as follows:—

 £
New Zealand Government securities173,936,010
Local authority securities270,399
Securities held in London2,260,496
      Total£176,466,905

SCHOOL SAVINGS-BANK.—The school savings-bank scheme was introduced in 1934 with the object of encouraging thrift amongst young people. The aim of the scheme is to promote the habit of regular banking every week so that upon commencing work the depositor will transfer his account to the Post Office Savings-bank and continue his weekly bankings out of his wages or salary.

Each depositor has a pass-book, and the lodgment of deposits is made to teachers at the school, the cash and deposit slips being handed in later at the post-office. Separate accounts for each depositor are held at the savings-bank ledger office nearest to the school, and depositors may make withdrawals on demand. Interest is payable at the ordinary Post Office Savings-bank rates.

During the sixteen years of operation, depositors have banked £976,338 and received £51,663 in interest. During the calendar year 1950 there were 793,494 deposits totalling £142,314. Since the inception of the scheme more than 67,000 children have transferred their school savings-bank accounts to the Post Office Savings-bank to form the nucleus of adult savings accounts.

A table showing the transactions in school savings-bank accounts during the last eleven years is appended.

Year Ended 31st December,Number of Schools Operating at End of Year.Total Number of Deposit Transactions During Year.Total Amount of Deposits During Year.Total Number of Withdrawal Transactions During Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals During Year.*Excess of Deposits Over Withdrawals.Interest Credited.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.

*Includes amounts transferred to Post Office Savings-bank.

   £ ££££
1940934358,52036,68013,07527,1179,5631,81992,186
1041959341,41337,77712,53529,5948,1832,088102,457
1942978331,00342,66110,70329,69512,9662,431117,854
19431,003404,28161,36710,72339,10922,2582,982143,094
19441,045454,84571,50510,84646,44125,0643,622171,780
19451,089454,60274,8549,80951,59823,2564,237199,273
19461,133465,15079,20810,60156,33022,8784,769226,920
19471,170490,14182,05711,07265,50616,5515,396248,867
19431,193485,80684,32511,87671,78512,5405,804267,211
19491,402672,489122,17810,62094,10928,0696,682301,962
19501,300793,494142,31420,765100,12542,1897,594351,746

On the 31st March, 1951, there were 105,400 active depositors with balances totalling £339,430.

TRUSTEE SAVINGS-BANKS.—There are five trustee savings-banks—viz., Auckland, established in 1847; New Plymouth, 1850; Dunedin, 1864; Invercargill, 1864; and Hokitika, 1866. The total amount to the credit of depositors at the 31st March, 1951, was £36,892,641, representing an average account of £102 10s. 10d. Figures for the last eleven years are as follows.

Year Ended 81st March,Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits During Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals During Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Interest Credited.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.

NOTE.—This statement does not include national savings investment accounts.

  £££££
1941279,9848,218,8957,763,524455,371395,88814,758,593
1942285,5298,513,9647,570,149943,815427,55016,129,958
1943296,1409,127,0407,341,0431,785,997404,29418,320,249
1944307,22411,013,2588,863,7412,149,517443,98220,913,748
1945320,37211,228,4249,865,1831,363,241496,72122,773,710
1946329,34815,954,29612,054,0443,900,252580,10627,254,068
1947335,82117,306,05114,698,4462,607,605678,05130,539,724
1948343,14916,136,82215,622,395514,427723,79531,777,946
1949350,35315,994,13015,748,223245,907746,82432,770,677
1950354,87917,615,74616,234,2801,381,466790,83434,942,977
1951359,78020,720,02119,609,8421,110,179839,48536,892,641

The following table shows the results of the transactions of each of the trustee savings-banks during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1951.

Bank.Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits During Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals During Year.Excess of Deposits Over Withdrawals.Interest Credited.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.

* Excess of withdrawals over deposits.

 ££££££
Auckland241,83511,812,26311,224,830587,433528,48523,024,539
New Plymouth24,5781,346,9331,331,85515,07868,6492,909,424
Hokitika2,898136,075122,05914,0169,368408,781
Dunedin55,2952,563,6122,645,05881,446*135,6755,657,951
Invercargill35,1744,861,1384,286,040575,09897,3084,891,946
      Totals359,78020,720,02119,609,8421,110,179839,48536,892,641

Following is a summary of trustee savings-banks' assets at the 31st March, 1951.

Bank.Mortgages.New Zealand Government Securities.Local Authority Debentures.Cash in Hand and at Banks.Total (Including Other Assets).
 £££££
Auckland3,777,54721,219,6781,192,2521,723,77128,222,650
New Plymouth1,108,7522,528,466168,380354,5314,191,054
Hokitika245,659167,93716,35022,905458,067
Dunedin2,332,4594,494,840659,368265,6457,985,356
Invercargill856,7753,377,062627,445504,2085,410,874
  Totals8,321,19231,787,9832,663,7952,871,06046,268,001

The Trustee Savings-banks Act, 1948, consolidated all previous legislation dealing with trustee savings-banks.

NATIONAL SAVINGS.—The National Savings Act, 1940, made provision for the issue of savings bonds, in denominations of £1, £10, and £100, and the opening of special savings accounts with the Post Office and the Auckland, New Plymouth, Dunedin, and Invercargill trustee savings-banks. Investments are for a term of five years in the case of bonds, while moneys deposited in savings accounts are repayable according to the investment period, although the Act makes provision for the withdrawal of moneys before the due date of repayment on the grounds of hardship, emergency, &c. All amounts lodged prior to 30th June, 1943, were repayable on 30th June, 1945; amounts invested between 30th June, 1943, and 30th June, 1944, on 30th June, 1946; between 30th June, 1944, and 30th June, 1945, on 30th June, 1947, and so on. These investments bear interest at the rate of 3 per cent. per annum.

The following table gives particulars of deposits, withdrawals, &c., in regard to national savings accounts from the inception of the scheme to 31st March, 1951.

Year Ended 31st March,Deposits.Withdrawals.Interest to 30th June, Previous Year.Amount to Credit of Depositors.

* Six months only.

 ££££
1941*718,077460 717,617
19422,476,2079,44810,0633,194,439
19432,425,20425,25571,6755,666,063
19447,257,53863,815150,47513,010,261
19457,267,398178,445357,73320,456,947
19467,607,4131,706,754559,77526,917,381
19476,175,3682,306,164773,26031,559,845
19487,285,4233,680,450905,43936,070,257
19497,032,1193,943,0791,037,92140,197,218
195010,576,7074,281,5881,178,81047,671,147
19519,468,6015,311,3711,385,69953,214,076
      Totals68,290,05521,506,8296,430,850 

The next table gives particulars of national savings bonds sold and redeemed during the same period.

Year Ended 31st March,Value of Bonds Sold.Value of Bonds Redeemed.

* Six months only.

 ££
1941*611,709 
19422,786,299 
19431,356,301 
19443,121,859 
19452,609,105 
19461,313,723520,596
1947457,0412,089,396
1948492,6972,936,265
1949434,6873,169,870
1950457,7672,420,800
1951499,2221,643,899
      Totals14,140,41012,780,826

COMPANY, ETC., DEPOSITS.—Statistics of deposits with building and investment societies and trading companies were compiled from returns furnished to the Treasury up to the 31st March, 1947. A table showing the amounts held on deposit, classified according to the term of the deposit together with the average rates of interest thereon, as at the 31st March of each of the years 1938–47, is available on page 526 of the 1947–49 Year-Book. The requirement to furnish returns was abolished by the Finance Act, 1951.

SUMMARY OF BANK DEPOSITS.—In the preceding paragraphs statistics of deposits with various classes of banking institutions are shown. It is of interest to show the position in summary form in respect of all classes of deposits (other than Government deposits and trading-bank deposits with the Reserve Bank).

 As at 31st March, 1951.

*Includes £6,771,995 wool retention moneys.

† Includes £9,644,193 wool retention moneys.

 £
Deposits with Reserve Bank (excluding Government and trading-bank deposits)8,035,323*
Deposits with trading banks (excluding Government)237,424,189
Deposits with Post Office Savings-bank176,102,782
Deposits with school savings-banks339,430
Deposits with trustee savings-banks36,892,641
Deposits in national savings accounts53,214,076
      Total£512,008,441

The above deposits are bank deposits only. It should be noted also that other classes of deposits exist—e.g., the Common Fund of the Public Trust Office, deposits with building and investment societies, and with trading companies.

VOLUME OF MONEY IN CIRCULATION.—The following information, which has been published by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, sets out in detail the changes that have occurred in the amount of money in circulation in the form of coin, notes, and demand deposits of the Reserve Bank and of the trading banks. The first table shows the volume of such money as at the last balance day in January of each of the years 1944–52, the figures quoted being in £(N.Z.) millions.

1944.1945.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.1952.

* Government and other demand deposits at Reserve Bank, excluding trading banks' balances at Reserve Bank.

† Trading banks* total demand liabilities in New Zealand.

 £ (m)£ (m)£ (m)£ (m)£ (m)£ (m)£ (m)£ (m)£ (m)
Coin (estimated)2.42.62.93.03.33.13.33.53.6
Notes held by public31233.636.939.740.940.944.547.450.3
Demand deposits at—         
Reserve Bank*15.19.820.215.813.59.69.218.312.6
Trading banks88.593.6112.0126.1134.5147.4163.1194.7195.1
      Totals137.3139.7172.0184.6192.1201.0220.0263.9261.6
Change during year+ 22.2+ 2.4+32.4+ 12.6+ 7.5+ 8.9+ 19.0+ 43.8- 2.3

The cumulative effect of the changes in the volume of money during the last thirteen years is contained in the following summary.

1939–46 (Seven Years).1946–52 (Six Years).
 £(m)£(m)
Coin (estimated)+ 1.5+ 0.8
Notes held by public+ 26.0+ 13.3
Demand deposits at—Reserve Bank*+ 17.3- 7.7
Trading Banks+75.8+ 83.2
      Totals+ 120.6+ 89.6

The next table shows the causes of the changes in the volume of money that occurred during the period.

Cumulative Movement 1939–46 (Seven Years).Cumulative Movement 1946–52. (Six Years).Movement During Each of Last Three Years.
1949–50.1950–51.1951–52.

* As shown by changes in the Reserve Bank's sterling exchange plus overseas investments and trading banks' assets overseas in respect of New Zealand business, less overseas liabilities.

† Minus sign indicates shift from demand to time liabilities.

‡ Apart from the amount of £600,000 paid in cash by the Government to the Reserve Bank, the adjustments consequent on the exchange rate appreciation neither increased nor decreased the amount of money in circulation in New Zealand in the form of coin, notes, and bank demand deposits, and are therefore not included in the table.

 £ (m)£ (m)£ (m)£ (m)£ (m)
Overseas transactions*+ 82.8+ 7.0- 0.4+ 27.5- 12.5
Bank credit—     
Reserve Bank—     
Advances in New Zealand+ 23.2+ 17.9+ 11.6+ 2.1- 8.2
Investments in New Zealand+ 5.0- 5.8+12.0£- 9.0-12.0
Trading banks—     
Advances and discounts- 4.5+ 107.6- 1.5+ 34.0+ 46.6
Investments in New Zealand+ 19.8- 16.5- 2.8- 0.1- 0.2
Shift from time to demand liabilities of trading banks- 3.5- 6.0- 0.2- 0.8+ 0.4
Shift into wool retention accounts - 31.8 - 11.7- 20.1
Other items- 2.2+ 17.3+ 0.3+ 1.8+ 3.7
Change during period+ 120.6+ 89.6+ 19.0+ 43.8- 2.3

OVERDRAFT AND DISCOUNT RATES.—The trading banks' minimum overdraft rates and rates of discount, which had for many years been at 6 1/2 or 7 per cent., were reduced to 6 per cent. as from 1st September, 1932. This was followed by further reductions to 5 per cent. from 1st May, 1933, to 4 1/2 per cent. from 30th November, 1934, and to 4 per cent. from 1st August, 1941.

The Reserve Bank's minimum discount or rediscount rate for New Zealand bills was originally 4 per cent., but was reduced to 3 1/2 per cent. from 29th July, 1935, to 2 1/2 per cent. from 2nd March, 1936, and to 2 per cent. from 29th June, 1936. The rate was restored to the original 4 per cent. on 19th November, 1938, but was reduced to 3 per cent. from 6th September, 1939, to 2 per cent. from 27th May, 1940, and to 1 1/2 per cent. from 26th July, 1941.

DEPOSIT AND INTEREST RATES.—Trading Banks.—The following is a schedule (since June, 1912) of the rates paid by the Associated Banks in New Zealand for moneys lodged on fixed deposit.

Date Operative From,Three Months and Under Six Months.Six Months and Under Twelve Months.Twelve Months and Under Twenty-four Months.Twenty-four Months and Upwards.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1st June, 1912 23 1/24
20th January, 192133 1/244 1/2
20th June, 19213 1/23 3/444 1/2
11th December, 1926323 3/4444
9th May, 19273 3/444 1/25
9th July, 19283 3/43 3/4444
1st February, 19303 3/43 3/44 1/25
22nd April, 19303 3/444 1/25
1st August, 19313 1/23 3/444 1/4
1st June, 193233 1/43 1/24
2nd December, 19322 1/22 3/433 3/4
11th July, 193322 1/22 3/43
5th July, 19341 1/222 1/22 3/4
2nd November, 19341 1/41 3/42 1/424
18th September, 19403/41 1/42 1/42 1/2
17th July, 19413/41 1/41 3/42

Post Office Savings-bank.—Following is a statement of the interest rates payable in respect of Post Office Savings-bank deposits since 1914.

Date Operative From.Amount of Deposit.
£1-£300.£301-£500.£501-£1,000.£1,001-£2,000.£2,001-£5,000.

* Rate in existence on 1st January, 1914.

† See paragraph following.

 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1st January, 1914*544Nil.Nil.
1st January, 1921443 1/43 1/43 1/4
1st April, 1928443 1/431
1st August, 19313 3/43 3/43 1/43 1/2
1st April, 19333333
1st August, 19333332 3/4
1st August, 1934332 1/22 1/2
1st March, 1935332 1/22 1/2Nil.
1st August, 19413322Nil.
1st June, 19422 1/22 1/222Nil.

Prior to 1st January, 1914, the maximum deposit in the Post Office Savings-bank on which interest was payable was £600; but on that date the maximum was raised to £1,000. Between 1st January, 1921, and 1st April, 1928, interest was allowed on deposits up to a maximum of £5,000; but, as from the latter date, the maximum deposit on which any interest is payable has been £2,000. In respect of deposits lodged prior to 1st April, 1928, however, interest at 3 1/4 per cent. on the excess over £500 was still allowed up to a maximum deposit of £5,000. The rate on the amount between £500 and £5,000 was reduced to 3 per cent. from 1st April, 1933, on the amount exceeding £1,000 to 2 3/4 per cent. from 1st August, 1933, and on the excess over £500 to 2 1/2 per cent. from 1st August, 1934, and to 2 per cent. from 1st August, 1941. Since 1st March, 1935, interest has not been payable in respect of the excess above £2,000 in any account.

Trustee Savings-banks.—Under the provisions of the Savings-banks Act, 1908, which applied to trustee savings-banks only, these banks were required to pay interest at the rate of 5 per cent. on deposits of £1 and upwards, but not on fractions of £1 or on amounts of under £1. The maximum amount of deposits on which interest was to be paid was fixed at £100 for each depositor; but by the Finance Act, 1921–22, the maximum was raised to £200. It remained at this figure until 1st July, 1945, when it was raised to £500. The banks were empowered to reduce the rate of interest, with the consent of the Governor-General, after three months' notice given by an advertisement published in the Gazette. These provisions were continued by the Trustee Savings Banks Act, 1948, which repealed the Savings-banks Act, 1908.

In the National Expenditure Adjustment Act. 1932, provision was made for the fixation by the Governor-General in Council of the maximum rates of interest payable by trustees of savings-banks. Ruling rates immediately prior to July, 1932, varied between 4 per cent. and 4 1/2 per cent.; but, by Order in Council, the maximum interest payable was reduced to 3 3/4 per cent. as from 1st July, 1932, and to 3 per cent. as from 1st April, 1933. A further reduction to 2 1/2 per cent. was made as from 1st June, 1942. The 1948 legislation, which replaced the above authority, gave power to the Governor-General to fix from time to time the rates of interest to be paid on deposits, and also provided that different rates may be fixed with respect to different classes of deposits.

Company, &c., Deposits.—Authority was taken in the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, to fix by Order in Council the maximum rates of interest payable on deposits with stock and station agents, trading companies, and building and investment societies. Changes made in the maximum rates of interest since 1932 are given on page 529 of the 1947–49 Year-Book. The maximum rates from 1st July, 1946, for stock and station agencies and trading companies range from 1 1/2 per cent. at call and under three months to 3 per cent. for three years and over, and for building and investment societies from 1 per cent. at call and under three months to 2 3/4 per cent. for three years and over. For the savings department of the latter class, the rate is 21 per cent.

Other Deposit and Interest Rates.—It is of service at this stage to mention briefly the interest rates payable in respect of certain other classes of deposits. The highest rate of interest payable on moneys in the Common Fund of the Public Trust Office (see Section 47) was fixed at 3 per cent. from 1st August, 1949, previous reductions having been made from 5 1/4 per cent. in 1928 to 4 3/4 per cent. in 1931, to 4 per cent. in 1932, to 3 1/2 per cent. in 1933, and 3 1/4 per cent. in 1945.

Local authorities may also accept deposits (in practice, only for short periods). The present maximum rates of interest (as from 17th July, 1941) on such deposits, us fixed by Order in Council are: Call and under three months, 1 per cent.; three and under six months, 1 1/4 per cent.: six months and over, 1 1/2 per cent.

References to rates of interest on mortgages will be found in Section 33 (Mortgages), while interest on Government debt is referred to in Section 250 (State Indebtedness), and interest on local-authority debt in Section 27 (Local Government).

COINAGE AND CURRENCY.—New Zealand Coin.—Section 8 of the Finance Act., 1932–33 (No. 2), authorized the Minister of Finance to arrange with the Master of the Royal Mint (in England) for a special issue of silver and bronze coinage of distinctive design for use in New Zealand. Any coins minted in accordance with this arrangement would conform to the standard Mint requirements of weight, fineness, &c., and were given status as legal tender in New Zealand.

The Coinage Act, 1933, which came into operation on the 1st December, 1933, repealed section 8 of the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), and made necessary provisions in respect of silver and of bronze or cupro-nickel coins. The Act contains no provision for the issue of New Zealand gold coins. Section 5 (4) of the Act authorized Proclamations declaring that British coins (other than gold coins) should not be legal tender in New Zealand, and a Proclamation was issued declaring British silver coins not legal tender in New Zealand on and after the 1st February, 1935.

Arrangements were made under which the Royal Mint agreed to remint free of charge the Imperial and Australian silver coin circulating in New Zealand, replacing it with the New Zealand coin referred to above, and to allow the New Zealand Government the bullion value of the coin not used in making such replacement.

The profit accruing to the New Zealand Government from the recoinage on this basis arises from the fact that the Australian coinage and a proportion of the British coinage then in circulation in New Zealand contained a larger proportion of silver than the new coin, under the standard set out in the Schedule to the Coinage Act, 1933, which is also the standard governing the present production of Imperial silver coin. In addition, the Commonwealth Government agreed to the repatriation at face value of a proportion of Australian coin circulating in New Zealand.

Up to 31st March, 1951, New Zealand coins have been received from the Mint of a total face value of £7,253,280. Statistics of the face values of the various denominations of coin received to 31st March, 1951, and the value of New Zealand silver coin in circulation at 31st March, 1951, are as follows:—

 Total ReceivedIn Circulation.

* Not available.

 ££
Crown59,00549,702
Half-crown2,420,1001,003,712
Florin2,439,500954,792
Shilling840,000534,320
Sixpence594,500448,965
Threepence671,975552,605
Penny177,150*
Halfpenny51,050*

Expenses of the Silver and Bronze Coin Account totalled £613,995 for the year ended 31st March, 1951, at which date there was a credit balance of £3,834,485 in the account.

New Zealand silver coinage first came into circulation in 1933, and New Zealand bronze coins were first released for circulation in December, 1939.

Restrictions on Import and Export of Currency.—The Customs Import Prohibition Order now prohibits the importation of all coin (other than silver coin which is over one hundred years old) of whatever metal and wherever and whenever minted, and whether or not it is legal currency in New Zealand or elsewhere. Persons arriving in New Zealand are permitted to have with them on arrival silver coin not exceeding £2 in value. The importation of bank-notes of the Bank of England, and of bank-notes issued by banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland, is prohibited. Persons arriving either directly or indirectly from the United Kingdom are prohibited from bringing with them, in the same ship or aircraft in which they arrive, the following items: Gold bullion; money, including bank-notes and other currency (other than silver coin not exceeding £2 in value) and postal notes and money-orders of New Zealand or of any other country, and including also promissory notes and bills of exchange; securities for money, including bonds, debentures, debenture stock, and Treasury bills, and including scrip or certificates for and documents representing shares, debenture stock, and other stock, and also all other securities for money. The items enumerated are exclusive of promissory notes, cheques, drafts, and other bills of exchange, for sums expressed in sterling currency of the United Kingdom.

The Customs Export Prohibition Order prohibits the exportation of all coin (other than silver coin which is more than one hundred years old) of whatever metal and wherever and whenever minted and whether or not it is legal currency in New Zealand or elsewhere. Persons leaving New Zealand are permitted to take silver coin not exceeding £2; or, if the journey is by direct route (without transhipment) to Great Britain or Ireland, silver coin to the value of £5 may be taken. In addition to the above, the Finance Emergency Regulations 1940 prohibited the taking or sending of any money out of New Zealand except with the consent of the Minister or except in the case of certain transactions especially exempted.

In the cases of both the Export and the Import Prohibition Orders, power is vested in the Minister to authorize in writing the variation of the provisions mentioned. Prohibitions mentioned in both Orders have effect in addition to, and not in substitution for, any other prohibition in force relating or applicable to the importation or exportation of any of the items enumerated in the Orders or in any other enactment.

Legal Tender and Issue of Notes.—The Coinage Act, 1933, provides that a tender or payment of money, if made in New Zealand coins of current weight, shall be a legal tender to the following extent:—

  1. Gold, to any amount.

  2. Silver and cupro-nickel for amounts not exceeding £2.

  3. Bronze for amounts not exceeding 1s.

The position in respect of the bank-note issue in New Zealand was radically altered by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, 1933. Section 15 enacted that on and after a date fixed by Proclamation—the Proclamation was signed on the 26th January, 1934, and fixed the date as the 1st August, 1934—the Reserve Bank had the sole right to issue bank-notes in New Zealand; and thereupon the authority of every other bank to issue or re-issue bank-notes was terminated, and such banks were required to redeem their outstanding notes in Reserve Bank notes or subsidiary coin to the extent to which the latter was legal tender. On the 1st August, 1936, every other bank carrying on business in New Zealand was required to pay over to the Reserve Bank an amount equal to the value of its then outstanding notes issued or payable in New Zealand, and its liability in respect of such notes to the holders (approximately £350,000 in 1952) was assumed by the Reserve Bank. Bank-notes not presented for payment within forty years, commencing 1st April after date of issue in the case of Reserve Bank notes, or after assumption of liability (as above) in other cases, are deemed not to be in circulation, and an amount equal to the value thereof must be paid into the Consolidated Fund as if unclaimed moneys. The Unclaimed Moneys Act, 1908, provides for the payment to the rightful owner of any moneys paid into the Consolidated Fund under the provisions of the Act.

Reserve Bank notes are constituted legal tender up to any amount. There is a provision in the existing legislation which requires the Bunk, on presentation at its head office in Wellington of notes to any amount not less than £1,000, to give in exchange sterling for immediate delivery in London. This requirement may be suspended at the discretion of the Minister of Finance, and actually has been suspended since December, 1938. On similar presentation of gold or of sterling for immediate delivery in London, in either case to an amount of £1,000 or more, the Bunk must give its notes in exchange therefor. The rate of exchange for the above transactions is fixed by the Bank.

The principal Act required the Bank to maintain a minimum reserve of not less than 25 per cent. of the aggregate amount of its notes in circulation and other demand liabilities; but the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Amendment Act, 1939, empowered the Minister of Finance to vary or suspend this requirement. Both of these provisions were repealed by the Reserve Bank Amendment Act, 1950, and the following provision substituted: “It shall be the duty of the Bank to maintain reserves which, in the opinion of the Board of Directors, will provide a reasonable margin for contingencies, after taking into account prospective receipts and disbursements of overseas funds, and having regard to the economic position within New Zealand.” The definition of the term “reserve” has been amended and now includes—

  1. Gold coin and bullion in the unrestricted ownership of the Bank.

  2. Sterling exchange, comprising (1) deposits at the Bank of England, (2) British Treasury bills of not more than three months unexpired currency, (3) bills of exchange bearing at least two good signatures and of not more than three months unexpired currency.

  3. Net gold exchange, as defined in section 17 (c) of the Act of 1933.

  4. Other exchange—i.e., balances standing to the credit of the Bank at the central bank of any country the currency of which is freely convertible into sterling.

For the purpose of ascertaining the net reserve the amount of the Bank's liabilities in currencies other than New Zealand is deducted from the total of the “reserve.”

The gold coin and bullion holdings of the Reserve Bank are shown in the Bank's books at cost value to the bank. The amending legislation of 1939 permits the Minister of Finance to make a revaluation up to the market value of the fine gold contained in the reserve, the premium resulting from such revaluation to be credited to a special reserve to be held on behalf of the Crown. This special reserve is to be used in such manner as the Minister of Finance may from time to time determine; but up to the present no such revaluation has been made.

The Reserve Bank may not issue bank-notes of a less denomination than 10s., except with the authority of the Governor-General in Council. The present issue of notes consists of the following denominations: 10s., £1, £5, £10, and £50.

Notes are issued solely in response to the demands of the public. In assessing likely requirements, there are seasonal factors to be considered, as well as basic economic conditions, such as national income, the levels of salary and wages, changes in price-levels generally, and in the total volume of money. In addition, methods and frequency of payments affect the amount to be issued.

Currency other than Legal Tender.—Neither Australian nor other overseas paper-money circulates in New Zealand, presumably on account of the exchange fee charged by the banks on receiving it.

No consideration of the amount of credit currency in use at any moment can overlook the very large proportion of payments made by cheque, mainly upon the trading banks, but also upon trustee savings-banks and upon various stock-and. station agencies which act in this respect for their customers in the capacity of banker. Such cheques usually go direct from the payee to the collecting bank, but occasionally they pass from hand to hand.

Government postal notes (issued in thirty-nine denominations of from 1s. to £1) sometimes enjoy a certain length of life in the form of currency.

EXCHANGE-RATES.—Although the movement of gold, whether internally or externally, was unrestricted in years prior to the First World War, certain of the conditions usually considered essential in the full operation of the gold standard were never effective in New Zealand. More correctly, New Zealand was, and still is, upon a sterling-exchange standard. The explanation is that the New Zealand banking system is not self-contained, in that the banks normally hold a large amount of funds in London. In fact, these London balances are the real regulative factor and the key to the whole New-Zealand banking system. The inter-relation between these balances and import control and exchange control is of interest in this respect.

While New Zealand currency was at parity with sterling, except for minor fluctuations above or below parity, no necessity existed for distinction between sterling and New Zealand currency. The latter is entitled to be considered as one of the sterling currencies; but, adopting the convenience of a growing usage, sterling is used herein to refer solely to the currency of Great Britain.

The unusual significance of the exchange-rate in the case of New Zealand depends chiefly upon the country's position in regard to overseas trade and to overseas borrowings. The course of development of New Zealand has not reached a stage where the country is fully self-contained, and the external trade per caput is greater than that of almost all, if not all, other countries. Most of this external trade is with the United Kingdom. while the function of London as an international clearing-house is also of importance in this connection. New Zealand's borrowings from the London financial market have also, until comparatively recently, been upon a high scale, requiring, as noted elsewhere (see State and also Local Authority Indebtedness), heavy annual payments in London.

The regulation of currency exchange is a function of the Reserve Bank, as noted previously. The Finance Act, 1934, provides that any appreciation or depreciation of the assets of the Reserve Bank (expressed in the currency of New Zealand) due to any alteration that may subsequently be made in the exchange rate, while the value of the local currency is not fixed by statute in terms of sterling, shall be credited to or be borne by the Consolidated Fund. In this respect, as already noted, the Consolidated Fund bore those losses incurred as a result of the 1948 adjustment of the exchange rate.

New Zealand and Sterling Exchange.—The relationship of New Zealand currency to sterling has assumed added significance since December, 1929. Prior to that date the New Zealand currency was at virtual parity with British currency, only slight deviations occurring from time to time, but then commenced to depreciate gradually, reaching, in January of 1931, a level of approximately £110 New Zealand = £100 London for telegraphic transfers. At that level it remained fairly stationary until January, 1933, when as a result of Government intervention it was abruptly depreciated to a further degree. The relationship existing from 20th January, 1933, until the establishment of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand on the 1st August, 1934, was £125 (selling) and £124 10s. (buying) New Zealand = £100 London for telegraphic transfers.

From the 1st August, 1934, Reserve Bank quotations for £100 sterling for immediate delivery in London were: Buying rate, £124; selling rate, £125. It was intimated that the policy of the Bank would aim at retaining these rates unchanged for a long period unless there occurred marked changes in existing conditions. To assist in achieving this measure of stability, the Reserve Bank was prepared to enter into forward exchange contracts with the trading banks. While prepared to fulfil its statutory obligations, the Reserve Bank did not desire to compete for exchange business, provided adequate facilities wore available elsewhere.

Following the statement of the Reserve Bank's policy, the trading banks adopted as from the 1st August, 1934, a scale of rates representing a reduction of 10s. per £100 on the rates ruling from the 20th January, 1933, to the 31st July, 1934. The rates were slightly changed on the 21st October, 1938, and further changes were made in the selling rate as from 1st December, and in the buying rate as from 6th November, 1940. During the year 1945-46 the Reserve Dank agreed to certain alterations in the trading banks' on-demand and usance rates. The effect of this alteration was to bring into alignment the on-demand and telegraphic transfer rates. This was considered appropriate because of the inauguration of last air-mail facilities replacing, as from 31st July, 1945, the airgraph service previously used. The improvement in the mail-services and the consequent reduction in the transit-time between New Zealand and London enabled the trading banks to quote more favourable on-demand and usance buying rates to the public.

The position was very materially altered as from the 20th August, 1948, following on the announcement by the Government on the previous night of the appreciation of New Zealand currency to parity with sterling. The Reserve Dank quotations from 20th August, 1948, for £100 sterling for immediate delivery in London were: Buying rate, £100; selling rate, £101. Consequential adjustments to the scale of rates of trading banks in New Zealand were also made. The quotations current for New Zealand on London at end of February, 1952, are given in the following table.

Category.Baying (cm Basis 4 of £(Stg.)100).Selling (on Basis of £(Stg.)100).
Telegraphic transfers (cable)£(N.Z.)100 7s. 6d.(N.Z.)101.
Sterling notes£(N.Z.) 98 0s. 3d.£(N.Z.)101.
 Air Mail.Sea Mail.Air and Sea Mail
Bills, cheques, and drafts payable on demand£(N.Z.)100 0s. 6d.£(N.Z.)99 15s. 3d.£(N.Z.)101 0s. 0d.
Bills or drafts 3 days sight£(N.Z.)99 19s. 9d.£(N.Z.)99 14s. 6d.No quotation.
" 30 "£(N.Z.)99 15s. 0d.£(N.Z.)99 9s. 9d.£(N.Z.)100 19s. 3d.
" 60 "£(N.Z.)99 10s.9d.£(N.Z.)99 5s. 6d.£(N.Z.)100 18s. 6d.
" 90 "£(N.Z.)99 6s. 6d.£(N.Z.)99 1s. 3d.£(N.Z.)100 17s. 6d.
" 120 "£(N.Z.)99 2s. 3d.£(N.Z.)98 17s. 0d.No quotation.

On the occasion of the devaluation of sterling in terms of gold and the United States of America dollar in September, 1949, it was decided that New Zealand should maintain the value of its currency at parity with sterling.

As most of the export credits in normal times ate utilized for financing imports, it is advisable to note that the full exchange rate is not operative in respect of dutiable goods. This arises from the fact that, although Customs duties are assessed in sterling, payment of Customs duties is accepted in New Zealand currency without addition of exchange.

New Zealand and Exchange-Rates with Other Currencies.—The change in the sterling-dollar parity was followed by a change in the dollar value of a large number of currencies. Some countries maintained the sterling value of their currencies, others maintained the dollar value, and others again altered the exchange value of their currencies in relation to both sterling and the United States of America dollar. In the latter cases there was a consequent alteration in the rate at which New Zealand currency was exchangeable for the currency of the country concerned.

The following table shows recent exchange-rates (since the 17th December, 1951, the exchange-rates are free to fluctuate within certain limits) for telegraphic transfers quoted by the New Zealand trading banks for various currencies together with the rates ruling prior to devaluation.

New Zealand onPre-devaluation (i.e., Prior to September, 1949).As at the 29th February, 1952.
Buying.Selling.Buying.Selling.
United States of America (dollars per £(N.Z.))4.02953.96962.77762.7454
Canada (dollars per £(N.Z.))4.02953.96962.77762.7417
Franco (francs per £(N.Z.))1,105.271,078.61993.80966.25
Belgium (francs per £(N.Z.))177.94173.29141.81137.33
Switzerland (francs per £(N.Z.))17.3617.0112.2011.95
Pakistan (N.Z. pence per rupee)17.87518.37525.7526.39

The rates applicable for telegraphic transfer to Australia at February, 1952, were £(A)124 10s. 9d. buying and £(A)124 selling per £(NZ)100.

FINANCE EMERGENCY REGULATIONS AFFECTING BANKING AND CURRENCY.—The Finance Emergency Regulations 1940 (No. 2) of the 18th June, 1940, took the place of earlier regulations gazetted on the 10th April, 1940, but they are also more comprehensive. Amendments to the regulations were issued in 1940, 1945, 1946, 1947, 1948, and 1950. The regulations closely resembled similar legislation passed in the United Kingdom shortly before the New Zealand measures came into force. The regulations prohibited the export of money and securities from New Zealand except with the consent of the Minister of Finance, and required that foreign currency belonging to any New Zealand resident be offered for sale to the Reserve Bank of New Zealand. Since August, 1948, by the Gold Acquisition Notice, issued under the regulations, gold coin and bullion belonging to a New Zealand resident are to be offered for sale to the Reserve Bank.

Under the regulations owners of foreign securities were prohibited from dealing with their securities in any way and were obliged to register them with the Reserve Bank within a specified period. A Reserve Bank statement of the 30th July, 1940, somewhat eased these restrictions by permitting New Zealand residents to deal in overseas securities on the New Zealand register without the prior consent of the Reserve Bank, subject to the companies concerned agreeing to fulfil certain requirements as to returns, &c. As regards overseas securities held by New Zealand residents but registered outside New Zealand, the selling broker was required to obtain the prior consent of the Reserve Bank, Permission to deal in both these classes of overseas securities was subject to the further condition that a form recording the transaction was to be completed by both the selling broker and the buying broker and supplied to the Reserve Bank Sales of overseas securities to other than New Zealand residents required the special permission of the Reserve Bank, and in all such cases the proceeds received overseas were to be remitted to New Zealand. The change from one form of overseas investment to another in an Australian market was not permitted.

The regulations empowered the Minister to take over any overseas securities for the purpose of strengthening the financial position of New Zealand, at a price not less than the market value at the time of the transfer. The price payable for securities or currency acquired could be in cash, in New Zealand Government stock, or in a combination of both, according to the discretion of the Minister. For gold coin or bullion taken over, the vendor had the option of any of these methods of payment.

The regulations were considerably amended as from 9th March, 1950, and the present position may be summarized as follows. Every person ordinarily resident in New Zealand who holds or acquires any non-sterling currency or a right to receive non-sterling currency is required to offer it for sale to a bank in New Zealand. This rule applies to bank-notes or other currency, postal notes, promissory notes, and free bank deposits. Any such non-sterling currency not actually sold to a bank has to be reported to the Reserve Bank and offered for sale. Fixed deposits have to be reported to the Reserve Bank but not offered for sale. Any non-sterling currency or fixed deposit to which the regulations apply must not be disposed of (other than by way of repatriation through a New Zealand Bank) except with the permission of the Reserve Bank. Prior to 9th March, 1950, this provision applied also to sterling-area currencies. Now “invisible” receipts and private holdings of sterling-area currency are free from control.

The regulations also provide that non-sterling securities owned by persons ordinarily resident in New Zealand are to be declared to the Reserve Bank by their owners, and are not to be sold or transferred without the prior consent of the Reserve Bank. Prior to 9th March, 1950, this applied also to sterling-area securities, but these are now free from control.

It should be noted that the proceeds from the sale of exports under licence must still be sold to a bank in New Zealand. Information concerning import and export control is contained in Section 9A (page 226). It is also an offence to engage in transactions involving the conversion of New Zealand currency into the currency of any other country at other than the official rate of exchange.

Offers of sale of foreign currency and declarations of foreign securities which had been made to the Reserve Bank showed that at the 1st November, 1949, there was a total of privately held funds amounting to £(N.Z.)39,222,000, distributed as follows: United Kingdom, £(N.Z.)11,679,000; Australia, £(N.Z.)25,853,000; United States of America, £(N.Z.)446,000; Canada, £(N.Z.)476,000; and other countries, £(N.Z.)769,000. Listed securities at estimated market value accounted for £(N.Z.)32,821,000 and unlisted securities at face value for £(N.Z.)3,918,000 of the total amount. The figures quoted are exclusive of trading balances of £2,896,000 required for normal business purposes and £23,046,000 in securities held by banks, insurance and shipping companies, and other trading concerns, and regarded as essential for the purposes for which held, and sundry other small balances.

Further sections of the original regulations, although some do not directly affect banking and currency, empowered the Minister to require contributions to war loans; prohibited, without his consent, the formation of companies, building societies, &c., or the increase of capital of existing companies; regulated the issue of capital other than by a local authority; and empowered the Minister, as he deemed necessary in the public interest, to control advances for industrial purposes.

Amending regulations issued on 22nd May, 1946, provided that the consent of the Minister is not required for the formation of a company where the nominal capital does not exceed £10,000, or for an increase of capital of an existing company where the amount of the increase, together with the amounts of all other increases made within one year before that increase, does not exceed £10,000.

Chapter 30. SECTION 30—INSURANCE

30 A—LIFE ASSURANCE

THE statutory provisions affecting life assurance in New Zealand are in the main contained in the Life Insurance Act, 1908, and its amendments of 1920, 1921–22, and 1925; the Inalienable Life Annuities Act, 1910; and the Government Life-insurance Act, 1908, and its amendment of 1912. Any association other than a friendly society which issues policies or grants annuities on human life in New Zealand comes within the scope of the enactments. Every life company must deposit with the Public Trustee money or securities of the statutory character to the value of from £5,000 to £50,000, varying within these limits according to the total amount assured by policies current in its New Zealand business. The aggregate value of such deposits at 81st March, 1951, was £745,050.

In the case of composite offices, provision is made for the receipts of life and annuity business to be treated as a separate fund, and the Act safeguards the interest of the policyholder by making these funds available only for liabilities arising from such business.

The law bearing on industrial assurance received the attention of the Legislature in the Life Insurance Amendment Act, 1920. In this class of assurance the premiums are payable at shorter intervals than three months, and provision is made for its control by regulation. Companies are required to deposit with the Minister of Finance forms of policy tables, rates, and other documents, and policies must contain only such conditions as have been approved by the Governor-General in Council. Restrictions are placed on the forfeiture of policies in default of payments or other requirements.

Annual returns of life assurance are required to be deposited with the Minister of Finance, and it is from these returns that the statistical matter contained in this subsection has been compiled.

Fifteen life-assurance offices were operating in New Zealand during 1950. Of the fifteen, four only are purely New Zealand institutions—namely, the Government Life Insurance Office, the Provident Life Assurance Co., the Dominion Life Assurance Office of New Zealand, Ltd., the F.A.M.E. Insurance Co., Ltd.

The statistics here given relate exclusively to business transacted in New Zealand.

LIFE ASSURANCE.—ORDINARY AND INDUSTRIAL.—The progress of life assurance in New Zealand is illustrated by the following diagram, which shows the amount of new business transacted at intervals over a period of fifty years.

Eleven years' figures for new business, discontinuances, and amount in force for the combined departments (ordinary and industrial) are given in the table following.

Year.Policies Issued.Policies Discontinued.Policies Existing at End of Year.
194015,841,0708,752,438177,503,855
194117,753,9118,052,712187,206,560
194214,587,9518,035,532193,758,979
194317,574,0596,779,764204,192,428
194422,115,9997,284,723219,023,704
194527,870,4688,298,596238,595,576
194637,085,4959,828,464265,852,607
194741,368,21810,897,884296,322,941
194842,022,87213,405,210324,940,603
194943,242,85614,730,369353,453,090
195049,342,77315,573,344387,216,172

During the ten years covered by the table the amount in force has increased by £209,712,317 or 118 per cent.

War conditions generally, including smaller numbers of the companies' field representatives and the transfer of large numbers of men of the predominantly insurable ages to the Armed Forces, were evidently the major factors determining the lower levels of new business during 1940–43. Subsequently, the return of men to civilian life and the increases in private incomes created a situation favourable to a large expansion in the amount of new business. Although the amount underwritten in 1943 was below the level of pre-war years, it was substantially above the 1942 figure. Each succeeding year has produced a considerable increase, so much so that fresh records were created in each year from 1945 onwards. The 1948 and 1949 increases were comparatively small ones, and it appeared that the immediate post-war boom in new insurances ended in 1947. The 1950 increase, however, amounted to over £6,000,000, and ranks second only to 1946 when an increase of £9,200,000 was recorded.

As the total discontinuances include surrenders and lapses, the general tendency is for discontinuances to follow the same trend as new business, although there is naturally a time lag of, normally, about two years. Therefore discontinuances declined each year from the peak of 1938 (this year was affected by an abnormally large number of maturities) until 1943. An upward movement commenced in 1944, and this has continued in subsequent years, although the increase has been relatively slight when the record figures of new business are taken into account.

Ordinary Life Assurance.—A table showing the progress of business over a period of eleven years is given below.

Year.Policies Issued.Policies Discontinued.Policies Existing at End of Year.
Number.Sum Assured.Annual PremiumsNumberSum Assured.Annual PremiumsNumberSum Assured.Annual Premiums
  ££ ££ ££
194031,00313,043,641391,84919,5656,901,236239,399404,007154,882,1944,756,400
194133,22814,869,366464,63416,9196,279,161215,145420,332163,473,9055,005,632
194224,88612,143,512387,53616,2366,378,095215,214428,982169,239,3225,177,954
194328,62915,018,060518,93514,2305,469,650179,622443,381178,426,8865,517,267
194435,33519,252,364655,42414,8095,813,624205,979463,907191,865,6265,966,713
194544,21524,877,652823,51215,6756,671,405244,020492,447210,071,8736,546,205
194657,72433,383,5781,088,16816,9278,006,535287,942533,244235,448,9167,346,430
194760,81037,517,1151,237,24718,3938,978,114326,449575,661263,987,9178,257,228
194860,51638,472,0561,230,16821,03711,111,245395,311615,140291,348,7289,092,085
194958,68739,935,8551,290,33322,75512,337,166441,251651,072318,947,4179,941,343
195060,74246,093,2481,464,37923,36813,362,093469,780690,482351,672,22610,935,757

The amount of new business transacted fell away considerably following the outbreak of war, the absence overseas with the Armed Forces of largo numbers of men of the predominantly insurable ages being a potent factor.

Between 1943 and 1947 a substantial increase was recorded in each succeeding year, reflecting, no doubt, the return to civilian life of servicemen, and the reviewing of insurance cover to meet changing money values. The greatest increase was recorded in 1946, the amount underwritten in that year being £8,500,000 (34 per cent.) greater than in 1945. In 1947 the total was £4,100,000 (11 per cent.) in excess of 1946. The year 1948, however, showed a greatly diminished rise of £950,000 (3 per cent.) over 1947, and the 1949 increase was little greater, being only £1,463,800 or 4 per cent. above 1948. In 1950, however, the increase amounted to £6,157,400 (15 per cent.).

The number of policies issued in 1949 was actually less than in the previous year while the number in 1950 was actually below the number recorded in 1947, despite the substantial increase in the sum assured. Thus the prominent feature of new insurances, of recent years has been the increase in the average amount of the sum assured per policy. Average amounts per new policy and the increases over the preceding year were as follows.

Year.Average Amount.Increase.
 ££
194042117
194144726
194248841
194352638
194454519
194556318
194657815
194761739
194863619
194968044
195075979

From the foregoing figures it will be seen that the average sum assured per policy has increased by £338 or 80 per cent. during the last ten years.

From 1938 to 1943 discontinuances became progressively less, the heavy mortality in the war years being more than compensated for by the smaller number of lapses and surrenders. The years 1944 to 1950, however, showed the increased discontinuances which normally follow substantial rises in new policy issues.

The net result of the transactions for the year 1950 was an increase since the end of the preceding year of £32,724,809 in the sum assured in force, as against corresponding rises of £27,598,689 and £27,360,811 for 1949 and 1948 respectively.

Particulars of policies discontinued during the last five years are contained in the next table.

Year.Death.Maturity.Surrender.Lapse.Other Causes.Totals.
Number of Policies
19463,3275,0344,8754,092-40116,927
19472,9935,1005,3874,951-3818,393
19483,1565,5476,2035,92121021,037
19493,1696,1137,1425,77255922,755
19503,1616,5328,0735,01259023,368
Sum Assured
 ££££££
19461,471,9201,388,7962,478,9772,082,819584,0238,006,535
19471,434,0061,337,2202,916,4812,580,299710,1088,978,114
19481,635,0421,499,1853,745,0432,804,8871,427,08811,111,245
19491,618,6681,626,3994,608,9103,072,7341,410,45512,337,166
19501,677,5371,676,0515,618,2502,712,3521,677,90313,362,093

Reducing the Hums assured in the previous table to a percentage basis, the results are as follows.

Year.Death.Maturity.Surrender.Lapse.Other Causes.Totals.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
194618.417.331.026.07.3100.0
194716.014.932.528.77.9100.0
194814.713.533.725.312.8100.0
194913.113.237.424.911.4100.0
195012.612.542.020.312.6100.0

The most prominent feature of the figures for the last three years is the rise in discontinuances from “other causes.” A substantial part of the increase is probably duo to adjustments to “group insurance” or “superannuation” policies. The proportion of surrenders has also increased considerably in recent years, having risen from 27 per cent. in 1945 to 42 per cent. in 1950. Lapses, which had been rising, fell from 29 per cent. of total discontinuances in 1947 to 20 per cent. in 1950.

The total amount written off during each of the last three years represents 4.2 per cent. of the amount in force at the end of the year immediately preceding.

A statement of the aggregate revenue and expenditure of all the companies operating in New Zealand, so far as ordinary business is concerned, further illustrates the course of business during the last five years. The ratios of management expenses to premium income and to total revenue are also given.

Year.Revenue and Expenditure.Expenses of Management.
Total Revenue.*Total Expenditure.*Excess of Revenue.Amount.Proportion to Premium Income.Proportion to Total Revenue.

* Excluding transfers from or to Head Offices and Branches.

 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
19469,997,7995,667,2544,330,5451,132,72915.1311.33
194711,215,7035,886,9785,328,7251,299,62815.2611.59
194812,131,3526,381,3165,750,0361,356,63214.6711.18
194913,105,5796,736,4506,369,1291,444,51114.3311.02
195014,471,6217,240,2617,231,3601,602,43014.4111.07

Excluding commission, the ratio of management expenses to premium income was 6.89, 7.09, 6.95, 7.1, and 7.0 per cent. respectively for the years 1946 to 1950 inclusive.

The next table gives particulars of the principal items of revenue and expenditure during the five years. Transfers between head offices and branches are again excluded.

1946.1947.1948.1949.1949.
Revenue£££££
New and renewal premiums7,485,2878,517,0309,245,45410,079,28911,123,783
Consideration for annuities69,274103,83695,02172,44266,795
Interest, rents, &c.2,441,1982,588,6712,787,4012,952,7223,274,878
Other revenue2,0406,1663,4761,1266,165
      Total revenue9,997,79911,215,70312,131,35213,105,57914,471,621
Expenditure
Claims by death and maturity3,602,2203,571,2813,955,7084,120,6504,346,300
Annuities106,637112,926111,323117,161120,163
Surrenders359,790382,945440,382526,669612,499
Cash bonuses18,44124,35828,38328,08329,436
Management1,132,7291,299,6281,356,6321,444,5111,602,430
Taxes356,941436,035419,542438,090469,581
Other expenditure90,49659,80569,34661,28659,852
      Total expenditure5,667,2545,886,9786,381,3166,736,4507,240,261

Industrial Assurance.—The sums assured by new industrial policies commenced to decline in 1938 and reached the lowest point in 1942. The subsequent upward trend culminated in a peak increase of £700,000 (24 per cent.) for the year 1946, as compared with 1945. In 1947 only a small increase was recorded and in each of the subsequent three years a decrease has occurred. A significant trend is revealed by the number of policies issued during the years covered by the table below. Even in the peak year of 1946, the number of policies issued was 16,000 less than in 1938, and each of the years 1947, 1948, 1949, and 1950 have recorded substantial decreases in numbers issued. The number for 1950 is only a little over one-half of the 1938 figure. There has been a long-term relative fall in new industrial issues as compared with ordinary policies. The numbers of new industrial policies for each thousand ordinary policies issued have been—

1920–291,885
1930–391,630
1940–491,003
1946885
1947720
1948585
1949576
1950522

The results for 1946–50, however, probably overemphasize the relative decline, since there is undoubtedly a tendency during more prosperous periods to select the ordinary policy in preference to the industrial policy.

A summary of the progress of industrial assurance business is given in the following table.

Year.Policies Issued.Policies Discontinued.Policies Existing at End of Year.
Number.Sum Assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum Assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum Assured.Annual Premiums.
  ££ ££ ££
194049,6712,797,42963,73532,3381,851,202113,635460,65022,621,6611,323,802
194150,2562,884,545164,90631,1731,773,551108,227479,73323,732,6551,380,481
194242,4982,444,439141,04629,3861,657,437102,221492,84524,519,6571,419,306
194341,6852,555,999146,27123,9581,310,11481,467510,57225,765,5421,484,110
194443,8762,863,635162,35226,3791,471,09990,006528,06927,158,0781,556,455
194543,3532,992,816170,21428,0571,627,191101,659543,36528,523,7031,625,010
194649,3693,701,917201,80430,3951,821,929109,271562,33930,403,6911,717,542
194743,7893,851,103184,13830,7901,919,770112,080575,33832,335,0241,789,600
194835,4063,550,816155,55233,7702,293,965126,523576,97433,591,8751,818,629
194933,8153,307,001152,85136,1532,393,204132,427574,63634,505,6731,839,055
195031,7143,249,525150,46833,7402,211,251124,142572,61035,513,9461,865,381

As a result of the year's transactions, the amount in force increased during 1950 by £1,038,273, compared with the previous year's increase of £913,798.

The average sum assured under each policy of new business effected in 1950 amounted to £102, with an average annual premium of £4 14s. 11d. Corresponding averages for five years earlier (1945) were £69 and £3 18s. 6d. and for ten years earlier (1940) £56 and £2 5s. 10d.

A summary of the number of industrial policies and the sums assured written off according to the several causes is now given in the form of a five-year table.

Year.Death.Maturity.Surrender.Lapse.Other Causes.Total.
Number of Policies
19463,13514,9412,7459,39418030,395
19472,80215,4742,9629,36518730,790
19482,82016,6183,72810,43017433,770
19492,68619,2484,02110,1217736,153
19502,67319,5904,0557,31620633,740
Sum Assured
 ££££££
1946131,278703,776134,263832,36520,2471,821,929
1947120,309730,217240,293808,17020,7811,919,770
1948121,269764,632379,4531,008,61319,9982,293,965
1949123,454869,164313,7671,073,47113,3482,393,204
1950116,407868,557331,290870,86224,1352,211,251

The amount written off in each year is proportionately greater in the industrial than in the ordinary branch. Of the insurance in force at the end of the previous year, 4.2 per cent. of the ordinary became void in 1950 as compared with 6.4 of the industrial.

In the following table the sums assured for the various classes of discontinuances are expressed as percentages of the total discontinuances.

Year.Death.Maturity.Surrender.Lapse.Other Causes.Totals.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
19467.238.67.445.71.1100.0
19476.338.012.542.11.1100.0
19485.333.316.544.00.9100.0
19495.236.313.144.80.6100.0
19505.239.315.039.41.1100.0

A statement of the aggregate revenue and expenditure for the last live years is contained in the next table, which shows also the ratio of management expenses to premium income and to total revenue.

Year.Revenue and Expenditure.Expenses of Management.
Total Revenue.*Total Expenditure.*Excess of Revenue.Amount.Proportion to Premium Income.Proportion to Total Revenue.

* Excluding transfers from or to Head Offices and Branches.

 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
19462,079,9291,526,654553,275465,46727.9722.38
19472,192,9231,566,505626,418481,31327.5021.95
19482,251,0351,612,678638,357481,93226.7621.41
19492,276,1331,753,209522,924498,02427.4021.88
19502,315,1491,778,442536,707507,55627.5621.92

The difference between the ratio of management expenses to premium income in the industrial branch and the corresponding ratio in the ordinary branch is largely accounted for by the cost of collection of premiums in the industrial branch. principally in the shape of renewal commission. In the ordinary branch, commission (new and renewal) in 1950 was equivalent to 7.4 per cent. of the premium income, and in the industrial branch to 14.2 per cent. Excluding commissions, the ratio of management expenses to premium income was 13.4 per cent. in the industrial branch, as against 7.0 per cent. in the ordinary.

The principal items of revenue and expenditure in the industrial branch (again excluding transfers between head office and branches) for the five years 1946–50 is now given.

1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
 £££££
Revenue     
Premiums1,664,4061,750,5361,801,2161,817,2791,841,755
Interest, rents, &c.414,311425,693449,077458,104472,748
Other revenue1,21216,694742750646
      Total revenue2,079,9292,192,9232,251,0352,276,1332,315,149
Expenditure     
Claims by death and maturity963,815988,2371,016,6531,134,8631,127,798
Surrenders42,78247,59564,70569,80972,688
Management465,467481,313481,932498,024507,556
Taxes.37,75238,90340,11642,65045,728
Other expenditure16,83810,4579,2727,86324,672
      Total expenditure1,526,6541,566,5051,612,6781,753,2091,778,442

LIFE ASSURANCE DEATH-RATES.—The following table shows for the period 1940–50 the death-rate per thousand policies exposed to risk in each year. In computing these rates all policies which were in force for any portion of the year have been taken into account. The higher rates for the 1941–46 years are mainly due to deaths from war causes.

Year.Death-rate per 1,000 Policies.
Ordinary Life Assurance.Industrial Life Assurance.Ordinary and Industrial Combined.
19405.435.375.40
19416.896.026.42
19429.746.978.24
19438.766.727.66
19448.536.127.24
19457.436.026.69
19466.055.295.66
19475.044.624.83
19484.944.624.78
19494.704.404.56
19504.444.244.35

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.—Of the five companies transacting industrial business in New Zealand, only one apportions its liabilities and assets over the ordinary and industrial business, for, although the legislation in force requires separate statements of revenue and expenditure, policies issued and discontinued, &c., no such requirement exists in regard to balance sheets. The figures presented in the next two tables accordingly refer to both classes of assurance, and as indicated earlier in this subsection, relate to New Zealand business only.

The aggregate capital and liabilities at the end of 1950, as compared with the two preceding years, were as follows:—

 1948.1949.1950.
 £££
Paid-up share capital198,390218,684236,421
Life assurance and annuity funds89,214,55496,080,434103,900,904
Depreciation, reserve, and other special funds1,028,9811,282,7171,307,448
Claims admitted but not paid731,436721,350754,097
Other liabilities1,004,692781,1311,744,825
      Totals92,178,05399,084,316107,943,695

The assets of the New Zealand Branches at the end of the three years 1948–50 were as follows.

Assets.Amount.Proportion to Totals.
1948.1949.1950.1948.1949.1950.
 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Mortgages on property15,475,44418,505,15223,436,15316.7918.6821.71
Loans on policies3,593,2443,647,9353,607,6543.903.683.34
New Zealand Government securities39,434,68340,929,32243,340,62242.7841.3140.15
Securities of other Governments2,561,1172,722,6872,308,0112.782.752.14
Municipal and local authority securities23,510,92224,632,14826,903,77725.5124.8624.92
Landed and house property2,224,3912,406,2782,702,3092.412.432.50
Other investments2,179,0082,744,4192,317,0262.362.772.15
Agents' balances7,8469,79810,3970.010.010.01
Outstanding premiums547,158596,422640,9870.590.600.59
Interest accrued, &c.787,532827,987914,0020.860.830.85
Cash721,7881,045,489684,8400.781.050.64
Other assets1,134,9201,016,6791,077,9171.231.031.00
      Totals92,178,05399,084,316107,943,695100.00100.00100.00

The following diagram illustrates the expansion that has taken place since 1925 in the assets of life-assurance companies operating in New Zealand. This, of course, is a natural consequence of the huge increase in the amount of business. As stated on page 1006, receipts of life assurance and annuity business must be treated as a separate fund, and the interests of the policy-holders are safeguarded by the fact that these funds are available only for liabilities arising from such business.

The diagram also shows the trend in the class of security in which the funds have been invested. Considerable changes have taken place in recent years in the proportions represented by the different securities. In 1940 local-authority securities represented 35.9 per cent.; loans on mortgage, 22.1 per cent.; Government securities, 20.2 per cent.; and loans on policies, 9.7 per cent. of the total assets. In 1950 the corresponding percentages were: local-authority securities, 24.9 per cent.; loans on mortgage, 21.7 per cent.; Government securities, 42.3 per cent.; and loans on policies. 3.3 per cent.

30 B—ACCIDENT INSURANCE

In terms of the Accident Insurance Companies Act, 1908, accident-insurance policies may be issued by any association, whether incorporated or not, provided such association is not established under any Act relating to friendly societies. The principal classes of accident insurance transacted in New Zealand are as follows:—

  1. Personal accident, covering accident, sickness, &c.;

  2. Employers' liability under statutory or common law;

  3. Motor-vehicle insurance, comprehensive and compulsory third-party risks cover.

Other important classes of accident-insurance policies are in respect of plate glass insurance and fidelity-guarantee insurance.

The Workers' Compensation Amendment Act, 1947, provided for the insurance with the Government Accident Insurance Branch of the State Fire Insurance Office of all employers' liability insurances, as from 1st April, 1949. However, insurances with certain specified mutual insurance companies were exempted from the operation of the Act. Further reference to this transfer will be found in Sections 30D and 43. An amending Act of 1950, however, restored the right of insurance companies to undertake employers' liability insurance as from 1st April, 1951.

In these statistics, the data relate to the financial years of the companies which most closely approximate the calendar year. As the balance dates of some companies fall after the 31st March, the 1948 and 1950 figures have been affected to a small extent by the operation of the Act referred to in the preceding paragraph. The net effect was a reduction in the employers' liability insurance figures for 1948 by the amounts normally returned by such companies (with balance dates from April to June, 1949) and an increase for the year 1950, when these returns (covering the years ended April to June, 1951) again included figures for this class of insurance.

Information relating to cash deposits required from companies transacting accident-insurance business is contained in the next subsection, which deals with the cognate subject of fire insurance.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE. The number of insurance offices transacting accident business in New Zealand in 1950 was 62, the head offices of the companies concerned being domiciled as follows: Great Britain, 23; Australia. 11; United States of America, 1; Hong Kong. 1; and New Zealand, 26.

Of the New Zealand offices only 10, including the State Accident Insurance Office, may be stated to be competitive in the ordinary sense of the term, the remainder having been formed by trade associations, &c., on a more or less co-operative basis. In the main an office of this latter type conducts one class of accident-insurance business only according to the nature of the association with which it is connected.

Premium receipts have risen in each succeeding year since 1942. The 1950 increase was £914,099, or 18.6 per cent. above (he 1949 figure. Approximately 35 per cent. of this amount is accounted for by motor-vehicle premiums, and 45 per cent. by employers' liability premiums. Claims in 1950 were £493,902 or 16.6 per cent. greater than in 1949, approximately 40 per cent. of the increase being motor-vehicle claims. Expenses other than claims totalled £1,744,445 in 1950, as against £1,523,009 in 1949. Taxation claimed £447398 of the 1950 expenditure, compared with £308,388 in 1949. The excess of premium receipts over total expenditure was £606,035 in 1950, £407,274 in 1949, and £339,706 in 1948.

The following table shows, for the years quoted, the principal items of revenue and expenditure.

Year.Number of Offices.Revenue.Expenditure.
Premiums.Other RevenueTotal.*Claims.Commission.Salaries.Other ExpensesTotals.*

* Excluding unexpired risks reserves.

  ££££££££
1940582,550,12791,0702,641,1971,344,529277,819270,583411,8302,304,761
1941582,510,54294,6112,605,1531,221,722281,718266,791477,8622,228,091
1942582,280,671110,4442,391,1151,093,874242,175244,135484,8062,064,990
1943582,578,169101,8222,679,9911,307,259253,610254,187476,7092,291,765
1944592,614,588103,4292,718,0171,345,519275,526281,514529,7482,432,307
1945602,851,503109,8972,961,4001,545,468311,405315,110480,4802,652,463
1946603,270,989107,6343,378,6231,666,256349,778359,236466,2942,841,564
1947613,916,468120,8204,037,2882,131,992420,013402,918505,9263,460,849
1948604,324,436146,8864,471,3222,509,563471,459432,264571,4443,984,730
1949614,902,454151,9475,054,4012,972,171325,600530,221667,1884,495,180
1950625,816,553170,7465,987,2993,466,073369,181593,632781,6325,210,518

A review of the expenses incurred in transacting accident insurance is contained in the table following. The fluctuations over a period of five years are shown in the form of percentages of revenue to expenditure under various heads.

Year.Ratio per Cent. of—
Claims to Premiums.Commission to Premiums.Salaries to Premiums.Other Expenses to Premiums.Total Expenses (other than Claims) to Premiums.Total Expenditure to Premiums.Total Expenditure to Total Revenue.
194650.9410.6910.9814.2635.9386.8784.10
194754.4410.7210.2912.9233.9388.3785.72
194858.0310.9210.0013.2134.1192.1489.12
194960.636.6410.8213.6131.0791.6988.94
195059.596.3510.2113.4430.0089.5887.03

The ratio of claims to premiums receded each year from a peak of 67.23 per cent. in 1937 to 47.96 per cent. in 1942, the latter figure being the lowest recorded since 1921. From 1943 the movement has been generally upward, the fall in 1946 being due to the fact that premiums increased to a much greater extent than claims, the only class to show an actual drop in claims being employers' liability. The fall in the ratio of commissions to premiums during 1949 and 1950 reflects the transfer to the State Office of this type of business. Working-expenses (excluding taxation) amounted to £1,254,261 in 1948, £1,214,621 in 1949, and £1,297,047 in 1950. The ratio of working-expenses to premium income was 29.00 per cent. in 1948, 24.78 per cent. in 1949, and 22.30 per cent. in 1950. As will be apparent from the increase in the figures of working-expenses for 1950, the decline in the expense ratio was the result of the increase in premium income.

ANALYSIS OF PREMIUMS AND CLAIMS.—In the next table, particulars of premiums and claims for the three main classes of accident insurance are given for the last five years. It will be noticed that there is an apparent discrepancy between the totals of premiums and claims as shown herein and the figures already quoted. This is accounted for by the fact that, in order to arrive at the net financial results of the year's operations, it is necessary to take into account reinsurance transactions, and up to this stage premiums and claims have been taken at the net figure. Reinsurances effected outside New Zealand are not taken into account in the figures presented below.

Year.Employers' Liability.Personal Accident.Motor-vehicle. (Including 3rd party).Other Forms.Totals.
 £££££
Premiums
19461,604,195265,9241,192,164265,7643,328,047
19471,695,239307,1351,650,924328,2583,981,556
19481,704,394351,7731,940,641395,9714,392,779
19491,795,073405,5692,293,753454,8284,949,223
19502,230,293461,8642,601,849592,5935,886,599
Claims
1946765,35490,637742,22058,0981,656,309
1947866,08597,5901,060,15265,2162,089,043
1948946,334125,4911,267,95396,9372,436,715
19491,188,910150,3901,454,561108,0132,901,874
19501,318,923146,7161,627,594185,1233 278,356

The transfer of employers' liability insurance to the Government Accident Insurance Office, referred to at the beginning of this subsection, has affected the figures for this type of insurance. It is estimated that the premiums and claims for 1948 would have been respectively £140,000 and £75,000 greater than the amount shown if this year had been a normal one, and that the premiums and claims figures for 1950 would have been less by approximately £200,000 and £15,000.

Both premiums and claims have risen substantially during the last two years, the percentage increase for the former being 12.67 in 1949 and 18.94 in 1950. Claims rose by 19.09 per cent. during 1949 and 12.97 per cent. during 1950.

Reducing the figures of each class for the years 1948–50 to a percentage basis, the following results are obtained.

Class of Insurance.Claims to Premiums.Premiums to Total Premiums.Claims to Total Claims.
1948.1949.1950.1948.1949.1950.1948.1949.1950.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Employers' liability.55.5266.2359.1438.8036.2737.8938.8440.9740.23
Personal accident35.6737.0831.778.018.197.855.155.184.48
Motor-vehicle65.3463.4162.5644.1846.3544.1952.0350.1349.64
Other forms24.4823.7531.249.019.1910.073.983.725.65
      All classes55.4758.6355.69100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

MOTOR-VEHICLES INSURANCE (THIRD-PARTY RISKS).—The Transport Act, 1949, which repealed the former legislative authority—i.e., the Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act, 1928—requires, as previously, owners of motor-vehicles to insure against their liability to pay damages on account of the death of or bodily injury to another person. The payment of the insurance premiums is made annually to Deputy Registrars of Motor-vehicles at the same time as the annual licence fee is paid under the Transport Amendment Act, 1950. Owners of motor-vehicles are required to nominate each year the insurance company with which the contract of insurance is to be made, and the contract is deemed to be complete on the payment of the premium.

Premiums rates were reduced during the war as a result of the decrease in claims brought about by the restricted use of motor-vehicles. The relaxation of controls was followed by a rise in premium rates for most classes of motor-vehicles. The 1952–53 schedule includes the following: Trailers, 3s.; power cycles, 5s.; tractors, traction-engines, 10s., motor-cycles, £2; private motor-cars, £1 15s.; private motor-cars used wholly or in part for the purpose of trade or business, £2 10s.; motor-vehicles (other than trailers and motor-cycles) used by fire-brigades, £1; hearses, ambulances. &c., £1 15s.; mobile cranes, £2; trade motors, £3; manufacturers' and dealers' motor-vehicles, £1 10s.; omnibuses, from £25 (according to seating-capacity); service-cars from £12 (according to seating capacity); rental cars, £3 10s.; contract vehicles used to carry employees to or from work, or children to or from school, £1 15s.; private and public motor-cabs, £10 10s. and £20 respectively; other contract or public motor-vehicles, from £5 10s. (according to seating capacity).

A sum of 2s. for every contract of insurance is deducted for administration expenses, and the balance paid to the insurance company concerned.

The liability of the company does not extend to indemnify the owner against any claim made in respect of death of or of injury suffered by any relative of the owner, by any person in the service of the owner at the time of the accident, or by a passenger. The indemnity does, however, cover the case of a passenger for hire in a vehicle plying for hire or carrying passengers for hire.

The liability of any insurance company under any contract under the Act is limited to £5,000 (increased from £2,000 from the 1st July, 1951) in respect of any passenger in the motor-vehicle concerned, and to £50,000 (£20,000 prior to 1st July, 1951) for all claims made by or in respect of passengers carried for hire. Otherwise there is no limit as to amount.

The following particulars give the experience of the last five years, with a summary covering the ten years to 30th June, 1950. It should be noted that the figures for claims do not represent the amount paid during each year, but refer to accidents happening during each particular period. The claims figures include amounts on account of the estimated liability in respect of claims still outstanding at 30th June, 1950, and are therefore provisional only. Claims are frequently the subject of length)' litigation, and until such time as they are finally settled the estimated liability is taken into account. The insurance companies usually overestimate this liability, and the figures when finalized, at least for the latest two years, may be expected to be considerably less than the amounts now given.

For example, claims paid and the estimated outstanding claims for the year ended 30th June, 1949, amounted to £609,076 at that date. On the 30th June, 1950, the claims paid plus the estimated claims outstanding for the year ended 30th June, 1949, totalled £488,926. Experience shows that this figure will be further reduced by the settling of more outstanding 1948–49 claims during the year ended 30th June, 195].

Registration Year Ended 30th June—Total for Ten Years to 30th June 1950.
1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
 ££££££
Premiums received318,728364,874422,613479,192595,3374,057,737
Claims paid out and estimated liability in respect of claims outstanding at 30th June, 1950251,805374,819385,804488,926743,7293,293,153
Ratio per cent. of claims paid and outstanding to premiums791039110212581

30 C—FIRE INSURANCE

IN the legislation dealing with insurance four separate classes of fire-insurance offices are distinguished—namely: (1) Local insurance companies established within the limits of New Zealand; (2) foreign insurance companies established beyond New Zealand; (3) United Kingdom offices similarly established; and (4) mutual fire-insurance associations. To these may be added the State Fire Insurance Office, established under a separate Act of Parliament.

Part XIV of the Companies Act, 1933, provides for the incorporation with limited liability of local insurance companies formed for the insurance of property other than that of shareholders. Such a company requires a paid-up capital of £50,000 intact, and if the amount of paid-up capital falls below this sum the company may not carry on insurance business except with unlimited liability. Insurance companies established or incorporated overseas are required to have a like paid-up capital intact. Part II of the Insurance Companies Act, 1940, provides that, in the case of an insurance company of doubtful solvency, inspectors may be appointed to investigate and report on the affairs of the company. Mutual associations are referred to specially at a later stage in this subsection.

DEPOSITS.—Until the passing of the Insurance Companies Act, 1940, no deposit was required from an insurance company incorporated in New Zealand in respect of fire and accident insurance business, unless the company acted merely as an agent for overseas underwriters, or had, since 1933, commenced motor-vehicles third-party risks insurance business. Part I of this Act, as amended by the Insurance Companies' Deposits Amendment Act, 1950, provides that any New Zealand company which, after the passing of the Act, commences in New Zealand any of the specified classes of business, must deposit with the Public Trustee in money the following amounts: In respect of fire insurance, £22,500; employers' liability insurance, £22,500 (by deposit of approved securities and not in money); and all other classes (except motor-vehicles third-party risks insurance), £5,000. A New Zealand company which, at the commencement of the Act, was carrying on any of the classes of business referred to above was required to deposit cash or approved securities to the value of £1,000. together with a further £1,000 for each complete £2,500 of premium income derived from each class of business during its last financial year. The amount of deposit may be adjusted according to increases or decreases in business. These provisions were continued by the 1950 amendment, referred to earlier, in the case of companies that were carrying on employers' liability insurance on the 11th October, 1940, and which have recommenced that class of business before 1st April, 1952. The maximum deposit is that which would be paid by a newly established company.

The maximum deposits of New Zealand companies are the same as those required from British companies commencing business in New Zealand. Agents operating in New Zealand on behalf of British underwriters are required to make deposits similar in amount to those specified for British companies with the exception of employers' liability insurance, where agents of British underwriters are required to deposit £15,000. A foreign company, or an agent of foreign underwriters, before commencing business in New Zealand, must deposit in money the sum of £50,000, which covers all classes of business other than life or marine. If such companies were carrying on business prior to the 28th September, 1922, the deposit required is £35,000.

The Finance Act, 1933 (No. 2), required any company thereafter undertaking business in terms of the Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act, 1928, to deposit the sum of £10,000. This requirement was in effect, extended by the Insurance Companies Act, 1940, under which every company undertaking this class of business must, unless it has made the deposit required by the Finance Act, deposit £1,000, together with £1,000 for each complete £2,500 of premium income from such business. The maximum deposit is £10,000.

Life and marine businesses are not affected by the provisions mentioned in the preceding paragraphs.

The capital amount of deposits held by the Public Trustee as at 31st March, 1951, under the Insurance Companies' Deposits Act, 1950, on behalf of 61 companies was £1,912,666 as compared with £1,179,660 at 31st March, 1950. The increase is due to the re-engagement by companies generally in employers' liability insurance business. following on the removal of the virtual monopoly held for two years by the Government Accident Insurance Office.

Statistics of fire insurance are collected annually by the Census and Statistics Department. For 1950, statistics were collected from 45 offices carrying on business in New Zealand. The head offices of these were distributed as follows: Great Britain, 21; New Zealand. 17; Australia. 5; Hong Kong, 1; United States of America, 1.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.—The following table indicates generally the extent to which fire-insurance offices have funds available to meet losses and liabilities. Funds of life departments are added for completeness, but by the Life Insurance Act, 1908 (which follows the provisions of the Imperial statute on the subject), life funds must be accounted for separately, and form a security for life-policy holders which is not available for other classes of insurance transacted. The amount of funds (other than life) in New Zealand and elsewhere is it will be seen, approximately £800,000,000.

1950.1949 (Totals).1948 (Totals).
Overseas Companies.Local Companies.Totals.
 £££££
Paid-up capital40,294,9814,172,77244,467,75344,409,92141,427,074
Reserves507,406,49017,408,648524,815,138479,039,815394,121,123
Other liabilities210,681,4586,682,913217,364,371192,544,816162,217,303
      Totals758,382,92928,264,333786,647,262715,994,052597,765,500
Life funds1,092,256,11435,5241,092,291,6381,044,111,329985,053,595
      Total liabilities (and assets)1,850,639,04328,299,8571,878,938,9001,760,105,3811,552,819,095

The following table gives the amount of assets in New Zealand as at the end of each of the last three years classified under various heads. The figures given include all investments in New Zealand securities and do not relate merely to the assets held by the New Zealand branches of the companies concerned. The assets of other departments—accident, marine, &c.—are also included.

Assets in New Zealand.1948.1949.1950.
 £££
House and landed property1,261,1701,273,5221,362,422
New Zealand Government securities8,246,6568,375,4749,286,383
New Zealand local-authority securities937,958947,4231,013,917
Mortgages, &c.158,208172,606250,463
Outstanding premiums809,333821,3671,202,175
Cash and other assets in New Zealand5,412,2895,353,9976,062,580
      Total New Zealand assets16,825,61416,944,38919,177,940

SUMMARY OF BUSINESS.—New and renewal business increased, in comparison with the previous years, by £111,973,556 (9.19 per cent.) in 1949, and £194,741,742 (14.64 per cent.) in 1950.

The average premium rate fell from 6s. 1d. in 1948 to 5s. 11d. in 1949 and 1950 for each £100 of insurance cover. This average is influenced not only by movements in premium rates, but also by the varying proportions of insurance risks which are rated at higher or lower premiums than the average. It should be explained that the figures in the table winch follows relate to the business conducted with the insuring public. Reinsurance transactions are not taken into account.

1948.1949.1950.

* Excluding reinsurances accepted from other offices.

Amounts underwritten   
Gross amount of insurance cover in force in New Zealand on 31st December*£1,078,301,412£1,160,628,988£1,342,549,728
Number of policies representing the foregoing*1,016,1261,076,1841,099,292
Gross amount of new and renewal business underwritten during year*£1,218,020,134£1,329,993,696£1,524,735,432
Number of policies representing the foregoing*1,112,4821,171,4451,212,623
Premiums   
      Total gross premiums charged on business (now and renewal) underwritten during year*£3,705,014£3,953,785£4,483,805
Percentage of gross premiums to total amount of business underwritten6s. 1d.5s. 11d.5s. 11d.
      Total premiums (as shown above), less premiums refunded to insured other than to other offices£3,368,735£3,603,568£4,018,760
Losses   
      Total number of separate fire losses with which offices were concerned11,03111,51712,545
Gross losses£1,011,429£981,697£1,114,534
Percentage of gross loss to amount underwritten (new and renewal) during year (as shown above)0.080.070.07
Percentage of gross loss to total premiums, less refunds to insured (as shown above)30.0227.2427.73
Average loss£92£85£89

The next table shows the position of premium income and lire losses during the period 1940–1950. The figures shown correspond to those given in the previous table. it will be noted that between 1945 and 1947 fire losses rose steeply, the amount paid in 1947 being swollen by the inclusion of two exceptionally severe fires, the Rongotai woolstore lire of 1946 and the Christchurch department store fire of 1947.

Year.Premium Income.Fire Losses.Percentage of Loss to Premium Income.
 ££Per Cent.
19401,941,441627,66632.3
19412,034,207481,57823.7
19422,126,722856,51540.3
19432,296,901717,09131.2
19442,206,253547,28224.8
19452,300,348560,32924.4
19462,519,396881,50435.0
19472,851,2001,705,30759.8
19493,368,7351,011,42930.0
19493,603,568981,69727.2
19504,018,7601,114,53427.7

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.—A statement of the total revenue and expenditure, both gross and net, of all offices is now given in respect of New Zealand business. The gross figures include reinsurance business accepted, while the net figures comprise insurances with the public, plus reinsurances accepted, and less amounts reinsured with other offices. The gross reserve for unexpired risks, it, should be noted, is calculated on the assumption that it bears the same proportion to gross premium income as does the actual net reserve to the net premium income.

1948.1949.1950.
Gross.Net.Gross.Net.Gross.Net.
Revenue££££££
Reserve to meet unexpired risks as at beginning of year1,422,336782,8741,667,000902,7251,873,0001,019,286
Amount of fire premiums receivable during year4,085,8932,180,9854,449,3332,391,4134,857,7192,611,837
Interest and dividends on stock, mortgages, &c.96,43696,436104,024104,024101,861101,861
Rents33,73933,73944,03344,63329,27429,274
Other revenue11,20111,20114,30714,3075,5725,572
      Totals5,649,6053,105,2356,278,6973,456,5026,867,4263,767,810
Expenditure      
Amount of fire claims incurred during year, including adjustment and other expenses of settlement, but less salvage1,158,130502,3551,153,967552,8591,357,768730,137
Fire Board levies187,405137,101204,565144,168246,112177,474
New Zealand Government taxes355,872311,172355,701289,147474,528342,747
Local-authority rates4,1513,5635,9715,3591,9654,251
Licence fees5,3845,1756,1545,7885,9885,606
Rents29,14726,63531,80030,35430,96929,896
Allowances and commissions on premiums to agents, sub-agents, and others390,329146,462436,240173,421495,380175,938
Salaries and wages, including commissions on profits or bonuses425,336384,161542,294485,767572,995517,416
Other expenses of management.211,361195,060283,281235,609287,775254,271
Reserve to meet unexpired risks as at the end of the year1,689,886902,7251,874,0001,017,2071,989,0001,081,459
      Totals4,157,0012,614,9094,893,9732,939,6795,465,4803,319,195

The principal items of net revenue and expenditure for 1950 of the two classes of offices operating in New Zealand are contained in the next table.

Net Revenue.Net Expenditure.
Premiums.Total.*Claims.Salaries and Commissions.Total.*

* Excluding reserves to meet unexpired risks.

 £££££
Overseas companies1,528,3101,559,081469,501368,7361,316,719
Local companies1,083,5071,189,443260,636324,618921,017
      Totals2,611,8172,748,524730,137693,3542,237,736

The net premium income and the total net income in 1950 have, in comparison with the corresponding figures for 1949, increased by £220,104 and £194,747 respectively. The excess of net revenue over net expenditure for 1950 amounted to £510,788, as compared with the surpluses of £631,305 and £610,177 for 1949 and 1948 respectively. It should be noted that these figures are exclusive of reserves to meet unexpired risks.

The following table shows the percentage ratio of working-expenses to premium income for the years 1946–50. It is contended in some quarters that Eire Board levies are not a working-expense, but should be added to the total of fire losses. While this view is not subscribed to in the compilation of the statistics, there is a definite relationship between the items, and this table shows the ratio both inclusive and exclusive of Fire Board levies.

Item.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Net working-expenses (excluding taxes) to net premium income42.5940.7741.1845.1844.60
Net working-expenses (excluding taxes and Fire Board levies) to net premium income36.2434.8834.9039.1537.80
Gross working-expenses (excluding taxes) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)32.7231.1230.6733.9533.85
Gross working-expenses (excluding taxes and Fire Board levies) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)28.0326.7426.0829.3528.78

It will be noted that working expenses, both net and gross, rose sharply during 1949 and 1950, in line with the higher costs (mainly wage and salary) experienced by business firms generally.

FIRES AND LOSSES.—The table following gives figures of fires and losses during each of the eleven years, 1938–48. It should be noted that these figures relate to calendar years, and thus differ somewhat from those shown elsewhere, which refer to varying twelve-monthly periods covered by the accounts of the different offices. Furthermore, the data which follow relate to material losses only, and do not include such intangible items as profits or rents, on which the loss may be at times substantial.

The figures quoted herein relate to insured losses only, and in order to arrive at the national property loss by fire some allowance must be made for the uninsured losses. On what is termed a conservative basis, the Inspector of Fire Brigades in his annual report uses the insured-loss figure plus 12 1/2 per cent. for this purpose, and on this assumption New Zealand's property loss through fire in 1948 would have amounted to £1,067,000. There were fewer major conflagrations in 1948 compared with the previous year, and this factor was chiefly responsible for the lower fire loss.

Year.Separate Fires.Conflagrations.*Buildings, &c., AffectedGross Cover.Gross Loss.

* Included in previous column. For statistical purposes a conflagration is defined as a fire where three or more buildings are affected.

† On buildings, &c., affected.

    ££
19385,956216,0877,004,699596,267
19396,373256,5616,486,979587,032
19406,033206,1388,116,928642,228
19416,315106,3847,880,911714,630
19425,406155,5087,644,555483,707
19435,71095,7818,936,676426,374
19446,049106,0998,817,550477,591
19456,51966,55914,838,243639,372
19466,939117,00612,730,169764,392
19477,903107,96117,103,4361,599,822
19488,92758,95821,468,138948,660

The next table shows, for each of the four principal urban areas and the remainder of New Zealand, the fires and losses for 1948.

Separate Fires.Conflagrations.*Buildings, &c., Affected.Gross Cover.Gross Loss.

* Included in previous column.

† On buildings, &c., affected.

North Island   ££
Auckland urban area1,072 1,0756,189,444122,017
Wellington urban area1,482 1,4866,315,438281,987
Secondary urban areas941 9431,897,65049,248
Remainder of North Island1,70031,7102,226,810169,648
      Totals for North Island5,19535,21416,629,342622,900
South Island     
Christchurch urban area1,007 1,0081,580,384122,168
Dunedin urban area977 9791,649,87235,957
Secondary urban areas5602566674,53352,662
Remainder of South Island1,075 1,078856,172111,370
      Totals for South Island3,61923,6314,760,961322,157
Floating, transit, and travelling113 11377,8353,603
New Zealand totals8,92758,95821,468,138948,660

The amounts of fire insurance claims paid per head of population (excluding Maoris) were 18s. 11d. in 1947 and 11s. in 1948.

Causes of Fires.—Particulars regarding causes of fires are contained in the following table which covers the years 1946 to 1948.

Cause of Fire.1946.1947.1948.
Number of Fires.Amount of Loss.Number of Fires.Amount of Loss.Number of Fires.Amount of Loss.

* Included in various causes from which spread.

  £ £ £
Electricity1,35262,0131,447101,4251,62965,048
Gas1278,4891555,49117511,269
Naked lights891,7602164,5081293,565
Defective chimneys and kindred causes25828,08229023,68735575,163
Smoking, and careless use of matches93355,2501,04927,7151,19928,608
Sparks from fireplaces2,60746,5222,93048,1423,45661,935
Heating, boiling-down1415,7242074,7132328,127
Highly inflammable spirits and materials21122,703242102,62322090,968
Incendiarism and arson3158,86119621,1882742,038
Outside causes23762,03819710,63023721,443
Other causes506,459301,992364,394
      Totals, specified causes6,036357,9016,782952,1147,695412,557
Fires spread from other buildings*5616,118629,683463,588
Floating, travelling, and transit risks71.1,292983,8981133,603
Unknown causes832405,1991,023643,8101,119532,500
      Totals6,939764,3927,9031,599,8228,927948,660

It should be remembered that in some instances, more especially where a total or semi-total loss is sustained, the actual cause is a matter of conjecture only. These cases, however, are not numerous as the vast majority of such losses are included in the total of unspecified causes. In 1948 the average loss per fire for specified causes was £54, while the average for the fire where the cause was not specified amounted to £476. The respective amounts for 1947 were £140 and £629.

Provision existed for coronial inquiries into fires of suspicious origin until the passing of the Coroners Act, 1951, which did not renew the provision. As will be seen from page 185, the annual number of such inquests has been negligible. In 1932, however, a system was instituted whereby extended inquiries are made by the Police Department into all fires where the possibility of incendiarism is not eliminated or where the cause is obscure. The results of such inquiries are considered by a committee consisting of the Commissioner of Police, the General Manager of the State Fire Office, and the Inspector of Fire Brigades.

Extent of Loss.—The following table gives particulars of fire losses during the years 1946 to 1948, classified according to the amount of loss. The vast majority of fires cause only minor damage. In 1948 losses of under £10 accounted for 68.9 per cent. of the total number of fires, and losses of under £100 accounted for 929 per cent. Corresponding figures for 1947 were 67.5 and 92.3 per cent. respectively. The amount of loss in the “under £100” category showed an increase of £8,314 (11.6 per cent.) for 1948 when compared with 1947. At the other end of the scale the amount of loss in fires of £5,000 and over showed a marked decrease of £669,916 during 1948, the average loss per fire in this group being £20,355. The figure for 1947 was £46,337.

Loss Category.1946.1947.1948.
Number of Fires.Amount of Loss.Number of Fires.Amount of Loss.Number of Fires.Amount of Loss.
£ £ £ £ £
Under 104,69916,4725,33219,0356,15222,581
10 and under 251,02515,3531,23218,3481,35119,984
25 " 5041113,97446115,97148716,460
50 " 10023416,29126618,07730120,720
100 " 20018125,84617123,86418726,195
200 " 3008319,90510124,0478921,341
300 " 4006220,8586923,0596221,171
400 " 5003816,7993816,6044520,145
500 " 7507646,2736840,9347848,618
750 " 1,0003126,2353226,9374134,759
1,000 " 2,0005066,1276789,8437399,910
2,000 " 3,0001536,6482356,2952561,106
3,000 " 4,000828,3981137,296516,327
4,000 " 5,000522,244731,082730,829
5,000 and over21392,969251,158,43024488,514
      Totals6,939764,3927,9031,599,8228,927948,660

Seasonal Incidence of Fires.—The following table gives particulars of fires and losses, &c., for the years 1946 to 1948 according to the month in which the fire occurred. It will be observed that most fires occur in the winter months, when open fireplaces and heating-appliances are used to a greater extent. The majority of these fires. however, usually result in a very small amount of loss being mainly on account of damage caused to furniture, floor coverings, clothing, &c.

Month in which Fire Occurred.1946.1947.1948.
Number of Fires.Amount Loss.Number of Fires.Amount of Loss.Number of Fires.Amount of Loss.
  £ £ £
January47341,08347923,66653369,665
February48567,06446681,43151442,651
March40658,19546188,51853190,594
April40527,94257326,36460935,458
May59938,00264329,81879291,266
June77230,92486938,8491,07144,145
July79528,52193361,7371,07342,176
August783166,546889104,24293938,791
September609102,524698711,11875382,238
October55039,66366845,077765173,827
November57447,855683277,650731164,601
December488116,073541111,35261673,248
    Totals6,939764,3927,9031,599,8228,927948,660

During 1948, Monday was again the day of the week on which the greatest number of fires occurred (1,338), although the incidence was distributed fairly evenly over the seven days, the smallest number recorded being that for Sunday (1,177). For classification purposes a day is regarded as commencing at midnight.

Class Groups.—Losses have been classified in broad groups according to the nature of the risk, the figures for the years 1946–48 being presented in the next table. The most numerous group, dwellings, in 1948 represented 83.2 per cent. of the total fires, but only 28.4 per cent. of the total loss. It should be noted that the “contents,” where insured, are included in the various class groups. Consequently, the total for the dwellings group is swollen by the numerous small claims on account of damage to personal effects, &c., the actual building not being affected by the fire in many instances. The miscellaneous risks group also includes those cases where a fire has affected two or more buildings which individually are classifiable into more than one of the other groups shown in the table.

Class Groups.1946.1947.1948.
Number of Fires.Amount of Loss.Number of Fires.Amount of Loss.Number of Fires.Amount of Loss.
  £ £ £
Dwellings, &c.5,741335,4636,590244,2517,430,269,040
Hotels, &c.28524,13628821,94432818,360
Bulk stores, &c.182,2081630,12823121,902
Warehouses14481143,6102413,689
Shops24325,82727546,92431332,457
Factories and industrial risks284151,461288196,529310117,818
Farm risks and station property (other than dwellings)8614,255979,2849920,931
Theatres and places of public amusement3011,968343,728365,457
Miscellaneous risks (including unclassified)238198,5933011,043,424364349,006
      Totals6,939764,3927,9031,599,8228,927948,660

MUTUAL FIRE-INSURANCE ASSOCIATIONS.—Mutual associations are governed by the Mutual Fire Insurance Act, 1908, which allows one hundred or more owners of isolated or farm properties to subscribe to a declaration and form themselves into a mutual association to insure against loss by fire to an amount in the aggregate of not less than £40,000. Amendments to this Act permit these associations to conduct accident business in addition to fire insurance. Such associations effect insurance on the premium-note principle, and accept premium notes to be assessed for losses in the proportion of the total amount of such notes. The amount of a member's premium notes limits his liability.

Summarized figures for the three associations formed under the Act appear below.

Year Ended 31st March,Net Premium Income.Total Net Income.Net Claims.Reserves and Funds.Assets.*
Fire.Accident.Fire.Accident.

* Including premium notes.

 £££££££
194728,84615,08847,9805,7895,52995,109479,159
194831,43315,48950,8275,9706,664100,772553,881
194938,05338,87081,2887,70610,466125,003670,785
195045,08472,537122,9855,22820,946157,635877,335
195148,55262,228119,2616,16134,208162,2571,004,630

The mutual fire-insurance associations were included in the list of mutual companies which were exempted from the operation of the Workers' Compensation Amendment Act, 1947, which provided for the placing of all employers' liability insurance with the State Accident Insurance Office. This is the principal reason for the large increase shown in the accident section of these associations for 1948–49 to 1950–51.

FIRE BRIGADES.—The following table gives particulars of fire brigades (including branches) in New Zealand as at 31st December for each of the last five years.

Year.Stations.Officers.Men.Total Personnel.
19472015922,5883,180
19482126122,6703,282
19492176592,8613,520
19502186472,8643,511
19512206352,8663,501

30D-STATE INSURANCE ACTIVITIES

STATE LIFE ASSURANCE.—The Life Insurance Department of the New Zealand Government was founded in 1869 at a time when New Zealanders had comparatively poor facilities in regard to life assurance. Payment of all policies with the State Office is guaranteed by the Government. Industrial assurance is not transacted.

The total income of the Department for 1950 was £2,484,291, an increase of £261,430 over the previous year. Premium income amounted to £1,816,048; interest, rents, &c., £647,405; and annuity purchase-money, £20,838.

During the year 1950 payments (including bonus additions) to the value of £543,128 were made on account of matured policies, and £266,272 was paid for death claims under assurance policies (including bonus additions). Commission totalled £152,857 and other expenses of management £134,649, making the total management expenses £287,506.

Income and expenditure figures of the Government (Life) Insurance Department are now given for each of the five years 1946–50.

Year.Premium Income.Total Income.Management Expenses.Total Expenditure.Ratio of Management Expenses to Total Income.Ratio of Management Expenses to Premium Income.
 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
19461,126,4561,705,862206,8681,103,74812.1317.17
19471,311,9901,929,781225,2071,204,73511.6716.42
19481,403,3122,019,991246,7621,193,55712.2217.13
19491,582,2142,222,861258,6911,263,79011.6416.04
19601,816,0482,484,291287,5061,319,94411.5715.65

Figures showing the progress of the Department are contained in the next table. Annuities are excluded.

New business for the year 1950 amounted to 13,875 policies assuring the sum of £9,600,432, the annual premiums thereon being £235,423. Compared with the year 1949 the sum assured recorded an increase of £1,021,864 (11.9 per cent.) and the number of policies issued was greater by 367.

Year.New Business.Policies Discontinued.Policies in Force at End of Year.
Number of Policies.Sum Assured.Annual Premiums.NumberSum Assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum Assured.Annual Premiums.
  ££ ££ ££
194611,1866,511,227144,3773,9891,661,97741,340113,65945,687,1071,064,026
194711,6107,052,219171,1704,0021,740,28444,261121,16750,999,0421,190,935
194813,1548,077,867185,4663,9701,858,28645,149130,35157,218,6231,331,252
194913,5088,578,568212,0394,5922,277,30655,737139,26763,519,8851,487,534
195013,8759,600,482235,4234,6812,449,93962,206148,46170,670,3781,760,751

The average sums insured by new policies issued during 1948, 1949, and 1950, were respectively £614, £635, and £692.

The Department's balance-sheet as at 31st December, 1950, showed that the total assets amounted to £18,493,816, and were invested as shown in the following statement, which also gives the distribution of the assets at the end of the two preceding years for purposes of comparison.

Class of Investment.Amount.Proportion to Totals.
1948.1949.1950.1948.1949.1950.

* Mainly due and overdue premiums and Interest, and interest accrued.

 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Mortgages on freehold property4,322,5784,643,9475,039,47326.4926.8327.25
Loans on policies761,193765,738756,8234.674.424.09
Government securities7,645,8167,917,9858,044,43046.8645.7543.50
Local authority securities2,704,0263,099,2223,782,74116.5717.9020.45
Landed and house property490,610483,660482,8503.012.792.61
Miscellaneous assets*302,025331,231330,5521.851.911.79
Cash in hand, on current account, and on deposit90,43968,46056,9470.550.400.31
      Totals16,316,68617,310,24318,493,816100.00100.00100.00

STATE ACCIDENT INSURANCE.—In the year 1901 (he Government (Life) Insurance Department opened an Accident Branch. On 1st January, 1925, the accident business was transferred to the control of the State Fire Insurance Office. General accident business was undertaken, but the branch was opened more especially to conduct insurance under the Workers' Compensation Act. In recent years other forms of accident insurance have contributed on an increasing scale to the premium income of the office. The main classes transacted are employers' liability, personal accident, public risk, motor comprehensive, third-party risks, plate glass, and fidelity guarantee.

As from 1st April, 1949, the State Accident Insurance Office was divided into two distinct parts, one administering (he Employers' Liability Insurance Account and the other undertaking, on a competitive basis, the other types of accident insurance.

General Business.—A summary of revenue and expenditure during the last five years is contained in the following table.

Year.Revenue.*Expenditure.*Ratio of Claims to Earned Premiums.Total Assets.
Premiums.Total.Claims.Working-expenses.Total.

* Excluding reserves for unearned premiums.

 £££££Per Cent.£
1946341,304367,940212,91470,917336,09062.381,027,712
1947420,028447,854292,30481,905407,10074.531,099,225
1948466,046496,206318,32998,062464,29971.851,129,007
1949337,716367,895308,81680,798417,87879.021,162,928
1950351,335381,042287,08080,417373,06680.701,401,372

The 1949 premium income was £128,330 less than that of the previous year, this decrease being more than accounted for by the transfer of employers' liability insurance to the Employers' Liability Insurance Account.

The net premium income in 1950 was £13,619 greater than that in 1949, while claims showed a decrease of £21,736, resulting in a surplus of £7,976. With the resumption of employers' liability insurance on a competitive basis as from 1st April, 1951, it is reasonable to expect a substantial increase in premium income for the year 1951.

The ratio of working-expenses to earned premiums in 1950 was 22.6 per cent. compared with 20.67 per cent. in 1949.

The total assets at 31st December, 1950, amounted to £1,401,372, including £719,537 invested in Government securities. Reserves and Funds totalled £767,000.

Employers' Liability Insurance Account.—The Workers' Compensation Amendment Act, 1943, made it obligatory for an employer to insure against his liability to pay compensation under the principal Act.

It has been mentioned earlier that, as from 1st April, 1949, all employers' liability insurances were required to be placed with the Government Accident Insurance Office. This provision was contained in the Workers' Compensation Amendment Act, 1947, which at the same time exempted, subject to certain conditions, the employers' liability insurance business of certain specified mutual insurance companies from the operation of the Act. This position obtained until 1st April, 1951, the Workers' Compensation Amendment Act, 1950, having restored the right of insurance companies to participate in this class of insurance as from that date.

The 1947 Act established an Employers' Liability Insurance Account, which is credited with all premium and other receipts, and from which is paid all claims and other expenses.

Every employer was required, within one month after 31st March of each year, to furnish the amount of wages paid during the year ending on 31st March, and an estimate of the wages expected to be paid during the current year. The amount of premium is assessed on the amount of wages expected to be paid, and adjustment is made when the actual amount of wages has been ascertained at the end of the period.

The rates of premium payable for the various classes of risk were prescribed by the Employers' Liability Insurance Regulations 1949, as amended by Amendment No. 1, also in 1949. The Act gave the General Manager power to grant a special rebate or make an extra charge when an employer's accident experience is more or less favourable than the average experience.

The following statement gives the experience of the Employers' Liability Account for the two periods for which the accounts have been published, the first covering the nine months 1st April to 31st December, 1949, and the second the calendar year 1950:—

 1949.1950.
Revenue—££
  Reserve for unearned premiums 499,478
  Premiums1,498,4351,817,836
Interest8,66323,184
      Total revenue1,507,0982,340,498
Expenditure—  
  Claims691,4791,138,178
  Salaries111,205135,260
  Other management expenses34,77727,488
  Unearned premium reserve499,478605,945
 1,336,9391,906,871
Income and social security taxes85,570254,503
Alterations to buildings23,245 
Office furniture, &c.12,643 
Surplus48,701179,124
      Total expenditure£1,507,098£2,340,498

The ratio of claims to earned premiums for the calendar year 1950 was 66.5 per cent. as compared with 69.2 per cent. in the nine-months period of 1949. Working expenses (excluding taxes) and net surplus in 1950 were respectively 9.5 per cent. and 10.4 per cent. of earned premiums, the corresponding percentages in 1949 being 14.6 and 4.9.

The number of employers insured under the fund in 1950 was approximately 95,000.

Although as indicated earlier the Fund ceased to be liable for accidents occurring after 31st March, 1951, it was anticipated that it would be some time after that date before all outstanding claims were disposed of and the Fund finally wound. up.

The 1950 Amending Act established the Workers' Compensation Board for the general administration of the Act. Particulars of the functions of the Board and other related matters are contained in Section 39F of this volume, which reviews generally the subject of workers' compensation.

STATE FIRE INSURANCE.—The New Zealand State Fire Office was the first competitive State fire-insurance office in the world, and opened for business on 4th January, 1905, with a borrowed capital (long since repaid) of £2,000. The income of the office in its first year was £13,135.

Marine insurance has been undertaken since 1947.

Prior to 1950 the amounts which were returned to policy-holders by way of bonus rebates were included in net premium income and as a contra expenditure item. In 1950, however, they were excluded from the accounting system, and this has necessitated the revision of the figures of net premium income and total net income for the years 1946–1949 shown in the next table.

At the end of 1936 the bonus rebates then in existence were converted into permanent premium rate reductions, a new series of bonus rebates being instituted at the same time. On 1st March, 1944, premium rates on wooden buildings were further reduced and in addition, bonus rebates were once more converted into permanent premium rate reductions, a further series of 10 per cent. on wooden risks and 15 per cent. on brick risks being granted at the same time. This series was increased on 1st November, 1947, to 20 per cent. on renewals on both wooden and brick risks.

Losses paid during 1950 increased by £14,035 over the previous year, making a total of £71,362, and working-expenses increased by £8,139 to £103,438, while levies to Fire Boards increased by £4,888 to £28,015. Notwithstanding these increases, the Office, after making allowance of £80,235 for taxation, showed a surplus of £53,238. The surplus in 1949 was £48,323.

Year.Net Premium Income.Total Net Income.*Net Losses.Accumulated Funds.Total Assets,

* Excluding reserve for unearned premiums.

† Marine insurance business is included.

1946203,205328,09458,4831,375,3981,646,601
1947228,599312,10347,1941,429,7311,822,733
1948244,785317,85247,6841,481,6041,726,886
1949261,981330,17257,3271,544,3671,825,862
1950293,989354,07771,3621,592,0612,341,849

The ratio of claims to earned premiums in 1950 was 23.8 per cent., as compared with 18.2 per cent. in 1949; the working-expenses (including Fire Board levies) ratio was 43.8 per cent., against 37.6 per cent.; while the ratio of taxes to total income was 22.3 per cent., as against 21.3 per cent. in 1949.

EARTHQUAKE AND WAR DAMAGE INSURANCE.—The War Damage Act, 1941, and its amendment of 1942 made provision for the insurance of property against damage suffered as a result of the Second World War. The Act was brought into operation by Proclamation as from 19th December, 1941, but the application of its compulsory provisions was deferred until 1st March, 1942. By virtue of the Earthquake Damage Regulations 1944, any property insured against war damage under the War Damage Act was, as from 1st March, 1944, deemed to be insured to the same amount against earthquake damage also.

The Earthquake and War Damage Act, 1944, which came into force on 1st January, 1945, follows on the same general lines as the War Damage Act, which was repealed. It also revoked the Earthquake Damage Emergency Regulations. A brief outline of the provisions of the Earthquake and War Damage Act is as follows:—

The Act established within the Public Account a separate account called the Earthquake and War Damage Fund. The Fund is administered by the Earthquake and War Damage Commission, consisting of the Minister of Finance as Chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the State Fire Insurance General Manager, and four other members.

The Act provides for both compulsory and voluntary insurance against earthquake and war damage. Under the compulsory provisions of the original Act all property insured to any amount under any contract of lire insurance with an insurance company is deemed to be insured to the same amount against earthquake damage and war damage. An amending Act passed in 1951, however, provides that where the contract of fire insurance provides for the settlement of the claim upon the basis of the replacement value, the compulsory earthquake and war damage insurance with be for the amount of the indemnity or present value only. If the present value is certified by a registered architect or a registered valuer, the earthquake and war damage premium will be charged on the amount so certified. Under the voluntary provisions of the Act, any person having an insurable interest in any property may make application to the Commission for earthquake or war damage insurance, and a contract may be made for the insurance of any property that is not insured under the compulsory section of the Act, or for the insurance to an additional amount of any property that is so insured. Premiums at the prescribed rates (originally 5s. per £100 of insurance cover, reduced to 1s. per £100 of cover as from 1st March, 1944) are collected by the insurance companies and paid into the Fund. Since 1st March, 1944, a commission of 2 1/2 per cent. has been allowed on all premiums collected.

Advances may be made from the Consolidated Fund if at any time the amount in the Earthquake and War Damage Fund is not sufficient to meet the claims thereon.

“Earthquake damage” is defined as damage occurring as the direct result of earthquake or of fire occasioned by or in consequence of earthquake. It also includes damage occurring as the direct result of measures taken under proper authority to avoid the spreading of, or otherwise to mitigate the consequence of, any such damage. In addition to damage occurring as a direct result of action by the enemy, “war damage” included damage occurring as the direct result of measures taken in combating the enemy or precautionary or preparatory measures taken under proper authority with a view to preventing or hindering any enemy or anticipated enemy action. It also includes accidental damage occurring as the direct result of any explosion or fire which involves any explosives or munitions, &c., required for war purposes.

During the financial year 1949–50 a scheme of insurance was instituted as a consequence of the Frankton Junction disaster in 1948, in order to afford some measure of financial relief to those whose property, already insured against earthquake and war damage, might suffer damage through storm and flood which “is of an abnormal and unforeseen nature and is of extraordinary and widespread effect.”

Finance is provided by crediting 10 per cent. of the premiums collected under the compulsory provisions of the Earthquake and War Damage Act to a special Disaster Fund, without further liability on the Earthquake and War Damage Fund. The 10-per-cent. deduction represents the equivalent of 1.2d. per cent. as the rate for extraordinary disaster cover.

Regulations have been issued which empower the Commission to issue cover to applicants on any class of property against damage by storm or flood. In such cases the Commission has authority to modify the limiting conditions applicable to the extraordinary disaster insurance, on payment of a premium appropriate to the particular risk.

Necessarily limited though the cover is by the disaster definition as well as by the “franchise” or “first loss” deduction of 5 per cent. on insurances up to £3,000, and 10 per cent. on the excess of £3,000, quite a number of claims have been admitted. During the five months of the financial year 1949–50 in which the scheme was in operation 89 claims were received and a similar number was received in the year ended 31st March, 1951. Claims paid and outstanding in the first period amounted to £6,605, and in the second period to £1,986, while premiums totalled £24,158 and £70,628 respectively. The amount of the Fund at 31st March, 1951, was £66,483.

The following is a comparative statement for the last six years of the operations of the Earthquake and War Damage Act together with a statement showing the position from the inception of the Fund to the 31st March 1945.

19th Dec., 1941, to 31st Mar.,1945–46.1946 47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.

* Figures cover last five months of year, i.e., from commencement in November, 1949.

Income—       
  Premiums—£££££££
    Earthquake and war damage4,232,166365,861410,065494,938540,704553,009631,982
    Storm and flood     24,158*70,628
    Interest173,608104,72594,860129,957129,591179,761192,871
      Totals4,405,774470,586504,925624,895670,295766,928895,481
Outgo-       
  Claims—       
    Earthquake and war damage1,0935071,7797,91712,8762,16119,341
    Storm and flood     6,606*1,986
    Salaries and expenses of management14,6343,3314,3283,9034,3083,4263,942
    Discount to insurance offices8,8348,7339,96511,84313,57314,94717,652
    Exchange adjustment24,561   339,525  
      Totals24,56112,57116,07223,663370,28227,14042,921
Surplus4,381,213458,015488,853601,232300,013739,788852,560
Earthquake and War Damage4,381,2134,839,2285,328,0815,929,3136,229,3266,952,2927,738,370
Fund Disaster Fund     16,82283,305

The item “exchange adjustment” of £339,525 in 1948–19 is the depreciation in the New Zealand value of the Commission's overseas funds as the result of the alteration in the exchange-rate to parity with sterling which came into operation during 1948.

MORTGAGEES' INDEMNITY INSURANCE.—The Mortgagees' Indemnity (Workers' Charges) Act, 1927, provides that when mortgages are presented for stamping, an additional stamp duty of 1s., known as a mortgagee's indemnity fee, is to be paid. The indemnity fees are paid into the Consolidated Fund, from which losses incurred by mortgagees through the enforcement of charges under the Workers' Compensation Act are met. A section of the Act definitely absolves the mortgagor from any obligation to insure or keep insured the mortgagee against loss of this nature in respect of any mortgage under the Act.

Chapter 31. SECTION 31—FRIENDLY SOCIETIES

THE legislation dealing with friendly societies is contained in the Friendly Societies Act, 1909, and its amendments. Provision is made for the registration of all societies and branches with the Registrar of Friendly Societies, and also for the general superintendence by the Government of the administration of the funds of the societies.

A scheme for the extension of State benefits to members of friendly societies, on special terms, was introduced by the Finance Act, 1916, and is now embodied in the National Provident Fund Act, 1950—see Section 26, Social Security, Pensions, Superannuation, &c.

LODGES AND MEMBERS.—The table following gives the number of registrations (i.e., of friendly societies proper, or lodges, together with benevolent societies, working-men's clubs, &c., registered under the Act) and of lodge members as at 31st December of the years shown.

Name of Order.Registrations.Lodge Members.
1948.1949.1950.1948.1949.1950.

* Membership figures relate to “actuarial” societies only.

Manchester Unity Independent Order of Oddfellows25525425228,47928,20028,207
Independent Order of Oddfellows1951911938,9088,6258,695
National Independent Order of Oddfellows1111059894
Ancient Order of Foresters14714714313,23012,89712,421
United Ancient Order of Druids14314314316,89816,57316,324
Independent Order of Rechabites6260573,6923,5693,462
Order of Sons of Temperance1088434436430
Sons and Daughters of Temperance1111049993
Hibernian-Australasian Catholic Benefit Society8080803,7513,8013,791
Protestant Alliance Friendly Society of Australasia121212621608580
Grand United Order of Oddfellows101010279275259
Isolated friendly societies697070633*640*635*
Working-men's clubs152323   
International Order of Good Templars111111   
Specially authorized societies202019   
      Totals1,0311,0311,02377,13476,02174,991

Annual returns of receipts, expenditure, &c., of lodges are required by law. For the year 1950 the Registrar of Friendly Societies received returns from 858 lodges, with an aggregate membership of 74,991 at the end of the year, as compared with 865 lodges and 76,021 members for 1949. During the year 2,405 members were admitted by initiation, &c., and 357 by clearance; 1,159 died, 412 left by clearance, and 2,221 by arrears, &c.

The aggregate membership of lodges increased year by year, reaching a peak in 1930, when the total was 107,167. The economic depression probably accounted for the decrease in each of the following three years, the number at the end of 1933 being 100,237. A series of increases then commenced, the 1930 level being passed in 1936, and by 31st December, 1938, a total of 113,709 had been reached. Each of the succeeding years, however, has witnessed a fall in membership, the number at the end of 1950 being 74,991 or 34 per cent. less than in 1938. The various benefits under the Social Security scheme, particularly medical and hospital benefits (see Section 26), have no doubt had a considerable effect on the membership of friendly societies. Circumstances arising from the late war may also have been a contributing factor.

The statistics given subsequently relate to the lodges (858 in 1950) for which returns were received and tabulated.

MORTALITY AND SICKNESS.—In the following statement of the mortality experience for the last five years no account has been taken of age incidence.

Year.Deaths of Members.Per 1,000 Members at Risk.Deaths of Members' Wives.Per 1,000 Members at Risk.
19461,20714.663834.65
19471,15814.5737]4.67
19481,19215.203204.08
19491,14714.873564.61
19501,15915.233134.11

The number of members sick during 1950 was 14,425, equal to 19.7 per 100 members at risk. The sickness experienced during 1950 was 314,185 weeks, equal to 21 weeks 5 (lays per sick member and 4 weeks 2 days for each member at risk.

FUNDS OF FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.—The total funds of the societies and branches as at the 31st December, 1950, amounted to £6,858,062, made up as follows.

Funds.Amount.
 £
Sick and Funeral Funds5,371,594
Surplus Appropriation Funds, &c.891,369
Management Funds, goods, &c.341,789
Distress, Benevolent Funds, &c.253,310
      Total£6,858,062
Assets.Amount.
 £
Investments at interest6,345,878
Value of land and buildings290,665
Cash not bearing interest169,337
Value of goods19,756
Other assets28,145
Owing by Management Funds4,281
      Total£6,858,062

The net income from investments credited to the Sick and Funeral Funds for 1950 amounted to £227,705, the average rate being £4 7s. 7d. per cent., as against £4 6s. 11d. in 1949.

There has been over many years a continuous increase in the amount of accumulated funds standing to the credit of friendly societies, the increase in the last ten years amounting to £1,323,694, or 24 per cent. The average capital per member has also appreciably increased, the gain in the last ten years amounting to £38 9s. 3d. (73 per cent.). The substantial fall in membership over the last ten years has resulted in outstanding increases being shown for the average capital per member.

Year.Total Funds.Average Capital per Member.
 ££ s. d.
19405,534,36852 19 9
19415,670,75758 12 1
19425,790,52163 5 5
19435,897,95967 0 4
19446,018,83170 14 8
19466,135,41373 18 0
19466,278,40978 0 11
19476,419,52381 15 5
19486,568,03985 3 0
19496,706,71388 4 5
19506,858,06291 9 0

The contributions and entrance fees paid to Sick and Funeral Funds in 1950 amounted to £164,444. Divided by the mean number of members, the average for 1950 was £2 3s. 7d., as against £2 1s. 10d. for 1949.

The interest and rent received by the lodges and central bodies amounted to £227,705 in 1950, equal to £3 0s. 4d. per member, as against £2 18s. 9d. for 1949.

The amount of sickness benefit paid was £166,689 in 1950, equal to £11 11s. 1d. per member sick and £2 4s. 2d. per member, as against £11 9s. 1d. and £2 4s. 1d. respectively for 1949. Viewing the amount paid in relation to the weeks of sickness, the average benefit per week is found to be 10s. 7d. in 1950, as against 10s. 6d. for 1949.

The funeral benefit paid amounted to £62,774 in 1950, equal to 16s. 8d. per member, as compared with 16s. 7d. for 1949.

The total worth of the Sick and Funeral Funds at the beginning of 1950 was £5,252,029, and at the end of the year £5,371,594.

Chapter 32. SECTION 32—BUILDING SOCIETIES

THE law relating to building societies incorporated in New Zealand is contained in the Building Societies Act, 1908, which is a consolidation of earlier legislation, most of which had been operative since 1880. The Assistant Registrar of Companies in each district acts as Registrar of Building Societies. Rules, as well as subsequent alterations thereof, must be certified before registration as conforming to legal requirements—by a revising barrister appointed by the Governor-General for the purpose. No stamp duties are payable on documents made under the Act, or generally in respect of building society transactions.

Building societies are afforded all the powers and rights of an ordinary mortgagee, a description of which is contained in the next section (“Mortgages”). No reconveyance is needed to discharge a mortgage made under the Act, a receipt endorsed being a sufficient discharge for this purpose.

Authority was taken in the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, to fix by Order in Council the maximum rate of interest payable on deposits with building societies. Maximum rates payable on these and other deposits fixed by subsequent Orders in Council are given on page 692.

Returns of each society's operations are furnished annually to the Census and Statistics Department.

A distinction is made between permanent and terminating societies. A permanent society is statutorily defined as one which has not by its rules any fixed date or specified result at which it shall terminate, and a terminating society as one which by its rules is to terminate at a fixed date, or when a result specified in its rules is attained. In practice a terminating society, or a group thereof, closes when every member so desiring has obtained a loan. There is a considerable difference between the two types of societies, the terminating society being a purely co-operative institution belonging to and managed by the members, proprietary interests being discouraged by placing a limit to the number of shares (usually ton) that any member may hold in any one group. There is however, nothing to prevent a member from holding the maximum number of shares in more than one group. In a typical terminating society contributions are at the rate of 1s. per week per share, each share entitling a member in due course to £200 of loan, with a maximum, until recently, of £1,200. As £1,200 is not sufficient to meet the needs of the average prospective house owner on present-day costs, there is a tendency for the limit to be raised. In some groups of the terminating societies the loan maximum in now £2,000. It is these contributions, together with premiums on loans mentioned later, which make up the funds from which loans are made. Loans are made to members both by ballot and by auction, the latter going for the highest premium offered. Security is required for the loans, which are repaid, free of interest, in periods varying from ten to twenty years. The weekly payment of 1s. per share is continued, usually till the end of the group, but sometimes only until the total contributions paid in plus profits credited to the shareholder, equal the amount owing on the loan. The shareholder's credit balance is then transferred to extinguish the loan. The profit of the society is derived from premiums on loans sold by auction.

Permanent societies are more in the nature of finance companies, and while both investors and borrowers must be members, the borrower is frequently merely a nominal member. Investments in a permanent society may be made in either large or small amounts. Capital may be raised by sharer with a fixed rate of interest, or subject to dividends varying according to profits. As will be observed from the statistics which follow, terminating societies do not issue capital shares. Bonds, debentures, deposits, and overdraft are other methods of financing. The principal object of a permanent society is to lend money at a profit on land and buildings, either freehold or leasehold. Table mortgages are normally adopted, the usual term of repayment being up to 20 years. The statistics refer generally to years ending on the 31st day of March.

NUMBER OF SOCIETIES AND SHARES.—The number of societies in existence in 1949–50 was 81, of which 56 were permanent and 25 terminating. The number of permanent societies has shown little variation during the last ten years, but terminating societies have decreased markedly.

Permanent Societies.—The following table shows for the years 1945–46 to 1949–50 particulars of the number of permanent societies, the numbers of shares (distinguishing investing shares from capital shares), and the number of members holding each class.

1945–46.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.
Number of societies5757575656
Investing Shares     
Number of shares320,633327,988352,315393,213437,204
Members holding22,03022,44223,97425,07326,152
Aggregate value£2,505,816£2,604,868£3,108,563£3,808,631£4,629,338
Capital Shares     
Number of shares622,176632,706641,092641,553656,075
Members holding5,6855,9345,8675,7405,363
Aggregate value£1,588,623£l,620,663£1,629,286£1,623,876£1,653,272

At March, 1950, the average value of each investing share was £10 12s., and the average value of such shares held by each member was £176 19s. The comparative figures for capital shares were £2 10s. and £308 6s.

Terminating Societies.—Although the number of terminating societies has declined (no new societies having been registered for some years), the total membership and value of shares have increased substantially. As stated earlier, one person may hold shares in several groups of a terminating society. The next table shows the progress of terminating societies during the years 1945–46 to 1949–50. ft should be noted that the information pertaining to shares relates to investing or contributory shares, there being no capital shares in a terminating society.

Societies.Groups.Members Holding Shares.Investing Shares.
Number.Value.
     £
1945–463420547,627215,6522,831,593
1946–473322660,094260,9903,204,032
1947–483324967,017321,6973,596,224
1948–492725183,927391,3614,075,832
1949–502526499,150462,3494,793,996

The average value per share in 1949–50 was £10 7s., and the average value of shares held per member was £48 7s. The figures for 1945–46 were, respectively, £13 3s. and £59 9s. The large increases in new shares taken up in recent years has considerably reduced the time in which the average share has been in existence, and the average value per share has dropped in consequence.

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.—Following is a summary of receipts and payments for all societies during each of the five years 1945–46 to 1949–50.

1945–46.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.
Receipts£££££
Investors' subscriptions and capital shares896,0771,057,1371,351,1701,668,7991,985,464
Advances repaid1,631,2371,713,7411,646,8681,764,5081,869,886
Deposits1,329,8751,234,3621,375,9911,439,2831,326,076
Interest406,957410,315428,375454,408480,109
Other receipts301,989414,841456,193463,247413,312
      Total receipts4,566,1354,830,3965,258,5975,790,2456,074,847
Payments     
Withdrawals.357,224407,936450,366486,172549,998
Advances2,220,8742,361,3302,907,4343,062,7463,301,907
Expenses of management103,508124,670147,859154,798170,421
Dividends paid88,24583,08179,91982,28384,196
Deposits repaid1,316,0501,241,0981,343,8561,489,3491,406,250
Interest paid118,583117,460111,633120,411136,367
Other payments311,837417,370446,103373,766385,891
      Total payments4,516,3214,752,9455,487,1705,769,5256,035,030

Share subscriptions have risen substantially in sympathy with the increase in membership. For the past three years the ratio of loan repayments to advances has been at. a lower level, the percentage being 56.6 in 1947–48, 57.6 in 1948–49, and 56.6 in 1949–50. The corresponding ratio in 1946–47 was 72.6 per cent. As usual, the deposits receipts and deposits repayments approximately balanced, but the volume of deposits continued to be considerably smaller than in pre-war years.

LOANS.—The number and amount of loans at the end of each of the live years quoted were as follows.

Year.Permanent Societies.Terminating Societies.Total.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.*Number.Amount.

* Includes balance owing on premiums on loans.

  £ £ £
1945–4614,7808,891,4678,7583,587,97023,53812,479,437
1946–4714,7009,170,0068,5964,090,93423,29613,260,940
1947–4814,8289,748,2439,2504,162,90124,07813,911,144
1948–4915,12910,367,8929,0714,593,31424,20014,961,206
1949–5015,34411,044,05910,3825,302,84625,72616,346,905

The average amount owing by each borrower at the end of each of the live year quoted was—

Class.1945–46.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.
 £££££
Permanent societies602624657685720
Terminating societies410476578506511
All societies530569578618635

Particulars of loans granted during each of the years 1945–46 to 1949–50 were as follows.

Year.Permanent Societies.Terminating Societies.
By Ballot.By Auction.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Premiums.
  £ £ ££
1945–462,2601,484,274620381,623668392,756128,831
1946–472,4211,548,873647417,523853534,004152,875
1947–482,5841,811,368791572,810881560,236195,328
1948–492,6971,911,717749507,610962613,196229,347
1949–502,5301,910,709812585,0161,156778,271243,468

The totals for loans in the above table represent loans granted and differ slightly from the figures shown as advances in the table relating to receipts and payments, where the amounts refer to payments actually made in respect of loans. Including the premiums on loans the average amount of loan was £738 in 1947–48, £740 in 1948–49, and £782 in 1949–50.

The average premium on loans auctioned declined progressively from £27.6 per cent. in 1931–32 to £20.0 per cent. in 1935–36 in sympathy with the downward trend in interest rates. For the last three years the average premiums were: 1947–48, £34.9 per cent.; 1948–49, £37.4 per cent.; and 1949–50, £31.3 per cent. Although ruling interest rates are below the pre-war level, the average term for loan repayments is longer by some live years than formerly, resulting in increased premium rates.

Commencing with the year 1937–38, statistics of building societies were extended to include a classification of loans into (1) loans granted to finance the erection of new dwellings, and (2) loans granted to finance the purchase of dwellings already built. For the purposes of the statistics new dwellings are deemed to include those which have been built by the borrower during the twelve months preceding the granting of the loan. Particulars for 1949–50, with totals for earlier years, are given in the following table.

To Finance the Erection of New Dwellings.To Finance the Purchase of Dwellings already Built.For Other and Unspecified Purposes.Totals.
No.Amount.No.Amount.No.Amount.No.Amount.
  £ £ £ £
Permanent societies584660,6321,101924,406845325,6712,5301,910,709
Terminating societies—        
By ballot157125,058325265,825330194,133812585,016
By auction288230,870471380,336397167,0651,156778,271
  Totals, all societies—        
    1949–501,0291,016,5601,8971,570,5671,572686,8694,4983,273,996
    1948–491,029972,2001,9181,380,1401,461680,1834,4083,032,523
    1947–48906877,1981,9351,397,2691,415669,9474,2562,944,414
    1946–47633517,6121,9751,370,4441,313582,3443,9212,500,400
    1945–46473425,4311,9731,286,4131,102546,8093,5482,258,653

The considerable number of loans shown for other and unspecified purposes is due to the fact that some societies are unable to give the necessary classification, so that it may be taken that the foregoing table understates the number of loans actually granted for the erection or purchase of dwellings.

During the early post-war years, loans for building purposes increased rapidly, but the demand has not been maintained at a comparable rate, probably because of the marked rise in building costs. Loans granted for the purchase of existing dwellings actually decreased in each year following 1946–47. A factor hero may have been the effect of the legislation controlling transactions in real property operating during the period.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.—The liabilities and assets of building societies for each of the years 1945–46 to 1949–50 are given in the next table.

LIABILITIES

Year.To Shareholders (including Reserve Funds and Undivided Profits).Deposits.Appropriations not taken up, or in Trust.To Bankers and other Creditors.Total Liabilities.
 £££££
1945–468,529,0334,589,615463,988357,95413,940,590
1946–479,157,5224,671,793599,789443,71314,872,817
1947–4810,211,7954,610,555614,104703,09716,139,551
1948–4911,511,4534,267,102731,575814,01817,324,148
1949–5013,238,0294,035,617857,184877,67119,008,501

ASSETS

Year.Advances on Mortgage.*Other Investments and Assets.Cash in Hand and at Bank.Total Assets.

* Includes balance owing on premiums on loans.

 ££££
1945–4612,479,437968,896492,25713,940,590
1946–4713,260,9401,174,856437,02114,872,817
1947–4814,482,8631,374,966281,72216,139,551
1948–4915,719,4851,311,679292,98417,324,148
1949–5017,244,1361,462,543301,82219,008,501

Prior to 1947–48 the ratio of advances on mortgage to total assets had been falling slightly but steadily. In 1946–47 the ratio was. 89.2 per cent., against the 90.2 per cent. disclosed by the 1943–44 figures. This probably indicated some difficulty, not very pronounced, in finding suitable mortgage investments. During 1948–49 and 1949–50 the ratio was restored to 90.7 per cent. Appropriations not taken up or in trust have more than doubled in amount during the last five years.

Chapter 33. SECTION 33—MORTGAGES

MORTGAGE LAW.—Under the Property Law Act a “mortgage” is defined as including a charge on any property for securing money or money's worth; and “mortgage-money” means money or money's worth secured by a mortgage. Under the Land Transfer Act “mortgage” means and includes any charge on land created under the provisions of that Act for securing—

  • The repayment of a loan or satisfaction of an existing debt;

  • The repayment of future advances, or repayment or satisfaction of any future or unascertained debt or liability, contingent or otherwise;

  • The payment to the holders for the time being of any bonds, debentures, promissory notes, or other securities, negotiable or otherwise, made or issued by the mortgagor before or after the creation of such charge;

  • The payment to any person or persons by yearly or periodical payments or otherwise of an annuity, rent-charge, or sum of money other than a debt.

Where the ownership of land is registered under the Land Transfer Act (as, see Section 17A, the great majority of land titles now are) mortgages on that land are granted by virtue of the provisions of that Act: they take effect as securities and do not operate as transfers of the estate or interest charged. In the case of other land or property a mortgage is granted under what is known as the deeds or deeds-registration system; the mortgage in this instance operating as a conveyance or assignment of the land or property mortgaged, for the mortgagee becomes the registered proprietor of the land, subject to the right of the mortgagor to have the property re-registered in his name on the discharge of his obligations under the mortgage. Although in form a mortgage under the deeds system is a conveyance, in equity it is treated as merely a charge on the land.

Property that may be mortgaged.—Any land covered by the definitions of “land” in the Property Law Act, 1908, and the Land Transfer Act, 1915, may be mortgaged. Where, however, property is subject to restrictions upon alienation, these restrictions usually apply to prevent such property being mortgaged. The following are the main instances in which mortgage of property is forbidden by law:—

  • Family homes registered under the Family Protection Act, 1908.

  • Maintenance-moneys under the Family Protection Act, 1908.

  • Inalienable life annuities (Inalienable Life Annuities Act, 1910).

  • Pensions under the War Pensions Act.

  • Monetary benefits under the Social Security Act, 1938.

  • Property subject to restraint upon anticipation, unless by consent of the Supreme Court.

  • Property subject to restraint upon alienation in accordance with section 24 of the Property Law Act, 1908.

  • An infant's property, by the infant (Infants Act, 1908, sections 12 and 13).

Redemption.—A memorandum of discharge vacates the mortgage debt and operates as a deed of reconveyance of the estate and interest of the mortgagee in the mortgaged property “to the person for the time being entitled to the equity of redemption”; but the mortgagee may execute a deed of reconveyance “if ho thinks fit and the mortgagor requires it.” The Public Trustee is empowered to receive mortgage-moneys on account of absentee mortgagees, and in the case of a deed of mortgage to execute the necessary memorandum of discharge. A mortgagor may redeem in the following cases:—

  • Before the due date, on payment of interest for the unexpired term of the mortgage. A special provision in the Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act extends the powers of a mortgagor to redeem in certain cases before the due date.

  • At the due date, in accordance with the provisions of the mortgage.

  • After the duo date, upon giving three months' notice in writing or paying three months' interest in lieu of notice, except where the mortgagee is or has been in possession or has taken steps to enforce his security, in which case the mortgagor may redeem at any time upon payment of all moneys due.

  • After default and before sale by the mortgagee. If the mortgagee has entered into possession of the mortgaged land or part of it, the mortgagor loses his right of redemption after twenty years from the date of the mortgagee's entering into possession, or after twenty years from the last written acknowledgment of the mortgagor's title or of his right to redeem.

The Property Law Act abolished what was formerly known as the doctrine of consolidation of mortgages. Where a mortgagor is liable under more than one mortgage, he may now pay off one mortgage without being called on to pay off any mortgage or mortgages on properly not comprised in the mortgage he is paying off.

Rights of Mortgagee.—Under New Zealand law a mortgagee has no power of foreclosure in respect of realty. The following represent his principal rights:—

  • He is entitled to the custody of the title-deeds of the property mortgaged.

  • He may sue on the personal covenant contained in the mortgage-deed.

  • He may enter and take possession. This right is exercisable either by actually entering upon the land or a part of it or by bringing an action for possession. At least one month's notice of the intention to exercise the right must be served on the owner for the time being of the land subject to the mortgage. If there is a tenant whose rights are binding on the mortgagee, the latter can give notice to the tenant to pay the rent to him, and this will be equivalent to taking possession.

  • He may assign his interest, either absolutely or by way of submortgage.

  • He may sell, either under the express powers (if any) in the mortgage-deed, or under powers implied by statute, if these have not been negatived in the deed.

  • Instead of selling, as above, a mortgagee entitled to exercise his power of sale may apply to the Registrar of the Supreme Court to conduct the sale. The mortgagee must state in his application the estimated value of the land, and the date of the sale must be not less than one month and not more than three months from the date of the application. He may bid at the sale and become the purchaser of the land, but in such case the amount paid for the land shall not be less than the value of the land as estimated. If it is the mortgagor must be allowed in account the full amount of the estimate. As in the case of the right to enter and take possession, no power of sale shall become exercisable unless at least one month's notice of the contemplated action has been served on the owner of the land.

MORTGAGORS AND LESSEES REHABILITATION.—The economic conditions prevailing in New Zealand consequent upon the world-wide depression led to the enactment in the early months of 1931 of legislation designed for the relief of mortgagors. The complexity of the problem necessitated much further legislation, and a consolidating Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act was passed in December, 1933. The Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act, 1934–35, which was passed in April, 1935, represented a definite attempt on the part of the Government to effect a final clearing-up of the burden of rural indebtedness. Both these enactments were repealed by the Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act, 1936, a description of which may be found in the 1940 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 743–7).

In addition to the relief granted to mortgagors by way of adjustment of their liabilities, a reduction in interest-rates was effected by Part III of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932. The reduction in the rate of interest was 20 per cent., but the reduced rate was not to be below 6 1/2 per cent. in the case of chattel mortgages, nor 5 per cent. in the case of other mortgages, except in the case of income-tax-free company debentures to which section 171 of the Land and Income Tax Act, 1923, was applicable. In such cases the minimum was fixed at 4 1/2 per cent. The Act originally applied to interest accruing on or after 1st April, 1932, and before 1st April, 1935, but the reduction was later made permanent. Mortgages (not being for a fixed term, expired or unexpired) securing the repayment of principal, moneys repayable on demand, and mortgages executed after 1st April, 1932, are exempt from the provisions of the Act.

The maximum rates of interest payable under mortgages adjusted in terms of the Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act, 1936, were fixed by Order in Council at 4 3/4 per cent. per annum for first mortgages on land and 6 per cent. for all other mortgages.

The Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act set up a Court of Record entitled the Court of Review, and provided for the appointment of Adjustment Commissions. Orders made by these Commissions in adjustment of mortgages, &c., wore registered with the Court. Statements showing the number of applications dealt with, and the extent to which relief was granted to mortgagors and lessees in those cases where orders were made by Adjustment Commissions and filed in the Court of Review are given on page 571 of the 1947–49 Year-Book.

WAR REGULATIONS AFFECTING MORTGAGES.—Following the outbreak of war in September, 1939, the Courts Emergency Powers Regulations 1939 provided that no person could, without the leave of the appropriate Court, do or complete certain acts in respect of existing contracts, &c. These acts included the calling-up of sums secured by mortgage, the exercise of a power of sale under a mortgage, and the commencement or continuation of proceedings for the breach of a covenant under a mortgage other than a covenant for the payment of interest.

The 1939 regulations referred to were superseded by the Debtors Emergency Regulations 1940, and special provisions for the relief of mortgagors were made at the same time (31st July, 1940) by the Mortgages Extension Emergency Regulations 1940. The Mortgages Extension Emergency Regulations applied to all mortgages whether executed before or after the commencement of the regulations, and notwithstanding that any power of sale, rescission, or entry into possession may have been exercised. An amendment in 1941 made special provision in respect of mortgages covering stock on, or produce of, mortgaged land. An outline of these regulations, which were revoked as from 22nd November, 1947, is contained on pages 546–7 of the 1946 Year Book.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED AND DISCHARGED.—A table is given showing the amount represented by mortgages registered and discharged during each of the last twenty years.

Year Ended 31st March,Mortgages Registered.Mortgages Discharged.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £ £
193219,02413,410,58114,86010,036,385
193314,0109,161,66311,3038,149,35,5
193412,7257,802,85311,1009,086,847
193515,14211,845,63414,72413,732,853
193619,11816,227,05818,57817,553,233
193722,31819,697,06421,82219,799, 186
193824,04319,008,18423,62919,344,030
193925,18420,041,44622,94316,594,825
194022,63217,621,11220,69414,101,049
194121,66016,267,27422,89715,933,724
194220,66714,549,55522,57715,098,801
194317,07512,140,51323,70816,679,795
194419,92815,596,79027,16120,029,988
194521,21218,099,86127,41421,012,079
194624,51622,519,12229,17423,313,916
194729,88231,088,75032,23425,947,489
194829,89332,041,08529,00225,396,004
194929,57835,298,60026,64223,375,257
195030,35236,005,52226,09323,101,350
195143,87545,819,69135,50332,266,362

The figures given in the preceding table have been adjusted to exclude duplicate registrations—i.e., cases in which a mortgage has been registered in more than one district. It should also be noted that the figures include collateral mortgages and guarantee mortgages not representing money indebtedness. On the other hand, no amount is shown as secured in a proportion of cases where a mortgage is given in anticipation of advances, &c. In addition there are numbers of privately arranged advances which are not registered; and stock and crop liens, bills of sale, and instruments under the Chattels Transfer Act are not included in the statistics.

Many discharges are not registered, particularly in the case of leaseholds and also of second or other further mortgages when the power of sale has been exercised by the first mortgagee. The figures for discharges are further affected by the high proportion of table mortgages. This is particularly so in cases where the mortgage is approaching maturity, since the whole amount remains on the register until finally discharged, despite the fact that the original amount of indebtedness has been considerably reduced.

Mortgages registered.—The total amount for which mortgages were registered, both under the deeds-registration system and under the Land Transfer Act, in each registration district during the last five financial years is given in the next table.

District.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1919–50.1950–51.
 £££££
Auckland9,489,3289,498,63211,563,86412,462,67215,593,144
Gisborne458,983551,194584,967670,627743,511
Hawke's Bay1,784,5841,925,1292,023,9102,252,8452,420,913
Taranaki1,696,7081,637,1721,580,4271,476,3191,709,536
Wellington6,263,4746,961,8727,415,5087,243,9269,993,702
Marlborough447,766479,260497,329532,115549,056
Nelson925,6491,010,617908,9321,026,2081,275,379
Westland270,837330,102286,272278,687299,732
Canterbury5,366,1285,309,1955,710,6555,486,7906,929,144
Otago3,035,9962,735,5983,034,6972,749,0424,261,996
Southland1,947,0471,873,3691,787,2491,869,5752,279,616
      Gross totals31,686,50032,312,14035,393,81036,048,80446,055,729
      Duplications597,750271,05595,21043,282236,038
      Net totals31,088,75032,041,08535,298,60036,005,52245,819,691

Mortgage registrations, which declined appreciably during the first three years following the outbreak of war, commenced to move upwards again early in 1943. In each succeeding year a substantial increase was recorded, but it was not until 1945–46 that the figures of the pre-war year 1938–39 were exceeded. In the next year (1946–47) a particularly heavy increase was recorded, the net amount for that year being £8,569,628, or 38.1 per cent. greater than in 1945–46. Each succeeding year has shown a further increase. Moreover, following on the exemption from control of the sale of all lands, other than farm lands, in February, 1950, and of farm lands in November, 1950 (see page 363). there was a particularly marked increase in mortgage registrations in 1950–51, the total of £45,819,691 exceeding that of the previous year by £9,814,169, or 27.3 per cent. The high figures of the last few years have also been contributed to in some measure by the registration of mortgages in respect of rehabilitation assistance granted to ex-servicemen. The number of mortgages comprising the net aggregate in 1950–51 was 34,050, an increase of 7,729 over the total for 1949–50, these figures being exclusive of registrations in which the amount of consideration was not stated.

Of the net total of £45,819,691 registered in 1950–51, only £2,478 was in respect of mortgages under the deeds system. In recent years this amount has fallen to almost negligible proportions as a result of the passing of the Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act, 1924, which provided for the bringing of all land titles under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act. This work has now been practically completed, although there are a few titles that it has been considered unwise to deal with at the present owing to grave doubts as to ownership or for some other reason (see Section 17A).

Classification by Amount.—Of the net total of £46,055,729 registered for the financial year 1950–51, mortgages up to £500 in value represented 6.1 per cent. of the total; from £501 to £1,000, 13.5 per cent.; from £1,001 to £5,000, 60.3 per cent.; and above £5,000, 20.1 per cent. In regard to numbers, however, 29.1 per cent. were for amounts not exceeding £500, 23d per cent. for amounts from £501 to £1,000, 45.1 per cent. for amounts from £1,001 to £5,000, and only 2.7 per cent. for amounts exceeding £5,000. The following table gives the number and amount for town and suburban and country properties according to the sum secured.

Town and Suburban.Country.All Properties.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
£ £ £ £ £
500 and under8,8402,459,3931,082332,1799,9222,791,572
501 to 1,0006,792343,7441,073857,0737,8656,200,817
1,001 " 2,00010,94616,456,4771,4232,211,37612,36918,667,853
2,001 3,0001,1842,923,8706571,693,9961,8414,617,866
3,001 " 4,000270961,5194471,601,2627172,562,781
4,001 " 5,000119557,7313001,393,5954191,951,326
5,001 " 7,500100628,3574332,661,1315333,289,488
Over 7,5001492,700,6842503,273,3423995,974,026
Unspecified7,302 2,523 9,825 
  Gross totals35,70232,031,7758,18814,023,95443,89046,5,729
  Duplications10118,7755117,26315236,038
  Net totals35,69231,913,0008,18313,906,69143,87545,819,691

Excluding mortgages for which no amounts were shown, the average amount for each mortgage registered in 1950–51 was £1,346, as compared with £1,368 in 1949–50.

Mortgages on Urban and Rural Securities.—Figures are available in the ease of land transfer mortgage registrations showing for each registration district the amounts advanced on urban and on rural properties. The distinction is between “town and suburban” and “country” holdings, but sufficient information to permit of a strictly accurate classification on that basis is not always available. Generally, however, mortgages are regarded as town and suburban if secured on properties situated within cities or boroughs, or on small holdings in the nature of building allotments which are not definitely distinguishable as country properties. Mortgages classified as town and suburban in 1950–51 were secured on areas averaging just over one-quarter of an acre in extent, as compared with an average area of some 297 acres in the case of “country” securities.

Town and suburban securities accounted for 81 per cent. of the number and 70 per cent. of the aggregate value of land-transfer mortgages in 1950–51, as compared with 19 per cent. and 30 per cent. respectively in the case of country properties.

The following table gives mortgages registered in the various districts during the year 1950–51 under the Laud Transfer Act.

District.Town and Suburban.Country.
Number.Area.Amount Secured.Number.Area.Amount Secured.
  Acres.£ Acres.£
Auckland12,4963,18810,699,2173,358566,0374,893,067
Gisborne565188436,07118896,674307,440
Hawke's Bay1,6304201,344,132464143,0771,076,781
Taranaki1,075301897,94047094,730811,596
Wellington7,7272,3037,884,259973281,8252,109,443
Marlborough396168287,313118154,077261,743
Nelson978255846,15329360,685427,608
Westland34581218,9467722,67880,786
Canterbury5,1291,2244,799,5841,069444,9362,129,560
Otago3,9498483,216,050670441,4261,045,946
Southland1,4073971,400,317507123,699879,299
    Totals35,6979,37332,029,9828,1872,429,84414,023,269

An eleven-year summary upon similar lines is also given. Mortgages on country properties after 1936–37 and for two years later in regard to town and suburban properties showed an almost continuous recession until 1943–44. Each subsequent year up to and including 1946–47 witnessed a substantial increase in mortgages on both urban and rural properties, the increase in 1946–47 being particularly heavy. The 1947–18 registrations showed little difference from those of the preceding year, though there were considerable increases in both categories for the 1948–49 year. The increase in urban mortgages continued in 1949–50, but with the lifting of the restrictions on the sale of all lands, other than farm lands, in February, 1950, there was a substantial increase in 1950–51 of £9,399,190, or 41.5 per cent., over the previous year. Following the decrease in mortgages on country properties in 1949–50 there was an increase in 1950–51 of £610,677, or 4.6 per cent., over the 1949–50 year. The restrictions on the sale of farm lands were, however, not lifted until November, 1950.

Year Ended 31st March,Number.Area.Amount Secured.
Town and Suburban.Country.Total.Town and Suburban.Country.Total.

NOTE.—These figures, although excluding certain miscellaneous registrations, have not been adjusted to exclude duplications.

  Acres.Acres.Acres.£££
194121,6184,9541,698,6091,703,5638,705,4517,706,88216,412,333
194220,6564,9741,407,8191,412,7939,137,4365,800,94214,938,378
194317,0443,9261,083,7501,087,6767,493,5924,610,39212,103,984
194419,9034,6681,477,2071,481,8758,701,3216,880,50715,581,828
194521,1615,1791,527,3481,532,52710,542,9487,642,07218,085,020
194624,4836,2971,640,7291,647,02613,987,9678,508,46222,496,429
194729,8607,4672,321,0852,328,55218,399,11613,260,06431,659,180
194829,8768,0142,267,8272,275,84119,103,41813,183,63432,287,052
194929,5707,5602,293,5452,301,10521,503,75213,876,16435,379,916
195030,3537,6072,397,5452,405,15222,630,79213,412,59236,043,384
195143,8849,3732,429,8442,439,21732,029,98214,023,26946,053,251

Rates of Interest.—Classified according to the various rates of interest, and including duplicate registrations (to the extent of £43,282 in 1949–50 and £236,038 in 1950–51), the amounts in the mortgage-deeds registered were—

Rate per Cent.1949–50.1950–51.
 ££
1/211,000 
125,58018,970
1 1/21,0605,903
1 3/42,610 
2 1/21,08482,593
2 1/8 155
2 1/41,5001,000
2 1/259,075115,612
2 3/4 1,175
310,083,00210,330,327
3 1/4 20,300
3 1/3740 
3 1/2154,261152,349
3 3/421,31414,500
3 7/82,500 
45,345,9806,716,635
4 1/10 3,450
4 1/81,489,0403,230,272
4 1/55,3005,730
4 1/44,307,3765,306,233
4 1/3 480
4 3/8 970
4 1/26,946,35110,436,376
4 5/821,81333,195
4 3/4235,728280,576
4 7/8 2,040
52,439,7603,464,431
5 1/10 270
5 1/6450 
5 1/450,67570,295
5 1/2225,508250,752
5 3/42,300750
6377,201476,531
6 1/444,72091,954
6 1/2205,110198,115
7179,452422,914
7 1/222,73218,450
880,40083,272
8 1/25004,149
8 5/8 1,076
93,1213,860
1031,88055,390
12 1/2500 
15210835
20155300
30200 
40250 
Unspecified3,550,9764,150,934
  Totals36,048,80446,055,729

A further classification of the 1950–51 figures in the above table is now given, showing the various rates of interest for town and suburban and country properties.

Rate per Cent.1950–51.
Town and Suburban.Country.
 ££
17,17511,795
1 1/22,7003,203
1 3/42,610 
241,15341,440
2 1/8155 
2 1/41,000 
2 1/258,79456,818
2 3/4575600
36,760,7103,569,617
3 1/47,80012,500
3 1/277,62374,726
3 3/413,1001,400
44,174,4312,542,204
4 1/103,450 
4 1/81,876,3901,353,882
4 1/51,1304,600
4 1/43,510,7811,795,452
4 1/3 480
4 3/8970 
4 1/28,301,7972,134,579
4 5/812,53020,665
4 3/4198,22382,353
4 7/82,040 
52,593,046871,385
5 1/10270 
5 1/458,22512,070
5 1/2194,08556,667
5 3/4750 
6356,902119,629
6 1/429,25062,704
6 1/5142,53355,582
7386,17036,744
7 1/311,1307,320
868,96314,309
8 1/24,149 
8 5/81,076 
93,860 
1037,34818,042
15835 
20300 
Unspecified3,087,7461,063,188
  Totals32,031,77514,023,954

The average rate of interest on new mortgages was maintained at over 6 per cent. per annum from 1922 to 1932, but with the advent of the depression period and the effect of the mortgage relief legislation, subsequent years showed decreases. The inclusion of State Advances mortgages from the year 1935–36 onwards has no doubt also had the effect of reducing the average rate, and in addition the advent of rehabilitation mortgages to ex-servicemen has affected the rate during the last few years. The average rate of interest for town, and suburban properties for 1950–51 was 4.15 per cent., as compared with 3.98 per cent. for country properties. Averages for recent years for all properties have been as follows.

Year Ended 31st March,Average Rate per Cent.
19414.69
19424.73
19434.72
19444.63
19454.51
19464.10
19473.85
19483.90
19493.98
19503.99
19514.09

As indicated earlier in this section (page 710), rates of interest since 1932 have been considerably affected by legislative action. In 1931–32, the financial year immediately preceding the operation of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, the average rate of interest on mortgages registered was 6.28 per cent., as compared with 4.51 per cent. in 1944–45. The sharp fall to 4.10 per cent. in 1945–46 and the further fall to 3.85 per cent. in the following year were mainly due to rehabilitation loans granted to ex-servicemen by the State Advances Corporation. The rate of interest charged on rehabilitation loans for residential and farm properties is 3 per cent., and of the gross amount of mortgages registered during the five years 1946–47 to 1950–51 no less than 38.4 per cent., 36.7 per cent., 30.2 per cent., 28.0 per cent., and 22.4 per cent. respectively were at this rate, as compared with only 2.0 per cent. in 1914–45. The slight rises in the average rate for recent years probably reflect the gradually decreasing though still substantial proportion of the gross amount which is due to rehabilitation loans. In 1931–32 only 10.2 per cent. of the specified amount was at rates not exceeding 5 per cent., while no less than 43.3 per cent. was at rates exceeding 6 per cent. The corresponding figures for 1950–51 were 36.0£ per cent. and 2.1 per cent. respectively.

A further analysis of the position is given below.

Year Ended 31st March,Not exceeding 3 per Cent.Over 3 per Cent. to 4 per Cent.Over 4 per Cent. to 4 1/2 per Cent.Over 4 per Cent. to 5 per Cent.Over 5 per Cent. to 6 per Cent.Exceeding 6 per Cent.
Amount
 ££££££
194194,615878,8376,275,9404,763,363947,733280,391
1942112,251537,7476,121,5574,007,150862,531398,889
1943119,998470,6674,726,3663,545,127538,605237,719
1944158,3581,122,6096,686,8103,987,689529,353300,820
1945456,0051,179,9919,333,2153,069,124420,288398,760
19465,883,0121,838,4477,970,5553,077,333475,215366,029
194712,317,2704,456,5888,043,1712,955,989515,680417,148
194811,999,1684,725,0538,550,2552,584,167942,998606,446
194910,796,4985,057,07911,386,2382,861,779992,820499,543
195010,302,3015,524,79512,748,0672,697,301656,134569,230
195110,558,3456,903,78418,983,5113,780,242798,598880,315
Percentage of Total
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
19410.76.647.436.07.221
19420.94.550.833.37.23.3
19431.24.949.036.85.62.5
19441.28.852.331.24.12.4
19453.17.962.820.72.82.7
194630.09.440.615.72.41.9
194742.915.528.010.31.81.5
194840.816.029.18.83.22.1
194934.216.036.09.13.11.6
195031.717.039.28.32.01.8
195125.216.545.39.01.92.1

The trend in interest-rates in further illustrated in the following diagram, which shows also the movement in mortgage registrations. The total amounts indicated in the diagram and in the two immediately preceding tables do not represent the total registrations in the respective years, as mortgages on which the rate of interest was not specified have been excluded.

Mortgages discharged.—After a very long period during which the value of mortgages registered substantially exceeded the amount represented by mortgages released, discharges exceeded registrations for a period of five years commencing with the year 1933–34. In the subsequent three years the reverse position obtained, but, commencing with 1941–42, discharges again commenced to exceed registrations, and continued to do so up to 1945–46, although the margin in that year was not very great. In each of the succeeding five years registrations exceeded discharges, the difference for each of the last two years being £12,904,172 in 1949–50, and £13,553,329 in 1950–51.

The net amount released in 1950–51 was higher than in any other year since 1925–26. The 1950–51 total of £32,266,362 exceeded the previous year by £9,165,012 or 39.7 per cent.

The total amount of mortgages discharged, including mortgages under the deeds-registration system, for the last four years is as follows.

District.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £ £ £ £
Auckland8,8146,911,0857,9836,306,5408,0876,791,42311,6809,569,101
Gisborne541490,116511546,550536591,843677917,837
Hawke's Day1,4731,653,8841,3071,158,8121,3041,418,7361,6981,776,319
Taranaki1,3871,451,6511,0651,147,3401,0801,021,2071,3791,457,913
Wellington6,2975,972,3555,6805,217,4145,2875,245,5047,4087,703,149
Marlborough368618,165368397,149387387,166423380,137
Nelson849541,421717461,599672436,3531,019696,491
Westland299233,120245130,006255160,583326213,897
Canterbury4,3864,155,5804,4664,269,3754,2373,812,0665,2715,034,766
Otago3,1292,184,9182,8732,188,9542,8231,893,1313,8452,905,745
Southland1,4651,214,6841,4331,258,3741,4221,343,3381,7841,615,106
      Gross totals29,00825,426,87926,64823,382,11326,09323,101,35035,51032,270,461
      Duplications630,87566,856. 74,099
      Net totals29,00225,896,00426,64223,375,25726,09323,101,35035,503 32,266,362 

Details of town and suburban and country discharges for 1950–51 are given in the following table.

District.Year Ended 31st March, 1951.
Town and Suburban.Country.
Number.Area.Amount Discharged.NumberArea.Amount Discharged.
  Acres.£ Acres.£
Auckland8,3582,1795,953,1763,322577,9543,615,925
Gisborne428164257,336249275,335660,501
Hawke's Bay1,139298843, 858559191,019932,461
Taranaki752200511,642627127,872946,271
Wellington6,1263,2605,101,7211,282549,4152,601,428
Marlborough277156144,961146131,317235,176
Nelson673164410,77434678,620285,717
Westland26660148,2556015,34665,642
Canterbury3,9519872,926,3351,320556,8682,108,431
Otago3,0126341,855,715833398,2021,050,030
Southland1,094298762,997690260,318852,109
  Gross totals26,0768,40018,916,7709,4343,162,26613,353,691
  Duplications4 3,3493 750
  Net totals26,072 18,913,4219,431 13,352,941

Chapter 34. SECTION 34—BANKRUPTCY

THE law relating to bankruptcy in New Zealand is contained in the main in the Bankruptcy Act, 1908 (which is a consolidation of previous enactments), and its amendments. Jurisdiction in bankruptcy matters is vested in the Supreme Court. The Governor-General, however, may by Proclamation confer similar jurisdiction on a Magistrate's Court in cases where the liabilities do not exceed £300.

All proceedings in bankruptcy are commenced by a petition filed in the Court. A petition may be filed either by the debtor or by a creditor, a fee of £6 being payable. The filing of a debtor's petition is equivalent to an order of the Court adjudging the debtor a bankrupt, no order being required in this case. Not less than £30 in the aggregate must be owing by the debtor to the creditor or creditors filing a petition.

Section 7 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1947, increased the value of furniture which a bankrupt may select and retain from £50 to £100.

Immediately on a debtor's petition being filed or adjudication being made on a creditor's petition, the Registrar of the Court gives notice to the Official Assignee in Bankruptcy, in whom all the property of the bankrupt thereupon vests. The bankrupt must hand over his books of account, papers, deeds, &c., to the Official Assignee, and furnish such information as is necessary to enable the Assignee to administer the estate to the best advantage. The bankrupt may also be required to produce statements of accounts, balance-sheets, &c., covering the period of three years immediately prior to the commencement of his bankruptcy, give inventories of his property and debts, and generally assist in the realization of his property. The Assignee may summon the bankrupt before himself, or before a Magistrate, to be examined on oath. The Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927, forbids (save with the consent of the Court, on the application of the Official Assignee) the publication of a report of any examination of a bankrupt before the Assignee or of any matter arising in the course of such an examination.

The Official Assignee is empowered to sell the bankrupt's property, to claim debts due to the bankrupt estate, to carry on the business of the bankrupt so far as is necessary or expedient for its beneficial winding-up, or to divide the property among the creditors. The bankrupt may be appointed by the Official Assignee to manage his estate or carry on his business on behalf of the creditors.

Creditors may accept a composition in satisfaction of the debts due to them. In such a case, after approval of the Court, a deed of composition is executed and filed, and the bankruptcy annulled.

On application being made by the bankrupt, the Court is empowered to grant him an order of discharge, either absolute, suspended, or conditional. The application, which must be made within four months after adjudication, may be opposed either by the Official Assignee or by any creditor who has proved his claim. A public examination of the bankrupt may be demanded by the Assignee or by a creditor.

UNDISCHARGED BANKRUPTS.—Section 14 of the Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927, requires the annual compilation of a list showing the names, occupations, and other particulars of all persons who have been adjudged bankrupt since 31st March, 1927, and who have not obtained an order of discharge, or whose order of discharge is suspended for a term, or is subject to conditions remaining unfulfilled.

Section 9 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1936, provides that the Minister of Justice may from time to time publish the list, or so much of it as relates to adjudications within any specified period ending on the date of the compilation of the list.

TRANSACTIONS IN BANKRUPTCY.—The number of transactions in bankruptcy during the last five years is given below. A long-term record of the more important features will be found in the Statistical Summary, near the end of this volume.

Year.Number of Bankruptcies.Petitions by Debtors.Adjudications on Petitions by Creditors.Cases in which Composition accepted.Orders of Immediate Discharge granted.Cases in which Orders of Discharge were suspended.
19477459152564
1948148115332405
1949179144351534
19501421093325610
1951145121231484

In the case of a partnership, not only the partnership but each partner is counted in the total of transactions.

The numbers of bankruptcies have been exceptionally low during the war and post-war years, although there were sharp increases in 1948 and 1949. There was an annual average of 255 bankruptcies during the five years 1935 to 1939, compared with an average of 138 for the years 1947 to 1951.

The general bankruptcy statistics do not cover private assignments and compositions, but relate only to cases dealt with by Official Assignees. Certain statistics of private assignments are available, and details of these appear at the end of this section.

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.—Debtors are required to file a statement of the extent of their liabilities and assets, but there is usually a marked difference between these statements and the amounts actually realized by the Official Assignee or the debts subsequently proved by creditors. During the last decade the amounts actually realized by Official Assignees were greater by 22 per cent. than the assets as stated by debtors.

It should be understood that in the following table the figures in each column refer to all transactions under the respective heads during the year, the amounts realized by Assignees and paid in dividends and preferential claims relating partly to the current year's bankruptcies (many of which, however, are not disposed of during the year) and partly to cases commenced in previous years.

Year.Number of Bankruptcies.Debtors-Statements of Assets, excluding Amounts secured to Creditors.Amounts realized by Official Assignees.Amount of Debts proved.Amounts paid In Dividends and Preferential Claims.

* Including 2 deceased persons' estates under Part IV of the Administration Act, 1908.

  ££££
1941165*24,53835,45371,01134,428
19428213,66529,75332,22719,428
1943456,14818,88320,05213,136
19445113,20913,46651,03516,741
1945459,06018,530118,21610,041
19465210,66320,94248,50614,328
19477421,43315,52844,73112,386
194814856,22950,280143,28224,945
194917953,03538,410203,17320,114
195014229,31549,252125,91736,060
1951145115,76048,269136,82238,044

The table following shows for each of the last eleven years the average amount of debts proved per estate, and also the proportion of dividends to debts.

Year.Average Debts proved per Estate.Proportion of Dividends to Debts.
 £Per Cent.
194143048.48
194239360.28
194344665.51
19441,00132.80
19452,6278.49
194693329.53
194760427.69
194896817.41
19491,1359.90
195088727.14
195194426.19

The total payments made in 1949, 1950, and 1951 from assets realized were—

 1949.1950.1951.
 £££
Dividends to creditors (excluding preferential secured claims)18,92034,18335,823
Preferential claims (rents, wages, &c.)1,1941,8772,221
Secured claims4,4033,7618,853
Government commission2,3013,4983,916
Cost of actions, solicitors' and supervisors' fees1,2281,5261,588
Expenses incurred in carrying on estates955790330
Other charges1,3101,3682,221
      Totals£30,311£47,003£54,952

Balances in bank to the credit of estates aggregated £22,812 on 31st December, 1951, compared with £29,539 at the end of the previous year.

AMOUNT OF LIABILITIES.—The following table shows for each of the last five years a classification of bankruptcies according to the amount of liabilities.

Liabilities.1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.

* Total includes 1 partnership. The liabilities for each partner are included, but not the partnership.

Under £50 631 
£50 and under £100684211
£100 " £2501728312824
£250 " £5001839462834
£500 " £1,0001930383522
£1,000 " £2,0001323332929
£2,000 " £5,000110121613
£5,000 and over 41236
      Totals74148179142114*

Liabilities in the bulk of failures are for comparatively small amounts. Of a total of 687 bankruptcies over the period quoted, 7 per cent. were for amounts of less than £100, 25 per cent. for amounts of less than £250, and 49 per cent. for amounts of less than £500. In 70 per cent. of the total number the amount of the liabilities was less than £1,000.

OCCUPATIONS OF BANKRUPTS.—The following table shows in broad industrial groups the occupations of those adjudged bankrupt in the last five years.

 1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.

* Includes 1 partnership. The occupation of each partner is included, but not the partnership.

Fishing and trapping12221
Agricultural and pastoral81024410
Forest occupations13762
Mining and quarrying     
Processes relating to stone, clay, cement, glass, &c.  1  
Processes relating to chemicals, animal and vegetable products, n.e.i.    1
Processes relating to metals, machines, tools, electric fittings, conveyances, jewellery, &c.114121610
Processes relating to fibrous materials, textiles, and dress21132
Processes relating to harness, saddlery, and leatherware  1 1
Processes relating to food, drink, and tobacco25234
Processes relating to wood, basketware, furniture, &c. 1121
Processes relating to paper, stationery, printing, photography1  21
Processes relating to other materials  21 
Construction or repair of buildings, roads, and railways1735343633
Transport and communication412161520
Ships, boats, &c.1 232
Commerce and finance1332452120
Public administration, clerical, and professional64266
Entertainment, sport, and recreation 1222
Personal and domestic service 51368
indefinite occupations1723121420
      Totals74148179142144*

The grade of occupation of persons adjudged bankrupt during each of the calendar years 1941–51 is given in the following table.

Year.Grade of Occupation.
Working for Wages.Employer of Labour.Working on Own Account but Not Employing Labour.Totals.

* Includes 1 partnership. The occupation of each partner is included, but not the partnership.

1941882750165
194242142682
19432191545
194426101451*
19452251845
194616171952
194727182974
1948483664148
1949523493179
1950444355142
1951612657144*

PRIVATE ASSIGNMENTS.—Official bankruptcies, as explained earlier, do not comprise all financial failures and the bankruptcy statistics have been supplemented since 1928 by the collection of data relating to private assignments. The statistics cover all operations arising out of deeds of assignment made under section 167 (2) of the Stamp Duties Act, 1923.

Amount of Liabilities.—The following table classifies estates assigned during the last five years available according to the amount of liabilities.

Liabilities.1945,1946.1947.1948.1949.

* Includes 1 estate in which the assignor was subsequently adjudged bankrupt, also 1 re-registration of a previously assigned estate.

Under £1001    
£100 and under £2501   1
£250 " £5002 421
£500 " £1,000 1432
£1,000 " £2,00031665
£2,000 " £5,00066375
£5,000 and over12163
Unspecified3 536
      Totals171023*2723

The amounts of liabilities involved are relatively much higher for private assignments than for bankruptcies. For the five years 1945–49, 78 per cent. of privately assigned estates had liabilities of £1,000 and over. For bankruptcies, only 29 per cent. of the total number fell into this category.

Occupations of Assignors.—The occupations of assignors in broad industrial classes during the last five years available were as follows:—

 1945.1946.1947.1948.1949.

* Includes 1 estate in which the assignor was subsequently adjudged bankrupt, also 1 re-registration of a previously assigned estate.

Agricultural and pastoral   22
Forestry1    
Processes relating to—     
  Stone, clay, lime, cement, &c.1  1 
  Fibrous materials, textiles, &c.  1  
  Clothing, dress, &c.  1  
  Leatherware, harness, saddlery, &c.   1 
  Wood, basketware, furniture. &c.1  1 
Construction or repair of buildings, roads, &c.8510138
Transport and communication2 1 1
Commerce and finance22874
Public administration, clerical, and professional 1  2
Entertainment, sport, and recreation   1 
Personal and domestic service  21 
Indefinite occupations22  6
      Totals171023*2723

Of the 1949 total, 13 were employers of labour, 6 were working on own account, and 4 were working for wages.

Nearly all assignments included in the group “construction or repair of buildings, roads, &c.,” are described as “builders.” This group is well represented in the private assignments.

Provisional figures for 1950 show the number of private assignments as 19. Data relating to private assignments are normally collected much later than corresponding figures for bankruptcies, as a longer period is necessary for settlement of the financial arrangements in the former case.

Chapter 35. SECTION 35—NATIONAL INCOME

THE most striking advance made in recent years in the presentation of economic statistics has been the growth, in most countries, of some form of national social accounting. Involving as it does a comprehensive and detailed accounting of the nation's economic transactions, an analysis of this nature provides a background of statistical data indispensable to a proper understanding of current economic trends, and perhaps oven more important, it enables informed estimates of probable future trends to be made. Full information of the nature, and a proposed schemata for the construction, of social accounts has been published by the United Nations Organization,* and in terms of this report the social accounting approach may be defined briefly as follows:—

“Instead of seeking to build up a single total, such as the national income, an investigation is first made of the classification of accounting entities, of the types of accounts that they keep, and of the transactions into which they enter. In this way all the transacting entities of an economic system are classified into broad sectors such as productive enterprises, financial intermediaries, and final consumers, and a series of accounts for each of these sectors is set up, in which the separate entries represent economically distinct categories of transaction. Economic activity is represented by money flows and related book-keeping transactions, actual or imputed, between accounts. The national income and other similar aggregates are obtained from the system by selecting and combining the constituent entries in the accounts.”

Because of the lack of the necessary statistical information it is not yet possible in New Zealand to present a broad classification of this nature, and of necessity attention has been focused primarily on the relevant aggregates mentioned.

However, a start has been made on what is known as the “output approach” to the measurement of the national income by the inclusion in these statistics for the first time of complete accounts for a particular sector of the economy—viz., the Manufacturing Sector—covering the four years 1946–47 to 1949–50.

Eventually similar accounts will be built up for the remaining sectors, such as farming, building and construction, transport, finance, &c., so that it will then be possible to present a complete set of social accounts showing inter-related transactions and more important, showing the contribution of each sector to the national aggregates at present obtained from the income and expenditure approach.

The principal of these aggregates is that of “National Income.” which, in general terms, measures the total value of all incomes (before deduction of taxation) earned by the residents of New Zealand in producing the current output of goods and services.

* “Measurement of National Income and the Construction of Social Accounts”: Report of the subcommittee on National Income Statistics of the League of Nations Committee of Statistical Experts.

Income can be earned in a variety of ways and accrues to individuals according to the manner in which they participate in current production. Salary and wage payments represent the return to labour for services rendered and include in this concept supplementary income in “kind” such as board and keep provided by the employer. Of considerable importance during the war years, the item “pay and allowances of Armed Forces,” while analagous to salary and wage payments when considering the source of such income, does not necessarily fit in with this concept when the former civilian occupation of the serviceman is considered. This fact must be taken into account in comparing the distributive shares of the various groups in the national income over the war period. Clothing, food, accommodation, and other income in “kind” supplied to members of the Armed Forces are included under this heading, as are also deferred-pay, mufti-allowance, and war-gratuity payments.

Rental value of owner-occupied houses is a non-monetary item representing the imputed not rental value (before payment of rates, but after deductions for depreciation, mortgage interest, insurance, and repairs and maintenance) of all owner-occupied houses (except farm houses).

“Other personal income” (excluding company dividends) represents the aggregate income of professional men, farmers, and individual traders, as well as income “Other than salary and wages” of salary and wage earners—e.g., rent, interest, &c. Included under this heading as current income are changes in balances of primary-produce stabilization accounts, and wool retention moneys.

Company income represents the total income (distributed and undistributed) of companies. This means that dividends distributed to individuals are included under this heading, and to this extent the total of “Other personal income” is understated.

Apart from these incomes which result from current productive activities on the part of individuals receiving them, there are other incomes of a “non-productive” nature in the form of social security benefits, pensions, and interest on public debt. These “transfer” incomes, as they are called, do not arise from the current production of goods and services and must therefore be excluded from the national income. They do, however, form part of the intermediate concept of “private income,” winch represents the aggregate of earned incomes and unearned “transfer” incomes received by or accruing to persons. Capital receipts—e.g., from deceased person's estates, repayment of debt, &c.—are, however, excluded both from “private income” and “national income.” It includes as income accruing but not actually received, undistributed incomes of companies. The deduction of direct taxation gives the concept of “private disposable income.”

It is generally accepted that only those incomes arising from production of goods and services of a “marketable” nature should he included as national income, and for this reason no attempt has been made to impute an income in cases where goods or services are both produced and consumed within the household—e.g., services of housewives, and produce of home gardens.

The addition to private income of Government and local-authority trading profits and lump-sum payments from the United Kingdom Government, and the deduction of “transfer” incomes as detailed above, gives the concept of “net national income at factor cost” or, more briefly, “national-income,” which can be defined as the income (before tax) earned by or accruing to the factors of production, in or only temporarily absent from New Zealand, in producing the current output of goods and services of all kinds. The further addition of indirect taxes (net of subsidies) is necessary to bring the net national income to market price valuation.

Gross national product is obtained by adding depreciation allowances to net national income at market prices, and represents the value of current output before deduction of allowances for depreciation and obsolescence and is equal on the expenditure side to “gross national expenditure.”

The following table shows the principal of the above aggregates and the manner in which they are derived one from the other for the years 1938–39, 1939–40, and 1942–43 to 1950–51.

PRINCIPAL INCOME AGGREGATES

£ (million)

1938–39.1939–401942–43.1943–44.1944–451945–46.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.*

* Provisional.

Private income (26)200.1217.7297.7332.8340.9364.5395.7445.5462.0528.4626.9
Plus Government trading income (6)8.710.4116.617.914.515.314.513.3112.013.314.9
Lump-sum payments from United Kingdom Government (7) 3.03.03.05.05.05.0   
Less transfer Incomes—           
Social security benefits and pensions (22)-7.7-11.5-14.4-15.8-17.6-20.9-34.8-37.6-39.542.6-47.5
Interest on public debt paid in New Zealand (8)-7.0-7.5-9.4-11.3-12.9-13.815.1-15.315.5-16.0-16.6
Net national income at factor cost (National Income) (9)194.1212.1293.5326.5329.9 34.0350.1365.3410.9419.1483.2577.6
Plus indirect taxation(10)20.621.027.931.834.037.343.053.046.149.855.6
Less subsidies (11)-0.6-0.5-3.3-3.1-4.6-6.6-11.8-13.6-11.5-14.6-9.4
Net national income at market prices (12)214.1232.6318.1355.2359.3380.8396.5450.3453.7518.4623.8
Plus depreciation allowances (13)15.016.017.017.019.020.022.025.027.031.035.0
Gross national product (14)229.1248.6335.1372.2378.3400.8418.5475.3480.7549.1658.8

NOTE.—The numbers in parentheses after the items refer to items in the tables given on pages 729–731.

The estimates are based primarily on details of receipts from the social security charge under the Social Security Act of 1938. This charge is levied at a flat rate on the incomes of all individuals over the age of sixteen years and on all companies trading in New Zealand. The charge is deductible at source in the case of salary and wage payments, but is payable during the year following that in which the income is earned in the case of income “other than salaries and wages” of individuals and company incomes.

No allowance has been made for possible evasion of taxation in the estimates, nor has it been possible to take into account “negative” income, or losses of previous years allowed as a set-off against current profits for taxation purposes.

The various aggregates are conventionally measured over a given period of time and this in New Zealand is taken as the year ending 31st March. Values in all cases are in terms of New Zealand currency.

Full details of the methods used and a description of the items shown in the following tables are given in the report entitled “Official Estimates of National Income and Expenditure, 1938–39 to 1950–51,” issued as a supplement to the August, 1951, issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

NATIONAL INCOME AND EXPENDITURE.—Despite considerable difficulty as a result of a lack of certain necessary statistical information, preliminary estimates of national expenditure have been made covering the years 1938–39, 1943–44, and 1946–47 to 1950–51. These estimates should be used with caution, but, provided their limitations are realized, they give a broad indication of the manner in which the national expenditure has been channelled over a period covering the last pre-war year, the peak war year, and five years of reconversion following the cessation of hostilities.

The method necessarily adopted does not allow a check to be made on the present national income aggregates, in which no allowances have been made for any possible understatement of incomes shown in the taxation returns on which the estimates are based. Neither do they take into account “negative” incomes nor losses of previous years allowed as a set-off against current profits for taxation purposes. Any understatement of the gross product total arising from these omissions will therefore be reflected in a similar understatement of “personal expenditure on consumer goods and services.” which is shown as a residual item in the break-up of national expenditure (refer table on page 729). Direct estimates are made of current Government expenditure on the provision of goods and services, gross capital formation in New Zealand by the private and Government sectors, and the balance of overseas payments on current account (sometimes termed “net overseas investment” or “net lending abroad”).

This treatment has the advantage in an analysis of private income and outlay (table on page 730) of allowing an estimate of private savings to be made, again as a residual item, by deducting direct taxation and “personal expenditure on consumer goods and services” from total private income. Being a residual item, “personal expenditure on consumer goods and services” will naturally incorporate all the errors of the estimates, but the major apparent error—i.e., that of understatement for the purpose of tax evasion—is cancelled out by a similar error in both the private income and personal expenditure totals. Thus private savings, while necessarily including other errors of the estimates, is not distorted by the factor mentioned above.

The various tables are given and their derivation and composition discussed later in this section, but before presenting this detail it is of interest to examine the relationships existing between some of the more important aggregates. The following table gives the principal of these.

PRINCIPAL AGGREGATES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS

1938–39.1943–44.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51*

* Provisional.

National income. (9) £(m.)194327365411419483578
dross national product (14) £(m.)229372419475481549659
Personal expenditure on consumer goods and services (15) £(m.)160175250285344352383
As percentage of gross national product70476060726458
Gross capital formation in New Zealand (17) £(m.)43408513367120171
As percentage of gross national product19112028142226
Cost of Government-provided goods and services (16) £(m.)321615563657380
As percentage of gross national product14431313141312
Private income (26) £(m.)200333396446462528627
Private savings (29) £(m.)168268832581131
As percentage of private income825171951521

NOTE.—The numbers in parentheses after the items refer to items in the tables given on pages 729–731.

The influence of the war on the economy and later the effects of the situation in Korea are clearly indicated by the marked changes that have occurred in the figures over relatively short time-intervals. National income increased from £194(m.) in 1938–39 to £327(m.) in 1943–44, when war expenditure was at its peak, and continued to increase steadily in the later war years and the immediate post-war years, reaching £411(m.) in 1947–18.

A levelling-off began to appear with a small rise in the national income figure in 1948–49, and but for the Korean War and the impetus given to wool prices it is highly probable that the levelling-off period would have continued. As it was, the national income showed a sharp rise of 15 per cent. in 1949–50, while in 1950–51, due to abnormal wool prices, a record increase of 20 per cent. took place. The over-all increase over the thirteen years from 1938–39 was 198 per cent.

The wartime reduction of personal expenditure on consumer goods and services is revealed by a move from 70 per cent. of gross national product for 1938–39 to 47 per cent. for the peak war year in 1943–44, while gross capital formation in the same period fell from 19 per cent. to 11 per cent. respectively. The percentage of the gross national product used to finance current Government expenditure on goods and services (including all expenditure on war and defence) had increased between 1938–39 and 1943–44 from 14 per cent. to 43 per cent. Thus, after allowing for normal Government expenditure, at the peak of the war just over one-third of the national expenditure was being used to finance the war effort.

The reconversion to a peacetime economy is shown by the statistics of personal expenditure, savings, and investment for the years 1946–47 to 1950–51. Personal expenditure moved upwards with the availability of goods, rising from its wartime level of 47 per cent. of gross national product to 60 per cent. in both 1946–47 and 1947–48. In 1948–49 if rose sharply to 72 per cent., which was higher than the level obtaining in 1938–39 (itself a very high consumption year), but in the two years since then it has declined very sharply to 58 per cent., lower than for any other peace-time year. This sharp decline was due to the very large increases in the national income being reflected in additions to stocks rather than in increased availability of consumer goods and services. The retention of a substantial part of the wool income in frozen accounts, being a compulsory saving, acted as a brake on expenditure in New Zealand. Gross capital formation showed a substantial post-war recovery, the high level in 1947–48 being accounted for mainly by very heavy investment in stocks which took place in that year. By 1948–49 available statistics suggest that war-time depletions in inventories were largely overcome, so that the year 1948–49 revealed a falling-off in this item (this trend being accentuated by some losses on inventories due to revaluation consequent on the alteration in the exchange-rate to parity with sterling). The expenditure of 22 percent. of the gross national product on capital formation in 1949–50 and 26 per cent. in 1950–51 shows a continuation of the post-war trend of a relatively high level of investment keeping pace with an expanding national income.

Private savings over the seven years covered have shown marked variations, moving from 8 per cent. of private income in 1938–39 to 25 per cent. in 1943–44. By 1946–47 this ratio had fallen to 17 per cent., but in 1947–48, owing mainly to the time lag between assessment and payment of the main direct taxes, and to the heavy restocking already referred to, had risen to 19 per cent. In 1947–48 taxation shown as a deduction from that year's income was mainly attributable to 1946–17 income which was at a much lower level. Correspondingly, a large part of the direct taxation paid on 1947–48 incomes was not deducted until 1948–49. Thus in 1947–48, when a substantial increase in private income took place, an increase in savings is shown, partly due to this difference between tax due on the income earned in that year and tax paid from that income. After making due allowance for this factor, however, the trend of savings as a percentage of private income indicates a steep rise during the war years followed by a moderate reversion by 1946–47, but. dropping heavily in 1948–49 to only 5 per cent. of private income. The main reason for this decline was again the lag in taxation; the national income remained practically stationary in 1948–49, whereas taxation revenue increased markedly, due to the part paid on 1947–48 incomes being much greater than the part paid on 1946–47 incomes, which were on a lower level. In 1949–50 and 195051 the increases in national income kept ahead of the increases in taxation revenue, with the result that savings rose to 15 per cent. in 1949–50 and 21 per cent. in 1950–51 of private income. This last figure is higher than for any other post-war year and two and a half times the 1938–39 percentage. A large part of the savings in 1950–51 were compulsory savings duo to the freezing of wool retention moneys. It must be realized that private savings in this sense is obtained from the identity that private income = personal expenditure on consumer goods and services + direct taxation + private savings, and therefore savings is that part of private disposable income that is not spent on consumer goods and services and will thus include, besides direct monetary saving, capital expenditure by persons from current income, principally in the form of property purchase and construction. It also includes undistributed profits of companies and such items as changes in balances of primary-produce stabilization accounts, so that no direct comparison can be made between the series given and any series showing purely monetary savings.

The next four tables give the complete detail of the various aggregates already mentioned. The manner in which they are derived from the accounts covering the different sectors of the economy is outlined in the following notes.

National Income and Expenditure.—This table gives the composition of the gross national product and the manner in which it has been expended—i.e., gross national expenditure. As mentioned previously, personal expenditure on consumer goods and services is obtained as a residual item in this table, all other aggregates being obtained by direct assessment.

Private Income and Outlay.—This table gives in detail the break-up of private income into the various factor incomes and on the expenditure side, the manner in which these incomes are spent on consumer goods and services, paid in direct taxation, or saved. A break-up of “other personal income” is given for each of the years except 1943–44, when this detail was not available. The total of personal expenditure on consumer goods and services derived from the preceding table is carried forward to this table, and private savings is obtained as a residual item. The limitations of these two residual items have already been mentioned (see page 726) and for the reasons given, care should be taken in their use.

It is not possible at present to analyse company income further, and for this reason “other personal income” excludes company dividends, and private savings necessarily includes undistributed company profits.

General Government and Local Authority Revenue Account.—The Government sector is discussed in more detail later in this section, but this table gives a consolidated statement of General Government and local authority revenue and expenditure, showing as a balance that portion of the revenue which is made available for capital investment in the ease of a surplus, or the call on private savings made necessary by a deficit. The effects of the heavy war expenditure in 1943–44 are indicated by the exceptional expenditure on goods and services in that year (principally on war and defence), and the consequent negative balance of £63(m.) in the account.

Combined Capital Account.—This account indicates the manner in which finance for capital formation has been made available (a) from private savings, (b) from revenue surpluses of Government, and (c) from amounts set aside as depreciation allowances from income. Gross capital formation represents the construction in New Zealand or purchase from overseas of durable capital assets both by the private and Government sectors, plus the net investment in stocks by trading concerns. The net change in overseas assets is the contra item to “net overseas investment” shown in the national income and expenditure table, and in the absence of comprehensive balance of payments figures for New Zealand, is an estimate of the change in overseas investments consequent on this movement in the balance of payments on current account. Once again the effects of war finance are clearly discernible, the major part of total available funds in 1943–44 going to finance the Government deficit principally incurred on account of war expenditure. The process of reconversion from 1946–47 onwards, apart from abnormal restocking by trading concerns, is indicated by the figures of gross capital formation which indicate that, notwithstanding shortages of certain essential materials, wartime-enforced postponements of purchase and construction of capital equipment are being gradually overcome. Increased holdings of wool as a result of the waterfront dispute, have, however, played an important part in raising the figures for 1950–51.

These four tables, then, give a comprehensive picture in broad terms of the changing pattern of New Zealand's economy over a period of thirteen years which have seen the dislocating effects of a major war. One important point to consider when examining this picture, however, is that all the figures given represent “values,” and consequently are inflated to a greater or less extent by price movements over the period. In the absence of any price index of a sufficiently wide coverage to deflate the various aggregates, it is necessary to recognize this fact and wherever possible make some allowance for it.

The following are the four tables mentioned:—

NATIONAL INCOME AND EXPENDITURE

£(million)

Income.1938–39.1943–44.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51*

* Provisional.

1. Salary and wage payments111140186210227253275
2. Pay and allowances of Armed Forces15886456
3. Rental value, owner-occupied houses681110111112
4. Other personal income5474109129132159222
5. Company income20374853495864
6. Government and local-authority trading income9181513121315
7. Lump-sum payments from United Kingdom Government 355   
8. Less public debt interest paid in New Zealand-7-11-15-15-16-16-17
9. Net national income at factor cost194327365411419483578
10. Plus indirect taxation21324353405056
11. Less subsidies-1--12-14-12-15-9
12. Net national income at market prices214355397450454518624
13. Plus depreciation allowances15172225273135
14. Gross national product229372419475481549659
Expenditure.1938–39.1943–44.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51*
15. Personal expenditure on consumer goods and services160175250285344352383
16. Cost of Government-provided goods and services321615563657380
17. Gross capital formation in New Zealand43408513367120171
18. Net overseas Investment-6-429-65425
19. Gross national expenditure229372419475481549659
20. Salary and wage payments111140186210227253275
21. Pay and allowances of Armed Forces15886456
22. Social security benefits and pensions8163538394348
23. Rental value of owner-occupied houses68910111112
24. Other personal income—       
(a) Professional occupations5 911121415
(b) Commerce, trade, or business9 2124252731
(c) Farming25 47606484112
(d) Changes in balances in primary-produce stabilization accounts-274+11+12+10+119
(e) Changes in balances of wool retention moneys      +30
(f) Interest, rent, &c.15 1616161617
(g) Other2 55678
25. Company income (before distribution)20374853495864
26. Private income (before tax)200333396446402528627
Outlay.1938–39.1943–44.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51*
27. Personal expenditure on consumer goods and services160175250285344352333
28. Direct taxation247578779495113
29. Private savings168268832581131
30. Private outlay200333396446462526627

GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND LOCAL AUTHORITIES—REVENUE ACCOUNT

£(million)

Revenue.1938–39.1943–44.1946–47.1947–48.1943–49.1949–50.1950–51*

* Provisional.

31. Taxation       
(a) Direct247679799597115
(b) Indirect21324353465056
32. Trading income9181513121315
33. Less direct taxes paid by Government trading undertakings -1-1-2-1-2-2
34. Lump-sum payments from United Kingdom Government 355   
35. Total revenue54128141148152159184
Expenditure.1938–39.1943–44.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51*
36. Cost of provision of goods and services321615563657380
Transfers to Private Income       
37. Social security benefits and pensions8163538394348
38. Interest on public debt paid in New Zealand7111515161617
39. Subsidies13121412159
40. Balance of revenue over expenditure6-632419201330
41. Total expenditure plus or minus revenue balances54128141148152159184
Savings       
42. Private. savings168268832581131
43. Revenue balances General Government and local authorities6-632419201330
44. Depreciation allowances15172225273135
45. Total funds utilized373611412772124196
Expenditure.1938–39.1943–44.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51*
Investment       
46. Gross capital formation in New Zealand—       
(a) Private2126581002772120
(b) General Government16102126323940
(c) Local authorities64678911
47. Net change in overseas assets-6-4+29-6+5+4+25
48. Total investment373611412772124196

THE GOVERNMENT SECTOR.—The part played by Government in redirecting the expenditure of that portion of the national income transferred to it from the private sector by way of taxation and trading profits becomes of increasing importance as the Government assumes wider responsibilities in the social and economic fields. The changes in these directions in New Zealand are quite apparent from an examination of the tables of General Government and local authority revenue and expenditure covering the years 1938–39, 1943–44, and 1946–47 to 1950–51, which are given later in this section.

General Government.—The revenue account of the General Government has been obtained by an analysis of the various accounts within the public account and represents a consolidated statement of Government revenue and expenditure. In the case of trading department operations, which are treated separately, profits only are brought into the main account as a revenue item. Expenditure has been taken “net” in all cases, sundry departmental receipts, &c., being set-off against departmental expenditure. The account covers only revenue items, and therefore excludes capital receipts and payments of all kinds, thus accounting in part for the differences between the details given here and those given in the published statement of the public accounts in parliamentary paper B-1 [Pt. I]. In order that the differences between these two sets of figures may be appreciated a reconciliation table is given later.

Varying movements in different avenues of Government expenditure are apparent from the next table. Current expenditure on the provision of goods and services moved from £23.4(m.) in 1938–39 to £154.7(m.) in 1943–44, the peak war year, when expenditure on war and defence was at an unprecedented level. From 1946–47 the expenditure increased steadily from £45.8(m.) to £57.6(m.) in 1949–50, and to £62.4(m.) in 1950–51. On the other hand, apart from the abnormal wartime year 1943–44, the percentage of expenditure on the provision of goods and services to gross national product remained practically constant from 1938–39 to 1949–50, but dropped sharply in 1950–51, being 10.2 per cent. in 1938–39, 10.5 per cent. in 1949–50, and 9.5 per cent. in 1950–51. Transfers to private income by way of monetary social security benefits and interest on the public debt increased steadily from £12.4(m.) in 1938–39 to £56.6(m.) in 1949–50, while the percentage to gross national product also increased steadily from 5.4 to 10.3 per cent. This expansion was largely doe to Government social legislation. In 1950 51, however, although the actual amount of these transfers increased still further to £62.3(m.), the percentage to gross national product declined to 9.4 per cent.

Similarly, payments by way of subsidies to keep down the cost of basic consumer goods increased from £0.6(m.) in 1938–39, being 0.3 per cent. of the gross national product, to a peak of £14.6(m.) in 1949–50, 2.7 per cent. of gross national product, but fell sharply to £9.4(m.) in 1950–51, or 1.1 per cent. of gross national product.

These transfer payments and subsidies have undoubtedly been the principal cause of the substantial increase in taxation over the thirteen years, but when their over-all purpose is realized—that of redistributing the national income among different income groups—the large increases shown are seen in their correct perspective principally as pure “transfer” items.

The balance of revenue over expenditure represents the excess after allowance has been made for not expenditure on normal current Government activities. This balance is utilized for the carrying-out of necessary capital works and purchase of equipment. or the repayment of debt. Where there is an excess of expenditure over revenue, as was the case in 1943–44, the deficit must be met by a call on private savings in New Zealand, or by a decrease in net overseas investment. It is equally true, of course, that if total Government expenditure in any one year, including expenditure on capital works, exceeds revenue for that year, this over-all deficit must be met in a similar way.

GENERAL GOVERNMENT—REVENUE ACCOUNT

£(million)

Revenue.1938–39.1943–44.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51*

* Provisional.

† Employment promotion.

1. Taxation       
(a) Direct-       
    Income-tax9.331.332.136.649.048.459.1
    Social security taxation5.513.422.426.229.431.735.8
    National security tax 19.29.40.8   
    Land-tax1.11.00.90.90.91.01.0
    Death duties1.84.56.05.76.05.77.3
    Other0.10.20.1    
      Totals17.869.670.970.285.386.8103.5
(b) Indirect-       
    Sales tax3.612.715.615.914.114.816.8
    Customs and excise duty11.713.920.028.823.726.328.6
    Motor-vehicles taxation3.11.73.03.53.63.64.0
    Other1.62.93.63.93.7415.0
      Totals20.031.242.252.145.148.854.4
2. Total, all taxation37.8100.8113.1122.3130.4135.6157.9
3. Trading Income5.413.310.79.78.49.511.0
4. Less direct taxation paid by trading Departments-0.2-1.0-1.1-1.11.31.5-1.5
      Totals5.212.39.68.37.18.09.5
5. Lump-sum payments from United kingdom Government 3.05.05.0   
6. Total revenue43.0116.1127.7135.6137.5143.6167.4
Expenditure.1938–39.1943–44.1946–47.1947–48.1948–491949–50.1950–51*

* Provisional.

† Employment promotion.

7. Cost of Provision of Goods and Services       
  (a) General Administration2.21.83.65.117.99.310.7
  (b) Interest on General Government debt paid overseas6.86.64.74.73.32.72.5
  (c) Law and order0.80.81.11.11.31.81.5
  (d) Development of primary and secondary industries Social Services—0.71.32.03.34.04.95.0
  (e) Health0.81.42.12.42.83.43.6
  (f) Education4.24.87.08.19.211.012.3
  (g) Non-monetary social security benefits 4.56.27.07.98.58.7
  (h) Other social services3.30.40.40.40.40.60.6
  (i) Defence and war2.1131.211.611.98.08.210.6
  (j) Rahabilitation 0.42.52.82.42.12.1
  (k) Maintenance of public works and services2.51.54.65.35.15.14.8
      Totals23.4154.745.852£52.357.662.4
Transfers to Private Income       
8. Monetary social security benefits and pensions7.715.834.837.639.512.647.5
9. Interest on General Government debt paid in New Zealand4.79.012.913.113.314.014.8
      Totals12.424.847.750.752.856.662.3
10. Transfers to Local Authorities       
  (a) Hospital Boards0.91.12.03.24.95.06.3
  (b) Other4.21.31.61.92.22.51.6
      Totals5.12.43.65.17.17.57.9
11. Subsidies       
  (a) Shipping, transport, and incidental 0.21.23.12.61.6 
  (b) Coal production and distribution 0.51.71.51.92.90.5
  (c) Primary production0.40.81.21.40.30.50.4
  (d) Essential clothing and foodstuffs0.21.6£7.56.69.67.4
  (e) Miscellaneous  0.20.10.1 0.1
  (f) Housing suspensory loans0.63.111.813.611.5 1.0
      Totals0.63.111.813.611.514.69.4
12. Total expenditure41.5185.0108.9121.7123.7136.3142.0
13. Balance of revenue over expenditure1.5-68.918.813.913.87.325.1
14. Total expenditure plus or minus revenue balances43.0116.1127.7135.6137.5143.6167.1

Local Authorities.—The revenue account of local authorities is in all respects similar to that of the General Government and has been obtained by an analysis of the accounts of all local authorities, including Hospital Boards. Because of the limitations in the scope of local-government activities as compared with those of the General Government, there is no call for a detailed analysis of expenditure items, and therefore current expenditure on the provision of goods and services by local authorities is shown as a single total in the table.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES—REVENUE ACCOUNT

£(million)

Revenue.1938–89.1943–44.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51*

* Provisional.

15. Taxation
  (a) Direct: Rates6.26.98.48.69.510.210.9
  (b) Indirect: Licence fees0.60.60.80.91.01.2
      Totals6.87.59.29.510.511.312.1
16. Trading income3.34.63.83.63.73.73.9
17. Grants from General Government5.12.43.65.17.17.57.9
18. Total revenue15.214.516.618.221.322.623.9
Expenditure,1938–39.1943–44.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51*
19. Cost of provision of goods and services8.46.69.110.812.815.017.5
20. Interest on local-authority debt paid in New Zealand2.32.32.22.22.22.01.8
21. Total expenditure10.78.911.313.015.017.019.3
22. Balance of revenue over expenditure4.55.65.35.26.35.64.6
23. Total expenditure (plus revenue balances)15.214.516.618.221.322.623.9

Reconciliation Statement.—The reconciliation given below indicates the fundamental differences between the analysis of the public accounts made for national-income purposes and that published in parliamentary paper B-1 [Pt. I].

RECONCILIATION BETWEEN BALANCE OF REVENUE OVER EXPENDITURE, PER NATIONAL INCOME ACCOUNTS, AND COMBINED SURPLUS CONSOLIDATED FUND AND SOCIAL SECURITY FUND, 1950–51 (PROVISIONAL)

 £(m.)
24. Balance of revenue over current expenditure per National Income Accounts Less+25.4
25. Transfer from Consolidated Fund to Public Works Account for capital expenditure-1.0
26. Amortization of debt charged to Consolidated Fund-8.7
27. Transfer from Consolidated Fund to Defence Fund-3.9
28. Capital expenditure charged to Consolidated Fund Plus-1.9
29. Current Expenditure from Public Works Account (transfers to Local Authorities)+0.8
Adjustment for trading income 
30. Profits of Trading Departments-110
31. Plus transfers of profits to Consolidated Fund+9.0
32. Surplus, Consolidated Fund and Social Security Fund+8.7

For the reconciliation for earlier years between the balances of revenue over expenditure and the budget surpluses (or deficits), reference should be made to the previous issues of the Year-Book.

Firstly, it has boon necessary to bring into account revenue and expenditure received and incurred by the Government other than that recorded within the limited confines of the Consolidated Fund. In 1950–51 the only other accounts involved wore the Social Security Fund and the Public Works Account, the remaining accounts used in earlier years either having been closed or the amounts involved were negligible.

Secondly, adjustments have been made to Consolidated Fund revenue and expenditure. Capital receipts and payments (purchase or construction of capital assets and amortization of debt) have been eliminated. Actual profits of trading Departments earned in a given year are brought into account and transfers by these to the Consolidated Fund deducted. This ensures that only profits for the year in question are included. Transfers to the Consolidated Fund do not necessarily relate to profits earned in the year in which the transfer is made, nor do they cover total profits of all trading Departments.

The consolidated balance of total Government revenue and expenditure represents the balance, after payment for all current items, utilized for capital expenditure of all kinds both by Government administrative Departments and Government trading undertaking. Because of the strictly “cash” basis on which the public accounts are constructed, however, no allowance has been made for depreciation on the national assets, other than those administered by the trading Departments, before arriving at the revenue balance. To this extent, therefore, it represents an overstatement of the true balance on current account.

Prior to 1950–51 it was the practice to reconcile the Government Revenue Account balance, as per the National Income Accounts, with the Consolidated Fund surplus (or deficit), but in 1950–51 a change was made, in that the balance is now converted back to the combined surplus of the Consolidated Fund and the Social Security Fund.

Thus it is now no longer necessary to show transfers between these two accounts, or to show the separate revenue and expenditure totals from the Social Security Fund in the reconciliation statement.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PRIVATE INCOME.—A detailed survey of private income and outlay has already been given (refer table on page 730) for the years 1938–39, 1943–44, and 1946–47 to 1950–51. An analysis of private income, in less comprehensive form, is given below for 1938–39 and 1939–40, and for each of the years 1942–43 to 1950–51. Group totals are shown in value form, as percentages of private income, and as index numbers on base 1938–39 (= 100).

PRIVATE INCOME

1938–39.1939–40.1942–43.1943–44.1944–45.1945–46.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.*

* Provisional.

Salary and wage payments (1)—           
  £(m.)111.1110.6126.7140.4147.0161.8186.3210.1226.9252.9275.2
  Per cent.55550.842.642.243.144.447.147.249.147.943.9
  Index No.100100114126132146168189204228248
Pay and allowances of Armed Forces (2)—           
  £(m.)0.93.147.157.948.340.08.26.44.34.66.1
  Per cent.0.51.415.817.414.211.02.11.40.90.91.0
Social security benefits and pensions (22)—           
  £(m.)7.711.514.415.817.620.934.837.639.542.647.5
  Per cent.3.95.34.84.75.25.78.88.48.58.17.6
  Index No.100149187205229271452488513553617
Rental value of owner-occupied housed (3)—           
  £(m.)6.26.77.98.38.89.19.39.610.511.212.1
  Per cent.3.13.12.72.52.62.52.42.22.32.11.9
  Index No.100108127134142147150155169181195
Other personal income (excluding company dividends) (4)—           
  £(m.)54.360.868.473.681.090.7108.7128.8132.3159.2222.3
  Per cent.27.127.923.022.123.824.927.528.928.630.135.5
  Index No.100112126136149167200237244293409
Company income (before distribution) (5)—           
  £(m.)19.925.033.236.738.242.048.353.048.558.063.6
  Per cent.9.911.511.211.011.211.512.211.910.511.910.1
  Index No.100126167184192211243266244291320
Private Income (26)—           
  £(m.)200.1217.7297.7332.8340.9364.5395.7445.5462.0528.4626.9
  Per cent.100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
  Index No.100109149166170182198223231264313

NNOTE.—The numbers in parentheses after the items refer to items in the tables given on pages 729–731.

The distribution of private income, as indicated by this table, is affected to a considerable extent by the movement in the item “pay and allowances of the Armed Forces” over the period. In 1943–44, the peak war year, 17.4 per cent. of total private income was received in this form. Its effects on aggregate “salary and wage payments” of civilians, which decreased as a percentage of private income from 55.5 per cent. in 1938–39 to 42.2 per cent. in 1943–44, and “other personal income,” which decreased similarly from 27.1 per cent. to 22.1 per cent. over the same years, can be clearly seen. If in usual to regard pay and allowances of the Armed Forces as similar to salary and wage payments, but if this is done it has the effect of temporarily inflating “salary and wage payments” at the expense of “other personal income,” since many Armed Forces personnel are not salary and wage-earners as civilians. This can lead to misleading results where a series of years covering a war and post-war period is being considered, as in the present case, and consequently care must be used in interpreting the figures shown.

Another item which is playing an increasingly important part in altering the distribution of private income is “social security benefits and pensions,” which as a percentage of private income increased from 3.9 per cent. in 1938 39 to a peak of 8.8 per cent. in 1946–47. but has since decreased to 7.6 per cent. in 1950–51. If these payments are considered as supplements to normal earned incomes, then they would have the effect of lessoning the drop shown in salary and wage payments (including pay and allowances of Armed Forces), 55.5 per cent. of private income in 1938–39 to 43.9 per cent. in 1950–51, a major portion of social security benefits and pensions being received by this group. That is however, going past the present analysis of private income, which is a study of the distribution of “factor incomes” rather than the distribution of incomes received by the various income-earning groups—i.e., “salary and wage payments” are being considered here, not “income of salary and wage-earners.”

Company incomes, which, until 1947–48, had shown the greatest percentage increase over 1938–39 actually decreased in 1948–49 from £53.0(m.) to £48.5(m.). Since then the figure has risen to £63.6(m.) for 1950–51, but the percentage to total private income in the latest year was only approximately the same as in 1938–39 and well below the high percentages of 1946–47 and 1947–48.

On the other hand, other personal incomes rose very sharply in 1949–50, and even to a greater extent in 1950–51, due to the very large increase in farmers' incomes (which include. £30(m.) of wool retention moneys), with the result that the percentage to total private income increased to 35.5 per cent. in 1950–51 as compared with 27.1 per cent. in 1938–39.

The percentage increase in other personal incomes over the thirteen-year period was 309 per cent., as compared with 220 per cent. in company incomes and 151 per cent. in salary and wage payments, including pay and allowances of the Armed Forces.

Total private income has increased from £200.1(m.) in 1938–39 to £626.9(m.). in 1950–51 (213 per cent.).

The Effects of Taxation on the Distribution of Private Income.—The redistributive effects of taxation on private income, especially by the use of steeply progressive taxation rates, can be very great. Before examining the effects on New Zealand private income, however, it is of value to compare total taxation with private income, and obtain some idea of the extent to which private income is affected by this transfer to the State.

The following table shows total taxation expressed as a percentage of private income for the years 1938–39, 1939–40, and 1942–43 to 1950–51.

PRIVATE INCOME AND TOTAL TAXATION

£(million)

1938–39.1939–40.1942–43.1943–44.1944–45.1945–46.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.*

* Provisional.

† Excluding direct taxes paid by Government trading Departments.

Private income (26)200.1217.7297.7332.8340.9364.5395.7445.5462.0528.4626.9
Direct taxation (28)23.830.566.475.581.285.078.277.493.695.6112.9
Indirect taxation (10)20.621.027.931.834.037.343.053.046.149.855.5
LESS subsidies (11)-0.6-0.5-3.33.1-4.6-646-11.813.6-11.5-14.6-9.4
      Total taxation less subsidies43.851.091.0104.2110.6115.7109.4116.8128.2130.8159.0
      Total taxation as a percentage of private income21.923.430.631.332.431.727.626.227.724.725.4

NOTE.—The numbers in parentheses after the items refer to items in the tables given on pages 729–731.

Subsidies in this table are treated as negative indirect taxes and deducted from total taxation. Taxation less subsidies as a percentage of private income increased steadily from 21.9 per cent. in 1938–39 to a peak of 32.4 per cent. in 1944–45. Immediately following the war. with the reduction in the war loading on income-tax from 33 1/3 per cent. to 15 per cent., and the successive reductions in the combined rate of national and social security charges, the percentage decreased steadily to 26.2 per cent. of private income in 1947–48. In the last three years it has fluctuated about this level. These recent fluctuations can largely be attributed to the fact that total taxation in any one year represents actual taxation receipts for that year. In the ease of certain taxes—e.g., income tax receipts for one year are in respect of income earned in the previous year. To this extent income earned is compared with tax paid from that income, and not with tax paid in respect of that income. Thus in 1948–49, although private income showed only a very small increase, taxation receipts increased considerably due to increased revenue from income-tax assessed on 1947–48 incomes, which were substantially higher than the 1946–47 level; the result was that the percentage of taxation less subsidies to private income rose by 1.5 per cent. to 27.7 per cent.

In 1949–50, when private income showed a considerable increase as compared with 1948–49, the increase in taxation (mainly assessed on income in 1948–49, when company income, a major source of taxation, showed a fall) is compared with a proportionately greater increased private income total. The result is a drop in the percentage to the relatively low figure of 24.7 per cent. In 1950–51 both private income and taxation showed similar increases, and the percentage of taxation to private income rose only slightly to 25.4 per cent.

Included in both income and taxation figures in the previous table are certain transfer payments from the private sector to Government as taxation, and from the Government back to the private sector as interest on the public debt, social security benefits, and pensions. Taxation raised for such purposes is not a true indication of the levy made on the private sector as a whole for its contribution to the cost of the provision of Government services, and therefore in the following table such transfer items have been eliminated both from taxation and from incomes, the remainders then being compared to give the true picture of the real contribution made to the State from private income.

The payment of non-monetary social security benefits also has the effect of disturbing the comparison between taxation and private income in the years before and after their introduction. The aggregate of private income before taxation is not affected by the change, the only difference being that former direct payments for services rendered by doctors, &c., are now paid by the Government from the proceeds of taxation. For the purposes of the following table payments of this nature, by Government, are deducted from total taxation before obtaining a true comparison with total private income.

PRIVATE INCOME AND TOTAL TAXATION (EXCLUDING TRANSFER INCOMES AND PAYMENTS)

£(million)

1938–39.1939–40.1942–43.1943–44.1944–45.1945–461946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.*

* Provisional.

† Excluding mental hospital benefits.

Private income before tax (26)200.1217.7297.7332.8340.9364.5395.7445.5462.9528.4626.9
Less transfer payments (8 + 22)-14.7-19.0-23.8-27.1-30.5-34.7-49.9-52.9-55.0-53.6-64.1
Private Income (excluding transfer payments)185.4198.7273.9305.7310.4329.8345.8392.6407.0469.8562.8
      Total taxation (less subsidies)43.851.091.0104.2110.6115.7109.4116.8128.2130.8159.0
Less           
Transfer payments (as above)-14.7-19.0-23.8-27.1-30.5-34.7-49.9-52.9-55.0-58.6-64.1
Non-monetary social security benefits -0.9-3.5-4.5-5.0-5.6-6.2-7.0-7.9-8.5-8.7
      Total taxation (excluding transfer payments and subsidies)29.131.163.772.675.175.453.356.965.363.786.2
      Total taxation as a percentage of private income (excluding transfer payments)15.715.723.323.724.222.915.414.516.013.615.3

NOTE.—The numbers in parentheses after the items refer to items in the tables given on pages 729–731.

The incidence of direct taxation on the various “factor income” groups comprising private income is shown in the next table. The balance in each case represents disposable income and the deduction of direct taxation from private income gives the concept of private disposable income.

PRIVATE INCOME AND INCIDENCE OF DIRECT TAXATION

£(million)

1938–39.1939–40.1942–43.1943–44.1944–45.1945–46.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.*

* Provisional.

† Excludes direct taxes on Government trading profits.

Salary and wage payments (1)111.1110.6126.7140.4147.0161.8186.3210.1226.9252.9275.2
Less direct taxes4.98.019.523.424.326.623.823.624.726.529.5
Net totals106.2102.6107.2117.0122.7135.2162.5186.5202.2226.4245.7
Pay and allowances of Armed Forces (2)0.93.147.157.948.340.08.26.44.34.66.1
Less direct taxes.  3.23.53.83.31.20.30.50.50.6
Net totals0.93.143.954.444.536.77.06.13.84.15.5
Social security benefits and pensions (22)7.711.514.415.817.620.934.837.639.542.647.5
Other personal income (including rental value of owner-occupied houses) (3 + 4)60.567.476.381.989.899.8118.0138.4142.8170.3234.4
Less direct taxes11.813.324.125.926.429.629.231.037.939.450.2
Net totals48.754.152.256.063.470.288.8107.4104.9130.9184.2
Company income (before distribution) (5)19.925.033.236.738.242.048.353.048.558.063.6
Less direct taxes7.19.219.622.726.625.524.022.530.529.132.6
Net totals12.815.813.614011.616.524.330.518.028.931.0
Private income (26)200.1217.7297.7332.8340.9364.5395.7445.5462.0528.4626.9
Less direct taxes (28)23.830.566.475.581.285.078.277.493.695.6112.9
Private disposable income176.3187.2231.3257.3259.7279.5317.5368.1368.4432.8514.0

NOTE.—The numbers in parentheses after the items refer to items in the tables given on pages 729–731.

The effect of direct taxation in filtering the distribution of the factor incomes is shown quite clearly by a comparison of the table given next with the table on page 735. Both show similar detail, the table presented earlier giving private income before tax, and the table following after tax, expressed in value form, as percentages of total private disposable income, and as index numbers, on base 1938–39 (= 100). For the purposes of the latter table, it is necessary to group “rental value of owner-occupied houses” with “other personal income.”

PRIVATE DISPOSABLE INCOME

1938–39.1939–40.1942–43.1943–44.1944–45.1945–46.1946–19471947–48.1943–49.1949–50.1950–51.*

* Provisional.

Salary and wage payments—           
  £(m.)106.2102.6107.2117.0122.7135.2162.5186.5202.2226.4245.7
  Per cent.66.254.846.345.547.248.451.250.754.952.347.8
  Index No.10097101110116127153176190213231
Pay and allowances of Armed Forces—           
  £(m.)0.93.143.954.444.536.77.06.13.84.15.5
  Percent.0.51.719.021.117.113.12.21.71.00.91.1
  Social security benefits and pensions—           
  £(m.)7.711.514.415.817.620.934.837.639.542.647.5
  Per cent.4.46.16.26.16.87.511.010.210.79.89.2
  Index No.100149187205229271152488513553617
Other personal income (including rental value of owner-occupied houses)—           
  £(m.)43.754.152.256.063.470.288.810.4104.9130.9184.2
  Per cent.27.628.922.621.824.425.128.029.128.530.235.8
  Index No.100111107115130144182220215269378
Company income (before distribution) —           
  £(m.)12.815.813.614.011.616.524.330.518.028.931.0
  Per cent.7.38.45.95.44.55.97.78.34.96.76.0
  Index No.10012310610991129190238141226242
Private disposable income—           
  £(m.)176.3187.2231.3257.3259.7279.5317.5368.1368.4432.8514.0
  Per cent.100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
  Index No.100106131146147159180209209245292

NOTE.—The value totals given in this table are those derived in the table given on page 738.

Whereas “salary and wage payments” (including pay and allowances of the Armed Forces) formed 44.9 per cent. of private income before tax in 1950–51, “other personal income” (including rental value of owner-occupied houses) 37.4 per cent., and “company income” 10.1 per cent., these proportions changed to 48.9 per cent., 35.8 per cent., and 6.0 per cent. respectively after deduction of direct taxes, and expressed as a percentage of private disposable income. A factor of some importance which affects the comparability of these figures is the introduction of non-monetary social security benefits over the period. Taxation taken to pay for these benefits reduces private disposable income, but at the same time this income is indirectly increased by a reduction in private expenditure on the items covered by the benefits. It is not feasible to make any allowance for this factor at this point, but it should be borne in mind.

MANUFACTURING SECTOR ACCOUNT.—As mentioned earlier the inclusion of this sector account marks the beginnings of the “output” approach to the measurement of the national income, and the eventual construction of a complete sot of sector accounts for the whole economy.

In setting out this sector account, as with all sector accounts, the aim is to show on the income side an analysis of the sales of goods and services produced by the sector according to whether For personal consumption, for use as materials for further production, for export, or for use as capital equipment; and on the expenditure side an analysis of the total revenue showing the return to the factors of production (i.e., the earnings of labour, management, enterprise, and capital), the cost and sources of materials operated on, the cost of services provided by the servicing sectors, and the amounts set aside as depreciation allowances.

It will readily be seen that on the expenditure side are shown the source of some of the factor items which appear in the analysis of national income and expenditure on page 729, and on the revenue side the destination of some of the expenditure items in the same table.

The information given in the Manufacturing Sector account is obtained largely by an extension of the scope of the factory production statistics, returns for which are collected by the Census and Statistics Department from all concerns registered as factories under the Factories Act, 1946, which are engaged in manufacture, repair, and treatment, and in which, generally speaking, more than two persons are engaged.

Adjustments are made to bring the figures up to a full coverage based on the Labour and Employment Department's estimated total labour force figures. Thus allowances are made for small units, and also for those manufacturing activities expressly excluded from factory production collections—namely, railway workshop, tea blending and packing, abattoirs, bread baking, cake and pastry making, and footwear repair, to name the more important. On the other hand, bush sawmilling and logging, as distinct from town-milling, although included in factory production statistics, is excluded from the scope of the Manufacturing Sector account. Electricity generation and supply, although not coming within the definition of a “factory,” is included both in factory production statistics and in the sector account here. Building and Construction is not included, being regarded as a separate sector.

As a result of these adjustments the coverage, as measured by the number of persons actively engaged, is increased from 144,349 persons covered by the factory production statistics in 1949–50 to a total of 182,237 for the whole sector. This total is in line with the Labour and Employment Department's estimate of labour force, including all statistical short coverages in manufacturing industries in 1949–50.

The figures shown are necessarily provisional as yet and may subsequently require substantial amendments for the following reasons:—

  1. Certain very broad and arbitrary assumptions may require modification later;

  2. More statistical information may become available;

  3. Improved methods for estimating certain items may be devised; and

  4. The compilation of accounts for other sectors will serve as a check on the Manufacturing Sector accounts.

The “output” values are measured at the “factory door,” except that where manufacturing firms do their own soiling and distribution the values are actual “factory sales values.” Thus in cases where distribution is performed as a subsidiary function to manufacturing, the Manufacturing Sector is extended to cover distribution, which normally would come into the Servicing Sector.

MANUFACTURING SECTOR.—INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNTS, 1946–47 TO 1949–50.

1946–471947–481948–491949–50
£(m).Per cent.£(m.).Per cent.£(m).Per cent.£(m).Per cent.
Income
(Gross value of products)
Sales of consumer goods and services78.825.479.221.391.423.3100.423.0
Sales as materials within the Manufacturing Sector46.415.054.714.763.316.173.616.9
Sales as materials to other sectors82.526.695.825.8120.130.6132.230.3
Sales of goods for export79.225.6106.328.6104.426.6107.524.7
Sales of capital equipment manufactured7.32.411.53.113.03.314.23.3
Changes in stocks—        
  Materials3.31.16.31.7-1.0-0.30.70.2
  Finished goods3.51.111.73.2-2.1-0.51.40.3
Subsidies received8.62.85.81.63.70.95.81.3
  Gross value of products309.6100.0371.3100.0392.8100.0435.8100.0
Expenditure
(Total costs of production)
Net output at factor cost—        
  Salaries and wages57.718.665.617.769.917.877.517.8
  Surpluses26.68.628.5£30.67.835.78.2
    Net output84.327.294.125.4100.525.6113.226.0
Cost of materials and services used in production—        
  Imported materials45.914.864.917.558.815.056.813.0
  Materials supplied by Farming Sector in New Zealand84.827.4100.227.0105.526.8116.726.8
  Materials supplied by Manufacturing Sector in New Zealand46.715.155.715.065.016.577.117.7
  Materials supplied by other primary sectors in New Zealand8.12.69.42.511.32.912.42.8
  Electricity and gas supplied by Manufacturing Sector4.91.65.21.45.51.46.01.4
  Services supplied by other sectors23.77.726.47.128.47.233.07.6
  Total materials and services214.169.2261.870.5274.569.9302.069.4
Depreciation allowances4.51.45.81.67.51.99.32.1
Indirect taxation (excise duties)6.72.29.62.610.32.611.32.6
  Total costs of production309.6100.0371.3100.0392.8100.0435.8100.0

The Manufacturing Sector includes a number of industries winch process farm products, and about 45 per cent. of the value of all materials used in manufacture comes directly from New Zealand farms.

By far the two most important of they industries are meat freezing and preserving and the manufacture of dairy products, which between them account for over 80 per cent. of all farm products processed.

An examination of a detailed account drawn up for these two farm-products processing industries on the same basis as the Manufacturing Sector as a whole revealed the following important differences in 1949–50:—

  1. Sales for export in the case of these two industries form 78 per cent. of the gross value of products, as compared with only 25 per cent. for the whole sector.

  2. The percentage of gross value of products represented by cost of materials and services is 89.8 per cent., compared with only 69.4 per cent. for the whole sector; it follows that salaries and wages and surpluses are very much smaller by comparison.

  3. Imported materials are much less important in the farm-products processing industries, the percentage to total costs of production being only 1.3 per cent., as compared with 13 per cent. for the whole sector.

Chapter 36. SECTION 36—INCOMES AND INCOME-TAX

INCOMES AND TAX ASSESSMENT.—A system of annual statistics from the particulars on the income-tax returns was inaugurated in 1923 and was continued up to and including the tax-year 1931–32, but was then discontinued for reasons of economy. The compilation was later resumed, commencing with the tax-year 1934–35, but following the 1941–42 tabulation, it was found necessary to suspend activities in this connection owing to shortages of staff, &c., arising from war conditions. The compilation of these statistics has again been resumed commencing with the tax assessment year 1946–47.

Commencing with the assessment year 1948–49, the compilation of the statistics was altered from the system of full enumeration, which had been previously used, to one based on a sample of approximately 10 per cent. of the total number of assessments. Provision was made at the same time to obtain a complete coverage of all incomes of £2,500 and over. The selection of the sample was governed principally by considerations of administrative convenience. All assessments issued to persons whose surnames commenced with one of the three chosen letters of the alphabet were included in the sample. It had previously been determined that the assessments included in these letters which, when aggregated, amounted to approximately 10 per cent. of the total number, were a reasonably representative section of the whole as far as incomes under £2,500 were concerned. Three letters of medium size in regard to numbers of assessments were adopted in preference to taking the results of one (or two) of the letters having larger numbers of assessments in order to spread as evenly as practicable the work of preparing the assessments for the statistical compilation.

Other than the provision for a full enumeration of all incomes of £2,500 and over, no direct attempt was made to stratify the sample by size of income. While it would have been desirable from some angles to have increased the proportional representation of the sample as the income groups ascended the frequency distribution scale, this would have impaired the administrative simplicity of the scheme of sampling adopted. Some degree of stratification was achieved, however, by using an over-all 10-per-cent sample. The numbers yielded by the 10-per-cent. sample are, in the lower income groups, more than are actually necessary to give reliable results.

The use of the sampling method explains the “rounded-off” figures which are shown for the 1948–49 and 1949–50 statistics in the tables which follow. In some cases, this process of rounding-off results in the total figure given disagreeing slightly with the aggregate of the component items.

The figures are given to the nearest ten for the 1949–50 assessment year (for 1948–49 to the nearest hundred) for numbers of assessments, &c., and to the nearest ten thousand for the amounts columns. These units were adopted to lessen the difficulties associated with the rounding-off of the figures. It is not intended to imply that the estimates are regarded as having a degree of accuracy as high as the units in which the results are expressed. The accuracy of the estimates appears to be such that the “thousands” of the numbers of assessments, and the “hundred thousands” of amounts are approximately correct.

Information concerning the system of income-tax in New Zealand is given earlier under the heading of “Taxation” (see pp. 575–581). The statistical data relating to income-tax given in this section more properly belong to the Taxation subsection referred to, but it is considered preferable to treat the figures relating to the incidence of tax with those showing the distribution of the incomes on which the tax is assessed.

It should be explained that the incomes returned in any tax-year are those for the preceding income-year; thus, the statistics for the tax-year 1949–50 relate to incomes received during the year 1948–49, which, in general, may be taken as the twelve months ended 31st March, 1949.

The returns from which these statistics are compiled are required from all taxpayers. In addition, whether taxpayers or not, all taxable companies and public or local authorities engaged in any profession, trade, manufacture, or undertaking carried on for pecuniary profit, irrespective of the amount of income derived, and all persons in receipt of incomes of £200 or over, are required to furnish returns. (For the tax year 1951–52, however, this limit has been raised to £300). As far as individuals are concerned, the statistical compilation is however, limited to taxpayers and to persons whose assessable incomes amount to £200 or over.

The reference to individuals whose assessable incomes are £200 or over should not be interpreted as meaning that there is a complete coverage of incomes over that amount. Certain types of non-assessable income, including war pensions and social security monetary benefits, are excluded from the returns, and are therefore completely omitted from these statistics. The coverage of the returns is also incomplete in one other respect. A number of persons with assessable incomes of between £200 and £300 fail to furnish returns. The personal exemption of £200 and the tax rebate of £10 (increased to £15 for 1950–51) account for the first £270 of assessable income. The great majority of missing returns for income over £270 represent persons who are known to be entitled to other exemptions which would bring them into the non-taxpaying category.

SUMMARY OF INCOMES, EXEMPTIONS, AND TAX.—The following table briefly summarizes the main items of information for each of the last five tax-years available.

Item.1941–42.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.

* Excluding company income, where distinction between earned and unearned income is not made for taxation purposes.

† Proprietary income is excluded from assessable income and included in returnable income.

Number of assessments323,379401,025473,466531,382560,196
Number of taxpayers235,721319,718387,724367,601412,894
 £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
Earned income*111,466171,903209,342257,530339,191
Assessable income149,597221,866268,760324,317350,451
Returnable income157,519231,026279,768339,786367,166
Exemptions—     
Personal61,65979,88094,398106,040111,830
Other21,64937,96544,50951,03055,000
Taxable income66,289104,021129,853167,247183,621
Tax assessed20,12431,79938,70444,30346,189

Probably the most striking feature disclosed by these figures is the cumulative effect of the large increases shown in each individual year. A strict comparison is however, not possible, as changes in compilation practice and numerous amendments in income-tax law have affected the comparability of one year's figures with those of another.

CLASSES OF TAXPAYERS.—“Individuals” comprise all assessments for individual persons. Partnership returns are ignored in the compilation, as the individual shares of partnership income are included in the individual tax assessments.

The term “companies” not only covers companies incorporated under the Companies Act, 1933, and other Acts relating to the formation of companies, but also includes local and public authorities, associations (incorporated or unincorporated), and aggregations of individuals (other than partnerships) which form separate and distinct entities for income-tax purposes.

Non-resident traders are not now separately classified, but are included either as. individuals or as companies.

A classification on the basis of class is given in the following table for each of the last three available tax-years.

Class.Number of Assessments.Number of Taxpayers.Assessable Income.*
1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.

* Including proprietary income.

       £(000)£(000)£(000)
Individuals463,208518,900545,700377,466356,900400,959£219,211268,680295,950
Companies10,25812,48214,49610,25810,70111,94449,64955,63754,501
      Totals473,466531,382560,196387,724367,601412,894268,760324,317350,451

The numbers of assessments for individuals in the 1949–50 tax-year covered 477,140 males and 82,460 females, a total of 559,600. The figures quoted for males and females include in their respective sexes the number of husbands and wives who were issued with combined assessments under the provisions relating to the aggregation of the incomes of husband and wife. In the statistical tables, such combined assessments are counted as one assessment only.

The number of males included in assessments was 55.0 per cent. of the male population (excluding Maoris) and 51.7 per cent. (including Maoris). Corresponding figures for females were 9.5 per cent. and 9.0 per cent. respectively.

Amount of Income.—The broad principle adopted in calculating the assessable income is that any expenditure or loss exclusively incurred in the production of assessable income for any year may be deducted from the total income from any assessable source for that year. Depreciation is allowed, varying rates for different classes of assets being fixed. Where the operations of a source of income which would be assessable for income-tax have resulted in a loss for the year, the loss may be set off against assessable profits from other sources (if any) or, in default thereof, may be set off against assessable profits in the three following years. Capital profits are not assessable and capital losses are not deductible.

Incomes of Individuals:Assessable Income.—Summarized figures according to amount of assessable income of individuals are now given for the last three tax-years available.

Amount of Assessable Income.Number of Assessments.Assessable Income.*
1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.

* Excluding proprietary income.

£ £   £(000)£(000)£(000)
Under 30099,90284,40072,55025,19021,38018,450
300– 399145,306137,800125,13050,80748,49044,210
400– 49996,866125,600137,71042,80955,63061,210
500– 59947,65165,50081,59025,81135,56044,220
600– 69923,73534,30043,83015,26022,04028,150
700– 79913,37519,20023,6709,96114,28017,640
800– 8998,50511,70014,8007,1839,88012,490
900– 9995,5628,2009,8605,2587,7509,300
1,000–1,99917,90125,70029,33023,67434,02038,840
2,000–2,9992,9914,3004,9907,10910,30011,710
3,000–3,9998501,3031,3332,8974,4294,553
4,000–4,9992944504681,3011,9952,074
.5,000–9,9992363843971,4672,4402,552
10,000 and over343539486486552
      Totals463,208518,900545,700219,211268,680295,950

Of the 545,700 individual assessments covered in 1949–50, 13.3 per cent. returned assessable income of less than £300, 48.2 per cent. from £300 to £499, 31.8 per cent. from £500 to £999, 5.4 per cent. from £1,000 to £1,999 and 1.3 per cent. from £2,000 upwards.

Individuals with assessable incomes of less than £500 received 41.9 per cent. of the total assessable income. Corresponding percentages for the higher incomes were: £500–£999, 37.8 per cent.; £1,000–£1,999, 13.1 per cent.; £2,000–£4,999, 6.2 per cent.; and £5,000 and over, 1.0 per cent.

Assessable Earned Income.—Earned income is defined as all income derived from any source by a taxpayer (not being a company or a public or local authority) by reason of his personal exertions. Pensions and superannuation are regarded as earned income. It should be noted, however, that war pensions and social security benefits (except the universal superannuation benefit from 1st October, 1951) are not taxable. and are not required to be included in income-tax returns. Earned income was, of course, not subject to the surtax of 33 1/3 per cent. on standard rates which was payable on unearned income of individuals but not of companies up to and including the 1949–50 tax year. The Land and Income Tax Amendment Act, 1950, abolished this surtax.

The next table shows the amount of earned income included in the total assessable income of individuals for the various categories according to the size of assessable income.

Amount of Assessable Income.Assessable Earned Income.*Proportion of Assessable Income.
1917–48.1948–49.1949–50.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.

* Excluding proprietary Income.

    PerPerPer
£ ££(000)£(000)£(000)Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Under 30023,85120,19017,47094.794.494.7
300– 39949,37346,98042,94097.296.997.1
400– 49941,63954,36059,93097.397.797.9
500– 59924,92034,51043,16096.597.097.6
600– 69914,47621,22027,21094.996.396.7
700– 7999,50613,59016,98095.495.296.3
800– 8996,7639,38011,91094.194.995.4
900– 9994,8967,3508,91093.194.896.1
1,000–1,99921,82432,03036,41092.294.193.7
2,000–2,9996,4799,43010,87091.191.592.8
3,000–3,9992,6214,0774,15490.592.091.2
4,000–4,9991,1791,7921,89490.689.891.3
5,000–9,9991,3482,1912,32491.989.891.1
10,000 and over46743452996.189.395.8
      Totals209,342257,530284,69095.595.996.2

Generally speaking, the proportion of earned income falls as the size of the assessable income increases, although exceptions to the rule will be observed.

Proprietary Income.—There are two factors which must be present before the income of a company can be proprietary income in the hands of the shareholder. The first is that the control must be in the hands of not more than four persons. If this is the case, then the company is a proprietary company. The second factor is that a shareholder of a proprietary company is not a proprietary shareholder unless he is entitled to receive not less than one-fifth of the company's income. Only in the case of a proprietary shareholder in a proprietary company is the shareholder's proportion of the company's residual taxable and non-assessable income transferred to the shareholder's assessment. A proprietary shareholder may be an estate or another company.

Where proprietary income is transferred to the shareholder's assessment, that income becomes assessable income in the hands of the shareholder. The tax is assessed on the taxable balance (including proprietary income), provision being made for a credit in respect of tax already paid on that income by the company. In the statistics such proprietary income is included only in the returnable income. It has been excluded from the assessable earned, the assessable, and the taxable incomes.

Returnable. Income.—In addition to the proprietary income which is included in returnable income, certain classes of non-assessable income are taken into account in determining the amount of tax payable on the balance of the assessable income. The classes concerned mainly comprise dividends from companies trading in New Zealand, interest on New Zealand Government securities issued free of tax, and interest on company debentures issued free of tax or with a floating rate of interest. Company dividends, or proprietary income in lieu of company dividends, are actually by fur the largest source of non-assessable income.

Returnable income therefore comprises assessable income plus proprietary income and the classes of non-assessable income mentioned in the preceding paragraph.

The following table gives particulars of the number of assessments and total returnable income of individuals according to size of income.

Amount of Returnable Income.Number of Assessments.Returnable Income.*
1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.

* Including proprietary income.

£ £   £(000)£(000)£(000)
Under 30098,59682,80071,28024,87721,00018,180
300– 399144,559137,000124,20050,55248,21043,900
400– 49996,335124,800137,13042,58455,25060,960
500– 59947,27164,90080,77025,61235,26043,780
600– 69923,70034,40043,39015,24122,10027,880
700– 79913,30718,70023,5909,91313,90017,570
800– 8998,65712,00014,9107,31510,15012,570
900– 9995,6558,20010,0905,3477,7509,530
1,000–1,99919,12527,00030,65025,53535,95040,990
2,000–2,9993,7315,7006,0808,92913,44014,370
3,000–3,9991,2161,7961,9334,1636,1476,621
4,000–4,9994947267292,1903,2123,236
5,000–9,9994787508003,0394,8475,212
10,000 and over841001501,3301,5582,377
      Totals463,208518,900545,700226,626278,780307,180

From a comparison of the foregoing table with that based on the amount of “assessable” income, it will be observed that the larger income categories are most affected by the inclusion of non-assessable and proprietary income. For the assessment year 1949–50 the aggregate of non-assessable, &c., income was £11,230,000. With the exception of £1,430,000 received by those having returnable incomes of less than £1,000, this amount was shared by the medium and higher income groups. The general tendency is for the proportion of non-assessable. &c., income to rise as the total income rises.

Aggregation of Incomes: Husband and Wife.—The incomes of husband and wife are aggregated if (a) they are living together, and (b) the returnable income in each case exceeds £200. The income of the wife is deemed to be the income of the husband, and an aggregate assessment is made in the name of the husband. In such cases a personal exemption of £200 is allowable for the wife, in addition to that allowable to the husband. Two separate general rebates from the amount of tax payable are also allowed. Provision is made for separate assessments if written application is made by either the husband or wife before an aggregate assessment has been made. The total tax payable under the separate aggregated assessments is that payable under the combined assessment, but apportioned between husband and wife according to their respective taxable incomes.

The following table shows the numbers of “aggregate” assessments for the latest three assessment years, according to the amount of assessable income. In this, as in the other tables, an “aggregate” assessment is counted as one assessment only. Each assessment, however, includes two returns of income.

Amount of Assessable Income.Number of Assessments.
1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.
£ £   
Under 40014  
400–499250100 
500–5991,3391,000890
600–6992,2442,6003,030
700–7991,5712,3003,150
800–8999401,5001,930
900–9995199001,270
£ £   
1,000–1,9991,5542,2002,850
2,000–2,999341500460
3,000–3,999123186166
4,000–4,999388574
5,000 and over307983
      Totals8,96311,50013,900

It should be noted that the above table includes only those cases where there is no election by the husband or wife to receive separate assessments at the rate of tax appropriate to the aggregated taxable incomes. This right of election is exercised in numerous eases, but the actual number is not available from these statistics.

Sources of Income.—In the compilation of the statistics for the years prior to 1949–50' a distinction was made as to the source from which assessable income was derived, incomes being divided into ten groups according to source as follows: (i) Salary or wages; (ii) following professional occupation on own account; (iii) commerce, trade, or business: (iv) industry or manufacture; (v) farming; (vi) provision of transport or communication; (vii) building or construction; (viii) mining or extraction; (ix) investments and the like; (x) provision of or engaging in entertainment.

For the assessment year 1949–50 incomes from businesses were classified, according to an industry code. Incomes from salary or wages were analysed into the more important occupations. The tables which follow give data for groups of allied industries or occupations.

Actual figures as to the amount of income derived from the various sources are not available on account of the fact that, in a considerable proportion of cases, income is obtained from more than one source. The rule followed in such cases in compiling the statistics is to include the whole income under the principal source from which assessable income is derived. As some indication of the extent to which the figures are affected, source salary or wages includes £3,090,000 unearned, assessable income, and source investments and the like includes £600,000 assessable earned income.

The following table shows the distribution of incomes of individuals from the various sources and also the average assessable and returnable incomes for the tax-year 1949–50.

Source of Assessable Income.Number of Assessments.Assessable Income.*Returnable Income.Income-tax Assessed.Average Assessable Income.Average Returnable Income.

* Excludes proprietary income.

Agricultural and live-stock production— £(000)£(000)£(000)££
Sheep-farming15,99018,29018,7703,5701,1441,174
Dairy-farming30,06020,73020,7901,730690692
Other15,60012,33012,4501,460790798
      Totals61,65051,35052,0106,750833844
Forestry, hunting, and fishing1,17081081080692692
Mining and quarrying220220230301,0001,045
Manufacturing—      
Food, drink, and tobacco1,2101,0101,030126835851
Apparel, textiles, and footwear1,11080082090721739
Metals and metal products1,9801,4501,490150732753
Other1,6601,3801,420190831855
Construction6,7304,9705,080510738755
Commerce—      
Wholesale and retail trade12,4409,85010,0901,200792811
Other7807808201601,0261,079
Transport, storage, and communication4,1703,0203,060280724734
Services, community—      
Professional6,0508,2908,7201,6801,3701,441
Other5,9904,3304,360510723728
      Totals105,14088,26089,94011,750839855
Salary or wages429,550201,440209,0809,480469487
Investment income11,0106,2508,1601,110568741
Grand totals545,700295,950307,18022,340542563

The classification used is based on the United Nations' industries classification.

It will be noticed that the greatest part of non-assessable income (i.e., the difference between the assessable and returnable incomes shown in the above table) is included in the salary or wages group. This is mainly due to the fact that the principal shareholders of companies frequently receive salaries as managing directors or managers of their companies. As such salaries constitute the principal source of assessable income, these individuals are included in the salary or wages group.

The salary or wage-earners in the previous table are analysed in the next table according to the personal occupation followed. The data for 1949–50 are shown for the principal occupational groups. It has been previously mentioned that salaried directors and managers of companies are classed as salary or wage-earners where the salary from the company forms the largest part of the assessable income.

Occupational Group.Number of Assessments.Assessable Income.*Returnable Income.Income-tax Assessed.Average Assessable Income.Average Returnable Income.

* Excludes proprietary income.

  £(000)£(000)£(000)££
Fishermen and trappers1,12053054020473482
Agricultural and pastoral occupations25,0609,8109,810290391391
Forest occupations2,9701,3601,39060458468
Miners and quarrymen6,7903,6303,640180535536
Workers in manufacturing, repair, &c., processes connected with—      
  Food, drink, and tobacco14,2206,8807,070330484497
  Apparel, textiles, and footwear12,5505,4405,890330433469
  Metals33,31015,50016,020610465481
  Wood11,0405,1305,370210465486
  Other materials13,1506,3106,610280480503
Workers in—      
  Building, construction, &c.37,70016,42016,750540436444
  Production or supply of gas, electricity, water, &c.3,3201,6801,69070506509
  Transport and communication44,17021,74022,000820492498
Financial and commercial occupations45,27024,17027,2601,920534602
Public administration occupations12,5306,6206,640290528530
Clerical and professional occupations85,36040,52041,1801,790475482
Entertainment, sport, and recreational occupations1,70080083040471488
Personal and domestic occupations15,3605,9506,020200387392
Other or ill-defined occupations58,25026,80028,1501,430460483
Not actively engaged16,6908,40010,3801,180503622
      Totals440,560207,690217,24010,590471493

The “not actively engaged” group in this table include those whose principal source of income is interest, rents, &c. The remainder of this group consists of super-annuitants whose assessments are included in the salary or wage group of the source classification. It will be observed that there is a large “other or ill-defined” group. The majority of these assessments properly belong to one of the classified groups, but they could not be correctly allocated on the information available.

Exemptions.—In the case of individuals, certain statutory deductions are made from the assessable income, and income-tax is paid on the balance. Absentees are not usually entitled to the benefit of exemptions other than the personal exemption of £200. The exemptions in force during the tax-year 1949–50 were—

  1. A personal exemption of £200.

  2. An exemption of £100 in respect of a dependent husband or wife whose personal income did not exceed £50. The exemption was diminished by £2 for every £1 of the wife's income in excess of £50.

  3. An exemption not exceeding £100 in respect of a housekeeper employed by a widow, widower, or divorced person to have the care and control of any child or children.

  4. An exemption for contributions not exceeding £50 towards the support of a relative by blood, marriage, or adoption who was dependent on the taxpayer. Children of the taxpayer were included in this definition. The exemption was not allowed if the relative was in receipt of a monetary benefit (other than a family benefit for children) from the Social Security Fund.

  5. Life-assurance premiums, National Provident Fund, superannuation, and similar contributions. An exemption was allowed up to a maximum of 15 per cent. of assessable income or £150, whichever amount was the less.

A tax rebate of £26 was allowed in lieu of the exemption if the exemption for a wife, a housekeeper, or a dependent relative would reduce the amount of tax payable by more than £26 in respect of any such exemption. If the income was wholly earned income, the tax rebate in lieu of the exemption for a wife operated when the taxable income (the assessable income less any exemptions, including the wife's exemption) exceeded £808. In the case of a relative, the tax rebate came into effect when the taxable earned income exceeded £2,658. In both these cases it was assumed that the full exemption of £100 or £50, as the case might be, would apply.

In the statistics the exemptions were applied in the order in which they appear in the foregoing list. For example, a married man with two children was entitled to the following exemptions: Personal, £200; wife, £100; relatives, £100; and (say) £15 life-assurance premiums, &c. The total exemption was thus £415. Assuming that his assessable income was £375, the exemptions were reduced to a total sufficient to make the taxable balance “nil,” and were recorded as personal, £200; wife, £100; and relatives, £75.

The next table shows the aggregate amounts of exemptions allowed in the tax-year 1949–50.

Amount of Assessable Income.Personal.Wife, Housekeeper.Children and Relatives.Life Assurance,Total.
 £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
Under 30014,4706607023015,430
300– 39925,0204,7701,91070032,400
400– 49927,5508,1905,5801,27042,590
500– 59916,4705,7904,7701,30028,330
600– 6999,3603,1302,77095016,210
700– 7995,3601,6201,4606609,100
800– 8993,3509809204705,720
900– 9992,2306706603703,930
1,000–1,9996,4308401,8501,48010,600
2,000–2,9991,080102904001,780
3,000–3,999298110127436
4,000–4,999107  47155
5,000–9,99993  41134
10,000 and over9  514
      Totals111,83026,66020,2908,050166,830

The operation of the previously mentioned rule regarding reduction of potential exemptions can be seen in the figures in the above table. In the “under £300” group, the £660,000 allowed as wife's exemption would be increased by approximately £500,000 if the husband's income had been sufficient to allow the full exemption. The actual exemption for children was considerably less than the potential exemption in the £300–£399 and £400–£499 groups. There were 8,900 non-taxpayers with incomes of £500 and over in which either the children's or life-assurance potential exemptions were reduced, except, of course, in those infrequent cases where the income and exemptions exactly balanced.

The data above do not include exemptions in 17,100 cases where the tax rebate of £26 was allowed in lieu of the wife's exemption, or for the 1,600 children or relatives in respect of whom the rebate was allowed. These cases were mostly in the higher assessable income groups, and account for the smaller exemption figures in such groups.

Taxable Income and Tax Assessed.—After all exemptions have been deducted from the assessable income the balance of income (if any) is taxed in accordance with the schedule relating to the particular tax-year.

The next table gives in respect of individual incomes particulars of taxable income and of tax assessed for the various income categories in 1949–50 and the two preceding tax-years.

Amount of Assessable Income.Taxable Income.Tax Assessed.
1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50
£ ££(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
Under 3003,3393,2303,0204899050
300– 39910,11611,62011,8101,504880840
400– 49910,82515,94018,6201,6521,4901,710
500– 5998,69212,46015,8901,3751,3901,720
600– 6990,4089,33011,9401,0641,2101,510
700– 7994,8787,0208,5408541,0401,200
800– 8993,9245,3106,7707188401,060
900– 9993,1304,6205,370605800910
1,000–1,99917,27524,69028,2403,9345,3306,070
2,000–2,9996,0368,7609,9301,9612,7703,110
3,000–3,9992,6123,9994,1171,0431,5421,604
4,000–4,9991,2041,8451,919560861890
5,000–9,9991,3902,3092,4157561,2451,319
10,000 and over475475538298296346
      Totals80,304111,610129,12016,81319,79022,340

Rates of Tax: Individuals.—For the three tax-years shown the rate of tax was 2s. 6d. in the £1 on so much of the taxable income as did not exceed £100. For each succeeding £100 or part thereof the rate of tax on that income was increased by 3d. up to a maximum rate of 12s., which was reached at incomes of £3,800. These rates, introduced in 1940–41, are known as basic rates, and are subject to a percentage increase or decrease each year in accordance with the provisions of the annual taxing Act fixing rates for that year. During the years under review, an additional tax of 33 1/3 per cent. on these rates was imposed in respect of unearned incomes. The above rates were increased by 15 per cent. for each of the three tax-years shown above. There was, however, a limit of 15s. 6d. in the pound. Tax is payable on the amount of the taxable balance, but non-assessable income is included for purposes of determining the actual rate of tax. This is explained earlier under the heading of “Returnable Income.”

A rebate of £10, or the amount of tax assessed, whichever was the lesser amount, was allowed to all individual taxpayers for the assessment years 1948–49 and 1949–50. Aggregated assessments on husband and wife were granted two such rebates.

Geographical Distribution.—The decentralization of the Land and Income Tax Department afforded the opportunity of obtaining data on a geographical basis. The following table shows for the years 1947–48, 1948–49, and 1949–50 the number of assessments and average assessable income for each of the fourteen districts, which are indicated by the name of the town in which the branch office is situated.

Income-tax District.Number of Assessments.Average Assessable Income.
1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.
    £££
Whangarei12,03514,40015,340444512534
Auckland97,112105,600108,690464498531
Hamilton49,75159,10065,080475527545
Napier24,98728,40031,020516585596
New Plymouth17,30918,80019,990486544572
Wanganui16,18616,70016,210499512542
Palmerston N.22,46424,60026,880500525544
Wellington74,35885,90090,120483528536
Nelson13,25414,60014,670467506553
Christchurch49,66055,70060,590440492529
Greymouth10,16911,10011,060451511529
Timaru16,42817,70018,160477523564
Dunedin40,69444,70045,600458505530
Invercargill18,80121,60022,290507533559
    Totals463,208518,900545,700473518542

Preliminary Estimates for 1950–51 and 1951–52 Tax-years.—Provisional estimates of the assessable incomes of individuals for the assessment years 1950–51 and 1951–52 have been prepared and the results are shown in the tables which follow. The estimates have been calculated on the basis of the trends exhibited by a small percentage of the total number of returns for these years. The numbers involved in this sample are very much smaller than those which were used for the detailed analysis of the 1949–50 assessments.

These estimates were compiled from returns available at an early date. The sample cases for business returns in particular are inevitably biased to some extent, as those individuals with financial balance dates falling later in the year could not be fairly represented. This observation has distinct significance in connection with the position of sheep-farmers for the 1951–52 assessment year. The sharp drop in wool prices on the resumption of the 1951 wool sales would no doubt result in a lower valuation of stocks of wool unsold in the returns of sheep-farmers with a late balance date. The position was somewhat complicated since there was some evidence to suggest that the valuations placed on stocks of unsold wool in the earlier returns which wore included in the sample had been conservative. However, an allowance for the fall in wool prices was made in estimating the incomes of sheep-farmers, and also the incomes of the “mixed” farmers who are included in the “other” of the fanning group.

Incidentally, wool-retention moneys are not included in the assessable incomes of sheep-farmers for the assessment year 1951–52.

It is therefore emphasized that the data shown in these tables are provisional only, and are liable to be substantially revised at a later date.

Although figures for the three assessment years 1949–50, 1950–51, and 1951–52 are given to afford a convenient comparison of the results for each year, only the two later years have been estimated from the restricted sample. The 1949–50 figures are based on the normal 10-per-cent. sample collection.

The first table gives data for the principal sources of income of individuals.

Source of Assessable Income.Assessment Years.
1949–50.1950–51.1951–52.
Number of Assessments.Assessable Income.Number of Assessments.Assessable Income.Number of Assessments.Assessable Income.
  £(million) £(million) £(million)
Sheep-farming15,99018.316,70025.917,30049.2
Dairy-farming30,06020.830,40025.330,90028.4
Other farming15,60012.316,40014.917,10020.5
      Totals61,65051.463,50.066.165,30098.1
Manufacturing5,9604.66,2005.16,5006.1
Construction6,7305.07,0005.87,3007.4
Commerce12,4409.912,80011.813,30013.9
Transport4,1703.04,3003.11,5003.5
Services—      
  Professional6,0508.36,1008.66,2009.4
  Other5,9904.36,2004.76,5005.6
Miscellaneous (forestry, mining, &c.)2,1501.82,3002.02,4002.4
      Totals105,14088.3108,400107.2112,000146.4
Salary or wages429,550201.4464,800241.0490,300282.5
Investment income11,0106.211,3006.611,7006.9
      Totals545,700295.9584,500354.8614,000435.8

The following table provides an analysis of assessable income for salary and wage over the same period.

Amount of Assessable Income.Assessment Years.
1949–50.1950–51.1951–52.
Number of Assessments.Assessable Income.Number of Assessments.Assessable Income.Number of Assessments.Assessable Income.
£ £ £(million) £(million) £(million)
Under 30061,61015.741,30010.523,5006.0
300– 399111,36039.478,00027.657,80020.5
400– 499122,09054.2141,20062.7122,00054.2
500– 59967,00036.394,70051.3119,60064.8
600– 69931,55020.252,50033.673,50047.1
700– 79914,64010.923,20017.338,70028.8
800– 8997,3706.212,50010.521,10017.7
900– 9994,0903.97,0006.510,80010.1
1,000–1,9998,50010.812,50015.920,60026.1
2,000–2,9999902.31,4003.32,0004.6
3,000–3,9992210.83001.05001.5
4,000–4,999710.31000.41000.6
5,000 and over550.4600.4650.5
      Totals429,550201.4464,800241.0490,300282.5

A similar table to that immediately preceding but in respect of business incomes (farming, private traders, professional, &c.) is now given.

Amount of Assessable Income.Assessment Years.
1949–50.1950–51.1951–52.
Number of Assessments.Assessable Income.Number of Assessments.Assessable Income.Number of Assessments.Assessable Income.
£ £ £(million) £(million) £(million)
Under 3007,6801.95,8001.52,3000.6
300– 39911,4504.09,3003.35,7002.0
400– 49914,1906.311,9005.39,20041
500– 59913,6207.412,1006.612,6006.8
600– 69911,5507.510,6006.811,7007.6
700– 7998,6206.48,0006.07,2005.4
800– 8997,0205.97,1006.38,0006.8
900– 9995,5605.37,1006.76,4006.0
1,000–1,99919,86026.727,10037.230,50041.4
2,000–2,9993,8109.06,00014.210,10024.1
3,000–3,9991,0443.61,8006.03,90013.3
4,000–4,9993771.77002.91,8007.8
5,000 and over3592.66004.42,60020.5
      Totals105,14088.3108,400107.2112,000146.4

The incomes of sheep-farmers were largely responsible for the very large increases in the numbers in the higher income groups of the business sector, particularly for the 1951–52 assessment year.

The next table shows assessable income from all sources combined (including investment income).

Amount of Assessable Income.Assessment Years.
1949–50.1950–51.1951–52.
Number of Assessments.Assessable Income.Number of Assessments.Assessable Income.Number of Assessments.Assessable Income.
£ £ £(million) £(million) £(million)
Under 30072,55018.550,50012.829,3007.5
300– 399125,13044.289,70031.765,90023.4
400– 499137,71061.2154,50068.7132,70059.0
500– 59981,59044.2107,80058.5133,30072.2
600– 69943,83028.163,90040.986,00055.2
700– 79923,67017.631,60023.646,30034.5
800– 89914,80012.520,30017.229,50024.9
900– 9999,8609.314,30013.417,40016.3
1,000–1,99929,33038.840,60054.552,20068.9
2,000–2,9994,99011.77,60018.012,30029.2
3,000–3,9991,3334.62,2007.24,50015.1
4,000–4,9994682.18003.41,9008.5
5,000 and over4363.17004.92,70021.1
      Totals545,700295.9584,500354.8614,000435.8

Company Incomes.—It is perhaps desirable to draw attention to the fact that the term “companies” as it is used in connection with these statistics has been given a wider meaning than that which is commonly assigned to it. A definition of the term will be found on page 744.

The various statutory exemptions which are granted to individuals do not apply in the case of companies. The amounts of assessable income and taxable income are identical in the case of companies.

These statistics for companies have been compiled from returns for all companies, and are not estimates based on a sample survey, as in the case of individuals.

The following table gives particulars of the number of taxpayer companies and their aggregate assessable incomes for 1949–50 and the two preceding tax-years.

Amount of Assessable Income.Number of Assessments.Assessable Income.*
1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.

* Including proprietary income.

† Not available.

£ £   £(000)£(000)£(000)
0– 991,4751,3671,726545263
100– 19970365589210396132
200– 299578631698142153173
300– 399430558650150195226
400– 499451462562203206250
500– 599422467490228253266
600– 699384370404244238261
700– 799304337391227253291
800– 899320294315271250266
900– 999258287305245272287
1,000– 1,9991,7301,7971,9572,4382,5652,770
2,000– 2,9998219009701,9962,2012,374
3,000– 3,9995195635801,7931,9392,005
4,000– 4,9993423633811,5271,6231,697
5,000– 5,9992482822481,3491,5351,363
6,000– 6,9991771851771,1351,1991,148
7,000– 7,9991411441451,0521,0771,083
8,000– 8,9999697104808823884
9,000– 9,999648281605773768
10,000–19,9993914044085,4825,5825,605
20,000–29,9991311491563,2363,6313,781
30,000–39,9996977642,3502,6642,220
40,000–49,9993950511,6972,2092,245
50,000–99,99993951116,4536,6917,602
100,000–199,99972855315,76219,1577,421
200,000 and over259,320
Net loss1,4852,145  
Assessable income before losses296407  
      Totals10,25812,48214,49649,54955,63754,501

In the following table, which is also classified by the amount of assessable income, more complete data for the 1949–50 assessment year only are presented.

Amount of Assessable Income.Number of Assessments.Assessable Income Before Losses.*Assessable Income.Returnable Income.Net Loss.Income-tax Assessed.Social Security Charge.

* This column represents assessable income plus losses which have been carried forward from previous years.

† Excluding proprietary income.

£ £ £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
0– 991,7268763459 116
100– 199892144132227 2010
200– 299698186173258 2714
300– 399650239226238 3617
400– 499562263250259 4419
500– 599490270266297 4620
660– 699404277261280 4620
700– 799391299291309 5322
800– 899315270266322 5120
900– 999305290287292 5722
1,000– 1,9991,9572,8002,7703,658 607209
2,000– 2,9999702,3842,3742,565 642178
3,000– 3,9995802,0382,0052,242 634151
4,000– 4,9993811,7021,6971,809 616127
5,000– 5,9992481,3631,3631,442 563102
6,000– 6,9991771,1481,1481,193 52485
7,000– 7,9991451,0831,0831,871 52680
8,000– 8,9104886884973 44265
9,000– 9,99981768768801 37957
10,000– 19,9994085,6205,6055,810 2,793428
20,000– 29,9991563,7813,7814,313 1,901306
30,000– 39,999642,2202,2202,353 1,111167
40,000– 49,999512,2452,2452,380 1,109165
50,000– 99,9991117,6027,6028,004 3,762556
100,000–199,999537,4217,4217,724 3,587539
200,000 and over259,3209,3209,480 4,262611
Not loss2,145  2451,937 4
Assessable Income before losses407132 187   
      Totals14,49654,83854,50159,9861,93723,8494,000

For the years prior to 1948–49, the company statistics were also analysed by the source of income, the classification being identical with that listed under “Sources of Income” on page 748. This classification was not particularly satisfactory, and for 1948–49 and 1949–50 was superseded by that given in the next table. The latest classification is a slightly modified version of the United Nations' industries classification. The figures in the next table give the results of this classification for the assessment year 1949–50.

Source of Assessable Income.Number of Assessments.Assessable Income Before Losses.*Assessable Income.Returnable Income.Net Loss.Income-tax Assessed.Social Security Charge.

* Tills column represents assessable income plus losses which have been carried forward from previous years.

† Excluding proprietary income.

  £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
Agriculture and live-stock production3566196006124320846
Forestry, hunting, and fishing2286426306523525846
Mining and quarrying1643463393538613625
Manufacturing—       
  Food, drink, and tobacco8035,9775,9656,2041282,863451
  Apparel, textiles, and foot-wear6442,5942,5862,6601121,146194
  Metals and metal products1,0623,0363,0233,1821441,273247
  Other1,3595,9055,8666,3692012,673440
Construction6841,3431,3291,37651505100
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services21448443443121633
Commerce—       
  Wholesale and retail trade4,90621,00020,92121,9034389,3571,566
  Other1,9949,8849,80312,7861054,073627
Transport, storage, and communication7691,3041,2901,45349748197
Community services1,4471,6801,6481,92890641123
Other596160645194
      Totals14,49654,83854,50119,9861,93723,8494,000

Some difficulties were experienced in applying the industry classification to the data available for these statistics. Where a company conducted more than one type of business, it was necessary to attempt to determine which was the principal type of business. The classification has been based on the principal type of business when more than one was involved. It would have been desirable to separate wholesale and retail trading activities, but this was not practicable with the information at present available.

The next table shows some additional data concerning companies, which were compiled principally in connection with national income statistics, but which are also of more general interest.

Source of Assessable Income.Stocks at End of Period.Income FromDepreciation.Interest Paid.Rent Paid.Dividends Paid.
Sales.Interest.Rents.
 £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
Agriculture and livestock production1,6672,893199848158170
Forestry, hunting, and fishing3996,469144722233119134
Mining and quarrying2007,87315523203160118
Manufacturing—        
  Food, drink, and tobacco17,928164,6931481891,5404093851,563
  Apparel, textiles, and footwear9,40935,4693469654261251797
  Metals and metal products8,19436,4993980500197232951
  Other14,42566,3531461521,5353973611,503
Construction3,43516,35822473598770330
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services2065,40264266250253
Commerce—        
  Wholesale and retail trade59,538355,0964246331,8939691,8795,230
  Other6,21359,03712,9531,5567533,9073292,051
Transport, storage, and communication29518,750451071,245115104319
Community services55514,552651,110388107555547
Other20694523208716
      Totals122,670790,38913,9324,09610,1756,6524,41213,782

It should be noted that, although the classifications used in both this and the previous table are identical, the data are not precisely comparable In the incomes table the figures shown are for companies assessed during the assessment year 1949–50. These are generally for the income year 1948–49, but the year is not necessarily identical with that used for the data in the second table, where the 1948–49 income year is used in all instances. It would therefore not be entirely correct to relate the income data to that given in the second table.

Rates of Tax: Companies.—For 1949–50, the standard rate of tax payable by a company was 2s. 6d., increased by 1/150d. for every £1 of taxable income up to £6,300. Above £6,300 the rate was 7s. 9d., increased by 1/150d. for every £1 of taxable income in excess of £6,300, with a maximum of 8s. 8d. in £1. In addition to the foregoing, a further amount equal to 15 per cent. of the above rates was imposed. Companies did not pay the additional tax of 33 1/3 per cent. on unearned income mentioned earlier. Social security charge is levied at the normal rate of 1s. 6d. per £1 of income. Not all companies are liable to pay this charge. Further information concerning rates of taxation will be found on page 479.

Non-resident Traders.—A non-resident trader is defined as any person who, being in New Zealand, carries on business there without having any fixed and permanent place of business or abode in New Zealand. Returns made by agents for non-resident traders, and returns by the consignees of overseas goods sold on consignment account, are, included in this class. Non-resident traders are now included in the statistics either as individuals or companies, as the ease may be.

STATISTICS OF 1946 CENSUS.—The following explanatory matter and table in regard to income is given in the present context since it shows incomes over a wider field than is normally available from other sources. The results for the 1951 census are not yet available.

Incomes.—The table below gives for 1936 and 1945 censuses the number of persons whoso stated income fell into one or other of the income groups listed. As the Maori schedule did not include a question on income, the data shown are necessarily confined to the European section of the population.

Besides the division of the total population into income categories, a similar classification is made available covering all those persons actively engaged in some form of industrial activity.

The period for which income was requested in the 1945 census schedule related, to the twelve months ended 31st March, 1945, and in the case of the earlier census the twelve months ended 31st December, 1935. In both censuses, where particulars were not available for the precise period, provision was made to accept information covering the nearest twelve-month period instead.

Income Group.Persons Actively Engaged.Total Population.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.

* Although subsidies are shown for March years and recoveries for July years, the Haul figures shown fur “Subsidies, net” represent a fair approximation of general subsidies paid each year.

† Estimate.

1945 Census
Under £5014,92914,44729,376251,530545,085796,615
£50 to £9916,63822,25138,78948,93086,321135,251
£100 " £14926,59636,42763,02335,88956,66192,550
£150 " £19938,95038,40577,35544,80849,76694,574
£200 " £24939,89022,97162,86144,94330,91775,860
£250 " £29947,13610,05957,19550,40711,44564,852
£300 " £34962,7794,94167,72065,4637,44772,910
£350 " £39953,4552,64556,10055,1194,07759,196
£400 " £44942,2931,71144,00443,5112,71046,221
£450 " £49925,84894226,79026,6371,61628,253
£500 " £54919,05362719,68019,7441,20020,944
£550 " £59910,18135510,53610,57567311,248
£600 " £6498,7232899,0129,0606629,722
£650 " £6995,1531855,3385,4194095,828
£700 " £7493,8511353,9864,0623424,404
£750 and over33,9321,54335,47535,8493,60439,453
Not specified23,0385,10628,14430,65615,01745,673
      Totals472,345163,039635,384782,602820,9521,603,554
1936 Census
No income22,6683,75626,424231,720493,772725,492
Under £5282,02451,226133,25099,364112,636212,000
£52 to £103110,62844,438155,066117,23565,163182,398
£104 " £15581,68617,61699,30286,02626,207112,233
£156 " £20766,4336,89373,32669,25411,21080,464
£208 " £25959,6213,45863,07961,5645,85867,422
£260 " £31128,3891,58129,97029,7113,00732,718
£312 " £36312,72366013,38313,5761,52615,102
£364 and over28,05286128,91330,9733,77134,744
Not known92151072,3781,8394,217
Not specified12,3178,08020,39714,42510,26924,694
      Totals504,633138,584643,217756,226735,2581,491,484

Chapter 37. SECTION 37—PRICES

PRICE FIXATION.—In New Zealand, as in other countries, regulation of prices by governmental control has been a feature of economic policy over a considerable period of years. Nation-wide control of prices of essential commodities was resorted to during the First World War, the motives behind legislation and regulations towards that end being the necessity of purchasing at reasonable prices commodities required for war purposes, and the protection of the consumer from the full force of the abnormal rises in prices caused by the scarcity of many necessary commodities.

The administration of these price-fixing measures was in the bands of the Board of Trade act up under the provisions of the Cost of Living Act, 1915, regulations being issued from time to time fixing maximum prices for various commodities— e.g., sugar, timber, wheat, &c. The Board of Trade Act, 1919 (a consolidation and amendment of the pre-existing legislation), contained provisions for the establishment of the Department of Industries and Commerce and for a Board of Trade, the Board to consist of the Minister of Industries and Commerce (President) and not more than four other members. By an amendment in 1923 the Board was abolished, its functions being taken over by the Minister. Authority was also taken under the Act “for the establishment of fixed minimum or maximum prices or rates for any classes of goods or services or otherwise for the regulation or control of such prices or rates.” The Act also included provisions especially aimed at the prevention of profiteering.

The control of prices initiated during the war years continued in some instances well into the post-war period, the dates of cessation of control in certain important individual cases being: Bacon and ham, February, 1920; butter, August, 1921; sugar, August, 1923. Control of prices of building-materials was resorted to in 1920 and 1921, during a period of acute shortage of these materials.

Wheat, flour, and bread prices have been controlled almost without intermission since 1914–15, superphosphates since October, 1931, and motor-spirits from 1933. Road services have been subject to regulation in regard to fares and freight rates since 1931; aircraft fares are also regulated. [For fuller details see pp. 785–786 of the 1940 War-Book.]

A Prevention of Profiteering Act was passed in 1936, prohibiting the making of unreasonable increases in the prices charged for goods and services.

In June, 1939, a Price Investigation Tribunal was constituted under the Board of Trade Amendment Act, 1923, and regulations were made under this Act placing restrictions on increasing prices of goods and services without prior application to the Tribunal; prices were also to be fixed by the Tribunal for goods that had not previously been on the market.

Price Regulation during Second World War.—Pursuant to a Proclamation of Emergency under the Public Safety Conservation Act, regulations were made on 1st September, 1939, with the object of stabilizing prices. These regulations provided that prices of goods and services should not be raised above the prices ruling on 1st September, 1939, except as might be specifically authorized by the Minister of Industries and Commerce. A clause in the regulations also prohibited the hoarding of goods. These regulations were superseded by the Control of Prices Emergency Regulations of 20th December, 1939, which constituted what is virtually the present Price Tribunal.

Foodstuffs generally, and sugar, wheat, and flour specifically, were brought under the control of the Government by emergency regulations made on 4th September, 1939.

In October, 1940, the Economic Stabilization Conference (which the Government had convened) put forward recommendations designed to stabilize prices, wages, and costs. In furtherance of these recommendations the retail prices of thirty-eight commodities, comprising the more important foodstuffs, clothing, fares, fuel, and lighting, were stabilized as from 1st September, 1941, and an Economic Stabilization Committee was set up.

In December, 1942, as a result of the deliberations of this Committee, price stabilization measures were widely extended. A varied range of essential items of household consumption was selected, and their prices stabilized; food, clothing, hardware, furniture, stationery, &c., were all represented in this list of approximately 110 items. In the same month the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942 were issued, under which the Committee was reconstituted as the Economic Stabilization Commission, and provision made for the stabilization of weekly rentals, wage rates. &c. Although this earlier legislation providing for an Economic Stabilization Commission was repeated in the Economic Stabilization Act of 1948, there are at present (May, 1952) no appointed members of the Commission, its functions being discharged by the Minister in Charge of Stabilization, except that those functions of the Commission relating to the marketing and prices of primary products are now dealt with by the Marketing Advisory Council, which reports to the Minister of Marketing.

The principal new feature of price control in 1943 was the fixation of maximum retail prices for many kinds of vegetables, apples, pears, and certain other fruits; these maxima made full allowance for seasonal variations.

No new element of control was introduced in 1914, 1945, or 1946, as the price orders of those years either revised earlier orders or covered additional items.

POST-WAR PRICE REGULATIONS.—The Control of Prices Act, 1947, consolidated the powers and functions formerly exercised mainly under Emergency Regulations. It defined the general duties and functions of the Price Tribunal as the fixing of prices for goods and services, the investigation of complaints with respect to prices, maintenance of a survey of the prices of goods or services, the institution of legal proceedings for offences in relation to prices, and the taking of such other steps as in its opinion might be necessary to prevent profiteering or the exploitation of the public. It provided that, except in special circumstances, the sittings of the Tribunal should be open to the public.

The appointment of a Director of Price Control, in charge of the Price Control Division of the Department of Industries and Commerce, freed the Tribunal from administrative and enforcement duties, while provision was made for the delegation of pricing powers to the Director, subject to a right of appeal to the Tribunal.

The Price Tribunal has power to—

  1. Make Price Orders fixing, in such manner as it thinks fit, the actual fit, the maximum or the minimum price for any goods sold in a specified market and under specified conditions. Price Orders are published in the New Zealand Gazette, and must generally be displayed in any shop where the goods to which they relate are sold.

  2. Authorize selling-prices, which may be of general or special application.

Since the passing of the Act the Tribunal has, in the case of many commodities, issued Price Orders which prescribe that maximum prices are to be calculated by adding specified percentages to costs. In other cases General Price Adjustment Orders have been made (the latest of which was issued in December, 1951) in respect of certain classes of goods, permitting manufacturers or vendors to recover by means of price increases the whole or a specified part of their increased costs resulting from the reduction or removal of subsidies, the raising of freight charges, or certain wage increases prescribed by general orders of the Court of Arbitration.

In November, 1948, most fruits and vegetables were, by notice under section 18 of the Control of Prices Act, 1947, released from direct price control. During 1949 three similar exemption orders were made, the first relating to sales by local authorities of goods and services other than milk, gas, electricity, and appliances connected with the use of gas and electricity, the second to confectionery, cake, jewellery, radio sets. cosmetics, &c., and the third to white oats. The policy of liberation from control was continued during 1950 at an accelerated pace, fourteen lists of exempted goods being issued during that year. Little or no change occurred, however, during 1951. Meat prices, which had already been free during certain months of 1949, were permanently removed from control in May, 1950. Amongst a large number of other exempted items were fish, new potatoes, restaurant meals, tea. apples and pears, and delivery of bread.

It should be observed that certain prices controlled under other legislation do not come within the scope of the Control of Prices Act, 1947. For example, wholesale prices of butter and cheese for local consumption are fixed by Orders in Council under the Marketing Act. 1936; the maximum price of motor-spirits by Order in Council (on the recommendation of the Minister of Industries and Commerce) under the Motor-spirits (Regulation of Prices) Act, 1933; while the Tenancy Act, 1948, provides for the fixation, on application, of fair rents by the appropriate Court. As a further illustration the Transport Law Amendment Act, 1950, provides for the fixation of passenger fares and freight charges on services other than those operated by local authorities, by the Commissioner of Transport, subject to a right of appeal to a Transport Charges Appeal Authority.

SUBSIDIES.—It is clear that for the effective operation of the policy of price stabilization a system of Government subsidies has been essential. An account of the use and extent of subsidies paid from 1942–43 to 1950–51 is given in parliamentary paper B-5 of 1951, from which the following table is extracted.

Stabilization Subsidy Payments (March Year).1942–431943–441944–451945–461946–47
   £(000)  
Shipping, transport, and incidental272124525701,229
Coal production and distribution3565137271,1681,685
Primary production—     
  Transport414453481504720
  Fertilizer8131,2982,0092,2262,761
  Rags, &c. 11317117172
  Stock and poultry foods  43113133
  Other88132198224424
Essential clothing and foodstuffs—     
  Clothing 659301233
  Dairy-produce 111853611,978
  Meat   644931
  Sugar6356521,0138471,473
  Tea47892100180180
  Other158236537703857
Wheat5834586227891,820
Miscellaneous 469199187
Marketing Department loss on apples and pears12178   
      Total subsidies gross (March year)3,6734,3006,6888,90014,683
Less recoveries from Farm Industry Stabilization Accounts (July year)4131,1602,0822,2882,877
Subsidies, net*3,2603,1401,6066,61211,806
Stabilization Subsidy Payments (March Year).1947–481948–491949–501950–51
  £(000)  
Shipping, transport, and incidental3,0752,5851,55973
Coal production and distribution1,4791,8452,890487
Primary production-    
  Transport583348385450
  Fertilizer1,345 200276
  Bags, &c.54   
  Stock and poultry foods19418212
  Other224167121146
Essential clothing and foodstuffs—    
  Clothing1,0648091,4832,306
  Dairy-produce2,2473,3644,3573,369
  Meat7539  
  Sugar4671181817
  Tea60069681253
  Other42736923569
Wheat1,9411,2002,7182,000
Miscellaneous14013644116
Marketing Department loss on apples and pears    
      Total subsidies gross (March year)14,59311,66414,8439,364
Less recoveries from Farm Industry1,0151902001,000
Stabilization Accounts (July year)    
Subsidies, net*13,57811,47414,6438,364

The general position shown by the table is that stabilization subsidies increased up to 1947 as import prices and wages rose. The full increase in costs above basic level (mainly 15th December, 1942) has not always been covered by subsidy. In most cases a part of the increased cost has had to be borne by the industry concerned, either at the source of the increased cost or at some later stage in the distribution of the goods and services. In 1947 the Government decided to review the position. The number of commodities on which subsidy was paid had grown too large for administrative ease. Also to have continued subsidies at the previous rate would have raised the estimated expenditure to £19.6 millions, which would have put a severe strain on the public finances. Further, a great many of the costs met by subsidy were permanent.

In 1947 many farm subsidies, which on an annual basis cost approximately £4.2 millions, were removed, and compensating adjustments were made in the prices of farm products. Of the other subsidies, all the smaller and less important ones were abolished, in part or in full. There were also increases in the price of shipping and railway freights and fares, tea, sugar, and many other commodities. On an annual basis these subsidies would have cost about £8 millions.

In spite of the removal of total subsidies worth over £12 millions a year, the cost of the remaining subsidies had risen to a level of over £17 millions a year by 1950. The Government therefore removed subsidies in May, 1950, worth £12 millions a year. The subsidies on coal and tea were abolished, and subsidies on flour, bread, milk, butter, and eggs were reduced substantially. In addition, rail freights and fares were increased. The Government's recent decision to reduce the prices of butter, flour, bread, and gas by paying increased subsidies means that for the financial year 1951–52 the estimate of subsidies is over £14 millions.

STATE MARKETING.—Certain fields of price fixation are intimately connected with the functions of the Marketing Department, although the relevant price orders are issued (under the authority of the Control of Prices Act, 1947) by the Price Tribunal.

As at January, 1952, the products concerned were eggs, New Zealand standard lemons (not the Meyer variety), milk and cream for household use, and honey. Government interests in connection with the export of primary products are dealt with on pages 391–403.

The Marketing Department was established by the Marketing Act, 1936, which transferred to it many of the functions previously exercised by the New Zealand Dairy Board, and made provision for the compulsory acquisition by the Department at prices fixed by it of butter and cheese for export, and also—by the Marketing Amendment Act, 1937—for consumption in New Zealand, regulations in this behalf being subsequently issued from time to time. By the Dairy Products Marketing Commission Act, 1947, however, these functions as regards butter and cheese for export—later extended to cover all dairy produce for export—were transferred to the New Zealand Dairy Products Marketing Commission.

Control of prices of export meat was assumed by the Marketing Department under the authority of the Marketing Amendment Act, 1939, Meat Marketing Orders being issued annually until 1947, and again in 1949, 1950, and 1951. As from the 1st May, 1948, however, the New Zealand Meat-producers Board (constituted by the Meat-export Control Act, 1921–22) was entrusted with routine administration of shipping and payments to freezing companies for all meat destined for export under bulk purchase agreements negotiated by the Government with the United Kingdom (see Section 18A).

The Marketing Amendment Act of 1937 set up the Internal Marketing Division of the Marketing Department, with power to control wholesale and retail prices of eggs, fruit, and honey, as well as dairy-produce, while subsequent regulations added other commodities, notably meat, wool, bides, wire, galvanized iron, and industrial and fanning machinery. The Department's powers are by no means fully exercised in respect of these commodities. The control and distribution of bananas and imported citrus fruits were placed in the hands of the internal Marketing Division in 1938, pineapples being added in 1940. Since the beginning of 1951, however, the importation and marketing of imported citrus fruits, bananas, and pineapples have been taken over by a registered company representing trade interests.

Apples and pears are purchased from growers by the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board. This Hoard was set up in 1948 in terms of the Apple and Pear Marketing Act, 1948, to take over direction of the acquisition and marketing of the apple and pear harvest. It administers a guaranteed price scheme based on the cost of production of apples and pears. This price is a New Zealand average and within it, prices to growers vary for the different varieties, grades, and sizes. The Board is charged with the duty of recovering from the market these prices together with the costs of marketing. As at January, 1952, the Board had virtually balanced its accounts, losses in 1949 and 1950 being almost entirely recouped in 1951. The Board determines the wholesale prices at which fruit is sold by authorized wholesalers to retailers, but there is no control by price order at either the wholesale or the retail level. The Board has continued to use the Marketing Department as its agent.

The marketing of eggs and egg products is controlled by a National Egg Marketing Committee, set-up by regulation in 1951. Private firms in various towns and cities are licensed by the Minister of Marketing to receive and sell eggs on commission and to manufacture and sell egg-pulp. The prices paid to the poultry-keepers are those fixed from time to time by the Minister on the Committee's recommendation, while the wholesale and retail selling prices to the public are fixed by price order. It is the responsibility of the Committee to obtain from the market the average cost of production for the producer. The Committee represents Government and producer interests and continues to use the Department as its administrative agent. It operates by adjusting prices, by deciding the proportion of eggs for pulping, and by instituting economies in marketing; it also administers funds collected from the producers by means of levies on feed and eggs, applying these towards meeting administrative costs and marketing expenses. It was announced in February, 1952, that the poultry industry was to take over the marketing of eggs from the 31st March, 1952. The committee will then consist of four producer representatives and one Government member. Egg prices, however, will still be subject to price control by the Price Tribunal.

Control of prices of milk in Wellington was formerly in the hands of the Wellington City Council, which was granted a monopoly (with certain minor exceptions) of the sale of milk in Wellington by a local Act passed in 1919. The Auckland Metropolitan Milk Act, 1933, authorized the Auckland Metropolitan Milk Council to fix prices for milk sold in Auckland city and suburbs. This latter Act was superseded by the Milk Act, 1944, referred to on page 644, which created the Milk Marketing Division (of the Marketing Department) and made provision for an extension of the system of local control in regard to the sale of milk. Under its local Act the Wellington City Council remained the major distributor and the equivalent of the Milk Authority for the capital city. Prices in all areas, including Wellington, are the subject of price orders pursuant to the Control of Prices Act. 1947.

Commencing during the war period, the Department let contracts to ensure an adequate supply of main-crop potatoes for local consumption. The last such contracts were let for the 1950–51 season. On the 25th August, 1950, Parliament passed the Potato Growing industry Act which established a Potato Board. This Board has assumed the relevant functions previously exercised by the Department.

By the Marketing Amendment Act, 1948, the Export Division, the Internal Marketing Division, and the Milk Marketing Division were abolished as separate divisions of the Marketing Department.

The general policy of State marketing of primary products has exhibited three phases:—

  1. The original tendency was for the State to trade directly, buying products outright, bearing losses, and retaining profits.

  2. This was followed by the formation of financial pool accounts for each industry, the profits, subject to the general policy on stabilization, being paid out to the suppliers, and any reserves held for the benefit of the industry.

  3. The third phase has been the direction of policy by Hoards and Committees with the assumption of executive, and not as previously merely advisory, powers. Each body continues to use the organization for assembly, storage, transport, distribution, and accounting which the Department has built up, these services being made available at cost.

Typical examples of the industries concerned in the third phase are the citrus-fruit growing and the bee-keeping industries (vide the Lemon Marketing Regulations 1946 and the Honey Marketing Committee Regulations 1948).

The foregoing describes that part of the Department's work which affects the lesser primary industries. In a relatively minor but financially substantial field it continues as purely departmental work the operation of wartime-built processing factories at Motueka and Pukekohe, the administration of various subsidies, including supplies fur Government institutions, the hiring of storage space to commercial interests, as well as providing staff and facilities for the Armed Forces Canteen Council, and maintaining liaison with various marketing organizations.

PRICE STATISTICS.—Actual prices of many goods and services at various levels are collected periodically by the Census and Statistics Department. The fields covered are retail prices, wholesale prices, export prices, import prices, and share prices. In the case of retail, wholesale, and share prices, direct inquiry is made (generally from sellers), export and import prices being derived from trade statistics, while, in addition, average prices of many materials and products of manufacture are available from the Statistics of Factory Production. Some retail and wholesale prices are published in the annual Report on Prices, Wages, and Labour Statistics, but the chief use made of the prices collected is in the compilation of price index numbers. These are, fundamentally, weighted averages of price ratios, the weighting being so arranged that the index numbers give a general indication of price movements in the hold covered. The usual technique employs fixed weights with, however, provision for revision of the weighting pattern at suitable intervals.

RETAIL PRICES.—A historical survey of retail prices in New Zealand will be found on pages 1007–1016 of the 1947–49 Year-Book, including an account of the various series of official index numbers of retail prices in New Zealand which have been current in the past, while pages 998–1003 of the same volume provide a description of the present Consumers' Price Index initiated in 1949. The last ten years of the base 1926–30 series—the immediate forerunner of the Consumers' Price Index—are shown in the table following, together with a final compilation of the old index for the base period of the new index, which enables the two series to be linked together.

INDEX NUMBERS OF RETAIL PRICES OF THE VARIOUS GROUPS OF COMMODITIES, SINGLY AND IN COMBINATION, 1939 TO 1949

Base: Weighted average of prices in 1926–30 in twenty-five centres in case of Groups I to TV, and average of prices in 1926–30 in four chief centres in case of Groups V, VI, and VII (= 1000)

Year.Food.Rent (IV).Fuel and Light (V).Clothing, Drapery, and Footwear (VI).Miscellaneous (VII).All Groups Combined (I–VII).
Groceries (I).Dairy-produce (II).Meat (III).All Food (I–III).
19391067999107710528879919601086990
194010391010115310769161005106111701035
194111561010113111049451012115912111073
194212361023111511279631021124312891109
194312111029115011349731033134713371134
194412411030116811529821038141313591155
194512311032117311519871044144214421170
194612351033117411539991057147014501180
1947133310711249122410101094149214781217
1948149511351471138210241191163715571314
1949 (1st quarter)148011251506138910311232165915441324

By combining the successive series and converting the whole to the base: first quarter of 1349 (= 1000)—the base period of the Consumers' Price Index—the following “long-term linked series” emerges.

RETAIL PRICES INDEX NUMBERS (ALL GROUPS)*

EQUATED TO BASE: FIRST QUARTER, 1949 (= 1000)

Year.Index No.
1907440
1908442
1909436
1910441
1911438
1912451
1913461
1914474
1915511
1916547
1917594
1918642
1919689
1920770
1921781
1922719
1923724
1924743
1925758
1926763
1927756
1928760
1929758
1930741
1931684
1932633
1933600
1934610
1935632
1936653
1937697
1938718
1939748
1940782
1941810
1942838
1943856
1944872
1945884
1946891
1947919
1948992
19491009
19501066
19511183

* Food, housing, and fuel and lighting in the years 1907–1913.

The following diagram is of interest in that it shows the movement in retail prices index numbers over the period 1907–1951, and first quarter of 1952, the data being drawn from the figures given in the preceding table (long-term linked series) and those given on page 769.

Consumers' Price Index.—The necessity for periodical revision of the pattern of index numbers of retail prices—indeed, of any index series—is obvious, if touch with reality is to be maintained. Spending patterns are constantly changing by reason of new-kinds of commodities and services coming into vogue and older habits being discarded; also the proportions of total expenditure represented by the component groups and items vary continuously. Nevertheless, between revisions, in order that the index may reflect price changes only and not changes in volume of consumption, it is essential that fixed weights should be maintained. Apart from the Wartime Price Index, which was specially adapted to emergency conditions, there was no general revision of weights from 1930 until 1948, when the 1926–30 pattern of consumption was replaced by the 1946 pattern in the moulding of the Consumers' Price Index. The following are the more important recommendations of the Index Committee now embodied in this index:—

  1. A new retail prices index based on the first quarter of 1949 should be initiated:

  2. The regimen of the index should cover “the whole range of commodities and services used in the average household—with representation, as far as possible, of the amenities of modern living.” Durable consumer goods, seasonal fruits and vegetables (with normal seasonal price fluctuations “smoothed” by appropriate techniques), and services should be represented in the index:

  3. In addition to rentals of unfurnished houses, rentals of unfurnished flats and the costs of owner-occupied houses should ho represented in the housing group of the index:

  4. The weighting pattern should represent post-war habits of consumption:

  5. The index should cover prices in twenty-one towns spread over the whole country and adequately representing all urban localities. The New Zealand index will represent an average of indices for these towns weighted according to population:

  6. Monthly index numbers should be compiled for the food and fuel and lighting groups, and quarterly index numbers for all groups combined.

The complete regimen—i.e., the list of constituent items with comparative weights assigned to each—is given in a Special Supplement to the October-November, 1949, issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics entitled “Retail Prices in New Zealand, with Special Reference to the Consumers' Price Index.” There are now three hundred items, a considerable increase on the previous regimen. These new items include certain conventional necessaries such as chocolate, ice-cream, cosmetics, and replacements of radio-receiving sets, vacuum-cleaners, and washing-machines. Other items introduced into the regimen for the first time were fresh fruits and vegetables and housing-costs of owner-occupiers, for the inclusion of which entirely new techniques had to be devised, while many other commodities and services which had been previously excluded on the general assumption that their average price movements were in approximate accord with those of the body of included items, were considered to be worthy of separate representation. This assumption is still made in respect of a large number of less important commodities in the new index (for clearly the total number of items of household expenditure greatly exceeds three hundred); but here two points of some significance require to be noted:—

  1. The three hundred items are those “priced” from time to time. Items or groups of items which have not been selected for pricing but which it is desired to represent in the index have their weights cither assigned to individual “priced” items or spread over a group of such items.

  2. There are still residual groups of items which are not represented in the index—i.e., no assumption is made as to their price movements corresponding with recorded price movements. (There might in fact be a correspondence, but then the index would be actually more comprehensive than it was designed to be.) Under this heading the following are comprised:—

    1. Luxury spending (especially on alcoholic liquors and private motoring, but also on such items as hotel accommodation, holiday travel (exclusive of rail fares), sports expenses, domestic help, and private telephone rentals). This expenditure may be regarded as a disposal of a surplus available after legitimate cost-of-living expenses have been met.

    2. Taxation, as being not a true expense but rather a reduction of income (see also (d)).

    3. Investments (savings if capitalized, life insurance).

    4. Expenditure not related to value received and therefore incapable of expression as a “price,” which is the cost of a specified satisfaction (gifts, charity, gaming expenses).

    5. Expenses so irregular in occurrence and amount that their inclusion is not feasible (fire losses, legal expenses, cost of removal to another locality).

An estimate of the annual value, at prices ruling in the first quarter of 1949, of personal consumption represented in the index gave a figure of £247 million. This may be (join-pared with the estimate of £340 million for total personal consumption in 1948–49 at market prices shown in the 1950 Official Estimates of National Income and Expenditure. The inference would be that 73 per cent. of total personal consumption is represented in the index, but the two estimates neither have strictly a common basis nor cover exactly the same period of time. It may nevertheless be assumed that approximately 75 per cent. of total personal expenditure is represented in the Consumers' Price Index.

Seeing that the weights are based on physical national consumptions (or at least quantities available for consumption) in 1946, the index cannot be related to any specific type of household; it has in view simply an average family comprising 3.6 persons (men, 1.32; women, 1.32; boys, 0.41; girls, 0.40; and infants, 0.15; the infants being under two years and the boys and girls other children under sixteen.) No application of the index numbers to households deviating from this mean will be valid unless due allowance is made for the effect of such deviations, regard being always had to the published regimen which defines the exact standard and pattern of living, the varying cost of maintaining which the index is designed to measure.

The following table shows the group weighting on a percentage basis:—

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX GROUP WEIGHTs

Group.Percentage of Total Expenditure In Base Period.
Meat and fish 8.18 
Fruits, vegetables, and eggs 7.66 
Seasonal4.90  
Non-seasonal2.76  
Other foods 18.38 
All food  34.22
Rent 6.66 
Other housing 10.09 
All housing  16.75
Fuel and lighting  3.86
Clothing 17.25 
Footwear 3.06 
Clothing and footwear  20.31
Household durable goods 5.44 
Other commodities 10.90 
Services 8.52 
      Total miscellaneous  24.86
All groups  100.00

The foregoing remarks are relative to the establishment of a weighting pattern, a necessary labour in the inauguration of the index. For the regular compilation of index numbers the further task of periodical collection of prices must also be undertaken, for the first time in this country a small field staff was appointed in 1948 to the Census and Statistics Department for price collecting duties. All quarterly collections are personally carried out by these officers, who also check at intervals the monthly juices obtained through other channels. Particular stress is laid on the maintenance of a unifom standard of quality in the commodities priced, unavoidable changes in the specifications being compensated for by suitable price adjustments if necessary. The same retail establishments, as far as possible, are visited at every collection. Following is a statement of the periodicity and geographical coverage of price collection in respect of each group of the index.

Group.Periodicity of Collection.Date of Collection.Towns Covered.
Food (excluding seasonal fruits and vegetables)Monthly15th of monthTwenty-one towns.
Seasonal fruits and vegetablesWeeklyEvery FridayTen representative towns.
Housing—   
Rents, houses and flatsSix monthlyFebruary and AugustTwenty-one towns.
MatesYearlyFebruary"
Repairs and maintenance.""Four chief centres.
Fuel and lightingMonthly15th of monthTwenty-one towns.
Clothing and footwearQuarterlyFebruary, May, August, NovemberTen representative towns.
Miscellaneous—   
Hardware"DittoDitto.
Furniture"""
Household appliances""Four chief centres
Cleaning supplies Personal requisites""Ten representative towns.
Educational requisites""Four chief centres.
Services—   
Postage, &c."""
Entertainment"""
Personal services"""
Health services"""
Transport"""
Patent medicines"""
Union duesYearlyFebruary"

Where “four chief centres” are mentioned the reference is to Auckland, Wellington. Christchurch, and Dunedin. The “ten representative towns” comprise also Hamilton. Napier, New Plymouth, Palmerston North, Nelson, and Invercargill; while the “twenty-one towns” are made up by the inclusion of Whangarei, Tauranga, Rotorua, Gisborne, Wanganui, Masterton, Blenheim, Greymouth, Ashburton, Timaru, and Oamaru.

In the combination of the individual towns into groups or into a single group, population weights are employed which give representation not only to the city or borough itself, but to neighbouring boroughs and town districts also. Thus there are three series of population weights, which also are subject to revision at any revision of the commodity weights. Each of the three series has the same total, representing approximately 60 per cent. of the total population of New Zealand. It will be apparent that the index as a whole has predominant reference to urban dwellers.

Further details as to the construction of the index will be found in the booklet “Retail Prices in New Zealand, with Special Reference to the Consumers' Price Index,” mentioned earlier.

The following tables show the index numbers calculated for the first three years of the currency of the Consumers' Price Index. The table headings are self-explanatory. The all-groups index numbers for the twenty-one towns combined shown in the first section of the table are linked with those already given for earlier years on page 765, these having been converted where necessary to the base first quarter of 1949 (= 1000). which is the base of the Consumers' Price Index.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX.—QUARTERLY INDEX NUMBERS (ALI GROUPS), TWENTY-ONE TOWNS COMBINED

Base: Weighted average twenty-one towns, first quarter, 1949 (=1000)

Food.Housing.Fuel and Lighting.Clothing and Footwear.Miscellaneous.All Groups.
Meat and Fish.Fruits, Vegetables, and Eggs.Other Foods.All Food.Rent.Other Housing.All Housing.Clothing.Footwear.Clothing and Footwear.Household Durable Goods.Other Commodities.Services.All Miscellaneous.
Calendar year —                
  194910561008101510231000100010001017100010111002997998100410001009
  19501131106711441123101410321025113510271148104510131007104510211066
  19511355126512761292105210721064123511901269120211531039111710911183
Quarter ended                
  1950—                
  March 81st10671048101010321008103210221042995106910069891002103510111020
  June 30th1100103111241097100810321022109110161156103710031001104110151052
  September 30th1150109112041166102110321028119910331179105510171016104710271087
  December 31st1206109812381199102110321028120810631188108210411008105810321105
  1951                
  March 31st1232107112471204103910721059121210881216110710891015105810461121
  June 30th1295117712871264103910721059123711751245118611511024112310861169
  September 30th1398130012921319106510721069126212281289123711941052113711121207
  December 31st1496151112771382106510721069122912691325127711791064114911191237
  1952—                
  March 31st1514141212951373109811651138125212711338128111771120114911421253

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX.—QUARTERLY INDEX NUMBERS FOR INDIVIDUAL TOWNS AND GROUPINGS

Base: Weighted average twenty-one towns, first quarter, 1949 (=1000)

Calendar Year, 1949.Calendar Year, 1950.
Food.Housing.Fuel and Lighting.Clothing and Footwear.Miscellaneous.All Groups.*Food.Housing.Fuel and Lighting.Clothing and Footwear.Miscellaneous.All Groups.*
Auckland10111032102910249851012111310461131107110131069
Wellington10161029936100110111011112010631041104110301069
Christchurch103410119819481008100411251034112399910211058
Dunedin101899380999599699611001023913103510201047
    Four chief centres1018102296810009981008111610451079104510201064
Hamilton10439551039995992100611569791146102710231067
Napier1022989114110201010100911419881266106310231075
New Plymouth104095211071016990101111359941262105610171071
Palmerston North10419731029104110161023114010091155107510331079
Nelson104110021145100210141024114010151280104710281078
Invercargill105096410439921004101211459941190103110181067
    Six provincial towns1039960107910131004101311439951210105110241072
Whangarei10429311251  101411499751457  1082
Tauranga10659791019  1013117810071101  1077
Rotorua10399671106  100911539861185  1068
Gisborne10069421356  100811259521491  1071
Wanganui10199451160  101611159711318  1070
Masterton10389521216  101611589691344  1078
Blenheim10319741277  102111479921401  1081
Greymouth10199281065  99111279411182  1048
Ashburton10299061402  100111239331566  1058
Timaru1014973994  992110510021111  1046
Oamaru10219271099  99711369521301  1062
    Eleven other towns10269491155  100611339721291  1066
Quarter Ended 31st December, 1951.Calendar Year, 1951.
Food.Housing.Fuel and Lighting.Clothing and Footwear.Miscellaneous.All Groups.*Food.Housing.Fuel and Lighting.Clothing and Footwear.Miscellaneous.All Groups.*

* In calculating the all-groups index numbers for the eleven other towns, singly and in combination, the missing aggregates for the Clothing and Footwear and Miscellaneous groups were supplied from the first ten towns.

Auckland136710651235133511101241128310611225124110841185
Wellington141511131101127611311253130911041121119810991193
Christchurch133910971199122911081214127110921222115710821169
Dunedin13581073992125311451222125910681019118111131166
    Four chief centres137310851163128911191237128510791171120610911182
Hamilton143410281270122611121237132510241266117310891133
Napier138310341419126111181234130510331437121610831191
New Plymouth138910351373124711031229129410361378119210791130
Palmerston North145510741297127011251266134510731304120210971207
Nelson135510761425128011081234129310691374121210821190
Invercargill138210411299123911421233130810361305118311111188
    Six provincial towns140510461341125211181240131410431343119610911190
Whangarei142910431570  1271133210281578  1211
Tauranga145610611214  1248134310591191  1192
Rotorua144510361268  1242134010311249  1188
Gisborne13769841685  123213009361650  1189
Wanganui14189971394  124413089961403  1185
Masterton143010281448  1258133010161427  1197
Blenheim135310551484  1232129110441488  1189
Greymouth134910461191  1211127710351243  1165
Ashburton131710161677  1211126210081678  1169
Timaru131010661183  1199124110501177  1151
Oamaru140410141476  1246130710041450  1188
    Eleven other towns138910301386  1234130010231384  1182

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX.—MONTHLY INDEX NUMBERS (FOOD AND FUEL AND LIGHTING) TWENTY-ONE TOWNS COMBINED

Base: Weighted average twenty-one towns, first quarter, 1949 (= 1000)

Meat and Fish.Fruits, Vegetables, and Eggs.Other Foods.All Food.Fuel and Lighting,
Calendar Year—     
  194910561008101510231017
  195011311067114411281135
  195113551265127612921235
Month—     
  1950—October11971122123412001204
  November12091039123711861210
  December12111132124212101210
  1951—January12181117124412081211
  February12301050124511981211
  March12521048125212061214
  April12851130127212431229
  May12911169129212621238
  June13081242129912881244
  July13291265130413011276
  August14241269130813271277
  September14421365126513301233
  October14661400128513431231
  November15121489127513801228
  December15111645129014221229

WHOLESALE PRICES.—In most countries index numbers of wholesale prices are compiled from the price data available in trade journals or from the published reports of wholesale markets. In New Zealand wholesale markets scarcely exist, and consequently price data for the wholesale-prices investigation have been collected from wholesale merchants and traders who, from the volume of the business they transact, are able to supply representative information.

Since 1917 such wholesale-price quotations have been collected monthly, the inquiry being for the most part confined to the four chief centres. A considerable volume of data as to wholesale prices was secured from merchants and traders (and in a few cases from import figures) by means of retrospective investigations covering the years 1891 to 1917, and sufficient information was secured to permit of the compilation for each year from 1891 onwards of a “general” wholesale prices index number based on the prices of 106 commodities.

During 1926 a revision of the wholesale prices index was effected, and was so designed, inter alia, as to permit of the inclusion in the index number of several commodities such as motor-spirits, &c., the importance of which had increased enormously since the index was originally instituted. The list of commodities represents a wide range, covering articles of local production and of foreign production, and of farm, mine, marine, factory, &c., origin.

In 1937 a further revision of the wholesale prices index was put in hand, but except for the base-period (which is 1926–30 =1000) these indices do not differ essentially from those of the previous series. The revision consisted mainly of adjustment of the weights in accordance with changed consumption, the elimination, as far as possible, of “double counting” (the inclusion of a commodity in its raw state and again in a processed condition), the adoption of some new items, and the omission of some others, previously included, which had proved unsatisfactory. A detailed account of the method of computation of the index is given in the Statistical Report on Prices, &c., for 1937.

Indices in the present series have been prepared, annually from 1913 onwards, and monthly commencing with 1936.

WHOLESALE PRICES.—GENERAL INDEX NUMBERS.—BASE: 1926–30 (= 1000)

Year.Index Number.
1913724
1914748
1915805
1916882
19171024
19181225
19191282
19201536
19211428
19221194
19231115
19241120
19251114
19261053
19271001
1928994
1929988
1930963
1931901
1932878
1933902
1934907
1935936
1936945
19371022
19381036
19391071
19401195
19411311
19421416
19431513
19441558
19451584
19461589
19471649
19481837
19491825
19501987
19512315

The wholesale prices index is purely a commodity index, no attempt having been made to cover the wholesale prices of services such as the supply of electric power, transportation, &c. The index relates only to commodities consumed in New Zealand, each item included in the make-up of the index being weighted by a factor representing production, plus imports, less exports [i.e., local consumption). The wholesale prices index numbers are compiled by the aggregate expenditure method, and where applicable sales tax is included in the prices used in the index.

The following table shows annual wholesale prices index numbers by commodity groups (i.e., by origin).

WHOLESALE PRICES.—INDEX NUMBERS BY GROUPS.—BASE: 1926–30 (= 1000)

Group.1914.1939.1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.
1. Foodstuffs, &c., of vegetable origin—       
  A. Agricultural produce642132815771735190822042639
  B. Fresh fruit and vegetables764105513151646162917092326
  C. Milled agricultural products64477679086990312281277
  D. Other foods and groceries of vegetable origin613118919402142206721782314
  A-D. Four subgroups combined634112416101789178219642186
2. Textile manufactures53581517392024202121332612
3. Wood and wood products582118416521772184419592146
4. Animal products—       
  A. Meats941101117121691161816552057
  B. Semi-manufactured animal products (not foods)83869187887893017902065
  C. Leather676112916151732182221912419
  D. Other foods and groceries of animal origin78596511401216124514271525
  A-D. Four subgroups combined84399214331468145916281878
5. Metals and their products919127721482401235624842931
6. Non-metallic minerals and their products—       
  A. Mineral oils1164123515931691165917481980
  B. Coal539108511411338142719732354
  C. Other non-metallic minerals and their products600102314021525159517832093
  A-C. Three subgroups combined821114013801522155518452149
7. Chemicals and manures95486113271821160915801992
      All groups combined748107116491837182519872315

In the next table index numbers are given by classes (i.e., by use). These index numbers should be taken for no more than they purport to represent—viz., the movement in wholesale prices of those commodities, covered by the wholesale prices inquiry, which belong to the respective classes. The figure for Class III, for instance does not purport to show the movement in building costs, nor should that for imported items be confused with the index number of import prices. The table also shows the separate index numbers for imported items and locally-produced items included in the wholesale prices series. The 1951 index for imported commodities increased by 133.2 per cent. as compared with 1939, while the index for locally-produced commodities advanced by 92.8 per cent. during the same period.

WHOLESALE PRICES.—INDEX NUMBERS BY CLASSES.—BASE: 1926–30 (= 1000)

Year.Consumers' Goods.Producers' Materials, &c.Classes I and II Combined.Classes III and IV CombinedLocally-produced Commodities.Imported Commodities.All Classes Combined.
Class I: Foodstuffs.Class II: Non-Foods.Class III: Materials for Building and Construction.Class IV: Materials for Other Industries.
1941122812801560130812491364113914391311
1942133514681664137413891438119315811416
1943135016781793146614831539120517422513
1944138117591832150615341579123318001558
1945140117811923152015541610125718271584
1946142217791908152215661608127818211589
1947155717741823160516451653136818591649
1948165119521968187017731892150120891837
1949161219451992186417461892153220441825
1950174420932158204918842073174421681987
1951202224572448240621972415203025282315

Of the total base aggregate expenditure, Class 1 represents 27.1 per cent., Class II 19.2 per cent., Class III 11.9 per cent., and Class IV 41.8 per cent., while the imported items aggregate 57.7 per cent. of the total.

EXPORT PRICES.—Monthly and annual index numbers of export prices are compiled, based on the declared export values of the principal commodities of New Zealand produce exported. The prices are related to the base period 1909–13 (= 1000), but the weight allotted to each of the various commodities included is the average quantity of that commodity exported during the five preceding export seasons—i.e., years ended 30th June. This system of weighting permits of more reliable comparisons between neighbouring years than over long periods.

Most of the export commodities are homogeneous, but in some instances—e.g., wool—the average export value in any month may be affected by changes in the relative quantities of the various grades or classes exported. This difficulty was, from 1946, partly overcome by relating the average prices realized for greasy wool at New Zealand wool sales to the average prices in the corresponding season of a stable year. From 1949 a further refinement has been introduced by establishing a system of fixed-type weights for each sale (recurring annually in the same season of the year in each centre) and fixed sale weights for combining all the sales in one year.

Index numbers for calendar years are shown in the next table, compiled for each group on the base 1909–13 (= 1000).

EXPORT PRICES.—INDEX NUMBERS.—BASE: 1909–13 (= 1000)

Calendar Year.Group I: Dairy-produce.Group II: Meat.Group III: Wool.Group IV: Other Pastoral Produce.Groups I–IV: All Pastoral and Dairy Produce.Group V: Agricultural Produce.Group VI: Timber.Group VII: Minerals.Groups I–VII: All Groups Combined.
1941134718061505150115271508249822701553
1942138418051505180015631333277923171586
1943143118351677171216271453278323641650
1944156619071720170117111665276323591733
1945179920341720175518461803337924571865
1946186922521897231720241913364725822040
1947218927252460382725592333417125872555
1948240526943134400228342657476725722825
1949227325393328351127542289488824712740
1950244227516918452739372196516529733894
1951264230728399620147012787885432814669

The next table shows export-prices index numbers for all pastoral and dairy produce groups and for all groups combined in respect of each year from 1914 to 1951.

Year.Index Numbers.
All Pastoral and Dairy Produce.All Groups combined.
191410951089
191512511239
191614781460
191716631655
191816911684
191917871776
192018241866
192117251713
192213521363
192316191610
192418061788
192519141893
192615411540
192715291525
192817001683
192916341623
193012791283
1931965984
1932870892
1933867896
193410891109
193510721102
193612281250
193714231440
193813401367
193912901324
194015011524
194115271553
194215631586
194316271650
194417111733
194518461865
194620242040
194725592555
194828342825
194927542740
195039373894
195147014669

During the post-war period the index has risen rapidly, partly by reason of advances in prices under long-term contracts with the United Kingdom Government, but more particularly as a result of the brisk demand for New Zealand wool displayed since the resumption of auction sales in September, 1946, and greatly heightened during 1950 and the early part of 1951, when the whole index was dominated by spectacular advances in wool prices. The all-groups index rose between 1949 and 1950 by 42 per cent., of which 4 per cent. originated in Group IV, 2 per cent. each in Groups I and II, and practically all the remainder—between 33 and 34 per cent.—in Group III (wool). From 1950 to 1951 the all-groups increase was 20 per cent., to which wool contributed over 10 per cent., Groups I and II again 2 per cent. each, and Group IV nearly 5 per cent. It should be noted that the general upward trend in export prices was masked in 1949 by the appreciation in August, 1948, of the New Zealand pound to parity with sterling.

The fact that the calendar year does not coincide with the farm-production year is especially significant in New Zealand, since the great bulk of export goods are farm-produce. For a number of purposes the next table, giving annual average export prices index numbers for years ended 30th June, will be more useful. As in the previous table, index numbers are based upon prices in New Zealand currency.

EXPORT PRICES.—INDEX NUMBERS (JUNE YEARS).—BASE: 1909–13 (= 1000)

Year Ended 30th June,Group I: Dairy-produce.Group II: Meat.Group III: Wool.Group IV: Other Pastoral Produce.Groups I–IV: All Pastoral and Dairy Produce.Group V: Agricultural Produce.Group VI: Timber.Group VII: Minerals.Groups I–VII: All Groups Combined.
1941133317821505126514981501236822461524
1942137318211505166915541331264723241577
1943141518091580170115891383276223631613
1944143718981720173216581523275523631681
1945174119601720170217971836281224161817
1946180221011720194918811923335725221903
1947206725692165323523391954392725872336
1948239327463012398728112643456025782803
1949226425443056373427062353462024922696
1950236526574449370531422241512825813122
19512563287510211525050082541532531864952

IMPORT PRICES.—A series of import prices index numbers based on the year 1926 (= 100) and weighted in accordance with average quantities imported during the years 1926–30, was instituted in 1933. While the basic data were deficient in many respects, nevertheless the index served a very useful purpose. With the passage of time, however, certain inherent weaknesses in this series became apparent, while information previously lacking in some cases became available.

Accordingly, a revised series of index numbers was computed, based in the case of individual items on average quantities imported during the three years 1936–38. Group weights wore instituted in the new series, to accord to the various groups their relative importance, and these were based on the average total value for the respective groups during the three years 1936–38. Even with the improved coverage and method now possible they are not sufficiently accurate to be quoted as other than a three-figure index.

The difficulty, inherent in an index number of imports, of obtaining sufficient coverage to provide a reliable indication of changes in prices for any one group, was overcome in the revised series by the utilization of figures of exports to New Zealand, obtained in detail from the published trade figures of certain overseas countries.

In order to avoid any possible confusion between the import prices index number and the wholesale prices index number for imported commodities, it seems desirable to draw attention to the fact that the price quotations on which the import prices index is based are declared values of commodities for import—i.e., prices in the exporting country plus 10 per cent. to cover freight, &c., expressed in terms of New Zealand currency.

The import prices index also covers some two hundred and fifty items, as compared with approximately one hundred items included in the wholesale prices index for imported commodities.

A now and much more detailed statistical classification of imports was adopted by the Customs Department from 1st January, 1949. This new classification necessitates a revision of the items included in the import prices index, and it is considered opportune to review also the weighting pattern of the index. To fill the gap until this revision is completed an interim index of import prices for 1950 has been calculated based on a composite weighting pattern of the two years 1949 and 1950, utilizing group weights, and linked to the old index.

A comparative table of index numbers of the various related prices series from the year 1926 onward is as follows. All index numbers are quoted on a New Zealand currency basis, and on the base 1936–38 (= 100).

Year.Import Prices.Export Prices.Wholesale Prices.Retail Prices (All Groups).
Pastoral and Dairy Produce.All Groups.Locally-produced Commodities.Imported Commodities.All Groups.

* Not yet available.

1926125116114108103105111
192711911511310497100110
19281131281241069599110
19291111231201069499110
193011096951029296107
1931102737390909099
193297656684908892
193399656683959087
193498828285949188
193596818292949492
193696929295949495
1937102107107102102102101
1938102101101104103103104
19391029798111104107108
1940118113113113123119113
1941131115115120139131118
1942144118117125152141121
1943159122122127168151124
1944167129128130173156127
1945170139138132176158128
1946190152151134175159129
1947226192189144179165133
1948230213209158201184144
1949210207203161197182146
1950230296288183209199155
1951*353345213244231172

The following diagram, which is based on the index numbers shown in the preceding table, further illustrates the fluctuations that have occurred in the export and wholesale series since 1928.

SHARE PRICES.—Changes in the market value of shares listed on the Stock Exchange give a very sensitive indication of changes in business conditions generally. A series of index numbers of share prices on base: 1926 (= 1000), and instituted in 1932, was published by the Census and Statistics Department for some considerable time, but in conformity with the usual international practice of revising index numbers at intervals, and advancing the base to a later period in point of time, the present revised series of index numbers is based on the year 1938. The market-prices—as on the last trading day in each month—of shares of forty-four representative companies, with shares listed on the New Zealand Stock Exchanges, form the basis on which the indices have been computed. The selection of the shares for inclusion in the index number was made with the object of reflecting New Zealand economic conditions; and consequently, with one or two exceptions, only companies whose business is conducted largely or wholly in New Zealand are included. The index numbers are for ordinary shares" the prices of which vary directly with the profits of the company.

The market prices on which the index numbers are based have been extracted from Stock Exchange lists of individual exchanges prior to September, 1929, and from the list of share prices included in the Stock Exchange Gazette and its successor, the Official Record of the Stock Exchanges of New Zealand, since that date. The prices quoted relate to the last trading day in each month; so that the “monthly” index numbers compiled from these data relate to that day only, while the annual averages represent the averages of the monthly index numbers. Each individual share price, and each group, is weighted in accordance with the number and value of shares held in New Zealand. The index numbers of New Zealand share prices give an indication of changes in share values as compared with the base year. In particular, they are intended to indicate the changes in value of a parcel of representative ordinary shares as compared with their 1938 value. The base adopted in this revised series is the average price ruling during the year 1938 (= 1000).

Shares in industrial companies and in finance, &c., companies have been computed separately, and the annual index numbers from 1926 to 1951 on base: 1938 (= 1000) are as follows.

Year.Industrial Groups.Finance, &c., Groups.All Groups.
192690912711108
192785112541073
192887913011111
192996013301163
193083511471007
1931674921810
1932667852769
1933804972897
193499610971051
1935110211201112
1936107510431057
1937107310671069
1938100010001000
1939959945952
19401024978999
194110219841001
1942100510141010
1943115611881174
1944124913041279
1945128514001346
1946137216011486
1947144416971570
1948143016091520
1949136815661467
1950149917951647
1951156620271796

The fluctuations in share prices since 1928 are clearly shown in the accompanying diagram, which is based on the foregoing index numbers.

An indication of movements in the index numbers for individual groups may be gauged from the following tables, the first of which is confined to the industrial groups.

SHARE-PRICES: INDEX NUMBERS BY GROUPS

Base: Average for each group, 1938 (= 1000)

Year.Frozen Meat.Woollens.GasTimber.Minerals.Miscellaneous (Industrial).All Industrial Groups.
1941101212917891051102710571021
19421151141878210509849961005
1943143816178471217105011591156
1944161317539001360108712531249
1945169317468941432109612971285
1946187419419091555108613991372
1947206720058941650126214321444
1948209219558751542132114041430
1949200918908691478132513091368
1950212519339341792140014631499
1951231119738182210147615041566
Year.All Industrial Groups.Banks.Insurance.Loan and Agency.Miscellaneous (Other).All Finance, &c., Groups.All Groups Combined.
1941102189511758409929841001
194210058951232895104310141010
1943115698814921095127911881174
19441249105916191201149213041279
19451285109717491269159014001346
19461372115218611446183016011486
19471444128418761729194016971570
19481430117117701715189316091520
19491368107917451709186815661467
19501499122020122174203217951647
19511566125123502587226320271796

NOTE.—Index numbers in the above tables are comparable vertically but not horizontally.

Monthly index numbers of share prices throughout the years quoted (including the latest five years) are given in the following table, the base being 1938 (= 1000).

Month.1932.1935.1939.1945.1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.

* Interpolated.

Industrial Groups
January6681086956124013831496139514401639
February6321075954124714301465137714631617
March6211071938125214341424136314691611
April6181103941126714401414135514621599
May6301097968127014471429135814621603
Juno6461112948127614421439134214851597
July6691132958130514561437134614791579
August7011106939132114191416135115041575
September7381090927132114311415136415351562
October7181111959131514611416137215331529
November69911231004130014911411138115591459
December*66211171022130514941403141015991419
Finance, &c., Groups
January8651136947131516601653158016842021
February8241101942132517041624156217202046
March8231107933133417431578153517162037
April8151136921135518171615152917172012
May8091125946137617591654157517422022
June8121126934140117341658154818962064
July8691139950142517311645154817792057
August90111559411432163115691566'.8092034
September9201117927141416211570156718272056
October8971099949140416461575157418682075
November8751097974150216601588158419061985
December*8181092978151116561584162519631912
All Groups
January7771114951128115211575148715621830
February7381094947129015671545147015921831
March7321091935129715891501144915931824
April7261121930131516281515144215901806
May7281113956132816031541146616021812
June7381120940134515881548144516461830
July7791136954137115931541144716291818
August8111133940138215251492145916561804
September8381105927137215261493146616811809
October8171105953136415531495147317001802
November7961109987140115751499148317321722
December*7481103998140815751494151817811665

Yields on Market Prices of Shares.—A series of index numbers of yields on market prices of New Zealand domiciled ordinary shares has been compiled covering the same companies and using the same group weights as for the share-prices series.

The yield figures forming the basis of the index numbers are in most cases based on those published in the Official Record of the Stock Exchanges of New Zealand, and the monthly figures relate to the market price ruling at the end of the month and the rate of dividend last paid by the particular company.

Average annual index numbers of yields have been compiled hack to the year 1929 on base: average for each group. 1938 (=1000), and are given here for the years. 1929 to 1951.

Year.Industrial Groups.Finance, &c., Groups.All Groups.
1929110410911097
1930127412771276
1931134714341395
1932123412781258
1933881890886
1934806777790
1935749813784
1936823860843
1937886884885
1938100010001000
1939104210671055
194099710321016
194199110161005
1942943991969
1943735819781
1944698754729
1945676714697
1946632697664
1947657698677
1948680725703
1949698753726
1950663693678
1951678676677

Monthly index numbers of yields on base: average for each group, 1938 (=1000). are given hereunder for each month of the years 1949 to 1951.

Month.Industrial Groups.Finance, &c., Groups.All Groups.
194919501951194919501951194919501951

* Interpolated.

January69168063720723643706701638
February703667640732708637717677639
March709662645744711641726686643
April713664664745712650729688657
May692672671725705684709688678
June701666677753676670727671673
July705674682682690676743682679
August702666683775682694738674688
September697657686782687693740672690
October694656699769684690732670695
November689653737765679711727666724
December*685643727744661734715652730

SUMMARY OF PRICE MOVEMENTS.—The following table gives a summary on base: first quarter, 1949 (= 1000), for the last eleven years available of the movements, in the more important series of price index numbers.

Year.Retail (Linked Series),Wholesale.Export.Import.*Share Prices, All Groups.
Food.All Groups.Locally-produced Items.Imported Items.All Groups.All Pastoral and Dairy-produce.All Groups.

* Base: 1949 (= 100).

† Not yet available.

194179581075770472257158262682
194281183879377378058559468688
194381685680185283380961876799
194482987281988185864064979871
194582988483589487369169981916
1946830891849891875757764901012
19478819199099099089579571081069
194899599299810221012106010591101035
19491023100910181000100510301027100999
195011231066115910611095147314591101121
195112921183134912371275175917501223

Chapter 38. SECTION 38—WAGE-RATES AND HOURS OF LABOUR

THE material used in the compilation of statistics of wage-rates in New Zealand is with certain exceptions, taken from the awards of the Arbitration Court. It is recognized that the rates specified in such awards are minimum rates, and that wages may in some cases be above the prescribed minima, so that a rise or fall in the award rates does not necessarily involve an immediate change in the wage-rates of those workers who are being paid more than these rates. Nevertheless, for the purpose of tracing the movement in wage-rates over any considerable space of time, the award rates form a more reliable basis than any information which could be collected directly from employers or trade-union secretaries as to the ruling or predominant rates in any industry. Prior to the passing of the Agricultural Workers Act, 1936, no fixed rates of wages for farm employees existed; and for this group figures of ruling wage-rates were reported by Inspectors of Factories attached to the Labour and Employment Department.

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1932, contained, inter alia, a provision that, in the event of the parties to an industrial dispute being unable to come to agreement before the Conciliation Council, the award lapsed. In eases where district awards lapsed under this provision figures were interpolated, based on fluctuations in corresponding rates in other districts. The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1936, restored the full powers of the Court (see next section. Labour Laws and Allied Legislation).

The award rates for the four principal districts—Northern, Wellington, Canter-bury, and Otago and Southland—are in general taken as being representative of the ruling wages throughout New Zealand. For such industries as are carried on in the towns these rates are quite satisfactory; in cases where the important centre of an industry is situated outside the geographical boundaries of the four principal districts the award rates for that centre are used. For instance, the rates used for coal-mining and sawmilling in the Canterbury District are those prescribed by the awards for the Westland Industrial District.

The system of compilation of wage-rates index numbers was revised in 1936, and the index numbers appearing in the following pages are on the same base period as in the case of the wholesale-prices index—viz., the average of the five years 1926–30 (= 1000).

WAGE-RATES OF ADULT MALE WORKERS: Method of Weighting.—The weights used in the computation of the indices were derived mainly from three sources— viz., (1) the occupations statistics of the 1926 census, (2) the annual factory production statistics, and (3) the membership rolls of trade-unions registered under the Arbitration Act. Weights have been allocated to the individual occupations included in these computations, and although in some few cases absolute accuracy in weighting could not be hoped for, the data were sufficiently accurate for the purpose in view, since minor differences in weighting do not affect the accuracy of the index number. Occupations are grouped into industries, with an appropriate weight for each occupation and each industry; while industries are grouped into fourteen principal industrial groups, these also being given appropriate weights. The weights for the individual occupations and industries have been derived from the census or the factory production statistics; while the industrial-group weighting has been taken partly from these sources and partly from the membership of trade-unions registered under the Arbitration Act. In the case of workers on the land, use was also made of information formerly obtained by means of the annual collections of agricultural and pastoral statistics. Full details of the weighting appeared in the Statistical Report on Prices, &c., for the year 1935.

Nominal Weekly Wage-rates Index Numbers.—Index numbers of annual averages of nominal weekly wage-rates of adult males over the period 1914–51 are given in the following table. The base in this case is the weighted average of weekly wage-rates for adult males in 1926–30 (= 1000).

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (ADULT MALES), ALL INDUSTRIAL GROUPS

Base: 1926–30 (= 1000)

Year.Index Number.
1914623
1915646
1916671
1917711
1918746
1919810
1920913
1921988
1922957
1923921
1924929
1925952
1926966
1927985
19281016
19291017
19301017
1931942
1932864
1933833
1934839
1935858
1936950
19371036
19381081
19391100
19401130
19411170
19421222
19431261
19441274
19451381
19461434
19471489
19481588
19491678
19501793
19512037

The wage-rates on which the foregoing index numbers are based are gross rates, no account having been taken of the fact that from August, 1931, wages have been subject to certain forms of taxation not previously in operation. A summary of these taxes on wages since their introduction is as follows:—

Date from which EffectiveRate Per PoundClass of Tax
 s d 
1st August, 19310 3Emergency unemployment charge.
1st May, 19321 0 
1st October, 19340 10Employment promotion tax.
1st October, 19350 8"
1st April, 19391 0Social security tax.
21st July, 19402 0Social security tax (1s. in pound). National security tax (1s. in pound).
11th May, 19422 6Social security tax (1s. in pound). National security tax (1s. 6d. in pound).
13th May, 19462 0Social security tax (1s. 6d. in pound). National security tax (6d. in pound).
21st April, 19471 6Social security tax.

In explanation of the movements recorded in the preceding table of index numbers, the more important changes in rates of wages during the last ten years are now mentioned, the changes over the period 1919–36 being quoted on pages 636–637 of the 1947–49 Year-Book. In this connection reference should be made to the distinctions between the “basic wage,” the “minimum wage,” “standard rates of wages,” and “general orders” which are elaborated on pages 822–825. The index numbers of rates of wages shown above, being based almost exclusively on award rates, have not been influenced by either “basic wage” rates or the “minimum wage” rates which have, in effect, superseded the basic wage; “minimum wage” rates themselves having no practical application where awards exist. The effects of standard rates pronouncements and of general orders are, on the other hand, clearly visible.

As from the 15th December, 1942, rates of remuneration, already brought under control by the Rates of Wages Emergency Regulations 1940, wore stabilized by the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942 (see page 826). General orders and later, pronouncements of standard rates could be made under these regulations and their amendments. Nevertheless, in practice, stabilization of wage-rates, oven apart from general increases granted by the Court of Arbitration in either of these ways, was not absolute. The Court, in making or amending any award, was, from 1945 to 1950, required to have regard to the restoration or preservation of a proper relationship with other rates of remuneration, not excluding actual rates over which the Court had no jurisdiction. The result was that although the index ignores the margin—a margin subject to continual fluctuation—between actual rates and minimum award rates, it did, during the period of stabilization, continue to show a certain gradual upward movement as awards were amended from time to time. Regulations made in 1950 under the Economic Stabilization Act, 1948, omitted the above-mentioned requirement as to relationship with other rates as well as the provision for pronouncements of standard rates, and at the same time abolished control of maximum rates. Pronouncements of standard rates might still be made by the Court of its inherent power, but such rates could not be written into awards or industrial agreements until the current term of either bad expired.

In 1952, however, new regulations were issued restoring the Court's specific powers not only to pronounce standard rates but also to amend current awards and industrial agreements accordingly. These specific powers had previously been hold by the Court, as regards pronouncements from 1945 to 1950, and as regards their implementation by amending awards and agreements from 1947 to 1950. More frequent wage adjustments are also allowed by the 1952 regulations, which provide that either a general order may take effect or a standard rates pronouncement may be made not sooner than six (instead of twelve) months after a previous general order has taken effect or a pronouncement has been made.

From the 12th August, 1940, an increase of 5 per cent. was granted by general order in all rates of remuneration prescribed by awards, industrial agreements, and apprenticeship orders.

A further general order awarded, as from the 7th April, 1942, a second increase of 5 per cent.—on the already increased rates—but with certain maxima (i.e., 5s. weekly for adult males, 2s. 6d. weekly for adult females, and 1s. 6d. weekly for juveniles).

The standard rates pronounced in 1945, 1947, and 1949 are quoted on pages 823–824 together with those already current when the general orders of 1940 and 1942 took effect. As regards the inclusion of these general orders in standard rates, the 1945 standard rates were net rates and those of 1947 and 1949 gross rates. Amendments to awards consequential upon these alterations in standard rates took effect from the 1st April, 1945, the 1st October, 1947, and the 1st June, 1949, respectively.

From the 8th May, 1950, all rates of remuneration provided for in awards and industrial agreements were, by interim general order dated 10th June, 1950, again increased by 5 per cent., but with maximum increases of 7s. weekly for adult males and 4s. 9d. weekly for other workers. The Court, in granting this increase, stated that it had to some extent anticipated the effects, direct and indirect, likely to follow the withdrawal and reduction of subsidies announced the previous month, the order being made under powers conferred by the Economic Stabilization Regulations 1950, Amendment No. 1, which authorized the Court to make a general order of its own motion, prescribing a date of commencement earlier than the date of the order but not earlier than the 8th May, 1950, and providing that such an order was to be disregarded in determining the time when a general order made on application was to take effect. This interim order was superseded by a further general order made on the 30th January, 1951, and taking effect from the 15th February, 1951. The new order embraced the revocation of the interim order and the substitution of an increase of 15 per cent.— without any prescribed maximum—in all rates of remuneration provided for in awards and industrial agreements (except in certain specified awards which had been made since the date of the interim order). The effect of this increase on wage index numbers is apparent in the 1951 figures.

The next table shows the index numbers of nominal weekly wage-rates of adult males for each industrial group and for all groups combined. Where board and (or) lodging is a usual perquisite attached to any occupation, an allowance estimated to cover the value of such has been added to the money wage-rate. The base in this instance is the New Zealand weighted average wage-rate for all groups combined, 1926–30 (= 1000).

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (ADULT MALES)

Base: All groups combined, 1926–30 (= 1000)

Industrial Group.1914.1939.1943.1944.1945.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.
Provision of—           
  Food, drink, &c.66512666141114131524153315831678180219162126
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles6071122129012991399146415171001170218252060
  Building and construction6541126126212721377141314781553165017522003
  Power, heat, and light6561194131313161427147415351616169517942062
  Transport by water6541217163716801739176317801796189320102223
  Transport by land6171116129813331423146014701579165417442013
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service6601077115411541245132614051475158316511839
Working in or on—           
  Wood, wicker, sea-grass, and fibre6341179131013101418144515351632172518212109
  Metal7171241136213641469150415601651174518942149
  Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals5841139126812691370140114381515159917101928
  Paper, printing, &c.7571250136913701484152316023671177318962186
  Skins, leather, &c.6001116130513051393138414411499158916881894
  Mines and quarries6641117131713301413144515461647172718412060
  The land (farming pursuits)51985999210021139125913221470154716811919
All groups combined6231100126112741381143414891588167817932037

NOTE.—The index numbers in this table are comparable both vertically and horizontally.

The listinction of having the highest index number, which was surrendered by the “paper, printing, &c.,” group to the “food, drink, &c.,” group in 1938, was in 1941 acquired by the “transport by water” group, and has been held by the same group in each subsequent year.

The lowest index for 1951 was that for the group “accommodation meals, and personal service” (1839), followed by “working in skins, leather. &c.” (1894). For some years up to 1950 the second lowest group index was that for “working on the land.” From 1948, however, this group made considerable advances, principally due to the adoption of a new formula (see page 826) for determining shearers' wages for the 1948–49 season, coupled with sharp rises in wool prices on which the formula is based. In both the groups “accommodation, meals, and personal service,” and “working on the land.” as also in the “transport by water” group, the estimated value of board and lodging is where applicable, added to the money wage-rate in order to make a legitimate comparison with other industries. Also included in the wages for workers in the “transport by water” group is a sea-going allowance of £6 per calendar month where applicable, In the case of waterside workers (an important subgroup of the “water transport” group) these allowances are not, of course, applicable.

Movement in Individual Groups.—The index numbers in the preceding table being on a national all-groups base, comparisons between movements in individual groups cannot be readily made; an increase in a group in which the index numbers are consistently low being considerably smaller numerically than would be an increase of the same percentage in one where the index numbers are higher. The following table brings out the movements in the various groups more clearly. The respective bases are the New Zealand average weekly wage-rates for each industrial group 1926–30 (=1000).

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE-HATES INDEX NUMBERS (ADULT MALES)

Base: Each group separately, 1926–30 (= 1000)

Industrial Group.1926–30.1914.1939.1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.
Provision of—        
  Food, drink, &c.1000601114414311516162917321921
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles1000596110014881570166917892020
  Building and construction1000637109714401513160817071950
  Power, heat, and light1000600109014021476154716381882
  Transport by water1000592110016091624171618172008
  Transport by land1000588106314001504157516611916
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service1000680110914461518162916991891
Working in or on—        
  Wood, wicker, seagrass, and fibre1000588109414251515160116901957
  Metal1000647112014071490157417091939
  Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals1000576111214051480156316701883
  Paper, printing, &c.1000637105013461404148915931837
  Skins, leather, &c.1000574106813791434152016151811
  Mines and quarries1000637107114831580165617661975
  The land (farming pursuits)1000675111617191912201121862494
All groups combined1000623110014891588167817932037

Care must be exercised in drawing inferences from this table, for, while horizontal comparisons are quite valid, the vertical comparison between the various groups is valid only in so far as it shows in which groups the greater or the smaller movements have occurred. For example, the 1951 index for the “paper, printing, &c.,” group is 657 points below that for “the land” in this table, but 267 points above in the previous table on the all-groups base, the reason being that wages of workers in the former group have increased to a lesser degree than have those in the latter, although the actual rates of wages are still considerably higher.

Indices of Hourly Wage-rates.—Legislative reductions in weekly hours of labour have rendered it desirable that indices of hourly wage-rates should be made available. These shorter working-hours were prescribed mainly by the 1936 legislation, the Shops and Offices Amendment Acts of 1945 and 1946, and the Factories Amendment Act, 1945. Further details of these changes will be found on pages 794–795. It will be noticed that the indices given hereunder (as is also the case in respect of the indices of weekly (hours of labour) cover thirteen only out of the fourteen industrial groups commonly adopted, since working-hours on farms (which would be essential to the fourteenth group) cannot for this purpose be satisfactorily treated statistically. The base is the New Zealand average hourly wage-rate (computed as described after the following tables) for all groups combined, 1926–30 (= 1000).

HOURLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (ADULT MALES)

Base: All groups combined, 1926–30 (= 1000)

Industrial Group.1914.1939.1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.
Provision of—       
  Food, drink, &c.548125317091810194520682294
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles568118116381728183719692223
  Building and construction619121615951676178118912160
  Power, heat, and light579128316571745182919362225
  Transport by water560124818911908201621352356
  Transport by land552115315871704178518822171
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service466113015171592170917821983
Working in or on—       
  Wood, wicker, seagrass, and fibre597127316571762186119652275
  Metal665134016831782188320442318
  Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals532122115521635172618452080
  Paper, printing, &c.747134917291803191320462359
  Skins, leather, &c.540115815551617171518222044
  Mines and quarries633120516681850202021532409
All groups combined589123516591752185819762241

The same table is now given with a different base—viz., the New Zealand average hourly wage-rate for each group individually, 1926–30 (= 1000).

HOURLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (ADULT MALES)

Base: Each group separately, 1926–30 (= 1000)

Industrial Group.1926–30.1914.1939.1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.
Provision of—        
  Food, drink, &c.1000533121916621761189220112231
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles1000583121116801773188420202280
  Building and construction1000631123916251708181519272202
  Power, heat, and light1000585127716491736182019262214
  Transport by water1000584130119701988210122252454
  Transport by land1000579120816621785187019712275
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service1000534129317361822195520392270
Working in or on—        
  Wood, wicker, seagrass, and fibre1000585125316321735183319352241
  Metal1000611123215481639173118802132
  Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals1000571129816501738183519622212
  Paper, printing, &c.1000623112614431505159717081969
  Skins, leather, &c.1000573122916511716182019332169
  Mines and quarries1000627119416531833200121332387
All groups combined1000589123516591752185819762241

The figures shown in the last two tables are derived from average hourly rates calculated in every case by dividing the corresponding average weekly rate by the average number of hours worked in the week.

WAGE-RATES OF ADULT FEMALE WORKERS.—Index numbers showing movements in wage-rates of women workers are compiled, using the award rates of the Arbitration Court as representative of the ruling rates of wages. A much smaller list of occupations is used than is the case in computing index numbers of wage movements for male workers. Although only fifteen occupations are taken into consideration in the case of women workers, these occupations normally cover a largo proportion of the total women in industry—more than sufficient to constitute a representative sample for measuring movements in wages. With the extension of the employment of women under war conditions, however, the sample for those years was not so representative as previously. The weights used have been computed from data as to occupations from the 1926 census results.

The following table shows index numbers of women's wage-rates on base New Zealand all-groups weighted average, 1926–30 (= 1000), divided into the principal industries in which women workers are normally engaged. It should be noted that domestic servants employed in private homes, numerically an important branch of women workers at one time, are not represented in the compilation of these indices; also, that in the case of hotel workers (where board and lodging is a usual perquisite) and of restaurant employees (where meals are usually provided) the value of such additions has been added to the money-wage rates.

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (ADULT FEMALES)

Base: All groups combined, 1926–30 (= 1000)

Industrial Group.1914.1939.1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.
Provision of—       
  Food, drink, &c.39095014651628174218822164
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles534102915771735187220422297
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service836133417751913206921592413
Working in paper, printing, &c.487111014461565169018502077
All groups combined602110316141764190620542309

Movements in Individual Groups.—Movements within the various groups are brought out more clearly in the next table, the base in this case being the New Zealand weighted average weekly rate of each group, 1926–30 (= 1000). As with the similar table relating to male wage-rates (p. 785), horizontal comparisons are valid, but vertical comparisons merely show in which groups the greater or smaller movements have occurred.

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (ADULT FEMALES)

Base: Each group separately, 1926–30 (= 1000)

Industrial Group.1926–30.1914.1939.1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.
Provision of—        
  Food, drink, &c.1000459112417341927206122282561
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles1000578112017151888203722222499
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service1000670107414291540166617381942
Working in paper, printing, &c.1000559105513751488160717591975
All groups combined1000602110316141764190620542309

WEEKLY WAGE-RATES: ALL ADULT WORKERS.—A series of index numbers has been computed on the base 1926–30 (= 1000) for all adult workers; this varies but little from the index for adult males, owing to the preponderance of men in industry. Index numbers for the last thirteen years available are as follows.

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (ADULT MALES AND FEMALES COMBINED), ALL INDUSTRIAL GROUPs

Base: 1926–30 (= 1000)

Year.Index.
19391100
19401132
19411171
19421224
19431265
19441277
19451389
19461446
19471503
19481607
19491702
19501821
19512065

EFFECTIVE WEEKLY WAGE-RATES.—The index numbers quoted in the foregoing paragraphs relate to nominal weekly wage-rates only—that is they are based on actual or equivalent money-rates without any allowance being made for changes during the period under review in the prices of those goods and services which are purchased out of wages earned. It is obvious that this factor is of considerable importance; for a rise in wage-rates may be offset by a fall in the purchasing-power of the monetary unit, while, on the other hand, a fall in money wages may be offset by a rise in the purchasing-power of money. Changes in the index numbers of retail prices (refer Section 37) are inversely proportional to changes in the purchasing-power of the pound on the retail market; hence index numbers of effective (or “real”) wages-rates are arrived at by dividing the index numbers of nominal wage-rates by the corresponding all-groups index numbers of retail prices and multiplying by the base value of 1000.

The following table accordingly shows a comparison of nominal and effective weekly wage-rates of adult male and female workers in each of the years 1941–51. The base of the index numbers is in each case the average of the five years 1926–30 (= 1000).

Year.Retail Prices (All Groups).Nominal Weekly Wage-rates.Effective Weekly Wage-rates.
Males.Females.Males.Females.
194110731170117410901094
194211091222123411021113
194311341261129211121139
194411551274129711031123
194511701381145911801247
194611801434153312151299
194712171489161412241326
194813141588176412091342
194913361678190612561427
195014111793205412711456
195115662037230913011474

The continuous series of retail prices index numbers required for the foregoing table has been obtained by linking the consumers' price index to the earlier series on the base 1926–30.

In making use of these results it should not be overlooked that the index numbers of nominal wage-rates apply only to full-time employment at award rates of pay. They do not take into account either on the one hand above-award rates or overtime earnings, or on the other short-time deductions or wages-tax imposed (a summary of the rates of wages-tax in force during different periods will be found on page 782). Nor do the retail-prices index numbers take cognizance of all classes of household expenditure; income-tax, charitable and other gifts, domestic help, &c., and particularly expenditure on alcoholic liquors and private motoring, being omitted. Having regard to opportunities for spare-time gainful occupation, a comparison with movements in the index numbers Of hours of labour shown later in this section is also relevant.

To the extent that female wages are not normally devoted to purchasing the full range of household requirements the results of employing the all-groups retail-prices index to determine effective wages for females are subject to certain limitations. Their general application is however, still valid.

WAGE-RATES OF JUVENILE WORKERS.—During 1936 the compilation of index numbers of wage-rates of juveniles was undertaken for the first time, and the results appeared in the introductory notes to the 1935 and 1936 issues of the annual Statistical Report on Prices, &c.

Owing to the fact that a number of industries utilize juvenile labour to a limited extent only, or not at all, it has not been possible to cover a very wide field, but thirty-two occupations representing twelve out of the fourteen industrial groups are included in the case of juvenile males, and four occupations representing three industrial groups in the case of juvenile females.

Wherever possible the weekly wage-rate adopted in the compilation of the indices is that provided for a worker having attained the age of eighteen years or having completed three years' service, according to the terms of the award.

In the table which follows the base is in each case, the New Zealand all-groups weighted average of weekly wage-rates, 1926–30 (= 1000).

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (JUVENILE WORKERS)

Base: All groups combined, each sex separately, 1926–30 (= 1000)

Industrial Group.1914.1989.1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.

* No provision made in awards for juvenile females.

Juvenile Males
Provision of—       
  Food and drink665126018111935208922462540
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles544103218011937209123052621
  Building and construction592107319492079226024862799
  Transport by land609115614751533165727481931
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service562113618171923207522412734
Working in or on—       
  Wood, wicker, sea grass, &c.554115618301961208922872581
  Metal487120919352055219324812742
  Stone, clay, glass and chemicals511129416351704181919432212
  Paper, printing, &c.60997419722174230423932726
  Skins, leather. &c.746120916251682186619872266
  Mines and quarries1142202828093154333735743947
  The land (farming pursuits)680121720342235238725732892
All industrial groups619119119492108225824622761
Juvenile Females
Provision of—       
  Food and drink512128718292010221723982917
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles640131820002204236226122944
Working in paper, printing, &c.*138019662207237225302817
All industrial groups616132019662171233825652924

In recent years juvenile wages have been largely governed by the Apprentices Act, 1948, under which the scale of wages in apprenticeship orders is based on a percentage of the ruling minimum rates for journeymen in the industry concerned. Consequently, the wage-rate index numbers for juvenile males now tends to move in sympathy with the index numbers of male adult wage-rates.

AVERAGE RATES OF WAGES.—The following table shows the New Zealand average minimum weekly wage-rates in various occupations for the years 1914, 1939, and 1946–51. The figures given are simple averages for the four principal industrial districts as at the 31st March in the years indicated. The rates shown throughout this table are money-rates, and do not include any allowance for the value of board and lodging which is a usual perquisite of the employment of some workers—e.g., seamen and hotel employees. Further information on this latter point is available in the note given at the end of the table.

Occupation.Average Wage (Four Principal Districts) at 31st March,
1914.1939.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.

* Increased by 5s. per week as from 7th April, 1942, under Rates of Wages Emergency Regulation. 1940.

Adult Males
Bakers—s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.
Journeymen55 0115 0132 9138 0148 0148 0161 4191 3
Labourers48 095 0117 0117 0127 0127 0138 8159 6
Butchers—        
First shopmen72 6123 2150 7152 11164 3165 0177 11207 6
Second shopmen62 6110 8137 5140 5151 9151 10164 9192 4
Butter-factory employees—Churning and buttermaking: General hands45 090 0111 9122 3127 0135 0142 6163 11
Flour-milling—        
Kilnmen48 099 4122 3127 6143 4143 4155 0185 11
Assistant smuttermen48 091 4115 3120 6135 10135 10147 6177 4
Rollermen56 0103 4129 3134 6155 0155 0168 4201 3
Meat-freezing—        
Slaughtermen, per 100 sheep27 645 056 2*56 2*60 070 073 679 10
General hands54 0113 8132 9132 9143 4148 4155 0182 0
Meat preserving—        
Boners62 0132 0152 0152 0161 8166 8173 4222 0
General hands59 6110 0132 9132 9143 4148 4155 0182 0
Sausage-casing making: General hands58 8117 4136 3136 3146 8155 0161 8188 0
Aerated water and cordial making—        
Cordialmakers58 996 10126 6120 6132 3132 3145 0175 5
Bottle-washers45 088 3111 1111 1125 9125 9138 7165 11
Brewing labourers47 794 5126 2126 2136 4143 3148 0166 5
Tailors—        
Journeymen53 9101 2132 4136 1143 5156 11156 8185 11
Factory hands55 092 6124 11131 0141 0147 6154 4185 11
Boot operatives52 691 8127 6131 0141 8141 8155 0178 3
Woollen-mills—        
Spinners51 0103 4125 11136 3143 4146 8160 0184 0
General hands46 693 4115 3120 6126 8131 8143 4164 10
Building—        
Bricklayers68 5115 0140 8140 8148 4148 4162 11188 7
Carpenters and joiners64 3112 6137 9137 9150 0158 4163 4192 7
Plasterers67 9114 7138 0141 11149 7149 10163 2192 1
Plumbers (competent)66 0110 0135 5141 4151 8160 10165 10196 8
Builders' labourers52 693 4115 3129 8136 11140 10149 4178 3
General labourers52 693 4115 3120 6125 1127 1136 9163 1
Sawmilling—        
Engine-drivers54 0110 0132 9143 3153 4157 11164 7197 11
Sawyers53 0112 6136 3146 9156 8161 3167 11201 9
Tailers-out43 996 8120 6131 0140 10145 5152 1183 7
Yardmen, head55 8110 0132 9143 3153 4157 11164 7197 11
General hands51 095 0117 0127 6137 6142 1148 9182 2
Boatbuilding: Shipwrights62 8126 6141 4141 4152 3158 11167 3194 6
Metal-works, &c.—        
Blacksmiths, floormen61 7110 0132 9138 0146 8146 8160 0184 0
Boilermakers, journeymen62 8110 0132 9132 9143 4151 8156 8189 9
Iron and brass moulders64 7110 0132 9138 0143 4145 0159 2182 11
Tinsmiths, journeymen62 8110 0132 9134 1143 4146 3156 3188 4
Engineering fitters, &c.64 7110 0133 3133 3148 8148 8162 6192 3
Electrical workers61 10110 5133 10133 10147 1154 2163 4193 6
Motor mechanics64 8110 0132 9132 9143 4143 4156 8194 3
Skin and leather workers—        
Curriers58 0105 0131 0136 3140 10146 8154 2177 4
General hands49 690 0115 3120 6125 0128 4136 8157 2
Mineral and stone workers—        
Brickmakers53 11108 4132 9134 1143 2145 8154 10179 0
General hands46 995 0118 9120 1128 7130 8140 3161 9
Mining (coal)—        
Surface—        
Tippers53 791 3122 6134 2137 11137 11147 9175 3
Labourers54 387 8118 4134 2137 11137 11147 9175 3
Miners (on day wages, per shift)11 420 1028 030 233 033 035 640 10
Truckers55 1197 6127 6138 4152 6152 6165 0189 9
Mining (gold): Miners in rises or winzes with machines64 6101 3123 7128 10133 9133 9145 5171 1
Quarrymen52 894 2117 0124 0128 4130 5143 11166 9
Agricultural and pastoral workers—        
General farm hands26 445 075 085 095 095 0106 6122 6
Threshing-mill hands, per hour1 32 83 43 43 73 73 104 5
Ploughmen30 446 375 085 095 095 0106 6122 6
Shearers (per 100 sheep shorn)20 028 635 036 038 045 646 659 6
Shepherds31 252 675 085 095 095 0106 6122 6
Wool-pressers30 084 6104 0107 0113 0163 2166 10214 6
Dairy-farm hands23 052 685 0106 6106 6113 0126 6145 6
Railways—        
Engine-drivers, average third and sixth years75 0120 0140 9144 2151 2162 6167 6210 10
Firemen, average second and ninth years60 0102 11128 9131 8141 8150 0153 4191 9
Guards, average first and third years63 0113 9135 5138 9148 9157 1161 3201 9
Tramways—        
Motormen53 6101 3129 8129 10143 4143 4155 0178 3
Conductors47 795 7123 6123 6136 8136 8148 4170 7
Shipping and cargo-working—        
Assistant stewards, first grade25 872 4112 4142 4135 11135 11149 11172 5
Assistant stewards, second grade18 870 0139 11139 11133 0133 0144 8166 4
Chief cooks60 8106 10178 7178 7172 1172 1185 6213 4
Second cooks37 488 2159 0159 0152 3152 3165 8190 6
A.B. seamen37 489 1154 5154 5148 2148 2160 0184 0
Ordinary seamen, first-class26 060 10122 5122 5115 6115 6124 11143 8
Waterside workers—        
Ordinary cargo62 4106 8138 4138 4146 8155 0160 0185 0
Hotel workers—        
Chefs90 0112 0133 1138 4143 1150 0154 9178 0
Walters31 165 082 888 292 8100 0104 4120 0
Miscellaneous—        
Softgoods assistants (male)55 0102 6134 1134 1144 1144 1157 7181 3
Grocers' assistants50 0102 6128 9128 9138 9144 0150 5173 0
Warehouse storemen48 990 0119 3124 3130 6135 6145 0166 9
Adult Females
Biscuit and confectionery factory workers20 049 068 873 1184 084 094 0108 1
Tailoresses (factory): Journeywomen27 650 070 976 086 091 097 0117 11
Boot operatives27 650 1073 576 086 086 096 0110 5
Woollen-mill workers25 050 070 976 085 1085 1096 8111 2
Hotel workers-        
Cooks29 558 076 081 392 098 0103 8119 3
Housemaids17 236 651 353 1161 466 071 482 1
Waitresses22 536 651 353 1161 466 071 482 1
Restaurant workers—        
Cooks42 687 0107 0112 6117 6122 6127 6146 8
Waitresses31 148 664 772 677 682 687 6100 8
Pantrymaids29 248 664 772 677 682 687 6100 8
Printing workers*58 670 970 980 982 1091 0106 11
Softgoods assistants27 657 685 085 095 095 0105 0120 9
Occupation.Average Wage (Four Principal Districts) at 31st March,
1914.1939.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.1951.

* Not available.

Juvenile Males
 s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.
Makers' apprentice: After three years' service27 665 084 687 1196 296 2104 10124 4
Butchers' assistant: Eighteen years of age30 1049 563 365 1072 672 680 094 11
Butter and cheese factory: Youth, eighteen years of age30 052 665 775 080 087 591 6105 3
Flour-mill: Youth, after three years' service27 1150 067 267 273 673 681 098 11
Meat freezing and preserving: Youth. eighteen years of age25 655 064 664 672 677 082 699 9
Aerated water and cordial manufacture: Youth, eighteen years of age25 046 757 857 866 066 072 587 7
Tailoring, &c.: Apprentice, after three years' service19 240 072 275 1083 287 091 1109 9
Boot and shoe factory: Apprentice, after three years' service25 040 073 975 1083 783 791 5105 2
Woollen-mill: Youth, eighteen years of age22 646 864 668 075 1075 1085 097 9
Bricklayers' apprentice: After three years' service24 242 681 481 487 691 296 8112 0
Carpenters' apprentice: After three years' service24 643 276 1076 1084 789 699 116 5
Plasterers' apprentice: After three years' service24 012 680 081 687 687 696 11114 2
numbers' apprentice: After three years' service19 540 076 1080 087 692 597 10118 1
Sawmill: Youth, eighteen years of age25 648 956 1162 267 369 874 090 10
Engineering: Apprentice, after three years' service20 050 076 1076 1086 686 699 10114 5
Brick, tile, &c., works: Youth, eighteen years of age21 053 564 665 1069 1072 076 1090 8
Tannery: Youth, eighteen years of age33 451 363 266 468 671 675 686 10
Coal-mining: trucker, eighteen years of age46 582 9111 0115 5129 7129 7142 1163 4
Agriculture and dairying: Youth, eighteen years of age*31 051 362 665 668 077 388 11
Softgoods assistant: After three years' service20 045 066 966 972 972 993 0106 11
Grocers' assistant: After three years' service25 042 675 075 080 683 289 8103 1
Juvenile Females
Biscuit and confectionery factory:16 041 652 1158 264 1064 1074 1086 1
Assistant. after three years' service        
Boot and shoe factory: Assistant, after three years' service19 040 048 957 262 662 671 081 8
Woollen-mill: Worker, after three years' service22 641 059 964 670 070 080 092 0
Clothing factory: Improver, after three years' service19 243 057 264 672 074 679 096 7
Printing trade: Worker, after three years' service*44 659 359 370 973 079 090 10

NOTE.—The following perquisites (as assessed for statistical purposes) as at the 31st March, 1951, should be added to the listed occupations: General farm hands, ploughmen, shepherds, dairy-farm hands, and youths (eighteen years of age) employed on agricultural and dairy farms, 28s. 9d. per week for hoard and lodging; shearers and wool-pressers, 6s. per day for rations; assistant stewards (first and second grade), chief and second cooks, A.B. seamen and ordinary seamen (first class), 34s. 6d. per week as value of hoard and lodging; and hotel chefs and waiters, female cooks, housemaids, and waitresses, 33s. per week as value of board and lodging. Varying amounts in this connection would also be added to the occupations affected for earlier years.

HOURS OF LABOUR.—The following table shows index numbers of the number of hours constituting a full week's work in the various industrial groups for 1914, 1939, and for each year from 1945 to 1951. Where years are combined in the heading. the figures for each separate year are identical. The material from which the index numbers have been compiled has been taken from the awards of the Arbitration Court in most cases; but where hours were not prescribed in the awards, reference was made to the Factories Act and the Shops and Offices Act. It has been necessary to omit the agricultural and pastoral workers group from these computations, since, with certain exceptions (and those only in recent years), hours of farm labour are not fixed. For each sex. the base is the New Zealand weighted average for all industrial groups combined, 1926–30 (= 1000).

INDEX NUMBERS OF AVERAGE HOURS OF LABOUR

Base: All groups combined, each sex separately, 1926–30 (=1000)

Industrial Group.1914.1939.1945.1946.1947.1948.1949 to 1951.
Provision of—Adult Males
Food and drink1135944919866866866866
Clothing, footwear, and textiles1000888884866866866866
Building and construction988866866866866866866
Power, heat, and light1061870870870866866866
Transport by water1093911911909880880880
Transport by land1044905905901866866866
Accommodation, meals, and personal service1325891890875866866866
Working in or on—       
Wood, wicker, seagrass, &c.993866866866866866866
Metal1008866866866866866866
Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals1026872870866866866866
Paper, printing, &c.948866866866866866866
Skins, leather, &c.1039901903866866866866
Mines and quarries981866866866866832799
All groups combined1041888885877867866864
Provision of—Adult Females
Food and drink976867867867867867867
Clothing, footwear, and textiles1006901899867867867867
Accommodation, meals, and personal service1217891891877867867867
Working in paper, printing, &c.976867867867867867867
All groups combined1054896894870867867867

NOTE.—The index numbers in each section of the above table are comparable both vertically and horizontally.

The index numbers in the foregoing table being on a national all-groups base, comparisons between movements in individual groups cannot be readily made. The following table brings out the movements in the various groups more clearly, the respective bases being the New Zealand average for each industrial group, 1926–30 (= 1000).

INDEX NUMBERS OF AVERAGE HOURS OF LABOUR

Base: Each group separately, each sex separately, 1926–30 (= 1000)

Industrial Group.1926–30.1914.1939.1945.1946.1947.1948.1949 to 1951.
Adult Males
Provision of—        
  Food and drink10001128938914861861861861
  Clothing, footwear, textiles and textiles10001023908904886886886886
  Building and construction10001011886886886886886886
  Power, heat, and light10001041854854854850850850
  Transport by water10001014845845843817817817
  Transport by land10001016880880877842842842
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service10001275857856842833833833
Working in or on—        
  Wood, wicker, seagrass, &c.10001002874874874874874874
  Metal10001058909909909909909909
  Stone, clay, glass, chemicals and10001009857855851851851851
  Paper, printing, &c.1000102933933933933933933
  Skins, leather, &c.10001003869871835835835835
  Mines and quarries10001016897897897897862828
  All groups combined10001041888885877867866864
Adult Females
Provision of—        
  Food and drink10001000889889889889889889
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles10001016911908877877877877
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service10001169856856843833833833
Working in paper, printing, &c.10001013900900900900900900
All groups combined10001054896894870867867867

NOTE.—Vertical comparisons are indicative merely of the relative changes in the length of the working-week in the different industries, not of the actual respective number of hours for the different industrial groups.

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1936, contained, inter alia, provisions aimed at the establishment of a forty-hour week, without reduction in the weekly wage-rate. New awards were to contain a provision to this effect, except that the Court might fix longer hours, but was required to state its reasons for so doing. Awards in existence at the time the amendment was passed could be reviewed on application of the unions concerned with a view to the fixing of a forty-hour week. The Factories Amendment Act, 1936, required the fixing of a forty-hour week in factories, hat made provision for the Arbitration Court to grant exemptions on application, but the exemption provision was repealed by the Factories Amendment Act, 1945. The Shops and Offices Amendment Act, 1936, reduced the working-hours in shops from forty-eight to forty-four per week, and a further reduction to forty hours was made by later amendments passed in 1945 and 1946. With one or two exceptions, there was little or no change in the indices between 1938 and 1944, but with the operation of the Factories Amendment Act, 1945, and the Shops and Offices Amendment Acts of 1945 and 1946, a slight decrease was recorded in 1945, followed by a more substantial one in 1946. The effect of the Shipping and Seamen Amendment Act, 1946, which reduced seamen's hours to forty per week, is apparent in the 1947 figures. Employees in wood and coal yards, motor and horse drivers, and restaurant workers also obtained a forty-hour week in the same year. From the 5th April, 1948, a seven-hour day was, by decision of the Coal Mines Council, introduced for all underground workers in coal-mines. By section 6 of the Mining Amendment Act, 1948, this provision was extended as from the 1st January, 1949, to underground workers in other mines.

SUMMARY OF INDEX NUMBERS.—The following table gives a summary for the years 1939–51 of the movements in index numbers covering both wage-rates and hours of labour.

WEEKLY WAGE-RATES, HOURLY WAGE-RATES, AND HOURS OF LABOUR: ALL INDUSTRIAL GROUPS COMBINED

Base: 1920–30 (=1000)

Year.Nominal Weekly Wage-rates.Hourly* Wage-rates: Males, Adult.Hours of Labour.
AdultsJuveniles.Males.Females.
Males.Females.Combined.Males.Females.

* Excluding the agricultural and pastoral group.

1939110011031100119113201235888896
1940113011371132121713721275888896
1941117011741171124314291326888896
1942122212341224130214681381888896
1943126112921265135515041414888896
1944127412971277137915041429888896
1945138114591397165316931536885894
1946143415331446181918241586877870
1947148916141503194919661659867867
1948158817641607210821711752866867
1949167819061702225823381858864867
1950179320541821246225651976864867
1951203723092065276129242241864867

STATISTICS OF 1945 CENSUS.—The following tables are a continuation of the 1945 census results to which reference has been made on page 44, but it has been deemed appropriate to show data for hours of work and travelling-time in their present context.

Hours of Work.—A questionnaire on the number of hours worked (including overtime) per week appeared on a census schedule, for the first time in New Zealand, at the census of 1945. The demand for increased production and the shortage of labour duo to war conditions were no doubt responsible for the very long hours worked by a large number of people. Of those recording their hours of work, 18 per cent. of males and 5 per cent. of females worked sixty hours or more per week. The following is a summary giving the hours worked by all people actively engaged in industry.

Hours Worked.Males.Females.Total.

* Includes ex-servicemen who had not then returned to work.

Nil (unemployed)*5,8231,0906,913
20–241,6012,3253,926
25–291,7264,5426,268
30–343,1634,9068,069
35–3912,51613,72931,245
40–41206,71782,616289,333
45–4955,47816,21171,689
50–5428,3894,86033,249
55–598,1151,5419,656
60–6423,0203,03626,056
65–693,8674324,299
70–7416,0671,69617,763
75–793,2892793,568
80–8411,2671,26015,527
85–8972380803
90 and over6,7287647,492
Not applicable40,5874,05444,641
Not specified40,26914,61854,887
Totals472,345163,039635,384

In addition to the above, a number of people, classified with the non-working population, indicated that they were engaged on part-time work—i.e., loss than twenty hours per week. A brief summary of such eases is now given.

Hours Worked.Males.Females.Total
1–43170101
5–9135212347
10–14189417606
15–19164435599
      Totals5191,1341,653

Travelling-time.—The following table is of interest in that it affords for the first time some indication of the usual time occupied in travelling from home to place of employment (one way only). The daily aggregate (i.e., double the times quoted therein, to allow for return to place of residence) is considerable and reflects the growth of urbanization in New Zealand.

Travelling-time (Minutes).1945 Census.
Males.Females.Total.
Nil140,71738,583188,300
1–5 inclusive36,88113,25750,138
6–10 "47,57421,01368,587
11–15 "49,30422,23471,538
16–20 "37,78617,92355,709
21–25 "11,9466,02217,968
26–30 "46,28818,04064,328
31–35 "6,9172,8729,789
36–40 "7,8523,07410,926
41–45 "12,9914,87517,866
16–50 "2,9971,0334,030
51–55 "723273996
56–60 "10,1002,76012,860
61–65 "476106582
66–70 "609186795
71–75 "1,0883231,411
76–80 inclusive467140607
81–85 "642791
86–90 "1,3592571,616
91–95 "33942
96 and over77696872
Not applicable5,8231,0906,913
Not specified40,5748,84649,420
      Totals, actively engaged472,345163,039635,381
      Totals, not actively engaged310,257657,913968,170
      Grand totals782,602820,9521,603,554

Chapter 39. SECTION 39—LABOUR LAWS AND ALLIED LEGISLATION

39 A—HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.—In 1858 the New Zealand Parliament enacted that the laws of England as existing on 14th January, 1840, should, as far as applicable, be deemed to apply in New Zealand also. But in what was an essentially agricultural and pioneer country, conditions demanding labour legislation were not present, so that there was but little early progress in labour legislation. Initially, labour administration was interpreted in the light of English statutes, but such interpretations were largely ineffective, owing to the vast difference between English and New-Zealand conditions.

One industry, however, was as important to New Zealand as to the British Isles— the shipping industry. In 1854 Britain passed a consolidating Merchant Shipping Act, which contained numerous safety clauses and included a series of regulations aimed at the well-being of the crew, such as a wage-paying code and provisions as to seamen's accommodation, diet, and medical comfort. In 1858 the New Zealand Parliament extended these regulations of the working-conditions of seamen to all British ships under the jurisdiction of New Zealand. A aeries of Merchant Shipping Acts Adoption Acts was passed in 1869, 1873, and 1874, taking over certain provisions of the British Merchant Shipping Acts of 1862, 1872, and 1873, while other Acts followed in 1877, 1885, and 1890.

Apart from the regulation of working-conditions on board ship, early New Zealand social legislation concerned itself mainly with such general social problems as the care of orphans and the encouragement of thrift by means of suitable institutions. The Master and Apprentices Act of 1865 and the apprentice protection sections of the Offences against the Person Act of 1867 regulated the apprenticeship of young persons to farmers and tradesmen, stipulating that they were to be provided with food, clothing, bedding, and a moral education. These provisions were apparently intended to safeguard the training and interests of destitute children. In 1856 a law was passed to facilitate the formation of friendly societies in New Zealand, and the establishment of savings-banks was to be stimulated by an Act of 1858. The Act providing for the establishment of the Post Office Savings-bank was passed seven years later. A Distress and Replevin Act (1868) regulated the conditions under which goods and chattels might be seized as a distress for arrears of rent.

Trade-unions legislation commenced with the Trade-unions Act passed in 1878, affording unions protection from prosecution for conspiracy by reason merely that their purposes were in restraint of trade. The Inspection of Machinery Act, 1882, provided for the inspection of machinery in factories, &c., and required that persons in charge of boilers be properly qualified. An Employers' Liability Act was passed in 1882, legislating in the matter of industrial accidents with (he object of mitigating the consequences to the worker without recourse to expensive litigation at common law.

Legislation specifically governing the conditions of employment of women and girls— particularly in respect of hours of labour—was introduced in 1873, there being several amendments to the Act in later years, while the legislation was amended and consolidated in 1881. Regulation of the hours of labour of children was also provided for. With the existence of slump conditions in the “eighties” allegations of “sweating” arose; and since such complaints became increasingly numerous, a Commission was set up in 1889 to inquire into this evil. The Commission found that the Employment of Females Act was ineffective owing to the lack of the necessary powers of enforcement. The Commission declared that actual “sweating” conditions were not present, though a minority report differed from this view, but pointed out that with increasing industrialization such conditions would rapidly become prevalent if no attempt were made to check them. The Commission made recommendations for future labour legislation, and as the result of its findings, the Factories Act of 1891 was passed.

Depression, discontent, and a growing labour force—despite depression, the number of hands employed in factories increased by approximately 16 1/2 per cent. between 1885 and 1890—formed an economic background favourable to social legislation. Meanwhile the maritime strike of 1890, which caused even further distress throughout the country, proved to the trade-unions that they were not sufficiently strong to obtain their demands by direct action, and diverted their activities to the political field. The strike also aroused public opinion to the necessity for preventing such industrial strife. Political opportunity was still further opened by Sir George Grey, who in 1889 obtained Parliamentary approval for the abolition of the last remnant of plural voting at the elections to the House of Representatives. The extension of the franchise to women followed four years later.

In January, 1891, a Liberal Government came into power under the leadership of Ballance, with Reeves (Labour) and Seddon (Public Works) in the portfolios directly concerned with labour matters. The economic and political background demanded social change, and the change came to such a degree that New Zealand—still in the pioneer stage of economic development—acquired world fame as the land of advanced social legislation. The labour code enacted in the “nineties” was not so much socialistic as a correction of the more manifest injustices of an individualist system. There was not so much State control as an improved framework within which laissez faire could operate. This policy was most clearly seen in the realms of housing and farming, in which the Government aimed at making it easier for the worker to build or to settle on land by the provision of finance through the State Advances Department (established in 1894). The Family Homes Protection Act, 1895, provided protection for homes from the legal processes resulting from bankruptcy proceedings, &c. The only encroachment on laissez faire principles was the fostering of co-operation on public works from 1891 onwards.

Working-conditions were improved by legislative regulation in four types of industry (factory work, shipping, shops and offices, and coal-mining), wages being also safeguarded though not directly increased.

The great achievement of this administration, however, was the evolution of machinery—the Conciliation Councils, the Arbitration Court, and the Labour Department—which not only administered the labour code efficiently, but could also modify it rapidly to suit the changing economic background. This dynamic machinery was far more effective than the all too soon antiquated improvements by the more normal procedure of static legislative enactment. An adjustable labour code was of special advantage to a primary-produce exporting country which is of all countries, most open to the fluctuations of economic progress, and it is another example of the British empiricism that delights in suiting action to the conditions of the moment.

This code, and the resulting constant political intervention in labour conditions, profoundly modified labour organization. Since resort to judicial rather than to militant action became the accepted means of settling industrial disputes, much of the bitterness usually associated with the struggle for improved wages and working-conditions was lost. Moreover, the close association with the Courts led to the growth of a strong political bias in the aims of unionism. This was but natural, for, since the legislative code ensured to the workers many benefits for which they would otherwise have had to fight keenly, it was felt that the further amelioration of living-conditions would best be attained by legislation rather than by direct action.

Subsequent progress has been determined largely by this code, although the swing visible in the development of English labour legislation from Salisbury's Factory Acts to Lloyd George's pension schemes—from concrete intervention in working-conditions to attempts at ensuring a more equitable distribution of the national income—is also evident in New Zealand. For example, the rate of age-benefit (formerly old-age pension) has been increased considerably—from £18 per annum (1898) to £45 10s. (1925), to £52 (July, 1936), to £58 10s. (December, 1936), to £78 (April, 1939), and by increases at intervals during the war and post-war years, to its present (January, 1952) figure of £149 10s. Again, although interrupted to some extent during the war years by the needs of a war economy, much progress has been achieved in connection with the Government's housing scheme (commenced in March, 1937) of erecting homes of a good standard, which are let to tenants at a reasonable rental (see pp. 533–536).

Prior to the passing of the Social Security Act, 1938 (see Section 26), the initial pre-eminence of New Zealand in respect of social legislation generally had been largely lost. Hitherto the only governmental provision towards sickness insurance was the National Provident Fund established in 1911. This scheme is a voluntary one, State aid being in the direction of administration, together with a subsidy. The Social Security Act is much wider in scope than similar legislation in most other countries; but it is worthy of note that compulsory health insurance, operative in New Zealand only from 1st April, 1939, was in operation for many years in several other countries—e.g., Germany (1883), Great Britain (1911).

National provision for the relief of unemployment did not become law in this country until 1930, whereas in Great Britain legislation dealing with this subject has been in force since 1911. The earliest legislative action specifically focused on unemployment-insurance matters was taken, as far as can be ascertained, in Denmark, in the year 1907. Other countries in which the years of initiation of unemployment-insurance were antecedent to that of New Zealand were: Austria, 1920; Queensland (Australia), 1922; Italy, 1923; and Germany, 1924.

A Workers' Compensation Amendment Act was passed in October, 1936, liberalizing the scale of payments in respect of accidents. The Social Security Act has rectified the pre-existing deficiencies in New Zealand legislation in regard to medical benefits and unemployment, as compared with the position in other countries.

Up to 1936 progress in other spheres was limited to technical improvements on the original Ballance-Seddon code, except perhaps in the case of the fluctuating fortunes of the Arbitration Court. During the twenty-six years of prosperity from 1895 to 1921 (there was but a slight setback in 1909–10) the scope of the Court's awards was gradually expanded, the most important step being the power conferred in 1898 of prescribing minimum rates of wages. Whereas the Court was originally more concerned with conditions of work, and not at first with wages, there has been a gradual transformation, till in recent years the attention of the Court has been mainly focused on the wages question. As the Court is progressive, or at least not static, its influence expanded at the cost of stationary measures, such as Factories Acts, which, in practice, became a dead-letter as affecting workers under the jurisdiction of the Court. During the depressed years following 1921 wages were reduced, to the dissatisfaction of the workers, yet not fast enough for employers, so that the value of the Court was increasingly questioned till a National Industrial Conference was summoned in 1928 to discuss, inter alia, compulsory arbitration. In the boom years between 1927 and 1930 no action was taken; but in 1932, under stress of depressed conditions, amendments were made to the Act which in effect abolished the system of compulsory arbitration. The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1936, restored the full powers of the Court.

Though no great inroads have been made on the wages system, there has been definite governmental and legislative encouragement of co-operation. In 1891 much public-works construction, such as road and railway formation, was first organized on this principle. The plant, explosives, &c., were supplied to the men by the State at cost price or on low hire terms. A modified form of the system then adopted is still followed, and its scope was increased in 1936. Similarly, the Companies Empowering Act of 1924, the provisions of which were embodied in the Companies Act, 1933, attempted to encourage the principle of profit-sharing among workers. Any company registered under the Companies Act is empowered to issue to its employees labour shares, which are not transferable, have no nominal value, and do not form part of the ordinary capital of the company. Except as otherwise provided, these shares entitle the holders to the same privileges as the ordinary shareholders. In the event of an employee leaving his employment or dying, the shares must be surrendered in cash or in capital shares to him or to his heirs. Another Act in the early “twenties” aimed at fostering co-operation among farmers, but it became, in practice, a dead-letter.

There was in the original labour code a definite policy of ensuring greater opportunities for the masses by financing farming and house-building projects, through the State Advances Department. This provision of easy credit to put workers on the land was the rural aspect of the labour code, for, apart from some-provision for the inspection of housing, there were no other measures designed for the agricultural labourer. Even the Arbitration Court in 1908, 1919, and 1925 refused to make any award covering permanent farm labour. Full provision for the application of standard rates of wages, &c., to farm workers was made in 1936 (see Agricultural Workers Act, post). The policy of social lending survived the years of prosperity, and was employed to cope with part of the rehabilitation necessitated by the First World War; but the policy was reversed a little later, and the Rural Advances-Act of 1926 was a definite attempt to put State Advances loans on a more economic basis, eliminating much of the social background. This tendency was completed by the creation of the Mortgage Corporation in 1935, which definitely marked the subordination of social to economic ends. The agricultural bias and the workers' loans of up to 95 per cent. of their security were both eliminated, in theory at least. At the same time loans for housing were reintroduced for Maoris late in 1935, and further activity in this sphere was foreshadowed by the Housing Survey Act of 1935. The Government was also empowered to lend to farmers, through the Lands Department, by the Dairy Industry (Emergency Powers) Act of the same year.

The State Advances Corporation Act, 1936, marked a definite reversal of the previous Government's policy in regard to State Advances loans. The Mortgage Corporation was abolished, its powers having been taken over by the State Advances Corporation, while the general purpose of the 1936 Act was definitely in the direction of a liberalization of the lending policy of the State.

During the depression period there was a cessation of the move towards better working-conditions; and on the grounds of economic circumstances and the danger of inconveniencing still further already bankrupt employers, the various inspection duties that usually preserve the labour code were curtailed. The rates of pensions and of public servants' salaries and wages wore reduced, while award rates of wages were also compulsorily reduced. At the same time heavy unemployment liabilities were undertaken and immigration control was made more rigid. Stops were also taken to reduce farmers' mortgage liabilities and to maintain farmers on their land.

In no case do the provisions laid down by any particular labour law cancel the worker's rights at common law; but since, naturally enough, better conditions are laid down by statute than the worker is entitled to at common law, it is unusual to find in these days litigation under the common law affecting master and servant. It sometimes happens, however, notably in workers' compensation cases, that appeal is made at common law instead of under the Act, there being no statutory limits to the damages which may be obtained at common law. Since, with the exception of such of the labour statutes as are of general application, no labour legislation exists as yet affecting certain classes or workers—e.g., domestic servants—their relations with their employers are still governed mainly by the common law affecting master and servant.

New Zealand has been relatively backward in protection for permanent farm labour, for while seasonal labour is in general covered—awards existing both for shearers, musterers, and shed hands and for threshing-mill workers—the Arbitration Court has made no awards in respect of permanent farm hands. In general, conditions of work on farms were not covered by any specific legislation—except as regards inspection of housing-accommodation—until, in 1936, the Agricultural Workers Act (described in some detail later) was passed, containing definite provision as to wages of dairy-farm workers (extended later to cover other classes of farm workers) and better provision for the housing of agricultural workers generally. Similar legislation has existed in many of the older countries for years past. Further improvement in the position of agricultural workers was made by the Share-milking Agreements Act, 1937, which defined, inter alia, minimum percentages of the milking returns to be received by share-milkers.

The general trend of labour legislation since 1936 has been conditioned by three major influences. The first of these was primarily economic in origin, legislation being necessary to cope with continuing and derived problems associated with the economic depression and subsequent recovery. The second, with its origin in the international political developments culminating in war during 1939, was responsible for a considerable volume of wartime and post-war legislation. The third element was of a more general nature, being the direct motivating force behind some major items of legislation and often indirectly influencing the content of other Acts and amendments passed during the various sessions. Briefly, it can be described as full acceptance of the principle that society, through its representative institutions, should take active steps towards the improvement of the working, living, and social circumstances of its individual members. The appropriate action in many instances has required legislative sanction to provide for either direct control or regulation by the Government.

As a point of possible interest, although not of particular relevance to labour legislation, it is possible to discern two other main lines of approach to law-making. One of these is due to the increasing participation by New Zealand in international affairs consequent on its enhanced national status and acceptance of responsibility in the wider issues of the present era. The other is domestic; it is concerned with the welfare and social development generally of both the rapidly growing Maori population and the inhabitants of New Zealand's island and trust territories.

The economic depression and subsequent recovery was substantially the background for the major labour measures listed below commencing from the 1936 session. In addition, extensive amendments to pre-existing labour laws were made by the Government towards the formulation of a more liberal code of social legislation. Provisions novel to New Zealand were also made with the same object in view—e.g., the Agricultural Workers Act, and the provision for the declaration of a basic wage contained in the 1936 amendment to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act. A list of Acts dealing directly with labour questions follows:—

  • Employment Promotion Act, 1936.

  • Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Acts, 1936, 1937, and 1939.

  • Factories Amendment Act, 1936.

  • Shops and Offices Amendment Act, 1936.

  • Agricultural Workers Act, 1936.

  • Coal Mines Amendment Acts, 1936 and 1937.

  • Workers' Compensation Amendment Act, 1936.

  • Mining Amendment Act, 1937.

  • Share-milking Agreements Act, 1937.

  • Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act, 1939.

In addition to the Acts mentioned above, provisions in several other Acts dealt with matters which can properly be regarded as coming within the subject-matter of this section. The following Acts, or provisions in Acts, may be referred to in this connection:—

  • Certain provisions in the Finance Act, 1936, dealing with restoration of wages and salaries.

  • Distress and Replevin Amendment Act, 1936.

  • Fair Rents Act, 1936.

  • Family Allowances Amendment Act, 1936.

  • Pensions Amendment Acts, 1936 and 1937.

  • Prevention of Profiteering Act, 1936.

  • Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act, 1936.

  • State Advances Corporation Act, 1936.

  • Iron and Steel Industry Act, 1937.

  • Petroleum Act, 1937.

As previously mentioned, the war period was productive of much legislative activity of relevance to labour conditions. In some instances the object was essentially precautionary, while in others it was designed to cope with situations as these emerged or developed. Principal measures with some application to industrial conditions were as follows:—

  • Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1939.

  • Emergency Regulations Act, 1939, and later amendments.

  • War Pensions Extension Act, 1940.

  • War Pensions and Allowances (Mercantile Marine) Act, 1940.

  • Various provisions of the Finance (Nos. 2, 3, and 4) Acts, 1940.

  • Rehabilitation Act, 1941, and 1944 amendment.

  • War Damage Act, 1941, and 1942 amendment.

  • Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act, 1943.

  • War Pensions Act, 1943 (consolidation and amendment).

More comprehensive legislation directly governing wartime labour activities was contained in the series of emergency regulations and amendments issued during 1939–45, including orders made under the authority of the latter. For further reference to the scope of the regulations listed below the reader should consult pages 625–629 of the 1946 Fear-Book, wherein the subject-matter is presented in greater detail. A summary of the relevant regulations and orders is now given:—

  • Labour Legislation Emergency Regulations 1940 (superseding regulations of a similar nature in 1939).

    • Various Labour Legislation Suspension Orders 1940.

    • Shop Labour Legislation Suspension and Modification Order 1941.

    • Factory Industries Labour Legislation Suspension Order 1941.

    • Holidays Labour Legislation Modification Order 1941.

    • Overtime and Holidays Labour Legislation Suspension Order 1941.

    • Agricultural Workers Labour Legislation Modification Order 1941.

  • Industrial Man-power Regulations 1942 (consolidating and re-enacting those provisions of the National Service Emergency Regulations 1940 and their subsequent amendments which related to the question of national service outside the Armed Forces).

  • The Industrial Man-power Regulations 1942 were subsequently revoked and reissued as the Industrial Man-power Regulations 1944.

  • Waterfront Control Commission Emergency Regulations 1940.

  • Rates of Wages Emergency Regulations 1940 and amendments.

  • Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942 and amendments. These were issued as a reprint in 1944.

  • Occupational Re-establishment Emergency Regulations 1940, superseding 1939 regulations of similar title.

  • Industrial Rest Period Emergency Regulations 1943, the provisions of which were replaced by permanent legislation in the Annual Holidays Act, 1944.

The principal features of the war-inspired legislation quoted above are now briefly discussed. An essential over-all measure, the Labour Legislation Emergency Regulations 1940 gave the Minister of Labour power to modify or suspend, by order published in the Gazette, the provisions of any Act, or of any award or industrial agreement under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, or of any voluntary agreement, in so far as they related to conditions of employment. The object of these regulations, intended to be temporary in nature, was to overcome the effects of the shortage of skilled workers in certain industries which were essential to the efficient prosecution of New Zealand's war effort. Provision was therefore made by these regulations and the various orders issued under their authority for the working of shifts, extending the number of hours that could be worked in any one week, and relaxing apprenticeship conditions, while in certain trades the basic-wage provision was modified to enable women workers over twenty-one years of age without previous experience to be employed.

The National Service Emergency Regulations 1940, which with amendments were reprinted in 1944, empowered the Minister of Industrial Man-power to declare any industry to be an essential industry. Special provisions applied with respect to employment in essential undertakings—for example, a person could not, in general, leave his employment or be dismissed or be permitted to give his services in any other undertaking without seven days' notice on either side and the permission of the District Man-power Officer first being obtained. Every employee in an essential industry was entitled to a minimum weekly payment equivalent to his ordinary weekly wage, subject to certain maxima specified by regulations. Other provisions detailed offences under these regulations, protected employees called up for military service from dismissal, and prevented employment of deserters from the Armed Forces or military defaulters, &c.

In addition to controlling those avenues in which industrial effort was expended, and its corollary entailing the direction of man-power, a third general feature was supervision over the field of transportation. The Waterfront Control Commission Emergency Regulations 1940 provided for a Waterfront Control Commission with very extensive powers, including the employment of labour, the prescription of terms and conditions of such employment, and rates of remuneration.

It was early realized that the effects of wartime shortages of supplies and of manpower would have repercussions on prices and wage-rates. In an endeavour to minimize such movements and preserve a reasonable degree of stability in both these sectors of the economy, regulations were issued in 1939 and 1940 dealing with the control of prices and regulation of wage-rates respectively. Further information on price control is given in Section 37 of this issue. The Rates of Wages Emergency Regulations 1940 provided that the Arbitration Court from time to time, on the application of any industrial union or association of workers, might amend by general order the provisions of all awards and industrial agreements in force in so far as they determined rates of remuneration.

These regulations were superseded by the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942, providing for the stabilization of all rates of wages and remuneration at the levels ruling on the 15th November, 1942. A special wartime price index was provided for the purpose of recording, as from the 15th December, 1942, any increase or reduction in the prices of such commodities and services (including rents) as the Minister of Industries and Commerce might direct. In the event of any movement, amounting to 2 1/2 per cent. initially and 5 per cent. in subsequent variations, in the general level of prices included in the wartime price index, the Court of Arbitration was enjoined to issue a general order adjusting rates of remuneration similarly, by an amount equivalent to the variation disclosed by the index. Apart from the adjustment of strictly defined anomalies, these regulations limited the powers of the Court in dealing with wages to the issue of general orders as outlined above. The February, 1945, amendment gave the Court power to amend existing awards and agreements so as to adjust disparities in wage levels. Power was also given to issue pronouncements specifying the standard wages for skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled workers for the purposes of the regulations.

In June, 1945, a further amendment to the regulations was issued, and in making any general order regarding wages the Court was required to take into account—

  1. The economic and financial conditions affecting trade and industry in New Zealand.

  2. Any rise or fall in the cost of living as indicated by the wartime price index since the 15th December, 1942.

  3. Any increase or reduction in rates of remuneration since the 15th December, 1942.

  4. Any other consideration that the Court deemed relevant.

Wartime legislation covering the above points was in part placed on a permanent basis by virtue of the passing of the Economic Stabilization Act, 1948. This Act revoked Parts II and V of the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942, while other specified emergency regulations were continued in force as stabilization regulations as if they had been made under the authority of the 1948 Act. Provision was made for the establishment of an Economic Stabilization Commission with the principal function of making recommendations to the Minister of Industries and Commerce, after inquiry and investigation, in relation to the economic stabilization of New Zealand and the functions of the Minister under the Act. Besides general administration, these latter functions cover in particular the stabilization, control, and adjustment of prices of goods and services, rents, other costs, and rates of wages, salaries, and other incomes.

The Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942 were amended in several important respects in February, 1949. This amendment revoked the Rates of Wages Emergency Regulations 1940 and subsequent amendments, and also amended the principal regulations chiefly in the following ways. In making pronouncements specifying standard rates of wages for skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled workers, or in making general orders, the Court of Arbitration was required to take into account—

  1. The general purpose of these regulations.

  2. Any rise or fall in retail prices as indicated by any index published by the Government Statistician.

  3. The economic conditions affecting finance, trade, and industry in New Zealand.

  4. Relative movements in the incomes of different sections of the community.

  5. All other considerations that the Court deemed relevant.

Provision was also made for a general order to be made on any application for a standard -wage pronouncement, and vice versa. In either case no general order could be made to take effect, or any pronouncement be made, less than one year from the date of a previous order becoming effective or of a previous pronouncement having being made. In addition, the Court was empowered to extend the above provisions to apprenticeship orders unless such orders were automatically covered through the amendments made to awards or industrial agreements.

The Economic Stabilization Regulations 1950 revoked and replaced the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942 and amendments. The 1950 regulations abolished the former control of maximum rates of remuneration, and deleted the provision requiring the Court to have regard to the proper relationships between the rates of remuneration of different classes of workers, although this latter could form one of the considerations taken into account by the Court. There was to be no automatic application of a general order to rates of remuneration paid in excess of award rates. All provisions relating to standard wage pronouncements in the earlier regulations wore omitted, but the Court was empowered to make a general order of its own motion at any time, though it could not make a general order on application until the previous order had been in force for at least one year. The Court had, still, however, the inherent power it has always had to make standard wage pronouncements at any time. The earlier provisions as to excluding special classes of workers from general orders, the application of general orders to apprentices, and the filing of industrial agreements after first being approved by the Court, were continued. The Court in making or amending awards and apprenticeship orders was to have regard to the general purpose of the Economic Stabilization Act, 1948, and also when fixing tool, clothing, and vehicle allowances, to have regard to increases and reductions in costs.

The May, 1950, amendment to the Economic Stabilization Regulations provided that the Court of its own motion could make a general order specifying a date of commencement earlier than the date of the order but not before 8th May, 1950. Such an order was to be disregarded in the determination of the time when a general order made on application was to take effect.

The 1950 regulations were revoked and replaced by the Economic Stabilization Regulations 1952. The latter differ from those formerly in force in the following respects:—

  1. A general order may be made to take effect not less than six months after any previous general order, instead of twelve months:

  2. Where the Court excludes any class or section of workers from the operation of a general order of its own motion, it may subsequently, on application in that behalf, make such order as it considers just and equitable in relation to those workers:

  3. The Court is empowered to make standard wage pronouncements at intervals of not less than six months, but not less than six months after any general order:

  4. The Court is empowered to amend awards and industrial agreements to give effect to any standard wage pronouncement:

  5. Provision is made that rates of remuneration by reference to which the scope of an award or industrial agreement is fixed are to be automatically increased or reduced in conformity with any general order or standard wage pronouncement.

A comprehensive review of the Economic Stabilization Regulations 1952, as at present applicable, is given in Section 39c (pages 829–830) of this issue.

Two other classes of legislation due to the impact of war on labour questions may be mentioned briefly. The first covers the reinstatement of employees after military service, the re-establishment in civil life of discharged servicemen, and the reconstitution of wartime industries on a peacetime basis. Legislation concerned with these aspects include the Occupational Re-establishment Emergency Regulations 1940 (now revoked and subject-matter covered in the Military Training Act, 1949), and the Rehabilitation Act, 1941, and amendments. Further details are given in Section 45 of this issue.

The second class of legislation dealt with the necessity for definite rest periods for workers, particularly in view of the heavy demands made on a very large section of them by a wartime economy. Early provisions for a minimum rest period were contained in the Industrial Rest Period Emergency Regulations 1943, later replaced by permanent legislation embodied in the Annual Holidays Act, 1944. This Act provides for an annual holiday of two weeks' duration on full pay for all workers, whether permanently or casually employed, who are not otherwise catered for in this respect.

Reference has been made earlier to the fact that much New Zealand social legislation— particularly in recent years—is designed to mitigate the effects of inequalities in the distribution of incomes. Foremost in this category is the Social Security Act, 1938, which at the same time introduced monetary benefits on an increased scale in substitution for pre-existing pension benefits and extended the specific tax provisions contained in pre-existing unemployment legislation to cover the wider social security benefits. A system of medical, hospital, and other related benefits was also inaugurated. In addition to the supersession of the various classes of pensions by monetary benefits of similar application, new classes of monetary benefits were begun, such as orphans' benefits, sickness benefits, emergency benefits, and the universal superannuation benefit. Further evidence of this trend is shown by a series of regulations extending the scope and character of social security benefits, and by the amending Acts of 1941, 1943, 1945 (which made family benefits universal from 1st April, 1946), and later years increasing the amount payable for specified benefits. Related legislation includes the Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act, 1948 the War Pensions Act, 1943; War Pensions and Allowances (Mercantile Marine) Act, 1940; Family Benefits (Reciprocity with Great Britain) Act, 1948, and a similar Reciprocity Act with Northern Ireland in the same year.

Several measures dating from 1936 are focussed on the theme of compensation for injury or death. Amendments to the Workers' Compensation Act, 1922, were passed in 1936, 1943, 1945, 1947, and 1949–51. The 1943 amendment made it compulsory for an employer to insure against his liability under the Act. while by the 1947 amendment, under section 6, workers' compensation insurance became, with certain exceptions, a monopoly of the branch of the State Fire Insurance Office known as the Accident Insurance Office as from 1st April, 1949. Other provisions of the latter amendment relate to accident prevention; occupational training of seriously disabled workers; an increase in the maximum amount of compensation payable in respect of death, incapacity. or permanent physical injury; accidents to the crew of a New Zealand aircraft; accidents to workers travelling to and from work; the provision of artificial limbs; and the conveyance of injured workers. Dependency is also to be determined as at the date of death of the worker. The 1949, 1950, and 1951 amendments increased the maximum amounts payable in respect of death or incapacity. The 1950 amendment restored the right of insurance companies to undertake as from 1st April, 1951, employers' liability insurance. It also established the Workers' Compensation Board with the functions of recommending maximum rates of premiums and rates of commission for insurance agents, and administering the Workers' Compensation Account also set up by the amending Act, &c. The 1951 Amendment (No. 2) Act provided for compensation for incapacity lasting less than three days. The Law Reform Act, 1936, and the Statutes Amendment Act, 1937, also contained clauses relating to the Deaths by Accidents Compensation Act, 1908. Allied to this subject is the Contributory Negligence Act, 1947, which provides for the apportionment of damages where the person suffering damage has himself been guilty of contributory negligence.

A desire to improve still further working-conditions is evident in the Coal Mines Amendment Acts of 1936, 1937, 1941, 1947, and 1949, the Mining Amendment Acts of 1937, 1941, 1947, and 1948, the Quarries Act, 1944, and its 1951 amendment. These contained provisions towards the improvement of working-conditions in mines or quarries. Somewhat similar provisions, for example, regarding hours of labour and safety and health provisions are to be found in the Factories Act, 1946 (a consolidation measure), the Shops and Offices Amendment Acts of 1936, 1945, 1946, and 1951, the Shipping and Seamen Amendment Acts. 1946 and 1948, and the Scaffolding and Excavation Amendment Act, 1951.

Further instances of the broader social emphasis in labour legislation occur in the Legal Aid Act, 1939; the Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act. 1939; the Distress and Replevin Amendment Act, 1950; the Destitute Persons Amendment Act, 1951; the Employment Act, 1945, with its object of promoting and maintaining full employment at all times; the Minimum Wage Act, 1945, providing for a minimum wage for all adult workers; and the Industrial Relations Act, 1949, which authorized the appointment of the Industrial Advisory Council with functions of making recommendations for improving industrial relations and welfare, in particular on such schemes as incentive payments, profit sharing, safety and health of workers, provision of amenities, and the establishment of works committees and other employer-worker organizations. More extensive coverage of legislation concerned with safety provisions was accomplished with the passing of the Municipal Corporations Amendment Act, 1938, the Rush Workers Act, 1945, and the Scaffolding and Excavation Amendment Acts of 1948 and 1951, while the Dairy Industry Amendment Act, 1938, and the Meat Act, 1939, contain clauses dealing with inspection requirements in their appropriate spheres. The Boilers, Lifts. and Cranes Act, 1950, and the Machinery Act, 1950, which together replaced the Inspection of Machinery Act, 1928, are also relevant in this connection. The Radioactive Substances Act, 1949, likewise contains sections designed to promote safety in the appropriate sphere of operations.

Acts covering the working-conditions and rates of remuneration for State employees during the period 1936–51 are the Government Railways Amendment Acts, 1936 and 1944, Post and Telegraph Amendment Act, 1944, and the Government Service Tribunal Act, 1948.

Other items of legislation concerned with labour-force activities generally are now briefly mentioned. The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1943, authorized recovery of money due under an award, while the 1947 amendment provides for the appointment of Deputy Judges of the Court of Arbitration and also for the taking of a secret ballot by every industrial union of workers or of employers on questions relating to strikes and lockouts. The Statutes Amendment Act, 1948, also included clauses relating to wages recovery under an award, and for retrospective payments (the latter repealed in 1951). Amendments were made in 1947, 1948, and 1951 to the Waterfront Industry Emergency Regulations 1946. A consolidating and amending measure relating to apprenticeship was passed in 1948, being the Apprentices Act of that year.

In 1951, following on a long period of industrial trouble, more particularly in connection with the waterfront industry, the need for revision of certain aspects of industrial legislation was recognized. Subsequent legislation which might be considered as coming within this category include the 1951 amendments to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act and the Police Offences Act. The former of these requires, inter alia, for the rules of an industrial union of employers or workers to provide for election of officers by secret ballot; empowers the Registrar to refuse to record unreasonable or oppressive rules; makes provision for exemption from union membership on religious grounds; substitutes new definitions of the terms strike and lockout, and increases the penalties for certain offences in connection therewith; provides for the appointment of Local and National Disputes Committees with power to decide disputes on matters arising out of an award or agreement but not specifically dealt with therein; varies the earlier provisions as to the date from which the wage-rates in an award will normally operate; and contains restrictions on levies and subscriptions payable by members of unions.

Part II of the same amendment relates to cases of disputed elections in unions. The Police Offences Amendment Act, 1951, deals with offences relating to sedition and with intimidation, including assaults on workers, the unlawful display of certain posters, badges, &c., and picketing.

The entire body of fair-rents legislation commencing with the 1936 Act was revoked by the passing of the Tenancy Act, 1948, the latter being amended in 1950. Finally amendments were made in 1948 to both the Fisheries Act, 1908, and the Shipping and Seamen Act, 1908.

The Waterfront Royal Commission Act, 1950, made special provision as to the Royal Commission appointed on the 21st September, 1950, to inquire into and report upon the waterfront industry in New Zealand.

39 B—WORKING-CONDITIONS

GENERAL.—Working-conditions of women and girls in factories were the subject of legislation as early as 1873; but the first legislation of this nature applying to all factory workers was the Inspection of Machinery Act of 1874, which provided for the inspection of machinery in factories, &c., and required that persons in charge of boilers should be properly qualified; while three years later an ineffective Factory Act was passed. But it was the Ballance and Seddon Governments which really initiated legislation in this sphere with five main Acts that have served as a basis for all subsequent legislation on this subject and determined the lines along which progress was to be made— the Factories Act, 1891, the Coal Mines Act, 1891, the Shops and Shop-assistants Act, 1892, the Shipping and Seamen Act, 1894, and the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1894. The Agricultural Workers Act, 1936, represents a definite extension of the scope of this legislation.

A considerable proportion of the persons comprising the labour force of New Zealand have their working-conditions determined either directly or indirectly by virtue of the provisions of the six Acts quoted above. Legislative authority covering the working-conditions of substantially the greater portion of the remaining participants in the labour force is contained in the following:—

  • Public Service Act, 1912, and the Government Service Tribunal Act, 1948.

  • Government Railways Act, 1926, and the Government Railways Amendment Acts, 1936 and 1944, consolidated in the 1949 Act.

  • Post and Telegraph Act, 1928, and Post and Telegraph Amendment Act, 1944.

  • Police Force Act, 1947.

  • Education Act, 1914.

  • Hospitals Act, 1926, and the Hospital Employment Regulations 1952.

  • Public Works Workers' Agreement, 1936, and since 1949, the Government Service Tribunal Act, 1948.

  • Waterfront Industry Emergency Regulations 1946 and amendments (reprinted 1950)

It will not be out of place here to mention that working-conditions were subject to considerable modification during the war period by the operation of various emergency regulations. The principal regulations involved were the Labour Legislation Emergency Regulations 1940 and later amendments; the Industrial Man-power Regulations 1944; the Waterfront Control Emergency Regulations 1940, replaced by the Waterfront Industry Emergency Regulations 1946; and the Rates of Wages Emergency Regulations 1940, the latter largely superseded by the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942 and amendments. Of these, the Industrial Man-power Regulations 1944 were revoked in 1946, the Rates of Wages Emergency Regulations 1940 in 1949, and the Labour Legislation Emergency Regulations 1940 in 1951. The emergency wages and stabilization regulations were replaced by regulations under the Economic Stabilization Act, 1948.

It is proposed in the following pages to survey in broad perspective the working-conditions laid down by legislation for the components of the labour force. In so doing it is considered that the best approach is to deal with the major specific Acts concerned.

ANNUAL HOLIDAYS ACT AND ANZAC DAY ACT.—In addition to the specific measures mentioned earlier relating to working-conditions, an Act of general application, except in cases where more favourable conditions already existed in awards, &c., was passed during the war entitled the Annual Holidays Act, 1944, and subsequently amended in 1945 and 1950. This Act provides for an annual holiday of two weeks' duration on full pay for all workers, whether permanently or casually employed, who are not otherwise provided for in this respect. If a holiday benefit to which a worker is entitled under any other provision is not less favourable than that provided for by the Act, such benefit is not affected, but if the benefit is less favourable the worker is entitled to the holiday provided for by the Act.

The holiday is to be given within six months after it becomes due, but if the employment is terminated before it has been taken, the employer is required to pay the amount of holiday pay due. If any special holiday for which the worker is entitled to payment under any Act, award, or agreement, or under his contract of service, occurs during the period of the annual holiday, the length of the annual holiday is increased by one day in respect thereof. An amendment passed in 1945 provided that not less than seven days' notice must be given by the employer of the day on which the annual holiday is to commence, unless an agreement has been made to the contrary.

Where a worker has been employed for less than one year, on termination of employment ho is entitled to payment equal to one twenty-fifth of his ordinary pay for the period of employment. The 1950 amendment abolished the former provisions relating to holiday cards and stamps.

An employer is required to keep a record (holiday-book) containing particulars of employment, annual holidays, and amounts paid in respect of each worker in his employment.

The Anzac Day Act, 1949, provides that the 25th day of April in each year shall be known as Anzac Day, and shall be observed throughout New Zealand in all respects as if Anzac Day were a Sunday. The Act prohibits the transfer of a holiday, observance of certain hours of labour, or payment at certain rates of wages on Anzac Day to any other day instead of Anzac Day, although an employer may grant a holiday on any other day instead of Anzac Day where the worker is required to work on Anzac Day at ordinary rates of wages.

FACTORIES ACT.—A brief summary of the earlier factory legislation of New Zealand may be found on page 825 of the 1940 issue of the Year-Book. It covers the Factories Acts of 1891, 1908, and 1921–22, with their amendments. The last-mentioned enactment and subsequent amendments to it were, however, consolidated by the passing of the Factories Act. 1946. In the ensuing paragraphs, various phases of factory legislation as the law now stands, have been selected for individual exposition.

Prior to 1936 the term “factory” had included all establishments where two persons were employed, as well as all places using mechanical power, all bakeries, laundries, gasworks, and several other enumerated establishments. The 1936 Act extended the term “factory” to all establishments where one person was employed, while the Factories Act. 1946, which consolidated and amended the existing legislation, further extended the term “factory” to include places where milk is pasteurized, abattoirs, and “every building or place in which any noxious handicraft, process, or employment is carried on. “The definition was further enlarged to include” any building, office, or place in which two or more persons are engaged … directly or indirectly, in any handicraft, or in preparing or manufacturing goods for trade or sale.” The 1946 Act also brought Government-owned factories within the scope of the legislation.

Hours of Work and Overtime.—A forty-hour week was prescribed by the 1936 amendment as the legal maximum for an ordinary working-week in place of the pre-existing maximum of forty-eight hours (women and boys, forty-five hours). The number of hours per day was fixed at eight, while work could not be continued for more than four hours and one-quarter (previously five hours) without an intermission of at least three-quarters of an hour. Certain industries which were previously exempt from the forty-eight-hour maximum—meat-freezing works, dairy factories, fellmongery, fish-curing, jam-making, bacon-curing—were also exempt from the operation of these provisions, but the Factories Amendment Act, 1945, extended the principle of the forty-hour week to all factories. These provisions, as amended, were re-enacted in the consolidation measure entitled the Factories Act, 1946.

No boy or girl under sixteen years of age is permitted to work overtime. In the case of all workers over sixteen years of age in laundries, and of women in other factories, not more than three hours' overtime may be worked in one day (excluding time worked before noon on Saturday), and not more than nine hours in any week, nor ninety hours in any year, nor on more than two consecutive days in any week. Thirty hours (above the ninety) may be authorized by an Inspector of Factories, and a further thirty upon the consent of the Minister of Labour. The overtime rate is time and one-half, and the minimum rate, which had been raised to 1s. 6d. per hour by the Factories Amendment Act, 1936, was increased to 1s. 9d. per hour by the Factories Act, 1946.

There are special provisions in regard to overtime work for certain industries— e.g., laundries, and for fruit-canning factories and jam-making factories during the period between 1st January and 1st April.

Section 16 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1948, extends the Minister's power to consent to additional voluntary overtime by women in factories or by men and women in laundries up to a maximum of eighty hours in a year.

Holiday Provisions.—The number of paid holidays (apart from the annual holiday described earlier) granted to factory workers was increased from six days to eight days by the 1936 amendment and was extended to cover all workers—not only boys under eighteen and women as previously. For five of these days wages were payable to all persons employed at any time during the preceding fortnight, and for the other days to those employed on any four days of the preceding week. By section 17 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1938, as amended by section 25 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1941, payment for each whole holiday mentioned in the Factories Act was made to apply to all persons employed at any time in the fortnight ending on the day on which the holiday occurs. Special provisions have been made requiring extra payment to be made for work done on Sundays or holidays. Generally speaking, treble time is counted for work done on statutory whole holidays (where the worker would be paid ordinary time if not working), double time on Sundays, and time and one-half on half-holidays. In connection with holidays, reference should also be made to the Annual Holidays Act, 1944, the provisions of which are outlined on page 808.

There are also special provisions in regard to holiday work for industries such as dairy factories, milk-preserving factories, and newspaper printing or publishing. It should be rioted also that the Public Holidays Amendment Act, 1948, gives rules which shall be applicable to the provisions of any Act, award, or industrial agreement when Christmas Day and New Year's Day fall on a Saturday or when an Anniversary Day falls on a Saturday or Sunday. The effect of this amendment is as follows: Where Acts, awards, or industrial agreements provide for the granting of a holiday, or the observance of certain hours of labour, or the payment of certain specified rates of wages on the days specifically mentioned, these provisions will apply on the next succeeding Monday. If, however, provision is made for granting a holiday on a Saturday, such provisions apply without modification.

Section 15 of the Statutes Amendment Act,] 948, repealed the special definition of the terms “holidays” and “Sundays” in their application to morning newspapers and replaced them by new definitions which relate to all newspapers. A “day” for holiday and overtime purposes is defined as from noon on one day to noon on the following day in the case of newspaper offices and works.

Restrictions on Employment.—No boy or girl under fifteen years of age may be employed in any factory, except in a case authorized by an Inspector. Such an authorization may only be given if the boy or girl is over fourteen years of age and is exempted from the general obligation to attend school until the age of fifteen years is reached. No boy or girl under sixteen years of age may be employed in any factory unless a certificate of fitness is issued by an Inspector of Factories, and no such certified to may be granted unless the proposed employer obtains at his own expense a medical certificate of fitness from a Medical Officer of Health or from a registered medical practitioner nominated by a Medical Officer of Health.

Minimum Rates of Pay.—The minimum rate of pay was raised by the Factories Amendment Act, 1936, from 10s. to 15s. per week, and rose by half-yearly increments of 4s. per week until the end of the third year, when a minimum of £2 per week operated. The Factories Act, 1946, further increased the minimum to 22s. 6d. per week, with half-yearly increments of not less than 5s. per week, until a weekly rate of £2 12s. 6d. was reached. These rates are, however, subject to the provisions of the Minimum Wage Act, 1945, and its later amendments in respect of workers of twenty-one years of age and over.

Safety, Health, and Welfare.—The 1936 amendment extended the application of rules for the safety and welfare of factory workers, and further provisions in this connection are contained in the 1946 Act. The safety measures have reference to machinery, dangerous liquids, moans of access and safety of places of employment, and means of escape in case of fire, &c. The employer is required to keep a register of all accidents of which he has any knowledge, and first-aid appliances must be provided and maintained. The health and welfare provisions are very extensive and include reference to such matters as air space, cleanliness, ventilation, canteens, the care of employees, amenities and other things to be supplied by the employer to secure employees' health or welfare, and to the making of regulations laying down standards as to what may be regarded as adequate, effective, sufficient, or suitable health and welfare requirements.

Other Provisions.—In addition to repealing previous factory Acts and amendments the Factories Act, 1946, specifically stated that the Act shall bind the Crown. It also includes the normal provisions relating to powers of inspection, registration, maintenance of records and exhibition of notices, requisitions by Inspectors, and the prescription of offences, penalties-, and procedure. Finally it provides for awards and industrial agreements to be read subject to the provisions of the Factories Act.

SHOPS AND OFFICES ACT.—As in the case of the Factories Act, important amendments were made to the Shops and Offices Act in 1936, when further advances in keeping with those made in other branches of industrial legislation were put into operation. These were supplemented by further amendments in 1945, 1946, and 1951.

A “shop” in the principal Act (the Shops and Offices Act, 1921–22) is defined to include a hotel, a restaurant, a hairdressing-saloon, and an auction-market, but special provisions relating to hotels and restaurants as well as to chemists, fruiterers, tobacconists, and other particular shops are contained in the principal and amending Acts.

An “office” covers any building in which any person is employed, directly or indirectly, to do any clerical work in connection with any mercantile or commercial business carried on by the occupier, but does not include solicitors' offices or mining offices except in respect of minimum-wage-rates provisions.

The definition of the term “shop assistant” was extended by the 1936 amendment to include those employed in the general management or control of a shop, subject to a wage qualification.

Hours of Work and Overtime.—The 1936 amending Act reduced the hours of work from forty-eight to forty-four per week, and a further reduction was made by the Shops and Offices Amendment Act, 1945, which came into operation on 7th December, 1945. The latter amendment provides for a forty-hour week for shop-assistants, but the Court of Arbitration is empowered, on the application of any party (by order in the case of any existing award or in any new award), to extend the hours to forty-four where it is of the opinion that it would be impracticable to carry on efficiently the particular class of business without such extension, but the time worked beyond forty hours is to be paid for at overtime rates—namely, time and a half, with a minimum of 1s. 9d. per hour.

Hours must be worked continuously—i.e., not exceeding eight per day, but up to eleven on one day in the week—except for meal-times and breaks for refreshments. If the meal-time exceeds one hour, the extra time over the hour is to be regarded as time worked. Extension of the weekly hours from forty to forty-four was permitted up to the end of June, 1946, but a forty-hour limit was imposed thereafter if extension by the Court was not authorized by that date. Awards and agreements were required to be read subject to the amending Act but the existing rates of wages were not to be reduced nor the existing working-hours increased.

Limited overtime (to be paid for at time and a half rates) may be worked for stocktaking and on special occasions. A break of not less than one hour for a meal must be allowed after four and one-quarter hours' continuous work, except that an extension to five hours may be made if ten-minutes' rest is allowed at the end of a working-period of three hours.

All assistants employed in hotels and restaurants are brought under special provisions as to hours, overtime, &c. As in the case of shop-assistants, hotel and restaurant employees must be allowed an interval of an hour for a meal after four and one-quarter hours' continuous work. The 1945 amendment did not cover hotel and restaurant workers as far as the reduction in hours was concerned, but they were brought into line by a further amendment passed in 1946. This amendment came into force on 13th October, 1946, but provision was made for hotel or restaurant workers to be employed up to forty-four hours per week until 30th Juno, 1947, provided that time and a half rates were paid in respect of the hours exceeding forty As in the case of shop workers, the Court of Arbitration may, upon application by any party bound or to be bound by any award covering assistants in hotels or restaurants, authorize employment up to forty-four hours per week if it is considered impracticable to carry on efficiently the business of the class of hotels or restaurants specified in the authorization without such extension of hours. Any such. extended hours must be paid for at overtime rates. Up to 120 hours per annum additional overtime is permissible under the Act.

The hour of commencing work must not be earlier than 7 a.m., except in certain specified instances—e.g., bakers (4 a.m.), butchers (6 a.m.). Persons engaged in delivering milk may be required to start work at 3 a.m. or—in accordance with conditions approved by the Minister, but not otherwise—earlier than 3 a.m. The above exceptions' do. not apply in the case of boys or girls under sixteen years of age. The latest hour to which a male shop-assistant may be employed in any trade is 10.30 p.m., or 11 p.m. on one day in the week in certain instances; while boys under eighteen or females may be employed until 9.30 p.m., but there are exceptions on certain days—e.g., Christmas Eve. The principal Act provided that female assistants and boys under eighteen could be employed in restaurants up to 10.30 p.m., but not after that hour. The 1946 amendment, however, provides that where parties to an industrial dispute agree in the matter and incorporate their agreement in an award or industrial agreement, female assistants over the age of twenty-one years may be employed up to 11.30 p.m. In any such case satisfactory provision for convoying such assistants to their homes must be made. There is no limit under the Act to the time at which adult male hotel and restaurant employees may be required to commence or cease work, although the total hours per day and per week, are fixed as above.”

Offices are required to close at noon on the statutory half-holiday and at five o'clock on every other working-day, certain exceptions—e.g., shipping offices, railway offices, and newspaper offices—being allowed. The list of exemptions from this provision has been substantially reduced by the 1936 Act, banks and insurance offices being important cases previously exempt. In practice, a five-day week is worked in most offices. Limited employment after office-hours is permitted for such purposes as making up balances, &c., payment for overtime at the rate of time and a half and meal-allowance being mandatory in respect of such overtime.

Opening and Closing Hours of Shops.—The closing-hours of shops in any district have for many years been fixed pursuant to the Act by “requisition” of a majority of the shopkeepers, if desired, either in the whole of the local district or in any trade in the local district. The hours of closing have boon thus determined in very many trades and districts.

In 1920, an amendment to the Act prescribed compulsory closing-hours at 6 p.m. on four days of the week and 9 p.m. on one day in the well-populated areas, except in certain exempted trades, thus incorporating by statute the closing-hours as already determined by “requisition” in many cases. With the passing of the 1945 amendment the Court of Arbitration now has power when making an award in any trade to fix the opening and closing hours of all shops in the particular trade in that locality, and also to provide that such shops shall not be open for business on one working-day in each week or on any award holiday. Before the Court exercises any of these powers, however, it is required to have regard to all relevant considerations. In very many instances these powers have been exercised and the result of the 1945 amendment has been that the majority of shops are open for five days in the week only.

The occupier of every shop, whether employing assistants or not, is deemed to be an employer within the meaning of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, and therefore bound by an award relating to shop-assistants for the purpose of bringing his premises within the closing provisions fixed in an award.

A Magistrate may grant exemption (a) from any opening-hours fixed by the award. (b) from any provision that shops shall close for the whole of one working-day, and (c) from any provision that shops shall be closed on holidays.

Holiday Provisions.—The number of paid holidays provided by the Shops and Offices Act is seven, and employees not otherwise provided for are entitled to the benefits of the Annual Holidays Act, 1944. The provisions of the Public Holidays Amendment Act. 1948, also apply (refer page 809).

In regard to the closing of shops, a weekly half-holiday from noon is compulsory with a few exceptions. The closing-day is fixed in each district by the local authority, except where it is decided by a poll of the electors taken on petition of a certain number. Even in the exempted trades, a half-holiday must be given to each assistant on a day to be fixed by the occupier.

Where a shop-assistant in a chemist's shop works between 7 and 9 p.m. on the statutory closing-day, and is paid for this at the overtime rates prescribed by an award or industrial agreement, he is not also entitled to double time off within the next seven days.

Special provisions operate in respect of holidays for all assistants employed in hotels and restaurants.

Minimum Rates of Pay.—The minimum rates of wages payable to shop-assistants under the Shops and Offices Act are the same as those provided for by the Factories Act (refer p. 810). As in the case of factories, higher rates may be fixed by awards and industrial agreements. The provisions of the Minimum Wage Act, 1945, and its later amendments, also apply.

The minimum wage-rates applying to shop-assistants apply also to office-assistants. Prior to the 1936 amendment, office-assistants did not come within the scope of the provision for minimum wages. This particular provision also applies to solicitors' offices and mining offices, which do not come within the definition of the term “office” in respect of other provisions of the Act.

Safety, Health, and Welfare Provisions.—The Act also makes provision for the comfort, health, and safety of assistants—viz., in regard to seating-accommodation, ventilation, heating, sanitation, and hygiene.

The 1951 amendment extends to warehouses and goods stores the provisions of the principal Act relating to sanitation and health rules in shops and offices. This amendment also authorizes the making of regulations for the safety, health, and welfare of persons employed in shops, offices, warehouses, or stores; particular matters that may be covered elate to dangerous liquids and noxious gases, limitation of loads, safe means of access, construction and maintenance of floors, passages, stairs, fire-escapes. lighting, drainage, washing facilities, clothing accommodation, seating and first aid facilities, rest-rooms for women, accommodation for meals, &c.

Other Provisions.—Each trade in any district may, by a majority vote, obtain an order of the Minister of Labour prohibiting the sale in such district, during the time the shops in such trade are required to be closed, of the goods the sale of which is comprised in such trade. This provision is inserted to meet those cases where there is over-lapping of the trades of various shopkeepers, only some of whom are required to close at a certain hour. The provisions enabling a majority of the shopkeepers in any trade to fix the closing-hours for that trade applies only to those who are principally engaged therein; if the latter are desirous that other shopkeepers carrying on the trade as a minor portion of their business should cease selling the same goods at the closing-hours fixed, they may apply to the Minister for an order prohibiting such sales.

No premium may be received by the occupier of any shop in respect of the employment of any shop-assistant or in respect of the teaching or training of any person in any trade or business carried on in the shop, unless the shop is approved by the Chief Inspector appointed under the Factories Act, 1946, as a school for learners in a trade or business, and the payment is made pursuant to a written agreement that is approved by the Chief Inspector. The Chief Inspector cannot approve of any shop as a school for learners in any trade or business unless he is satisfied that reasonable facilities are provided for learning the trade or business, and he may at any time withdraw his approval if he ceases to be so satisfied. The Chief Inspector must not approve of any agreement under this section unless ho is satisfied that the terms of the agreement are reasonable.

Provision is made for the keeping of a time-table of hours of duty of fruiterers' assistants; and, under certain conditions, shops which sell smoking-requisites in addition to carrying on other business may be compelled to close early in the evenings.

There are also the usual provisions governing powers of inspection, requisition, and the prescription of offences and penalties.

Awards and industrial agreements covering shop and office workers are to be read subject to the provisions of the Shops and Offices Act—i.e., the conditions, &c., laid down in such awards and agreements must ho at least equal to those prescribed in the Shops and Offices Act.

MINING LEGISLATION.—Since the passing of the original Coal Mines Act of 1886, legislation relating to coal-mines has always been set out separately from that regulating all other mines. The present law relating to mining and quarrying will therefore be found for the most part in the Coal Mines Act, 1925, and subsequent amendments, the Mining Act, 1926, and amendments, and the Quarries Act, 1944, an its amendment of 1951. A noteworthy feature of such Acts is the appointment of Inspectors with wide powers.

Application of Mining Acts.—A “mine” under the Mining Act means generally any mine other than a coal-mine, while by the Quarries Act, 1944, a quarry is defined as any place in which persons work in excavating any kind of material from the earth and by an amendment passed in 1951, includes an opencast coal quarry. A quarry does not include any place (other than an opencast coal quarry) in which mining or searching for coal, gold, scheelite, or petroleum is carried on; any road-cutting or railway-cutting; any tunnel in whose construction explosives are not used and which is less than 50 ft. long or any shaft less than 15ft. deep; or any excavation under the Scaffolding and Excavations Act, 1922.

Hours of Work, Overtime, Holidays, and Rates of Pay.—In common with the practice pertaining for many other industrial groups of workers, the current working-conditions for miners and quarry-men generally are determined in the awards made by the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Court from time to time, rather than by existing statutory provisions. In the construction of awards, conditions may be, and probably are, more favourable than those required by statute, but in no case can the award provisions be less favourable. These comments apply in particular to questions of hours of work, overtime, holidays, and wage-rates for workers in those industries covered by the mining and quarrying Acts. Both principal mining Acts prohibit employment in or about mines on Sundays unless the previous authority of an Inspector of Mines has been obtained. By a decision of the Coal Mines Council, a seven-hour day was introduced for all underground workers in coal-mines as from 5th April, 1948, and this provision was extended to underground workers in other mines by the Mining Amendment Act, 1948, as from 1st January, 1949. This was in lieu of the former eight-hour limit.

Restriction on Employment.—The following legislative restrictions are operative on the employment of women, youths, and boys. No female of any age or any lad under the ago of fourteen years may be employed in or about a mine or coal-mine except in a clerical capacity or, by virtue of a 1937 amendment, as nurses or charwomen. A similar restriction is imposed by the Quarries Act, 1944, except that the age-limit for youths is raised to sixteen years. At the present time, also, no male under the age of sixteen years may be employed underground in any coal-mine, or in any alluvial mine, or on or about any dredge; while the minimum ago in respect of underground work in a quartz-mine was raised by the 1948 amendment to the Mining Act from eighteen to nineteen years of age. In addition, the employment of youths in specified occupations is prohibited both in coal and other mines, while no youth under twenty-one years is permitted to be in charge of certain types of machinery used in coal-mining. No youth may he employed in a mine for more than eight hours per day or forty-eight hours per week except in cases of emergency. As stated earlier the employment of manual labour on Sundays without the previous consent of an Inspector of Mines is prohibited, while any time so worked must be paid for at higher rates.

Safety, Health, and Welfare Provisions.—In general the provisions of the Coal Mines Act, 1925, resembled those of the Mining Act, 1926, in so far as safety, &c., is concerned, although, of course, to combat the special risks of coal-mining additional regulation is necessary. Naturally enough, a very large part of each major mining or quarrying Act deals directly with the subject-matter of this paragraph. The appropriate provisions are now considered under the respective mining Acts.

Mining Acts.—The 1926 Act required that a person acting in the capacity of mine-manager of any mine where there are more than twelve men employed at any one time above ground, or more than six underground, must hold a certificate granted after examination by a Board of Examiners empowered under the Act to grant such certificates. Provision is made for proper ventilation in mines, the air temperature must not exceed 80° Fahrenheit in any working-place, special care is required to be taken in handling explosives, dangerous places must be properly timbered, and special regulations are made as to hauling-machinery, &c.

All machinery used to supply motive, power is subject to the provisions of the Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act, 1950, and the Machinery Act, 1950 (which together replaced the Inspection of Machinery Act, 1928), so far as these provisions apply. Sufficient water must be supplied where it is necessary for the laying of dust in a mine. The Mining Amendment Act, 1927, provides, inter alia, that a mine where twenty men or over are employed on one shift must have two outlets.

The Mining Amendment Act, 1941, lays down that every person in charge of electrical apparatus in a mine must be the holder of a mine electrician's certificate. The appointment of an Electrical Inspector of Mines is provided for.

Comprehensive amending regulations pursuant to the Mining Act were issued in August, 1945. These regulations, in addition to other matters relating to mining, proscribe the conditions and subjects relating to the examinations for mine-managers', battery-superintendents', and dredge-masters' certificates. The regulations also lay down the types of electrical apparatus that may be used in any mine, the conditions under which they may be used, and the safeguards that must be employed.

Goal Mining Acts.—For every coal-mine there must be a duly qualified manager, who must be either the owner of the mine or some person appointed by the owner, and who is responsible for the control, management, and direction of the mine. Section 8 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1944, prescribes the present qualifications that are required to be held by managers of coal-mines. These vary according to the number of men employed in the mine, and also according to whether all the workings are opencast or otherwise. Inspectors of Coal Mines appointed under the Act must hold certificates as first-class mine-managers under the Act. Certain sections of the Act deal with the control of coal-dust, the use of safety-lamps, first-aid endorsement on certificates of competency, the prohibition of work in places where the presence of gas is suspected, and the inspection of the mine before the commencement of work, &c. Suitable Housing-accommodation must be supplied for workers if required by notice of the Minister of Mines. Comprehensive regulations pursuant to the 1925 Act, and known as the Coal Mines Regulations, were issued in 1939, and amended in the same year, and in 1942, 1947, and 1949.

A levy of 1/2d. per ton—increased to 1d. per ton as from 1st January, 1948, by the Coal Mines Amendment Act, 1947—on every ton of marketable coal raised from mines is made under the terms of the Act, such moneys forming a fund for the relief of miners injured in the course of employment and of their dependants in the case of death. Information as to miners' pensions (now miners' benefits under the Social Security Act, 1938), provided for originally by the Miner's Phthisis Act of 1915, is contained in Section 26 of this book. A levy of 3d. per ton on all marketable coal raised from mines is authorized by the Coal Mines Amendment Act, 1950, in order to provide amenities in coal-mining districts.

By an amending Act passed in 1927 wages for a period not exceeding six months, payable by the owner of a coal-mine in respect of mining operations, constitute an equitable charge on plant and machinery, with priority over mortgages, &c. Proceedings for the enforcement of the charge must be commenced within twelve months.

An amending Act passed in 1936 provided further measures for the safety of miners. Additional precautions were provided to ensure that unlawful lights, &c., are not taken into mines, and further safeguards were made to alleviate the danger to the health of minors from the presence of dust in mines. Provision was also made for the Minister to establish central rescue stations in coal-mining areas.

The Coal Mines Amendment Act, 1937, contains many provisions designed to ensure the greater safety of workers engaged in coal-mines. No person under the age of twenty-three years may be employed as a mine-manager or other mine official, while certificates of competency as underviewers or firemen deputies must be periodically endorsed by an Inspector of Mines to the effect that the official has passed certain specified efficiency tests. Certain appliances by which coal may be, in effect, screened or sized may not be used underground. A further provision as to housing-accommodation for miners is also included in the amending Act. The Minister may require a mine-owner to pay part of the cost of conveyance of workers to the mine in lieu of providing housing-accommodation. In accordance with section 9 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1944, the Minister may require underground transport to be provided for workmen where ho considers it necessary.

The Coal Mines Amendment Act, 1941, provides that an Inspector may, if he considers it expedient, require a mine, which on the basis of the number of employees might be managed by a person with a certificate lower than that of a second-class mine-manager, to be managed by a person with a higher certificate than that prescribed by the principal Act. He may also require the appointment, for any shift, of officials additional to those normally required. Stricter provision is made regarding the use of lamps. The appointment of an Electrical Inspector of Coal Mines is provided for, and the Board of Examiners is enlarged by the addition of a registered electrical engineer or wireman nominated by the Electrical Wiremen's Registration Board.

Quarries Act.—The Quarries Act, 1944, as amended in 1951, makes better provision for the regulation of quarries by consolidating (with amendments) the Stone-quarries Act, 1910, and its amending Acts. The Act contains provisions as to Inspectors, and the appointment, qualifications, and duties of quarry-managers. In all cases where three or more men are engaged in quarrying operations at any one time, or where explosives are being used, a qualified quarry-manager must be in charge. This is modified by section 67 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1945, which provides that a permit to act in the capacity of a manager may be granted to a person who does not hold the necessary certificate in the case of any quarry in which no explosives are used and all the workings are above ground. Adequate rules are provided for the safety of workers and the prevention of accidents.

The Quarries Amendment Act. 1951, placed opencast coal quarries under the authority of this Act and made consequential amendments to the Coal Mines Act, 1925, certain provisions of which are now applied to opencast coal quarries. Quarry managers are to be appointed for all such quarries, while other sections of the Act cover the qualifications required of quarry managers, additional safety precautions, &c. Provision is made also for the principal Act to bind the Crown.

SHIPPING AND SEAMEN LEGISLATION.—The first statute relating to this subject was passed in 1858, when the New Zealand Parliament extended the provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act passed by the British Parliament in 1854 to all British ships under the jurisdiction of New Zealand. This Act contained a series of regulations designed for the safety of passengers and crew, and for the amelioration of working-conditions on board-ship. Further Merchant Shipping Acts Adoption Acts were passed in 1869, 1873, and 1874, while other Acts followed. A consolidating and amending Act was passed in 1903, which was consolidated with a few minor amendments in 1908, the present law being embodied in that Act.

The Shipping and Seamen Act, 1908, stated that the general superintendence of matters relating to merchant ships and seamen in New Zealand is with the Marine Department. Provision is also made for the registration of ships in New Zealand. The Act does not apply to ships belonging to Her Majesty, nor to ships belonging to the Government of New Zealand. The collision and salvage sections do, however, apply to Government-owned ships. Other provisions relate to masters, officers, and seamen although some of them do not apply to pleasure yachts, missionary ships, and fishing-boats.

In the following paragraphs a “home-trade ship” refers to a ship employed in trading between any ports of New Zealand, plying in any navigable waters therein, or which goes to sea and returns without proceeding farther than fifty miles from the coastline. The “minor” islands, Island Territories, and the Chatham Islands, mentioned in Section 1, for the purposes of the Act are deemed to be places outside New Zealand. A “foreign-going” ship accordingly covers any ship not included in the foregoing category.

Hours of Work, Overtime, Holiday, and Wages Provisions.—Under the Shipping and Seamen Amendment Act, 1946, the normal hours of work of seamen, whether at sea or in port, are restricted to eight per day or forty per week. Seamen may be required to work hours in excess of these, but shall be recompensed for the excess (by payment at a higher rate or by the allowance of time off on pay) as may be prescribed by an award or industrial agreement under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act or by an agreement under the Labour Disputes Investigation Act. Where no such provision in an award or agreement applies, recompense will be made in such manner as may be prescribed by an order of the Court of Arbitration made on the application of a party concerned. “Hours of work” is defined as “time during which the seaman is required by the orders of a superior to do any work on account of the ship or the owner, or to be at the disposal of a superior outside the seaman's quarters.”

Time spent in certain specified work is excluded from the normal hours of work and is not subject to the special recompense for time worked in excess of normal hours. This includes work required for the safety of the ship when in immediate peril or to give assistance to other vessels or persons in immediate peril; musters, fire, lifeboat, and similar drills; normal and necessary work by officers to determine the position of the ship or to take meteorological observations; and work required for the normal relieving of watches.

Holiday provisions are negotiated in the construction of the award applicable, while the benefits of the Annual Holidays Act, 1944, operate as the minimum permissible limit.

The wage-rates on foreign-going ships trading between New Zealand ports are to equal the current rates of wages for such work paid in New Zealand at the same time. This does not apply to ships arriving from abroad, not trading in New Zealand further than to ship or discharge overseas passengers or cargo.

The clearances of foreign-going ships which are required to pay the coastal rate of wages are to be withheld until such wages are paid.

Competence, Safety, Health, and Welfare Provisions.—Adequate provision is made to ensure competence on the part of the controlling officers of ships. Home-trade steamships of 60 tons register and upwards, and home-trade sailing-ships of 100 tons register, must carry certificated mates, and such ships of 100 tons register and upwards trading more than three hunched miles between terminal ports must have second mates. A foreign-going ship is required to carry two certificated mates. Foreign-going certificated mates are entitled to ship as mates in the home trade. It is an offence for a master or owner to engage a certificated officer for the purpose only of enabling the ship to clear and not for the purpose of making the voyage.

Provision is made for issuing certificates of competency to second mates of home-trade ships, and for recognizing as valid in New Zealand certificates of masters, mates, and engineers granted in any part of the British Commonwealth.

Any master or mate may, at any time, be required by the shipowner or the Minister of Marine to be examined in sight tests by the Government Examiners.

Further sections dealing with the safety of the ship require the adjustment of compasses to be carried out under regulations; and power is given to the Minister to define restricted trading limits for steamers and for vessels propelled by oil, gas, &c. The Governor-General in Council is empowered to make regulations as to the loading and stowage of ballast and the loading of grain cargo in bulk. It is an offence to ship wool, flax, tow, or skins in such a condition as to be liable to spontaneous combustion.

Since 1909 there has been a gradual extension of the type of ship required by law to be equipped with radio installations. The regulations now define the nature of the installations and service, and the number and grade of operators in different classes of vessels, and provide for inspection thereof.

The provisions regarding working-conditions on vessels require, inter alia, proper sanitary, hospital, and lavatory accommodation, including bathrooms, to be provided for the crew, together with an adequate supply of hot water for those employed in connection with the engines, while a proscribed minimum of space for the seamen's quarters is also laid down. Masters and officers who assault seamen on the high seas are liable to imprisonment or fine.

Intercolonial ships—i.e., those trading between New Zealand and Australia, or New Zealand and the central Pacific islands—in addition to home-trade ships are made liable to pay the wages, maintenance, and medical expenses of seamen taken ill in the service of the ship for the remainder of the agreement, not exceeding three months; and, in the case of intercolonial ships, if the agreement expires within one month from the commencement of the illness, payment is to be made for one month after the expiry. The illness which entitles a man to the benefits provided for is one which requires medical treatment for fourteen days.

An amendment to the Shipping and Seamen Act made in 1948, prescribes fines not exceeding £100 in any case of a breach of any safety rules made expressly for those small craft not subject to the provisions of the principal Act relating to survey, &c.

Other Provisions.—Desertion is defined, and deserters who cannot be dealt with before their ship sails can afterwards be prosecuted by the owner or agent, and copies of the agreement and the entries in the log-book are to be accepted by Courts as evidence. Forfeited wages are to be paid into the Public Account.

The 1950 amendment provides for the deportation from New Zealand of every seaman or apprentice who is convicted of the offence of desertion or absence without leave from his ship. This does not apply to seamen or apprentices engaged in New-Zealand nor to seamen or apprentices from foreign ships. Provisions for the deportation of foreign deserters are already contained in the principal Act and in the Immigration Restriction Act, 1908.

It is unlawful for any person other than the owner, master, mate, or engineer of a ship, or a Superintendent of Mercantile Marine, to engage or supply seamen for ships, and only seamen who have a knowledge of the English language are allowed to ship.

The law as to inquiries into shipping casualties is on the lines of the Imperial Merchant Shipping Act, and provision is made for rehearings, for Magistrates to order a change of venue, and, by the 1948 amendment, for Superintendents of Mercantile Marine to hold a preliminary inquiry where a shipping casualty has occurred. Inquiries are not to be held in Police Courts unless other suitable buildings are not available; and in cases where there has been loss of life, but no damage to the ship, the inquiries may be held by Coroners.

The risks run and sacrifices made by the crews of vessels under war conditions were recognized by the Government in the passing of the War Pensions and Allowances (Mercantile Marine) Act, 1940. This Act, which made provision for the payment of pensions and allowances to members of the New Zealand mercantile marine and their dependants in respect of death, disablement, or detention as a result of the Second World War, is referred to in some detail in Section 26 of this Year-Book. Seamen also received special bonuses to compensate for the hazardous nature of their occupation during the war period and are now paid a special sea-going allowance.

For the purposes of the Land Act, 1948, replacing the Small Farms Act, 1932–33, the Rehabilitation Act, 1941, and the Servicemen's Settlement Act, 1950, which replaced the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act, 1943, any person who served during the Second World War in any British ship, which while he was serving therein was damaged or destroyed as the result of enemy action, or who served in any other British ship other than a home-trade ship, is included in the term “serviceman,” thus rendering such person eligible for rehabilitation benefits.

AGRICULTURAL WORKERS ACT.—The primary purpose of the Agricultural Workers Act, 1936, was to make better provision for the accommodation of agricultural workers, and to make special provisions for the remuneration of workers on dairy-farms and for the conditions of their employment. The Act also includes provision for the extension of these special provisions to other classes of agricultural workers, and, as indicated later, Orders in Council have been issued under this provision. Section 4 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1945, provides that where proposals for the extension to any specified class of agricultural workers have been submitted as required by the principal Act, and the parties are unable to agree, the matters in dispute may be referred to the Court of Arbitration for a recommendation to the Minister. The administration of the Act is carried out by the Department of Labour and Employment.

Another important measure dealing with farm workers is the Share-milking Agreements Act, 1937, which defined the respective responsibilities of employers and share-milkers in farm-management and control of stock, and prescribed the minimum percentages of returns to share-milkers. The Act contains provision for terms and conditions to be altered by Order in Council and the latest agreement is contained in the Share-milking Agreements Order 1946, which came into operation on 4th September, 1946.

Orders in Council extending the operation of the provisions of the Act to other classes of farm workers have been issued from time to time—orchard workers as from 1st February, 1937; workers on farms or stations used for the commercial production of wool, meat, or grain (including seed), whether exclusively or together with any other purpose, as from 1st May, 1937; agricultural workers in market gardens, nurseries, &c., in the Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, Otago and Southland, and Northern Industrial Districts, as from various dates between 22nd April, 1938, and 29th May, 1939; and agricultural workers employed in the tobacco industry, as from 1st October, 1941. The orders do not apply to workers covered by awards or agreements under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

Hours of Work and Overtime.—In the case of orchard workers the maximum hours that may be worked without payment at overtime rates are eighty per fortnight from the 1st June to the end of September, and eighty-eight per fortnight from the beginning of October to the 31st May. These are to be worked from Monday to noon Saturday except in necessitous cases and in the picking of stone-fruit. In the shorter period the maximum hours to be worked at ordinary rates are not to exceed eight daily, and in the longer period ten hours per day. Overtime rates are payable in respect of hours worked outside the limits mentioned.

The ordinary hours of work for those employed in market gardens, nurseries, &c., are not to exceed forty-four in any one week, and are to be worked within the five and a half days, Monday to noon Saturday inclusive. In addition, no worker is to be employed for more than five hours continuously without an interval of three-quarters of an hour for a meal. Time worked beyond the limits quoted are to be paid for at overtime rates.

Agricultural workers employed in the tobacco industry during the months of May to December work at ordinary rates for eight hours daily from Monday to Friday, with a maximum of forty hours a week. Those employed in the field section during the remaining months may be worked an additional eight hours per week. Otherwise, employment is given remuneration at overtime rates. A three-quarters of an hour interval is allowed for a meal in the case of shed workers and an hour for those in the field section.

Holiday Provisions.—Every agricultural worker who is employed on a dairy-farm for not less than four weeks continuously is to be allowed a holiday on full pay plus an amount equal to the full allowance for board and lodging. The duration of the holiday is to be not less than seven days in the aggregate for every twelve weeks of employment, and a proportionate period for every broken period of employment. If a regular weekly half-holiday commencing at noon is allowed, a holiday of fourteen days a year (or proportionate duration for a lesser period of employment) will be regarded as sufficient compliance with the Act. The provisions of the Annual Holidays Act, 1944, apply generally to agricultural workers. The following specific conditions pertain, however, in respect of workers on farms and stations: Farm workers are entitled to seven statutory holidays, Anzac Day, and Anniversary Day, or days in lieu thereof; twelve working-days' annual leave on full pay for each twelve months' service, with a proportionate allowance for service of less than one year; and nineteen days to be taken in half days or at such times as shall be mutually agreed between the employer and the worker; while the sum total of all three classes is not to be less than forty days in each year. Orchard workers are allowed nine days, while workers in the tobacco industry (field Section), and in market gardens are allowed eight days on full pay in addition to normal annual holidays.

Minimum Rates of Pay.—By the principal Act minimum weekly rates of pay were prescribed for workers on dairy-farms, The Act fixed the rates to operate from 1st October, 1936 (the date the Act came into force), until 31st July, 1937, and subsequent rates of pay were to be fixed by Orders in Council. In fixing such rates the guaranteed prices paid in respect of primary produce were to be taken into account, but later rates were not to be lower than those fixed by the Act. The 1952 minimum rate is £7 13s. per week, increased by £1 8s, 9d. per week if the worker is not provided with board and lodging by the employer. This rate is taken to include allowance for work done at weekends and on holidays as part of the normal week's work. Minimum rates of pay for casual workers are contained in all the extension orders made so far. At present (May, 1952) the minimum rate for workers in casual employment and for permanent adult male workers on tobacco farms amounts to 3s. 11d. per hour, with lesser rates for male and female workers according to specified ages, and for harvesters on dairy farms 3s. 11d. per hour with rations. In the case of workers on farms and stations for whom the hours of work are not definitely laid down, the rates applicable are given in the 1952 amendment to the Agricultural Workers (Farms and Stations) Extension Order 1949, the minimum rate for an adult male worker being £6 7s. 6d. per week, increased by £1 8s. 9d. per week if the worker is not provided with board and lodging by the employer, or by £1 2s. 9d. per week if provided with only lodging or free house. The minimum rate of wages for persons permanently employed in orchards and on market gardens are prescribed on the appropriate 1951 amendments to the extension orders concerned—e.g., £8 8s. 8d. per week in the case of adult male workers in market gardens, £8 1s. for the same class of worker in orchards, &c.

Restrictions on Employment.—No child under the age of fifteen years may be employed for hire on a dairy-farm, or in market gardens, except for the harvesting of peas, beans, tomatoes, and soft fruits.

Health and Welfare Provisions-—The sections of the Act in relation to the accommodation of agricultural workers lay down definite requirements for the comfort of such workers, and Inspectors of Factories have power to inspect the accommodation and to require that improvements be made where necessary. In the various extension orders made under the authority of the principal Act, regulations are made dealing explicitly with questions of accommodation, sanitation, ventilation, &c. A number of orders also prohibit the lifting of excess weights by females.

Other Provisions.—Provision exists for the employment of “under-rate” workers with the consent of the Inspector of Factories. An amendment to the main Act made by a section in the Statutes Revision Act, 1936, permits the Inspector to apply the underrate provisions in respect both of money wages and of the amount (if any) payable in lieu of board and lodging in cases of female workers employed on farms. This amendment is of considerable importance, since the employment of women workers for short periods of the day—notably at milking-time—is common on dairy-farms. Regulations governing the employment of “under-rate” workers are now included in all the extension orders now current.

INDUSTRIAL CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION LEGISLATION.—Working-conditions given in the preceding pages were those contained in some specific statute or regulations made thereunder. However, for a large proportion (approximately one-third) of the labour force the determining factor is the series of awards and agreements issued by the Court of Arbitration under the authority of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1925, and amendments. The number of awards and agreements in force is quite large—588 on the 31st March, 1951—and as each is subject to individual negotiation by the unions or associations concerned during its construction, it is evident that possible variations preclude any systematic treatment herein of the provisions of such a large number.

The 1936 amendment to the principal Act stated that where it is deemed practicable the Court must fix the maximum hours of work per week (exclusive of overtime) at forty, while existing awards could be reviewed to this end on application. At present the provision of a forty-hour week is quite general. Included in the respective awards and agreements are provisions covering the hours of work, overtime, holidays, safety, health, and welfare. Rates of remuneration, subject particularly in the lower limits to the more widely applicable decisions covering the basic wage, general orders, standard-wage pronouncements, and minimum wages, are also decided and incorporated in the relevant award or agreement.

It will be realized from the above comments that for information on the actual working-conditions governing employment in any particular industrial activity, reference must be made to the award or awards applicable.

LEGISLATION GOVERNING WORKING-CONDITIONS IN THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF THE GOVERNMENT SERVICE.—The principal measures which are concerned with the majority of persons employed either directly or indirectly by the State and which have reference to their working-conditions are given in the succeeding paragraphs.

The Public Service Act, 1912, as amended by the Public Service Amendment Act, 1946, provided for the control of the Public Service by a Commission as from the 1st November, 1946. Included in the functions of the Commission are the control of recruitment, maintenance of discipline and of a fair and efficient system of promotion, and also the regulation of a variety of points connected with personnel control—e.g., leave, hours of work, payment of allowances, &c.

The Government' Service Tribunal Act, 1948, provided for the establishment of a tribunal with functions, in relation to the remuneration and conditions of service of employees, of making (a) principal and other orders, and (b) recommendations to the Prime Minister on any matters other than those contained in the principal orders.

The Government Railways Act, 1926, with its 1936 and 1944 amendments (consolidated in 1949), furnish the legislative framework for determination of the working-conditions of railway employees. The 1944 amendment established the Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, the principal functions of which are to prescribe scales of salaries and rates of wages; conditions in regard to hours of work, overtime, &c.; and terms and conditions in respect of leave of absence, railway travel concessions, &c.

Working-conditions for Post and Telegraph Department employees are determined by the administrating authority, the Postmaster-General and Minister of Telegraphs, with the Director-General as executive head. Power is vested in the Minister by virtue of the Post and Telegraph Act, 1928, while the 1944 amendment established a Post and Telegraph Staff Tribunal whose function it is to make recommendations to the Minister on such matters as may be referred to it by the Minister, the Director-General, or the New Zealand Post and Telegraph Association (Incorporated).

Other legislative enactments which apply to the relevant sections of General Government employees are as follows: Members of the Police Force are governed by the Police Force Act, 1947, which consolidated and amended the 1913 Act of the same title and its amendments. The three fighting Services are controlled at present by the Army Act, 1950, the Naval Defence Act, 1913, and the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act, 1950.

The Education Act, 1914, and later amendments provide the legislative background authorizing, either by regulation or through the agency of Education Boards, the determination of the conditions of employment, pay, leave of absence, &c., for the members of the teaching profession.

In 1948 the Hospitals Amendment Act was passed which altered the title of the principal Act by omitting the words “and Charitable Institutions.” In consequence, the provisions relating to working-conditions of Hospital Board employees such as nurses, &c., will be found in the Hospitals Act, 1926, and its amendments, while the Hospital Employment Regulations 1952 bear directly on these matters.

Before concluding this subsection, reference must be made to two further groups of workers. The first of these consists of public-works employees, while the other comprises those persons coming within the scope of the Waterfront Industry Emergency Regulations 1946.

In a statement of public-works policy laid before Parliament in 1936 the Government's policy in relation to public-works employees was outlined. An agreement was drawn up dating from the 1st June, 1936, the main provisions of which were embodied in subsequent agreements, although subjected to amendment and revision from time to time to meet changing conditions. With the termination of the latest agreement in March, 1949, the Government Service Tribunal, established under the Government Service Tribunal Act, 1948, became the authority for determination of rates of remuneration and working conditions generally for public works employees.

The Waterfront Industry Emergency Regulations 1946, as amended in 1948, established two bodies to provide for the more efficient control of waterside work. The superior of these two—viz., the Waterfront Industry Authority—was charged with deciding the conditions under which any persons could be employed for waterside work. the terms of any such employment, including remuneration, holidays, guaranteed minimum payment, &c., whereas the subordinate authority, known as the Waterfront Industry Commission, was more concerned with the day-to-day details of administration. In particular, the Commission could not issue or amend any order prescribing any conditions or terms of employment which were of general application, except in accordance with a decision or direction from the Authority or as a result of a unanimous resolution of the Commission. Appeals from decisions or orders of the Commission were determined by the Authority.

The above position was relevant up to the commencement of the waterfront strike in February, 1951. Commission control was suspended on the 20th February, and on the following day the Government issued a Proclamation under the Public Safety Conservation Act, 1932, declaring a State of Emergency. Shortly afterwards, the Waterfront Strike Emergency Regulations were gazetted, giving powers to ensure the observance of law and order, to prevent picketing, threats, and intimidation, to employ Service labour on the waterfront, and to maintain essential supplies and services to the community. After the termination of the strike and pending the report of the Royal Commission on the waterfront industry, the Government announced that the Commission form of control was to be continued through Port Conciliation Committees, the Waterfront Industry Commission, whose functions were to be administrative only, and the Waterfront Industry Tribunal, which was to be a non-representative body to decide disputes and to determine appeals against decisions of Port Conciliation Committees. Amending regulations (the Waterfront Industry Emergency Regulations 1946, Amendment No. 10), prescribing the powers and functions of these bodies, were gazetted in 1951.

39 C —WAGES AND WAGE-RATE LEGISLATION; STABILIZATION

WAGES AND WAGE-RATES: GENERAL.—The amounts of wage-rates generally have been influenced largely by the rates specified for individual industries and occupations in awards and industrial agreements registered under the Arbitration Act. As mentioned previously, certain classes of workers for many years had no legal protection in the matter of wage-rates; while, again, until the passing of the Shops and Offices Amendment Act, 1936, many classes of office workers were in a similar position.

More than one criterion has been employed in the derivation of minimum rates of pay. Changes in the cost of living have been taken into account at certain times; on some occasions family considerations have entered into the determination; while the size of the working population covered by the minimum-rate provisions differs appreciably according to the particular variant of minimum rate or wage considered.

For the convenience of the reader the essential differences between the various expressions of the minimum wage-rates are here summarized. The basic wage (a defined amount) was intended to enable a man to maintain a wife and three children in a reasonable standard of comfort. As prescribed by the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Court in a general order in 1936, the basic wage became a minimum wage for all workers governed by awards. Standard rates or standard wage pronouncements prescribe basic rates (not amounts) for different grades of labour—e.g., skilled, semiskilled, or unskilled workers—for use as general principles governing the construction of award rates. There is no automatic application to awards, each being amended individually on application, or on the Court's own motion, or on a fresh award being made. General orders, on the other band, have the effect of amending all award rates simultaneously as from the date specified in the order. The Minimum Wage Act, 1945, prescribes minimum amounts of wages for adult males and females, but these differ from the basic wage, which in effect they have superseded, in that no reference is made to the maintenance of any defined standard in the former. An important feature of the 1945 minimum-wage legislation is the much wider section of the working population to which its provisions relate. The minimum wages specified therein apply whether an award exists or not, and also notwithstanding anything contained in any award.

Against the background of these general remarks it is now intended to survey each of the various forms of minimum wage-rates.

Basic Wage.—The New Zealand Arbitration Court functioned for many years before the question of a basic wage was specifically dealt with by the Court. (It is of interest at this point to mention that a basic wage was brought into operation by the federal Arbitration Court in Australia in 1907.)

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1936, inter alia, requires the Arbitration Court to fix basic wages for adult male and female workers. Orders of the Court made to this end may be amended at not less than six-monthly intervals by a subsequent general order. The basic wage for adult male workers is required to be fixed at a weekly sum which will, in the opinion of the Court, be sufficient to maintain a man, wife, and three children in a fair and reasonable standard of comfort. A general order fixing basic wages for adult male and female workers was issued by the Arbitration Court on 2nd November, 1936. The weekly amounts were fixed at £3 16s. for adult male workers and at £1 16s. for adult female workers. The basic wage applies (as an absolute minimum) to all workers twenty-one years of age and over (excepting casual workers and those working under apprenticeship contracts) the conditions of whoso employment are fixed by any award or industrial agreement. The basic wage, still nominally in force, although in effect superseded by the minimum wage, has not up to the present time (May, 1952) come up for review by the Court.

Minimum Wage.—The Minimum Wage Act, 1945, as stated earlier, makes provision for a minimum wage for all workers of twenty-one years of age and upwards with certain minor exceptions, notwithstanding anything to the contrary contained in any enactment, award, industrial agreement, or contract of service. A contrast may hero be drawn between the procedure adopted in the case of the minimum wage with that pertaining in regard to the basic wage or standard rates of wages. The former is directly stated in legislation, while the latter appear through the medium of the Arbitration Court.

The Minimum Wage Act may be amended from time to time as fresh pronouncements of standard rates or general orders are made if it is desired to preserve a balance between minimum wages and such rates of wages. In this reference it will be noted that the minimum wage for males is set at a rate which is lower than the standard rate for unskilled labour.

The Act came into force on 1st April, 1946. Since that date the Minimum Wage Amendment Acts, 1947, 1949, 1950, and 1951 have been passed, the prescribed minima operating from 1st August, 1951, being as follows, while those in force during the earlier periods are also shown.

Category.1st April, 1946, to 30th November,1947.1 1st December, 1947, to 31st August, 1949.1st September, 1949, to 31st August, 1950.1st September, 1950, to 31st July, 1951.1st August, 1951, Onwards.
Males-£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
  Paid by hour or by piecework029030033035039
  Paid by day1201401601741100
  Otherwise (per week)55051506506118750
Females—               
  Paid by hour or by piecework0180111022023 1/2026
  Paid by day0134015401740184100
  Otherwise (per week)33031304304804164

Standard Rates of Wages.—Under the War Legislation and Statute Law Amendment Act, 1918, the Court was required to review on application existing awards and industrial agreements, taking into consideration, inter alia, changes in the cost of living. The Court in April, 1919, made a pronouncement fixing, in effect, standard rates of wages for skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled workers. No definite family unit was stated as' the basis on which these standard rates were calculated, the minimum pre-war award rates for unskilled labour, with appropriate adjustment, being apparently used as a base. A cost-of-living bonus, varied at half-yearly intervals in sympathy with movements in the cost of living, was added to these standard rates. In September, 1925, a further pronouncement was made by the Court. The legislation by which the Court was empowered to make general orders having expired, the new rates—which represented an increase on those operating before—were brought into operation as individual awards expired. As in the 1919 pronouncement, no definite family unit was taken as the basis of assessment of the standard rates, which were, in general, stated to be somewhat in excess of 60 per cent. above the rates ruling in 1914.

No further pronouncements directly relevant to the subject were made until 1931. The Finance Act of that year empowered the Arbitration Court to amend, by general order, awards or industrial agreements with respect to rates of remuneration. Rates of remuneration under awards or industrial agreements were reduced by 10 per cent. as from 1st June, 1931, with certain minor exceptions.

Full or partial restoration of this cut was effected in the case of several individual awards made in 1934 and 1935, while complete restoration was effected in respect of all awards by a section in the Finance Act, 1936. This Act went further: it required the restoration as from 1st July, 1936, of all cuts in wages and salaries imposed during the depression period, whether the workers concerned were working under an Arbitration Court award or not.

In September, 1937, the Arbitration Court made a pronouncement on standard wages and again, in March, 1945, the Court made a further pronouncement specifying standard rates of wages in accordance with the provisions of the June, 1945, amendment to the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942.

The 1945 rates were net rates, for the full minimum wage-rates would have to take into account in addition the provisions of the two general orders, effective from the 12th August, 1940, and 7th April, 1942, respectively, issued by the Court under the Rates of Wages Emergency Regulations 1940. (The first of these orders awarded a 5-per-cent. increase in all rates of remuneration in awards, industrial agreements, &c., while the second authorized a further 5-per-cent. increase subject to certain limitations.)

An application made pursuant to Regulations 39B and 39c of the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942 for a pronouncement specifying standard rates of wages resulted in new standard rates being set out to apply from 1st October, 1947. In this case full minimum rates of wages were prescribed, thus eliminating references to the application of the general orders.

In February, 1949, two applications for a new standard-wage pronouncement were laid before the Court of Arbitration. The occasion was unique, in that one of the applications was supported by the New Zealand Federation of Labour and the other supported by the New Zealand Employers' Federation. Both were made under Regulation 39B of the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942. Before any steps had been taken for the hearing of the applications, a further amendment in February, 1949, was made to the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942. This amendment redefined the considerations which the Court was to take into account in making a pronouncement on standard rates, and also provided that the now amendment was to apply to every application under the principal regulations that was pending at the time of issue of the amendment. There were other provisions, the effects of which have also been incorporated in the following article on stabilization (refer page 826).

The Court, subsequent to the hearing, made a pronouncement on standard rates of wages on the 12th April, 1949. It also provided that any consequential amendments to awards, &c., were to date from the 1st June, 1949.

In this pronouncement the margin between the standard rate for unskilled workers and that for skilled workers was increases from 5 1/2 d. per hour to 6d. per hour. The reasons given for this increase may be of interest.

Over a number of years the effective margin of the artisan in terms of purchasing-power has been steadily declining, while efforts have been made simultaneously to increase the skilled-labour force. Measures were being taken to revitalize the apprenticeship system and improve the training of tradesmen, including the inauguration of more comprehensive and exacting trade examinations. In these circumstances, it was thought that an improvement in the flat margin for skill should be granted.

A summary of the standard rate pronouncements listed in the preceding paragraphs is given below.

Class of Worker (Adult Male).Standard Rates of Wages—Pronouncement of—
1925.1937.1945.1947.1949.
     PerHour    
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
Skilled workers232930 1/237311
Semi-skilled workers111 to25 to28 1/2 to 133 1/2 to36 to
 21 1/227 1/221135 1/438 3/4
Unskilled workers 102427 1/231 1/235

In the amendment of awards and industrial agreements as a result of the 1949 pronouncement, the rates for adult female workers were to be increased in general by -such an amount as would bring them to a level approximately 10s. per week above the rates operating from the 1st October, 1947. Rates for junior workers of both sexes were to be adjusted proportionately.

A standard rate pronouncement was not itself a general wage order and had therefore no operative effect. It was merely an indication of the rates of wages up to which the rates prescribed for skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled workers in a certain number of awards and industrial agreements were likely to be brought by means of individual amendments. They did not, of course, affect those variations in wage-rates prescribed in the different awards, &c., which were due to variations in skill required and in working-conditions generally in different industries or occupations.

Standard rates of wages could be regarded as serving two purposes. The first was to serve as genera] principles to which the Court would have reference in the implementation or amendment of existing award rates. The second was that they served, in effect, as general standard minima for casual labour. They were not necessarily applicable when employment was regular throughout the year.

Award Rates.—Under section 99 of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1925, the Court is empowered to fix minimum rates of pay in individual awards. The nature of award rates is generally understood, and as the rates may and do vary as between awards there is no necessity to further elaborate here. A table showing the average minimum weekly wage-rates, incorporated in awards for certain occupations, will be found in Section 38 of this issue (pages 790–792).

General Orders.—The Arbitration Court had power under the Rates of Wages Emergency Regulations 1940 to make general orders amending all rates prescribed in awards as from the dates specified in the orders. Two such orders were made increasing wages as from 12th August, 1940, and from 7th April, 1942, respectively. As stated earlier, the effect of these orders was taken into account in the 1947 standard wages pronouncement. An amendment made in March, 1949, to the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942 revoked the Rates of Wages Emergency Regulations 1940. General orders could, however, still he made under the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942 until the revoking of the emergency regulations by the Economic Stabilization Regulations 1950. In the latter regulations the former provisions relating to the issue of general orders were retained, while a May, 1950, amendment provided for, in effect, the issue of an interim general order. Such an order was to be disregarded for the purpose of determining the date at which any general order made on application should take effect.

An interim order was made by the Court of Arbitration on the 10th June, 1950, amending all awards and industrial agreements to increase by 5 per cent. all rates of remuneration on amounts up to and including £7 per week in the case of adult male workers, and £4 15s. in the case of adult female workers and all junior workers.

A further general order, effective from the 15th February, 1951, revoked the interim order, and increased all rates of remuneration by an amount equal to 15 per cent. (not restricted to any fixed amount). This latter increase is in substitution for, and not in addition to the 5-per-cent. increase given in the interim order. Certain specified awards were excluded from the operation of the February order, comparable increases having been incorporated in their construction subsequent to the interim order.

Special Provisions Covering Wages of Certain Groups of Workers.—Certain groups of workers have their wages fixed by special authorities. Minimum rates for agricultural workers are prescribed by the Agricultural Workers Act, 1936, and the various Extension Orders made pursuant to section 20 of that Act. Rates of remuneration for waterside work are. fixed by the Waterfront Industry Tribunal, constituted under the 1951 (No. 10) amendment to the Waterfront Industry Emergency Regulations 1946. Determination of wages in coal-mines lies within the scope of the Coal Mines Council, established under the Coal Mines Council Emergency Regulations 1940. Rates of pay for workmen engaged on public-works construction have been determined from 1949 by the Government Service Tribunal and issued in the form of principal and other orders by that Tribunal.

Salaries and wages in the railways are, by the Government Railways Amendment Act, 1944, prescribed by the Government Railways Industrial Tribunal. The legislative authority covering rates of remuneration for employees of the Post and Telegraph Department is contained in the Post and Telegraph Act, 1928, and the 1933 amendment, while certain questions may be referred to the Post and Telegraph Staff Tribunal, established by the 1944 amendment to the principal Act.

Public servants in the Professional and Clerical Divisions were paid according to rates prescribed under regulations authorized by section 19 of the Appropriation Act, 1920, and those in the General Division according to scales determined by the Public Service Commission (see Public Service Act, 1912, section 22). In 1948, however, the Government Service Tribunal Act was passed vesting the Tribunal with powers of making principal and other orders in relation to remuneration.

Pay and allowances for the Armed Services at present are prescribed in regulations under the Army Act, 1950, the Naval Defence Act, 1913, and the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act, 1950. Salary and wage rates for Hospital Hoard employees are covered by the Hospitals Act, 1926, and the Hospital Employment Regulations 1952. Two other groups of employees may be also mentioned: members of the Police Force coming under the Police Force Act, 1947, and, finally, members of the teaching profession. whoso rates of remuneration are generally determined by authority of the Education Act, 1914, and amendments.

An interesting innovation made by the Arbitration Court in 1928 was the award of that year whereby the wages of shearers and other wool-shed hands were fixed at a rate fluctuating with the movement of wool prices as determined by the Government Statistician's index number for export prices of wool. The system did not operate between 1931 and 1933, workers and employers being unable to agree as to rates, though both parties expressed approval of the principle. The award of 1933 contained provision for the resumption of the sliding-scale system. Commencing with the award for the 1948–49 season, a variation was made in the method of calculating the rates of pay for shearers and other wool-shed hands. The new procedure is that rates shall be adjusted proportionately with the movements of an index number to be prepared by the Government Statistician based on average prices realized at New Zealand sales for greasy wool (calculated for June years).

In referring to the general question of wage-rates it is relevant to draw attention to the supplementary income which is provided by benefits available under the Social Security Act in certain cases, while the War Pensions Act is of significance also in this connection (see Section 26).

STABILIZATION.—Stabilization as an explicitly stated object of policy came to the forefront early in the Second World War. It had long been realized that in wartime the normal supply or flow of goods would be restricted, particularly so in the case of imports, but also in some degree in the field of local production. This factor, reinforced by others such as the progressive withdrawal of elements of the labour force for service with the Armed Forces, changes in the extent and character of industrial activity and in the labour force generally, and the necessity of financing a costly war, would inevitably exert an upward pressure on the wage and price structures of the country. It was equally necessary to limit or confine upward movements in these structures in so far as this procedure could be made effective or practicable. Measures to this effect were authorized, evolving into a fairly comprehensive system of regulations covering the general fields of price control, wages stabilization, rent stabilization, direction of man-power, subsidies, &c. After the close of war some of these measures were dispensed with, while others were retained and relieved of their emergency status by further legislation.

While wages stabilization is the main theme of the following paragraphs, other aspects of stabilization will be found elsewhere in this issue (rents, Section 39G; prices, Section 37; and subsidies, Sections 37 and 18A).

The initial legislative step in the control of wages and remuneration was the gazetting of the Rates of Wages Emergency Regulations 1940, which with its amendments were revoked by the 1949 amendment to the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942. The 1940 regulations provided that the Arbitration Court from time to time, on application, might amend by general order the provisions of all awards and industrial agreements, but that in making such a general order the Court was to take into account certain economic conditions. As these qualifications were largely superseded by the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations issued in 1942, it will be more profitable to proceed to a survey of the latter.

In regard to the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942, as subsequently amended up to and including the amendment of February, 1949, the main features of importance may be summarized as follows. Basic rates of remuneration were defined as the actual rates as at the 15th December, 1942, or as determined by the Wages Commissioner or Commissioners (formerly Conciliation Commissioner) appointed under (he regulations. These basic rates were not to be exceeded except with the approval of the Wages Commissioner, which might be granted wholly or in part on the following grounds:—

  1. That the person was employed in any additional position, employment, duties, or work, or in work involving additional rink to life or health.

  2. That an increase was necessary for removal of anomalies.

  3. That when the basic rate was determined, remuneration was being paid at an abnormally low rate or no remuneration was being paid.

  4. That an increase was necessary to restore or preserve a proper relationship with rates of remuneration of other classes of workers or with any standard wage pronouncement made by the Court of Arbitration for the purposes of these regulations. Appeals against the decisions of the Wages Commissioner could be made to the Count of Arbitration.

An important regulation provided that the Court, in exercising its functions in relation to the making or amendment of awards or apprenticeship orders, or in approving any industrial agreement, should have regard to the general purpose of these regulations and also to restoring or preserving a proper relationship with other rates of remuneration. A similar provision covered applications for revised tool and special clothing allowances, &c. in determining award rates, a clause later deleted provided that no regard should be had to fluctuations in the cost of living. This factor came under those conditions to be taken into account in pronouncements of standard rates or in the making of general orders.

Again, subject to the provisions of the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942, the Court was empowered from time to time of its own motion or on application of any industrial union or association to make pronouncements specifying standard rates of wages for skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled workers. On application the Court could also amend, by general order, those provisions of all awards and industrial agreements for the time being in force which determined the rates of remuneration. Any change specified in such a general order was also applicable to any case wherein the actual rate of remuneration exceeded that to which the worker was entitled under an award. Provision existed for a general order to be made on an application for a standard wage pronouncement, and vice versa. In either case no further pronouncements or general orders could be made within one year of the date on which a previous pronouncement had been made or a general order had taken effect.

To assist in the furtherance of the objects of stabilization generally, the regulations laid down that the Court should take into consideration the following conditions in making any pronouncement or general order:—

  1. The general purpose of the regulations.

  2. Any rise or fall in retail prices as indicated by any index published by the Government Statistician.

  3. The economic conditions affecting finance, trade, and industry in New Zealand.

  4. Relative movements in the incomes of different sections of the community.

  5. All other considerations that the Court deemed relevant.

The condition (b) quoted above was substituted by the February, 1949, amendment for the earlier one requiring an index of prices known as the Wartime Price Index to be prepared and published quarterly for the purposes of the regulations.

Most of the features outlined were similarly applicable to apprenticeship orders, except where these were already covered by reason of the fact that rates of remuneration of apprentices might in some cases be fixed as proportions of the rates fixed from time to time for journeymen.

In pursuance of the policy of stabilization, and probably indicative of its importance in the post-war era, the passing of the Economic Stabilization Act, 1948, is of significance. The general purpose of this Act (as of former emergency regulations also) is to promote the economic stability of New Zealand. In addition to the administration of the Act, the Minister of Industries and Commerce is charged with the general function of doing whatever is considered necessary for the general purpose of this Act. and in particular for the stabilization, control, and adjustment of prices of goods and services, rents, other costs, and rates of wages, salaries, and other incomes. Authority for the appointment of a Director of Stabilization was also given. The Act further provided for the establishment of the Economic Stabilization Commission with the principal function of ranking recommendations, after inquiry and investigation, in relation to the economic stabilization of New Zealand and the functions of the Minister under the Act. There are at present (May, 1952) no appointed members of the Commission, its functions being discharged by the Minister in Charge of Stabilization, except that those functions of the Commission relating to the marketing and prices of primary products are now dealt with by the Marketing Advisory Council, which reports to the Minister of Marketing.

By Order in Council, stabilization regulations may be made from time to time for giving full effect to the provisions and administration of the Act, including regulations for all or any of the following purposes:—

  1. Regulating the marketing of any goods or classes of goods for the general purpose of the Act.

  2. Equalizing, as far as possible, the net returns received or payable in respect of any goods or classes of goods, and for that purpose imposing levies on any goods or classes of goods.

  3. Recovery of subsidies paid out of public moneys in respect of any goods or classes of goods.

  4. Providing for the appointment of officers and committees and other bodies, and defining their functions and powers.

From the point of view of this section it was of interest to note that certain of the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942 (as summarized earlier) were continued in force as stabilization regulations. The necessary powers wore also given enabling information required for the purposes of the Act or any stabilization regulation to be obtained, and also for the prescription of offences and penalties.

The 1942 emergency regulations were, however, revoked by the Economic Stabilization Regulations 1950, the general tenor of which is contained in the following paragraphs, together with any significant differences from the provisions of the earlier emergency regulations.

In exorcising its powers in relation to the making or amendment of awards or apprenticeship orders, or the approval of industrial agreements, the Court of Arbitration was to have regard to the general purpose of the Economic Stabilization Act, 1948. The former provision requiring it to have regard to a proper relationship between the rates of remuneration of different classes of workers was omitted, though, of course, this factor might form one of the considerations that could be taken into account by the Court. The control of maximum rates of remuneration was abolished, while the application of a general order to rates of remuneration paid in excess of award rates became no longer automatic.

The provisions as to standard wage pronouncements by the Court of Arbitration in the earlier emergency regulations were omitted from the 1950 stabilization regulations. although there was no restriction on the inherent power that the Court has always had to make such pronouncements at any time.

The Court was empowered to make general orders of its own motion or on application, amending those provisions of all awards and industrial agreements in force relating to rates of remuneration. No general order made on application was to take effect less than one year after the date on which any previous general order had taken effect, but the Court could make a general order of its own motion at any time. The former provisions excluding special classes of workers from general orders, and application of such orders to apprentices, were retained, as was the provision requiring industrial agreements to be filed after first being approved by the Court.

In making a general order the conditions which the Court were required to take into account were substantially the same as those set out on page 827 under the 1942 regulations, except that condition (a) was worded “The general purpose of the Economic Stabilization Act, 1948.” When fixing tool, clothing, and vehicle allowances the Court was to have regard to changes in costs.

A May, 1950, amendment to the regulations made provision for the issue of an interim general order by the Court of its own motion, which for the purpose of determining the time at which any general order made on application was to take effect could be disregarded, although adjustment of rates in a final order was not retrospective in operation.

The 1950 regulations were revoked and replaced by the Economic Stabilization Regulations 1952, which came into force on the 28th February, 1952.

In view of the manifold changes which have occurred in the stabilization regulations during the period 1942–52 it is considered desirable that a complete restatement of their substance should be made, thus avoiding any need for reference to past history for an appreciation of the present position. The Economic Stabilization Regulations 1952 accordingly include the following provisions:—

  1. The Court of Arbitration, for the purpose of making or amending awards, or apprenticeship orders, or of approval of any industrial agreement. is to have regard to the general purpose of the Economic Stabilization Act, 1948; and when fixing tool, clothing, footwear, motor-vehicle, or bicycle allowances is to have regard also to any increases or reduction in costs (inclusive of maintenance, replacement, &c., costs) of these items.

  2. No industrial agreement shall come into force until after having been approved and filed.

  3. The Court is enabled to make general orders amending the rates of remuneration in all awards and industrial agreements, either of its own motion or on the application of any industrial union or association of employers or workers for a general order or for a standard wage pronouncement. The Court may exclude from the scope of the general order such portion of the remuneration in each week of the workers affected by the order as exceeds an amount specified by the Court; this amount may be varied in the ease of females and junior workers respectively.

  4. The Court is empowered to make pronouncements specifying standard rates of wages for skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled workers, either of its own motion or on the application of any industrial union or association of employers or workers for a standard wage pronouncement or for a general order. Power is given to the Court to amend awards and industrial agreements to give effect to any standard wage pronouncement and to make the amendments retrospective to the date of the pronouncement.

  5. A general order may be made to take effect or a standard wage pronouncement may be. made not less than six months after the date of any previous general order or standard wage pronouncement.

  6. Power is given to exclude any specified class or section of workers from the operation of a general order, or to amend provisions of any award or industrial agreement in relation to a standard wage pronouncement, in such cases due regard having been made to any increases in the rates of remuneration granted by the Court to the workers affected since the date of the last preceding order or pronouncement. Where the Court has exercised this power of its own motion it may subsequently on application, and within twenty-one days in that, behalf, make such further order or amendment as it considers just and equitable in relation thereto.

  7. The conditions which the Court is required to take into account in making any general order or standard wage pronouncement are as follows:—

    1. The general purpose of the Stabilization Act, 1948:

    2. Any rise or fall in retail prices as indicated by any index published by the Government Statistician:

    3. The economic conditions affecting finance, trade and industry in New Zealand:

    4. Relevant movements in the incomes of different sections of the community:

    5. All other considerations that the Court deems relevant.

  8. Powers sot out in relation to general orders and standard wage pronouncements are extended to apprenticeship orders, unless they apply automatically to any such orders by reason of the fact that rates of remuneration of apprentices are fixed by the apprenticeship order as proportions of the rates from time to time fixed for journeymen.

  9. The Regulations provide that rates of remuneration by reference to which the scope of an award or industrial agreement is fixed are to be automatically increased or reduced in conformity with any general order or standard wage pronouncement.

The 1952 regulations cover any application already made for a general order under the revoked regulations.

The Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1952 were later amended so as to enable representatives of the parties bound by orders of the Government Service Tribunal, the Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, and the Waterfront Industry Tribunal to appear and make submissions on the hearing by the Court of Arbitration of applications for general orders increasing or reducing rates of remuneration, or of applications for standard wage pronouncements.

The December, 1951 amendment (No. 10), to the Waterfront Industry Emergency Regulations 1946 also requires the Waterfront Industry Tribunal constituted under the regulations to have regard to the general purpose of the Economic Stabilization Act, 1948.

PROTECTION OF WAGES.—Workers' wages were first safeguarded by the Truck Act of 1891, which ensured to workers the payment of their wages in full in coin of the realm. This was followed by a series of Acts—the Contractors' and Workmen's Lien Act, 1892, the Workmen's Wages Act, 1893, the Threshing-machine Owners' Lien Act, 1895, the Wages Attachment Act, 1895, and the Wages Protection Act, 1899—all aimed at making the payment of wages more certain and secure, and at limiting creditors' rights to attach future earnings.

This code was consolidated into the Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act of 1908, which operated until it was superseded by the Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act, 1939. The re-enactment is substantially the same as the 1908 Act except for the omission of several sections relating solely to wages protection, which were largely duplicated by the sections dealing with workers' liens.

Some of the more salient provisions of the Act, as it now operates, are set out below.

In the absence of any written agreement to the contrary, wages of manual workers are to be paid at intervals of not more than a week, and of other workers at intervals of not more than a month. The attachment of workers' wages for debt is prohibited except in the case of any surplus over £2 a week or when specific provision is made in any other Act for attachments on a lower minimum. Exceptions are made by the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1925; the Child Welfare Act, 1925; and the Destitute Persons Act, 1910. The Coal Mines Amendment Act, 1941, provides for deduction from wages, with the written consent of the employee, of sums towards repayment of principal or payment of interest, &c., in respect of advances by the mine-owner to the worker for the purpose of acquiring a home. Section 7 of the Finance Act, 1942, provides for deduction of due amounts from the salary or wages of a taxpayer who has made default in the payment of income-tax.

The Act prohibits payment of wages being made in goods (truck) or in any other way than in money or by approved cheque, and also prohibits any stipulation as to how the wages-money is to be expended. The truck provisions do not, however, apply where the employer supplies house accommodation, board and lodging, fuel, medical assistance, materials, tools, and the like required for the work, nor to seamen or farm workers.

A contractor, subcontractor, and any worker is entitled to obtain liens on the lands or chattels of the employer upon giving duo notice, and the employer must then retain in his hands sufficient of the contract-moneys to satisfy and guarantee payment of the claimant's dues, but the total amount recoverable may not exceed the amount due under the contract. In addition, the Act (as amended by section 20 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1951) directs that the employer or contractor (where a subcontract is entered into) shall retain in his possession, whether or not he has received notice of any lien or charge, a percentage (25 per cent. of the first £2,000, 20 per cent. of the next £8,000, 15 per cent. of the next £15,000, and 10 per cent. of the balance, to a maximum of £10,000 retention moneys) of so much of the contract price as has for the time being become immediately payable, until thirty-one days have elapsed after the completion of the contract.

In the matter of priority of liens and charges the order is as follows: (1) The claims of workers for wages not exceeding three months' wages and not exceeding £50; (2) the claims of workers for wages not included in the foregoing, and the claims of subcontractors; and (3) the claims of contractors. If notice of a lien or charge is not made before the completion of the contract or within thirty days of the completion, the claim will lose priority as against other claims of its own class, but will come before claims of the succeeding class.

All attachments or assignments granted by any employer or contractor are void against the charges or liens of subcontractors or workers for money due under the contract, except in the case of mortgages on land registered before the liens; in that case the mortgage has priority over the lien. If the mortgagee is a party to the contract, or if the mortgage secures any money that is advanced after notice of the lien has been given to the mortgagee, the lien has priority over the mortgage. If, in the case of the death or bankruptcy of a person entitled to a lion or charge, the debt secured by the lien or charge passes to any other person, the right to the lien or charge passes with it.

No deduction from workers' wages may be made for purposes of insurance against compensation for accident.

Liens to be imposed as security for miners' wages or earnings are dealt with under the Mining Act, 1926, and the Coal Mines Act, 1925.

Wages are further safeguarded by certain sections of the Bankruptcy Act, which give priority of payment for wages or salaries of workers (with certain limitations as to amount and period) in preference to certain other debts, and since the passing of the Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927, wages take precedence over rents. Similarly, under the Companies Act wages (with the same limitations as under the Bankruptcy Act) are a first claim on the assets of a company being wound up. Under the Workers' Compensation Amendment Act, 1936, compensation payments rank with wages as a first charge on the assets of a bankrupt.

Various individual labour laws contain provisions with the special intent of protecting the payment of wages of the workers to whom such legislation applies.

39 D—LABOUR DISPUTES LEGISLATION

LABOUR DISPUTES.—Trade-unionists were early protected by the Trade-unions Act of 1878 from prosecution for conspiracy by reason merely that the purposes of the trade-unions were in restraint of trade. They were further protected by the Conspiracy Law Amendment Act of 1894, which laid down that any act by a union in furtherance of a trade dispute should not be deemed unlawful so as to render such persons liable to criminal prosecution for conspiracy, if such act committed by one person would not be doomed unlawful. This removed a very serious handicap under which unionists up to that time had suffered.

Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.—The original Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act was placed on the New Zealand statute-book in 1894. Its object was to encourage the formation of industrial unions and associations, and to facilitate the settlement of industrial disputes by conciliation and arbitration. It provided for the registration as “industrial unions” of societies of workers or employers in the various industrial districts, and as “industrial associations” of any council or other body representing any number of such unions; for the making of industrial agreements pursuant to the Act, and the filing of such in the Supreme Court; for the formation of industrial districts, the election of Boards of Conciliation, and the setting-up of a Court of Arbitration.

In 1898 an amendment was passed empowering the Court in its awards to prescribe minimum rates of wages, with special provision for a lower rate being paid in the case of workers unable to earn the prescribed minimum. An important amendment passed in 1903 prohibited any employer, worker, union of workers, or union of employers from taking proceedings to defeat any of the provisions of an award during its currency. It forbade an employer to dismiss any employee merely because he happened to be entitled to the benefit of an award or merely because he was a member of a union. Under the present law dismissal, or prejudicial alteration of position, of an employee who within the preceding twelve months had acted in any of certain specified capacities, or was entitled to or had claimed certain benefits, renders the employer liable to a penalty unless he proves that the dismissal or alteration of position was duo to some other reason. An industrial union of workers may take action for a penalty in this connection.

By the 1905 amendment the constitution of Conciliation Boards was altered to provide for the appointment of four Conciliation Commissioners, whose duty it is to call together representatives of employers and employees in the event of a dispute arising. and to sit with these representatives as a Conciliation Council in an endeavour to effect a settlement. The decision of the Council is not binding, but disputes must be referred to a Council before they may be referred to the Arbitration Court. A further amendment in 1911 provided that recommendations of Conciliation Councils become in effect industrial agreements if none of the parties to a dispute disagrees with such recommendations.

The law as it existed in 1925 was consolidated in that year, previous consolidations having been effected in 1900, 1905, and 1908.

In 1927 a Bill was introduced into Parliament to exclude from the jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court the farming industry and certain associated industries. The Bill met with considerable opposition and was not proceeded with. An amending Act was, however, passed providing that no award relating to any agricultural, pastoral, or dairying operations, or to any other work effected on a farm, or to the manufacture or production of butter, cheese, or other milk products, should be made before 1st September, 1928. The provisions of the amendment of 1927 were re-enacted in 1928, another amendment extending for twelve months the period during which awards in the industries mentioned were not to be made, and also providing that no awards in these industries were to be altered or amended in the meantime without the consent of all parties concerned. The provisions referred to lapsed on 1st September, 1929.

A second amendment passed in 1928 permits of industrial agreements and (with the consent of the parties concerned) awards being made for or extended to a term of five years. This amendment also allows of an award or industrial agreement, in lieu of prescribing minimum rates of wages, prescribing a method or basis for calculating minimum rates.

As a result of depression conditions the Court was empowered by the Finance Act, 1931, to amend by general order awards or industrial agreements in respect of rates of wages, though power was given for the exclusion of any class or section of workers from the operation of a general order. In the next year compulsory arbitration was abolished; conciliation was still compulsory, but disputes could be referred to the Court only by mutual consent. Provision was also made for the review of existing awards.

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1936, restored the full jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court, and also made several other amendments, the more important of which, as amended in later years up to and including 1951, are summarized below:—

  • The Court is required to fix basic wages for adult male workers based on the needs of a man, wife, and three children, and also a basic wage for adult female workers. It must make general orders prescribing the basic wages which will apply to workers in any industry to which any award or industrial agreement relates. (See previous subsection—Basic Wage, &c.)

  • Restrictions are imposed on the formation of new unions in districts where a union in respect of the same industry exists; in fact, no such new union may be registered unless with the concurrence of the Minister of Labour. The concurrence of the Minister must similarly be obtained before any industrial union may alter its rules so as to include in its membership any employers or workers who could already properly belong to another existing industrial union or trade-union.

  • Provision is made for the registration of New Zealand unions covering all existing workers or employers, if all or the majority of district unions concur. In cases where no district union exists a New Zealand union may be formed, subject to compliance with the requirements of the principal Act in respect of registration of union's. The existing membership of unions and associations in national organizations such as the Federation of Labour was validated in 1951, with the provision that, in future, applications to join or leave any such organizations are to be made only when approved by a secret postal ballot of the unionists concerned.

  • All workers who are subject to any award or industrial agreement registered under (he Act must become members of a union. It is not lawful for an employer to employ or continue in employment, in any position or employment subject to an award or industrial agreement, any adult person who is not a member and has not been exempted from membership. Provision was made in 1951 for exemption from union membership on religious grounds if the applicant satisfies the Conscientious Objection Committee appointed under the Military Training Act, 1949, that his religious objections are genuine, and on payment of the amount equal to the subscription fixed to the Social Security Fund. (An amendment passed in 1943 provides that where a person who is obliged to become a member of a union fails to do so, he deemed to have committed a breach of the award or industrial agreement to which his employment is subject, and is liable to a penalty not exceeding £5 in respect of every such breach.) Non-members may, however, be employed in cases where union membership is limited and there are no union members available.

  • The Court may confer on union officials the right of entry on employers' premises.

  • Where it is deemed practicable the Court must fix the maximum hours of work per Meek (exclusive of overtime) at forty; while the Court could review existing awards to this end on application. The hours in such a review were to be fixed at forty, unless in the opinion of the Court such hours were impracticable. No reduction in weekly pay was to be made in consequence of reduced hours— i.e., the hourly rates were to be increased proportionately. The provisions stated in this paragraph came into operation on 1st September, 1936.

  • By the principal Act the maximum weekly union subscription had been fixed at 1s. This limitation was removed in 1936, but provision was macro in 1951 to the effect that rules requiring payment exceeding 1s. a week shall not be valid unless adopted by a majority of the votes at a secret postal ballot of the financial members. A similar proviso is contained in the 1951 amendment in respect of the payment of levies.

The 1947 amendment to the principal Act provides for the appointment of Deputy Judges of the Court of Arbitration. There is a section in the amendment dealing with the question of appeals to the Court from any decision of a Deputy Judge.

The administration of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act is in the bands of the Department of Labour and Employment, and Inspectors of Factories are charged with the duty of seeing that the provisions of awards and agreements are carried out. The following paragraphs indicate the procedure followed in regard to industrial disputes under the Act:—

  • An industrial union (or association of unions) of workers registered under the Act may cite a union or association of unions of employers, or an employer, or a number of employers, before a Council of Conciliation for the hearing of an industrial dispute before a Commissioner and assessors appointed from either side.

  • An industrial union (or association of unions) of employers registered under the Act, or an individual employer, or employers, may cite a union of workers in a similar manner. The workers may compel any of their employers to come under the Act; but the employers cannot compel their workers to come under it, unless the latter have registered as an industrial union or association thereunder; registration is voluntary.

  • If a settlement of a dispute is arrived at by the parties in the course of an inquiry held before a Council of Conciliation, the terms of the settlement are set forth as an industrial agreement. Applications for exemption from the terms of the agreement must be made within one month after it has been filed. The Court is empowered to grant or to refuse such applications. Where an agreement applies to the employers employing the majority of workers in the industry to which it relates, the agreement may be made binding on all employers, whether parties or not.

  • Every such agreement must be executed on behalf of the parties by the assessors representing the parties. If settlement cannot be arrived at before the Conciliation Council the matter is referred to the Court. The Council may at the same time submit a recommendation for the settlement of the dispute; whereupon the parties are notified of such recommendation, and if acceptable to them the recommendation is made an industrial agreement; failing agreement the matter is referred to the Court.

  • If a dispute comes before the Court, argument is heard upon the matters in debate, and the Court then makes its award, which becomes binding upon the employers specified in the award, upon any employers commencing business in the district subsequently to the date of the award, and upon all persons working for such employers. In all cases where an industrial agreement or accepted recommendation or award is filed, it becomes binding on all the parties. When an award or industrial agreement has been filed, a strike or lockout becomes unlawful. Section 11 of the 1951 amendment (in substitution for section 21 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1948 provides that (unless the parties otherwise agree) rates of wages specified in an award shall have effect from two months after the date first appointed for the hearing by the Conciliation Council, or where two or more districts are affected, four months after this date, or as from the date of the making of the award. whichever is the earlier, or as from such other date as the Court in its discretion thinks fit after taking into consideration all relevant matters.

  • Section 35 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1944, stipulates that no industrial dispute shall be referred for settlement to a Council of Conciliation by an industrial union (or association of unions) unless the proposed reference has been approved by resolution by the committee of management of the union or of each of the unions concerned, as the case may be.

  • The Statutes Amendment Act, 1946 (sections 34–37), stipulates that where an application has been made to a Conciliation Commissioner for the hearing of an industrial dispute by a Council of Conciliation, the claims made by the applicant may be amended or withdrawn at any time, whether before or during the hearing. Where any industrial dispute has been referred to the Court for settlement, or any application has been made to the Court under the principal Act, the reference or application may be withdrawn by the applicants at any time, whether before or during the hearing.

An important amendment to the Act was passed during the 1939 session. This empowers the Minister of Labour, if he is satisfied that any discontinuance of employment brought about wholly or partly by any industrial union of employers or of workers has caused, or is likely to cause, serious loss or inconvenience, to cancel the registration of the union concerned or to cancel any award or industrial agreement so far as it relates to it.

Section 22 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1948, extends the time within which action may be commenced for recovery of arrears of wages payable under an award or industrial agreement from twelve months to two years.

The 1951 amendment requires the rules of an industrial union to provide for the election of officers by secret ballot; empowers the Registrar to refuse to record any rule or amendment on the ground that it is unreasonable or oppressive (the decision may be the subject of an appeal); and contains provisions in respect of disputed elections in unions.

The 1951 amendment also enables provision to be made in any award or industrial agreement to the effect that any party to a dispute on a matter arising out of the award or agreement but not specifically dealt with therein may require the appointment of a Local Disputes Committee, which will have power to decide the dispute or to refer it to a Conciliation Commissioner. The latter in his discretion can refer the dispute either to a National Disputes Committee, which may be appointed where any award relates to two or more industrial districts or parts thereof, or to the Court of Arbitration. Appeals against the decisions of the Disputes Committees may be made to the Court of Arbitration.

New definitions of the terms “strike” and “lockout” were substituted by the 1951 amendment for those given in the principal Act (which apply also for the purposes of the Labour Disputes Investigation Act, 1913). A strike now means the act of any number of workers, who are or have been in the employment of the same or of different employers.—

  1. In discontinuing that employment, whether wholly or partially; or

  2. In breaking their contracts of service; or

  3. In refusing or failing after any such discontinuance to resume or return to their employment; or

  4. In refusing or failing to accept engagement for any work in which they are usually employed; or

  5. In reducing their normal output or their normal rate of work— the act being due to any combination, agreement, common understanding, or concerted action, whether express or implied, made or entered into by any workers—

  6. With intent to compel or induce any such employer to agree to terms of employment or comply with any demands made by the said or any other workers; or

  7. With intent to cause loss or inconvenience to any such employer in the conduct of his business; or

  8. With intent to incite, aid, abet, instigate, or procure any other strike; or

  9. With intent to assist workers in the employment of any other employer to compel or induce that employer to agree to terms of employment or comply with any demands upon him by any workers.

A lockout means—

  1. The act of an employer—

    1. In closing his place of business, or suspending or discontinuing his business in any branch thereof; or

    2. In discontinuing the employment of any workers, whether wholly or partially; or

    3. In breaking his contracts of service; or

    4. In refusing or failing to engage workers for any work for which he usually employs workers:

  2. Any other transaction in the nature of a lockout or combination, agreement, common understanding, or concerted action on the part of any employers related to or connected with the employment of workers, the act being intended or having a tendency to interfere with the manufacture, production, output, supply, delivery, or carriage of goods or articles or the carriage of persons in or in connection with any industry or undertaking, or otherwise to interfere with the effective conduct of any industry or undertaking.

Increased maximum penalties and fines for being a party to or inciting, instigating, or aiding an unlawful strike or lookout are also provided for—namely, (a) for a worker, £50 or (in the case of certain essential industries) £75; (b) for a union official, £250 or £350; (c) for a union or association or employer, £500 or £750. The maximum penalty for impeding or interfering with a secret ballot on the question of a strike or lockout is imprisonment for twelve months or a fine of £100, or both.

The provision in the 1947 amendment regarding the taking of a secret ballot by every industrial union of workers or of employers on questions relating to strikes and lockouts was supplemented in 1951 by making the union liable as having instigated any strike or lockout that takes place without a secret ballot having first been taken. The penalty in such a case is a line not exceeding £100 for every member of the union taking part in a strike, and every official of the union a fine of £500 unless he proves that he had no means of knowing the imminence of the strike or that he took every step possible to ensure compliance with the provision and to prevent the strike. Corresponding maximum penalties in respect of a lockout are £1,000 for a member of the union and £500 for an official.

Reference has been made in an earlier stage of this section to the stabilization of wages, &c. In this connection the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942 stipulated that no variation was to be made in the minimum rates of remuneration or the principal conditions of employment applying to any award, industrial agreement, or apprenticeship order except such adjustments of anomalies as the Court approved, having regard to the general purpose of the regulations. In February, 1945, amending regulations were issued giving the Court power to amend existing awards and agreements so as to adjust disparities in wages-levels. These regulations were revoked by the Economic Stabilization Regulations 1950. For the present situation in regard to the powers of the Court under the Economic Stabilization Regulations 1952, which revoked the 1950 regulations of similar title, the reader is referred to the paragraphs on stabilization on pages 829–830.

Labour Disputes Investigation Act.—Machinery for dealing with all disputes to which the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act does not relate is contained in the Labour Disputes Investigation Act, 1913.

Under this Act, if a dispute concerning wages or other conditions of employment arises between a society (or societies) of workers, whether registered or not, that is not bound by any award or industrial agreement and its employers, the society must, before it may strike, give to the Minister of Labour formal notice of the dispute, setting forth the names of the parties to the dispute and the claims made by the society. The Minister then refers the dispute to a Conciliation Commissioner to call a conference, or to a “Labour Disputes Committee” for investigation and recommendation, Such a committee consists of from one to three members chosen from each side, with an independent chairman. In the event of no settlement being arrived at, a secret ballot is taken by the Registrar of Industrial Unions among the members of the society as to whether, in the case of no recommendation having been made, a strike should eventuate; or, in the case of a recommendation having been made, as to whether the recommendation should be adopted. Seven days' notice must be given to the employers should a strike be decided upon.

Similar provisions apply with reference to the filing of a dispute and to a lockout by the employers.

In the event of an agreement being arrived at, it may be filed with the Clerk of Awards. It is then enforceable in the same manner as an industrial agreement under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

By this Act the principle of settlement of industrial disputes by conciliation and arbitration is extended to workers outside the scope of the Arbitration Court, so that definite restrictions on the right to strike or to lockout exist over the whole field of industry in New Zealand. The powers under this Act, are not, of course, as far-reaching as those under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, its main object being that workers or employers should take time for consideration of the points at issue and not precipitate themselves into industrial strife.

Strike and Lockout Emergency Regulations 1939.—These regulations were revoked during 1951. A short summary of their import was given on page 762 of the 1950 issue of the Year-Book.

Industrial Relations Act, 1949.—This measure contains a section enabling a Conciliation Commissioner or a person nominated by the Minister to call a compulsory conference of parties where there is reason to believe that a matter not provided for in the award or industrial agreement governing the industry is causing or is likely to cause industrial unrest.

39 E—APPRENTICESHIP AND TRADES CERTIFICATION LEGISLATION

APPRENTICESHIP LEGISLATION.—The statutory regulation of apprenticeship goes back as far as 1865, when a Masters and Apprentices Act was passed which provided for indentures of apprenticeship binding children above twelve years of age to farmers, tradesmen, and artisans for a term not exceeding five years. Every indenture was to contain a covenant on the part of the master that he would provide the apprentice with suitable food, clothing, and bedding, give particular attention to his morals, and pay certain sums into the savings-bank for him after his apprenticeship had exceeded two years. The Act was thus obviously framed with a view to providing for the welfare of orphans and destitute children.

Another Act was passed in 1875 which made provision for the apprenticing of boys to Government Departments for a term of not less than throe nor more than seven years. The Departments made available in the first instance were the Government Printing Office and the Railway Workshops. Wages were to be paid, no provision was made for board, and the Act was clearly intended primarily to meet the case of boys whoso parents were alive.

The Master and Apprentice Act of 1908 consolidated the above two Acts into an Act of two Parts, but made no essential change'.

A Master and Apprentice Amendment Act was passed in 1920, with a view to facilitating the apprenticing of immigrant or New Zealand boys between the ages of fifteen and nineteen to the occupation of farming until they were twenty years of age Part I of the principal Act of 1908 (dealing with the relations between master and apprentice) was to apply with some slight modifications.

Until 1923 no legislation was passed to make special provision for the apprentice who worked by the day for the private employer.* His case was regulated by the laws of England in so far as they were applicable to New Zealand, and by such provisions in regard to apprenticeship as the Arbitration Court might have included in its awards. The Apprentices Act of 1923 was a landmark, in so far as it provided an elaborate administrative machinery to safeguard the interests of apprentices.

The Act stated that from time to time the Arbitration Court should make orders regulating the wages, hours, and conditions of apprenticeship, the proportion of apprentices to journeymen that might be employed in any industry, the period of apprenticeship, and the minimum age of apprentices. It might also require employers to engage such number of apprentices as the Court might consider necessary to ensure an adequate supply of journeymen in the interests of the industry, order the transfer of an apprentice from one employer to another, order the attendance of any apprentice at a technical school or training establishment, prohibit any employer from employing an apprentice, enter the premises where an apprentice was employed in order to inquire into his welfare, and exercise a number of other powers. The Act applied to male apprentices only. Provision was made for the modification of apprenticeship conditions in the case of adults or of persons who were already partly trained. It also made provision for registration of every contract of apprenticeship and for the setting up of Apprenticeship Committees.

*The Shipping and Seamen Act of 1903 included some sections regulating the apprenticing of boys to ships.

The Secretary for Labour was to act as Registrar of Apprentices, and any Inspector of Factories might be appointed a District Registrar of Apprentices. Apart from registering contracts, these Registrars were to have the duty of ensuring that the Act was complied with, and they were to take proceedings for every breach of an apprenticeship contract. They were also given considerable scope for developing a system of vocational guidance, in so far as they were given powers to demand reports from the head teacher of any school as to the attainments and qualities of any child.

An amending Act of 1927 cancelled the power of the Court of Arbitration to determine the proportion of apprentices to journeymen that might be employed in any industry, while the amending Act of 1930 made some improvements in administration, dealt with the case of the unsatisfactory apprentice, and brought in further protective regulations. If an apprentice proved unsatisfactory, the employer might apply to the appropriate Apprenticeship Committee for the right to discharge him. The employer or the apprentice might appeal against this decision to a Stipendiary Magistrate. The interests of the apprentice were protected by regulations safeguarding his wages in the event of the employer's bankruptcy. The employer was to keep a wages and time book, and a copy of the apprenticeship order was to be affixed in a place where it might be easily read by the apprentice.

The economic depression had an unfavourable effect on the apprenticeship system. The Finance Act of 1931 conferred power on the Arbitration Court to vary the rates of remuneration payable under apprenticeship orders (though such a variation was not to apply to any contract of apprenticeship then in force). The Finance Act of 1932 stated that either party to an apprenticeship contract might apply to a Stipendiary Magistrate to have the contract of apprenticeship amended, cancelled, or suspended. If the Magistrate was satisfied that, owing to the economic conditions affecting the industry concerned or the particular business of the employer, the employer could not reasonably be expected to carry out the terms of his contract, be might cancel the contract.

The economic depression and its attendant legislation had thus considerably lessened the security and remuneration of the apprentice. The Finance Act of 1936 restored the rates of remuneration to the 1931 level and repealed the provision of the 1932 Finance Act in respect of the cancellation of apprenticeship contracts. Section 7 of the Statutes Amendment Act of the same year made partial provision for those whose contracts had been cancelled, in so far as it stated that any person of eighteen years or over might, with the approval of the Minister of Labour, enter into a special contract of apprenticeship with an employer.

The Second World War raised two new problems: that of the apprentice absent on military service for short periods, and the need for increasing production in certain industries, irrespective of whether they were carried on in private or public undertakings. Hence the Suspension of Apprenticeship Emergency Regulations, issued in 1939 and subsequently renewed, which provided that if apprentices were away on military service and returned within a period of six months the period of absence should be regarded as time served under the apprenticeship contract. Section 52 of the Statutes Amendment Act of 1941 permitted the temporary transfer of an apprentice from Government to private employment and vice versa subject to the consent of the apprentice and his parent.

The Suspension of Apprenticeship Emergency Regulations 1944 revoked the previous suspension orders, and made provision for apprenticeships which were deemed to be suspended as a result of military service to be revived within a period of six months of the termination of such service. Where a contract of apprenticeship was revived in accordance with these regulations, the term of the contract was to continue for the unexpired period as at the date of suspension, or for three years, whichever was the lesser period. The apprentice could, however, be credited with any period of his military service during which he performed trade work of the same class, or of a class related to that to which he was apprenticed.

Other provisions dealt with the wages payable under these revived contracts, special reference being made to cases in which the apprentice had reached the ago of twenty-one years or whose term of apprenticeship as prescribed by the contract had expired. Limitations contained in any Act, award, apprenticeship order, or agreement as to the age or number of apprentices, or the proportion of apprentices to journeymen, were deemed to have no application to such revived contracts. These regulations were revoked by the Military Training Act, 1919, which also made appropriate provision safeguarding the position of apprentices fulfilling their obligations under that Act.

The Apprentices Amendment Act, 1916, which came into force on 1st January, 1947, was the legislative consequence of the report of the Commission of Inquiry into apprenticeship and related matters set up in 1944. This Act made widespread changes in the traditional apprenticeship system of the country. In the first place it made provision for the appointment of a Commissioner of Apprenticeship and of four District Commissioners, who were to take over the functions of the District Registrars of Apprentices under the original Act. In industries where there are organizations of employers and workers, these organizations may agree to set up New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees, which may be registered in the usual way. These New Zealand Committees, which operate in addition to the existing “local” Committees, have a number of functions, winch, broadly, may be described as to supervise the flow of youths into the skilled trades, to apply to the Court of Arbitration for apprenticeship orders, to ensure proper training of apprentices, to consider whether it is practicable and desirable to introduce educational training during normal working-hours, and to consider the question of a practical test for each apprentice before the completion of his apprenticeship. The Act provided that certain powers of the Court of Arbitration in respect of apprentices may be delegated by it, partly to local Committees and partly to New Zealand Committees. From the date of the commencement of the Act no apprenticeship orders may be made in respect only of a specified locality, but must be made in respect of each industry or branch of industry for the whole of New Zealand.

In making apprenticeship orders the Court of Arbitration is empowered to apply the conditions of awards for the industry to apprentices, and to determine the wages of apprentices by reference to those of journeymen in the industry. By the Economic Stabilization Regulations 1952, the Court of Arbitration, in exercising its powers and functions in relation to the making of apprenticeship orders, is to have regard to the general purpose of the Economic Stabilization Act, 1948. The Court may, in an order, require an employer to pay to an apprentice wages for time taken during the day to attend a technical school, and may shorten the period of apprenticeship in the event of an apprentice obtaining a special qualification. On the making of a new order all contracts in force at the time are to be read subject to the new order and to be deemed modified by it. The hours of apprentices under eighteen years of ago are limited to forty per week and eight per day, and, where shift-work is involved, between 7 a.m. and 6 p.m. These limits may be exceeded if an apprenticeship order provides for the working of overtime by apprentices under eighteen years of age. Regulations may be made providing for the payment to any apprentice who is obliged to live away from home of amounts by way of lodging-allowance. Such allowances are to be paid out of moneys appropriated by Parliament for the purpose.

The Court may also make apprenticeship orders in respect of females, and, in that event, the Act applies to such females.

An important provision contained in the amendment was that requiring the previous consent of the appropriate Committee before a contract of apprenticeship is entered into. The provision for apprenticeship of persons of eighteen years or over contained in section 7 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1936, was repealed, and such apprenticeships may now be entered into subject to the approval of the Court of Arbitration, to which any proposed contract must be submitted, together with the recommendations of the District Commissioner or the local Committee. Where any employer is considered not to be able to provide adequate training, a local Committee or District Commissioner may transfer his apprentice to another employer who is willing and able to undertake the obligations of the original employer, notwithstanding that the second employer's proportion of apprentices to journeymen would thereby be exceeded. If in such a case no employer to whom the apprentice might be transferred can be found, the Court may, with the consent of the appropriate Minister, transfer him to a State Department.

In 1948 the opportunity was taken to re-enact the provisions of the Apprentices Act, 1923, and its amendments by the passing of a consolidating and amending measure entitled the Apprentices Act, 1948. This Act incorporated the widespread changes in the traditional apprenticeship system which wore brought into being by the 1946 amendment referred to earlier. More modern forms of words were employed in the new legislation, and the clauses were arranged in a more logical sequence. The principles of the existing legislation, however, were not altered although some slight amendments, which are described below, were made. The 1948 Act also repealed the Master and Apprentice Act, 1908, and the Apprentices Act, 1923.

In the 1948 legislation the term “industry” has been redefined so as to correspond with that given in the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1925.

A series of minor amendments covers the constitution of the Apprenticeship Committees. Where the Committee is appointed in respect of a group of industries it is to consist of four representatives of employers and four representatives of workers. Other clauses limit the term of office of members of Committees to three years, provide for a quorum and for the replacement of members who die or resign, and further authorizes a Committee to delegate its powers of inspection to two non-members of the Committee where it would be inconvenient for members to exercise those powers.

Additional provisions contained in the 1948 Act state that contracts of apprenticeship shall have no validity until consent is given in accordance with the Act; define the procedure when an apprentice is transferred; amplify the law applicable when an apprentice loses his employment through the insolvency of his employer; afford a parent or guardian an opportunity of being heard when an application is made to discharge an apprentice; and provides for notice to be given to the appropriate Committee in the event of an appeal against the granting or refusal of leave to discharge an apprentice.

Moneys due under a contract of apprenticeship may he recovered in the same manner as that provided in respect of recovery of wages in the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1925. The Apprentices Act further provides that proceedings for breaches of the Act may be taken by an Inspector of Factories.

TRADES CERTIFICATION.—The Trades Certification Act, 1948, provided for the-establishment of the New Zealand Trades Certification Board, consisting of the following members:—

  1. Three persons to be appointed on the recommendation of the Director of Education, one of the three to be appointed as Chairman of the Board on the Director's recommendation:

  2. Two persons to be nominated by the New Zealand Employers' Federation and two by the New Zealand Federation of Labour:

  3. Two persons to be nominated by the New Zealand Technical School Teachers' Association and one by the Technical Education Association:

  4. The person for the time being holding the office of Commissioner of Apprenticeship:

  5. Three other persons, one of whom is to be nominated by the New Zealand Electrical Wiremen's Registration Board, one by the New Zealand Motor Trade Certification Board, and one by the Plumbers' Board of New Zealand:

  6. Additional members of whom one shall be nominated by each other authority which conducts examinations and issues certificates for the whole of New Zealand in connection with a particular trade or trades, and which the Board recommends should be represented on the Board for the time being.

The members of the Board, other than the Commissioner of Apprenticeship, are to be appointed by the Minister of Education for a term of three years. Provision is made for reappointments, removals from office, &c.

The functions of the Board are to make provision for the examination of persons practising or intending to practise any trade who desire from time to time to present themselves for examination, and, secondly, to grant or issue, either independently or in. conjunction with any other examining body, diplomas or certificates to any such persons in recognition of proficiency in any trade, or in any art, science, or matter relating to any trade.

The Board may also (a) co-opt if necessary any person of persons for advice in connection with any trade; (b) make representations to the appropriate New Zealand Apprenticeship Committee in regard to the pre-requisite education for apprentices wishing to enter any industry, or in regard to other educational matters affecting apprentices; appoint, with approval of the Minister, Advisory or Technical Committees to advise the Board on such matters within the scope of its powers and functions as are referred to them by the Board, and appoint any person to be a member of such a Committee even if he is not a member of the Board; and, in addition, charge fees for entry for any examination.

Payments incurred for the expenses of the Board and for administration generally are paid from the proceeds from fees and otherwise, and where the amounts from such sources are insufficient the deficiency is to be met from the annual vote for the Education Department.

39 F —WORKERS' COMPENSATION, EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT LEGISLATION

WORKERS' COMPENSATION.—Common-law rights of the worker in respect of compensation were early increased by the Employers Liability Act of 1882; while the Deaths by Accidents Compensation Act, 1908, gave a right of action winch did not previously exist at common law to certain of the relatives of a person killed by a wrongful act. The 1950 amendment to this latter Act extended the limitation period for actions (other than those against the Crown and public and local authorities) from one year to two years and enables the Court to extend the period to six years.

The Law Reform Act of 1936 contained several provisions of particular relevance to the subject of workers' compensation. The Act, inter alia, created a charge on all insurance-moneys payable as indemnity for compensation, and made the charge apply immediately on the happening of the event giving rise to the claim. Similar provisions (now repealed) existed in the Workers' Compensation Act, 1922, but under that Act no charge was created unless the insured was insolvent or became bankrupt. The Workers' Compensation Amendment Act, 1943, made it obligatory on the part of an employer to insure against his liability under the principal Act unless he was able to satisfy the Compensation Court that he had adequate financial resources to meet all probable claims. Another provision of particular interest in the Law Reform Act, 1936, was the abolition of the defence of “common employment,” which defence depended on a rule that damages could not be recovered from an employer in respect of the negligence of a fellow-servant. A similar provision in the Workers' Compensation Act (but with a limit of £1,000 damages) was consequentially repealed.

The Contributory Negligence Act, 1947, is also of relevance to the question of workers' compensation, This Act provides for an apportionment of damages where a person suffering damage has himself been guilty of contributory negligence. Section 4 makes appropriate provisions in the case of claims by workers against employers. The Act was amended by section 4 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1948, which removed any possible doubt by expressly stating that the principal Act was to bind the Crown.

The Workers' Compensation Act, 1922, with its amendments of 1922, 1926, 1936, 1938 (Statutes Amendment Act). 1943, 1944 (Statutes Amendment Act), 1945, 1947, 1948 (Statutes Amendment Act), 1949, 1950, and 1951, represents the existing law on workers' compensation—subject to the provisions briefly outlined in the preceding paragraphs. The 1936 amendment, which came into force on 1st January, 1937, contained several important amendments to the previous legislation. The definition of “worker” was extended to include share-farmers and drivers of vehicles who receive a share in the takings as payment for their services, or who pay a fixed sum for the hire of the vehicle (other than under the terms of a hire-purchase agreement). While a share-farmer now comes within the provisions of the Act, he is still regarded as the employer in respect of persons employed by him. The 1945 amendment further extended the scope of the Act to include industrial life-assurance agents.

The 1936 amendment contains a provision whereby claims for compensation rank equally with wages in the distribution of the assets of a bankrupt.

“Worker,” for purposes of the Workers' Compensation Act, means any person who has entered into, or works under, a contract of service or apprenticeship with an employer, whether by way of manual labour, clerical work, or otherwise, and whether remunerated by wages, salary, or otherwise. Prior to the commencement of the amending Act of 1945, non-manual workers whose remuneration exceeded £400 per annum were not covered, but this disqualification has now been removed, and all workers (manual and non-manual) are now afforded the protection of the Act, irrespective of the amount of remuneration. By section 61 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1949, the Workers' Compensation Act, 1922, applies to the employment of any worker in any occupation, whether or not the employment is in or for the purposes of any trade or business carried on by the employer, and whether or not the employment is of a casual nature. For purposes of this provision, an employer may have more than one trade or business. In general, persons working as independent contractors are not under contracts of service or apprenticeship, and are consequently not “workers.” But by way of exception, persons who have contracted to perform any work in a gold-or coal-mine, or to cut standing timber or scrub, or to clear land of stumps or logs, and who do not sublet the contract or employ labour (or who, if they do employ labour, actually perform part of the work themselves), though not “workers,” are yet covered by the Act.

The worker is not entitled to compensation unless he sustains by accident arising out of and in the course of his employment, and happening within New Zealand or on a New Zealand ship or aircraft, personal injury incapacitating him from carrying on his occupation. The Workers' Compensation Amendment Act, 1947, replacing largely similar provisions in the 1943 amendment, provides that, where an accident causing personal injury occurs while travelling to or from work by a means of transport provided by the employer primarily for the purpose of conveying workers in his employment, or expressly or impliedly authorized by him, such accident shall be deemed to arise out of and in the course of the employment. The Act also applies in cases where an employer has arranged with the worker or appropriate union for the transportation of the worker and has paid or is liable to pay for his fare or cost of carriage. No compensation is payable in respect of any accident as above defined which is attributable to the serious and wilful misconduct of the worker injured, unless the injury results in death or serious and permanent disablement. No compensation is payable in respect of the death of a worker following on, or incapacity resulting from or aggravated by, unreasonable refusal to submit to medical or surgical treatment.

Diseases are deemed to be personal injuries by accident if they arise within twelve months previous to the date of disablement and are due to the nature of the employment. If the worker contracts any disease in respect of which ho would be entitled to a miner's benefit under the Social Security Act, 1938, he is not entitled to receive any compensation under the principal Act while receiving such benefit. Nor can a benefit be paid for any period during which the worker is receiving compensation, and no lump-sum compensation is to be paid for any incapacity caused by such diseases.

Generally speaking, the employer is the person liable to pay compensation; and for this purpose “employer” includes any body of persons, corporate or unincorporate, the Crown (with certain minor exceptions), and the representatives of a deceased employer. Where a person (the principal), in the course of and for the purposes of his trade or business, contracts with another (the contractor) for the execution by the latter of work undertaken by the former, a workman employed by the contractor on meeting with an accident may claim compensation from either the principal or the contractor, except in certain cases. If the principal pays, he may, however (with certain minor exceptions), recover the amount from the contractor. The 1943 amendment introduced the principle of compulsory insurance, all employers being required to insure against their liability in relation to workers' compensation under the Act. Exceptions may be made where the Court is satisfied that the employers have adequate financial resources to meet all probable claims and that their workers can be given indemnities as great as those provided by employers not so exempted. The principal is not liable unless the accident occurs on or about his land, premises, or ship; or on or about land, promises, or ship on or in which the principal has contracted to do the work in connection with which the accident happens. Provision was made in the 1947 amendment for the principal Act to apply to any accident which happens to an airman employed on a New Zealand aircraft in any employment covered by the Act, whether the accident happens in New Zealand or elsewhere, or on board the aircraft or elsewhere. Where the injury for which compensation is payable has resulted under circumstances creating a legal liability in some person other than the employer to pay damages in respect thereof, the person by whom the compensation is paid or payable is entitled to indemnification by the person so liable.

The Workers' Compensation Amendment Act, 1947, is also of importance by virtue of its provisions relating to employers' indemnity. Under section 6 of the amendment, workers' compensation insurance became, with certain exceptions, a monopoly of the Branch of the State Fire Insurance Office known as the Government Accident Insurance Office. By the Act an automatic indemnity was provided for every employer who employed a worker or workers to whom the principal Act applied, while it also provided for the compulsory payment of premiums by employers. Other sections included in the amendment relate to accident prevention and the occupational training of seriously disabled workers.

The 1950 amendment, however, restored the right of insurance companies to undertake, as from the 1st April, 1951, employer's liability insurance. It is still compulsory for every employer to insure against his liability in this respect unless exempted by the Secretary of Labour. Employers with adequate financial resources to carry their own insurance and Commonwealth shipping companies indemnified by United Kingdom mutual protecting clubs may be completely or partially exempted, though they are exempted only in respect of those who are members or eligible to become members or be insured according to the rules of the company concerned. The 1951 (No. 2) amendment exempted the National Airways Corporation and the Linen Flax Corporation from the provisions of employers' liability insurance.

Maximum rates of premiums are provided for in regulations which may be made from time to time. Other sections of the 1950 amendment provide that an employer must give notice to his insurer of every accident and claim for compensation; that the employer must not settle a claim or admit liability without the consent in writing of the insurer; for the voluntary insurance of workers who are members of the employers' family, or are not required to be covered by insurance, or are employed without wages or at reduced wages; and that an employer who makes default in insuring within the time provided (one month after assessment) will be indemnified by the Workers' Compensation Board, and be required to insure with an authorized insurer with payment of the premiums for the whole of the current year.

The Workers' Compensation Board, consisting of the State Fire Insurance General Manager and one other Government representative, two representatives of the Council of Fire and Accident Insurance Underwriters' Associations of New Zealand, one employers' representative, and one workers' representative, was also established by the 1950 amendment to the principal Act. The functions of the Board include recommending the maximum rates of premiums and rates of commission for insurance agents, administering the Workers' Compensation Account established by the same amendment, undertaking and assisting accident prevention, research into causes, incidence, and prevention of accidents, and the care and assistance of injured workers.

Authorized insurers are enabled to charge penal rates of premiums, up to 25 per cent. in excess of the prescribed maximum rates, where normal safety requirements are not complied with, subject to a right of appeal to the Workers' Compensation Board.

Employers are required to keep records of wages paid and time worked, while the production of books and the furnishing of information to insurers or to the Board is also allowed for in the Act.

The Workers' Compensation Amendment Acts of 1926, 1936, 1947, 1949, 1950, and 1951 amended the Act of 1922 in the direction of raising the limits of compensation. The compensation payable at present is as follows:—

  1. In case of death: Reasonable expenses of medical or surgical attendance, including first aid, and of funeral (maximum, £50), plus—

    1. Where he leaves total dependants, a sum equal to 250 times his average weekly earnings, or the sum of £750, whichever is the larger, but not exceeding £2,000; or

    2. Where he leaves partial dependants only, a sum reasonable and proportionate to the injury to those dependants, but not exceeding the sums specified in (a).

    Where the amount of compensation payable in respect of death plus the sum of any weekly payments (or lump sum in lieu) paid by way of compensation for the accident prior to the death of the injured worker exceeds £2,300, the excess is deducted from the amount payable in respect of death.

  2. In ease of injury: At the discretion of the Court, either—

    1. During total incapacity, weekly payments equal to 75 per cent. of the worker's weekly earnings at the time of the accident, notwithstanding that' he may not have actually worked or the employment may not have actually continued for a full week (maximum £7 10s. per week; minimum £2); during partial incapacity, weekly payments for a period not exceeding six years amounting to 75 per cent. of the difference between the amount of the weekly earnings before the accident and the weekly amount which the worker is earning or able to earn in suitable employment or business after the accident, hut not exceeding £7 10s. per week; or

    2. (b A lump sum equal to the present value at 3 per cent. per annum compound interest of the aggregate weekly payments which, in the opinion of the Court, would probably become payable to the worker under (a).

The aggregate amount of weekly payments is not to exceed £2,000. In the case of the temporary incapacity of an apprentice or a worker under twenty-one years of age, the weekly payment must not exceed an amount equal to a full week's earnings at the time of the accident. An injured worker is entitled to additional compensation of 30s. per week for any period during which he requires constant personal attendance and is not being maintained free of charge in a hospital. This additional compensation is not to be taken into account in the computation of the maximum amount of compensation payable in respect of the accident giving rise to the claim.

Weekly payments of compensation may not be discontinued or diminished except in the following cases:—

  1. Where the weekly payment is in respect of total disablement and the worker has actually returned to work:

  2. By agreement with the worker:

  3. With leave of the Compensation Court:

  4. By judgment or order of a Court of competent jurisdiction:

  5. After being in force for a period of six years (non-schedule injuries):

  6. Where the weekly payment is in respect of total disablement and the medical' practitioner has certified that the worker is lit to resume work, or that he will be fit to resume work on a specified date (being a date not later than the date on which the weekly payments are ended).

The Compensation Court has power to declare, in any case to which (f) above applies, that the worker was not in fact fit to resume work, and that the ending of payments was not lawful. The further amount to he paid in weekly payments and additional penalty (if any) is at the discretion of the Court. Any such ending of payments is also not to be taken into account by the Court in determining whether or not the worker is entitled to compensation.

If the employer wrongfully terminates or diminishes weekly compensation payments, ho is liable to pay double compensation to the worker.

A sum not exceeding £1 is payable in respect of medical and surgical attendance and first aid to the worker in respect of his injury. In addition, amendments to the Act make provision for the transport of the injured worker to a hospital, medical practitioner, and/or place of residence, and also for the provision of or payment of expenses of transport, meals, or lodging up to a maximum of £25 where an injured worker is required to travel to and from another town in order to obtain necessary medical or surgical treatment. The 1947 amendment also states that the employer is liable to pay, in addition to any of the compensation moneys payable under the principal Act, the cost of an artificial limb, &c., which may become necessary or desirable. This was extended by the Statutes Amendment Act, 1949, to cover the cost of replacing or repairing damage to teeth artificial dentures, &c., to a maximum value of £10.

No compensation was payable if incapacity lasted less than three days until the passing of the Workers' Compensation Amendment Act (No. 2), 1951, from which date this limitation was removed. In the ease of certain injuries involving permanent disability (e.g., dismemberment or loss of use), compensation is assessed in accordance with a schedule to the Act, representing a proportion (varying according to the nature of the dismemberment) of the compensation payable in the case of total incapacity. Compensation is also recoverable in respect of a period of illness resulting from such an injury, but any sum so received in excess of £250 (£300 from passing of 1951 (No. 2) amendment) is taken into account in estimating the compensation payable in accordance with this schedule. In the ease of injury to workers whose earnings at the date of the accident are low by reason of their being at the time under twenty-one, or of their being apprenticed to a trade, &c., the amount of compensation in eases of permanent incapacity is based on the adult rates of pay. Section 69 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1944, extended this provision to cover partly-trained workers over twenty-one years of age.

Proceedings under the Act in respect of compensation for injuries are not maintainable by a worker unless written notice of the accident has been given to the employer as soon as possible after its occurrence; though the Court has power to excuse failure, duo to reasonable causes, to give that notice on the part of the person injured, or if it is clear that the absence of such notice has not prejudiced the employer's position. Except where the Court excuses delay resulting from mistake or other reasonable cause, proceedings must be taken within six months of the date of the accident or the date of the last payment of compensation in respect of injury, or the date of the death of the person injured, whichever is the later. Formerly such proceedings were taken in the Arbitration Court, but regulations issued on 1st March, 1940, under authority of section 70 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1939, established a separate Court known as the Compensation Court for the hearing of workers' compensation cases. This Court has all the powers inherent in a Court of record, and all references in the Workers' Compensation Act. 1922, or in the Workers' Compensation Rules 1939 to the Court of Arbitration are now deemed to be references to the Compensation Court. In certain eases proceedings are heard in a Magistrate's Court. The Court may accept, admit, and call for such evidence as in equity and in good conscience it thinks fit, irrespective of whether strictly legal evidence or not. Costs lie at the discretion of the Court. There is no right of appeal, but for good cause, orders or agreements in respect of compensation may be reviewed and even set aside by the Court at any time.

The right of a dependant who survives a worker to receive compensation for thy death of that worker survives the dependant; and compensation can be recovered by the representative of that dependant. In addition to redefinition of the terms “total dependants” and “partial dependants,” the 1947 amendment provided that dependency is to be determined as at the date of death of the worker. Section 47 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1948, states that in assessing compensation no account is to be taken of any gain to dependants consequent on the death of a worker. It thus applies to claims for compensation under the Workers' Compensation Act, 1922, the same provisions as apply by virtue of section 7 of the Law Reform Act, 1936, in cases of claims for damages under the Deaths by Accidents Compensation Act, 1908.

EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT LEGISLATION.—Prior to the depression period of the early “thirties,” there was little permanent effective legislation to cope with the problem of unemployment. In 1895 a Servants Registry Act provided for the inspection of servants registry-offices and regulated the fees charged therein. The Labour Department was founded in 1891 and attempted, particularly through its Employment Bureaux, to cope with the problem. In 1928 a Committee was set up to examine this matter, which was becoming increasingly more serious; and, following on the presentation of its report, an Unemployment Act was placed on the statute-book during the 1930 session of Parliament.

An Unemployment Board was established to assist in the administration of the Act. The main functions of the Board as set out in the Act were: (1) To make arrangements with employers or prospective employers for the employment of unemployed persons; (2) to take such steps in accordance with the provisions of the Act as it considered necessary to promote the growth of primary and secondary industries in New Zealand, so that an increasing number of workers would be required for the efficient carrying-on of such industries; (3) to make recommendations for the payment of sustenance allowances out of the Unemployment Fund.

The Act of 1930 authorized the payment of sustenance allowances out of the Unemployment Fund, but the activities of the Board were directed towards the placing of men in employment in preference to the payment of sustenance, the funds being mainly devoted to the subsidizing (or refunding in full) of wages of men for whom work was provided under various relief schemes. A 1934 amendment to the Act, inter alia, repealed a subsection of the original Act, which, in effect, had limited to a maximum of thirteen weeks the unbroken period during which sustenance might be paid to any one individual.

The Immigration Restriction Amendment Act of 1931, which empowered the Governor-General to make regulations restricting the number of immigrants entering the country, aimed, inter alia, at preventing an unwanted inflow increasing the number of those unemployed. Its operation was extended in 1933 and 1935, and it expired on 31st December, 1936.

The Employment Promotion Act, 1936, replaced and repealed the Unemployment Act, 1930, and other legislation relating to unemployment. The Unemployment Board was abolished, the new Act being administered by the Department of Labour. An Employment Promotion Fund was established (deemed to be the same fund as the Unemployment Fund established under the Unemployment Act, 1930), the revenue of the fund being derived from the employment tax, fees, and penalties under the Act, and any other moneys appropriated by Parliament for the purpose. The main purposes for which the moneys in the fund were to be utilized were defined as follows:—

  1. The development of primary and secondary industries in New Zealand, and the establishment of new industries, so that an increasing number of workers would be required for the efficient carrying-on of such industries:

  2. The making of arrangements with employers or prospective employers for the employment of persons who were out of employment:

  3. The assistance, in accordance with the provisions of the Act, of persons who were out of employment or were otherwise in need of assistance.

By the Social Security Act, 1938, provision was made for unemployment benefits, superseding the former sustenance payments, to become available as from 1st April, 1939. The Employment Promotion Fund was abolished as from 30th September, 1939, and the moneys transferred to the Social Security Fund. The amounts of, and qualifications for, benefits will be found on page 619 of this Year-Book.

Although the Employment Promotion Act was repealed by the Social Security Act, the functions of the Employment Division of the Labour Department continued to include the promotion of work and industry for the absorption of surplus labour, and the placing in close contact of employers with employees through the medium of the State Placement Service. The Employment Division was placed under the control of the National Service Department (a wartime creation), but the Employment Act, 1945, created out of the National Service Department a Department of State known as the National Employment Service, the principal function of which is broadly defined as the “promotion and maintenance of full employment at all times.” In 1947 the National Employment Service and the Department of Labour wore amalgamated to form the Department of Labour and Employment. Further reference in regard to its activities is included in Section' 40, Employment and Unemployment.

39 G—HOUSING AND TENANCY LEGISLATION

HOUSING LEGISLATION.—The first legal provision in connection with housing was contained in the Factories Act of 1894, which gave Inspectors of Factories power to inspect accommodation provided for shearers and to demand improvements where necessary. More effective powers in this connection were contained in the Shearers' Accommodation Act, 1898. The Agricultural Labourers' Accommodation Act of 1908 extended this legislation and provided for the inspection of housing of agricultural labourers and flax-mill workers. In 1912 the sawmill worker was also included. The Agricultural Workers Act, 1936, and regulations issued thereunder, laid down detailed specifications as to what constituted satisfactory accommodation and superseded the Act of 1908. Statutory regulations issued in 1937 prescribed further details, and stated that the regulations were to apply to the accommodation of persons employed in agricultural, pastoral, horticultural, flax-milling, and sawmilling work.

The Joint Family Homes Act, 1950, as amended in 1951, supersedes the Family Homes Protection Act, 1895, which was consolidated as Part I of the Family Protection Act, 1908, and makes it possible, on certain conditions, to establish a family home not exceeding £5,000 in value.

The 1950 Act aims at promoting a sense of dual ownership under which the family home will belong, not to the husband or wife separately, but to both of them jointly so as to pass to the survivor on the death of one of them. To encourage the adoption of the new scheme, provision is made that, provided the settler is solvent at the date of the settlement, the settled home shall be protected against the claims of creditors to the extent of £2,000, and shall to the same amount be exempt from death duties when it passes on the death of one of the beneficiaries to the survivor. The settled home is also protected from gift duty and stamp duty on the creation of the settlement.

The advances to settlers legislation of 1894 provided for State advances on mortgage to the owners of farming lands, and in 1899 this provision was extended to urban lands. Many of these advances would, no doubt, be used for building purposes, but no direct effort in the matter of providing housing-accommodation was made until 1905. In that year a Workers' Dwelling Act was passed authorizing the Minister of Labour to erect dwellings to be let to bona fide workers at a rental of 5 per cent. per annum of the capital value of such dwellings; and, in the following year, a system of advances to workers for the purpose of acquiring homes was instituted. By an amendment passed in 1922, workers could borrow for purpose up to 95 per cent. of the value of their security. To cope with the demobilisation after the First World War the Housing Act of 1919 provided for the erection of dwellings not only by the State, but also by local authorities, employers, associations of public servants, and public-utility societies, the State advancing the money. The administration of this Act was later transferred to the State Advances Department, now the State Advances Corporation. Local authorities are also empowered to obtain special loans from the State Advances Corporation to erect workers' dwellings for letting, and are granted certain concessions in carrying out this activity by the Municipal Corporations Act, 1933. They are also empowered to guarantee loans for the erection of flats, subject to the consent of the Local Government Loans Board. There is much incidental legislation, as in the Coal Mines Act and the Government Railways Act, where provision is made for the suitable housing of employees.

The 1948 and 1950 amendments to the Municipal Corporations Act, 1933, also contain, inter alia, provisions for granting loans for housing purposes up to a limit of £2,020 (see page 525).

Housing regulations are contained in the Municipal Corporations Act, where definite measurements are laid down to prevent overcrowding, and provision is made for the appointment of Inspectors to reduce fire-risk and other dangers. Similarly the Health Act of 1920, which replaced the Public Health Act of 1908, provides for medical inspection and for sanitation minima; an owner may be ordered to cleanse or demolish his building, or to close it till certain alterations are made. The Town Planning Acts of 1926 and 1929 aimed to develop and reconstruct areas in such a way as to promote their healthfulness and convenience.

In 1935, as a preliminary to measures for remedying the existing position in regard to housing, a Housing Survey Act was passed, instructing local authorities to ascertain as far as possible the extent to which the existing housing accommodation in their respective districts fell short of reasonable requirements. At the same time a Maori Housing Act empowered the Board of Maori Affairs to make advances to Maoris for the purchase, erection, or repair of dwellings. A section of the Maori Housing Amendment Act, 1938, established a special fund to provide houses for those Maoris unable to furnish the security or to make the payments which the Hoard would ordinarily require. In addition to the provision of housing under the Maori Housing Act, dwellings for Maoris are provided in the ordinary course of the Maori land development schemes Particulars of the numbers of houses erected, &c., are included in Section 23.

Further provision with respect to the improvement of housing conditions is contained in the Housing Improvement Act, 1945. The Act authorizes the making of regulations prescribing the standard of fitness of houses, and gives local authorities certain powers of enforcing the regulations or of assisting owners to comply with them. When a notice is given under the Act by a local authority requiring the owner to demolish a house which cannot be made to comply with the regulations, the Act makes it clear that alternative accommodation must be provided only for the persons residing in the house at the time of the service of the notice, and it is an offence for any ether persons to commence to occupy the house after the notice has been served. In default of action by the local authority the Minister of Works is given power to act. or he may act under agreement with the local authority. Provision is also made for regulations requiring local authorities to keep a register of houses and to acquire land where a house is unfit for habitation or an area is below the minimum standard. The Act also deals with the reclamation of overcrowded areas, and gives power to local authorities with regard to the proclamation of reclamation areas and the re-subdivision and improvement of such areas.

The provision of housing facilities for workers has been and is a very important part of the policy of the Government. Apart from the facilities for the building of homes provided for in the State Advances Corporation Act (see Section 25D), a comprehensive housing plan was launched in March, 1937, whereby the legislative machinery provided in the Housing Act, 1919, is being used to build homes to be let to workers at a reasonable rental. Provision is contained in the Finance Act (No. 3), 1943, for the tenant of a State rental house to make arrangements whereby, in consideration of special payments, he becomes entitled to remain the occupier of the dwelling rent free or at a reduced rental on attaining a specified age. The arrangement may also permit his widow to become the occupier on the same terms, or entitle him to nominate any of his children to become the tenant after his death. Tenants of State rental houses are also being given the opportunity to buy the houses they occupy, and the legislative provision in this connection is contained in sections 22–27 of the Finance Act, 1950. Subject to any direction of the Minister of Finance, such houses may be sold for cash or under agreement for sale in such manner and on such terms as the Board of Management of the State Advances Corporation may decide. Particulars of the main terms of sale are given on page 607 of this volume. An account of the housing programme under the Housing Act, and its progress to date, is included in Section 23, Building, Construction, and Housing. Further provision of housing facilities in rural localities is contained in the Rural Housing Act, 1939, which empowers local authorities to advance money to a farmer to enable him to provide a dwelling for his own use or for the use of any farm worker principally employed by him.

The Local Authorities (Temporary Housing) Emergency Regulations 1944 gave power to local authorities to establish transit housing centres for the purpose of providing temporary accommodation for persons who are awaiting the provision of permanent housing accommodation.

TENANCY AND RENTS LEGISLATION.—Certain sections of the War Legislation Amendment Act of 1916 dealt with house-rents, the maximum rent being fixed at 8 per cent. per annum of the capital value of the dwelling. Material alterations in the law were made by the Rent Restriction Act, 1926. Rent-restriction provisions were kept in force by annual continuing statutes up to 31st October, 1936, when the earlier legislation was superseded by the Fair Rents Act, 1936.

The Distress and Replevin Amendment Act, 1950, repealing the 1936 amendment, protects all personal and family clothing, furniture, household effects, and tools or implements of trade, to the value of £100 from seizure under a distress order for rent. The pre-existing legislation on this subject did not protect such effects from seizure.

Provisions for statutory reductions in rent and interest payments were contained in the National Expenditure Adjustment Act of 1932, continued by the Finance Act, 1934, and made permanent in 1936; while Courts were given power to reduce rents and mortgage interest by the mortgage-relief legislation of the depression period, consolidated in the Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act, 1932. The Fair Rents Act, 1936, which replaced the various measures referred to above, is briefly described in the following paragraphs.

The Fair Rents Act, 1936, made temporary provision for the restriction of increases in the rent of certain classes of dwellinghouses, and for the determination of fair rents in respect of such houses. The Act applied, generally speaking, to dwellings actually let at the time the Act was passed (June, 1936) or let at any time between 27th November, 1935, and the date of the passing of the Act. It did not apply to other dwellings or to any dwelling let at a rent exceeding £156 per annum. The rent of a dwelling coming within the scope of the Act could not be raised beyond the “basic rent” which was defined as the rent payable on 1st May, 1936; or, in the case of dwellings not lot on that date, the rent last payable before that date. On application of either the landlord or the tenant, a Stipendiary Magistrate was empowered to declare a fair rent in respect of any dwelling to which the Act applied. having regard to various specified conditions—e.g., the relative circumstances of landlord and tenant. The fair rent was not to exceed the basic rent or the rent (if any) payable on 27th November, 1935. The grounds for the recovery of possession were limited by the Act, while restrictions were imposed on the right of the landlord to distrain. The Act was to remain in force until 30th September, 1937, but its operation was extended from time to time, and in fact its provisions remained in force until superseded by those of the Tenancy Act, 1948.

The 1936 Act did not apply to flats and apartment-houses, but an amendment passed in 1939 extended its provisions to cover buildings constructed for letting as more than two separate flats or apartments, all flats or apartments not originally constructed for letting separately, and flats and apartments where parts of premises were shared. The 1939 amendment also made provision for the making of regulations for the purpose of regulating charges in respect of residential accommodation with attendance or services.

The Fair Rents Amendment Act, 1942, extended the application of the principal Act to all premises let as dwellinghouses, including those where part only was used as such. The “basic rent” was then defined as follows:—

  1. With reference to a dwellinghouse let as such on 1st September, 1942, the rent payable on that date:

  2. With reference to a dwellinghouse that was not let on that date, the rent that was last payable.

The Act made it an offence to refuse to lot a dwelling on the grounds that the applicant had children. It also provided certain safeguards in respect of members of the Armed Forces in their capacity as tenants or landlords.

The application of the Fair Rents Act was further extended by section 27 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1946, to include premises occupied for residential purposes by two or more persons severally. In such cases the total of the several amounts payable was deemed to be the rent of the premises. Section 28 of the same Act also extended the provision of the Fair Rents Act to cover premises where meals or food were provided by the landlord, unless the value of the meals or food formed a substantial portion of the rent.

As previously stated, the Fair Rents Act applied only to premises et as dwelling-houses, but the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942 provided for the stabilization of all other rents, whether on account of land or buildings. The basic rent under these regulations had the same meaning as in the case of the Fair Rents Act, and rents that might be charged were restricted accordingly. On the application of the landlord or tenant of any property the Court might make an order determining the fair rent of that property.

The basic rent or fair rent (if any) of any land established under the Fair Rents Act or the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations was taken into account in determining the basic rent of such land for the purposes of the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act, 1943.

The Fair Rents Amendment Act, 1947, included the following provisions. The basic rent for a dwellinghouse was not to be affected by variations in tenancies as to furniture, &c., or by subletting; tenancy registers were to be kept by the landlord; no fine or premium was to be chargeable for tenancy or renewal or transfer, while provision was made for recovery of possession of a dwellinghouse for a serviceman who vacated it to become a serviceman, and the absolute protection of a serviceman tenant was also modified.

A further part of the 1947 amendment was concerned with the letting of unoccupied houses. It empowered local authorities to serve notice to the owners requiring them to let such houses. Conditions were laid down governing appeals against notices given by local authorities to the above effect. On default of action by the owner, the house could be let by the State Advances Corporation, the rent received to be paid to the owner, less commission and expenses. Power was given to enter and inspect any premises for the purposes of this portion of the Act to any person so authorized by any local authority.

The Tenancy Act, 1948, repealed the considerable body of the Fair Rents legislation passed during the period 1936–47. In effect, however, it consolidated the former legislation, including Part III of the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942, while at the same time it introduced several important amendments. The main alterations to the existing law together with amendments contained in the Tenancy Amendment Act, 1950, are referred to below.

The provisions as to rent restriction of tenancies (inclusive of subtenancies) relates to dwellinghouses and to all leased properties, except that the definition of the term “property” has been amended so as to exclude farm lands and licensed hotels and camp sites (let for periods not exceeding six weeks). The definition of the term “rent” has also been extended to include money's worth. Two machinery changes involved were the appointment of Rents Officers to exercise the functions of Inspectors of Factories under the Fair Rents Act, 1936, and of authorized persons under the revoked regulations, and defining the Court for fixing the fair rent as the Magistrate's Court, with a right of appeal to the Supreme Court where the basic rent or fair rent exceeds an annual rental of £525.

A new section has the effect of extending to all properties the earlier provision which prevented the original basic rent from being affected by including furniture in the tenancy. The provision for restoring the original basic rent and deeming any existing higher rent to be a fair rent was extended to cover properties other than dwellinghouses. As far as a “fair rent” is concerned, the Court can now fix the fan-rent payable by the landlord where he is himself a tenant. Provision is also made for the method of determining the fair rents of flats and apartments. Instead of ceasing to have effect at the end of one year or when a new tenant occupies the premises as under the previous legislation, a fair rent fixed for a dwellinghouse now continues in force until a subsequent order takes effect.

A section relating to lines, premiums, &c., prohibits a landlord or outgoing tenant from receiving from a new tenant any consideration other than—

  1. The rent:

  2. The price of any chattels not exceeding the fair selling value, or the replacement cost of stock in trade.

The restrictions on payments for goodwill on the transfer of a tenancy were abolished by the 1950 amendment, which renders it unnecessary to have any such payment approved by the Land Valuation Court.

The time within which excess payments of rents may be recovered from the landlord by the tenant or deducted from current rent is extended from six months to twelve months.

Regulations issued in November, 1951, and operative from the 10th December, 1951, require the fair rents of dwellinghouses under the principal Act to be fixed on the following basis:—

  1. Where the dwellinghouse was built on or before 1st September, 1942, the fair rent may be fixed on its value as at that date increased by not more than 15 per cent.; but if any such dwellinghouse has been purchased after the 22nd February, 1950, and let to a new tenant after the commencement of the regulations, the Court may have regard to the capital cost to the landlord, while still having regard to the relative circumstances of the landlord and of the tenant:

  2. Where the dwellinghouse has been built after the 1st September, 1942, the Court may have regard to the capital cost to the landlord while still having regard to the relative circumstances of the landlord and of the tenant; but if any such dwellinghouse has been purchased after the 22nd February, 1950, the landlord is not to be entitled to an increased fair rent unless he has let the dwellinghouse to a new tenant after the commencement of the regulations.

Exemption from the restrictions on recovery of possession from a tenant is provided for by the 1950 amendment where, in the case of the letting of any dwelling-house or urban property, the landlord and the tenant by agreement in writing dated not earlier than 1st March, 1950, and incorporating the terms and conditions of the tenancy, have agreed that Part III and sections 41, 42, and 43 of the Tenancy Act shall not apply. The agreement has to be approved in writing by a Rents Officer, and a copy of the agreement deposited with the latter before the date of commencement of the tenancy. In the following cases also those provisions containing the restrictions on recovery of possession cease to apply—namely, a dwellinghouse let to a worker by his employer; a dwellinghouse or urban property let on behalf of a mental patient; where a tenant has sublet the whole of the dwellinghouse, provided that the subletting is not due to the temporary absence of the tenant for not more than a year; and to a tenancy of any urban property transferred either directly or by subtenancies, after the expiration of six months from the date of the transfer of the tenancy or twelve months from the commencement of this section of the Act (whichever period is the later to expire), unless the landlord consents or the Court orders that those provisions shall continue.

Important alterations wore made by the Tenancy Act, 1948, and its 1950 amendment to the list of grounds governing the issue of orders for recovery of possession or to the exclusion under certain conditions of tenancies from those provisions restricting recovery of possession. The Act provides for recovery without having to provide alternative accommodation or prove greater hardship in the following cases: (a) where the dwellinghouse is not reasonably required for occupation as such by the tenant, (b) where an age-beneficiary has owned the dwellinghouse for two years, (c) where any other landlord has been the landlord of the dwellinghouse for five years, reduced to three years by the 1950 amendment, (d) where a landlord aged sixty years or over (or fifty-five years in the case of a woman) has owned a dwellinghouse for not less than three years and has given six months' notice, if the landlord did not, on 1st August, 1960, have adequate and suitable living accommodation in premises owned by him, (e) where a landlord of an urban property, after owning premises for at least two years, has given one year's notice that he reasonably requires the premises for his own occupation. However, the relative hardship of landlord and tenant will still be taken into account except for item (d). Other conditions give the landlord a right to apply for an order for the recovery of excess land for building purposes, or for an order authorizing him to convert a dwellinghouse into flats, one to be let to the existing tenant with appropriate adjustment of rent payable; give a right, to apply for recovery of possession where a landlord is a trustee wanting possession of a dwellinghouse for occupation by a beneficiary under the trust; provide that where an application to the Court to recover possession on the grounds of a nuisance or annoyance on the part of a tenant has not been successful, the Court may order the cessation of restrictions after six months, unless the landlord's conduct has contributed to the circumstances complained of, and allowing for revocation of the order within five months on the grounds that the circumstances have been improved; extend from six months to two years the period of the restriction on the letting or sale of premises when possession is recovered for the landlord's own occupation; and also make it an offence for a landlord to evict a tenant without an order of a Court or the tenant's consent.

The 1950 amendment includes a provision that where a landlord offers alternative accommodation, such is deemed to be suitable, unless the Court is satisfied that it is inadequate for the needs of the tenant, or is of unreasonably low standard, or is for any special reason unsuitable for the tenant.

Some new miscellaneous provisions wore also incorporated in the Tenancy Act, 1948. Included in this category are the extension of protection of tenancy in case of death to members of the deceased's family; the preservation of a tenancy for the wife or husband of the tenant in cases of separation or desertion; the prescription of conditions implied in tenancies; requiring receipts to be given for rent payments; making it an offence for a landlord to deprive a tenant of his amenities, as by cutting off electric power, gas, or water; and deal with the case of unauthorized occupiers.

The Destitute Persons Amendment Act, 1951, contains provisions relating to the power of a Magistrate to vest the tenancy of a dwellinghouse in a person in whose favour a separation or guardianship order is made, and giving the landlord the right to apply for cancellation or variation of such a vesting order.

Regulations made under the Emergency Forces Act, 1950, govern the protection against eviction granted to servicemen who serve in any of the forces raised to meet an emergency arising out of the obligation undertaken by New Zealand in the Charter of the United Nations.

Chapter 40. SECTION 40—EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT

PRIOR to the establishment in 1946 of the National Employment Service the only comprehensive source of information on employment in New Zealand was the periodical census inquiry. After each census a volume containing statistics of industries and occupations is published, and in respect of those of 1926 and 1936 there was an additional volume on unemployment. Certain specific fields—factories, public works, and local authorities, were, however, also covered by annual collections. The activities of the National Employment Service and the scope of the knowledge of employment matters at present available are dealt with in detail on later pages of this section.

STATISTICS OF 1945 CENSUS.—The tables presented herewith continue the series of 1945 census results to which reference has been made on page 44. The corresponding figures from the 1936 census are also shown for purposes of comparison.

Industrial Distribution.—The following tables illustrate (a) the extent to which the European population directly participated in economic life, (b) the distribution of the actively engaged sector both by major divisions and the more general categories of industry, and (c) the character of participation, whether as employer, wage-earner, &c.

Data for Maoris according to occupational groups, will be found on page 856.

INDUSTRIAL DISTRIBUTION: MAJOR DIVISIONS

Major Division.1936 Census.1945 Census.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.

* Including Service personnel and administrative staffs in New Zealand.

Numbers
Primary production168,5986,515175,113124,10810,999135,107
Industrial129,56727,751157,318138,89239,895178,787
Transport and communication59,9182,27962,19760,2978,96469,261
Commerce and finance77,72924,673102,40261,44136,01297,453
Public administration and professional*34,83127,06261,89374,83044,587119,417
Domestic and personal service12,26344,48256,74510,14522,06032,205
Not specified22,6156,16528,7802,6325223,154
      Totals—      
Actively engaged505,521138,927644,448472,345163,039635,384
Not actively engaged250,705596,33184,036310,257657,913968,170
Grand Totals756,226735,2581,491,484782,602820,9521,603,554
Proportions per Cent. of Persons Actively Engaged
Primary production33.354.6927.1726.276.7421.26
Industrial25.6319.9824.4129.4024.4728.14
Transport and communication11.851.649.6512.775.5010.90
Commerce and finance15.3817.7615.8913.0122.0915.34
Public administration and professional*6.8919.489.6015.8427.3518.79
Domestic and personal service2.4332.028.812.1513.535.07
Not specified4.474.434.470.560.320.50
      Totals, actively engaged100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The table above affords evidence of the sweeping changes induced in the industrial structure of a country while at war, these changes being superimposed on normal variations in divisional distribution originating principally through technical and industrial development, and also on those due to the ageing of the population.

The direct impact of war conditions may be gauged from the following statements. The absence of 43,415 males and 666 females serving overseas at census date impinges on all group totals (although in varying proportions). Furthermore, Service personnel and administrative staffs in New Zealand were approximately 46,000 (41,000 male and 5,000 female) in excess of those recorded in the 1936 census. These figures inflate the public administration group at the expense of the remaining groups.

The most striking features occurring during the inter-censal period are the reduced male employment in primary production, compensated in a small measure by additional female labour; increased female participation generally in industrial activities; diversion of labour from domestic and personal services to other industrial pursuits; and finally the marked increase in the public administration and professional groups (which includes Service personnel and administrative staffs in New Zealand).

The decline in the numbers shown for the “Not specified” group is very largely due to statistical refinements principally in the form of an extra question on the census schedule enabling the “industry” to be ascertained for numbers of people not otherwise classifiable.

Despite the employment of a considerable number of older persons and younger women, continuing on or entering active employment, the proportion of persons not actively engaged increased from 56.79 per cent. in 1936 to 60.38 in 1945. This increase is largely due to the gradually rising number of people in the older age groups and the greater number of births in the later war years.

The table now presented gives a more detailed classification by industry groups.

INDUSTRIAL DISTRIBUTION: INDUSTRY GROUPS

Industry Group.1936 Census.1945 Census.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Agricultural and pastoral144,4566,357150,813107,78710,754118,541
Forestry10,2488310,3316,0651226,187
Fishing and trapping2,535112,5462,656212,677
Mining and quarrying11,3596411,4237,6001027,702
Manufacturing industries—      
  Food22,3333,28525,61820,9935,36326,356
  Drink1,6741251,7992,3772582,635
  Tobacco2804887683897751,164
  Chemical industries, vegetable or animal products, n.e.i.4,9415195,4604,7651,6766,441
  Rubber254112651,1443711,515
  Wood, cane, basketware, furniture, and fittings5,6684186,08610,37081611,186
  Paper, stationery, books, &c.8,0902,35110,4416,7213,38210,103
  Skins, hides, and leather1,5344321,9661,7737632,536
  Textiles2,6802,3615,0413,9614,1168,077
  Wearing-apparel (including repair)7,11616,01123,1276,70417,18223,886
  Production and supply of electricity, gas, and heat; water-supply5,2932785,5716,0335116,544
  Non-metallic minerals, n.e.i.2,988733,0615,2103925,602
  Machinery, including all electrical appliances, and means of transport by land, water, and air19,19176819,95925,157. 2,77027,927
  Instruments, clocks and watches, jewellery819378561,0391561,195
  Other6832329157004271,127
Building and construction—      
  Buildings27,61224527,85728,64965129,300
  Roads, railways, earthworks, &c.18,41111718,52812,90728613,193
Transport and communication—      
  Rail transport Road transport37,16984438,01322,980 15,9782,073 1,26925,053 17,247
  Water transport13,90831914,22713,12745513,582
  Air transport127513228349332
  Communication8,7141,1119,8257,9295,11813,047
Commerce and finance—      
  Wholesale and retail trade62,04921,04683,09547,45428,03275,486
  Finance, banks, insurance11,4272,34413,77110,3455,54915,894
  Agencies for other purposes, n.e.i.4,2531,2835,5363,6422,4316,073
  Hotel and personal services12,26344,18256,74510,14522,06032,205
  Entertainment, sport, and recreation4,5271,0305,5573,7671,1004,867
Public services and other services of general interest, n.e.i.—      
  Medical and hygienic services4,84611,07515,9216,88318,20225,085
  Education, religion, arts, and sciences, n.e.i.10,27612,09922,3759,40413,71423,118
  Defence1,681191,70042,6225,19647,818
  Public administration8,6641,1209,7847,6043,71411,318
  Law and order4,5561,5896,1453,9332,0415,974
  Other2811304116176201,237
Not specified Totals—22,6156,16528,7802,6325223,154
  Actively engaged505,521138,927644,418472,345163,039635,384
  Not actively engaged250,705596,331847,036310,257657,913968,170
  Grand totals756,226735,2581,491,484782,602820,9521,603,554

Occupational Status.—The following table gives particulars of the character of participation in industry, whether as employer, wage-earner, &c., together with the main classes of those not actively engaged in industry.

Occupational Status.1936 Census.1945 Census.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Numbers
Employer53,5365,00458,54047,5244,99752,521
Own account64,069. 9,627.73,69654,9616,27261,233
Wage or salary earner—      
Armed Forces (Regular or Permanent Staff)1,464 1,4642,545 2,545
Armed Forces (other)   38,0424,05442,096,
All other wage or salary earners336,853120,610457,463.319,314144,882464,226
Unemployed (includes ex-servicemen not yet returned to work)35,7741,86237,6365,8231,0906,913
Relative assisting, unpaid10,92889211,8203,9701,6945,664
Invalid or sick, or under detention, &c. (fifteen or over)251,593596,674848,26722,10617,21439,320
Child under fifteen years210,348202,724413,072
Student, full-time (fifteen or over), unpaid18,95516,11735,072
Domestic duties734383,202383,936
Retired, independent means, &c.58,11438, 65696,770
Not specified2,009589.2,59813650186
      Totals756,226735,2581,491,484782,602820,9521,603,554
Proportions per Cent.
Employer7.080.683.936.070.613.28
Own account8.471.314.947.020.763.82
Wage or salary earner—      
Armed Forces (Regular or Permanent Staff)0.19 0.100.33 0.16
Armed Forces (other)   4.860.492.63
All other wage or salary earners44.5416.4030.6740.8117.6528.95
Unemployed (includes ex-servicemen not yet re-turned to work)4.730.252.520.740.130.43
Relative assisting, unpaid1.450.120.790.510.210.35
Invalid or sick, or under detention, &c.(fifteen or over)33.2781.1656.882.822.102.45
Child under fifteen years26.8824.6925.76
Student, full-time (fifteen or over), unpaid2.421.962.19
Domestic duties0.0946.6823.94
Retired, independent means, &c.7.434.716.03
Not specified0.270.080.170.020.016.01
      Totals100£ 00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The influence of war conditions is again apparent. Employers, persons on own account, and wage or salary earners exhibit in common a relative decline since 1936. In the later war period men in the older age-groups were being inducted into the services, which probably entailed in particular some reduction in numbers of the first two classes quoted, while the diversion of labour and material resources inevitable in a war economy doubtless reinforced this tendency. Reference has been made in connection with-the previous tables to the extent to which the armed services, both within New Zealand and overseas, had depleted the civilian labour, force.

The effect of an ageing population is shown by the larger proportion of males not actively engaged in industry—namely, 39.64 per cent. in 1945, against 33.27 per cent. in 1936. This trend is masked in the case of females by the entry into the industrial sphere of many who would not, in more normal times of the past, choose to participate. In fact, the proportion of females not actively engaged decreased from 81.16 per cent. in 1936 to 80.14 per cent. in 1945.

Occupations of Maoris.—The Maori schedule provided for the personal occupation to be stated, but omitted questions on industry and occupational status which were included on the European schedule. In many instances occupations wore returned as labourer without any indication of the type of work performed, and all such cases are shown in the other or ill-defined occupation-group. It seems probable, however, that the majority of these were farm labourers and labourers on building and construction.

Occupational-group.1936 Census.1945 Census.
Males.FemalesMales.Females.
Fishermen and trappers120181311
Agricultural and pastoral occupations8,4771,5318,062993
Forest occupations9845780747
Miners and quarrymen125 3472
Workers in stone, clay, earthenware, lime, cement, glass, &c.13 21713
Workers in processes relating to chemicals, animal and vegetable products, n.e.i.20114214
Workers in non-precious metals, electric fittings, &c.88 31548
Workers in precious metals, jewellery, scientific instruments, &c.2 2 
Workers on ships, boats, and conveyances8 161
Workers in fibrous materials, textiles, &c. (other than clothing or dress)43147751
Workers in clothing and dress, &c.132750160
Workers in harness, saddlery, and leatherware (excluding boots and shoes)2 94
Workers in food, drink, and tobacco30421898129
Workers in wood, n.e.i.2681357725
Workers in paper, printers, photographers, &c.316919
Workers in other materials322415
Workers in building and construction, and in maintenance of roads, &c., n.e.i.1,259 1,8668
Workers in production or supply of gas, water, electricity or power13 103 
Workers in transport and communication47581,33450
Financial and commercial occupations10026177130
Public administration11 520116
Clerical and professional occupations387197348574
Occupations connected with entertainment, sport, and recreation4725669
Personal and domestic occupations, hotelkeeping, &c. Other or ill-defined occupations—517921151,660
Labourer, n.o.d.8,4802755,92466
Other occupations145 26174
Not specified4992767515
      Totals, actively engaged21,9403,03523,1324,224
      Totals, not actively engaged20,92336,42827,14344,245
      Grand total, Maori population42,86339,46350,27548,469

POST-WAR DISTRIBUTION OF LABOUR FORCE.—More recent information is available for the years 1947–51 from the estimates of the National Employment Service showing the effects of the demobilization of the Armed Forces and of post-war developments on the industrial distribution of the labour force of the country. The table which follows shows the estimated distribution of the labour force. European and Maori, by broad industrial groups in April of each year from 1047 to 1951.

Year.Industry Group.
Primary Industry.Secondary Industry.Transport and Communication.Distribution and FinancePublic Administration and Professional.Domestic and Personal Services.Totals.Armed Forces.Unemployed.Totals, Labour Force.
Males (000)
1947156.4175.561.273.245.715.5527.512.6 540.1
148156.0180.762.675.346.315.9536.87.8 544.6
1949155.2183.864.976.047.416.3543.67.10.1550.8
1950154.9188.865.777.447.816.4551.08.2 559.2
1951154.7188.363.379.248.416.5550.410.0 560.4
Females (000)
194713.342.464.236.742.526.0167.10.5 167.6
194813.343.26.737.343.126.3169.90.4 170.3
194913.343.57037.843.726.7172.00.5 172.5
195013.345.47.238.844.826.5176.00.7 176.7
195113.346.77.540.445.826.0179.70.6 180.3
Total (000)
1947169.7217.967.4109.988.241.5694.613.1 707.7
1948169.3223.969.3112.689.442.2706.78.2 714.9
1949168.5227.371.9113.891.143.0715.67.60.1723.3
1950166.2234.272.9116.292.642.9727.08.9 735.9
1951168.0235.070.8119.694.242.5730.110.6 740.7

UNEMPLOYMENT.—Except for occasional returns relating to State unemployment relief which were presented to Parliament from time to time, practically no direct statistical evidence as to the extent of unemployment in New Zealand prior to 1892 is extant. Such information is however available from the census (since 1896) and from the records of the Labour Department (since 1892). In addition, statistics of unemployment among trade-unionists were collected from trade-union secretaries by the Census and Statistics Department from 1925 to 1930. A table showing figures of unemployment from June, 1931, to March, 1939, will be found on page 854 of the 1940 Year-Book.

Census Data on Unemployment.—The great disadvantage of the Census inquiry as an indicator of the trend of unemployment is that it provides data at quinquennial intervals only, up to April, 1926, since when only three censuses have taken place, one on 24th March, 1936, one on 25th September, 1945, and the other on 17th April, 1951. The unemployment figures from the latter will not be available for some considerable time.

Census.Number of Census. Males Unemployed.Proportion per Thousand Male Wage-earners.
12th April, 189614,759100
31st March, 19018,46748
12th April, 19068,18939
2nd April, 19117,15230
15th October, 19165,92026
17th April, 192111,06139
20th April, 192610,69434
24th March, 193635,77496
25th September, 19455,82318

The 1936 figure includes men on rationed relief work, but excludes men (16,222) partly unemployed but not on relief work. The 1945 figure included ex-servicemen recently returned from overseas and not then returned to work.

Unemployment Benefit.—In the years immediately preceding 1939 two forms of unemployment relief were available: the provision of work for unemployed under various employment promotion schemes, and the payment of sustenance without work (refer 1942 and earlier issues of the Year-Book). Measures for the promotion of employment are still in operation, but the payment of sustenance without work was discontinued on the introduction of a system of unemployment benefits under the Social Security Act, 1938, These benefits came into force on 1st April, 1939, and monthly figures of the number of benefits current have been published in previous editions of this Year-book. The number in force at the end of March, 1951, was only 10.

Subject to the conditions set out on page 619, the unemployment benefit may be claimed as of right from the Social Security Fund to which all workers over the age of sixteen years must contribute. Registration at a district office of the Notional Employment Service (Department of Labour and Employment) is a compulsory pre-requisite to eligibility for the benefit. Hence it is considered that the great majority of workers becoming involuntarily unemployed would register for employment in order to validate a claim for to benefit.

Close liaison is maintained between the Social Security Department and the National Employment Service to prevent the payment of benefit where work is available. In addition to the requirement that a benefit applicant must register for work at an employment office all unemployment beneficiaries must report once weekly at the employment office.

For the number of persons remaining enrolled with district offices of the National Employment Service as disengaged and seeking employment at the end of each calendar month refer to the second table on page 868 (last three columns).

PROMOTION OF EMPLOYMENT.—Reference to earlier issues of the Year-Book will show the measures taken during the depression and post-depression years to relieve unemployment and in particular to promote employment. Under one of the principal schemes a maximum of 45,000 men were in receipt of part-time work in 1932 and 1933. In recent years the labour situation has been characterized by a general high level of employment and a high number of vacancies in industry, and the only employment-promotion measures initiated have been small-scale seasonal schemes which provide work for a number of men in the winter months. Apart from these the only employment-promotion measure continuing in operation to any extent is Scheme 13, under which 144 men were employed at 31st March, 1951, as compared with 184 on 31st March, 1950. Most of these men are fit for light work only and are located in districts where employment opportunities are limited. Everything possible is done to place them in suitable private employment when the opportunity arises. They are allocated to local bodies and their wages are subsidized to an extent which brings their earnings up to the award rate for the type of work performed.

The operation of employment-promotion schemes whenever required is a function of the Department of Labour and Employment.

Information concerning the measures in operation for the rehabilitation of ex-servicemen will be found in Section 45.

Vocational Guidance.—Since 1938 full responsibility for the work of vocational guidance of pupils at post-primary schools, which for some years previously had been carried on almost entirely by voluntary organizations, has been taken by the Department of Education. A youth centre was established in each of the four main centres, and the work of guidance and placement was undertaken jointly by officers of the Education and National Service Departments. The Education Department assumed full control of these youth centres (now called Vocational Guidance Centres) in 1943.

The numbers of those enrolled who were placed in employment during each of the calendar years 1947 to 1951 were as follows.

Year Ended 31st December,Number Placed by Centres.Number Self-placed.Totals.
19471,7231,2032,926
19481,4418432,284
19491,5646752,239
19501,6124562,068
19511,4753651,840

National Employment Service.—As from 1st April, 1946, the National Employment Service was established with the principal function of promoting and maintaining full employment in New Zealand. The new Department was set up under the Employment Act, 1945. In fact, provision for Government Employment Bureaux had been made as early as 1891. From 1930 to 1936, the period of the operations of the Unemployment Board, the Bureaux functioned rather as unemployment registration offices than as placement services. In 1936 the activities of the Unemployment Board were transferred to the Employment Division of the Department of Labour and the bureaux replaced by a State Placement Service, which operated a widely used system of local labour exchanges. From 1942 to the end of March, 1946, this became merged in the Industrial Man-power Division of the National Service Department, and, with an augmented staff, carried out the wider and more complex functions of man-power direction and control. In this work the Industrial Man-power Division developed a much greater emphasis on the collection and use of employment and other economic data, on the research and planning aspects of employment, and on the co-ordination of industrial activities with man-power resources. The National Employment Service was built upon these foundations. A comprehensive historical and statistical survey of the Industrial Man-power Division of the National Service Department from 1940, to August, 1945, is given in parliamentary paper H-11A, 1945; a résumé of this paper was given in the 1945 Year-Book. The 1946 H-11A extended this survey to 31st March, 1946, all man-power control being finally lifted on 30th June, 1946. After twelve months' activity as a separate Department, the National Employment Service was, however, on the 1st April, 1947, amalgamated with the Department of Labour to form the present Department of Labour and Employment.

The main activities of the Department on the employment side are: the collection of employment information and the application of this information towards securing a continuing adjustment of matters affecting employment so as to maintain a policy of full employment at the highest productive level; assisting persons to secure work or more suitable work, and employers to secure labour, by maintaining twenty-five district employment offices, by operating camps and hostels for workers, and by other measures which may include occupational training or retraining; the administration of subsidized employment schemes for those unfit to compete in the ordinary labour market; and the operation of a Home Aid Service to provide domestic help to families in urgent circumstances.

The twenty-eight camps and hostels operated by the Department* at 31st March, 1951—comprising industrial workers' camps and hostels, immigration hostels, Public-Service hostels, miners' hostels, and one home-aid hostel—provided accommodation for 2,944 workers.

The Employment Act, 1945, provided for the establishment of Advisory Councils and Committees to assist the Department in the effective administration of its employment service. A number of committees at both district and national levels have been set up. and meet as circumstances require.

Immigration matters, including the maintenance of immigration hostels, are also handled by the Department. Reference to assisted immigration has been made on pages 25–26 of this volume. Government sponsorship is extended to fare-paying passengers in certain cases (e.g., those of key technical and professional people urgently required here in the national interest), hut to married people only where it is known that suitable living-accommodation is available. To advise the Minister of Immigration on immigration matters and to aid the Department in the implementing of the immigration policy an Immigration Advisory Council was established in April, 1947. In each of the twenty-five districts where there are employment offices there is also an Immigration Welfare Committee whose function is to co-ordinate welfare activities in respect of new settlers, whether Government assisted or not.

Of recent years special attention has been directed to the problem of Maori employment. Outstanding features of the Maori population are its rate of growth and the fact that the Maori people are largely resident in localities remote from the main centres of industrial activity. The Government therefore set up in 1948 a Maori Education and Employment Committee representative of six State Departments, including that of Labour and Employment, whose broad function is to determine practical measures for ensuring the continuing absorption of the Maori race into full employment, including employment promotion in areas of Maori population.

Half-yearly Surveys.—Commencing in 1946 the Department has carried out at half-yearly intervals a general survey of employment in New Zealand. These surveys are conducted by means of inquiries sent out to employers of labour, the results being published in the Labour and Employment Gazette. Returns are required from all establishments in which at least two persons (including working proprietors) are engaged. Government and local-authority employment is included. Each return covers six consecutive months, the initial survey (apart from a pilot survey taken for April, 1946) relating to the period May to October, 1946. Particulars of working proprietors and number of establishments are available at half-yearly intervals only. Employers in farming, hunting, trapping, fishing, waterfront work, and private domestic service are not required to submit half-yearly returns. Seasonal industries (comprising meat-processing, fruit and vegetable preserving, dairy-factories, threshing and chaffcutting, and wool-stores) have since August, 1946, been covered by a separate monthly inquiry. Following are tables showing the figures for the April and October months in each year taken from these surveys, a dissection being provided into the chief industrial groups. Separate tables are given for males and females, working proprietors are distinguished from employees, and the number of vacancies reported and of establishments covered are appended.

*Two women's hostels are operated by the Young Women's Christian Association on behalf of the Department.

Employment in industry on the 15th day of the months of April and October in each year is given in the following table.

Primary Industry (Other than Farming, Fishing, and Hunting).Secondary Industry.Transport and Communication (Other than Waterfront Work).Distribution and Finance.Domestic and Personal Services.Administration and Professional.Seasonal Industries.Totals, All Industries Covered.
Male Employees
1946—October14,197127,29744,07150,8559,01635, 51113,142294,089
1947—April14,340129,23545,06252,289 9,20335,92920,887306,945 
October14,855134,50545,41353,138 9,33436,18614,29307,724 
1948—April15,397135,03846,29754,6659,58736,88120,872318,737
October15,850137,78347,47354,8779,71137,27714,098317,069
1949—April16,058137,15348,16155,6099,86737,89220,819325,559
October15,852142, 08448,74256, 1779,84438,25614,022324,977
1950—April15,875141,35048,74557,2039,93738,53420,940332,584
October15,754143,20448,27057,7289,91938,45615,263328,594
1951—April15,882142,42147,40359,09610,00439,12619,533333,465
Male Working Proprietors
1946—October45310,3671,5707,4982,171814108,22,981
1947—April49010,0011,5757,1612,31552911922,190
October53910,1941,5077,143 2,2684238812022,162
1948—April57110,3661,5496,9362,25641912022,217
October62410,8671,6197,1422,3673969623,111
1949—April679,11,3051,5466,9282,40338110823,350
October69311,5221,5767,0032,4343919823,717
1950—April71911,3011,5887,0492,4271869523,365
October67811,3861,5647,0872,3211818923,306
1951—April64211,0491,5346,9702,36717882'22,822
Female Employees
1946—October27336,6415,72529,67112,62431,3281,232117,494
1947—April24837,1285,68029,57012,78331,424,1,410118,243
October25938,2565,86229,74412,64431,5601,299119,624
1948—April25637,798,6,22030,27613,059,32,1361,438121,183
October25038,0206,33430,30713,07432,2421,184121,411
1949—April24838,1706,43330,66713,29632,8051,341122,960
October25839,6656,58330,81812,97233,5681,263125,127
1950—April25739,9066,69831,67413,15333,9351,491127,114
October24941,3596,76531,92812,77433,9001,459128,434
1951—April24241,1736,95333,05512,75034,670'1,580130,423
Female Working Proprietors
1946—October1879321,2891,32121283,742
1947—April1865291,3291,36021583,807
October1893251,3651,33721483,843
1948—April2942291,3551,427195133,963
October51,059291,4301,51118664,226
1949—April21,185291,4801,543190114,440
October41,179181,5201,55118564,463
1950—April21,148311,5001,54618564,418
October31,185321,5651,48516654,441
1951—April41,150381,5841,55216244,494

A dissection of the secondary industry column shown in the preceding table is now given over the same period.

Food, Drink, and Tobacco (Other than Seasonal).Textiles, Clothing, and Leather.Building Materials and Furnishings.Engineering and Metal Working.Miscellaneous Manufacturing.Power and Water Supply.Building and Construction.Totals, Secondary Industry (Other than Seasonal).
Male Employees
1946—October8,56612,26315,32938,17113,5567,80331,609127,297
1947—April8,89512,38215,70339,01513,6187,78331,839129,235
October8,86512,81316,48740,83414,3357,94033,231134,505
1948—April.8,98412,81316,76440,99514,2947,83333,355135,038
October8,97812,82517,21941,29814,3568,16534,942137,783
1949—April9,02712,69617,15641,66014,5728,19433,848137,153
October9,12113,04817,69543,02715,0268,42135,746142,084
1950—April8,94912,88917,78542,88515,1828,51835,142141,350
October8,93713,13818,08543,52415,6638,88834,969143,204
1951—April8,84013,05117,98143,67215,6558,80034,422142,421
Male Working Proprietors
1946—October9891,0941,0832,99573153,47010,367
1947—April9919241,0592,89165243,48010,001
October1,0299501,1173,05365963,38010,194
1948—April1,0699231,0903,14264053,49710,366
October1, 1131,0241,1663,26868053,61110,867
1949—April1,1841,0371,2803,40867863,71211,305
October1,1911,0181,2763,50070853,82411,522
1950—April1,1581,0111,2573,43768643,748811,301
October1,1331 0221,2433,39169843,89511,386
1951—April1,0789581,1653,24967343,92211,049
Female Employees
1946—October4,46720,3721,0193,6145,85055176836,641
1947—April4,63520,5971,0743,7535,77656373037,128
October4,72421,2431,0473,8656,09655972238,256
1948—April4,64121,1521,0693,8685,76456074437,798
October4,74121,4501,0183,7325,74356876838,020
1949—April4,79621,4081,0243,8465,69158781838,170
October5,04622,0541,0714,0416,01260483739,665
1950—April4,95222,3261,0824,0356,05963481839,906
October4,90023,4711,0874,1446,30763281841,359
1951—April4,58923,5911,1304,2076,13765286741,173
Female Working Proprietors
1946—October351392144181  879
1947—April352390133377  865
October342422134274  893
1948—April351447145080  942
October387500216784  1,059
1949—April448548307485  1,185
October462549216186  1,179
1950—April461524216478  1,148
October457548207090  1,185
1951—April452530167874  1,150

The following table shows the number of vacancies reported by employers in the half-yearly surveys, the industry classification being the same as in the previous tables.

Primary Industry (Other than Farming, Fishing, and Hunting).Secondary Industry.Transport and Communication (Other than Waterfront Work).Distribution and Finance.Domestic and Personal Services.Administration and Professional.Totals, All Industries Covered.*

* Figures for seasonal industries are not available.

Males
1946—October8558,8222,8728772521,06714,745
1947—April95211,0743,6511,1151971,23518,224
October8259,3053,3481,1281531,12015,879
1948—April6589,9463,6171,3502601,32217,153
October4478,1783,0251,4323011,33614,719
1949—April4909,1983,3101,7742161,38916,377
October5689,4203,6162,0333011,50817,446
1950—April64311,7704,0162,2373181,81720,801
October83213,4564,3982,4903831,79923,358
1951—April57911,5115,1262,0243121,85221,404
Females
1946—October79,4011871,1859602,32014,060
1947—April39,9672961,1859582,36214,771
October108,5933181,1376732,47713,208
1948—April37,9622421,2616542,44012,562
October127,2882241,2108222,36311,919
1949—April207,8012081,5227392,33612,626
October207,8131781,6488142,21112,684
1950—April157,9252431,6687212,50813,080
October77,6692841,9737862,80413,523
1951—April376,533,4091,6515682,20411,392

Reported vacancies in secondary industry included in the previous table are now shown separately.

Food, Drink, and Tobacco (Other than Seasonal).Textiles, Clothing, and Leather.Building Materials and Furnishings.Engineering and Metal Working.Miscellaneous Manufacturing.Power and Water Supply.Building and Construction.Totals, Secondary Industry (Other than Seasonal).
Males
1946—October2379889423,7867262331,9108,822
1947—April2821,2761,1914,5978854382,40511,074
October2231,0421,0064,1037553111,8659,305
1948—April1931,2021,1154,0108593522,2159,946
October2341,0608753,0138182081,9708,178
1949—April3011,2961,0393,3349103162,0029,198
October2911,2341,1673,1539523362,2879,420
1950—April3861,3731,4324,2491,1094822,73911,770
October3701,3071,5874,8941,2695083,52113,456
1951—April3131,1861,4134,5569624722,60911,511
Females
1946—October7966,763795151,23612 9,401
1947—April8357,451634511,1432139,967
October6166,578673429622448,593
1948—April4276,13112438086223157,962
October4595,5814030083634387,288
1949—April4955,9914940384716 7,801
October4705,962733369413017,813
1950—April4955,9935640894231 7,925
October4225,894973588633327,669

The number of establishments covered by the National Employment Service-surveys is now shown, the second part of the table giving an analysis of the secondary industry column contained in the first part.

Primary Industry (Other than Farming, Fishing, and Hunting).Secondary Industry.Transport and Communication (Other than Waterfront Work).Distribution and Finance.Domestic and Personal Services.Administration and Professional.Seasonal Industries.Totals, All Industries Covered.
1946—October57011,7332,03011,0593,5403,12864932,709
1947—April58411,9742,05211,1403,5763,10572133,152
October63312,3922,07211,2743,5823,09165133,695
1948—April67713,0792,087 11,6403,7063,05472934,972 
October69713,5012,12811,8053,7543,03166335,579
1949—April73714,0882,13811,8803,8193,06867736,407
October74214,2492,16112,1603,8623,07365936,906
1950—April76714,2112,18112,2223,8612,90066236,804
October75114,4522,22412,3883,8442,90565637,220
1951—April75314,4042,26012,5913,8242,93265637,420
Food, Drink, and Tobacco (Other than Seasonal).Textiles, Clothing, and Leather.Building Materials and Furnishings.Engineering and Metal Working.Miscellaneous Manufacturing.Power and Water Supply.Building and Construction.Totals, Secondary Industry (Other than Seasonal).
1946—October1,2321,6251,3273,1551,0172213,15611,733
1947—April1,2731,6651,3923,2861,0292233,10611, 974
October1,3121,7241,4723,4611,0672223,13412,392
1948—April1,3781,8941,5913,6921,0962253,20313,079
October1,4381,9471,6443,8081,1282233,31313,501
1949—April1,5411,9971,7433,9861,1762233,42214,088
October1,5331,9961,7544,0091, 1892233,54514,249
1950—April1,5321,9911,7484,0401,1872253,48814,211
October1,5072, 0221,7804,0741,2062233,64014,452
1951—April1,4742,0181,7744,0881,2002243,62614,404

The table now following shows the National Employment Service totals of employment in industry under a more detailed industrial classification as at 15th April, 1950 and 1951; employment by the General Government, by local authorities, and by private employers being distinguished at the same time in the 1951 figures.

Industry.Number of Persons in Industry at the 15th April, 1950.Number of Persons in Industry at the 15th April, 1951.
Males.Females.
Males.Females.Government.Local Authorities.Private.*Government.Local Authorities.Private.*

* These figures are inclusive of working proprietors.

Primary industry (other than farming, fishing, and hunting)—        
Forestry2,1121171,986 119107 2
Bush sawmilling6,90675528 6,74623 59
Coalmining5,713413,876 1,48022 10
Other mining8557  891 8 
Quarrying n.e.i.1,00819 167731 114
Threshing and chaffcutting851  54   
Seasonal manufacturing—        
Meat processing, &c.14,665628 21912,976 1654
Fruit and vegetable preserving62949081 57889452 
Dairy factories3,780364843,999  363
Industry.Number of Persons in Industry at the 15th April, 1950.Number of Persons in Industry at the 15th April, 1951.
Males.Females.
Males.Females.Government.Local Authorities.Private.*Government.Local Authorities.Private.*

* These figures are inclusive or working proprietors.

† Knitted wear, hosiery, &c.

‡ Woollen mills only.

Food, drink, and tobacco (other than seasonal)—        
  Grain-milling73674  735  66
  Bread-bakeries2,492753  2,344  661
  Biscuit-making504427  488  382
  Cake and pastry making1,0671,577  1,019  1,468
  Sugar and confectionery1,326896  1,302  786
  Other food824553  835  520
  Beverages2,69633619 2,680  317
  Tobacco-manufacture462797  496  840
Textiles, clothing, and leather—        
  Tanneries and wool-scouring1,44863  1,384  91
  For dressing and manufacture266280  248  283
  Leather goods616445  594  480
  Artificial textiles310465  1.219  2,383
  Flax, rope, and twine475485 458  63
  Woollen and knitting mills2,4742,697  1,656  999
  Other yarns and fabrics569261  556  282
  Clothing-manufacture3,65415,832  3,726  16,615
  Footwear-manufacture' 2,7841,990  2,798  2,100
  Footwear repair37035  347  30
  Other textile articles934734  1,018  795
Building materials and furnishings—        
  Town sawmilling2,51382  2,690  100
  Builders' woodwork1,369178  4,777  202
  Furniture and cabinets4,334306  4,359  318
  Other wood manufacture1,163205  1,162  218
  Brick, tile, and stoneware2,51658  2,273  56
  Pottery and glass1,164207  1,171  190
  Line, cement, &c.2,98367 52,709  62
  Engineering and metalworking-        
  Engineering and metals' 14,9951,318  15,585  1,338
  Machinery n.e.i.718109  820  124
  Electrical goods manufacture4,127932  4,200  997
  ships, engines, railway workshops, &c.8,513996,04380694387517
  Vehicle and aircraft manufacture3,604228  3,708  243
  Vehicle and aircraft repair13,2941,069 30613,495  1,147
  Instrument, &c., manufacture1,071344  1,015  325
Miscellaneous manufacturing—        
  Chemicals and by-products4,0811,498  4,161  1,410
  Rubber manufacture1,905501  2,032  544
  Paper and pulp manufacture1,243724  1,323  744
  Printing, bookbinding, &c.7,3022,7287,57 6,869149 2,521
  Other manufacture n.e.i.1,337686  1,386  843
Power, heat, light, and water production and supply—        
  Power and water production and supply Gas production and supply8,5226342,7674,9161,12312843886
  Building and construction38,89081811,76557326,0063674496
Transport and communication—        
  Rail transport19,8551,62316,5762,016641,3113063
  Road transport12,9577501,65165211,0156111705
  Water transport (not waterfront work)3,715318712,2791,327252280
  Air transport554169  533  184
  Post and telegraph13,2523,86912,753  4, 076  
Distribution and finance—        
  Wholesale and retail trade1,84826,42122633452,620881127,314
  Financial establishments5,6402,6441,201 4,667707 2,159
  Insurance.2,6221,567572 2,099341 1,314
  Wool-stores1,87614  1,696  25
  Other agencies4,1422,542  4,347  2,755
Domestic and personal services-        
  Hotels and catering7,04410,449247 6,827259 9,829
  Laundries, &c.1,5651,766  1,592  1,813
  Barbers, beauty shops, &c9221,448  891  1,399
  Recreation, sport, &c.2,8331,036692'7831,33926540667
Administration and professional—        
  Hospitals5,29413,8311,2674,01113298411,2611,769
  Medical, &c., services479871  478  884
  Hygienic services1,57099 1,310251 3467
  Education and instruction9,84910,9211,5418,0326071,1828,6001,518
  Art, science, and religion275166  295  162
  Government services n.e.i.13,1835,44612,947  5,431  
  Local authorities' services n.e.i.6,700689 7,028  717 
  Miscellaneous services1,3702,097  1, 405  2,223

NOTE.—The above table does not include Armed Forces personnel, 8,900 in April, 1950, and 10,600 in April, 1951, or persons engaged in fanning, fishing, hunting, waterfront work, one-man business units, &c., estimated to total 289,600 in April, 1950, and 238,900 in April, 1951.

An effective correlation of the figures shown in the table with those of employment in factories found on pages 497–500 of this volume is precluded by the differing definitions of “manufacturing industry”; also the national employment tabulations differ from factory production statistics in including managers and foremen, clerical workers, and distributing staff attached to manufacturing establishments in one figure with factory operatives.

VACANCIES, PLACEMENTS, AND DISENGAGED PERSONS.—In addition to these half-yearly surveys of the employment position as a whole, the Department maintains a month-to-month record of vacancies, placements, and disengaged persons seeking work.

Notified Vacancies.—There is at present a persistent lack of sufficient labour to satisfy the demands of industry, the extent and distribution of this shortage being measured to some degree by the number of unsatisfied vacancies at the end of each month. Particulars of such vacancies at the end of each month from April, 1950, to December, 1951 (together with monthly averages for the calendar years 1947–51 inclusive), are shown by district groupings in the following table. This table docs not necessarily cover the same establishments as in the preceding tables derived from half-yearly surveys; it includes on the one hand vacancies on farms and in domestic services; but on the other hand includes only those vacancies which have been notified to a district office of the Department of Labour and Employment in its capacity as a placement service.

Auckland.Wellington and Lower Hutt.Other North Island.Christchurch.Dunedin.Other South Island.Totals.
Monthly Average Over Calendar Years
19474,6898,1113,2343,3473,0221,99324,396
19484,3097,8293,2383,2593,0481,80423,487
19493,2347,1913,0902,7592,7821,70720,763
19503,2887,1753,9182,7913,3111,96222,445
19513,0906,6074,4452,9482,6232,25521,968
Monthly Totals
1950—       
April3,3667,1083,4692,6163,5491,90722,015
May3,1197,1593,6452,7793,4171, 79721,916
Juno3,0257,0353,6052,7663,2971,80621,534
July3,1537,0603,7492,7723,3191,81421,867
August3,2047,0993,9102,8223,3661,97822,379
September3,3616,8164,0232,8683,0432,07922,190
October3,3216,8694,5142 7753,0672,21422,760
November3,4267,3264,6502,7633,0692,17423,408
December3,4077,8284,6592,8393,1472,21224,092
1951—       
January3,4667,8574,5812,9133,1752,32124,313
February3,4327,7084,7532,9413,1572,38024,371
March3,2887,8384,5832,9753,0702,17723,931
April3,1356,9314,5122,8143,0712,09922,562
May2,8766,7294,5612,7142,3462,04121,267
Juno2,8146,4374,2372,7322,1021,90020,222
July2,8806,0644,1212,7802,1601,96219,967
August2,9145,9624,2792,8322,2362,16320,386
September2,9795,8254,3553,0192,4132,34020,931
October3,0525,8454,5563,1012,6362,56121,751
November3,1095,9084,5393,2202,6452,54121,962
December3,1396,1824,2583,3362,4702,57021,955

Placements.—An industrial analysis of placements by the National Employment Service during each month from April, 1950, to December, 1951 (with totals for 1947–51 inclusive), follows: not all these placements were, however, of disengaged persons.

Primary Industry.Building and Construction.Other Secondary Industry.Transport and Communication.Distribution and Finance, &c.Domestic and Personal Services.Administration and Professional.Totals.
Annual Totals
19475,1832,6327,1421,2432,7721,4921,75222,216
19485,3392,7476,0951,0301,7841,3571,91320,265
19495,5792,8196,4771,3521,7161,6002,00721,550
19506,1292,8026,6839741,7261,4572,00921,780
19515,7963,0206,9771,5301,8091,6772,15822,967
1950        
Monthly Totals
1950—        
April23615942577981041061,205
May4553426441531741232472,138
June345358685841271311971,927
July238269490661131291511,456
August242220515611331231471,441
September3142915311041321161921,680
October368245572641421002181,709
November37221742341140102991,394
December31910445947155116751,275
1951—        
January958168620401561551112,208
February1,1492397451401581303212,882
March810223563411081271442,016
April319231610701411391661,676
May2143875441651551571471,769
Juno4523467382981381512512,374
July3042675451471741581811,776
August2522805131611951621631,726
September377242501861461231201,595
October392308821242150151.3312,395
November350231462651571361381,539
December219983097513788851,011

A classification of these placements by district grouping is contained in the next table.

Auckland.Wellington and Lower Hutt.Other North Island.Christ-church.Dunedin.Other South Island.Totals.
Annual Totals
19472,4743,0726,3022,4642,1395,76522,216
19482,3132,9245,6092,3621,5365,52120,265
19492,9972,6435,8282,4661,9705,64621,550
19503,5202,4065,4682,1961,7606,43021,780
19513,7833,2355,3462,3722,1826,04922,967
Monthly Totals
1950—       
April2241023141291173191,205
May2892827351612903812,138
June3752355292681643561,927
July3252013851341232881,456
August3181734061271482691,441
September2352355441351983331,680
October434245372192963701,709
November244143366180713901,394
December1961174101431132961,275
1951—       
January266185530175849682,208
February3774644342891581,1602,882
March2951774071761068552,016
April3872563641421363911,676
May2482384561762863651,769
Juno3904456032752104512,374
July3732104772032033101,776
August2923294001612283161,726
September2451474341791834071,595
October4685105412852583332,395
November2461584482071623181,539
December1961162521041681751,011

Summary.—The following table contains a summary of the numbers of notified vacancies, placements, and disengaged persons as recorded by the National Employment Service for each month of the period April, 1950, to December, 1951, inclusive. together with monthly averages for the calendar years 1947–51 inclusive.

Vacancies at End of Month.Placements During Month.Disengaged Persons at End of Month.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Totals.
Monthly Average. Over Calendar Years
194712,22512,17124,3961,4653861,85183992
194812,16111,32623,4871,2434461,68961667
194911,0559,70820,7631,3134831,79688492
195013,1659,28022,4451,3204951,81534138
195113,6908,27821,9681,3905241,91429938
Monthly Totals
1950—         
April12,5419,47422,0159422631,20529736
May12,5079,40021,9161,7014372,13851455
June.9,24321,5341,5593681,92771677
July12,5899,27821,8671,1912651,456341347
August12,9639,41622,3791,1792621,44133437
Sept13,2538,93722,1901,3353451,68033235
Oct13,9568,80422,7601,3343751,70935136
Nov14,3979,01123,4081,1222721,39422325
Dec14,9359,15724,0921,0062691,27512113
1951—         
Jan.15,0279,28624,3131,3488602,20814317
Feb.15,2599,11224,3711,5921,2902,88210515
March14,9348,99723,9311,2667502,0169312
April14,0688,49422,5621,2644121,67624529
May13,3157,95221,2671,4373321,769601474
June12,5967,62620, 2221,8615132,37453760
July12,3197,64819,9671,4193571,77631839
August12,7687,61820,3861,3683581,72632739
Sept13,0667,86520,9311,3292661,595452368
Oct13,6758,07621,7511,8685272,395342054
Nov13,7658,19721,9621,1893501,53919625
Dec13,4878,46821,9557382731,011191029

The accumulated demand for female labour is demonstrated by the number of placements in relation to the number of vacancies.

The number of disengaged persons still enrolled for placement by the National Employment Service reached its lowest level (12) at the end of March, 1951. It has usually been found that a considerable proportion of those concerned were suffering from some form of disability, making placement in suitable employment a matter of some difficulty.

EMPLOYMENT ON FARMS.—The omission of farm employment from the National Employment Service statistics shown on the preceding pages is partly made good by figures derived from a special census of Agriculture taken in 1950.

The following table gives statistics of farm workers and farm population as at 31st January, 1950. The statistics cover persons actually residing on holdings of 1 acre and over situated outside borough boundaries.

Members of occupier's family— 
(a) Performing lull-time farm work— 
  Males— 
    15 and under 21 years old6,223
    21 years old and over Females—74,429
    15 and under 21 years old651
    21 years old and over2,115
(b) Regularly performing part-time work (i.e., not less than 14 hours per week)— 
  Males— 
    Under 15 years of age742
    15 and under 21 years old1,249
    21 years old and over8,351
  Females— 
    Under 15 years of age334
    15 and under 21 years old1,275
    21 years old and over10,739
(c) Not regularly performing farm-work (i.e., less than 14 hours per week)— 
  Males— 
    Under 15 years of age53,209
    15 and under 21 years old6,350
    21 years old and over16,760
  Females— 
    Under 15 years of age49,282
    15 and under 21 years old8,569
    21 years old and over72,099
(d) Total resident members of family ((a)- + (b) + (c) 
  Males— 
    Under 15 years of age53,951
    15 and under 21 years old13,822
    21 years old and over99,540
  Females— 
    Under 15 years of age49,616
    15 and under 21 years old10,495
    21 years old and over84,953
Farm employees, other than members of family, but ex-eluding casual and temporary workers— 
  Males— 
    15 and under 21 years old3,217
    21 years old and over16,028
  Females— 
    15 and under 21 years old261
    21 years old and over1,972
Casual or temporary workers actually resident on farms at 31st January, 1950— 
  Males— 
    Under 15 years of age175
    15 and under 21 years old486
    21 years old and over3,215
  Females— 
    Under 15 years of age115
    15 and under 21 years old172
    21 years old and over797
All other residents on farms. including domestics, boarders, members of farm employees' families, &c.— 
  Males— 
    Under 15 years of age9,427
    15 and under 21 years old1,213
    21 years old and over3,741
  Females— 
    Under 15 years of age8,345
    15 and under 21 years old1,170
    21 years old and over11,267
Total farm population at 31st January, 1950— 
  Males— 
    Under 15 years of age63,553
    15 and under 21 years old18,738
    21 years old and over122,524
  Females— 
    Under 15 years of age58,076
    15 and under 21 years old12,098
    21 years old and over98,089

Statistics of farm workers and farm population (as above) were collected in far greater detail in 1950 than at any time previously; consequently much of the data are not comparable with earlier collections. However, a comparison between the censuses of 1930 and 1950 shows that, while farm workers have fallen from 135,909 to 125,610, the total farm population has increased from 345,770 in 1930 to 373,078 in 1950. The decrease in the number of farm workers can be attributed largely to changes in farming methods, in particular, improved types and increased use of farm machinery.

SEASONAL FLUCTUATIONS IN EMPLOYMENT.—The adoption of the maintenance of full employment as a desideratum in many countries has prompted research into various employment problems, including that of the fluctuation or periodicity of employment. Information on the annual cycle of employment in New Zealand is available from several sources.

National Employment Statistics.—The following table shows in greater detail the month-to-month variations in male employment in seasonal industries for the latest thirteen months available—i.e., April, 1950, to April, 1951. The seasonal changes in female employment are less marked, such fluctuations as are evident originating mainly in the fruit and vegetable preserving industry.

Meat Processing, &c.Fruit and Vegetable Preserving.Dairy Factories.Threshing and Chaff-cutting.Wool Stores.Totals, Seasonal Industry.
1950 Males    
April14,6196133,780531,87520,940
May13,4056463,437421,51019,040
June11,4156063,1195096016,150
July9,3516023,0883196014,032
August9,3595633,242251,04514,234
September9,1265504,055201,03314,784
October8,6745584,504161,51115,263
November8,7985724,629192,34916,367
December12,6996844,681222,84920,935
1951      
January16,9237674,5891482,86225,289
February15,6726964,3751652,50023,408
March13,8497194,190682,10720,933
April13,1570424,009301,69519,533

Factory Production Statistics.—The chief features of seasonality in factory employment are shown in the following table, which covers the twelve months ended March, 1950.

Males.Females.
Seasonal Industries.All Other Factory Industries.All Factory Industries.Seasonal Industries.All Other Factory Industries.All Factory Industries.
Meat Freezing and Preserving.Butter, Cheese, &c., Factories.Sausage - casing Manufacture.Chemical Fertilizers.Totals.Meat Freezing and Preserving.Fruit Preserving and Jam-making.
1949           
April12,0632,89818695216,09977,64793,74635843428,09128,883
May11,1342,5781561,01114,87978,56793,44635237528,09728,824
June9,0742,1509497512,29379,20991,50238934728,40329,139
July7,0012,1127695410,14379,56689,70935425228,69429,300
August6,9502,6237195910,60379,78690,38930023428,99129,585
September6,5303,3076697010,87379,84390,71637926329,12129,763
October6,0273,6906995010,73679,82590,56134629329,33429,973
November6,6753,90910697611,66679,65891,32435334829,75330,454
December11,0983,92824697516,24779,36195,00834845129,74230,541
1950           
January14,3413,79429285219,27978,14897,42734343727,62128,401
February13,8543,43025785318,44478,56297,00036537729,04729,789
March12,5183,23320587516,83679,03795,87336352429,29930,186

An examination of these figures of male employment, in conjunction with the corresponding figures for previous years, indicates: (1) A fluctuation of approximately 9,000 in the seasonal industries with a crest in January and a trough in July or August; (2) a total increase of 3,000 between January, 1948, and January, 1950; (3) the whole of the annual gain in non-seasonal industries may be regarded as occurring during the five months from March to August, other small increases being cancelled by a decline in December and January; and (4) it thus appears that a proportion (estimated at one-fourth) of the man-power released from seasonal factory industries during the slack months is taken up by general factory industries. In periods of greater unemployment, however, the temporary diversion of labour from non-seasonal to seasonal manufacturing industries during the busy months might not occur.

A table of female employment reveals little, if any, seasonal variation with the exception of the January recession. This recession is due partly to the practice adopted by some women operatives of leaving work temporarily after the Christmas period for an extended summer vacation, but partly also through withdrawals from factory work in favour of domestic duties, &c., tending to be higher at the end of a calendar year, these losses not being offset until later by the entry of juvenile and other recruitments.

PUBLIC WORKS.—Since 1935 figures have been available which include not only the number of workers in the direct employ of the Public Works Department (now Ministry of Works), but also those employed by contractors for public works, and those employed by local authorities on (a) works which are financed wholly or partly by the Ministry of Works, and (b) highway or road construction and maintenance. In the next table monthly figures on this basis are given for the last five years. Departmental and contractors' workmen on Housing Division work are now included.

Month.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.

* Not available

January14,54316,18316,99518,34018,640
February14,89616,39017,61018,40218,889
March15,26916,09517,79318,46819,465
April14,60016,60917,57218,41519,187
May15,42416,96218,13018,80419,253
June15,61517,02618,30819,06318,983
July16,28317,56718,53819,273*
August10,22717,88518,85819,383*
September16,65818,06218,70019,74018,499
October16,64617,79718,98019,231*
November16,28317,60818,70119,737*
December15,71417,34818,44119,20317,988

Local Authority Statistics.—The following table shows employment by local authorities for each month from April, 1945, to March, 1950. Employees of Electric-power Boards are included here as well as in factory employment. Those of Hospital Boards and Fire Boards are not included.

Month.1945–46.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.
April17,74618,95119,40319,96720,382
May17,72719,16219,52020,09020,533
June17,72919,51119,56220,36620,829
July18,21419,49519,75220,39021,007
August18,18119,58919,81020,53721,276
September18,20119,49519,84120,51621,183
October18,74819,61619,97120,72021,021
November19,11719,49420,05120,62521,030
December19,01119,49520,11620,53520,893
January18,65319,25119,84820,15320,749
February19,36319,22920,07820,37020,667
March19,23919,32219,84520,49020,919

Chapter 41. SECTION 41—INDUSTRIAL UNIONS

IN New Zealand dual provision for the registration and protection of onions of workers and employers exists in the Trade-unions Act and the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, and further provision has been made in the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Acts of 1936, 1943, and 1947, references to which are made in Section 39 of this volume. The 1936 amendment resulted in a considerable increase in membership of unions both of employers and of workers.

he 1951 Amendment Act requires certain provisions to be included in the rules of industrial unions, especially that elections of officials are to be by secret ballot of financial members or by such other democratic method as may be approved by the Registrar of Industrial Unions. The Registrar may refuse any unreasonable or oppressive rule, subject to a right of appeal by the union to the Court of Arbitration. He may also, on application by at least ten financial members, refer to the Court for inquiry a disputed election of union officials. Secret ballots are required to validate subscriptions in excess of 1s. weekly and levies on union members. Penalites are prescribed in the ease of a strike or lockout initiated without the taking of a secret ballot.

Provision was made under section 7, subsection (17), of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1900 (now section 17 of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1925), for the furnishing of an annual return showing the number and membership as at 31st December of unions registered under the Act. It is from this return (see parliamentary paper H-11) that the tables in this section have been compiled. Very little information is available as to registration of unions under the Trade-unions Act, which is now practically inoperative. The number of unions registered under this Act as at the end of 1950 was three only. Unions registered under the Trade-unions Act may also be registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS OF EMPLOYERS.—The numbers and membership of industrial unions of employers registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration. Act as at the end of each of the last five years are shown in the following table.

As at 31st December,Industrial District.
Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Taranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.North Island.South Island.New Zealand.Totals.
Number of Unions
194649854237123875323274
194750864236124975324278
184846854236124985327277
1949498740391241074327282
1950488341361141263330277
Membership
19463,4552,5371,4081,4684562722712470736,18816,033
19473,7872,6801,3891,5544565325713277766,46216,923
19483,8282,8761,4701,5684936226913265736,97517,811
19494,1323,0861,4861,6734156230312269726,97618,396
19503,8153,1141,4461,5625096432514358717,28118,388

The number of unions of employers and their membership rose gradually to 149 unions, with 5,819 members, in 1914, the year following that of the prolonged waterside workers' strike. From that year until the passing of the 1936 Act, membership figures remained fairly constant, the only major variations taking place in the years 1931, 1932, and 1933, when successive decreases were recorded. The effects of the 1936 amending Act may be judged from the fact that the 1945 figure of membership showed an increase of approximately 290 per cent. over the 1935 total. Further increases subsequently took place, and the 1949 figure of 18,396 was the highest yet recorded. The total membership of 18,388 shown for 31st December, 1950, is not, however, complete, in that 5 of the 277 unions were then in process of cancellation and for these the number of members was not obtainable. The combined membership of these 5 unions at 31st December, 1949, was 42, their geographical distribution being: Northern, 1; Wellington, 1; Taranaki, 1; and Nelson, 2. A certain amount of duplication also exists in employers' union membership, many employers belonging to two or more unions.

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS OF WORKERS.—Industrial unions of workers and their membership are shown in the next table as at the end of each of the last five years. It should be noted that the statistics cover only unions registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

The membership of workers' unions rose year by year, without exception, from 17,989 in 1900 to 73,991 in 1914. It fell off during the period of the First World War, but a phenomenal rise was recorded in 1919, the year immediately following the cessation of hostilities. The total for 1928 (103,980) was the highest recorded up to and inclusive of 1935, but is far below the present figures. The 1936 amending Act, which provided for compulsory union membership on the part of workers subject to an award or industrial agreement, has, of course, been responsible for the high figures of later years.

From 1940 to 1943 the decreased membership reflected to a certain extent the withdrawal of men from industry consequent on the prosecution of the war, but in each of the subsequent years 1944 to 1949 increases in membership were recorded. Compared with 1935, the year prior to the introduction of compulsory union membership, the 1949 figure (275,977) showed an increase of 195,048, or 241 per cent. The 1950 figure (267,225) is not strictly comparable with those for the earlier years, as it excludes the membership of 5 of the 370 workers' unions, the registration of which was cancelled subsequent to 31st December, 1950. The combined membership of these 5 unions at the latest dates available (in most cases 31st December, 1949) was 8,554. Their geographical distribution was: Northern, 2; Otago and Southland, 1; Taranaki, 1; and New Zealand, 1.

As at 31st December,Industrial District.
Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Taranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.North Island.South Island.New Zealand.Totals.
Number of Unions
19468559418718817212135374
19478558418718817202136373
19488659408618717203137374
19498658408718718174136372
19508560408716717163138370
Membership
194651,10936,88823,87622,2062,7769891,5303,384276334101,943247,498
194753,60838,90924,45922,8243,3031,0801,6813,370276836108,341260,379
194854,58742,14325,04723,7732,8797531,7703,646290932113,561271, 100
194958,69043,85725,72023,9433,0057331,8883,508347730111,126275,977
195057,21244,81925,62823,7163,7511,1862,0993,335322831102,220267,225

A further picture of the progress that has taken place in the membership of workers' unions is afforded by the accompanying diagram, which shows the numbers at five-yearly intervals from 1905 to 1945, and annually thereafter.

In the following table industrial unions of workers are classified according to membership.

Year.Under 50.50 and under 100.100 and under 200.200 and under 300.300 and under 500.500 and under 1,000.1,000 and under 2,000.2,000 and under 3,000.3,000 and over.Totals.
Number of Unions
1901994330195411 202
191112062532623148 1307
1921139100703628281133418
193116277583130291431405
19411137170383832271317419
1946886060334236241417374
1947865959363741231418373
1948806660383338241223374
1949785967413038251321372
1950756060443239241323370
Membership
19012,7593,0184,0324,8152,0732,5201,6512,900 23,768
19113,5024,0197,6866,3608,8799,6859,414 6,08455,629
19214,1477,0759,7089,18211,06618,52714,5807,43316,00197,719
19314,3045,6657,9667,57811,24420,60218,5666,7447,85790,526
19412,9614,9489,7689,20715,06022,84135,41731,01299,835231,049
19462,5674,3258,5617,88316,14625,51532,80034,562115,139247,498
19472,4594,3758,049813,98529,32432,06734,690126,800260,379
19482,1964,7338,7289,19912,41725,91532,23928,344147,329271,100
19492,2294,2559,6449,95212,31527,41235,35136,728138,091275,977
19502,1104,1908,21010,15212,44527,73231,43230,839140,115267,225
Percentage of Total Membership
190111.612.717.020.38.710.66.912.2 100.0
19116.37.213.811.416.017.416.9 11.0100.0
19214.27.39.99.411.319.014.97.616.4100.0
19314.86.38.88.412.422.820.57.48.6100.0
19411.32.24.24.06.59.915313.443.2100.0
19461.01.73.53.26.510.313.314.046.5100.0
19470.91.73.13.35.411.312.313.348.7100.0
19480.81.73.23.44.69.611.910.554.3100.0
19490.81.63.53.64.59.912.813.350.0100.0
19500.81.63.13.84.610.411.811.552.4100.0

There hits been a more or less steady growth in the average size of workers' unions, the trend being to a certain extent obscured at times by the cancellation of registration by some large unions. An average membership of 118 in 1901 increased in 1921 to 234, in 1941 to 551, and in 1949 to 742. The average membership of the 365 workers' unions for. which particulars were available in 1950 was 732.

INDUSTRIAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—In the next table industrial unions of employers as at the end of 1950 are shown according to industrial group, and membership according to industrial group and district.

Industrial Group.Membership—Industrial Districts.Number of Unions.
Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Taranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.North Island.South Island.New Zealand.Totals.

* Including 1 union for which no membership figures are available.

Provision of—             
  Food, drink, &c.1,999683338774329912553  784,38860*
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles30785810      3,1073,28312*
  Building and construction1,1051,097413385102321400   3,28349
  Power, heat, and light 31477153      9764111
  Transport by water16232099464  2311414
  Transport by land977550371     128035110
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service32041435112258195477 166372,06838*
Working in or on—             
  Wood, wicker, seagrass, and fibre537139       3465169
  Metal4890       4342760814
  Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals338135    30 .8911*
  Paper, printing, &c.106no435411     1834221
  Skins, leather, &C.917123       417
  Mines and quarries1  3       42
  Land (farming pursuits)284232     28 2,2362,36612*
Miscellaneous 02         .7
      Totals3,8153,1141,4461,5625096432514358717,28118,388277

Similar information to that given for industrial unions of employers is now given for workers' unions, as at the end of 1950.

Industrial Group.Membership—Industrial Districts.Number of Unions.
Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Taranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.North Island.South Island.New Zealand.Totals.

* Including 1 union for which no membership figures are available.

† No membership figures are available.

‡ Including 3 unions for which no membership figures are available.

Provision of—             
  Food, drink, &c.8,8317,2503,5824,636  250 290317,31332,18350
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles8,0215,3634,8723,068       21,32417
  Building and construction6,4304,5282,2382,991418313626  8,41425,11238
  Power, heat, and light29730017080       8475
  Transport by water1,5791,26176587      2,9316,43421*
  Transport by land4,3582,9491,5501,381505123405196  21,59933,06620
  Transport by air       103 1031  
  Communication            1
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service6,6996,4772,8232,927426210230421   20, 21326
Working in or on—             
  Wood, wicker, sea-grass, and fibre1,2661,2788944995335330970  6,39211,71720
  Metal9091,151679880    2, 835 21,94728,40126
  Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals794616 365101 108   9292,91319
  Paper, printing, &c.   15      5,2285,2434
  Skins, leather, &c.83423111325       1,2036
  Mines and quarries584 52474  21,094   2,20621
  Land (fanning pursuits)20450  30     16, 37316, 6574
Miscellaneous16,40613,3658,5795,7882,218787738628  11,09459,60391
      Totals57,21244,81925,62823,7163,75111862,0993,3353,22831102,220267,225370

INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS.—At 31st December, 1950, there were 20 industrial associations of employers and 36 of workers, the former having 146 affiliated unions and the latter 187. The following summary shows the number of industrial associations of employers and workers in each industrial group, with the number of affiliated unions in each case. In most cases the associations cover the entire country.

Industrial Group.Employers.Workers.
Associations.Affiliated Unions.AssociationsAffiliated Unions.
1949.1950.1949.1950.1919.1950.1949.1950.

* In process of cancellation.

Provision of—        
  Food, drink, &c.553838331516
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles    341316
  Building and construction434442332523
  Transport by water1110102255
  Transport by land1 44111212
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service222323321813
Working in or on—        
  Wood, wicker, seagrass, and fibre1144221010
  Metal11* 4441313
  Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals12742255
  Paper, printing, &c.221111    
  Skins, leather, &c.11331 4 
  Mines and quarries    331010
  Land (farming pursuits)11221133
Miscellaneous1*   895961
      Totals21201461453636192187

PROPORTION OF UNIONISTS.—The following table, showing the proportion of workers belonging to unions registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act to the total number of wage-earners in the country, is of interest as manifesting the movement in and the extent of unionism during the period under review. The figures given for total wage-earners are derived from census enumerations and would include professional, business, and other classes in which unionism prior to the passing of the amending Act of 1936 did not exist, and agricultural and pastoral occupations where it was practically non-existent. In addition, females are included in both sets of figures, although the proportion of women unionized prior to 1936 was negligible.

Year.Total Wage-earners.Year.Numbers of Workers on Rolls of Registered Unions.Percentage of Wage-earner on Rolls of Registered Unions.
1901 (March)224,3461900 (December)17,9898
1906 (April)269,0391905 (December)29,86911
1911 (April)304,272.1910 (December)57,09119
1916 (October)302,1611916 (December)71,58724
1921 (April)370,6921920 (December)96,35026
1926 (April)414,6731925 (December)100,54024
1936 (March)496,5631935 (December)80,92916
1945 (September)473,6841945 (December)229,10348

Chapter 42. SECTION 42-INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES

THE compilation of statistics regarding industrial disputes was first undertaken by the Census and Statistics Department at the beginning of the year 1920. Information concerning disputes prior to that year was obtained by examination of the records of the Labour Department.

Under the system originated in 1920, returns furnished by Inspectors of Factories from inquiries made in each district form the main source from which information is obtained. It is considered that the statistics based on these reports are less liable to bias than would be the case if parties to the dispute or other private persons were relied on to furnish the information. It is the duty of an Inspector, during the course of a dispute in his industrial district, to collect all available particulars relating to it. The Inspectors have power to make the necessary inquiries, and thus are able to obtain complete information.

In these tabulations the term “industrial dispute” refers only to those disputes which result in a strike or a lockout, or where organized “go slow” or other passive resistance methods are clearly manifested. Many disputes are, of course, settled without recourse to such measures; these are not recorded for statistical purposes.

It occasionally happens that there are strikes in different centres with the same or similar objects, and occurring at or about the same time; in such cases the several disturbances are treated as one if the available evidence is sufficient to justify such a course, while the duration is taken as the maximum duration in any centre. While the dispute itself may be allocated to a single industrial district the actual number of workers involved may be distributed over more than one of the districts.

Reference to enactments framed to mitigate the severity of industrial disputes will be found in Section 39 of this Year-Book (Labour Laws and Allied Legislation).

NUMBER AND MAGNITUDE.—Although the records of the Labour Department contain certain information regarding industrial disputes which occurred prior to 1920 (the year in which the present system of reporting was instituted), the details are not sufficiently complete to permit of a full comparison with later years. This applies also in some measure to 1920, as information under some headings did not become available until 1921. Consequently, the following summary has been divided into two parts—viz., 1906–20 and 1921–51).

In the first part only the total number of disputes occurring during the period is shown, together with the number of disputes and workers involved where such information is available.

Year.Total Disputes.Disputes Where Complete Details Available.
Number.Workers Involved.
19061188
190765558
19082263
19091  
1910159255
191122171,375
191224225,746
1913737013,400
191420194,089
191586295
1916159899
191745252,734
191840294,056
191945324,030
1920777715,138

The more detailed figures for the period 1921–51 are as follows.

Year.Strikes.Lockouts.Total Disputes.Films Affected.Workers Involved.Working-days Lost.Estimated Loss in Wages
       £
192177 7711210,433119,20890,477
192258 58676,41493,45660,782
192349 49797,162201,812114,074
192434 345814,81589,10562,732
192581283939,90574,55249,149
192659 59676,26447,81132,355
192738 38404,47612,48511,819
192837239569,25821,99722,304
192946147607,15125,88926,940
193038 38445,46731,66937,299
193123124376,35648,48644,544
193223 23679,355108,605105,715
193315 15433,55865,09959,334
193424 24373,77310,3937,121
193512 12652,32318,56315,266
193643 431287,35416,98012,886
193752 527311,41129,91632,129
193872 7210311,38835,45642,104
193966 6663615,68253,80160,394
194056 579910,47528,09728,062
194189 899715,26126,23734,552
194265 657814,34551,18963,179
194369 6911410,91514,68720,179
1944148114926929,76652,60274,012
1945154 1541,25539,41866,62992,546
194696 9612215,69630,39340,112
1947134 13423426,970102,725187,669
1948101 10188528,49493,464195,985
1949123 1231,31561,536218,172390,773
1950129 1291,18991,492271,475514,236
1951109 10935436,8781,157,3903,111,307

A refusal by seamen in 1947 to perform overtime work is not included in the figures given for that year in the above table.

The figures for strikes include cases where, following a recognized stop-work meeting, the employees did not resume work for some hours or until next day. This class of strike has assumed considerable importance recently, the number of such cases in the five years 1947–51 being 129, involving 30,439 workers and the loss of 27,803 working-days and of £55,231 in wages.

In calculating the number of working-days lost, it is assumed that work would have been continuous if no dispute had taken place. No allowance is made for loss of work from unemployment or other causes which might have occurred even if there had been no dispute, nor is the possibility taken into account of strikers being replaced with non-union labour. In some cases, such as shearing, there is a definite amount of work to be done, and a stoppage of work does not decrease the total amount of it, but only postpones its completion. In those cases the figures are perhaps more or less fictitious, but in the great majority of cases they represent a real loss.

From the preceding tables it will be seen that the number of disputes occurring in any one year was comparatively small until 1913, the high point for that year coinciding with the watersiders' and slaughtermen's strikes of the period. The total for 1913 was not surpassed until 1920 and 1921, the present system of recording industrial disputes being commenced in the latter year. In 1921 the number of disputes was at a relatively high level, but from then onwards, with the exception of one or two temporary fluctuations, the general trend in both number of disputes and number of workers involved showed a downward tendency, culminating in the low figure of 12 disputes involving 2,323 workers in 1935.

The last fifteen years have exhibited a reversal of this trend, and particularly during 1946–50 the number of men going on strike each year increased, a new high level being reached in 1950 for the number of workers involved (91,492). In 1951, despite the occurrence of a most serious dispute, the number of workers involved fell to 36,878. In the latter year, however, record high levels were established in the number of working-days lost (1,157,390), and in the estimated loss in wages (£3,111,307). The greatest number of disputes in one year is still, however, 154 In 1945, and of firms involved, 1,315 in 1949.

The practice of members of a union returning home after a recognized stop-work meeting or absenting themselves from work for a period as a “protest only” against an alleged injustice has increased greatly over the last few years. In the same category may be placed unauthorized stop-work meetings, and unauthorized holidays. In 1946 these practices were responsible for 22 out of 96 stoppages, in 1947 for 36 out of 134, in 1948 for 38 out of 101, in 1949 for 70 out of 123, in 1950 for 63 out of 129, and in 1951 for 59 out of 109 stoppages.

The most serious dispute which occurred during 1950 was a general strike in December of that year by employees of the Government railways, who claimed greater wage increases than those which had been granted by the Government Railways Industrial Tribunal. The terms of settlement included an agreement for a further case to be presented to the Tribunal. On the waterfront two general strikes took place, the first originating at the end of July in the stoppage of the pay of men who refrained from work on the ship “Rangitoto” at Auckland while awaiting a decision of the Waterfront Industry Commission, and the second during September in a dispute over special rates of pay for handling a cargo of carbon black at Wellington. The Rangitoto dispute led to the setting-up of a Royal Commission to study waterfront conditions. A local refusal of week-end work was maintained from June to September on the Lyttelton waterfront by way of protest against delay in the provision of an assembly hall. In the Waikato coal-mines considerable time was lost during July and August in the course of a dispute over the dismissal of an employee; while on the occasion of the opening of Parliament in June several demonstrations involving temporary cessation of work were made in protest against the reduction of subsidies on certain foods and fuels; workers in some ten industries participating. The respective man-days lost in these five stoppages were as follows: Railways, 95,604; carbon black, 36,473; Waikato coal-mines, 30,100; Rangitoto, 22,335; Lyttelton waterside hall, 11,738; and subsidy removal protest, 11,650; the combined total representing approximately 77 per cent. of all time lost through industrial disputes during the year under review. This was a record for any one year up to 1950, although it was exceeded in 1951. The next highest figure of man-days lost was that for 1949, when the Auckland carpenters' strike and also a general waterfront stoppage occurred. Next in order—in point of lost time—came 1923 when serious disputes occurred in the coalmining and shipping industries, 1921 (marked by strikes of waterside workers), 1932 (chiefly strikes of waterside workers and coal-miners), 1947 (stoppages among waterside workers, freezing-workers, and coal-miners), and 1948 (disturbances in coal-mining, waterfront, and building and construction industries).

The year 1951 was marked by a prolonged waterfront strike, lasting from 9th February to 17th July, and constituting the most serious industrial disturbance which has ever occurred in New Zealand.

From the 8th May, 1950, workers under Arbitration Court Awards received an interim wage increase of 5 per cent. with a maximum of 7s. weekly, while waterfront workers' wages were increased as from the same date from 4s. to 4s. 3d. per hour. From the 15th February, 1951, the interim adjustment was replaced for award workers by an increase of 15 per cent. without a maximum. This was announced on 30th January, 1951, whereupon port employers offered to increase waterfront wages to 4s. hourly plus 15 per cent. (i.e. to 4s. 7 1/2d. per hour). The waterfront workers claimed a greater increase, however, and negotiations shortly thereafter broke down despite Government intervention.

During the currency of this dispute the Government issued a Proclamation under the Public Safety Conservation Act, 1932, declaring a state of emergency, following which Waterfront Strike Emergency Regulations were gazetted, giving powers to ensure the observance of law and order, to prevent picketing, threats, and intimidation, to employ Service labour on the waterfront, and to maintain essential supplies and services to the community. The New Zealand Waterside Workers Union was deregistered and eventually new unions at the separate ports were formed. In the meantime other essential industries, notably coal-mining, shipping, and meat-freezing, became involved, with the result that the total working time lost was swollen to over 1,000,000 man-days, and the total wages lost to over £3,000,000.

Data for 1951 relating to the remaining tables in this Section were not available at the time of going to press.

NATURE AND DURATION.—The next table shows the nature of the disputes and the number of workers involved during the years 1940–50.

Year.Nature of Dispute.Number of Workers Involved.
Direct Strike.Sympathetic Strike.Partial Strike.*Lock-out.Total.Direct Strike.Sympathetic Strike.Partial Strike.*Lock-out.Total.

* i.e., where no actual cessation of work, but a “go slow” or other policy of protest adopted.

194052131578,6306141,1973410,475
194188 1 8915,247 14 15,261
19426311 6513,934211200 14,345
194366 3 6910,689 226 10,915
194414422114928,8935782326329,766
194514518 15436,6983342,386 39,418
19469213 9615,283270143 15,696
194712347 13419,4951,9585,517 26,970
19489038 10123,7454804,269 28,494
194911634 12359,6481,088800 61,536
1950129   12991,492   91,492

The table following illustrates the duration of disputes during 1950.

Duration.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers Involved.Number of Working-days Lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
1 day and leas7848,56132,43770,772
Over 1 day but not over 2161,8762,8025,628
Over 2 days but not over 362,3456,75613,564
Over 3 days but less than 1 week91,2393,7987,312
1 week but less than 2 weeks1227,518132,247198,340
2 weeks but less than 4 weeks68,83778,447182,390
4 weeks but less than 8 weeks12503,2501,025
8 weeks and over186611,73835,205
      Totals12991,492271,475514,236

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—The following table shows the number of disputes in each industrial district for the last five years and also the number of workers involved. In 1950 the Northern District had the greatest number both of strikes and of workers involved, the waterfront being strongly represented in the number of workers involved, followed by the coal-mining, and the land transport industries.

Year.Northern.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Totals.
Number of Disputes
194645 14 31361596
194762111 1311414134
194851220 11089101
1949683182212612123
195059321  161812129
Number of Workers involved
19467,929 2,6421872,4447601,73415,696 
194711,6292252,698 1506,4354,0441,78926,970
194816,3933315,547 71,8702,2602,08628,494
194939,08485010,952159833,7863,8492,27361,536
195035,6272,16828,6942657835,83310,9537,16991,492

NOTE.—While a dispute may be allocated to a single industrial district, the actual number of workers involved may be distributed over more than one district.

INDUSTRIAL DISTRIBUTION.—In the following table industrial disputes are classified according to the industrial groups in which disputes took place, this grouping being the same as that used in the compilation of wage and trade-union statistics.

Industrial Group.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
Number of Disputes
Provision of—     
  Food, drink, &c.2929161318
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles1121 
  Building and construction171365
  Power, heat, and light 2 l2
  Transport by water1217202835
  Transport by land26455
  Accommodation, meals, and personal1  11
service     
Working in or on—     
  Wood, &c.34422
  Metal 6412
  Stone, clay, glass, chemicals, &c.37146
  Paper, printing, &c.11   
  Skins, leather, &c.     
  Mines and quarries—     
  Coal-mines4053376050
  Gold-mines     
  The land (farming pursuits)1    
Miscellaneous21 13
      Totals96134101123129
Industrial Group.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
Number of Workers involved
Provision of—     
  Food, drink, &c.4,3896,3993,7852,5603,188
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles2742142298 
  Building and construction422335,5731,869889
  Power, heat, and light 364 241,600
  Transport by water3,6896,9315,69432,33548,005
  Transport by land614083,3463,85820,365
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service35  6341,295
Working in or on—     
  Wood, &c.9154111285263
  Metal 33138415232
  Stone, clay, glass. chemicals, &c.293894235263718
  Paper, printing, &c.179180   
  Skins, leather, &c.     
  Mines and quarries—     
  Coal-mines6,75411,1229,22419,28514,498
  Gold-mines     
  The land (farming pursuits)3    
Miscellaneous13312 110439
      Totals15,69626,97028,49461,53691,492

Out of a total of 583 disputes during the five years, 240, involving 60,883 workers occurred in connection with mining and quarrying; 112, involving 96,654 workers in the group covering transport by water; 105, involving 20,321 workers in the group covering provision of food, &c. (mainly meat-freezing); while in the land transport group there were 22 disputes involving however 28,038 workers. A more detailed analysis of disputes occurring during 1950 is given below.

Industrial Group.Number of Disputes.Number of Firms Affected.Number of Workers Involved.Number of Working days Lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
Directly.Indirectly.Total.
Provision of—      £
  Food, drink &c.18293,178103,1885,1478,489
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles       
  Building and construction5294889 8896551,073
  Power, heat, and light241,600, 1,6006,15312,406
  Transport by water2538947,07892748,005102,245250,674
  Transport by land522020,365 20,36597,632123,250
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service11291,295 1,295592 
Working in or on—       
  Wood, &c.219263 2633,2701,062
  Metal23232 232191353
  Stone, clay, glass, chemicals, &c.66718 7181,8903,231
  Paper, printing, &c. Skins, leather, &c.       
  Mines and quarries— Coal-mines508714,498 14,49853,351113,162
  Gold-mines       
  The land (farming pursuits) Miscellaneous39439 439349536
      Totals1291,18990,55593791,492271,475514,236

CAUSES.—In the next table the causes of disputes which occurred during the last five years are shown. Under the heading “Wages” are included disputes concerning wages, overtime, or rates for piecework.

Disputes concerning the employment or non-employment of certain classes of persons are included under the heading “Employment.” This question usually arises in connection with trade-union affairs, such as, for instance, the dismissal of a worker on allegedly insufficient grounds, or, until recently, the employment of non-unionists. Since 1936, however, all adult workers who are subject to any award or industrial agreement have been required to be members of a union, and unless there are no unionists available an employer may not employ a non-unionist.

“Other working conditions” are of diverse nature, but some may be mentioned as follows: Distribution of work in coal-mines and on wharves, conveyance to and from work, atmospheric conditions in coal-mines, accommodation on ships, numbers of men to be allocated to certain duties, supply of food, method of handling cargo.

Under the heading “Sympathy” are included all disputes caused by workers striking, not on account of a grievance arising out of their own wages or conditions, but in sympathy with the demands of other workers.

Cause.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
Number of Disputes
Wages2157302736
Hours7442 
Employment1224121412
Other working-conditions361413921
Sympathy145 1
Other causes1931377159
Number of Workers involved
Wages3,58813,7808,39825,14443,638
Hours1,1774342,4401,196 
Employment1,1933,0923,4964,2461,562
Other working-conditions6,5762,7334,8092,5299,063
Sympathy2701,958620 41
Other causes2,8924,9738,73128,42137,188

The following table gives further details for the year 1950.

Cause.Number of Disputes.Number of Firms Affected.Number of Workers Involved.Number of Working-days Lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
     £
Wages3625643,638176,939325,434
Hours     
Employment12131,5627,44818,447
Other working-conditions21419,06324,95946,450
Sympathy1241123213
Other causes5987737,18862,006123,692
      Totals1291,18991,492271,475514,236

The high figures shown for “other causes” in 1949 and 1950 are mainly accounted for by cases where members of a union did not resume work after a stop-work meeting or absented themselves for a period as a “protest only” against an alleged injustice.

METHODS OF SETTLEMENT.—Following is a table showing the methods of settlement. of disputes during the last five years. “Negotiations under Act” covers negotiations under both the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act and the Labour Deputes Investigation Act. Return to work under unchanged circumstances includes such cases as “Protest” absence and extension of stop-work meeting. Other headings are self-explanatory.

Method of Settlement.1946.1947.1948.1949.1950.
Number of Disputes
Negotiations under Act1728161011
Private negotiations between parties323720725
Intervention of third party212382223
Substitution1 21 
Return to work under unchanged circumstances2236387063
Other3917137
Number of Workers involved
Negotiations under Act3,5046,3847,3539213,672
Private negotiations between parties3,9085,4842,1801,70122,020
Intervention of third party4,5792,6673,0716,17822,741
Substitution347281,582 
Return to work under unchanged circumstances3,66611,07911,82145,24942,390
Other361,3094,0415,905669

Further information for the year 1950 is given in the next table.

Method of Settlement.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers Involved.Number of Working-days Lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
Negotiations under Act113,67214,31115,268
Private negotiations between parties2522,020117,120175,089
Intervention of third party2322,741101,979237,263
Substitution    
Return to work under unchanged circumstances6342,39037,50985,314
Other76695561,302
      Totals12991,492271,475514,236

RESULTS.—In compiling the table which follows, no dispute has been included as ending in favour of either employers or workers unless the result has been beyond question. In cases where workers have made more than one demand, succeeding in one or more and failing in one or more, or where they have made one or more demands and in respect of each have been partially successful only, the result has been treated as a compromise. Where strikers have returned to work without any definite decision being arrived at regarding the demands made, or where (as in the case of a sympathetic strike) no definite demand has been made, or where a strike is merely by way of a protest, the result has been recorded as indeterminate.

RESULTS OF DISPUTES

Result.1046.1947.1948.1949.1950.
Number of Disputes
In favour of workers3148211819
In favour of employers16151665
Compromise212151137
Indeterminate2850598868
Number of Workers involved
In favour of workers2,9337,5684,3635,7226,793
In favour of employers3,6272,0893,3052,0422,093
Compromise3,3904,7742,06491838,426
Indeterminate5,74612,53918,76252,85444,180
Number of Working-days lost
In favour of workers4,82815,7324,91713,3949,000
In favour of employers5,30215,66318,844109,95336,160
Compromise11,42023,92413,8823,270190,220
Indeterminate8,84347,40655,82191,55536,095

Of disputes ending definitely in favour of one party or the other during the five years, workers succeeded in 137 instances and employers in 58. In the previous five years (1941–45) workers were successful in 128 instances and employers in 89.

In the following table the causes and results of disputes occurring during 1950 are-shown in conjunction.

Result.Cause.
Wages.Hours.Employment.Other Working Conditions.SympathyOther.Totals.
Number of Disputes
In favour of workers6 49  19
In favour of employers2 11 15
Compromise21 67 337
Indeterminate7 1415568
Number of Workers involved
In favour of workers2,097 3764,320  6,793
In favour of employers118 38090 1,5952,093
Compromise32,949 7334,111 63338,426
Indeterminate8,474 735424135,05044,180
Number of Working-days lost
In favour of workers5,596 5662,838  9,000
In favour of employers270 5,70090 30,10036,160
Compromise161,887 99121,140 6,202190,220
Indeterminate9,186 19189112325,70436,095

Chapter 43. SECTION 43—INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS

As a result of an international conference of official statisticians held at Geneva in 1923, under the auspices of the International Labour Office set up by the League of Nations, the collection and compilation of statistics of industrial accidents on substantially uniform lines was undertaken in virtually all of the principal countries. From the administrative standpoint, the principal types of industrial accidents occurring in New Zealand may be classified as follows:—

Factory Accidents.—The Factories Act, 1946, requires that all accidents likely to incapacitate the injured person for at least forty-eight hours be reported to an Inspector of Factories. Until 31st March, 1949, reports were prepared by Inspectors of Factories in connection with each such accident causing loss of work amounting to three days or more—i.e., compensable accidents, these reports being ultimately forwarded to the Census and Statistics Department for statistical analysis. (NOTE.—The statistics presented throughout the present section relate to compensable accidents only. By the Workers Compensation Amendment Act, 1951, however, the restriction which required three days' absence from work before compensation became payable was removed. The scope of later statistics will be enlarged accordingly.)

Scaffolding Accidents.—The procedure adopted in connection with the compilation of statistics of scaffolding accidents was identical with that in connection with factory accidents.

Bush-working Accidents.—By section 14 of the Bush-workers' Act, 1945, a similar procedure was prescribed for bush-working accidents also; these were accordingly included for the first time in the 1946 statistics.

Accidents to Employees in Mines and Quarries.—Certain particulars of accidents to employees in metalliferous mines, in coal-mines, and in quarries and other places under the Quarries Act, are given in successive numbers of the Mines Statement, parliamentary paper C-2. Commencing with the year 1938, individual reports of all accidents involving loss of work for three days or more have been furnished, although information as to duration of disability is not yet available. Details of compensation paid commence from 1949 only.

Certain other types of accident are notifiable under various enactments but only in the cases mentioned above have notifications been used for statistical purposes by the Census and Statistics Department.

Accidents to Employees of the Railways Department, Ministry of Works, State Hydroelectric Department, Printing and Stationery Department, New Zealand Forest Service, and Post and Telegraph Department.—Individual reports of all accidents involving loss of work for three days or more are supplied by the respective Departments to the Census and Statistics Department for detailed analysis and tabulation.

Other Industrial Accidents.—There are numerous types of industrial accidents for which, prior to 1949, it had not been found practicable to collect and compile statistics. The principal classes of such accidents are those occurring to persons engaged on farms, in land transport (other than railway operation), in waterside work, and in marine navigation.

The Workers' Compensation Amendment Act of 1947, granted from the 1st April, 1949, a virtual monopoly of compensation insurance to the State Fire and Accident Insurance Office. Certain mutual insurance companies were specifically excluded from the monopoly, and so, by a further amending act of 1949, were British Commonwealth shipping companies if members of a protecting club. This concentration of compensation insurance business enabled suitable arrangements to be made for the derivation of industrial accident statistics from compensation claims handled by the State Fire and Accident Insurance Department and by the exempted companies, instead of from notifications of the occurrence of accidents made to the Department of Labour and Employment, extended by subsequent inquiry to include information as to compensation and time lost. The 1949 statistics are, in respect of accidents which occurred after the 31st March, compiled on this new basis. Reports on accidents in Government Departments are, however, still obtained as previously, including reports from the Mines Department, though information from this source on accidents in mines not State owned is not used, the relevant claims being available in their case. The result has been a greatly improved coverage, waterfront and marine accidents being the only important types of industrial accident which were still excluded from the scope of the statistics. For reasons given the details available for 1949 and 1950 are not comparable with those for previous years, and some changes in the tabular arrangements of the resultant statistics is therefore necessary. It is anticipated that the statistics for the 1949 year will he available shortly after this Section goes to press, and all principal figures will be incorporated in the Latest Statistical Information—see forefront of the book.

The Workers' Compensation Amendment Act, 1950, terminated the monopoly, restored workers' compensation insurance to general competition among insurance companies as from 1st April, 1951, and established the Workers' Compensation Board, which is empowered, inter alia, to collect statistics, conduct research into causes of accidents, and devise means for their prevention. In the exercise of these functions the Board requires insurance companies and self-insurers to forward copies of accident claims to the Census and Statistics Department, where the relevant statistics will be compiled. This will be the source from which particulars of accidents occurring after 31st March, 1951, will be obtained and a further modification of the statistical format will be entailed. Practically all classes of industrial accidents other than marine will then be covered.

FREQUENCY RATES.—The formula in use for computing frequency rates in respect of industrial accidents in New Zealand is based on the number of accidents recorded per 100,000 man-hours worked. For the purpose of calculating the number of man-hours of exposure to accident risk, data as to the number of employees in establishments coming under various industrial headings have been compiled by the Census and Statistics Department from returns furnished annually for the purpose by the Inspectors of Factories of the Department of Labour and Employment; while information as to the hours worked has been ascertained from awards, and supplemented by the statistics of short time and overtime normally compiled from data collected with the annual census of factory production. Similar data have boon obtained from the records of the Post and Telegraph and Railways Departments, the Ministry of Works, and the New Zealand Forest Service. One hour's work performed by one man is taken as a unit. Data as to man-hours are not available in the case of mining or scaffolding operations, nor are compensation data in respect of mining accidents. The compensation figures shown throughout the section include damages, if any, awarded by a judgment of the court, medical expenses and, in the case of fatal accidents, funeral expenses also.

Year.Total Accidents.Accidents per 100,000 Man-hours Worked.*Accidents Where Particulars of Compensation Available.Total Compensation or Damages Paid in Such Cases.Compensation per Case Where Known.

* Excluding scaffolding and mining accidents.

† Excluding mining accidents.

‡ Excluding forestry and bush-working accidents.

§ Excluding bush-working accidents.

    ££
1944 15,514319610,961266,52424.3
1945 14,5272.98410,277237,21622.9
194615,1233.016§11,289258,62122.9
194714,7833.00211,912312,03326.2
194815,7213.13012,693378,76199.8

Compared with the previous year the 1948 total shows an increase of 938 accidents or 6.3 per cent., the greatest numerical movement (an increase of 680) being in the factory accidents, and the greatest percentage movement (an increase of 74 per cent.) having occurred in the scaffolding group.

The distribution of industrial accidents in 1947 and 1948 according to the source of information (accidents to Printing and Stationery Department employees being included in the Factories group) is indicated in the following table.

Class.Total Accidents.Accidents per 100,000 Man-hours Worked.Accidents Where Particulars of Compensation Available.Total Compensation or Damages Paid in Such Cases.Compensation per Case Where Known.
1947.1948.1947.1948.1947.1948.1947.1948.1947.1948.

* No information available.

† Excluding scaffolding and mining accidents.

‡ Excluding mining accidents.

     ££££  
Factories6,9287,6082.3512.6026,9207,584182,712216, 36026.428.5
Public works and State Hydro-electric Department9178255.0713.99591382119,95727,56921.933.6
New Zealand Forest Service34642510.03911.0703464254,6629,36413.522.0
Hush-working4716166.8519.07447160722,45925,34747.741.8
Scaffolding91158**9115612,69614,281139–691.5
Hallways2,7432,6655.7135.3762,7362,66556,97975,08320.828.2
Post and Telegraph4364351.8641.52843543512,55810,75728.924.7
Mining2,8512,989********
All classes14,78315,7213.002 3.13011,91212,693312,033378,76126 229 8

It is usual for scaffolding accidents to involve the highest compensation per accident, owing to the proportionately greater number which terminate fatally or result in permanent disability. There were eight accidents causing permanent partial disability and two fatal accidents in this small group during 1948, while the group having the next highest average compensation per accident (bush-working) included sixteen accidents causing permanent partial disability and six fatalities.

In the table following, industrial accidents during the years 1947 and 1948 are classified into certain important industrial groups. Details for individual industries, under this and other headings, are published in the Statistical Report on Industrial Accidents issued by the Census and Statistics Department.

Industrial Group.Total AccidentsAccidents per 100,000 Man-hours Worked.Accidents Where Particulars of Compensation Available.Total Compensation or Damages Paid in Such Cases.Compensation per Case where Known.
1947.1948.1947.1948.1947.1948.1947.1948.1947.1948.

* Including State. Hydro-electric Department employees on construction work.

† Data on which to compute not available.

‡ Excluding scaffolding and mining accidents.

§ Excluding mining accidents.

Provision of—      ££££
  Food, drink, &c.4,4024,3126.2516.2384,3974,30581,92379,81218.618.5
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles4922210.3200.3701922195,8938,17030.737.3
  Building and construction—          
  Public works*8137415.1084.08880973717,43625,74621.634.9
  Scaffolding911589115612,69614,281139.591.5
  Power, heat, and light—          
  State Hydro-electric104844.7973.327104842,5211,32324.221.7
  Factories1101221.4691.6961101212,2752,76820.722.9
  Communications and land transport—          
  Post and Telegraph4364351.8641.52843543512,55810,75728.924.7
  Railways2,7432,6655.7135.3762,7362,66556,97975,08320.823.2
  Personal services25150.5030.37425152591,05210.470.1
  Working in or on—          
  Wood, seagrass, &c.—          
  Factories7661,1082.5733.5437651,10034,75747,76745.443.4
  New Zealand Forest Service34642510.03911.0703464254,6629,36413.522.0
  Bush-working4716166.8519.07447160722,45925,34747.741.8
  Metal7259931.6611.49172498919,67839,71627.240.2
  Stone, clay, glass, &c.5516272.0962.29355062723,18624,44142.239.0
  Paper, printing, &c.1061410.6640.8791061396,2419,89258.971.2
  Skins, leather, &c.47630.6631.35847638,3382,692177.442.7
  Mines and quarries2,8512,989
Miscellaneous460.0920.093461725043.18.4
All groups14,78315,721 3.002 3.13011,912 §12,6933312,033 §378,761 §26.2 §29.8 §

Of the industrial groups enumerated, the highest frequency rate—i.e., accidents per 100,000 man-hours worked—was in both 1947 and 1948 recorded by the -New Zealand Forest Service. Bush-working and the food, drink, &c., group followed in that order. The comparatively high rate shown in the food, drink, &c., group is largely due to the frequent accidents which occur in the meat-freezing industry. The lowest rate was recorded by the miscellaneous group, and the next lowest by the clothing, footwear, and textiles group.

The following table shows, for the last five years available, the average compensation paid, in conjunction with the extent of disability.

Year.Temporary Disability.Permanent Disability.Fatality.Total.
Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.

* Where amount of compensation known.

  £ £ £ £
194410,722£13.9213418.6261,100.010,96124.3
194510,18714.2165385.5251,160.710,37722.9
194611,05213.9206352.6311,043.411,28922.9
194711,65313.4224473.6351,433.411,91226.2
194812,42516.1234553.8341,447.712,69329.8

The maximum amount, irrespective of medical and funeral expenses, which may be paid in respect of fatalities under the Workers' Compensation Act was from 1st April, 1948, raised from £1,000 to £1,500, with a new provision that no deduction was to be made from this amount on account of any weekly payments due to incapacity prior to the occurrence of death unless these payments exceeded £250 in total. From the 1st September, 1949, this maximum amount was raised to £1,750, and by the Workers' Compensation Act, 1951, was later increased to £2,000 with a maximum of £300 from weekly payments before reduction of the principal amount was to become effective. Prior to 1942 the average amount paid in respect of fatalities was considerably below the maximum. This is explained by the fact that in cases where a deceased worker had no dependants, only medical and funeral expenses are paid; and that in cases of partial dependency the amount paid as compensation varies in proportion to the extent of such dependency. Should, however, the worker's dependants take proceedings at common law (where negligence must be proved) the amount of compensation depends on the verdict of the jury, and it is not limited to the statutory maximum under the Act. There were several eases of this kind following fatalities in each of the five years shown above (but very few, if any, prior to 1942), and this accounts for the marked increase over previous years in the average amount of compensation (inclusive of damages) paid. Similar action has also been taken by the worker himself in some cases of permanent disability.

CAUSE OF ACCIDENT AND EXTENT OF INJURY SUSTAINED.—In regard to the extent and degree of the disability sustained, it is usual to distinguish fatal accidents, accidents causing temporary disability, accidents causing permanent partial disability, and accidents causing permanent total disability. Very few cases of permanent total disability occur in New Zealand, practically the whole of the cases shown under “permanent disability” resulting in partial disability only. As stated elsewhere, New Zealand Forest Service and bush-working accidents are included from 1946 onwards.

In the actual compilation of the statistics difficulty occasionally arises as to whether a particular injury should be regarded as temporary or permanent; and in cases of doubt the conservative practice has been adopted of classifying the injury in the temporary-disability class. The following table, showing cause of accident in conjunction with degree of disability, relates to the five-year period 1944–48.

Cause,Temporary Disability.Permanent Disability.*Fatality.Total.Percentage of Total Accidents.

* Including permanent total disability cases as follows: 1944,3; 1945, 2; 1946, 3; 1947, 1; 1948, 3: total 12.

Machinery—     
  Prime movers874 910.1
  Transmission2512272800.4
  Lifting-machinery1,98679112,0762.7
  Power-working machines6,885573157,4739.9
 10,1971486210,40713.8
  fires, and hot substances1,4703171,5082.0
  and corrosive substances934419391.2
  Electricity1866152070.3
Palls of persons—     
  From elevations3,00766203,09341
  Into excavations6672 5690.8
  Slipping and stumbling on the level3,60318 3,6214.8
Stepping on or striking against fixed objects—     
  Stepping on339  3390.4
  Striking against3,7192333,7455.0
Falling objects, not being handled by the person injured2,01837192,0742.7
Falls of earth1,91776342,0272.7
Handling of objects—     
  Heavy14,680105714,79219.5
  Sharp4,74319 4,7626.3
  Hand-trucks, &c.1,96315 1,9782.6
  Continual handling1,0002 1,0021.3
Hand-tools—     
  In hands of person injured—     
  Glancing of tool8,41493 8,50711.2
  Breaking of tool74  740.1
  Flying particles1,68221 1,7032.3
  Other1,14610 1,1561.5
In hands of other than person injured3316 3370.4
Animals304213070.4
Miscellaneous—     
  Strains, sprains, and septic wounds undefined as to cause sustained while slaughtering1,0282 1,0301.4
  Doors, windows, covers, gates (excluding elevators)86411 8751.2
  Other687456960.9

Any consideration of avenues of accident prevention requires information concerning the relative importance of the various causes of accident, which are set out in the foregoing table.

Similar information according to the principal types of industrial accidents is now-given for the same period as that covered by the preceding table.

Class.Temporary Disability.Permanent Disability.*Fatality.Total.Percentage of Total Accidents.

*Including permanent total disability cases as follows: 1944,3; 1945, 2; 1946, 3; 1947, 1: 1948, 3: total, 12.

† Information from 1946.

Summary
Factories32,7837996033,64244.5
Public works and State Hydro-electric Department4,719101234,8436.4
New Zealand Forest Service 1,0811011,0921.4
Bush-working 1,20137151,2531.7
Scaffolding4933395350.7
Railways13,874824013,99618.5
Post and Telegraph1,9481871,9732.6
Mining17,9832995218,33424.2
      Totals74,0821,37920775,668100.0

LENGTH OF EXPERIENCE AT PROCESS: Factory Accidents only.—In recent years information has been obtained regarding the length of experience of the employee at the work on which he was engaged at the time of the accident. The information thus obtained in respect of factory accidents is given below for the years 1944–48. The necessary information was not available in all cases, the number covered representing approximately 94 per cent. of the total.

Length of Experience at Process.1944.1945.1946.1947.1948.
No. or Cases.Per Cent. of Total.No. of Cases.Per Cent of Total.No. of Cases.Per Cent. of Total.No. of Cases.Per Cent. of Total.No. of Cases.Per Cent. of Total.
Under 6 months1,64125.71,74629.41,93932.12,10032.72,20330.9
6 months and under 1 year68210.75829.85098.46009.46979.8
1 year and under 2 years69810.95539.35539.16319.883611.7
2 years and under 3 years68010.74768.04998.36039.46769.5
3 years and under 4 years5658.94838.13776.23044.73795.3
4 years and under 5 years3385.33896.53485.82754.32813.9
5 years and under 10 years83313.185114.390815.087913.795713.4
10 years and under 20 years6069.55669.561410.267310.56849.6
20 years and over3336.23015.12984.93525.54185.9
      Totals6,376100.05,947100.06,045100.06,417100.07,131100.0

The preceding table should be studied in conjunction with the following one showing percentage distribution according to age-groups (where ages have been given). The recent rise in the proportion of accidents occurring to factory workers with under six months' experience (from 25.7 per cent. in 1944 to 32.7 per cent. in 1947) suggests more frequent changes of employment, including perhaps seasonal changes. The ago distribution is also still reflecting the employment of older men in industry. Accidents to workers aged 35 years and over comprised 27.7 per cent. of the total in 1939 and 41.6 per cent. in 1948.

Age, in Years.1944.1945.1946.1947.1948.
No. of Cases.Per Cent. of Total.No. Cases.Per Cent. of Total.No. of Cases.Per No Cent.No of Total.Per Cent. of Total.No. of Cases.Per Cent. of Total.
Under 16981.5641.0540.9430.6480.7
16 to 201,03915.992315.185713.590913.31,11715.1
21 to 2488013.580713.293014.71,13016.61,23316.6
26 to 341,92529.51,80029.51,92130.41,91128.01,93126.0
35 to 441,37921.11,34122.01,36021.51,41820.81,53320.6
45 to 5470010.771611.771811.386412.798513.3
56 and over5057.84567.54857.75138.05767.7
      Totals6,526100.06,107100.06,325100.06,818100.07,422100.0

NATURE OF INJURY.—A classification of accidents according to the nature of the injuries sustained gives the following results for the years 1944–48.

Nature of Injury.1944.*1945*.1946.1947.1948.Totals, 1944–48.

* Excluding accidents to forestry-workers and bush-workers.

† Traumatic only. In addition there were: in 1944, 54 surgical amputations; in 1945, 32; in 1946, 36; in 1947, 36; and in 1948, 40.

Contusions and abrasions4,4723,7293,7593,3953,41718,772
Bums and scalds5305396295715792, 848
Concussions5052577778314
Cuts and lacerations3,5123,4183,8373,8404,05418,661
Punctures6576638338728803,905
Amputations114103143134186680
Dislocations4643423859228
Fractures4654295647089063,072
Sprains and strains4,3204,0104,0664,1274,44620,969
Other and ill-defined1,3481,5411,1931,0211,1166,219
      Totals15,51414,52715,12314,78315,72175,668
Cases where septic poisoning occurred—      
Number2,0321,8612,1912,4022,41510,901
Percentage of all accidents13.112.814.516.215-414.4

A feature of special interest brought out by this table is the relatively high proportion of accidents in which septic poisoning followed.

PART OF BODY AFFECTED.—Informative figures showing the number of cases in which the different parts of the body were affected by industrial accidents which occurred during the years 1944–48 are given in the following table.

Part of Body affected,1944.*1945.*1946.1947.1948.Totals, 1944–48.

* Excluding accidents to forestry-workers and bush-workers.

Head2582442202552521,229
Eyes6906506516066733,270
Rest of face1842112162101911,012
Neck8287785168366
Back1,8091,6991,6051,5061,6358,254
Thorax and contents6496456295956463,164
Abdomen and contents3282802403133301,491
External genitals3333253327151
Upper limbs—      
  Collarbone and shoulder5104824864754792,432
  Arm9739439868279204,649
  Hand and wrist2,1941,9551,9552,0502,07010,224
  Finger and thumb3,8133,6844,1414,1304,37420,142
Lower limbs—      
  Pelvis, hip, and thigh3523273512752711,576
  Leg1,5121,4011,5191,4041,5507,386
  Ankle and foot1,7871,6551,7951,7711,9798,987
Undefined or multiple3402312262822561,335
      Totals15,51414,52715,12314,78315,72175,668

Accidents to the fingers and hands formed a large proportion of the total, no loss than 30,366 (40.1 per cent.) out of an aggregate of 75,668 in the five years covered by the above table coming within that category. Next in order came cases in which an injury to the ankle or foot was sustained with 11.9 per cent., the back with 10.9 per cent., the leg with 9.8 per cent., the arm with 6.1 per cent., and the eyes with 4.3 per cent.

A tabulation made for 1948, correlating nature of injury with part of body affected, showed that the most common type of accident was to the fingers and thumbs, resulting in cute or lacerations: 2,559 of the 15,721 accidents tabulated came under this category. Of the 226 cases of amputations (of which 186 wore traumatic and 40 were surgical), 199 resulted in loss of some part of the fingers or thumbs. Contusions of the fingers and thumbs numbered 803, of the hands 504, of the thighs and legs 623, and of the feet, 582; cuts and lacerations of the hands amounted to 602. Of the 4,446 sprains, 1,460 resulted in injury to the back, while sprained thighs, legs, and feet accounted for 1,264.

DURATION OF INCAPACITY.—A further measure of the extent of disability is furnished in cases of temporary disability, by data as to the duration of absence from work as the result of the accident. A summary of this aspect, together with the number of cases of permanent partial disability and fatality, is given below for the years 1945–48, together with the totals for the five year period, 1944–48. Information as to time lost is not available for mining accidents, and these are excluded.

Duration.1945.*1949.1947.1948.Totals, 1944 to 1948.*
Number.Per Cent.Number.Per Cent.Number.Per Cent.Number.Per Cent.Number.Per Cent.

* Excluding accidents in 1944 and 1945 to forestry-workers and bush-workers.

1 week or under2,10220.22,34020.72,61721.92, 88622.712,05821.0
Over 1 week to 2 weeks3,50733.83,82233.84,06134.04,15732.719,15533.4
Over 2 weeks to 4 weeks2,76220.62,00825.78,00325.23,05924.014,70925.7
Over 4 weeks to 6 weeks8067.88807.89177.71,06384,6118.0
Over 6 weeks to 13 weeks7237.08097.17976.7 7.13, 9957.0
Over 13 weeks to 6 months2112.02101.9197 2652.11, 1131.9
Over 6 months760.7770.7610.5 0 73920.7
      Total specified cases of temporary disability10,18798.111,05297.711,65397.612, 12597.656,03897.7
Cases where employee did not return or duration not stated40.0140.180.1110.2610.1
Permanent disability1681.62141.92352.02421.91,0801.9
Fatality270.3310.3360.3340.31550.3
      Totals10,380100.011,311100.011,932100.012,732100.057,334100.0

In many cases the injured employee did not cease work immediately, a considerable period intervening in some instances. The following table shows, for such cases occurring during the year 1948, the length of time elapsing before the employee left work, and the final cause of cessation of work.

Factories.Public Works.New Zealand Forest Service.Bush-working.Scaffolding.Railways.Post and TelegraphTotal.
Period elapsing        
1 week or less1,326672567238581532,519
Over 1 week and up to 2 weeks182134657310293
Over 2 weeks10111766646201
Final cause        
Incipient septic poisoning87440233513230461,261
Strains399218211334961872
Other causes33630523841662830
      Totals1,609913679349951693,013
Percentage of all accidents (i.e., percentage of delayed-action cases to total accidents in each class)21.11108.512.821.537.338.923.7

The preceding table indicates that many employees suffering from minor injuries pay little attention to such injury, especially in the case of slight cuts, strains, or abrasions. This neglect often causes more severe pain (or with cuts and abrasions, septic poisoning), and the absence then enforced is usually longer than if the injury had received immediate attention. Lost time usually entails a reduction in wages, especially if the injury results in under three days' absence, in which case no compensation is payable. Further, in (he case of apprentices, lost time has to be made up at the termination of the period of apprenticeship, and these two considerations are likely to militate against the worker ceasing work immediately on account of a minor injury. In many cases efforts are being made on the part of employers to reduce aggravation of injuries through neglect by the establishment of first-aid posts at the works.

ACCIDENT SEVERITIES.—Severity rates are calculated according to the formula: man-hours lost through accidents per 100,000 man-hours worked. In the case of fatal accidents and accidents resulting in permanent disability, the assessment for time lost may or may not take into account variations in the expectation of working-life destroyed by the accident in accordance with the age of the worker killed or permanently injured. In view of the fact that the age of the individual is not particularly relevant to the character of the hazard from which the injury has occurred, for the purpose of calculating the accident-severity rates shown below, a constant loss of 9,545 calendar days is counted for each fatality irrespective of the age of the person at the time of death. The effect of taking into account the actual age is shown in the Statistical Report on Industrial Accidents. In respect of permanent partial disablement an international scheme for the apportionment of loss of earning-power caused by accidents of this nature has been drawn up by the International Labour Office. Under this scheme, which has been adopted with some slight modification in the treatment of New Zealand statistics, time lost on account of permanent partial disability is assessed on the basis of a proportionate part of the time lost in connection with injuries resulting in death or permanent total disablement. For example, dismemberment or the loss of the use of a hand is regarded as a 50-per-cent. disability—that is, the time lost on account of impaired working capacity in this case is assessed as 50 per cent. of 9,545 calendar days—i.e., 4,773 calendar days.

A simpler concept is that of “average time charge,” which is measured by the total time lost (including assessments for fatalities and permanently disabling injuries) divided by the number of accidents. This rate is shown in the following table as “calendar days (i.e., man-days) lost per accident.”

The severity rate for all accidents during the period 1944–48 has varied between 1,367 (in 1945) and 1,545 (in 1944). The extent of the toll on industry exacted by industrial accidents is realized when it is considered that during the five years 1944–48 one hour was lost as a result of such accidents out of every sixty-nine hours worked in the industries covered by the following table. Reports on mining and scaffolding accidents do not provide the necessary data for inclusion in that portion of the table.

1944.*1945.*1646.1947.1948.

* Excluding bush-working and forestry accidents.

† Excluding mining accidents.

‡ Excluding scaffolding and mining accidents.

§ Excluding bush-working accidents.

Total cases resulting in—     
  Temporary disability15,18514,26714,80414,44515,381
  Permanent disability284221283292299
  Fatality4539364641
      Totals15,51414,52715,12314,78315,721
Calendar days lost per accident (i.e., time charge)8981848986
Man-hours lost per 100,000 man-hours worked (i.e., severity-rate)1,5451,3671,388 §1,4731,482

Comparison of the severity rates as between different industrial groups is affected by the varying proportions of serious accidents and fatalities in different industries in different years. In the main groups covered by the cumulative table for the five years 1944–48 shown below, the effect, of this factor is minimized by the relatively largo number of accidents classified.

Industrial Group.Number of Accidents Resulting in—Number of Accidents per 100,000 Man-hours Worked (Frequency Rate.)Calendar Days Lost per Accident (Time Charge).Hours Lost per 100,000 Man-hours Worked (Severity Rate).
Temporary Disability.Permanent Disability.Fatality.Total.

* Data on which to compute not available.

† Information for 1946–48 only.

‡ Information for 1947–48 only.

§ Excluding scaffolding and mining accidents.

¶ Excluding mining accidents.

Provision of—       
  Food, drink, &c.21,408219921,6366.655401,508
  Clothing. footwear, and textiles1,0783921,1190.377103223
  Building and construction—       
  Public works and the State Hydro-electric Department4,42199234,5435.8341424,748
  Scaffolding493339535*419*
  Power, heat and light6531626711.58799894
  Communication and land transport—       
  Post and Telegraph1,9481871,9731.69779767
  Railways13,874824013,9965.943702,379
  Personal services645 690.303225390
Working in or on—       
  Wood, seagrass, &c.—       
  Factories3,175244173,4362,3401712,285
  New Zealand Forest Service 1,0811011,09210.707472,896
  Bush-workers 1,20137151,2537.955 21810,980
  Metal3,51115283,67114159112742
  Stone, clay, glass. &c.2,48866192,5732.1681471,817
  Paper, printing, &c.5214115630.808174805
  Skins, leather, &c.1571611740.511312910
  Mini's and quarries17,9832995218,334***
Miscellaneous2631300.139423337
All groups74,0821,37920775,6683.065 §881,452 §

ACCIDENT PRONENESS.—In two consecutive years investigation was made as to the total number of individuals suffering accidents in mines as distinct from the total number of mining accidents. It was found that approximately 25 per cent. of those injured were involved in two or more accidents.

EXTENT OF DISABILITY AND LOSS OF EARNING-POWER.—There were 257 cases of permanent physical disability in 1948 in which the extent of the disability could be assessed. Of these, 92 suffered a 5 per cent. or less disability (in most cases the loss of, or loss of the use of, a finger), 79 over 6 per cent. and up to 20 per cent., 64 over 20 per cent. and up to 50 per cent., 19 cases over 50 per cent. and under 100 per cent., and 3 cases of total disability.

Provision is also made in certain cases for the actual impairment of wage-earning capacity to be stated. Of the 299 cases of permanent incapacity in 1948, the question as to what wages the employee would earn on resumption was answered in 103 cases In 94 of these cases it was reported that though dismemberment or disablement had occurred, no diminution of earning-power had taken place. In 9 cases, however, definite and serious impairment eventuated.

TIME OF OCCURRENCE.—The following tabulation of industrial accidents, according to the hour of occurrence, shows the effects of fatigue during the working-day.

Time of Occurrence to Nearest Hour.Year.Causes 1944–48.Totals. 1944–48
1944.*1945.*1946.1947.1948.Machinery.Falls of Persons.Handling Objects.Hand Tools.Other.

* Excluding accidents to forestry-workers and hush-workers.

8 a.m.5014724514795003063506803507172,403
9 a.m.1,2711,2161,3341,3251,4019356182,0491,1901,7556,547
10 a.m.2,1322,0191,9721,9442,1341,2618773,0891,7143,26010,201
11 a.m.2,2212,1212,1682,0322,2111,4159293,2061,8383,36510,753
12 noon1,1131,0111,0841,11661,1507725651,1061,0351,6965,474
1 p.m.6646216276206854878486774321,2733,217
2 p.m.1,6751,4441,6411,6101,6791,1156722,2241,4322,6068,049
3 p.m.1,6191,6381,6601,6141,6371,1587772,4851,4042,3448,168
4 p.m.1,1881,1621,2881,3491,4791,0117032,0751,0821,6156,466
5 p.m.7316446166267054124019515381,0203,322
Other hours1,7011,6221,4991,2151,2328389381,7545283,2117,269
Not stated2422288253594741541045692155861,628
Not applicable4563294584944345611,369397062,171
      Totals15,51414,52715,12314,78315,7219,9207,28322,53411,77724,15476,668

This table indicates that accidents are definitely most numerous during the middle and later part of the morning; there is another peak in mid-afternoon, but this does not reach the same high point.

A more definite indication is given by considering the length of time the employee had worked on the day when the accident occurred.

Number of Hours Already Worked.1944.*1945.*1946.1947.1948.Totals 1944–48.Percentage of All incidents, 1944–48.

* Excluding accidents to Post and Telegraph employees, forestry-workers, and bush-workers.

Under 17337648477998283,9715.3
1 and under 21,6071,5731,6031,7001,8098,29211.1
2 and under 32,1022,0112,0281,8952,07210,10813.5
3 and under 42,2642,1202,2762,1722,280.14.8
4 and under 51,1481,1191,1451,1431,1725,7277.6
5 and under 61,3871,3301,5501,5291,5787,3719.8
6 and under 71,8761,7221,8141,8531,8879,15212.2
7 and under 81,4331,3951,5611,4831,6317,50310.0
8 or over1,1478928119111,0004,7616.3
Not stated1,0449441,0328041,0304,8546.5
Not applicable4513254564944342,160249
      Totals15,19214,19515,12314,78315,72175,014100.0

The foregoing tabulation shows that the greatest number of accidents occurred during the third and fourth hours worked in the day. Overtime accidents (eight hours or more already worked) decreased from 7.6 per cent. of all accidents in 1944 to 5.4 per cent. of all accidents in 1946, but rose again to 6.4 per cent. in 1948.

Occurrences of accidents during 1948 have also been classified according to the day of the week with the following results.

Industrial Group.Sunday.Monday.Tuesday.Wednesday.Thursday.Friday.Saturday.Not Stated.Total
Number of Accidents
Factories921,4331,3491,3381,2291,2362876447,608
Public works and State Hydroelectric Department71741691611361362319825
New Zealand Forest Service874686380032742425
Bush-working12120105124105903723616
Scaffolding4273123253288158
Railways62558531452433409200202,665
Post and Telegraph3109845666871317435
Mining1770158855548845892902,989
      Totals2053,1962,9252,7722,5622,51168786315,721
Percentage of All Accidents
Factories1.218.817.717.616.216.23.88.5100.0
Public works and State Hydroelectric Department0.821120.519.516.516.52.82.3100.0
New Zealand Forest Service1.917.416.014.818.814.86.49.9100.0
Bush-working1.919.517.120.117.114.66.03.7100.0
Scaffolding2.517.119.614.615.820.25.15.1100.0
Railways2.320.919.917.016.315.37.50.8100.0
Post and Telegraph0.725.019312.915.220.03.03.9100.0
Mining0.623.419.718.616.315.3313.0100.0
      Totals1.320.318.617.616.316.04.45.5100.0

The general tendency to a Monday peak indicates a certain lack of co-ordination between worker and work on that day, this being due no doubt to the week-end break.

Chapter 44. SECTION 44—CONSUMPTION OF COMMODITIES

STATISTICS of consumption cannot be compiled with absolute accuracy, owing to the impossibility of obtaining exact comparability in component statistics of production, exports, and imports. There ore several deficiencies in the statistical data at present available, the most serious being occasioned by the lack of statistics illustrating the distribution among individuals of the annual flow of commodities entering into consumption. Nevertheless, a sufficient degree of comparability can normally be attained to permit of the compilation of statistics of consumption with a reasonable approach to accuracy.

VALUE OF GOODS AVAILABLE FOR USE.—Statistics of the value of production, of exports, and of imports have been compiled regularly for many years. From these statistics an estimate of the annual value of goods available for New Zealand consumption can be made, the value of exports being deducted from that of production, and the value of imports added to the residuum. The result of this computation gives a close approach to the value of all goods available for use in the country.

Various additional factors have had to be taken into account in preparing estimates covering the war period and quoted in the tables. In some cases rather arbitrary figures have had to be accepted for adjustment purposes. The following descriptive notes under the respective headings will serve to indicate the scope of these estimates.

Production.—The series of value and volume of production figures as quoted in Section 47 of this Year-Book form the basis of the tables which follow. The figures relate to the production year, which, in most cases, approximates closely to the year ended 30th June.

Exports.—The official export figures (f.o.b.) for the years ended 30th June have been adjusted to exclude charges incurred between the stages of production and export.

Goods (normally exported) supplied under the reverse lend lease procedure, shipments by the Armed Services, and Red Cross and food parcels have all been treated as additional exports in the tables which follow.

Adjustments have been made for changes in stocks awaiting shipment, so that the export figures quoted in this section represent the segment of production in any year exported, or ultimately destined for export.

The volume indices have been adjusted to make allowance for the above-mentioned inclusions.

Imports.—The official import figures (c.i.f.) for the years ended 30th June, excluding ordnance, have been adjusted for the war period to take into account additional freight and insurance charges above the nominal 10 per cent. allowed in the official figures of imports.

Further adjustments have been made for the lump-sum payments received from the United Kingdom Government as a set-off against the high level of import prices, and for the realization on certain war assets.

Unfortunately, detailed statistics of retail and wholesale merchandise stocks are not available, so that the figures illustrate goods available for use and not necessarily goods actually used during each of the years.

The following table given the position in regard to value of goods, hut care should he exercised in interpreting the table in view of the substantial upward trend in unit values that has taken place over the period covered by the table, In addition to the statisicts for the last fen years, figures for the years 1928–29, 1932–33, and 1938–39 are given.

Year Ended 30th June,Produced in New Zealand.Imported.All Good Available for Use in New Zealand.
Total.Exported.Available for Use in New Zealand.Total.Per Head.
Total.Per Head.
VALUES
 £(m.)£(m.)£(m.)££(m.)£(m.)£
1929126.254.172.149.246.5118.681.0
193383.735.748.031.325.373.347.8
1939136.158.078.148.356.5134.683.3
1941160.471.888.654.242.2130.880.0
1942163.871.692.256.541.4133.681.9
1943170.279.790.555.240.8131.380.1
1944175.989.386.652.854.3140.985.8
1945196.7112.684.150.348.7132.879.4
1946200.488.4112.034.857.5169.598.0
1947230.2101.4128.872.488.8217.6122.3
1948266.3120.7145.680.1144.3289.9159.6
1949292.2120.9171.392.4111.2282.5152.4
1950345.0137.3207.7109.9151.3359.0189.9
VALUE INDEX NUMBERS 1938–39 (= 100)
192993979099828796
19336164606345.3456
1939100100100100100100100
1941118124113112759796
1942120123118117739998
1943125137116114729896
194412915411110996105103
1945145194108104869995
1946147152143134102126118
1947169175165150157162147
1948196208186166255215192
1949215208219191197210183
1950253237266228268267228

AGGREGATE VOLUME OF GOODS AVAILABLE FOR USE.—Index numbers of volume of total production, based in most cases on figures of actual physical production, and index numbers of volume of exports and of imports, form the basis on which figures indicating the volume of goods available for New Zealand use are estimated. Attention is drawn to the notes on adjustments, &c., applied under the various headings and explained under the preceding title. Quantitative figures of exports are readily available from the official statistics, and as the great bulk of the export trade is confined to a relatively small number of items it is a comparatively simple matter to compile an index number of volume for years ending with the month of June. Prior to the year ended 30th June, 1946, a similar position did not hold in the ease of imports, as they are far more diversified in nature, and full detail was not available for other than calendar years. Index numbers of volume of imports for calendar years are compiled, and up to the year 1945–46 an average of the indices for two calendar years was used to approximate years ending with the month of June. Commencing with the year ended 30th June, 1946, a special index number of volume of imports has been compiled. By the use of quantitative figures of production, exports, and imports, reasonably accurate figures of movements in volume may be ascertained, and figures arrived at indicating the volume of goods available for New Zealand use.

Index numbers of volume covering similar years and for similar heading to those given in the earlier table are given below.

INDEX NUMBERS OF VOLUME OF GOODS: BASE 1938–39 (= 100)

Year Ended 30th June,Produced in New Zealand.Imported.All Goods Available for Use in New Zealand.
Total.Exported.Available for Use in New Zealand.Total.Per Head.
Total.Per Head.
192977747988868291
193383967377506467
1939100100100100100100100
1941113111114112699594
1942110109110110588887
1943109116104103588584
19441081329089668079
19451141568280637472
1946112111113105669387
19471181131211108610696
1948123115129115115123110
1949129121134117103121105
1950136118150128122138118

The low point, both in respect of total and per bond volume of goods available for use, was recorded in 1931–32, the decreases from the 1928–29 levels amounting to 26 and 29 per cent. respectively. The 1928–29 level of total volume of consumption was regained in 1935–36, while the per head level was regained in 1936–37.

In conjunction with the previous table, it is interesting to consider the proportions of New-Zealand-produced goods and of imported goods in the total quantum of goods filtering into use. Over the period for which the break-up is available, locally produced goods supplied 63 per cent. and imported goods 37 per cent., of the total.

Comparisons in this respect for individual years are given hereunder.

Year.Locally-produced.Imported.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.
1928–295644
1929–305644
1930–316238
1931–326535
1932–336733
1933–346634
1934–356238
1935–365941
1936–375743
1937–385644
1938–395842
1939–406337
1940–417030
1941–427327
1942–437129
1943–446535
1944–456436
1945–467030
1946–476634
1947–486139
1948–496436
1949–506337

While strict accuracy cannot be claimed for these figures—particularly in respect of single years—a definitely higher proportion of New-Zealand-produced goods in the total is observed from 1930–31 to 1934–35 and again from 1939–40 onwards. The falling-off in the volume of imports during the depression years was considerably greater than that for locally-produced goods consumed in New Zealand. The policy of import control introduced in December, 1938, and the dictates of a war economy were responsible for the relatively low proportion of imported goods to total consumption evident from 1939–40 onwards.

CONSUMPTION OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE.—While the statistical data discussed in the foregoing pages afford an indication of movements in the aggregate value and volume of consumption, considerable interest attaches to the statistics for individual commodities of importance. Estimates of the consumption of a selection of individual commodities are given in the following paragraphs. No indication of the distribution of consumption of these commodities among individual classes of consumers is available; but with the full employment and wide distribution of wealth that prevails in New Zealand it is beyond question that the per caput rates of consumption of various commodities shown later are truly representative of general living standards.

Figures showing, for some of the more important food products in which an export trade is maintained, the respective proportions of the total production in 1949–50 which were consumed in New Zealand and destined for export are as follows:—

 Consumed in New Zealand.Exported.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.
Butter15.085.0
Cheese4.995.1
Beef56.243.8
Mutton41458.6
Lamb3.996.1
Pig-meat71.228.8

Local consumption accounted for some 34 per cent., of the total meat production in 1949–50.

PER CAPUT QUANTITIES OF PRINCIPAL FOODSTUFFS AVAILABLE FOR CONSUMPTION.—Estimates of annual consumption for the civilian population have been made for the principal items of foodstuffs for a pre-war period and for the year 1950 or 1949–50 (1950–51 in the case of dairy produce). Basic statistical data are rather scanty in the case of some items, particularly fresh vegetables, and the estimates may be subject to correction as further information comes to hand.

Dairy-produce.—Measured in terms of butterfat content, it is estimated that 20.9 per cent., of total dairy production in 1949–50 was used for local human consumption. A further 3.8 per cent. was used locally for calves, pigs, &c., leaving 75.3 per cent. for export in the form of butter, cheese, and processed milk. Estimated figures of annual civilian consumption levels for individual items of dairy-produce, pre-war and for 1949–50 and 1950–51 are given below.

 Pre-war.1949–50.1950.51.

* The rationing of butter was abolished is from 4th June, 1950.

Whole milk (pint)22.0335.0336.0
Cream (pint)6.94.54.6
Ice-cream (pint)34213.013.5
Cheese (lb.)4.56.05.9
Butter (lb.)41.033.0*38.9
Processed milk (lb.)4.710.410.4

In the following comparison of butter and cheese consumption in various countries the figures for countries other than New Zealand have been taken from the 1951 publication “Dairy Produce” issued by the Intelligence Branch of the Commonwealth Economic Committee. The pre-war figures are mostly the average of the years 1934 to 1938; for New Zealand they relate to the immediate pre-war period.

BUTTER AND CHEESE CONSUMPTION PER CAPUT

Butter.Cheese.
Pre-war.1950.Pre-war.1950.

* 1948 average.

 lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom24.116.88.910.1
Sweden24.130.212.817.9
Switzerland15.013.217.018.5
Denmark18.310.614.111.5
Netherlands12.36.017.011.0
United States of America16.410.85.87.5
Canada31.923.53.64.6
Argentina3.94.8*6.210.4*
Australia52.630.24.36.9
New Zealand41.038.94.55.9

In considering New Zealand's relatively high consumption of butter it should be noted that the use of margarine as a spread, common in some countries, is unknown in New Zealand.

Meats.—In estimating the average annual civilian consumption of meats an allowance has been made in the case of each item for killings on farms and for condemnations. The consumption levels for the various items are as follows, the weights in each case being on a bone-in dressed carcase basis.

 Pre-war.1949–50.
Beef (lb.)112.0107.8
Veal (lb.)7.55.8
Mutton (lb.)60.063.6
Lamb (lb.)6.59.1
Pork—including chopper meat (lb.)9.011.4
Ham and bacon (lb.)17.021.0
Edible offal (lb.)9.09.7

Fresh Vegetables and Fruits.—Estimates under this heading have been made, particularly in the case of vegetables, with considerable difficulty owing to a number of factors, not. the least being the fact that domestic garden production must of necessity be taken into account. Where there is no evidence as to changes in consumption habits, the estimates for both pre-war and 1950 have been treated as on an equality. Consumption levels for individual items are estimated as follows:—

 Pre-war.1950.
Potatoes (lb.)130.0105.0
Kumaras (lb.)7.57.5
Cabbages and greens (lb.)100.0100.0
Carrots (lb.)30.030.0
Tomatoes (lb.)20.020.0
Apples (lb.)44.041.0
Pears and quinces (lb.)6.07.0
Stone-fruits (lb.)12.510.9
Citrus fruits (lb.)23.017.2
Bananas (lb.)21.014.8
Pineapples (lb.)1.00.4

Canned Fruit and Vegetables.—Owing to the lack of satisfactory details for earlier years, the pre-war consumption of these items is shown as the average of 1938 and 1939.

 Pre-war.1950.
Canned fruit (lb.)10.5101
Canned vegetables (lb.)1.66.9

Before the war approximately 75 to 80 per cent. of canned fruit requirements were imported and consisted mainly of pineapples, peaches, and apricots. The war considerably upset this trade, but there has been a marked recovery since 1947. There has been little progress in the local canning of fruit, and consumption is still below the pre-war level.

The consumption of canned vegetables, on the other hand, due in some measure to the striking wartime expansion of the industry, is now at a very high level. Before the war there were some imports of peas and beans, but most requirements are now met from local production. Green peas account for nearly half the production, hut there has also been considerable development in asparagus, baked beans, and tomato puree, some of the latter being for export.

Other Foodstuffs.—Estimated annual civilian consumption levels for other items of foodstuffs are given hereunder.

 Pre-war.1949–50.
Poultry (lb.)3.96.0
Fresh fish—edible portion (lb.)11.013.5
Shell-fish—edible portion (lb.)0.91.0
Eggs (dozen)20.017.0
Honey (lb.)2.14.8
Refined sugar (lb.).106.0112.2
Dried peas and beans (lb.)1.64.2
Flour wheaten (lb.).185.0179.0
Cornflour (lb.)2.43.1
Oatmeal, oaten products (lb.)10.57.9
Rice (lb.)5.33.8
Tea (lb.)6.86.8
Cocoa (lb.)1.01.0

Beer, Wine, Spirits, and Tobacco.—As the consumption of these items is particularly susceptible to economic conditions, the depression and immediate post-depression years-have been avoided in ascertaining the pre-war consumption. The figures for wine are probably not as accurate as those relating to the other items, for the reason that production figures only are available for locally-made wine which naturally (for maturity purposes) is not usually placed on the market until some years after production. Wine-production has been steadily increasing during the last decade, the 1948 figure being about treble the immediate pre-war output, and accounting for some 60 per cent. of total local consumption.

 Pre-war.1950.
Beer (gallons)10.8018.50
Crape-wine (gallons)0.200.46
Spirits (proof gallons)0.280.32
Tobacco (lb.)3.905.36

In interpreting the big increase in beer-consumption it should not be overlooked that as a war measure the alcoholic strength of beer was, on the 11th May, 1942, reduced by about one-quarter. Although this restriction was removed at the beginning of 1949 the additional duty on beer exceeding the reduced strength has had much the same effect. The supply of certain classes of spirits is inadequate to meet a demand greater than in pre-war years, and in such cases there is unofficial rationing by the trade.

Comparison With Other Countries.—In considering the question of supplies of foodstuffs in various countries the food balance-sheets prepared at the instigation of the Food and Agriculture Organization present information on a comparable basis. The table which follows presents in summarized form statistics appealing in the Statistical Yearbook of the United Nations. The statistics in most cases relate to the year 1949–50, while pre-war figures are quoted in each case in parentheses. The data quoted are expressed in kilograms per person per year, except that for each country a total figure is given showing calories per person per day, and the percentage thereof derived from live-stock products (meat, poultry, eggs, fish, milk, butter, cheese, slaughter fats, marine oils). The total caloric figure includes also foodstuffs not specifically mentioned in the table.

A table of this nature necessarily includes data of an approximate nature, but is of value as an overall picture of food consumption and availability in the various countries.

Country.Cereals.Potatoes, &c.Sugar.Pulses.Meat.Milk.Fats and Oils.Calories.
Per Day.Percentage of Live-stock Origin.

* Not available.

(Kilograms Per Person Per Year.)
Union of South Africa(156) 154(16) 15(23) 40(2) 3(38) 43(76) (3) 5(2,300) 2,500(18) 16 
Canada(98) 75(90) 93(43) 45(4) 4(62) 71(221) 238(19) 20(3,070) 3,140(39) 44
United States of America(90) 77(64) 50(44) 40(4) 4(64) 76(204) 245(20) 20(3,150) 3,170(36) 45
Argentina(106) 124(66) 87(27) 35(2) 2(107) 107(163) 163(9) 9(2,730) 2,730(36) 36
India(143) 110(8) 6(13) 12(18) 17(3)(65) 46(3) 3(1,970) 1,620(8) 7
Japan(168) 149(63) 60(14) 3(7) 1(4) 2(4) 4(2) 1(2,180) 2,100(5) 3
Denmark(94) 107(122) 138(50) 311(75) 65(195) 210(27) 19(3,420) 3, 180(35) 39
France(124) 117(143) 129(24) 23(4) 3(53) 57(150) 146(14) 11(2,830) 2,680(26) 30
Netherlands(107) 94(116) 171(29) 36(3) 2(38) 29(220) 211(20) 23(2,920) 2,970(32) *
Sweden(95) 87(122) 117(43) 47(2) 2(49) 48(302) 302(18) 20(3,120) 3,200(38) *
United Kingdom(94) 103(79) 115(46) 34(3) 3(60) 51(152) 210(20) 21(3,100) 3,080(39) 36
Australia(94) 96(53) 53(53) 53(1) 2(108) 112(188) 196(14) 14(3,160) 3,210(38) 41
New Zealand(87) 92(50) 53(48) 50(2) 2(109) 106(166) 240(17) 16(3,260) 3,310(48) 45

NOTE.—Figures in parentheses refer to pre-war years.

Wartime Restrictions on Consumption.—Shortages or prospective shortages of imported goods, brought about or accentuated by the war, created the need for a controlled distribution. The rationing of such domestic produce as meat and butter was necessary to cope with the heavy demands of the Armed Forces, both British and Allied, and at the same time to maintain supplies to the United Kingdom.

To ensure an equitable distribution of the more essential commodities, rationing by coupons was introduced for the following items: tea, sugar, butter, meat, household linen, blankets, clothing, and footwear. Eggs were subject to a preference rationing to children under five years of age, expectant mothers, and invalids suffering from specific ailments. Baby wool was reserved for, and rationed to, expectant mothers.

During 1948 rationing was lifted from the following important commodities: tea, 31st May; sugar for domestic use, 27th August; sugar for manufacturing purposes, 29th November; and meat, 27th September. In 1950 all other commodities subject to rationing were freed; cream on 22nd February, butter on 4th June, and motor spirits on 31st May, As from 7th June, 1950, the operation of the egg priority scheme was left to retailers.

Details of the rationing provisions and other restrictions which applied to the principal individual commodities are quoted in the 1950 issue of the Year-Book (pages 828–30).

Chapter 45. SECTION 45—REHABILITATION

THE Rehabilitation Act, 1941, and its amendments make provision for the re-establishment in civil life of discharged servicemen and for the reconstitution of wartime industries on a peacetime basis. The Rehabilitation Department, controlled by the Minister of Rehabilitation, has been set up under the authority of the Act, which also provides for the constitution of a Rehabilitation Board and a National Rehabilitation Council. The principal function of the Council is to make recommendations to the Minister (after investigation) in relation to the re-establishment of discharged servicemen in civil life. Particular matters mentioned in the Act in this regard include the following:—

  1. The reinstatement of discharged servicemen in civil employment or occupation:

  2. The necessary training required to qualify them for entry into civil employment and the granting of financial assistance during such training:

  3. The making of special arrangements concerning the passing of examinations, the completion of apprenticeships, or the obtaining of practical experience, &c.:

  4. The granting of financial assistance to discharged servicemen and to service-men's widows to enable them to acquire homes and furniture, or to acquire land, stock, implements, tools of trade, &c., to commence any employment or occupation.

The Council consists of the Minister of Rehabilitation as Chairman, the members of the Board, and such other persons as the Governor-General may from time to time appoint. At 31st March, 1951, the total number of members was twenty-five. The Board consists of the Minister as Chairman, the Director of Rehabilitation, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Managing Director of the State Advances Corporation, the Director-General of Lands, the Under-Secretary of Maori Affairs, the Commissioner of Works, and five other persons appointed by the Governor-General. The general functions of the Board are to organize the establishment in civil life of discharged servicemen or servicemen's widows, and to co-ordinate and use the services available in Departments of State and elsewhere for the carrying-out of its functions. The Board also determines the nature and extent of the assistance that may be granted to any class or classes of servicemen, and approves the granting of such assistance.

The Board has the assistance of District Rehabilitation Committees, which keep in touch with discharged servicemen and act in an advisory capacity concerning rehabilitation matters in their respective districts. These Committees investigate and make recommendations in regard to applications for financial assistance or loans, report on the suitability of the applicant for the trade or business for which the assistance is required, and other relevant matters. The Committees also have limited powers in regard to making grants of small sums for immediate assistance, and allocate State rental houses to discharged servicemen, 50 per cent. of all houses becoming available under the Government's housing scheme being allotted for this purpose. The number of Committees operating at 31st March, 1951, was 113.

Other legislative measures for the purpose of rehabilitating discharged servicemen are the Servicemen's Settlement Act, 1950, and the Land Act, 1948, and its amendments. The Servicemen's Settlement Act, 1950, which repealed the former relevant legislation (the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act, 1943) provides the machinery for the taking of land for discharged servicemen. The Land Amendment Act, 1948, contains provisions which enable the Land Settlement Board to give preference to discharged men at ballots, and also to sell or grant a lease or licence to a discharged serviceman without public notice and without competition. These matters are referred to in more detail in the section of this Year-Book dealing with land tenure and settlement.

The Emergency Forces Regulations 1951, made pursuant to the Emergency Forces Act, 1950, provide for the rehabilitation of discharged servicemen who have served in any New Zealand emergency force or in any other New Zealand force in connection with a United Nations emergency, or who, while ordinarily resident in New Zealand, have served outside New Zealand in any Commonwealth force in connection with an emergency.

The regulations extend to the widows, widowed mothers, and children of servicemen, and also make provision for the financial assistance of servicemen while serving.

The Rehabilitation Hoard is to determine the nature and extent of the assistance to be granted in each case, within the limits prescribed in the regulations.

The general provisions of Part I of the Rehabilitation Act, 1941, and its amendments as to the Board and its powers are to apply except so far as they are inconsistent with the regulations.

The Emergency Forces Occupational Re-establishment Regulations 1951 safeguard the rights of a worker in relation to his civil employment in the event of his serving as a member of an emergency force raised in New Zealand or elsewhere in the Commonwealth in connection with a United Nations emergency.

TRADE TRAINING.—The “A” Class training scheme provides in a number of the building trades full-time intensive theoretical and practical indoor classes, followed by full-time advanced practical work under the supervision of the Board's Instructors. Full-unit carpentry schools are established at Auckland, Gisborne, Wellington, Christ-church, and Dunedin, and half-units at Whangarei, Hamilton, Rotorua, Hastings, Palmerston North, New Plymouth, Wanganui, Masterton, Nelson, and Timaru. A full centre can provide for the training of twenty-six trainees, and a half-centre fourteen trainees, per class. Although at the peak of the scheme full-time training was in operation at twenty-one centres, applications have tapered off to the extent that it has been necessary to close the Oamaru, Westport, Greymouth, Invercargill, Thames, Kaikohe, Napier, and Miramar (Wellington) centres.

The additional trades of painting, bricklaying, and plastering were taught at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, while painting centres were also established at Hamilton and Palmerston North. Owing to the tapering-off of the scheme, the bricklaying centres at Wellington and Dunedin, the painting centres at Hamilton, Palmerston North, Auckland (one centre only), and Christchurch (one centre only), and the plastering centres at Christchurch and Dunedin, have ceased to operate. The remaining centres are operating on a reduced basis.

The recession in the number of men under training can be gauged by comparing the figure of 2,998 at 31st March, 1948, with that of 912 at 31st March, 1951. The number of men who completed “A” class training from the inception of the scheme to 31st March, 1951, is 7,359.

During their period of advanced practical training, trainees were engaged on the construction of houses under the Government's housing scheme, and from a modest beginning in 1942 the output increased to the extent that the Rehabilitation Department became one of the biggest contractors for State houses.

In the earlier stages of the “A” Class training scheme, provision was also made for the training of ex-servicemen in general engineering, welding, and the footwear-manufacturing industry.

The “B” Class scheme of training provides for contracts between employers and trainees and the Board for engagement and training over suitable periods in the employer's own workshop. The wages are subsidized by the Board at a gradually decreasing amount as the training progresses and the trainee's skill and productive value increases. With the gradual closing-down of “A” class training centres, “B” class facilities are available to ex-servicemen who wish to learn a skilled trade.

Certain trades such as boot-repairing, watchmaking, jewellery-manufacturing, &c., are particularly suited to the needs of disabled men, and so far as is reasonably possible training in such vocations is reserved for ex-servicemen suffering from major disabilities.

Arrangements similar to those in regard to trade training have been made for the training of ex-servicemen with a suitable educational background as clerical workers and in a number of the professions such as law, accountancy, surveying, architecture, and journalism.

The following table summarizes the results of the “B” Class training scheme up to 31st March, 1951.

Under Training.Completed Training.Total.
Carpentry trade47217264
Joinery117081
Plumbing62164226
Bricklaying42630
Painting and paperhanging20166186
Plastering147084
Other building trades33639
Clerical and professional32404436
Engineering and metal trades44520564
Electrical trades29219248
Foodstuffs11108119
Footwear and leather trades6170176
Furniture trades19355374
Motor trades36413449
Other mechanical trades104050
Printing trades1288100
Retail trades5360365
Roof-tiling156
Textile and clothing trades8162170
Miscellaneous trades22154176
      Totals3963,7474,143

The “C” Class training scheme caters for the resumption of apprenticeships interrupted by war service. The Suspension of Apprenticeship Emergency Regulations 1944 provided that an apprentice on reviving his contract shall receive at least the apprenticeship rate of wages that he would then be receiving had his employment been continuous. If the expiry date of the contract (calculated on the basis of an apprenticeship term of not more than five years) has passed, the employer is called upon to pay the apprentice the final contract rate, and similar payment must be made if the apprentice has reached the age of twenty-one years and has at least twelve months' home service or has rendered military service overseas. Where a contract is revived after the original expiry date (five-year basis) has passed, or where the contract expires after revival, the wage payable is appreciably less than the journeyman's rate which would have been payable had the full contract term been served. As this is an obvious financial hardship arising directly from military service, the Board makes available a subsidy over and above the amount which the regulations require the employer to pay, in order to bring the apprentice's wage up to the journeyman rate. Generally, in the case of twenty-one-year-old apprentices the expiry date of whose contract has not been reached, the Rehabilitation Board makes available a limited subsidy, provided they have had any overseas-service. This limited subsidy will normally continue until the apprentice becomes eligible for the full subsidy at the expiry date of the contract. Although these regulations have now been revoked, the rights and privileges of apprentices who had revived their apprenticeships under the regulations are preserved by the Military Training Act, 1949. At 31st March, 1951, 9 ex-servicemen were undergoing training under this scheme. 3,388 had completed their training, and 371 had discontinued training for various reasons.

Disabled Servicemen.—The Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League acts as the agent of the Rehabilitation Board in the training of disabled ex-servicemen. Whilst many men who have been disabled as a result of war service have, as a result of medical treatment, been able to return to their pre-service occupations, there are many others who have been obliged to seek a complete change of occupation, and it is largely for this class that the League caters. Vocational training centres are established in several towns and workshops and retail shops for the disposal of the products are operated in connection therewith. The number of men undergoing training with the League at 31st March, 1951, was 85, while up to that date 450 had completed their training.

The Blinded Servicemen's Trust Board has acted as the agent of the Rehabilitation Board in the training and care of those ex-servicemen of the Second World War who lost their sight or suffered serious visual disablement. At the 31st March, 1951, only one ex-serviceman remained under training, while 39 had been trained since the inception of the scheme.

FARM TRAINING AND SETTLEMENT.—Applications for assistance for the purpose of settling on the land are referred to the local Rehabilitation Committees, to determine whether the applicants are eligible for such assistance. If the Committee decides that the applicant has a claim for assistance, he is interviewed by the appropriate Farming Sub-committee, thirty-three of which are now operating throughout New Zealand. These Sub-committees grade the applicants into the following classes:—

  • “A”: Fully experienced and qualified for immediate settlement:

  • “B”: Partly experienced, but in need of further training before settlement would be prudent:

  • “C”: Inexperienced, but suitable for training with a view to ultimate settlement:

  • “D”: Not suitable, for one or more reasons, for settlement:

Men graded “A” require no further training and are eligible for immediate assistance, but “B” and “C” Grade men must undergo prescribed training before they are regraded to “A.” Training measures include—

  1. Training with approved private farmer employers:

  2. Training on blocks being developed by the Lands and Survey Department:

  3. Training at agricultural colleges:

  4. Training for disabled ex-servicemen at the special training-farm established near Palmerston North by the Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League.

The Farming Sub-committee is required to nominate the term of training and, where the applicant has been graded “C,” the subsidy rate appropriate to his farming experience. The training of applicants on blocks of land administered by the Lands and Survey Department is an alternative to training with private farmers, and the conditions of employment are the same, the Lands and Survey Department being regarded for this purpose as the employer.

Full-time tuition is provided for student-trainees placed at Canterbury and Massey Agricultural Colleges. The majority of the men selected for these courses have had a background of practical experience, and short courses at the colleges serve a very useful purpose in giving the men an insight into the most up-to-date farming methods.

Full-time training on a special farm is provided for physically disabled ex-servicemen who have a rural background and in respect of whom there are prospects of ultimate successful settlement as farmers, although possibly in a different class of farming from that previously followed. The administration of the farm is in the hands of the Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League, while the wages paid to trainees are subsidized by the Board.

The following table shows the number of ex-servicemen settled and the number of ex-servicemen graded “A” awaiting settlement as at 31st March, 1951.

Class of Settlement.Number.
Settled on single units by Rehabilitation Loans Committee6,242
Settled on land-settlement blocks by Rehabilitation Loans Committee1,431
Settled on land-settlement blocks, financial adjustments yet to be made419
Employed by Lands and Survey Department with promise of titles130
Settled on single units and blocks through Maori Rehabilitation Finance Committee65
Employed by Department of Maori Affairs on single units and blocks with promise of title13
Settled without rehabilitation assistance on freehold, Crown, and private leasehold properties1,102
Maori ex-servicemen assisted by Department of Maori Affairs under Maori Land Amendment Act, 1936100
      Total settled9,502
Number of “A” Grade ex-servicemen awaiting settlement3,736
      Total graded up to 31st March, 195113,238

The area of land acquired for the settlement of ex-servicemen up to the 31st March, 1951, was 1,240,189 acres. This area does not include particulars relating to those who have purchased established farms on their own account with rehabilitation assistance. Further particulars are contained in pages 370–372. Particulars of financial assistance will be found under a later heading.

Education.—Educational facilities are provided by the Rehabilitation Board for ex-servicemen in the way of bursaries, payment of fees, book allowance, &c.

Full-time bursaries for study at New Zealand University colleges and some private institutions and colleges include all tuition and examination fees, together with a book allowance limited to £5 per annum. Subsistence allowances for the academic period are also granted at the rate of £7 per week for married men and £4 0s. 6d. per week for single bursars. For some courses at the agricultural colleges, students are required to live at the colleges. In such cases their board and lodging are paid, and, in addition, allowances of £4 17s. 6d. and £2 per week are paid to married and single men respectively.

Assistance for part-time study at University colleges, State institutions, and private institutions is also given, and consists of tuition and examination fees, plus an allowance for books.

It should be noted that these forms of assistance are granted in relation to career training only and not for purely cultural studies. In deciding the type of bursary and the period for which assistance will be granted, factors such as interruption to study through service, length and type of service in the Armed Forces, relation to pre-service career, and prospects upon qualification and suitability for the particular course of study are all taken into account.

To meet the needs of men who, after a long break on service, experience difficulty in settling down to their studies, the Rehabilitation Board has provided the University colleges with the necessary finance to conduct special extra tutorial classes for ex-servicemen.

In certain cases bursaries are granted to enable an ex-serviceman to pursue a course of study overseas. These are only granted to men with long service and a serious interruption to study or career, or for courses of study which are not available in New Zealand. A full overseas bursary usually includes subsistence allowance at the rate of £328 per annum sterling for married bursars and £250 per annum for single bursars, payable from the time of arrival in the United Kingdom until the earliest date a bursar can obtain a return passage to New Zealand after the completion of his course. Tuition and examination fees, refund for text-books purchased up to £5 per academic year, tourist-class passages from and to New Zealand, voyage allowances at the rate of 16s. 5d. per day for married men and 5s. 3d. per day for single men, and reasonable travelling-expenses in New Zealand and the United Kingdom (from homo address in New Zealand to port of embarkation and port of disembarkation to place of study, with similar assistance on the return journey) are also payable.

Particulars of educational facilities granted to 31st March, 1951, are contained in the following table.

Facilities.Ex Overseas.Ex Home Service.Total.
Full-time assistance—   
  (a) In New Zealand3,1451883,333
  (b) Overseas6923695
Part-time assistance13,2692,56815,837
Renewals—   
  (a) Full-time3,7191803,899
  (b) Part-time19,6422,68822,330
Miscellaneous facilities2,8843493,233
      Totals43,3515,97649,327

Children of Deceased or Totally Disabled Servicemen.—In conjunction with the Education Department, the Rehabilitation Board is also concerned with the education of the children of deceased ex-servicemen whose death has been the direct result of war injuries and of the children of ex-servicemen who through war disability are totally incapacitated for work. The responsibility for the education of these children through the primary- and secondary-school stages is undertaken by the Education Department. A bursary up to £25 per annum is available to eligible children attending post-primary schools. Assistance for post-secondary education and career training may be granted by the Rehabilitation Board, the assistance taking the form of tuition and examination fees and a contribution towards the cost of books. Where full-time study is approved, a subsistence allowance is payable, varying from £2 17s. 6d. per week to £4 6s. 6d. per week at the age of twenty-one years. So that duo encouragement is given to any children wishing to train for a worth-while trade or career the Board will, where necessary, consider a payment to bring their wages up to £3 10s. 6d. net per week where required to live away from home or £2 17s. 6d. per week when living at home. Those twenty-one years of age and over, whether living at or away from home while engaged in career occupations not covered by apprenticeships, may be considered for a grant sufficient to bring their net wages up to £4 13s. per week.

FINANCIAL.—The following is a summary of loan limits and interest-rates applicable to the various types of loan granted by the Rehabilitation Board.

Maximum Amount.Rate of Interest.
 £Per cent.
(a) Tools of trade50Free
(b) Furniture100Free
(c) Business5004
(d) Farms—  
  Going concerns—  
  Dairy5,0003
  Sheep6,2503
  Stock and plant only—  
  Dairy1,5004
  Sheep or mixed2,5004
(e) House—  
  New2,0003
  Existing1,8003

In the case of business, farm, and house loans the interest-rate for the first year is reduced to 2 per cent. per annum. Supplementary and suspensory interest-free loans are available in the case of housing loans in appropriate cases. Both classes of loan are on a percentage basis. Supplementary loans, which are interest free and repayable only in the event of the sale of the security, amount to 5 per cent. of the reasonable cost with a maximum of £100 in the case of new houses, and for existing dwellings are 5 per cent. of the approved value with a maximum of £75. Suspensory loans, also interest free, relate to new houses only and are cancelled after a period of seven years provided the owner fulfils the required occupancy conditions. They are limited to 10 per cent. of the approved cost with a maximum of £200.

Supplementary loans have also been made available in a number of farm loans, and the Land Amendment Act, 1950, extended the “suspensory” loan principle to eases where ex-servicemen are settled on Crown land after 1st November, 1950. The suspensory loan in such cases is for an amount not exceeding the difference between the 1942 value and the current market value. Such a loan will not be enforceable as long as the purchaser resides personally on the land and farms it for his own use and benefit and fulfils the conditions of any prior mortgage to the Crown or to the State Advances Corporation.

Provided the purchaser fulfils these conditions the loan is discharged at the end of ten years. These suspensory loans were introduced consequent upon the passing of the Servicemen's Settlement Act, 1950, which provides that the value of land for the purposes of the Act is to be the current market value instead of the 1942 basic value as hitherto.

Special grants may be authorized in eases of hardship, and rehabilitation allowances may also be made.

Particulars of the various classes of loans authorized during the years ended 31st March, 1950 and 1951, and the totals to the 31st March, 1951, are as follows.

Class of Loan.Year Ended 31st March, 1950.Year Ended 31st March, 1951.Totals to 31st March, 1951.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £ £ £
Purchase of farms, &c.9624,888,8821,0326,281,1367,67334,779,712
Housing loans4,4215,200,9445,7928,406,65935,47243,420,737
Tools of trade621,838391,2731,42346,765
Furniture7,283678,2925,908561,86749,0594,599,620
Business1,414910,091940630,5269,6676,124,487
Miscellaneous10917,4349727,124563120,386
      Totals14,25111,697,48113,80815,908,585104,45789,091,707

The next table shows the expenditure of the Rehabilitation Department and loans authorized on rehabilitation for the years ended 31st March, 1950 and 1951, and the total amount to 31st March, 1951.

Item.Year Ended 31st March, 1950.Year Ended 31st March, 1951.Totals to 31st. March, 1961.
 £££
Administration expenses342,017375,9722,401,896
Educational facilities, including books, tuition fees, and subsistence allowances190,562116,9781,574,614
Farm training, including fees and subsistence allowances at approved agricultural colleges and training-farms and subsidies to approved employers25,01512,134470,532
Training of blind ex-servicemen13,1715,86987,151
Grants to Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League28,32715,744224,382
Land and building for trade-training schemes, Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League, &c.7,0866,821252,984
Plant and equipment for hostels, &c.13 7,981
Purchase and establishment of artificial limb factories1,49276829,949
Special grants to ex-servicemen3,40531,18072,119
Special grants to Returned Services' Association1,7504,19539,801
Therapeutic employment for ex-servicemen141 25,302
Trade training—   
  Centres operated by Rehabilitation Department (includes establishment and operational charges, trainees' wages, separation allowances and travelling-expenses, tools, plant, and equipment)994,252582,8675,406,047
  Private firms and Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League (includes subsidies to employers and separation allowances)99,69153,2641,409,400
Travelling-expenses of ex-servicemen, including fares, furniture removals, and loss of earnings766 42,017
Advertising and publicity3,476 21,263
Motor-vehicles, purchased for trade-training centres20 12,429
Plans and specifications, including plan service255 4,039
Tool-store (cost of tools for resale to ex-servicemen tradesmen)15,4304,988155,310
Losses on rehabilitation loans4,73413,94133,752
Small Farms Act leases: Losses and interest concessions  55,327
Rehabilitation allowances  431,885
Loans (Rehabilitation Loans Committee)11,697,48115,908,58589,091,707
Loans (Maori Rehabilitation Finance Committee)73,011227,7661,008,916
Purchase of lands for settlement, development, and other expenses in connection therewith Interest concessions3,618,4551,574,743 605,97118,543,058 605,971
Reserve Fund contribution 196,859196,859
Miscellaneous712915,670
      Totals17,120,62119,738,936122,210,361

Business Assistance for Ex-servicemen.—In addition to the loan facilities available to assist ex-servicemen in purchasing existing businesses, or in establishing new-businesses, special assistance is given to ex-servicemen requiring licences for licensed industries and trades, and also in obtaining stocks, plant, and equipment which may be in short supply, or subject to control.

The following table shows the main classes of businesses for which loans have been granted up to the 31st March, 1951.

Class.Number Granted.Amount.
  £
Butchery209176,222
Grocery, general store664568,036
Bakery, dairy, refreshment-rooms430297,710
Stationery, fancy goods12191,104
Radio-dealer, electrician224125,283
Hairdresser, tobacconist12262,240
Bootmaker15548,989
Chemist3031,330
Manufacturing business305199,254
Eggs, poultry, &c.4327,073
Milk-rounds308255,305
Hotels, guesthouses4138,208
Fishing ventures11475,142
Agricultural contractors434313,791
Taxi, service-car2,0251,102,722
Transport (general) and mail-contractors1,308978,385
Building and related trades1,068512,888
Mechanical trades447296,445
Professional services869402,192
Miscellaneous750522,168
      Totals9,6676,124,487

Housing.—Owing to the prevailing housing shortage, the housing of ex-servicemen has been one of the Rehabilitation Board's main problems. Assistance in this connection consists of a certain priority in the allocation of State rental houses, and provision of finance for the erection of new, and the purchase of existing, dwellings.

During the year ended 31st March, 1951, 1,894 State rental houses and flats were allocated to ex-servicemen compared with a total of 1,946 in the previous year, making a total allocation to the 31st March, 1951, of 14,096.

The number of loan authorizations for the erection of new homes during the years ended 31st March, 1950 and 1951, was 1,886 and 3,261 respectively, making a total of 15,823 to 31st March, 1951.

Loans for the purchase of existing dwellings were authorized in 2,535 cases in 1949–50 and 2,531 cases in 1950–51, while the total to the end of the latter year was 19,649.

DEMOBILIZATION.—Demobilizations as recorded by the Rehabilitation Department are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31st March,Demobilization.
For Year.Total to Date.
194319,29419,294
194423,36242,656
194526,01968,675
194682,725151,400
194731,110182,510
194819,755202,265
19496,896209,161
19501,657210,818
1951970211,788

MAORI REHABILITATION.—The following table gives particulars of assistance afforded to Maori ex-servicemen up to 31st March, 1951. Maoris are entitled to the same assistance and under the same general conditions as Europeans, although special measures have been introduced to meet their particular needs. At 31st March, 1951, 5,202 Maori ex-servicemen had boon demobilized, of whom 3,852 had served overseas.

Type of Assistance.Number of Ex-servicemen.Amount Authorized.
  £
Farm-land purchased 92,951
Farm loans103371,162
Housing loans614715,084
Furniture loans1,00193,859
Business loans20193,432
Tools-of-trade loans591,925
Miscellaneous loans and giants568,093
      Totals2,0341,376,506
Educational assistance138 
Trade training—  
“A” Class664 
“B” Class46 
“C” Class8 
“D” Class50 
“F” Class3 
      Total, trade training771 
Farm training235 
      Total number assisted3,178 

In addition, 100 ex-servicemen have been settled on farms under the Maori Land Amendment Act, 1936, and 36 ex-servicemen have received housing assistance under the Maori Housing Act, 1935.

Chapter 46. SECTION 46—ISLAND TERRITORIES

ADMINISTRATION.—New Zealand's first administrative responsibility in respect of areas in the South Pacific was accepted in 1901 when the Cook Islands were brought within the boundaries of New Zealand. In 1902 a Minister in Charge of the Cook Islands was appointed and the Cook Islands Department was formed. In 1920 New Zealand was granted a mandate ever the Territory of Western Samoa, and the Samoa Act, 1921, provided for the appointment of a Minister and a Department of External Affairs. The staffs of the Cook Islands and the External Affairs Departments were combined, but during some periods there were separate Ministers in charge of each of the main island groups.

Under the External Affairs Act, 1943, the Department of External Affairs became responsible for the direction of New Zealand's foreign affairs, including its offices in other Commonwealth countries, while the Department of Island Territories created under the Island Territories Act, 1943, assumed the administration of all island territories.

On 1st January, 1949, the Tokelau Group, which since 1925 had been administered by New Zealand on behalf of the United Kingdom Government, became part of New Zealand and was placed under the general direction of the Department of Island Territories, although actually administered by the High Commissioner of Western Samoa.

The Chatham Islands, which comprise one of the 129 counties of New Zealand, have had their development seriously retarded by reason of their isolation and consequent lack of direct, contact with the mainland. In order to assist in overcoming the disabilities suffered by the people of the Chatham Islands, and to promote the general welfare and development of the islands, the Government, in December, 1949, placed their general administration under the Department of Island Territories. A Resident Commissioner, who is responsible for co-ordination of all Government activities in the islands has been appointed. This officer also acts as Resident Magistrate.

Besides the various island groups, the Department directly controls the operations of the New Zealand Government m.v, “Maui Pomare,” the purchase and shipping of equipment, stores, &c., to island administrations, and administers, through a General Manager, the New Zealand Reparation Estates in Western Samoa. It is also associated with the South Pacific Commission and the South Pacific Health Service.

The Officer for Islands Education is responsible under the Department for the co-ordination of educational policies in the various groups, the appointment of New Zealand teachers on secondment, the publication of School Journals in the vernacular of the different groups, and the supply of modern teaching equipment. An islands scholarship scheme instituted in 1945, under which selected students from all territories are given secondary and higher education in New Zealand, is under the Department's direction.

By arrangement between the Governments of Fiji and New Zealand, young Samoans, Cook Islanders, and Niueans receive training over a period of four years at the Central Medical School, Suva, Fiji, to equip them for duty as assistant medical practitioners in their own territories. At 31st March, 1951, there were 30 of these students at the school, made up of 17 from Western Samoa, 10 from the Cook Islands, 2 from Niue, and 1 from the Tokelau Islands.

New Zealand also exercises the administration of the Ross Dependency on behalf of the United Kingdom Government. The Ross Dependency is uninhabited. Brief mention is also made in this section of Nauru Island, which is administered under a trusteeship, held jointly by the United Kingdom Government, the Government of Australia, and the New Zealand Government.

The term “island territories” does not include Stewart Island or the Chatham Islands, which form part of New Zealand, although, as mentioned earlier, the latter have been placed under the administrative direction of the Department of Island Territories. The following minor islands, which are referred to on page 2 of this Year-Book, are also excluded: Three Kings Islands, Auckland Islands, Campbell Island, Antipodes Islands, Bounty Islands, Snares Islands, and Solander Island. None of these islands is regularly inhabited, although meteorological stations wore established on the Auckland and Campbell Islands in 1940. The station in the Auckland group was closed in Juno, 1945, but a small staff is still engaged on Campbell Island maintaining meteorological records and conducting ionospheric research. A radio station is also established on Campbell Island. The Kermadec Islands are also excluded, for, although they are in the same category as the Cook Islands in that originally ranked as “annexed” islands all New Zealand laws extend to them and there is no separate administration. A meteorological station and an aeradio station have been established on Raoul Island, and there is also a post office with a European postmaster. The population, including the official staff of Raoul Island at 31st March, 1951, numbered 14. This is the only island of the Kermadec group that is inhabited.

COOK ISLANDS.—Descriptive—The Cook Islands were proclaimed a British Protectorate in 1888, and on 11th June, 1901, they were annexed and proclaimed part of New Zealand under the Colonial Boundaries Act, 1895. In considering the islands within the territory, a distinction can be made between the scattered islands in the north and the islands towards the south forming the Cook Group proper. Niue, though one of the Cook Islands, has been under separate administration since 1903, and data relating to it are given later in this section. Not including Niue, there are fifteen islands in the proclaimed territory, scattered over an area of some 850,000 square miles, and extending from Penrhyn, situated 9 degrees south of the Equator, to Mangaia, which is just north of the Tropic of Capricorn. The Cook Islands are bounded on the east and west by the 156th and 167th meridians of west longitude respectively, and on the north and south by the 8th and 23rd parallels of south latitude. The total land area of the fifteen islands is a little under 100 square miles, while Niue has an area slightly in excess of that figure.

Some of the islands of the Cook (Lower) Group were discovered in 1773 by Captain Cook who first touched at Manuae. Rarotonga, Mauke, and Mitiaro, however, were not recorded by Europeans until 1823 when the Rev. John Williams of the London Missionary Society located them.

Of the islands of the Cook (Lower) Group, Rarotonga, Aitutaki, Atiu, Mitiaro, Mauke, and Mangaia are elevated and fertile, while Manuae and Takutea and the islands of the Northern Group comprising Penrhyn, Manihiki, Rakahanga, Pukapuka, Palmerston, Nassau, and Suwarrow are sea-level coral atolls. As a consequence the southern islands support the greater population. With one exception, none of the islands possesses a good harbour.

The whole of the Cook Islands lie within the hurricane zone, and a number of destructive storms have boon experienced, the most serious of which in recent years occurred in March, 1943, and in January, 1946. The Cook Islands are now covered by a meteorological service with headquarters in Fiji, and advance warning of the intensity and path of tropical storms is available and enables precautions to be taken to protect life and property. From December to March the climate is warm and humid, and there is always the possibility of serious storms. In the remaining months of the year the climate of the Cook (Lower) Group is mild and equable. The mean annual temperature in Rarotonga taken over the last forty years was 74.5° Fahrenheit, and the average yearly rainfall over the same period was 84 inches.

Rarotonga, the seat of the Cook Islands Administration, is well watered by creeks and streams, and all villages are supplied with water by means of a reticulation system. The other islands, both northern and southern, suffer from lack of streams and wells, but water is provided from public banks, the number of which is being steadily increased.

Following is a brief description of the individual islands.

COOK (LOWER) GROUP.—Rarotonga (16,500 acres), the most fertile island of the territory, rises to a height of 2,110 ft. It is clothed to the tops of the mountains with splendid vegetation, and has abundant streams, considerable tracts of sloping land, and rich alluvial valleys. The town of Avarua is the centre of the local administration and is 1,633 miles from Auckland. An airfield is in use.

Mangaia (17,500 acres, 110 miles from Rarotonga) is the south-easternmost of the Group. Mangaia is not as fertile as Rarotonga, but produces large quantities of coconuts, bananas, oranges, limes, other citrus fruits, &c. Mangaia is of volcanic origin and is surrounded by a barrier reef without passages. From a narrow sandy beach, the shore rises in high cliffs to a mile-wide plateau which descends again to almost sea-level, enclosing an ancient crater holding several volcanic mounds, the highest of which exceeds 550 ft. The crater drains by subterranean channels.

Atiu (6,950 acres, 116 miles from Rarotonga) resembles Mangaia in formation. It is a raised mass of coral, steep and rugged, except where there are small sandy beaches and some clefts. On the highest point of the central ridge coconuts, bananas, oranges, and coffee grow with the utmost luxuriance; and the kumara, one of the most valuable of South Sea vegetables, yields largo crops.

Mauke (4,600 acres, 150 miles from Rarotonga) is a low circular island about two miles across, lying to the north-east of Rarotonga. Like Mangaia and Atiu, it is surrounded by an unbroken fringing reef. Mauke is very fertile.

Aitutaki (3,900 acres, 140 miles from Rarotonga) is about eighteen miles in circuit and one of the most fertile of the islands forming the Cook (Lower) Group. It also has an airfield.

Mitiaro (2,500 acres, 142 miles from Rarotonga) is a good example of an elevated coral reef, thinly coated with sand and gravel of the same material. The greater part of the surface is not more than 6 ft. above high-water mark.

Manuae (1,524 acres, 124 miles from Rarotonga), consists of two small islands, Manuae and Te-An-o-Tu, joined by a coral reef. The two islands are in general usage covered by the term Manuae; the name Hervey Islands is an alternative but rarely used title.

Takutea (302 acres, 118 miles from Rarotonga) is a small coral island, moderately fertile, but it is not regularly inhabited.

NORTHERN GROUP.—Penrhyn (2,432 acres, 737 miles from Rarotonga) is also known as Tongareva. The large lagoon with its two entrances affords the only land-locked shelter within the group for vessels other than fishing-boats, and it is the refuge of trading schooners during the hurricane season. As drought conditions sometimes exist, large concrete tanks have been built for the conservation of rain-water.

Manihiki (1,250 acres, 650 miles from Rarotonga) is an atoll about thirty miles in circumference, valuable for the extent of its coconut groves. It also suffers on occasions from thoughts, and is equipped with concrete water-tanks.

Pukapuka (1,250 acres, 715 miles from Rarotonga) is a small triangular-shaped atoll of about 3 miles in diameter, with its highest point about 150 ft. above sea-level. The legendary history of its settlement is interesting through its New Zealand associations. It is stated that one of the Maori chiefs who came to New Zealand with the first migratory wave of the Maoris (as distinct from the Morioris or earlier settlers) decided to return with his immediate followers to Rarotonga. Winds took them out of their course, and they finally reached and settled in Pukapuka. The people of this island have somewhat different customs from those of the remainder of the group. A portion of one of the reef islets, known as Anchorage Island, is an Admiralty Reserve.

Rakahanga (1,000 acres, 674 miles from Rarotonga) is also an atoll, and shares its Resident Agent with Manihiki, from which it is only twenty-five miles distant.

Palmerston (1,000 acres, 270 miles from Rarotonga) consists of eight islets threaded along a reef. Palmerston also bears the name of Avarau, and is noted as the “San Pablo” of Magellan, the first island discovered in the South Seas.

Suwarrow (600 acres, 513 miles from Rarotonga) is a coral atoll of triangular form possessing a land-locked lagoon eight miles by six, which is capable of being made into an excellent harbour. The island, which has been much reduced in land area by storms, is a sanctuary for sea birds, and part of it is a naval reserve.

Nassau (300 acres, 673 miles from Rarotonga) is a small island well planted with coconut-trees. It is usually inhabited for part of the year only.

Administration.—Provision for the government of the Cook Islands is contained in the Cook Islands Act, 1915. Under this Act there is appointed a Resident Commissioner charged with the administration of the executive government of the Cook Islands. The Resident Commissioner resides in Rarotonga and is represented in the outer islands by Resident Agents.

Popular representation is effected by the Island Council in each of the ton main islands, each Council consisting of ex officio members (officials and arikis, or leading chiefs) and elected members. Elections were first held in March, 1947, and thenceforth are conducted triennially in each constituency, the franchise extending to all Cook Island Maoris of eighteen years of ago or over. The Maoris are British subjects and the provisions of the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act, 1948, apply to them. The Resident Commissioner in Rarotonga and the Resident Agents in the outlying islands preside over the respective Island Councils. Prior to 1947, the Island Councils consisted of the Resident Commissioner or Resident Agent, the arikis, and a number of nominated members.

Europeans are represented by one elected member on the Rarotonga Island Council.

The Cook Islands Amendment Act, 1946, under which these Island Councils were reconstituted, also provided for a Legislative Council of the Cook Islands, the inaugural session of which commenced on 5th November, 1947. This Legislative Council consists of ten unofficial members elected by the Island Councils and ton official members of the Cook Islands Public Service appointed by the Governor-General, with the Resident Commissioner as President. At meetings of this Council the Resident Commissioner has a casting, but not a deliberative, vote.

Laws governing the Cook Islands are made by Act of the New Zealand Parliament or by Orders in Council and regulations issued thereunder. Ordinances applicable to the whole of the Cook Islands may be made by the Legislative Council of the Cook Islands, subject to certain statutory restrictions. These Ordinances require the assent of the Resident Commissioner, and may be disallowed either wholly or in part by the Governor-General within one year after the assent of the Resident Commissioner has been given. Ordinances restricted in their application to the islands in which they are made, may be enacted by the local Island Councils. These local Ordinances require the consent of the Resident Commissioner, or they may be reserved for the Governor-General's pleasure.

The Cook Islands have been brought within the scope of the South Pacific Board of Health, which was established in September, 1946, by agreement between the Government of New Zealand, the Government of Fiji, and the Western Pacific High Commission. The functions of the Board, the headquarters of which are in Suva, are to assist and advise the participating administrations on all health matters affecting the territories under their control.

A Conference convened by the Governments of Australia and New Zealand, and at which the Governments of France, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America were represented, was held at Canberra in January and February, 1947. This Conference prepared an agreement establishing a South Pacific Commission, and steady progress has been made towards the realization of its aims. The broad objective of the Commission is the economic and social advancement of all the island peoples of the South Pacific and the prosecution of scientific research under a wide common plan of regional co-operation, and many particular projects of vital interest to the people of the Cook Islands are already envisaged.

Population and Vital Statistics.—The Cook Island Maori is a Polynesian and is closely related to the New Zealand Maori. There is a strong resemblance between the two peoples in tradition, language, and custom. Many of the tribes in both places are able to trace their descent back to a common ancestor. A census of the Cook Islands taken on 25th September, 1945, recorded a total population (exclusive of Nine) of 14,088, an increase of 1,842, or 16.04 per cent., as compared with the census of 30th April, 1936. The Cook Island Maori population increased from 11,943 to 13,574 and the remainder of the population from 303 to 514. Of this remainder approximately two-thirds were recorded as being partly of Maori origin, and the increase between 1936 and 1945 is confined to those of mixed blood, the number of persons described as “Europeans” having fallen from 207 to 180. Details of the estimated population of the islands of the group as at 31st March, 1951, together with corresponding totals shown by the 1936 and 1945 censuses, are set out in the following table.

Island.Estimated Population, 31st March, 1951.Census of 1945: Total Population.Census of 1936: Total Population.
Indigenous Population.Non-Indigenous Population.Total Population.
Males.Females.Males.Females.

* Not inhabited at time of 1945 census.

† Not inhabited at time of 1936 census.

Northern Group—       
  Penrhyn3873542 743654467
  Rakahanga1751631 339318290
  Manihiki2422542 498435487
  Pukapuka35034641701662651
  Nassau*      18
  Suwarrow     5 
  Palmerston3636  726590
Cook (Lower) Group—       
  Aitutaki1,3791,31411102,7142,3561,719
  Manuae29101 40288
  Takutea*       
  Mitiaro131135  266229265
  Atiu685641421,3321,1141,086
  Mauke3854564 847804652
  Rarotonga2,8442,6221801035,7495,5736,064
  Mangaia1,0431,0051052,0631,8451,459
      Totals, Cook Islands7,6867,33621912315,36414,08812,246

During the year ended 31st March, 1951, births numbered 595 and deaths 295, us compared with 621 and 301 respectively in 1949–50. The number of deaths of infants under one year of ago in 1950–51 was 61, as compared with 70 in the previous year.

Health.—In accordance with the provisions of the Cook Islands Act, 1915, all Cook Islanders receive free medical and surgical treatment in their villages, in the hospital, and in the tuberculosis sanatorium. Cook Island Maori patients in the hospital and the sanatorium and all school-children receive free dental treatment.

Although lying within the tropics, the Cook Islands are singularly free from the common diseases prevalent in other tropical islands. Malaria is also unknown, but filariasis is endemic, and this and tuberculosis provide the main health problems of the Group. The objective of the health services, to improve the health of the community, is being pursued by a system of village sanitary inspection and group medical examination, combined with modern treatment of disease in dispensary, clinic, hospital, and sanatorium.

The health services are headed by a Chief Medical Officer, and include eight Assistant Medical Practitioners (Maori), and fifteen Maori Inspectors engaged on mosquito-control. Hospital and sanatorium staff include two European Matrons, three European Sisters, and a number of trained Maori nurses.

A general hospital (50-bed) equipped with dispensary, X-ray, and laboratory facilities and a tuberculosis sanatorium (30-bed) are maintained in Rarotonga, the latter, which was provided by the New Zealand Government, being opened in December, 1945. In the outer islands, dispensaries with accommodation for a low patients are operated by Assistant Medical Practitioners.

A child-welfare organization covering all phases of maternity and child-welfare work operates in Rarotonga, Mangaia and Aitutaki under the supervision of the Chief Medical Officer, Regular clinics are hold and periodical lectures are given to the Child Welfare Committees in each village.

The Dental Department is operated by a European Dental Officer and Dental Nurse, and two trained Maori dental nurses and three trainees (for eventual postings to their home islands as Dental Officers) from the outer islands. During the year ended 31st March, 1951, all schools in the Lower Group of islands were visited and the children examined, and, in practically every school, treatment over a period was given. Dental health education has been commenced by the issue of pamphlets in Maori and English.

Expenditure on health services during the financial year ended 31st March, 1951, amounted to £46,373, or £3 0s. 4d. per head of population.

Education.—The work of the Education Department is in charge of an Education Officer seconded from New Zealand, assisted by thirteen European teachers, also from New Zealand, and by 171 local teachers and trainees. There are eleven Government schools established in live islands of the Cook (Lower) Group and at Pukapuka, the London Missionary Society has a school at Mitiaro and six in the Northern Group, while there are three Roman Catholic schools in the Cook (Lower) Group and three in the Northern. Subsidies. are paid to the London Missionary Society to assist education in the Northern Group. The number of scholars attending schools in 1950 was 4,085, of whom 3,376 attended Government schools, 309 London Missionary Society schools, and 400 Roman Catholic schools. The aim of the Administration is to educate the children up to the equivalent of Standard 4 of the New Zealand school syllabus, with facilities at Rarotonga for advanced children to attain a level comparable to lower forms of New Zealand secondary schools.

Land has been acquired and plans completed for a post-primary school at Tereora. Rarotonga. although construction has not yet commenced, and the special class selected in 1950 continued in temporary accommodation at Avarua School with a qualified New Zealand teacher in charge. A very good standard was reached, enabling Form 3 work to be commenced at the beginning of 1951. A limited number of pupils is sent to New Zealand each year to take up scholarships made available by the New Zealand Government.

Social studies have been added to the school curriculum, and good progress is being made in the teaching of the vernacular. Regular instruction is given in the Maori language in all classes, while during the first two years all instruction is in the vernacular, English being taught only as a subject. Three text-books in the Cook Island Maori language are in use. and it is intended to publish six numbers of a special School Journal in the Cook Island Maori language each year, the first issue appearing in December, 1949. Five film-strip projectors, one movie-sound film-projector, and a considerable quantity of other material and apparatus have been made available from a special grant provided by the New Zealand Government. A scheme for the provision of free milk for the children in Rarotonga schools is in operation and will be extended to the schools of the outer islands as soon as possible.

Labour and Employment.—There is wide variation in types of employment in the different islands. On the barren atolls in the Northern Group the island people subsist largely on coconuts and fish, and there is little opportunity for them to engage in other pursuits winch would provide exports and a consequent higher living standard, in the islands of Manihiki and Penrhyn pearl-diving is carried out under regulations which restrict this employment to Polynesians, and otherwise decide the depth of water governing the use of diving equipment, areas to be fished, &c. A strict control of this industry is enforced to ensure that the beds are not over depleted, it is in the fertile islands of the Cook (Lower) Group that most of the population is concentrated, and labour is required for the growing, harvesting, packing, and shipment of fruit and copra, the staple exports on which living standards depend. As most of the land in these islands is held by family groups under customary title, the hulk of the people are engaged in work on their own plantations. There is, however, opportunity for wage-earners in the administrative departments, in plantation work, and in the handling of fruit for export.

A clothing and shoe factory is established in Rarotonga which employs approximately 100 workers. Machines and equipment for a now clothing factory have been obtained and it is anticipated that this will provide employment for an additional 76 workers. Arrangements are also in train for a new shoe factory which will employ 25 workers and a modern biscuit factory was expected to be in operation during 1961. Apart from these, the manufacture of handicrafts is on a domestic basis.

Wage standards were fixed for all types of such work following the sittings of a special Wages Tribunal in 1946. Further progress in the field of employment relations was initiated by the passing of the Cook Islands Industrial Union Regulations 1947, resulting in the registration of the Cook Islands (Except Niue) Industrial Union of Workers, thus establishing a basis for collective negotiation and arbitration on industrial matters.

During 1950 the union, which embraces all classes of workers, negotiated with the larger employers, including the Administration as the largest employer of casual labour, for a revision of wages and conditions, proceedings being conducted by the Industrial Relations Officer. The resulting agreements represented the first written awards executed in the Group, and were modelled on standards similar to those appertaining in New Zealand, and, although union membership is not compulsory, preference is given to unionists. In addition, the Administration recognized generally the 16 per cent. increase in the cost of living since 1947, and the minimum wage for unskilled workers was increased from 7s. per day to 8s. per day, with proportionate increases on semi-skilled and skilled rates of pay.

Labour is recruited by the French Phosphate Company of Oceania to work the phosphate deposit? at Makatea, in the Society Islands. Individual labourers are recruited on single-year contracts and are given medical examinations both before and after their term of employment, during which they are required to make allotments from their wages either to their dependants or to their savings-bank accounts. The work is relatively highly paid, and many workers seek re-employment on the termination of their contracts. At 31st March, 1951, there were 186 of these labourers employed at Makatea.

There is no movement of migratory labour into the Cook Islands, although some migration occurs from the less-fertile islands of the Northern Group to Rarotonga and other islands of the Cook (Lower) Group.

A number of Cook Island Maoris, principally females, go to New Zealand to engage in domestic service or to learn trades. This migration is under supervision, and persons desiring to leave the islands are subject to examination for health and character.

Agriculture.—The principal crops of the Cook Islands, apart from island vegetable crops, are citrus fruits, bananas, tomatoes, and coconuts, while arrowroot and pineapples are also grown. Some years ago deterioration of the orange-trees became increasingly evident and in order to rehabilitate the industry a citrus-replanting scheme was instituted in 1945, providing for assistance to growers in establishing plots. Considerable progress has been made with this scheme, particularly in its revised form. Nurseries are established in Rarotonga, Aitutaki, Mauke, and Atiu. Owing to lack of shipping facilities and storm damage the production of bananas has declined in recent years, but at present attempts are being made to interest growers in rejuvenating the industry. The Administration has maintained nurseries for the propagation of banana-shoots which are distributed to growers for planting. Arrowroot is extensively cultivated in Aitutaki, while Mangaia shipped 3,533 cases of pineapples to New Zealand in 1950–51. The extension of these industries may well assist in providing cargo during the lean period between orange seasons. Copra production has increased, and Penrhyn and Aitutaki have recommenced the export of this commodity.

The following are the estimated areas planted in the principal crops: coconuts, 18,000 acres; citrus fruits, 830 acres; tomatoes, 200 acres; manioc (cassava), 550 acres; kumaras, 600 acres; taro, 300 acres; taro tarua, 100 acres; and pineapples, 75 acres.

An attempt was made during 1950 to conduct a general stock census as required by the World Food and Agricultural Organization but met with a poor response by the people generally, who, despite most careful explanation, regarded it as an attempt to find a basis for taxation purposes. The most recent figures (for Rarotonga only) are: horses, 1,873; cattle, 376; pigs, 2,512; goats, 943.

Forestry.—There are few marketable types of forest trees in the Islands. In the Lower Group the land is covered by secondary growth, coconut palms, and a scattering of larger trees, including breadfruit, mango, kapok and chestnut. In the Northern islands the growth is mainly of coconut palms and low scrub.

Proposals for afforestation on a moderate scale are under way and a commencement was made on the fern lands of Atiu in 1951, the species planted being Alluzzia and Pinus insignis. The main objects of the scheme are to prevent sod erosion and provide timber for fruit cases.

Communication.—For trading connections with other countries the islands are mainly dependent on a steamer service to and from New Zealand. By this service regular calls are made at Rarotonga, and occasional calls, for purposes of loading cargoes in the orange season, at the larger and more productive of the southern islands. Transportation between the islands is mainly undertaken by launches and schooners. There is a regular fortnightly air service between New Zealand and Rarotonga which has effected a great improvement in communications and has proved of much value in cases of emergency and of medical necessity. Passengers proceed from Auckland to Fiji, thence via Western Samoa, and Aitutaki to Rarotonga, the air journey from New Zealand taking three days. The return journey follows a similar schedule. The only islands in the Group connected by this air service are Rarotonga and Aitutaki. A French air service between New Caledonia and Tahiti has also made calls at Aitutaki during the year.

Radio communication has largely removed the former isolation of the islands, there being now no permanently inhabited island without a radio-station. The chief station is Rarotonga Radio, which maintains direct communication with the sub-stations and with Wellington, Apia, and Suva. Postal and telegraph services are available in all the islands and there is a telephone service in Rarotonga.

Trade.—A summary of exports by country of destination and imports by country of origin for each of the last five calendar years is contained in the next table.

1946.1947.1948.1949.1850.
Exports, by Country of Destination
 £££££
New Zealand93,817149,323155,584165,033147,700
Australia1,2546,951   
United States of America.12,56524551448,90380,148
Other countries6262,006 84911
      Totals108,262158,525156,098214,020228,759
Imports, by Country of Origin
 £££££
New Zealand157,870201,769226,427212,329336,275
Australia5,6525,3018,2087,8459,119
United Kingdom18,50423,64748,81468,51098,501
Canada1,1912,7432,8726,81811,113
United States of America8,03716,5017,35311,5904,226
Other countries4,3423,2826,1758,44513,859
      Totals195,596253,243299,849315,537473,093

The New Zealand Customs tariff applies to the Cook Islands with additional special duties on sugar, cotton piece-goods (except calico), linen piece-goods, piece-goods of mixed linen and cotton, and black twist tobacco. During the war period, import, finance, and price controls were instituted and have been kept in force. Import licences are required for certain goods imported from New Zealand and for all goods imported from other countries. A contract has been concluded with the United Kingdom Ministry of Food for the Bale of copra produced in the Group. The contract, which is for a period of nine years from 1st January, 1949, is having a stabilizing effect on the Group's economy.

Details of the quantities and values of the principal commodities exported in 1941) and 1950 are as follows.

Commodity.Unit.Quantity.Value.
1949.1950.1949.1950.
    £ 
Oranges and other citrus fruitsCase66,88833,17356,46033,676
BananasCase 89 42
TomatoesBox22,39015,06715,48511,128
CopraTon9881,10647,60860,249
Handicrafts, grassware, &c.    124
ArrowrootTon188616449
Manufactured goods   27,46426,688
Pearl-shellTon28831348,90380,12*
PineapplesCase1,3333,5589002,385

Foodstuffs continue to be the largest class of import; major items for 1950, with comparative figures for 1949, are set out in the following table.

Commodity.Value.Percentage of Total Imports.
1949.1950.1949.1950.
 ££  
Foodstuffs101,624136,22832.229.0
Drapery67,21386,86321.318.3
Oils and motor spirits22,28129,1037.06.2
Tobacco and cigarettes16,15821,1745.14.5
Vehicles and parts12,44126,0434.05.5
Fruit-cases and sacks9,0979,9722.92.1

Public Finance.—To meet expenditure, revenue is raised in the Cook Islands themselves, and the principal sources at present are receipts from stamp sales, customs import duties, and income-tax paid by taxpayers resident in the Group. Apart from income-tax which may be payable in some cases, there is no direct taxation of the Maori community.

Subsidies to cover the deficit on ordinary working are granted annually by the New Zealand Government, and in recent years special grants have been made also for particular purposes, mainly of a capital or developmental nature.

A comparative statement of revenue and expenditure for the last five years is shown hereunder.

Year.Revenue.Expenditure.Deficit.Subsidies and Grants.Final Surplus or Deficit

Exclusive of £27,814 for electric-power scheme.

 £££££
1946–4773,999107,53033,53118,313- 15,218
1947–4878,773147,10668,33370,991*+ 2,658
1948–4985,822207,302121,369100,249- 21,120
1949–50131,281259,806128,525155,514+ 26,989
1950–51142,883281,722138,839103,899- 34,940

Of the revenue in 1950–51, import duties produced £34,000; income-tax, £9,000; and stamp sales, £10,000.

The principal items of expenditure in 1950–51 were £43,817 on education, £46,373 on health services, and £37,111 on public works. More detailed information in respect of the Cook Islands and Nine Island will be found in parliamentary paper A-3 for the year ended 31st March, 1951.

NIUE.—Descriptive—Nine Island became part of New Zealand in 1901, when the boundaries of New Zealand were extended to include the Cook Islands. As stated previously, Niue is part of the Cook Islands but has been under separate administration since 1903. The island is situated in latitude 19° 10' south and longitude 169° 46' west, somewhat west of the centre of the irregular triangle formed by Samoa, Tonga, and the southern Cook Islands, and is 600 miles distant from the latter. The island, which has an area of 64,028 acres, is an elevated coral outcrop with a coral reef fringing a precipitous and broken coast-line. The central saucer-shaped plateau, rising to a height of 220 ft., is encircled by a narrow terrace about 90 ft. above sea-level. There are no running streams, and the water supply depends on rain-water, which is stored in tanks. The soil, though fertile, is not plentiful, and this feature, combined with the rocky and broken nature of the country, makes cultivation difficult and precludes the grazing of stock. The climate is mild and equable, and, although on the edge of the hurricane bolt. the island is seldom visited by serious weather disturbances. The mean annual temperature during the last thirty years was 76° Fahrenheit, and the average annual rain-fall for a similar period was 80.2 inches.

The port of Alofi has an open roadstead anchorage which is satisfactory in fair weather.

Administration.—Provision for the administration of Niue is made in the Cook Islands Act, 1915, which provides for the appointment of a Resident Commissioner charged with the administration of the executive government of Niue. Laws are made by Act of the New Zealand Parliament, or regulations issued thereunder, or by Ordinance passed by the local Island Council. This body meets periodically under the presidency of the Resident Commissioner, and consists at present of thirteen Niuean members appointed by the Governor-General, and representing all villages on the Island.

Population.—The Niuean is of Polynesian stock and the language a Polynesian dialect peculiar to the island, but closely related to that of Tonga, Samoa, and the Cook Islands. Owing to the limited natural resources of the Island and the earlier extensive use of Niueans as indentured labour in other Pacific groups, the population has shown little increase in numbers, and that increase has been during recent years. Totals of the eight censuses taken since the annexation of Niue by New Zealand (11th June, 1901) are as follows:—

 Population.
19024,079
19063,822
19113,943
19163,880
19213,750
19263,795
19364,104
19454,253

The following comparison between the figures of the census taken on 25th September, 1945, and the estimated population as at 31st March, 1961, shows an increase of 243 persons over the five and a half-year period:—

 Census, 1945.Estimate, 31st March, 1951.
Niuean population—  
    Males2,0412,159
    Females2,1892,297
Population other than Niueans—  
    Males1327
    Females1013
      Total population4,2534,496

The population is distributed over twelve villages of which Alofi with a population of approximately 970 is the largest. Alofi is also the administrative centre. The inhabitants of Niue are British subjects and New Zealand citizens.

Health and Vital Statistics.—Niue, although situated in the tropics, is largely free from diseases prevalent in tropical countries. However, certain other infections, notably tuberculosis, have become established, which, together with periodic epidemics, have provided the main health problem. The endemic disease of filariasis remains prevalent, but the use of recently discovered drugs gives new hope of combating this old enemy of Pacific peoples. The number of cases of yaws has decreased considerably over the last five years. The principal difficulty in combating disease in Niue lies in the ignorance of the people, who are still somewhat primitive and superstitious. The standard of living is low, and the people show an apathetic attitude towards general hygiene. Another difficulty which the Administration has to face constantly is the activities of the “taulatua” or bush medicine men. There is no doubt that this practice is prevalent among the people but it is exceedingly difficult to obtain evidence against those involved.

All medical and dental treatment, including hospitalization, is provided free of charge to the inhabitants, the money for this expenditure being provided out of subsidies from the New Zealand Government. There is a Government hospital of twenty beds, but it averages many more patients during periods of epidemic or serious illness. Attached to the hospital is an X-ray unit, a dispensary, an out-patients' clinic and a dental clinic. A new children's ward to contain eight cots is under construction. All outer villages are visited each week by the Medical Officer, and a fully-equipped mobile clinic was purchased and put into operation in November, 1950. The whole of the child-welfare and ante-natal work is earned out in this clinic. The staff of the Medical Department at 31st March, 1951, consisted of a European Matron, a European Nursing Sister, a Tongan Assistant Medical Practitioner, a Niuean Assistant Medical Practitioner, and two Niuean Dental Officers. In addition, there were three Niuean dispenser-orderlies, two Niuean dental assistants, and five Niuean nurses, all of whom are untrained, and three trained Niuean nurses. At present receiving training at the Central Medical School, Suva, are two Niueans, one as a Dispenser, and one as a Sanitary Inspector and Mosquito Control Officer. Three Niuean girls are being trained as nurses at the Government hospital at Apia, Western Samoa, and throe Niuean girls have returned to Niue after receiving training there.

Births during the calendar year numbered 204, and deaths 77, including 23 during the first year of life.

The following comparative table shows the amounts expended on health services over the last five financial years.

1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.
Amount expended£8,211£7,293£8,019£7,529£9,650
Population4,3284,3184,3334,4714,496
Amount per head of population£1 17s. 11d.£1 13s. 9d.£1 17s. 0d.£1 13s. 8d.£2 2s. 11d.

Education.—The Administration maintains three schools, which are under the over-all control of a European Headmaster in Charge. The staff also includes a European Assistant Master. Some 74 Niuean teachers, teacher-trainees, and assistants are employed. In addition, the London Missionary Society maintains schools in villages in which there are no Administration schools. A subsidy of £800 per annum is paid to the Society. A proposal to replace the Mission schools with four Administration schools is being proceeded with, and this accounts for the higher teacher-pupil ratio in the Administration schools at the present time. Six Niuean boys are receiving education in New Zealand schools under the New Zealand Govermnent scheme, and another has returned after receiving tuition as a manual instructor at the Suva Technical School, and is taking charge of the Technical School at Tufukia.

The total number of scholars attending schools at the end of 1950 was 1,078, of whom 601 were on the rolls of Administration schools and 477 on the rolls of the Mission schools. The present policy is to increase the amount of the vernacular used in the schools, to foster in the schools the indigenous culture of the island, and to encourage local handicrafts as a part of school activities. The first issue of a School Journal in Niuean was published in December, 1949, while teaching-aids, &c., are supplied by New Zealand.

Communications and Postal Services.—A radio station is maintained by the Administration. Full postal services are provided at Alofi, and the Nine Post Office Savings-bank operates as a branch of the parent system in New Zealand.

Labour and Employment.—The only substantial employer of labour is the Administration. which employs Niueans in the Education, Police, Public Works, Transport, and other Departments, and in the loading or discharge of vessels. Apart from this labour is engaged from time to time to prepare copra for shipment. During the last four years a large number of unskilled labourers has been employed on public works. The basic wage-rates are 7s. per clay for unskilled work, 9s. for waterside work, and on a varying scale for other employment.

Trade.—Experts reached a record level in 1950 while imports were at a high level. The largest contributing factor was increased exports of copra together with higher prices for this commodity. There were no exports of bananas in 1947, owing to the fact that it was found impossible to guarantee the arrival of fruit-vessels at such times as would avoid Sunday work on the part of the Niueans, who had expressed themselves as being against work in any form on Sundays. Exports of bananas were resumed during 1948.

Exports and imports for the last five years are given below. The greater part of the trade is with New Zealand.

Year.Exports.Imports.Total Trade.
 £££
194635,87346,67782,550
194745,59158,796104,387
194846,76969,508116,277
194952,05276,761128,813
195058,54369,937128,480

Exports of principal commodities during 1948, 1949, and 1950 were as follows.

Commodity.Unit.1948.1949.1950.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
   £ £ £
CopraTon57229,57189343,84393746,860
BananasCase1,0086603,3281,7243,2762,173
Plaited-ware  16,262 6,080 8,048
KumarasBag    14751

As in the case of the Cook Islands a nine years' contract for the copra supply has boon entered into with the United Kingdom Ministry of Food.

The New Zealand Customs Tariff is in force, and there is free trade between the island and New Zealand. Local duties are, however, imposed on cotton piecegoods, sugar, and twist tobacco, irrespective of country of origin.

Public Finance.—Exclusive of subsidy from the New Zealand Government, income for the year 1950–51 amounted to £43,585, while expenditure totalled £61,348. The subsidy received was £36,151, leaving a net surplus of £18,388.

A comparative statement of revenue and expenditure during the last five financial. years is as follows.

Year Ended 31st March,Revenue.Expenditure.Deficit.Subsidy.Final Surplus or Deficit.

*Includes £20,190 and £16,297 for 1947 and 1948 respectively, and £18,876 for 1951, from sale of stamps.

 £££££
194728,726*32,3873,6615,000+ 1,339
194828,417*42,73014,3136,522- 7,791
194919,43450,82031,38632,257+ 871
195034,67374,94240,26944,838+ 4,569
195143,585*61,34817,76336,151+ 18,388

Revenue within the island is raised principally from the sale of stamps, from radio telegrams, and from import and export duties. Income-tax at New Zealand rates is payable, but in effect is collected only from Government officials and three or four traders

WESTERN SAMOA.—Descriptive—Western Samoa comprises the two large islands of Upolu and Savai'i and the islets of Apolima, Manono, Fanuatapu, Namu'a, Nu'utele, Nu'ulua, and Nu'usafe'e. The geographical boundaries are between latitude 13 degrees and 15 degrees south and longitude 171 degrees and 173 degrees west.

Savai'i is the larger of the two main islands, with a length of 46 miles, a breadth of 25 miles, and a total area of 703 square miles. The island is mountainous, rising to a height of 6,094 ft. Upolu, which extends some 45 miles in length and 13 in breadth, measures about 430 square miles in area, and rises to a height of 3,608 ft. Of the two, Upolu is the more fertile and populous, and contains two-thirds of the population. Only two of the smaller islands, Manono and Apolima, which are situated in the strait which separates Savai'i and Upolu, are inhabited. The remainder are within or near the fringing reef surrounding Upolu. The climate of the group is equable, the average temperatures during the last fifty-nine years showing a mean daily maximum of 84.8° Fahrenheit, and a mean daily minimum of 74.5° Fahrenheit, while the average annual rainfall for a period of sixty years was 113.4 inches.

Administration.—The territory of Western Samoa was formerly administered pursuant to a mandate conferred upon His Britannic Majesty, to be exercised on his behalf by the Government of New Zealand, and confirmed by the Council of the League of Nations on 17th December, 1920.

Following the establishment by the Charter of the United Nations of an international trusteeship system, New Zealand in January, 1946, communicated to the General Assembly of the United Nations its acceptance of the system in its application to Western Samoa.

A draft trusteeship agreement submitted by the New Zealand Government to the United Nations in October, 1946, was, with minor amendments, adopted by the General Assembly on 13th December, 1946. In this agreement (printed as parliamentary paper A-2c, 1947) the Government of New Zealand is designated as the administering authority for Western Samoa.

In the meantime the Samoan people asked that they be granted self-government with New Zealand remaining in the role of adviser and protector. A petition to this effect was transmitted to the Secretary-General of the United Nations through the New Zealand Government in January, 1947. The petition was considered by the Trusteeship Council on 24th April, 1947, and, on the invitation of the New Zealand delegate, a Mission of Inquiry arrived in Western Samoa the following July.

On 27th August, 1947, the New Zealand Government's proposals for political development in Western Samoa were outlined in a statement, in Parliament. The Mission published its report in October, 1947, and it was considered by the Trusteeship Council in the following month. The recommendations of the Mission were found to be closely in line with the policy of the Administering Authority. The constitutional framework for implementing these proposals was established with the passing by the New Zealand Parliament of the Samoa Amendment Act, 1947, which came into force on 10th March, 1948. A further amendment to the Act was passed in 1949.

The administration of the Executive Government is entrusted to the High Commissioner, who is appointed by the Governor-General of New Zealand, and is responsible to the Minister of Island Territories. He is President of the Council of State and of the Legislative Assembly. He also presides at meetings of the Fono of Faipule which he attends. The High Commissioner has no “reserve” or emergency powers of his own.

The Council of State is composed of the High Commissioner and the Fautua. Appointments to the Fautua are made by the Governor-General, who in an appropriate case would invite the Samoan members of the Legislative Assembly and the members of the Fono of Faipule to submit recommendations. At present there are two Fautua, who are the representatives of the two royal lines of Tupua and Malietoa. The High Commissioner is directed to consult the Council of State upon all proposals for legislation to be submitted to the Legislative Assembly upon all matters closely relating to Samoan custom, and upon any other matters affecting the welfare of Western Samoa which he considers proper.

The Legislative Assembly is composed of the members of the Council of State, twelve elected Samoan members, five elected European members, and six official members. The right of electing the Samoan members was conferred by the Samoa Amendment Act, 1947, on the Fono of Faipule. This body at present has forty-one members representing territorial constituencies based on the traditional districts and sub-districts of Western Samoa. Each constituency returns one member, who must be supported by a majority of the matai in the constituency. The franchise is confined to the matai, who constitute about one in four of adult males, The Samoa Amendment Act, 1923, as amended, gave the Fono of Faipule a statutory right “to consider such matters relative to the welfare of the Samoan people as of their own initiative they think proper or as may be submitted to them by the High Commissioner and to express their opinions and make their recommendations to the High Commissioner.” In addition, by a custom which has developed over a period of years, the Fono submits nominations for the appointment of Samoan District Judges, the Samoan Plantation Inspectors, and the Samoan Associate Judges of the Land and Titles Court.

The laws of the Territory are made by Act of the New Zealand Parliament or by Ordinances passed for the peace, order, and good government of the Territory by the Legislative Assembly of Samoa. In addition, by the Samoa Act (1921) the Governor-General in Council is empowered to make in New Zealand “all such regulations as he thinks necessary for the peace, order, and good government” of the Territory. These powers are intended as a safeguard for New Zealand's position as trustee, and not as the normal means of legislation. The scope of the legislative power of the Assembly was specifically widened under the 1947 amendment to include the power of overriding New Zealand legislation, except in regard to certain reserved subjects.

The work of the Executive Government is carried on, under the High Commissioner, by a Secretariat headed by the Secretary of the Government of Western Samoa and comprising suitable ancillary services. The general work of co-ordinating the policy is carried out by the Secretary, who is associated in certain matters with the Secretary for Samoan Affairs. This dualism in the realm of central control is of the usual kind found in territories in which a western system of government is functioning in a society where cultural patterns of non-European origin continue to guide much of the thought and action of the mass of the inhabitants. The Secretariat represents the apex of a modern type of administration; the Secretary of Samoan Affairs links this with Samoan society.

The Samoa Amendment Act, 1949, which came into force on the 1st April, 1950, established a Western Samoan Public Service under the control of a Public Service Commissioner of Western Samoa, who is appointed by the Governor-General of New Zealand. The Commissioner is assisted by two Assistant Public Service Commissioners, one of whom is the Secretary of Island Territories or his deputy, and the other appointed by the Governor-General on the nomination of the Council of State.

Since the coming into force of the Western Samoa New Zealand Protected Persons Order 1950, the national status of the great majority of Samoans is that of New Zealand protected persons. This is in accordance with the expressed wish of the Samoans themselves. The non-indigenous inhabitants of the Territory retain their own nationality and citizenship. Under the provisions of the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act, 1948, however, individual inhabitants of the Territory may apply for New Zealand citizenship by naturalization. As at 31st December, 1950, certificates of naturalization under the earlier legislation had been granted to 54 Samoans and to 99 inhabitants of European status, including children in both cases.

By decision of the Samoan Government the financial year has now been altered to coincide with the calendar year, and to enable this to be done the present period under review is one of nine months only. Statistical data, therefore, generally covers the period from 1st April to 31st December, 1950 (excepting that which refers to the New Zealand Reparation Estates), and subsequent information will apply to the period of the financial year commencing on the 1st day of January.

Population and Vital Statistics.—A census of population was taken by the Administration on the night of 25th September, 1945. The following table shows the summarized results, together with corresponding figures for the 1936 census. The estimate as at 31st December, 1951, is also shown.

1936 Census.1945 Census.Estimate 31st December, 1951.
Europeans and European-Samoans3,0755,3996,408
Samoans (including other island races)52,26662,42276,927
Chinese—   
Contract labourers502294167
Others207 
Melanesians837563
      Totals55,94668,19783,565

The total of 68,197 at the census of 1945 did not include 55 members of the United States Forces in Western Samoa at the census date, nor did it include 73 persons on board an overseas vessel.

Apia, the only town in the territory, is situated on the north coast of Upolu and together with immediately adjoining villages, has a population of approximately 10,000. It contains the administrative headquarters and is the only port of call for the Territory. Most of the Samoan people live on the coasts, 11 villages only out of a total of 192 being situated inland.

The substantial increase in the number of Europeans and European-Samoans in 1945 was not wholly the result of migration or natural increase, but was largely due to a difference in status. Legislation in the intervening period also changed the status of illegitimate, half-castes from Samoans to Europeans, thus overstating the increase in Europeans and understating the increase in the number of Samoans.

Statistics of the age-constitution of Samoans (including other island races) as disclosed by the 1945 census will be found on page 821 of the 1947–49 issue of the Year-Book.

The following figures, which show the numbers of Samoans (including other island races) at varying intervals, reveal a particularly rapid rate of natural increase in recent years, especially since 1926. As stated earlier, the increase between 1936 and 1945 is understated to some extent. The heavy toll exacted by the influenza epidemic in 1918 is evident from the estimates for 1st October and 31st December of that year.

German regime— 
    Census mid-190633,478
    Census mid-191133,554
New Zealand Administration— 
    Census mid-191736,216
    Estimated, 1st October, 191837,113
    Estimated, 31st December, 191831,200
    Census, 17th April, 192132,522
    Census, 1st January, 192636,880
    Census, 4th November, 193652,266
    Census, 25th September, 194562,422
    Estimated, 31st December, 195176,927

During the period 1st April, 1950 to 31st December, 1950, there were 2,755 births in Western Samoa and 604 deaths. Arrivals in the Territory numbered 5,182, and departures 4,398. In the calendar year 1951 births were 3,350, deaths 518, arrivals 3,968, and departures 4,325.

Health and Hospitals.—The Samoa Health Ordinance, 1921, is on the lines of the New Zealand Health Act, 1920, but remodelled to suit local conditions. A well-equipped Government hospital is maintained in Apia, while district dispensary hospitals have been established at seven villages in Upolu and six villages in Savai'i, each with a Samoan medical practitioner in attendance assisted by a qualified Samoan nurse, with three additional out-stations in Upolu, each in charge of Samoan nurses. There are also two mobile clinics and two school clinics. The health service staff in December, 1950, consisted of 5 European Medical Officers, 27 Samoan medical practitioners, 1 European Dental Officer, and 7 Samoan dental practitioners, 1 pharmacist, 1 qualified bacteriologist of part-Samoan descent, and a nursing staff of 10 Europeans, 65 Samoan staff nurses, and 16 others. (At present 4 Samoan students are in training as medical practitioners at the Central Medical School in Suva.)

During the nine months to 31st December, 1950, 4,261 in-patients and 149,323 out-patients were treated at the hospitals and dispensaries, while the mobile clinics gave 119 school treatments, 18,610 yaws injections and 5,434 typhoid inoculations.

Considerable help in the care of the sick is afforded by women's committees which are established in all the main villages. Qualified Samoan nurses regularly visit and lecture to these committees and at the same time inspect babies and school-children. Demonstrations and lectures are also given to these women's committees by the European and Samoan Medical Officers and Health Inspectors. Health education is also carried on by means of radio broadcasts in the Samoan and English languages.

Western Samoa is free from many of the diseases which present the most serious problems in many tropical areas. The climate is healthy even for Europeans unaccustomed to the heat and humidity; and the general level of nutrition is much more satisfactory than in a great many tropical regions. The most prevalent diseases are hookworm, yaws, and filariasis, and diseases which result from faulty sanitation, such as typhoid, dysentery, and infantile diarrhœa. Tuberculosis is also a major problem, and chest diseases such as pneumonia are common. Leprosy occurs, and diagnosed cases are kept in a special hospital at Apia until transport to the leper settlement at Makogai can be arranged.

Systematic campaigns to stamp out these diseases have been in progress since 1923, resulting in a marked improvement in the general health of the Samoan people.

Under New Zealand administration the sanitation of Apia has been considerably improved, and the reticulation with a high-pressure water-supply system completed. Water has been piped into several villages from springs in the hills, while in other villages where this is not possible, large reinforced-concrete tanks have been erected to receive the rain-water from church buildings.

An agreement for the establishment of a South Pacific Health Service was made in 1946 between the Government of New Zealand in respect of Western Samoa and the Cook Islands, the Government of Fiji, and the Western Pacific High Commission (a new agreement in 1950 and effective to the end of 1954 replaced the earlier agreement). This agreement established a South Pacific Board of Health, with a Chief Administrative Officer, known as the Inspector-General, South Pacific Health Service, with headquarters at Fiji, The functions of the Board are to advise the participating Administrations on health matters, and to assist generally in the more effective control of disease and pin-motion of health in the territories under their control.

In December, 1948, the New Zealand Medical Research Council sent a research survey team consisting of three doctors and a technician to Samoa. The function of this team was to examine the field in view of reports and recommendations which had been made to determine the most urgent research problems. The main subjects examined were the prevalence and nature of tuberculosis, the general health status of a Samoan village, filariasis, leptospirosis, and fungus diseases. Two months' field-work clarified the issues in these fields and has made possible the preparation of detailed research projects. The Medical Research Council has framed proposals for the continuance of this work on a long-term basis. A further research team was sent to Samoa in 1950 to study particularly the transmission and treatment of yaws and the linkage between the common skin diseases and the early onset of yaws symptoms.

Education.—Originally education in Samoa was conducted solely by the missions, and, except where pupils were being trained as pastors, instruction in most schools was of an elementary nature. After the establishment of the mandate the Administration schools undertook more advanced teaching, involving the partial use of the English language, while not interfering with Samoan as the language of the people. At the same time several of the mission schools made available parallel facilities for pupils other than trainees.

A reorganization of the educational system was commenced in 1946–47 and the new-general scheme is as follows:—

Mission Denominational Schools
Primary Schools
Denomination Colleges
Administration Schools
Primary Schools
Middle Schools and Accelerate School
Post-primary Schools (Intermediate and Secondary)
Teachers' Training College
Marist and Convent Denominational Schools
Primary Schools
Middle Schools

Primary Schools.—These schools form the base of the whole educational system. They provide a broad general course of six years' duration for children in the villages, and are the equivalent of the elementary schools of other countries. Instruction is given in the vernacular, but the English language is taught as a subject. Visual education and educational broadcasts are also utilized as media of instruction.

Middle Schools.—This type of school selects the best of the children after three years in the primary schools and provides them with a further five years' course. There are two of these schools, Avele (on Upolu) and Vaipouli (on Savai'i), both being boy' residential schools. The function of these schools is to provide education to a higher level than that given by the village elementary schools. Most of the instruction was formerly in the English language, and the general curriculum approximates that of the New Zealand primary schools, though the standard achieved has fallen short of the latter.

The boys grow and prepare all their own food, and the only payment required is a small annual fee to cover the cost of medical treatment, sports equipment, and extra food such as meat and flour.

Pupils who leave these schools are in demand throughout Western Samoa to fill positions involving a certain amount of responsibility, and are to be found as traders. clerks, pastors in the churches, and cadets in the administration. They will in future be encouraged to return to their villages, and to infuse their people with the idea of greater food-production and deeper understanding of the Milne of their land and natural amenities.

Accelerate School.—This school was opened at Malifa to provide a preliminary academic training for the most promising Samoan pupils. All instruction is in English and the syllabus follows the lines of a New Zealand school. The best of these pupils will later form the student nucleus of the projected Samoa College. Unlike the pupils of the middle schools, these students are not required to grow their own food, and so will have adequate time for study in a well-equipped modern school staffed by fully-qualified teachers.

European Schools.—There are two of these schools, one in Apia and the other at Aleisa, which provide a general elementary course up to Standard 4 for those children who are European by birth or status. In both these schools English is the medium of instruction, and the curriculum approximates that of the New Zealand primary schools.

The Intermediate School.—This school was established to meet the growing need of both European and Samoan children for a higher standard of education than was possible in the upper classes of Leifiifi and Malifa European primary schools. It is well equipped and staffed by fully-qualified teachers. A more specialized type of education is given by teachers who are specialists in certain subjects.

The Secondary School.—This is a small two-teacher school with a roll of 40 and is situated in Apia. It gives more advanced education to pupils who have completed a course either at the European schools or the middle schools or the corresponding type of school under mission jurisdiction. Entrance is by competitive examination. The school aims at taking pupils to the standard of School Certificate in New Zealand, which, in general, can be reached after completing a satisfactory course of three years' secondary work. Few entrants, however, envisage any sustained course when they attend the school, and most of them leave after a year or two for commercial positions, which can be more easily obtained by virtue of the extra training. This school may ultimately be incorporated in the secondary department of Samoa College (now in process of construction).

The Teachers' Training College.—This school was established in 1939 to meet the argent demand of village schools for trained teachers. In addition to trainees for Government schools, a quota is admitted from the mission schools on a proportionate basis, the total roll in 1950 being 119. The educational standard of the entrants has become higher each year, and the better stalling and equipment of the college, together with the longer period of training for the students, is having a marked effect upon the teaching qualifications of the graduates.

The Malifa Primary School of 800 pupils and the model school of 65 pupils are attached as practising schools to the Training College and are under the direct control of the Principal of the Training College. This ensures continuity and uniformity of teaching practice, as the methods taught in the Training College are exactingly carried out in the practising schools.

Higher Education: Samoan Scholarships.—In order to provide the most intelligent Samoan and part Samoan children with better opportunities for a more sustained course of higher education, a scholarship scheme was inaugurated in 1945 and 69 scholarships have been awarded to date. Children selected under this scheme are sent to New Zealand to study there, the cost being borne by the New Zealand Government. The period of the scholarship is determined by the ability of the holder to proceed along the road of higher education. Four more students entered the Central Medical School, Suva, during the year under medical scholarships.

Mission Schools.—The London Missionary Society, Roman Catholic, Methodist. Latter Day Saints, and Seventh Day Adventist missions all maintain schools of various types, ranging from the very elementary pastor's or catechist's school to those of secondary status. Although these schools are not subject to Government control, there is increasing evidence of the wish on the part of each of the mission authorities to move with the Government in the field of education.

School Rolls, Teachers, &c.—The following table gives particulars of the Administration schools for the year ended 31st December, 1950.

Type.Number of Schools.Number of Teachers.Roll Numbers.
Boys.Girls.Totals.
Primary (Primer 1—Std. 4)1053406,1976,44012,637
Middle (Std. 2-Std. 6)28220 220
European (Primer 1-Std. 4)23030319620
Accelerate School143862100
Intermediate School135565120
Post Primary (Forms III–V)12251540
Teachers' Training College165762119
Adult Night School1643 43
      Totals1143996,9366,96313,899

The next table contains particulars of the mission schools, according to denominations.

Mission.Schools.Teachers.Number of Pupils.
Pastor Schools.Other Schools and Colleges.Pastor and Samoan.European.Total.Not Attending Government Schools.
London Missionary Society1788681512,9637,477
Roman Catholic9025131575,3775,224
Methodist7459154,1301,380
Latter Day Saints 81212670670
Seventh Day Adventist3371186186
      Totals345499228023,33114,937

It should be noted that there is considerable duplication in the foregoing figures showing the totals of pupils in the Administration and mission schools respectively, owing to the fact that many children attend both the mission pastor schools (for religious instruction) and the primary schools (for secular education).

Labour.—Regular employment for wages is not a natural form of Samoan life, and the results of the 1945 Census showed only 3 per cent. of the Samoan population in such employment. They are not held to contracts, but work as and when they wish.

The plantations can, to a certain extent, overcome the difficulty regarding regular employment by engaging co-operative or community groups on casual work, but in the stores and in the Administration where regular daily tasks are required, the labour turnover is very large. On the other hand, no difficulty is experienced in obtaining labour for the two or three days of intensive work available when a cargo-vessel is in port.

This reluctance on the part of the Samoans to undertake regular work led during the German regime to the recruitment of indentured labour from China and from the Solomon Islands. The New Zealand Government, however, for economic and social reasons, has gradually reduced the number of Chinese, until at 31st December, 1951, there were only 167 left in the Territory. These are being permitted to remain in the Territory. There were 63 Melanesian labourers remaining in Western Samoa at 31st December, 1951, practically all of whom were employed by the New Zealand Reparation Estates.

New Zealand has extended a number of International Labour Organization conventions to Western Samoa, and consideration is being given to the advisability of introducing industrial legislation to suit the needs of the Territory.

The basic minimum wage for an adult male is 6s. 8d. per day and rates range up to 18s. per day.

Agriculture and Animal Husbandry.—Public services in connection with agriculture are organized under the Agriculture Department which employs, in addition to clerical staff, a stall of Samoan Field Instructors and the Samoan District Plantation Inspectors resident in districts throughout the Territory. A census of agriculture was carried out during 1950, and the results when available v ill provide a basis for future comparisons of acreages devoted to domestic and export crops.

The type of terrain on which export crops are grown precludes the widespread use of mechanical equipment, the soil being mixed with scoria and volcanic refuse in most areas. Domestic crops grow adequately for village requirements under present methods of cultivation, and there is no incentive to increase yields by mechanized cultivation, if, indeed, this were within the means of the Samoan people.

In a normal season the Samoans find no difficulty in producing local food-supplies sufficient to meet their requirements. Reliance on imported European foodstuffs is strongest amongst Samoans whose villages are found in the area surrounding Apia, although such foodstuffs, particularly Hour and preserved meats, are popular throughout the Territory. In the event of a restricted supply of these commodities the Samoan would undergo little hardship in returning exclusively to foodstuffs produced from his own soil.

Live-stock are of local importance. Pigs and poultry figure in the Samoan village economy, while cattle are raised on the New Zealand Reparation Estates and other plantations. Horses and mules are used as pack animals. The New Zealand Reparation Estates cattle, which number approximately 10,000 head, beside grazing the plantation clear of undergrowth, provide fresh beef for consumption in the Territory and hides for export. The herds consist mainly of the Hereford and Polled Angus varieties and are maintained and improved in quality by rotational grazing and careful selection for breeding. Cattle are also raised by a few individual planters and milking herds are maintained by the Estates and one planter.

Industry.—There is little in the way of manufacturing industries in the Territory. Two sawmills, one operated by the New Zealand Reparation Estates, produce a little over half the total demand for timber, which is estimated at 1,500,000 superficial feet per annum. The only other manufacturing industry of any magnitude is the desiccated-coconut industry which is also operated by the Reparation Estates. These, together with small interprises, run on an individual basis, for processing coffee, manufacturing curios, cordials and similar products, comprise the industrial activities of the Territory.

Trade.—The exports and imports of Western Samoa for each of the last eleven years are as follows.

Year.Exports.Imports.Year.Exports.Imports.
 ££ ££
1940221,733165,4531946719,050478,695
1941242,881154,33519471,351,770923,773
1942385,976299,66419481,108,258954,028
1943278,213605,91119491,344,758881,584
1944391,317460,76419501,303,7611,095,121
1945630,446398,760   

The next table shows for the years 1949 and 1950 the export and import values-according to country of destination and country of origin respectively.

Country.Exports.Imports.
1949.1950.1949.1950.
 ££££
New Zealand278,524337,058321,302305,795
Australia43,09340,484132,760252,141
United Kingdom713,619713,332132,205229,528
Canada102,16513643,67274,631
Fiji1,65225033,74030,502
United States of America194,994169,253193,417134,649
Others10,71143,24824,48867,875
      Totals1,344,7581,303,761881,5841,095,121

The principal exports in 1950 consisted of copra. £682"718; cocoa-beans, £439,770;. bananas, £81,159 and desiccated coconut, £74,934.

A nine-year contract for the sale of copra produced in the Territory was entered into with the United Kingdom Ministry of Food in 1949. The initial price was £48 10a. sterling per ton, f.o.b. Apia. Commencing with the year 1951, this price was increased by 10 per cent. to £53 15s. sterling per ton.

Control of Trade and Finance.—Certain measures in regard to trade and finance were brought into operation in Samoa by the Samoa Import Control Regulations 1944 and the Samoa Finance Emergency Regulations 1944 (now replaced by the Western Samoa Exchange Control Regulations 1948).

These measures were introduced more particularly to ensure the supply of essential goods from exporting countries. There is no impairment of the authority of the local Administration to permit imports from any country from which they may be available.

The machinery for exchange, import, and export control is still in operation, but there has been considerable relaxation in its application, particularly in respect of the import and export to non-dollar areas and in the establishment of general convertibility of currency with many sterling countries—the Territory following in these respects the actions of the Administering Authority with reference to its own economy. Imports from dollar areas are governed mainly by block allocations of dollar exchange to the various importers. Western Samoa is a member of the sterling pool, to which her hard-currency contributions are made mainly from earnings on the export of cocoa. The 1950 figures show a small net dollar surplus of receipts over expenditure.

Public Finance.—In the years following the establishment of the Mandate Administration in 1920 New Zealand made free gifts for public services amounting to £269,362, and, in addition, advanced £179,200 by way of loans. No further grants or loans have been necessary since 1931–32, the Territory during that period having been fully self-supporting, but the New Zealand Government has of recent years made grants as set out in the following table:—

Subsidy or Grant.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1st April-31st December, 1950.
 £££££
Education and cost of overseas scholarships2,3517,55210,88024,0725,748
Roads8,10012,98528,91525,000 
Health   50,000 
Broadcasting 22,4751,289  
Rhinoceros-beetle control   603 
      Totals10,45143,01241,08499,6755,748

In addition to these cash grants, the New Zealand Government has provided free educational equipment for Samoan schools. All loan indebtedness has been fully paid off, and there was an accumulated surplus of £733,624 at 31st December, 1950, £664,250 of which was invested in New Zealand.

Up to 31st March, 1951, a total of approximately £400,000 from the profits of the New Zealand Reparation Estates has been expended or authorized for expenditure on general development in the interests of the Territory of Western Samoa. Projects undertaken by this means include education, health (including a tuberculosis sanatorium), roading extensions, rhinoceros-beetle campaign, scholarships, broadcasting, and residences for the use of New Zealand officers serving in Western Samoa.

The following table shows the total revenue and expenditure for each period quoted. The principal items of expenditure are also shown.

Year Ended 31st March,Revenue.Expenditure.
Education.Samoan Affairs.Public Health.Public Works.Total (Including “Other”).
 ££££££
1947334,83828,61018,32765,49250,134231,236
1948548,68239,50419,68178,426138,958359,285
1949500,33846,85520,55589,707165,987464,520
1950521,85970,41323,889105,655129,386458,095
Nine months ended 31st December, 1950471,08774,19716,62493,667160,628444,202

NOTE.—Subsidies from New Zealand for specific purposes from 1945–46 onwards shown in the penultimate table are not included in the foregoing figures.

The public revenue of the Territory is derived from a combination of direct and indirect taxes. The indirect taxes are import and export duties which provide a suitable method of obtaining revenue from a central source at a minimum cost, and are thus well suited to the present stage of development of the Territory. Store-tax, the principal direct tax, is a tax on the gross selling price of goods. There are no direct taxes imposed on individual Samoans other than the salary-tax on incomes in excess of £200 per annum payable in cash by individuals after deducting the normal exemptions.

Receipts of revenue from the various sources of taxation for the nine months ended 31st December, 1950, and for the year ended 31st March, 1950, were as follows:—

 Year Ended 31st March, 1950.Nine months Ended 31st December, 1950.
 ££
Amusement-tax221244
Building-tax5,3785,282
Export duties83,05794,683
Import duties232,490196,681
Licences and fees7,2077,035
Salary-tax4,9604,960
Stamp duties807642
Store-tax70,27665,789
Water rates2,1562,048

Strength of the Public Service.—At the 31st December, 1950, there was a total of 1,164 persons employed in the then constituted Samoan Public Service, compared with 1,066 in the previous year. This total comprised 76 officers recruited overseas, and 1,088 recruited locally. The branches with a numerical strength of 20 or more officers, were Education, 581; Health, 325; Police and Prisons, 78; Samoan Affairs, 23; Radio, 32; Public Works, 29; and Secretariat, 22.

Communications and Services.—Apia is the only port of entry, there being a monthly passenger and cargo service from New Zealand via Fiji and Tonga. A weekly service is carried on between Apia and Pago Pago in American Samoa. An airport (Faleolo) is also established in the Territory and an emergency flying-boat base at Satapuala. A regular fortnightly air service was operated from New Zealand via Fiji and Tonga by the National Airways Corporation of New Zealand until taken over in June, 1950, by Tasman Empire Airways, Ltd.

There are 237 miles of roads suitable for motor traffic (642 motor-vehicles registered in 1949–50); 35 miles of these roads are sealed, 144 miles metalled or surfaced, 26 miles are stone pitched, and the remainder are unmetalled earth roads.

Postal and telephone services are provided by the Postal Department. In addition to a branch of the Bank of New Zealand, there is also a Post Office Savings-bank. In the nine months to December, 1950, withdrawals from the latter amounted to £94,015, deposits to £94,833, while the 6,889 depositors held an amount of £275,692 to their credit at the 31st December, 1950.

TOKELAU ISLANDS.—Situated some three hundred miles to the north of Western Samoa, between 8°and 10° south latitude and between 171° and 173° west longitude, are the three atoll islands of Atafu, Nukunono, and Fakaofo, of the Tokelau (Union) Group. A fourth island (Swain's or Genté Hermosa), belonging to the United States of America and lying 100 miles to the south of Fakaofo, completes the group.

Each atoll is composed of a number of coral islets surrounding a central lagoon. These vary in size from 100 yards to four miles in length, while none is wider than 400 yards nor, with but few exceptions, higher than 10 ft. above sea-level. The land area of each atoll is approximately as follows: Fakaofo, 650 acres; Atafu, 500 acres; Nukunono, 1,350 acres. The atolls do not lie in close proximity, there being 40 miles of open sea between Fakaofo and Nukunono and 57 miles between Nukunono and Atafu.

Owing to the absence of humus in the soil, the vegetation is practically restricted to coconut-palms, although one islet of each atoll is reserved for growing the tauanave, or tausunu, a short stubby tree which yields to the Tokelau Islanders their only timber for the construction of canoes, houses, and utensils.

Administration.—The islands were discovered in the year 1765 by Commodore Byron. R.N., and included under the protection of Great Britain in 1877. In 1916 the islands, at the request of the inhabitants, were formally annexed to Great Britain by an Order in Council which also extended the boundaries of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony to include the Tokelau Group (then known as the Union Islands) and their dependencies. The group was governed by the High Commissioner for the Western Pacific and administered by the District Officer at Funafuti, in the Ellice Group. In 1925 the New Zealand Government, at the request of the British Government, agreed to administer the islands. By Order in Council the Group was disannexed from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, and by a further Order in Council in the same year the Governor-General in Council of New Zealand was empowered to make laws for its peace, order and good government, and authorized to delegate from time to time to the Administrator of Western Samoa so much of this power as might be considered desirable. The right was reserved to the Governor-General in Council to disallow any laws passed under this delegated power and to make any restriction deemed proper. The vesting of administrative powers in the Administrator of Western Samoa (now the High Commissioner) was a matter of convenience, the Tokelau Group having no political connection with the Territory of Western Samoa.

The Tokelau Nomenclature Ordinance 1946 made by the Administrator officially fixed the name of the group, hitherto sometimes referred to as the Union Islands, as the Tokelau Islands or the Tokelau Islands Dependency.

By the Tokelau Islands Act, 1948, the Tokelau Group was included within the territorial boundaries of New Zealand; legislative powers are now vested in the Governor-General in Council, while executive powers remain with the High Commissioner of Western Samoa.

There are no local European officials in the Tokelau Islands, nor is it considered that any are necessary. If a resident District Officer were appointed he would not be able to fill in his time with administrative duties, and could only properly supervise the island in which ho resided. The group is administered through the Department of Samoan Affairs in Samoa, and is visited once a year by the High Commissioner. Units of the Royal New Zealand Navy also make annual visits. The following is the staff establishment of officials for each of the three atolls:—

Faipule and Magistrate (Fa'amasino).Wardress.
Pulenu'u (Mayor of village).Assistant Medical Practitioner.
Failautusi (clerk and postal officer).Tokelauan Nurse.
Wireless Operator.Dresser.
Chief of Police.Weather Reporter.
Police. 

Population.—The people, though closely allied to the Samoans, have not such a fine physique. Intermarriage with Gilbert and other islanders has probably lessened the strain of pure Polynesian blood to a greater extent than in the case of the Samoans.

A census of the Tokelau Islands was taken on 25th September, 1945, by the Western Samoan Administration, and the results, together with corresponding data as at the census of 4th November, 1936, are contained in the following table.

Island.Census of 4th November, 1936.Census of 25th September, 1945.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.

* Excludes 28 members of the United States Forces in the Tokelau Islands on census night.

Fakaofo247261508270300570
Atafu178200378205246451
Nukunono143141284198169367
    Totals5686021,1706737151,388*

The 1945 Census figures also revealed that there were 153 Tokelau Islanders absent in Samoa at the date of the 1945 Census, mostly attending the London Missionary Society and Roman Catholic schools there. On the other hand, there were 15 Samoans present in the Tokelau Islands at the time of the census. The population at 31st March, 1951, was 1,534.

On Atafu all the inhabitants are members of the London Missionary Society, and on Nukunono all are adherents of the Roman Catholic Mission. On Fakaofo the greater number adhere to the London Missionary Society. Both Missions—the Roman Catholic and the London Missionary Society—have their headquarters in Samoa, from which the work in the Tokelau Islands is administered. The London Missionary Society's ship “John Williams” has now resumed annual visits to Atafu and Fakaofo, and since December, 1946, there have been two Catholic priests—one European and one Samoan—in residence at Nukunono. A Roman Catholic sister arrived in Nukunono in 1948 and established a convent school. These are the only Europeans domiciled in the Group.

Health.—Health services in the Tokelau Islands are organized and supervised from Apia, from where also the supplies are drawn. The incidence of disease in the Islands is slight. There have been no cases of smallpox, leprosy, plague, or cholera, and yellow fever is unknown. The only mosquito identified in the islands is the Aedes pseudoscutellaris, and filariasis is present, carried by this mosquito. There is no malaria. Recent surveys reveal a micro-filarial of about 10 per cent., most of the carriers having resided either in Samoa or some other endemic zone for at least some months. No cases of syphilis have been reported, although yaws is common amongst the children. This disease, however, is quickly reduced by appropriate therapy.

The medical staff at 31st March, 1951, consisted of a Samoan Medical Practitioner who moves from island to island at three-monthly intervals, 5 dressers. 1 staff nurse, and 3 nurses. In addition, Assistant Medical Practitioners are seconded from Samoa for short periods of service, and both Nukunono and Fakaofo have had the services of one of these during the past year. A senior Samoan staff nurse has been seconded to Atafu, and it is intended to continue the secondment of more highly-trained nurses and other staff until the Tokelau staff themselves have been trained. Staff are trained at the Central Medical School, Suva, in the case of Assistant Medical Practitioners, and at Apia in the case of dressers and nurses. There is a hospital ward and dispensary building on each atoll.

Water-tanks have been established on each of the islets. At Fakaofo there are three tanks with a total capacity of 43,800 gallons and a catchment area of 2,646 square feet. At Nukunono there are three tanks with a total capacity of 35,500 gallons and a catchment area of 2,700 square feet. At Atafu the two tanks have a total capacity of 42,500 gallons, with a catchment area of 2,700 square feet. On Fakaofo there are two wells, and on Atafu one of a less satisfactory nature, all of which are available for use for washing purposes. Three of the tanks, one in each atoll, have been completed within the last few years. With the completion of the building programme additional catchment areas and tanks have provided improved sources of supply.

Education.—Village schools under mission pastors or catechists are maintained on each island, education being limited for the most part to elementary arithmetic, reading and writing the Samoan language, and scriptural literature. Stationery, material, and other equipment have been supplied from time to time, and also School Journals in Samoan, and, as they become available in the future, elementary textbooks in the Samoan and English languages. Certain of the brighter Tokelau children are sent from time to time to attend London Missionary Society or Catholic schools in Samoa. Likely lads have also been chosen to receive training in Government schools with a view to appointing them later as clerks, radio operators, or, as the Tokelau people have themselves requested, possibly as medical cadets with a view to later training as. medical practitioners if they prove suitable.

Trade and Finance.—The only exportable products of the islands are copra and good-quality plaited reversible floor-mats.

The revenue obtained in the Tokelau Islands during the year 1950–51 was £12,179, and expenditure £11,563, the principal items of the latter being on health, £1,345, and £8,779 on the development programme. Post Office Savings-bank facilities in Apia are available to the Tokelau people.

Communications.—Visits to the groups are made at three-monthly intervals by the R.N.Z.A.F. based at Fiji, while at regular intervals trading vessels have made calls. Radio receiving sets are installed at all villages and radio-telegraph receivers and transmitters placed on each atoll.

THE ROSS DEPENDENCY.—By Imperial Order in Council of 30th July, 1923, the coasts of the Ross Sea, with the adjacent islands and territories between the 160tb degree of east longitude and the 150th degree of west longitude, and south of the 60th degree of south latitude, were proclaimed a British settlement, within the meaning of the British Settlements Act, 1887, under the name of the Ross Dependency, and the dependency was placed under the jurisdiction of the Governor-General of New Zealand.

It is estimated that the mainland area is about 175,000 square miles; but, being completely ice-covered, it is uninhabited. On various occasions bases have been established on the mainland by Antarctic expeditions, which have made extensive explorations within too territory and on contiguous portions of the continent. As yet no economic wealth has been won from the mainland, but the territorial waters, with their large numbers of whales, have been the scene of operations for numerous factory whaling-ships. There has been, however, no New-Zealand capital invested in these enterprises.

An article on the Roes Dependency, written by Mr. M. J. S. Nestor, appeared in the 1938 number of the Year-Book (pp. 900–903).

Whaling.—Regulations dated the 24th October, 1929, which superseded those of 1st November, 1926, prohibit whaling operations within the boundaries of the Ross Dependency without a licence, for which the annual fee payable is £200, and in addition to which the Government requires a royalty of 2s. 6d. per barrel (40 gallons) of whale oil. The owner or master of a vessel engaged in whaling or used as a floating whale-factory is liable to a fine not exceeding £1,000 for each day on which operations are carried on without a licence. A penalty not exceeding £100 per day is provided for in cases of non-compliance with the terms of the licence granted in respect of any vessel used for whaling or as a floating factory, and a similar penalty for failure to equip a floating factory in accordance with the requirements of the regulations, or for failure to convert a whale into commercial products within forty-eight hours after delivery at the factory. Provision is made for the arrest on warrant of any vessel in respect of which an offence against the regulations is committed.

The regulations apply, of course, only to territorial waters, and operations are carried on outside territorial waters by unlicensed expeditions. The great majority of whales are taken outside territorial waters.

The Whaling Industry Act, 1935, gives legislative effect, so far as New Zealand is concerned, to the International Whaling Convention signed at Geneva in 1931. The general principles of the Convention are in the direction of conservation of whales and regulation of the industry.

An international agreement signed in Juno, 1937, embodied further provisions for the regulation of the whaling industry, and from time to time supplementary protocols determine the conditions in accordance with which whaling will be conducted.

NAURU.—Prior to its forcible occupation by Japan on or about 25th August, 1942, the Island of Nauru was administered under a mandate, dated 17th December, 1920, conferred upon His Britannic Majesty and approved by the League of Nations. This mandate was held jointly by the Governments of Australia, Great Britain, and New Zealand, and by a mutual agreement the Administration was in practice left to the Australian Government. On 14th September, 1945, the Japanese garrison on the island surrendered, and civil administration was re-established on 1st November, 1945. In January, 1946, the Australian Prime Minister announced that, with the concurrence of the Governments of the United Kingdom and New Zealand, Australia would negotiate a trusteeship agreement with a view to bringing the Mandated Territory of Nauru under the International Trusteeship System. This agreement was approved by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 1st November, 1947. Meanwhile a petition was prepared by the Nauruan Council of Chiefs, and submitted to the President of the United Nations Trusteeship Council, asking for “a representative from the United Nations Organization to visit Nauru and inquire fully into, and discuss the administration of the Island with a view to Nauruans taking some share of administrative responsibility.”

As a result a Visiting Mission of the United Nations Trusteeship Council visited the Territory. It arrived on 5th May, 1950, and comprised: Sir Alan Burns, G.C.M.G. (United Kingdom), Chairman, Mr. Victorio D. Carpio (Philippines), Mr. Tse-Kai Chang (China), and M. Jacques Tallec (France).

Previous to this visit a Delegation consiting of two Nauruans, and a European, acting as Advisor, attended the First South Pacific Conference of the South Pacific Commission held at Nasinu, Fiji, from 25th April to 5th May, 1950.

Nauru Island is barely one-third of a degree below the equator and lies 166° 56' east of Greenwich. It is an elevated island about three and a half miles long and two and a half miles wide, with a circumference of twelve miles and an area of 5,260 acres. With the exception of a narrow coastal belt favourable for the growth of coconuts, and of a brackish lagoon, the island consists of phosphate deposits overlying a bed of coralliferous limestone. The island is completely surrounded by a coral reef, and beyond the reef the sea-bed slopes sharply downwards at an angle of 45°. These two factors, together with the presence of the strong equatorial current of two knots, materially affect the shipping facilities of the island. The fact that the island lies in the latitude of the easterly trade winds, which blow from nine to ten months of the year, is also significant, since it explains the comparative absence of rainfall, a condition necessary for the existence of phosphate deposits.

Financial figures quoted in the following letterpress and tables are recorded in Australian currency.

The mining rights are vested in the British Phosphates Commission, subject to the rights of the Nauruan landowners, and the deposits, as well as those on Ocean Island about 165 miles to the east of Nauru, are worked by the Commission. Royalties paid to Nauruans during the year ended 30th June, 1950, amounted to £79,900.

The deposits do not appear to be simple guano, and some authorities consider them to be of a marine sedimentary origin raised from the sea-bed and subjected to weathering.

From the point of view of phosphate manufacture the deposits are of a very high grade, exports averaging 85.4 per cent. tricalcic phosphate and 3.4 per cent. calcium carbonate. Owing to the uneven nature of the outcrops of coralliferous limestone the extent of the deposits cannot be measured accurately, but it is estimated that there are between fifty and ninety million tons of phosphatic rock available.

Reconstruction of the cantilever loading plant at Nauru was completed during 1948–49, the north arm being brought into use in July, 1948, and the south arm in February, 1949. Opportunity was taken when reconditioning this plant to increase the capacity to over 1,500 tons per hour compared with the pro-war rate of about 1,000 tons.

The work of restoring or replacing buildings and plant damaged or destroyed during the Japanese occupation has been largely completed, but a number of improvements and additions have been planned and will take some years to construct. The Commission aimed at restoring full output capacity in about four years from reoccupation in November, 1945, and this has been done notwithstanding many difficulties, including unavoidable delays in obtaining materials and equipment.

Exports in the year ended 30th June, 1950, amounted to 1,009,266 tons, valued at £1,589,594, of which Australia received 779,456 tons and New Zealand 229,810 tons.

The following table shows the population of Nauru for the years 1940–42 and 1946–50. The figures for 1942 relate to 25th August, the date of the Japanese invasion.

Year.Chinese.Europeans.Other Pacific Islanders.Total Non-indigenousIndigenous.Island Total.
19401,350192491,5911,7613,352
1941584681938451,8272,672
194219471933941,8482,242
194677879218781,3692,247
19471,163192311,3861,3792,765
19481,370247971,7141,4483,162
19491,440247581,7451,5243,269
19501,491278811,8501,5823,432

Revenue and expenditure and trade of the Nauru Administration since 1940 were as follows.

Year.Revenue.Expenditure.Exports.Imports.
 ££££
194027,10426,223541,168192,749
194112,02323,95169,375106,978
1st Jan., 1942–30th June 194728,033107,543192,946543,916
1947–4823,74596,347527,014621,764
1948–4934,204105,6731,174,287527,104
1949–5042,10368,5681,589,594646,155

Imports consist almost entirely of food-supplies, and of machinery for the working of the phosphate deposits.

Chapter 47. SECTION 47—MISCELLANEOUS

PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE.—In the early years of settlement in New Zealand those who wished to make provision for the administration of their estates on their deaths often experienced difficulty in selecting a suitable person competent and willing to act as trustee. That difficulty was natural in a new country where the colonists were fully occupied with their own affairs, and were unable to give to the property or business of another the close attention that was demanded. Even if an otherwise suitable trustee could be found, his solvency—an essential element in a trustee—might be in doubt, particularly when the value of colonial property fluctuated considerably and the financial position of an individual could quickly change for the worse. Again, changes of residence were frequent, and the trustee appointed might have loft the colony or have moved to another part of it just at the time when his presence and services were most required.

In these circumstances the Public Trust Office was established in 1872 (it is now constituted under the Public Trust Office Act, 1908), under the administration of the Public Trustee, who was constituted a corporation solo with perpetual succession and a seal of office. The main purpose of the original Act was to provide a means of overcoming the difficulties that have been mentioned and to make available to the public a trustworthy administration of the estates of deceased persons at a minimum cost, the integrity of the Public Trustee and his officers being guaranteed by the State. That continues to be the chief function of the Office, but since its establishment the range of service has been very considerably extended and the Public Trustee now acts in many diverse capacities—e.g., as administrator in intestate estates; executor and trustee under wills; trustee under marriage and other settlements; trustee of benefit or relief funds; agent or attorney for absentees or persons desiring to be relieved of business worries; sinking fund commissioner for local authorities; administrator of unclaimed lands and properly; statutory administrator of the estates of mental patients (other than Maoris) where no committee of the estate has been appointed by the Court; manager (when so appointed by the Court) of the estates of aged and infirm persons unable to administer their own affairs; administrator of compensation-moneys payable in respect of the death of a worker (unless the Court orders otherwise); statutory administrator of the estates of all convicts (other than Maoris); and agent for the investment of certain moneys of the National Provident Fund and the administration of mortgage investments forming part of the Government Superannuation Fund. The wills of persons desiring the Public Trustee to act as their executor are prepared and held in safe custody by him, free of charge.

In accordance with a provision in the Public Trust Office Act and its amendments, the Public Trustee may elect to administer both testate and intestate estates where the gross value is estimated not to exceed £1,000. If after the filing of the election the value of the property is found to exceed £1,500, the Public Trustee must proceed to obtain probate or administration in the ordinary way. These provisions obviate application for a grant of probate or administration in many instances, and greatly facilitate the administration of these estates, eliminate a good deal of time, and effect an appreciable reduction of costs.

The experiment of establishing the Public Trust Office—one of the earliest examples of a State service—has proved an unqualified success and a striking testimony to the foresight of the Hon. E. C. J. Stevens, who first suggested the appointment of a Public Trustee, and Sir Julius Vogel, who was largely responsible for legislative effect being given to the proposal. Ample evidence of this is to be found in the fact that 17,949 estates and funds of a total value of £63,514,981 were under the Public Trustee's administration at the 31st March, 1951, as compared with the 257 estates, of a total value of £17,500, under administration in 1873. The beneficial results achieved have not passed unnoticed outside New Zealand and have led to the establishment of similar offices in England and other parts of the British Commonwealth.

The progress that has been made in the present century is illustrated by the following table.

Year Ended 31st March,Estates and Funds Under Administration.Wills of Living Persons on Deposit.
Number.Value.
  £ 
19002,6672,192,594675
192014,67920,860,68625,792
193018,54953,049,43768,253
194019,46862,622,17597,675
195018,31358,646,288146,288
195117,94953,514,981149,227

The decrease since 1940 in the number of estates under administration is accounted for by the winding-up of numerous estates, a result of favourable market conditions.

The decrease in the value of estates and funds under administration since 1940 is mainly due to the withdrawal of Government securities totalling over £8,000,000 hold by the Public Trustee on behalf of the Public Debt Redemption Fund for application in reduction of the Public Debt, and of the transfer to the National Provident Fund of Government securities for more than £8,000,000, previously held by the Public Trustee on behalf of that fund.

The following is a classification of the estates and funds which came under administration during the year ended 31st March, 1951, and of all estates and funds under administration at that date.

New Estates and Funds During 1950–51.Estates and Funds Under Administration at 31st Starch, 1951.
Number.Value.Number.Value.
  £ £
Wills estates2,1335,115,2417,75923,834,222
Trusts and agencies239933,5652,38911,288,613
Intestate estates552506,5021,7451,141,714
Mental patients' estates5941,040,4363,4784,619,176
Miscellaneous estates and funds1421,250,1852,57812,631,256
      Totals3,6608,845,92917,94953,514,981

Capital moneys becoming available for investment either form part of the Common Fund of the Office or, at the option of the testator or settlor, are invested in such securities as he may specify. Interest is allowed on moneys in the Common Fund at the rate fixed from time to time by the Governor-General in Council (at present 3 per cent.) and is free of all commission and other charges. Both capital and interest are guaranteed by the State, thus affording the complete security that it is the object of the Office to provide. On the other hand, moneys directed to be invested in specified securities do not carry the State guarantee, and, subject to the Public Trustee's ordinary liability as a trustee, any loss resulting from their investment falls upon the estate concerned. Commission is charged on the collection of the interest. Recognizing that the safety of the moneys is thereby assured, the great majority of testators and settlors desire their funds to be placed in the Common Fund.

New investments completed during the year ended 31st March, 1951, excluding short-term deposits, totalled £2,320,753, compared with £1,500,447 for the year ended 31st March, 1950. The easing of controls over land sales has resulted in an increased number of property transactions and many purchasers are taking advantage of the favourable terms of finance offered by the Office. The investments held by the Office at 31st March, 1951, inclusive of special investments made on behalf of estates and funds. were £24,247,663. The foregoing figures relate exclusively to investments made by the Office and do not include investments which constituted assets of estates when the latter came under the Public Trustee's administration and which are still held as assets of those estates.

During the year ended 31st March, 1951, 7,962 wills were deposited with the Public Trustee—a peacetime record. Withdrawals on account of the death of the testator or for other reasons totalled 5,023, so that the net increase for the year was 2,939. The number of wills on deposit at 31st March, 1930, appointing the Public Trustee executor was 68,253; by the 31st March, 1940, it had increased to 97,675; later increases brought the number to 149,227 at 31st March, 1951. In addition to preparing the will of the testator in the first instance, the Office prepares any subsequent will or codicil that may be necessary to give effect to alterations desired by him. During the year ended 31st March, 1951, effect was given in 6,957 cases to changes desired by testators.

JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES.—For thirty years following the enactment of the Companies Act of 1903, no comprehensive revision of statute law relating to companies was made in New Zealand, and the essential provisions of company law remained substantially unaltered. In 1930 the Attorney-General appointed an advisory committee, including representatives of the business community and of the professions of law and accountancy, to act with the Law Draftsman in framing a new measure, which, in the form of the Companies Act, 1933, came into force on 1st April, 1934. In great part the measure is an adaptation of the Imperial Act of 1929 to suit the special conditions of New Zealand.

A noteworthy step in the history of company legislation was taken by the Companies (Bondholders Incorporation) Act, 1934–35, which provided machinery for the incorporation of the holders of bonds issued by certain afforestation and other companies.

The position of certain investment companies in 1934 led to the appointment of a Commission of Inquiry and the passing of a novel series of legislative enactments designed to investigate their affairs and to protect the investors. The Acts passed comprised the Companies (Special Investigations) Act, 1934; the Companies (Special Liquidations) Act, 1934–35; and the Companies (Temporary Receivership) Act, 1935.

The Government has set up a committee which at the present time is considering the question of revising the 1933 Act.

A company, to acquire legal entity, must be incorporated, and under the Companies Act, 1933, incorporation is granted after the registration of the memorandum of association with the Registrar of Companies. A company incorporated overseas is not required to re-register in New Zealand, but must deliver to the Registrar of Companies for registration a certified copy of its instrument of constitution, as well as a list of its directors and the name of its authorized representative in New Zealand.

The Finance Emergency Regulations 1940 (No. 2), which replaced similar regulations issued in the same year, prohibited the registration of companies, building societies, &c., or the increase of capital of existing companies without the prior consent of the Minister of Finance. Amending regulations issued on 22nd May, 1946, removed this restriction in so far as it related to the formation of a company where the nominal capital did not exceed £10,000, or to an increase of capital of an existing company where the amount of the increase together with the amounts of other increases made within one year before that increase did not exceed £10,000.

New company registrations were relatively few during the earlier war years, but the numbers commenced to rise again in 1944. The table following gives a classification of companies registered in 1950 according to the amount of nominal capital.

Amount of Nominal CapitalPrivate Companies.Public Companies.Overseas Companies.
Number.Nominal Capital.Number.Nominal Capital.Number.Nominal Capital.
  £ £ £
Under £1,000357164,979  1100
£1,000 and under £2,000576714,86722,55011,000
£2,000 " £3,000350759,13324,500  
£3,000 " £4,000234740,697    
£4,000 " £5,000134557,081    
£5,000 " £6,000110557,870210,000  
£6,000 " £7,00076464,916    
£7,000 " £8,00038271,950    
£8,000 " £9,00026210,441    
£9,000 " £10,0001091,65019,600  
£10,000 " £15,00087902,100440,000110,000
£15,000 " £20,00019294,300    
£20,000 " £50,00022555,895289,250  
£50,000 and over81,940,0002210,00091,575,000
      Totals2,0478,225,87915365,900121,586,100

There has been a considerable change in the amounts of nominal capitals of private companies registered during the past ten years. Companies with nominal capitals of under £1,000, and also those of £10,000 and over, have decreased in relative numbers in a comparison with the 1950 and 1940 figures. The following table shows the numbers of companies registered expressed as percentages of the total registrations for the year. These figures refer to private companies only.

Amount of Nominal Capital.1940.1950.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.
Under £1,00035.517.4
£1,000 and under £5,00044.963.2
£5,000 " £10,00010.512.7
£10,000 and over9.16.7
      Totals100.0100.0

The effects of the restrictions placed on the formation of companies during the war period (see page 945) are reflected in the following table. A further notable feature is the increase in both the number and aggregate nominal capital of private companies registered since 1945.

Year.Private Companies.Public Companies.Overseas Companies.
Number.Nominal Capital.Number.Nominal Capital.Number.Nominal Capital.
  £ £ £
19403631,832,527201,138,7508808,000
19412792,784,4747911,31527,550,000
1942190676,8977154,5001130,000
1943261881,284648,8803617,200
19444511,408,2161382,000  
19457203,196,54118114,000372,100
19461,4148,102,471132,846,2508116,000
19471,7816,203,885233,257,0009428,650
19481,7297,319,98231924,1508950,000
19492,1236,626,32924832,30010523,600
19502,0478,225,87915365,900121,586,100

In comparing one year with another, as in the previous table, it should not be overlooked that re-registrations on account of reconstruction of companies or for other reasons are included. Such re-registrations may have a considerable effect on the year's total, where large companies are concerned.

Companies Carrying on Business.—Statistics of companies carrying on business have been compiled on four occasions, for the years 1926, 1932, 1938, and 1947. For the two earlier years, companies on the register at the 31st December were included. In the 1938 and 1947 tabulations, endeavours were made to eliminate those companies which were in liquidation or in a more or less moribund condition. As there was often no positive evidence available to show whether or not a company was in active operation, the statistics probably include a small proportion of companies which were only nominally carrying on business.

A summary of the principal information available in respect of public and private companies at 31st December of the years shown is given below. Since the issue of the 1950 Year-Book, the figures relating to the 1947 tabulation have been revised, and the necessary corrections have been made in the tables which follow.

At 31st December,Number.Nominal Capital.Subscribed Capital.Paid-up Capital.Amount Owing Under Charges.Shareholder' Fluids.

*Not available.

  £££££
Private Companies
19263,43936,060,343****
19326,08348,363,106****
19387,39955,793,621*49,270,54420,460,066*
194711,35887,044,475*77,814,58525,909,668*
Public Companies
19261,63089,544,85858,807,51949,982,59316,181,126*
19321,73297,553,57871,021,73659,106,90215,453,164*
19381,626100,172,97873,170,41164,932,44617,477,939*
19471,381106,358,59081,543,53973,203,33716,426,440113,065,633

The main feature disclosed by the figures is the tendency in recent years to obtain registration as a private company rather than as a public company. In 1926 there were twice as many private companies as public companies, but in 1947 there were nine private companies for each public company. From 1939 to 1947 inclusive, 6,080 private and 136 public companies were registered.

The increases in capital do not necessarily measure the amount of new capital invested, since many registrations of now companies represent the conversion of previously existing individual or partnership concerns into companies, or the reforming of a company by the liquidation of the existing company and the registration of a new one.

Details of “shareholders' funds” were obtained for public companies in the 1947 compilation. Similar data were not available for private companies since the Companies Act, 1933, makes provision for the filing of balance-sheets by public companies but not by private companies. As the term “shareholders' funds” is not self explanatory, it may be mentioned that shareholders' funds consist of paid-up capital plus reserves for general purposes. Provisions for specific purposes, bad debts reserves, depreciation reserves, and others of a similar nature, including taxation reserves, do not come within the scope of shareholders' funds. Accumulated losses, establishment accounts, &c., have boon treated as negative reserves and deducted from shareholders' funds.

In addition to the public and private companies covered above, there were 250 overseas companies operating in New Zealand at 31st December, 1947, compared with 212 in 1938, These had a total nominal capital of £224,807,042 (the corresponding 1938 figure was £195,934,469), but there is no information showing the amount of capital employed in New Zealand, which obviously must be only a very small proportion of the amount shown.

The district in which the company is registered in most cases coincides with the area in which the company operates. In a few instances the company transacts business in a different district, and the larger companies frequently operate either throughout the whole of New Zealand or a substantial part of it. Nevertheless, the figures given in the next two tables record with reasonable accuracy the amounts of company capital employed in the various districts at the 31st December, 1947.

District.Private Companies.
Number.Nominal Capital.Paid-up Capital.Amount Owing Under Charges.
  £££
Auckland3,88023,934,23321,868,0338,983,168
Gisborne138880,266853,215265,148
Hawke's Bay5803,331,9983,197,1931,113,212
Taranaki3031,654,1801,524,846624,056
Wellington3,37534,270,33429,078,3477,66,3,899
Marlborough89476,997439,468240,239
Nelson1981,317,0921,271,528432,053
Westland158858,629785,595168,167
Canterbury1,43511,141,15110,178,5563,741,344
Otago8046,994,4786,576,3302,119,513
Southland3982,186,0172,041,474558,869
      Totals11,35887,044,47577,814,58525,909,668
District.Public Companies.
Number.Nominal Capital.Subscribed Capital.Paid-up Capital.Amount Owing Under Charges.Shareholders' Funds.
  £££££
Auckland37743,170,04331,620,55629,536,2105,473,37842,134,481
Gisborne18763,402495,157385,177294,508522,144
Hawke's Bay502,188,3181,837,7521,461,331366,1752,854,962
Taranaki872,070,3041,770,2831,671,943715,2173,015,640
Wellington329129,569,10323,224,55721,233,2124,420,40229,756,528
Marlborough12102,86279,07572,90927,715138,764
Nelson29760,467582,048565,220117,964853,601
Westland351,005,0001,604,010779,92472,320830,547
Canterbury192113,277,0209,731,8049,038,9072,843,01319,104,272
Otago14911,374,8588,921,1367,124,9311,797,59811,828,499
Southland1032,077,2131,677,1611,333,573298,1502,026,195
    Totals1,381106,358,59081,543,53973,203,33716,426,440113,065,633

The following tables give the data for private and public companies separately-classified according to the amount of the nominal capital at the same date.

Amount of Nominal Capital.Private Companies.
Number.Nominal Capital.Paid-up Capital.Amount Owing Under Charges.
  £££
Under £1,0002,032910,631875,0861,325,184
£1,000 and under £2,0002,3762,925,0392,773,9051,768,117
£2,000 " £3,0001,7013,701,1843,239,9061,257,531
£3,000 " £4,0001,0603,339,8402,902,2441,623,760
£4,000 " £5,0006032,510,1372,213,8441,234,066
£5,000 " £6,0007593,852,1463,372,1531,405,827
£6,000 " £7,0004352,665,1572,342,6471,293,851
£7,000 " £8,0002701,965,2111,754,072966,829
£8,000 " £9,0002141,741,1151,585,721489,933
£9,000 " £10,000107977,117884,246538,020
£10,000 " £20,0001,04612,605,78010,951,2064,065,553
£20,000 " £30,0003467,695,4437,011,5841,754,631
£30,000 " £40,0001494,712,5374,541,4011,594,785
£40,000 " £50,000552,318,7132,091,978567,842
50,000 " £100,0001096,546,4546,129,4662,539,379
£100,000 and over9628,577,97125,145,1263,484,360
      Totals11,35887,044.47577,814,58525,909,668
Amount of Nominal Capital.Public Companies.
Number.Nominal Capital.Subscribed Capital.Paid-up Capital.Amount Owing Under Charges.Shareholders' Funds.
  £££££
Under £1,0006926,65924,31821,88451,57070,636
£1,000 and under £2,0006580,88060,06849,98919,277136,484
£2,000 " £3,00093197,424146,994123,48849,620340,365
£3,000 " £4,00052160,651126,110108,26973,716232,277
£4,000 " £5,00028113,05088,28684,06828,104134,016
£5,000 " £6,00073367,235274,077239,41899,982485,417
£6,000 " £7,00035215,153182,271171,51946,536300,365
£7,000 " £8,00029208,720234,479218,07957,646315,328
£8,000 " £9,00031251,830210,187191,009107,903325,626
£9,000 " £10,00011100,46073,66861,01260,17093,732
£10,000 " £20,0002483,453,3932,594,4212,538,693835,6863,906,344
£20,000 " £30,0001483,340,9253,211,0962,413,137901,5693,614,222
£30,000 " £40,000792,467,3792,088,4472,026,798736,1072,994,640
£40,000 " £50,000421,738,7091,549,8341,459,619515,2622,014,708
£50,000 " £100,0001579,693,7548,234,9627,559,4903,190,08110,336,367
£100,000 and over22183,942,36862,444,32155,936,8659,653,21187,765,106
      Totals1,381106,358,59081,543,53973,203,33716,426,440113,065,633

It will be observed that 65 per cent. of the public companies have nominal capitals of £10,000 and over, and that the numbers in the £100,000 and over group are only exceeded by the companies in the £10,000–£20,000 class. As far as capitals, &c., art-concerned, companies with capitals of £100,000 and over are of overwhelming importance in the public company fields. With both public and private companies taken into consideration, shareholders of those companies in the £100,000 and over class own over 50 per cent. of the total paid-up capital of all companies.

The smaller public companies—those with nominal capitals of under £10,000— appear to have relatively rather larger reserves than the larger companies. Shareholders' funds are approximately twice the amount of paid-up capital in case of the smaller companies against the one and one-half average of the larger companies.

The outstanding feature in connection with the amount owing under charges, is that both public and private companies with nominal capitals of £100,000 and over reveal a much lower ratio of charges to paid-up capital than the average of all other companies. The amount owing under charges is the total amount of the indebtedness in respect of all mortgages and charges which are required to be registered with the Registrar of Companies.

In 1938 and again in 1947 companies were classified according to the typo of business. The classifications used wore not identical, the 1947 one being based on the United Nations' classification of industries. Results of the 1938 classification were published in the 1940 and 1941 issues of the Year-Book, but the figures given there are not comparable with the condensed version of the present classification which appears in the next table.

A strictly accurate classification of typo of business or industry was not practicable since the main source of information was the company's memorandum of association, and this document usually empowers the company to carry out a great diversity of objects. Each company was therefore classified according to what appeared to be its principal activity. This was checked as far as possible from other sources of information and, while a high degree of accuracy is not claimed, the classification is thought to be of sufficient accuracy to be useful.

In many cases companies carry on more than one type of business. It was not practicable to apportion, even approximately, the company's capital among its activities, and the main object only was considered in determining the classification.

The table hereunder shows the industry grouping of the companies functioning at 31st December, 1947.

Industry Group.Private Companies.
Number.Nominal Capital.Paid-up Capital.Amount Owing Under Charges.
  £££
Agriculture and live-stock production3362,979,3422,768,4001,524,394
Forestry, hunting, and fishing2471,652,1941,515,651590,770
Mining and quarrying135829,382771,883292,877
Manufacturing—    
  Food, drink, and tobacco4388,092,4557,940,260887,685
  Apparel, textiles, and footwear5805,171,3733,976,4562,050,963
  Metals and metal products9324,658,6294,246,5902,017,611
  Other1,22211,647,35910,445,3792,636,690
Construction6512,176,2092,033,3281,232,456
Electricity, water, gas, and sanitary services437,50037,50040,000
Commerce—    
  Wholesale and retail trade4,16729,304,84626,144,7938,405,765
  Other1,26812,977,63111,099,7343,830,119
Transport, storage, and communication6192,709,1572,550,863923,880
Community services7584,806,3984,291,7481,476,458
Other12,0002,000 
      Totals11,35887,044,47577,814,58525,909,668
Industry Group.Public Companies.
Number.Nominal Capital.Paid-up Capital.Amount Owing Under Charges.Shareholders' Funds.
  ££££
Agriculture and live-stock production11306,110269,90931,632234,972
Forestry, hunting, and fishing2913,133,4277,923,17978,2358,137,711
Mining and quarrying754,679,4503,324,641240,3354,035,316
Manufacturing—     
  Food, drink, and tobacco35814,880,83211,589,7662,367,63418,556,117
  Apparel, textiles, and footwear414,338,2502,767,7831,094,8234,051,411
  Metals and metal products492,536,6401,851,6431,014,8152,818,431
  Other13315,511,93410,089,8822,090,19711,353,137
Construction5140,000100,80434,891105,094
Electricity, water, gas, and sanitary services182,398,4021,722,927922,0852,065,528
Commerce—     
  Wholesale and retail trade19716,045,98912,581,0963,775,88819,866,845
  Other27923,584,59614,077,8073,767,52226,637,942
Transport, storage, and communication997,547,1565,947,169274,19014,144,748
Community services861,230,804935,067721,4431,013,436
Other125,00021,66412,75044,945
      Totals1,381106,358,59073,203,33716,426,440113,065,633

OVERSEAS PRIVATE INVESTMENT IN NEW ZEALAND.—Although New Zealand depended for its early development on overseas capital, mainly from the United Kingdom, surprisingly little was known about the total volume and annual inflow or outflow of capital. Exact data have, until now, been available only in respect of General Government and local authority indebtedness and overseas exchange holdings of the banking system. The only information available in respect of private investment came from overseas sources, the first reported investigation having been made in 1910 by the late Sir George Paish, who estimated nominal holdings by United Kingdom investors in New Zealand public and private securities at £(m.)78.5 sterling.

It was with this statistical vacuum in mind that the Census and Statistics Department, working within the wider framework of inquiries into New Zealand's Balance of Payments, commenced in the later half of 1950 the first annual survey of companies with overseas affiliations.

The main purpose of the survey was to obtain data with respect to certain capital movements between overseas countries and New Zealand which were not obtainable from existing sources and use the results for the preparation of a comprehensive Balance of Payments statement on internationally accepted principles.

The survey was directed to New Zealand subsidiaries and branches of overseas companies and to New Zealand companies with branches and subsidiaries overseas. Certain companies resident in New Zealand which could not be properly classed as subsidiaries (but where the majority of the subscribed capital was held overseas) were also included in the survey. The intention of this inquiry was therefore to encompass all firms which come under the “direct investment” definition of overseas private long-term capital movements. This definition docs not include all private long-term investments or movements, because it excludes so-called “portfolio” holdings and transactions. Portfolio holdings are defined as holdings of New Zealand domiciled securities by overseas residents (and vice versa) not constituting control of the respective companies.

The data in the following tables do not include values of the investments of banks and insurance companies. The inquiry, however, is being extended to these institutions, and it is hoped to include them in the future.

In the case of subsidiaries operating in New Zealand the data surveyed could be summarized under three main headings: (1) Nominal capital; (2) dividends paid to parent company; (3) intercompany accounts between subsidiary and parent company and associated companies. The inclusion of intercompany liabilities in the investment position is necessary for various reasons. The capital invested by the parent company is not necessarily restricted to subscriptions of share capital; in numerous cases capital is being advanced through what at first sight appears to be a “current” account, but may in fact acquire the character of a long-term advance because outstanding liabilities on this account are never settled by the subsidiary. Such balances could, and in fact do, fluctuate in response to normal business requirements. Yet in the aggregate, taking all subsidiaries as a whole, the balances will exhibit trends peculiar to long-term investment requirements rather than to short-term trading exigencies.

Where branches are concerned, balances on “head office” or “branch” account assume the role of a capital account in the books of the branch. Again, such balances are subject to normal trading fluctuations; but even to a greater extent than with intercompany accounts their behaviour in the aggregate will be that of a long-term investment movement.

There is another aspect which both intercompany accounts and head office accounts have in common. They record transactions in merchandise, plant, and machinery which may, because there is no corresponding flow of overseas exchange transactions, assume the character of capital flows rather than ordinary imports. Frequently, overseas investments in New Zealand are effected through such channels rather than by remittances of cash; to the extent that this happens, data provided by Reserve Bank statistics of capital receipts and payments is incomplete, There are other entries as well (dividends retained by subsidiaries, unremitted earnings of branches, service charges, &c.) which can change the over-all investment position without taking the form of overseas remittances.

Finally, undistributed profits are also brought into the investment picture; to the extent that a subsidiary reinvests its undistributed profits in its New Zealand undertaking, accumulated overseas claims on the New Zealand economy increase by a corresponding amount. On the other hand, dividend distributions in excess of current earnings (out of past reserves) would have the opposite effect.

From the preceding explanations it will be apparent that the underlying purpose of the survey was to assess hitherto unknown movements in the “direct investment” sector of long-term capital investments and to incorporate them into a Balance of Payments statement.

Results of the survey are shown in the following tables, the first of which relates to New Zealand subsidiaries of overseas companies.

United Kingdom and Associated Companies in United Kingdom.Australia and Associated Companies In Australia.United States of America and Canada and Associated Companies in U.S.A. and CanadaEuropean Payments Union Countries and Associated Companies in E.P.U. Countries.Total, All Countries.

* Including debenture capital.

† Minus sign (-) denotes decrease in reserves through dividend payments in excess of current earnings.

  £ (N.Z.) Millions  
Paid-up capital—     
  1st April, 194912.665.152.540.1220.47
  31st March, 195013.585.372.840.1721.96
Paid-up capital held overseas*     
  1st April, 19498.303.552.520.1114.48
  31st March, 19508.963.742.810.1615.67
Dividends and interest—     
  Earned during year ended 31st March, 19500.440.390.740.071.64
  Remitted during year ended 31st March, 1950     
Net liabilities to parent companies and associated companies—0.470.340.730.011.55
  1st April, 19495.690310.900.177.07
  31st March, 19505.840.191.100.227.35
Increase in reserves (undistributed profits)0.370.170.330.070.28
Increase in overseas investment through—     
  Holdings of paid-up capital0.660.190.290.051.19
  Net liabilities to parent and associated companies0.150.120.200.050.28
  Reserves0.370.170.330.070.28
      Total increase1.180.240.160.171.75

The extent of overseas investment in New Zealand per medium of New Zealand branches of overseas companies is shown below.

United Kingdom and Associated Companies in United Kingdom.Australia and Associated Companies in Australia.United States of America and Canada and Associated Companies in U.S.A. and CanadaEuropean Payments Union Countries and Associated Companies in E.P.U. Countries.Total, All Countries.
  £ (N.Z.) Millions  
Not branch assets-as at—     
  1st April, 194913.714.910.52 19.17
  31st March, 195014.395.300.62 20.31
Net earnings of branches (after tax) for year ended 31st March, 19500.600.200.050.010.86
Less earnings remitted overseas during year ended 31st March, 19500.460.400.050.010.92
Reinvestment of earnings0.140.20  0.06
Increase in overseas investment through—     
  Net branch assets0.650.390.10 1.14
  Other investments (net)0.010.09  0.10
    Total increase0.660.480.10 1.24

NOTE.—Minus sign (-) denotes an excess of earnings remitted over net earnings for the current year.

When considering the geographical distribution of overseas investment in New Zealand it should be borne in mind that the figures shown for the various countries in the two preceding tables refer only to the proximate but not ultimate source (or nationality) of investment capital. It is well known that a number of large concerns, domiciled in the United Kingdom or Western Europe, have subsidiaries in Australia which in turn are the parent companies (or head offices in the case of branches) of New Zealand subsidiaries. If the ultimate nationality of such investment capital were to be taken into account, the two tables would show a fairly marked shift of investments, now shown as Australian, to the United Kingdom and to a smaller extent to countries in Western Europe. Totals for all countries would not he affected, however.

Direct overseas investment in New Zealand companies other than subsidiaries—i.e.., in companies with more than 50 per cent of the paid-up capital held by overseas residents—is not shown separately but in conjunction with the last summary table. Of a total paid-up capital (ordinary and preference shares and debentures) of £8.32(m.), Australian residents held £4.44(m.), residents in the United Kingdom £0.66(m.), and residents in the United States of America and Western Europe £0.02(m.), making total overseas holdings £5.12(m.). Changes during the year under investigation were-insignificant and income derived from these investments was small.

A summary of overseas direct investment in New Zealand is shown below.

United Kingdom.Australia.United States of America and Canada.European Payments Union Countries.Total, All Countries.
  £ (N.Z.) Millions  
Nominal share capital (debentures) held by overseas residents—     
  1st April, 19498.967.992.530.1219.60
  31st March, 19509.628.182.820.1720.79
Intercompany balances and net branch assets—     
  1st April, 194919.435.221.420.1726.24
  31st March, 195020.235.491.720.2227.66
Investment income for year ended 31st March, 1950—     
  Earned1.040.620.790.082.53
  Remitted0.930.770.780.022.50
Increase in overseas investment during year ended 31st March, 1950—     
  Share capital (debentures) held overseas0.660.190.290.051.19
  Intercompany liabilities and net branch assets0.800.270.300.051.42
  Other increase in overseas investment0.040.18  0.22
  Undistributed profits added to reserves0.370.170.330.070.28
      Total increase1.870.810.260.17311

NOTE.—Minus sign (-) denotes decrease in reserves through dividend payments in excess of current earnings.

To illustrate the significance of the result we have only to compare the figure of £3.11 (in.), being the total increase in overseas investment in New Zealand by all countries, with the movement of overseas public debt during the same period. An increase in overseas investment increases New Zealand's liabilities both as to principal and as to future commitments on account of investment income. Although it is mainly effected through other channels than receipts of overseas currency, it has the same result as borrowing from overseas. It is therefore necessary to offset the repayment of public debt (General Government and local authority) amounting to £2.70(m.) during the year ending 31st March, 1950, against £3.11(m.) borrowed from overseas, leaving £0.41(m.) as the net sum borrowed on these two accounts. There are, of course, other capital movements (holdings of portfolio securities for instance) which have to be brought into account when the overall balance of payments for New Zealand is constructed.

In the foregoing tables share capital and debentures were shown in terms of amounts actually paid up. But they still represent nominal values only, and no attempt has been made to present them at their market, balance-sheet, or any other value. To do so would meet with serious difficulties, because in the absence of market quotations a procedure of this type would require an annual survey of their balance-sheets, &c. On the other hand the year to year change in the value of overseas investment is believed to be described fairly accurately, because all items entering into the annual movement can be statistically assessed and this in spite of the fact that absolute values which are subject to change cannot be obtained.

Having regard to the qualifications just described, the next table shows, by countries. the amounts invested in New Zealand by way of “direct” investment. The amounts are composites of nominal paid-up capital, debenture capital, value of branch assets, and intercompany liabilities. Being a composite, the figures suffer from all deficiencies of such statistical aggregates, but they should be of interest in illustrating the contribution of overseas capital by countries.

A table showing the direct investment in New Zealand by countries is now given.

1st April, 1949.31st March, 1950.
Amount.Per Cent. of Total.Amount.Per Cent. of Total.
 £(N.Z.)m. £(N.Z.)m. 
United Kingdom28.3962.029.8561.6
Australia13.2128.813.6728.2
United States and Canada3.958.64.549.4
European Payments Union0.290.60.390.8
      All countries45.84100.048.5100.0

The figures presented in this survey may still be subject to minor corrections. Although all major companies with overseas affiliations are included in the survey, there still may be a few smaller companies which have not been included because their overseas affiliations are not known to the Census and Statistics Department.

The survey also comprised all New Zealand companies with subsidiaries and branches overseas, and the extent of such investment has been ascertained. It has been decided, however, to withhold the figures from publication until such time as the scope of the survey can be extended to banks and insurance companies.

CINEMATOGRAPH THEATRES.—The statistics of cinematograph theatres shown hereunder relate only to picture-theatres, and do not purport to show employees, revenue, and expenditure of the motion-picture industry as a whole. In particular, the full revenue and expenditure in connection with screen advertising, and also head-office expenses of controlling companies (including such items as interest on debentures and mortgage charges), unless recovered from exhibitors, are not recorded in the statistics. The item “Rent” under “Theatre expenditure” does not represent the rental value of all theatres, but only the rent paid where theatres were leased or rented.

The collection of statistics relating to cinematograph theatres was inaugurated in 1938–39, and continued annually until 1945–46; thereafter the frequency of collection is every alternate year. The principal data for the; last three years available are given below.

 1915–46,1947–48.1949–50.

* Adult admission charges (excluding amusements-tax).

† Including amusements-tax.

i.e.., Shop rentals and rents received in respect of cinematograph theatres let for other purposes.

§ Representing rent paid; not including rental value of freehold premises.

|| See explanatory letterpress on previous page.

Theatres (number)568570600
  Persons engaged—   
  Males (number)1,5431,4911,416
  Females (number)1,7701,7821,699
        Total (number)3,3133,2733,115
Salaries and wages paid —   
  To males (£)322,132348,128379,898
  To females (£)208,634217,044242,943
      Total (£)530,766565,172622,841
Seating-accommodation—   
  Seats at under 1s. 6d.* (number)64,43253,41648,000
  Seats at 1s. 6d.* (number)151,926156,177159,463
  Seats at 2s.* (number)43,17947,24950,446
  Seats at over 2s.* (number)14,40913,91814,586
      Total seats available (number)273,946270,760272,495
Paid admissions during year (number)36,965,77134,078,34936,353,171
Theatre revenue—   
  Admission receipts (£)2,817,6462,634,7302,789,696
  Screen advertising (£)61,25896,038111,373
  Rentals and other receipts (£)54,51378,258117,863
      Total theatre revenue ||(£)2,933,4172,809,0263,018,932
Theatre expenditure—   
  Salaries and wages (£)530,766565,172622,841
  Film-hire (£)851,779759,354768,185
  Freight (£)37,94842,52447,110
  Advertising (£)159,017176,396194,312
  Amusements-tax (£)131,199123,034135,684
  Rent § (£)324,137315,588291,826
  Repairs and maintenance (£)89,987155,212142,590
  Depreciation (£)49,32948,64073,800
  Other expenses (£)294,337279,451341,223
  Total theatre expenditure ||(£)2,468,4992,465,3712,617,571

The main feature of the latest statistics is the rise of 2,300,000 or 6.7 per cent. in the number of paid admissions over those recorded in the previous survey in 1947–48. Paid admissions represent an average of 19–2 visits to the theatre in 1949–50, on a population basis, as against 18.8 in 1947–48. Total admissions in 1949–50, 36.4 million. were the third highest on record. 37.0 million being recorded in 1945–46 and 38.3 million in 1943–44.

An analysis of theatre revenue in 1949–50 shows that admission charges amounted to 92.4 per cent. of the total, screen advertising to 3.7 per cent., and other revenue to 3.9 per cent. The chief items on the expenditure side were as follows: Film-hire, 293 per cent.; salaries and wages, 23.8 per cent.; theatre rent, 11.1 per cent.; advertising, 7.4 per cent.; repairs and maintenance, 5.4 per cent. Amusements-tax at £135,684 represented 5.2 per cent.

Disregarding differences in admission prices for adults and children and for evening and matinee performances, the average price of admission has been calculated by dividing total admission receipts by the total number of paid admissions. The average admission charge works out at 18.4d., ranging from 15.69d. in the Nelson Provincial District to 19.9d. in Taranaki. The average charge in 1947–48 was 18.6d.

The next table shows a classification of theatres, according to number of screening days per week, and of circuit operators for the 1949–50 year.

Screening.Theatres.Persons Engaged.Salaries and Wages.Seating-accommodation.Paid Admissions.Average Admission Charge.*

* Including amusements-tax.

 No.No.£No. of Seats.No.d.
Six days per week2022,328530,485170,57230,672, 26719.0
Odd days per week22965172,49469,8984,479,32915.4
Circuit16913619,86232,0251,201,57516.2
      Totals6003,115622,841272,49536,353,17118.4

A classification of theatre revenue and expenditure on a similar basis is now given.

Screening.Theatre Revenue.Theatre Expenditure*
Admission Receipts.*Screen Advertising.Other.Total.

* Including amusements-tax.

 £££££
Six days per week2,421,89092,411103,4122,617,7132,264,132
Odd days per week286,57914,31510,521311,415274,905
Circuit81,2274,6473,93089,80478,534
      Totals2,789,696111,373117,8633,018,9322,617,571

The 37 circuit or itinerant operators in 1949–50 screened in 169 theatres or halls.

PATENTS, DESIGNS, AND TRADE-MARKS.—The total number of applications for the grant of letters patent and for the registration of designs and trade-marks during the calendar year 1950 was 3,655, which was 124 more than the previous year.

Patents.—The number of applications for letters patent in 1950 was 1,987, as compared with 1,984 in 1949 and 2,469 in 1948.

The applications received during 1950 may be broadly classified as follows: Mechanical engineering, 582; electronics, 264; chemistry, 276; primary industries. 328; building construction, 205; and miscellaneous, 332.

New Zealand with 870 applications held the lead from Great Britain (484), followed by Australia (231), and the United States of America (227), with the remainder (175) distributed among twenty-four different countries.

Trade-marks.—The number of applications in respect of trade-marks during 1950 was 1,422, as compared with 1,292 in 1949 and 1,439 in 1948. Classes 5 (pharmaceutical, veterinary, and sanitary substances) and 25 (clothing) again predominated with 225 and 161 applications respectively; and they were followed by Class 24 (tissues— piece-goods), 98; Class 3 (soaps, cosmetics, &c.), 78; Class 9 (electrical apparatus), 67; Class 33 (wines, spirits, and liqueurs), 67; Class 1 (chemical products used in industry), 65; and Class 30 (groceries) with 63.

The countries from which the applications originated were: New Zealand, 486; Great Britain, 466; United States of America, 191; Australia, 162; with the remainder (117) distributed between nineteen other countries.

Renewal of the registration of 1,243 trade-marks was effected during the year.

Designs.—Applications for the registration of designs in 1950 totalled 246, as compared with 255 in 1949 and 229 in 1948. The total number of applications since the inception of design registration in New Zealand is 6,341.

The following table shows the number of applications for patents and for the registration of trade-marks and designs in each of the last eleven years.

Year.Patents.Trademarks.Designs.Year.Patents.Trademarks.Designs.
19401,27762610819463,0251,766351
19411,21453410819472,7531,670237
19421,1043986019482,4691,439229
19431,3846786119491,9841,292255
19442,04592410419501,9871,422246
19452,6511,320188    

The total receipts of the Patent Office for 1950 amounted to £23,742, of which patent fees amounted to £17,216; trade-mark fees, £6,169; design fees, £201; and sale of publications', £156. Payments during 1950 amounted to £25,299, leaving a deficiency of £1,557.

INSPECTION OF MACHINERY.—The Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act, 1950, and the Machinery Act, 1950, which replaced the former Inspection of Machinery Act, 1928, and its amendments, are designed to promote the safety of life and limb in the operation of steam boilers, digesters, other steam-pressure vessels, and air-receivers; hydraulic, electric, and other lifts; all types of power-driven cranes and power-driven machinery on land; and machinery used on vessels afloat that are not self-propelled. Nothing in the Acts apply to any machinery driven by manual or animal power, or to any machinery the motive power of which does not exceed one horse-power. Machinery which is used exclusively for farming purposes and does not exceed six horse-power is also exempt from annual inspection.

Boilers, pressure-vessels, air-receivers, lifts, and cranes are required to be of approved design and workmanship, and the moving parts of machinery must be adequately guarded.

All boilers and machinery are inspected and certificated once per year and lifts twice per year. It is illegal to work a boiler or other pressure-vessel or any machinery, including a crane or a lift, which does not carry a current certificate of inspection issued by either the Marine Department or the Labour and Employment Department.

Particulars of inspections of boilers and machinery during the years ended 31st March, 1950 and 1951, were as follows:—

Boiler inspections—1949–50.1950–51.

* As the inspection of hoists, tractors, electric-power stations and machinery was discontinued by the Marine Department as from 1st January, 1951, these figures for 1950–51 do not afford a fair comparison with the previous year.

  Fired boilers4,7314,596
  Air-receivers6,24010,605
  Other unfired pressure vessels6,360 
  Receiver combined with other units 1,058
      Total boilers17,33016,259
Machinery inspections—  
  Lifts3,6963,617
  Cranes744807
  Hoists2,1821,482
  Machines driven by steam power6,4264,086
  Machines not driven by steam power95,53058,446
  Electric-power supply station units15240
  Tractors29940
      Total machinery109,02968,518*
      Grand totals126,35984,777

New boilers, new air and gas receivers, and new unfired pressure vessels inspected in 1950–51 for the first time totalled 1,033 units, while machinery inspections included 81 cranes and 16 lifts inspected for the first time.

The Acts provide that where loss of life or serious bodily injury to any person occurs by reason of the explosion of a boiler, or as a result of an accident caused by machinery, the explosion or accident must be reported by the owner, and the cause investigated by an Inspector of Machinery.

Revenue and expenditure in connection with inspection of machinery for the last five years available have been as follows.

1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.
Revenue—£££££
  Inspection fees, &c.25,48926,24430,41331,83829,633
  Examination fees, &c.759439639543621
      Totals26,24826,68331,05232,38130,254
Expenditure29,23635,28036,25636,71338,598

The Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act, 1950, also provides for the issue of certificates to those who pass the prescribed examinations for land engineers and engine-drivers in charge of boilers and machinery, for winding-engine drivers for mining purposes, for drivers employed on locomotives working on railway-lines not under the control of the Government Railways Department, and for the drivers of traction-engines on roads. Certificates are also issued to electric-tram drivers, as provided by the Tramways Amendment Act, 1910, and cable-tram drivers' certificates in pursuance of section 75 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1946. The issue of these certificates is controlled by a Board of Examiners set up under the Act, the Chairman being the Chief Engineer-surveyor.

The total number of candidates examined during the year 1949–50 was 532, and in 1950–51, 600. Of these candidates, 445 wore successful in the earlier year quoted, and 520 in the latter year.

VALUE OF PRODUCTION.—Complete statistics covering all phases of production are not available; and, in compiling the following statistics, estimates of production have been made in several cases where direct data are not obtainable. Since statistical information as to production in each of the major productive activities is readily available, the items for which estimates must be made are, with the exception of one group of commodities, relatively unimportant. Although the value of products made in the home—e.g., home-made clothing, jams, kitchen-garden products, &c.—must, in the aggregate, account for a considerable annual value, it is impossible to estimate with any reasonable degree of accuracy the value of such production, which is, on this account, omitted from the statistics of the value of production.

It should be noted that production of material commodities only is taken into consideration in these statistics.

The general principle followed in assessing values has been to value products as near as possible to the actual point of production. For example, live-stock is valued at “on the hoof” prices, while values at the factory are used in the case of factory products. In some few cases, however, reliable data as to values at or near the point of production cannot be obtained; and in these cases export valuations or wholesale price quotations have been used in assessing values. Although absolute uniformity of treatment in the basis of valuation as between different commodities has not been possible, the basis of valuation gives comparable aggregate values for the period covered. The statistics thus afford a fairly accurate indication of fluctuations in the value of production from year to year, although the absolute figures for any individual year must be regarded as an approximation only.

Since the basis of valuation is (as far as possible) at the point of production, transport costs are only partly represented in the values shown, while the accretions to the value of commodities caused by the services of retailers and other distributors of finished products are not included in the statistics.

In classifying the value of production into the principal groups care has been taken to avoid duplication, products of one group which constitute the raw material of another group being counted once only. For example, the gross value of agricultural products in 1950–61 is estimated at £42,500,000; but, as the major part of these products was utilized for the purpose of adding value to live-stock, the net value only (£19,500,000) is classified under the heading “Agricultural,” since live-stock and live-stock products are included in either the “Pastoral” or the “Dairying, &c.,” group.

Products have been classified into the groups to which they most logically belong from a production point of view, butter and cheese, for example, being classified under “Dairying, &c.,” and not as factory products. The figure shown under the heading “Factory” is the aggregate value added to materials by the process of manufacture, excluding industries which are already included in other groups (e.g., butter and cheese making, meat-freezing, fish-curing, and saw-milling). The total value of output of factory industries is included in cases where the materials are produced in New Zealand and are not already included as production in some other group.

The estimates of value of production from the year 1900–01 onwards are quoted in the following table and are in terms of New Zealand currency. A global estimate such as this, is, from its nature, subject to amendment from time to time as additional data on production become available and improvements in technique are effected. Minor amendments in the estimates are incorporated in the figures appearing therein.

VALUE OF PRODUCTION

Year.Agricultural.Pastoral.Dairying, Poultry, and Bees.Total Farming Groups.Mining.Fisheries.Forestry.Factory.Building and Miscellaneous.Totals (All Groups).

* Provisional.

 £(m.)£(m.)£(m.)£(m.)£(m.)£(m.)£(m.)£(m.)£(m.)£(m.)
1900–014.112.23.720.02.90.12.05.43.533.9
1905–064.317.25.326.84.20.12.66.85.345.8
1910–114.020.47.431.84.60.22.88.15.953.4
1915–167.631.111.550.24.80.31.99.75.472.3
1920–218.829.426.264.43.10.44.618.68.499.5
1921–229.528.321.859.62.90.54.517.28.793.4
1922–238.130.825.264.13.00.44.518.010.3100.3
1923–247.132.724.664.43.20.54.719.211.9103.9
1924–258.143.326.277.63.10.54.820.812.7119.5
1925–268.432.025.265.63.20.64.722.314.0110.4
1926–278.831.824.765.33.50.54.023.014.3111.1
1927–289.638.527.275.33.60.53.522.813.9119.6
1928–299.942.429.381.63.60.53.424.013.1126.2
1929–309.135.628.473.13.70.63.625.613.9120.5
1930–318.824.422.255.43.60.52.923.311.597.2
1931–328.019.221.949.13.40.41.718.610.183.3
1932–338.920.321.250.43.40.41.717.710.183.7
1933–348.731.722.562.93.50.42.018.611.098.4
1934–357.928.023.058.93.80.42.620.710.396.7
1935–369.233.828.871.84.00.43.023.211.4113.8
1936–378.846.333.388.4400.53.626.712.7135.9
1937–388.640.135.183.84.20.64.130013.1135.8
1938–399.236.736.081.94.40.64.030.514.7136.1
1939–4010.138.037.986.04.90.64.433.515.4144.8
1940–4110.147.840.898.75.10.64.537.114.4160.4
1941–4211.246.539.697.35.40.64.541.214.8163.8
1942–4312.647.838.298.65.30465.045.215.5170.2
1943–4414.047.237.798.95.70.75.349.415.9175.9
1944–4515.456.144.9116.45.80.75.452.016.4196.7
1945–4615.156.441.3112.86.00.96.155.619.0200.4
1946–4715.664.950.9131.46.41.06.661.723.1230.2
1947–4815.780.458.9155.06.31.18.770.824.4266.3
1948–4918.584.066.3168.86.91.210.577.027.8292.2
1949–5018.7117.472.8208.98.21.410.984.531.1345.0
1950–51*19.5214.381.6315.49.41.412.897.436.8473.2

The total value of production reached a record level of £473,200,000 in 1950–51, and recorded an increase of £128,200,000, or 37 per cent., as compared with the previous year. Compared with the pro-war year, 1938–39, there has been an increase of £337,100,000, or 248 per cent.

The total estimated value of farm production for 1950–51 was £315,400,000, an increase of £106,500,000, or of 51 per cent., over the previous year's figure. In comparison with the year 1938–39 farm production increased in value by £233,500,000, or by 285 per cent. The increase in volume of farm production over this period amounted to 26 per cent., so that the main factor contributing to the increase in value ever 1938–39 was higher prices.

All the individual groups, except fisheries which remained constant at the 1949–50 level, showed record levels for value in 1950–51, the group showing the greatest relative increase over the previous year being pastoral production, higher prices for wool accounting for no less than £80,000,000 of the total value of production increase.

The factory group shows for both value and volume a continuation of the upward trend. It should be borne in mind that the amount shown as factory production in the value of production statistics does not include the value of production in the industries processing primary products. Production in such cases is credited to the appropriate primary-production group (dairying, pastoral, forestry, &c.).

VOLUME OF PRODUCTION.—The method of computation of the volume series is somewhat involved and is based on figures of physical volume of output where available (as for practically all farm, mining, forestry, and fishery production). For factory industries, quantity figures—either of products or of materials used—have been utilized where available, and in the case of other factory industries a figure closely indicative of volume movements has boon arrived at by assessing the number of man-hours worked. In the case of some of the industries where the above methods are not appropriate, an estimate of volume of production is assessed by applying to the cost of materials used or of products, an index of wholesale prices of the principal materials or products of the particular industry.

Information as to the number of dwellinghouses erected, classified according to number of rooms, is normally available, and from a consideration of this data, value figures for other classes of building activity have been converted into equivalent dwelling or room-units. The composite total of actual and equivalent dwelling- or room-units is a sufficiently reliable indicator of actual volume of building production to permit of its incorporation in an index measuring the year-to-year movement in the volume of total production. Similarly, for those physically productive occupations (representing only a small percentage of aggregate production) not included in any of the groups mentioned above, a reasonably close approximation of movement is afforded by a consideration of the numbers of men engaged, with allowance for changes in working-hours and also for the relative productive output of different classes of labour.

The following table gives figures of value, and index numbers of value and volume of production, for the principal headings.

VALUE AND VOLUME OF PRODUCTION

Base of index numbers: 1938–39 (= 100)

Year.Farm.Factory.*Total (Including Other)
Value.Index Number of Volume.Value.Index Number of Volume.Value.Index Number of Volume.
Total.Index NumberTotal.Index Number.Total.Index Number.

* Excluding factory industries included in other groups.

† Provisional.

 £(m.)  £(m.)  £(m.)  
1929–3073.1898325.68472120.58981
1930–3155.4688423.3766597.27178
1931–3249.1608418.6615683.36175
1932–3350.4629617.7585783.76183
1933–3462.9779918.6615998.47287
1934–3558.9729620.7686996.77187
1935–3671.88810123.27676113.88493
1936–3788.410810426.78890135.910099
1937–3883.810210430.09895135.8100100
1938–3981.910010030.5100100136.1100100
1939–4086.010510233.5110110144.8106105
1940–4198.712111637.1122114160.4118113
1911–4297.311911141.2135117163.8120no
1942–4398.612010845.2148122170.2125109
1943–4498.912110549.4162129175.9129108
1944–45116.414211352.0170132196.7145114
1945–46112.813810755.6182136200.4147112
1946–47131.416011061.7202146230.2169118
1947–48155.018911370.8232159266.3196123
1948–49168.820611777.0252163292.2215129
1949–50208.925512384.5277174345.0253137
1950–51315.438512697.4319183473.2348141

A measure of relative productivity is afforded by the next table, which gives figures and index numbers of value and volume of production in total and per head of population.

VALUE AND VOLUME OF PRODUCTION

Year.Mean Population Year Ended 30th June.Volume of Production.Volume of Production.
Total.Per Head.Index Numbers 1938–39 (= 100).Index Numbers 1938–39 (= 100).
Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.

* Not available.

† Provisional.

  £(m.)£    
1900–01812,01033.941.72550**
1905–06929,06645.849.33459**
1910–111,050,01453.450.93961**
1915–161,150,37272.362.85375**
1920–211,258,31399.579.17394**
1925–261,399,583110.478.98194**
1930–311,504,02297.264.671777884
1935–361,568,432113.872.684869396
1937–381,598,570135.885.0100101100101
1938–391,616,650136.184.2100100100100
1939–401,636,680144.888.5106105105103
1940–411,634,238160.498.1118117113111
1941–421,631,375163.8100.4120119110109
1942–431,639,407170.2103.8125123109108
1943–441,641,433175.9107.2129127108106
1944–451,673,378196.7117.5145140114110
1945–461,729,195200.4115.9147138112105
1946–471,779,129230.2129.4169153118107
1947–481,816,938266.3146.6196174123110
1948–491,853,049292.215747215187129112
1949–501,890,752345.0182.5253217137117
1950–511,927,218473.2245.5348292141118

INDUSTRIAL EFFICIENCY.—In keeping with modern trends of industrial planning and organization in overseas countries, the Legislature of New Zealand introduced in 1936 ft measure designed “to promote the economic welfare of New Zealand by providing for the promotion of new industries in the most economic form and by so regulating the general organization, development, and operation of industries that a greater measure of industrial efficiency will be secured.” This legislation became operative as the Industrial Efficiency Act, 1936, and under it the Bureau of Industry was constituted.

The Bureau of Industry, which meets at frequent intervals, is composed of both “ordinary” and “special” members, appointed by the Minister of Industries and Commerce. The “ordinary” members are Government officers who are appointed because of some special knowledge or qualifications appropriate to the administration of the Act. “Special” members are those who have been appointed to represent manufacturing industries and agricultural and pastoral industries.

The Industrial Efficiency Act charges the Bureau with a number of functions, the principal of which is the making of recommendations to the Minister for the administration of the Act. In addition to its advisory functions, the Bureau is the licensing authority under the Act, and besides preparing plans for industries it is charged with maintaining a continuous survey of industries, of industrial finance, and of industrial methods, as well as collaborating with the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and the New Zealand Standards Institute. One of its further functions is to consider and make recommendations to the Government on applications by industrial enterprises for financial assistance from the State.

It is, however, the portion of the Act relating to industrial licensing that has engaged the greater attention of the Bureau of Industry. Licensing involves control being exercised over the entry of new units into the respective industries, as well as the imposition of appropriate conditions on licences in order to ensure that the industry is being carried on by licensees in a manner calculated to conform to industrial efficiency and national interest.

Provision is made in the Act for all decisions of the Bureau of Industry to be subject to appeal by persons who consider themselves aggrieved by the decisions, and this section of the Act has boon availed of to a considerable extent. The appeals are heard by an appeal authority appointed by the Governor-General.

As an indication of the extent to which businesses became subject to the Industrial Efficiency Act, it may be mentioned that there are about 5,000 licensed units, made up mainly of the distributive or semi-distributive industries. There are licensed some 4,300 resellers of motor-spirits and 650 pharmacists. So far as manufacturing industries are concerned, the total number of units is not large, many licensed industries having less than six units, while others range up to one hundred and fifteen.

On 31st March, 1951, the following twenty-three industries were subject to licensing under the Industrial Efficiency Act:—

  • Manufacture of agar for sale.

  • Manufacture of apple-juice for sale.*

  • Manufacture of products consisting of a combination of asbestos and cement.*

  • The business of a pharmaceutical chemist carried on in any shop or place of business.

  • Manufacture of cigarette-papers.*

  • Manufacture of colloidal sulphur.*

  • Manufacture for sale or export of hand-shovels.*

  • Manufacture, from linseed, of oil or oil cake for sale.*

  • Manufacture of macaroni for sale*

  • Importation and/or wholesale distribution of motor-spirits.

  • Retail sale and distribution of motor-spirits.

  • Manufacture of nails.

  • Extraction from fish-livers of nutritional or medicinal oils.

  • Manufacture of paper-pulp or paper products.

  • Milling of phormium tenax.*

  • Preservation of fish for sale in hermetically scaled cans, jars, or other containers.*

  • Manufacture of rennet.

  • Manufacture of bituminous roofing-material for sale.

  • Manufacture of rope and twine.*

  • Manufacture of rubber tires and tubes for all types of vehicles.

  • Manufacture of salt for sale.*

  • Manufacture of wooden heels for footwear.

  • Manufacture of paua (Haliotis iris) shell for sale.

The descriptions of the industries listed above in many cases serve only in a general way to indicate the scope of the industries licensed, full details being available in the relevant licensing notices.

* Removed from control in 1951.

† Removed from control in March, 1952.

GENERAL ELECTIONS.—A general election of parliamentary representatives was held in September, 1951, voting in New Zealand for both European and Maori electorates taking place on the first day of September. A summary of the voting in the European electorates for the 1951 and the four preceding elections is shown below.

1938.1943.1946.1949.1951.

*Including votes recorded by members of Armed Forces (including those overseas).

Number of votes recorded for candidates elected550,121495,380*591,399*609,584613,378*
Number of votes recorded for candidates defeated367,563415,990*419,688*425,486419,129*
Number of informal votes6,3739,957*7,999*6,7243,630*
      Total number of votes recorded924,057921,327*1,019,086*1,041,7941,036,137*
Percentage of votes recorded for candidates elected to total valid votes recorded59.9554.3558.4958.8959.41
      Total number of electors on roll (where contest)995,1731,000,1971,081,8981,113,8521,166,375
Number of districts where no contest 2   
Percentage of votes recorded for candidates elected to total number of electors on roll55.2849.5354.6654.7352.59
Number of electors voting as absent voters41,63335,89848,67347,86760,307
Number of electors exercising postal votes17,32418,12824,92025,89533,857

The numbers of electors on the European roll in 1951 was 1,166,375, of whom 572,294 were men and 594,081 were women. The relatively lighter interest in the 1951 poll evinced by men and women may be measured by the number of votes recorded to the number on the roll—viz., men 510,371 (89.18 per cent.) and women 525,766 (88.50 per cent.), as compared with the 1949 figures of 514,599 (93.02 per cent.) and 527,195 (93.15 per cent.). A feature was the smaller number of informal votes recorded in 1951, 3,630, compared with the 1949 total of 6,724.

A statement of voting in individual electorates at the general election in 1951 is now given.

Electoral Districts and Names of CandidatesNumber of Votes Recorded.Number of Electors on Roll.Adult Population at Census, 1945.

* Includes Chatham Islands

Arch Hill   
  Hope3,346  
  Stewart7,311  
  Wilcox173  
    Informal58  
      Totals10,88812,62514,237
Ashburton   
  Gerard7,812  
  Rose4,945  
    Informal44  
      Totals12,80113,95013,981
Auckland Central   
  Anderton5,097  
  Hillyer2,929  
  Mitchell136  
    Informal50  
      Totals8,21110,24814,252
Avon   
  Mathison10,1101  
  Russell5,789  
    Informal49  
      Totals15,88917,90614,097
Awarua   
  Herron8,121  
  Pickering4,366  
    Informal142  
      Totals12,62914,38913,742
Hay of Plenty   
  Santon5,342  
  Sullivan9,389  
    Informal51  
      Totals14,78217,97514,008
Brooklyn   
  Clift4,549  
  Nordmeyer6,375  
    Informal83  
      Totals11,00713,07714,005
Buller   
  McDonald5,988  
  skinner7,215  
    Informal21  
      Totals13,22415,35214,491
Central Otago   
  Bodkin8,429  
  Rodgers4,809  
    Informal46  
      Totals13,28415,10913,888
Christchurch Central   
  Macfarlane6,901  
  Schumacher4,103  
    Informal42  
      Totals11,04613,34314,159
Clutha   
  Roy8,045  
  Sanders4,462  
    Informal63  
      Totals12,57014,37311,146
Dunedin Central   
  Connolly6,231  
  Macdougall5,858  
    Informal31  
      Totals12,12013,49414,619
Eden   
  Burfitt4,214  
  Fortune7,016  
    Informal53  
      Totals11,28312,88114,044
Egmont   
  Corbett8,643  
  Richmond3,747  
    Informal25  
      Totals12,41513,95713,879
Fendalton   
  Alloy4,180  
  Holland8,546  
    Informal33  
      Totals12,75914,87414,289
Franklin   
  Faulkner4,333  
  Massey9,691  
    Informal34  
      Totals14,05815,91413,866
Gisborne   
  Dudfield7,569  
  Keeling7,231  
    Informal39  
      Totals14,83916,20311,441
Grey Lynn   
  Barry4,452  
  Hackett8,265  
    Informal45  
      Totals12,76214,34113,625
Hamilton   
  Ross7,853  
  Waters5,601  
    Informal36  
      Totals15,24113,49013,912
Hastings   
  Beattie7,060  
  Jones8,198  
    Informal49  
      Totals15,30717,09014,317
Hauraki   
  Dynes4,144  
  Sutherland8,612  
    Informal30  
      Totals12,78614,54813,933
Hawke's Bay   
  Harker8,494  
  Lowe4,341  
    Informal34  
      Totals12,86914,91314,418
Hobson   
  King3,698  
  Sly-field218  
  Smith9,035  
    Informal52  
      Totals13,03315,54314,374
urunui   
  Cassidy5,165  
  Gillespie8,086  
    Informal22  
      Totals13,27315,09913,990
Hull   
  Andrews6,424  
  Nash8,872  
  Simpson71  
    Informal65  
      Totals15,43217,16113,715
1nvercargill   
  Hanan8,208  
  Spurdle6,085  
    Informal37  
      Totals14,33015,93714,275
Island Bay   
  Birchfield99  
  Duncan5,055  
  McKeen6,735  
    Informal68  
      Totals11,95713,83714,027
Karori   
  Bateman4,675  
  Bowden8,128  
    Informal37  
      Totals12,84014,48614,145
Lyttelton   
  Lake7,480  
  McCombs7,347  
    Informal41  
      Totals14,86816,591*14,637
Manawatu   
  Oram8,292  
  Rodgers4,827  
    Informal37  
      Totals13,15614,79613,711
Marlborough   
  Meachen5,723  
  Shand8,175  
    Informal44  
      Totals13,94214,99614,143
Marsden   
  Hosking5,030  
  Murdoch9,031  
    Informal49  
      Totals14,11016,18814,135
Miramar   
  Semple6,785  
  Taylor6,284  
    Informal35  
      Totals13,10414,78814,018
Mornington   
  Hannan121  
  Hudson9,168  
  Pilling5,385  
    Informal72  
      Totals14,74616,09414,532
Mount Albert   
  Freer7,092  
  Judson6,488  
    Informal32  
      Totals13,61214,99413,904
Mount Victoria   
  Kitts4,358  
  Marshall6,556  
    Informal42  
      Totals10,95612,93614,135
Napier   
  Armstrong7,331  
  Tait7,375  
    Informal80  
      Totals14,78616,02814,229
Nelson   
  Neale9,425  
  Whitehead6,594  
    Informal59  
      Totals16,07817,85614,602
New Plymouth   
  Aderman8,816  
  Parker6,401  
    Informal32  
      Totals15,24916,44814,291
North Dunedin   
  Cameron6,622  
  Walls6,629  
    Informal32  
      Totals13,58314,72414,040
North Shore   
  Byre8,328  
  Wrathall6,173  
    Informal51  
      Totals14,55215,92214,362
Oamaru   
  Hayman7,736  
  Ryan6,421  
    Informal25  
      Totals14,18215,31214,593
Onehunga   
  Bradley6,051  
  Osborne8,017  
    Informal39  
      Totals14,10716,17113,963
Onslow   
  Combs9,539  
  Meadowcroft8,433  
    Informal42  
      Totals18,01419,83113,896
Otahuhu   
  Deas7,540  
  Gotz9,668  
    Informal45  
      Totals17,25318,76214,165
Otaki   
  Holloway8,755  
  Maher9,897  
    Informal69  
      Totals18,72120,42014,156
Pahiatua   
  Holyoake8,490  
  Jones3,892  
    Informal50  
      Totals12,43213,94214,125
Palmerston North   
  Hodgens7,088  
  Tennent7,288  
    Informal37  
      Totals14,41315,96413,987
Parnell   
  Rae6,355  
  Walt4,768  
    Informal44  
      Totals11,16712,73213,982
Patea   
  Finer5,443  
  Sheat7,910  
    Informal34  
      Totals13,38715,13114,106
Petone   
  Croft5,367  
  Moohan7,502  
    Informal67  
      Totals12,93614,59013,651
Piako   
  Goosman9,386  
  Kenah3,022  
    Informal30  
      Totals12,43814,94114,087
Ponsonby   
  Dempsey5,351  
  Macdonald6,855  
    Informal34  
      Totals12,24014,00414,156
Raglan   
  Johnstone8,364  
  Wilson6,598  
    Informal44  
      Totals15,00616,53913,799
Rangitikei   
  Dalzell4,486  
  Gordon8,162  
    Informal43  
      Totals12,69114,51913,565
Remeura   
  Algie8,727  
  Tizard3,381  
    Informal25  
      Totals12,13313,81114,005
Riccarton   
  McLagan8,506  
  Wills6,241  
    Informal39  
      Totals14,78616,88914,349
Rodney   
  Leaming5,117  
  Webb10,010  
    Informal34  
      Totals15,16116,98913,971
Roskill   
  Curran7,522  
  Rae7,962  
    Informal47  
      Totals15,53117,15613,854
St. Albans   
  Mora6,260  
  Watts7,675  
    Informal30  
      Totals13,96515,46913,885
St Kilda   
  Barnes7,279  
  Jones6,943  
    Informal35  
      Totals14,25715,39414,258
Selwyn   
  Barclay6,902  
  McAlpine8,738  
    Informal36  
      Totals15,67617,17013,772
Sydenham   
  Howard8,406  
  Stott4,003  
    Informal49  
      Totals12,45814,40714,199
Tamaki   
  Halstead9,504  
  Skinner8,043  
  Wood84  
    Informal79  
      Totals17,71019,11313,527
Tauranga   
  Pickett4,643  
  Walsh10,043  
    Informal49  
      Totals14,73517,09713,634
Timaru   
  Can7,265  
  Richards6,701  
    Informal58  
      Totals14,02415,23313,799
Waikato   
  Bayly3,041  
  Sim9,410  
  Wright150  
    Informal53  
      Totals12,65415,05113,842
Waimarino   
  Kearins7,456  
  MacPherson7,389  
    Informal27  
      Totals14,87217,08613,545
Waimate   
  Braddick5,024  
  Hayes374  
  Kidd7,256  
    Informal106  
      Totals12,76014,04413,734
Wairarapa   
  Cooksley8,155  
  Hansen6,123  
    Informal39  
      Totals14,31715,48214,265
Waitakere   
  Mason9,132  
  Tapper8,491  
    Informal46  
      Totals17,66919,46214,232
Waitomo   
  Broad foot8,792  
  Dwyer3,506  
    Informal30  
      Totals12,32814,19113,848
Wallace   
  Cleary3,455  
  Macdonald8,515  
    Informal47  
      Totals12,01713,65913,832
Wanganui   
  Cotterill6,779  
  O'Keefe6,553  
    Informal48  
      Totals13,38014,99314,008
Wellington Central   
  Burns4,186  
  Chapman4,463  
    Informal41  
      Totals8,69010,40714,045
Westland   
  Brown5,481  
  Kent7,806  
    Informal164  
      Totals13,45115,08714,620

The votes polled for each candidate and the total number on the roll in the four Maori electoral districts at the general election of 1951 were as follows.

Electoral Districts and Names of Candidates.Number of Votes Recorded.*Number on Roll.

* Includes declaration votes of (doctors not on roll.

Eastern Maori  
  Alfred Thomas Carroll5,199 
  Tiaki Omana8,905 
    Informal245 
      Totals14,34914,407
Northern Maori  
  Tames Tau Henare3,680 
  Tapihana Paraire Paikea5,812 
    Informal141 
      Totals9,6339,942
Southern Maori  
  Eruera Tihema Tirikatene879 
  William Kelly Beaton320 
    Informal13 
      Totals1,3121,420
Western Maori  
  Graham Ngahina Matthews352 
  Hoeroa Taraua Utiku Marumaru2,237 
  Iriaka Matiu Ratana9,589 
  Reha Kau Hou211 
    Informal250 
      Totals12,63913,618

National Licensing Polls.—The licensing poll of 30th November, 1949, held in conjunction with the parliamentary elections, was the eighth at which the three issues— national continuance, State purchase and control, and national prohibition (without compensation)—were submitted to the electors. Official figures of the 1949 poll, together with those of the four preceding polls, are as follows:—

 1935.1938.1943.1946.1949.
For national continuance521,167546,995529,386542,681660,573
For State purchase and control57,49996,131123,701202,664135,982
For national prohibition243,091263,208269,800259,162268,567

A noticeable feature of the foregoing figures is the decline in the number of votes recorded for State purchase and control in the 1949 poll, following on an increase recorded at each of the three polls prior to that date. This issue received 10.6 per cent. of the total votes in 1938, 13.4 per cent. in 1943, 20.2 per cent. in 1946, and only 12.8 per cent. in 1949. National continuance reached 63.4 per cent. in 1935, since when it fell gradually to 54.0 per cent in 1946, but recovered substantially, at the expense largely of the State purchase and control vote, to 62.0 per cent. in 1949. Votes cast in favour of national prohibition amounted to 47.3 per cent. in 1925, but fell heavily at each of the next two polls, reaching 29.6 per cent. in 1935. There was little variation in this percentage in 1938 and 1943, but further falls to 25.8 per cent. and 25.2 per cent. were recorded in 1946 and 1949 respectively.

The voting results in each licensing district in 1949 are shown on page 895 of the 1950 issue of the Year-Book.

In the 1949 polls, Maori electors were given for the first time equal rights with European electors to vote on the issues of continuance, national prohibition, and State control at general elections as provided for by the Licensing Amendment Act, 1949.

Local Option.—In the no-licence districts an additional issue is submitted to the electors—viz., restoration of licences—three-fifths of the valid votes cast being required for the carrying of the proposal. The voting for each of the ten districts for 1949 is also given on page 895 of the 1950 Year-Book.

LICENSING.—The principal Act dealing with licensing of the sale of liquor is the Licensing Act, 1908, and its amendments. An important recent. amendment is the Licensing Amendment Act. 1948, which provides for the establishment of a Licensing Control Commission with general functions of—

  1. Generally to supervise the activities of Licensing Committees in the performance of their functions:

  2. To prescribe standards to be complied with in the provision of accommodation, services, and other facilities for the public and for ledgers, guests, or employees in licensed premises:

  3. To control the Licensing Fund:

  4. To review from time to time the distribution of publicans', accommodation, tourist-house, and wholesale licences throughout New Zealand:

  5. To determine what publicans', accommodation, tourist-house, and wholesale licences are unnecessary, and the amount of compensation to be paid in respect of the cancellation thereof:

  6. To determine the number of new publicans', tourist-house, and wholesale licences to be issued in each licensing district, and, subject to the provisions of this Act, the situation of the premises in respect of which such licences are to be granted:

  7. To determine the fair price to be paid in respect of new publicans', tourist-house, and wholesale licences:

  8. To grant club charters:

  9. To make recommendations to the Minister as to the expediency of amending the Licensing Acts.

In addition, the Commission shall have such other functions as are conferred on it by this or any other Act.

The amending Act provides that no new accommodation or New Zealand wine licences are to be granted.

The total number of publicans' licences for the time being in force is not to exceed the number in force on the passing of the Act, plus (a) an additional twenty, (b) the number granted in place of accommodation licences, (c) the number granted after the passing of the Act as a result of a determination of electors of any no-licence district at a poll under section 8 of the Licensing Amendment Act, 1910, and (d) the number granted pursuant to Part VI of the 1948 amendment (i.e.., special polls of electors in the Ashburton, Geraldine, and King-country areas). This total number may be increased whenever the results of any periodical census or any statistics published under the Census and Statistics Act, 1926, show that the population of New-Zealand has exceeded by at least fifty thousand persons the population at the time of passing the Act, or since the Commission last authorized an increase in the number of licences under this provision. The Commission may authorize such new licences on this account as it thinks fit, but not so as to exceed one licence for every complete ten thousand of the increase in population.

Wholesale licences are not to exceed in number one for every complete ten thousand of the population of New Zealand, while tourist-house licences for the time being in force are not to exceed twenty-five.

The 1948 amendment provided that the Commission shall review the distribution of the three classes of licences quoted as soon as practicable after the passing of the Act, and may do so also from time to time after this initial review, with the proviso that a review must be done at least once in each succeeding period of ten years.

Various provisions were also made in respect of procedure, surrender of licences, compensation, appeals, brewers' licences, &c.

New kinds of licences which may be granted by Licensing Committees in addition to those provided for in the principal Act are tourist-house licences and works canteen licences. It is of interest to note these may be granted in respect of premises situated in any proclaimed area. The licence fee for each of the two classes is £10.

The 1948 amendment also enables the Licensing Commission to grant charters to clubs subject to certain conditions, and, in addition, includes provision for the granting of temporary charters in the King-country.

The same legislation removed certain restrictions which had existed for many years with regard to the sale and supply of liquor to Maoris, by enabling Maori women to be supplied with liquor on licensed premises, and by enabling the sale and supply of liquor to Maori men for consumption off the premises.

During the year ended 31st March, 1951, the Commission reviewed in the licensing districts dealt with a total of 281 publicans', accommodation, and wholesale licences. compared with a total of 251 in the previous period (covering ten months). The following table shows the number of licences either in force or authorized at the 31st March, 1951.

Publicans' and Accommodation Licences.Tourist-house Licences.Wholesale Licences.

* increase authorized under section 21 (2) of 1948 amendment (i.e.., from population increase).

Number of licences allowable under sections 27 (1), 28 (1) and (2), Licensing Amendment Act, 19481,11825194
Number of licences either in force or authorized at 1st April, 19501,11512148
Number of licences cancelled or surrendered, 1950–5110  
Number of new licences authorized, 1950–511856
      Total number of licences either in force or authorized at 1st April, 19511,123*17154

NOTE.—Licensed premises in the Trust Areas of Invercargill and Masterton are not included in the above figures, as such areas are outside the jurisdiction of the Commission.

From the 1st June, 1949, to the 31st March, 1951, 111 applications had been filed for the grant of club charters. Of these, 62 had been heard and dealt with as follows: charters issued, 17; granted but charters withheld pending compliance with conditions, 8; adjourned sine die, 20; declined, 12; withdrawn. 1; and decisions not issued, 4.

The Licensing Control Commission has prescribed the minimum general standards for new hotels, these standards being intended eventually to cover all hotels, under the following headings: (a) general—means of egress; (b) bedrooms—facilities, space, ventilation, &c.; (c) bathrooms and lavatories—number in relation to number of guests; (d) heating; and (e) bars—cleanliness.

The Licensing Amendment Act, 1948, also contained provisions for a referendum to be taken on the question of hours for sale of liquor in hotel bars, local restoration polls in no-licence districts, and a proposal that licences for sale of liquor be issued in the King-country. In the last two cases voters were also required to record their vote either for or against Trust Control. The referendum taken on the 9th March, 1949, resulted in the retention of the existing hours during which hotels are open for the sale of liquor in hotel bars—i.e.., between 9 a.m. and 6 p.m. Local restoration was carried at polls held on the 9th March, 1949, in the special areas of Ashburton and Geraldine, and in both instances the majority vote was for Trust control. In the King-country poll held on the same date, though there was a marked preponderance of European voters in favour of restoration, the corresponding Maori majority was not large enough to ensure the requisite two-thirds of the Maori valid votes.

Licensing Trusts.—A new departure in regard to the conduct of the liquor trade in New Zealand was inaugurated by the Invercargill Licensing Trust Act, 1944, which established a Trust of six members to be appointed from time to time by the Governor-General. The functions of the Trust according to the Act are to provide accommodation and other facilities for the travelling public within the Invercargill Licensing District, to establish and maintain hotels and suitable places within the district for the sale or supply of refreshments, to sell and supply intoxicating liquor within the district, sand to establish and maintain premises for that purpose. The net profits arising from the operations of the Trust may be expended or distributed by the Trust for the promotion, advancement, or encouragement, of cultural and recreational or philanthropic purposes within the Southland Land District.

Following the result of the poll in the Masterton No-licence District in 1946, the electors were given the opportunity of recording their views as to whether they desired a form of Trust control or otherwise. The district was divided into three areas, the Akitio County, the Borough of Eketahuna and the Eketahuna County, and the southern area consisting of the Borough of Masterton, the Mauriceville County, and those portions of the counties of Masterton, Wairarapa South, and Castlepoint which are included in the district. Polling took place on 28th May, 1947, and Trust control was carried in the southern area but was defeated in the other two areas, which are predominantly rural. Legislation providing for the constitution of the Masterton Licensing Trust to control the southern area was passed during the 1947 session of Parliament.

As a result of special licensing polls held on the 9th March, 1949, under the authority of the Licensing Amendment Act, 1948, in the Ashburton and Geraldine Areas, the restoration proposal was carried by the necessary three-fifths majority in each case. A majority of the valid votes cast were also in favour of Trust control. and by virtue of the Licensing Trusts Act, 1949, the Ashburton Licensing Trust and the Geraldine Licensing Trust were established and Trust districts of similar title constituted.

The Licensing Trusts Act, 1949, also provided for the declaration of a district to be a Trust district whenever at any local restoration poll taken in a no-licence district the electors have determined in favour of the proposal that a local Trust be established to conduct hotels and sell intoxicating liquor in that district. The 1950 amendment enables the Licensing Control Commission to authorize or direct the taking of a preliminary poll in any locality where the local authority applies or intends to apply for a licence for a local Trust, and provides for the approval of managers by the Licensing Committee and the defining of the duties and liabilities of managers. The 1951 amendment makes further provision for financing licensing Trusts, including local Trusts established to conduct particular premises for which new licences are granted in licensing districts. The Crown is empowered to make advances to, or guarantee loans raised by, licensing Trusts for the purpose of acquiring property and for the payment of preliminary expenses. The Act also enables local authorities in a licensing Trust district to make advances or give guarantees for similar purposes, but limited in each case to one-third of the capital required; local authorities also require the consent of the Local Government Loans Board. Local Trusts are given the same borrowing powers as district licensing Trusts.

LOTTERIES.—Under section 42 of the Gaming Act, 1908, as amended by the 1949 amendment, the Minister of Internal Affairs could grant permission (subject to such conditions as he thinks fit) for the disposing by raffle or chance of any painting, drawing, sculpture, or other work of art, or literature, or mineral specimen, or mechanical model. The Gaming Amendment Act, 1949, made several important changes in the law relating to raffles. Major changes include provisions enabling real and personal property to be raffled, licences being formerly issued only for works of art and mineral specimens; authority is given to authorized members of the Police Force to issue raffle licences where an individual prize does not exceed £10 in value, and where the total value of the prizes does not exceed £25; and authorized members of the Police Force may from time to time approve organizations to conduct raffles provided the value of the prizes in any raffle does not exceed £5. By the Finance Act, 1951, any such licence granted for the raffling of any real or personal property in excess of £100 value is subject to a lottery duty of 10 per cent. of the nominal value of all tickets represented in the drawing of the lottery, whether such tickets have been disposed of by way of sale or otherwise; this is in substitution of an earlier provision relating to the raffling of mineral specimens. Information as to receipts from this source will be found in Section 25B— Taxation.

The Gaming Act also permits sweepstakes and art-unions (as defined) under certain specified conditions.

During the year ended 31st March, 1951, 545 licences covering small raffles with prizes ranging from £25 to £500 in cash or goods were issued to local or national organizations. Raffles in which the prizes are less than £25 are licensed and supervised by the Police. In addition, 13 licences were issued in respect of the regular £5,000 art-unions. The aggregate results of these regular art-unions for the last seven years have been as follows.

1944–45.1945–46.1946–47.1947–48.1948–49.1949–50.1950–51.
Number of lotteries13131313131313
Gross sales £273,803280,240293,464273,867286,494281,405268,418
Commission on sales £41,07142,03644,02041,08042,97442,20840,263
Expenses £33,71533,47534,66132,91231,94833,10233,437
Prizes £65,00065,00065,00065,00065,00065,00065,000
Net proceeds £134,017139,729149,783134,875116,572141,084102,877
Lottery duty £27,38028,02429,34627,38628,64928,13826,841
Not profit £106,637111,705120,437107,489117,923112,94676,036

Allocation of funds earned from the art-unions shown in the preceding table during 1950–51 was as follows: £16,075 was distributed to the various mayoral or other recognized central funds established for the relief of distress; £29,335 to charitable and philanthropic organizations; £9,254 to children's health camps; £5,100 to the New Zealand Patriotic Fund Board for benefit of servicemen overseas; £6,894 to old folks' associations and physical welfare organizations; £12,459 to the Cultural Fund; and £3,037 by way of miscellaneous grants.

MAORI WELFARE.—The social and economic advancement and the promotion and maintenance of the health and general well-being of the Maori people is the expressed purpose of the Maori Social and Advancement Act, 1945. Under this Act areas may be declared Tribal districts or Tribal Committee areas. In such districts or areas Tribal Executives and Committees have been set up by the Maori people to promote their development. At 31st March, 1951, the numbers of such districts and areas were 75 and 439 respectively. A Controller, Maori Social and Economic Advancement, and 23 male and 20 female Welfare Officers, nearly all of the Maori race, have been appointed to advise and assist these bodies and the 180 unofficial Maori Women's Welfare Committees. organized in 14 District Councils. These welfare officers also form a liaison between the Maori people and the various other Departments of State and institutions dealing with Maori welfare.

The Act provides for subsidies to be paid on moneys raised by the Maori people through their Executives and Committees for various social purposes set out in the Act, mainly in the improvement of local amenities. In 1950–51, £52,054 was paid out in subsidies.

The Minister of Maori Affairs also appoints Maori Wardens who have certain powers to ensure orderly behaviour among the Maori people within the Tribal districts to which they are appointed. By the 31st March, 1951, wardens' certificates were held by 119 persons, all being Maoris.

The 1951 amendment to the principal Act replaces existing legislation relating to the supply of intoxicating liquor to Maoris. While similar to earlier provisions prohibiting the supply and consumption of liquor in or near dance halls, the new section is somewhat wider in scope and prohibits the supply and consumption of liquor where any gathering of Maoris is being held at a “marae.” Provision is made for the issue of permits by Tribal Committees authorizing the supply of liquor to Maori gatherings in certain circumstances. There are also provisions relating to applications for prohibition orders against Maoris.

TIME-SERVICE ARRANGEMENTS.—The following article on the New Zealand time-service arrangements was prepared by Mr. R. C. Hayes, Director of the Seismological Observatory.

One uniform time is kept throughout New Zealand. The New Zealand Gazette of 31st October, 1868, contained a Government announcement to the effect that the time corresponding to longitude 172° 30' east of Greenwich (exactly 11 1/2 hours in advance of Greenwich time) was to be adopted as the New Zealand Mean Time throughout the colony, and that from the 2nd November (of the same year) the public offices of the General Government were to be opened and closed in accordance therewith.

This New Zealand Mean Time, 11h. 30m. in advance of Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T.), was observed continuously up to 1927, when on 6th November clocks were advanced 1 hour until 4th March, 1928. The next period of Summer Time was from 14th October, 1928, to 17th March, 1929, but in this, and in subsequent periods clocks were advanced only 30 minutes (to 12h. ahead of G.M.T.). The Summer Time Act of 1929 provided for clocks to be advanced 30 minutes from the second Sunday in October of any year to the third Sunday in March of the following year. By the Summer Time Amendment Act, 1933, the period of Summer Time was extended from the first Sunday in September to the last Sunday in April. This amendment commenced in 1934, when the period of Summer Time was extended until 29th April.

The Daylight Saving Emergency Regulations of 1941 provided for the continuance of Summer Time throughout that year; and its continued observance during subsequent war years was provided for by regulations made annually.

By the Standard Time Act of 1945, the time of the meridian 180° cast of Greenwich (12h. in advance of G.M.T.) was adopted as the Standard Time for New Zealand. Thus, what was formerly known as “Summer Time” became “New Zealand Standard Time” as from 1st January, 1946. The times stated in this article are New Zealand Standard Time, unless otherwise stated.

The time throughout New Zealand is controlled by the Seismological Observatory, Wellington. The Observatory signal clock is kept as correct as possible by means of astronomical observations, and by comparison with radio time-signals from observatories in other parts of the world.

The Observatory provides the following time-service:—

  1. RADIO TIME-SIGNALS TRANSMITTED THROUGH STATION ZLW ON A WAVE-LENGTH OF 500 Kc/s (600 METRES) I.C.W.

    These signals are transmitted between 10th. 55m. and 11h. 00m. a.m. daily, and are in accordance with the modified ONOGO system. The procedure is as follows:—

    At 10h. 55m. 30s., the “Attention” call (—. — —), followed by the Observatory call sign ZMO (— — — — — —.).

    From 10h. 56m. 05s. to 10h. 56m. 50s., the letter 0 (— — —), repeated every ten seconds, except that the third series from 25s. to 30s. consists of a single dash prolonged for five seconds.

    From 10h. 57m. 00s. to 10h. 57m. 49s. the letter X (— —.), repeated every five seconds.

    From 10h. 57m. 55s. to 10h. 58m. 00s., First Time Signal, consisting of six dots at intervals of one second.

    From 10h. 58m. 08s. to 10h. 58m. 50s., the letter N (— ***), repeated every ten seconds.

    From 10h. 58m. 55s. to 10b. 59m. 00s., Second Time Signal, consisting of six dots at intervals of one second.

    From 10h. 59m. 06s. to 10h. 59m. 50s., the letter G (— —.), repeated every ten seconds.

    From 10h. 59m. 55s. to 11h. 00m. 00s., Third Time Signal, consisting of six dots at intervals of one second.

    The series of six dots which constitute the actual time-signals are transmitted directly from the Observatory signal clock, which is seldom more than one tenth of a second in error. The remaining signals are for tuning and identification purposes only, and should not be used as precise time-signals. Corrections to the time-signals can be obtained on application to the Seismological Observatory.

  2. RADIO TIME-SIGNALS TRANSMITTED BY THE NEW ZEALAND BROADCASTING SERVICE

    Time-signals from the Observatory are transmitted as follows:— New Zealand Standard Time.

    6.00 a.m. 2YA and other main national stations (daily except Sundays).

    7.00 a.m. 2YA and other main national stations (daily except Sundays).

    8.00 a.m. 2YA and other main national stations (daily).

    9.00 a.m. 2YA and other main national stations (daily).

    10.58 a.m.

    10.59 a.m. 2YA only (daily); also 2YC when Parliament is sitting.

    11.00 a.m.

    12.00 noon 2YA only (daily); also 2YC when Parliament is sitting.

    1.00 p.m. 2YA only (daily); also 2YC when Parliament is sitting.

    4.00 p.m. 2YA only (daily); also 2YC when Parliament is sitting.

    600 p.m. 2YA and other main national stations (daily).

    7.00 p.m. 2YA and other main national stations (daily).

    9.00 p.m. 2YA and other main national stations (daily except Sundays); 2YC only when Parliament is sitting.

    10.00 p.m. 2YA only (daily).

    11.00 p.m. 2YA and other main national stations (Saturdays only).

    Each time-signal consists of six dots, separated by intervals of one second, the last dot being the exact minute.

  3. TIME-SIGNALS BY TELEGRAPH

    The Observatory sends time-signals by telegraph to the General Post Office and the Railways Department, Wellington, at 9h. a.m. daily. This signal is transmitted to all telegraph-offices in New Zealand and to all railway-stations in the North Island.

  4. PUBLIC CLOCKS

    The Government Buildings clock (Wellington) is checked at 9h. a.m. daily by means of a special circuit between the clock and the Observatory. The error of this clock is usually less than 15 seconds.

An electric synchronous clock, installed at the Observatory, is checked twice daily. Observations show that, under normal conditions of power supply, the variation of the electric clocks amounts to a few seconds only.

TOURIST ATTRACTIONS.—Reference to pages 932–935 of the 1940 Year-Book, or pages 812–815 of the 1939 issue, will give a brief description of the main tourist attractions in New Zealand.

MINERAL WATERS AND SPAS.—For information concerning the mineral waters and spas of New Zealand reference should be made to the 1940 and earlier editions of the Year-Book, which contain a short description of the Rotorua and Te Aroha spas, together with analyses of the more important springs at the latter, while in the 1913 issue of the Year-Book will be found detailed analyses of the various mineral waters throughout New Zealand.

REVIEW OF LEGISLATION, 1951.—Acts passed 1951; public Acts, 84; local Acts, 22; private Acts, 6.

The following is a brief synopsis of the more important public Acts passed by the General Assembly during the 1951 sessions, the second of which ended on 12th December, 1951.

The Agricultural Emergency Regulations Confirmation Act, 1951, validates and confirms certain regulations made under the authority of the Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act, 1934.

The Minimum Wage Amendment Act, 1951, increases the minimum rates of wages prescribed by the Minimum Wage Act, 1945, so as to give effect to the general wage order of the Court of Arbitration increasing rates of remuneration by 15 per cent. on the 1949 rates.

The Workers' Compensation Amendment Act, 1951, increases to £7 10s. the maximum amount of weekly payments of compensation, authorizes the employer to cease making weekly payments of compensation when the medical practitioner attending the injured worker certifies he is fit to resume work, though the Compensation Court may declare that the worker was not, in fact, fit to resume work and the ending of payments was unlawful, in which case the amount to be paid by way of penalty and weekly payments is at the discretion of the Court. The ending of payments will not be taken into account in determining in any proceedings whether or not the worker is entitled to compensation.

The Electoral Amendment Act, 1951, provides that for the purpose of the general election in any case where Parliament is dissolved before it has been two years in existence, the general and supplementary rolls used in the previous election, together with a further supplementary roll, may be used if it is considered impracticable to print new general rolls. These rolls can also be used for any by-election before the next following general election. The polling hours in Maori electorates is extended to 7 p.m.— i.e.., the same hours as in European electorates. Provision is also made for voting at elections and licensing polls by servicemen who are serving with the New Zealand Forces overseas.

The Legislature Amendment Act, 1951, repeals the provisions of the Legislature Act, 1908, which relate to private Bills, these being in certain respects replaced by the new Standing Orders of the House of Representatives, the remaining provisions being obsolete.

The Apiaries Amendment Act, 1951, makes it a continuing offence for an owner to fail to remove bees from walls of dwellinghouses, &c., when directed by an Inspector to do so; dispenses with an Inspector's consent if removing bees from one registered apiary to another distant more than 10 chains for the purpose of extracting honey, &c., if both bees and apiaries are owned by the same person and are free from disease; it is also made an offence to sell or give any person any honey from an infected hive, and authorizes the making of regulations prohibiting or regulating the introduction into New Zealand of bees or certain strains of bees.

The Dairy Products Marketing Commission Amendment Act, 1951, authorizes the Commission to purchase houses in New Zealand for the use of its officers, and to make advances to its officers to enable them to purchase houses for their own use.

The Shops and Offices Amendment Act, 1951, extends to warehouses and goods stores the provisions relating to sanitation and health rules in shops and offices in the principal Act. It enables regulations to be made to provide for the safety, health, and welfare of persons employed in shops, offices, warehouses, and stores, with particular reference to the matters already provided for by the Factories Act, 1946, in relation to factories. Provision is made that where a shop assistant in a chemist's shop works between 7 p.m. and 9 p.m. on the statutory closing day and is paid at the overtime rates prescribed in an award for this, he is not also entitled to double time off within the next seven days.

The Scaffolding and Excavation Amendment Act, 1951, makes certain miscellaneous amendments to the principal Act, including defining “construction work” and redefining “excavation”; enables regulations to be made prescribing the safeguards to be provided and measures to be taken to secure safety, health, and welfare of persons employed in building, construction, or excavation work; and increases the maximum general penalty for offences to £50.

The Military Training Amendment Act, 1951, extends the 1949 Act to men who were over the age of eighteen years but under the age of twenty years on the 1st November, 1949. Those over eighteen years but under nineteen years at that date are liable for service in the same way as those aged eighteen years. Those over nineteen years but under 20 years on that date are to be liable to register and be medically examined, and to servo four years in the Reserve. A calling-up notice need not necessarily be in every case for fourteen weeks' whole time service, but is to state the period for which a man is called up.

The Immigration Restriction Amendment Act, 1951, transfers the administration of the Act to the Minister of Immigration, and the powers conferred by the Act on Collectors of Customs to officers of the Department of Labour and Employment. The amendment also provides for the mandatory deportation of a prohibited immigrant, and places the burden of proof on the defendant in a prosecution for entering New Zealand as a prohibited immigrant in cases where it is alleged that the defendant is not required to obtain a permit to enter New Zealand, or where his name appears in the lists supplied by the master of a ship on arrival in New Zealand and the ship has subsequently departed, or where ho arrived on an undisclosed date after serving a term of imprisonment.

The Land and Income Tax (Annual) Act, 1951, fixes the rates of land and income tax for the tax year commencing 1st April, 1951. The basic rates were increased by 10 per cent. instead of 15 per cent. as formerly, and individual taxpayers were entitled to a rebate of £15 instead of £10. This rebate in the case of persons who have attained sixty-five years of age is in addition to the special rebate granted in their case by the band and Income Tax Amendment Act (No. 2), 1950, as amended by the Land and Income Tax Amendment. Act, 1951.

The Shorthand Reporters Amendment Act, 1951, amends the principal Act in several minor respects, including a provision that no person under the age of twenty-one may be appointed an authorized shorthand reporter to make official reports of Court proceedings. The Secretary for Justice is now responsible for such appointments and the Public Service Commission for examiners to conduct the prescribed examinations. References in the Act to the Public Service now apply to the whole of the Government Service, while fees are not payable to a Government servant. The Public Service Act, 1912, and the Superannuation Act, 1947, are not to apply to any person by reason only of his appointment as an authorized reporter or examiner.

The Wool Proceeds Retention Amendment Act, 1951, makes various amendments to the Wool Proceeds Retention Act, 1950, the principal of which provides that a grower may apply for his 1950–51 retained moneys to be paid out by instalments spread over the five years 1952–56. Each application (one per year) may be for any sum up to one-fifth, but none is to be for less than £100 or the whole balance if less than £100. Any amount not applied for in one year may be included in the application for any later year. Any balance remaining after the 31st December, 1956, is to be deemed to be paid out of the account on that date, and is to be payable free from any restrictions. Other sections deal with the protection of mortgagees, the payment of retained moneys on the death of the grower, and provide that for the purposes of income-tax and social security charges retained moneys are deemed to be derived by the grower (or by the personal representatives of a deceased grower) when they are paid out of the account.

The Marriage Amendment Act, 1951, provides for all fees under the Act to be prescribed by regulations instead of in a schedule to the Act as previously.

The Valuation of land Act, 1951, consolidates without amendment the Valuation of Land Act. 1925, and its amendments.

The Union Funds Distribution Act, 1951, provides for the distribution among their members of the funds and assets of the following unions which were deregistered in connection with the waterfront strike—namely, the New Zealand Waterside Workers' Industrial Union of Workers; the Wellington, Nelson, Marlborough, and Taranaki Freezing Works, Abattoir, and Related Trades Employees' Industrial Union of Workers; the Golden Bay Cement Company's Employees' Industrial Union of Workers; the Portland Cement Workers' Industrial Union of Workers; and the Wellington Road Transport and Motor and Horse Drivers' and their Assistants' Industrial Union of Workers. The acts and decisions of the Public Trustee as Receiver (who is continued as such by the Act) are not to be questioned in any Court, while the Act also validates the Waterfront Strike Emergency Regulations 1951, and the appointment of the Public Trustee as Receiver under those regulations.

The Births and Deaths Registration Act, 1951, consolidates and amends the 1924 Act and its amendments. Registrar's districts are abolished and Registrars will exercise their functions in respect of all births and deaths notified to them. Births and deaths are to be registered by the Registrar whose office is nearest to the place of birth or the place of burial, as the case may be. An adoption of a Maori child shall be registered in the same manner as that of a European child unless the adoption order is made under the Maori Land Act, 1931. The burial at sea of a person dying in New Zealand except under the authority of a Coroner is prohibited, and provision is made for registering the death of a person whose body is removed for anatomical examination under the Medical Act. 1908, or is removed for burial outside New Zealand.

The War Pensions Amendment Act, 1951, increases the rates of certain war pensions and allowances and implements certain recommendations of the Commission of Inquiry appointed in 1950 to inquire into and report on war pensions. The Act also provides for payment of an additional pension of 50s. a week to a totally disabled member of the Forces who is totally unfit for work, and is either bedridden or so severely handicapped as to prevent him from engaging in normal social or recreational activities. All pensioners receiving an economic pension are to be entitled to an allowable income of 30s. a week. Other sections include provisions respecting the allowable period of absences in computing the residential qualifications of applicants for war veterans' allowances; continue the payment of war veteran's allowance to or in respect of a veteran maintained in a public institution; disregard disablement and war widows' pensions for the purpose of computing the basic war veterans' allowances; provide that persons receiving superannuation benefits under the Social Security Act, 1938, are not entitled to certain war pensions and allowances; and authorize supplementary allowances where the war veteran or his wife has attained sixty-five years.

The War Pensions and Allowances (Mercantile Marine) Amendment Act, 1951, increases the rates of certain pensions and allowances payable to wives of members of the New Zealand mercantile marine from 15th February, 1951, and provides that persons receiving superannuation benefits under the Social Security Act, 1938, are not to be entitled to certain pensions and allowances.

The Air Services Licensing Act, 1951, establishes an Air Services Licensing Authority and provides for the licensing by the Authority of commercial air services carried on within New Zealand. The provisions in the Act are similar, with the exception of those relating to appeals, to the provisions of the Transport Licensing (Commercial Aircraft Services) Act, 1934, as originally passed. Part I relates to the Authority and defines its general powers and functions. Part II relates to the licensing of air services. All services. other than those provided by an aero club where the passengers carried are members of the club and services carried on in aircraft used for the purposes of the Armed Forces or the Air Department, are required to be licensed. The matters required to be taken into consideration by the Licensing Authority before a licence is granted or renewed are set out in section 18, and provisions respecting the suspension or revocation of licences in section 28. Part III makes provision for appeals from the decisions of the Licensing Authority and for the constitution of an Appeal Authority whose function is to act as a judicial authority for the determination of appeals. Part IV makes general provisions of a machinery nature. Power is also given to limit by regulations the liability of a licensee in respect of the death of or bodily injury to any person, and in respect of loss of or damage to property. Specified sections of the New Zealand National Airways Amendment Act. 1948, are repealed.

The International Air Services Licensing Amendment Act, 1951, amends the definition of the term “international air service,” and provides that all liability arising out of or in connection with the operation of the service in respect of the death or injury of any person and in respect of loss of or damage to any property may be required to be covered by insurance.

The Naval Defence Amendment Act, 1951, extends the provisions of the Act so as to make reservists subject to naval discipline while they are undergoing training and also when called up for training, or when absent with or without leave or when travelling to or returning from parades or other naval duties.

The Joint Family Homes Amendment Act, 1951, permits a settlement if the house and land are used exclusively or principally as a family home, and increases the maximum value of the land which may be settled from £4,000 to £5,000. The advertising of applications is now made optional, and when not advertised the Registrar is empowered to issue the certificate without waiting three months, the rights of creditors being safeguarded by sections 9 and 12 of the amendment. Other provisions include the valuation of leasehold estates; authorize registration where additional interest in land is acquired and of settlements of residence sites granted under the Mining Act. 1926; cover settlements of mortgaged land; provide for exemptions from gift and stamp duties; provide that Maori land cannot be settled as a joint family home without the consent of the Maori Land Court and that in such cases the provisions of the principal Act are to be read subject to the Maori Land Act, 1931.

The Religions, Charitable, and Educational Trusts Amendment Act, 1951, provides that the provisions of section 15 of the original Act as amended in 1928, which provided for the disposal of trust property in cases where it was not possible or expedient to carry out the purpose of the trust, are to apply to all trusts created either before or after the passing of the principal Act.

The Co-operative Dairy Companies Amendment Act, 1951, relieves co-operative dairy companies registered as such under the principal Act from the obligation to number their shares.

The Police Force Amendment Act, 1951, provides for the appointment of an Assistant Commissioner of Police and defines his powers and functions, and that regulations under the principal Act shall come into force on a date (which may be earlier or later than the date on which the regulations are made) to be specified in the regulations.

The Forest and Rural Fires Amendment Act, 1951, enables a local authority which owns a forest area to contribute to the cost of clearing adjoining land owned by other persons so that the land may be put in grass and grazed and thus kept clear of fire hazards; provides that every person convicted of an offence under the principal Act shall be liable for any loss or damage suffered by any Fire Authority and caused by the act constituting the offence, and provides for penalties to be prescribed by regulations.

The Servicemen's Settlement Amendment Act, 1951, restricts the protection given to a discharged serviceman purchasing farm land to servicemen who have not previously owned and sold a farm, whether or not they had rehabilitation assistance for its purchase. The procedure where the Crown acquires land or nominates a purchaser is also amended. The Crown may acquire or nominate a purchaser of chattels, &c., sold with farm land.

The Tobacco Growing Industry Amendment Act, 1951, provides for growers' representatives on the Tobacco Board to be elected by growers instead of being appointed, and increases from id. to 3/4d. a pound the levy on raw tobacco sold by growers.

The Building Societies Amendment Act, 1951, prohibits the registration of any incorporated society under a name which is identical with or very similar to the name of an existing building society or a company carrying on business in New Zealand or any other body corporate established or registered in New Zealand under any Act, unless their consent is obtained and the Registrar is satisfied that registration by the proposed name will not be contrary to the public interest.

The Incorporated Societies Amendment Act, 1951, follows similar lines to the Building Societies Amendment Act, 1951, outlined above.

The Juries Amendment Act, 1951, increases the number of persons available for jury service principally by providing that, with certain exceptions, persons in Government service will not be exempt unless they belong to a group specially exempted by Order in Council; extends jury districts to fifteen miles from the Courthouses of the four main cities; authorizes Sheriffs to excuse persons summoned as jurors from attending at Court; and deals with the powers of the Court or Judge as to the number of jurors that may be placed on the list in the case of a special jury where there are more than two parties, and the number of names that may be struck off by each party.

The Administration Amendment Act, 1951, provides the right of a successor on intestacy to disclaim the property to which he becomes entitled, and deals with the effect of bankruptcy on disclaimer on intestacy or under a will, and with the right of the administrator to distribute.

The Milk Amendment Act, 1951, reconstitutes the Central Milk Council and gives it wider powers for the organization of the town milk industry. New provisions relate to the promotion of the efficient organization of the town milk industry; the investigation of the activities and efficiency of bodies and persons engaged in the industry; and the making of recommendations to the Government as to prices, margins, and allowances for the town milk scheme, and as to matters on which regulations should be made under the Act. The Council is required to comply with the general policy of the Government in relation to its functions and with general or special directions given to it by the Minister pursuant to that policy. The Marketing Department is appointed the agent of the Council and powers may be delegated to the Director. Prices and allowances for the sale and handling of milk are to be fixed by Order in Council on the recommendation of the Central Milk Council, but this may not be done while subsidies are payable in respect of the town milk industry. The holding of inquiries as to the organization of the town milk industry in milk districts and other areas is authorized, and power is given to recommend the dissolution of any milk treatment corporation or to exercise any of the functions or powers of the Milk Authority of any district or in relation to any special area after such an inquiry. While subsidies continue to be paid, the Council's funds are to be those appropriated by Parliament, and when subsidies cease the Council may make a levy on milk sold (milk provided for schools is exempted) in New Zealand. Power is given to make regulations and an annual report is to be laid before Parliament. There are several miscellaneous provisions which include authorizing local authorities of constituent districts to contribute to the funds of the Milk Authority or to guarantee loans raised by it. or to make advances to it, or to acquire shares in milk treatment stations; give power to a Milk Authority to rezone milk rounds, from time to time and to issue temporary licences for purposes of adjusting its zoning system; extend the zoning powers of Milk Authorities to make licences covering specified gallonages as well as particular zones; deal with the sale of milk rounds; and provide that where there is an approved supply association for a district or area no milk may be brought into the district or area for sale, or sold there, except as supplied by or through the association.

The Earthquake and War Damage Amendment Act, 1951, provides that in the case of an insurance policy for the cost of replacement, the compulsory earthquake and war damage insurance will be for the amount of the indemnity value only, and that if the indemnity value is certified by an approved registered architect or valuer, the earthquake and war damage premium will be charged on this certified amount. There is no compulsory insurance in the case of a fire policy limited to the excess over the indemnity value.

The Medical Practitioners Amendment Act, 1951, makes it unnecessary for the Medical Council to approve of the ad eundum admission of a person to the entrance stage of the medical course; provides that a person may be granted full registration if he becomes eligible for conditional registration before the date on which internships are introduced in New Zealand; and makes it an offence for a person to describe himself as a medical practitioner if he is not a medical practitioner by virtue of any qualification or registration obtained in New Zealand or elsewhere.

The Health Amendment Act, 1951, makes miscellaneous amendments to the Health Act, 1920, in particular to the sections relating to the provision of sanitary works by local authorities on requisition by the Board of Health; and deals with such matters as specifying a time for submission of a local authority's proposals, joint requisitions, modifying or withdrawing a requisition, the requirement of a local authority to submit proposals, powers of the Board of Appeal in connection therewith, and extends the powers of the Board of Health to carrying out or completing the necessary work in cases of delay by the local authority.

The Medical Research Council Amendment Act, 1951, authorizes the Council to pay moneys to the University of Otago to be expended by the University as agent of the Council for the purposes of medical research, and empowers the Council to establish imprest accounts.

The State Advances Corporation Amendment Act, 1951, reconstitutes the Board of Management to provide for a Managing Director and a Deputy Managing Director and for one of the other directors to retire each year, in rotation. Salaries, fees, and allowances are to be fixed by the Minister of Finance. The General Manager and certain other officers. formerly excluded, are now brought under the Public Service Act, 1912.

The Mental Defectives Amendment Act, 1951, includes provisions that licensees of licensed institutions must obtain the consent of the Minister to all future appointments of medical staff; authorizes the Superintendent of an institution to grant leave of absence to a patient or boarder for periods not exceeding twelve months at any one time; amends the sections dealing with escapes and absence on leave so as to permit the temporary reception of a patient in certain cases; authorizes the Director to make an order transferring the patient to the institution to which he has been taken; and makes it clear that a discharge may be granted to a patient notwithstanding that by reason of his absence, on leave or otherwise, ho is not actually detained in the institution.

The Enemy Property Act, 1951, authorizes the making of regulations and order-providing for the administration, disposal, and distribution of enemy property, and for giving effect to the provisions of any international agreement to which New Zealand now is or hereafter becomes a party, so far as the agreement relates to enemy property and to claims against any enemy State. The Act applies also to the Cook Islands and Western Samoa.

The Hospitals Amendment Act, 1951, provides for the abolition over a five-year period of the levy on contributory local authorities by an annual reduction of the rate of levy commencing from the year ending 31st March, 1953, when the rate of levy will be five-twelfths of a penny (instead of a halfpenny) on the capital value. Other provision-include the power to make regulations (a) preventing the admission into private hospitals of persons suffering from communicable diseases, (b) prescribing precautions to be taken in such hospitals to prevent the spread of any communicable disease, (c) preventing the occurrence or spread of any infection in maternity hospitals or maternity wards of hospitals, and (d) making in respect of maternity hospitals or wards of any regulations that may be made in relation to private hospitals.

The Emergency Forces Amendment Act, 1951, extends Part III of the 1950 Act up to the end of 1952, Parts I and II having been repealed by the New Zealand Army Act. 1950, and the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act, 1950.

The Workers' Compensation Amendment Act (No. 2), 1951, increases the maximum amount of compensation payable on death or incapacity to £2,000, or, where weekly payments and a lump sum on death are both paid, to £2,300. The amount of compensation for incapacity that may be received in addition to the scheduled compensation for injuries is increased to £300. In respect of all future accidents the provision that no compensation is payable for incapacity lasting less than three days is repealed. The ending of weekly payments of compensation by an employer where the worker is certified fit to return to work but fails to do so by reason of an industrial dispute is provided for. The National Airways Corporation and the Linen Flax Corporation are exempted from compulsory insurance against employers' liability. Employers carrying on more than one class of business or in more than one place may insure separately in respect of each. Mutual insurance associations and companies are not bound or entitled to insure any employers. except those who are members or eligible to become members or be insured according to the rules of the association or company. Authorized insurers are enabled to charge penal rates of premiums up to 25 per cent. in excess of the prescribed maximum rates, where normal safety requirements are not complied with, subject to right of appeal to the Workers' Compensation Board.

The Maori Social and Economic Advancement Amendment Act, 1951, defines the term “marae,” and prohibits the supply to and consumption of liquor where any gathering of Maoris is being held at a marae. Provision is made for the issue of permits by Tribal Committees authorizing the supply of liquor to Maori gatherings under certain circumstances. A section sets out specifically the persons who alone may apply for prohibition orders against Maoris. The constitution of the Ratana Pa Tribal district and the establishment of a Tribal Executive for the district is provided for by the Act.

The Municipal Corporations Amendment Act, 1951, provides that where any borough unites with any of the cities of Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, the uniting borough's representation on the City Council is to be one member for every five thousand of the population of the borough, with a maximum of three members. A similar principle operates if a town or road district unites with any of these cities. Borough Councils and Town Boards are authorized to guarantee the repayment of moneys borrowed for the purposes of erecting residential flats in their local authority areas.

The Social Security Amendment Act, 1951, increases the rates of certain social security-benefits (refer Section 26 of this Year-Book). In assessing the income of applicants for monetary benefits under the principal Act, income does not include the following classes of war pensions: (a) disablement pensions in respect of own disablement, (b) widow's pension, (c) allowance received by a totally disabled war pensioner in respect of the services of an attendant, (d) overseas war pension corresponding to (a) and (b) above. For eligibility for the family benefit the Commission must be satisfied that, in the case of a child born outside New Zealand, the child is likely to remain permanently in New Zealand or has actually resided there for at least a year. A subsection enables a benefit of any class to be paid in respect of a wife who receives a war pension in respect of her own disablement, and a person in receipt of a disablement war pension or a widow's war pension is enabled to receive in addition any class of social security benefit. Amendments to provisions coaling with medical and hospital benefits include mileage allowances to medical practitioners in certain instances, enable specialists to claim directly on the Fund, as in the case of general medical services, transfer the authorization of payments from the Fund in regard to medical benefits to the Minister of Health, and provide that the restriction on the right of any person to claim medical, &c., benefits where he has a claim for worker's compensation or damages is to be limited only to the extent of the amount of medical expenses that he is entitled to claim. The existing exemption of all social security benefits from social security charge is continued, though the universal superannuation benefit is to be regarded as assessable income for income-tax purposes.

The Patriotic and Canteen Funds Amendment Act, 1951, validates certain payments made out of Fund moneys.

The Local Bodies' Loans Amendment Act, 1951, provides for the raising of loans by local authorities by special order and without taking a poll of ratepayers except in certain circumstances. A poll is required (a) if the Local Government Loans Board requires it to be taken, (b) if, before the date fixed for the meeting of the local authority to confirm the resolution to raise the loan, not less than 5 per cent. of the ratepayers demand it, or (c) if the local authority itself decides to hold one. A poll cannot be required for loans (a) raised for emergency expenditure (flood, earthquake, &c), (b) which a Borough Council may raise for the purpose of its trading undertakings, (c) for work of national and local importance and carried out under an agreement between the Government and a local authority, (d) those, in general, to meet liabilities to other local authorities or arising out of any Act, and (e) which a local authority is at present authorized to raise by special order and without a poll of ratepayers pursuant to any local Act or other Act of local application. In effect, notwithstanding that by its authorizing Act a local authority is at present authorized to raise a special loan by special order and without a poll of ratepayers, it must in future (subject to exceptions noted) obtain the consent of the ratepayers if 5 per cent. of the ratepayers demand a poll, or a poll is required by the Local Government Loans Board, or the local authority itself decides to take a poll.

The Public Trust Amendment Act, 1951, consolidates with minor amendments the existing provisions relating to the constitution and powers of the Public Trust Office Investment Board, and authorizes it to delegate its powers of making and controlling investments. A provision includes the extension of the class of estates where an election to administer may be filed to cases where the gross value of the property does not exceed £1,000, and provides for the necessity to obtain probate on administration in the usual way if, after filing, the value is found to exceed £1,500. The Public Trustee is authorized to invest up to 10 per cent. of the Common Fund in the purchase in fee-simple of lands in New Zealand, or in the erection or alteration of buildings on lands which are investments of the Common Fund, or in the improvement of any such lands or buildings. The whole of the profits of the Public Trust for and from the year ending 31st March, 1951, are to be transferred to either or both of the Assurance and Reserve Fund and the Investment Fluctuation Account instead of half the profits being transferred to the Consolidated Fund. The Act also makes it clear that the Public Trustee can exercise the general statutory power of sale in intestate estates in cases where the property being sold is valued at more than £2,000.

The Treaty of Peace (Japan) Act, 1951, enables the Governor-General in Council to make regulations to give full effect to the Peace Treaty with Japan which was signed at San Francisco on the 8th September, 1951, and also to the Protocol in connection with the Treaty, which was signed on 3rd October, 1951.

The Agricultural Emergency Regulations Confirmation Act (No. 2), 1951, validates and confirms regulations made under the Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act, 1934.

The Land Amendment Act, 1951, makes several miscellaneous amendments to the principal Act and provides a new procedure for the review of liabilities of discharged servicemen settled on Crown land. It amends the definition of minerals to include coal; provides for creation of easements over land held for Government purposes and leases and licences of such land; provides that the Board may waive payment of interest under licence of land not immediately productive or profitable, and amends those provisions relating to rental value of leases to discharged servicemen, the disposal of land in special cases, the purchase of improvements during the currency of the lease or licence, the issue of the certificate of title on payment of the purchase price, and the value of the Crown's improvements; confirms that 1942 basic values are deemed to have ceased to apply to Crown land other than farm land as from the 23rd February, 1950; and provides that a lessee may purchase the Crown's improvements when the lease is exchanged for a renewable lease. Part II relates to the review of liabilities of discharged servicemen, and provides that the 1942 basic value of the land is to be the basis on which the liabilities of discharged servicemen are to be reviewed. Where land is purchased on or after 1st November, 1950, the right of review will not apply to any liabilities incurred to cover the difference between the purchase price and the 1942 basic value of the land. Applications for reviews to the Land Settlement Board may be made not earlier than three years and not later than six years after taking up the land on the ground that the basic value on which liabilities were fixed was not the true 1942 basic value. If the applicant is not satisfied with the Board's determination thereupon, he is entitled to apply to the Land Valuation Court to fix the 1942 basic value.

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1951, defines the term financial members in relation to industrial unions; requires the rules of unions to provide for election of officers by secret ballot; empowers the Registrar to refuse to record any rule, amendment, or alteration of any rule on the ground that it is unreasonable or oppressive, subject to a right of appeal to the Court of Arbitration; restricts extension of unions without the consent of the Minister from including any workers who could already properly belong to another existing industrial union; provides for exemption from union membership on religious grounds subject to certain conditions; validates the existing membership of unions and associations in national organizations; provides for future joining or leaving applications to be made only when approved by secret postal ballot; amends the provisions relating to conciliation proceedings, including one whereby an application to refer a dispute affecting two or more districts to the Council of Conciliation may be made not earlier than four months before the expiration of the current award; and provides for the date of commencement of provisions of an award as to rates of wages to be two months (one industrial district) and four months (two or more districts) after the date first appointed for the hearing by the Conciliation Council, or from the date of making the award, whichever is the earlier, or as from such other date as the Court in its discretion thinks fit after taking into consideration all relevant matters. The appointment of Local Disputes Committees (to serve one district) or National Disputes Committees (to serve two or more districts) may be provided for in any award or industrial agreement, to deal with disputes as to matters arising out of such awards, &c., but not specifically dealt with therein. Appeals against the decisions of the Disputes Committees may be made to the Court of Arbitration. Awards made by Deputy Judges and Magistrates are to become binding if not appealed against. Amended definitions of strike and lockout are given, and increased penalties and fines prescribed for offences relating to strikes and lockouts (refer pp. 835–6). The Registrar may also take a secret ballot as to continuance of a strike or lockout. Other provisions of the amendment are concerned with levies and subscriptions, accounts, and cases of disputed elections in unions.

The Apple and Pear Marketing Amendment Act, 1951, includes provisions for grading and packing standards to be prescribed in regulations under the principal Act; for standard costs of production to be assessed after taking into consideration any variation in costs of production estimated to occur between the last preceding season and the current season; for permitting the Minister to authorize the Board to purchase apples and pears fit for human consumption but not able to be graded, the provisions relating to the guaranteed price ceasing to apply to such fruit.

The Emergency Regulations Amendment Act, 1951, continues certain emergency regulations in force until the end of 1952—namely, Cargo Control; Coal Mines Council; Earthquake Damage; Emergency Regulations Revocation Orders 1945 and No. 7; Enemy Property; Finance; Licensing Act; Local Authorities (Temporary Housing); Patents, Designs, Trade Marks, and Copyright; Payments without Probate; Shipping Transfer; Soldiers' Wills; Transport Licences; War Service Gratuities; and Waterfront Industry Emergency Regulations.

The Supply Regulations Amendment Act, 1951, continues the following supply regulations in force until the end of 1952—namely, the Building Emergency Regulations 1939, the Export Prohibition Emergency Regulations 1939, and the Supply Control Emergency Regulations 1939.

The Superannuation Amendment Act, 1951, empowers the Board on its own conditions to treat as Government service for superannuation purposes, training as the holder of a scholarship or bursary approved by a controlling authority, training at a library school. or any other service or training undertaken before or after commencing Government service but after reaching the age of twenty years. The Act also extends the discretionary powers of the Board, amends the conditions of the Board's consent to continuity of service, and provides for late elections to contribute on a higher salary in the case of a reduction. A number of sections deal with Armed Forces superannuation including, in respect of contributory service after completion of term of engagement, re-employment of contributor after retiring on allowance, amending definition of salary, enabling the Board to accept late elections subject to conditions imposed by the Board, giving power to contribute in respect of whole or part of previous military service, and removing the restriction on contribution in respect of previous service up to ten years. Part IV of the principal Act is to apply to the Solicitor-General, and the time requirement for preparation of annual accounts is varied slightly.

The Government Life Insurance Amendment Act, 1951, enables the Governor-General by Order in Council to authorize the Commissioner to create general and special reserves and to prescribe the purposes for which these funds may be used; provides for the investment of funds in company stocks, shares, and debentures; amends the provisions as to the purchase of motor-cars for resale to officers of the Department; alters the constitution of the Investment Board and extends its powers in relation to investments; authorizes the Board to delegate its powers to the Commissioner; and enables investments to be made by majority vote provided the Minister, or the Commissioner or his deputy, has voted in favour of the investment.

The Police Offences Amendment Act, 1951: Part I of this Act deals with offences relating to sedition and, in particular, prohibits the making or publication of any statement advocating violence, lawlessness, or disorder, or expressing a seditious intention. It makes it unlawful for any person, with a seditious intention, to print, publish, sell, distribute, or bring into New Zealand any document that incites or advocates violence, &c.; and states that any person having control of a printing press or other apparatus commits an offence if he uses it for printing or publishing anything expressing a seditious intention. Part II of the Act deals with intimidation in connection with strikes or lockouts. including assaults on workers, victimization, boycotting, processions, demonstrations. &c.

The Destitute Persons Amendment Act, 1951, empowers a Magistrate to vary or enforce a maintenance order even when a divorce suit is pending, and to vest the tenancy of a dwellinghouse in a person in whose favour a separation or guardianship order is made, together with the right of a landlord to apply for cancellation or variation of such vesting order. The maximum security that a Magistrate may require to be given for obedience to a maintenance order is increased from £200 to £500. Orders for maintenance of children may be extended to have effect beyond the ago of sixteen years if the child is engaged in a course of education or training. Extension is not to be for more than one year at a time or after the age of eighteen years is attained. Other sections include extension of section 43 of the principal Act so as to make seamen's wages liable to attachment by order of a Magistrate, and of section 44 so as to make worker's compensation moneys available as the subject of a charging order made by a Magistrate.

The Local Legislation Act, 1951, confers certain powers on certain public bodies and validates certain transactions.

The Licensing Trusts Amendment Act, 1951, makes further provision for financing Trusts, including local Trusts established to conduct particular premises for which now licences are granted in licensing districts. Advances may be made for the erection. alteration, or renovation of premises, and the Crown is enabled to guarantee loans raised by Trusts for such purposes and under certain conditions; any local authority in a licensing Trust district is empowered to do likewise. Local Trusts are given the same borrowing powers as district licensing Trusts.

The Customs Act Amendment Act, 1951, substitutes a new definition of the term “British Dominions,” removes the exemption from surtax on motor-spirits from the United Kingdom and certain other parts of the British Commonwealth, and alters the Tariff with respect to passengers' baggage and effects (omitting the limitation on value of tools of trade and household effects admitted free, and providing for dutiable goods. other than cigars, cigarettes, tobacco, wines, and spirits to be imported duty free up to £10 in value, or at a duty not exceeding 25 per cent. if the value exceeds £10 but dotes not exceed £50). The importation of brandy that is not wholly the distillate of the fermented juice of fresh grapes is prohibited except under certain conditions. The payment of duty by one person is not to affect the liability of other persons. Other section include the exemption from licence fees of any warehouse in Hokitika (ceased to be a port of entry); provides that invoices for imported goods must show the current domestic value; provides that refunds of duty paid in error may be made more than three years after payment of the duty so long as an application is made within three years, and repeals certain restrictions on brewers; and abolishes the additional sales tax of 20 per cent. on wine manufactured in New Zealand.

The Public Service Amendment Act, 1951, alters the constitution of the Public Service Commission to provide for all members to be appointed by the Governor-General in Council on the recommendation of the Prime Minister, thus abolishing direct representation of the Public Service Association (Incorporated) on the Commission. Section 3 provides for the fixing of the salaries of the members of Commission by parliamentary appropriation, instead of by the Public Service Act as formerly. Sections 4, 5, and 6 contain provisions relating to the appointment of persons to the Public Service, while sections 7, 8, 9 deal with the Commission's powers to transfer employees in the interest of national security, and appeals in connection therewith. The Act also prescribes that the Commission is to have due regard to representations made to it by service organizations on any matter affecting the conditions of employment of any employee or class of employees.

The Coroners Act, 1951, consolidates and amends the Coroners Act, 1908, and its amendments. The provision giving a Coroner jurisdiction to inquire into the cause of fires has not been repeated; a Coroner is authorized to dispense with an inquest in certain eases and to require a medical report from a doctor who has recently attended the deceased person. The functions of a Coroner which may be exercised by a Justice when no Coroner is available and the purposes for which an inquest may be held are prescribed by the Act; an inquest shall be held before a Coroner alone—i.e.., no provision is made for juries; it is unnecessary for a Coroner to view the body if he is satisfied that the body has been seen by some person giving evidence at the inquest; power is given to restrict the publication of evidence and of proceedings in inquests where death was self-inflicted, subject to review by a Magistrate, and for the public hearings of inquests; and other provisions respecting inquests are made, including authority for evidence to be taken at a place other than where the inquest is being held, for the adjournment of inquests where criminal proceedings are being taken, for reopening of inquest on the direction of the Attorney-General where a finding is defective, and penalties for unlawful publication of proceedings at inquests.

The Samoa Amendment Act, 1951, makes several miscellaneous amendments to the principal Act, including alteration of the term “native” to “Samoan”; amending provisions as to termination or suspension of appointments in the Western Samoan Public Service to cover cases of temporary employees; providing that at the end of six years after the appointment to the Western Samoan Public Service persons who are concurrently employed in both services may be required to sever their connection with the New Zealand Government Service and thereafter be regarded as officers of the Western Samoan Public Service only; providing for a Board of Appeal, its procedure, &c., and the qualification of Medical Officers and medical practitioners; and amending the provisions relating to compensation where land is taken for public purposes.

The Maori Purposes Act, 1951, makes provision for Maori Land Court Judges to retire at the age of sixty-eight years, authorizes the Maori Trustee to transfer £10,000 to the Maori Hostels Fund, provides that future marriages in which a party is a Maori are to be subject to the general law respecting marriage—i.e.., marriages according to Maori custom after 1st April, 1952, will not be legally recognized though any rights acquired in respect of such marriages prior to that date are preserved. Jurisdiction is conferred on the Court of Appeal in relation to the ownership of the bed of the Wanganui River.

The Reserves and Other Lands Disposal Act, 1951, provides for the sale, reservation. and other disposition of certain reserves, Crown lands endowments, and other lands. validates certain transactions, and makes provision in respect of certain other matters.

The Official Secrets Act, 1951, sets out the law relating to official secrets in one comprehensive New Zealand Act suited to New Zealand conditions and requirements. The Act defines the crime of spying and provides for a penalty of imprisonment not exceeding fourteen years, or, in the case of a company, a fine not exceeding £5,000; defines certain offences in relation to unlawful use of uniforms, making of false statements, forging passports, &c., personification, false documents, &c.; prohibits unlawful mapping; makes provision in respect of wrongful communication of information, proof of purpose prejudicial to the safety or interests of the State, interference with police or persons on guard. the offence of harbouring spies, duty of giving information as to offences, power to arrest without warrant, issue of search warrants, requiring the consent of the Attorney-General to prosecutions for offences against the Act, and the trial and punishment of offenders; and makes the Act apply to the Island Territories and Western Samoa.

The Finance Act, 1951, relates to a variety of matters affecting public finance. It validates the payment of a bonus of £5 for each child for whom family benefit was payable on 30th June, 1951; authorizes the transfer of the surplus in the Consolidated Fund to the War Emergency Account; authorizes the payment of gratuities to servicemen in reaped of the waterfront emergency; increases the stamp allowance of Members of Parliament from £3 to £4 a month and to £10 a month in the case of the Leader of the Opposition; increases salaries of the Chief Justice to £3,000 a year and of the other Judges of the Supreme Court to £2,600 a year; fixes the salary of any additional Judge of the Court of Arbitration at £2,250 a year, and salaries of nominated members of the Court of Arbitration at £1,200 a year. Salaries of Magistrates are increased to £1,600 a year; and the salary of the Chairman of the Local Government Commission is fixed at £2,250 a year. Other salaries fixed by the Act are the Chief Judge of the Maori Land Court, £1,600; other Judges of that Court, £1,500 a year; the Chairman of the Public Service Commission. £2,000; other members of the Commission, £1,900 a year; and that of the Controller and Auditor- General. £2,000 a year. The Act also validates the general increase granted to Government servants who were in receipt of salaries exceeding £1,060 a year. Comprehensive motor-vehicle insurance policies are exempted from stamp duty, and amended provisions as to totalizator duty are made providing for payments of duty at the rate of 2 2/1 per cent. on the first £20,000 of the gross totalizator investments received by a club in any year and 5 per cent. on the balance in excess of £20,000. Local authority expenditure on entertainment of distinguished overseas visitors is authorized and validated, contributions towards the cost of the Canterbury Air Race authorized, and salary and bonus payments by certain local authorities validated. The New Zealand Counties Association is authorized to borrow moneys in order to purchase roadmaking machinery and equipment for resale to County Councils. The financial year for the State Coal Mines Account is to and on the 31st December, and the limit of the allowance payable out of the Coal Miners Relief Fund to a Local Committee is raised to 7 1/2 per cent. of disbursements. Other provisions include authorization of a railway deviation from Avondale to the vicinity of Pollen Island, repealing provisions as to preparation and gazetting of a four-weekly Railways Working Account, and of returns of deposits with building societies, investment societies, and trading companies.

The Fees and Travelling Allowances Act, 1951, makes provision with respect to the payment of remuneration and travelling allowances to members of bodies created by or pursuant to any enactment and of travelling allowances to members of certain local authorities. The main purposes are to provide for relative uniformity in the rates of fees and travelling allowances payable to such members, and to avoid the necessity of the amendment of the many regulations which now fix fees and travelling allowances on each occasion when a change of rates occurs. In all cases, rates of fees and travelling allowances are to be fixed from time to time by the Minister of Finance.

The Land and Income Tax Amendment Act, 1951, makes miscellaneous amendments to the principal Act. It imposes a time limit of six months for requiring a case to be stated to a Magistrate; reduces the special rebate allowable to taxpayers who have attained the age of sixty-live years from £15 to £10; provides that trustees are not entitled to rebates; and makes the New Zealand Forest Service liable for income-tax in respect of its commercial enterprises. It exempts from income-tax the pay of servicemen in operational areas; extends the period for allowance of special depreciation on buildings and plant to 31st March, 1953; provides that universal superannuation is to be assessable for income-tax, and that profits from dealing in all classes of real or personal estate form part of assessable income if the business of the taxpayer comprises dealing in such property or if the property was acquired for resale. The definition of “trading stock” is amended, as are the provisions relating to the valuation of trading stock. In suitable cases the Commissioner is authorized to extend the time for applying to spread excess income derived on of live-stock where unduly low standard values are adopted. Assessments may be remitted at any time where liabilities are remitted. Other sections include those relating to deduction of testamentary annuities charged on property, to prevention of evasion of tax by the payment of excessive salary or share of profits to a relative employed by or in partnership with the taxpayer, to leases for inadequate rent, to extension of time for payment of tax before penalty accrues, and to the amendment of provisions as to assignments or settlements of income.

The Statutes Amendment Act, 1951, contains various amendments of a variety of statutes. Sections 3 to 6 authorize County Councils to acquire land for subdivision, to sell or lease building allotments, and to borrow moneys for such purposes; section 7 relates to bulk milk-collection by dairy companies, including the ownership of vats and accessories and the right to enter properties to inspect such equipment; section. 8 amends the definition of “urban area” for the purpose of election of members of Education Boards so that, in future, a borough or group of adjoining boroughs will not become an urban area until its population at a census reaches 15,000, and boroughs, &c., having the status of an urban area will not lose it unless their population falls below 8,000 at a census; section 10 changes the title of the Electric Power Boards and Supply Authorities Association to the Electrical Supply Authorities Association of New Zealand, and the title of the Act is changed accordingly; section 13 makes it clear that alternative accommodation must be provided only for the persons (if any) residing in the house at the time of the service of the notice to pull down, and that it is an offence for any other persons to commence to occupy the house after the service of the notice; sections 11 and 16 deal with the power of an infant to enter into a contract with the prior approval of the Magistrate's Court. and the consents required before adoption; section 16 removes restrictions on the transfer of land acquired from land-settlement associations; section 18 makes it an offence to fail to comply with a notice to eradicate or control nassella tussock; section 22 gives power to make regulations as to the practice of midwifery and maternity nursing; section 23 provides that compensation under the Public Works Act, 1928, is to be assessed either at the date of entry for construction purposes or at the date at which the land is taken, whichever is the earlier; section 26 provides for the making of regulations for the control of artificial insemination of stock; and section 26 reduces the proportion of the contract price to be retained by every employer or contractor under the Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act, 1939, for thirty-one days after the completion of a contract.

The Wool Commission Act, 1951, is designed to give effect to a plan to assure minimum prices for wool offered for sale by auction. The objective of the plan is to ensure that during each wool-selling season the growers selling wool at auction sales will receive for their particular types of wool at least the minimum prices prescribed from time to time under the plan. The Act establishes a Wool Commission to administer the plan, defines its powers and functions, and provides that this Commission will replace the Wool Disposal Commission set up under the Wool Disposal Act, 1945. The Commission is required to prepare a table of minimum prices for all types of wool, to be effective when approved by the Minister of Marketing. The table may be amended or replaced by a new table, but not during any season except in unforeseen or exceptional circumstances. The Commission is to approve auction sales and to assess the minimum price for each lot of wool offered at these sales. The Commission may assure the minimum price to the grower by either supplementing the sale price up to the amount of the minimum price or, at its discretion, by buying the wool in at not more than its minimum price. Power is also given to sell any wool bought in. and to store or process it. The Wool Commission Account established by the Act replaces the Wool Disposal Account, the moneys in the latter and in the Wool Industry Deposit Account being transferred to the Wool Commission Account. New Zealand's share of the profits from the transactions of the Joint Organization, as well as the accumulated contributory charge moneys under the Wool Disposal Act, 1945, are made available for the purposes of the Act. Provision is made for a charge on wool to be levied by the Commission when necessary on the lines and in place of the existing contributory charge under the Wool Disposal Act, 1945. Included in the miscellaneous provisions are those abolishing the Wool Disposal Commission, and repealing the Wool Disposal Act, 1945.

The Quarries Amendment Act, 1951, makes quarries where coal is extracted by opencast methods subject to the Quarries Act, 1944. Certain provisions of the Coal Mines Act, 1925, and its amendments are applied to opencast coal quarries, and amendments to that Act are made consequential on the removal of opencast quarries from the provisions of the Act. Other provisions of the 1951 amendment include the requirement that quarry managers are to be appointed to opencast coal quarries, prescribe the qualifications to be held by such managers, make additional safety provisions in respect of the use of explosives in quarries and in respect of disused quarry workings, require the owner or occupier of a quarry to carry on quarrying operations in such a manner as to ensure that as little permanent damage as possible is caused to the surface of the land, and provide that the principal Act shall bind the Crown.

The Property Law Amendment Act, 1951, makes several miscellaneous amendments to the principal Act. New sections inserted deal with intermediate income of contingent or executory gifts; receipts for income by married infants; heirs and other words interpreted; covenants and agreements made by a person with himself and others; implied covenants to be joint and several; contracts where certificate of title is limited; mortgaged property may be sold or leased together at one price or rent; mortgagee's receipts, discharges, &c.; purchaser personally liable to mortgagee; limitation of enforceability of easements and restrictions of user of land; and power for Court to modify or extinguish easements and restrictive covenants.

Chapter 48. SECTION 48—OFFICIAL

GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF NEW ZEALAND

  • His Excellency Lieutenant-General The Right Honourable Baron Freyberg of Wellington, New Zealand, and Munstead in the County of Surrey, V.C., G.C.M.G X.C.B., K.B.E., D.S.O., LL.D., D.C.L.

  • Military Secretary and Comptroller of the Household—Major P. P. Jeffreys, Irish Guards.

  • Official Secretary—D. E. Foully, Esq., C.B.E.

  • Aides-de-Camp—Captain the Earl of Leven and Melville. Coldstream Guards; Lieutenant it. M. Howson, R.N.

  • Honorary Aides-de-Camp—

    • Naval: Commander S. W. Hicks, V.R.D., R.N.Z.N.V.R,; Lieutenant-Commander J. D. Keay, V.R.D., R.N.Z.N.; Commander J. H. Seelye, V.R.D., R.N.Z.N.

    • Military: Lieutenant-Colonel G. P. Hanna, O.B.E., R.N.Z.A.; Lieutenant-Colonel E. T. Kensington, O.B.E., E.D R.N.Z.A.; Lieutenant-Colonel A. Ross, M.C., R.N.Z. Infantry; Lieutenant-Colonel G. P. Sanders, D.S.O., R.N.Z.E.

    • Air: Squadron Leader B. V. Le Pine, R.N.Z.A.F.; Squadron Leader J. R. Maling. A.F.G, N.Z.T.A.F.; Wing Commander G. S. A. Stevenson. D.F.C., R.N.Z.A.F. Wing Commander C. A. Turner, O.B.E., R.N.Z.A.F.

  • Honorary Physician—Wing Commander A. H. Marsh, R.N.Z.A.F.

  • Honorary Surgeon—Colonel D. G. Ratcliffe, O.B.E., R.N.Z.A.M.C.

  • His Excellency assumed office on the 17th June, 1946.

For details of previous vice-regal representatives reference should be made to various issues of the Year-Book, while a complete list of the earlier vice-regal representatives will be found in the 1931 issue (pp. 59–60).

SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES AND PREMIERS

SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT IN NEW ZEALAND IN 1856

Name of Ministry.Name of Premier.Assumed Office.Retired.
1. Bell-SewellHenry Sewell7 May, 185620 May, 1856.
2. FoxWilliam Fox20 May, 18562 June, 1856.
3. StaffordEdward William Stafford2 June, 185612 July, 1861.
4. FoxWilliam Fox12 July, 18616 Aug., 1862.
5. DomettAlfred Domett6 Aug., 186230 Oct., 1863.
6. Whitaker-FoxFrederick Whitaker30 Oct., 186324 Nov., 1864.
7. WeldFrederick Aloysius Weld24 Nov., 186416 Oct., 1865.
8. StaffordEdward William Stafford16 Oct., 186528 June, 1869.
9. FoxWilliam Fox28 June, 186910 Sept., 1872.
10. StaffordEdward William Stafford10 Sept., 187211 Oct., 1872.
11. WaterhouseGeorge Marsden Waterhouse11 Oct., 18723 Mar., 1873.
12. FoxWilliam Fox3 Mar., 18738 April, 1873.
13. VogelJulius Vogel, C.M.G.8 April, 18736 July, 1875.
14. PollenDaniel Pollen, M.L.C.6 July, 187515 Feb., 1876.
15. VogelSir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.15 Feb., 18761 Sept., 1876.
16. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson1 Sept., 187613 Sept., 1876.
17. Atkinson (reconstituted)Harry Albert Atkinson13 Sept., 187613 Oct., 1877.
18. GreySir George Grey, K.C. B.15 Oct., 18778 Oct., 1879.
19. HallJohn Hall8 Oct., 187921 April, 1882.
20. WhitakerFrederick Whitaker, M.L.C.21 April, 188225 Sept., 1883.
21. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson25 Sept., 188316 Aug., 1884.
22. Stout-VogelRobert Stout16 Aug., 188428 Aug., 1884.
23. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson28 Aug., 18843 Sept., 1884.
24. Stout-VogelSir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G.3 Sept., 18848 Oct., 1887.
25. AtkinsonSir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G.8 Oct., 188724 Jan 1891.
26. BallanceJohn Ballance24 Jan., 18911 May, 1893.
27. Seddon1st. Hon. Richard John Seddon1 May, 189321 June, 1906.
28. Hall-JonesWilliam Hail-Jones21 June, 19066 Aug., 1906.
29. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bart., K.C.M.G.6 Aug., 190628 Mar., 1912.
30. MackenzieThomas Mackenzie28 Mar., 191210 July, 1912.
31. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey10 July, 191212 Aug., 1915.
32. NationalRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey12 Aug., 191525 Aug., 1919.
33. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey25 Aug., 191914 May, 1925.
34. DullHon. Sir Francis Henry Dillon Bell, G.C.M.G., K.C.14 May, 192530 May, 1925.
35. CoatesRt. Hon. Joseph Gordon Coates, M.C.30 May, 192510 Dec., 1928.
36. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bart., G.C.M.G.10 Dee 192828 May, 1930.
37. ForbesRt. Hon. George William Forbes28 May, 193022 Sept., 1931.
38. CoalitionRt. Hon. George William Forbes22 Sept., 19316 Dec., 1935.
39. LabourRt. Hon. Michael Joseph Savage6 Dec., 19351 April, 1940.
40. LabourHon. Peter Fraser1 April, 194030 April, 1940.
41. LabourRt. Hon. Peter Fraser, C.H.30 April, 194013 Dec., 1949.
42. HollandRight Hon. Sidney George Holland, C.H.13 Dec., 1949 

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL, JANUARY, 1952

His Excellency the GOVERNOR-GENERAL

  • Right Hon. S. G. HOLLAND, C.H., Prime Minister, Minister of Finance, and Minister in Charge of Legislative and Audit Departments.

  • Hon. K. J. HOLYOAKE, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Agriculture, and Minister of Marketing.

  • Hon. W. SULLIVAN, Minister of Labour, Minister of Employment, Minister of Mines, and Minister of Immigration.

  • Hon. T. C. WEBB, Attorney-General, Minister of Justice, Minister of External Affairs, Minister of Island Territories, and Minister in Charge of Prisons, Patents Office, the Registrar-General's Office, and the Electoral Office.

  • Hon. R. M. ALGIE, Minister of Education, and Minister in Charge of Broadcasting, and of Scientific and Industrial Research.

  • Hon. W A. BODKIN, Minister of Internal Affairs, Minister of Social Security, and Minister in Charge of Tourist and Health Resorts.

  • Hon. C. M. BOWDEN, Minister of Customs, Minister of Stamp Duties, Minister in Charge of Land and Income Tax, and Associate Minister of Finance.

  • Hon. W. J. BROADFOOT, Postmaster-General and Minister of Telegraphs, and Minister in Charge of Valuation and Government Printing and Stationery Departments.

  • Hon. E. B. CORBETT, Minister of Lands, Minister of Forests, Minister of Maori Affairs, and Minister in Charge of Maori Trust Office, and of Scenery Preservation.

  • Hon. W. S. GOOSMAN, Minister of Works, Minister of Railways, Minister of Transport, Minister of Marine, and Minister in Charge of Housing Construction, and of State Hydro-electric Department.

  • Hon. T. L. MACDONALD, Minister of Defence (Navy, Army, and Air), Minister of Rehabilitation, and Minister in Charge of War Pensions and Civil Aviation.

  • Hon. J. T. WATTS, Minister of Industries and Commerce, Minister of Supply, and Minister in Charge of Import Control.

  • Hon. J. R. MARSHALL, Minister of Health, Minister Assistant to the Prime Minister. and Minister in Charge of State Advances Corporation, Census and Statistics Department, Public Trust Office, and Publicity and Information.

  • Hon. W. H. FORTUNE, Minister Assistant to the Prime Minister, and Minister in Charge of Police, State Fire Insurance Office, Government Life Insurance Department, Government Superannuation Fund, Friendly Societies and National Provident Fund Departments.

  • Hon. GRACE H. ROSS, Minister for the Welfare of Women and Children.

Clerk of the Executive Council—T. J. Sherrard, O.B.E., M.S.M.

HOLLAND MINISTRY, JANUARY, 1952

(Assumed Office, 13th December, 1949)

Name and Office.FromTo
Sidney George Holland, P.C., C.H.—  
  Prime Minister13 December, 1949 
  Minister of Finance13 December, 1949 
Keith Jacka Holyoake—  
  Minister of Agriculture13 December, 1949 
  Minister of Marketing13 December, 1949 
William Sullivan—  
  Minister of Labour13 December, 1949 
  Minister of Employment13 December, 1949 
  Minister of Mines13 December, 1949 
  Minister of Immigration13 December, 1949 
Thomas Clifton Webb—  
  Attorney-General13 December, 1949 
  Minister of Justice13 December, 1949 
  Minister of External Affairs19 September, 1951 
  Minister of Island Territories19 September, 1951 
Ronald Macmillan Algie—  
  Minister of Education13 December, 1949 
William Alexander Bodkin—  
  Minister of Internal Affairs13 December, 1949 
  Minister of Social Security19 December, 1950 
Charles Moore Bowden—  
  Minister of Customs13 December, 1949 
  Minister of Industries and Commerce13 December, 194919 December, 1950
  Minister of Stamp Duties13 December, 1949 
  Minister of Supply13 December, 194919 December, 1950
Walter James Broadfoot—  
  Postmaster-General13 December, 1949 
  Minister of Telegraphs13 December, 1949 
Ernest Bowyer Corbett—  
  Minister of Lands13 December, 1949 
  Minister of Forests13 December, 1949 
  Minister of Maori Affairs13 December, 1949 
Frederick Widdowson Doidge—  
  Minister of External Affairs13 December, 194931 August, 1951
  Minister of Island Territories13 December, 194931 August, 1951
William Stanley Goosman—  
  Minister of Works13 December, 1949 
  Minister of Transport13 December, 1949 
  Minister of Railways13 December, 1949 
  Minister of Marino13 December, 1949 
Thomas Lachlan Macdonald—  
  Minister of Defence13 December, 1949 
  Minister of Rehabilitation13 December, 1949 
Jack Thomas Watts—  
  Minister of Social Security13 December, 194919 December, 1950
  Minister of Health13 December, 194919 September, 1951
  Minister of Industries and Commerce19 December, 1950 
  Minister of Supply19 December, 1950 
John Ross Marshall—  
  Minister of Health19 September, 1951 

PARLIAMENTARY UNDER-SECRETARIES, JANUARY, 1952

  • SIDNEY WALTER SMITH, M.P., Parliamentary Under-Secretary in relation to the offices of the Minister of Agriculture and the Minister of Marketing. Appointed 13th December, 1949.

  • WILLIAM ALFRED SHEAT, M.P., Parliamentary Under-Secretary in relation to the office of the Minister of Works. Appointed 13th December, 1949.

  • EDGAR ROLLO NEALE, O.B.E., M.P., Parliamentary Under-Secretary in relation to the offices of the Minister of Customs, the Minister of Industries and Commerce, and to the Minister in Charge of the Land and Income Tax Department. Appointed 30th March, 1950.

PARLIAMENTARY SESSIONS

[For earlier Parliaments and sessions refer to pp. 59–60 of the 1930 and p. 986 of the 1940 editions of the Year-Book. On some occasions there have been long adjournments during sessions, without Parliament being prorogued.]

Parliament.Dates of Opening of Sessions.Dates of Prorogation.Dates of Dissolution.
Twenty-fourth23 Feb., 193211 May, 19321 Nov., 1935.
22 Sept., 193221 Mar., 1933
21 Sept., 193322 Dec., 1933
28 June, 193416 April, 1935
29 Aug., 193529 Oct., 1935
Twenty-fifth25 Mar., 193631 Oct., 193620 Sept., 1938.
9 Sept., 193716 Mar., 1938
28 June, 193819 Sept., 1938
Twenty-sixth27 June, 19391 Feb., 194030 Aug., 1943.
30 May, 194016 Dec., 1940
12 Mar., 194129 Oct., 1941
11 Dec., 194114 Dec., 1942
23 Feb., 194327 Aug., 1943
Twenty-seventh22 Feb., 194415 Dec., 19444 Nov., 1946.
27 June, 19457 Dec., 1945
26 June, 194612 Oct., 1946
Twenty-eighth24 June, 19471 Dec., 194723 Nov., 1919.
22 June, 19488 Dec. 1948
28 June, 194926 Oct., 1949
 27 June, 1950 26 June, 1951  
Twenty-ninth6 Dec., 1950 18 July, 195127 July, 1951. 
Thirtieth25 Sept., 195112 Dec., 1951 
 25 June, 1952  

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

ROLL OF MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, MARCH, 1952

Speaker—Hon. MATTHEW HENRY ORAM. M.B.E. Chairman of Committees—CYRIL GEOFFREY EDMUND HARKER. Clerk of the House—H. N. DOLLIMORE, LL.B.

Name.Electoral District.
For European Electorates 
Aderman, Ernest PhilipN. Plymouth.
Algie, Hon. Ronald MacmillanRemuera.
Anderton, William TheophilusAuckland Central.
Barnes. James George. M.B.E.St. Kilda.
Bodkin, Hon. William AlexanderCentral Otago.
Bowden, Hon. Charles MooreKarori.
Broadfoot, Hon. Walter JamesWaitomo.
Carr, Rev. Clyde LeonardTimaru.
Chapman. Charles HenryWellington Central.
Combs, Harry ErnestOnslow.
Connolly, Phillip George, D.S.C.Dunedin Central.
Cooksley, Bertie Victor, M.M.Wairarapa.
Corbett, Hon. Ernest BowyerEgmont.
Cotterill, Joseph Bernard FrancisWanganui.
Dudfield, HarryGisborne.
Eyre, Dean JackNorth Shore.
Fortune, Hon. Wilfred HenryEden.
Freer, Warren WilfredMount Albert.
Gerard, Richard GeoffreyAshburton.
Gillespie. William HenryHurunui.
Goosman, Hon. William StanleyPiako.
Gordon, Edward Brice KillenRangitikei.
Gotz, Frank Leon ArohaOtahuhu.
Hackett, FrederickGrey Lynn.
Halstead, Erie HenryTamaki.
Hanan, Josiah RalphInvercargill.
Harker, Cyril Geoffrey EdmundHawke's Bay.
Hayman. Thomas LeonardOamaru.
Herron. George RichardAwarua.
Holland, Rt. Hon. Sidney George, C.H.Fendalton.
Holyoake, Hon. Keith JackaPahiatua.
Howard. Miss Mabel BowdenSydenham.
Hudson, Walter ArthurMornington.
Johnstone, HallyburtonRaglan.
Jones, Sydney IonovalHastings.
Kearins, PatrickWaimarino.
Kent. James BeggWestland.
Kidd, David CampbellWaimate.
Lake, Harry RobsonLyttelton.
McAlpine, John KennethSelwyn.
Macdonald, RitchiePonsonby.
Macdonald, Hon. Thomas LachlanWallace.
Macfarlane, Robert MafekingChristchurch Central.
McKean, RobertIsland Bay.
McLagan, Hon. AngusRiccarton.
Maher, James JosephOtaki.
Marshall, Hon. John RossMount Victoria.
Mason, Hon. Henry Great-head Rex, Q.C.Waitakere.
Massey, John NormanFranklin.
Mathison, JohnAvon.
Moohan, MichaelPetone.
Murdoch, Alfred JamesMarsden.
Nash, Rt. Hon. WalterHutt.
Neale, Edgar Rollo, O.B.E.Nelson.
Nordmeyer, Hon. Arnold HenryBrooklyn.
Oram, Hon. Matthew Henry, M.B.E.Manawatu.
Osborne, Arthur GeorgeOnehunga.
Rae; Duncan McFadyenParnell.
Rae, JohnRoskill.
Ross, Hon. Mrs. Grace HildaHamilton.
Roy, James Alexander McLean. M.C.Clutha.
Semple, Hon. RobertMiramar.
Shand, Thomas PhilipMarlborough.
Sheat, William AlfredPatea,
Sim, Geoffrey FanthamWaikato.
Skinner, Hon. Clarence Farringdon, M.C.Buller.
Smith, Sidney WalterHobson.
Stewart, John SkinnerArch Hill.
Sullivan, Hon. WilliamBay of Plenty.
Sutherland, Andrew SinclairHauraki.
Tait, PeterNapier.
Tennent, William, in BlairPalmerston N.
Walls, RobertNorth Dunedin.
Walsh, George AugustusTauranga.
Watts, Hon. Jack ThomasSt. Albans.
Webb, Hon. Thomas CliftonRodney.
For Maori Electorates 
Omana, TiakiEastern Maori.
Paikea, Tapihana ParaireNorthern Maori.
Ratana, Mrs. Iriaka MatiuWestern Maori.
Tirikatene, Hon. Eruera TihemaSouthern Maori.

JUDICIARY

Judges of the Supreme Court and Court of Appeal.—Chief Justice: Right Hon. Sir Humphrey O'Leary, K.C.M.G. Puisne Judges: Hon. Sir Arthur Fair, M.C.; Hon. Sir Erima Harvey Northcroft; Hon. G. P. Finlay; lion. K. M. Gresson; Hon. J. Stanton; Hon. J. D. Hutchison; Hon. E. P. Hay; Hon. P. B. Cooke, M.C.; Hon. F.B. 15. Adams; Hon. A. K. North.

Judges of the Arbitration Court.—Hon. A. Tyndall. C.M.G.; Hon. W. F. Stilwell. Deputy Judge: Hon. 0. G. Stevens.

Judge of Compensation Court.—Hon. D. J. Dalglish.

Judge of Land Valuation Court.—Hon. K. G. Archer.

HONOURS

Since the preceding issue of the Year-Book the following honours have been conferred by His Majesty the King for services rendered in connection with New Zealand:—

[(a) Signifies conferred in June, 1951; (b) in January, 1952.]

CIVIL DIVISION

  • Knight Commander of the Most Distinguished Order if Saint Michael and Saint George (K.C.M.G.)—

    • William John Poison (a).

  • Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (K.B.E.) —

    • David Alexander Ewen, O.B.E. (b).

  • Dame Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (D.B.E.)

    • Mrs. Elizabeth May Knox Gilmer, O.B.E. (a).

  • Knight Bachelor

    • The Honourable Arthur Fair, M.C. (a).

    • Vincent Robert Sissons Meredith (b).

  • Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.)—

    • H. E. Blyde (b); E. J. Fawcett, M.C. (a); A. P. Harper (b); Professor B. E. Murphy (a); W. L. Newnham (b); J. P. Rutherford (a); Professor A. H. Tocker (b); L. O. H. Tripp, O.B.E. (a).

  • Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.)—

    • T. W. M. Asbby (a); H. B. Burdekin (a); A. E. Caddick (a); W. R. Carey (a); J. L. Coakley (b); Miss L. M. Croft (a); Dr. Helen Muriel Deem (b); J. W. Dove (a); T. M. Geddis (b); H. S.-J. Goodman (b); Miss H. Hamilton (b); J. Hogg (b); J. E. Hunt (b); H. C. Jenkins (a); K. E. Luke (a); T. J. Maling (a); J. Melling (b); G. A. Monk (b); M. J. Moodabe (b); S. Oliver (b); H. W. Shove (b); Dr. H. M. Wilson (a).

  • Companion of the Imperial Service Order (I.S.O.)— R. P. Angus (a).

  • Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.)—

    • M. J. Barnett (a); Mrs. H. McK. Black (b); Mrs. E. H. Bowie (b); G. E. Brasell (b); W. Bringans (a); A. C. Cameron. M.C. (a); J. W. Card (a); N. R. Chapman (a); Mrs. E. D. Cornfoot (b); H. P. Desmoulins (a); Mrs. A. M. Ferguson (a); H. C. A. Fox (a); T. T. Garland (a); J. Guiniven (a); Dr. Elizabeth Catherine Gunn (a); Mrs. M. C. G. Hadfield (b); Miss M. H. Hall (b); Mrs. D. A. Hennessy, A.R.R.C. (b); Miss A. Henry (a); Rev. H. A. Johnson (b); Rev. Canon W. H. Keretene (b); Dr. W. R. Lawrence (b); Miss I. V. Lindesay (b); Mrs. S. McGill (b); Miss M. J. McKerrow (a); M. Millar (b); Miss S. Murray (a); A. J. Nicol (a); G. D. Pedley (b); B. W. Potter (b); A. D. Ross (b); J. M. Simson (b); J. Stonehouse (b); Miss J. A. Tomlinson (b); Miss J. Trotter (a); Dr. N. G. Trotter (a); C. E. Wheeler (a); Miss C. H. Wilding (b); Mrs. M. F. Wyber (a).

MILITARY DIVISION

  • Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.)—

    • Group Captain G. C. Carter, O.B.E. (b).

  • Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.) —

    • Squadron Leader E. C. Gartrell, D.F.C. (b); Squadron Leader G. Goetz (a); Lieutenant-Colonel E. T. Kensington, E.D., A.D.C. (a); Lieutenant-Colonel A. S. Playle (b); Commander A. C. Swanson, V.R.D. (a); Honorary Captain V. G. Webb (b).

  • Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.)—

    • Captain J. Ayto (a); Captain and Quartermaster J. W. Beaumont (b); Warrant Officer M. M. Bentley (a); Major J. S. Berry (a); Flying Officer J. McG. Costley (b); Warrant Officer (First Class) I. J. Doak (b); Senior Commissioned Engineer H. W. Harris (a); Warrant Officer (First Class) R. W. Heaps (a); Lieutenant-Commander I. C. Howard, V.R.D. (b); Warrant Officer (Second Class) R. J. M. Loughnan (b); Squadron Leader J. W. C. Love (b); Lieutenant Ellen Marion Pysden (a); Flight Lieutenant G. A. L. Webby (a); Temporary Senior Commissioned Boatswain G. R. Wooding (b).

  • Air Force Cross (A.F.C.)—

    • Flying Officer D. F. Clarke, D.F.C. (b); Flight Lieutenant D. M. Hutton (a); Flight Lieutenant R. C. C. Nairn, D.F.M. (b).

  • Royal Red Cross. Second Class (A.R.R.C.)—

    • Charge Sister P. M. Aitcheson (a).

  • British Empire Medal (B.E.M.)—

    • Staff Sergeant (Temporary Warrant Officer Second Class) J. Allan (a); Gunner Max Bluett (b); Petty Officer A. G. Cooper (a); Chief Joiner E. E. Dorrell (a); Leading Seaman (Acting Petty Officer) H. E. B. Fowler (b); Corporal J. D. B. Gray (b); Chief Petty Officer (S) H. W. Hansen (b); Flight Sergeant D. E. Harris (a); Chief Petty Officer C. D. Holmstrom (b); Corporal C. J. Lennox (a); Flight Sergeant D. R. Miller (b); Leading Aircraftman T. O'Regan (a); Sergeant C. M. Richmond (b); Chief Radio Electrician G. Woods (b).

  • Commendation for Valuable Services in the Air

    • Flight Lieutenant F. E. Cooper (b); Master Signaller K. T. Gatrell (b); Flight Sergeant Engineer L. G. Woods (b).

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

LIST OF DEPARTMENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT, WITH TITLES AND NAMES OF PERMANENT HEADS, MAY, 1952

Department.Permanent Head.
Title.Name.
AgricultureDirector-GeneralE. J. Fawcett. M. A. (Cantab.).
AirChief of Air Staff and First Air Force Member of the Air BoardAir Vice-Marshal D. V. Carnegie, C.B., C.B.E., A.F.C.
 Air SecretaryT. A. Barrow.
Civil AviationDirectorE. A. Gibson, A.M.I.C.E A.F.R.Ae.S.
MeteorologicalDirectorM. A. F. Barnett, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.Inst. P.
ArmyChief of the General Staff and First Military Member of the Army BoardMajor-General W. G. Gentry, C.B.E., D.S.O.
 Army SecretaryF. B. Dwyer.
AuditController and Auditor-GeneralC. R. J. Atkin.
BroadcastingDirectorW. Yates.
Census and StatisticsGovernment StatisticianG. E. F. Wood, O.B.E., M.A.
Crown LawSolicitor-GeneralH. E. Evans, B.A., LL.M.
CustomsComptrollerD. G. Sawers.
EducationDirectorC.E. Beeby, M.A., Ph.D.
External AffairsSecretaryA. D. M. McIntosh, M.A.
Government Life InsuranceCommissionerW. K. Watson.
HealthDirector-GeneralJ. Cairney, M.D., Ch.B., F.R.A.C.S., D.Sc.
Mental Hygiene DivisionDirectorR. G. T. Lewis, M.B., Ch.B.
Industries and CommerceSecretaryP. B. Marshall.
Price Control DivisionDirectorH. L. Wise, M.Com.
Inland RevenueCommissionerF. G. Oborn.
 Deputy Commissioner (Stamp Duties)F. R. Macken, LL.M.
Internal AffairsSecretary and Clerk of WritsA. G. Harper.
Dominion MuseumDirectorDr. R. A. Falla, D.Sc., M.A.
National Art GalleryDirectorS. B. Maclennan, A.R.C.A.
Island TerritoriesSecretaryJ. B. Wright.
JusticeSecretary for Justice, Controller-General of Prisons, Chief Probation Officer, Chief Electoral Officer, Secy. for Lands and DeedsS. T. Barnett.
Office of Registrar-GeneralRegistrar-GeneralP. H. Wylde.
Patent OfficeCommissionerA. H. Ihle.
Labour and EmploymentSecretary of Labour and Director of EmploymentH. L. Bockett.
Lands and SurveyDirector-General and Land Purchase ControllerD. M. Greig, M.S.I.X.Z.
Law DraftingLaw DraftsmanH. D. C. Adams.
LegislativeClerk of House of RepresentativesH. N. Dollimore. LL.B.
Maori AffairsUnder-Secretary, and Maori TrusteeT. T. Ropiha.
MarineSecretaryW. C. Smith.
MarketingActing DirectorK. B. Longmore.
MinesUnder-SecretaryC. H. Benney.
NavyChief of the Naval Staff andCommodore F. A. Ballance,
 First Naval Member of the Naval BoardD.S.O., R.N.
 Navy SecretaryD. A. Wraight.
New Zealand Forest ServiceDirector.A. R. Entrican, A.A.S.E. A.M.I.C.E.
PoliceCommissionerJ. Bruce Young.
Post and TelegraphDirector-GeneralP. N. Cryer.
Prime Minister'sPermanent HeadA. D. M. McIntosh, M.A.
 Secretary to CabinetF. Shanahan, LL.M.
 Chief Private SecretaryK. M. Sleight.
Printing and StationeryGovernment PrinterR. E. Owen.
Public Service CommissionChairman of CommissionR. M. Campbell, M.A., LL.B., Ph.D.
 MemberG. T. Bolt.
Public TrustPublic TrusteeG. E. Turney.
RailwaysGeneral ManagerH. C. Lusty, M.I.C.E.
RehabilitationDirectorF. linker. D.S.O.
Scientific and Industrial ResearchSecretaryF. R. Callaghan, M.A.
Social SecurityChairman, Social Security Commission and Secretary for War PensionsB. F. Waters.
State Advances Corporal ion of New ZealandManaging DirectorT. N. Smallwood, O.B.E.
 Deputy Managing DirectorF. W. E. Mitchell.
 General ManagerK. J. Caverhill.
State Fire and Accident InsuranceGeneral ManagerG. G. Slater.
State Hydro-electricGeneral ManagerA. E. Davenport, B.E., M.T.E.E.
Tourist and PublicityGeneral ManagerR. W. Marshall.
TransportCommissionerG. L. Laurenson, A.M.I.C.E.
TreasurySecretaryB. C. Ashwin, C.M.G., M.Com.
Government Actuary's BranchGovernment ActuaryS. Beckingsale, F.I.A.
SuperannuationControllerW. L. Comrie.
National Provident FundSuperintendent 
ValuationValuer-GeneralW. R. Beattie.
  Works, Ministry ofCommissioner of WorksE. R, McKillop, M.I.C.E.
 Engineer-in-ChiefC.W. D, Turner, B.Sc.(Eng.)
Housing DivisionDirectorR. B. Hammond, F.N.Z.I.A M.T.P.I.(Lon.).

THE PUBLIC SERVICE

The statutory authority for the control of the Public Service of New Zealand, other than the Post and Telegraph Department, the Railways Service, the Teaching Service, the uniform branches of the Police, Navy, Army, and Air Departments, the Legislative Department, the Judiciary and the Magistracy, and in a few other minor instances, is the Public Service Act, 1912, and its amendments.

Prior to the passing of this Act, a Royal Commission had been set up to report on conditions in the Public Service, and it was largely on the report of this Commission that the Act was based. The Commission found that—

  1. Persons were entering the Service without proper qualifications:

  2. There was no proper classification of positions, and no consistency in the salaries paid for different positions:

  3. Salary increases were not given in accordance with a defined scheme, and there was too much emphasis on seniority:

  4. Anomalies in salaries and working-conditions arose through each Department tending to be a law unto itself. There was no system enabling men to transfer from one Department to another:

  5. (e) Political influence was alleged to exist:

  6. Discontent existed within the Service, with impairment of morale and efficiency.

The Commission considered that the characteristics of the Service should be—

  1. Entry by competitive examination; (b) Probation before final admission;

  2. Security of tenure during good behaviour after admission;

  3. Promotion by merit; and

  4. Pensions on retirement.

In the view of the Royal Commission, the first essential was the appointment of a Board of Management to control the whole Service. Although the principle of control by an independent central agency was accepted, the Public Service Act, 1912, provided for the administration of the Act to he vested in one Commissioner and two Assistant Commissioners. Although on occasions there were no Assistant Commissioners, this system continued until 1946, except for a short period from 1936 to 1938, when there were two joint Commissioners appointed in terms of section 41 of the Finance Act, 1936. In 1946, however, on the retirement of the then Commissioner, the Public Service Amendment Act, 1946, was passed, providing for the control of the Public Service by a Commission of three as from 1st November, 1946.

Under the last-mentioned Act, the members of the Commission were appointed by the Governor-General in Council on the recommendation of the Prime Minister, a feature being that one of the members so appointed was a nominee of the New Zealand Public Service Association. Public servants thus had direct representation in the control of the Public Service. The Public Service Amendment Act, 1951, which came into force on the 6th December, 1951, abolished the right of the Association to nominate a member of the Commission, which now consists of not more than three members, all of whom are appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Prime Minister.

Except that the term of office of the first Chairman of the Commission is seven years, each member is appointed for a period of five years, but is eligible for reappointment. Under the provisions of the Public Service Amendment Act, 1951, the salaries of members of the Commission (formerly permanently appropriated by statute) are fixed by annual appropriation, By the Finance Act, 1951, the salary of the Chairman was increased to £2,000, and that of members to £1,900.

The Governor-General has power to suspend any member of the Commission from office for misbehaviour or incompetence. A full statement of the grounds of suspension must be laid before Parliament, if in session, within seven days, or, if Parliament is not in session, within seven days after the beginning of the next session. A Commissioner suspended in this way is restored to office if Parliament, within twenty-one days from the time the statement is laid before it, does not pass a resolution to the effect that the Commissioner should be removed from office. His office, however, terminates on the happening of certain other contingencies as set out in section 11 of the Public Service Act.

The Commission's status differs from that of the normal Permanent Head in that it is not controlled by any Minister of the Crown. The Public Service Act provides that a person is liable to a heavy penalty if he endeavours to influence the Commission in regard to another person's appointment, promotion, or salary. Within the limits defined by the Act. the Commission is supreme, but appeals against certain of its decisions can be made to the Board of Appeal, which was created by the Public Service-Act, 1912. The Commission is required to furnish a report at least annually, for presentation to Parliament, on the condition and efficiency of the Public Service. In this report it is required to indicate any measures and changes which are considered necessary for the efficient working of the whole or any part of the Service.

The functions of the Commission include—

  1. Control of recruitment to the Service:

  2. The classification of positions according to their importance and character:

  3. The maintenance of a fair and efficient system of promotion:

  4. The protection of the independence and integrity of the Service:

  5. The increase in departmental organization and methods:

  6. The maintenance of discipline:

  7. The regulation of a variety of points connected with personnel control—e.g., leave, hours of work, payment of allowances, &c.

To enable the Commission to discharge these functions various powers have been conferred upon it. For instance, it can order an inspection of any Department to ascertain whether there is a proper standard of efficiency and economy. It can transfer surplus staff to other Departments or dispense with their services. It has power in certain circumstances to reduce or increase an officer's salary. Decisions as to promotions and transfers are made by the Commission, and certain disciplinary powers are vested in it. To facilitate the administration of the Act the Commission has power to make regulations, with the approval of the Governor-General in Council. The regulations made to date are comprehensive and form a code.

CLASSIFICATION

For the purposes of classification, five Divisions have been created by statute and these are—

  1. Administrative.—Includes such positions as the Governor-General, by notification in the New Zealand Gazette, may declare to belong to this Division. Such positions are those of Permanent Heads and their Deputies. Officers in this Division are paid such emoluments as may be provided in the annual appropriations authorized by Parliament.

  2. Professional.—Includes officers whose duties involve special skill or technical knowledge usually acquired only in some profession, and whose positions the Commission directs to be included in this Division. The schedule of salaries payable at December, 1951, is given below:—

     £
    Class VI210
     245
     285
     320
     360
     400
     435
     470
     505
     540
     575
    Class V615
     650
    Class IV680
     710
     £
    Class III740
     770
    Class II800
     830
    Class I890
     950
    Class Sp., 11,000
    21,050
    31,100
    41,150
    51,210
    61,260
    71,310
    81,360

    The commencing rate for entrants with School Certificate or old University Entrance Examination is £245 per annum, and £285 per annum for entrants with new University Entrance Examination or endorsed School Certificate. There are also special commencing rates for entrants with University degrees, ranging from £435 to £650 according to the degree held. The minimum adult remuneration is £400 for males and £299 for females, while the minimum rate for married male employees is £456 per annum.

    Subject to good and diligent conduct, an officer in Class VI receives the amounts shown for that class year by year. Promotion beyond Class VI depends on the officer's ability and upon vacancies occurring in the higher grades, or on the growth and importance of the position held by the officer. In special cases, salaries in excess of the maximum for the Division may be paid with the approval of the Commission, but in such cases provision must be made in the annual estimates of expenditure, and the amount of increase must be appropriated by Parliament.

  3. Clerical.—This includes such officers as the Commission may from time to time direct to be included in that Division. It embraces jobs ranging from routine clerical work to work of a high executive character. Payment of salaries follows the scale set out for the Professional Division.

  4. Educational.—Includes teachers in Maori schools, in the Correspondence Schools, and in special institutions, but not the great body of primary and secondary school teachers who are servants of various Education Boards, Boards of Governors, &c.

  5. General.—Includes positions not classified in any other Division. Salary rates are on the basis of a fixed amount or on a scale determined by the Commission.

The Commission is required to grade officers in these Divisions according to their fitness and the character and importance of the duties performed by them. The Act provides for a general regrading of the whole of the Service every five years. The latest regrading took place as from 1st April, 1951. Where a position has grown in importance and responsibility, the Commission has power to alter the grading of that position at any time.

Since 1948 salary rates for the majority of public servants and school-teachers have been prescribed by the Government Service Tribunal, which comprises a Judge of the Arbitration Court as Chairman, a Government member, and a member appointed on the joint nomination of Service organizations.

PROMOTION OF OFFICERS

Efficiency and suitability are the factors which determine promotion. Only where it is not possible to separate officers on these grounds is seniority relevant. Relative efficiency of officers is determined by reference to special qualifications and aptitude for discharge of duties of the office to be filled, together with merit, diligence, and good conduct. Vacancies are usually advertised in the Public Service Official Circular (a publication circulating throughout the Public Service) and, where necessary, in newspapers.

PUBLIC SERVICE BOARLOF APPEAL

Officers have the right of appeal concerning—

  1. The gradings allotted by the Commission at the five-yearly regrading of the Service:

  2. Promotions approved by the Commission if the appellant had applied for the position or if applications were not called for the position and in either case the appellant's appointment thereto would have involved his promotion:

  3. Determinations and penalties imposed by the Commission in respect of charges made against officers.

The constitution of the Board of Appeal is as under:—

  1. Two persons, of whom at least one must be an officer or retired officer of the Public Service, appointed by the Governor-General:

  2. Two persons, being officers of the Public Service, elected by officers of the Public Service.

One of the members appointed by the Governor-General is selected by him as Chairman. Only one of the elected members is entitled to sit at the hearing of any appeal. Decisions of the Board of Appeal are final, and no writ of mandamus, prohibition, or certiorari lies in respect thereof to any Court. For the year ended 31st March, 1951, the appeals lodged totalled 708, and these were dealt with as follows: allowed, 23; not allowed, 328; withdrawn, 254; did not lie, 65; and lapsed, 98.

An officer may lodge more than one appeal, and in many instances officers have lodged-over 3 and up to 12.

RECRUITMENT

Except with the permission of the Governor-General, no person is admitted to the New Zealand Public Service unless he is a British subject. All admissions are, in the first instance on probation, the usual probationary period being two years. An employee be dispensed with at any time during this period. With the abolition of the Public Service Entrance Examination, appointments to Cadetships in the Clerical Division are offered to boys and girls with School Certificate, Endorsed School Certificate, University Entrance, or Higher School Certificate. Graduates are also appointed. The salary rates on commencement vary according to the educational qualifications of the individual.

NUMBER OF PUBLIC SERVANTS

The total number of permanent and temporary employees (excluding casuals) in Departments under the control of the Commission as at 1st April, 1951, was approximately 32,200, as compared with 32,273 twelve months earlier. The total as at 1st April, 1951, consisted of 30,200 permanent officers and 2,000 temporary employees. The Public Service Amendment Act, 1946, provided machinery whereby temporary employees who were occupying permanent positions as at 1st November, 1946, became eligible for appointment to the permanent staff. This machinery has been put into operation, and most employees previously temporary are now permanent officers.

Staffs of Railways, Post and Telegraph, and Police Departments will be found in appropriate sections elsewhere in this volume, as will also the number of schoolteachers. The number of workmen in the employ of the Ministry of Works will be found in the section on Employment and Unemployment, and of miners, &c., in State coal-mines in the Mining section. While not exhaustive, the foregoing cover substantially the whole of the employees of the State with the exception of the Armed Services which are shown in the Defence section. Civilian personnel of the Services are included in the figures shown in the preceding paragraph.

NEW ZEALAND REPRESENTATIVES OVERSEAS

MAY, 1952

  • Australia.—High Commissioner, G. E. L. Alderton (Official Secretary, R. L. Hutchens; Assistant Secretary, J. Shepherd), Canberra, A.C.T. Senior Trade Commissioner, J. A. Malcolm; Assistant Trade Commissioner, J. B. McGuire; Travel Manager, Department of Tourist and Publicity, R. W. Coupland, 14 Martin Place (P.O. Box 365F), Sydney. Trade Commissioner, R. J. Inglis; Assistant Trade Commissioner, G. P. Knowles; Travel Manager, Department of Tourist and Publicity, N. F. Gouffe; Scientific Liaison Officer, L. H. Davis, 428 Collins Street (P.O. Box 2136), Melbourne. Head, New Zealand Joint Service Liaison Staff, Captain L. P. Bourke, Victoria Barracks, S.C. 1, Melbourne.

  • Burma.—Hon. New Zealand Government Agents, New Zealand Insurance Co., Rangoon.

  • Canada.—High Commissioner, T. C. A. Hislop, C.M.G. (Official Secretary, A. R. Perry; Assistant Secretary, J. H. Weir), 105 Wurtemburg Street, Ottawa. Trade Commissioner, B. R. Rae, 609 Sun Life Building, Montreal.

  • Fiji.—Hon. New Zealand Government Agents, W. R. Carpenter and Co. (Fiji), Ltd., Suva.

  • France.—Legation, 9 Rue Leonard de Vinci, Paris; Chargé d'Affaires, Miss J. R. McKenzie; First Secretary, D. P. Costello; Second Secretary, B. D. Zohrab.

  • Hawaii.—Hon. New Zealand Government Agent, H. C. Tennent, Nuuanu Avenue (P.O. Box 3049), Honolulu.

  • India.—Trade Commissioner (vacant); Acting Trade Commissioner, G. S. Cosgrave. Mercantile Bank Buildings, Mahatma Gandhi Road (P.O. Box 1194), Bombay. Hon. New Zealand Government Agents, New Zealand Insurance Company, Calcutta.

  • Japan.—Legation, Empire House, Avenue A, Tokyo: Chargé d'Affaires, R. L. G. Challis.

  • Netherlands.—Consul, C. F. Shapcott, 53 Anna Paulowna Straat, The Hague.

  • South Africa.—Hon. New Zealand Government Agent, H. J. Constable, P.O. Box 1909, Johannesburg.

  • United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.—High Commissioner, F. W. Doidge (Official Secretary, Major-General W. G. Stevens, C.B., C.B.E.); External Affairs Officer, F. H. Corner; Assistant External Affairs Officers, N. S. McIvor, W. W. Mason; Navy Liaison Officer, Commander A. B. Gilfillan, V.R.D.; Military Liaison Officer, Brigadier R. C. Queree, C.B.E., D.S.O.; Air Liaison Officer, Air Commodore C. E. Kay, C.B.E., D.F.C.; Scientific Adviser, Dr. E. Marsden, C.M.G., C.B.E., M.C., D.Sc.; Customs Adviser, W. G. Lowrie; Agricultural Adviser, Dr. C. S. M. Hopkirk; Public Relations Officer, A. T. Campbell; Commercial Secretary, J. B. Prendergast; Chief Migration Officer, M. C. Smith; Financial Secretary, D. F. Anderson; Travel Manager, Department of Tourist and Publicity, A. N. Reid; Representative of the Public Trust Office, A. E. Kennard, New Zealand Government Offices, 415 Strand, London.

  • United States of America.—Embassy, 19 Observatory Circle, Washington: Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary, L. K. Munro, LL.M.; Counsellor and Consul-General for the United States of America, G. R. Laking; Commercial Counsellor, D. W. Woodward; First Secretary, R. H. Wade; Third Secretary, M. J. C. Templeton. Air Attaché, Air Commodore J. L. Findlay, C.B.E., M.G.; Scientific Attaché, Dr. V. Armstrong, Munitions Building, 20th and Constitution Avenues, Washington. Trade Commissioner, D. W. Woodward, Suite 210, Dupont Circle Building, 1346 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., Washington. Permanent Representative of New Zealand to the United Nations, L. K. Munro, LL.M.; First Secretary, T. P. Davin; Second Secretary, J. V. Scott; Third Secretary and Vice-Consul, D. F. Dunlop, New Zealand Government Offices, Suite 526, International Building, Rockefeller Centre, New York. Consul-General and New Zealand Travel Commissioner for the United States of America and Canada, R. M. Firth, New Zealand Government Offices, 153 Kearney Street, San Francisco.

OVERSEAS REPRESENTATIVES IN NEW ZEALAND

MAY, 1952

  • Argentine Republic.—Consul, R. M. Zabala, Wellington.

  • Australia.—High Commissioner (vacant) (Official Secretary, Dr. J. S. Cumpston; Assistant Secretary, P. H. O'Connor); Defence Representative, Captain S. H. K. Spurgeon, D.S.O., R.A.N.; Trade Commissioner, S. F. Lynch; Assistant Trade Commissioner, M. F. Roberts, Government Life Insurance Building, Customhouse Quay, Wellington.

  • Belgium.—Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, His Excellency Mr. Armand Nihotte, Dominion Fanners' Institute, Wellington, Hon. Consuls: J. B. Ferguson, Auckland; Sir Joseph Ward, Bart., Christchurch; A. H. Allen, Dunedin.

  • Brazil.—Hon. Consul, C. A. L. Treadwell, Wellington.

  • Canada.—High Commissioner, His Excellency Mr. Alfred Rive; Commercial Secretary, Paul V. McLane; Second Secretary, T. H. W. Read, Government Life Insurance Building, Customhouse Quay, Wellington.

  • Chile.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction in New Zealand), R. Dundas Smith, Sydney. Hon. Consul, H. O. Taylor, Auckland.

  • China.—Consul-General (with personal rank of Minister, also has jurisdiction in the Trust Territory of Western Samoa), Wang Feng; Deputy Consul, Wu Wen Hui, D.I.C. Building, Lambton Quay, Wellington.

  • Cuba.—In New Zealand, Consular Officers of the United States of America act on behalf of the Cuban Government.

  • Czechoslovakia.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction in New Zealand), (vacant); Acting Consul-General, Josef Felix; Vice-Consul, Jaroslav Kafka, Sydney. Hon. Consul, E. J. Hyams, Wellington.

  • Denmark.—Chargé d'Affaires, a.i., A. C. Fensmark, Government Life Insurance Building, Customhouse Quay, Wellington. Hon. Consuls: Stronach Paterson, Wellington; A. C. Perry, Christchurch. Hon. Vice-Consuls: L. D. Stevens, Auckland; G. C. Petersen, Palmerston North.

  • Fiji.—New Zealand Agents for the Colony of Fiji, L. D. Nathan and Co., Ltd., Auckland.

  • Finland.—Chargé d'Affaires (with jurisdiction in New Zealand), P. I. Simelius, Sydney. Hon. Vice-Consul, Jerm Torvald Christtiansen, Auckland.

  • France.—Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, (vacant); Chargé d'Affaires, a.i., André de Fonscolombe; Commercial Attaché, G. Paul-Boncour; Attaché and Vice-Consul, J. J. Orton; Government Life Insurance Building, Customhouse Quay, Wellington. Hon. Consular Agents: R. G. McElroy, Auckland; F. Farrell, Christchurch; A. X. Haggitt, Dunedin.

  • Greece.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction in New Zealand), E. Vrisakis, Sydney. Hon. Consul-General, T. E. V. Seddon, Wellington. Hon. Deputy Consul-General, S. Garland, Wellington.

  • India.—High Commissioner, His Excellency Mr. M. S. Duleepsinhji, Canberra, A.C.T.; First Secretary (Commercial), B. K. Sanyal, 49 Willis Street, Wellington.

  • Israel.—Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, His Excellency Mr. J. I. Linton; Consul, Y. Lapid, Sydney.

  • Italy.—Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, His Excellency Mr. Mario Carosi, 8 Halswell Street, Wellington.

  • Lebanon.—Hon. Consul, G. J. Marsh, Wellington.

  • Netherlands.—Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, His Excellency Jonkheer L. M. de Brauw; First Secretary, (vacant); Agricultural Attaché, H. De Bruin; Second Secretary, F. Van Raalte; Assistant Immigration Attaché, F. Preys, D.I.C. Building, Lambton Quay, Wellington. Hon. Consul, C. S. O. Hughes, Auckland. (Ion. Vice-Consuls: H. F. Van Eck, Auckland; G. N. Francis, Christchurch; C. R. Ritchie, Dunedin.

  • Nicaragua.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction in New Zealand), (vacant); Acting Consul, R. H. Goddard, Sydney.

  • Norway.—Hon. Consul, J. Halligan, Wellington. Hon. Vice-Consuls: D. Millar, Auckland; J. Heaton Rhodes, Christchurch; J. H. Edmond, Dunedin.

  • Pakistan.—High Commissioner, His Excellency Mr. Y. A. Haroon; First Secretary, Ahmed Ali; Commercial Secretary, (vacant); Press Attaché, S. M. Haq; Air Adviser, Squadron Leader Mustafa Kamal; Third Secretary, N. A. Naik, Sydney.

  • Panama.—Hon. Consul, P. C. Griffiths, Auckland.

  • Poland.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction in New Zealand), Albert Morski, London.

  • The Philippines.—Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, His Excellency Mr. Roberto Regala; Consul, T. C. Baja; Vice-Consul, Alejandro D. Yango, Sydney.

  • Portugal.—Consul (with jurisdiction in New Zealand), (meant), Sydney. Hon. Consuls: L. D. Nathan, Auckland; W. S. Wheeler, Wellington. Hon. Vice-Consuls: I. D. Reid, Wellington; J. Elvidge, Dunedin.

  • Sweden.—Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, His Excellency Mr. J. M. Kastengren, Canberra, A.C.T.; Chargé d'Affaires, (vacant), Wellington. Hon. Vice-Consuls: C. M. Richwhite, Auckland; W. Machin, Christchurch; J. S. Ross, Dunedin.

  • Switzerland.—Consul, Henri Blanchard, Wellington.

  • Tonga.—New Zealand Agents for the Government of Tonga, Messrs. Spedding Ltd., Auckland.

  • Turkey.—Hon. Consul (with jurisdiction in New Zealand and the Trust Territory of Western Samoa), E. G. Cowell, Auckland.

  • Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.—Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, His Excellency Mr. Alexander M. Alexandrov; First Secretary, V. D. Kalistratov; Commercial Attaché, (vacant); Attaché, N. I. Burov, Legation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 57 Messines Road, Wellington.

  • United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.—High Commissioner, His Excellency Sir Roy Price, K.C.M.G.; Deputy High Commissioner, A. F. Morley; Economic Adviser, R. B. Willmot; Agricultural Adviser, D. S. Hendrie; Secretary, E. N. Larmour; Assistant Secretary, Miss J. B. E. Haydon; Public Relations Officer, K. C. F. Davies; Senior Trade Commissioner, R. B. Willmot; Trade Commissioner, A. Wooller, Government Life Insurance Building, Customhouse Quay, Wellington. Trade Commissioner, H. F. Stevens, Auckland. Service Liaison Staff: Navy, Captain A. F. Campbell, Q.B.E., R.N.; Army, Colonel G. N. Croc, C.B.E., D.S.O.; Air, Group Captain W. G. Abrams, Government Life Insurance Building, Customhouse Quay, Wellington.

  • United States of America.—Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary, His Excellency the Hon. Robert M. Scotten; Counsellor, Norris S. Hazelton; Army Attaché, Colonel Frederick Hein; Air Attaché, Colonel F. W. Gillespie (attached to American Embassy, Canberra); Assistant Air Attaché, Lieutenant-Colonel G. A. Ulrich (attached to American Embassy, Canberra); Naval Attaché and Naval Attaché for Air, Captain R. W. Denbo (attached to American Embassy, Canberra); Assistant Naval Attaché and Assistant Naval Attaché for Air, Lieutenant-Commander R. D. Macklin (attached to American Embassy, Canberra); Commercial Attaché, Roy I. Kimmel; Agricultural Attaché, Mead T. Foster; Public Affairs Officer, Donald E. Wilson; Second Secretaries: Edward P. Prince, Philip C. Habib; Cultural Affairs Officer, M. Enyeart; Consul-General, Norris S. Hazelton; Vice-Consuls: David B. Wharton, James P. Osbourn, D.I.C. Building, Lambton Quay, Wellington. Consul, Elbert It. Williams, Auckland. Consular Agents: Robert J. McMenamin, Christchurch; Richard S. Reeves, Dunedin.

  • Uruguay.—Hon. Vice-Consul, F. D. Burnett, Wellington

  • Yugoslavia.—Consul-General, V. Popovic; Consul, L. Reljie, Auckland.

Chapter 49. STATISTICAL SUMMARY

STATISTICAL SUMMARY FOR NEW ZEALAND

POPULATION AND EXTERNAL MIGRATION (INCLUDING MAORIS)

Year.Population.Mean Population.Year Ended 31st March.
At 31st December.At 31st March.Year Ended 31st December.Year Ended 31st March.Overseas Passenger Arrivals.*Overseas Passenger Departures.*

* Excluding “through” passengers, and tourists on cruising liners.

1901830,800815,862821,111808,81119,46315,714
1902851,072833,139840,936824,50125,58121,048
1903875,648857,993863,360845,56632,62519,994
1904900,682882,100888,165870,04730,48520,163
1905925,605908,116913,144895,10833,52422,582
1906956,457933,114943,325920,61533,25323,973
1907977,215961,598966,836949,65039,81228,877
19081,008,373985,320992,794973,45937,61829,853
19091,030,6571,016,0631,019,5151,000,69245,37431,226
19101,050,4101,035,2121,040,5341,025,63834,71532,854
19111,075,2501,056,1991,063,8871,045,70637,04934,375
19121,102,4711,681,3441,088,8611,069,82843,09737,205
19131,134,5061,111,5891,118,4881,096,46746,89234,935
19141,145,8381,139,6681,140,1721,125,62841,67231,517
19151,152,6381,150,3861,149,2381,145,02733,37727,254
19161,150,3391,150,2501,149,2251,150,31825,40722,808
19171,147,4481,150,9381,148,8931,149,22520,47020,047
19181,158,1491,154,5591,152,7981,152,74813,71812,214
19191,227,1811,178,4061,192,6651,166,48211,97811,473
19201,257,6111,236,9151,242,3961,207,66026,90023,990
19211,292,8921,267,4981,274,9171,252,20646,09031,908
19221,318,8841,301,2511,305,1261,283,54641,12830,396
19231,343,0211,325,3011,328,1931,311,38234,10828,581
19241,370,4031,347,8531,352,6181,334,02936,25430,487
19251,401,2301,379,4871,384,4281,359,99542,21129,913
19261,429,6691,409,8121,413,7431,392,07342,44930,714
19271,450,3561,438,1321,439,0041,420,83845,68234,018
19281,467,3701,453,8211,456,0751,443,55135,83737,072
19291,486,1341,471,1101,473,4191,460,36334,79934,088
19301,506,8091,489,2031,493,0191,478,02733,83931,454
19311,522,7621,511,7001,514,2151,498,41630,74125,632
19321,534,7351,525,5451,527,0621,517,94017,89121,063
19331,547,1241,538,0281,539,5901,530,11918,71321,308
19341,558,3731,550,1251,551,5321,542,65119,68722,022
19351,569,6891,560,9921,562,2331,554,29724,90128,051
19361,584,6171,573,9271,575,2311,565,26326,93628,050
19371,601,7581,587,2111,589,9721,578,75731,67032,023
19381,618,3131,604,4791,606,7631,594,27538,73836,352
19391,641,6391,624,7141,628,5121,611,36242,64837,685
19401,633,6451,640,9011,637,3051,633,44731,43225,404
19411,631,2761,636,2301,630,9481,635,71513,81413,100
19421,636,4031,634,3381,639,5721,630,4197,1026,893
19431,642,0411,634,0941,635,6351,640,1913,1332,592
19441,676,2931,643,9001,655,7941,637,5703,7473,640
19451,727,8171,679,9721,694,6411,664,5857,2076,189
19461,781,2141,756,7561,759,5261,710,68013,30910,966
19471,817,4531,789,4761,798,2621,770,29125,35822,320
19481,853,8061,828,0251,834,6551,807,61133,14427,388
19491,892,0421,864,5601,871,7481,843,76735,94631,765
19501,927,6291,902,8831,909,0921,881,31750,88043,000
19511,970,3861,938,0321,947,5291,917,93454,64447,122

VITAL STATISTICS (EXCLUDING MAORIS)

Year.Numbers.Rates per 1,000 of Mean Population.Deaths under 1 Year per 1,000 Live Births.
Live Births.Marriages.Deaths.Deaths under 1 Year.Live Births.Marriages.Deaths.
190120,4916,0957,6341,463,26.347.839.8171.40
190220,6556,3948,3751,71225.898.0110.5082.89
190321,8296,7488,5281,77026.618.2310.4081.08
190422,7666,9838,0871,61626.948.269.5770.98
190523,6827,2008,0611,59927.228.289.2767.52
190624,2527,5928,3391,50627.088.489.3162.10
190725,0948,19210,0662,22827.308.9110.9588.79
190825,9408,3399,0431,76127.458.829.5767.89
190926,5248,0948,9591,63427.298.339.2261.60
191025,9848,2369,6391,76026.178.309.7167.73
191126,3548,8259,5341,48425.978.709.3956.31
191227,5089,1499,2141,40926.488.818.8751.22
191327,9358,81310,1191,65326.148.259.4759.17
191428,3389,28010,1481,45625.998.519.3151.38
191527,85010,0289,9651,39425.339.129.0650.05
191628,5098,21310,5961,44625.947.479.6450.72
191728,2396,41710,5281,36025.695.849.5848.16
191825,8606,22716,3641,25223.445.6514.8448.41
191924,4839,51910,8081,10821.428.339.4645.26
192029,92112,17512,1091,51325.0910.2110.1550.57
192128,56710,63510,6821,36623.368.698.7347.82
192229,0069,55610,9771,21523.187.648.7741.89
192327,96710,07011,5111,22521.967.919.0443.80
192428,01410,25910,7671,12721.607.918.3040.23
192528,15310,41911,0261,12521.207.858.3039.96
192628,47310,68011,8191,13221.067.908.7439.76
192727,88110,47811,6131,08020.297.638.4538.74
192827,20010,53711,81198419.577.588.5036.18
192926,74710,96712,31491219.037.808.7634.10
193026,79711,07512,19992418.837.788.5734.48
193126,6229,81712,04785618.456.818.3532.15
193224,8849,89611,68377717.126.818.0431.22
193324,33410,51011,70177016.637.187.9931.64
193424,32211,25612,52778116.517.648.5032.11
193523,96512,18712,21777316.178.238.2532.26
193624,83713,80813,05676916.649.258.7530.96
193726,01414,36413,65881217.299.559.0831.21
193827,24915,32814,75497117.9310.099.7135.63
193928,83317,11514,15889818.7311.129.2031.14
194032,77117,44814,28299021.1911.289.2430.21
194135,10013,31315,1461,04522.818.659.8429.77
194233,57412,21916,38596421.737.9110.6028.71
194330,31111,57915,44795119.707.5310.0431.37
194433,59913,12515,3631,01221.598.439.8730.12
194537,00716,16016,0511,03623.2210.1410.0727.99
194641,87120,53516,0931,09325.2612.399.7126.10
194744,81618,52515,9041,12226.4710.949.3925.04
194844,19317,19215,81297025.599.969.1621.95
194943,98816,78816,0121,04624.989.539.0923.78
195044,30916,50416,7151,00824.679.199.3122.75
195144,65116,35917,5121,01724.398.939.5622.77

EDUCATION

Year.Number of Scholars* receivingUniversity Students (excluding affiliated Agricultural Colleges).
Primary Education atSecondary Education at 
Public Schools.Registered Private Schools.Maori Village Schools.Secondary (Including Endowed and Combined) Schools.District High Schools.Technical Schools.Registered Private Schools and Maori Secondary Schools.

* Excludes those receiving tuition from the Correspondence Schools (primary and secondary).

† Excludes scholars at Chatham Islands Schools.

1900130,72415,6023,1092,792   805
1901131,35115,3973,2732,899662  783
1902132,26215,6673,7423,0721,479  864
1903133,56815,6873,6933,7222,096  862
1904135,47516,4453,7544,0382,330  971
1905137,62316,7383,8634,0602,872  1,153
1906139,30217,2174,1744,2702,594  1,332
1907141,21618,1744,1834,1962,452  1,325
1908147,57516,2444,2174,3272,142699 1,634
1909152,60517,9894,1214,8561,891846 1,846
1910156,59419,0524,2805,1761,9161,253 1,862
1911161,90419,9674,5575,4651,7771,3418311,900
1912166,55320,3504,6945,8311,8151,5268832,228
1913172,51921,2514,6476,1541,8371,6645452,318
1914178,87122,2475,0726,4181,8961,8398502,257
1915183,63122,4775,1916,4882,1021,9559922,039
1916186,35023,6355,1327,0522,1152,1051,0041,985
1917188,75425,6855,1737,5902,1802,3471,2061,977
1918193,34526,3715,0648,3842,2832,7471,3662,226
1919194,58620,9775,1989,0682,1592,9261,4973,060
1920198,46022,1935,5089,1962,1572,7661,4393,822
1921205,95523,9245,82210,0302,1763,3491,6344,123
1922211,08124,8616,16110,7362,6064,2021,9983,958
1923212,46026,0106,18611,6192,8185,0542,1344,202
1924213,76826,3026,31012,0102,9005,3692,4734,236
1925215,06325,9336,38612,5143,1365,1322,5114,442
1926219,01726,7786,59113,6513,2995,7002,7944,653
1927221,15727,3586,62014,1903,5815,7032,9324,878
1928219,95026,5966,67115,0383, 8806,0613,4304,802
1929219,16626,9776,97915,4984,0006,1143,6984,623
1930219,23526,4517,07016,1494,2406,9533,8254,801
1931218,68926,7267,50316,3444,9447,3973,7774,869
1932207,48926,4107,31315,9484,4867,1063,6164,912
1933200,81926,4287,34015,7154,5117,1493,5864,806
1934199,91326,6367,58715,9014,3657,1833,6514,721
1935197,52626,8697,87616,1624,5937,3233,9684,818
1936210,38627,7099,17516,5564,0707,4224,2414,967
1937207,87927,9319,64216,8114,3897,8334,6135,010
1938206,22028,3869,83217,7644,9058,1494,9025,219
1939205,26628,28010,40318,1765,4018,4815,1375,647
1940204,13728,45410,73017,7105,2538,0095,2075,197
1941204,20528,61410,91616,9865,0337,3715,3254,964
1942204,07228,46711,00916,8054,8527,9235,3574,292
1943204,24729,32811,27418,3245,1978,4366,0355,693
1944206,11229,71711,79320,8296,18710,2336,9276,986
1945209,78630,40112,19021,5666,87210,8657,8318,149
1916218,49031,50612,65421,9366,65611,7128,41910,993
1947227,00332,60413,17021,8476,66612,3288,91311,291
1948233,20733,36013,25422,0596,89512,1368,80911,380
1949241,92934,96013,28822,6177,32012,5049,18211,000
1950254,43836,74813,42623,5396,99213,8599,43910,936

JUSTICE

Year.Summary Convictions in Magistrates' Courts.*Total Convictions or Sentences in Superior Courts.Total Distinct Persons sentenced in Superior Courts.Prisoners in Gaol at End of Year (undergoing Sentence).
Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Population.

* Excluding Children's Court cases from year 1914 onwards.

† Not available.

190019,24223.994270.533910.495270.65
190120,72425.243610.443540.436610.84
190222,45526.703490.423390.406020.75
190325,18629.173980.463800.446880.83
190425,67228.905270.595190.587010.78
190525,37127.784490.494330.477600.82
190627,67029.334450.474330.468330.87
190730,90131.964900.514810.507910.81
190830,85231.085430.555320.548150.81
190931,15130.555520.545440.538770.85
191032,43531.174950.484940.478430.80
191133,02931.054530.434270.408020.75
191236,19133.244800.444280.398210.75
191339,68535.484460.404090.378340.74
191440,67335.675220.464830.429810.86
191538,44633.455090.444410.389410.82
191634,32429.874480.394010.358340.73
191733,30228.996230.543770.339540.83
191828,42124.656320.553550.311,0050.87
191931,76626.638080.684610.398520.69
192034,74027.961,0110.814590.379960.79
192136,49228.581,4751.166160.481,0440.81
192233,99526.051,4171.096010.461,0520.83
192336,70129.141,6631.256250.471,1410.85
192438,98228.821,3881.035550.411,1970.87
192543,40731.351,4651.065110.371,2840.92
192644,88731.751,5621.105690.401,3880.97
192744,54030.951,7391.215690.401,4831.02
192843,41929.821,3680.944780.331,4350.98
192944,31130.071,3450.914730.321,3420.90
193045,54430.501,5241.025380.361,5231.01
193140,37426.661,6241.076000.401,6141.06
193240,59126.581,7101.126360.421,5220.99
193336,04323.411,5130.985310.341,4100.91
193435,75223.041,2130.784900.321,1990.77
193536,23023.191,1480.734720.301,1120.71
193639,51725.091,1780.754620.299150.58
193742,72626.871,3180.835070.327900.49
193849,65130.901,3220.824880.307770.48
193952,28832.111,4890.915710.358950.55
194046,11028.161,3940.855470.338630.53
194139,63624.301,4960.925420.339880.61
19421,4600.894570.281,0340.63
19431,3780.844940.301,0240.62
19441,4410.875600.349450.56
19451,8851.116190.379980.58
19461,7130.976550.379920.56
194740,99022.791,9481.087400.411,0880.60
194844,11924.052,3231.277170.399860.53
194950,00026.711,7180.926760.369410.50
195051,60627.031,5830.836420.341,0430.54

AGRICULTURE

Season.Wheat for Threshing.Oats for Threshing.
Area.Yield.Yield per Acre.Area.Yield.Yield per Acre.

* Yield probably overstated for these four seasons, due to total being obtained by applying ascertained averages to areas returned by farmers as sown for threshing. Areas returned in these years as intended for threshing would appear, in many cases, to have been eventually utilized for other purposes.

 Acres.Bushels.Bushels.Acres.Bushels.Bushels.
1900–01206,4656,527,15431.61449,53419,085,83742.45
1901–02163,4624,046,58924.76405,92415,045,23337.06
1902–03194,3557,457,91538.37483,65921,766,70845.00
1903–04230,3467,891,65434.26409,39015,107,23738.57
1904–05258,0159,123,67335.36342,18914,553,61142.53
1905–06222,1836,798,93430.60354,29112,707,98235.86
1906–07206,1855,605,25227.18351,92911,201,78931.83
1907–08193,0315,567,13928.84386,88515,021,86138.82
1908–09252,3918,772,79034.75406,90818,906,78846.46
1909–10311,0008,661,10028.00377,00013,804,00037.00
1910–11322,1678,290,22125.73302,82710,118,91733.41
1911–12215,5287,261,13833.69403,66819,662,668*48.71
1912–13189,8695,179,62627.28386,78613,583,924*35.12
1913–14166,7745,231,70031.37361,74114,740,946*40.75
1914–15229,6006,644,33628.94287,56111,436,301*39.77
1915–16329,2077,108,36021.59212,6887,653,20835.98
1916–17217,7435,051,22723.19177,5245,371,43630.29
1917–18280,9786,807,53624.23156,2024,942,75931.64
1918–19208,0306,567,62931.57172,6866,884,60939.87
1919–20139,6114,559,93432.66179,8006,967,86238.75
1920–21219,9856,872,26231.24147,5595,225,11535.41
1921–22352,91810,565,27529.94170,6556,752,66339.56
1922–23275,7758,395,02330.44143,0905,688,15739.75
1923–24173,8644,174,53724.0163,8421,964,51130.77
1924–25166,9645,447,75832.62147,3875,707,17438.72
1925–26151,6734,617,04130.44102,4854,115,60640.14
1926–27220,0837,952,44236.13117,3264,997,53542.58
1927–28260,9879,541,44436.5688,2233,852,68743.66
1928–29255,3128,832,86434.6073,1013,065,11341.93
1929–30235,9427,239,55630.6867,7223,002,28844.33
1930–31249,0147,579,15330.4487,1523,376,60938.74
1931–32268,7566,582,69824.4968,6902,818,15241.03
1932–33302,53111,054,97236.54116,2065,132,18344.16
1933–34286,2719,036,01731.5678,3433,242,50041439
1934–35225,3895,933,24526.3252,5161,890,14535.99
1935–36248,6398,859,22335.6377,5023,302,64242.61
1936–37221,7907,168,96332.3274,7723,525,43047.15
1937–38185,9496,042,98132.5057,9172,640,91545.60
1938–39189,2815,564,13629.4054,4222,604,81747.86
1939–40257,5328,010,08931.1049,7512,081,10641.83
1940–41243,1978,305,86534.1571,7583,114,94643.41
1941–42258,0028,671,24433.6170,7963,444,81248.66
1942–43286,9989,819,34234.2156,2912,808,77449.90
1943–44233,7867,208,48530.8339,6521,834,31046.26
1944–45183,8866,992,20438.0277,6844,209,14351.18
1945–46161,0495,439,04133.7757,2782,796,87748.83
1946–17141,4075,368,12037.9655,2972,686,21148.58
1947–48123,7514,539,01736.6863,1592,853,51745.18
1948–49146,7075,958,02640.6178,3003,718,59747.49
1949–50125,1594,899,66839.1552,6452,620,25249.77
1950–51144,7636,271,92843.3335,8081,827,95351.05

LIVE-STOCK

Year.Horses.Total Cattle.Dairy Cows.Sheep.Pigs.

* Not available.

† Figures from 1917 onwards include dairy cows in milk only.

1901266,2451,256,680372,41620,233,099250,975
1902279,6721,361,784381,49220,342,727224,024
1903286,9551,460,663428,77318,954,553193,740
1904298,7141,593,547468,12518,280,806226,591
1905314,3221,736,850498,24119,130,875255,320
1906326,5371,810,936517,72020,108,471249,727
1907342,6081,851,750543,92720,983,772242,273
1908352,8321,816,299541,36322,449,053241,128
1909363,2591,773,326536,62923,480,707245,092
1910***24,269,620*
1911404,2842,020,171633,73323,996,126348,754
1912***23,750,153*
1913***24,191,810*
1914***24,798,763*
1915***24,901,421*
1916371,3312,417,491750,32324,788,150297,501
1917373,6002,575,230684,03225,270,386283,770
1918378,0502,869,465710,56126,538,302258,694
1919363,1883,035,478732,25325,828,554235,347
1920346,4073,101,945782,75723,919,970266,829
1921337,2593,139,223890,22023,285,031349,892
1922332,1053,323,2231,015,32522,222,259384,333
1923330,8183,480,6941,124,67123,081,439400,889
1924330,4303,563,4971,184,97723,775,776414,271
1925326,8303,503,7441,195,56724,547,955440,115
1926314,8673,452,4861,181,44124,904,993472,534
1927303,7133,257,7291,181,54525,649,016520,143
1928307,1603,273,7691,242,72927,133,810586,898
1929298,9863,445,7901,291,20429,051,382556,732
1930297,1953,770,2231,389,54130,841,287487,793
1931282,7294,043,5601,478,94729,792,516468,533
1932267,9804,035,4181,562,07928,691,788505,755
1933263,8834,155,0581,703,32827,755,966583,921
1934260,8924,264,1631,795,81728,649,038652,732
1935259,9724,256,5341,807,37729,076,754755,094
1936263,1564,217,1131,802,77330,113,704800,802
1937264,7854,352,1361,784,82031,305,818794,758
1938265,1534,469,1171,743,19032,378,774748,805
1939261,7894,527,9831,723,89331,897,091675,802
1940258,5674,496,0671,719,28931,062,875706,340
1941253,0524,538,9081,759,01831,751,660761,519
1942248,5974,604,7491,756,654*681,016
1943236,4554,447,5481,714,959*604,574
1944225,8234,439,2581,647,92033,200,298573,362
1945217,6894,590,9261,678,94333,974,612593,828
1946216,3354,666,7821,661,944*549,391
1947206,5754,633,8001,657,69032,681,799545,874
1948203,8854,716,2871,713,53232,483,138548,177
1949196,0554,722,8361,746,75332,844,918544,841
1950194,8774,954,9061,850,08933,856,558555,245
1951183,9725,060,0241,898,19734,786,386564,335

NOTE.—With the exception of sheep, figures from 1931 onwards exclude stock within boroughs.

TRADE

Year.Excluding Specie.*Specie.
Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.
Total.Per Head of Mean Population.TotalPer Head of Mean Population.

* Figured are in terms of New Zealand currency.

† Specie exports and imports represent face value.

‡ Increases mainly due to imports of defence materials and equipment.

§ Provisional.

 ££s.d.££s.d.££
190112,869,8101513611,353,4161316611,614464,499
190213,635,459164410,958,63813079,518368,685
190314,971,9261761012,075,9591319938,452712,716
190414,738,75016111112,900,030141069,598391,664
190515,642,069172712,481,1781313413,873347,679
190617,992,480191614,303,170153 102,657908,233
190720,061,6412015016,539,70717227,316763,154
190816,075,2051631017,247,1621775242,289224,122
190919,636,151195214,817,4621410825,845857,257
191022,152,4732151016,748,2231611127,736303,360
191118,980,18517161018,782,6081713148,305763,271
191221,511,6261915120,576,579181711258,955399,995
191322,810,3632071121,653,6321972176,359634,670
191426,253,925230621,144,2271310117,522711,869
191531,430,822277020,658,72017196318,0901,070,114
191633,281,0572819225,045,4032115105,8801,293,880
191731,517,072278820,742,130181170,475177,135
191828,480,5782414124,131,7922018835,610102,215
191953,907,925454030,309,167258362,150362,531
192046,405,366377061,553,85349101136,58041,975
192144,828,460352342,744,1223398367198,321
192242,725,9493214934,826,07426138300186,487
192345,939,7933411943,363,9833213027,37214,510
192452,509,2233816548,527,60335176103,488 
192555,243,0473918152,425,7573717419,22530,650
192645,268,924320649,811,76335486,65177,800
192748,496,3543314044,782,6663125 280
192855,570,381383344,844,10230160618,10042,164
192954,930,063375748,734,4723316649,00063,505
193044,940,517302044,339,65429140175363,087
193134,950,698231826,498,15117100202,33056,155
193235,609,919236524,646,006162101,355,86155,310
193341,005,9192612825,581,36616124296,032424,704
193447,342,8473010331,339,55220402,283,9001,242,000
193546,538,3812915936,317,26723411521,000381,821
193656,751,940360744,258,8362811145,24536,601
193766,713,3794119256,160,69535653,500318,510
193858,376,283366855,422,1893491031,80531,274
193958,049,31635121149,387,18330662,79525,364
194073,741,133450948,997,66929186 36,646
194167,479,413417649,167,0103021110,015205,409
194281,284,6374911653,856,01232161125,375147,010
194371,862,5984318395,242,33058471,240461,800
194477,786,9464619786,397,2125237400159,640
194581,631,276483555,088,180321024,400208,148
1946101,302,2665711671,571,333401364,532418,970
1947§129,406,26471193128,724,8417111810,375184,990
1948§147,822,86280115128,200,6926917755,169624,755
1949§147,290,491781310119,713,13863192570,2201,051,114
1950§183,752,5099650157,896,05182142514,455169,823
1951§248,130,89712783206,463,40410603280,150250,108
Year.Exports of New Zealand Produce.
Wool.Frozen Meat.*Tallow.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.

* Includes exports of chilled beef.

† Provisional.

 lb.£Cwt.£Cwt.£
1901146,820,0793,699,1031,857,5472,253,262335,360351,710
1902160,419,0233,354,5632,138,5572,718,763424,060550,131
1903155,128,3814,041,2742,378,6503,197,043396,940517,871
1904144,647,3764,673,8261,912,9792,793,599322,480357,974
1905139,912,7375,381,3331,690,6842,694,432318,942347,888
1906154,384,5686,765,6552,025,5072,877,031378,400455,026
1907171,635,5957,657,2782,354,8083,420,664414,880560,965
1908162,518,4815,332,7812,120,3033,188,515372,520481,335
1909189,683,7036,305,8882,572,6043,601,093484,160648,452
1910204,368,9578,308,4102,654,1963,850,777520,180756,841
1911169,424,8116,491,7072,250,5653,503,400413,120607,257
1912188,361,7907,105,4832,573,2383,909,569470,900684,739
1913186,533,0368,057,6202,578,6934,449,933454,860663,088
1914220,472,8989,318,1143,229,9695,863,062490,300694,348
1915196,570,11410,387,8753,591,2607,794,395535,260780,828
1916185,506,85912,386,0743,326,0457,271,318449,410785,339
1917178,274,48612,175,3662,446,9455,982,404251,980553,016
1918108,724,5757,527,2662,036,9044,957,576328,420847,618
1919274,246,61319,559,5373,822,6839,628,292937,4802,680,006
1920162,327,17611,863,8274,629,28211,673,696540,8201,748,773
1921158,714,8285,221,4794,322,75411,164,345554,240867,298
1922321,525,56211,882,4633,518,0048,387,461529,900750,574
1923217,566,09110,904,6583,043,9109,012,627504,860785,668
1924206,189,91115,267,5443,213,5749,499,877479,760799,230
1925205,726,85617,739,7363,414,20511,174,567500,760895,061
1926213,154,39911,830,1903,034,3568,656,213422,560741,045
1927229,500,72012,961,7443,364,9659,104,621477,500714,441
1928226,804,54416,679,0983,793,82810,309,662514,960804,271
1929234,955,97815,359,2063,336,2009,883,277416,640693,614
1930197,239,6147,664,3624,036,63910,937,382492,560683,571
1931211,718,8685,515,3764,138,8068,892,555465,280413,080
1932238,179,0625,742,8214,645,4808,436,306507,540462,081
1933286,307,4417,422,2665,203,1139,845,627560,400516,063
1934255,796,78312,516,4254,969,44711,886,955553,240480,354
1935222,661,4037,097,1335,206,51412,768,968505,540630,638
1936314,409,40213,293,7065,119,80413,239,414521,900628,310
1937282,339,14819,070,2405,410,91214,689,616518,800647,969
1938271,283,23312,185,4835,373,30815,092,059592,260524,775
1939277,391,71311,665,9095,906,25115,390,801582,740456,527
1940300,288,68716,875,4636,976,62519,681,343682,760707,721
1941215,743,29612,613,3715,284,84816,595,290786,560818,370
1942307,547,29618,336,5075,741,38917,777,4361,035,5801,143,879
1943206,822,34813,483,5444,412,65713,801,632879,1001,071,232
1944188,599,35912,711,4074,156,05412,482,008532,480608,263
1945165,990,88712,661,2445,651,06117,598,983615,220846,813
1946365,370,40426,593,1986,746,16723,239,585495,1201,063,156
1947375,093,06131,933,0866,955,60329,353,331514,5002,366,742
1948420,966,40944,496,1306,869,94428,623,955401,2602,154,201
1949429,657,25246,55,1516,882,02327,229,684508,6332,531,480
1950393,973,50074,653,0076,761,68228,629,192591,9112,160,842
1951316,863,280128,176,0515,496,02325,393,538593,1582,553,256
Year.Exports of New Zealand Produce.
Butter.Cheese.Gold.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.

* Provisional.

 Cwt.£Cwt.£Oz.£
1901201,591882,406104,294238,685455,5581,753,784
1902253,9981,205,80274,746163,539507,8521,951,426
1903285,1061,318,06774,780194,998533,3142,037,832
1904314,3601,380,46084,526185,486520,3231,987,501
1905305,7221,408,55788,562205,171520,4852,093,936
1906320,2251,560,235131,206341,002563,8432,270,904
1907328,4411,615,345236,833662,355508,2102,027,490
1908229,9711,171,182280,798783,419506,3812,004,799
1909321,1081,639,380400,6071,105,390506,3712,006,900
1910356,5351,811,975451,9151,195,373478,2861,896,318
1911302,3871,576,917439,1741,192,057454,8371,815,251
1912378,1172,088,809577,0701,680,393343,1631,345,131
1913372,2582,061,651611,6631,770,297376,1611,459,499
1914434,0672,338,576863,7762,564,125227,954895,367
1915420,1442,700,625817,2582,730,211422,8251,694,553
1916358,6322,632,293949,4163,514,310292,6201,199,212
1917254,3972,031,551885,7433,949,251218,624903,888
1918431,0233,402,223883,4304,087,27811,98742,391
1919345,8183,080,1281,572,3117,790,990320,2071,334,405
1920312,0093,022,3351,222,0506,160,840212,973883,748
1921898,47811,169,5301,368,7868,199,183149,595612,168
19221,120,2009,041,5541,161,1964,686,850131,848540,182
19231,250,14010,689,2001,441,4606,870,397169,512698,583
19241,269,45511,641,6681,594,4867,023,297133,631551,788
19251,245,32410,240,1321,376,7545,800,808114,696472,364
19261,168,0408,695,1881,461,5485,939,359125,777516,207
19271,455,53910,915,2331,492,7925,582,596130,171534,652
19281,449,57011,302,6671,567,2726,693,951118,722489,584
19291,653,80713,228,0271,779,0937,017,463116,848480,212
19301,884,23711,854,0561,812,9816,438,438133,749550,678
19311,988,56610,649,5271,636,3474,461,293140,970581,032
19322,185,54510,639,0531,790,4314,951,268200,6481,092,288
19332,635,24711,648,6991,982,9424,766,351177,2411,281,612
19342,614,51910,042,7761,984,4964,694,459162,4901,320,690
19352,789,29813,616,7401,727,5524,376,512171,2831,441,790
19362,796,14515,317,5761,658,2065,122,438168,0731,398,656
19372,976,08516,986,4771,647,1605,371,878172,3171,435,216
19382,614,54916,520,2261,610,5235,935,061152,4871,296,839
19392,443,29716,111,2071,677,2575,869,890176,3701,628,526
19402,622,70018,228,0262,033,5068,233,486188,4591,948,280
19412,263,13515,777,8642,366,2359,833,861176,2421,830,365
19422,344,62216,477,9432,687,62111,860,471167,2461,726,540
19431,985,18714,392,7592,009,9479,125,958149,5631,542,793
19442,306,80418,553,4841,554,0597,443,632138,0481,423,556
19452,069,53219,277,7041,748,5149,519,363120,4591,256,253
19462,041,87519,841,4551,514,9178,448,321110,7181,176,260
1947*2,552,46728,835,8981,740,87911,621,08898,5571,035,406
1948*2,712,38733,758,1881,512,46811,197,02458,400609,259
1949*2,952,03935,449,9181,878,75612,674,35963,854607,696
1950*2,749,54035,566,9931,997,80114,535,757110,4861,311,095
1951*2,942,66641,361,9342,132,37216,650,13168,929843,792
Year.Exports of New Zealand Produce.
Rabbit-skins.Grass and Clover Seeds.Milk and Cream (Dried and Condensed).
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.

* Provisional.

 Number.£Cwt.£lb.£
19017,112,00857,04652,56269,937945,77217,805
19026,139,79452,56643,99884,861614,70812,305
19036,101,89940,72761,665109,049636,94212,588
19046,103,93040,84346,29395,835263,2435,230
19058,831,10766,98344,64880,598755,03916,597
19065,454,73850,68650,63889,022484,49310,420
19075,513,90053,75736,73887,30081,4111,976
19087,148,62566,52915,39634,88180,0711,619
19097,533,13789,53371,54194,41091,6803,014
19109,103,954132,77354,946113,568235,5905,326
19117,455,28876,71218,43840,317281,5276,898
19128,937,035118,23436,34469,69432,392671
19136,267,60886,75635,58960,49217,184359
19144,512,17148,38839,57273,55147,983791
19156,090,87250,00413,98042,3141,175,10620,388
19165,896,41076,4059,84134,266984,03523,780
19174,944,607105,32116,48448,6354,103,849153,538
19187,854,152299,76515,99542,2157,061,830341,797
191914,340,007775,11849,906249,88610,494,679579,266
192014,363,216830,02423,821147,36913,950,026795,612
192113,922,446448,18037,319156,11418,596,3921,109,331
192215,487,225567,86470,120285,45111,421,332529,650
192314,233,417472,49147,031175,75416,220,997513,495
192420,444,390740,97536,331149,08313,481,253505,098
192519,708,586843,41645,368151,16413,742,627425,738
192617,135,599829,16557,726200,38011,324,780345,072
192712,928,669682,65890,362255,79812,420,494346,271
192812,104,072582,14850,238162,45217,218,653392,452
19299,122,917361,94957,869182,53713,736,098352,587
19307,206,992142,24936,560166,22115,200,835351,339
19316,174,092108,84140,953155,41012,845,394246,483
19326,660,14070,01634,337109,63216,033,175269,121
193310,378,388224,19980,308152,45817,640,072315,964
193413,035,015257,58548,751166,51121,562,450407,708
193513,536,745395,09071,649215,73820,783,080370,890
193616,928,931763,96179,982249,86123,742,354405,801
193712,050,438557,13258,107205,98824,713,648364,676
193810,268,012247,39045,484233,37220,536,678307,603
193911,190,294262,90445,829284,51424,545,704377,506
194010,412,156401,71645,742369,03523,440,047419,176
194113,403,6731,006,23888,191563,67329,641,506699,533
194211,818,761745,74282,499592,68127,585,510683,578
194312,290,284903,24190,720665,11323,190,806598,228
194413,886,065974,909158,4751,453,09018,429,814534,716
194517,670,0781,204,791166,5531,797,82733,835,4301,021,128
194615,755,9391,451,301150,5981,942,07238,969,5431,202,323
1947*16,654,4961,120,219147,0111,663,36544,753,7101,651,396
1948*13,471,298754,651174,8431,700,64459,448,6652,209,805
1949*10,269,104318,589161,9921,523,42677,033,4262,866,116
1950*9,918,514346,865164,1152,083,63091,015,2513,321,883
1951*5,745,460203,23288,4281,246,014104,637,8833,952,028
Year.Exports of New Zealand Produce.
Cattle-hides and Calf-skins.Sheep-skins.
Cattle-hides,Calf-skins.Aggregate Value.With Wool.Without Wool.Aggregate Value.

* Not available.

† Provisional.

 Number.Number.£Number.Number.£
1901***238,8334,362,698264,579
1902***441,0785,703,602375,876
1903***683,2516,459,280468,969
1904***533,4135,504,047401,726
1905***657,6104,273,581500,744
1906***716,0115,835,217680,632
1907***830,1306,186,614796,127
1908***718,4285,603,688518,696
1909***1,096,0806,419,334684,271
1910***983,4926,827,094741,259
1911***901,0886,718,907633,523
1912***920,3017,000,671707,203
1913***933,1527,238,123800,354
1914214,483182,128408,307918,5627,607,049856,832
1915269,656234,164571,861499,0648,594,786826,507
1916296,551206,024672,182397,8957,937,675917,633
1917176,74750,902453,9372,6866,525,3671,300,188
1918206,919106,238530,431 8,741,5381,813,589
1919318,641106,807963,554 8,501,7561,694,867
1920284,666251,2571,125,811 9,221,5523,060,212
1921329,032440,712569,16385,5128,350,886972,116
1922239,930464,563504,334645,0029,499,851980,189
1923339,503609,155746,477706,0137,540,7871,121,695
1924469,588706,847832,009689,4018,136,2651,513,477
1925495,535702,029940,140471,1278,224,1851,989,289
1926449,103751,448755,537706,6998,525,1941,544,273
1927397,792774,141922,825972,5308,945,9231,550,812
1928431,609769,5381,228,1051,364,7828,817,2671,924,097
1929290,804667,915677,9251,072,0178,559,7391,812,093
1930290,964656,802510,6831,542,0259,477,5611,516,738
1931308,843652,747337,2961,665,81110,419,882805,838
1932304,053845,707306,0531,641,20211,999,210694,217
1933401,327890,687544,3853,380,11411,813,6851,043,208
1934476,2351,109,999627,3712,949,9719,243,7261,250,091
1935521,7451,266,258685,8732,405,25111,765,2931,275,464
1936430,9421,177,847761,5111,780,33210,847,2491,703,130
1937506,4601,162,9521,031,0761,743,98210,759,0592,246,015
1938516,4521,246,993742,8061,824,02612,353,5661,369,324
1939528,1571,103,182781,1231,932,67213,223,8641,460,072
1940519,5101,032,165860,0621,798,80111,340,1281,931,957
1941384,8851,015,5931,003,051769,58017,744,0522,007,376
1942356,767931,0581,064,6251,013,28514,590,4482,806,723
1943417,608943,5221,129,174776,57914,000,0462,264,080
1944304,848888,250899,560815,27014,425,4202,386,648
1945329,089795,1841,040,448904,95214,323,7852,402,250
1946392,322659,6451,479,882784,41014,694,2922,490,673
1947472,972757,1862,917,0941,415,78915,624,3496,014,194
1948475,917665,5222,886,596868,57016,288,7285,657,920
1949327,7661,121,6572,339,561795,49216,620,0813,855,629
1950363,319870,4022,601,175670,45916,790,7036,736,162
1951335,966977,4772,991,798719,09713,985,5529,033,299

FACTORY PRODUCTION

Year.Number of Establishments.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.Cost of Materials.Other Expenses.Value of Output.Added Value.

* Productive employees.

† Not available.

‡ Estimated on basis of sample survey.

§ Provisional figures.

   £££££
1910–113,48345,924*4,786,698*18,782,92929,317,02310,534,091
1915–163,75548,744*5,791,704*30,197,78443,034,03312,836,249
1918–193,47858,1373,501,31038,803,19155,310,86416,507,673
1919–203,66164,10710,512,10045,107,56866,169,25321,061,685
1920–214,02269,68113,172,99652,933,49477,828,01324,894,519
1921–221,16967,48412,996,07739,274,11265,672,25926,398,147
1922–234,32570,70513,075,49414,340,46772,343,03223,002,565
1923–244,45174,51013,851,89046,253,40375,433,60629,180,203
1924–234,53877,18314,945,97551,337,11582,479,37831,142,263
1925–261,79478,70316,153,82251,668,1008,395,92182,358,85130,690,751
1926–275,07878,61316,255,17749,344,4423,646,77980,334,60130,990,159
1927–285,15678,62016,053,21054,558,1678,792,72185,059,79930,501,632
1928–295,12680,61816,291,21259,136,5529,330,05190,478,23231,341,680
1929–305,16882,86116,846,23658,484,2459,954,86190,757,93132,273,736
1930–315,19177,91415,617,05248,458,3569,388,62677,745,24929,286,893
1931–324,96968,69712,642,93542,472,6008,263,06566,588,74424,116,144
1932–334,99368,92112,048,14842,726,0438,097,04266,109,45523,383,412
1933–345,02872,65112,106,50047,067,5648,108,89071,770,87224,703,308
1934–355,27079,35813,244,37352,277,2858,809,91279,324,47327,047,188
1935–365,53686,58814,844,36760,172,8489,374,36990,014,74829,841,900
1936–375,72896,40118,333,07770,938,16510,481,253105,941,72235,003,557
1937–385,924102,34420,981,58775,371,55810,540,203113,691,55638,319,998
1938–396,146102,53522,270,01075,634,90310,001,804114,447,42638,812,523
1939–406,342108,72224,460,54985,243,38311,043,557129,061,82643,818,443
1940–416,395113,99926,946,79998,547,80411,978,820147,153,55948,605,755
1941–426,367117,21429,504,299102,260,86012,812,901155,566,19553,305,335
1942–436,127114,59032,256,071107,447,79913,331,973165,936,28458,488,485
1943–446,202117,86434,433,075112,883,93214,516,235175,686,68962,802,757
1944–456,485122,41437,379,062122,695,10615,481,351189,800,76467,105,658
1945–466,991128,20841,499,113123,508,43816,273,562195,258,61471,750,176
1946–477,642134,43545,336,217133,533,72218,247,043218,106,18279,572,460
1947–487,966140,26752,132,689181,773,21821,240,976272,155,33390,382,115
1948–498,000142,50056,000,000203,000,00023,350,000301,000,00098,000,000
1949–508,027144,30961,316,840221,228,64726,334,762331,703,908110,475,261
1950–51§8,318148,94070,387,000274,166,00030,528,000395,046,000120,880,000

REVENUEAND EXPENDITUREOF GENERAL GOVERNMENT

Year Ended 31st March,Consolidated Fund.*
Receipts.Payments.Balances.
From Taxation.From Other Sources.Totals.Totals.Deficit.Surplus.

NOTE.—Reference to Section 25A will indicate that the figures shown in the above table are by no means on a comparable basis over the period. The figures from 1937–38 onwards have been adjusted to bring them into line with present practice.

* See p. 560 for coverage of Consolidated Fund.

† Excludes £20,000,000 loan portions of payment to Reserve Bank for liability due to alteration in the exchange rate as from 20th August, 1948.

 ££££££
19013,012,8902,864,0265,906,9165,479,703 427,213
19023,113,0793,039,7606,152,8395,895,914 256,925
19033,277,9643,169,4716,447,4356,214,019 233,416
19043,649,6013,480,5167,130,1176,434,281 695,836
19053,754,3793,592,8187,347,1976,635,902 711,295
19063,841,5963,808,5027,650,0987,122,340 527,758
19074,264,5554,214,4028,478,9577,774,926 704,031
19084,645,7544,418,2359,063,9898,213,965 850,024
19094,377,7614,624,2249,001,9858,785,513 216,472
19104,180,5165,058,4019,238,9178,990,922 247,995
19114,837,3225,459,95110,297,2739,343,106 954,167
19125,296,5905,764,57111,061,16110,340,368 720,793
19135,606,8296,127,44211,734,27111,082,038 652,233
19145,918,0346,311,62712,229,66111,825,864 403,797
19155,881,9056,570,04012,451,94512,379,803 72,142
19167,266,9667,243,17114,510,13712,493,107 2,017,030
191710,549,6547,817,89318,367,54714,058,770 4,308,777
191812,340,8537,865,36920,206,22215,120,288 6,085,934
191913,801,6438,550,72922,352,37218,673,599 3,678,773
192016,256,5279,824,81326,981,34023,781,924 2,299,416
192122,184,41512,076,54734,260,96228,128,730 6,132,232
192216,370,51611,756,49128,127,00728,466,838339,831 
192315,594,28811,985,15527,579,44326,263,760 1,315,683
192416,416,87111,543,50027,960,37126,148,005 1,812,366
192516,554,66412,088,33628,643,00027,399,200 1,243,800
192616,978,4967,747,26624,725,76223,570,083 1,155,679
192716,899,5568,043,55124,943,10724,355,965 587,142
192816,848,7548,275,22625,123,98024,944,905 179,075
192917,835,1225,764,55423,599,67624,176,928577,252 
193019,474,0915,875,77025,349,86125,200,882 148,979
193118,597,4564,471,47523,068,93124,708,0421,639,111 
193216,188,1716,531,56222,719,73324,860,5522,140,819 
193315,604,0416,964,48022,568,52122,528,379 40,142
193417,059,8296,432,92023,492,74924,202,027709,278 
193520,177,6075,948,48726,126,09424,499,595 1,626,499
193621,556,4154,615,95326,172,36825,890,568 281,800
193726,940,8454,206,34231,147,18730,675,158 472,029
193831,664,43013,145,17644,809,60643,998,784 810,822
193932,305,77211,392,86343,698,63542,889,267 809,368
194032,810,59914,108,89246,919,49146,600,152 319,339
194134,873,73216,106,84550,980,57749,254,153 1,726,424
194235,161,94619,390,75554,552,70152,880,239 1,672,462
194336,195,86518,880,09555,075,96050,921,382 4,154,578
194442,017,61915,543,79057,561,40955,328,829 2,232,580
194545,689,39614,239,47659,928,87258,714,153 1,214,719
194648,370,71815,542,93163,913,64962,659,499 1,254,150
194790,715,39317,579,080108,294,473103,683,455 4,611,018
194896,099,15321,016,962117,116,115115,330,403 1,785,712
1949101,061,73920,462,176121,523,915118,893,154 2,630,761
1950103,853,46521,143,169124,996,634120,688,892 4,307,742
1951122,180,53821,576,277143,756,815135,503,598 8,253,217

INDEBTEDNESSOF GENERAL GOVERNMENT.—AMOUNTOF DEBENTURESAND STOCKIN CIRCULATION

(Nominal Amounts)

As at 31st March,Domiciled inTotal.Per Head of Population.
London.Australia.New Zealand.
 £££££s.d.
190144,497,279181,6004,912,36649,591,24560158
190246,430,126181,6006,354,72152,966,44763116
190347,892,366568,1007,438,55355,899,0196530
190418,018,842793,9008,679,47357,522,2156543
190549,379,6191,209,5509,322,83159,912,00065197
190650,910,9922,586,4508,693,59862,191,04066130
190751,587,7933,087,8509,503,39764,179,040661410
190851,158,6703,554,70011,740,52766,453,89767811
190954,631,0983,869,80012,437,63670,938,53469164
191057,733,6584,113,98513,043,00274,890,64572610
191162,221,8184,213,98514,642,31981,078,12276153
191264,004,8744,213,98516,135,05484,353,9137803
191368,929,4644,213,98516,917,31490,060,7638105
191478,624,3094,286,80016,819,31899,730,42787102
191576,410,0013,979,00019,670,909100,059,91086197
191681,464,7483,520,65024,651,999109,637,3979564
191783,877,8183,385,65042,572,637129,836,105112162
191888,707,8183,385,65058,746,587150,840,0551301211
191995,708,3283,385,65076,982,282176,076,26014985
192095,708,3293,385,650102,076,776201,170,755162129
192199,691,5151,655,450104,977,354206,324,319162157
1922105,919,1592,287,440110,847,786219,054,385168610
1923110,668,2682,159,490106,125,566218,953,32416542
1924114,876,8932,106,600104,632,868221,616,36116485
1925120,818,4872,952,200104,043,960227,814,647165211
1926128,047,6593,643,100107,164,719238,855,47816986
1927132,512,8054,042,450109,295,634245,850,889170190
1928139,756,9734,168,850107,470,429251,396,252172185
1929149,346,2444,168,350110,677,389264,191,983179119
1930146,580,5024,276,750116,526,091267,383,343179110
1931154,546,9414,175,350117,311,067276,033,358182120
1932159,641,8553,914,550118,386,395281,942,800184163
1933161,400,7032,868,710118,353,545282,622,958183152
1934160,908,1052,908,150138,975,741302,791,99619568
1935160,972,2302,183,550117,425,437280,681,2171791411
1936158,711,9301,592,650122,256,518282,561,098179106
1937156,737,016891,900130,041,284287,670,200181410
1938156,857,016882,600132,461,726290,201,342180175
1939156,853,016879,600146,237,656303,970,272187110
1940157,863,270879,600164,164,666322,907,536196159
1941158,371,589879,600190,176,386349,427,575213112
1942153,755,563862,300230,779,870385,397,733235163
1943158,274,298862,300304,688,774463,825,3722831610
1944159,107,828862,300366,746,933526,717,06132235
1945159,282,383861,300403,274,133563,417,81633576
1946120,720,283861,300472,749,936594,331,51933863
1947120,720,283861,300482,990,107604,571,690337170
1948109,378,675779,000494,111,972604,269,647330112
1949106,153,209628,226534,395,305641,176,740343176
1950104,330,631628,226565,112,485670,071,34235228
1951103,999,353 589,425,325693,424,678357160

NOTE.—Figures for 1932 and later years include £26,191,109 in respect of which interest payments have been suspended by agreement with the Imperial Government since 1931.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES*

Year Ended 31st March,Receipts.Payments.Total Gross Indebtedness.
Revenue.Other Receipts.Totals.
From Rates.From Other Sources.

† Debt shown at its nominal amount, that portion domiciled overseas not being converted to its New Zealand currency equivalent. In terms of New Zealand currency gross debt at 31st March, 1950, amounted to £(N.Z.) 56,228,998.

 ££££££
1900714,151848,032372,0281,934,2111,960,0738,149,272
1901734,023919,831825,0392,478,8932,250,5728,785,303
1902800,4711,019,024775,4322,594,9272,528,0929,245,364
1903846,7161,053,582966,0872,866,3852,867,5069,886,676
1904950,1501,206,0691,142,5953,298,8143,230,71210,756,062
19051,019,4311,255,2221,350,6313,625,2843,497,32112,056,736
19061,151,2191,392,1481,326,5973,869,9643,601,50612,873,165
19071,233,0491,579,3911,227,4734,039,9133,897,51513,903,153
19081,356,2571,750,6651,410,9944,517,9164,491,11314,931,351
19091,390,6981,934,1221,440,7464,765,5664,800,71115,920,757
19101,526,3171,934,0342,362,1715,822,5224,898,48217,809,917
19111,592,6012,171,7251,776,9585,541,2845,360,26119,104,571
19121,677,8772,298,9342,425,2586,402,0696,074,37220,763,486
19131,799,2992,531,6862,383,1236,714,1086,537,76922,183,427
19142,005,6382,719,1122,411,5757,136,3256,796,31423,773,429
19152,140,0862,861,2972,595,7067,597,0896,806,56724,538,721
19162,355,1552,967,6452,469,2757,792,0756,920,73626,045,312
19172,534,5393,243,9421,411,4227,189,9036,758,59326,799,586
19182,674,5413,283,7491,250,0477,208,3377,103,07327,653,681
19192,939,6063,452,071942,7807,334,4577,320,27728,074,950
19203,144,2134,486,5823,329,00310,959,79810,883,58630,187,942
19213,549,5905,336,3743,429,66212,315,62612,761,69032,104,957
19223,779,8956,074,7825,486,91215,341,58915,091,87536,745,089
19234,277,7816,243,9517,399,67417,921,40615,695,50743,191,184
19244,445,6276,704,1445,685,10716,834,87816,520,95046,537,833
19254,668,8847,512,0807,613,39919,794,36319,422,83353,353,466
19265,039,6458,333,9217,505,70220,879,26820,915,64559,419,754
19275,311,2608,954,6856,680,17620,946,12121,747,55764,012,247
19285,615,6729,786,2715,667,65121,069,59422,423,16766,404,172
19295,844,4959,583,5766,042,00721,470,07821,300,02469,294,619
19306,010,98710,746,7315,495,42722,253,14522,061,08871,207,539
19315,637,25410,627,3914,432,95620,697,60122,174,52472,686,036
19325,511,8189,682,2514,374,25119,568,32020,087,38172,402,282
19335,237,6888,913,2854,433,29418,584,26718,885,17372,476,056
19345,541,2558,688,4123,821,77918,051,44617,737,79271,969,387
19355,511,4429,167,2873,943,48818,622,21718,744,89171,245,458
19365,585,8559,552,5484,348,53419,486,93719,337,24270,400,176
19375,994,3539,979,4374,252,80320,226,59320,222,71568,559,750
19386,541,35411,005,2934,389,62021,936,26722,051,14768,060,951
19396,971,55011,750,6266,254,79224,976,96825,078,93568,206,674
19407,289,24012,669,5286,772,32726,731,09525,709,19569,486,970
19417,344,05513,144,2164,651,63325,139,90424,726,62867,974,687
19427,441,70413,399,3653,175,46724,016,53624,072,09266,645,990
19437,764,67714,082,8222,640,25224,487,75123,228,43465,131,074
19447,823,73015,144,7442,053,62925,022,10323,801,19763,262,828
19457,895,87115,472,5272,086,27525,454,67325,223,64361,237,937
19468,633,32915,843,8012,743,83727,220,96727,354,63360,025,864
19479,541,13317,018,8473,737,37130,297,35130,479,17457,768,259
19489,806,85917,824,0644,408,01432,038,93732,457,32657,117,475
194910,797,08419,748,2085,458,23236,003,52435,803,88556,605,024
195011,643,64421,073,5997,358,41040,075,65339,646,71456,302,066

* Exclusive of Hospital Boards.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES*.—LOAN INDEBTEDNESS

(Exclusive of Inscribed Debt)

As at 31st March,Counties.Boroughs.Harbour Boards,Electric-power Districts.Other.Totals.
 ££££££
19006,9002,939,0253,845,881 265,5447,057,350
19016,7143,251,8174,035,331 269,2077,563,069
19026,7143,435,8844,123,631 273,4667,839,695
19036,6143,655,4364,256,481 298,6658,217,196
19046,2144,226,8004,308,851 357,0458,898,910
19057,8004,863,9864,382,551 763,90510,018,242
190615,2285,314,1734,554,151 834,49910,718,051
190731,6785,920,3054,676,551 987,51411,616,048
190837,1386,540,0714,877,676 1,077,44912,532,334
190956,5347,016,9265,052,845 1,177,31713,303,622
191076,8777,687,2095,788,400 1,385,19914,937,685
1911185,6318,399,3276,002,400 1,544,41816,131,776
1912404,0789,148,7716,271,717 1,952,92217,777,488
1913605,3539,981,9746,431,827 2,175,97519,195,129
1914800,51511,061,3436,696,029 2,373,39220,931,279
19151,025,60111,352,8026,990,573 2,389,25321,758,229
19161,162,17012,364,0567,135,895 2,655,01723,317,138
19171,260,30712,918,9907,271,591 2,658,28324,109,174
19181,476,41213,461,9197,387,125 2,697,98125,023,437
19191,653,61913,679,6587,417,488 2,769,78425,520,549
19202,032,96015,295,9587,495,641 2,892,19227,716,751
19212,525,84516,041,3687,650,479147,7503,313,89229,679,334
19223,006,58218,060,3228,250,2721,480,0003,566,12331,363,299
19233,803,33421,596,4658,588,9783,052,3003,808,44040,849,517
19243,997,00922,075,0039,173,4844,740,8654,237,16844,223,529
19254,616,68825,882,8659,750,6606,514,7574,315,89851,080,868
19265,390,00328,025,7009,993,2598,745,7555,025,42057,180,137
19275,992,37530,044,39410,257,78110,113,4005,414,67061,822,620
19286,205,46831,599,32410,476,88310,175,3645,817,39064,274,429
19296,350,94232,244,48110,774,13911,986,7075,860,26267,216,531
19306,533,32231,521,14910,460,69212,636,3518,028,55569,180,069
19316,641,05732,139,38910,509,20713,011,5298,415,8770,717,009
19326,685,90531,683,23810,549,49313,121,9608,437,12170,477,717
19336,614,05631,791,67510,620,44213,031,9308,550,25170,608,354
19346,557,84931,358,64710,496,53313,213,0798,522,06970,148,177
19356,402,88930,992,12910,524,78813,399,0538,185,80069,504,659
19366,228,61430,773,34210,218,67213,484,9888,040,46368,746,079
19376,124,76630,505,61210,152,12812,026,6878,141,18566,950,378
19386,082,79430,542,4319,894,11511,890,0318,077,64266,487,013
19396,106,54430,600,6549,746,94012,471,3157,752,76266,678,215
19406,184,12730,768,9939,960,63913,114,6887,977,87268,006,319
19416,154,29330,024,4759,927,57813,106,7747,331,18766,544,307
19426,101,05929,647,1559,796,64712,499,0467,288,87865,332,785
19435,873,13828,852,6489,790,65912,376,5587,076,09363,969,096
19445,632,53428,212,1599,700,96211,828,5086,933,58062,307,743
19455,386,09127,567,4559,496,76311,535,5226,428,80760,414,638
19465,195,74627,230,7739,365,14911,190,5866,360,07859,342,332
19474,957,17126,713,1548,406,37810,841,8136,253,31657,171,832
19484,762,96526,479,0068,234,16311,093,7226,042,98956,612,845
19494,630,63625,924,9258,016,46111,579,5135,999,98156,181,516
19504,466,33126,075,2347,785,29811,996,8325,719,06756,042,762

* Exclusive of Hospital Boards.

† Debt shown at its nominal amount, that portion domiciled overseas not being converted to its New Zealand currency equivalent.

TRADING BANKS ASSETSAND LIABILITIES; NET NOTE CIRCULATION (Average of Four Quarters up to 1929, thereafter Weekly Averages)

Year.Trading Hunk Assets.Trading Bank Liabilities.Notes In Circulation.*
Advances.Coin and Bullion.*Totals. (all Assets).Deposits.Totals (all Liabilities).

* Gold coin and bullion, and note-issue functions, taken over by Reserve Bank (August, 1934). The Reserve Bank assumed liability for the outstanding notes of the trading banks as from 1st August, 1936.

† As at last balance day in December from 1934 onwards.

 ££££££
190112,118,3352,996,34518,422,27416,034,84817,490,0351,361,355
190212,747,7733,201,82418,999,18017,231,76818,701,0631,375,788
190313,435,9933,608,94119,913,54619,011,11420,563,8791,450,267
190414,651,1983,896,19520,893,09619,074,96020,643,3591,468,161
190515,496,3954,006,10821,770,52520,545,60122,144,1661,468,977
190616,649,3294,593,95423,829,93322,422,24324,143,0081,574,254
190718,514,0454,836,71826,584,23923,517,11125,334,3481,644,645
190821,172,8084,840,94229,098,56721,821,75323,611,9031,615,109
190919,078,0324,947,09626,937,26521,996,62123,728,3261,577,558
191018,439,9995,035,76426,398,92724,968,76126,742,0811,626,094
191121,259,7275,195,33329,433,61426,765,12228,625,8031,677,842
191222,907,6565,338,29531,196,40025,622,08327,508,3481,714,667
191322,902,2985,204,26630,708,93225,733,18727,591,0991,674,333
191424,250,2465,712,75132,502,31227,640,50729,808,3491,998,388
191523,638,9706,781,00633,209,48331,433,65334,448,2702,846,275
191624,911,7067,393,91737,015,48637,507,91741,977,6194,049,529
191728,847,7498,072,27944,979,61542,930,71348,541,9615,410,957
191831,711,3508,085,96148,570,12645,562,93952,048,7326,266,768
191931,717,7208,017,15948,615,20950,489,44457,861,3937,087,545
192038,241,9327,728,94256,111,43359,405,34167,818,4697,890,418
192150,607,5417,660,53268,701,28249,397,41158,808,4397,569,319
192244,768,1787,822,56261,779,57045,913,39453,868,8347,019,220
192343,322,2427,900,59459,641,23549,039,48256,204,2926,593,068
192444,537,1617,816,14561,325,86549,502,49957,131,2356,587,546
192545,298,9557,722,91762,128,80852,207,20260,219,6976,775,470
192649,149,2607,797,31965,765,29750,135,11458,008,1616,730,421
192750,032,2037,874,97166,626,67648,294,09656,321,3976,510,018
192846,179,4637,511,83362,819,48553,799,22161,850,5956,374,043
192949,378,0817,048,45665,475,52957,636,20265,232,8666,360,570
193053,657,3616,798,55569,748,07156,424,97963,984,4196,187,133
193152,419,5236,924,10568,557,12053,645,01761,463,0345,733,595
193250,255,7415,957,93369,015,20952,851,82360,649,2085,916,839
193345,705,0475,105,84969,656,70057,620,23965,281,3756,162,905
193441,409,6843,423,18873,509,17763,381,61169,259,2716,285,605
193544,699,629767,88183,008,62661,453,31465,981,4116,419,928
193645,918,432720,31783,865,50165,153,97265,939,6497,500,362
193749,199,592742,50085,822,90266,842,69267,842,2408,921,024
193855,650,064875,82585,072,32965,038,69066,820,7369,989,336
193954,745,801746,80196,108,63767,279,45175,978,46012,013,852
194047,954,499717,662101,496,18377,364,43082,032,69614,790,714
194149,746,397761,914105,291,60480,720,10184,073,58517,434,751
194245,439,520686,902118,948,66990,880,339100,768,35521,496,700
194343,249,581643,614132,698,632106,323,897114,628,31627,636,150
194446,773,498713,076140,938,803117,568,290122,214,22432,101,972
194551,766,198683,795164,498,691130,137,939142,594,98834,983,041
194658,270,843727,125179,027,829149,777,364160,503,84138,198,343
194776,475,734906,335191,991,738164,169,520177,593,48840,127,082
194888,159,7641,393,196193,458,134175,668,669190,538,28640,796,345
194983,357,0421,501,540208,278,008186,092,099208,920,06942,535,030
195094,715,1171,687,717225,348,566202,200,423233,969,02245,227,947
1951132,916,9441,531,922270,300,864250,722,652275,255,99948,970,195

POST OFFICE SAVINGS-HANK

Year.Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Interest Credited to Depositors.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.

* Fifteen months, 1st January, 1920, to 31st March, 1921.

† Excess of withdrawals over deposits.

‡ Does not Include £11,447,754 from war gratuity accounts transferred to Post Office Savings-bank as from 31st March, 1919.

  £££££
1900197,4084,170,4293,827,416343,013146,1695,809,552
1901212,4364,611,4564,230,193381,263159,1986,350,013
1902227,4655,069,6194,708,772360,847172,9266,883,787
1903243,6755,661,5935,343,828317,765187,1307,388,682
1904259,1645,836,5405,664,770171,770200,9307,761,382
1905276,0666,625,7445,984,185641,559259,0818,662,023
1906298,7467,907,1556,907,1041,000,051291,1929,953,266
1907319,7739,351,6648,125,1231,226,541343,42411,523,231
1908342,0779,674,0759,417,820256,255379,80812,159,294
1909359,7149,611,1209,499,320111,800395,80412,666,898
1910380,58510,708,9399,695,5151,013,424424,66814,104,990
1911405,56611,627,36810,662,046965,322472,87515,543,187
1912432,19911,725,18311,449,711275,472511,59916,330,257
1913458,59411,286,70211,041,454245,248555,90817,131,414
1914483,26211,904,32310,603,0181,301,305615,31019,048,029
1915509,08513,706,05711,294,9732,411,084707,25222,166,365
1916538,07215,576,40812,957,4202,618,988817,85625,603,209
1917566,35117,106,52914,461,1692,645,360947,82129,196,390
1918590,20518,101,10514,938,8423,162,2631,059,47233,418,125
1919630,78329,758,44725,962,3773,796,0701,178,93538,393,130
1920–21*664,81944,302,85241,162,4863,140,3661,818,53543,352,031
1921–22678,93029,125,99730,236,231-1,110,2341,599,90743,841,704
1922–23690,79026,682,42727,769,263-1,086,8361,605,52544,360,393
1923–24710,15729,598,37229,510,32188,0511,649,97646,098,421
1924–25735,14829,582,89730,413,609-830,7121,680,92046,948,628
1925–26758,15531,833,62232,602,506-768,8841,731,57847,911,322
1926–27783,82729,456,38330,149,629-693,2461,767,42648,985,502
1927–28804,72527,611,06630,584,998-2,973,9321,747,15647,758,726
1928–29828,29627,252,38128,111,940-859,5591,745,05048,644,217
1929–30852,75728,561,85429,575,994-1,014,1401,806,41449,436,491
1930–31878,04324,531,56928,063,338-3,531,7691,763,82547,668,547
1931–32877,09019,463,98525,488,081-6,024,0961,611,04843,255,499
1932–33797,09716,933,17619,635,928-2,702,7521,475,87442,028,621
1933–34798,26219,428,85317,818,1721,610,6811,231,08944,870,391
1934–35817,61724,179,53720,946,5623,232,9751,320,34849,423,714
1935–36840,67125,619,77523,533,5962,086,1791,406,45952,916,352
1936–37880,85730,676,96927,042,0033,634,9661,514,22058,065,538
1937–38920,80533,041,08229,629,0743,412,0081,669,38463,146,930
1938–39946,82230,434,29134,597,708-4,163,4171,726,57460,710,087
1939–40960,56525,151,28729,462,838-4,311,5511,603,46758,002,003
1940–41992,79228,607,22125,319,1463,288,0751,666,71062,956,788
1941–421,039,78332,044,73425,376,7456,667,9891,820,60571,445,382
1942–431,086,99638,097,07026,889,33911,207,7311,816,82084,469,933
1943–441,128,93647,648,75435,580,16512,068,5892,075,67698,614,198
1944–451,161,88654,585,12042,158,65612,426,4642,451,628113,492,290
1945–461,203,18167,861,04255,626,41912,234,6232,787,413128,514,326
1946–471,239,94872,380,54362,747,0939,633,4503,094,491141,242,267
1947–481,277,26572,553,41468,660,4583,892,9563,307,081148,442,304
1949–491,311,29270,690,64067,722,7242,967,9163,438,790154,849,010
1949–501,372,67283,689,10982,824,706864,4033,821,285170,982,452
1950–511,407,24186,395,33185,190,0071,205,3243,915,006176,102,782

POSTAL

Year.Letters, Cards, &c., posted and delivered.Total Mull Matter (including Parcels) posted and delivered.Money-orders Issued.Postal Notes Issued.*Postal Revenue*
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.

* Year ended 31st March following.

† Counted once only.

‡ Not available.

§ Increase largely accounted for by withdrawals from savings-bank accounts for payment at sub-post-offices being paid by Savings-bank money-orders as from 31st March, 1916.

    £ ££
190039,898,47976,801,567369,8341,214,853490,506151,180316,858
190152,667,66091,599,677405,9671,.556,316169,527281,097
190257,714,63196,452,068367,2071,277,059616,264187,709302,604
190361,687,457102,732,717396,3121,416,225707,044215,275343,207
190466,501,434110,778,154407,7831,476,887785,347244,719383,243
190571,116,261122,493,568417,4411,541,712875,324270,300410,967
190679,084,566132,936,185439,0201,686,231981,642307,323438,729
1907159,680,654255,279,486441,4871,773,5911,092,631340,436478,388
1908175,440,111281,699,027488,0842,050,6841,222,280383,472544,642
1909186,926,337295,886,182538,7402,307,5931,414,752441,099566,990
1910196,768,968310,236,516569,6572,457,5231,666,959517,315603,150
1911205,450,627323,663,638607,7642,759,3931,821,566566,650613,252
1912214,184,119333,620,976666,4253,231,3501,970,643627,443644,637
1913223,961,200338,400,371690,7453,357,7742,238,842711,518695,136
1914233,901,320359,031,400691,5183,427,5052,314,327714,683698,898
1915242,547,859356,519,892664,8603,471,8182,370,079712,753858,583
1916242,121,361347,016,697669,3553,607,0872,286,463685,708964,793
1917245,796,945344,962,697642,6833,476,6452,166,597628,920976,027
1918242,527,369333,826,886638,5003,649,3712,091,051610,591983,585
1919247,143,183340,448,228690,2914,604,0592,197,520646,4111,068,489
1920259,743,234360,747,489699,6745,276,7762,280,219691,2011,352,677
1921253,767,131359,096,963669,3834,850,8202,377,622723,2541,499,304
1922239,997,081356,188,284659,9434,278,6292,434,506730,2321,378,421
1923252,021,959383,196,807684,9794,390,1592,652,777786,1461,146,588
1924272,311,925426,907,636731,5114,692,9292,846,333840,5591,257,942
1925294,630,760471,503,757766,6894,977,2303,040,722902,1191,320,277
1926298,617,089486,381,016793,1105,033,1273,329,638965,2701,400,886
1927297,478,294496,553,440803,5354,995,0903,614,2171,015,2131,439,587
1928298,548,364517,749,720807,8854,977,5223,575,9841,057,6241,426,936
1929309,162,103532,070,649835,3585,187,5533,816,6351,123,4461,498,684
1930313,148,058542,003,413833,5055,069,6293,907,2881,128,8071,582,550
1931203,633,952465,484,009714,4783,993,0352,884,654952,4441,744,553
1932246,395,130436,615,397648,9513,335,5522,686,648958,3731,393,655
1933261,979,312461,132,572635,6743,112,7292,883,0701,061,9461,294,757
1934275,063,943486,830,600654,6213,209,7133,325,5611,140,6951,384,265
1935288,645,484526,126,679673,0573,374,0293,827,4171,293,9551,466,857
1936292,098,761534,097,249733,9663,794,6483,833,2881,378,3871,628,868
1937302,170,027547,687,799784,4954,312,6293,746,5601,454,7931,822,308
1938316,309,341608,682,253848,0504,802,2933,835,4001,485,4262,033,488
1939312,603,575591,476,930911,4845,094,3643,374,8521,323,3981,938,607
1940296,684,295531,941,815812,6674,435,0072,558,9161,020,6302,084,351
1941142,996,000261,870,000751,7224,302,1262,408,020980,9522,194,042
1942817,3984,960,5612,242,034933,6342,283,847
1943786,5115,500,6872,215,572945,2932,464,304
1944762,1795,989,3692,223,041951,9892,619,066
1945140,355,000236,844,000769,8577,202,2002,266,285982,5972,645,257
1946160,680,000*294,326,000*903,36910,624,440§2,354,4771,028,1114,009,763
1947159,778,000*301,067,000*917,29010,804,3142,464,7831,071,6134,092,930
1948162,131,000*319,229,000*942,65410,842,8652,483,9291,106,4794,293,823
1949169,798,000*343,024,000*952,21410,855,6482,460,7621,119,6674,185,348
1950178,857,000*358,183,000*977,00011,638,0912,371,5771,083,9774,500,237

GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS

Year Ended 31st March,Miles Open for Traffic.Capital Cost of Open Lines.Train mileage.Passengers carried, excluding Season ticket Holders.Goods and Live-stock.*Revenue.Expenditure.

* Equivalent tonnage of live-stock.

† From 1925–26, figures relate to railway operation only.

‡ Capital cost written down by £10,400,000.

  £  Tons.££
19012,21217,207,3284,620,9716,243,5933,461,3311,727,2361,127,848
19022,23518,170,7225,066,3607,356,1863,667,0391,874,5861,252,237
19032,29119,081,7355,443,3337,575,3903,918,2611,974,0381,343,415
19042,32820,692,9115,685,3998,306,3834,259,2172,180,6411,438,724
19052,37421,701,5726,107,0798,514,1124,185,4672,209,2311,492,900
19062,40722,498,9726,413,5738,826,3824,415,1662,349,7041,621,239
19072,45823,504,2726,755,4549,600,7864,824,5632,624,6001,812,482
19082,47424,365,6477,051,2749,756,7165,070,1762,761,9381,949,759
19092,67427,762,5927,458,23610,457,1445,135,4082,929,5262,114,815
19102,71728,513,4767,889,16611,141,1425,490,0183,249,7902,169,474
19112,75329,606,5468,141,07511,200,6135,863,6743,494,1822,303,272
19122,79830,506,0898,371,68711,891,1345,887,9083,676,5092,465,896
19132,85131,611,2209,016,22413,123,8796,246,1283,971,0022,705,609
19142,85432,855,0879,319,26813,355,8936,019,6334,013,3282,880,323
19152,94534,133,8259,383,42013,565,7726,453,4724,105,4572,920,455
19162,96034,857,8829,356,52214,201,5066,870,9454,548,3562,910,883
19172,96035,378,6649,146,33114,173,1156,239,1734,800,8102,926,864
19182,98336,001,4327,468,64611,408,1565,742,9684,687,7003,042,907
19192,98336,167,6817,477,58311,374,5215,611,7384,988,6323,308,575
19202,99636,390,1157,408,60812,760,8146,000,2795,752,4874,105,067
19213,00937,235,2549,303,39215,315,6406,487,2796,908,5315,636,601
19223,02139,309,0978,717,26514,262,4406,321,3516,643,5916,237,727
19283,02840,275,1618,346,73114,256,6106,618,5886,727,8025,502,497
19243,05341,399,4279,024,50313,817,3786,918,3496,984,2115,403,766
19253,08544,570,7469,083,62312,397,0797,025,3167,112,5245,545,416
19263,13847,608,67610,319,40711,787,7237,246,6927,589,2746,164,570
19273,16449,183,91610,723,86410,274,8787,299,7527,423,4726,158,283
19283,18051,187,37610,838,5949,272,5477,358,3887,343,8456,302,119
19293,28756,568,59811,113,4829,046,9817,613,4457,524,8646,374,579
19303,28757,787,67112,022,0438,466,7797,788,9737,473,9936,848,026
19313,32260,545,15411,281,8987,265,9126,957,7096,781,3886,406,143
19323,31551,424,88310,168,7206,503,5665,824,8115,788,9655,301,653
19333,31551,480,9499,828,8536,870,5705,490,6865,339,0754,833,751
19343,32053,909,84710,163,4747,511,3465,642,1995,628,8354,877,146
19353,32054,089,19010,626,4007,809,0356,028,9605,908,0645,138,588
19363,32054,253,05911,050,3767,963,8246,188,8056,243,5195,523,193
19373,32054,696,43711,868,0838,284,9566,813,2406,903,6046,338,385
19383,32356,065,18712,777,8528,069,0187,516,0497,591,8257,291,785
19393,31958,676,60813,072,6157,813,4367,539,0128,005,0597,663,632
19403,39063,059,18813,366,7988,283,0677,673,9508,761,6377,943,120
19413,39064,762,79413,559,6469,440,0878,426,1829,694,1908,406,790
19423,39064,904,02013,978,96111,105,6278,473,76510,383,8808,902,592
19433,46068,685,06315,139,88217,171,2148,887,08912,415,08010,019,659
19443,50470,999,12515,328,98718,317,3239,026,62613,464,97911,365,917
19453,50471,353,57412,802,53613,629,5238,954,23912,448,30711,696,895
19463,52874,466,73113,454,50813,553,0839,210,46613,104,58712,549,724
19473,52875,354,24313,169,23310,222,3259,329,33312,823,78413,644,779
19483,52677,089,03113,712,1038,111,4179,524,04313,964,28015,090,091
19493,52678,796,32013,895,4887,708,0499,666,130,15,338,88216,788,256
19503,52681,551,76314,420,8527,881,2559,948,26116,062,06617,360,913
19513,53184,992,09314,153,2117,574,2759,615,85718,500,34418,725,416

BANKRUPTCY

Year.Number of Bankruptcies.Debtors' Statements of Assets, excluding Amounts secured to Creditors.Amount realized by Official Assignees.Amount of Debts proved.Amount paid in Dividends and Preferential Claims.
  ££££
190122258,65849,78184,45230,358
190220561,60439,386110,99529,406
190320446,76723,76188,01917,618
190425786,09443,514125,39228,103
1905304100,81347,798146,33228,150
1906347106,37650,761192,92735,448
190735077,69859,849158,66342,459
1908406200,44767,018199,06947,800
1909471204,18771,351259,01744,110
1910393127,63479,100176,00147,796
191134483,59240,009133,51728,757
191231264,39839,965120,32526,825
1913343155,58242,735228,82925,813
1914391174,41064,153199,25133,910
191529492,87663,310153,92642,374
1916304123,44156,416172,77429,223
1917265138,69663,615178,24427,405
191816450,35667,72988,60733,176
191914143,62754,66259,76724,980
192014544,02647,89777,75245,227
1921336362,60178,271558,50438,646
1922690344,861126,145834,35663,009
1923674368,673124,641668,92565,667
1924670279,602118,641703,99574,878
1925653235,37798,648471,02880,187
1926752236,915102,899585,68771,515
1927867331,363108,850679,47372,388
1928806236,264116,613767,32768,763
1929687233,65591,180502,11254,759
1930780471,50283,308827,34568,611
1931848401,649108,8091,042,18763,185
1932661252,34875,657624,89255,940
1933450114,81761,723489,89547,884
193432672,57244,533258,92033,788
193525768,21641,037225,50823,142
193626040,55732,983169,86621,520
193722259,10055,970171,70626,700
1938267118,69864,511230,46330,793
193926782,31844,171225,49029,950
194021335,37242,418125,28930,288
194116524,53835,45371,01134,428
19428213,66529,75332,22719,428
1943456,14318,88320,05213,136
19445113,20913,46651,03516,741
1945459,06018,530118,21610,041
19465210,66320,94248,50614,328
19477421,43315,52844,73112,386
194814856,22950,280143,28224,945
194917953,03538,410203,17320,114
195014229,31549,252125,91736,060
1951145115,76048,269136,82238,044

Appendix A. APPENDICES

(a) PRINCIPAL EVENTS

CHRONOLOGICAL LISTOFSOME NOTEWORTHY EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND

  • 1642. Discovery of New Zealand by Tasman.

  • 1765. Discovery of Pukapuka Island, in the Cook Islands Group.

  • 1769. Captain Cook's first visit to New Zealand.

  • 1773. Captain Cook discovered Island of Manuae, in the Cook Islands Group.

  • 1788. Discovery of Macaulay and Curtis Islands (Kermadec Group), and of Bounty Islands.

  • 1791. Discovery of Snares and Chatham Islands.

  • 1792. First sealing gang left on New Zealand coast.

  • 1793. Discovery of Raoul or Sunday Island (Kermadec Group). Visit of Lieutenant-Governor King, of Norfolk Island, to Doubtless Bay.

  • 1800. Discovery of Antipodes Islands.

  • 1806. Discovery of Auckland Islands.

  • 1807. Defeat of Hongi and the Ngapuhi Tribe.

  • 1810. Discovery of Campbell Island.

  • 1814. Arrival of Rev. Samuel Marsden, and introduction of Christianity. Horses cattle, sheep, and poultry first brought to New Zealand.

  • 1818. Hongi's and To Morenga's great expedition to East Cape.

  • 1819–20. Raid on Taranaki and Port Nicholson by Patuone, None, and To Rauparaha.

  • 1820. Hongi's visit to England. First vessel entered Auckland Harbour.

  • 1821. Hongi's capture of Mauinaina and To Totara Pas. Ngati-Toa migration from Kawhia to Otaki.

  • 1822. Fall of Matakitaki Pa, Waikato, to Hongi.

  • 1823. Fall of Mokoia Pa, Rotorua, to Hongi.

  • 1823–28. Jurisdiction of Courts of Justice in New South Wales extended to British subjects in New Zealand.

  • 1824. Fall of Te Whetumatarau Pa to Pomare.

  • 1826. First attempt at colonization, by an expedition under Captain Herd. Great defeat of Ngati-Whatau by Hongi.

  • 1827. Hongi's forces destroyed mission station at Whangaroa.

  • 1828. Death of Hongi.

  • 1829. Brig “Hawes” captured by Maoris.

  • 1830. Battles of Taumata-wiwi and Kororareka. Fall of Kaiapohia Pa, Canterbury, to Te Rauparaha.

  • 1831. Tory Channel whaling-station established. Application of thirteen chiefs for the protection of King William IV. Capture of Pukerangiora Pa, Waitara, by Waikato.

  • 1832. Repulse of Waikato at Nga-motu Pa.

  • 1833. Mr. James Busby appointed British Resident at Bay of Islands.

  • 1834. Battle near Otaki. Waimate Pa shelled and captured by British—first occasion on which H.M. troops employed in New Zealand.

  • 1835. Declaration of independence of the whole of New Zealand as one nation, with title of “United Tribes of New Zealand.” Ngati-Awa tribes migrated to and conquered Chatham Islands.

  • 1836. Battles between Waikato and Te Arawa.

  • 1838. Pelorus Sound discovered. Arrival of Roman Catholic mission under Bishop Pompallier.

  • 1839. Governor of New South Wales authorized to include within the limits of that colony any territory that might be acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand. Preliminary expedition of New Zealand Company under Colonel Wakefield arrived at Port Nicholson.

  • 1840. Arrival of New Zealand Company's settlers at Port Nicholson. Treaty of Waitangi signed. British sovereignty proclaimed. Captain Hobson appointed Lieutenant-Governor, with residence at Auckland. Settlements formed at Petre (Wanganui) and Akaroa.

  • 1841. Issue of charter of incorporation of New Zealand Company. New Zealand proclaimed independent of Now South Wales. Arrival of New Plymouth settlers.

  • 1842. Settlement founded at Nelson.

  • 1843. Affray with Maoris at the Wairau.

  • 1814. Royal flagstaff at Kororareka cut down by Heke.

  • 1845. Destruction of Kororareka by Heke.

  • 1846. Arrival of first steam vessel (H.M.S. “Driver”) in New Zealand waters. Capture of pa at Ruapekapeka and termination of Heke's war. Maori hostilities near Wellington. Te Rauparaha captured and detained as a prisoner. New Zealand divided into two provinces, New Minister and New Ulster, and representative institutions conferred.

  • 1847. Attack by Maoris on Wanganui.

  • 1848. Suspension of that part of New Zealand Government Act which had conferred representative institutions. Severe earthquake at Wellington. Otago founded.

  • 1850. Surrender of New Zealand Company's charter, all its interests reverting to the Imperial Government. Canterbury founded.

  • 1852. Discovery of gold at Coromandel. Constitution Act passed, granting representative institutions to New Zealand, and dividing country into six provinces.

  • 1854. Opening at Auckland of first session of the General Assembly.

  • 1855. First members elected to the House of Representatives under system of responsible Government. Very severe earthquake on both sides of Cook Strait.

  • 1856. Appointment of first Ministry under system of responsible Government.

  • 1857. Goldfield opened at Collingwood.

  • 1858. New Provinces Act passed. Hawke's Bay Province constituted.

  • 1859. Establishment of Marlborough Province.

  • 1860. Hostilities in Waitara district.

  • 1861. Truce arranged with Waitara Maoris. Bank of New Zealand incorporated. Southland Province established. Gold discovered at Gabriel's Gully, Otago.

  • 1862. Coromandel proclaimed a goldfield. Wreck of s.s. “White Swan,” with loss of many public records. First electric-telegraph line opened—Christchurch to Lyttelton.

  • 1863. Wreck of H.M.S. “Orpheus” on Manukau bar, with loss of 181 lives. Control of Maori affairs transferred to Colonial Government. Commencement of Waikato War. Defeat of Maoris at Rangiriri, and occupation of Ngaruawahia. First railway in New Zealand, portion of Christchurch—Lyttelton line opened.

  • 1864. Severe fighting in Waikato and elsewhere, including Battles of Rangiaohia, Orakau, Gate Pa, and Te Ranga. First major discovery of gold on west coast of South Island.

  • 1865. Seat of Government transferred to Wellington. Further fighting, followed by proclamation of peace. Activities of Hauhau fanatics, including murders of Europeans. Rebel Maoris defeated at Wairoa.

  • 1866. Further defeats of rebel Maoris. Commencement of Panama steam mail-service. Cook Strait submarine telegraph cable laid.

  • 1867. Opening of Thames Goldfield. Lyttelton Tunnel completed. Admission of four Maori members to House of Representatives as direct representatives of Maori people.

  • 1868. Maori prisoners, under leadership of To Kooti, seized schooner “Rifleman” and escaped from Chatham Islands to mainland, where they massacred Europeans. Considerable fighting with these and other rebel Maoris.

  • 1869. Continuation of fighting with rebels and of pursuit of To Kooti. Termination of Panama mail-service. Visit of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh. Government Life Insurance Office established.

  • 1870. Further fighting with Te Kooti. Last, of Imperial troops left New Zealand. Commencement of San Francisco mail-service. Possession taken of Bounty Island. Inauguration of Vogel public-works policy. Act passed to establish the New Zealand University. Southland Province reunited with Otago.

  • 1871. Commencement of railway-construction under public-works policy.

  • 1872. Resumption of friendly relations with Waitara Maoris. Appointment of Maori chiefs (two) to Legislative Council. Public Trust Office created.

  • 1873. Establishment of New Zealand Shipping Company.

  • 1874. In pursuance of immigration and public works policy, 31,774 assisted immigrants arrived. Westland Province established.

  • 1875. Resumption of amicable relations with Maori King. Establishment of Union Steam Ship Company. Abolition of Provinces Act passed.

  • 1876. New Zealand connected by cable with Australia. Abolition of Provinces Act came into operation, provincial institutions being abolished and the country divided into counties and boroughs.

  • 1877. Education Act passed, providing for free and compulsory education.

  • 1878. Completion of the Christchurch-Invercargill railway.

  • 1879. Trouble with Parihaka Maoris, under Te Whiti, and imprisonment of 180 of these. Triennial Parliaments Act passed. Adult male suffrage introduced. Kaitangata coal-mine explosion, whereby thirty-four lives lost.

  • 1880. Release of Parihaka prisoners.

  • 1881. Wreck of s.s. “Tararua,” with less of 130 lives. Severe earthquakes in Wellington. Arrest of Te Whiti and Tohu.

  • 1882. First shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand.

  • 1883. Amnesty to Maori political offenders proclaimed. Te Whiti and Tohu released. Direct steam communication inaugurated between New Zealand and England.

  • 1885. New Zealand Industrial Exhibition at Wellington.

  • 1886. Tarawera eruption, involving loss of 101 lives and destruction of Pink and White Terraces.

  • 1887. Annexation of Kermadec Islands. Members of House of Representatives reduced to seventy-four, including four Maoris.

  • 1888. British protectorate over Cook Islands proclaimed.

  • 1889. South Seas Exhibition at Dunedin.

  • 1890. Great maritime strike. First election of House of Representatives under one-man-one-vote principle.

  • 1891. Inauguration of Liberal regime under Hon. John Ballance, succeeded on his death in 1893 by Mr. Seddon. This and following years marked by passage of industrial and social legislation.

  • 1892. Introduction of lease-in-perpetuity system of land-tenure.

  • 1893. Franchise extended to women. Special licensing poll introduced.

  • 1894. Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act passed. Government Advances to Settlers Act passed. Wreck of s.s. “Wairarapa,” with loss of 135 lives.

  • 1895. Government assumed management of Midland Railway.

  • 1896. Brunner Mine explosion, causing sixty-seven deaths. Abolition of non-residential or property qualification to vote. Government Valuation of Land Act passed.

  • 1898. Old-age Pensions Act passed.

  • 1899. Labour Day instituted. New Zealand Contingent (the first of ten) sent to South Africa.

  • 1900. Number of European representatives in Lower House increased to seventy-six.

  • 1901. T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York visited New Zealand. Penny postage adopted by New Zealand. Cook and other Pacific islands annexed.

  • 1902. Pacific cable opened. Wreck of s.s. “Elingamite”, with loss of forty-three lives. Conference of colonial Premiers in London.

  • 1903. Empire Day proclaimed. State Fire Insurance Act passed.

  • 1905. Workers' Dwellings Act passed. Title of New Zealand's representative in London altered to “High Commissioner.”

  • 1906. Death of Rt. Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier since 1893. Advances to Workers Act passed. New Zealand International Exhibition at Christchurch.

  • 1907. New Zealand constituted a Dominion. Lease-in-perpetuity system of land-tenure abolished. Parliament Buildings destroyed by fire.

  • 1908. Through railway communication established between Wellington and Auckland. Wellington-Manawatu Railway purchased by Government. Second Ballot Act passed.

  • 1909. S.s. “Penguin” wrecked in Cook Strait, with loss of seventy-five lives. Battle-cruiser presented by New Zealand to Imperial Government. System of compulsory military training introduced.

  • 1910. Field-Marshal Lord Kitchener reported and advised on New Zealand defences. Public Debt Extinction Act and National Provident Fund Act passed.

  • 1911. Wireless telegraphy installed in New Zealand. Widows' Pensions Act passed. First poll on national prohibition taken.

  • 1912. Foundation-stone of new Parliament Buildings laid. Public Service placed under Commissioner control.

  • 1913. Visit of Dominions Royal Commission. Visit of gift ship H.M.S. “New Zealand” to Dominion. Extensive strikes. Second Ballot Act repealed. Industrial, Agricultural, and Mining Exhibition at Auckland.

  • 1914. Western Samoa occupied by New Zealand Advance Expeditionary Force. Main Expeditionary Force left for Egypt. Huntly coal-mine disaster, whereby forty-three lives lost.

  • 1915. New Zealand Expeditionary Force engaged in operations on Gallipoli Peninsula. National Cabinet formed. National register of men compiled. Pensions for miners introduced.

  • 1916. New Zealand Division transferred to western front, Mounted Brigade being retained in Egypt. Compulsory enrolment of men for war service introduced. Lake Coleridge electric-supply scheme opened.

  • 1918. S.s. “Wimmera” sunk by enemy mine off New Zealand coast, with loss of 26 lives. Otira Tunnel pierced. Great influenza epidemic, causing over five thousand deaths.

  • 1919. Women made eligible for seats in Parliament. New Zealand represented at Peace Conference by Right Hon. W. F. Massey, P.C., Prime Minister.

  • 1920. Visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales. Railway strike. First aeroplane flight over Cook Strait. League of Nations gave New Zealand mandate to administer Western Samoa. Anzac Day constituted.

  • 1921. Samoa Act passed, making provision for government in terms of mandate New Zealand represented at Disarmament Conference, Washington.

  • 1922. Meat-export trade placed under control of a Board.

  • 1923. Opening of Otira Tunnel. Ross Dependency proclaimed, and placed under jurisdiction of Governor-General. Dairy-produce Export Control Act passed.

  • 1924. Railway strike. Direct two-way radio communication effected with England. Motor-vehicles Act provided for registration and annual licensing of motor-vehicles. Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act passed. Pensions for blind persons introduced.

  • 1925. New Zealand and South Seas International Exhibition at Dunedin. Administration of Tokelau (Union) Islands transferred to New Zealand.

  • 1926. Family Allowances Act passed.

  • 1927. Visit of T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York. Summer Time Act passed. Petrol-tax imposed.

  • 1928. Kingsford Smith and party made first successful flight across Tasman Sea. Compulsory insurance of motor-vehicles provided for by Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act.

  • 1929. Severe earthquake in Murchison-Karamea district caused seventeen deaths. Daylight-saving (half-hour) permanently adopted for summer months. Fatal clash between police and Mau at Apia, Western Samoa.

  • 1930. Legislation providing for relief of unemployment first passed.

  • 1931. Worst earthquake in history of New Zealand occurred in Hawke's Bay, resulting in the loss of 255 lives. General reduction of 10 per cent. in wages and salaries. Parliament approved draft Statute of Westminster. Mortgagors' relief legislation passed.

  • 1932. Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act made important changes in industrial legislation. National Expenditure Adjustment Act made reductions in old-age and other pensions, in salaries of State employees, and in rentals, interest rates, and other fixed charges. The historic Waitangi Estate presented to the nation by Their Excellencies Lord and Lady Bledisloe. New Zealand represented at Ottawa Conference.

  • 1933. Exchange raised at instance of Government to £125 N.Z. for £100 London (telegraphic transfers). Sales tax of 5 per cent. on wholesale sales instituted. Conversion of internal public debt with reduction in interest rates, and provision made for local authorities' interest reduction and loans conversion. Successful experimental shipments of chilled beef to England. Issue of New Zealand silver coinage.

  • 1934. First official trans-Tasman air-mail. Reserve Bank incorporated and commenced business. H.R.H. the Duke of Gloucester arrived on an official visit. First licensed air-transport service commenced operations.

  • 1935. Bank-notes of trading banks ceased to be legal tender. Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act passed, and Court of Review established. National Government defeated at general election, and Labour Government assumed office for first of four successive terms.

  • 1936. Inauguration of inter-Island trunk air services. Reserve Bank nationalized. System of guaranteed prices for butter and cheese introduced. Forty-hour week became operative. Powers of Arbitration Court restored. Rail-car services inaugurated. New Zealand elected to seat on League of Nations Council.

  • 1937. New Zealand represented at Imperial Conference by Right Hon. M. J. Savage, Hon. W. Nash, and Mr. W. J. Jordan. Death of Lord Rutherford of Nelson.

  • 1938. Mr. W. J. Jordan, New Zealand's representative on League of Nations, elected President of the League Assembly. Social Security Act passed. Introduction of import selection and control.

  • 1939. Declaration of war with Germany. Recruitment for 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Arrangements for purchase of primary products by Imperial Government. New Zealand Centennial Exhibition opened at Wellington. Issue of New Zealand bronze coinage. Naval engagement off River Plate, South America, in which H.M.S. “Achilles,” largely manned by New Zealand ratings, took part.

  • 1940. Centennial celebrations. Departure of First Echelon of 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Death of the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage; succeeded in office by Hon. P. Fraser. Declaration of war with Italy. R.M.S. “Niagara” sunk off New Zealand coast by enemy mine. Ballots for military service. National savings scheme inaugurated. Island of Nauru bombarded by enemy raider.

  • 1941. Italian raider sunk by H.M.N.Z.S. “Leander” in Indian Ocean. Daylight saving period extended to cover whole year. Minesweeper H.M.N.Z.S. “Puriri” sunk by mine in Hauraki Gulf, five fatalities. First enrolment of married men for military service. Death penalty abolished, also flogging and whipping. Declaration of war with Finland, Hungary, and Rumania. Declaration of war with Japan. Territorial Forces mobilized.

  • 1942. Complete mobilization of Military Forces ordered. Introduction of control of industrial man-power. Compulsory enrolment of all male British subjects between ages of eighteen and sixty-live, inclusive, in Emergency Reserve Corps. Lend-lease reciprocal aid extended to include Australia and New-Zealand. Gold to value of £2,397,000 salvaged from R.M.S. “Niagara.” Rationing introduced, principal items being tea, sugar, clothing, footwear, and household linen. Severe earthquakes in Wairarapa and Wellington districts on 24th June and 2nd August. Mobilization of women for essential work. Thirty-seven lives lost in fire at Seacliff Mental Hospital. Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations issued.

  • 1943. H.M.N.Z. Corvette “Moa” sunk by Japanese, with loss of five lives. Death of Right Hon. J. G. Coates, M.C., member of War Cabinet and former Prime Minister. North African campaign brought to a successful conclusion. Railway accident near Hyde—twenty-one persons killed and thirty-eight injured. 2nd N.Z.E.F. (3rd Division) took part in action against Japanese in the Pacific Area. Butter rationing introduced.

  • 1944. Australian - New Zealand Agreement, 1944, providing for collaboration on matters of mutual interest. Meat rationing introduced, also egg rationing introduced in certain areas. Annual Holidays Act passed. Third division, 2nd N.Z.E.F., returned to New Zealand from the Pacific Area. Invasion of France by Allied Forces commenced. Mutual-aid Agreement between Canadian and New Zealand Governments signed.

  • 1945. Royal Commission commenced inquiries into licensing laws of New Zealand. New Zealand represented on United Nations Committee of Jurists by the Chief Justice. War in Europe ended (8th May). War gratuities payments scheme announced. Man-power controls in regard to women and young persons relaxed. War-time press censorship abolished. War Cabinet dissolved. War in Pacific ended, Japan formally surrenders (15th August). Electoral Amendment Act, providing for abolition of the “country quota,” passed. New Zealand National Airways Act, providing for complete control of air transport as a national service, passed. South Island Main Trunk Railway opened, through rail connection from Picton to Bluff established.

  • 1946. Opening of first session of General Assembly of the United Nations in London. First women Members of Legislative Council (two) appointed. Empire Civil Aviation Conference held in Wellington. Air Service between New Zealand and J Force in Japan inaugurated by R.N.Z.A.F. Restrictions on consumption of electric power imposed in North Island. Remaining man-power controls covering freezing-works, coal-mining, sawmilling, and forestry lifted (June). Family benefit of 10s. per week made universal as from 1st April. Coupon rationing of motor-spirits revoked. Lieutenant-General Sir Bernard Freyberg, V.C., assumed office as Governor-General (17th June). Railways Department inaugurated inter-island air freight service. Imports of phosphate from Nauru and Ocean Islands resumed. Contracts for bulk purchase of wool by United Kingdom Government expired, sales by auction resumed.

  • 1947. New Zealand delegation, led by Right Hon. W. Nash, attended conference at Canberra to establish a regional commission for South Pacific. £12,500,000 presented to United Kingdom Government by New Zealand. Rear-Admiral R. E. Byrd's Antarctic Expedition called at Wellington. New Zealand delegation attended International Conference on Trade and Employment at Geneva. Karapiro hydro-electric-power station completed. Local Government Commission appointed. First woman Cabinet Minister in New Zealand appointed. Marketing of dairy-produce and fixation of guaranteed price taken over by Dairy Commission. Railway fares and freight charges increased, first rise since 1938. The Prime Minister attended a conference at Canberra of British Commonwealth Governments on Japanese peace treaty. Statute of Westminster adopted by New Zealand Parliament. New Zealand delegation attended United Nations Conference on Trade and Employment at Havana. Disastrous fire in Christ-church, 41 persons perished. Prime Minister of Australia visited New Zealand. Clothing rationing abolished.

  • 1948. Release of Gaming Commission report. Railway accident near Blenheim, with loss of six lives. Compulsory motor-spirits rationing reintroduced 1st March; schools resumed on that date also, after the long closure on account of the poliomyelitis epidemic. Withdrawal of New Zealand Army component of J Force during the period July to September. Mount Ngauruhoe erupts after twenty-two years' quiescence. Abolition of tea, sugar, and meat rationing during year. Australia - New Zealand Ministerial discussions on trade, defence, &c., held at Canberra. The longest regular air flight in the world maintained by the same aircraft and crew ended on 6th June, when the last flight of the R.N.Z.A.F. Japan - New Zealand air courier service was completed. Adjustment of exchange rate to parity with sterling as from the 20th August. Cyclone at Frankton entailed much damage and loss of three lives. New radio frequencies operated in New Zealand from beginning of September. The Prime Minister attended the Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference in London. National Airways Corporation's “Kaka” crashed on Mount Ruapehu, with the loss of thirteen lives—New Zealand's worst air disaster. Discovery of notornis near Lake Te Anau.

  • 1949. The Government adopted now consumers' price index covering a greater range of retail prices. Seventh Pacific Science Congress held at Auckland and Christ-church. Polls on the establishment of off-course betting and on an alteration in hotel hours held in March. Report of Commission of Inquiry into press complaints after crash of aircraft “Kaka” released. Protracted carpenters' dispute at Auckland. Lodestar airliner “Karoro” crashes near Waikanae, with loss of fifteen lives. Arrival of the British Minister of State for Colonial Affairs for discussions with the New Zealand Government. The Prime Minister. Right Hon. P. Fraser, attended a Conference of Commonwealth Prime Ministers in London. The first Territorial military training activity since the war commenced with general instruction courses for Territorial officers. Victoria University College commemorated the fiftieth anniversary of its founding. Commencement of Rimutaka railway tunnel deviation. Referendum on question of compulsory military training held and answered in the affirmative. Report of Sheep Industry Commission released. British Government devalued sterling by approximately 30 per cent. from 1st September. New Zealand currency remained at parity with sterling—i.e., also being devalued in terms of United States dollars. Maori electors given the right to vote in general licensing polls. Compulsory military training scheme for youths of eighteen years outlined. Off-course betting authorized. Butter ration increased to 8 oz. weekly in October. General election: Labour Government in office since 1935 defeated. The National Government, under the new Prime Minister. Hon. S. G. Holland, assumed office on the 13th December.

  • 1950. Regular night crossings Sydney-Auckland by Tasman Empire Airways, Ltd., inaugurated. The Minister of External Affairs attended Colombo Conference. British Empire Games held at Auckland. Conference of social security experts held in Wellington. Control of land sales, except of farm land, lifted. Price control removed on many items at various times throughout the year. Control of sterling funds and securities relaxed. First group of eighteen-year-olds entered camp under compulsory military training scheme. Government approved plan for development of Rongotai Airport to handle internal commercial air traffic. New Zealand Legation at Moscow closed. Radio broadcasting hours reduced to conserve electricity. Seven and one-half per cent. surcharge imposed on cargo freights from United Kingdom to Auckland. Prime Minister announced intention to abolish subsidies. Increases in suburban rail fares, and on certain classes of goods and, later, in road service passenger fares. Announcement by the Prime Minister of abolition of 33 1/3 per cent. additional tax on unearned income. Abolition of petrol and butter rationing. Social security benefits raised by cost-of-living bonus and an interim wage order issued by Court of Arbitration providing for wage increases. New general price order authorizing adjustments consequent on withdrawal of subsidies, and increases in freights and wages. Two New Zealand frigates departed for Korean waters. Increases in postal charges, telegram and telephone rates announced. Government offered special combat force to the United Nations for service in Korea. Terms of sale of State houses announced. Commencement of 1950–51 wool sales resulted in record prices being paid, far exceeding those of the previous year. Legislative Council Abolition Act passed. Waterside strike originating in Wellington extended to all ports. State of Emergency proclaimed in New Zealand. Royal Commission appointed to inquire into waterfront industry. Off-course betting scheme approved. The Minister of Marketing attended wool conference in London. The Minister of External Affairs represented New Zealand at Commonwealth discussions in London. Capital punishment for murder restored. Flying-boat service between Wellington and Sydney by Tasman Empire Airways, Ltd., commenced in October. Commonwealth Parliamentary Association Conference held in Wellington. Seven deaths occurred as result of R.N.Z.A.F. plane crash into Samoan lagoon. Kayforce sailed from Wellington for Korea on 10th December. Rail strike in last week of year. Death of Rt. Hon. Peter Fraser, Prime Minister 1940–49. The Prime Minister, Eight Hon. S. G. Holland, attended a conference of Commonwealth Prime Ministers. Loss of twenty-two lives when launch “Ranui” wrecked off Mount Maunganui.

  • 1951. Increased freight charges on cargo from Australia to New Zealand announced. Royal New Zealand Navy ships engaged in extensive exercises in conjunction with the Australian Fleet. Yachting tragedy during Wellington-Lyttelton race, three yachts lost with loss of thirteen lives. General order issued by Court of Arbitration increasing rates of wages by 15 per cent. as from 15th February. Government decided to hold prices of butter, milk, bread, and flour at existing levels by means of subsidies. Social security benefits and war pensions increased. Peak price of New Zealand wool reached, touching 240d. per lb. at Christchurch wool sale. Brooklyn by-election held, Hon. A. H. Nordmeyer elected. Motor-cars from “soft currency” sources removed from import control. Successive lists of items removed from import control during year. Prolonged water-front strike (February-July) resulting in Proclamation of State of Emergency, and issue of regulations under the Public Safety Conservation Act, including power to maintain essential services. Servicemen kept essential cargoes moving. Waterfront unions deregistered followed by deregistration of certain other unions—e.g., freezing workers; seamen and miners also involved. Establishment of Civil Emergency Reserve. Members of Taxation Committee appointed. Off-course betting operations commenced by Totalizator Agency Board. increase of 7 1/2 per cent. in contract price of butter and cheese for 1950–51 season announced; later in year a similar increase granted for 1951–52 season. Census of New Zealand taken in April. Contract let to United States of America firm for construction of Rimutaka tunnel. Freight rates raised during 7th May to 31st July by 50 per cent. from United Kingdom and American Atlantic ports, this following on a 10 per cent. increase from 1st May. With the lifting of the surcharge of 50 per cent., an increase of 10 per cent. operated after 1st October. Visit of the band of the Black Watch Regiment. £10,000,000 national development loan oversubscribed. Bonus of £5 in respect of each child under sixteen years of age paid by Government. The Prime Minister announced decision to seek early dissolution of Parliament, and to submit its administration of waterfront crisis to the judgment of erectors. The shortest session of Parliament on record, 26th June to 14th July, concluded. The United States of America placed ban on dairy imports under the Defense Production Act (which gave power to exclude agricultural products if these had an adverse effect on the domestic market). Government reduced price of six basic items (bread, flour, butter, tea, gas, motor-spirits) by either subsidy or reduction in Customs duty. The troopship “Wahine,” en route with 570 troops to Korea, struck Masela Island reef, and was abondoned with no casualties; troops subsequently flown to Japan. Wool prices, at resumption of sales, fell severely from those ruling before suspension; a reduction of approximately 65 per cent. on the highest prices attained earlier. National Government returned to power for second term on 1st September with a slightly increased majority. The United States of America, Australia, and New Zealand sign Pacific Security Treaty. Parliament formally opened by Commission of three Supreme Court Judges prior to ceremonial opening by Governor-General. Royal Commission recommendations for substantial increases in salary and allowances of Ministers, Members of Parliament, &c., adopted. Merger of Bank of Australasia and Union Bank of Australia to become the Australia and New Zealand Bank. Budget contained tax concessions, rises in social security benefits, and increased defence votes. Freight rates on railways raised by from 5 to 20 per cent. Taxation Committee report tabled in the House of Representatives.

(b) LIST OF ARTICLES ON SPECIAL SUBJECTS APPEARING IN PREVIOUS ISSUES OF THE YEAR-BOOK

Article onAppeared for the Last or Only Time in the Year-Book of
Year.Page.
Acclimatization1894430
Agriculture in New Zealand (by M. Murphy, F.L.S.)1912809
Alexander Turnbull Library1946914
“Britomart,” mission of, at Akaroa in August, 184019271012
Building-stones1892194
Cancer in New Zealand—a statistical study1926889
Chatham Islands, the1900531
Cheviot estate, the1895264
Christchurch to West Coast, journey from1899548
Coal-deposits of New Zealand, the1900479
Cook Islands, the laws of1902573
Co-operative system of constructing public works1894234
Dairy farm survey1938429
Economic policy and national income19501033
Education system of New Zealand, the1925816
Effect of nativity order on infant mortality1925835
Exotic trees in Canterbury1904569
External trade of New Zealand, the1915858
Fauna, the194036
Forest-trees and the timber industry1899470
Frozen-meat trade, the1894311
Geology19407
Gold-dredging industry, the1899509
Government training-ship “Amokura”1913942
Hanmer thermal springs1905631
Hemp industry, the1900477
H.M.S. “New Zealand”1913932
Kauri-gum1900489
Labour in New Zealand1894362
Lakes of New Zealand193211
Land and income tax assessment1913884
Laws of England and New Zealand, difference between1896281
Libraries1940928
Live-stock production—A review based on standard values and units1929990
Local government in New Zealand1925845
Maori, ancient, his amusements, games, &c.1907707
" ancient, his clothing1908734
" chant (tangi)1907711
" colour-sense of the1905637
" marriage customs1906638
" mythology1900536
" neolithic, the1902578
" religion1901530
" sociology1903641
" songs1908739
" topographical nomenclature of the1919936
Marlborough Sounds, the1901517
Midland railway, the1894386
Mineral waters and spas1940935
Mineral waters of New Zealand1913896
Moa, heir of the1899517
Mortality rates, New Zealand1927995
Mount Cook, a night on1900525
" district, the1899554
" its glaciers, and the Hermitage1898552
Mount Sefton, ascent of1900519
National Film Unit1946724
New Zealand contingents for South Africa1900449
New Zealand international exhibition1907701
Otago lakes, the1901523
Patents, designs, and trade-marks1893350
Plants of New Zealand, the194028
Pumice-stone deposits of New Zealand1900486
Railways in New Zealand, their history and progress1894377
Retail prices in New Zealand with special reference to the Consumers' Price Index1947–49998
Rivers of New Zealand19326
Ross Dependency1938900
Scenic wonderland, a1898565
Sheep, crossbreeding of1894308
Sheep-farming1894302
Shipping companies—  
  New Zealand Shipping Company1895392
  Shaw, Savill, and Albion Company1895393
  Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand1895389
Southern Alps, the1894474
State farms1894243
Sydney pageant, the1901527
Terman intelligence tests in New Zealand schools1925823
Thermal-springs district1905614
Timber-trees of the world1903605
Tokaanu to Raetihi1899539
      Totalizator, the1926838
Tourist attractions1940932
Tree-planting1906611
Tuhoeland1899546
Varieties of soil1892193
Wages and working-hours in New Zealand1919860
Waihi Gold-milling Company1897432
Waikato district and through to Wanganui1899520
Waiouru to Mangaonoho1899543
Wanganui River, up the to Tokaanu1900509
Wattle-growing in the Auckland Provincial District1897430
Wellington-Manawatu railway, the1895381
Wellington municipal milk supply1925777
West Coast Sounds, the1894482
White Island, a day on1906637

(c) GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Until recently, successive issues of the Year-Book contained a comprehensive list of New Zealand works, but considerations of space now prohibit the publication of such a list.

The following list, compiled by Mr. C. R. H. Taylor, M.A., Dip.Jour. (Librarian of the Alexander Turnbull Library) includes the more notable works in their fields issued from 1950 onwards. Earlier works are listed in the 1947-49 issue of the Year-Book (pages 979–998) and in the 1932 issue.

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND LIBRARIES

  • HARRIS, Wm. J. Guide to New Zealand reference material and other sources of information, 2nd edition. Wellington. N.Z. Library Association, 1950.

  • NORTHERN ADVOCATE INDEX. (Quarterly.) Whangarei. Northern Publishing Co.

  • OLSSON, A. L. Index to New Zealand Periodicals. Wellington. N.Z. Library Association, 1950.

  • TAYLOR, Clyde Homer Hughes. A Pacific Bibliography: Printed matter relating to the native peoples of Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia. (Includes classified bibliography on the Maori.) Wellington. Polynesian Society, 1951.

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC STUDIES

  • ALEXANDER, Robert Ritchie. The story of To Aute College. (The leading secondary school for Maori boys.) Wellington. Reed, 1951.

  • BRIDGER, Grover Leon. Fertilizer production in New Zealand. Wellington. Government Printer, 1951.

  • CAMPBELL, Richard M. The Public Service Commission in operation. Wellington. Institute of Public Administration, 1950.

  • LOCHORE, Reuel Anson. From Europe to New Zealand. An account of our continental European settlers. Wellington. Reed, 1951.

  • MAPLES, E. Social security services in New Zealand. Oxford University Press, 1949.

  • NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT. The New Zealand Economy 1939–1951. Wellington. Government Printer, 1951.

  • SOCIAL SECURITY DEPARTMENT. The growth and development of social security in New Zealand … (1898–1949). Wellington. Government Printer, 1950.

  • NEW ZEALAND UNIVERSITY. Alphabetical roll of graduates. Wellington, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1951.

  • SCHOLEFIELD, Guy Hardy. New Zealand parliamentary record 1840–1849. Wellington. Government Printer, 1950.

LAW

  • MERCANTILE GAZETTEOF N.Z. Digest of legal, commercial, and statistical information. Christchurch. Trade Auxiliary, 1950.

COMMUNICATION: PHILATELY

  • N.Z. PHILATELIC SOCIETY. Catalogue of New Zealand Stamps, Vol. 2, 1951.

LANGUAGE

  • HARAWIRE, Kahi Takimoana. Teach yourself Maori. Wellington. Reed, 1950.

  • KOHERE, Reweti Tuhorouta. Maori proverbs and sayings translated and explained. Wellington. Reed, 1951.

  • WILLS, Webster H. Lessons in the Maori language. New Plymouth. Avery, 1950.

BOTANY

  • WALL, Arnold. Botanical names of the flora of New Zealand. Auckland. Whitcombe & Tombs, 1950.

ETHNOLOGY

  • ADKIN, G. Leslie. Horowhenua. Wellington. Polynesian Society, 1949.

  • BUCK, Peter H. The Coming of the Maori. Wellington. Maori Purposes Board, 1950.

  • DOFF, Roger S. Moa-hunter period of Maori culture. Wellington. Department of Internal Affairs, 1950.

  • KELLY, Leslie G. Tainui. Wellington. Polynesian Society, 1949.

  • PHILLIPPS, Wm. J. Maori carving. Wellington. Tombs, 1950.

  • PRICE, A. G. White settlers and native peoples. Melbourne. Georgian House, 1949. (2 chapters on Maori race.)

  • REED, A. H. & A. W. Maori place-names and their meanings. Wellington. Reed, 1950.

  • RUFF, Elsie. Jade of the Maori. London. Gemmological Association, 1950.

  • SUTHERLAND, I. L. G. Ngarimu Hui. Wellington. Polynesian Society, 1949.

SCIENCE: GENERAL

  • BASTINGS, Lyndon (editor). Directory of New Zealand science. 2nd edition. Wellington. N.Z. Association of Scientific Workers, 1951.

  • NEW ZEALAND ASTRONOMICAL HANDBOOK. (Annual.) Wellington. Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand.

  • STIDOLPH, Robert Hector Donald (editor). The Takahe: Accounts of field investigations on notornis. Masterton. Ornithological Society of N.Z., 1951.

MEDICINE

  • BEAGLEHOLE, Ernest. Mental health in New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand. University Press, 1951.

  • BROWN, Charles Maurice Bevan. Sources of love and fear. Wellington. Reed, 1950.

POETRY

  • BAXTER, James Keir. Recent trends in New Zealand poetry. Christchurch. Caxton, 1951.

  • CAMPBELL, Alistair. Mine eyes dazzle. Poems, 1947–49, Christchurch. Caxton, 1950.

  • CURNOW, Thomas Allen Monro (editor). A book of New Zealand verse, 1923–50. Christchurch. Caxton, 1951.

  • WALL, Arnold. A century of New Zealand's praise. Christchurch. Simpson & Williams, 1950.

  • WOODHOUSE, Airini E. New Zealand farm and station verse, 1850–1950. Christchurch. Whitcombe & Tombs, 1950.

LITERATURE AND ART

  • BERKMAN, Sylvia Leah. Katharine Mansfield: A critical study. New Haven. Yale University Press, 1951.

  • HOLCROFT, Montague Harry. Discovered isles: A trilogy. (Second issue of three separate essays). Christchurch. Caxton, 1950.

  • HOWELL, Arthur R. Frances Hodgkins: Four vital years. London. Rockiff, 1951.

  • MANSFIELD, Katherine. Katherine Mansfield's letters to John Middleton Murry. London. Constable, 1951.

DESCRIPTION AND TRAVEL

  • PANTON, H. S. New Zealand. A preview of the land of the Long White Cloud. London. Rockliff, 1951.

  • REEVES, W. P. The Long White Cloud. Ao-tea-roa … with additional chapters by A. J. Harrop. London. Allen & Unwin, 1950.

BIOGRAPHY

  • BURDON, R. M. New Zealand notables: Series three. Christchurch. Caxton, 1951.

  • CARRINGTON, C. E. John Robert Godley of Canterbury. Christchurch. Whitcombe & Tombs, 1950.

  • SCHOLEFIELD, Guy Hardy. Who's who in New Zealand. 5th edition. Wellington. Reed, 1951.

  • THE NEW ZEALAND BUSINESS WHO'S WHO, 1951. Wellington. Watkins, 1951.

  • WILSON, Helen Mary. My first eighty years. Hamilton. Paul's Book Arcade, 1950.

HISTORY: GENERAL

  • MILLER, Harold G. New Zealand. London. Hutchinson, 1950.

HISTORY: SPECIAL

  • ACLAND, Leopold George Dyke. The early Canterbury runs and glossary of station terms. (Incorporating earlier volumes.) Christchurch. Whitcombe & Tombs. 1951.

  • COOK, JAMES. Captain Cook in New Zealand. Extracts from the Journals, edited by A. H. and A. W. Reed. Wellington. Reed, 1951.

  • GODLEY, Charlotte (Wynne). Letters from early New Zealand, 1850–1853. Christchurch. Whitcombe & Tombs, 1951.

  • INGRAM, Charles William Nepean, and P. Owen Wheatley, Shipwrecks: New Zealand disasters, 1795–1950. Wellington. Reed, 1951.

  • KELLY, Leslie George. Marion Dufresne at the Bay of Islands. Wellington. Reed, 1951.

  • MACKAY, Joseph Angus. Historic Poverty Bay and the East Coast. Gisborne. The Author, 1949.

  • RAMSDEN, George Eric Oakes. Rangiatea; the story of Otaki church. Wellington. Reed, 1951.

  • SINCLAIR, Keith. Maori land league. Auckland University College, 1950.

  • STEWART, George Gordon. The romance of New Zealand railways. Wellington. Reed, 1951.

HISTORY: WAR

  • CLARE, B. G. Early operations with Bomber Command. Wellington. War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1950.

  • DEAN, H. R. The R.N.Z.A.F. in South-east Asia, 1941–42. Wellington. War History Branch. Department of Internal Affairs, 1952.

  • FAIRCLOTH, N. W. New Zealanders in the Battle of Britain. Wellington. War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1950.

  • HALL, D. O. W. New Zealanders in South Africa, 1899–1902. Wellington. War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1949.

  • —— Prisoners of Germany. Wellington. War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1949.

  • —— Coastwatchers. Wellington. War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1951.

  • KAY, R. L. Long range desert group in the Mediterranean. Wellington. War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1950.

  • LLEWELLYN, S. P. Journey towards Christmas. (Official History of the 1st Ammunition Company, 2nd N.Z.E.F.). Wellington. War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1949.

  • MCKINNEY, J. B. Wounded in battle. Wellington. War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1950.

  • —— Medical Units of 2nd N.Z.E.F. in Middle East and Italy. Wellington. War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1952.

  • N.Z. DEPARTMENTOF INTERNAL AFFAIRS. Documents relating to New Zealand's participation in the Second World War, 1939–45. Vol. I. Wellington. Government Printer, 1950. Vol.2. Wellington. Government Printer, 1951.

  • ROSS, J. M. S. The Assault on Rabaul. Wellington. War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1949.

  • THOMPSON, H. L. Aircraft against U-boat. Wellington. War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1950.

  • WARDS, I. McL. Takrouna. Wellington. War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1951.

  • WATERS, S. D. Ordeal by sea. N.Z. Shipping Company in the Second World War, 1939–45. London. N.Z. Shipping Company, 1949.

  • —— Leander. Wellington. War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1950.

  • WHELAN, J. A. Malta Airmen. Wellington. War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1951.

  • UNDERHILL, Rev. M. L., and others. New Zealand Chaplains in the Second World War. Wellington. War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1950.

COOK AND OTHER ISLANDS

  • SIMPSON, Frank A. Chatham Islands. Wellington. Reed, 1950.

  • THOMAS, Marjory C. J. Forgotten islands of the South Pacific by Rosaline Redwood (pseud.). (Solander, Codfish, Ruapuke, Macquarie and Chatham Islands). Wellington. Reed, 1950.

  • UNIVERSAL business directory for Pacific Islands. Auckland. Universal Business Directories, 1950.

(d) DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

On the 25th May, 1926, a report by Sir Frank Heath, K.C.B. (Secretary to the United Kingdom Department of Scientific and Industrial Research), was presented by the then Prime Minister of New Zealand to both Houses of the Assembly. The report was on the organization of scientific and industrial research in New Zealand. At the last session of Parliament of 1926 “An Act to make Provision for the Promotion and Organization of Scientific Research, and for its Application to the Primary and Secondary Industries of New Zealand” (17 Geo. V) was passed. On the 9th October, 1926, an Advisory Council was appointed, and on the 26th and 27th October, 1926, the inaugural meeting of the Council (the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research) was hold.

ORGANIZATION—A Minister of the Crown is in charge of the Department and the administrative head of the Department is the Permanent Secretary, who also acts as Secretary of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Council advises the Minister, exercises general supervision over research work, and appoints research advisory committees of specialists in particular subjects.

The members of the Council are—

  • Sir Theodore Rigg, K.B.E., M.A., Hon.D.Sc., M.Sc., F.R.I.C., F.R.S.N.Z. (Chairman).

  • Dr. J. C. Andrews, Ph.D., M.Sc., F.R.I.C. F.N.Z.I.C. (Deputy Chairman).

  • Mr. E. J. Fawcett, O.B.E., M.A. (Cantab.).

  • Mr. E. R. McKillop, O.B.E., M.I.G.E.

  • Dr. R. O. Page. D.Sc., F.R.S.N.Z., F.R.I.C., F.N.Z.I.C.

  • Dr. H. D. Purves, M.Sc., M.B., Ch.B.

  • Mr. J. M. Ranstead, Bledisloe Medallist and Dip., C.A.C.

  • Professor W. Riddet, B.Sc. (Agric), N.D.A., N.D.D.

  • Mr. D. F. Sandys Wunsch, M.A. (Oxon), B.Sc. (McGill). F.N.Z.I.C., M.I.Chem. E., Assoc. Inst. M.M.

The Permanent Secretary of the Department is Mr. F. R. Callaghan, M.A., who is ex officio, entitled to attend and speak at all meetings of the Council, but not to vote.

There are three Assistant Secretaries (who are professional officers) and a Chief Administrative Officer. Each Assistant Secretary is responsible for one of the three groups of branches—Chemistry and Geology, Agriculture and Biology (with a sub-group under a Deputy Assistant Secretary), and Physics and Engineering.

From its inception the Department has fostered the organization of co-operative research in industry. Following the setting-up of the Manufacturers' Research Committee in 1944 to promote research in the manufacturing industries, three research associations—Dairy, Leather, and Wool—that were formerly administered by the Department have boon incorporated as industrial research associations, and three additional associations have been formed. Those are entirely self-governed, being controlled by management committees comprising representatives elected by the industry concerned and at least two Government nominees, whose presence ensures that the association can make the fullest use of the resources of the Department in their research programmes.

FINANCE.—The funds required by the Department are provided by Parliament in the form of annual appropriations. Some expenditure is recovered from other Departments and from industrial firms in payments for special investigations and services. The incorporated research associations are financed by contributions from members, together with grants from the Department on a pound-for-pound basis. The Wheat Research Institute, the Tobacco Research Station, and the Hop Research Station are controlled by the Department, but receive contributions from industry.

BRANCHES OF THE DEPARTMENT.—The transfer of services and laboratories from other State Departments formed the nucleus of the now Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. These were the Dominion Laboratory and Dominion Observatory from the Internal Affairs Department, the Geological Survey from the Mines Department, the Meteorological Office from the Marine Department, the Stone-testing Laboratory and Geological Advisory Service from the Public Works Department, and the Technical Control of the Samoan Observatory from the External Affairs Department.

In the ensuing years the Department expanded steadily, new branches being formed, or existing ones being regrouped, as the need became apparent.

The chronological order of the establishment of the various brandies was as follows:—

  • 1928 Scientific Liaison Office in London. (Tin's was the first of the Commonwealth Scientific Liaison Offices to be established.)

  • 1929 Plant Research Station. (Jointly with the Department of Agriculture Further developed in 1936 and 1948, q.v.)

  • 1936 Plant Research Bureau set up, with sections for agronomy, botany, entomology, grasslands, and plant diseases. Soil Bureau separated from Geological Survey.

  • 1938 Tobacco Research Station established.

  • 1939 Physical Testing Laboratory established (later, in 1943, to become the Dominion Physical Laboratory, q.v.).

  • 1942 Industrial Psychology Division established (later, in 1948, to become the Occupational Psychology Research Section, q.v.).

  • 1943 Dominion Physical Laboratory.

  • 1944 Information Bureau; Scientific Liaison Officers at Washington and Melbourne.

  • 1945 Auckland Industrial Development Laboratories.

  • 1946 Fats Research Laboratory.

  • 1948 Occupational Psychology Research Section. Plant Research Bureau abolished; its sections (see 1936 become Divisions; Fruit Research Station; Hop Research Station; Animal Ecology Section.

  • 1949 Applied Mathematics Laboratory.

  • 1950 Crop Research Division (by amalgamation of Agronomy Division and Wheat-breeding Section of the Wheat Research Institute).

  • 1951 Geophysics Division.

The Defence Research Organization carries out defence research projects under the direction of the Defence Science Policy Committee (Chiefs of Staff and Secretary. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research).

The order of establishment of the incorporated research associations was:—

  • 1945 N.Z. Woollen Mills Research Association (Inc.) (formerly the N.Z. Wool Manufacturers' Research Association, sot up in 1937).

  • 1946 N.Z. Pottery and Ceramics Research Association (Inc.).

  • 1947 Dairy Research Institute (N.Z.) (Inc.) (formerly the Dairy Research Institute, established in 1927).

  • 1947 N.Z. Fertilizer Manufacturers' Research Association (Inc.).

  • 1949 N.Z. Leather and Shoe Research Association (Inc.) (formerly N.Z. Leather Research Association, set up in 1928).

THE WORK OF THE BRANCHES.—The activities of the various branches are set out in the following paragraphs:—

The Animal Ecology Section studies the ecology of introduced and native mammals and birds. Basic information is sought on the many aspects of rabbit bionomics in order that effective control may be planned. The distribution and density of the population of the rat and mouse in urban and rural habitats are investigated and control measures suggested. Regional surveys are made in order to obtain information on the distribution and ecology of native and introduced mammals and birds.

A field station has been established at Tikokino for research on rabbits.

The Applied Mathematics Laboratory was established in 1949 as the successor to the Biometrics Section established in 1946. The functions of the laboratory are to advise departmental research officers as to the most efficient statistical techniques; to advance the study of applied mathematics and their application to the various projects of the Department; to undertake large-scale computational work of a research character; to survey systematically recent advances in the various projects of the Department; to inculcate in research workers an appreciation of the part played by modern statistical methods; and to provide statistical advice to other Government Departments, University colleges, &c.

The Laboratory concentrates on mathematical statistics and computing. It has set up a research group in mathematical statistics and seconds members of the staff to various research centres of the Department. The Laboratory is equipped with a complete range of Powers-Samas punched-card equipment.

The Auckland Industrial Development Laboratories provide, mainly in the Auckland area, a research service for industry; they act as a source of technical advice and information for the benefit of industry, the Services, local authorities, and Government Departments; and they collaborate with University colleges and research establishments in the promotion of research and development.

The laboratories have a mechanical engineering section, an engineering workshop, a physics section, an electrical and electronics section, a photographic section, a metallurgical section, and a library and information service. The laboratories maintain a subsidiary standards laboratory, associated with the Dominion Physical Laboratory, for the local calibration of electrical and other instruments. The work on metals is aimed at improving the standard of work in the various local metal-working industries. Checks are made of materials for compliance with relevant specifications, determination is made of the causes of metal failure, and other allied tests are made.

The Botany Division covers all general aspects of plant life other than the strictly economic. To the other Divisions that deal with specialized research on cultivated plants. their parasites and enemies, the Botany Division acts as a general reference authority, but it does not enter their specialized fields of research. Detailed information on plants. plant products, and all phenomena connected with vegetation are supplied to such Divisions and other State Departments. A much-used service is the identification of plants, and several thousands of inquiries are answered every year. A large herbarium has been built up and is being added to constantly, its objective is to include every plant growing or occurring in New Zealand except fungi (which are collected by the Plant Diseases Division). In addition to the main herbarium, sub-herbaria of collections of seeds, pollen grains, fern spores, &c., have been built up. Complementary to the herbaria is a library of botanical literature for research workers.

In association with other Divisions of the Department, research is conducted on Phormium tenax, especially on the incidence of yellow-leaf.

The Division records all importations of new plants. Studios are made of the living plant under all conditions.

There are five substations: peat and palynology at Wellington; Phormium tenax at Foxton: gymnosperms at Nelson; agrostology and poisonous plants at Christchurch; and a nursery and garden at Lower Hutt.

The Crop Research Division carries out research on various phases of improvement of field and vegetable crops. Its principal spheres of interest are at present genetics and plant breeding, with special reference to a study of yield determinants and of disease resistance. Ecological, physiological, and biochemical studies are planned.

Further improvements of yield and of baking and milling qualities, and increased resistance to lodging and to mildew, are sought in wheat. Work is extending towards production of now “general purpose” varieties of wheat suitable for a wide range of conditions, and also of varieties for special districts or special purposes. Other important objectives of the breeding programme are: in oats, resistance to lodging and to stem and crown rust; in potatoes, resistance to virus diseases, to blight, scab, drought, and frost. and improved quality; in rape, resistance to clubroot and to aphis. High-yielding leafy types of kale that retain their leaves during the winter months are being bred. Other breeding projects are concerned with swedes, linen flax, linseed, peas, lucerne, and lupins. Selections for uniformity and high performance in specially promising strains of winter cabbage, broccoli, tomatoes, carrots, and onions are being made. Ecological studies of introduced varieties of barley and ryecorn, selection of ryecorn, and brooding of hops (for the Hop Research Committee) for resistance to black root-rot are being carried out.

The biochemistry of differences between varieties and of factors influencing disease resistance is also being investigated.

The Division is responsible for the earliest stages in the process of producing nucleus seed for distribution through the seed certification scheme of the Department of Agriculture.

The Division has two substations: vegetable research at Papatoetoe, and research on brassica crops at Gore.

The Dominion Laboratory has sections that deal with food, drugs, and water; meat research; rocks, minerals, and clays; building materials; volcanology; organic chemistry; general analysis; physical chemistry, including metallurgy; petroleum and highways materials; paint; and coal. The Chemical Engineering Laboratory has recently been moved to Lower Hutt. There are district laboratories at Auckland. Christchurch, and Dunedin, each under a Government Analyst.

The Dominion Laboratory, established in 1865 to assist the Geological Survey in the analysis of minerals, and then known as the Colonial Laboratory, is the oldest scientific laboratory in the country.

The Laboratory carries out, with few exceptions, all the chemical and chemical engineering work required by Government Departments, and acts in a consulting capacity to them on chemical subjects. It undertakes chemical research on problems of national importance and provides a limited service to manufacturing industries end local authorities. Two main fields are covered in the research activities: the investigation and development of natural products of New Zealand, and the improvement of analytical techniques and the development of new methods of analysis. In particular, the work of the Wellington and district laboratories includes the examination of foodstuffs and drugs, the chemical and bacteriological examination of water and milk, analyses for Government Departments (including the Police Department), testing of town gas-supplies, timber preservation. paint investigation, service to industry, and research connected with any of these subjects.

The Laboratory has the largest applied chemistry and chemical engineering library in New Zealand.

The Dominion Physical Laboratory is responsible by statute to the Minister in charge of Scientific and Industrial Research for the custody and maintenance of the legal standards of physical measurements in New Zealand. Its work therefore conforms with similar institutions overseas—e.g., the National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, England; the National Standards Laboratory, Sydney; the National Physical Laboratory. Capo Town, &c. Standards are held covering the measurement of electricity, light. temperature, length, and mass.

The Laboratory is situated at Gracefield, Lower Hutt, and stands on 24 acres of land reserved for the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research on which to develop the exact sciences, physics and chemistry, over the future years. The buildings at present cover some 36,000 square feet.

In addition to the statutory task of maintaining standards, the Laboratory uses its facilities for research and development into New Zealand's natural resources and for the assistance of both primary and secondary industries. The Laboratory is divided into several sections grouped around the central standards laboratory—viz., metrology. radiation and optics, heat and thermometry, electricity, radio including radar, electronics, geophysical instrumentation, metallurgy, hydraulics, engineering seismology, and vibrations, building materials—concrete, heating and ventilation of buildings—radio isotopes, mass spectrometry, electron microscopy, mechanical-electrical design, and workshops.

Examples of the work of the Laboratory include the development of vacuum distillation equipment for the commercial recovery of vitamin A from New Zealand fish oils; the development of a self-recording instrument which can be lowered on a steel cable down boreholes in the thermal area at Rotorua and capable of measuring temperatures up to 500°c. at depths down to 5,000 ft.; the measurement of the skin temperatures of cattle; development of radar wind-determining equipment capable of following radio sonde balloons to heights of 120,000 ft. above the earth's surface; the electron microscopic examination of the phage organisms which attack milk-curding bacteria used in cheesemaking; measurement of the dynamic strains produced in a ferro-concrete bridge carrying loads at speed.

The Entomological Research Station is a joint undertaking of the Department and the Cawthron Institute. It carries out researches on destructive and beneficial insects, and on entomological control of weeds.

In pastures, the research is mainly on grass-grub, porina caterpillar, and wireworms, and methods have been successfully developed for the control of grass-grub and caterpillar by chemical insecticides. An attempt is being made to use nematode worms to control grass-grub.

To increase the yield of red clover seeds, the red clover thrips is being studied to ascertain its influence on seed production; the humble-bee has been studied with a view to the importation and establishment of more efficient species for pollination; and the clover ease-bearing moths are being investigated and parasites for them are being sought. Attention is being given to the “cinch” bug of wheat, and to the leaf miner, cutworms, and wireworms that affect tobacco.

Other investigations are on the control of stem borer and soil springtails of tomatoes; on the insects responsible for the transmission of yellow-leaf disease of phormium; on the establishment of the egg parasite for use against the green vegetable-hug; and on the diamond-backed moth, the white butterfly, the tussock moth, the pine tree horntail, and timber borers. For the control of weeds, the St. John's Wort beetle, the gorse-seed weevil, and the piri-piri saw-fly have been established. A study has been made of the scale insects responsible for manuka blight.

There are substations at Ashburton, where work on pasture insects, &c., is carried out, and at Foxton, where investigations are made on yellow-leaf of phormium. and on the green vegetable-bug, &c.

The Fats Research Laboratory conducts fundamental research on the nature of fats of animal, vegetable, and marine origin. Investigations to elucidate the nature of butter-fat have been the major projects in the Laboratory, but increasing attention is now being directed to meat fats. Other investigations are on tallow and on fish-liver oil. Studies on miscellaneous fats are in progress, and data are being collected to establish relationships between diet and depot fats. To research investigators in other fields this Laboratory extends collaboration on numerous problems relating to fats, including fat-soluble vitamins, and unsaponifiable constituents.

The Fruit Research Station investigates all problems affecting the fruit industry except the control of pests and diseases (which are studied by the Plant Diseases Division). Amongst its projects are the study of tree nutrition, management practices, interactions of stock and scion, physiological diseases, hormone certification, chemical thinning, and root stocks; it introduces new fruits, and studies methods of propagating and pruning, and effects of cool storage.

In co-operation with the engineering and physical laboratories of the Department, and the Meteorological Service, various aspects of the frost problem are under investigation.

A range of wound dressings and grafting compounds are under trial in the field. To reduce losses from birds, hares, and rabbits, various mechanical devices and repellents are under investigation.

The substations are Oratia Research Orchard, Havelock North Research Orchard. Appleby Research Orchard, and Earnscleugh Research Orchard.

The Geological Survey activities are covered in the following paragraphs. Field geologists are extending the geological mapping of New Zealand in North Auckland, Waikato, Rotorua-Taupo, mid-Hawke's Bay, Canterbury, Reefton, Buller, Mataura, Balclutha, and west Southland.

The specialist sections play an important part in interpreting field relationships from the results of paleontological and petrological research; the object being to solve the stratigraphical problems met by the field workers. The recently formed paleobotanical section is collecting information on fossil plants, spores, and pollens as a basis for working out the stratigraphy of terrestrial beds.

Surveys are made of mineral deposits of economic significance to New Zealand. This country has a large quantity of materials that can be used for cement concrete aggregates. In collaboration with officers of the Mines Department and the Dominion Laboratory, investigations are being made on the country's coal resources. Local problems of water-supply for homes, farms, and factories are investigated by field officers in all districts.

In the Rotorua-Taupo district, data are being assembled on underground steam as a potential source of power, and on hot ground-water for heating purposes. In the same region long-term research is being undertaken on the nature of thermal and volcanic activities.

In engineering geology, surveys are made to determine the best sites for hydroelectric dams throughout New Zealand.

For regional mapping and for the investigation of local problems, field officers are stationed at Kaikohe, Ngaruawahia, Rotorua, Napier, Christchurch, Greymouth, Balclutha, and Invercargill.

The Geophysics Division was set up to facilitate co-ordination of geophysical activities within the Department. It controls the Seismological, Oceanographic, and Geophysical Observatories, the Magnetic Survey, the Geophysical Survey, and the Underwater Research Laboratory.

The work of the Geophysical Survey is related to the application to field prospecting of seismic, gravity, magnetic, and electrical methods. Geophysical investigations are carried out in the thermal area, on Hydro-electric dam sites, and in the coalfields, and a broad gravity survey of both the Islands has been completed.

The Seismological Observatory is responsible for the recording and interpretation of earthquakes, and the operation of the New Zealand Time Service. A network of seismograph stations is maintained, and research is being carried out on the structure of the New Zealand region.

The work of the Magnetic Survey includes the recording and interpretation of variation in the magnetic elements, and it has also been responsible for the establishment of absolute magnetic stations and the operation of airborne magnetometers. It is one. of the world's eleven major stations for this type of work.

The Geophysical Observatory records and interprets ionospheric and cosmic ray data. It maintains recording stations at Rarotonga, Campbell Island, and Lincoln. Research is being carried out on the correlation of ionospheric, magnetic, and other related phenomena.

The Oceanographic Observatory records and interprets variations in tides and currents and in the physical properties of the ocean, such as temperature and salinity. Its major research project is the correlation of wave records, microseisms, and weather.

Some special problems in oceanography are the main concern of the recently formed Underwater Research Laboratory.

Under the administrative control of the Geophysical Observatory is the Apia Observatory (Western Samoa), where the recording and preliminary interpretation of earthquakes and of variation in the magnetic elements, and the recording of physical oceanographic data, are carried out. Apia occupies an important place in the international network of observatories, as it is the only recording station in a large area of the Pacific.

An investigation of the earth's crust in New Zealand, in which use is made of the seismic waves set up by the detonation of large quantities of explosives, has been commenced by sections of the Division with the co-operation of the Dominion Physical Laboratory.

The Grasslands Division is primarily concerned with the detailed study and improvement of the grasses and legumes that make up the pasture sward, and the relationship between that sward and the grazing animal. The Division is subdivided into three sections: plant breeding, pasture ecology, and plant chemistry.

The plant-breeding section has set a standard of pedigree strains of pasture plants, and this is being maintained and improved by further breeding work. For some years, nucleus seed stocks of perennial, Italian, and short-rotation ryegrass, and of white, Montgomery, and broad red clover, have been produced; recently Timothy and cocksfoot have been added to the list. Some 10,000 samples of seed are submitted to plot tests every year under the seed certification scheme. Considerable numbers of overseas species have been plot-tested as part of the plant introduction work.

In the pasture ecology section, nutrition and utilization trials are made to compare pasture production under various management systems, and clover establishment under different grazing techniques. Various phases of the problem of hill-country pasture improvement and soil conservation are being studied in detail. Studies on maintenance and improvement of turf for various sports are carried out.

In the plant chemistry section, investigations are made on seed germination and establishment. Chemical investigations on the nitrogen cycle in pastures and the nitrogen metabolism of pasture plants is in progress. The fate of various pasture species when subjected to fermentation in the rumen is being investigated.

There are three substations. At Gisborne, special problems related to soil conservation in hill country are being investigated. At Lincoln, the work is on local psature problems, and on trials of pedigree strains and regional ecotypes of pasture plants. At Gore, the investigations are similar to those at Lincoln.

The Hop Research Station is not yet operating fully. It will carry out research on diseases, on the fertility status of hop gardens, and on deficiency diseases, and will undertake breeding and selection of hops, and hop-drying trials.

The Information Bureau is responsible for the publications of the Department, the control of the Central Library, the supplying of technical information, the publicity of the Department, the photographic work of most of the branches, and translations. The New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology and the various departmental bulletins are edited and their production controlled from the Bureau. The Central Library is well stocked with a wide range of scientific and technical books, journals, and other publications, and is responsible for the circulation of relevant publications throughout the Department. At the library, a small reading-room is available with the major scientific indexing and abstracting periodicals on open shelves.

The Technical Information Section provides an advisory service that deals with many of the inquiries that reach the Department. Close liaison is maintained with the Scientific Liaison Officers in London, Washington, and Melbourne, with other Information Bureaux, with the professional and technical staff of the Department and of private firms, and with other organizations. This Section is also responsible for the Department's section of the Industrial Bulletin (which publishes abstracts of scientific and technical articles) and for the photo-copy service.

The Public Relations Section is responsible for press publicity by means of press releases (which are sent to all newspapers, many magazines, and overseas representatives) and press interviews, and, in general, for supplying appropriate technical information to the press. Arrangements with regard to technical films, broadcasting talks, displays at exhibitions, and the circulation of press cuttings are also the responsibility of this Section.

The Photographic Section undertakes a wide range of work for the branches. The field photographer visits the various branches when required, and special photographs of detailed specimens, maps, &c., are made. This Section has a small projection room for screening scientific and technical films. There is a comprehensive photographic library and a small stock of films.

The Plant Diseases Division assists farmers, fruitgrowers, nurserymen, and gardeners to produce healthy crops and plant products. The Division maintains an identification and advisory service relating to insect pests, plant diseases, and industrial microbiological problems, and advises on the use of therapeutants.

Entomological problems under investigation include cold storage of citrus fruits to destroy fruit-fly larvæ, resistance of plants to insect attack, control of the European wasp, control of houseflies, studies of the green vegetable-bug, and taxonomy of insects, &c.

The mycological investigations include those on collar rots and root rots in trees, shrubs, and small fruits; varietal resistance of plants to disease; and miscellaneous industrial problems. A list of all plant diseases recorded in New Zealand is maintained, and taxonomy of fungi studied.

The other main branches of research are on problems concerned with bacteriology, viruses, therapeutants, microbiology, and timber technology.

There is a substation at Papatoetoe where plants in quarantine are kept under observation. Field trials, mostly therapeutant testing, are also carried out at the substation.

The Occupational Psychology Research Section is concerned with the application of psychological knowledge and techniques to industrial problems, with a view to economy of man-power, increase in morale, and reduction in fatigue. General surveys of psychological aspects of employment in the major industries are made, and particular aspects of employment are investigated. Consultations are held with the Armed Services, end members of the staff of the Section act on officer-selection Hoards. An advisory and information service, including a lending library, is available to employers and others con-corned with the problems of personnel management. Advice and co-operation are available to the Universities, Government Departments, and private employers in the training of pyschologists and others concerned with selection of personnel.

The Scientific Liaison Service maintains offices in London, Washington, and Melbourne. Its officers are responsible for keeping New Zealand research institutions and workers advised of the most recent scientific work being carried out overseas. This advance information assists the Department in formulating and modifying its own research programmes, and in avoiding duplication of the work undertaken elsewhere. The Liaison Officers have access to the results of a vast amount of research in progress, much of which is on a scale quite beyond the normal resources of smaller organizations. In addition, Liaison Officers provide answers to specific technical inquiries from New Zealand, maintain and establish contacts with appropriate overseas research organizations. obtain scientific reports and publications not otherwise readily available, represent New Zealand on specialist committees, assist scientific visitors from New Zealand, and act in an advisory capacity to official New Zealand representatives overseas.

In London and Washington the Department's Scientific Liaison Officers are associated with the Liaison Officers from other parts of the Commonwealth in the formation, in each capital, of a British Commonwealth Scientific Office (B.C.S.O.). This arrangement greatly facilitates co-operation, particularly in major projects of outstanding importance to the Commonwealth.

The Soil Bureau is responsible for the soil survey of New Zealand, and carries out research on the relationship of the soil to problems of agriculture, forestry, and engineering. Soils are classified and mapped in the field, and are examined in the laboratory, to determine their physical and chemical composition. Research on analytical methods is carried out. Trace elements in soils and plants are being investigated, and problems of phosphate fixation and the uptake of phosphate by plants are being studied.

The corrosion of steel and asbestos-cement pipes in soil is studied, and determinations are made of the physical properties of soil for building materials, embankments, and foundations. In relation to agriculture, research is conducted on the physical structure and water-holding capacity of soils.

District offices have been established at Whangarei, Rotorua, Hastings, Wellington. Christchurch, and Timaru. There are substations at Gisborne and Alexandra.

The Tobacco Research Station studies all phases of tobacco culture as it concerns the grower. Soil sterilization, use of fertilizers, general management, and control of disease and insect pests are investigated in the seedling beds. Investigations are also made on the application of fertilizers, on cultivation methods, and on testing varieties introduced from other tobacco-growing countries. Breeding for resistance to various diseases and for improvement of quality is carried out, and a supply of seed is maintained for the industry. Controlled experiments are in progress on the basic principles of flue curing and their effect on the leaf.

The Wheat Research Institute seeks improvement of the quality of bread by controlled testing of wheats and flours, and through advisory work on milling and baking. Tests made on the experimental milling and baking plant are of the utmost value to wheat-breeders, enabling them to decide with confidence which lines should be retained and which discarded. The test milling and baking service is also of great value to millers and bakers. A moisture-testing service helps farmers to determine when their crops are fit to harvest. A baking school run by the Institute provides practical and theoretical instruction in baking technology for apprentices, A travelling baker is available for consultation.

THE WORK OF THE INCORPORATED RESEARCH ASSOCIATIONS.—The activities of such associations are dealt with in the ensuing paragraphs.

The Dairy Research Institute (N.Z.) (Inc.) is concerned with matters affecting the production of milk in relation to the feeding, breeding, and management of dairy animals; the hygienic quality of milk and dairy products; the manufacture of dairy-produce of all descriptions; the utilization of by-products; the economics of production; and the design and efficiency of dairy machinery. The Massey Agricultural College makes available its dairy factory, cow-sheds, dairy equipment, and stock for experimental purposes. Some of the institute's staff carry out both research and teaching, and close contact is maintained with research workers and students.

The N.Z. Fertilizer Manufacturers' Research Association (Inc.) provides an information service to the fertilizer industry and undertakes studies on the problems associated with the analysis, production, distribution, and use of fertilizers, especially phosphates, and of materials used in their manufacture. The Association checks and reviews methods of analysis used in fertilizer-manufacture, prepares and tests experimental fertilizers, and studies the characteristics of the raw materials and the behaviour of phosphorus in the soil. The Association has a library and an abstracting service for members.

The N.Z. Leather and Shoe Research Association (Inc.) serves freezing-works, tanneries, and footwear-manufacturers. Methods of fellmongering and of preservation of hides and skins are being developed and modified to give better raw material for the tanners. Chemical analyses and examination of skin structure are carried out, while research on modification of pelts in store has proved of great value. Tanning-materials from New Zealand forests are also being investigated. The use of New Zealand fish oils for the manufacture of chamois leather has been developed. Methods of tanning and leather processing are under continual review.

Examination of leathers for shoes, investigation of new methods of manufacture, and application of new materials and adhesives are part of the service to the shoe industry. Failure of footwear in use receives continual attention, and recommendations are put forward to manufacturers and, through the press, to the public on correct treatment of footwear.

The N.Z. Pottery and Ceramics Research Association (Inc.) makes investigations and advises upon the clay industries generally, from line domestic earthenware and artware to bricks and pipes. China clay, ball clay, and feldspar deposits have been located and studied. Fundamental work on raw materials and processing has beep published, and local and overseas advances in clay technology have been incorporated in factory practice. Extensions of work and of research facilities are in hand.

The N.Z. Woollen Mills' Research Association (Inc.) is concerned with all aspects of wool-manufacture from raw material to the finished cloth, and is largely concerned with problems arising in manufacture, together with the introduction and trial of new methods, the investigation of faults, and chemical and physical testing. It investigates the effect of differences in the raw wool in relation to its behaviour in manufacture. The Association has a good range of testing equipment, a testing-room, &c., but no mill processing machinery. Where investigations involve machinery tests, use is made of the machinery at the mills of a member. Some of the main investigations are on methods of scouring, control of shrinkage, various oils, the effect on manufacture of hairiness, the effect of scouring before shipping, and tests on the effect of copper in sheep-dips on subsequent dyeing operations.

The Research Institute of Launderers, Dry-cleaners, and Dyers of New Zealand (Inc.) is mainly concerned at present with investigation of damage to textiles and of methods of removing stains, and with the analysis and testing of materials used by the industry. A “test-piece” service will shortly be introduced; in this, standard test-pieces of white textile material will be distributed periodically to members for inclusion in a series of routine launderings and dry-cleanings, and the test-pieces will subsequently be examined in the laboratory to determine the effect of the laundry or dry-cleaning processes on the whiteness and tensile strength of the material. Conventions and exhibitions are held annually, and a training school will be opened shortly. Technical bulletins and reports from overseas research organizations as well as those compiled by the Institute are distributed regularly. Members are encouraged to use the Institute library which contains a wide collection of text-books dealing with the industry.

THE VALUE OF RESEARCH.—It is not possible, in a brief review, even to list all the benefits that have accrued from the work of the Department, hut a consideration of some of the major achievements mentioned below will give some idea of the value of the work done.

The operations of the Dairy Research Institute have produced such results as great improvements in cheese starters, the manufacture of dried butterfat, the discovery and control of bacteriophage; while the Wheat Research Institute hap been responsible for improvement in wheat, flour, and bread quality, by the breeding of Cross 7, W.R.I. Yielder, Hilgendorf, and ether wheats, methods of utilizing sprouted wheat, and control of the vitamin B content of flour.

Corky core disease of apples has been overcome, and investigations in transport have vastly improved the quality of fruit arriving in the United Kingdom, Transport investigations in meat resulted in consignments of chilled beef being sent from New Zealand to the United Kingdom.

A soil survey of the whole of New Zealand has been completed, and the problems of mineral deficiency diseases such as bush sickness and dopiness have been solved. Tobacco research has resulted in the area devoted to this crop being doubled, simultaneously with the doubling of the yield per acre, and the industry has become one of the most prosperous of the rural industries. Effective control has been secured over a wide range of plant diseases. Ball smut and loose smut of cereals have almost disappeared, and dry rot of brassicas has materially lessened. A certified spray system, effective against a wide range of diseases of horticultural and garden crops has been devised. A most effective culture to promote lucerne growth has been found and maintained. Numerous serious insect pests have been brought under control, and the diamond-back moth, white butterfly, and codling-moth are not the menace they formerly were; porina also has been checked, and, very recently, grass-grub, the most costly insect of all, has capitulated to the newer chemical insecticides.

Geological investigations have revealed more completely the extent of coalfields, ironsand deposits, and clay and sand resources, and these latter are being put to better uses with the scientific guidance of the Pottery and Ceramics Research Association. Six autonomous research associations have been formed, so that at present scientific services and research are provided for the tannery and footwear, dairy, woollen, fertilizer, laundry, and pottery industries, and industrialists themselves participate in framing the programmes of these associations.

New industries have been established as the result of scientific investigations. Agar and fish-liver oils of high vitamin content are now produced from the previously wasted resources of the sea. The linen-flax industry has been established on a basis of scientific investigations, and the work of the Crop Research and Grasslands Divisions has resulted in the development and expansion of a profitable farm-seeds industry. Chewings fescue seed, which lost its germination during sea transport, can now be shipped overseas with confidence, following the development of a seed-drier and airtight packaging by the Dominion Laboratory. Rape and turnip seed, hitherto imported from overseas, is now-produced locally and exported, as the result of breeding and selection work done by the Crop Research Division, which, in addition, has improved the quality of oats, barley, lupins, carrots, and lucerne seeds. Research into the breeding of new strains of pasture plants, and into the utilization and management of pastures, has done much to enable New Zealand to lead the world in grassland matters and bring its per-acre yield of meat and dairy-produce to levels not attained elsewhere. Improved methods of pasture establishment, together with the use of chemical sprays, have done much to control the noxious weeds that seriously reduced farm production in 1926 and the years that followed.

More recently, the manufacturing industries have been helped by the establishment of the Dominion Physical Laboratory and the Auckland Industrial Development Laboratories, and from both have emerged a number of new developments that are likely to prove of real value in promoting efficiency in manufacture.

APPENDIX (e)—STANDARDIZATION

By L. J. MCDONALD, Assistant Director, New Zealand Standards Institute

INTRODUCTION.—For the purpose of this article, standardization means industrial and commercial standardization. It does not purport to refer to the standardization of constants that establish standard, uniform units of measurement of weight, length, capacity, time, velocity, heat, light, temperature, power, pressures, density, and many similar precisely determined standards of magnitude which are known as fundamental standards of measure.

Industrial and commercial standardization refers to the formulation of standard specifications which establish uniform prescriptive requirements relating to characteristics and magnitudes of the constituents and elements that enter into the production of commodities, services, practices, and processes. The definition of the productive constituents and elements in this way provides the basis for factually determining the quality, utility, efficiency, performance, and service capacity of commodities, including, of course, all classes and types of equipment, apparatus, and merchandise.

Fundamental standards and industrial and commercial standards are functionally interrelated and interdependent, but different authorities are generally responsible for their establishment and administration, although in some countries the functions are carried out by two separate departments of one major authority. In New Zealand there are two separate authorities, which nevertheless work in close collaboration in respect of many aspects of the work. With the distinction between fundamental standards and industrial and commercial standards thus clarified, it will be understood the use of the term “standardization” herein refers to industrial and commercial standardization.

HISTORY.—Standardization is a reciprocal function in which representatives of producers, consumers, distributors, and various professions and public authorities of several countries must participate.

No country can proceed with a broad programme of standardization successfully except in collaboration with the national standards organizations of the other countries to which it exports its surplus products or from which it imports goods to meet the deficiency in its own production.

In these circumstances it follows that the development of standardization in New Zealand had its genesis in its development in the United Kingdom, aided by the growth of the activity in other Commonwealth countries and the United States of America. Industrial standardization originated in England in 1845 when Joseph Whitworth evolved the standard system that made possible the interchangeability of bolts and nuts of the same dimensions, from which the principle of mass production was derived.

The system proved of such advantage that it was soon widely adopted both in England and in certain European countries, where it became a standard thread, although in some of the European countries it was converted to metric measurements. The United States of America did not adopt it, but in 1864 an American named William Sellars evolved a different screw thread system which became an American standard.

The use of these two different standards for nearly one hundred years has incurred incalculable economic loss to Great Britain, the United States of America, and European and other countries, amongst which trade has developed to proportions undreamt of when the different standards were adopted. Some indication of the magnitude of the cumulative loss incurred over the one-hundred-year period can he gained from the fact that, during the Second World War, the additional cost of war equipment and supplies arising from the use of the two different screw threads amounted to £1,000,000,000. Nevertheless, the uniform system of screw threads originated by Whitworth and its adoption by European countries avoided the tremendous additional loss that would have occurred if these countries—and different authorities within each of them—had continued to use different screw thread systems for the same purpose.

Endeavours have been made over the past twenty years to reconcile the conflicting standards responsible for cumulative loss on this colossal scale. Extensive negotiations throughout the years of the Second World War resulted in agreement in 1948—over one hundred years after Whitworth originated the British standard system—upon a unified form of thread for parallel screw threads, excepting those of less than 1/4 in. diameter and some special-purpose threads. New Zealand, in common with other British Commonwealth countries and the United States of America, has adopted this system of unified screw threads as a provisional standard. The planning, retooling, adjustment of specifications, and production schedules, which must precede the changeover, will involve much thought, work, and expense. The adoption of the unified screw threads must therefore be a gradual process that will take a number of years to complete. This summary of the development of the standardized screw threads throws some light on the economic significance of standardization activity to which further reference will be made later.

With the advent of steam power and propulsion and the development of steamship and railway transport in the period 1850–1900, markets were no longer necessarily supplied by local producers who could be, and generally were, acquainted with the exact requirements of local users of their merchandise. Instead, producers competed in far-distant markets, with the result that purchasers found that the same commodities obtained from different production sources showed much diversity in size, quality, and utility without there being any way of determining in advance which commodities were most suitable for the purposes they were intended to fulfil. Not infrequently, materials and partly finished goods and components obtained from different factories could not be manufactured or fabricated into the end products for which they were required, or could not be so used without costly adaptation.

In this atmosphere, and encouraged by the existence of a screw thread system that made possible the assembly of bolts and nuts without special fitting, progressive minds began to envisage the possibility of manufacturing the parts of equipment and apparatus to precise, uniform dimensions and patterns, which would permit their assembly without fitting. The application of this principle had been demonstrated in America as early as 1798 when Eli Whitney, who was under contract to supply 10,000 muskets to the Government, submitted to a board of experts the parts from which ten muskets could be assembled automatically. Any part taken from any musket could be interchanged with the corresponding part of any other musket. This is the first recorded evidence of the use of that phase of standardization known as the interchangeability of interrelated parts, which, with qualitative standards, makes mass production possible.

The much higher individual industrial output in the United States of America, even when compared with highly industrialized Britain, is basically due to its half-century lead in the development of specialized mass production methods, based upon standardization initiated by the pioneering work of Whitney. That Britain is still under a relative handicap through the lead in standardization gained by the United States of America is evident from the findings of a committee, composed of eminent authorities, appointed by the United Kingdom Government to examine and report upon the importance of standardization in relation to productive efficiency. In its report in 1949 it said, “There can be no doubt that the relatively high degree of specialization and simplification in United States industry (including the smaller firms) is a major reason for their higher industrial productive efficiency.”

Another equally authoritative committee, the Anglo-American Council of Productivity, composed of representatives of management and labour, appointed under the authority of the United States of America and United Kingdom Governments in 1948. included findings in its report as follows:—

“As a result of our visit to the United States we are convinced that one of the main reasons for the high productivity and low costs, which are characteristics of industry there, is the ruthless elimination of unnecessary variety and the resultant concentration of manufacturing resources …

“Simplification and standardization have been developed by some sections of industry and by some individual firms in the United Kingdom …

“For British industry in general we are convinced that there is great scope for raising productivity and lowering costs by more general adoption of the policies which have proved so successful in the United States.”

From the foregoing review, it is clear that industrial and commercial standardization had its embryonic development in the nineteenth century. Its birth, growth, and development on a national and international scale in this century brings into perspective the far-reaching influence of the work of pioneers like Whitworth in England and Whitney in America one hundred to one hundred and fifty years ago. From their genius this age has gained the incalculable benefits that derive from specialized mass production, based on standardization, the cornerstone of the economy of every advanced industrialized country. The development of standardization is still far from having reached its zenith. Compared with its haphazard growth in the nineteenth century, it is now being consciously developed as a fundamentally important national activity in all countries that have emerged beyond their primitive stages. Over the past two decades, in particular, the significant advantages and benefits of standardization to national economy have been so amply demonstrated that advanced countries are making every endeavour to extend its scope and to increase its intensity in all spheres of industry, commerce, technology, and science.

Recently, in more backward countries, the first steps towards industrial development have been the establishment of national standards organizations charged with the responsibility of formulating and promulgating standard specifications that would ensure most economic and efficient production.

The development of economic and efficient industries, founded on the principles of standardization, in these hitherto backward countries, together with the intensification of earlier development in the more advanced countries, has potential economic significance, in relation to the next half century, that is difficult to appreciate at this stage.

The standardization activity of other countries is as important to New Zealand as it is to each individual country. Hence the value to each country, including New Zealand, of an effective standards organization to co-operate with its counterparts in other countries in a way that will secure the fullest advantage and benefit from this world-wide activity.

NATIONAL STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS.—Although national standards institutions have their genesis in the incipient growth of the idea of standardization throughout the nineteenth century, it was not until 1901 that the British Engineering Standards Committee (B.F.S.A.), the first national standards organization, was established to undertake the development of national standard specifications. During the first twenty years of its existence, the development of the organization was not spectacular when compared with its growth, influence, and achievements over recent years. At the end of its first two decades it had issued only 100 standard specifications (an average of 5 a year), compared with an approximate average of 60 a year or the 1,200 it has issued over a corresponding period since 1932.

The exigencies of the First World War gave the first real impetus to standardization on a national basis, as evidenced by the fact that in the ten-year period 1919–29, B.E.S.A. issued an average of 30 standard specifications a year, compared with the average of 5 over the previous ten years. The importance of these specifications to war production was expressed by Lord Stevenson. Vice-Chairman, Ministry of Munitions Advisory Committee, during an address in 1925, in the course of which he said, “Had simplification [standardization] been more general at the outbreak of war the ammunition supply would not have presented the problem it did, and if it had not been adopted for thousands of parts of equipment and articles, we would have lost the war.”

The First World War also gave stimulus to standardization in other countries. Until then the United Kingdom was the only country to have established a national standards organization. In 1916 Holland did so. followed by Germany in 1917 and the United States of America in 1918. Within ten years there were twenty-two national standards organizations in existence. In 1926 an international body for the organization and development of standardization was founded, to which nineteen national organizations were affiliated.

The national standards organizations of British Commonwealth countries were originated and nurtured into healthy being under the direct or indirect influence of B.E.S.A. or the British Standards Institution (B.S.I.)—one and the same organization under different names—the latter designation having been adopted in 1931. Independent standards organizations, the functions of which, together with those of the parent body, are entirely interdependent, were established in British Commonwealth countries between 1919 and 11951 as follows:—

Name or Organization.Year Founded.Number of Standards Issued to 1951.

* Committees of the British Standards organization were established in South Africa, India, and New Zealand in 1913, 1919, and 1920 respectively, but little is known of their activities, which must necessarily have been very limited. They cannot in any sense be regarded as having been national standards organizations, but they were no doubt the embryo from which these developed.

Canadian Standards Association1919279
Standards Association of Australia1922604
* New Zealand Standards Institute1932959
* South African Bureau of Standards1934179
* Indian Standards institution1946286
Pakistan Standards Institution1951 

By 1951 the British Standards Institution (B.S.I.) had issued approximately 1,700 standard specifications and the American Standards Association (A.S.A.) had approved more than 1,100.

The bodies listed above were established as voluntary organizations. Changes in their original constitutions and names have followed the growth and increasing importance of standardization, but their organization, procedure, and functions remain unchanged.

The endeavours of B.S.I. to bring about their reconstitution, in so far as was necessary to make them fully effective national standards organizations, were greatly strengthened by the findings of Imperial Economic Conferences in 1926, 1930, and 1932, as expressed in the following terms:—

Imperial Conference, 1926

In accordance with the recommendation in the Sub-committee's report the following resolution was adopted by the Conference:—

“The Imperial Conference, recognizing the advantages of standardization in its widest sense both to producers and to consumers, and appreciating that when it is practicable to adopt standards common to the Empire these advantages are augmented and great benefit results to trade within the Empire and Empire trade generally, recommends to the favourable consideration of the several Governments of the Empire that they should take steps to promote the further development of standardization, should arrange for the exchange of information with the other parts of the Empire, and, when common standards are possible and mutually advantageous, should co-operate with the other parts of the Empire in regard thereto.”

Imperial Conference, 1930

The Conference on Standardization, the report of which was accepted by the Imperial Conference, in considering the question of industrial standardization, took note of the growing recognition of the value of standardization as a means both to economy and to efficiency in the interests of producers and consumers, and stressed the importance of the contribution which might be made, by its judicious development, to the economic welfare of the British Commonwealth of Nations as a whole and of its various parts. It commended the co-ordination of standardization under a central body in each country, to which support should be given by the several Governments by way of financial assistance, of the co-operation of the Government purchasing Departments, and otherwise.

The Conference drew attention to the resolution of the Imperial Conference of 1926 in favour of the adoption, where practicable, of common standards, and recommended that the standardizing bodies in the various parts of the British Commonwealth should keep in regular and systematic consultation, with a view to the establishment of uniform standard specifications, so far as practicable, in their common interest.

The Conference further recommended that each standardizing body should adopt a mark or brand, to be applied under the licence and control of such body, to goods which comply with standard specifications issued by it and are produced or manufactured within the territory which it covers; and should take the necessary steps to secure for such mark or brand the full protection of law throughout the British Commonwealth of Nations.

Imperial Conference; 1932

In its report, which the Conference adopted, the Sub-committee on Industrial Standardization, took note of the resolutions adopted by the Imperial Conferences of 1926 and 1930 commending the further development of standardization within the various parts of the British Commonwealth of Nations. It welcomed the advance being made in the various parts of the Commonwealth in the co-ordination of industrial standardizing activities under one central national body representative of all parties concerned, and urged once again that the central standardizing body in each part of the Commonwealth should be accorded the active support of the Government by way of financial and technical assistance, and by the co-operation of the Government purchasing Departments and otherwise.

STANDARDIZATION IN NEW ZEALAND.—Development, 1932–36.—A national Standards organization was established in New Zealand in 1932 at the instigation of the British Standards Institution, with the support of the United Kingdom Treasury and Board of Trade. It was organized on the same basis as the B.S.I. to form a part of the British Commonwealth standards organization and in a lesser sense, to form part of a world organization.

Organization.—The organization was a voluntary body constituted of a membership representative of national, industrial, and commercial interests, Government and local authorities, and a few individual business organizations. It was composed of a Council responsible for the direction of its affairs and activities, and four sectional committees, each of which was responsible for the examination of British standard specifications in their respective spheres of electrical engineering, civil and mechanical engineering, chemistry, and building construction. Committees and sub-committees were instituted, as found necessary, to assist in this work.

Functions and Activities.—The functions and activities of the original New Zealand Standards Institution were confined to instituting a reciprocal exchange of standard specifications with the British Standards Institution (B.S.I.), Standards Association of Australia (S.A.A.), Canadian Engineering Standards Association (C.E.S.A.), and the American Standards Association (A.S.A.). It concentrated its attention, however. almost entirely on the examination of British standards with a view to adopting those found suitable for New Zealand conditions, with or without amendment, 94 of which it had adopted by 1936.

During the same period it had formulated and issued one important and valuable original New Zealand standard, this being a Code of Model Building By-laws, which was adopted and widely used as the Building By-laws of some local authorities.

Procedure.—The organization followed the procedure common to all national standards organizations. It continued to operate on this basis until 1936, when it found that it could not carry on with the limited finance mule available by membership fees and Government subsidy. This position was represented to the Government, which decided that it should take the organization over to operate within the Government.

NEW ZEALAND STANDARDS INSTITUTE.—Development, 1936–41.—In 1936 the Standards Institute was established as a Government institution.

Organization.—It was organized on the same basis as the New Zealand Standards Institution, except that the New Standards Council was constituted of some twenty representatives of various interests, compared with the five interests represented on the Council of the original Standards Institution. Although the Council operated nominally as a committee of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, actually it was an independent, advisory authority to the Minister of Industries and Commerce. The number of committees progressively increased until over two hundred were established, operating under eight divisional and some thirty sectional committees, although not more than one-half of this number could be regarded as being active at any given time. The scope of standardization activity was, of course, correspondingly expanded. The standards organization operated on this basis until 1941, since when it has acted under its own statutory authority.

STANDARDS ACT 1941.—The standardization procedure followed in New Zealand is prescribed in the Standards Act, 1941. This Act provides for “specifications” to be declared to be “standard specifications” by the Minister of Industries and Commerce. “Specification” is widely defined as meaning “a description of any commodity, process, or practice by reference to its nature, quality, strength, purity, composition, quantity, dimensions, weight, grade, durability, origin, age, or other characteristics.” In other words, in terms of the Act, the purpose of a “specification” is simply to define and classify commodities, processes, and practices according to their nature, type, class. quality, efficiency, &c.

Before declaring a specification to be a standard specification, the Minister obtains a report and recommendation from the Standards Council or from a committee of the Council to which it can delegate this function. He also satisfies himself that any persons who may be substantially affected by the issue of the specification have had an opportunity to consider and comment upon its provisions. Thus the procedure ensures consideration of specifications by committees representative of affected interests, assisted by expressions of opinion obtained from individual interests.

Standards Council.—The Standards Council is appointed by the Minister, pursuant to the 1941 Act. It consists of representatives of Government Departments, municipalities, manufacturing, primary producing, and commercial interests, distributive trades, trades-unions, and women's organizations.

The functions of the Standards Council are to make recommendations to the Minister concerning the formulation, promulgation, and application of standard specifications, the promotion of research, the registration and use of Standard Mark's, and related matters. The Council is also empowered to assist Departments of State, local authorities, and other public bodies in the preparation of specifications, and to co-operate with interested parties with a view to securing the adoption of standards and to encourage or undertake educational work in connection with standardization.

Standard Marks.—The Standards Act also provides for the registration of Standard Marks as certification trade marks under the Patents, Designs, and Trade Marks Amendment Act, 1939, and for the use of such Standard Marks under licence in connection with commodities, processes, or practices which conform to standard specifications.

In terms of the Standards Act, therefore, the development of standards of quality is no less a function of Government than is the establishment of standards of weight and measures in terms of the Weights and Measures Act, 1925. In the case of standard weights and measures, the various units are defined by law and it is an offence to claim that commodities conform to such standards when in fact they do not do so. In the same way the Standards Act provides for the establishment of standards of quality, and prescribes the machinery to ensure that these standards are not falsely represented.

Original New Zealand Standard Specifications.—Standardization procedure is based upon established principles which are adhered to in all countries, including New Zealand. In the first place a standardization project is undertaken only in response to a need expressed by some responsible interest.

When a representative committee has completed a specification in draft form, it is circulated to the manufacturing, distributing, user, professional, scientific, and other interests affected, in order to obtain comment concerning the adequacy and suitability of its provisions. In terms of the reciprocal arrangement already referred to, the draft specification is also sent to the national standards organizations of other English-speaking countries with the object of obtaining their comments, and the benefit of their knowledge and experience, in relation to the work being carried out here; and also to make available to those countries the benefit of the work carried out in New Zealand. After circulation, the comments received from within New Zealand and from overseas are referred to the appropriate committee for examination and consideration. Such comments determine the extent to which the original provisions require amendment to ensure that the specification represents the best statement and definition of commercial, industrial, or technological practice which can be arrived at within existing knowledge.

Complete standard specifications are available to those who desire to use them as a means of ensuring that the goods they buy are of a clearly defined standard of quality. In this way a standard specification becomes the yardstick of quality for the particular commodity to which it relates.

Examination and Adoption of Overseas Standard Specifications.—In addition to undertaking the formulation of original standard specifications, the Standards Institute, under reciprocal arrangements, examines all draft and standard specifications received from other English-speaking countries. These specifications are, of course, formulated by committees representing the consensus of opinion based upon the experience and knowledge within the respective spheres in the originating countries. Because of the value of this work to New Zealand, it is necessary to ensure that it is made available to the corresponding interests in this country.

The specifications received from the British Standards Institution, in addition to being referred to the appropriate committee, are circulated to the individual interests within the spheres of activity to which they pertain. Those that are deemed to satisfy New Zealand requirements are adopted as New Zealand standard specifications. This procedure clearly indicates to the overseas suppliers the commodities that are suitable for the New Zealand market, and provides the necessary specifications to which New Zealand purchasers can order supplies in the United Kingdom.

A library is maintained within the organization, in which there are some 10,000 standard specifications of English-speaking countries and 15,000 from other countries. These specifications provide a source of information for the assistance of the committees in connection with the formulation of original New Zealand standards. The extensive and comprehensive information they contain in connection with the materials, equipment, and apparatus produced and used in other countries, as well as the practices and processes used in their production, is an open sesame to knowledge gained from worldwide experience. It is of very great value to people engaged in related pursuits in New Zealand, being limited only by the unavoidable restriction of reference to the library.

NEW ZEALAND STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS.—By the 31st March, 1951, New Zealand standard specifications had been adopted as follows:—

Building99
Chemical165
Dairying and agriculture12
Electrical181
Engineering314
Household commodities£72
Textiles and clothing 
Miscellaneous32
Emergency76
Government purchasing8
      Total959

The various committees responsible for the formulation of these specifications held 2,225 meetings over the period 1937–51, an average of 159 a year.

The extent to which these specifications are used is evidenced by the number sold each year, which averages over 20,000. Also, the National Trade Certification Board, in its prescriptions for National Trades Certificates, requires New Zealand Standard specifications issued by the New Zealand Standards Institute to be followed in so far as they are applicable; and in the examinations such standards are accepted as a standard reference authority in any particular section of a subject to which they apply. Standard specifications are similarly used by students in the University degree courses in engineering and architecture.

Standard Code of Building By-laws.—The Building standards include the New Zealand Standard Code of Building By-laws. It comprises 12 separate comprehensive parts and 26 related specifications cited therein. In addition, supplementary codes of model by-laws have been issued for Plumbing and Drainage; Fire Prevention; Panic Prevention in Places of Public Assembly; Licensing of Boarding Houses, &c.

These Standard Codes of Building By-laws establish uniform minimum requirements relating to basic loads and stresses to be used in design, and for the materials, components, methods, and practices used in the different classes and forms of construction, as follows:—

  • Reinforced and plain concrete construction:

  • Panel walls in framed structures:

  • Masonry building of bearing wall construction:

  • Steel work used in building construction:

  • Light timber construction:

  • Residential buildings.

The known adoption of the codes as the by-laws of eighty municipalities, in which 1,010,390, or 82.5 per cent, of the total urban population of 1,225,291 reside, provides sound evidence of their value to local authorities.

In view of the administrative value of the Building Code and the facility with which it could be adopted, the Counties Association in 1947 and 1949 sought and obtained amendments to the Counties Act (1920) to enable counties to adopt the code as their by-laws. To make it entirely applicable to counties, relatively minor, yet important, revision of its provisions was necessary. Since the recent completion of this revision nine counties are known to have adopted the Building Code in whole or in part, and fifty-three others have advised that they have its adoption under consideration.

In 1950 the Standards Act (1941) was amended to enable local bodies to adopt, by citation, appropriate standard specifications—including Standard Codes, in whole or in part—as their building or general by-laws, as the case may be. This amendment avoids the necessity for special and extensive reprints for incorporation within the by-laws of the different local authorities. By so doing it reduces the formulation of by-laws to the preparation of the formal introductory, enactment, and attestation clauses.

The standard building by-laws have proved to be so valuable and economic to municipalities and counties that the Municipal and Counties Associations have requested a similar standardization of general by-laws used for the purpose of good government, apart from the control of building activities. Although the general by-laws have not been issued, their formulation, in twenty separate, though related, parts, is almost completed.

Value of Standard By-laws.—Authorities experienced in the formulation of legal interpretation and printing of by-laws estimate that the average cost of a complete set would exceed £1,000, or about. £30 for each of the 32 separate parts completed or Hearing completion. On this basis the preparation of complete by-laws by each individual local authority that has adopted the Standard Codes would have amounted to approximately £90,000. Correspondingly, if each of the 310 authorities undertook the preparation of comprehensive and effective by-laws, the total cost would be £310,000, compared with a cost of not more than £20,000 involved in the formulation of the standard codes under the ægis of the Standards Institute.

The economic savings to the country as a whole resulting from the preparation of a single Standard Code by the Standards organization, and its adoption by the various local authorities on a wide scale, are very much greater than the savings in the cost of preparing and printing the by-laws. Alternatively, each local authority would prepare a different sot of by-laws citing different specifications, and calling for the use of different materials, dimensions, types of equipment, and methods of installation and construction that would require architects, engineers, and builders to work to a multiplicity of requirements for the same class of work. It would also result in unnecessary diversification of the types and classes of material and equipment required to satisfy the by-laws of each separate authority. In consequence, manufacturers and distributors would be called upon to make and stock an unnecessarily wide range of materials and equipment, which would greatly increase production and distribution costs.

Still more important is the protection to life and property afforded by the Standard Building Code through the requirements that ensure the safety of buildings constructed in accordance with its provisions. Before the Code was developed, few local authorities had modern by-laws designed to prevent the spread of fire, to provide adequate means of egress, or to ensure earthquake-resistant construction within practical limits. The loss of life, injuries, and near loss of life in this country in recent years, not to mention the heavy loss of property, bear witness to the value of by-laws that will reduce such loss to the lowest practicable proportions. With few exceptions, by-laws in existence before the development of the Standard Code were equally inadequate in relation to earthquake-resistant construction, a matter of considerable importance in a country such as New Zealand. This was illustrated by experience during the 1942 earthquake shocks in the Wellington area. Although these shocks were of short duration the damage in Wellington City alone was estimated to approximate £1,000,000, while the total damage throughout the Wellington area was in the vicinity of £2,000,000. Buildings which complied with the Standard Code of Building By-laws either suffered no damage, or superficial damage only which neither affected their safety, nor required structural repairs. Chimneys constructed in accordance with the principles laid down in the Standard Code suffered no damage, although some thousands of chimneys not so constructed were destroyed.

The construction of buildings in accordance with the requirements of the existing Standard Code, which is now general practice, will avoid the probability of similar or much greater losses in the future.

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC BENEFITS.—Standardization in industry and technology is much more important in relation to economic and social prosperity than is generally realized.

A standard may be defined as a carefully thought out method of performing a function, or a carefully drawn specification covering material, equipment, or commodities. A standard method is simply the best method that can be devised for performing a function at the time the standard is formulated.

Industrially, standardization defines materials, plant, equipment, processes, and practices which render production most efficient and economic. It avoids waste of time, material, labour, and capital involved in the production of manifold types, qualities, and sizes of commodities, equipment, and material used to satisfy essentially the same purpose, and fixes the dimensions of interrelated component parts of equipment in a way that ensures their interchangeability, Standard specifications are so formulated that they ensure economy, safety, efficiency, and convenience in the maintenance and operation of plant and equipment. Standardization also offers the only means by which the advances in science and technology can be fully applied to productive processes and practices without a time lag so great that the community is deprived of much of the value of scientific research.

Commercially, standardization provides a basis for specifying, manufacturing, testing, and buying that places tenders on a comparable basis both in domestic and in foreign trade. Thus it renders competitive trade equitable and intelligible as between suppliers, and between suppliers and purchasers.

From the point of view of both commercial and consumer interests, standards place on goods a reliable quality distinction that equips the average purchaser with a substantial degree of that expert discrimination possessed by expert buyers. They enable buyer and seller to speak the same language and to benefit from purchasing on a basis of the three factors—price, quantity, and quality—without which there are no effective means of interpreting value.

A consideration uppermost in the minds of all responsible people at present is the great need for maximum production. The development of standardization in New Zealand is therefore a natural reflex of a world-wide trend, since standardization aids in the production of the maximum quantity of the most suitable goods on the lowest unit-cost basis. Herein lies the prime reason for the extension of the scope and increased intensity of standardization activity in all countries.

Eminent authorities who have had most extensive experience of the effect of standardization on production affirm that it increases output and reduces costs by an average of 25 per cent. to 33 per cent. Brief reference has already been made to the important contribution which standard specifications made to production during the First World War. This experience led to their development and application to production on a wide scale during the twenty-one years which preceded the Second World War. During this period very many factual examples of production increases and cost reductions, varying from 10 per cent. to 50 per cent. and more, were recorded.

Under the stern necessities of the Second World War there were still more significant developments of standardization. The Chairman of the United States of America War Production Board on assumption of office, in emphasizing the importance of standards, stated that the general application of standardization would increase production by 25 per cent. to 33 per cent. The United States of America War Production Authority in the First World War earlier stated that the organization of war production was almost entirely a matter of standardization. Some impressive examples of greatly reduced production costs, resulting from the application of this principle, were quoted by the British Institution of Production Engineers in support of the conclusions of this body, published in the Economist, of 18th July, 1942, concerning the significant influence that standardization must have upon post-war reconstruction, on the basis of what had been achieved in augmenting war production. Six examples were quoted, related to parts used in the manufacture of guns and the production of munitions and aircraft, in which each £100 of production cost was reduced to £4 16s., £22 8s., £22 12s., £33 12s., £36, and £66 14s. respectively. Commenting on these conclusions, the Institution of Production Engineers drew attention to the substantial over-all reductions in production costs gained by the higher degree of specialization, facilitated by standardization, through a reduction of a redundant variety of products only immaterially different.

The cases quoted above are typical of the many instances recorded in times of peace and war concerning the importance of standardization as a means of increasing production.

POST-WAR DEVELOPMENTS.—As a logical corollary to the contribution of standardization to the stupendous production necessitated by the Second World War, Governments and Government authorities in all countries now recognize it as a significant economic activity, with the result that current trends indicate that its development will be accelerated in the immediate future.

The existing International Organization for Standardization (I.S.O.)—the predecessor of which went out of existence with the onset of the Second World War—was established in 1946. It is constituted of thirty-three affiliated national standards organizations representing the following countries:—

AustraliaHungaryPortugal
AustriaRepublic of IndiaRumania
BelgiumRepublic of IrelandSwitzerland
BrazilIsraelSweden
CanadaItalyCzechoslovakia
ChileMexicoUnion of South Africa
DenmarkNetherlandsUnited Kingdom
SpainNew ZealandUruguay
FinlandNorwayUnited States of America
FrancePakistanRussia (U.S.S.R.)
Western GermanyPolandYugoslavia.

The International Organization has instituted seventy-six committees to undertake the co-ordination of national standard specifications. Six such co-ordinated standards have been approved by the member countries as international standards. The progressive development of this work is essential to the furtherance of international activity in the spheres of science, technology, trade, and commerce.

In the United Kingdom, three special committees—one appointed by the Anglo-American Council of Productivity, one appointed by the Minister of Supply, and one appointed by the British Board of Trade—have reported since 1948 on the contribution an extension of standardization can make towards the solution of current economic problems by Increasing production, on a lower unit-cost basis, and maintaining adequate standards of quality and efficiency. The most pertinent of the coincident findings of these committees may he summarized as follows:—

  1. The widest practicable application of the principles of standardization is essential for the technological progress, and the most economic utilization of resources, so necessary to develop and maintain full economic strength and security. This it achieves by—

    1. The elimination of waste of man-power, materials, and productive resources on a substantial scale, which in turn substantially increases production and correspondingly reduces production, distribution, and servicing costs.

    2. Reducing the relative cost of commodities purchased, and the works undertaken by Government and public authorities, thereby effecting considerable economics in the cost of Government, and so affording relief to taxpayers.

    3. Attaining and maintaining higher-quality standards in commodities and services.

  2. Fur reasons stated earlier, standardization increases the quantity and quality of goods and services available to the people in relation to costs, and thereby considerably raises living standards.

  3. Aided by the use of Standard Marks as certification marks, standardization—

    1. Assists consumers to compare quality, to purchase goods best suited to the required purpose, and to obtain better value in relation to price.

    2. Places trade on a basis that is fair and equitable to competitive producers and to consumers.

  4. In order to obtain the important social and economic advantages of standardization, Government and Government authorities should encourage it to be extended wherever it is practicable.

These conclusions apply to New Zealand with the same force as to Britain and other countries.

The objective of the activities of the Standards Institute is to realize the social and economic advantages and benefits of standardization here outlined for the people of New Zealand in the same way that other national standards organizations are striving to realize these advantages and benefits for their peoples. It is a reciprocal activity to which each country contributes, to the benefit derived by all. Especially docs this apply amongst English-speaking countries.

INDEX

A

Abattoirs, 437.
Abolition of Death Penalty, 191.
Abolition of Legislative Council, 16.
Abolition of Provinces, 646.
Aborigines (see Maoris).
Abortion, 97, 113, 121, 125.
Accident Funds, 306, 308, 493–494, 814.
Accident Insurance, 1013–1017.
State, 1027–1029.
Accidents—
Aircraft, 99.
Automobile, 92, 98, 99, 104, 110, 111, 199, 325–327.
Causes of, 890–892.
Deaths from, 92, 98, 99, 104, 105, 110, 111, 303, 325–327, 485, 492, 889–896.
Frequency Rates, 887–890.
Industrial, 797, 841–845, 886–898, 959, 977, 982.
Mining, 485, 492, 493, 815, 886–898.
Railway, 99, 303, 326, 886–898.
Time lost through, 894–896.
Traffic, 99, 303, 325–327.
Tramway, 99.
Acclimatization of Fishes, 7, 477.
Accommodation Licences, 971, 972.
Accommodation of Hospitals, 146, 147.
Accoutrements (see Confinements).
Accounts, Public, 558–569.
Acreage and Yield of Crops, 408–424, 1036.
Acreage of Holdings, 355, 356.
Acts passed in 1951, 976–989.
Added Value in Manufacturing, 496, 497, 505–506, 509, 511, 512, 1043.
Adjustment of Mortgages, 710.
Administration, 14–17.
Cook Islands, 919.
Nine, 925.
Western Samoa, 928–930.
Adolescent Dental Service, 129–130.
Adopted Children, 67–68, 979.
Adult Education, 181–182.
Adulteration of Food, 126.
Adultery, 76, 77.
Advances—
Bank, 673, 675–679, 1048.
Bank Control Policy, 678.
Building Societies, 703–707.
State (see State Advances and State Aid).
Advertisements, Medical, 126, 127.
Advertising by Radio, 353.
Aeradio Station, 917.
Aerated-water Factories, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 518.
Aerial Surveys, 378.
Aerial Work Operations, 334.
Aero Clubs, 337–338.
Aerodromes, 211, 329, 938.
Afforestation, 444–447, 450–452, 454–455.
Bondholders, 945.
Companies, 455, 945.
After-lifetime, Average, 83.
Age Benefits, 611–613, 621–622, 628, 799.
Age Distribution, 44–48.
Age, Mean—
At Death, 81–83.
At Marriage, 73–74.
Agents, Overseas, 1002.
Ages—
Of Cancer Decedents, 95.
Of Fathers, 62.
Of Infants dying, 87–88, 105.
Of Injured Employees, 892.
Of Inmates of Mental Hospitals, 151.
Of Maoris, 45, 46, 48.
Of Maoris dying, 102, 105.
Of Migrants, 24.
Of Mothers, 62, 63, 65, 66.
Of Offenders probationed, 196.
Of Parents, 62–66.
Of Patients in Public Hospitals, 120.
Of Persons dying, 81–83, 102, 105.
Of Persons marrying, 73–74.
Of Population, 44–48.
Of Prisoners, 194.
Of Public-school Pupils, 163, 165.
Of Tubercular Decedents, 93.
Aggregation of Incomes, 747–748.
Agricultural and Pastoral Production, 382–443, 960–962, 1036.
Persons engaged in, 854, 856.
Value of, 386–391, 960–962.
Volume of, 388–389, 962.
Agricultural Bursaries, 178, 179, 180.
Agricultural Clubs, 171–172.
Agricultural Colleges, 158, 159, 177, 178, 180, 384, 385, 909.
Agricultural Machinery, 263, 404–108, 440, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 521.
Agricultural Produce—
Consumed locally, 391, 902–905.
Exported, 229–233, 244–245, 248, 391, 902.
Gross Farming Income, 386–391.
Price Index Numbers, 772–775.
Agricultural Workers Act, 781, 800, 818–819, 825.
Agriculture, 382–424.
Department of, 383–384.
Research in, 383–384, 413, 423.
Aides-de-Camp, 990.
Aids, Artificial, 627–629.
Aids, Nursing, 133, 136.
Air Force, 209–211, 213–217.
Expenditure on, 211, 562.
Casualties, 214, 217.
Air Mails, 332–337, 340.
Air Training Corps, 209, 210, 338.
Air Transport and Aviation, 209–211, 213–215, 328–341.
Aircraft, 328–341.
Accidents, 99.
Licensing and Control, 329–339.
Aitutaki island, 2, 347, 917, 918, 920–923.
Alcoholic Liquors—
Brewed, 517.
Consumption of, 904.
Duty on, 271–275, 517, 561, 571, 574.
Exports of, 232, 233.
Imports of, 250, 258.
Sale of, 971–973.
Alexander Turnbull Library, 1061.
Alienation of Land, 356, 365–370, 374.
Aliens, Naturalization of, 28–30.
Aliens, Race, 52–54.
Aliens, Registration of, 30.
Alluvial-gold Mining, 7, 479.
Amalgamation of Local Authorities, 648.
Ambassadors, 1003, 1005.
Ambulance, St. John, 138.
Amortization of Debt, 562, 565–567, 589–593, 598–599, 655, 660, 734.
Amputees, 631.
Amusements-tax, 571, 584, 585–586, 956.
Anchorage Island (see Suwarrow).
Angling, 475–477.
Animal Life, 13.
Annexed Islands, 916–928, 938.
Annual Holidays Act, 805, 808, 809, 812, 816, 818.
Annual Value Rating-system, 649–650.
Annuities, 628, 638–643, 1012.
Ante-natal Services, 148.
Anthracite, 485.
Antimony-ore, 478, 479, 481.
Antipodes Islands, 2, 32, 41, 917.
Anzac Day, 808.
Apiaries, 442, 977.
Apiculture, 442.
Apolima Island, 3, 928.
Apparel, Duty on, 271.
Appeal Court (see Courts).
Apples, 383, 409, 421–122.
Consumption of, 903.
Exported, 232, 233, 243, 244, 245, 422.
Fixation of Prices of, 763.
Marketing of, 394, 422, 985.
Apprentices, 797, 837–840, 908.
Appropriations, Expenditure under, 562.
Arbitration (see Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration).
Arbitration Court (see Courts).
Award Wage-rates, 781–792.
Area—
Of Exotic Forests, 445.
Of Indigenous Forests, 357, 445.
Of Island Territories, 2, 916–942.
Of Land Holdings, 355, 356.
Of New Zealand, 1, 2, 41, 355.
Of Properties transferred, 359, 361.
Of Provincial Districts, 31.
Top-dressed, 419–420.
Under Crops, 408–424, 1036.
Under Cultivation, 357, 411–424.
Armed Forces—
Awards for Gallantry, &c., 217, 996.
Casualties in, 211–217.
Demobilization of, 914.
Korea, Serving in, 205, 208, 209, 215, 216.
Overseas at Census date, 46, 54.
Patients in Public Hospitals, 118.
Pay and Allowances, 729, 730, 735, 738, 739.
Strengths of, 205, 209, 210, 216, 854, 855, 857.
Vegetables for, 420.
Army, 205–209, 211–217.
Expenditure on, 208, 562.
Arrivals, (see Migration).
Arsenic, 478.
Arson, 200, 1023.
Articles on Special Subjects in Previous Issues, 1061–1062.
Artificial Aids, 627–629.
Artificial Limbs, 628.
Art-unions, 584, 973, 974.
Asbestos, 478, 482, 491.
Assessable Income, 580, 743–758.
Assessment of—
Income-tax, 578–581, 743–758.
Land-tax, 577.
Land Values, 666.
Assets—
Of Bankrupts, 719, 1052.
Of Banks, 673, 675, 683–684, 688, 1048.
Of Building Societies, 707.
Of Electric-power Undertakings, 508, 553.
Of Factory Industries, 507–509, 511.
Of Fire-insurance Companies, 1018.
Of Friendly Societies, 701.
Of Life-assurance Companies, 1012.
Of Local Authorities, 656–657.
Of Reserve Bank, 673.
Assigned Estates, 718–722, 1052.
Assisted Immigration, 25–26, 860.
Assurance, Life, 1006–1013, 1026.
Asylums, 149–153.
Atafu Island, 2, 3, 347, 938–940.
Atiu Island, 2, 347, 917, 918, 920, 922.
Atlantic Salmon, 477.
Auckland—
Broadcasting Stations, 351–353.
Building Values, 539.
Dwellings, New State, 541.
Fires, 1022.
Population, 34, 35, 38.
Rainfall, 11, 12.
Retail Prices, 770.
Sales-tax Receipts, 588.
Shipping, 282, 285–291.
Sunshine, 11, 12.
Temperature, 11, 12.
Tramways, &c., 304–309.
Trustee Savings-bank, 688.
Auckland Islands, 2, 32, 41, 917.
Audit of Expenditure, 559.
Auriferous Mining, 479.
Australia—
Debt domiciled in, 594, 660–662, 1045.
New Zealand Representatives in, 1002.
Note Circulation, Index of, 682.
Reciprocal Trade with, 277–278.
Australia—continued
Representatives in New Zealand, 1003.
Social Security Reciprocity with, 608, 621, 805.
Automatic Telephones, 345–346.
Automobiles (see Motor-vehicles).
Autonomy, Local (see Local Authorities).
Avarau Island (see Palmerston).
Aviation and Air Transport, 209–211, 213–215, 328–341.
Award Wage-rates (see Wage-rates).
Awards for Gallantry, &c., 217.

B

Bachelors marrying, 72–74.
Baches, 526, 527.
Backward Children, 128, 158, 173, 174.
Bacon and Ham, Consumption of, 903.
Bacon and Ham Curing, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 515.
Balance of Overseas Payments, 223–224, 685.
Balance of Trade, 219–222.
Balances of Public Accounts, 560.
Bananas, 268, 763, 903, 922, 924, 927, 936.
Banking and Currency, 670–699, 1048, 1049.
Banking Companies, Taxation of, 575.
Bank-notes, 671–675, 681–682, 694, 695, 1048.
Denominations of, 682, 695.
In Circulation, 681–682, 1048.
Bank of New Zealand, 592, 600, 674.
Bankruptcy, 718–722, 831, 838, 1052.
Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, 590.
Banks, Overseas Assets of, 673, 675, 683–684.
Banks, Savings—
Post Office, 686–687, 689, 690, 692, 797, 1049.
School, 687.
Trustee, 688–690, 692.
Barley, 382, 383, 409–412, 414, 418, 424, 517.
Barren Land, 355, 357.
Basic Rent, 849, 850.
Basic Wage, 822, 833.
Beans, 410, 412, 421, 904.
Beds, Hospital, 146, 147.
Beef—
Chilled, 231, 232, 239, 400, 432, 438.
Consumption of, 439, 902, 903.
Export of, 244, 245, 248, 400, 439.
Imperial Government Purchase, 395, 400.
Slaughterings, 438, 515.
Beer—
Consumption of, 904.
Duty on, 271–275, 517, 561, 571, 574.
Production of, 517.
Bees, 442, 977.
Benefit Societies, 700–702.
Benefits, Social Security, 124, 130, 147, 148, 153, 568, 609–629, 725–739, 846, 858, 983.
Benevolent Institutions, 148.
Benevolent Societies, 700–702.
Bentonite, 478, 489, 491, 492.
Bibliography—
General, 1062–1065.
New Zealand Flora, 13.
Big-game Fishing, 475.
Bills, Treasury, 590, 595.
Birthplaces, 51.
Births, 56–68, 106, 978, 1033.
Excess of, over deaths, 20, 107.
In Cook Islands, 920.
In Nine Island, 926.
In Western Samoa, 931.
Of Maoris, 56, 100, 106.
Biscuit Industry, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 517.
Bitumen-surfaced Roads, 312.
Bituminous Coal, 482–485.
Blind, Benefits for the, 617, 621, 909.
Blind, Institute for the, 158, 161, 173.
Blocks of Flats, 538.
Board of School-children, 170–171.
Board of Trade, 226.
Bobby Calves, 438.
Boilers, Inspection of, 958.
Bond-issuing Companies, 945.
Bonds, National Savings, 589, 689.
Boot and Shoe Factories, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 522.
Boroughs, 644–663.
Area of, 38–39.
Bridges in, 312.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 668.
Debts, 656, 660, 1047.
Housing, 525, 536–539, 652.
Mileage of Streets, 312.
Population, 38–39.
Borrowing-powers of Local Authorities, 648.
Borstal Institutions, 190–195.
Boundaries of New Zealand, 1–3.
Bounty Islands, 2, 32, 41, 917.
Bread, Fixed Prices for, 759.
Breeding-bulls, 430.
Breeding-ewes, 375, 425–428.
Breeding-sows, 425, 436.
Breweries, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 517.
Brickworks, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 520.
Brides and Grooms, 70–74.
Bridges, 312, 316.
Bridle-tracks, 312.
Brigades, Fire, 1026.
Briquetting and Carbonizing of Coal, 486–487.
British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines, 336, 341, 592, 600.
British Countries, Representatives in New Zealand, 1003–1005.
British Nationality, 28.
British Phosphate Commission, 2, 600, 942.
British Postal Orders, 344.
British Preference, 249, 254, 275–279.
British Sovereignty, 3.
British Trade Representatives, 1003–1005.
Broadcasting, 350–354.
For Schools, 176, 353.
Time Signals, 353, 975, 976.
Bronze Coinage, 693.
Building, 524–544.
By Owner-builders, 544.
By Regular Builders, 543–544.
Building, Construction, and Housing, 524–544, 601–607.
Persons engaged in, 854, 856, 862, 865.
Building Costs, 525, 773.
Building Materials, 251, 759, 773.
Wholesale Price Indices, 773.
Building Permits, 524–526, 536–542.
Building Sheet and Wallboard Industry, 498, 501–506, 508, 514.
Building Societies, 703–707, 980.
Deposits, 689, 692.
Building-stones, 478, 490.
Bulk Purchase Agreement, 228, 394.
Bullion, Exports of, 231, 232, 244, 245, 248.
Bullion Production, 478, 479.
Bureau of Industry, 963, 964.
Burials, 78, 127.
Bursaries—
Agricultural, 179, 180.
Dental, 131, 179, 180.
Ex-servicemen's, 178, 180, 910.
Medical, 179, 180.
Physical Education, 175.
Post-primary Teachers', 175.
Secondary Schools, 169.
Servicemen's Dependants, 169, 911.
Technical Schools, 169.
University, 178–180.
Hush, 13, 357, 411.
Bushel Units, Weights of, 410.
Bush-working Accidents, 886–898.
Business Failures, 718–722, 1052.
Business Loans, 604–606, 912–915.
Butter (see Dairy Produce).
Butterfat Production, 434–436.
Butterfat used in Factories, 434–436, 516.
Butterfat Yields, 435.

C

Cabinet, 14.
Members of, 991–992.
Cable Tramways, 304, 305, 310.
Cables, Ocean, 346.
Cadets—
Army, 208.
Navy, 204.
Calf-skins exported, 231, 233, 241, 244, 245, 248, 1042.
Call, Deposits at, 675, 676.
Calves slaughtered, 438.
Campbell Island, 2, 18, 32, 41, 917.
Camps, 527.
Camps, Health, 128, 129, 138.
Camps, Holiday, 140.
Canada—
Exchange Rate with, 698.
New Zealand Representatives in, 1002.
Note Circulation, Index of, 682.
Reciprocal Trade with, 278.
Representatives in New Zealand, 1003.
Canadian Mutual Aid, 220.
Cancer, 93–96, 102, 103, 110, 121, 152.
Candle and Soap Industry, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 518.
Canned and Preserved Meats, Production of, 439, 515.
Canned Fish, 474, 475.
Canned Fruits, 517.
Consumption of, 904.
Canned Meat exported, 231, 232, 239, 244, 245, 248, 288, 439.
Canned Vegetables, 232, 233, 517.
Consumption of, 904.
Canterbury Agricultural College, 158, 159, 177, 178, 180, 384, 909.
Capital—
Expenditure of Government, 564.
Invested in Electric-power Undertakings, 508, 548–553.
Invested in Factories, 507–509.
Invested in Railways, 296, 1051.
Invested in Telegraph Construction, 344.
Invested in Telephone Construction, 346.
Invested in Tramways, &c., 306, 308, 311
Of Banks, 670, 672, 674.
Of Joint-stock Companies, 945–950.
Capital Formation, 726–731.
Capital Value of Land, 664–669.
Rating on, 649–650.
Capitation Scheme, Social Security, 622.
Carbonizing and Briquetting of Coal, 486–487.
Cargo handled at Ports, 281–291.
Car-miles run by Trams, &c., 304, 308, 310, 311.
Carpentry Schools, 907.
Carnegie Corporation, 180.
Carrots, 412, 417, 421, 903.
Carton and Paper Bag Industry, 498, 501–506, 508, 514.
Casein exported, 231, 232, 244, 245.
Cassiterite, 481.
Casualties in War, 211–217.
Casualties, Shipping, 294.
Catchment Boards, 454, 644–663.
Cattle, 375, 425, 430–433, 438, 1037.
Cattle-hides exported, 231, 233, 241, 244, 245, 248, 1042.
Causes of—
Accidents, 890–892.
Deaths, 85–100, 102–104, 109–111, 152.
Fires, 1023.
Industrial Disputes, 883.
Infant Mortality, 87–90.
Insanity, 150.
Maori Deaths, 102–104.
Still-birth, 90.
Cement, 491, 492.
Cement and Lime-crushing Works, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 520.
Cement-concrete Roads, 312.
Cemeteries, 124, 127.
Census, 16, 18–22, 30–55, 853–858.
Abandonment of, 19.
Of Dwellings, 526–533.
Of Poultry, 441.
Of Religions, 49, 50.
Unemployment Statistics, 857–858.
Central Reserve Bank (see Reserve Bank).
Centres, Vocational Guidance, 169.
Cereals, 409–415, 1036.
Consumption of, 904.
Certificated Teachers, 175, 176.
Certificates—
Dentists' Practising, 135.
Engine-drivers, 959.
Land Titles, 361.
Certificates—continued
Marine Officers', 292, 816.
Medical Practitioners', 134.
Mine Officials', 493, 814.
Naturalization, 28–30.
Occupational Therapists', 136.
Opticians', 137.
Physiotherapists', 135.
Certification of Seed, 384, 416, 419, 424.
Certification of Trades, 840.
Chaff, 410, 414, 417.
Charitable Aid, 145, 148.
Charitable Institutions, 141–149.
Chatham Islands, 2, 427, 916, 917, 1065.
Radio Station, 347.
Schools, 159, 171.
Cheese (see Dairy-produce).
Chemical Fertilizer Works, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 522.
Chemists, Registration of, 137.
Chief Justice, 995.
Child Hygiene, 123, 128.
Child Migration, 26.
Child Welfare, 85, 128, 138, 161, 172–174, 196.
Childbirth, Accidents, &c., of, 91, 92, 96–98, 104, 110, 111, 113, 121, 125, 150.
Children, 855.
Adopted, 67–68, 979.
Affected by Divorce Proceedings, 78.
Alien Minor, 29.
Allowances in respect of, 610–642.
Horn, Numbers and Rates, 57–58, 101, 107.
Born, Sexes of, 59–60, 62, 68, 101, 107.
Crippled, 138, 170.
Dental Treatment of, 129.
Legitimized, 67.
Medical Inspection of, 128.
Offences by, 173, 196, 197.
Under One, Deaths of, 81, 82, 85–90, 102, 104–106, 112, 1033.
Children's Courts, 172, 173, 196.
Children's Homes, 148, 174.
Chilled Beef, 231, 232, 239, 400, 432, 438.
Chinese—
In Nauru, 942.
In New Zealand, 53.
In Western Samoa, 930.
Chou Moellier, 410, 412, 417, 421.
Christchurch—
Broadcasting Stations, 351–353.
Building Values, 539.
Dwellings, New State, 541.
Fires, 1022.
Population, 34, 35, 38.
Rainfall, 11, 12.
Retail Prices, 770.
Sales-tax Receipts, 588.
Sunshine, 11, 12.
Temperature, 11, 12.
Tramways, &c., 304–309.
Chronological List of Events, 1053–1060.
Churches, 49–50, 75–76.
Cigarettes and Tobacco, 250, 251, 258, 271, 273, 275, 423, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 520.
Cinematograph Film-hire Tax, 561, 586.
Cinematograph Theatres, 955–957.
Cinnabar, 481.
Cities, Population of, 35, 36, 38, 39.
Citizenship, 28.
Citrus Fruits, 268, 383, 409, 421, 763, 903, 922, 924.
Civic Planning, 651.
Civil Aviation, 328–341.
Civil Law Cases, 184.
Civil List, 14, 562.
Civil Marriages, 69, 75.
Civil Service (see Public Service).
Claims, Insurance, 1006–1031.
Clays, 478, 491.
Clearings, Bank, 680.
Clergy of Bach Church, 75.
Marriages by, 75.
Climate, 4–5, 10–12, 917, 925, 928.
Clinics—
Ante-natal, 148.
School Dental, 129.
Venereal Disease, 115.
Clocks, Public, 976.
Closing-hours of Shops, 811.
Clothing and Footwear, Retail Prices of, 761–770.
Clothing, Rationing of, 905.
Clothing, Subsidy on, 761.
Clothing-factories, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 523.
Clover-seed (see Grass-seed).
Club Charters, 972.
Clubs, Aero, 337–338.
Clubs, Agricultural, 171–172.
Clubs, Rifle, 208.
Clubs, Working-men's, 700.
Coal—
Carried on Railways, 301, 302.
Consumption of, 487, 503, 520.
Exports of, 231, 232, 244, 245, 479.
Product ion of, 478, 482–489.
Public Ownership of, 478.
Resources, 482–484.
Subsidy on, 487, 733, 761.
Utilization of, 487, 503.
Coal-miners' Relief Fund, 493–194, 814.
Coal Mines Act, 447, 478, 801, 806, 807, 813–815, 989.
Coal-mining, 482–489, 492, 881, 882.
Coastal Shipping, 284, 287–289, 292.
Coastal Vessels registered, 292.
Coast-line, 4.
Coin held by Banks, 673, 675, 1048.
Coin imported and exported, 227, 693, 1038.
Coinage, 693–695.
Coin-in-slot Telephones, 346.
Colleges—
Agricultural, 158, 159, 177, 178, 180, 384, 385, 909.
Military, 207.
Naval, 204.
Pharmacy, 138.
Teachers' Training, 174, 175.
University, 158, 159, 168, 177–180, 1034.
Collieries, 482–489.
State, 488–489.
Combined Schools, 159, 166–168, 171, 176.
Commerce and Finance, Persons engaged in, 853, 854, 856.
Commerce, Overseas, 218–280, 1038–1042.
Commercial Afforestation, 454.
Commercial Air Transport, 328–341.
Commercial Broadcasting, 353–354.
Commercial Failures, 718–722, 1052.
Commercial Gardens, Registration of, 421.
Commodities—
Consumption of, 899–905.
Rationing of, 905.
Community Centres, 141, 182.
Companies—
Bank Advances to, 678.
In Manufacturing Industries, 509.
In Manufacturing Industries, 509.
Bond-issuing, 945.
In Manufacturing Industries, 509.
In Manufacturing Industries, 509.
Co-operative Dairy, 433.
In Manufacturing Industries, 509.
In Manufacturing Industries, 509.
Deposits with, 689, 692.
In Manufacturing Industries, 509.
In Manufacturing Industries, 509.
Income of, 729–739, 744, 755–757.
In Manufacturing Industries, 509.
In Manufacturing Industries, 509.
Joint-stock, 945–950.
In Manufacturing Industries, 509.
In Manufacturing Industries, 509.
Private, 946–950.
In Manufacturing Industries, 509.
Share Price Indices, 777–780.
Taxation of, 579, 584, 586, 609, 744, 755–757.
Comparisons with other Countries—
Active Note Circulation, 682.
Birth and Natural Increase Rates, 59.
Consumption of Foodstuffs, 904.
Dairy Produce Consumption, 903.
Death-rates, 81.
Expectation of Life, 84.
Health Insurance, 799.
Infant-mortality Rates, 86, 112.
Marriage-rates, 70.
Telephones to Population, 345.
Unemployment Insurance, 799.
Compassionate Allowances, 638.
Compensation Court (see Courts).
Compensation, Workers', 799, 805, 841–845, 886–890, 977, 982, 1013, 1031.
Compulsory Education, 154.
Compulsory Insurance, 805, 842, 1030.
Compulsory Military Training, 205, 207, 210.
Compulsory Registration of Titles, 358.
Compulsory Unionism, 833, 873.
Conciliation Councils, 781, 798, 831–837.
Concrete Products Works, 498, 501–506, 508, 514.
Concrete-surfaced Roads, 312.
Condensed-milk Factories, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 516.
Confectionery Industry, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 517.
Confinement, Deaths in, 92, 96–98, 104, 110, 111, 121.
Confinements, 60, 61, 63.
Conflagrations, 1022.
Deaths from, 98.
Conjugal Condition of Persons marrying, 72.
Conjugal Condition of Population, 47–49.
Conjugal Rights, Restitution of, 76, 77.
Consent to Marriage, 69.
Conservation of Forests, 444.
Conservation of Soil, 453–454, 564, 644.
Consolidated Fund, 124, 560–563, 570–574, 597–599, 734, 1031, 1044.
Consolidation of Schools, 170.
Constitution, 14–17.
Of Local Districts, 646.
Construction, Building, and Housing, 524–544, 601–607.
Construction of Dwellings (Materials), 530.
Construction of Railways, Cost of, 296, 564, 1051.
Construction of Roads, 312–318, 564.
Consuls, 1002–1005.
Consumers' Goods, Imports of, 251–253.
Consumers' Goods, Wholesale Prices of, 773.
Consumers' Price Index, 764–771.
Consumption (see Tuberculosis).
Consumption of—
Coal, 487, 503, 520.
Commodities, 899–905.
Electricity, 306, 545, 554, 557.
Farm-produce, 390, 391, 439, 902–905.
Motor-spirits, 320.
Wool, 395, 429, 522.
Contact Lenses, 627.
Contagious Diseases, 92, 103, 110, 111, 113–118, 121, 125–126.
Contingent Liabilities (State), 591.
Contractors' Liens, 801, 806, 830.
Contributory Negligence, 841.
Control of—
Bank Advances, 678.
Exchange, 223–224, 684, 694–697.
Exports, 226, 391–394, 489, 936.
Imports, 226, 249, 272, 923, 936.
Land Sales, 361–364.
Man-power, 802, 803, 859.
Poultry, 442.
Prices, 759–761.
Rivers, 564, 644.
Conversion of Debt, 593–594, 661–662.
Conveyance of Children to School, 170.
Convictions—
For Drunkenness, 188, 197, 198, 199, 200.
For Traffic Offences, 188, 197, 199–200.
Of Juveniles, 196.
Of Maoris, 198.
Of Women, 189, 197, 199.
Convictions in Magistrates' Courts, 187–189, 197, 1035.
Convictions in Supreme Court, 189–190, 198, 1035.
Cook Islands, 1–3, 18, 27, 41, 341, 638, 916–925.
Bibliography, 1065.
Exports to, 248.
Imports from, 268.
Population, 18, 919–920.
Public Finance, 924.
Radio-stations, 347, 923.
Trade, 923–924.
Co-operative Credit Associations, 607.
Co-operative Dairy Companies, 433.
Co-operative Public Works, 799.
Copper-ore, 478, 481, 492.
Cordial-factories, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 518.
Corn Crops, 409–414, 1036.
Coroner's Inquests, 79, 104, 185, 986.
Correspondence Classes, 159, 167, 171.
Cost of living, 759–771.
Bonuses, 823.
Costs—
Factory, 399, 496–523, 1043.
Farm, 399.
Owner Occupied Houses, 724, 766.
Railway Construction, 296, 564, 1051.
Roading, 314–318, 564.
Council, Defence, 201.
Council, Dental, 135.
Council, Executive, 14.
Members of, 991–992.
Council for Educational Research, 180.
Council, Legislative, 16.
Abolition of, 16.
Council, Medical, 134, 981.
Council, Medical Research, 134, 981.
Council of Adult Education, 181.
Council of Legal Education, 177.
Counties, 644–663.
Area of, 36–37.
Bridges in, 312.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 668.
Debt, 656, 660, 1047.
Employees of, 663.
Housing, 539–540.
Mileage of Roads, 312.
Population, 36–37.
Country Lands, Mortgages on, 604, 710, 712–714.
Country Library Service, 182.
Country Quota, 16.
Courts—
Appeal, 191–192, 995.
Arbitration, 781, 783, 787, 793, 794, 797–840, 995.
Bankruptcy, 718.
Children's, 172, 173, 196, 197.
Compensation, 841–845, 995.
Divorce, 76.
Judges of, 995.
Land Sales, 361.
Land Valuation, 361, 362, 666, 995.
Magistrates', 184, 187, 196–199, 718, 845, 1035.
Maori Appellate, 373.
Maori Land, 373.
Of Review, 710.
Supreme, 76, 77, 184, 188, 189–191, 197, 198, 200, 718, 995, 1035.
Cover, Fire, 1019.
Cow-testing, 384.
Cranes, Inspection of, 958.
Crayfish, 4 72, 474, 475.
Cream-separators on Farms, 404, 405.
Credit, Rural Intermediate, 604, 606.
Creditors' Petitions, 718, 719.
Crematoria, 127.
Crews of Overseas Vessels, 24.
Crime, Law and, 184–200, 1035.
Criminals, Habitual, 190, 193, 195.
Crippled Children, 138, 170.
Crops, 357, 410–424, 1036.
Crown Lands, 355, 365–372, 566.
Rates paid to Local Authorities, 654.
Crown Tenants, 367–369.
Advances to, 366.
Cultivation, Area in, 357, 411–421.
Cupro-nickel Coinage, 693.
Currency and Banking, 670–699, 1048, 1049.
Curriculum, School, 162.
Customary Land, 372.
Customs, Representatives Overseas, 1002.
Customs Tariff and Revenue, 269–280.
Customs Taxation, 269–280, 561, 571, 574, 732, 986.
Cycle and Motor Repairing Works, 498, 501–506 508, 514, 521.

D

Dairy Cows, 375, 405, 406, 425, 430–433, 435, 436, 1037.
Dairy Industry, 382, 384, 386–395, 397–400, 404 406, 633–436, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 516, 678, 818.
Dairy Industry Stabilization Account, 403.
Dairying-machinery, 233, 264, 404–406, 502, 508, 521.
Dairy-produce, 302, 382, 384, 392, 393, 397–400, 433–436.
Bulk-purchases of, 228, 394, 397.
Consumption of, 391, 902, 903.
Export of, 229–232, 239–240, 244, 245, 248, 288, 390–395, 397–400, 902, 1040.
Export Price Indices, 774–776.
Factories, 384, 388, 434–436, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 516, 678.
Fixation of Prices, 400–402, 759, 762.
Grading of, 384, 433.
Gross Farming Income, 386–389.
Marketing of, 392–395, 397–400.
Prices paid for, 397–400.
Processing of, 516.
Production of, 434–436, 514, 516, 961.
Purchase for War Purposes, 228, 394, 397.
Rationing of, 905.
Retail Prices Indices, 764.
Subsidy on, 761.
Dairy Products Marketing Commission, 393, 397.
Damage (Earthquake and War) Insurance, 558, 569, 1029–1031.
Danger Island (see Pukapuka).
Dangerous Drugs, 126.
Dates of Maturity of Debt, 593–595, 662.
Dates of Principal Events, 1053–1060.
Daylight Saving, 975.
Dead-births, 56, 61, 68, 78, 89–91.
Deaf, Schools for the, 174.
Dealing in Coin, Restriction on, 693.
Death Duties, 561, 571, 581–583, 732.
Death Penalty abolished, 191.
Death Penalty restored, 191.
Deaths, 78–100, 102–106, 109–112, 114, 115, 118–121, 151–153, 185, 303, 325–327, 485, 492, 978, 1033.
Accidental (see Accidents).
Distribution over Year, 81.
Due to Earthquakes, 10.
Deaths—continued
From External Causes, 98–99.
From Puerperal Causes, 92, 96–98, 104, 110, 111, 121.
In Cook Islands, 920.
In Hospitals, 118–121, 146.
In Mental Hospitals, 151–153.
In Nine Island, 926.
In Western Samoa, 931.
Inquests on, 185.
Neo-natal, 81, 85–91, 104–106.
Of friendly Society Members, 701.
Of Infants, 81–90, 102–106, 112, 1033.
Of Insured Persons, 1008–1012.
Of Maoris, 56, 79, 100, 102–106, 109–112, 185.
Of Servicemen Overseas, 79, 211–217.
Debentures, 579, 588, 602, 604, 657–660, 688, 1045.
Debenture-tax, 579.
Debits, Bank, 680.
Debt, Conversion of, 593–594, 661–662.
Debt of Local Authorities, 145, 601, 655–662, 1046, 1047.
Debt, Public, 562, 588–601, 1045.
Debtors' Petitions, 718, 719.
Decrees in Divorce, 76, 77.
Deeds Registration, 358, 708.
Defaulters, Military, 17, 193.
Defective Children, 173.
Defectives, Mental, 149–153, 152, 193.
Defence, 201–217.
Council, 201.
Expenditure on, 562, 205, 208, 211, 733.
Fund, 569.
Science, 202.
Deferred-maintenance Allowance, 578.
Deferred-payment Lands, 365–370.
Deficits, Consolidated Fund, 1044.
Degrees, University, 134, 160, 177.
Demobilization of Servicemen, 914.
Demography, 18–55, 1032, 1033.
Denominational Schools, 158, 166, 921, 932–934, 940.
Denominations of Bank-notes, 682, 695.
Denominations of Coins, 693.
Density of Population, 41.
Dental Benefits (Social Security), 130, 627, 629.
Dental Bursaries, 131, 179, 180.
Dental Clinics, 129.
Dental Council, 135.
Dental Health Education, 130.
Dental Hygiene, 123, 129–131.
Dental Nurses, 129.
Dental Services, 129, 627, 629.
Dental Treatment of School-children, 129.
Dentists, Registration of, 135.
Department of Agriculture, 383–384.
Department of Health, 123–124.
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Appendix (d), 1066–1075.
Departments, Government, 943, 991, 992, 996–998.
Departures (see Migration).
Dependants of Soldiers, 629–638.
Dependency, Ross, 2, 3, 18, 916, 940–941.
Dependent Children, Care of, 161, 172–174, 197.
Deposits—
By Insurance Companies, 1006, 1017–1018.
Interest-rates on, 691–693.
With Building Societies, 689, 692, 707.
With Local Authorities, 693.
With Reserve Bank, 672, 690.
With Savings-banks, 686–690, 1049.
With Trading Banks, 675–677, 690, 691, 1048.
With Trading Companies, 689, 692.
Depreciation Allowances, 577, 578, 725, 729, 731.
Depreciation of New Zealand Currency, 696.
Desertion, 76, 77.
Desertion, Ship, 188, 190, 817.
Designs, Registration of, 957, 958.
Destination—
Of Exports, 221, 222, 233–243.
Of Shipping, 282–283.
Detention, Reformative, 174, 190, 193–195.
Development Loans, 558, 569, 590, 593.
Development of Lands, 366–372, 375.
Diagnostic, Laboratory, Services, 626.
Diagnostic, X-ray, Services, 625, 629.
Diagrams and Graphs—
Banking, 676, 681, 684.
Building Permits, 538.
Butterfat Production, 436.
Cows in Milk, 436.
Daily Production, 436.
Electricity Consumption, 555.
Export-prices Indices, 776.
Exports, 222.
Factor, Production, 506, 512, 513.
Imports, 222.
Infant Death Rates, 88.
Life Assurance, 1006, 1013.
Maternal Mortality, 98.
Mortgages, 716.
Motor-spirits Consumption, 320.
Motor-vehicles licensed, 320.
Note Circulation, 681.
Overseas Assets of Banks, 684.
Overtime in Factories, 513.
Pigs, 436.
Price Indices, 765, 776, 778.
Production, 413, 436, 506, 512.
Rates of Interest, 716.
Reserve Bank, 684.
Retail-prices Indices, 765.
Share-prices Indices, 778.
Taxation Revenue, 573.
Trading Banks, 676, 684.
Union Membership, 874.
Vital Statistics, 59, 94.
Wheat Production, 413.
Wholesale-prices Indices, 776.
Diatomite, 478, 491, 493.
Dietitians, 124, 137.
Diphtheria, 92, 102, 103, 110, 113, 114, 121, 125, 128.
Diplomas, 134, 160, 178.
Diplomatic Representatives, 1002–1005.
Direct Taxation, 570, 730, 732, 734, 737, 738.
Disabilities from Industrial Accidents, 886–898.
Disabled Servicemen, 629–638, 909.
Discharged Mortgages, 711, 716.
Discharged Patients, 118–120.
From Mental Hospitals, 151–153.
Discharged Soldiers Settlement, 361–364, 368, 370–372, 601, 606, 906–915.
Discount Rates, 691.
Disease, Prevention of, 128.
Diseases, Notifications of, 113–117, 125.
Diseases, Principal, Deaths from, 91–100, 102–106, 110, 111, 121.
Diseases treated in Hospitals, 120–121.
Disengaged Persons, 866–868.
Displaced Persons, 26.
Disputes, Industrial, 831–837, 877–885, 984.
Dissolution of Marriage, 76, 77.
Dissolution of Parliament, Dates of, 993.
Distribution of Deaths over Year, 81.
Distribution of Population, 30–40.
By Ages, 44–46.
By Industries, 853–854.
By Occupational Status, 855–856.
Distribution of Private Income, 735–739.
District High Schools, 159, 166–168, 171, 176, 1034.
District Nurses, 128, 138, 148, 626.
Districts, Electoral, 965–970, 994.
Districts, income-tax, 752.
Districts, Local, 644–663, 1046–1047.
Dividends, Bankruptcy, 719, 1052.
Dividends (Totalizator) Duty, 585.
Divorce, 76–78.
Divorced Persons, Numbers of, 47–49.
Divorced Persons remarrying, 72.
Dolomite, 478, 491.
Domains, Public, 357–358.
Domestic Assistance, 626, 629.
Domicile of Debt, 589, 53–596, 660–662, 1045.
Drainage Districts, 644–663.
Dredging, Gold, 479.
Drilling for Oil, 489.
Drivers' Licences, 315, 319, 654.
Drowning Accidents, 98.
Drugs, 126, 250, 623.
Drunkenness, 76, 77, 188, 194, 197, 198, 199, 200.
Ducks, 441–442.
Dunedin—
Broadcasting Stations, 351–353.
Building Values, 539.
Dwellings, New State, 541.
Fires, 1022.
Population, 34, 36, 38.
Rainfall, 11, 12.
Retail Prices, 770.
Sales-tax Receipts, 588.
Shipping, 282, 285–291.
Sunshine, 11, 12.
Temperature, 11, 12.
Tramways, &c., 304–310.
Trustee Savings-bank, 688.
Duration of Marriage, 63, 64, 78.
Duration of Residence of Overseas Born, 52.
Duration of Strikes, 880.
Dutiable Imports, 269–280.
Duties—
Customs and Excise, 269–280, 517, 571, 574, 732.
Death, 561, 571, 581–583, 732.
Export, 273–274, 574, 937.
On Lottery Tickets, 584, 973, 974.
On Overseas Passenger-tickets, 584.
Stamp, 561, 571, 583–584.
Dwellings, 524 544.
Advances for, 601, 607, 652, 703 707, 912, 914, 915.
Amenities of, 531, 533.
Census Enumerations, 526–533.
Electricity Supply, 530.
Erected, 533–536, 542, 544.
Fire Losses on, 1025.
In Course of Erection, 526, 527, 533–534, 540, 541.
Maori, 527, 532–533, 848.
Materials of which constructed, 530.
Rents, 760, 764–770, 847–852.
Sale of State, 607.
Size of, 529, 532.
Soldiers', 912, 914, 915.
State, 533–536, 540–541, 848.
Tenure of, 528, 532.
Untenanted, 526, 527.
Workers', 533–536, 540 541, 601 607, 652, 847.

E

Earned Income, 744, 746.
Earning-power, Loss of, 896.
Earnings of Factory Employees, 500–501.
Earthquake Insurance, 558, 569, 605, 981, 1029–1031.
Earthquakes, 8–10.
Deaths due to, 10.
Economic Pensions, 634.
Economic Stabilization, 385, 759–762, 803–805, 826–830, 836, 850.
Education, 154–183, 353, 921, 926, 932–934, 1034.
Act, 154, 807, 820.
Boards, 154–156.
Endowments, 156, 161, 366.
Expenditure on, 161, 162, 170, 563, 733.
Of Ex-Servicemen, 910, 915.
Education Gazette, 177.
Educational Association, Workers', 181.
Educational Research, 180.
Eels, 476, 477.
Effective Weekly Wage-rates, 788.
Egg-pulp, Imports of, 257.
Eggs, 393, 442, 763, 904, 905.
Retail prices of, 763.
Elections, General, 15, 16, 965–970, 977.
Electoral Districts, 16, 965–970, 994.
Electoral Qualifications, 17, 646–648.
Electors, Registration of, 17, 646.
Electric—
Current, 306, 498, 501–506, 608, 514, 545 557.
Power Boards, 548–550, 644–663, 1047.
Power in Factories, 495, 501–502, 557.
Power on Farms, 382, 404, 405.
Railways, 295–297.
Tramways, 304–308.
Electric Supply Account, 565, 569.
Electrical Engineering Works, 498, 501–506, 508, 514.
Electricity, Consumption of, 545–557.
By Tramways and Trolley-buses, 306.
Electricity Generation and Supply, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 545–557, 565.
Electricity Supply to Dwellings, 530.
Emergency Benefits, 620–621, 628.
Emergency Precautions Services, 217.
Emergency Reserve Corps, 217.
Pensions for, 628, 633, 636.
Emigration, 20–25, 1032.
Employees—
Cinematograph-theatres, 956, 957.
Electric-supply, 549–552.
Factory, 496–500, 509, 511, 515–523, 864, 870, 1043.
Farm, 868.
Fire Brigade, 663, 1026.
Hospital Hoards, 663.
In Industry, 853, 854, 857, 861–862, 864–866, 870.
Legislation affecting, 797–852.
Local Authority, 662–663, 864, 871.
Mining, 485, 486, 489, 491.
Postal, 349.
Public Service, 1001–1002.
Public Works, 871.
Railway, 302, 865.
State, Coal-mines, 489
Tramway, 305, 311.
Unions of, 797, 831–837, 872–876.
Wage-rates of (see Wage-rates).
Employers, 855, 872, 876.
Employers' Liability, 797, 841–845, 1013–1016, 1027, 1028.
Insurance, 805, 843, 1013–1016, 1027, 1028.
Employers' Unions, 872.
Employment and Unemployment, 846, 853–871.
Employment Bureaux, 846, 859.
Employment Placement Scheme, 846, 859, 866–868.
Employment Promotion, 801, 846, 858–866.
Fund, 846.
Taxation, 573, 586, 782.
Employment, Seasonal Fluctuations in, 499, 869–871.
Employment Service, National, 847, 853, 859–868.
Employment, Survey of, 860–866.
Employment Vacancies, 866–868.
Enactments affecting Labour, 797–852.
Enactments of 1951, 976–989.
Endowment Land, 367–370.
Endowments, Education, 156, 161, 366.
Engine-drivers' Certificates, 959.
Engineering-works, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 521.
Engines—
Employed in Factories, 502.
Employed on Farms, 404, 405.
Inspection of, 958.
Railway, 296–297.
Ensilage, 357, 409–411, 414, 417–419.
Entertainment, Persons engaged in, 854.
Entertainments-tax, 585–586, 956.
Entrepôt Trade, 245.
Entry, Ports of, 282.
Envoys Extraordinary, 1003, 1004.
Erosion, 454, 644.
Estate Duty, 581–582.
Estates—
Administered by Public Trust Office, 943–945.
Assigned, 718–722.
Ewes, Breeding, 375, 425–428.
Examinations—
Education Department, 160.
Electric-tram Drivers', 959.
Engine-drivers', 959.
Marine Officers', 292.
Medical, of School Children, 128.
Medical Practitioners', 134.
Mining, 493, 814.
Navy, Candidates for, 160, 204,
Teachers', 160.
University, 134, 160, 1000.
Excess-profits Tax, 576.
Exchange (Currency), 673, 675, 696–699.
Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, 590.
Control of, 223–224, 684, 694–697.
Effect on Trade Statistics, 218.
Expenditure on, 589.
New Zealand-London, 696, 697.
Rates of, 696–698.
Reserve, 673, 683.
Exchanges, Telephone, 344–346.
Excise Duties, 272–275, 571, 574, 732.
Executive Council, 14.
Members of, 991–992.
Exemptions from Taxation—
Income-tax, 575–580, 744, 750–751.
Land-tax, 577.
Ex-nuptial Births, 65, 66.
Exotic Forests, 444–446, 450–452, 466–470.
Expectation of Life, 83, 84.
Expeditionary Forces, 211–216, 1055–1057.
Expenditure—
Air Force, 211.
Army, 208.
Audit of, 559.
Broadcasting, 353.
Cinematograph Theatres, 956, 957.
Civil Aviation, 328.
Education, 161–162, 170, 563.
Electric-power, 549–553, 555–556.
Forest Service, 455–456.
Government, 558–607, 723–739, 1044.
Insurance Companies, 1009, 1011, 1014, 1020, 1026–1031.
Local Authority, 143–145, 550, 553, 655–656, 734, 1046.
Mental Hospitals, 153.
National, 723–742.
Navy, 205.
Expenditure—continual
Post and Telegraph, 344, 348.
Railway, 296–299, 567, 1051.
Rehabilitation, 562, 912–915.
Roads, 315, 317, 318.
Tramway, 305–311.
War, 205, 208, 211, 562, 568, 591.
Export Control, 226.
Dairy-produce, 392, 433.
Honey, 443.
Kauri-gum, 489.
Meat, 392.
Export Duties, 273–274, 937.
Export Licences, 226, 936.
Export Prices, 246–248, 397–403, 773–776, 780, 900.
Export Surplus, 219–222.
Exports, 218–248, 277–279, 899–902, 1038–1042.
Classification of, 229–233.
Currency, Restrictions on, 694, 936.
Dairy-produce, 229–232, 239–240, 214, 245, 248, 288, 390–393, 397, 133, 902, 1040.
Destination of, 233–243.
Excess over Imports, 219–222.
Fish, 231, 232, 244, 245, 474.
Gold, 231, 232, 244, 245, 248, 179, 1040.
Meat, 229–232, 239, 244, 245, 248, 288, 400–402, 137–440, 902, 1039.
Minerals, 231, 232, 244, 245, 248, 479.
Of Ports, 291.
Receipts from, 684.
Specie, 227, 694, 1038.
Timber, 231, 232, 243, 244, 245, 459–460.
Valuation of, 218, 221, 229.
Value in Sterling, 218, 225.
Value on Gold Basis, 225.
Values, Index Numbers, 225, 900.
Volume, Index Numbers, 225, 247, 901.
Wool, 229–233, 238, 241, 215, 248, 288, 429, 1039.
External Migration, 20–28, 1032.
External Trade, 218–280, 1038–1042.
Extra-marital Conceptions, 65, 66, 68.
Extra-urban Planning, 651.

F

Factories, 495–523, 1043.
Accidents in, 886–898.
Act, 798, 801, 806–810.
Dairy, 384, 388, 433–436, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 516.
Employees, 496–500, 509, 511, 515–523, 870, 1043.
Fire Losses on, 1025.
Promotion of, 963–965.
Factory (Dairy) Costs Allowance, 399.
Factory Production, 495–523, 960–962, 1043.
Fair Rents Act, 801, 849–852.
Fakaofo Island, 2, 3, 347, 938–940.
Fallow Land, 357, 411.
Family Allowances, 608.
Family Benefits, 101, 580, 615–616, 622, 628, 983.
Family Homes Act, Joint, 847, 979.
Fanuatapu Island, 3, 928.
Farm Costs Allowance, 399.
Farm Employees, 868.
Farm Employees, Wage-rates, &c., 781–792, 800, 807, 818–819.
Farm Finance, Provision of, 367–370, 374, 601–607, 678, 800, 912, 913.
Farm Holdings, 355, 356.
Farm Implements, 263, 404–408, 440.
Manufacture of, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 521.
Farm Industry Reserves, 403.
Farm Loans fur Ex-servicemen, 912, 913.
Farm Machinery, 251, 263, 264, 404–408, 440, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 521.
Farm Produce—
Consumption of, 391, 902–905.
Export of, 229–232, 239–240, 244, 245, 248, 288, 390–393, 397, 400–402, 437–440, 902, 1039–1042.
Marketing of, 228, 391–403.
Price Indices, 774–776, 780.
Farm Stabilization Accounts, 385, 730.
Farm Subsidies, 385, 386.
Farm Training and Settlement of Discharged
Servicemen, 361–364, 909–910, 915.
Farmers—
Advice for, 383, 384.
Financial Assistance to, 366, 370, 375, 601–607, 678, 800.
Mutual Fire Insurance, 1025.
Farming, 382–443.
Farming income, Gross, 386–391.
Farming Lands, Mortgages on, 606, 710, 712–714.
Fathers—
Ages of, 62.
Duration of Marriage of, 64.
Fats Exported, 231, 232, 241, 244, 245, 248, 1039.
Fauna, 13.
Feeble-minded, Schools for, 128, 174.
Feeder Stations, Radio, 347.
Feilding Community Centre, 182.
Fellmongering-works, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 518.
Female Suffrage, 17, 1055.
Female Wage-rates, 500, 501, 787–795, 823.
Fern Lands, 357.
Ferns, 13.
Fertilizer used, 419–420.
Fertilizer Works, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 522.
Fertilizers, Prices of, 759.
Fertilizers, Subsidy on Imported, 386.
Fertilizers, Subsidy on Transport of, 385.
Fever, Scarlet, 92, 103, 110, 113, 114, 121, 125.
Fibre—
Linen-flax (see linen-flax).
Phormium (see Phormium).
Field Crops, 410–424.
Film Unit, National, 1062.
Film-hire Tax, 561, 571, 586.
Finance, Farm, 367–370, 374, 601–607, 678, 800, 912, 913.
Finance, Government, 558–607, 723–739, 1044, 1015.
Finance of Local Authorities, 143–145, 652–662, 1046, 1047.
Hospital Boards, 143–145.
Fire Brigades, 1026.
Fire Districts, 448, 644–663.
Fire Inquests, 185.
Fire Insurance, 1017–1026.
State, 1029.
Fire Losses, 1019–1025, 1029.
Fire-prevention in Forests, 418, 452.
Fires on Vessels, 294.
Fires, Seasonal Incidence of, 1024.
First Births, 63–65.
Fish, 7, 471–477.
Canned, 474, 475.
Consumption of, 904.
Exported, 231, 232, 244, 245, 474.
Retail Prices of, 767–771.
Value of Production, 472, 961.
Fisheries, 471–177, 854, 856.
Fishing, Big-game, 475.
Fish-liver, Oil, 474.
Fixation of Prices, 391–403, 759.
Fixed Deposits, 676, 689, 691, 692.
Flats, 527, 532, 538, 544.
Flax Lands, 357, 423.
Flax, Linen, 410, 411, 423–424, 564, 592, 600.
Exports of, 232, 233, 244, 245.
Flax, Phormium (see Phormium).
Floating Debt, 590, 592.
Flogging abolished, 191.
Flora, 13.
Flotation of Loans, 588, 593–594.
Flour—
Consumption of, 904.
Fixed Prices for, 759.
Production of, 516.
Restriction on Imports, 412.
Flour-mills, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 516.
Flying, 209–211, 213, 214, 215, 328–341.
Flying Clubs, 337–338.
Fodder Crops, 409–411, 114, 415, 417–418.
Fog Signals, 293.
Food and Drugs, Sale of, 126.
Food Consumption, 899–905,
Food Poisoning, 113, 125.
Food, Retail Prices of, 764–771, 780.
Foodstuffs, Export Prices of, 774.
Foodstuffs, Wholesale Prices of, 772.
Footwear and Clothing, Retail Prices of, 764–770.
Footwear, Exports of, 232, 233.
Footwear Factories, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 522.
Footwear, Imports of, 259.
Footwear, Rationing of, 905.
Foreign Consuls, 1003–1005.
Foreign Securities, Wartime Control of, 698.
Foreign Vessels, 283.
Foreigners, Naturalization of, 28.
Forest Fire Prevention, 448, 452.
Forest Produce exported, 231, 232, 243–245, 459–460.
Forest Trees 13, 461–470.
Forestry, 444–170.
Persons engaged in, 854, 856, 864.
Research, 460.
Value of Production, 961.
Forty-hour Week, 794, 808.
Foster Homes for Children, 173.
Foveaux Strait Oysters, 474.
Fowls, 441–412.
Fractions, Totalizator, 585.
Franchise, General Government, 17.
Franchise, Local Government, 17, 646–648.
Free Ambulance, 138.
Free and Dutiable Imports, 269–280.
Free Deposits, 676.
Free Education, 154–180.
Free Radio-licences, 354.
Freehold, Crown Land made, 369.
Freehold Land, 355, 356.
Freezing-works, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 515, 678.
Freight—
Carried by Air-transport, 332–337.
Carried by Shipping, 281–291.
Carried by Trains, 298, 300–302, 1051.
Subsidy, 385, 487.
Train-mileage, 302.
Frequency Rates of Accidents, 887–890.
Fresh-water Fisheries, 476.
Friendly Societies, 700–702, 797.
Frozen Meat Exported, 229–232, 239, 244, 245, 248, 288, 390, 400–402, 437–440, 1039.
Fruit—
Consumption of, 903, 904.
Export of, 232, 233, 243–215.
Fixation of Prices of, 763.
Imports of, 257, 258, 268.
Industry, 357, 384, 409–411, 421–422.
Retail Prices of, 767–771.
Fruit-preserving Industry, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 517.
Fuel and Light, Retail Prices of, 764–770.
Fuels and Lubricants, Imports of, 251–253, 261, 262.
Funded Debt, 599.
Funds of Public Account, 558–569.
Funeral Funds, 701.
Furniture and Cabinet-making industry, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 519.
Furniture Loans, 604, 606, 912, 915.

G

Gaming Act, 973, 974.
Gaols, Prisoners in, 192–194, 1035.
Garden Tractors, 404, 405, 407.
Gardens, Acreage in, 357, 410, 420.
Gardens (Commercial), Registration of, 421.
Gas, Consumption of, 520.
Gas District, 644–663.
Gasworks, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 520.
Gauge, Railway, 295.
Geese, 441.
General Assembly, 14–17, 994.
General Bibliography, 1062–1065.
General Elections, 15–17, 965–970, 977.
Generating Stations, 545–548.
Geodetic Survey, 377–378.
Geographical Features, 4–8.
Geographic Board, 380.
Geological Survey, 483, 489, 492.
Geology, 8.
Geo-thermal Steam, 548.
Geysers, 4.
Gift Duty, 571, 581, 583.
Gilbert and Ellice Islands, 3.
Glaciers, 5–6.
Gold, Discovery of, 7, 31, 1054.
Gold exported, 231, 232, 244, 245, 248, 479, 1040.
Duty on, 273, 574.
Gold-mining, 479.
Gold-production, 478.
Gold Reserve, 673.
Gonorrhoeaœa, 115, 125.
Goods carried on Railways, 298, 300–302, 1051.
Goods-service Licences, 322–324.
Government Departments, 943, 991, 992, 996–998.
Government Finance, 558–607, 723–739, 1044, 1045.
Government Housing, 533–536, 540–541, 564, 592, 607, 848, 906, 914.
Government Insurance, 985, 1026–1031.
Government Railways, 295–303, 1051.
Industrial Tribunal, 303, 820.
Superannuation Fund, 303, 638.
Government Representatives Overseas, 1002.
Government Roads, 312.
Government Service Tribunal Act, 820.
Government Superannuation Fund, 638–641, 985.
Government, System of, 14–17.
Government Valuations, Land, 664–669.
Governor-General, 990.
Powers, Duties, &c., 14.
Grading—
Of Dairy-produce, 384, 433.
Of Honey, 384.
Of Public Servants, 1000.
Graduated Land-tax, 575.
Graduates, University, 177.
Grain Crops, 357, 408–415, 1036.
Grain-mills, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 516.
Granite, 491.
Grapes, 409, 410, 422.
Graphs (see Diagrams).
Grass Lands, 357, 382, 411, 419.
Grass-seed, 357, 409–411, 418.
Certification of, 384, 419.
Exported, 232, 233, 243, 244, 245, 248, 1041.
Varieties of, 13, 418.
Gratuities, Ex-servicemen's, 686–687.
Gravel and Sand, 478, 491.
Green Crops, 357, 410, 411, 417.
Greenstone, 490.
Greenwich Mean Time, 9.5.
Groceries, Retail Prices of, 764.
Gross Farming Income, 386–391.
Cross Indebtedness, 590, 601, 657–662, 1045.
Of Local Authorities, 657–662, 1046, 1047.
Gross Reproduction Rate, 21.
Grounds for Divorce, 76.
Grounds for War Pensions, 630.
Group Travel, 140.
Growth of Population, 19–23, 30–33, 58.
Guaranteed Loans, 591, 659.
Guaranteed Prices, 398–400.
Guidance, Vocational, 169–170, 838, 859.
Gum, Kauri, 479, 489–490.
Exported, 231, 232, 244, 245, 179, 490.

H

Habitual Criminals, 190, 193, 195.
Half-castes, 20, 43, 52, 101.
Half-holiday, Weekly, 812.
Half-yearly Surveys of Employment, 860–866.
Ham and Bacon, Consumption of, 903.
Ham and Bacon Curing, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 515.
Harbour Boards, 644–663, 1047.
Harbour-ferry Services, 322–324.
Harbours (see also Ports), 4.
Hardwood frees, 461–464.
Hardwoods Imported, 460.
Harvests, 409–424, 1036.
Havana Charter, 228.
Hay, 357, 409–411, 411, 417–119.
Heads of Government Departments, 996–998.
Health Camps, 128, 129, 138.
Health, Department of, 123–124.
Health Insurance, 608, 617–618, 620, 622–629, 799.
Health, Occupational, 131–133.
Health, Public, 122–153, 172.
Hearing Aids, 627–628.
Heavy-traffic Fees, 315, 321, 654.
Herd Testing, 384.
Hervey Islands (see Manuae).
Hides and Skins Exported, 231, 233, 241, 242, 244, 245, 248, 288, 1041, 1042.
High Commissioners, 1002–1005.
High Schools, 159, 166–168, 171, 176, 1031.
Higher Education, 177–180, 1034.
Highway Districts, 314, 644.
Highways, 313–317.
Taxation, 314, 315, 318, 321, 561, 571, 574–575.
History of Labour Laws and Allied Legislation, 797–807.
History of New Zealand, 1053–1060.
Hoarding prohibited, 759.
Hoes, Rotary, 404, 405, 407.
Holdings (see Land Holdings).
Holiday Camps, 140.
Holidays, 805, 808, 809, 812, 813, 816, 818.
Holland Ministry, 991, 992.
Home Guard, 217.
Home-nursing Services, 626.
Homes, Benevolent, 148.
Homes, Children's, 148, 173.
Homicide, 92, 98, 103, 104, 110, 111, 185, 190, 200.
Honey, 442, 904.
Exported, 231, 232, 244, 245, 443.
Marketing of, 394, 443, 762.
Honours conferred, 217, 995–996.
Hops, 357, 410, 422, 517.
Export of, 232, 233.
Horse-racing Taxation, 584.
Horses, 232, 407, 425, 440–441, 1037.
Horticultural Station, 384.
Horticulture, 384, 420.
Hosiery and Knitted Goods Industry, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 523.
Hosiery, Imports of, 259.
Hospital Benefits, 124, 141, 568, 622–629.
Hospital Hoards, 117, 141–149, 601, 623–628, 644, 645, 649, 733.
Employees of, 663.
Employees Retiring-allowances, 642.
Finances of, 143–145.
Levies on Local Authorities, 113–145, 655.
Hospital Dietitians, 137.
Hospital Districts, 141, 644.
Hospitals, 117–121, 141–153, 527, 622–628, 920, 926, 931, 982.
Accommodation of, 147.
Maternity, 117, 131, 146–148, 624–625, 629.
Mental, 149–153, 624.
Military, 117.
Private, 147, 623–625, 629.
Private Mental, 149, 152.
Public, 117–121, 146–147, 623–625, 629.
Staff of, 663.
St. Helens, 117, 131, 147, 148, 624.
Hostels, 860.
Hot Springs, 4, 976.
Hotels, Fire Losses on, 1025.
Hotels, Licensed, 971–973.
Hotels, &c., Numbers of, 527.
Hourly Wage-rates, 785–786.
Hours of Labour, 513, 793–796, 808–810, 813, 816, 818.
House of Representatives, 14–17.
Members of, 994.
Household Durable Goods, Retail Prices of, 766–769.
House-rents, 764–770, 847–852.
Houses (see Dwellings).
Housing, 524–544, 564, 591, 601–607, 652, 798, 800, 847–852.
Local Authorities, 652.
Of Ex-servicemen, 906, 912–915.
Of Maoris, 527, 532–533, 536, 800, 848, 915.
Of Miners, 814.
State, 533–536, 540–541, 564, 592, 607, 848.
Survey, 526, 652, 800, 848.
Transit, 652, 849.
Humphrey Island (see Manihiki).
Husbands' Petitions in Divorce, 76–78.
Hydatids, 113, 121, 125, 126.
Hydro-electric Power, 6, 7, 545–557.
Used for Industrial Purposes, 495, 501, 557.
Hydrogenation of Coal, 486.
Hygiene—
Child, 123, 128.
Dental, 123, 129–131.
Environmental, 126.
Industrial, 131–133.
Public, 123, 125–127.
School, 128.
Social, 125–126.

I

Ice-cream, Consumption of, 902.
Ice-cream Industry, 498, 501–506, 508, 514.
Illegitimate Infants—
Births of, 65, 66, 68.
Legitimation of, 66–67.
Protection of, 172.
Immigration, 20–28, 80, 860, 1032.
Assisted, 20, 25–26.
Hostels, 860.
Restriction on, 27, 846, 977.
Imperial Airways, 334.
Imperial Government Purchases, 228, 392–402.
Implements, Farm, 263, 404–408, 440.
Manufacture of, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 521.
Import Licences, 226, 227, 249, 272, 923, 936.
Import Price Indices, 775–776, 780.
Imported Commodities, Prices Indices, 773, 776, 780.
Importers, Rank Advances to, 678.
Imports, 218–229, 249–268, 275–280, 899–901, 1038.
Classification of, 249–253.
Currency, Restrictions on, 936.
Excess of Exports over, 219–222.
Free and Dutiable, 269–280.
Of Ports, 290.
Payments on Account of, 685.
Purpose or Use of, 251–253.
Restrictions on, 249, 272, 923, 936.
Specie, 227, 693, 1038.
Timber, 250, 265, 459–460.
Valuation of, 221, 249.
Value in Sterling, 218, 225.
Value of, Index Numbers, 225, 900.
Value on Cold Basis, 2.25.
Volume of, Index Numbers, 225, 901.
Improvements (Land), Value of, 664–669.
Incapacity from Industrial Accidents, 845, 886–898, 977, 982.
Income—
Gross Panning, 386–391.
National, 573, 723–742.
Personal, 729, 730.
Private, 573, 723–742.
Incomes, 743–758.
Income-tax, 561, 571, 575–581, 732, 743–758, 978, 988.
Income-tax Districts, 752.
Increase in Population, 19–23, 31, 58, 107–108.
Indebtedness of Load Authorities, 145, 601, 656–662, 1046, 1047.
Indebtedness, State, 588–601, 1045.
Index Numbers—
Active Note Circulation, 682.
Value, 962.
Volume, 511–512, 962.
Consumers' Price, 764–771.
Value, 962.
Volume, 511–512, 962.
Deaths, Sex-ratio, 80.
Value, 962.
Volume, 511–512, 962.
Electricity, Consumption of, 545.
Value, 962.
Volume, 511–512, 962.
Export Prices, 773–775, 780.
Value, 962.
Volume, 511–512, 962.
Factory Production—
Value, 962.
Volume, 511–512, 962.
Farm Production, Value and Volume, 389, 962.
Gross Farming Income, 389.
Hours of Labour, 793–795.
House-rent, 764–770.
Import Prices, 775–776, 780.
Marriage-rates, 71.
Prices of Consumers' Goods, 773.
Prices of Imported Commodities, 773, 776, 780.
Prices of Locally-produced Commodities, 773, 776, 780.
Private Income, 735, 739.
Production, 962, 963.
Factory, Value of, 962.
Factory, Volume of, 511–512, 962.
Farm, Value and Volume of, 389, 962.
Retail Prices, 764–771, 776, 780, 788.
Share Prices, 777–780.
Value of Exports, 225, 900.
Value of Goods available for Use, 900.
Value of Imports, 225, 900.
Value of Production, 389, 962, 963.
Value of Trade, 225.
Volume of Exports, 225, 247, 901.
Volume of Goods available for Use, 901.
Volume of Imports, 225, 901.
Volume of Production, 389, 511–512, 962, 963.
Volume of Trade, 225.
Wage-rates, 782–790, 795.
Wholesale Prices, 771–773, 776, 780.
Indians in New Zealand, 53.
Indigenous Forests, 357, 444–446, 448–450, 464–466.
Indirect Taxation, 725, 729, 730, 732, 734, 737.
Individuals, Incomes of, 744–754.
Industrial Accidents, 797, 841–845, 886–898, 959, 977, 982.
Industrial Associations, 876.
Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration, 781–795, 799–837, 872–876, 884, 984.
Industrial Disputes, 831–837, 877–885, 984.
Industrial Distribution of Population, 853–854.
Industrial Efficiency, 138, 963–965.
Industrial Hygiene, 131–133.
Industrial Life Assurance, 1006, 1010–1012.
Industrial Mobilization, 802, 859.
Industrial Nurses, 132.
Industrial Planning, 963–965.
Industrial Relations Act, 837.
Industrial Share Prices, 777–780.
industrial Unions, 797, 831–837, 872–876, 984.
Industries—
Bank Advances to, 678.
Classification of, 509–511.
Licensing of, 963–965.
Manufacturing, 495–523, 678, 870, 960–963, 1043.
Industry—
Bureau of, 963, 964.
Organization of, 509, 963–965.
Persons engaged in, 853, 854, 856, 857, 861–866.
State Aid to, 604–606.
Inebriates, 76, 77, 188, 194, 197, 198, 199, 200.
Infancy, Diseases of, 87–89, 104–106, 110, 111, 121.
Infant Mortality, 81–90, 104–106, 112, 1033.
Maori, 104–106, 112.
Infantile Paralysis, 92, 103, 111, 113, 114–115, 121, 125.
Infant-life Protection, 85, 148, 173, 174.
Infectious Diseases—
Control of, in Schools, 128.
Deaths from, 88, 89, 92–94, 103–104, 110, 111, 121.
Hospital Cases, 120, 121.
Notification of, 112–117, 125.
Injuries (see Accidents).
Inland Air Mails, 332, 333, 337, 340.
Inland Fisheries, 475–477.
Inmates—
Of Gaols, 192–194, 1035.
Of Hospitals, 117–121, 146, 147.
Of Mental Hospitals, 149–153.
Inquests, 185.
Insanity, 76, 77, 149–153.
Inscribed Debt, 657–662.
Insolvency, 718–722, 831, 838, 1052.
Inspection, Dairy, 384, 433.
Inspection, Medical, of Schools, 128.
Inspection of Machinery, 797, 807, 958.
Inspection of Meat, 383.
Instruments, Duty on, 571, 584.
Instruments, Registration of, 358.
Insurance, 507, 1006–1031.
Earthquake, 558, 569, 605, 1029–1031.
State, 1026–1031.
War Damage, 558, 569, 1029–1031.
Intercensal Population, 22–23, 1032.
Interest—
Credited by Savings-banks, 686–689, 1049.
On Local Authorities' Debt, 655, 661, 734.
On Mortgages, 606, 697, 710, 714–716.
On Post and Telegraph Capital Liability, 561.
On Public Debt, 562, 596–597, 725, 729, 730, 733.
On Railways Capital Liability, 298.
Payments Overseas, 597, 661, 685.
Payments to Consolidated Fund, 561.
Rates (see Rates of Interest).
Reduction of, 661, 691–693, 710, 715.
Intermediate Credit, 604, 606.
Intermediate Schools, 159, 164, 165, 171, 175.
Internal Marketing, 762–764.
International Air Services, 331–337.
International Comparisons (see Comparisons).
International Payments, 661, 685.
International Refugee Organization, 26.
International Trade Conference, 228.
Intestate Estates, 943–945.
Intoxicating Liquor—
Brewing of, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 517.
Duty on, 271–275, 517, 561, 571, 574.
Sale of, 971–973.
Invalids Benefits, 617–618, 621, 628.
Invercargill Licensing Trust, 972.
Investment Certificates, 589.
Investment in New Zealand, Overseas Private, 951–955.
Investment Societies, 703–707.
Deposits, 689, 692, 707.
Investments, Reserve Bank, 673.
Investments, State, 592, 595, 600.
Investments, Totalizator, 585.
Invisible imports and Exports, 684.
Iron and Steel Industry Act, 801.
Iron-ores, 478, 480.
Ironsands, 480.
Irrigation and Water-supply, 564.
Island Territories, 2, 18, 916–942.
Islands—
Administered on Trust, 2, 3, 18, 27, 341, 638, 916, 928–938, 941–942.
Annexed, 916–928, 938.
Outlying, 1, 916.
Issue of Bank-notes (see Bank-notes).
Issue, Previous, of Parents, 63.

J

Jam-making Industry, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 517.
Japanese in New Zealand, 53.
Joint Family Homes Act, 847, 979.
Joint-stock Companies, 945–950.
In Manufacturing industries, 509.
Journal of Agriculture, 384, 419.
Journal, School, 176, 916.
Judicial Separation, 76, 77.
Judiciary, Members of, 995.
June Year Exports, 218, 244, 245, 248.
June Year Imports, 218.
Juries, 191, 980.
Justice, 184–200, 562, 1035.
Juvenile Offenders, 173, 196, 197.
Juvenile, Wage-rates, 789–790, 792, 795.

K

Kale, 383, 410, 412, 417, 424.
Kauri-gum, 479, 489–490.
Exported, 231, 232, 244, 245, 479, 490.
Kea, Destruction of, 385.
Kermadec Islands, 1–3, 18, 32, 41, 917.
Kindergarten Schools, 128, 156, 162.
Knitted Goods and Hosiery Industry, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 523.

L

Laboratory Diagnostic Services, 626, 629.
Labour and Employment Department, 798, 818, 847, 857, 859, 877.
Employment Bureaux, 846, 859.
Labour Disputes, 831–837, 877–885.
Labour, Farm, Allowance, 399.
Labour Force, 853–857.
Labour, Hours of, 513, 793–796, 808–810, 813, 816, 818.
Labour Laws and Allied Legislation, 797–852.
Labour Shares, 799.
Labour Unions, 797, 831–837, 872–876.
Lake Wakatipu Steamer Service, 296, 298.
Lakes, 7–8, 546–548.
Lamb, Consumption of, 439, 902, 903.
Lamb exported, 244, 245, 248, 438, 439, 902.
Lambs, 425–428.
Slaughtered, 437, 515.
Land Act, 984.
Land and Income-tax, 561, 571, 575–581, 743–758, 978, 988.
Land Boards, 365.
Maori, 373.
Land Court, Maori, 373.
Land Development, 366, 375.
Land Districts, 357, 365, 410, 425, 426.
Land Drainage Districts, 644–663.
Land for Ex-servicemen, 361–364, 370–372, 603, 909, 910, 984.
Land for Settlement, 355–375.
Land, Government Valuation of, 664–669.
Land Holdings, 355, 356.
Mortgages on, 605, 708–717.
Land, Occupation of, 355–357.
Land Offices, 364.
Land, Purchase of, 365–372, 374.
Land Sales, Control of, 361–364, 802, 906.
Land Sales Court (see Courts).
Land Settlement Account, 565–568, 569.
Land Settlement Board, 365, 366, 370, 984.
Land Surveys, 375–381.
Land Tenure and Settlement, 355–375.
Land Titles, Registration of, 358.
Land Transfer, 358–361.
Land Valuation Court (see Courts).
Land, Valuation of, 664–669.
Lands open for Selection, 366.
Land-tax, 561, 571, 575–578, 732.
Lapsed Assurance Policies, 1008–1011.
Late Night for Shops, 811.
Latest Statistical Information (see Forefront of Book).
Law and Crime, 184–200, 1035.
Law, Mortgage, 708–710.
Laws affecting Labour, 797–852.
Laws enacted in 1951, 976–989.
League of Nations, 3, 928, 941.
Lease, Renewable, 366–371.
Leasehold-landholdings, 356, 367–370.
Leather-goods Industry, 498, 501–506, 508, 511.
Leather produced, 519.
Legacy Duty, 581–583.
Legal Education, 177.
Legal Roads, Unformed, 312.
Legal Tender, 694.
Legations, 1002, 1004.
Legislation —
Labour and Allied, 797–852.
Passed in 1951, 976–989.
Legislative Council, 16.
Abolition of, 16.
Legitimation Act, 66.
Lend-lease, Reciprocal Aid, 219, 220.
Lessees, Rehabilitation of, 710.
Letter-boxes, 342.
Letters patent, 957.
Letters posted, 340, 342, 1050.
Letter-telegrams, 344.
Levies by Fire Boards, 1020, 1021.
Levies by Hospital Boards, 143–145, 655, 982.
Levy—
Coal Production, 493, 814.
Electric power, 548.
Timber, 274.
Totalizator, 585.
Wool Research, 274, 430.
Liabilities—
Mortgage, Adjustment of, 710.
Of Bankrupts, 719, 720, 722, 1052.
Of Banks, 672, 675, 683, 1048.
Of Building Societies, 707.
Of Electric-power Undertakings, 553.
Of Fire-insurance Companies, 1018.
Of Friendly Societies, 701.
Of Life-assurance Companies, 1112.
Of Local Authorities, 145, 656.
Of Reserve Bank, 672.
Library, Alexander Turnbull, 1061.
Library Centres, National, 182, 183.
Library School, 182, 183.
Library Service—
Country, 182.
National, 181, 182, 183.
School, 182, 183.
Licences—
Aerodrome, 339.
Air Pilots', 339.
Aircraft Navigators', 339.
Anglers', 477.
By Local Authorities, 588, 652–654.
Companies', 584.
Drivers', 315, 319, 654.
Export, 226.
Fishing, 477.
Fishing Vessels, 471, 472.
Flight Engineers', 339.
Import, 226, 249, 272.
Motor-vehicle, 318–321.
Plumbers', 137.
Publicans', 971, 972.
Radio, 348, 354.
Raffle, 973.
Ross Sea Whaling, 941.
Sharebrokers', 584.
Transport, 322–324.
Licensed Houses, 971–973.
Licensing, 971–973.
Authority, 322, 323.
Control Commission, 971–973.
Poll, 970.
Trusts, 972, 986.
Licensing of—
Commercial Air Services, 328, 979.
Industries, 963–965.
Lotteries, 973.
Motor-vehicles, 318–321, 574.
Private Hospitals, 147.
Sale of Alcoholic Liquor, 971–973.
Liens, Contractors', 801, 806, 830.
Life Assurance, 750, 1006–1013, 1026.
Death-rates, 1012.
State, 1026.
Life, Expectation of, 83, 84.
Lifts, Inspection of, 958.
Light and Fuel, Retail Prices of, 764–770.
Light Dues, 294.
Lighthouses, 293–294, 347, 564, 592.
Lignite, 482–485.
Lime and Cement Works, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 520.
Lime for Top-dressing, 419–420.
Limestone, 478, 490, 491, 493.
Linen-flax, 410, 441, 423–424, 564, 592, 600.
Exports of, 232, 233, 244, 245.
Linseed, 382, 410–412, 416.
Liquidations of Companies, 945.
Literature, New Zealand, 1002–1065.
Live-stock, 425–433, 436, 1037.
Carried on Railways, 298, 300–302.
On Maori Lands, 375.
Slaughterings of, 437.
Loans—
Allocation of, 592.
By Building Societies, 703–707.
Conversion of, 593–594, 661–662.
Dates of Maturity of, 593–595, 662.
Domicile of, 589, 593–596, 660–662, 1045.
National Development, 558, 569, 590, 593.
Of Hospital Boards, 145.
Of Local Authorities, 145, 602, 648, 656–662, 983, 1046, 1047.
On Assurance Policies, 1012, 1027.
Raised for War Purposes, 591, 592.
Redemption of, 562, 565, 566, 569, 590, 592–594, 655, 661.
Rehabilitation, 603–606, 912–915.
State Advances, 601–607, 654.
Supplementary, 912.
Suspensory, 602, 607, 912.
Local Authorities, 141–145, 548–550, 644–663, 733–734, 1046, 1047.
Advances to, 316, 535, 604–606, 652 654, 678, 847.
Amalgamation of, 648.
Assets of, 656–657.
Borrowing, 648.
Debt of, 145, 601, 655–662, 1046, 1047.
Deposits with, 693.
Employees of, 662–663, 864, 871.
Employment Subsidies, 858.
Expenditure of, 143–145, 550, 553, 655–656, 734, 1046.
History of, 645–646.
Levies on, by Hospital Boards, 143–145, 655.
Liabilities of, 145, 656.
Obligations under Health Act, 123.
Receipts of, 144, 550, 652–654, 734, 1046.
Superannuation, 641–643.
Taxation by, 588, 649–654, 734.
Local Consumption of Produce, 390, 391, 899–905.
Local Government (see Local Authorities).
Local Option, 970.
Local Railway District, 644–663.
Local Taxation, 588, 649–654, 734.
Locally-produced Commodities, Price Indices, 773, 776, 780.
Location of Debt, 589, 595–596, 660–662, 1045.
Lockouts, 831–837, 877–885.
Locomotives, 296, 297.
Lodges, Friendly Societies, 700–702.
London, Exchange on (see Exchange).
London Prices Of New Zealand Stocks, 596.
Losses from Fire, 1019–1025, 1029.
In Forests, 448, 452.
Loss of Earning-power, 896.
Lotteries, 973–974.
Duty on, 584, 974.
Lubricants and Fuels, Imports of, 251–253, 261, 262.
Lucerne, 410, 411, 418.
Lump-sum Payments, 725, 729, 730, 732.
Lupins, 412, 424.

M

Machinery—
Accidents, 891, 959.
Factory, 501–503, 508.
Farm, 251, 263, 264, 404–408, 440, 521.
Imports of, 250, 263, 264.
Inspection of, 797, 807, 958.
Magistrates' Courts (see Courts).
Magistrates, Superannuation of, 641.
Magnesite, 478, 491.
Mails, 342, 1050.
Air, 332–337.
Main Highways, 313–317.
Account, 314, 570.
Construction and Maintenance, 313, 315–318.
Districts, 314.
Expenditure on, 315.
Finance, 314–316.
Standards, 316.
Taxation, 314, 315, 318, 321, 570, 574–575.
Maize, 385, 409–412, 418.
Male Nurses, 133, 136.
Malthouses, 498, 501–506, 508, 514.
Malting Barley, 415.
Mangaia Island, 2, 347, 917, 918, 920–922.
Manganese ore, 478, 481.
Mangolds, 411, 412, 417.
Manihiki Island, 2, 347, 917, 918, 920, 921.
Manono Island, 3, 928.
Man-power Utilization, 802, 859.
Manuae Island, 2, 917, 918, 920.
Manufacturing Production, 495–523, 960–965, 1043.
Persons engaged in, 854, 856.
Manufacturing Sector Account, 740–742.
Manures, Imports of, 250, 267.
Manures used for Top-dressing, 419–420.
Manure Works, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 522.
Maori Electorates, 15, 970, 994.
Maori Housing, 527, 532–533, 536, 800, 848, 915.
Maori Land Boards, 373–375.
Maori Land Court, 373, 583.
Maori Religions, 50.
Maori Servicemen, Rehabilitation of, 915.
Maori Succession Duty, 583.
Maori Trustee, 373–374, 595.
Maori War Benefits, 628.
Maori Welfare, 974, 982.
Maoris—
Ages of, 45–46.
Births of, 56, 100, 106.
Children attending Schools, 159, 164–167, 169, 171, 1034.
Deaths of, 56, 79, 100, 102–106, 109–112.
Employment, 860.
Franchise, 17.
Half-castes, 20, 43, 52, 101.
In Mental Hospitals, 152.
In Prisons, 194, 198.
Infant Mortality of, 104–106, 112.
Lands, 355, 372–375.
Marital Status of, 48–49.
Marriages of, 101–102, 108.
Members of Parliament, 15, 970, 994.
Natural Increase of, 107–108.
Occupations of, 856.
Offences by, 190, 197–199.
Overseas at 1945 Census, 46.
Population, 18, 19, 41–43, 52.
Poultry kept by, 441.
Rehabilitation of, 910, 915.
Religions professions of, 50.
Schools for, 158, 159, 161, 162, 164–165, 166, 169, 171.
War Service, 54.
Map of New Zealand [End of Volume].
Maps, 380.
Marble, 490, 491.
Marine Officers' Certificates, 292, 816.
Marital Status, 47–49.
Market Gardens, 357, 383, 409, 410, 420, 818, 819.
Registration of, 421.
Market Prices of Shares, Yield on, 779–780.
Marketing of Primary Produce, 228, 391–403, 443, 762–764, 989.
Marriages, 69–78, 101–102, 108, 1033.
Marrows, 410, 412, 417, 421.
Masculinity Rate, 60, 68.
Masseurs (see Physiotherapists).
Massey Agricultural College, 158, 159, 177, 178, 180, 384, 909.
Masterton Licensing Trust, 973.
Materials used in Factories, 496, 497, 503–504, 506, 507, 511, 514–523, 1043.
Maternal Mortality, 92, 96–98, 104, 110, 111, 121.
Maternal Welfare, 131.
Maternity Allowances, 625.
Maternity Benefits, 124, 147, 624–625, 628, 629.
Maternity Hospitals, 117, 131, 146, 147–148, 624, 629.
Maternity Nurses, 133, 136, 148, 624.
District, 148.
Maternity Services, 147–148, 624, 628.
Matured Assurance Policies, 1008–1011.
Maturity Dates of Loans, 593–595, 662.
Mauke Island, 2, 347, 917, 918, 920, 922.
Mean Population, 22, 23, 963, 1032.
Mean Time, 975.
Measures and Weights, 376, 410.
Meat—
Bulk-purchase of, 228, 400.
Consumption of, 902–905.
Export Control, 392.
Export of, 229–232, 239, 244, 245, 248, 288, 390, 400–402, 437–440, 902, 1039.
Export Price index, 774, 775.
Freezing Industry, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 515, 678.
Industry Reserve Accounts, 403.
Inspection of, 3, 83.
Marketing of, 228, 392, 395, 400–402.
Prices for, 400–402.
Production, 439–140, 515.
Purchase for War Purposes, 395.
Rationing of, 905.
Retail Prices of, 764, 767–771.
Subsidy on, 761.
Wholesale Prices of, 772.
Meat-producers Board, 392.
Medical Advertisements, 126, 127.
Medical Benefits, 124, 568, 622–623, 628, 629.
Medical Bursaries, 179, 180.
Medical Council, 134, 981.
Medical Inspection of Schools, 128.
Medical Practitioners, 134, 622, 623, 981.
Medical Research Council, 134, 981.
Medical Services, 122–148, 622–629.
In Cook Islands, 920.
In Nine Island, 926.
In Western Samoa, 931–932.
Members of Parliament, 14–17, 966–970, 994.
Superannuation of, 15, 639.
Meningitis, 110.
Meningococcal Infections, 92, 103, 111, 113, 121, 125.
Mental Hospitals, 149–153, 624.
Mercantile Marine, 214, 217, 281–294.
Pensions, 628, 633, 637, 817, 979.
Merchandise, Exports of, 229–248, 277–279, 1038–1042.
Merchandise, Imports of, 218–229, 249–288, 275–280, 899–901, 1038.
Merchandise Transhipped, 288–289.
Merchants, Bank Advances to, 678.
Mercury, 479, 481.
Metal Reserves of Banks, 673, 675, 695, 1048.
Meteorology, 10–12, 329, 340, 917, 925, 928.
Metropolitan Milk Boards, 644.
Midwives, 133, 136, 148, 624, 625.
Migration, External, 20–28, 1032.
Child, 26.
Mileage of—
Commercial Air Services, 331–338.
Main Highways, 313, 311, 316.
Railways, 295, 296, 300, 303, 1051.
Roads, 312.
Tramways Routes, 305, 310.
Mileage-tax, 314, 315, 575.
Military Colleges, 207.
Military Defaulters, 17, 193.
Military Establishments, 207.
Military Forces, 205–209.
Military Hospitals, 117.
Military Pensions, 608, 629–638.
Military Training Act, 207, 977.
Milk—
Boards, 644.
Consumption of, 902, 905.
Control of Prices of, 763.
Control of Sale of, 644, 763.
Districts, 644.
Dried and Condensed, Exports of, 231, 232, 240, 244, 245, 248, 1041.
Examination and Testing of, 384, 433.
For School-children, 124, 128, 172.
Marketing of, 394, 981.
Used in Dairy Factories, 516.
Milking-machines, 404–406.
Milk-products (see Dairy-produce).
Mills, 495–523.
Mineral Waters, 976.
Minerals, 478–194.
Export Price Indices, 774, 775.
Wholesale Price Indices, 772.
Miners' Benefits, 493, 608, 618–619, 628.
Miners' Phthisis, 494, 618, 815.
Minimum Wage-rates, 781–792, 795, 810, 812, 813, 819, 821–823, 976.
Mining, 478–494.
Accidents, 485, 492, 493, 886–898.
Act, Examinations under, 493.
Advances, 492.
Legislation, 478, 813–815.
Persons engaged in, 485, 486, 489, 491, 854, 856.
Produce exported, 231, 232, 244, 245, 248, 479.
Strikes, 881, 882.
Subsidies, 487, 492,
Subsidized Prospecting, 492.
Value of Production, 478, 961.
Ministers of each Church, 75.
Marriages by, 75.
Ministers Plenipotentiary, 1003–1005.
Ministries, Successive, 990.
Ministry, Holland, 991, 992.
Minors, Marriages of, 69, 74.
Mission Schools, 159, 165, 921, 926, 932–931.
Mitiaro Island, 2, 917, 918, 920, 921.
Mobilization of Industrial Man-power, 802.
Monetary Benefits, Social Security, 568, 609–622, 628, 858.
Money-orders issued and paid, 343, 1050.
Morbidity, 112–121, 701.
Mortality (see Deaths).
Of Insured Persons, 1008–1012.
Of Members of Friendly Societies, 701.
Mortgage Corporation, 601.
Mortgage, Dwellings with, 528.
Mortgage Exemption, 577.
Mortgagee, Rights of, 709.
Mortgagees' Indemnity Insurance, 584, 1031.
Mortgages, 708–717.
Extension Emergency Regulations, 710.
Rates of Interest on, 606, 607, 710, 714–716.
State Advances, 601–607.
Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act, 710, 801.
Mortgagors' Liabilities Adjustment Commissions, 710.
Mortgagors' Relief, 710, 849.
Mothers, Ages of, 62, 63, 65, 66.
In Illegitimate Cases, 66.
Motion-picture Film-hire Tax, 561, 586.
Motion-picture Theatres, 955–957.
Motive-power in Factories, 501–503.
Motor-engineering Works, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 521.
Motor-omnibus Traffic, 298, 304, 305, 309, 310, 318–324.
Motor-spirits—
Consumption of, 320.
Fixed Prices for, 759.
Imports of, 261.
Resellers, Licensing of, 964.
Restrictions on Use of, 319.
Taxation on, 272, 274, 275, 314, 315, 321, 574, 575, 654.
Motor Traffic Offences, 188, 190, 197, 199–200.
Motor Transport, 298, 304, 305, 309, 310, 318–324.
Motor-vehicles—
Accidents, 92, 98, 99, 104, 110, 111, 199, 325–327, 891.
Dormant Registrations, 321.
Drivers' Licences, 315, 319.
Duty on, 272, 278.
Imports of, 250, 267.
Insurance, 1013–1016.
Licensing of, 318–321, 574.
Operated by Tramway Authorities, 304, 305, 309, 310.
Registration of, 318–321.
Taxation, 272, 278, 314, 315, 318, 319, 574, 732.
Traffic Offences, 188, 190, 197, 199–200.
Motor-vessels registered, 291, 292.
Motor-ways, 317.
Motor-works, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 521.
Mountains, 4–5.
Multiple Births, 60–62.
Municipal Tramways, 301–308.
Municipalities (see Boroughs).
Munitions and War Stores, Imports of, 251.
Murder, 92, 98, 103, 104, 110, 111, 185, 190, 200.
Abolition of Death Penalty for, 191.
Restoration of Death Penalty for, 191.
Museums, 176.
Mussels, 472, 474.
Mustard, 412.
Mutton, Consumption of, 439, 902, 903.
Mutton exported, 244, 245, 248, 437–439, 902.
Mutton produced, 439, 515.
Mutual Aid, Canadian, 220, Mutual Fire Insurance, 1025.

N

Namu'a Island, 3, 928.
Nassau Island, 2, 917, 919, 920.
Nassella Tussock, 644, 645.
National Airways Corporation, 329–336, 341, 592, 600.
National Development Loans Account, 558, 569, 590, 593.
National Employment Service, 847, 853, 859–868.
National Expenditure, 723–739.
National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 661, 692, 703, 710, 715, 849.
National Film Unit, 1062.
National Income, 573, 723–742.
National Library Service, 161, 182.
National Licensing Polls, 970.
National Parks, 357–358.
National Physical Welfare and Recreation, 139–141.
National Provident Fund, 595, 641–643, 799.
National Savings, 589, 595, 689, 690.
National Security Taxation, 571, 587, 732, 782.
Nationality, 28–30.
Of Naturalized Persons, 29.
Of Overseas Shipping, 283.
Of Registered Aliens, 30.
Native Animals, 13.
Native Bush, 13, 357, 445.
Native Fresh-water Fishes, 476.
Native Grasses, 13, 357, 411.
Natives (see Maoris).
Natural Increase of Population, 20, 21, 31, 58, 107–108.
Naturalization, 28–30.
Nauru Island, 2, 420, 916, 941–942.
Naval Cadetship Examinations, 160, 201.
Naval Casualties, 213, 216, 217.
Naval Defence, 202–205, 213, 216, 979.
Naval Expenditure, 205, 562.
Naval Reserve, 204.
Naval Station, 203.
Navigators Island (see Western Samoa).
Negroes in New Zealand, 53.
Neo-natal Deaths, 81, 85–91, 104–106.
Nephrite, 490.
Net Indebtedness—
Local Authority, 656–659.
State, 599–600.
Net Note Circulation, 681–682.
Net Reproduction Rate, 21.
New Zealand Broadcasting Service, 176, 350–354, 595.
Commercial Division, 353–354.
National Division, 353.
Short-wave Division, 352.
New Zealand Citizenship, 28.
New Zealand Dairy Board, 392, 404.
New Zealand Mean Time, 975.
New Zealand Red Cross Society, 138.
New Zealand Representatives Overseas, 1002.
New Zealand University, 159, 168, 177–181.
Newspapers—
Registered, 343.
Revenue from, 518.
Nisi Decrees in Divorce, 77.
Nine Island, 1, 2, 18, 27, 41, 248, 916, 917, 925–928.
Radio Communication, 347.
No-licence Issue, 970.
Nonmeningococcal Meningitis, 92, 104, 105, 111.
Non-resident Traders, Incomes of, 744, 757.
Note-issue, 671–675, 681–682, 694.
Notes in Circulation, 681–682, 1048.
Notification of Births, 56.
Notification of Diseases, 113–117, 125.
Notified Vacancies, National Employment
Service, 863, 866–868.
Noxious Weeds Eradication, 385, 386.
Nukunono Island, 2, 3, 938–940.
Radio Station, 347.
Nullity of Marriage, 76, 77.
Nurseries and Plantations, 357, 410, 420, 421, 445, 446.
State, 445.
Nurses—
Dental, 129.
District, 128, 138, 148, 626.
Industrial, 132.
In Public Hospitals, 663.
Male, 133, 136.
Maternity, 133, 136, 148, 625.
Pensions for, 631, 642.
Plunket, 128, 133, 148.
Psychiatric, 133, 136.
Registration of, 133, 136.
Retiring-allowance for, 642.
Nursing, 133.
Nursing Aids, 133, 136.
Nu'ulua Island, 3, 928.
Nu'usafe'e Island, 3, 928.
Nu'utele Island, 3, 928.

O

Oatmeal, Consumption of, 904.
Oatmeal Exported, 232, 233.
Oatmeal, Production of, 516.
Oats, 382, 383, 407–412, 414, 417, 418, 424, 1036.
Varieties of, 414.
Observatory, Time Signals from, 353, 975.
Occupants of Dwellings, 529, 533.
Occupation of Land, 355–357.
Occupational Health, 131–133.
Occupational Re-establishment, 907, 913.
Occupational Status, 855–856.
Occupational Therapists, 135–139.
Occupational Training of Discharged Servicemen, 907–909, 913.
Occupations of Bankrupts, 721.
Occupations of Maoris, 856.
Ocean Cables, 346.
Ocean Island, 420, 942.
Offences, 187–200.
By Children, 173, 196.
By Maoris, 190, 197–199.
By Women, 187, 189, 197–199.
Reported to Police, 200.
Offenders Probation Act, 189, 190, 195.
Officers' Certificates (Marine), 292, 816.
Offices Act, Shops and, 801, 806, 810–813, 977.
Official Assignees, 718, 719, 1052.
Official Representatives, 1002–1005.
Officiating Ministers, 69, 75.
Oil, Production from Coal, 486.
Oil-wells, 489.
Old-age Pensions, 608, 799.
Old People's Homes, 144, 145, 148.
Omnibus Traffic, 298, 304, 305, 309, 310, 318–324.
Omnibuses licensed, 319.
Onekaka Iron-ore, 480.
Onions, 232, 233, 280, 385, 409, 411, 412, 416, 424.
Opencast Mining, 486, 488, 989.
Opening Hours of Shops, 811.
Opium, Prohibition of, 126.
Opossum-skins exported, 231, 233, 244, 245.
Opticians, Registration of, 137.
Orchards, 357, 383, 384, 409–411, 421–422, 818.
Ordinary Life Assurance, 1006–1009, 1012, 1026.
Organization of Industry, 509, 963–965.
Origin of Immigrants, 24–25.
Origin of Imports, 253–268.
Ornamental Stones, 490.
Orphanages, 148.
Orphans' Benefits, 615, 628.
Ottawa Agreement, 269, 275.
Outlying Islands, 1, 916.
Out-patients, 146, 148.
Maternity Hospitals, 148.
Output of Factories, 496–523, 1043.
Overdraft Authorities, 680.
Overdraft Rates, 691.
Oversea-passenger Duty, 584.
Overseas Air-mails, 335–337, 340.
Overseas Air Services, 334–337.
Overseas Assets of Ranks, 673, 675, 683–684.
Overseas Born, Duration of Residence of, 52.
Overseas Companies, 946–948, 1018, 1021.
Overseas Parcel-post, 342.
Overseas Payments, 223–224, 661, 684–685.
Overseas Private Investment in New Zealand, 951–955.
Overseas Receipts, 223–224, 684–685.
Overseas Representatives, 1002–1005.
Overseas Shipping, 281–291, 815–818.
Overseas Trade, 218–280, 1038–1042.
Overseas War Service, 54–55.
Overtime, 513, 808–810, 813, 816, 818.
Overtime Legislation Modification, 802.
Owner Occupied Houses—
Costs of, 766.
Rental Value of, 721, 729, 730, 735.
Oysters, 472, 474.

P

Pacific Cable, 346.
Pacific Islands, Annexed, 916–928.
Bibliography, 1065.
Radio Communication, 317, 923, 927.
Paid Holidays, 805, 808, 809, 812, 813, 816, 818.
Paint Works, 498, 501–506, 508, 514.
Palmerston Island, 2, 347, 917, 918, 920.
Pan-American Airways, 336, 341.
Paper Bag and Carton Industry, 498, 501–506, 508, 514.
Paper, Imports of, 250, 266.
Paralysis, Infantile, 92, 103, 111, 113, 114–115, 121, 125.
Parcel-post, 229, 340, 342.
Parents—
Ages of, 62–66.
Duration of Marriage of, 64.
Previous Issue of, 63.
Parks, National, 357–358.
Parliament, 14–17.
Members of, 966–970, 994.
Parliamentary Elections, 15, 16, 965–970.
Parliamentary Under-Secretaries, 14, 993.
Parliaments, Successive, 993.
Parry Island (see Mauke).
Party-line Telephones, 345.
Passenger-mileage—
Air Services, 331–338.
Motor-buses, 304, 310
Railways, 300.
Tramways, 304, 308, 311.
Trolley-buses, 304.
Passengers—
Commercial Aircraft, 331–338.
Motor-vehicle, 300, 304, 310, 324.
Overseas, 24, 1032.
Railway, 300, 301, 1051.
Tramway, 304, 308, 311.
Trolley-bus, 304.
Passenger Services, 322–324.
Passenger-tickets, Duty on, 584.
Passion-fruit, 357, 410.
Passports, 26.
Pastoral and Agricultural Production, 382–443, 960–962, 1036.
Persons engaged in, 854, 856.
Value of, 386–391, 960–962.
Volume of, 388–389, 962.
Pastoral Produce—
Consumed locally, 391, 902–905.
Export of, 229–248, 391–403, 437–440, 443, 902, 1039–1042.
Export Prices Indices, 773–776, 780.
Gross Farming Income, 386–391.
Purchase for War Purposes, 228, 394.
Wholesale Prices Indices, 772.
Pasture, Grasses, 357, 382, 411, 419.
Patents, Designs, and Trade-marks, 957–958.
Patients in Mental Hospitals, 149–153.
Patients in Public Hospitals, 117–121, 146, 147.
Payments Overseas, 223–224, 661, 684–685.
Peaks, Altitude of, 5.
Pears, 232, 233, 241, 245, 409, 421–422, 763, 903, 985.
Peas, 382, 410–412, 421, 904.
Export of, 232, 233, 243, 241, 245, 248.
Pelts, Export of, 231, 233, 242, 241, 245, 218, 288, 1042.
Penal Institutions, 192–194, 1035.
Penalty on Unpaid Rates, 654.
Penrhyn (Tongareva) Island, 2, 347, 917, 918, 920–922.
Pensions, 608–643, 725–739, 799, 805, 817, 979, 983.
Pensions Department, History of, 608.
Permanent Building Societies, 703–707.
Permanent Meads of Government Departments, 996–998.
Permanent Military Forces, 205–209.
Permits and Passports, 26, 27.
Permits, Building, 524–526, 536–542.
Personal Accident Insurance, 1013–1016.
Personal Consumption, Value of, 726, 728.
Personal Income, 729, 730.
Persons, Displaced, 26.
Petitions—
Bankruptcy, 718, 719.
Divorce, 76–78.
Petrol (see Motor-spirits).
Petroleum, 261, 478, 489.
Pharmaceutical Benefits, 124, 623, 628, 629.
Pharmacy, 137–138, 964.
College of, 138.
Phormium, 357, 423, 965.
Fibre exported, 232, 233.
Phosphate Rock, 490, 522.
From Nauru Island, 2, 420, 941–912.
Phthisis (see Tuberculosis).
Miner's, 194, 618, 815.
Physical Education, 139–141, 172, 175.
Physical Welfare, 139–141, 172.
Physiography, 1–8.
Physiotherapists, 135.
Physiotherapy Benefits, 626, 629.
Pickle-factories, 498, 501–506, 508, 511, 517.
Picture-theatres, 955–957.
Pig-meats, 437–440, 515, 902, 903.
Pigs, 425, 436, 1037.
Slaughtered, 438–440, 515.
Pilots, Air, 337–339.
Pisciculture, 477.
Placement Service, 846, 859, 866–868.
Plaints, 184.
Planning, Industrial, 963–965.
Planning, Town, 651.
Plantations, 357, 411, 420, 445, 446.
State, 445.
Plants, New Zealand, 13.
Platinum, 482.
Pleasant Island (see Nauru).
Plumbers, Registration of, 137.
Plunket System, 138, 1–18.
Plural Births, 60–62.
Plural Voting Abolition, 17, 798.
Plywood and Veneer, 459.
Poisoning, 98, 113, 125, 893.
Poisons, 126.
Police Force, 185–187, 562.
Offences reported to, 200.
Superannuation, 638.
Policies, Insurance, 1006–1029.
Poliomyelitis, 92, 103, 111, 113, 114–115, 121, 125.
Political Disabilities Removal, 15.
Polling—
At General Elections, 965–970.
At Licensing Polls, 970.
Population, 18–55, 963, 966–969, 1032.
Age Distribution, 44–48.
Industrial Distribution, 853–854.
Method of Compilation, 18–19.
Occupational Status of, 855–856.
Population—continued
Of Campbell Island, 18.
Of Cook Islands, 18, 919–920.
Of Kermadec Islands, 18, 917.
Of Nauru Island, 942.
Of Niue Island, 18, 925.
Of Tokelau Islands, 18, 939.
Of Western Samoa, 18, 930.
Pork consumed, 902, 903.
Pork exported, 244, 245, 248, 439, 902, 903.
Pork produced, 515.
Portfolios of Ministers, 991–992.
Ports—
Fishing, 473.
Of Arrival, 282.
Of Departure, 282.
Of Registry, 291.
Shipping of, 282, 285–291.
Trade of, 281–291.
Post Office Account, 569.
Post Office Employees, 349, 865.
Accidents to, 886–898
Superannuation of, 638.
Post Office-Investment Certificates, 589.
Post Office Savings-bank, 686–687, 689, 690, 692, 797, 1049.
Postal and Telegraphic, 342–349, 561, 1050.
Tribunal, 820, 825.
Postal Notes, 343, 344, 1050.
Postponement of Census, 19.
Post-primary Education, 159–161, 166–169, 171, 176, 1034.
Post-war Price Control, 760.
Potatoes, 382, 409–411, 415–416, 763.
Areas and Yields, 415–416.
Consumption of, 903, 905.
Export of, 232, 233, 244, 245.
Marketing of, 394.
Subsidy on, 385.
Pottery-works, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 520.
Poultry, 441–442, 904.
Poultry-runs Registration, 442.
Pounamu (Greenstone), 490.
Power Boards, 548, 644–663, 1047.
Power, Electric (see Electric).
Power used in Factories, 501–503.
Preferential Tariff, 269–272, 275–280.
Pregnancy, Diseases, &c., of, 91, 92, 96–98, 110, 111, 113, 121, 125, 150.
Premiers, Successive, 990.
Premium Income, 100.
Preserved Meats.
Production of, 515.
Prevention of Crime Act, 194.
Prevention of Disease, 128.
Prevention of Forest-fires, 448, 452.
Prevention of Hydatids, 126.
Prevention of Profiteering, 759, 801.
Prevention of Quackery, 127.
Previous Issue of Parents, 63.
Price Levels, Spread in, 389–390.
Price Tribunal, 487, 759, 760.
Prices, 759–780.
Collection of, 768, 771.
Effect on Exports, 225, 246–248.
Effect on Imports, 225.
Fixation of, 759.
Prices—continued
Guaranteed, 398–400.
Of New Zealand Stocks, 596.
Post-war Control of, 760.
Regulation of, 759–761.
Stabilization of, 385, 487, 759–761, 803.
Wartime Index, 765.
Primage Duty, 269, 274.
Primary Products—
Consumption of, 390, 391, 902–905.
Export of, 229–248, 288, 390–393, 400–402, 437–440, 1039–1042.
Marketing of, 228, 391–403, 443, 762–764.
Purchase for War Purposes, 228, 394.
Primary Schools, 156–160, 162–166, 171, 172, 932, 1034.
Prime Ministers, Successive, 990.
Principal Events, 1053–1060.
Printing and Publishing Industry, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 518.
Prisoners of War, 44, 217.
Prisons and Prisoners, 192–194, 1035.
Prisons Board, 195.
Private Assignments, 722.
Private Companies, 509, 946–950.
Private Disposable Income, 738, 739.
Private Dwellings, 524–544.
Private Forestry, 454.
Private Gardens, 357, 420.
Private Hospitals, 147, 623–625, 629.
Private Income, 573, 723–742.
Private Mental Hospital, 149, 152.
Private Radio-stations, 348, 350.
Private Railways, 295, 303.
Private Savings, 726–731.
Private Savings-banks, 688–690, 692.
Private Schools, 159, 162, 165, 166, 167, 171, 1034.
Probation, 188, 195, 196.
Probationary Teachers, 175.
Producers' Equipment, Imports of, 251–253.
Producers' Materials, Imports of, 251–253.
Producers' Materials, Wholesale Prices of, 773.
Production—
Agricultural and Pastoral, 382–443, 960–962, 1036.
Clothing, 523.
Dairy, 434–436, 514, 516, 961.
Factory, 495–523, 960–962, 1043.
Fisheries, 472–475, 961.
Local Consumption of, 390–391, 902–905.
Meat, 439–440.
Mineral, 478–493, 961.
Timber, 456–458, 519, 961.
Value of, 388–391, 899, 900, 960–963.
Volume of, 389, 511–512, 899–901, 962–963.
Wool, 388, 429–430.
Professions, Religious, 49–50.
Professors, University, 178, 180.
Profiteering.
Prevention of, 759, 801.
Profit-sharing, 799.
Programmes, Radio, 350–354.
Prohibited Immigrants, 27, 978.
Prohibited Imports, 272.
Prohibition Issue, 970.
Prohibition Orders, 188, 199.
Prolongation of Parliament, 16–17.
Promotion of Employment, 801, 846, 858–866.
Promotion of Industries, 846, 963–965.
Properties Transferred, 358–361.
Proprietary Income, Taxation of, 744, 746.
Proprietors, Working, 499, 860–862.
Prorogation of Parliament, Dates of, 993.
Prospecting, State Aid to, 492.
Prospecting-drills, 489.
Protection of Wages, 801, 830–831.
Provident Fund, National, 595, 441–643, 799.
Provincial Districts, 645.
Area and Population of, 31–32.
Density of Population in, 41.
Factory Production in, 497.
Provincial Education Boards, 154.
Provincial Governments, 154, 295, 645.
Provisional State Forests, 444.
Psychiatric Nurses, 133, 136.
Public Buildings, Expenditure on, 564, 592.
Public Clocks, 976.
Public Companies, 509, 945–950.
Public Debt, 588–601, 1045.
Repayment of, 562, 565–567, 589–593, 598–599.
Public Domains, 357–358.
Public Finance, 558–569, 723–739, 1044, 1045.
Public Forestry, 454.
Public Health, 122–153, 172.
Public Hospitals (see Hospitals).
Public Hygiene, 125–127.
Public Reserves, 355, 357–358.
Public Schools, 154–176, 1034.
Public Service, 820, 998–1002.
Board of Appeal, 1001.
Civil Service Act Pensions, 628.
Classification, 1000.
Commission, 986, 999–1000.
Employees, 1001.
Entrance Examination, Abolition of, 1001.
Superannuation, 639–641.
Public Trust Office, 693, 943–945, 983, 1006.
Public Works-Accidents, 886–898.
Account, 314, 558–560, 563–565, 569.
Co-operative System, 799.
Employees, 871.
Housing Construction, 533 -536, 540 541, 564, 848.
Railway Construction, 295, 564.
Road Construction, 313, 564.
Public Works and Services, Maintenance of, 562–564, 733.
Publicans' Licences, 654, 971, 972.
Publications—
Agriculture Department, 384, 419.
Census, 43.
Census and Statistics Department (see Forefront of Book).
Education Department, 176.
General Bibliography, 1062–1065.
Labour and Employment Gazette, 860.
New, Zealand Flora, 13.
Register of, 343.
Publishing and Printing Industry, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 518.
Puerperal Accidents, &c., 92, 96–98, 104, 110, 111, 113, 121, 150.
Puisne Judges, 995.
Pukapuka (Danger) Island, 2, 347, 917, 918, 920, 921.
Pulmonary Tuberculosis (see Tuberculosis).
Pulp Products.
Production of, 458–459.
Pumice, 231, 232, 478, 491.
Pumpkins, 410, 412, 417, 421.
Punishments by Courts, 189–200.
Pupils, School, 159–171, 1031.
Purchase of Land for Settlement, 365 372, 909–910, 913.
Pure Food Laws, 126.
Purpose or Use of imports, 251–253.

Q

Quackery-prevention, 127.
Quadruplets horn, 60, 61, 62.
Quarries, 491, 813, 815, 989.
Accidents at, 492, 886–898.
Persons engaged in, 491, 854, 856, 864.
Quartzite, 478.
Quartz-mining, 479.
Quicksilver, 179, 481.
Quinnat Salmon, 477.
Quinquennial Census, 16, 18 22, 30–55, 857.
Quorum—
Executive Council, 14.
House of Representatives, 16.
Quota, Country, 16.
Quotations, New Zealand Stocks, 596.

R

Rabbit Districts, 644–663.
Rabbit-skins exported, 231, 233, 242, 244, 245, 248, 1041.
Rabbits, Destruction of, 334, 385.
Race Aliens, 52–54.
Racial Origins, 52–54.
Racing, Tax on, 571, 584–585.
Radiation Protection, 133.
Radio Advertising, 350, 353–354.
Radio Beacons, 293, 294, 328.
Radio Broadcasting, 176, 350–354, 976.
Radio Communication, 347, 923.
Radio Engineering, 498, 501–506, 508, 514.
Radio Licences, 348, 354.
Radio Stations, 347, 348, 350–354, 917, 923, 927.
Radio Time-signals, 353, 975.
Radioactive Substances Act, 133, 806.
Radiologists, 133, 625, 629.
Radio-telephone Services, 317–348.
Rallies, 973, 974.
Rail Cars, 296.
Rails, Weight of, 295.
Railway Accidents, 99, 303, 326, 886–898.
Railway District, 644–663.
Railway Equipment, Imports of, 251, 263.
Railway Fares, School-children's, 170.
Railways, 295–303, 806, 1051.
Air Freight Service, 331–333.
Private, 295, 303.
Revenue and Expenditure, 297–299, 567, 569, 1051.
Superannuation Fund, 303, 638.
Tribunal, 303, 820, 825.
Rain Forests, 464–466.
Rainfall, 10–12.
Rakahanga (Reirson) Island, 2, 917, 918, 920.
Range-making Industry, 498, 501–506, 508, 514.
Raoul Island, 917.
Rape, 383, 410–412, 417, 424.
Rarotonga island, 2, 347, 917, 918, 920–922.
Rateable Value of Land, 669.
Rates, Local Authority, 588, 652–654, 734, 1046.
Rates of Exchange, 696–698.
Rates of Interest—
On Building Societies' Deposits, 692.
On Company Deposits, 692.
On Fixed Deposits, 691–693.
On Local Authorities' Debt, 661.
On Mortgages, 606, 607, 710, 714–716.
On Public Debt, 593–594, 596–597.
On Rehabilitation Loans, 912.
On Rural Intermediate Credit, 607.
Paid by Savings-banks, 686, 692.
Reduction of, 661, 691–693, 710, 715.
Rates of Pensions, 630–635.
Rates of Tax, 575–581, 751, 757.
Rater, of Wages, 500, 781–792, 795, 810, 812, 813, 816, 821–831.
Emergency Regulations, 783, 807.
Rating by Local Authorities, 143, 649–651.
On Unimproved Value, 650.
On Urban Farm Lands, 667.
Rationing, 905.
Receipts, Overseas, 223–224, 684–685.
Receiving-homes, 148, 173.
Receiving-stations, Radio, 347, 348, 354.
Reciprocal Benefits, 568, 608, 621–622.
Reciprocal Tariff and Trade, 275–280.
Recreation and Physical Welfare, 139–141.
Recruiting—
Air Force, 209.
Army, 206.
Navy, 204.
Police, 186.
Red Cross Society, 138.
Redemption of Loans, 562, 565, 566, 569, 590, 592–594, 655, 658, 661.
Redemption of Mortgages, 709.
Redemption of Savings Bonds, 689.
Reduction of Interest, 661, 691–693, 710, 715.
Reduction of Mortgages, 710.
Reduction of Rent, 710, 849–852.
Reduction of Wages, 800, 823.
Re-exports, 245, 246.
Reformative Detention, 174, 190, 193–195.
Refuge Homes, 149, 173.
Refugee Organization, International, 26.
Refunds to Racing Clubs, 585.
Regional Councils of Adult Education, 181.
Regional Planning, 651.
Registered Companies, 945–950.
Registered Factories, 496.
Registered Mortgages, 711–716.
Registered Vessels, 291–292.
Registrars, Marriages before, 69, 75.
Registration—
Of Adopted Children, 67.
Of Soldiers, &c., 79.
Of Aliens, 30.
Of Soldiers, &c., 79.
Of Apiaries, 443.
Of Soldiers, &c., 79.
Of Apprenticeships, 837.
Of Soldiers, &c., 79.
Of Births, 56, 100, 107.
Of Soldiers, &c., 79.
Of Building Societies, 703.
Of Soldiers, &c., 79.
Of Chemists, 137.
Of Soldiers, &c., 79.
Of Companies, 945.
Of Soldiers, &c., 79.
Of Dairy Companies, 433.
Of Soldiers, &c., 79.
Of Deaths, 78, 102.
Of Soldiers, &c., 79.
Of Deeds, 358.
Of Dentists, 135.
Of Designs, 957, 958.
Of Electors, 17, 646.
Of Fishing Vessels, 471.
Of Friendly Societies, 700.
Of Hospital Dietitians, 137.
Of Illegitimates, 66.
Of Industrial Unions, 872.
Of hand Titles, 358.
Of Male Nurses, 133, 136.
Of Maori Births, 56, 100.
Of Maori Deaths, 79, 100, 102.
Of Maori Electors, 17.
Of Market Gardens, 421.
Of Marriages, 69, 101.
Of Masseurs (see Physiotherapists).
Of Maternity Nurses, 133, 136.
Of Medical Practitioners, 134.
Of Midwives, 133, 136.
Of Mortgages, 711–716.
Of Motor-vehicles, 318–321.
Of Newspapers, 343.
Of Nurses, 133, 136.
Of Nursing Aids, 133, 136.
Of Occupational Therapists, 135.
Of Opticians, 137.
Of Orchards, 421.
Of Patents, 957, 958.
Of Pharmaceutical Chemists, 137.
Of Physiotherapists, 135.
Of Plumbers, 137.
Of Poultry-runs, 442.
Of Private Schools, 165.
Of Psychiatric Nurses, 133, 136.
Of Soldiers Killed or Missing, 79.
Of Still-births, 56, 68, 78, 90.
Of Trade-marks, 957, 958.
Of Trade-unions, 872.
Of Unemployed, 859.
Of Vessels, 291–292.
Registration Fee, Social Security, 571, 586, 609.
Registry, Ports of, 291.
Regulation of Prices, 759–761.
Regulation of Wages, 781–783.
Rehabilitation, 178, 603–606, 7 10, 733, 817, 838, 906–915.
Reirson Island (see Rakahanga).
Relief, Charitable, 145, 148.
Relief Fund, Coal-miners', 493–494, 814.
Relief of Mortgagors, 710.
Relief of Unemployment, 619, 621, 799, 846, 858.
Religions Professions, 49–50, 75.
Marriages by Ministers of, 75.
Officiating Ministers, 69, 75.
Renewable Leases, 366–371.
Rent Reductions, 710, 849–852.
Rent Restrictions, 849–852.
Rental Cars, 319.
Rented Dwellings, 528, 532.
Renters, Film, Taxation of, 586.
Rents, House, 764–770, 849–852.
Rents, Stabilization of, 760, 803, 850.
Repayment of Public Debt, 562, 565–567, 589 593, 598–599.
Representatives, House of, 14–17.
Election of, 16, 965–970.
Members of, 994.
Representatives Overseas, 1002.
Reproduction Rate, 21.
Research, Agricultural, 384, 413, 423.
Research, Coal, 486.
Research, Dental, 131.
Research, Educational, 180.
Research Institute, Wheat, 413.
Research, Medical, 134, 981.
Research, Mining, 492–493.
Research Scholarships, 179.
Research, Various, 1066–1075.
Research, Wood-utilization, 460.
Reserve Bank, 223, 588, 595, 600, 670–673, 678, 681–1185, 690, 694–699.
Reserves, Air Force, 209–211.
Reserves, Farm Industry, 403.
Reserves, Military, 205–207, 209.
Reserves, Naval, 203–205.
Reserves, Public, 355, 357–358.
Restitution of Conjugal Bights, 76, 77.
Restoration of Death Penalty for Murder, 191.
Restoration, Salary and Wage cuts, 823.
Restriction, immigration, 27–28, 846, 977.
Restrictions on Consumption, 905.
Restrictions on Employment, 809, 813, 819.
Restrictions on Import's, 226, 249, 272, 412, 694, 923, 936.
Retail Prices, 764–771, 776, 780, 788.
Retailers, Bank Advances to, 678.
Retardate Children, 158, 173.
Returnable Income, 744, 747–749, 756.
Revaluations, Land, 666.
Revenue, 558–569, 723–742, 1044.
Cinematograph Theatres, 956, 957.
Customs, 274, 571, 574.
Electric-power, 549–553, 555, 654.
Forest Service, 455–456.
Insurance Companies, 1009, 1011, 1014, 1020, 1026–1031.
Local Authority, 144, 550, 652–654, 734, 1046.
Postal, 344, 348, 1050.
Railway, 297–299, 302, 567, 1051.
Social Security Fund, 568, 571, 586, 609.
State Forests, 455–456.
Tramway, 305, 307, 308, 311.
Review, Court of, 710.
Review of Legislation in 1951, 976–989.
Rhodes Scholarships, 179.
Rifle Clubs, 208.
River Districts, 644–663.
Rivers, 6–7, 546–548.
Control of, 564, 644.
Road Accidents, 92, 98, 99, 104, 325–327.
Road Districts, 644–663.
Bridges in, 312.
Debt of, 656, 660.
Mileage of Roads, 312.
Road Goods Services, 322–324.
Road Passenger Services, 322–324.
Road Safety, 325.
Road Safety Council, 325.
Road Transport, 298, 304, 305, 309, 310, 321–324.
Reading Costs, 314–318, 564.
Roads, 312–327.
Expenditure on, 314–318, 493, 564.
Taxation, 272, 311, 315, 318, 321, 561, 571, 574–575.
Rock Oysters, 472, 474.
Roll, Valuation, 664.
Rolling-stock—
Railway, 296.
Tramway, &c., 304, 308, 310, 311.
Roman Catholic Schools, 158, 166, 921, 932–934.
Root Crops, 357, 382, 409–411, 415–417.
Ross Dependency, 2, 3, 18, 916, 940–941.
Whaling, 911.
Rotary Hoes, 404, 405.
Rotorua Thermal Springs, 976.
Royal Naval Reserves, 204, 205.
Royal New Zealand Air Force, 209–211, 213–217.
Royal New Zealand Navy, 202–205, 213, 216.
Rubber Products and Vulcanizing industry, 498, 501–506, 508, 514.
Rural Advances, 366, 370, 601–607, 800.
Rural Education, 170–172.
Rural Housing, 534, 536, 539–540, 604, 651, 849.
Rural Intermediate Credit, 604, 606.
Rural Mail Deliveries, 342.
Rural Mortgages, 604, 710, 712–714.
Rural Population, 32–33.
Country Quota, 16.
Ryecorn, 410, 412.

S

Saddlery and Leather Industry, 498, 501 506, 508, 514.
Sailing-vessels registered, 291, 292.
St. Helens Hospitals, 117, 131, 147, 148, 624.
Salaries and Wages, 144, 305, 348, 496, 497, 500–501, 515–523, 549–551, 729, 730, 735, 738, 739, 741, 956, 957, 1043.
Charge on, 143, 568, 571, 609, 782.
Cuts in, 800, 823.
Restoration of, 823.
Salaries of Members of—
Executive Council, 14.
House of Representatives, 15.
Public Service, 1000.
Sale of Food and Drugs, 126.
Sale of State Houses, 60, 7.
Sale of State Timber, 455–456.
Sales Tax, 561, 571, 587–588, 732.
Salmon, Acclimatization of, 477.
Salt, 490, 592, 600.
Samoa (see Western Samoa).
Sanatoria, 117, 146.
Sand and Gravel, 478, 491.
Sanitary Plumbing, 137.
Sanitation, 122–128.
Sash and Door Factories and Sawmills, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 519.
Sauce-factories, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 517.
Sausage-casings, Export of, 231, 233, 242, 214, 245, 248.
Savage Island (see Niue).
Savai'i Island, 3, 928.
Savings Accounts (National), 589, 689, 690.
Savings Bonds (National), 589, 689.
Savings, Private, 726–731.
Savings-banks, 686–690, 692, 1049.
Sawmills, 456–459, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 519.
Scaffolding Accidents, 886–898.
Scenic Reserves, 357–358.
Scheelite, 231, 232, 480.
Scholarships, 178–180, 933.
School Bursaries, 169.
School Certificate, 157, 160, 1000, 1001.
School Committees, 154, 155.
School Inspectors, 363, 165, 166.
School Journal, 176.
School Library Service, 182.
School Savings-hank, 687.
School System, 156–159.
School-children, 159, 173, 1031.
Board and Conveyance of, 170–171.
Dental Treatment of, 129.
Medical Inspection of, 128.
Milk for, 124, 128, 172.
Schools, 156–183, 921, 926, 932–934, 1034.
Carpentry, 907.
Consolidation of, 170.
Dental Clinics, 129.
Military, 207, 208.
Of Mines, 177, 492, 493.
Special, 161, 172–174.
School-teachers, 165, 166, 174–176, 921, 926, 933, 934.
Superannuation, 638.
Science, Defence, 202.
Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of, Appendix (d), 1066–1075.
Scrub Lands, 357.
Sea-fisheries, 471–475.
Seals, 475.
Seamen Act, Shipping and, 806, 815–818.
Seamen, Pensions for, 628, 637, 817.
Seamen, Rehabilitation of, 817.
Season Tickets, Railway, 300, 301.
Seasonal Employment, 499, 869–871.
Seasonal Incidence of Fires, 1024.
Secondary Education, 155–161, 166–171, 176, 1034.
Second-growth Land, 357.
Secular System of Education, 154.
Seed-gardens, 357, 420.
Seed-sowing, Aerial, 334.
Seeds, Grass, and Clover, 357, 406–411, 418.
Certification of, 384, 416, 419, 424.
Exported, 232, 233, 243, 244, 245, 248, 288 418, 1041.
Seismology, 8–10.
Selections of Lands, 365–370.
Sentences on Criminals, 187–200, 1035.
Separate Rates, 649.
Separation, Judicial, 76, 77.
Separators, Cream, 405.
Septicæmia, Puerperal, 97, 125.
Serpentine, 478, 490, 491, 493, 522.
Service Marriages, 69.
Service, Public (see Public Service).
Service-car Licences, 319.
Servicemen—
Acquisition of Land by, 361–364, 370–372, 906, 909–910.
Awards to, 217.
Bursaries to Dependants, 169.
Casualties Overseas, 211–217.
Demobilization of, 914.
Educational Facilities for, 910.
Financial Assistance to, 371, 603–606, 912–915.
Overseas War Service of, 54–55.
Pensions for, 608, 629–638.
Registration of Deaths of, 79.
Rehabilitation of, 603–606, 733, 817, 838, 906–915.
Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act, 360, 361–364, 370–372, 802, 906.
Applications under, 363.
Services—
Air Force, 209–211, 213–217.
Army, 205–209, 211–217.
Navy, 202–205, 213, 216.
Sessions, Parliamentary.
Successive, 993.
Settlement of Industrial Disputes, 831–837, 884.
Settlement of Land, 355–375.
Settlement, Servicemen's, 361–364, 368, 370–372, 906–915.
Settlement, Small-farms, 366–371.
Settlers, Advances to, 366, 370, 371, 601, 847.
Sex Proportions, 21–22.
Sexes of—
Children horn, 59–60, 62, 68, 101, 107.
Factory Employees, 498–500.
Patients in Mental Hospitals, 149–153.
Patients in Public Hospitals, 119.
Prisoners, 192, 193.
Scholars, 163, 165, 166, 167, 168, 177, 178.
School-teachers, 165, 166, 174–176.
Twin Births, 62.
Share Prices, Index Numbers, 777–780.
Sharebrokers' Licences, Tax on, 584.
Share-milking Agreements, 818.
Shares in Building Societies, 703, 704.
Shares, Labour, 799.
Shearers' Wage-rates, 826.
Shearing-machines on Farms, 404–406.
Sheep, 231, 232, 375, 382, 425–430, 1037.
Sheep and Lambs slaughtered, 437–438, 515.
Sheep-skins and Pelts exported, 231, 233, 242, 244, 245, 248, 1042.
Sheet-metal Works, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 521.
Ship Desertion, 188, 190.
Shipping, 281–294, 678.
Shipping and Seamen Act, 806, 815–818.
Ships (see Vessels).
Shoe-factories, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 522.
Shops and Offices Act, 801, 806, 810–813, 977.
Shops, Fire losses on, 1025.
Sick Funds, 303, 348, 493, 567, 701, 702 814.
Sickness, 112–121, 620–629, 701.
Benefits, 620–621, 628.
Insurance, 701, 799, 1013.
Signals, Time, 353, 975–976.
Silica Sand, 478, 491.
Silver, 478–480.
Coins, New Zealand, 693–694.
Exported, 231, 232, 244, 245, 479.
Silviculture, 448.
Sinking Funds, 145, 306, 308, 318, 553, 556, 599, 657–659.
Size of Dwellings, 529, 532.
Skins and Hides, Export of, 231, 233, 241, 242, 244, 245, 248, 288, 1041, 1042.
Slaughter of Animals for Food, 437.
Slaughterhouses, 383, 437.
Sleepers, Railway, 295, 460, 525.
Sleeping-cars, 296.
Slot Telephones, 346.
Small Farms Act, 365, 817.
Snares Islands, 2, 32, 41, 917.
Soap-factories, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 518.
Social Hygiene, 125–126.
Social Security, 143, 008–029, 725–739, 799, 805, 983.
Benefits, 124, 130, 147, 148, 153, 568, 609–629, 725–739, 846, 983.
Charge, 565, 568, 571, 580, 609, 756, 782.
Fund, 124, 558–560, 568, 572, 586, 609.
Reciprocity with Australia, 608, 621, 805.
Reciprocity with Great Britain, 608, 622, 805.
Registration Fee, 571, 586, 609.
Taxation, 568, 571–573, 586, 609, 732, 782.
Social Welfare, 138–147, 148.
Softwood Trees, 464–466.
Soil Conservation, 453–454, 564, 592, 644.
Solander Island, 2, 32, 41, 917.
Soldiers, 205–209, 211–217.
Sources of income, 748–749.
South Africa, Reciprocal Trade with, 276.
South African War Pensions, 628, 630, 633, 637.
Southern Alps, 5.
Sown Grasses, 357, 382, 411, 419.
Spas, 976.
Special Articles in Previous Issues, 1061–1062.
Special Rates, 649.
Special Schools, 161, 172–174.
Specialist Services, 626, 629.
Specie, Movement of, 227, 1038.
Specific Customs Duties, 270–272.
Speed Limit, 325.
Spinsters marrying, 72, 74.
Spirits, Consumption of, 904.
Spirits, Duty on, 271, 273, 275.
Spirits, Imports of, 250, 258.
Sports Councils, 139, 140.
Spread in Price Levels, 389–390.
Stabilization Accounts, Farm, 385, 730.
Stabilization of—
Prices, 385, 487, 759–761, 803.
Rents, 760, 803, 850.
Wages, 759, 760, 783, 803, 826–830.
Stabilization Subsidies, 385, 487, 567, 725, 729, 730, 733, 737, 761–762.
Stakes, Tax on, 585.
Stamp Duties, 561, 571, 583–584.
Standard Rates of Wages, 823.
Standard Surveys, 378.
Standard Time, 975.
Standardization—Appendix (e), 1076–1086.
Standardized Death-rates, 84.
For Cancer, 94.
Standardized Marriage-rates, 70.
State Advances, 535–536, 601–607, 652, 654, 798, 800, 847.
Corporation, 533, 554, 592, 595, 600, 601–607 652, 654, 800, 801, 982.
State Afforestation, 444–452, 466–470.
State Aid to—
Afforestation, 455.
Building, 366, 533–536, 601–607, 652, 847.
Cook Islands, 924.
Crown Tenants, 366.
Discharged Servicemen, 370–372, 602–607, 817, 906–915.
Farming Industry, 365–372, 374, 383–386, 601–607, 800.
Hospital Boards, 143–145.
Housing, 533–536, 592, 601–607, 652, 847, 848.
Immigrants, 25–26.
Kauri-gum industry, 489–490.
Local Authorities, 143–145, 316, 602, 604–606, 652, 733, 734, 847.
Manufacturing, 604–606, 963–965.
Mining, 487, 492–493.
Niue Island, 927.
Prospecting, 492.
Purchases of Private Land, 370.
Settlers, 366, 370, 371, 601, 847.
Superannuation Funds, 640–643.
Unemployed, 619, 628, 799, 846, 857–858.
Water-power Development, 545–548.
Western Samoa, 936.
Wheat-growing, 413.
Workers, 601–607.
State Coal-mines, 488, 567, 569.
Persons employed in, 489.
State Departments, 991–992, 996–998.
State Employment Bureaux, 846, 859.
State Finance, 558–607, 731–733, 1044, 1045.
State Forests, 444–448, 592.
Accidents, 886–898.
State Highways, 313–317.
State Housing, 533–536, 540–541, 564, 592, 607, 847, 848, 906, 914.
State Hydro-electric Department, 546, 992, 998.
State Indebtedness, 588–601, 1045.
State Insurance—
Accident, 595, 1027–1029.
Earthquake, 558, 569, 1029–1031.
Fire, 595, 1029.
Life, 1026.
War Damage, 558, 569, 1029–1031.
State Lands (see Crown Lands).
State Marketing, 391–403, 762–764.
State Maternity Hospitals, 147, 148, 624.
State Placement Service, 846, 859, 866–868.
State Railways, 295–303, 806, 1051.
State Schools, 154–176, 1034.
State Water-power Supply, 545–548.
State-guaranteed Loans, 591, 659.
Stations—
Aeradio, 917.
Air Force, 211.
Fire Brigade, 1026.
Hydro-electric, 546–548.
Meteorological, 11, 12, 917.
Naval, 203.
Radio, 347, 348, 350–354, 917, 923, 927.
Telephone, 345.
Statistical Information, Latest (see Forefront of Book).
Statistical Publications (see Forefront of Book).
Statistical Summary, 1032–1052.
Status of Aliens, 28.
Statutes of 1951, 976–989.
Steam, Geo-thermal, 548.
Steam-vessels registered, 291, 292.
Sterling Exchange—
Holdings of, 673, 683.
Rates, 696.
Sterling Values of Currency, 696.
Sterling Values of Trade, 218, 225.
Stewart Island, 2, 3, 917.
Oysters, 474.
Population, 37.
Still-births, 56, 61, 68, 78, 89–91.
Registration of, 56, 68, 78, 90.
Stipendiary Magistrates' Courts (see Courts).
Stock and Station Agents—
Advances to, 678.
Deposits with, 692.
Stock, Live (see Live-stock).
Stock, Quotations for, 596.
Stone-fruits, 383, 421, 903.
Stone-quarries, 491, 815.
Stones, Building and Ornamental, 478, 490.
Stranding of Vessels, 294.
Streets and Roads, Length of, 312.
Strength Properties of New Zealand Timbers, 470.
Strikes, 831–837, 877–885.
Students, 159–161, 855.
Students, University, 159, 160, 177–180, 1034.
Submarine Cable, 346.
Subscribers, Telephone, 345.
Subsidies—
Civil Aviation, 329.
Main Highways, 316, 654.
On Coal-production, 487, 733, 761.
On Food and Clothing, 733, 761.
On Rates, 654.
Subsidies—continued
Stabilization, 385, 487, 567, 725, 729, 730, 733, 737, 761–762.
To Farming Industry, 385, 733.
To Hospital Hoards, 143–145.
To Miners, 487, 492.
To Superannuation Funds, 348, 565, 610.
To Transport Industry, 733, 761.
Subsidized Employment, 858.
Subsidized Prospecting, 492.
Succession Duty, 581–583.
Suffrage, 15, 17, 646.
Sugar—
Consumption of, 517, 518, 904, 905.
Duty on, 270, 273, 275.
Exported, 232, 233.
Fixed Price for, 759.
Imports of, 258.
Rationing of, 905.
Subsidy on, 761.
Used by Factories, 517, 518.
Sugar of Milk exported, 231, 233, 244, 245.
Suicide, 92, 100, 103, 104, 110, 111, 185.
Attempted, 200.
Sulphur, 482, 522.
Summary Convictions, 187–190, 197–200, 1035.
Summer Time (Daylight Saving), 975.
Sunshine, 10–12.
Superannuation, 15, 303, 562, 638–643, 985.
Benefits, Social Security, 610, 628.
Superphosphate and Fertilizer Works, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 522.
Superphosphate, Fixed Prices for, 759.
Superphosphate Used in Aerial Top-dressing, 334.
Supplementary Loans, 912.
Supplementary Medical, &c., Benefits, 124, 625–629.
Supreme Court (see Courts).
Surpluses, Consolidated Fund, 560, 1044.
Surrenders, Life Assurance, 1008–1011.
Surtax, 269, 271.
Survey Publications, 380.
Survey System, 376.
Surveys, 375–381.
Aerial, 378.
Geodetic, 377–378.
National Forest, 446.
Of Coal Resources, 482, 483.
Of Employment, 860–866.
Of Housing, 526, 652, 800, 848.
Of Retail Prices, 764.
Of Ships, 293.
Tidal, 379.
Suspension of Legislation, 802, 838, 908.
Suspensory Loans, 602, 607, 912.
Sustenance Allowances, 846, 858.
Suwarrow (Anchorage) island, 2, 917, 919, 920.
Swedes, 383, 410–412, 417, 424.
Sweepstakes, 974.
Swordfish, 475.
Sympathetic Strikes, 877–885.
Syphilis, 92, 103, 105, 110, 111, 115, 125, 150.
Syrians in New Zealand, 53.
Systems of Rating, 649–651.

T

Table Mortgages, 528, 602, 711.
Takutea island, 2, 917, 918, 920.
Tallow exported, 231, 232, 241, 244, 245, 248, 288, 1039.
Tallow Marketing and Prices, 402.
Tanneries, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 519.
Taranaki Ironsands, 480.
Tariff, Customs, 269–280.
Tariffs and Trade Agreement (Geneva), 228, 280.
Tasman Empire Airways, 334–335, 592, 600.
Tax, Land and Income, 561, 571, 575–578, 743–758, 978, 988.
Taxation, 561, 570–588, 725–738, 1044.
Amusements, 585–586, 956.
Customs, 269–280, 561, 571, 574, 732.
Direct, 570, 730, 732, 734, 737, 738.
Employment Promotion, 173, 586, 782.
Film-hire, 561, 586.
Forest, 455.
Indirect, 725, 729, 730, 732, 734, 737.
Local, 588, 649–654, 734.
Alain Highways, 314, 315, 318, 321, 561, 571, 574–575.
Motor-spirits, 272, 274, 275, 314, 315, 321, 574, 575, 654.
National Security, 587, 732, 782.
Orchards, 421.
Racing, 571, 584–585.
Sales, 561, 571, 587–588, 732.
Social Security, 568, 571–573, 586, 609, 732, 782.
War, 271–275, 570, 572, 574, 575, 582, 587, 782.
Taxis, 319.
Taxpayers, Incomes of, 743–758.
Tea—
Consumption of, 904.
Duty on, 270, 574.
Imports of, 258.
Rationing of, 905.
Subsidy on, 761.
Teachers' Examinations, 160.
Teachers' Superannuation Fund, 638, 639.
Teachers' Training Colleges, 161, 174, 175.
Teaching Aids, 176.
Teaching Profession, 174–176.
Technical Correspondence School, 159, 167, 171.
Technical Education, 159, 166–171, 176, 1034.
Telegraph Services, 344, 347.
Telegraph, Time Signals by, 976.
Telephones, 344–346.
Temperature Records, 10–12.
Temporary Dwellings, 527, 532.
Tenancy and Rents, 847–852.
Tenants, Relief of, 710.
Tenure of Crown Lands, 365–372.
Tenure of Dwellings, 528, 532.
Tenure of Occupied Land, 356, 367–369.
Terminating Building Societies, 703–707.
Territorial Air Force, 209–211.
Territorial Forces, 205–209.
Pensions for, 630.
Theatres, Cinematograph, 955–957.
Theatres, Fire Losses on, 1025.
Therapists, Occupational, 135–136.
Third-party Risks Insurance, 1013–1016.
Three Kings Islands, 2, 32, 41, 917.
Threshing-machines, 404, 405, 407, 408.
Tidal Survey, 379.
Tile-making, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 520.
Timber—
Carried on Railways, 301.
Export Duty on, 274.
Exports of, 231, 232, 243–245, 459–460.
Export Prices Index, 774, 775.
Import Duty on, 271–272, 277, 278.
Imports of, 250, 265, 459–460.
Output, 456–458, 519, 961.
Plantations, 357, 411, 420.
Resources, 444–446.
Royalties, 456, 654.
Sales, 456.
Trees, 461–470.
Timbers, Strengths of, 470.
Time lost—
Through Industrial Accidents, 894–896.
Through Industrial Disputes, 877–885.
Time Service, 353, 974–976.
Tin, 481.
Tire-tax, 272, 314, 315, 321, 574–575.
Title, Certificates of, issued, 361.
Titles, Compulsory Registration of, 358.
Tobacco, 383, 410, 411, 423, 980.
Consumption of, 904.
Duty on, 271, 273, 27, 1.
Excise Duty on, 273, 275.
Factories, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 520.
Imports of, 250, 251, 258.
Tokelau (Union) Islands, 1–3, 18, 41, 916, 938–940.
Toll Communications, 344.
Tongareva Island (see Penrhyn).
Ton-miles Flown, 332, 335, 336.
Ton-miles, Railway, 301, 302.
Tonnage of Cargo, 281–289.
Tonnage of Registered Vessels, 291, 292.
Tonnage of Shipping, 281–292.
Top-dressing, 334, 419–420.
Topographical Mapping, 378.
Totalizator Investments, 585.
Totalizator Taxation, 584–585.
Tourist Agents Overseas, 1002.
Tourist Attractions, 976.
Tourists, 24.
Tourists' Rail Tickets issued, 301.
Town Districts, 644–663.
Area of, 40.
Bridges in, 312.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 668.
Debt, 656, 660.
Mileage of Streets, 312.
Population, 40.
Town Land, Mortgages on, 604, 712–714.
Town-planning, 651.
Tractors, Imports of, 264.
Tractors on Farms, 404, 405, 407, 440.
Trade, 218–280, 1038–1042.
Agreements, 228, 275–280.
Balance of, 219–222.
Board of, 226.
Cook Islands, 248, 268, 923–924.
International Conference on, 228.
Nauru Island, 942.
Niue Island, 248, 268, 927.
Of Ports, 281–291.
Representatives, 1002–1005.
Volume of, 225, 901.
Western Samoa, 935–936.
Trade Training of Discharged Servicemen, 907–909, 915.
Trades Certification, 840.
Trade-marks, 957, 958.
Trade-unions, 797, 831–837, 872–876.
Trading Accounts, State, 566–567.
Trading Banks, 673–684, 690, 691, 1048.
Trading Companies' Deposits, 689, 692.
Traffic—
Accidents, 92, 98, 99, 104, 303, 325–327
Air, 328–341.
Motor, 298, 304, 305, 309, 310, 321–324.
Offences, 188, 190, 197, 199–200.
Railway, 298–302, 1051.
Tramway, &c., 304–310.
Training Farms, 174, 909.
Training of—
Defence Forces, 201–217
Dental Nurses, 129.
Discharged Servicemen 907–909, 915.
Nurses, 136.
Police Recruits, 186.
Teachers, 161, 174–175.
Train-miles run, 300, 302, 1051.
Tramway District, 644–663.
Tramways, 304–311, 654.
Accidents, 99, 326.
Cable, 310.
Transfer, Land, 358–361.
Transhipments of Cargo, 287–289.
Transit Housing, 652, 849.
Transit Trade, 245, 246.
Trans-Pacific Air Services, 335–337, 340.
Transport, 281–341, 678.
Districts, Urban, 644–663.
Equipment, Imports of, 251–253.
Licensing, 322–324.
Of School-children, 170–171.
Persons engaged in, 853, 854, 856, 857.
Trans-Tasman Air Service, 334, 340.
Trapping and Fishing, 854, 856.
Travelling-time, 796.
Trawling, 471, 473.
Treasury Bills, 590, 595.
Treaty of Waitangi, 372.
Tree-planting, 450–452, 454, 455, 466–470.
Trees, Forest, 461–470.
Trend of Population, 21.
Triennial Parliaments, 16.
Triplets born, 60–62.
Trolley-buses, 304–309.
Tropical Diseases, 920, 926, 931, 939.
Trout, Acclimatization of, 477.
Trust (Liquor) Control, 972, 986.
Trustee, Maori, 373–374.
Trustee, Public, 943–945.
Trustee, Savings-banks, 688–690, 692.
Trust Territory, 2, 3, 18, 27, 341, 638, 916, 928–938, 941–942.
Tuberculin Tests, 116.
Tuberculosis, 88, 89, 92, 93, 102, 103, 104, 105, 110, 111, 113, 116, 121, 123, 125, 127, 134, 139, 146, 152, 383, 618, 920.
Maori Deaths from, 103.
Register, 116.
Tungsten-ore, 478, 479, 480.
Turkeys, 441.
Turnbull, Alexander, Library, 1061.
Turnips, 383, 410–412, 417, 424.
Tussock Land, 357, 411, 419.
Tussock Boards, Nassella, 644, 645.
Twins and Triplets horn, 60–62.

U

Undergraduate, 177.
Underground Mines, 486, 488.
Under-Secretaries, Parliamentary, 14, 993.
Undesirable Immigrants, Exclusion of, 27.
Undischarged Bankrupts, 718.
Unemployment, 7, 99, 846, 853–871.
Benefits, 619, 621, 628, 846, 858.
Taxation, 586, 782.
Unexercised Overdraft Authorities, 680.
Unformed Roads, 312.
Unimproved Occupied Land, 357.
Unimproved Value of Land, 664–669.
Land-tax assessed on, 577.
Rating on, 650.
Uninhabited Dwellings, 526, 527.
Union Islands (see Tokelau).
Unions, Trade, 797, 831–837, 872–876, 984.
United Kingdom—
Consumption of Foodstuffs, 905.
Debt domiciled in, 589, 594–597, 660–662, 1045.
Meat Imported into, 440.
New Zealand Representatives in, 1002.
Note Circulation, Index of, 682.
Purchase of Primary Produce, 228, 392–402, 438, 774.
Representatives in New Zealand, 1005.
Social Security Reciprocity, 608, 622, 805.
United Nations, 3, 59, 70, 81, 85, 206, 228, 280, 928.
United States of America—
Consumption of Foodstuffs, 905.
Exchange Rate with, 698.
New Zealand Representatives in, 1003.
Representatives in New Zealand, 1005.
Universal Superannuation, 610, 628.
University Education, 159, 168, 177–180, 1034.
University Examinations, 134, 160.
University Professors, 178, 180.
University Scholarships, 178–180.
Unpaid Fractions, Totalizator, 585.
Unpaid Rates, Penalty on, 654.
Unproductive Land, 355, 357.
Untenanted Houses, 527.
Upolu Island, 3, 928, 930, 931, 032.
Uranium, 482.
Urban Areas—
Fire Losses, 1022.
Population, 32–36.
Urban Drainage Districts, 644–663.
Urban Drift, 32.
Urban Farm Lands, Hating on, 667.
Urban Mortgages, 604, 712–714.
Urban Population, 32–36.
Urban Transport Districts, 644–663.
Use or Purpose of Imports, 251–253.
Utilization of Coal, 487, 503.

V

Vacancies, Employment, 863, 866–868.
Valuation—
Of Exports, 218, 221, 229.
Of Imports, 221, 249.
Of Land, 664–669.
Of Personal Expenditure, 726, 729.
Of Superannuation Funds, 640.
Roll, 664.
Value added in Manufacturing, 496, 497, 505–506, 509, 511, 512, 1043.
Value of—
Currency, 696–698.
Exports, Effects of Prices on, 246–248.
Factory Production, 196, 497, 506, 509, 511, 514–523, 960–962, 1043.
Farm Production, 388–391, 660–962.
Goods available for Use, 899–900.
Materials used in Factories, 496, 497, 502, 504, 506, 507, 511, 514–523, 1043.
Production, 388–391, 899, 960–963.
Veal, 430, 515.
Consumption of, 439, 903.
Export of, 244, 245, 248.
Vegetable Gardens, 409, 420.
Vegetable-preserving Factories, 517.
Vegetables, Consumption of, 903, 904.
Vegetables for the Armed Forces, 420.
Vegetables, Price Fixation of, 760.
Vegetables, Retail Prices of, 767–771.
Vegetation, 13.
Vehicles—
Motor (see Motor-vehicles).
Railway, 296.
Tramway, &c., 304, 308, 310, 311.
Veneer and Plywood, 459.
Venereal Diseases, 92, 103, 105, 110, 111, 115, 121, 125, 150, 622.
Vessels—
Crews of, 24.
Filtered and cleared, 281–283.
Fishing, 472.
Nationality of, 283.
Naval, 203, 213, 215, 216.
Radio Communication with, 347.
Registered, 291, 292.
Survey of, 293.
Wrecked, 294.
Veterans' Allowances, 628, 629, 633, 635–636.
Veterinary Services, 384.
Vinegar-factories, 517.
Vineyards, 357, 410, 422.
Violent Deaths, 92, 98–100, 103, 104, 110, 111, 185, 325–327, 485, 492.
Virgin Hush, Area of, 357, 444.
Visible Balance of Trade, 219–222.
Visitors to New Zealand, 24.
Visual Aids in Teaching, 176.
Vital Statistics, 20, 56–121, 1033.
Cook Islands, 919–920.
Nine Island, 026.
Western Samoa, 931.
Viticulture, 357, 410, 422.
Vocational Guidance, 160–170, 838, 859.
Volcanoes, 4, 5.
Volume of—
Exports, 225, 247, 901.
Factory Production, 511–512, 962.
Farm Production, 388, 389, 962.
Goods available for Use, 900.
Imports, 225, 901.
Money in Circulation, 600–601.
Production, 389, 511–512, 899, 962–963.
Trade, 225, 900, 901.
Voluntary Contributions to Hospitals, 144.
Voluntary Mental Patients, 152.
Voluntary Welfare Organizations, 138.
Voting—
At General Elections, 965–970.
At Licensing Polls, 970.
Qualifications, 17, 646.
Vouchers, Audit of, 550.
Vulcanizing and Rubber Products Industry, 498, 501–506, 508, 514.

W

Wage, Basic, 822, 833.
Wage, Minimum, 810, 812, 819, 822–823, 976.
Wage-cost Allowance, 399.
Wage-earners, 408–500, 663, 855, 876.
Wage-rates, 500, 781–792, 705, 810, 812, 813, 816, 821–831.
Wages—
And Salary Payments, 144, 305, 348, 496, 497, 500–501, 515–523, 549–551, 729, 730, 735, 738, 739, 741, 956, 957, 1043.
And Wage-rate Legislation, 821–831.
Increases in, 783, 810, 821–831, 976.
Legislative Changes in, 783, 821–831, 976.
Lost through Industrial Accidents, 806.
Lost through Industrial Disputes, 878–884.
Of Cinematograph Theatre Employees, 956, 957.
Of Electric-supply Employees, 549–551.
Of Factory Employees, 496, 407, 500–501, 511, 514–523, 1043.
Protection of, 801, 830–831.
Reduction of, 800, 823.
Restoration of Cuts in, 823.
Shearers', 826.
Stabilization of, 759, 760, 783, 803, 826–830.
Tax on, 568, 586, 609, 782.
Waitangi, Treaty of, 372.
Wakari Private Mental Hospital, 149, 152.
Wallboard and Building Sheet industry, 498, 501–506, 508, 514.
War, 201–217.
Bursaries for Soldiers' Dependants, 169.
Apprentices, 838.
Consumption of Commodities, 905.
Financial Transactions, 698.
Labour Legislation, 802–804, 817, 826, 859.
Mortgages, 710.
Prices, 487, 759–760.
Casualties, 211–217.
Apprentices, 838.
Consumption of Commodities, 905.
Financial Transactions, 698.
Labour Legislation, 802–804, 817, 826, 859.
Mortgages, 710.
Prices, 487, 759–760.
Damage Insurance, 558, 569, 981, 1029–1031.
Apprentices, 838.
Consumption of Commodities, 905.
Financial Transactions, 698.
Labour Legislation, 802–804, 817, 826, 859.
Mortgages, 710.
Prices, 487, 759–760.
Deaths Register, 79.
Apprentices, 838.
Consumption of Commodities, 905.
Financial Transactions, 698.
Labour Legislation, 802–804, 817, 826, 859.
Mortgages, 710.
Prices, 487, 759–760.
Debt, 591.
Apprentices, 838.
Consumption of Commodities, 905.
Financial Transactions, 698.
Labour Legislation, 802–804, 817, 826, 859.
Mortgages, 710.
Prices, 487, 759–760.
Expenditure, 205, 208, 211, 562, 568, 591, 733.
Apprentices, 838.
Consumption of Commodities, 905.
Financial Transactions, 698.
Labour Legislation, 802–804, 817, 826, 859.
Mortgages, 710.
Prices, 487, 759–760.
Expenses Account, 568.
Apprentices, 838.
Consumption of Commodities, 905.
Financial Transactions, 698.
Labour Legislation, 802–804, 817, 826, 859.
Mortgages, 710.
Prices, 487, 759–760.
Loans, 591, 592.
Apprentices, 838.
Consumption of Commodities, 905.
Financial Transactions, 698.
Labour Legislation, 802–804, 817, 826, 859.
Mortgages, 710.
Prices, 487, 759–760.
Measures affecting—
Apprentices, 838.
Consumption of Commodities, 905.
Financial Transactions, 698.
Labour Legislation, 802–804, 817, 826, 859.
Mortgages, 710.
Prices, 487, 759–760.
Pensions, 608, 628–638, 802, 805, 979, 983.
Pensions Appeal Hoard, 638.
Publications pertaining to, 1065.
Purchases of Produce, 228, 394.
Service, 54–55.
Taxation, 271–275, 570, 572, 574, 575, 582, 587, 782.
Veterans' Allowances, 628, 629, 633, 635–636.
Warships, 203, 213, 215, 216.
Wartime Price index, 765, 803.
Wartime Regulations, &c.,802–804.
Wartime Restrictions on Consumption, 905.
Waterfront Control, 803, 821.
Water-power, 502, 545–557.
Water-supply District, 644–663.
Weather, 10–12, 340.
Weights and Measures, 376, 410.
Welfare of Workers, 810, 812, 814, 816, 819.
Welfare, Maori, 94.
Welfare, Maternal, 131.
Welfare Organizations, 138.
Wellington—
Broadcasting Stations, 351–353.
Building Values, 539.
Dwellings, New State, 541.
Piles, 1022.
Population, 34, 35, 38.
Rainfall, 11 12.
Retail Prices, 770.
Sales-tax Receipts, 588.
Shipping, 282, 285–291.
Sunshine, 11, 12.
Temperature, 11, 12.
Tramways, &c., 304–310.
Western Samoa, 1–3, 18, 27, 341, 638, 916, 928–938, 987.
Bibliography, 1065.
Education, 932–934.
Population of, 18, 930.
Radio Communication, 347.
Trade, 935–936.
Whale Oil, 231, 232, 472, 475, 941.
Whiles and Whaling, 475, 941.
Wheat, 382, 383, 407–414, 418, 1036.
Fixed Prices for, 759.
Imports of, 258.
Milled, 516.
Research Institute, 413.
Restriction on Imports of, 412.
Subsidy on, 761.
Varieties of, 414.
Whey Putter, 434, 516.
Whipping abolished, 191.
White Island Sulphur, 482.
Whitebait, 472, 475–476.
Wholesale Licences, 971, 972.
Wholesale Prices, 771–773, 776, 780.
Whooping-cough, 92, 103, 105, 110, 121, 128.
Widowed Persons, Numbers of, 47–49.
Widowers, Remarriages of, 72.
Widows—
Benefits, 613–615, 621, 628.
Remarriages of, 72.
War Pensions, 629–638.
Wild Pigs, Destruction of, 385.
Wills administered by Public Trust Office, 943–945.
Wine, Duty on, 271, 275.
Wine, Consumption of, 904.
Wine Licences, 971.
Wireless (see Radio).
Withdrawals from Savings-banks, 686–689, 1049.
Wives, Aggregation of Income, 747–748.
Wives, Allowances in respect of, 611–640.
Wives' Petitions in Divorce, 76–78.
Women—
Army Corps, 206.
Auxiliary Air Force, 209, 210.
Deaths of, in Childbirth, 92, 96–98, 110, 111, 121.
Eligible for Parliament, 15.
Employed in Factories, 498–500.
Nationality Laws, re, 28.
Naval Service, 204.
Of Child-bearing Ages, 58.
Offences by, 187, 189, 192, 197–199.
Police, 187.
Suffrage for, 15, 17, 798.
Wage-rates of, 500, 501, 787–795, 823.
War Service Auxiliary, 217.
Working-conditions of, 797, 808, 811, 813.
Working-hours of, 793–796.
Woodpulp, Production of, 458.
Woodware Factories, 498, 501–506, 508, 514.
Wool, 302, 387, 395–397, 429–430, 515, 989, 1039.
Capital Account, 403.
Disposal Commission, 396, 989.
Export Price Index, 774, 775.
Exported, 229–233, 238, 244, 245, 248, 288, 429, 1039.
Financing Purchase of, 227–228.
Levy, 274, 430.
Marketing of, 228, 395–397, 989.
Prices for, 396, 397.
Purchase for War Purposes, 228.
Retention Moneys, 403, 730, 978.
Used at Local Mills, 429, 522.
Woollen-mills, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 522, 678.
Wool-scouring Works, 498, 501–506, 508, 514, 518.
Workers, Advances to, 601–607.
Workers' Compensation, 799, 805, 841–845, 886–890, 977, 982, 1013, 1027–1029, 1031.
Insurance, 805, 1013, 1027–1029.
Workers' Dwellings, 533–536, 540–541, 601–607, 652, 847.
Workers' Educational Association, 181.
Workers' Unions, 797, 831–837, 872–876, 984.
Workers' Weekly Railway Tickets, 301.
Working Conditions, 807–821.
Working Conditions in the Government Service, 820.
Working Proprietors, 499, 860–862.
Working Railways Account, 298, 567, 569, 1051.
Working-days lost through Industrial Disputes, 877–885.
Working-hours, 513, 793–796, 808–810, 813, 816, 818.
Working-men's Clubs, 700.
World Comparisons (see Comparisons).
Wrecks, 294, 817.

X

X-ray, 133.
Diagnostic Services, 625, 629.
Examinations, 116, 625.

Y

Yields of Butterfat, 435.
Yields of Crops, 408, 412–424, 1036.
Yields on Market Prices of Shares, 779–780.
Youth Centres, 169, 859.
Youths—
Wage-rates of, 789–790.
Working-conditions of, 809, 811, 813.

Z

Zinc, 492.
Zoology 13.

Chapter 50.