THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1943


Table of Contents

PREFACE.

In the 1943 edition of the New Zealand Official Year-Book (the fifty-first number of the volume) the policy of economy of paper has been carried a step further. In addition to the deletion and condensation of material, space has been saved by substituting side headings for centre headings of paragraphs, also by discontinuing the practice of commencing each section and subsection on a new page.

The present edition otherwise follows the lines adopted several years ago for the Year-Book. In the cutting-down of material in recent issues, every care has been taken to obviate impairing the value of the statistical and other information annually presented.

Pressure of work on the small remaining staff of the Census and Statistics Department, combined with delay in obtaining necessary material, has resulted in the Year-Book appearing still later than in 1942. The Editorial Branch has done excellent work in very difficult circumstances, and to the officers concerned, and to other officers of the Department and of other Government Departments who have assisted by revising material, I offer my grateful thanks.

J. W. BUTCHER,

Government Statistician.

Census and Statistics Department,

Wellington C. 1, New Zealand, 30th September, 1943

LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION.

[Following are certain important statistical data for later periods than are included in the body of the Year-Book. The page numbers relate to the appropriate pages in this Year-Book containing more complete information in respect of earlier periods.]

POPULATION (pp. 11–20):—

Population (inclusive of Maoris but exclusive of Cook and other Pacific Islands)—

 As at 31st December,
 1941.1942.
Males799,241793,677
Females832,035842,726
    Totals1,631,2761,636,403

MIGRATION (pp. 16–18):—

 Twelve Months ended 31st March,
 1942.1943.

*Excluding through passengers.

Passenger arrivals*7,1023,133
Passenger departures*6,8932,592

VITAL STATISTICS, excluding Maoris (pp. 29–76):—

 Twelve Months ended 31st December,
Numbers—1941.1942.
  Births35,10033,574
  Deaths15,14616,385
  Marriages13,31312,219
  Infant deaths1,045964
Rates—  
  Births (per 1,000 mean population)22·8121·73
  Deaths (per 1,000 mean population)9·8410·60
  Marriages (per 1,000 mean population)8·657·91
  Infant mortality (per 1,000 live births)29·7728·71

TOTAL TRADE (pp. 145–150):—

 1942.1943.

† Excess of imports.

‡ Includes defence materials and equipment, also lend-lease supplies.

Commodity exports—££
  Twelve months ended 30th June74,039,15171,302,424
Commodity imports‡—  
  Twelve months ended 30th June51,377,98671,771,685
Excess of exports—  
  Twelve months ended 30th June22,661,165-469,261†

PRINCIPAL EXPORTS, NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE (pp. 150–164).

 Twelve Months ended 31st December,
1941.1942.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
  £ £
Butter (cwt.)2,265,13515,777,8642,344,02916,481,214
Cheese (cwt.)2,366,2359,833,8612,689,23211,879,009
Frozen and chilled meats—    
  Beef (cwt.)769,1081,704,886803,5531,966,728
  Lamb (cwt.)3,091,31010,965,1863,638,38112,551,998
  Mutton (cwt.)691,6261,270,165693,0771,243,100
  Pork (cwt.)490,2251,817,614270,1151,024,011
Sausage casings (lb.)5,041,917804,0164,858,243919,333
Fresh apples (lb.)423,3014,642320,1903,374
Rabbit-skins (number)13,403,6731,006,23811,989,761745,742
Sheep-skins (number)18,513,6322,007,37615,591,5332,808,723
Wool (bales)648,97912,613,062934,23018,335,625
Tallow (tons)39,328818,37052,0341,142,886
Timber (sup. ft.)19,029,760219,9827,511,71894,811

IMPORTS—PRINCIPAL ITEMS (pp. 165–181).

Twelve months ended 31st December,
1941.1942.
 ££
Sugar1,217,5291,587,865
Tea1,499,3022,306,589
Tobacco (unmanufactured)551,795221,447
Hosiery66,211296,922
Miscellaneous apparel and ready-made clothing125,535113,612
Miscellaneous drapery126,437148,579
Floor-coverings489,720359,855
Footwear142,59151,405
Cotton, linen, silk, and artificial silk, piece-goods4,555,7324,677,975
Woollen piece-goods1,150,237971,512
Yarns753,983609,817
Railway and tramway plant243,88587,964
Electrical machinery (including wireless apparatus)2,198,0611,953,321
Timber354,499303,169
Printing-paper453,314173,648
Other paper541,287497,480

AGRICULTURE (pp. 262–273):—

Areas sown (p. 265)—1941–42. Acres.1942–43. Acres.
Wheat260,603290,158
Oats282,408242,365
Barley44,43135,245
Potatoes15,20123,860
WOOL PRODUCTION (greasy basis) lb.(m).345·0340·0

FACTORY PRODUCTION (pp. 309–333).

Production Year.
1940–41.1941–42.
Number of establishments No.6,3956,367
Persons engaged No.113,999117,214
Salaries and wages paid £26,946,79929,504,299
Cost of materials used £98,547,804102,260,860
Other expenses of manufacture £11,978,82012,812,901
Value of output £147,153,559155,566,195
Added value £48,605,75553,305,335

FACTORY PRODUCTION—CERTAIN PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES (pp. 326–333).

Industry.Production Year.
1940–41.1941–42.

* Excluding establishments exclusively engaged in malting.

Meat freezing and preserving—  
  Total persons engaged No.9,2749,630
  Salaries and wages paid £3,019,7373,290,042
  Value of output £27,243,66827,730,370
    Added value £5,408,3895,695,859
Ham and bacon curing—  
  Total persons engaged No.542546
  Salaries and wages paid £148,731160,098
  Value of output £1,526,6681,581,271
    Added value £284,808351,368
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk factories—  
  Total persons engaged No.4,0804,495
  Salaries and wages paid £1,204,0621,348,684
  Value of output £32,771,09731,344,633
    Added value £2,706,9972,846,188
Grain-mills—  
  Total persons engaged No.730739
  Salaries and wages paid £202,892218,294
  Value of output £2,567,6612,682,376
    Added value £525,636541,732
Biscuit, confectionery, and sugar-boiling works—  
  Total persons engaged No.3,5263,772
  Salaries and wages paid £596,522715,535
  Value of output £2,636,4423,440,119
    Added value £1,204,2351,611,240
  Breweries and malthouses*—  
  Total persons engaged No.1,1471,139
  Salaries and wages paid £352,267370,629
  Value of output (including beer duty) £3,822,8104,034,888
    Added value £1,012,6631,005,399
Soap and candle works—  
  Total persons engaged No.706739
  Salaries and wages paid £149,504168,413
  Value of output £688,113845,237
    Added value £323,511412,987
Industry.Production Year.
1940–41.1941–42.

* Including operations of motor-assembly works.

Sawmills—  
  Total persons engaged No.8,4218,061
  Salaries and wages paid £2,275,0092,285,414
  Value of output £5,949,9406,138,541
    Added value £3,621,1543,630,728
Gasworks—  
  Total persons engaged No.1,8731,744
  Salaries and wages paid £544,156554,670
  Total revenue £1,675,3831,699,805
  Quantity of gas sold cub. ft. (000)3,884,5974,011,040
Electric current—  
  Total persons engaged No.5,2464,881
  Salaries and wages paid £1,536,8191,509,829
  Total revenue £8,079,2138,258,224
  Units generated units (000)1,829,7261,928,646
Lime and cement works—  
  Total persons engaged No.1,2061,252
  Salaries and wages paid £342,005386,794
  Value of output £1,218,8961,286,890
    Added value £954,9681,031,863
Engineering, iron and brass works—  
  Total persons engaged No.5,6776,542
  Salaries and wages paid £1,529,2401,970,660
  Value of output £3,872,9795,023,741
    Added value £2,372,5183,135,838
Paint and varnish works—  
  Total persons engaged No.454465
  Salaries and wages paid £127,848126,344
  Value of output £1,029,898980,014
    Added value £387,829400,828
  Coachbuilding and motor and cycle engineering*—  
  Total persons engaged No.7,3986,807
  Salaries and wages paid £1,711,2361,659,807
  Value of output £4,416,2964,297,065
    Added value £2,703,1962,557,401
Tanning—  
  Total persons engaged No.655773
  Salaries and wages paid £178,739231,891
  Value of output £914,0721,179,328
    Added value £302,123381,485
Superphosphates and chemical fertilizers—  
  Total persons engaged No.1,171989
  Salaries and wages paid £337,581291,525
  Value of output £2,540,1921,965,151
    Added value £913,492741,268
Boot and shoe manufacturing—  
  Total persons engaged No.4,3844,620
  Salaries and wages paid £803,519905,318
  Value of output £2,548,8612,954,901
    Added value £1,114,9321,336,495
Woollen mills—  
  Total persons engaged No.3,4893,855
  Salaries and wages paid £718,452883,256
  Value of output £2,243,4602,670,081
    Added value £1,373,3051,653,622
Hosiery factories—  
  Total persons engaged No.2,0062,196
  Salaries and wages paid £350,783415,517
  Value of output £1,459,8991,683,574
    Added value £663,158792,163
Clothing-manufacture—  
  Total persons engaged No.14,48914,593
  Salaries and wages paid £2,145,9282,339,732
  Value of output £5,908,0916,552,051
    Added value £2,998,0943,272,733
PRODUCTION AND INCOME:—1940–41. £(m.)1941–42. £(m.)
    Value of production (pp. 631–634)158·4161·5
    Aggregate private income (pp. 523·525)216·5231·2
 1941–42. £m.1942–43. £m.
    Aggregate salary and wage payments133·0155·5

TRANSPORT (pp. 196–229):—

 Twelve Months ended March,
 1942.1943.

* Including road motor and other subsidiary services.

† As at 31st March.

Railways (pp. 202–208)—  
    Net ton-miles run Number688,709,000781,379,000
    Passenger journeys Number28,610,94536,133,268
    Revenue—  
      Railway operation £10,383,88012,415,080
      Total* £11,938,33814,128,993
    Expenditure—  
      Railway operation £8,902,59210,019,659
      Total* £10,056,03411,302,413
Road (pp. 215–225)—  
    Motor-vehicles licensed†305,793298,635

CIVIL AVIATION (pp. 226–229):—

Internal services—  
    Miles flown1,045,305705,972
    Passengers carried42,47230,887
Overseas services—  
    Miles flown505,946192,960
    Passengers carried2,5972,256
 Twelve Months ended 31st March,
 1942.1943.
CONSOLIDATED FUND (pp. 354–357):—££
  Receipts41,240,95942,361,009
  Payments39,568,49738,206,431

OTHER PRINCIPAL STATISTICAL SERIES.

Item.1941.1942.
Prices index numbers (pp. 525–543):—   
  Retail— Twelve Months ended 31st December.
    Food (1926–30 = 1000) 11041127
    All-groups (1926–30 = 1000) 19731109
  Wholesale—All-groups (1926–30 = 1000) 13111416
  Export—All-groups (1909–13 = 1000) 15531589
Share prices—   
  Industrial (1938 = 1000) 10211005
  All-groups (1938 = 1000) 10011010
  Twelve Months ended 31st March,
  1942.1943.
  Mortgages registered (pp. 486–489)£14,977,42312,149,481
  Mortgages discharged (pp. 486–490)£15,099,17016,698,093
  Land transfers registered (pp. 238–240)£23,261,19124,135,370
Social security benefits (pp. 392–404):—   
  Month of June,
  Age— 1942.1943.
    Number 99,646100,247
    Annual value£7,724,4127,949,587
  Widows'—   
    Number 10,84310,468
    Annual value£870,708854,189
  Invalidity—   
    Number 12,04911,972
    Annual value£1,016,1481,031,986
  Family—   
    Number 17,86813,827
    Annual value£851,628745,275
  Universal superannuation—   
    Number 42,31845,102
    Annual value£634,768789,285
Pensions (pp. 404–409): —   
  1914–18 war—   
    Number 22,80221,904
    Annual value£1,503,3001,584,207
  Present war—   
    Number 4,1047,994
    Annual value£425,080745,207
  Boer War—   
    Number 4740
    Annual value£1,7851,367
  War veterans' allowances—   
    Number 1,8671,798
    Annual value£214,368221,064
Banking (pp. 435–454):—   
  Trading banks—   
    Debits, weekly average (excluding Government) (p. 441)£19,588,07223,299,445
    Ratio of advances to deposits (p. 438)Per cent.51·1638·55
  Reserve Bank— 28th June.
    Net reserve ratio (p. 436)Per cent.42·6637·69
  Reserve—   
    Gold (p. 436)£2,801,8782,801,878
    Exchange (p. 436)£24,722,57529,684,822
  Net note circulation (pp. 441–442)£21,469,17227,523,586
  Net overseas funds of banks (p. 442)£37,305,91040,168,304
  31st March.
  Radio-receiving licenses (p. 614) 372,219368,942
  Twelve Months ended 31st December,
Industrial disputes— 1941.1942.
  Number of disputes 8964
  Number of firms affected 9777
  Number of workers involved 15,26114,282
  Total durationDays233116
  Working-days lost 26,23751,436
  Approximate loss in wages£34,55262,954

PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND CENSUS AND STATISTICS DEPARTMENT.

Table of Contents

Title.Latest No.Month of Issue.Price per Copy.Postage (extra).

* £1 1s. per annum (post fret).

NOTE.—This list is subject to revision from time to time. Publications are obtainable from the Government Printer, Wellington.

   s.d.d.
New Zealand Official Year-Book1943Nov., 1943766
Annual Statistical Reports—     
  Population and Buildings1941–42Jan., 1943261
  Vital Statistics1940Aug., 1942503
  Justice1940July, 1942261
  Trade and Shipping (Part I)1940Oct., 19421003
  Trade and Shipping (Part II)1940May, 1943362
  Agricultural and Pastoral Production1941–42June, 1943261
  Factory and Building Production1940–41Nov., 1942362
  Insurance1940Oct., 1942201
  Miscellaneous (Prices, Wage-rates and Hours of Labour, Unemployment, Industrial Accidents, Tramways, Cinematograph Theatres, Banking, Building Societies, Bankruptcy, Commercial Afforestation, Land and Land-tax, Incomes and Income-tax, Statistical Summary)1940July, 1943502
Local Authorities Handbook of New Zealand (published annually)1940–41Aug., 1942765
Monthly Abstract of Statistics  26*1
Volumes of 1936 Census Results—     
  Increase and Location of Population1936Sept., 1937462
  Dependencies1936Sept., 1937161
  Poultry1936Sept., 1937161
  War Service1936June. 1938161
  Maori Census1936April, 1940301
  Ages and Marital Status1936April, 1940402
  Census of Libraries1936May, 1940161
  Religious Professions1936June. 1940261
  Orphan Children and Dependent Children (Other volumes to follow)1936June, 1940261

Chapter 1. SECTION 1.—DESCRIPTIVE.

Table of Contents

LOCATION, AREA, AND BOUNDARIES.—Consisting of two large and several mailer islands, the Dominion of New Zealand lies in the South Pacific Ocean some 1,200 miles to the eastward of Australia. With South America some 6,000 miles distant to the east and the Antarctic Continent 1,000 miles distant to the south, the Islands are, for their size, among the world's most isolated. For statistical purposes, the following classification of the administrative area is the most convenient:—

  1. Islands forming the Dominion proper (total arm, 103,416 square miles):—

     Square Miles.
    North Island and adjacent islets44,281
    South Island and adjacent islets58,093
    Stewart Island and adjacent islets670
    Chatham Islands372

    In all further references in this volume, unless the context indicates the contrary, Chatham Islands and Stewart Island are included with the South Island. It should be noted also that statistics for “the Dominion” and for “New Zealand” refer to the above group of islands, unless it is expressly stated that the outlying islands, group (b), and/or the annexed islands, group (c), are included.

  2. Outlying islands (total area, 307 square miles) included within the geographical boundaries of Now Zealand as proclaimed in 1847:—

     Square Miles.
    Three Kings Islands3
    Auckland Islands234
    Campbell Island44
    Antipodes Islands24
    Bounty Islands
    Snares Islands1
    Solander Island

    None of the outlying islands is regularly inhabited.

  3. Islands (total area, 212 square miles) annexed to New Zealand:—

    Kermadec Islands, annexed in 1887 (area, 13 square miles).

    Cook and other Pacific Islands, annexed in 1901:—

    Cook Islands (area, 81 square miles)—

    Rarotonga.Aitutaki.
    Mangaia.Mauke (or Parry).
    Atiu.Takutea.
    Mitiaro.Manuae (or Hervey Islands).

    Islands outside the Cook Group (area, 115 square miles)—

    Nine (or Savage).Rakahanga (or Reirson).
    Palmerston (or Avarau).Pukapuka (or Danger).
    Penrhyn (or Tongareva).Suwarrow (or Anchorage).
    Manihiki (or Humphrey).Nassau.

The total area of the foregoing groups is 103,935 square miles. Elsewhere in this issue (viz., in the section on land tenure, settlement, &c.) the aggregate area of the Dominion appears as 66,390,599 acres—i.e., 103,735 square miles. The latter area does not include the Cook and other Pacific Islands annexed in 1901.

As well as exercising jurisdiction over the areas already mentioned, the Dominion also administers the Union Islands, the Ross Dependency, and Western Samoa (which is held on a mandate from the League of Nations). Jointly with the Imperial Government and the Government of Australia, New Zealand is responsible for the mandate over the Island of Nauru. The administrative appointments for the island are made by the Australian Government, but New Zealand appoints a representative to the British Phosphates Commission, which controls the working of the phosphate deposits.*

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES—Coast-line.—By reason of its elongated shape, New Zealand possesses a very lengthy coast-line in proportion to its area. With the exception of the low-lying North Auckland peninsula, the length of the New Zealand land-mass lies along a south-westerly-north-easterly axis, parallel to the direction of its mountain-chains.

By reason of the latter fact the coast-line is, on the whole, not greatly indented; and, as a consequence, New Zealand is not well endowed with natural harbours. In the North Island, Auckland and Wellington are the only two safe natural harbours of which the fullest commercial use can be made. On the east coast of the North Auckland peninsula several deep and sheltered harbours exist, but as the surrounding country is comparatively undeveloped and the area somewhat remote they are of little economic consequence at present. In the South Island the Marlborough Sounds and the West Coast Sounds form perfect land-locked harbours, but owing to their situations and to the rugged nature of the terrain they have—with the exception of Queen Charlotte Sound—little or no commercial utility. Where vital localities have not been endowed with ideal harbours it has been necessary to improve existing facilities by dredging and by breakwater-construction, &c. In this manner efficient ports, capable of accommodating overseas vessels, have been formed in Lyttelton, Otago, and Bluff harbours. On the west coast of both Islands the strong ocean-drifts and high seas cause shoaling at river-mouths and harbour-entrances, while on the east coast of the South Island similar circumstances prevail, due to the large quantities of shingle brought down by the rivers being spread along the coast by ocean currents. The mountainous nature of the country makes the haulage of goods to and from the better-equipped natural harbours both costly and difficult, and the construction and maintenance of further ports at various points along the coasts of both Islands has been necessary, either by dredging river-mouths or by harbour-construction work.

* The island of Nauru is at present (April, 1943) under Japanese occupation.

Mountains.—The mountainous nature of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics. In the North Island the higher mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (8,260 ft.), Ruapehu (9,175 ft.), Ngauruhoe (7,515 ft.), and Tongariro (6,458 ft.), they do not exceed an altitude of 6,000 ft. Of these four volcanoes only the first-named can be classed as extinct. Other volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, each of which has, upon one occasion within historical times, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The South Island is much more mountainous than the North, but shows fewer manifestations of recent volcanic activity. Along almost the entire length of the Island runs the massive chain known as the Southern Alps, which attains its greatest height in Mount Cook (12,349 ft.), while no fewer than seventeen peaks exceed 10,000 ft.

As may be expected, the higher mountains of the South Island have exerted a greater influence on the economic development of the country than those of the North Island. For many years the Southern Alps wore an effective barrier to communication by land between the cast and west coasts, while their climatic effects on the Canterbury plains and Otago plateaux determined the types of cultivation undertaken. Moreover, the existence of much elevated open country led to the development of pastoral holdings on a large scale. While the mountains in the North Island are not as high nor as extensive as those of the South Island, in the early days they effectively isolated various portions of the coastal plains and valleys. Their effect on climatic conditions, however, is considerably less, the rainfall being more evenly distributed. Due to this more even distribution of the rainfall, and to the existence of considerable areas of lower relief, the foothills of the mountain systems were heavily wooded, and so proved a hindrance to agrarian development.

In the 1931 issue of the Year-Book was given a list, not claimed as exhaustive, of 223 named peaks of 7,500 ft. or more in altitude, while the 1942 and intervening issues of the Year-Book have contained a list of the more important mountains, together with details of height in each case.

Glaciers.—In keeping with the dimensions of her mountain system, New Zealand possesses, in the South Island, a glacial system of some magnitude. Of the glaciers the largest is the Tasman, which, with others of comparable size, rises in the more elevated area surrounding Mount Cook. Flowing down the eastern slope of the range, this glacier has a length of 18 miles and a width of 1¼ miles. In common with other glaciers on the eastern slope, of which the more important are the Murchison (11 miles), the Mueller (8 miles), the Godley (8 miles), and the Hooker (7¼ miles), its rate of flow is slow, while its terminal face is at an altitude of somewhat over 2,000 ft. On the western slope of the range, owing to the greater snow precipitation, the glaciers are more numerous and descend to lower levels, while the steeper slope gives them a faster rate of flow. The two largest of these are the Fox and the Franz Josef, with lengths of 9¾ miles and 8½ miles respectively, and terminal faces at altitudes of 670 ft. and 690 ft.

As will be realized, these glaciers are an important tourist attraction, and as such have definite economic significance. Moreover, those glaciers on the eastern slopes which feed rivers utilized for irrigation and hydro-electric purposes are valuable in that they help to ensure a steady volume of water throughout the year.

Rivers.—Of the numerous New Zealand rivers few are of sufficient length or volume to be navigable. Moreover, owing to the high relief of the country, they are mostly swift-flowing, while, as mentioned previously, nearly all are obstructed at their mouths by bars. For the purpose of internal communication, therefore, they are of little economic utility, and only in two or three isolated instances have they been thus consistently used. With improved roading conditions, however, their traffic has become negligible even in these cases.

As sources of hydro-electric power, New Zealand rivers are of considerable importance, since their rapid rate of flow and dependable volume of ice-free water make them eminently suitable for this purpose. At the present time the Waikato and the Mangahao rivers in the North Island and the Waitaki River in the South are used for major hydro-electric schemes. The characteristics just mentioned are also important for purposes of irrigation, but, owing to the country's reliable rainfall, there are few areas other than in Canterbury and Otago whore the risers are so utilized.

In the 1932 Year-Book appears an account of the rivers of New Zealand by Professor R. Speight, M.Sc., F.G.S., Curator of the Canterbury Museum. The 1942 issue contains a list of the more important rivers, with details of their length and, in some cases, the approximate rate of discharge.

The discovery in 1861 that the beds of numerous rivers in the South Island contained extensive deposits of alluvial gold was of considerable importance in the economic development of the country. Not only did it lead to an increase in population and in wealth, but, through the following of the numerous streams to their sources, it also led to the rapid exploration of large tracts of remote country. The exploitation of these deposits has been carried on with varying degrees of success up to the present time by both manual and mechanical means.

A further factor in connection with the rivers is that, owing to the very successful acclimatization of fresh-water fish, notably trout, many of them now provide exceptionally fine fishing.

Lakes.—In considering New Zealand's numerous lakes, a distinction can be made, especially from the scenic viewpoint, between the lakes of the two Islands. Surrounded by extremely rugged country the larger lakes of the South Island are distinguished by the grandeur of their alpine settings, while those of the North Island, situated on a volcanic plateau, are of interest by reason of the neighbouring thermal activity. Due to the excellence of their fishing, the latter possess an added tourist attraction. In both Islands the larger lakes are situated at high altitudes, and their consequent remoteness renders them unsuitable as a means of communication. In their functions as reservoirs the lakes of both Islands are of vital importance for the maintenance of the streams draining them and as a means of flood-prevention. More especially is this the case where hydro-electric schemes are involved, Lakes Waikaremoana and Taupo in the North Island, and Lakes Coleridge, Pukaki, and Tekapo in the South Island, being of particular significance in this respect.

An article on the lakes of New Zealand, also by Professor R. Speight, will be found in the 1932 Year-Book, while the 1942 issue contains particulars of the more important lakes.

GEOLOGY.—An article on the geology of New Zealand prepared by Dr. J. Henderson, M.A., F.R.S.N.Z., Director of the Geological Survey, is contained in the 1940 and earlier editions of the Year-Book. For more detailed information the reader is referred to the treatises of Professors Park and Marshall, the bulletins of the Geological Survey, and the many papers that have appeared in the “Transactions of the New Zealand Institute” (now the Royal Society of New Zealand).

EARTHQUAKES.—An article on earthquakes in New Zealand appeared in the 1942 and earlier issues of the Year-Book. The information given below has been supplied by Mr. R. C. Hayes, Acting-Director of the Dominion Observatory.

Seismicity and Earthquake Distribution.—A comparison between the records of destructive earthquakes in New Zealand and those in other seismic countries shows that the seismicity of New Zealand, on the whole, is surprisingly high. However, this is due to the occurrence of a large number of earthquakes of the semi-destructive type (R.-F. 8) with comparatively few major destructive shocks (R.-F. 9, 10).

During the period 1835–1934 sixty-nine destructive earthquakes are known to have occurred in New Zealand, forty-nine of which were of the semi-destructive type (not exceeding intensity R.-F 8). Of the remainder, fourteen were of intensity 9, and six of intensity 10.

The total number of earthquakes of all intensities, and the maximum intensity, reported felt in New Zealand in each of the years 1922 to 1941 were as follows:—

Year.Number of Earthquakes reported felt.Maximum Intensity of Heaviest Shock, R.-F. Scale.
19221,1878
1923766
1924707
1925768
19261738
19271078
1928808
192967810
19307488
193143210
19323139
19331087
19342309
19351507
19361236
19371796–7
19381328
19391577
19401207
19411078

The abnormally large number of earthquakes reported in the year 1922 was due to the swarm of local shocks in the Taupo region in the latter half of that year. Abnormally large numbers of shocks also occurred in 1929–30, due to aftershocks of the Buller earthquake of 17th June, 1929.

New Zealand earthquake statistics over the past hundred years or so show that certain parts of the country are subject to almost continuous seismic activity with occasional destructive shocks, while other parts are more or less free from seismic disturbances. By combining early earthquake records with the more precise data of recent years it is possible to divide the country roughly into four seismic regions.

These regions are classified below, in order of seismicity:—

  1. All areas of the North Island east and south of an approximate line from the vicinity of Whakatane in the Bay of Plenty to the vicinity of Hawera in South Taranaki, and all areas of the South Island north of an approximate line from the vicinity of Hokitika on the west coast, through the region of Lake Coleridge, to Banks Peninsula:

  2. South Auckland, western Bay of Plenty, Waikato, and Taranaki (except the Southern portion):

  3. Areas of the South Island, south of the boundary of region I:

  4. Areas north of Auckland.

The following table shows the average frequency of earthquakes in each of the four regions defined above:—

Region.Average Number of Earthquakes per Year (1921–1940).Average Number of Destructive Shocks per Decade (1835–1940).Relative Seismicity based on Destructive Shocks.
Minor Shocks (R.-F. 8).Major Shocks (R.-F. 9, 10).
I97·84·11·711·5
II23·01·1 1·1
III12·10·1 0·1
IV1·1  0·0

The boundaries between the seismic regions are not well defined, since one region generally merges more or less imperceptibly into another. Further, seismic frequency is not uniform. This leads to the number of shocks being considerably above the average in some years and below it in others. The normal irregularity is increased by the occasional occurrence of earthquake swarms in certain regions. Probably the most notable swarm in New Zealand was that which occurred in the Taupo region in the latter half of 1922. The number of minor local shocks in this swarm was so great that only the stronger ones, or those affecting the adjacent region, were used in determining the average frequency of region I.

Deaths due to Earthquakes.—During the period 1848–1940 the number of deaths recorded in New Zealand as due directly or indirectly to earthquakes was 281. Of these, 255 were due to the Hawke's Bay earthquake of 3rd February, 1931.

CLIMATE.—An article on the climate of New Zealand, supplied by Dr. M. A. F. Barnett, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.Inst.P., Director of Meteorological Services, has been included in recent issues of the Year-Book, but considerations of space preclude its repetition in this issue.

A Brief Review of 1941.—During the mild and sunny summer of 1940–41 crops ripened rather prematurely, but gave good yields. Some heavy falls of rain arrested the threatened decline in dairy production. Heavy rains towards the end of March relieved the droughty conditions in eastern districts, thus assuring good autumn growth although a cool, dry April checked this somewhat. Cultivation and sowings in autumn suffered few protracted interruptions. The winter was cold, August being a particularly wet month. The spring months, as well as December, were frequently dull and unsettled. Stock fared satisfactorily, but shearing and harvesting were carried out with considerable difficulty. Haymaking was often impossible, but good crops of ensilage were gathered. The season was unusually late for both fruit and vegetables.

Over the year as a whole temperatures were everywhere below normal. Sunshine was subject to considerable local vagaries, Auckland and Timaru having considerable excesses, whereas Palmerston North, Wellington, Lincoln, and Waimate experienced large deficiencies. Rainfall was in most places above normal, although the reverse was the case in the Bay of Islands, Gisborne, Central Hawke's Bay, Westland, and Central Otago. The average wind speed over the country was somewhat less than usual.

Seasonal Notes.—Dry conditions persisted until mid-January, when good rains fell over the North Island and Nelson. February, being on the whole dry and mild, was a good harvest month, but a poor one for green crops. Parts of northern Otago had an exceptionally dry spell, but there were heavy rains from the 12th to 14th in Westland, Nelson, Marlborough, and Wellington. March, which, except to the west of the Southern Alps, was very wet, more than compensated for the preceding dry regime. From the 12th to the 19th, Canterbury experienced heavy flooding. The, remainder of the autumn was cool, with numerous light frosts and occasional showers. On the 3rd and 4th April exceptional rain fell west of the Manawatu Gorge and occasioned flooding with considerable damage. In June, cool wet weather was prevalent, and the ranges received a heavy mantle of snow, which, however, largely disappeared during a favourable July. August was cool with frequent rain, which, in the south Wellington and Canterbury districts, gave record totals. Flooding occurred on the Canterbury Plains on the 18th and 19th. During the month rain and snow, together with lack of sunshine, were responsible for some loss of stock. Conditions were much more beneficial in September, which was reasonably dry and sunny. October was very unreliable with excess rain in the North Island, and cool, frosty weather kept the season backward. Changeable westerly weather prevailed during November, there being scattered hail and snow. December was unseasonable, and was the dullest December for many years past. While green growth was stimulated, adverse conditions further delayed the ripening of most crops. Temperatures were very cold towards the end of the month.

Summary of Meteorological Observations.—The observations from which the following summary was compiled for the year 1941 were taken at 09.00 hrs., N.Z. standard time:—

Station.Temperatures in Shade, Degrees Fahrenheit.Hours of Bright Sunshine.Rainfall.
Mean Daily Maximum.Mean Daily Minimum.Approx. Mean Temperature.Extremes for 1941.Previous Extremes.Total Fall (Inches).Number of Wet Days.
Maximum and Month.Minimum and Month.Absolute Max.Absolute Min.
Te Paki, Te Hapua65·552·358·977·0Feb.28·0July80·027·02,194·450·47177
Auckland64·653·258·979·0Jan., Feb.34·5July86·533·22,267·949·24194
Tauranga65·147·656·487·3Feb.27·4June90·722·52,258·052·54164
Hamilton East64·545·054·783·0Jan.22·6June, July94·421·31,937·952·03170
Rotorua65·345·955·086·8Jan.25·6July98·021·02,028·361·31168
Gisborne67·245·756·591·0Jan.26·0July  2,297·231·90128
Onepoto, Lake Waikaremoana57·444·851·182·4Feb.30·5June-88·027·1 67·63191
New Plymouth61·148·955·080·2Jan.29·8June89·027·02,201·368·90183
Napier65·346·455·888·0Jan.27·8June94·027·52,492·031·26103
Taihape57·742·850·380·2Jan.25·8Aug.87·820·4 41·11191
Wanganui62·448·755·583·2Feb.30·5July  2,125·641·55172
Massey College, Palmerston North61·546·554·082·7Jan.27·0May, June87·021·21,689·843·37182
Masterton63·943·353·689·1Jan.23·4July95·420·02,220·242·02177
Wellington59·348·153·779·6Jan.32·3June88·028·61,900·563·41179
Nelson62·145·353·781·8Feb.28·1June92·025·02,390·846·42133
Blenheim65·043·354·288·0Feb.23·2June93·523·02,477·828·23103
Hanmer Springs60·638·849·789·5Jan.12·3July97·08·21,963·553·84136
Hokitika59·544·351·980·0Jan.25·0June84·525·01,834·6100·12193
Lake Coleridge60·439·950·289·4Jan.18·0Jan.93·011·5 31·96122
Christchurch59·943·951·989·5Jan., Dec.24·0July95·721·32,026·231·75133
Timaru60·341·951·194·0Feb.19·8Jan.99·019·82,143·720·22113
Milford Sound56·442·249·376·4Jan.25·0June79·023·1 226·48202
Queenstown58·840·749·783·8Jan.23·0June90·220·02,040·226·70116
Alexandra60·839·750·389·5Jan.15·0July91·212·22,098·211·8595
Dunedin58·443·450·988·0Feb.28·5July94·023·01,648·443·73169
Invercargill57·841·849·886·0Jan.24·0June, July90·019·01,664·344·48207

For 1941 the mean sea-level pressure at 09.00 hrs., in millibars, was: Auckland, 1,015·5; Wellington, 1,013·6; Nelson, 1,014·3; Hokitika, 1,013·8; Christchurch, 1,011·3; Dunedin, 1,010·9.

PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND.—Those desiring information on the flora and plant covering of New Zealand are referred to the article by Dr. W. R. 13. Oliver, D.Sc., F.R.S.N.Z., which appeared in the 1940 and previous issues of the Year-Book, while a brief reference to the geographical distribution of the forest trees is made in the section of this Year-Book dealing with Forestry (Section 18). For more detailed information the following works may also be consulted: “Plants of New Zealand,” by R. M. Laing and E. W. Blackwell, ed. 4, 1940; “Manual of the New Zealand Flora,” by T. F. Cheeseman, ed. 2, 1925; “The Trees of New Zealand,” by L. Cockayne and E. Phillips-Turner, 1928; “The Forest Flora of New Zealand,” by T. Kirk, 1889; “New Zealand Trees and Shrubs and how to Identify Them,” by H. H. Allan, 1928; “New Zealand Ferns,” by H. B. Dobbie, ed. 3, 1931; “New Zealand Plants and their Story,” by L. Cockayne, ed. 3, 1927; “The Vegetation of New Zealand,” by L. Cockayne, ed. 2, 1928; “The Cultivation of New Zealand Plants,” by L. Cockayne, 1923; “The New Zealand Nature Book,” Vol. 2, by W. Martin, 1929; and numerous articles published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand.

FAUNA.—A brief article on the fauna of New Zealand, originally prepared by the late Mr. James Drummond, F.L.S., F.Z.S., and revised by him in 1935, is contained in the 1940 and earlier editions of the Year-Book.

Chapter 2. SECTION 2.—CONSTITUTION.

Table of Contents

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL.—The powers, duties, and responsibilities of the Governor-General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of 11th May, 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of 24th April, 1919 (p. 1213). In the execution of the powers and authorities vested in him the Governor-General must be guided by the advice of the Executive Council, but, if in any ease he sees sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the Council, he may act in the exercise of his powers and authorities in opposition to the opinion of the Council, reporting the matter to His Majesty without delay, with the reasons for his so acting.

In any such case any member of the Executive Council may require that there be recorded in the minutes of the Council the grounds of any advice or opinion that he may give upon the question.

The present Executive Council consists of fourteen members in addition to the Governor-General, and also in addition to the two members of the War Cabinet who are not members of the Government Cabinet, and one member of the Legislative Council holding a special war portfolio. Two members, exclusive of His Excellency or the presiding member, constitute a quorum.

Under the Civil List Act, 1920, His Excellency the Governor-General receives an honorarium of £5,000 per annum, an allowance of £2,000 per annum for the salaries and expenses of his establishment (exclusive of the Official Secretary), and an allowance of £500 per annum for travelling-expenses.

The Prime Minister's salary is at the rate of £1,800 per annum and that of other Ministers £1,170 per annum. In addition Ministers of the Crown occupy a Ministerial residence, or receive house allowance at the rate of £200 per annum.

Authority is also given in the Civil List Act for the appointment of either one or two Maoris or half-castes as members of the Executive Council representing the Native race. One such appointment was made on 21st January, 1941, the salary being £990 per annum, plus £200 per annum house allowance.

The present Government, shortly after assuming office, instituted a scheme whereby the services of all parliamentary representatives of the Government party might be co-opted to assist Ministers in bringing the Government's policy into effect. As part of this plan, Ministers are sharing a portion of their authorized salaries with other Government parliamentary representatives.

The Finance Act, 1940, authorized the payment to every member of the Executive Council who is a member of the War Cabinet, and does not hold any of the Ministerial offices, a salary at the rate of £1,170 per annum. The Finance Act (No. 2), 1942, gave similar authority for the payment of members of the Executive Council and War Administration.

In providing for the appointment of Parliamentary Under-Secretaries, by the Civil List Amendment Act, 1936, an innovation was made in executive control in New Zealand. For service rendered as Parliamentary Under-Secretary a salary of £600 is provided. At the present time (April, 1943), two such appointments are current.

LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL.—The Imperial Act under which the earliest appointments were made to the Legislative Council under a system of responsible government provided that the first appointees should be not less than ten in number. The number actually summoned for the first session (held at Auckland from 24th May, 1854) was sixteen, of whom only fourteen attended. The number increased irregularly for thirty years. In 1885 and 1886 it stood at fifty-three, but has not since reached that limit. The number of members at present (April, 1943) is 37.

An Act of the Imperial Parliament in 1868 provided that future appointments of Councillors should be made by the Governor (not by the Sovereign). Until 1891 members were appointed for life, but since that year appointments have been made for seven years only, members, however, being eligible for reappointment. Prior to 1891 the Speaker was appointed by the Governor, but the Council now elects its own Speaker, who holds office for five years. The Chairman of Committees was formerly elected every session, but in 1928 the standing orders were amended to provide for a three years' term of office. Speaker and Chairman are both eligible for re-election.

Provision for an elective Legislative Council is contained in the Legislative Council Act, 1914, which may be brought into operation at a date to be specified by Proclamation.

The qualifications for membership of the Legislative Council are the same as for the House of Representatives (see post), with the proviso that a person may not at the same time be a member of both Houses. Prior to 1941 women were not eligible for appointment to the Legislative Council, but this restriction was removed by the Statutes Amendment Act, 1941.

Before the year 1892 the honorarium of Councillors was understood to be for the session, not for the year, and formed the subject of a special vote every session, the amount varying in different sessions. By the Payment of Members Act, 1892, the honorarium was made annual, not sessional, and was fixed at £150 a year. There have been several alterations since that date, and the present rate is £315 per annum. The Speaker receives £720 per annum and free sessional quarters, and the Chairman of Committees £450. Besides the honorarium, members are allowed travelling-expenses actually incurred in going to and from Parliament at the opening and closing of each session.

Subject to certain exemptions, members not attending the Council are liable to be fined.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.—The number of members constituting the House of Representatives is eighty—seventy-six Europeans and four Maoris. They are designated “Members of Parliament.” The number was originally fixed by the Constitution Act as not more than forty-two and not less than twenty-four, and the first Parliament called together in 1854 consisted of forty members. Legislation passed in 1858 fixed the number of European members at forty-one; in 1860, at fifty-three; in 1862, at fifty-seven; in 1865, at seventy; in 1867, at seventy-two; in 1870, at seventy-four; in 1875, at eighty-four; in 1881, at ninety-one; in 1887, at seventy; and in 1900, at seventy-six. By the Maori Representation Act, 1867, which is still in force, as embodied in the Electoral Act, 1927, four Maori members were added, three for the North Island and one for the South.

After each population census the Dominion is divided anew into seventy-six European electorates, according to population distribution. In the allocation of electorates an addition is made to rural populations so that the number of rural electorates, in proportion to their population, is higher than urban electorates. The “country quota,” as this allowance is called, is computed on the basis that 28 per cent. is added to the rural population, which for electoral purposes means population other than that contained in a city or borough of over 2,000 inhabitants or in any area within five miles of the chief post-offices at Auckland, Wellington, Christ-church, or Dunedin. The “country quota” first appeared in 1881, to the equivalent of an addition of 33⅓ per cent. to the country population. It was reduced in 1887 to 18 per cent., but was increased in 1889 to the present 28 per cent.

Quinquennial Parliaments, instituted under the Constitution Act, were abolished by the Triennial Parliaments Act, 1879, which fixed the term at three years. General elections have boon held at three-yearly intervals since 1881, with a few exceptions. The term of the nineteenth Parliament was during the 1914–18 War extended to five years by special legislation, and that of the twenty-fourth (1931–35) and subsequent Parliaments to four years under the Electoral Amendment Act, 1934. By the Electoral Amendment Act, 1937, the three-year term was restored, but on account of war conditions, the term of the twenty-sixth Parliament was extended to four years by the Prolongation of Parliament Act, 1941. The Prolongation of Parliament Act, 1942, extended the term still further to one year from the termination of the war, but there is a proviso that a motion shall be moved in the House of Representatives each year after the year 1942 either approving the continuation of the House or fixing an earlier date for its expiry. This proviso has already been put into operation and a motion in accordance therewith has been passed, fixing the expiry of the present House for 1st November, 1943, unless the General Assembly is dissolved earlier. Consequently, a general election is to take place in 1943.

Under the Electoral Act, 1927, every registered elector of either sex, but no other person, is qualified to be a Parliamentary candidate. It is provided, however, that a person shall not be so elected who is disqualified as an elector under any of the provisions of the Act (see under “Franchise” post); or is an undischarged bankrupt; or is a member of the Legislative Council; or is a contractor to the public service of Now Zealand to whom any public money above the sum of £50 is payable, directly or indirectly (but not as a member of a registered company or incorporated body), in any one financial year. Though women's suffrage has been operative since 1893, women were not eligible as Parliamentary candidates until the passing of the Women's Parliamentary Rights Act, 1919, the provisions of which are now embodied in the Electoral Act, 1927. Under the Electoral Act public servants were prohibited from being elected, but this prohibition has been removed by the Political Disabilities Removal Act, 1936, which provided that if elected they immediately cease to be public servants.

The payment made to members of the House of Representatives is £450 per annum, subject to certain deductions for absence not duo to sickness or other unavoidable cause. Travelling-expenses to and from Wellington at the opening and closing of each session are also allowed.

The election of a Speaker is the first business of a now House after the members have been sworn. A Chairman of Committees is elected as soon afterwards as is convenient. Both Speaker and Chairman of Committees hold office until a dissolution, and receive payment until the first meeting of a now Parliament. The Speaker's remuneration is £900 per annum, plus sessional allowance of £100 and free sessional quarters, and that of the Chairman of Committees £675 per annum.

Twenty members, inclusive of the Speaker, constitute a quorum.

FRANCHISE.—Since the abolition of plural voting in 1889 and the introduction of women's suffrage in 1893 every person twenty-one years of age or over has had the right to exercise a vote in the election of members for the House of Representatives. To be registered as an elector a person must have resided for one year in the Dominion, and for three months in the electoral district for which he claims to vote. A system of compulsory registration of electors was introduced at the end of 1924, but for Maori electors a Proclamation is necessary before registration becomes operative. Up to the present this Proclamation has not been made.

There are, of course, slight exceptions to the foregoing, for, if a person is classified as one of the following, he or she is not entitled to register as an elector or to vote:—

  • An alien:

  • A mentally defective person:

  • A person convicted of an offence punishable by death or by imprisonment for one year or upwards within any part of His Majesty's dominions, or convicted in Now Zealand as a public defaulter, or under the Police Offences Act, 1927, as an idle and disorderly person or as a rogue and vagabond, unless such offender has received a free pardon, or has undergone the sentence or punishment to which he was adjudged for such offence.

Maoris are qualified to vote only at elections of the four members representing the Maori race. A Maori half-caste may register on the roll of a European electoral district; and, if so, may not then vote at an election of Maori members.

By the Electoral Amendment Act, 1937, which made provision for a secret ballot in Maori elections, Maori electors were granted the same privileges, in the exercise of their vote, as European electors.

For the system of local-government administration a modified form of franchise exists, property qualification being necessary for the exercising of votes on financial issues. Further reference to this aspect of franchise will be found on pp. 653–4 of the 1940 number of the Year-Book.

Chapter 3. SECTION 3.—POPULATION.

Table of Contents

POPULATION censuses were taken during 1936 in New Zealand and in all its inhabited dependencies. For New Zealand proper the census related to the night of Tuesday, 24th March, 1936, and recorded a total of 1,573,810, inclusive of 82,326 Maoris. The annexed Kermadec Islands had a population of 2. For the Cook Islands and Niue Island the effective date of the census was 30th April, 1936, and the population was 16,350 (Cook Islands, 12,246; Niue Island, 4,104). The Tokelau (Union) Islands, where a census was taken by the Western Samoan Administration for 4th November, 1936, had a population of 1,170. The same date was selected by the Administration for its census of the mandated territory of Western Samoa, the population being recorded as 55,946. All the outlying islands (vide page 1) are uninhabited at present, as is also the Boss Dependency situated in Antarctic regions. The total population of New Zealand, dependencies, and mandated territory at the 1936 censuses, was, therefore, 1,647,278.

Further 1936 census figures will be found later in this section or in other portions of this volume, but for details it will be necessary to refer to the census volumes published separately. The following summary gives, where available, figures more recent than those of the census:—

Date.Males.Females.Totals.
New Zealand proper (exclusive of Maoris)1st April, 1942751,312789,3461,540,658
Maoris1st April, 194247,62646,05493,680
Totals, Now Zealand proper1st April, 1942798,938835,4001,634,338
Kermadec Islands1st April, 19429 9
Cook Islands and NiueCensus, 19368,3677,98316,350
Tokelau Islands(Nov.,) 19416406571,297
Mandated Territory of Western Samoa1st April, 194232,02130,78462,805
      Totals 839,975874,8241,714,799

METHOD OF COMPILATION.—In common with almost all countries, the chief instrument in compiling population data in New Zealand is the census, which in this country in normal times is taken quinquennially. The minutiæ of the distribution of population, together with analyses of various population characteristics, compiled from census data will be found in the official publications compiled after each census.

The basis adopted for the census, and virtually throughout population statistics in New Zealand, is that of the population present, which may be defined as the population present at the place of enumeration at the time of the enumeration.

Intercensal figures of total population are based on the customary equation:— Population = Population (census) + Births and immigration — Deaths and emigration.

The first interruption in the sequence of New Zealand censuses was caused by the abandonment, for reasons of financial stringency resulting from the world-wide economic depression, of the census proclaimed for 21st April, 1931. Owing to the outbreak of war and its subsequent effect on population no census was taken in 1941, the necessary legislative sanction being provided by section 36 of the Finance Act, 1940. The effect of this section is not necessarily to eliminate the 1941 census, as was the case with the census duo in 1931. The section authorizes the census due in 1941 to be taken in any year not earlier than 1941 nor later than 1945.

The comparative shortness of the interval between the census enumerations in normal times, combined with New Zealand's insular position and the completeness of her registration system, prevents serious intercensal errors in statements of the total population of New Zealand.

The distance of the Dominion from other countries, combined with the fact that overseas migration centres in a few ports, facilitates the compilation of accurate statistics of external migration. Records of passenger traffic by sea and air between the North and South Islands are also maintained.

Population figures for war years are exclusive of New Zealand soldiers, &c., overseas and of members of forces of overseas countries who may be in New Zealand. New Zealand troops within the Dominion, whether intended for overseas service or for home defence, are counted in the population totals.

Residents of the Cook Islands, Niue, Western Samoa, and the Tokelau Group are not included in the population statistics quoted throughout this section, except in the first table. Further information will be found in the section entitled “Dependencies.” Separate statistics of the Maori population are given towards the end of this section.

INCREASE OF POPULATION.—The outstanding note of the history of population movement in New Zealand is that of unbroken growth. That it has not been invariably regular is well attested by the accompanying table, and by the long-term comparison shown in a later section of this Year-Rook entitled “Statistical Summary”:—

Date of Census.Population (excluding Maoris).Numerical Increase.Percentage Increase.Average Annual Percentage Increase.

* See letterpress.

NOTE.—The census due to be taken in 1931 was abandoned owing to financial stringency, and the census due in 19·41 has been postponed owing to war conditions.

December, 185126,707   
December, 185859,41332,706122·4812·14
December, 1861*97,90438,49164·7918·26
December, 1864171,00973,10574·6720·74
December, 1867217,43646,42727·158·20
February, 1871254,92837,49217·245·11
March, 1874297,65442,72616·765·29
March, 1878412,465114,81138·578·49
April, 1881487,88975,42418·295·60
March, 1886576,52488,63518·173·41
April, 1891624,45547,9318·311·60
April, 1896701,09476,63912·272·33
March, 1901770,30469,2109·871·91
April, 1906885,995115,69115·022·79
April, 19111,005,585119,59013·502·60
October, 19161,096,22890,6439·011·57
April, 19211,214,677118,44910·812·31
April, 19261,344,469129,79210·692·05
March, 19361,491,484147,01510·931·05

Commencing with the 1926 census all half-caste European-Maoris were included with the Native population in lieu of the previews practice of treating as Europeans such half-castes as were living in European fashion, and as Maoris those half-castes who were living in Native fashion. The figures in the above table have been corrected from 1861 onwards, to accord with the present practice. Lack of data prevents adjustment for years prior to 1861. The increase from 1858 to 1861 is, therefore, very slightly understated.

The “European” population now looks in retrospect down a vista of well over one hundred years. At the opening of the nineteenth century there existed a more or less fluctuating population of perhaps one hundred; by 1839 it had swelled to a total of about a thousand whalers, sealers, traders, missionaries, adventurers, and settlers. Activities of the colonizing companies and societies in the “forties” brought rapid changes and swiftly rising numbers, to be enhanced in the “sixties” by the gold rushes of the period.

The most significant period is possibly that of the “seventies,” marked by a vigorous developmental policy of public works and assisted immigration. The record year 1874, which saw a rise in population of 46,000 (including 32,000 assisted immigrants), was, and still is, the high-water mark of population gains. Both 1874 and 1875 showed a ratio of growth far in advance of any level subsequently attained.

In the late “eighties” and early “nineties” came economic depression and, consequently, comparative stagnation in population. In the four “March” years 1887–88, 1888–89, 1890–91, and 1891–92, and also in 1927–28, emigrants exceeded immigrants, these being the only such occasions in the history of the country, until the depression years, when departures exceeded arrivals in the six “March” years 1931–32 to 1936–37.

Up to the “seventies” New Zealand was dependent on migration for the greater portion of her increase of population, but since then natural increase—i.e., excess of births over deaths—has been the principal factor.

A table is appended showing for each five-yearly period from 1861 the excess of births over deaths and of immigration over emigration. Maoris are not included, nor, prior to 1921, are crews of vessels. Figures for years later than 1920 have not been adjusted consequent upon the censuses. While there thus exist discrepancies with total population increases given elsewhere, such discrepancies do not invalidate the use of the table:—

Period.Excess of Births over Deaths.Excess of Arrivals over Departures.Total Increase.
Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.

* Decrease.

† Members of Armed Forces, &c., are not included in migration figures.

1861–657,6258,98516,61063,28529,88493,16970,91038,869109,779
1866–7015,66317,77933,14211,1679,36920,53626,83027,14853,978
1871–7519,41021,12940,53946,50135,44581,94665,91156,574122,485
1876–8030,14432,80762,95131,87022,91754,78762,01455,724117,738
1881–8532,36235,04667,40815,95813,00128,95918,32048,04796,367
1886–9030,78133,54464,325-4,911*-3,791*-8,702*25,87029,75355,623
1891–9527,25530,63057,8859,9175,40315,32037,17236,03373,205
1896–190028,09731,13759,5347,3203,31810,63835,41734,75570,172
1901–0532,51536,22368,73831,22314,22345,44663,73850,446114,184
1906–1038,68143,06781,74825,45415,51240,96664,13558,579122,714
1911–15†42,32346,68289,00517,65617,90535,56159,97964,587124,566
1916–20†35,24841,35976,6076,9797,87514,85442,22719,23491,461
1921–2541,87644,86886,74426,79523,29450,08968,67168,162136,833
1926–3036,88640,45677,34214,7589,86924,62751,64450,325101,969
1931–3530,71533,23763,952- 5,256*-4,662*-9,918*25,45928,57554,034
1936–40†32,60437,19269,7967,4334,93512,36840,03742,12782,164
1941†9,64610,30819,954—10*2272179,63610,53520,171
Totals, 1861–1941491,831544,7491,036,580306,139204,724510,863797,970749,4731,547,443

Trend of Population.—While the population of New Zealand has been growing, the rate of increase has declined substantially, the lowest point being reached in 1935. The next four years showed steady- improvement until 1939, when the percentage increase recorded was the highest since 1927. Since the outbreak of war, however, the check on migration and the movement of members of the Armed Forces, &c., has introduced abnormal features.

Immigration now contributes relatively small increments to the population; indeed, in the five depression years 1931–35 there was a net exodus from New Zealand of 9,918. With the passing of the depression the net inward flow resumed, but the excess of arrivals for the six years 1936–41 was only 12,585.

In recent years natural increase (excess of births over deaths) reached a critical position. The natural increase rate (per 1,000 of mean population) reached a low point of 7·89 in 1936. It is obvious that this meant that the population was still increasing at a moderate rate, but owing to the time-lag it was less obvious to many that a rate as low as this meant, in the near future, a stationary or, more probably, a declining population. In other words, the population was failing to reproduce itself in sufficient numbers for growth and, probably, even the maintenance of a stationary population.

One method of measuring the status of a population is that of the net reproduction index, which is based on children born and surviving. An index of over unity (in normal conditions) indicates a growing population, while one below unity indicates a declining population. Using the Vital Statistics of 1936 and the New Zealand Life Table of 1934–38, the net reproduction index for 1936 was 0·970, an indication of slight decline. As economic conditions improved there was some improvement in the birth-rate (though accompanied by higher death-rates), and the birth-rate for 1941 (22·81), which is the highest recorded since 1922, is well above the low point (16·17) readied in 1935. The net reproduction index for 1941 was 1·274, compared with 1·195 in 1940. These indexes are not, and cannot be, exact measures, but they do afford close and reliable approximations. In their use it is necessary to remember, inter alia, that the probability of survival of the children born is calculated on the mortality experience of the five years 1934–38.

The foregoing observations necessarily omit any forecast of the trend of external migration; also they do not take into account the Maori section of the population, which is definitely increasing.

SEX PROPORTIONS.—The following table is interesting as showing the early excess of males and the gradual equalization of the sexes in New Zealand. The figures quoted are exclusive of Maoris:—

Census Year.Males.Females.Females to 1,000 Males.
186160,43537,469620
1871149,600105,328704
1881268,553219,336817
1891331,744292,711882
1901404,799365,505903
1911530,433475,152896
1916550,262545,966992
1921621,136593,541956
1926686,384658,085959
1936756,226735,258972

The preponderance of males in the early years of New Zealand was doubtless duo to the fact that the difficulties of pioneering and the remoteness of the country from Europe were such as to deter female immigration to a greater extent than male. This was accentuated by the character of the early industries.

Of the two sources from which the Dominion's population has been recruited— viz., migration and natural increase—the effect of the former has hitherto been to give in the aggregate a considerable preponderance of males, and of the latter to give a regular preponderance of females.

INTERCENSAL RECORDS.—As already noted, the intercensal statements of total Dominion population, prepared from the records of vital statistics and of external migration, have been by virtue of the favourable position of the Dominion in this respect relatively accurate, and the 1936 census results have afforded a further demonstration of this. The same degree of accuracy does not persist, however, for Maori and European elements. Results for the censuses of 1921 and 1926 suggested that numbers of Maori-European children of at least half Maori blood have been counted in birth statistics as Europeans. In consequence, the Maori population had been slightly understated, and the European population overstated to a corresponding degree. The 1936 census results afforded further support to this view. Accordingly the statements of population at intercensal dates, 1921–36, have been revised and the tables following give revised figures. For fuller details of revised statements (including the annual estimates of population of towns, provincial districts, &c.) reference should be made to the 1936–37 edition of the annual Statistical Report on Population and Buildings:—

Year ended 31st March,Population (excluding Maoris) at End of Year.Increase during Year.Mean Population for Year.
Males.Females.Totals.Numerical.Per Cent.
1932739,378713,1011,452,47911,9730·831,445,804
1933743,474719,2231,462,69710,2180·701,455,943
1934747,014724,8281,472,4129,7456·671,466,149
1935751,641729,3731,481,0148,5720·581,475,487
1930756,417735,1431,491,56010,5460·711,484,106
1937762,111740,6261,502,73711,1770·751,495,335
1938769,394748,3181,517,71214,9751·001,508,542
1939779,095757,1691,536,26418,5521·221,523,796
1940781,723768,1981,549,92113,6570·891,543,748
1941765,131778,8511,543,982-5,939-0·381,544,371
1942751,312789,3461,540,658-3,324*-0·22*1,537,734

As population figures for the calendar year are in demand for numerous purposes, figures are given also for years ending 31st December:—

Year ended 31st December,Population (excluding Maoris) at End of Year.Increase during Year.Mean Population for Year.
Males.Females.Totals.Numerical.Per Cent.

* Minus sign (—) signifies a decrease.

1931737,889712,2821,450,17114,0600·981,442,550
1932742,116717,8901,460,0069,8350·681,453,436
1933746,330723,6781,470,00810,0020·691,463,680
1934750,745728,2441,478,9898,9810·611,473,293
1935754,168733,7371,487,9058,9160·601,481,674
1936760,667739,9911,500,65812,7530·861,492,344
1937768,238747,1531,515,39614,7380·981,504,826
1938775,976754,3901,530,36614,9700·991,519,606
1939785,946765,3381,551,33420,9681·371,539,420
1940766,021775,9101,541,931-9,403*-0·61*1,546,312
1941751,919786,2271,538,146-3,785*-0·25*1,538,620

The figures giver, in the two preceding tables show the population exclusive of Maoris. The following table shows the population inclusive of Maoris:—

Population (including Maoris) at End of Year.Mean population for Year.
Males.Females.Totals.
Years ended 31st March.
1932777,369748,1761,525,5451,517,940
1933782,622755,4061,538,0281,530,119
1934787,965762,1601,550,1251,542,651
1935793,221767,7711,560,9921,554,297
1936799,303774,6241,573,9271,565,263
1937806,011781,2001,587,2111,578,757
1938814,456790,0231,604,4791,594,275
1939825,063799,6511,624,7141,611,362
1940828,971811,9301,640,9013,633,447
1941812,421823,8091,636,2301,635,715
1942798,938835,4001,634,3381,630,419
Years ended 30th June.
1932776,736749,1491,525,8851,521,228
1933782,461756,0111,538,4721,533,252
1934787,896762,3001,550,1961,545,628
1935792,566767,7761,560,3421,556,923
1936798,407774,3521,572,7591,568,432
1937805,973781,4201,587,3931,582,244
1938814,678789,8071,604,4851,598,570
1939826,135800,3701,626,5051,616,650
1940821,983814,0841,636,0671,636,680
1941802,716826,3021,629,0181,634,238
1942800,732838,2681,639,0001,631,431
Years ended 31st December.
1931775,648747,1141,522,7621,514,215
1932780,934753,8011,534,7351,527,062
1933786,374760,7501,547,1241,539,590
1934791,997766,3761,558,3731,551,532
1935796,732772,9571,569,6891,562,233
1936804,304780,3131,584,6171,575,231
1937813,104788,6541,601,7581,589,972
1938821,668796,6451,618,3131,606,763
1939832,841808,7981,641,6391,628,512
1940813,028820,6171,633,6451,637,305
1941799,241832,0351,631,2761,630,948

EXTERNAL MIGRATION.—Statistics of external migration have been recorded in New Zealand since 1860. Since 1st April, 1921, they have been compiled from individual statements obtained from each person entering or leaving the Dominion.

Commencing with the year 1933–34, the year ending 31st March has been adopted as a standard for the statistical expression of external migration in place of the calendar year formerly in use. The principal reason for the change was to avoid the partition of a season's migration movement into two statistical years as was inevitable with the calendar year ending in the middle of the summer flow of tourists and immigrants.

Including crews of vessels, 53,995 persons from overseas arrived in New Zealand during the year ended 31st March, 1942, which, compared with 1940–41, shows a decrease of 9,157. During the same period 52,851 persons departed. This figure, compared with the corresponding one for 1940–41, shows a decrease of 9,839.

Wartime restrictions on migration, diversion of ships, and use of passenger-liners as troop-earners and hospital ships have inevitably led to a considerable decrease in the year's migration figures, which have reached their lowest ebb for over eighty years.

In addition to the figures just quoted there were also 4,356 “through” passengers who called at a port of New Zealand en route to their destination.

The excess of total arrivals over total departures for 1941–42 was 1,144, compared with an excess of 462 during 1940–41.

The numbers of arrivals and departures during the last eleven years are given in the table following. Crews of vessels, “through” passengers, tourists on cruising liners, and members of the Armed Forces, &c. (1939–42), have not been taken into account in this table:—

Year ended 31st March,Arrivals.Departures.Excess of Arrivals over Departures.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.

* Excess of departures over arrivals.

19329,6968,19517,89111,8009,26321,063-3,172*
19339,7608,95318,71311,6639,64521,308-2,595*
193410,0459,64219,68711,40110,62122,022-2,335*
193512,65512,24624,90114,08013,97128,051-3,150*
193613,37513,56126,93613,82614,22428,050-1,114*
193716,04115,62931,67015,54716,47632,023-353*
193819,29219,44638,73817,87018,48236,3522,386
193921,56921,07942,64818,21519,47037,6854,963
194015,86815,56431,43213,07012,33425,4046,028
19417,0536,76113,8146,9556,14513,100714
19423,7093,3937,1023,7023,1916,893209

The excess of “crew” arrivals over “crew” departures, neither of which are included above, provided an average annual increment of 180 to the population of New Zealand during the last ten years.

Classes of Arrivals and Departures.—The following table gives an analysis of all classes of passenger arrivals during the last five years, including “through” passengers and tourists on cruising liners:—

1937–38.1933–39.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.

* Includes only cases where persons were definitely stated to be evacuees for the duration of the war. Figures are probably understated.

Immigrants intending permanent residence4,3416,4937,3152,2261,062
Permanent residents returning17,67219,25914,0934,9322,717
Visitors—     
Evacuees from United Kingdom   559*7*
Tourists12,88013,0546,8903,8101,798
Tourists on cruising liners6,6548,708559  
On business1,5531,8051,316897512
Theatrical, entertaining, &c.87273056212045
Others, officials, &c.404328336249120
In transit938906836962840
Not stated787384591
Through passengers12,20413,80111,8855,8584,356
Totals57,59665,15743,87619,67211,458

The succeeding table, which gives an analysis of passenger departures, reveals substantial decreases in 1941–42 for all classes:—

1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
Permanent residents departing—     
Permanently3,9973,8383,1292,8411,605
Temporarily16,38317,54410,2053,6151,765
Not stated588816916721
Temporary residents departing15,91416,21511,9016,4773,502
Tourists on cruising liners6,6548,708559  
Through passengers12,20413,80111,8855,8584,356
Totals55,21060,19437,84818,95811,249

Ages.—The following table gives the age-distribution of immigrants and emigrants for the twelve months ended 31st March, 1942:—

Age, in Years.Permanent Arrivals.Permanent Departures.Excess of Departures over Arrivals.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
0–1412711123814712527234
15–2459136195114184298103
25–3480143223205286491268
35–44809317312013525582
45–5971871588511319840
60 and over36377336498512
Unspecified1123364
Totals4546081,0627108951,605543

ASSISTED IMMIGRATION.—The general scheme of Governmental assistance to immigrants has been restricted in varying degrees since May, 1927. Further details will be found in the 1931 or preceding issues of the Year-Book.

Various systems of assisted immigration have been in force since 1871, with the exception of the period 1892 to 1903 (inclusive).

The numbers of assisted immigrants during each of the last eleven years were as follows:—

Year ended 31st March,—Number.
1932290
193356
19344
19351
1936Nil.
193711
193810
193913
19408
19413
1942Nil.

The total to 31st March, 1942, was 226,274, of which number all came from the United Kingdom, with the exception of 3,909 from the Continent of Europe, spread over the five years 1874 to 1878 (inclusive).

PASSPORTS: Permission to enter New Zealand.—With certain specified exceptions, no person of sixteen years of age or over may land unless in possession of a passport or some other document satisfactorily establishing nationality and identity. Exemption (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Restriction and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Acts) may be granted by the Minister of Internal Affairs.

With certain exceptions, all aliens require a visa.

For persons from the Cook Islands and Western Samoa the only requirement is a permit to visit New Zealand granted by the Resident Commissioner of the Cook Islands or the Administrator of Samoa, as the case may be. The regulations, further, do not apply to a British subject who is the master or a member of the crew of the vessel in which he arrives, or to a British subject arriving from Australia.

Departure from New Zealand.—All persons sixteen years of age or over travelling overseas require a permit from the Minister or Under-Secretary of Internal Affairs.

British subjects travelling between New Zealand and Australia do not require passports, but permits are necessary.

IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION.—Detailed information under this head will be found on pp. 44–45 of the 1942 number of the Year-Book.

NATIONALITY AND NATURALIZATION.—The British Nationality and Status of Aliens (in New Zealand) Act, 1928, which was reserved for Royal assent, came into force on the 1st July, 1929. This Act made important alterations in the naturalization law of New Zealand, and made provision for the adoption of Part II of the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act, 1914 (Imperial). A fairly detailed account of its effects will be found on pp. 92–95 of the 1931 issue of the Year-Book.

The British Nationality and Status of Aliens (in New Zealand) Amendment Act, 1934–35, was assented to on 26th March, 1935. This Act does two things: in the first place, it brings the New Zealand law into conformity with the law of the United Kingdom relative to the nationality of married women (see p. 70 of 1940 Year-Book). In the second place, a woman who has lost her British nationality by reason of her marriage to an alien has the right, while she remains in New Zealand, to claim the same privileges as if she had remained a British subject. The legislation does not seek to alter the fact that such a woman has in law ceased to be a British subject; it merely says that upon making the prescribed declaration she is, while she remains in New Zealand, entitled to all the rights and privileges and is subject to all the duties and obligations of a natural-born British subject.

During 1941, 31 women took advantage of section 3 of the Act and made the necessary declaration. The nationalities of the husbands were as follows: Austrian 6; Norwegian, 5; Polish and Yugoslav, 3 each; Danish, Dutch, German, Swiss and Czechoslovak, 2 each; Belgian, Italian, Lithuanian, and Bulgarian, 1 each.

During the year 1941 a certificate of naturalization in New Zealand was granted to a person born in the United States of America; this is the only certificate granted since May, 1940.

There were also 2 cases in which declarations were made by wives of naturalized British subjects who desired to acquire British nationality.

One person, who at birth came under the law of the United States of America, made declaration renouncing his nationality as a British subject, i.e., declaration of alienage.

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION: North and South Islands.—In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, but this position was reversed at the succeeding enumeration and retained until 1901. In that year the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total and since then has steadily increased its lead. The Maori War which broke out in 1860 retarded settlement in the North, while a large area of land reserved for the Maoris was for many years a serious hindrance to the development, by Europeans, of this portion of the Dominion. The South Island was practically free from Maori troubles, and settlement was more rapid, though much of the land was disposed of in large areas. The discovery of gold in Otago in 1861 and on the West Coast in 1864 attracted to these localities considerable numbers of miners.

Census Year.Population (excluding Maoris).Proportions per Cent.
North Island.South Island.Totals.North Island.South Island.

* Includes Maori half-castes living as Europeans.

1881191,534296,355487,88939·2660·74
1886248,909327,615576,52443·1756·83
1891279,642344,813624,45544·7855·22
1896338,739362,355701,09448·3251·68
1901388,626381,678770,30450·4549·55
1906474,605411,390885,99553·5746·43
1911561,281444,3041,005,58555·8244·18
1916648,439447,7891,096,22859·1540·85
1921741,255*477,658*1,218,913*60–8139·19
1926831,813512,6561,344,46961·8738·13
1936938,939552,5451,491,48462·9537·05

The natural increase of European population (i.e., excess of births over deaths) for the South Island during the 1920–36 intercensal period was 47,181, but the total net increase was only 39,889. For the North Island the natural increase was 92,130, and the total net increase 107,126. Allowing for the fortuitous presence in the South Island in 1926 of 2,000 or 3,000 North Island residents visiting the Dunedin Exhibition the margin is reduced, but the existence of a northward drift of population is still evident.

Internal Migration.—Particulars of passenger movement between the North and South Islands are available and are of use in the compilation of population statements. During the year ended 31st March, 1942, the North Island showed a gain of 10,776 from the South Island.

Provincial Districts.—The approximate areas and the populations, inclusive of Maoris, of the various provincial districts are as follows:—

Provincial District.Area (Square Miles).Census Population.Estimated Population as at 1st April, 1941.
1901.1921.1926.1936.

* Including 196 Maori wives of Europeans, provincial district not specified.

Auckland25,400204,899406,899469,458546,970582,513
Hawke's Bay4,26039,60465,08070,35376,96879,100
Taranaki3,75040,46565,24471,84877,65279,600
Wellington10,870146,326254,695281,020316,446336,700
Marlborough4,22013,74618,28918,79319,14920,200
Nelson10,87038,06747,73450,87859,48158,100
Westland4,88014,56614,25315,26015,67618,800
Canterbury13,940144,195199,969215,079234,399239,417
Otago—      
  Otago portion14,050125,782137,062149,921151,213149,300
  Southland portion11,17048,01662,43965,52972,85672,500
    Totals103,410815,862*1,271,6641,408,1391,573,8101,636,230

The foregoing table illustrates the wide disparities in the size of the provincial districts, whether measured by area or by population. The growth of population during the interval between 1926 and 1936 is given below both in absolute numbers and as a percentage of the 1926 totals. The figures include Maoris:—

 Numbers.Per Cent.
Auckland77,51216·51
Hawke's Bay6,6159·40
Taranaki5,8048·08
Wellington35,42612·61
Marlborough3561·89
Nelson8,60316·91
Westland3,41622·39
Canterbury19,3208·98
Otago—  
  Otago1,2920·86
  Southland7,32711·18
    Dominion165,67111·77

Urban and Rural Population.—On 24th March, 1936, somewhat over one-third (38·5 per cent.) of the population of the Dominion (excluding Maoris) was included in the four principal urban areas—Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin— and over one-half (51·7 per cent.) in these or in the ten secondary urban areas. In the following table urban population means the population in cities and boroughs, while rural population covers counties, all town districts, and extra-county islands. The continuance of urban drift is noticeable, but with a marked slackening in pace:—

Census.Population.Per Cent.
Rural.Urban.Migratory.Rural.Urban.Migratory.

* Figures exclude military and internment camps.

Excluding Maoris—      
  1881292,036194,9812,91659·6139·800·59
  1886328,144245,6124,72656·7242·460·82
  1891352,991270,3433,30553·3343·140·53
  1896392,678397,2943,38155·43·690·48
  1901418,746350,2023,76354·1945·320·49
  1906459,492424,6144,46751·7147·790·50
  1911497,858505,5985,00849·3750·130·50
  1916*501,956585,3063,46346·0253·660·32
  1921531,694681,9885,23143·6255·950·43
  1926552,344785,0407,08541·0858·390·53
  1936602,519884,2934,67240·4059·290·31
Including Maoris—      
  1926610,446790,5557,13843·3556·140·51
  1936677,087892,0244,69943·0256·680·30

Another conception of urban and rural population is presented in the next table, which covers the last seven censuses. Maoris are omitted, as data are not available over the whole period. The great bulk of Maoris inhabit rural communities. In the case of the larger centres there are numerous suburban boroughs and town districts; consequently, as regards the fourteen urban areas the centre has been taken as including all cities, boroughs, and town districts within the territory of the present urban area. In other instances the “centre” is a borough or town district:—

Centres of1901.1906.1911.1916.1921.1926.1936.
Population.
1,000–2,49941,81447,00254,89565,70680,12084,79282,516
2,500–4,99933,47831,98237,19246,15956,48749,59451,779
5,000–9,99936,83450,45051,32644,83823,30632,07348,292
10,000–24,99910,63733,00562,71582,770128,984155,105172,885
25,000 and over214,098254,138302,943349,271401,710472,603531,588
  Totals, urban336,861416,577509,071588,744690,607794,167887,060
Rural432,095467,529494,389498,518523,075543,217599,752
  Grand totals (excluding migratory)768,956884,1061,003,4601,087,2621,213,6821,337,3841,486,812
Per Cent.
1,000–2,4995·445·325·476·046·606·345·55
2,500–4,9994·353·623·714·254·653·713·48
5,000–9,9994·795·715·114·131·922·403·25
10,000·24,9991·383·736·257·6110·6311·6011·63
25,000 and over27·8528·7430·1932·1233·1035·3335·75
  Totals, urban43·8147·1250·7354·1556·9059·3859·66
Rural56·1952·8849·2745·8543·1040·6240·34
  Grand totals (excluding migratory)100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00

The comparison is not an exact one, but is sufficiently accurate to indicate the general trend of urbanization. For instance, it is noticeable that in 1901 29 per cent. of the population were in towns of 10,000 population or over; by 1936 the proportion had become 47 per cent.

An important characteristic of the distribution of urban population in Now Zealand is what may be termed its decentralization. In place of one great metropolis containing a huge proportion of the population, as in the case of the Australian States—e.g., Victoria, whose capital city (Melbourne) contains 55 per cent. of the total population of the State—the more highly urbanized portion of the community is localized in four widely separated centres. These four centres have always existed more or less on the same plane, a fact which has played no small part in the development of the country. An interesting feature is the -wide gap which has long existed between the four major centres and the next largest towns.

Urban and rural communities are not evenly distributed. The South Island, for example, contains proportionately more rural population than does the North Island.

RECENT MOVEMENTS IN TOWNS.—Urban areas afford the best basis of comparison of population-growth in the case of the largest towns, since their boundaries are stable and, of greater significance, they include the suburbs as well as the central city or borough. The following table excludes Maoris—data being lacking in earlier years—but their numbers are too small to exercise any significant effect:—

Urban Area.1911.1916.1921.1926.1936.
Auckland115,750133,712157,757192,223210,393
Wellington82,80095,235107,488121,527149,382
Christchurch87,40092,733105,670118,501132,282
Dunedin67,20068,71672,25585,09581,848
Hamilton5,7008,98013,79816,53819,373
Gisborne10,70012,66014,45014,78915,521
Napier13,00015,13117,18718,06618,443
Hastings8,75011,01812,99014,46017,715
New Plymouth8,6009,79512,64515,93118,194
Wanganui16,25019,51723,52326,12025,312
Palmerston North11,90014,00616,88519,70923,953
Nelson8,8759,96210,63211,75213,545
Timaru12,47513,71615,50716,82218,805
Invercargill15,70017,86219,21021,84925,682

POPULATION ESTIMATES.—It has been the practice, in years in which a census is not taken, to compile estimates of population for provincial districts, urban areas, counties, cities, boroughs, and town districts, these relating to 1st April. Owing to various factors arising out of the war, it has now been found impossible to compile accurate estimates, and authority has been granted, by the Population Estimates Emergency Regulations 1942, to discontinue these until after the next census.

The latest estimates, which relate to 1st April, 1941, are now given, and these have been adjusted to 1st April, 1942, where necessary, for any alterations to population and area in cases where boundaries have been changed.

Urban Areas.—The population of each of the fourteen urban areas (cities or boroughs, plus their suburbs), as estimated for 1st April, 1941, was as follows:—

Urban Areas.—Estimated Population (including Maoris), 1st April, 1941.

Urban Area.Population (including Maoris).

* Excludes a small area which, though part of the borough, is not within the urban area.

Auckland. 
Auckland City106,800
  Birkenhead Borough3,450
  Northcote Borough2,380
  Takapuna Borough7,610
  Devonport Borough9,900
  New Lynn Borough3,670
  Mount Albert Borough20,900
  Mount Eden Borough19,200
  Newmarket Borough2,970
  Ellerslie Borough2,770
  One Tree Hill Borough8,920
  Onehunga Borough11,500
  Otahuhu Borough6,020
  Remainder of urban area17,610
      Total223,700
Wellington. 
Wellington City120,700
  Lower Hutt City22,600
  Petone Borough11,050
  Eastbourne Borough2,370
  Johnsonville Town District1,980
  Remainder of urban area1,800
      Total160,500
Christchurch. 
Christchurch City100,310
  Riccarton Borough5,870
  Sumner Borough3,290
  Lyttelton Borough*3,060
  Remainder of urban area22,970
      Total135,500
Dunedin. 
Dunedin City65,200
  Port Chalmers Borough2,020
  West Harbour Borough1,780
  St. Kilda Borough7,650
  Green Island Borough*2,330
  Remainder of urban area3,220
      Total82,200
Hamilton. 
Hamilton Borough17,950
  Remainder of urban area2,950
      Total20,900
Gisborne. 
Gisborne Borough13,900
  Remainder of urban area2,300
      Total16,200
Napier. 
Napier Borough16,650
  Taradale Town District1,510
  Remainder of urban area1,240
      Total19,400
Hastings. 
Hastings Borough13,650
  Havelock North Town District1,210
  Remainder of urban area4,140
      Total19,000
New Plymouth. 
New Plymouth Borough17,550
  Remainder of urban area1,850
      Total19,400
Wanganui. 
Wanganui City23,400
  Remainder of urban area2,600
      Total26,000
Palmerston North. 
Palmerston North City23,600
  Remainder of urban area1,900
      Total25,500
Nelson. 
Nelson City11,400
  Tahunanui Town District890
  Remainder of urban area1,510
      Total13,800
Timaru. 
Timaru Borough17,800
  Remainder of urban area1,400
      Total19,200
Invercargill. 
Invercargill City22,600
  South Invercargill Borough1,600
  Remainder of urban area2,640
      Total26,400

Counties.—Estimated Population (including Maoris) and Area, 1st April, 1941.

(NOTE.—"Administrative Counties" do not include boroughs or town districts independent of county control, but include dependent town districts.)

Administrative County.Population (including Maoris).Approximate Area, in Square Miles.
North Island—  
  Mangonui8,540960
  Whangaroa2,690240
  Hokianga9,220613
  Bay of Islands10,740820
  Whangarei11,9601,046
  Hobson6,720746
  Otamatea5,350421
  Rodney5,110477
  Waitemata14,450607
  Eden12,10014
  Great Barrier Island410110
  Manukau10,300240
  Franklin14,340551
  Raglan10,550936
  Waikato13,020648
  Waipa12,910435
  Otorohanga5,770600
  Kawhia2,360330
  Waitomo7,9501,137
  Taumarunui3,810878
  Coromandel2,680439
  Thames2,840419
  Hauraki Plains5,010233
  Ohinemuri3,440237
  Piako10,700444
  Matamata9,880930
  Tauranga10,250609
  Rotorua6,090989
  Taupo4,2303,272
  Whakatane10,8001,677
  Opotiki4,9001,537
  Matakaoa1,990295
  Waiapu6,830793
  Uawa1,800256
  Waikohu3,320947
  Cook7,910791
  Wairoa7,7501,373
  Hawke's Bay15,2501,673
  Waipawa3,530524
  Waipukurau1,000121
  Patangata2,700658
  Dannevirke4,860426
  Woodville1,910156
  Weber340118
  Ohura2,160416
  Whangamomona1,260447
  Clifton2,870444
  Taranaki6,480229
  Inglewood3,360187
  Egmont4,660239
  Stratford5,310419
  Eltham3,570207
  Waimate West2,77083
  Hawera5,880191
  Patea3,930591
  Kaitieke3,300550
  Waimarino3,130883
  Waitotara3,700468
  Wanganui3,790460
  Rangitikei9,4901,675
  Kiwitea2,410359
  Pohangina1,360259
  Oroua3,920190
  Manawatu5,560265
  Kairanga5,420184
  Horowhenua7,570544
  Hutt7,810459
  Makara4,600117
  Pahiatua2,830288
  Akitio1,150321
  Castlepoint610203
  Eketahuna2,010311
  Mauriceville760115
  Masterton3,390586
  Wairarapa South2,950440
  Featherston3,940953
      Totals420,26043,809
South Island—  
  Sounds1,030505
  Marlborough7,5501,920
  Awatere1,5101,019
  Kaikoura2,870929
  Amuri2,4002,256
  Cheviot1,370327
  Waimea11,9501,539
  Takaka1,990456
  Collingwood1,480562
  Buller6,2601,950
  Murchison1,7601,412
  Inangahua3,840949
  Grey5,6401,579
  Westland5,5004,410
  Waipara2,640937
  Kowai2,020157
  Ashley750309
  Rangiora3,25096
  Eyre1,840175
  Oxford1,640318
  Tawera840941
  Malvern2,990250
  Paparua5,730136
  Waimairi14,70048
  Heathcote5,49020
  Halswell2,07040
  Mount Herbert44066
  Akaroa1,600169
  Chatham Islands700372
  Wairewa990170
  Springs1,79091
  Ellesmere3,220230
  Selwyn1,510954
  Ashburton11,5002,459
  Geraldine5,850690
  Levels4,900263
  Mackenzie3,0502,739
  Waimate7,0401,383
  Waitaki9,9302,392
  Waihemo1,220338
  Waikouaiti4,460312
  Peninsula2,80040
  Taieri5,850903
  Bruce4,210520
  Clutha7,130990
  Tuapeka4,7201,388
  Maniototo2,8501,340
  Vincent4,5202,922
  Lake2,2203,872
  Southland25,9103,736
  Wallace9,8603,727
  Fiord203,035
  Stewart Island490670
      Totals227,89059,011
      Grand totals648,150102,820

Boroughs.—Estimated Population (including Maoris) and Area, 1st April, 1941.

Borough.Population (including Maoris).Approximate Area, in Acres.
North Island—  
  Whangarei7,6003,354
  Dargaville2,2802,800
  Birkenhead3,4503,084
  Northcote2,3801,190
  Takapuna7,6102,780
  Devonport9,9001,100
  New Lynn3,6701,392
  Auckland (City)106,80018,253
  Mount Albert20,9002,430
  Mount Eden19,2001,476
  Newmarket2,970182
  Ellerslie2,770745
  One Tree Hill8,9202,430
  Onehunga11,5001,876
  Otahuhu6,0201,345
  Manurewa1,5601,960
  Papakura1,9202,010
  Pukekohe2,6903,470
  Huntly2,090801
  Ngaruawahia1,4701,112
  Hamilton17,9503,740
  Cambridge2,3301,280
  Te Awamutu2,5701,162
  Te Kuiti2,6201,668
  Taumarunui2,7601,925
  Thames4,2202,712
  Paeroa2,2601,419
  Waihi3,9704,094
  Te Aroha2,4502,783
  Morrinsville2,000950
  Matamata1,480934
  Tauranga3,910998
  Te Puke1,0201,047
  Rotorua6,5403,288
  Whakatane2,1601,524
  Opotiki1,510772
  Gisborne13,9003,378
  Wairoa2,6301,603
  Napier16,6502,178
  Hastings13,6502,612
  Waipawa1,1401,710
  Waipukurau2,1101,040
  Dannevirke4,4001,300
  Woodville1,0501,054
  Waitara2,0601,587
  New Plymouth17,5504,132
  Inglewood1,270703
  Opunake1,090676
  Stratford3,9002,016
  Eltham1,8801,599
  Hawera4,790897
  Patea1,4801,420
  Ohakune1,3902,079
  Raetihi1,180958
  Wanganui (City)23,4005,726
  Taihape2,2101,923
  Marton2,8301,415
  Feilding4,7202,031
  Foxton1,510757
  Palmerston N. (City)23,6004,851
  Shannon920844
  Levin2,8201,332
  Otaki1,8201,390
  Upper Hutt4,3902,165
  Lower Hutt (City)22,6005,460
  Petone11,0501,132
  Eastbourne2,3701,546
  Wellington (City)120,70016,289
  Pahiatua1,740720
  Eketahuna730948
  Masterton9,4803,002
  Carterton1,9401,265
  Greytown1,1801,927
  Featherston1,040759
  Martinborough9401,070
      Totals619,560171,580
South Island—  
  Picton1,3901,052
  Blenheim5,2001,640
  Nelson (City)11,4004,966
  Richmond1,1302,600
  Motueka1,7302,523
  Westport4,240760
  Runanga1,6701,186
  Greymouth8,4602,522
  Brunner9805,700
  Kumara420842
  Hokitika2,730674
  Ross4204,196
  Rangiora2,240877
  Kaiapoi1,610877
  Riccarton5,870728
  Christchurch (City)100,31012,218
  Sumner3,2903,797
  Lyttelton3,1102,540
  Akaroa460233
  Ashburton7,1301,830
  Geraldine930566
  Temuka1,900795
  Timaru17,8002,780
  Waimate2,300715
  Oamaru7,6101,384
  Hampden280630
  Palmerston780900
  Waikouaiti5801,958
  Port Chalmers2,020500
  West Harbour1,7802,020
  Dunedin (City)65,20015,227
  St. Kilda7,650462
  Green Island2,340875
  Mosgiel2,150965
  Milton1,370315
  Kaitangata1,2801,280
  Balclutha1,690639
  Tapanui290129
  Lawrence630615
  Roxburgh450515
  Naseby200112
  Alexandra870815
  Cromwell730806
  Arrowtown230457
  Queenstown920270
  Gore4,7201,940
  Mataura1,5301,272
  Winton880505
  Invercargill (City)22,6005,914
  South Invercargill1,1602,257
  Bluff2,0602,111
  Riverton900718
      Totals319,620102,208
      Grand totals939,180273,788

Town Districts.—Estimated Population (including Maoris) and Area, 1st April, 1941.

Town District.Population (Including Maoris).Approximate Area, in Acres.

* Parent, county shown in parentheses.

(a) Town Districts not forming Parts of Counties.
North Island—  
  Kaitaia8601,123
  Kaikohe7601,167
  Hikurangi1,000960
  Kamo460852
  Warkworth6401,420
  Helensville9401,300
  Henderson1,2001,265
  Glen Eden1,3301,267
  Howick9301,091
  Papatoetoe2,6401,267
  Waiuku8801,275
  Tuakau7201,265
  Leamington5301,330
  Otorohanga780314
  Manunui7701,251
  Putaruru840975
  Mount Maunganui690935
  Taradale1,5101,469
  Havelock North1,210835
  Ohura460815
  Manaia610510
  Waverley680484
  Mangaweka380955
  Hunterville570791
  Bulls510677
  Johnsonville1,980842
      Totals23,88026,435
South Island—  
  Tahunanui890520
  Leeston550391
  Tinwald6701,525
  Pleasant Point540730
  Wyndham530680
  Lumsden5101,264
  Nightcaps590285
  Otautau580954
      Totals4,8606,349
      Grand totals28,74032,784
(b) Town Districts forming Parts of Counties.*
North Island—  
  Kohukohu (Hoki-anga)3601,020
  Rawene (Hokianga)330280
  Russell (Bay of Islands)3601,066
  Kawakawa (Bay of Islands)530280
  Onerahi (Whanga-rei)410990
  Mercer (Franklin)2901,000
  Te Kauwhata (Wai-kato)3701,290
  Ohaupo (Waipa)2701,283
  Kihikihi (Waipa)340523
  Kawhia (Kawhia)240470
  Te Karaka (Wai-koku)350700
  Patutahi (Cook)2701,275
  Ormondville (Dannevirke)2601,255
  Kaponga (Eltham)400558
  Normanby (Hawera)350260
      Totals5,13012,250
South Island—  
  Havelock (Marlborough)250210
  Takaka (Takaka)460585
  Southbridge (Elles-mere)390531
  Outram (Taieri)370886
  Clinton (Clutha)420930
  Edendale (Southland)410696
      Totals2,3003,838
      Grand totals7,43016,088

AGE DISTRIBUTION.—The following table shows the estimated age distribution of the population at 1st April, 1942. The figures are based on the 1936 Census data and brought up to date from statistics of births, ages of persons dying, and ages of persons arriving in or departing from New Zealand:—

Age-group.Excluding Maoris. Maoris.Maoris.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
Under 574,51271,646146,1588,9768,42917,405
5–959,50057,100116,6006,6756,57513,250
10–1465,60062,600128,2006,4506,30012,750
15–1968,30066,000134,3005,2254,97510,200
20–2446,00065,100111,1003,1253,8256,950
25–2950,40065,700116,1003,2253,6506,875
30–3455,80062,300118,1003,0752,9756,050
35–3952,80055,400108,2002,2252,1004,325
40–4449,10051,000100,1002,0751,8253,900
45–4943,40047,40090,8001,6751,4003,075
50–5443,80045,40089,2001,4251,0502,475
55–5943,50042,20085,7001,1258752,000
60–6437,70035,80073,5008506251,475
65–6926,90026,20053,1005755751,150
70–7417,90018,00035,900500450950
75–799,50010,30019,800275275550
80 and over6,6007,20013,800150150300
  Total under 14186,100178,600364,70020,90015,00035,900
  Total under 16213,300204,400417,70023,20022,40045,600
  Total under 21281,100271,100552,20028,20027,10055,300
  Totals 21 and over470,212518,246988,45819,42618,95438,380
  Grand total751,312789,3461,540,65847,62646,05493,680

DENSITY OF POPULATION.—The total area of the Dominion of New Zealand is approximately 103,935 square miles. Omitting the annexed islands and certain uninhabited outlying islands, the area of the land-mass remaining is 103,416 square miles. This calculation, it should be explained, includes all inland waters—viz., lakes, rivers, harbours, estuaries, &c. It should be noted also that there is a great deal of high mountainous country in New Zealand, particularly in the South Island, while there are also great areas of broken, swampy, or hilly country which is either incapable of effective use or which can be used profitably only for pastoral purposes, afforestation, or the like.

Using the latter figure as a base, the density of population in 1942 may be quoted as 15·80 persons to the square mile.

The area and population of individual towns and counties will be found in preceding tables in this section. At the 1936 census density of population in the various provincial districts was:—

 Persons per Square Mile.
Auckland21·53
Hawke's Bay18·07
Taranaki20·71
Wellington29·11
Marlborough4·54
Nelson5·47
Westland3·83
Canterbury16·81
Otago—Otago10·76
Southland6·52

Attention must be drawn to the necessity for the exercise of discretion in the use of data concerning density of population, particularly in comparing one country with another. Areas may be calculated in many ways, while area itself may have little relationship to potentiality of use. In the case of urban population, it is impossible to obtain the aggregate area of sites actually in occupation by business premises, residences, &o. Many boroughs contain within their boundaries large reserves which, with farming and other unbuilt-on land, tend to disguise the actual relation of population to area.

MAORI POPULATION.—A record of early statistics of Maoris is given in Vol. III of the 1936 Census Results. The first official general census was taken in 1857–58, and others occurred in regular sequence from 1874 onwards. Owing to inherent difficulties the earlier census records make no pretence towards complete accuracy, and even some later enumerations hardly claim to be more than approximations.

Available statistical evidence points to a decline in the numbers of the Native race following the advent of Europeans, but this decline was commonly exaggerated by-early writers. Of later years an unmistakable increase has been noted. This gain, however, has been, accompanied by a very considerable dilution of blood.

The Maori population recorded at the census of 24th March, 1936, was 82,326, which is an increase of 18,656 on the 1926 total. The percentage increase was 29·30, equivalent to an average annual increase of 2·60 per cent. These percentages, it will be noted, are considerably higher than the corresponding figures for the non-Maori population—viz., 10·93 per cent. and 1·05 per cent. For the year 1941–42 the net increase of the Maori population was 1,432, or 1·55 per cent., as compared with a decrease of 0·21 per cent. for the non-Maori population. The Maori population was affected during the year by departures of troops, but it may be noted that the birth-rate of Maoris for the year 1941–42 was 43·67, compared with the rate of 22·91 recorded for the non-Maori portion of the population.

The Census record of Maori population is as follows:—

Year.No.
1857–5856,049
187447,330
187845,542
188146,141
188643,927
189144,177
189642,113
190145,549
190650,309
191152,723
191652,997
192156,987
192663,670
193682,326

Of the 93,680 Maoris at the 1st April, 1942, 90,258 were in the North Island. Auckland Provincial District contains the bulk of the Maoris, particularly in the Auckland Peninsula and Poverty Bay regions. In the South Island Maoris do not attain any numerical significance.

The records of the 1926 and 1936 censuses permit of a statement of the total numbers wholly or partly of Maori blood.

Counted in the Maori population—

 1926.1936.
Full Maori45,42955,915
Maori-Europeans—  
Three-quarter caste6,63211,397
Half-caste11,30614,891
Degree not specified303123
      Totals63,67082,326

Counted in the non-Maori population—

 1926.1936.
Maori-European quarter-caste.6,05311,508
Maori-Polynesian39102
Maori-Japanese99
Maori-Chinese 38
Maori-Indian941
Maori-Syrian 26
Maori-American Indian 3
Cook Island Maori 103
      Totals6,11011,830

In 1936 there were recorded in New Zealand some 94,156 persons wholly or partly of Maori origin. Of these, some 59 per cent. were recorded as of unmixed Maori descent. There is some reason to believe that the degree of miscegenation is understated, and it is unlikely that the proportion of pure Maori descent is more than 45 per cent. to 50 per cent.

Chapter 4. SECTION 4.—VITAL STATISTICS.

SUBSECTION A.—BIRTHS.

REGISTRATION.—Registration of births in New Zealand dates from 1848, consequent upon the passing, in 1847, of a Registration Ordinance which made provision for a record of births and deaths being kept by the State. Under this Ordinance many registrations were effected, some of births as far back as 1840. Compulsory registration did not, however, come into force until 1855. Registration of still-births, previously not provided for, was made compulsory from the 1st March, 1913.

The law as to registration of births is now embodied in the Births and Deaths Registration Act, 1924, a consolidation of the then existing legislation. The provisions generally as to registration are that a birth may be registered within sixty-two days without fee. After sixty-two days and within six months a birth is registrable only after a statutory declaration, of the particulars required to be registered, has been made before the Registrar by the parent or some person present at birth and on payment of a fee of 5s. When six months have elapsed, and a conviction for neglect to register has been entered against the persons responsible, a birth may be registered with a Registrar of Births within one month after conviction, and in this case no fee is payable. An information for such neglect must be laid within two years of date of birth.

Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions, power is given by the Act of 1924 for the Registrar-General to register an unregistered birth which occurred in New Zealand, irrespective of the time that may have elapsed. Satisfactory evidence on oath, and such other proof as the Registrar-General may deem necessary are required, together with the payment of a fee of 5s. This provision does not, however, relieve any person from liability to prosecution for failure to register in the proper manner.

Although sixty-two days are allowed for the registration of a birth, it is compulsory to notify the birth to the Registrar within a much shorter interval— viz., forty-eight hours if in a city or borough and twenty-one days in every other case.

Particulars now required to be registered are: Date and place of birth; name and sex of child; names, ages, and birthplaces of parents; occupation of father; maiden name of mother; date and place of parents' marriage; and ages and sex of previous issue (distinguishing living and dead) of the marriage. The lather of an illegitimate child is not required to give information or to be registered.* A child born out of New Zealand but arriving before attaining the age of eighteen months may be registered within six months of arrival.

Birth statistics are compiled from the records of the Registrar-General. The births covered by a year's statistics are those registered during the year irrespective of the year of birth. The figures do not include still-births, except in the special classification on page 39.

Registration of Maori Births.—In the successive Registration Acts special provision was made for exemption from the necessity of registration in the case of births and deaths of Maoris, though registration could be effected if desired. Section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1912 (now section 60 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act, 1924), empowered the making of regulations to provide for the registration of births and deaths of Maoris. Regulations were made accordingly, and Maori births and deaths became registrable as from the 1st March, 1913. The number of Registrars of Maori Births and Deaths in the Dominion is over 250, most of these being in the North Island, where the great majority of the Maori population is located. Every Native settlement of any size is within easy reach of one of these Registrars. Maori registrations are entered in a separate register, and the figures of births given in the following pages do not include those of Maoris, which are dealt with at the end of this subsection.

NUMBERS AND RATES.—The numbers and rates of births (children born alive) for each of the last twenty years were as follows:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Population.
192229,00623·18
192327,96721·96
192428,01421·60
192528,15321·20
192628,47321·06
192727,88120·29
192827,20019·57
192926,74719·03
193026,79718·83
193126,62218·45
193224,88417·12
193324,33416·63
193424,32216·51
193523,96516·17
193024,83716·64
193726,01417·29
193827,24917·93
193928,83318·73
194032,77121·19
194135,10022·81

The year 1936 witnessed the first yearly increase in the number of births since 1930, and also an actual increase in the birth-rate after a continuous downward movement during the previous fifteen years. A further improvement has occurred in each year since 1936, and in 1941 the number of births registered reached a total substantially in excess of that recorded in any other year in the history of the Dominion. The 1941 total exceeded that for 1940 by a little over 2,300, or 7 per cent. The birth-rate has also steadily increased since 1936, and the figure for 1941 is the highest attained since 1922.

* But see p. 38.

The reversal of the trend of the birth-rate in the last few years would appear to be a logical one in view of the substantial and continued rise in the number of marriages celebrated, a factor probably accentuated in 1940 and 1941 by the military situation.

Comparisons of birth-rates over a series of years or between different countries are usually made on the basis of the “crude” rates—i.e., the number of births per 1,000 of the mean population, irrespective of sex or age.

The “crude” rates do not permit of allowance being made for variations in the proportion of women of the child-bearing ages, and it is advisable and of interest to supplement the table of “crude” rates with a computation of the legitimate birth-rate per 1,000 married women between 15 and 45 years of age, or the total birth-rate per 1,000 of all women of these ages. The following table gives both rates for New Zealand in each census year from 1878 to 1936:—

Year.Number of Women 15 and under 45.Number of Births.Birth-rate per 1,000 Women 15 and under 45.
Married.Total.Legitimate.Total.Legitimate.*Total.

* Per thousand married women.

187850,99980,31317,34117,770340·0221·3
188157,46196,14418,19818,732315·0194·8
188662,709117,89518,69719,299298·2163·7
189163,172131,27117,63518,273279·2139·2
189669,816158,21417,77818,612254·6117·6
190179,420183,38719,55420,491246·2111·7
190698,249212,59823,12024,252235·3114·1
1911119,390240,71425,27626,354211·7109·5
1916141,322267,30027,36328,509193·6106·7
1921150,400288,47727,30928,567181·699·0
1926161,739313,36327,00028,473166·990·9
1936173,557344,12423,71124,818136·672·1

The legitimate rate per 1,000 married women between the ages of 15 and 45 is seen to have fallen by 60 per cent. between 1878 and 1936, while an even greater fall is shown for the total rate on the basis of all women of the ages mentioned. The greater fail in the latter rate than in the former is due to the fact that among women of the child-bearing ages the proportion of married women is considerably smaller nowadays than in the earlier years covered.

A greater proportion of women formerly married at younger ages than is the ease at present, and a study of the figures for successive censuses reveals considerable changes in the age-constitution of married women within the child-bearing ages. As the birth-rate varies with age, the change in age-constitution over the period is a factor which should be taken into account.

NATURAL INCREASE.—The decline of the birth-rate in New Zealand has been accompanied until recent years by a decrease in the death-rate. Nevertheless, the nominal rate of natural increase of population has fallen from 31·19 per 1,000 of mean population in 1870 to 12·97 in 1941. Acceptance of this figure without consideration of the effect of the changing age-constitution will give an erroneous view of the present margin of increase and of the probable trend of population growth in the future (see section on Population).

Period.Annual Rates per 1,000 Population
Births.Deaths.Natural Increase.
1871–187539·8812·6727·21
1876·188041·2111·8029·41
1881–188536·3610·9525·41
1886–189031·159·8521·30
1891–189527·6810·1517·53
1896–190025·759·5516·20
1901–190526·609·9116·69
1900–191027·069·7517·31
1911–191525·989·2216·76
1916–192024·3210·7313·59
1921–192522·228·6213·60
1926–193019·768·6011·16
1931–193516·988·238·75
1936–194018·369·209·16
194122·819·8412·97

SEXES OF CHILDREN BORN.—With the exception of one year (1860), there has always been a preponderance of males in the number of children born in New Zealand. The proportions are usually shown by stating the number of births of male children to every 1,000 female births. This number has been as high as 1,113 (in 1859), and as low as 991 (in 1860), but little significance can be attached to any figures prior to 1870, on account of the comparatively small number of births. The period preceding 1870 exhibits violent fluctuations in the proportion of males, which tend to disappear as the total of births grows larger. The extreme range since 1870 has been from 1,016 male per 1,000 female births in 1878 to 1,081 in 1923.

Year.Number of Births ofMule Births per 1,000 Female Births.
Males.Females.
193113,76612,8561,071
193212,82412,0601,063
193312,41911,9151,042
193412,55411,7681,067
193512,31611,6491,057
193612,60812,2291,031
193713,24512,7691,037
193813,92913,3201,046
193914,70514,1281,041
194016,81715,9541,054
194118,00317,0971,053

The trend towards a gradual increase in the proportion of males among children born in New Zealand was interrupted during the latter part of the war of 1914–18, when the proportion of first births to total births was abnormally low. From then on with the rising first-birth rate, a high masculinity incidence persisted until the period 1936–41. During this latter period, in spite of an abnormally high and rapidly increasing first-birth rate, the proportion of male to female births experienced a decided fall. The masculinity rate from 1856 to 1941 is expressed in the following table in average ratios for successive decennial periods:—

Period.Male Births per 1,000 Female Births.
1856–18651,062
1866–18751,043
1876–18851,045
1886–18951,045
1896–19051,054
1906–19151,055
1916–19251,053
1926–19351,057
1936–1941 (six years)1,044

Further information as to the proportions of sexes of children may be obtained from some figures extracted from the records of births registered in the ten years 1932–41 in cases where the child was shown to be the fourth-born of a family in which the three previously born children were still living. In the following statement showing the sex-nativity order up to the fourth child, families in which plural births occurred among the first four children have been excluded:—

Firstborn.Second-born.Third-born.Fourth-born.Number of Gases.
MaleMaleMaleMale1,259
MaleMaleMaleFemale1,171
MaleMaleFemaleMale1,082
MaleMaleFemaleFemale1,061
MaleFemaleMaleMale1,037
MaleFemaleMaleFemale980
MaleFemaleFemaleMale1,065
MaleFemaleFemaleFemale984
FemaleFemaleFemaleFemale1,059
FemaleFemaleFemaleMale1,084
FemaleFemaleMaleFemale983
FemaleFemaleMaleMale1,055
FemaleMaleFemaleFemale972
FemaleMaleFemaleMale1,031
FemaleMaleMaleFemale1,032
FemaleMaleMaleMale944

Of the 16,799 families covered, in 8,639 cases the first child was a male and it 8,160 a female, the number of males per 1,000 females being thus 1,059. The proportion is less for subsequent births. The figures are as follows:—

Child.Males.Females.Males per 1,000 Females.
First8,6398,1601,059
Second8,5528,2471,037
Third8,4618,3381,015
Fourth8,5578,2421,038

The sex-proportions of illegitimate births are generally supposed to be more nearly equal than those of legitimate births. However, although little reliance can be placed on the figures for New Zealand by reason of the small numbers represented, it may be stated that the average for the period 1932–41 was 1,048 males per 1,000 females.

MULTIPLE BIRTHS.—The number of cases of multiple births and the proportion per 1,000 of the total (living births only) during the last five years were:—

Year.Total Births.Total Cases.Cases of Twins.Cases of Triplets.Multiple Cases per 1,000 of Total Cases.
193726,01425,735277110·80
193827,24926,949296211·06
193928,83328,528299310·50
194032,77132,425344110·64
194135,10034,697397311·40

Counting only cases where both children were born alive, there were 397 cases of twin births (794 children) registered in 1941. There were also three cases of triplets.

The number of accouchements resulting in living births was 34,697, and on the average one mother in every 87 gave birth to twins (or triplets).

The following table shows the sexes in individual cases of twin births for the same period:—

Year.Total Cases.Both Males.Both Females.Opposite Sexes.
19372779381103
193829610189106
19392999698105
1940344111107126
1941397129120148

When still-births are taken into account, the total number of accouchements for the year 1941 is increased to 35,540, and the number of cases of multiple births to 464. On this basis the proportion of mothers giving birth to twins or triplets is increased to one in 77.

During the ten years 1932–41 there were twenty cases of triplets. In six cases all three children were males, in four cases all were females, in five cases there were two males and one female, and in five cases two of the three children were females. Of quadruplets born in 1935, three of the children were females.

AGES OF PARENTS.—Information as to the relative ages of parents of legitimate living children whose births were registered in 1941 is shown in the following table:—

Age of Mother, in Years.Age of Father, in Years.
Under 21.21 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and under 50.50 and under 55.55 and under 65.65 and over.Totals.

* Including fifty cases where plural births would have been registered had not one child been still-born.

† Including three cases of triplets.

Single Births.
Under 211968576531594510321 1,926
21 and under 25581,7253,7421,348322752161017,308
25 and under 3055254,6974,2751,4213671104025111,466
30 and under 35 448553,3332,321729219684587,622
35 and under 40 5825411,5219803271065783,627
40 and under 45 1435123417252122377998
45 and over   2 10262215378
      Totals2593,15710,0339,6935,7532,58895836619028*33, 025
Multiple Births.
Under 21310511     20
21 and under 2531439125     73
25 and under 301104253184 11 130
30 and under 35  9503310111 105
35 and under 40  11329153   61
40 and under 45   1131 1 7
45 and under           
      Totals734961308732523 †396
      Grand totals2663,19110,1299,8235,8402,6209633681932833,421

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS.—Information as to the previous issue of the existing marriage, required in connection with the registration of births in New Zealand, is useful not only for record purposes, but also as providing valuable data for statistical purposes. Tables are given in the annual Report on Vital Statistics containing detailed information as to number of previous issue in conjunction with (1) age of mother and (2) duration of marriage. The table under the first heading for the year 1941 is here summarized:—

Age of Mother.Number of Previous Issue.Totals.
0.1.2.3.4.5.6 and under 10.10 and under 15.15 and over.

* This number represents 33,025 single cases and 396 multiple cases.

Under 211,525366505     1,946
21 and under 254,5032,0076691583581  7,381
25 and under 304,7943,8251,82369727513646  11,596
30 and under 351,9282,3571,61487345626422114 7,727
35 and under 4055281483155835521433034 3,688
40 and under 45120116161160106922024171,005
45 and over95712681713178
Totals13,4319,4905,1552,4631,233722817102833,421*

In computing previous issue, multiple births have been given their full significance, the numbers at the head of the columns relating to children born alive. In the following table this procedure has been followed not only for the previous issue but also for children covered by the 1941 registrations, who are also taken into account in the computation of the averages:—

Age of Mother, in Years.Total Mothers.Total Issue.Average Issue.
Under 211,9462,4471·26
21–247,38111,4591·55
25–2911,59623,3682·02
30–347,72720,8242·69
35–393,68813,0563·54
40–441,0054,8344·81
45 and over784876·24
  Totals33,42176,4752·29

It should be stressed that the averages are no more than they purport to be— viz., the average number of children (including those registered in 1941) born up to the present time to those mothers of legitimate children whose births were registered during the year. They do not purport to represent, nor do they represent, the average issue of all women of the ages shown. Furthermore, they include issue born to the existing marriage only. The averages for the last five years were as follows: 1937, 2·47; 1938, 2·41; 1939, 2·33; 1940, 2·30; and 1941, 2·29. in 1915, the earliest year for which reliable comparative figures are available, the average issue was 3·11. This falling trend in the average issue of women giving birth to children is a measure of the tendency towards smaller families. The acceleration in the decline during recent years, however, is the result of the abnormal proportion of first births registered during those years.

FIRST BIRTHS.—Of a total of 142,314 accouchements resulting in legitimate births during the five years 1937–41, the issue of no fewer than 58,092. or 41 per cent., were first-born children. In 22,806, or 39 per cent., of these cases the birth occurred within twelve months, and in 41,026, or 71 per cent., within two years after the marriage of the parents. In the remaining 29 per cent. of cases where there was any issue to the marriage, two years or more hod elapsed before the birth of the first child.

In view of the abnormal conditions operating during the last few years, and particularly as a result of the heavy increase in the number of marriages during each of the six years 1935 to 1940, it is not surprising to find the proportion of first births for these years showing a definite increase. In fact, the proportion of first births to total births since 1938 has been phenomenal, and in each year up to 1940 established a new record.

In 1941, however, the proportion of first births recorded a decrease, and as there was a substantial increase in the total births registered for that year it would appear that a greater proportion of families with one or more previous issue increased the size of their family during 1941.

The proportion of first births occurring within one year of the marriage of the parents was lower in the last five years than for many years past. The figures for each of the last five years are:—

Year.Total Legitimate Cases.Total Legitimate First Cases.Proportion of First Cases to Total Cases.First Cases within One Year after Marriage.First Cases within Two Years after Marriage.
Number.Proportion to Total First Cases.Number.Proportion to Total First Cases.
   Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
193724,5409,78339·874,31344·097,07472·31
193825,79510,54540·884,38941·627,62072·26
193927,40811,34741·404,48039·488,04070·86
194031,15012,98641·695,05738·949,09470·03
194133,42113,43140·194,56734·009,19868·48
Totals for five years142,31458,09240·8222,80639·2641,02670·62

During the five years there were 8,773 cases of legitimate births within seven months after marriage, a period which may be regarded as a minimum in a consideration of extra-marital conception; also 6,020 cases of illegitimate births were registered, and if these latter are all regarded as first births (which is not entirely the case), the following position is shown:—

Year.Total Legitimate First Cases. (a)Illegitimate Cases. (b)Legitimate Cases within Seven Months after Marriage. (c)Proportion of (c) to (a). (d)Proportion of (b) + (c) to Total of (a) + (b). (e)
    Per Cent.Per Cent.
19379,7831,1951,78918·2927·18
193810,5451,1541,82917·3424·64
193911,3471,1201,83216·1523·68
194012,9861,2751,86214·3422·00
194113,4311,2761,46110·8118·61
Totals for five years58,0926,0208,77315·1023·07

The figures quoted in the above table indicate a continuous and substantial decrease in the proportion of extra-maritally conceived cases.

Apart from the tendency to restrict the size of families (already commented upon), it would appear that postponement of the birth of the first child is becoming a feature of modern times. Statistics of first births over a number of years indicate that the proportion occurring within one year after marriage is rapidly declining. Possibly due to factors arising out of the war, this tendency has become accelerated in recent years, and a particularly heavy fall was recorded in 1941. The following table illustrates this point:—

Duration or Marriage in years.Proportion per cent. of Total First Births.
1914.1924.1934.1941.
Under 1 year52·9550·0640·2534·00
1 and under 2 years28·6226·6426·7934·48
2 and under 3 years9·0210·4310·2414·01
3 and under 4 years3·435·516·166·66
4 and under 5 years1·883·033·963·87
5 and under 10 years3·263·365·495·71
10 years and over0·840·971·111·27
      Totals100·00100·00100·00100·00

For the years covered by the foregoing table the average duration of marriage before the birth of the first child was—1914, 1·63 years; 1924, 1·76 years; 1934, 1·85 years; and 1941, 1·99 years.

An item of interest extracted from the 1941 birth statistics is a table of first births occurring to mothers in different age-groups expressed as a proportion per cent. of the total first births. A comparison has also been computed on the same basis for the years 1914, 1924, and 1934.

FIRST BIRTHS, BY AGE OF MOTHER.

Age of Mother.First Births, Proportion per Cent. at each Age-group to Total First Births.
1914.1924.1934.1941.
Under 206·737·558·9011·36
20 and under 2535·8938·1640·3933·53
25 and under 3035·0132·5932·7935·69
30 and under 3515·6114·6813·1014·35
35 and under 405·525·333·794·11
40 and under 451·161·590·990·89
45 and over0·080·100·040·07
      Totals100·00100·00100·00100·00

The figures of average ages of mothers at the birth of their first children are as follows for the above years: 1914, 26·55; 1924, 26·39; 1934, 25·90; and 1941, 26·25.

ILLEGITIMACY.—The births of 1,281 children (634 males, 647 females) registered in 1941 were illegitimate. The numbers for each of the years 1931–41, with the percentages they bear to total births registered, were as follows:—

Year.Number.Percentage of Total Births.
19311,3154·94
19321,2625·07
19331,1194·60
19341,1614·77
19351,0464·36
19361,1264·53
19371,2104·65
19381,1644·27
19391,1333·93
19401,2843·92
19411,2813·65
19411,3243·96

The illegitimacy rate for the last quinquennium is lower than for the preceding five-yearly period, the average proportion for 1937–41 being 4·08 as against an average of 4·67 for the period 1932·36. The long-term trend in the illegitimate birth-rate is indicated by the movement in the proportion of illegitimate births per 1,000 unmarried women—i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women—at the reproductive ages. The figures for each census from 1891 to 1936 are as follows:—

Census Year.Unmarried Women aged 15–45 Years.Illegitimate Births.Illegitimate-birth Rate per 1,000 Unmarried Women.
189168,9906389·25
189689,7228349·30
1901105,4209378·89
1906116,5061,1329·72
1911116,7261,0789·24
1916125,4611,1599·24
1921136,5391,2589·21
1926150,2651,4739·80
1936156,7761,1267·18

Included in the total of 1,281 illegitimate births in 1941 were five cases of twins, the number of accouchements being thus 1,276. Prom the following table it will be seen that of the 1,276 mothers 385, or 31 per cent., were under twenty-one years of age:—

Age.Cases.
Years. 
142
1513
1630
1753
1876
19120
2091
21122
2281
2378
2498
2567
2667
2745
2844
2934
3030
3136
3227
3332
3424
3516
3614
3722
3814
3911
4013
413
423
433
443
453
471
Total1,276

The Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1930, directs the omission of the word “illegitimate” from the register when the birth of an illegitimate child is registered. The word “illegitimate” appearing in any entry made prior to the passing of the Act is deemed to be expunged and deleted, and must also be omitted from any certified copy of an entry.

The Legitimation Act.—An important Act was passed in 1894 and re-enacted in 1908, intituled the Legitimation Act. Under this Act any child born out of wedlock whose parents afterwards intermarried was deemed to be legitimized by such marriage on the birth being registered in the manner prescribed by the Act. For legitimation purposes a Registrar was required to register a birth when called upon to do so by any person claiming to be the father of an illegitimate child; but such person was required to make a solemn declaration that he was the father, and was also required to produce evidence of marriage between himself and the mother of the child.

Prior to the passing of the Legitimation Amendment Act, 1921–22, legitimation could be effected only if at the time of the birth of the child there existed no legal impediment to the intermarriage of the father and mother, but the legal-impediment proviso was repealed by that amendment.

The amendment of 1921–22 also provided for legitimation by the mother in the event of the death of the father after the intermarriage of the parents. In such a case the application for legitimation was heard by a Magistrate, and upon his certifying that it had been proved to his satisfaction that the husband of the applicant was the father of the child, the child was registered as the lawful issue of the applicant and her husband.

Important changes were made by the Legitimation Act of 1939, which stipulates that every illegitimate person whose parents have intermarried, whether before or after the passing of the Act, shall be deemed to have been legitimated from birth by reason of such marriage. The Act requires the parents or surviving parent of any person legitimated under the Act to register with the Registrar-General the particulars of the birth of that person, showing that person as the lawful issue of the parents. Application for registration was required to be made within six months after the date of the passing of the Act in cases where the marriage took place prior to that date. In future, application for registration must be made within three months after the date of the marriage.

Where the Registrar-General has reason to believe that any person has been legitimated under the terms of the Act, and no application for registration has been made within the prescribed time, he may require the responsible parents or parent to make an application within a specified period of not less than seven days after receiving notice to do so. Any failure to comply with the notice requiring application for registration within the time specified renders the person or persons responsible liable on summary conviction to a fine of £5. If no application for registration is made within the appropriate time specified in the Act or notice received from the Registrar-General, application for registration of the particulars of the birth of any legitimated person may be made by that person, or by one of his parents, or by any other person.

The number of legitimations registered in each of the last eleven years, and the total since the Act of 1894 came into force, are shown in the following table. The effect of the Legitimation Act of 1939 is evidenced in the figures for 1940:—

 Number of Children legitimized.
Year.Previously registeredNot previously registered.Total.
193129292384
193223695331
193330995404
193428494378
193527663339
193632785412
1937322114436
193835697453
193934957406
1940409104513
194137957436
Totals from 1894 to 19417,5723,15810,730

ADOPTIONS.—The Births and Deaths Registration Act contains provision for the registration of adopted children. The Clerk of the Court by which any adoption order is made is required to furnish to the Registrar-General particulars of the order, including the full name and place of birth of the child, as well as the full names and addresses of both the natural and the adopting parents. If the child's birth has been registered in New Zealand a note of the adoption order is made in the register, and a new entry is made in the prescribed form in the register of births, particulars of the adopting parents being substituted for those of the natural parents. An amendment to the Infants Act in 1939 extended the age at which a child might be legally adopted from under fifteen years to under twenty-one years.

During the year 1941 the registration of 561 adopted children (293 males and 268 females) was effected, as compared with 632 in 1940, 530 in 1939, 570 in 1938, and 444 in 1937. Statistics of adoptions effected are available in New Zealand only since 1919. These indicate that the annual number of adoptions follows closely the economic condition of the country. Prior to 1940 the record total occurred in 1921 with 584 adoptions registered, this, no doubt, being the result of post-war influences. The lowest total (329) occurred in 1931. When the figures of adoptions are expressed as a proportion per 1,000 births registered in each year, the figure for 1938 holds the record with a proportion of 21, closely followed by 1921 with 20. and 1940 with 19. The figure for 1941 was 16. Possibly the war factor has a bearing on the comparatively high figure for 1940, but one definite cause of a part of the high total was the registration of 29 children adopted under the extension of age provisions mentioned in the above paragraph. The lowest rate recorded was that for 1931 with only 12 adoptions per 1,000 births registered.

STILL-BIPTHS.—The registration of still-births was made compulsory in New Zealand as from the 1st March, 1913. A still-born child is defined as one “which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue.” Still-births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths.

The registrations of still-births during each of the years 1931–1941 were as follows:—

Year.Males.Females.Totals.Male Stillbirths per 1,000 Female Still-births.Percentage of Still-births to
Living Births.All Births.
19314303798091,1353·042·95
19324303167461,3613·002·91
19334173057221,3672·972·88
19343873006871,2902·822·75
19353933457381,1393·082·99
19364243087321,3772·952·86
19374273347611,2782·932·84
19384093347431,2252·732·65
19394954059001,2223·123·03
19405284379651,2082·942·86
19415244479711,1722·772·69

Masculinity is in general much higher among still-births than among living births, the rate for still-births in 1941 being 1,172 males per 1,000 females as compared with 1,053 for living births.

Tabulation of the relative ages of the parents of the still-born children in 1941 does not appear to disclose any significant features. The percentage of illegitimates among still-born infants was 4·33, and among infants born alive, 3·65.

Of the living legitimate births registered in 1941, 40 per cent. were first births, while of legitimate still-births 50 per cent. were first births. It would appear that there is a considerably greater probability of still-births occurring to mothers having their first accouchement than those having subsequent accouchements.

MAORI BIRTHS.—The number of births of Maoris registered with Registrars of Maori Births and Deaths during 1941 was 4,048 (2,117 males, 1,931 females). In addition, 86 births (39 males and 47 females) recorded as of Maori race were registered under the main Act, making a total of 4,134 Maori births for the year. This number represents a decrease of 131 as compared with the previous year, with a consequent decline in the birth-rate from 46·87 to 44·77 per 1,000 of Maori population. The Maori birth-rate in 1941 was nearly twice the non-Maori birth-rate (22·81 per 1,000). Registrations in each of the last five years were as follows:—

Year.Number of Maori Births.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.
Males.Females.Total.
19372,0601,9113,97146·64
19381,9391,7543,69342·37
19392,1571,9594,11646·20
19402,2172,0484,26546·87
19412,1561,9784,13444·77

There is reason to believe that the number of Maori births is somewhat understated, and that both number and rate are actually higher than shown above. For population purposes, half-castes and persons between half and full blood rank as Maoris; but it is not always possible to ensure that this practice is followed in the registration of births (and of deaths).

SUBSECTION B.—MARRIAGES.

MARRIAGE may be celebrated in New Zealand only on the authority of a Registrar's certificate, either by a person whose name is on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act, or before a duly appointed Registrar or Deputy Registrar of Marriages. Marriage by an officiating minister can be celebrated only between 8 o'clock in the morning and 8 o clock in the evening. Marriage before a Registrar can be celebrated at any time during the hours the office of the Registrar is open for the transaction of public business. Prior to the passing of the Marriage Amendment Act, 1920, the limits in all cases were 8 a.m. and 4 p.m.

Notice of intended marriage must be given to a Registrar of Marriages by one of the parties to the proposed marriage, and one of the parties must have resided for three full days in the district within which the marriage is to be celebrated. In the case of a person under twenty-one years of ago, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parent or guardian is necessary before the Registrar's certificate can be issued. A schedule to the Guardianship of Infants Act, 1926, sets out the person or persons whose consent is required in various circumstances. In cases where double consent is required, section 8 provides for dispensing with the consent of one party if this cannot be obtained by reason of absence, inaccessibility, or disability. In similar cases where the consent of only one person is necessary, consent may be given by a Judge of the Supreme Court. Consent of the Court may also be given in cases of refusal by any person whose consent is required.

If a declaration is made in any case that there is no parent or lawful guardian resident in the Dominion, then a certificate may be issued by the Registrar (without the necessity of Court proceedings) after the expiration of fourteen days following the date on which the notice of intended marriage was given.

The system of notice and certificate has operated in New Zealand since 1855. Officiating ministers and Registrars are required to send to the Registrar-General returns of all marriages celebrated, and as the returns come in they are checked off with the entries in the Registrars' lists of notices received and certificates issued. In case of the non-arrival of a marriage return corresponding co any entry in the list of notices, inquiries are made as to whether the marriage has taken place.

The marriage of a man with his deceased wife's sister was legalized in New Zealand in the year 1881, and the marriage of a woman with her deceased husband's brother in 1901. Marriage with a deceased wife's niece or a deceased husband's nephew was rendered valid in 1929.

An amendment to the Marriage Act in 1933 prohibited the marriage of persons under the age of sixteen years, and also made provision enabling women to become officiating ministers for the purposes of the Marriage Act.

Particulars regarding divorce will be found at the close of this subsection.

NUMBERS AND RATES.—The movement of the marriage-rate over a lengthy period of time may be observed from the statistical summary appearing towards the end of this Year-Book. The numbers and rates of marriages during each of the last twenty years are here given:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Population.
19229,5567·64
192310,0707·91
192410,2597·91
192510,4197·85
192610,6807·90
192710,4787·63
192810,5377·58
192910,9677·80
193011,0757·78
19319,8176·81
19329,8966·81
193310,5107·18
193411,2567·64
193512,1878·23
193613,8089·25
193714,3649·55
193815,32810·09
193917,11511·12
194017,44811·28
194113,3138·65

The low rates for 1931 and 1932 are indicative of the effect of the period of financial stringency and depression. The partial recovery in 1933 probably reflects an acceptance of, or an adjustment to, the changed conditions. Following an improving trend in economic conditions the marriage-rate then showed a continuous increase, culminating in a record high rate in 1940, when the figure attained was 11·28 per 1,000 of population. The number of marriages during 1940 also created a new record for the Dominion. Saturation point in the marriage-rate was apparently reached in 1940, as in 1941 the number of marriages declined sharply, falling away by over 4,000, while the rate dropped to a level only slightly above that recorded for 1935. Changes in the available marriageable population, together with other factors arising out of the war, have affected the marriage-rate.

STANDARDIZED MARRIAGE-RATE.—In a country like New Zealand where the age-constitution of the population has altered considerably, the crude marriage-rate based on the total population does not disclose the true position over a period of years. Even if only the unmarried (including widowed and divorced) population over twenty in the case of men and over fifteen in the case of women be taken into account, the rates so ascertained would still not be entirely satisfactory for comparative purposes as between various periods, owing to differences in sex and age constitution, divergences between rates for different age-groups, and variations in the proportions of marriageable persons in the community. A better plan is to ascertain the rate among unmarried females in each age-group and to standardize the results on the basis of the distribution of the unmarried female population in a basic year.

This has been done for each census year from 1881 to 1936, the year 1911 being taken as the standard. The course of the standardized rates as shown in the following table varies materially from that of the crude rates:—

Year.Marriage-rate per 1,000.Index Numbers of Marriage-rates. (Base: 1911 = 100.)
Total Population.Unmarried Female Population 15 and over.Total Population.Unmarried Female Population 15 and over.
Crude.Standardized.Crude.Standardized.
18816·673·980·776125.137
18866·055·160·46993102
18916·048·350·3698285
18966·847·348·0788081
19017·850·249·0908583
19068·555·653·7989491
19118·759·159·1100100100
19167·550·754·3868692
19218·759·763·9100101108
19267·953·162·69190100
19369·360·569·8107102118

The index numbers of the three classes of rates over the series of years enable the effect of standardization to be seen at a glance. Comparing, for instance, the years 1881 and 1911, it is seen that whereas the crude rate per 1,000 of total population was nearly one-fourth less in 1881 than in 1911, the crude rate, when only the unmarried female population of fifteen and over is considered, was one-fourth greater, and the standardized rate more than one-third greater.

The standardized rate for 1936 is considerably higher than that recorded for any other census year subsequent to 1881.

As no detailed marriage statistics were compiled for the year 1941, the statistics and information contained in the following pages relate in most cases to previous years.

CONJUGAL CONDITION.—The total number of persons married during the year 1940 was 34,896, of whom 32,088 were single, 1,356 widowed, and 1,462 divorced. The figures for each of the five years 1936–40, showing the sexes separately, are given in the table following:—

Year.Single.Widowed.Divorced.Total Persons married.
Bridegroom.Bride.Bridegroom.Bride.Bridegroom.Bride.
193612,57912,82878845744152327,616
193713,05413,29776349154757628,728
193813,77614,10385354569968030,656
193915,70815,83375852764975534,230
194015,92116,16780954771873434,896

The position is more easily seen by studying the percentages given in the next table:—

Year.Bridegrooms.Brides.
Single.Widowed.Divorced.Single.Widowed.Divorced.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cont.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
193691·105·7131992·903313·79
193790·885·313·8192·573424·01
193889·875·574·5692·013·554·44
193991·784·433·7992·513·084·41
194091·244·644·1292·663·144·20

During the ten years 1931–40 the number of divorced persons remarrying has increased from 31 per 1,000 persons married to 42, an appreciable advance. On the other hand, the number of widowed persons remarrying has fallen from 53 per 1,000 persons married to 39 per 1,000 over the same period.

The relative conjugal condition of bridegrooms and brides for each of the five years 1936–40 is next given:—

Year.Marriages between Bachelors andMarriages between Widowers andMarriages between Divorced Men and
Spinsters.Widows.Divorced Women.Spinsters.Widows.Divorced Women.Spinsters.Widows.Divorced Women.
193612,032193354477218933194676
193712,4452333764592059939353101
193813,11722343648524812050174124
193914,94724152043221211445474121
194015,1712684824882249750855155

Taking the whole period covered by the foregoing table, it is found that, while 3,054 divorced men remarried, the corresponding number for women was 3,268. In the case of widowed persons, however, in spite of the fact that widows greatly exceed widowers in the population, only 2,567 widows remarried, as compared with 3,971 widowers.

Included amongst the widows in 1940 were twenty-three women, and amongst the widowers eleven men, who elected to go through the form of marriage with other persons under the protection of the provisions of section 224, subsection (5), of the Crimes Act, which reads: “No one commits bigamy by going through a form of marriage if he or she has been continually absent from his or her wife or husband for seven years then last past, and is not proved to have known that his wife or her husband was alive at any time during those seven years.”

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED.—Of the 34,896 persons married in 1940, 4,046, or 12 per cent., were under twenty-one years of age; 11,847, or 34 per cent., were returned as twenty-and and under twenty-five, 10,417, or 30 per cent., as twenty-five and under thirty; 6,052, or 17 per cent., as thirty and under forty; and 2,534, or 8 per cent., as forty years of age or over. The following table relates to the year 1940:—

Age of Bridegroom, In Years.Age of Bride, in Years.Total Bridegrooms.
Under 21.21 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and over.
Under 213961442631  570
21 and under 251,7492,6706886384 5,182
25 and under 301,0472,8361,94234057846,234
30 and under 352167479895161242682,626
35 and under 404519734432921574181,222
40 and under 4514391231291186943535
45 and over932711371641914751,079
  Total brides3,4766,6654,1831,51768737254817,448

There have been some considerable changes in the proportions of persons marrying at the various age-periods. To illustrate the extent to which these figures have varied since the beginning of the century, a table is given showing the proportions of men and women married at each age-period to every 100 marriages in quinquennia from 1900 to 1940:—

Period.Under 21.21 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and over.Totals.
Males.
1900–041·6724·7538·4218·638·053·584·90100·00
1905–091·7923·4239·2518·788·473·384·91100·00
1910–141·9422·0438·0420·758·543·904·79100·00
1915–193·2621·4033·0419·6710·475·027·14100·00
1920–243·1324·6632·2117·7310·245·436·60100·00
1925–293·4928·0434·4914337·704·487·47100·00
1930–343·4627·2837·0215·146·103·617·39100·00
1935–392·6825·9138·2616·466·753·226·72100·00
19403·2729·7035·7315·057·003·076·18100·00
Females.
1900–0416·9239·7527·339·263·401·531·81100·00
1905–0916·1537·1028·5310·184·211·802·03100·00
1910–1415·6034·9028·5211·575·042·052·32100·00
1915–1915·2135·0126·1711·396·062·983·18100·00
1920–2415·9935·4726·2110·665·532·983·16100·00
1925–2918·6137·8823·678·934·652·823·44100·00
1930–3418·6738·5124·798·223·852·403·56100·00
1935–3917·1038·2626·308·863·912·023·55100·00
194019·9238·2123·978·693·942·133·14100·00

A perusal of the above table reveals the fact that greater proportions of marriages are now being celebrated at both the younger and the older age-groups. The 1935–39 figures, however, illustrate the postponement of a number of marriages in the earlier years of the depression, resulting in a proportion of marriages falling in later groups than would normally have been the case, while the 1940 figures are probably affected by the war situation inducing earlier marriages in a number of cases.

For many years the average age (arithmetic mean) at marriage for both males and females, more particularly the latter, showed a tendency to increase. However, after reaching its maximum in the three years 1917, 1918, and 1919, the average age recorded a slight but fairly constant decline during the next decade, since when it has fluctuated within narrow limits. The figures for each of the years 1930–40 are as follows:—

Year.Bridegrooms.Brides.
193028·4726·13
193129·8326·02
193229·7126·04
193329·7225·83
193429·8626·15
193529·9426·27
193629·9726·32
193729·9326·26
193830·0326·37
193929·6426·17
194029·4125·97

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown in the preceding table, which covers all parties and is naturally affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average ages of grooms and brides of the various conditions in each of the last five years for which the information is available were:—

Year.Bridegrooms.Brides.
Bachelors.Divorced.Widowers.Spinsters.Divorced.Widows.
 Years.Years.Years.Years.Years.Years.
193628·2941·3050·4725·2035·7946·86
193728·2440·9050·9825·0836·4846·13
193828·2040·7650·7925·1136·3146·60
193928·0641·6852·0425·0135·8847·01
194027·8241·0750·4624·8536·0045·68

The foregoing figures give the average age at marriage, but these do not correspond with the modal or popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. For several years prior to 1918 age 26 held pride of place for bridegrooms and ago 21 for brides. The latter has continued right through to 1940 without alteration, but in the case of bridegrooms the most popular age has varied, and for 1940 was 24.

Marriages of Minors.—Of every 1,000 men married in 1940, 33 were under twenty-one years of age, while 199 in every 1,000 brides were under twenty-one.

In 396 marriages in 1940 both parties were given as under twenty-one years of age, in 3,080 marriages the bride was returned as a minor and the bridegroom as an adult, and in 174 marriages the bridegroom was a minor and the bride an adult.

Year.Age in Years.Totals.
16.17.18.19.20.Number.Rate per 100 Marriages.
Bridegrooms.
1936 4431182053702·68
193716481142273962·76
1938 13441222193982·60
193926391412424302·51
194017651463515703·27
Brides.
1936871994396928622,27916·51
19371002264857259742,51017·47
1938932605347349812,60216·98
1939903135779591,0562,99517·50
1940942636581,0821,3793,47619·92

The proportion of minors among persons marrying declined continuously from 1932 to 1936, probably a result of the depression. Each year since 1936 has recorded an increase in the actual numbers of minors marrying, particularly in 1939 and 1940, but it was only in the latter year that the increase was sufficient to have any appreciable effect on the proportion.

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS DENOMINATIONS.—Of the 17,448 marriages registered, in 1940, Church of England clergymen officiated at 4,787, Presbyterians at 4,554, Methodists at 1,776, and Roman Catholics at 2,134, while 2,968 marriages were celebrated before Registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the principal denominations in each of the years 1931–40:—

Denomination.Percentage of Marriages.
1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.
Church of England25·8225·5425·4725·5226·0726·1026·5226·9327·1627·45
Presbyterian25·7126·6326·7326·5826·7926·9426·8626·4625·3726·10
Methodist9·5910·2710·5210·5010·4310·5510·7410·7310·4110·17
Roman Catholic10·7310·8111·0611·5011·4011·6511·7411·5812·6012·23
Other denominations5·535·846·287·928·397·617·277·187·087·04
Before Registrars22·6220·9119·9417·9816·9217·1516·8717·1217·3817·01
    Totals100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00

The foregoing figures must not be taken as an exact indication of the religions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that one or both of the parties are members of the Church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before Registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any or none of the denominations.

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS.—The number of names on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act is (October, 1942) 2,401, and the denominations to which they belong are shown hereunder:—

Denomination.Number.
Church of England511
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand428
Roman Catholic Church437
Methodist Church of New Zealand312
Salvation Army130
Baptist91
Associated Churches of Christ33
Congregational Independent34
Brethren31
Seventh-day Adventist51
Latter-day Saints28
Lutheran Church2
Evangelical Lutheran Concordia Conference5
Apostolic Church11
Commonwealth Covenant18
Church of Christ8
Hebrew Congregations5
Liberal Catholic Church9
Unitarian4
Assemblies of God14
Spiritualist Churches of New Zealand13
Pentecostal3
Christadelphians3
Ratana Church of New Zealand142
Ringatu Church40
Church of the Seven Rules of Jehovah1
Others37
    Total2,401

The Ringatu Church, the Church of the Seven Rules of Jehovah, and the Ratana Church of New Zealand are Maori denominations.

MAORI MARRIAGES.—In cases where both parties to a marriage are of the Native race there is no necessity under the Marriage Act to comply with the provisions of that Act, though the parties are at liberty to take advantage thereof. Considerable inconvenience, however, was found to exist on account of the non-registration of Maori marriages, and a section was inserted in the Native Land Act, 1909, and re-enacted in 1931, whereby it was laid down that Maori marriages must be celebrated either under the provisions of the Marriage Act or in the presence of a registered officiating minister, but without complying with the other requirements of the Marriage Act. Ministers solemnizing the latter class of marriages must send returns to the Registrar-General.

Returns of 517 marriages in which both parties were of the Native race were received during the year 1941. The figures for each of the last five years are as follows:—

Year.Under Native Land Act.Under Marriage Act.Totals.
1937498111609
1938505126631
1939510166676
1940488148636
1941410107517

Maori marriages are not included in the numbers shown elsewhere in this subsection, nor are they taken into account in the computation of marriage-rates.

DIVORCE.—The provisions as to dissolution of marriage are contained in the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act, 1928, which consolidated and amended the then existing legislation on the subject.

A brief historical account of divorce legislation will be found in the 1931 issue of the Year-Book; the present position is outlined in the following résumé.

Any married person, domiciled in New Zealand for two or more years at the time of filing the petition, may obtain a divorce on one or more of the following grounds:—

  1. Adultery.

  2. Wilful desertion for three years.

  3. Habitual drunkenness for four years, coupled with (wife's petition) failure to support or habitual cruelty, or with (husband's petition) neglect of, or self-caused inability to discharge, domestic duties.

  4. Sentence of seven years' imprisonment for attempting to murder, or for wounding or doing actual bodily harm to petitioner or child.

  5. Murder of child of petitioner or respondent.

  6. Insanity and confinement as a lunatic for seven out of ten years preceding the petition.

  7. Insanity for seven years, and confinement for three years preceding the petition.

  8. Failure to comply with a decree of Court for restitution of conjugal rights.

  9. Parties have separated under an agreement, written or verbal, which has been in force for three years.

  10. Parties have been separated by a decree of judicial separation or a separation order which has been in force for three years. (An amendment in 1930 removed the restriction imposed by the principal Act—which permitted only New Zealand decrees or orders—and extended the provision to cover similar decrees or orders made in any country.)

  11. Husband guilty of rape, sodomy, or bestiality since marriage.

A deserted wife whose husband was domiciled in New Zealand at the time of desertion is considered, for the purpose of the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act, 1928, as retaining her New Zealand domicile. Where a wife petitions on grounds (i) and (j), her New Zealand domicile is retained if her husband was domiciled in the Dominion at the date of the agreement, decree, or order.

The amending Act of 1930 establishes a New Zealand domicile for a wife petitioning for divorce where she has been living apart from her husband for three years, if she has been living in New Zealand for three years preceding the petition, and has the intention of residing in New Zealand permanently.

Figures showing the operations of the Supreme Court in its divorce jurisdiction during recent years are as follows:—

Year.Dissolution or Nullity of Marriage.Judicial Separation.Restitution of Conjugal Rights.
Petitions filed.Decrees Nisi.Decrees Absolute.Petitions filed.Decrees for Separation.Petitions filed.Decrees for Restitution.
19317666835915110894
1932785653612518875
19338046836481 11877
1934839762683 19789
19358677426531 9480
19361,09993384951133104
19371,1541,0089174 138107
19381,1781,0631,05051145119
19391,2431,0921,03242161123
19401,1891,0421,0593 112106
19411,11599695661114100

The next table gives the grounds (dissolution or nullity case) of petition. Decrees may relate to petitions filed prior to 1941:—

Grounds.Petitions filed during Year.Decrees Nisi granted.Decrees Absolute granted.
Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.
Bigamy111111
Adultery1237199699464
Desertion11410196878683
Drunkenness, with cruelty, failure to maintain, &c. 4 415
Insanity925172
Non-compliance with order for restitution of conjugal rights632762256122
Separation for not less than three years258337224320207320
Malformation and impotence13 2 2
      Totals569546487509457499

The figures shown for decrees nisi include cases whore both nisi and absolute decrees were granted during the year, while those for decrees absolute cover all such granted during the year whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in 1941 or in a previous year.

In 337 of the 1,115 cases where petitions for dissolution were filed during 1941 there was no living issue of the marriage. The number of living issue was 1 in 306 cases, 2 in 230 cases, 3 in 114 cases, and 4 or more in 126 cases. In 2 cases the number of issue was not stated.

The table which follows shows the duration of marriage in all cases for which petitions for dissolution were filed in the five years 1937 to 1941:—

Duration or Marriage, in Years.Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.
1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
Under 5695610087785447636673
5 and under 10158136156157131157176181173135
10 and under 15118128119134117166166171147125
15 and under 2097939171961011151179780
20 and under 308093897810710893889298
30 and over24363455402236343235
Not stated 2    1   
      Totals546544589582569608634654607546

The number of children affected by the divorce petitions of their parents during each of the last five years was as follows: 1937, 1,725; 1938, 1,706; 1939, 1,775; 1940. 1,867; and 1941, 1,753.

SUBSECTION C.—DEATHS.

COMPULSORY registration of deaths was instituted in New Zealand in 1855. As in the case of births, a system of non-compulsory registration had operated since 1848.

Until the year 1876 the only information provided for in the death-registration entry was the date, place, and cause of death, and the name, sex, age, and occupation of deceased. The Registration of Births and Deaths Act, 1875, required information to be recorded as regards parentage, conjugal condition, and issue of deceased. Particulars as to burial had also to be entered, as well as more detailed information regarding cause of death. Subsequent amendments to the Act have made it requisite to give additional information concerning issue, and, in the case of married males, age of widow.

Every death occurring in New Zealand is required to be registered within three days after the day of the death if in a city or borough, or seven days in any other case. There is a penalty up to £10 for neglect, the undertaker in charge of the funeral being solely responsible for registration. Prior to 1913 the undertaker was primarily responsible for registration, but, in addition, the occupier of the house and every other person present at the death were also responsible parties.

The law does not impose any limit of time after which a death may not be registered as it does in the case of a birth. It is not necessary to effect a death-registration entry in the case of a still-born child, though an entry must be made in the register of births.

Any person burying, or permitting or taking part in the burial of, the body of any deceased person without a certificate of cause of death signed by a duly registered medical practitioner, a Coroner's order to bury the body, or a Registrar's certificate of registration of the death, renders himself liable to a fine of £10.

Prior to 1937 it was incumbent upon a medical practitioner to give the certificate of cause of death to the person required to supply information for the purpose of registering the death (the undertaker or other person in charge of the burial). By section 11 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1936, however, the medical practitioner is now required to deliver the certificate forthwith direct to the Registrar of the district in which the death occurred. It is also the duty of the medical practitioner, on signing a certificate of cause of death, to give written notice of the signing to the undertaker or other person having charge of the burial.

In the new form of medical certificate introduced by this amendment, provision is made for an additional statement to be filled in by the medical practitioner in any case where, in his opinion, the death has occurred in any circumstances of suspicion. The practitioner is required to report such case forthwith to the Coroner, and an indication that this has been done must be made in the space provided on the certificate.

DEATHS OF SOLDIERS, ETC., OVERSEAS.—Under the Registration of Deaths Emergency Regulations 1941, which superseded 1940 regulations of similar title, the Registrar-General is required to compile a War Deaths Register of all persons of New Zealand domicile who have died while out of New Zealand on service in some capacity in connection with the war. Members of the New Zealand Naval Forces are excluded from these regulations, special provision having previously been made in their case.

The Registrar-General is also required to compile a Provisional War Deaths Register, to contain the names of those persons of New Zealand domicile who are officially reported to be missing and believed killed while on war service out of New Zealand, but whose deaths have not been proved to the satisfaction of the Registrar-General.

Where the death of any person in respect of whom an entry has been made in the Provisional War Deaths Register is registered (whether in the War Deaths Register or otherwise), or where such person has subsequently been proved to be alive, a note to this effect is required to be made in the appropriate entry in the Provisional War Deaths Register.

Deaths registered in either the War Deaths Register or the Provisional War Deaths Register are not taken into account in arriving at the number and rate of deaths for New Zealand. Deaths of New Zealand soldiers, &c., which occur in New Zealand are included. Deaths of visiting overseas servicemen are, however, excluded.

NUMBERS AND RATES.—The following table shows the number of deaths and the death-rate per 1,000 of the mean population during each of the last twenty years:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000.
192210,9778·77
192311,5119·04
192410,7678·30
192511,0268·30
192611,8198·74
192711,6138·45
192811,8118·50
192912,3148·76
193012,1998·57
193112,0478·35
193211,6838·04
193311,7017·99
193412,5278·50
193512,2178·25
193613,0568·75
193713,6589·08
193814,7549·71
193914,1589·20
194014,2829·24
194115,1469·84

New Zealand has been noted for many years for its favourable death-rate. In the early history of the country the high proportion of immigrants to total population contributed very materially towards the establishment of a comparatively low death-rate. The effect of immigration in causing a high ratio of persons in the early adult ages—at which ages mortality experience is most favourable—more than counterbalanced the effect on the death-rate of the hazards inherent in the pioneering activities typical of the economy of the country in those days. The influence of immigration on vital statistics has, however, waned very considerably in the later decades.

The favourable climate of the country has always been an important factor contributing to a relatively low death-rate, while the high efficiency of health services has assisted considerably towards maintaining the Dominion's enviable record in respect of its death-rate. The progress of the health service has been reflected, inter alia, in a relatively low incidence of serious outbreaks of the more important epidemic diseases (which were much more prevalent in the early days of colonization), and in a greatly lowered infant mortality rate.

An even more potent force than a heightened efficiency in health services has, however, been operative for many years past. As observed in the subsection on Births, the general trend of the birth-rate has been downwards for several decades. The initial effect of a falling birth-rate on the mortality experience of a population is to lower the death-rate, the age constitution becoming more favourable towards a low death-rate, since there are fewer infants and a relatively higher ratio of persons of the younger adult ages. That this has been a very material factor contributing to New Zealand's low death-rate is obvious; for a death-rate of 7·99 per 1,000—the low point which was reached in 1933—would connote an expectation of life of almost 125 years if it applied to a population of stable age-distribution. The increase in the crude death-rate since 1933 is indicative that the age constitution of the population has passed the optimum distribution from the viewpoint of maintaining a very low level of death-rates. This trend must continue for some years to come since the present death-rate is still much lower than could be regarded as possible in a population stable in respect of age constitution, and it is reasonable to expect further increases in death-rates.

The death-rates of males and females for each of the years 1931–41 are shown separately in the next table.

Year.Deaths per 1,000 of Population.Male Deaths to every 100 Female Deaths.Male Rate expressed as Index Number of Female Rate (=100).
Males.Females.Totals.
19319·087·598·35124120
19328·597·478·04119115
19338·747·237·99123121
19349·267·738·50124120
19358·957·528·25122119
19369·458·038·75121118
19379·858·289·08122119
193810·718·689·71127123
193910·108·269·20126122
194010·188·289·24124123
194111·038·699·84123127

DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS OVER THE YEAR.—An examination of the total number of deaths registered in each quarter of the decade 1932–41 gives the following averages: March quarter, 2,888; June quarter, 3,274; September quarter, 3,848; and December quarter, 3,307.

A classification according to month of death shows that in 1941 the months during which the greatest number of deaths occurred were July, August, and June, with totals of 1,543, 1,481, and 1,455 respectively. Excluding December, a proportion of deaths occurring in that month not being registered till January, February had the least number of deaths (960), followed by March and April, with 1,076 and 1,148 respectively.

The least number of deaths on any one day, again excluding December, was 21, this number occurring on the 4th November. The greatest number (75) occurred on the 14th May.

AGES AT DEATH.—The deaths registered during the year 1941 are tabulated below according to age:—

Ages.Males.Females.Totals.
Under 1 month392310702
1–2 months7244116
3–5 months494392
6–11 months7362135
1 year435093
2 years262147
3 years242246
4 years211334
5–9 years6046106
10–14 years6439103
15–19 years10968177
20–24 years129109238
25–29 years146129275
30–34 years150131281
35–39 years171136307
40–44 years211194405
45–40 years297267564
50–54 years466341807
55–59 years7184871,205
60–64 years9386291,567
65–69 years9857461,731
70–74 years1,0348981,932
75–79 years9358301,765
80–84 years6486271,275
85–89 years424358782
90–94 years144147291
95–99 years233558
100 years257
101 years 11
102 years123
103 years1 1
    Totals8,3566,79015,146

The following table indicates the changes that have occurred over a period of fifty years in the age-distribution of persons dying:—

Ages, in Years.Number of Deaths.Percentage to Total.
1891.1901.1911.1921.1941.1891.1901.1911.1921.1941.
Under 11,6671,4631,4841,3661,04525·5819·1615·5612·796·90
1 and under 55264134964692208·075·415·204·391·45
5 and under 102401672022341063·682·192·122·190·70
10 and under 151601381361691032·451·811·431·580·68
15 and under 202232611951941773·423·422·051·821·17
20 and under 252953402852972384·534·452·992·781·57
25 and under 302152873923102753·303·764·112·901·82
30 and under 352182614093472813·343·424·293·251·86
35 and under 402762743794703074·233·593·984·402·03
40 and under 452432713684664053·733·553·864·362·67
45 and under 502963173685485644·544·153·865·133·72
50 and under 553963774415728076·084·944·635·365·33
55 and under 603624244735921,2055·555·554·965·547·96
60 and under 653465465586721,5675·317·155·856·2910·35
65 and under 703106327858401,7314·768·288·237·8611·43
70 and under 753005638688641,9324·607·379·108·0912·75
75 and under 802214058199211,7653·395·318·598·6211·65
80 and over2174958761,3512,4183·336·499·1912·6515·96
Unspecified7    0·11    
      Totals6,5187,6349,53410,68215,146100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00

The movement in the proportions of deaths occurring at the different age-groups is very striking. The results of two main factors are illustrated—viz., health measures, which have achieved an immense saving of young life; and the exposure of a greater proportion of the population to the diseases of old age.

During the earlier period covered by the next table the fall in the death-rate was common to all ages and to both sexes. In comparison with 1931, however, the 1941 figures reveal increases in the rates for some of the groups beyond middle age. The female rate for the various age-groups is almost invariably lower than the male rate. The rapid increase in the death-rate (per 1,000 of population) at successive age-groups is well exemplified.

Year.Under 1.1 and under 5.5 and under 15.15 and under 25.25 and under 35.35 and under 45.45 and under 55.55 and under 65.65 and under 75.75 and under 85.85 and over.
Males.
190178·606·811·893·523·976·1611·9423·1250·59126·26280·00
191163·485·361·912·423·876·2711·0220·8353·22116·21281·21
192153·104·781·852·443·565·559·6119·9646·17102·84257·70
193138·212·831·352·282·774·648·6918·2544·18111·00269·13
194132·552·140·991·982·623·768·7920·6746·31113·88313·16
Females.
190163·875·501·643·584·726·7010·6219·4443·32107·02285·30
191148·745·371·482·764·344·928·3817·8940·44104·84221·90
192142·314·491·312·343·384·468·0014·8836·8194·42230·05
193125·672·470·971·853·203·816·8415·3636·8398·31270·44
194126·852·040·711·352·053·146·5814·5538·0697·13249·09
Both Sexes.
190171·406·171·773·554·336·4011·3721·6347·87117·97282·52
191156·315·361·702·584·095·649·8219·5547·74111·73251·81
192147·824·641·582·393·475·108·8517·5941·9099·00245·21
193132·152·651·172·072·984·227·8016·8840·56105·02269·75
194129·772·090·851·652·323·447·6517·6842·20105·19278·78

The average (arithmetic mean) age at death of persons of either sex in each of the years 1931–41 was as follows:—

Year.Males.Females.
193154·1455·48
193255·7956·05
193356·1756·45
193456·9957·75
193556·9557·79
193657·1257·70
193757·7058·82
193856·1358·10
193958·7759·14
194058·0259·96
194158·6559·60

EXPECTATION OF LIFE.—A life-table constructed from 1936 Census data and the mortality experience of the quinquennium 1934–38 will be included in the General Report on the Census of 1936. The following table shows the (complete) expectation of life for various ages:—

Age.Males.Females.
065·4668·45
166·9269·46
266·2368·76
365·4467·91
464·5967·01
563·7066·10
1059·1161·45
1554·4256·69
2049·8952·02
2545·4347·48
3040·9442·98
3536·4238·51
4032·0334·05
4527·7829·70
5023·6425·47
5519·7221·38
6016·0617·49
6512·7613·91
709·8210·73
757·368·02
805·355·85
853·864·30

Expectation of life at age 0 is apparently still increasing in New Zealand. A brief comparison is quoted:—

Period.Males. Years.Females. Years.
1891–189555·2958·09
1896–190057·3759·95
1901–190558·0960·55
1906–191059·1761·76
1911–191560·9663·48
1921–192262·7665·43
1925–192763·9966·57
193165·0467·88
1934–3865·4668·45

STANDARDIZATION OF DEATH-RATES.—Except where specifically stated, all death-rates quoted throughout this section are crude rates—i.e., those ascertained by applying the mean population for the year to the total deaths registered during the year.

In New Zealand the age and sex constitutions of the people have changed very materially within a comparatively short span of years, so that death-rates for recent years relate to a differently constituted population than do death-rates for earlier years. This factor has had a marked influence on the risks—and causes—of dying. In order to eliminate the effect of changing age constitution from other causes influencing the death-rate, the device of standardization is resorted to. The principle of this method is to compute death-rates on the assumption that the sex and age composition of the population has not varied. A “standard” population is selected, and the mortality experience of any particular year is weighted according to the age-distribution of that standard population.

The standardized death-rates thus calculated for each of a number of countries, or for a number of years for the same country, may then be regarded as indexes to the relative mortalities free from the distortion which might arise through differences in their respective sex or age constitutions.

A system of standardization of death-rates was introduced some years ago in New Zealand, the age and sex constitution of the population as disclosed at the Census of 1911 being taken as the basis. The following table gives both recorded and standardized death-rates per 1,000 of population (on the 1911 standard population) for each fifth year from 1875 to 1940 and for the year 1941:—

Year.Recorded Rates.Standardized Rates.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
187516·5615·0715·9219·0315·3617·30
188012·0510·7311·4613·8111·4712·70
188511·519·6710·6713·3810·0612·36
189010·518·689·6612·2610·1111·25
189510·818·899·9112·2610·0711·22
190010·338·439·4311·049·2910·21
190510·188·249·2710·498·619·60
191010·678·639·7110·678·469·62
191510·197·879·0610·197·879·09
192011·119·1510·1510·838·849·89
19259·107·488·308·686·787·78
19309·427·698·578·666·487·63
19358·957·528·257·685·786·78
194010·188·289·247·955·676·87
194111·038·699·848·245·867·12
1942  10.60   

The above standardized rates, of course, apply only to New Zealand and do not afford adjusted comparisons with other countries.

Standardized death-rates are computed for New Zealand for a number of causes, and details covering a ten-yearly period are included in the annual Report on Vital Statistics. The standard population used is that of England and Wales at the census of 1901, in order that the death-rates so calculated may be comparable with those published for England and Wales.

ORPHANHOOD.—The table following shows the number of living issue left by married men or widowers whose deaths were registered during the ten years 1931–40, the latest period for which statistics are available, the information being given according to age of father and of issue:—

Number of Issue left by Fathers, aged—
Under 30.30 and under 40.40 and under 50.50 and under 60.60 and under 70.70 and under 80.80 and over.Totals.
Age of issue, in years—        
  Under 54751,2931,00546513029 3,397
  5 and under 10921,4552,0601,37536872115,433
  10 and under 1537572,8573,1421,111206418,117
  15 and under 2111382,8336,2823,81786717614,114
  21 and over131,11512,99132,82244,88038,736130,548
  Unspecified  41   5
    Totals5723,6469,87424,25638,24846,05438,964161,614
Married men or widowers who died—        
  Leaving issue3421,5743,2227,02310,02110,7377,94540,864
  Without leaving issue2203997371,4341,9601,8459997,594
    Totals5621,9733,9598,45711,98112,5828,94448,458

During the period under review 40,864 fathers left issue to the number of 161,614, an average of 3·95. For the preceding decennial period, 1921–30, the average issue left was 4·40. Taking all deaths of married men or widowers, whether leaving issue or not, it is found that the average living issue is 3·34, as compared with 3·74 for the period 1921–30.

The following table shows the average issue for various age-groups in different periods since 1906:—

Age-group (in Years) of Fathers.Total Number of Issue left.Average Number of Issue left.
1906–10.1911–20.1921–30.1931–40.1906–10.1911–20.1921–30.1931–40.
Under 302869256795721·011·141·111·02
30 and under 402,0796,8334,6243,6462·102·081·991·85
40 and under 504,13811,50611,9959,8743·302·982·752·49
50 and under 607,72716,85719,14724,2564·403·743·172·87
60 and under 7013,83728,43929,86038,2484·984·433·703·19
70 and under 8015,41140,81242,62946,0544·624·854·513·66
80 and over7,68924,91334,32138,9645·194·574·644·36
  Totals51,167130,285143,255161,6144·234·003·743·34

The average number of children left by the death of married men or widowers has, as might naturally be expected, declined during the last two or three decades. It is of interest, however, to observe that the average issue left by married men or widowers under the age of thirty has declined least of all.

The explanation probably lies in the fact that among the fathers who died before attaining the age of thirty would be the majority of cases where there was only one child, while, on the other hand, the proportion of childless marriages has not shown much variation in recent years. The remaining averages shed further light on the declining birth-rate and the dwindling in the average size of families in modern times.

Of the 877 cases where issue under 16 years of age was left by married men or widowers during 1940, a widow was also left in 838 cases, the aggregate children under 16 in these 838 cases being 1,650, and the average per widow 1·97. By the deaths of their fathers, children under 16 to the number of 66 were left without either parent, and for 3 children there was no information as to whether the mother was alive or dead.

The foregoing figures all refer to children partially or completely orphaned in the case of families where only the father died during the year (or decade). Similar information is also now available for families of which the mother died during the year. Altogether 4,885 married women or widows died during 1940, leaving a total issue of 15,806, or an average living issue of 3·24. Considering only those mothers who left issue, the average issue left was 3·84.

The following summary tables of the numbers and ages of issue under the age of 16 years left by married men, widowers, married women, and widows during the year 1940 are of considerable interest:—

AGES OF ISSUE UNDER SIXTEEN LEFT BY THE DEATH OF EITHER PARENT, 1940.

Age of Issue.Numbers of Issue left (at Ages specified) by
Married Men.Widowers.Married Women.Widows.Total Married Men and Widowers.Total Married Women and Widows.Total Widows and Widowers.
048 62 4862 
153142 54421
259146 60461
369250 71502
451158152592
577252279544
683163184642
7955542100567
81053672108695
990569195706
101353784138827
1111197361207915
1214869151549611
131665104917111314
14164699717010613
1519616122921213125
Total issue— Under 161,650661,130491,7161,179115
  16 and over10,8574,6776,4228,20515,53414,62712,882
Grand totals12,5074,7437,5528,25417,25015,80612,997

NUMBER OF ISSUE UNDER SIXTEEN LEFT BY THE DEATH OF EITHER PARENT, 1940.

Number of Issue.Families (under Sixteen Years of Age) left by
Married Men.Widowers.Married Women.Widows.Total Married Men and Widowers.Total Married Women and Widows.Total Widows and Widowers.
1407252641143227536
22248134723214115
31063754109797
452142353454
532123 33231
610 5 105 
7515 651
82 2 22 
9  1  1 
  Total cases838395512587757664

During 1940 1,650 children under 16 years of age were left fatherless, but with their mother alive at the time of the father's death; 1,130 were left without a mother, but with their father living: thus a total of 2,780 were left with only one parent. By the death of their father 66 children, and by the death of their mother 49 children, were left without either parent, making a total of 115 true orphans under 16 years of age during 1940. In this total, of course, there might possibly be a few cases where both the father and the mother died during 1940, and in any such cases the number of children left would be duplicated, as they would be included in the figures of issue left upon the death of each parent.

The 115 children under 16 years of age left as true orphans during 1940 belonged to 64 families, the average per family affected being 1·80. The average number of children under 16 years of age left fatherless per family was 1·69; and the average number left motherless was 1·96. These averages, of course, relate only to those families in which there were any children under 16 years of age.

Widows and Orphans.—Of 48,458 married men or widowers whose deaths were registered during the ten years 1931–40, 12,452 were shown to have been widowers and 35,400 to have left widows, while in the remaining 606 cases there was no information on the point. Of the married men leaving widows, 30,098 had living issue also at time of death, and 5,302 had no living issue. In 10,513 cases widowers left issue, and in 1,939 cases no issue. In 253 of the 606 cases where no information was given as to whether a widow was left, there was living issue, and in 353 cases there was no living issue.

INFANT MORTALITY.—New Zealand has the lowest rate of infant mortality in the world, a fact attributable partly to such matters as climate, virility of the race, comparative absence of densely settled areas, &c., and partly to legislative and educative measures—the latter conducted by the State as well as by various organizations. A great deal of the success achieved in this direction has been due to the activities of the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children. Founded in Dunedin in 1907, this society has since extended its Plunket system throughout New Zealand, and its methods are being adopted to an ever-increasing extent in other countries.

Particulars of deaths of infants under one year of age for each of the years 1931–41 are shown in the following table:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000 Live Births.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
193152633085638·2125·6732·15
193242635177733·2229·1031·22
193345531577036·6426·4431·64
193445632578136·3227·6232·11
193544432977336·0528·2432·26
193641535476932·9228·9530·96
193746135181234·8127·4931·21
193857040197140·9230·1135·63
193953236689836·1825·9031·14
194057341799034·0726·1430·21
19415864591,04532·5526·8529·77

Although the last few years have witnessed a considerable rise in the number of births, this has not been accompanied by an adverse change in the trend of the infant mortality rate. With the exception of 1938, when a sharp rise was recorded, the infant mortality rate has remained remarkably constant throughout the period under review, and the figure for 1941 actually constitutes a low record for New Zealand.

Normally the excess of the male over the female rate of infant mortality holds for each of the four divisions of the first year of life shown in the next table. The discrepancy is, however, usually somewhat greater in the first half of the year than in the second:—

Year.Male Deaths per 1,000 Male Births.Female Deaths per 1,000 Female Births.
Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.Under 1 Month1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.
193724·012·573·624·6120·362·272·042·82
193828·504·023·524·8819·603·083·683·75
193925·573·743·813·0617·982·552·972·40
194023·843·093·273·8720·121·821·882·32
194121·774·002·724·0618·132·572·523·63

Even when the effect of the male excess among infants born is eliminated by comparing the respective rates for the two sexes, the number of male deaths per 100 female deaths in the first month of life during the five years 1937–41 is found to be 129; between one and three months, 141; between three and six months, 129; between six and twelve months, 138; and for the first year as a whole, 132.

The rates per 1,000 births for the two sexes in conjunction are now given for each of the last five years:—

Year.Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.Totals under 1 Year.
193722·222·422·843·7331·21
193824·153·553·604·3335·63
193921·853·153·402·7431·14
194022·032·472·603·1130·21
194120·003·302·623·8529·77

Infants who die in the first year of life may be grouped roughly into two main classes—viz., those dying within one month of birth and those surviving the first month of life but dying before the first anniversary of their birth. Deaths among the first class are due principally to causes operating before the actual birth of the infant. The second group, generally speaking, are infants who have succumbed to causes arising from post-natal influences, such as the various epidemic diseases, faulty feeding, diseases of the respiratory system, &c. The first group naturally presents the greater problem to the infant-welfare worker, while the history of the comparatively rapid decline of the infant-mortality rate in New Zealand is largely an illustration of the effective measures adopted towards combating the post-natal causes of death in infancy.

The next table shows that, whereas in the period 1936–40 the death-rate for children under one month of age was 24 per cent. lower than in the quinquennium 1881–85, the rate for children who had survived the first month of life was only a little more than one-seventh as high as in the “eighties.” In other words, where the Dominion formerly lost between the ages of one month and one year more than sixty children out of every thousand it lost in 1936–40 only ten. An appreciable decline in the death-rate of infants under one month was recorded for 1941 as compared with 1940:—

Period.Deaths per 1,000 Births.Deaths between 1 and 12 Months per 1,000 Children who survive 1 Month.
Under 1 Year.Under 1 Month.Between 1 and 12 Months.
1881–188590·6029·7760·8362·70
1886–189084·0927·5756·5258·13
1891–189587·6030·3457·2658·93
1896–190080·0630·3849·6851·24
1901–190574·7730·6444·1345·54
1906–191069·6230·2839·3440·57
1911–191553·6329·2824·3525·05
1916–192048·6228·1620·4621·05
1921–192542·7527·4815·2715·70
1926–193036·7024·8211·8812·18
1931–193531·8822·349·549·76
1936–194031·8322·519·329·50
194129·7720·009·779·89

It would appear that on the one hand the diseases that can be combated openly, such as epidemic diseases, respiratory diseases, and diseases due to faulty nourishment, &c. (i.e., diseases of the digestive system), have shown a definite response to the strenuous campaigns launched against them; while, on the other hand, many infants are evidently non-viable at birth. This point is accentuated by the following table, which shows the rates for further divisions of the first month of life:—

Year.Under 1 Day.1 Day and under 2 Days.2 Days and under 1 Week.Totals under 1 Week.1 Week and under 2 Weeks.2 Weeks and under 3 Weeks.3 Weeks and under 1 Month.Totals under 1 Month.
19379·382·386·8118·572·271·000·3822·22
19388·153·118·1519·412·611·250·8824·15
19399·432·406·2418·072·221·040·5221·85
19408·793·236·4718·492·200·790·5522·03
19417·982·575·7816·331·991·080·6020·00

More than one-third (280) of the 702 deaths under one month in 1941 occurred within twenty-four hours of birth, and nearly five-sixths (573) within one week. The following table gives, for each of the last five years, detailed information as to the number of deaths at various periods of the first year of life:—

Year.Under 1 Day.1 Day and under 2 Days.2 Days and under 1 Week.1 Week and under 2 Weeks.2 Weeks and under 3 Weeks.3 Weeks and under 1 Month.1 Month and under 2 Months.2 Months and under 3 Months.3 Months and under 6 Months.6 Months and under 9 Months.9 Months and under 12 Months.Totals.
Males.
193712827107341572311483031461
1938120501434625133422494127570
193916536103412293520562619532
194015461123391593121553035573
1941168441163319124230494429586
Females.
19371163570251131514262214351
19381023579259112516492525401
1939107337723862115421816366
19401344589331191910302314417
19411124687371992717433329459
Both Sexes.
1937244621775926103825745245812
1938222852227134245938986652971
1939272691806430155635984435898
19402881062127226185031855349990
19412809020370382169479277581,045

Some remarkable changes are disclosed by the next table, which gives the infant mortality rates for various groups of causes in quinquennial periods commencing with the years 1872–76. If a comparison be made between the averages of the first and last periods given—1872–76 and 1937–41—it is found that the general infant mortality rate shows a decline of 71 per cent., while even greater decreases are recorded for tuberculosis (96 per cent.), convulsions (98 per cent.), gastric and intestinal diseases (95 per cent.), epidemic diseases (90 per cent.), and respiratory diseases (76 per cent.). The rate for diseases of early infancy shows a decrease of only 30 per cent. in 1937–41 as compared with 1872–76, but of 33 per cent. as compared with 1917–21, and the figures indicate that some measure of success has already attended the steps taken in recent years to cope with ante-natal conditions.

The increase shown for malformations and the decrease for tuberculosis are probably somewhat less than is indicated by the figures. In the earlier years covered by the table the latter heading included all deaths from hydrocephalus, many of which were no doubt due to congenital hydrocephalus, which is now included among the malformations. A proportion of the deaths from hydrocephalus in the earlier years would also probably be due to meningitis. The most striking features of the figures for recent years are the increased death-rate for malformations and the drop in the rate for diseases peculiar to early infancy. The following table shows quinquennial average death-rates of infants under one year of age, per 1,000 live births:—

Period.Epidemic Diseases.Tuberculosis.Infantile Convulsions.Respiratory Diseases.Gastric and Intestinal Diseases.Malformations.Early Infancy.Other Causes.Totals.
1872–187613·55·59·712·924·21·225·017·3109·3
1877–188110·25·27·512·319·81·421·915·393·6
1882–18869·34·77·911·819·11·225·512·391·8
1887–18918·93·76·310·518·51·324·78·882·7
1892–18969·83·36·611·016·61·424·911·284·8
1897–19016·12·65·610·017·21·526·29·778·9
1902–19065·51·54·19·715·31·327·67·972·9
1907–19115·91·33·37·615·51·926·76·368·5
1912–19163·60·62·25·17·43·926·23·552·5
1917–19213·20·51·94·74·54·326·12·948·1
1922–19261·80·41·34·32·84·822·43·341·1
1927–19311·50·30·53·71·75·019·43·135·2
1932–19361·50·20·63·31·25·017·52·431·7
1937–19411·40·20·23·11·35·517·42·531·6

Two out of every three deaths of infants under one year of age are due to causes coming within the groups “Early Infancy” and “Malformations,” and premature birth alone is usually responsible for approximately one-third of the total infant mortality.

In accordance with international practice, New Zealand's infant mortality rate represents the number of deaths of infants actually born alive, expressed as a proportion per 1,000 live births. This method, however, takes no account of still-births. Reference has been made in an earlier paragraph to the effect on the infant mortality rate of efforts made towards the reduction of those ante-natal influences which generally cause death to ensue during the early weeks of life. The fact that still-births are also the result of such ante-natal influences should not be lost sight of, and for this and other reasons it is of interest to compute rates per 1,000 total births for neonatal mortality (deaths of infants under one month of age) and still-births in conjunction, as in the following table. In the computation of the rates for numbers inclusive of still-births, the latter are taken into account in both births and deaths:—

Year.Still-births.Neo-natal Deaths.Neo-natal Deaths plus Still-births.
Number.Rate.Number.Rate.Number.Rate.
193776128·4257821·591,33950·01
193874326·5465823·511,40150·05
193990030·2763021·191,53051·46
194096528·6072221·401,68750·00
194197126·9270219·461,67346·38

The respective mortality rates of still-births and neo-natal deaths generally appear to be compensatory, so that the combined rate is maintained at a fairly consistent level. The 1941 figures record a distinct improvement in the total neo-natal death-rate.

The pronounced fall in New Zealand's infant mortality rate during the last three decades has not been accompanied by an increase in the death-rate of children between the ages of one and ten years. There has, on the contrary, been a substantial fall in the death-rate at these ages.

CAUSES OF DEATH.—Since 1908, the classification of causes of death in New Zealand has been on the basis of the international classification initiated by Dr. Jacques Bertillon and used by the principal European and American countries and the Commonwealth of Australia.

Detailed information concerning the various causes of death is given in the annual Report on Vital Statistics. The statistics for tuberculosis, cancer, puerperal causes, and violence—causes which are of special interest and significance—are discussed later on in this section.

The following table shows the numbers of deaths and the death-rates per 10,000 of mean population from certain principal causes, following the abridged international list of causes of death (Fifth Revision, 1938):—

Cause of Death.Numbers.Rates per 10,000.
1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.

* Figures for 1940 and 1941 not strictly comparable with previous years owing to introduction of revised classification (see page 65).

Typhoid and paratyphoid fever984670·060·050·030·040·05
Scarlet fever622120·040·010·010·010·01
Whooping-cough1321223680·090·140·010·150·44
Diphtheria24312415170·160·200·160·100·11
Tuberculosis of the respiratory system4954825225014913·293·173·393·243·19
Other forms of tuberculosis9511591991060·630·760·590·640·69
Malaria1 11 0·01 0·010·01 
Syphilis11081120102940·730·530·780·660·61
Influenza110133170119750·730·881·110·770·49
Measles41638140·031·070·050·010·03
Other infectious and parasitic diseases1331291131131430·880·850·730·730·93
Cancer and other malignant tumours1,7781,7871,8151,8582,02811·8211·7611·7912·0213·18
Non - malignant tumours and tumours of unspecified nature83837858600·550·550·510·350·39
Chronic rheumatism and gout21302227290·140·200·140·170·19
Diabetes mellitus2752853443063421·831·882·241·982·22
Alcoholism4811880·030·050.070·050·05
Avitaminoses, other general diseases, diseases of the blood, and chronic poisoning2542552742222491·691·681·781·441·62
Meningitis, and diseases of the spinal cord971079692860·640·700·620·590·56
Intracranial lesions of vascular origin1,1391,1951,2321,3071,3777·577·868·008·458·95
Other diseases of the nervous system and organs of special sense1611921651672071·071·261·071·081·35
Diseases of the heart3,9504,1704,2834,5654,85426·2527·4427·8229·5231·55
Other diseases of the circulatory system2522632312182271·671·731·501·411·48
Bronchitis1722002101731451·141·321·361·120·94
Pneumonia and bronchopneumonia7669676235245325·096·364·053·393·46
Other diseases of the respiratory system2172472181812321·441·621·421·171·51
Diarrhœa and enteritis49976977830·320·640·450·500·54
Appendicitis11711710690850·780·770·690·580·55
Diseases of the liver and biliary passages1381461261201250·920·960·820·780·81
Other diseases of the digestive system3253233453183702·162·122·242·062·40
Nephritis5875815344935633·903·823·473·193·66
Other diseases of the genitourinary system2222452132282371·471·611·381·471·54
Puerperal infection385136*36*560·250·340·23*0·23*0·36
Other diseases of the puerperal state566069*60*620·370·400·45*0·39*0·40
Diseases of the skin and cellular tissue, and of the bones and organs of locomotion49655767510·330·430·370·430·33
Congenital debility, malformations, premature birth, and other diseases of early infancy6377087148137694·234·664·645·265·00
Senility3554013334074822·362·642·162·633·13
Suicide1671881801681431·111·241·171·090·93
Homicide81257150·050·080·030·050·10
Automobile accidents2142452311991751·421·611·501·281·14
Other accidental deaths5145544645055343·423·653·023·273·47
Cause of death not specified or ill-defined137177130·090·050·110·050·08
Totals13,65814,75414,15814,28215,14690·7697·0991·9792·3698·44

TUBERCULOSIS.—The death-rate from tuberculosis of the respiratory system has been decreasing gradually during recent years, with occasional upward fluctuations. The rate for 1941, 3·19 per 10,000 of population, was slightly below the average of the preceding five years.

In addition to the 491 deaths from tuberculosis of the respiratory system during 1941, there were 106 deaths from other forms of tuberculosis, including—

Tuberculosis of meninges and central nervous system43
Tuberculosis of intestines and peritoneum17
Tuberculosis of vertebral column11
Tuberculosis of bones and joints2
Tuberculosis of genito-urinary system11
Disseminated tuberculosis22

Tuberculosis claims its victims at a comparatively early age. Of those dying from this cause in 1941, persons under the age of 45 years formed 56 per cent.

AGES OF PERSONS WHO DIED FROM TUBERCULAR DISEASES, 1941.

Age, in Years.Males.Females.Totals.
Under 512719
5 and under 10314
10 and under 154913
15 and under 2071522
20 and under 25173350
25 and under 30274370
30 and under 35362965
35 and under 40361248
40 and under 45281745
45 and under 50371350
50 and under 55391049
55 and under 60481058
60 and under 65351045
65 and under 7025732
70 and under 7510717
75 and under 80628
80 and over112
  Totals371226597

CANCER.—Cancer is annually responsible for more deaths in New Zealand than can be assigned to any cause other than diseases of the heart.

One factor contributing towards the recorded increase in deaths from cancer is the increasing proportion of persons reaching the ages where cancer largely claims its victims. This position has been brought about principally by the gradual amelioration of the one-time scourges of certain epidemic diseases which exacted a heavy tell of human life at the earlier ages.

Tuberculosis may, perhaps, be classified in the group mentioned, as the progressive decline in the death-rate from tuberculosis for very many years is practically uniform with the rise in the cancer death-rate. This is illustrated by the following figures of average death-rates from tuberculosis and cancer for decennial periods.

 Average Death-rates per 10,000 of Population.
Period.Tuberculosis.Cancer.
1880–8912·353·42
1890–9910·625·44
1900–099·106·79
1910–196·998·22
1920–295·699·30
1930–394·1711·17
19413·8813·18

In 1941 there were 2,028 deaths from cancer in the Dominion, a proportion of 13·18 per 10,000 of population. The standardized cancer death-rate for 1941 shows an increase of 0·43, and the recorded death-rate an increase of 1·16 per 10,000 as compared with the previous year.

Year.Number of Deaths from Cancer.Recorded Death-rate.Standardized Death-rate.*

* On basis of age distribution in 1911.

19311,49310·358·16
19321,47210·137·79
19331,62411·108·36
19341,69911·538·51
19351,65611·188·12
19361,76211·818·26
19371,77811·828·02
19381,78711·767·93
19391,81511·797·87
19401,85812·027·83
19412,02813·188·26

The following summary shows the types of cancer returned in the death entries for the year 1941:—

Type.Males.Females.Totals.
Carcinoma8808701,750
Adeno-carcinoma92938
Scirrhus carcinoma 1010
Sarcoma181533
Lympho-sarcoma21728
Melanotic sarcoma437
Fibro-sarcoma3 3
Osteo-sarcoma516
Adeno-sarcoma1 1
Chondro-sarcoma1 1
Epithelioma211233
Hypernephroma10515
Rodent ulcer549
Endothelioma224
Myeloma123
Seminoma2 2
Malignant glioma17926
Malignant teratoma112
Malignant melanoma6410
Malignant ulcer1 1
Malignant tumour41216
Malignant papilloma415
Malignant disease3710
Cancer (undefined)51015
      Totals1,0241,0042,028

Full details of the location of the disease are published annually in the Report on Vital Statistics, but a summary of deaths from cancer during 1941 is as follows:—

Seat of Disease.Numbers.Rates per 10,000 of Population.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
Buccal cavity and pharynx78261041·030·330·67
Digestive organs and peritoneum6054271,0327·995·476·71
Respiratory system79241031·040·310·67
Uterus 121121 1·550·79
Other female genital organs 8585 1·090·55
Breast 240240 3·071·56
Male genital organs103 1031·36 0·67
Urinary organs5516710·720·200·46
Skin2414380·320·180·25
Brain1911300·260·140·19
Other or unspecified organs61401010·800·510·66
      Totals1,0241,0042,02813·5212·8513·18

Ninety - three per cent. of the deaths from cancer during 1941 were at ages 45 years and upwards, and 52 per cent. at ages 65 years and upwards. Females predominate generally at the younger and males at the older ages.

There has been very little movement in the standardized cancer death-rate for persons under 65 years of age. For persons over 65, however, the standardized death-rate increased fairly rapidly in the earlier years of the Dominion's history, and reached its maximum in the quinquennium 1926–30, at about the time when the age-constitution of the population of New Zealand for the first time approximated that of the older countries of Europe. The figures suggest that cancer, while undoubtedly increasing in numerical incidence, is not doing so out of proportion to the population exposed to the cancer risk. Improvement in diagnosis has also been responsible for some of the numerical increase in the recorded deaths from cancer, but this factor has probably become more stabilized in recent years.

AGES OF PERSONS WHO DIED FROM CANCER, 1941.

Age, in Years.Males.Females.Totals.
Under 5112
5 and under 10325
10 and under 15538
15 and under 20527
20 and under 25123
25 and under 307613
30 and under 3511920
35 and under 40111627
40 and under 45283967
45 and under 504172113
50 and under 558095175
55 and under 60114132246
60 and under 65156133289
65 and under 70185155340
70 and under 75158133291
75 and under 80112107219
80 and over10697203
    Totals1,0241,0042,028

PUERPERAL CAUSES.—In point of numbers of deaths, puerperal accidents and diseases do not rank high among causes of death. Nevertheless, deaths from puerperal causes are of special importance and significance.

During the 44-year period 1872–1915 the death-rate from puerperal causes exceeded 5 per 1,000 live births on only 14 occasions, but after 1915 did not fall below this figure until 1925. The rate for 1920 (when the proportion of first births was high) was the third highest on record, having been exceeded only in 1884 and 1885, but the highest rate since 1920 was 5·14 per 1,000 recorded in 1922. The rate for 1940 is easily the lowest ever recorded in New Zealand. In 1941 a slight rise was experienced. The rate for each of the last twenty years is as follows:—

Year.Proportion per 1,000 Live Births.
19225·14
19235·11
19245·00
19254·65
19264·25
19274·91
19284·93
19294·82
19305·08
19314·77
19324·06
19334·44
19344·85
19354·21
19363·70
19373·61
19384·07
19393·64
19402·93
19413·36

Commencing with 1916, special inquiry has been made in all cases where a woman of child-bearing age has been returned as having died of such causes as septicæmia, peritonitis, nephritis, &c. (without qualification), with the result that in each year several of such cases are found to be puerperal, and are now so classed. In 1928 the system of investigating possible puerperal cases was still further extended.

The number of women who lost their lives through some cause connected with pregnancy or childbirth rose from 96 in 1940 to 118 in 1941. The relatively low level to which the death-rate from puerperal causes has fallen in recent years is all the more remarkable in view of the abnormal proportion of first births in the total of births upon which the death-rate for these years is based. It is a well-established fact that puerperal mortality is higher in first confinements than in subsequent confinements.

The rate of deaths from puerperal causes is frequently, though inaccurately, referred to as “the maternal death-rate.” It should be noted, however, that the class provided for puerperal causes in the international classification covers all deaths from accidents and diseases of pregnancy and parturition, and is not limited to deaths resulting from accouchements of normal women after more or less normal pregnancies. If it were possible to exclude certain types of puerperal cases a true maternal death-rate would result—considerably lower than that shown for all puerperal accidents and diseases. Full distinction cannot be made, but it may be mentioned that the 118 deaths from puerperal causes during 1941 included 28 from abortion, of which 24 became septic cases. Including these 24 deaths from septic abortion there were 41 deaths from puerperal septicæmia in 1941.

Septic abortion claims a comparatively high total of deaths in New Zealand, the number of deaths recorded from this cause in 1941 being 24. The highest total ever reached in one year in this country was 42, recorded in 1934.

The next table shows the deaths from puerperal causes during each of the last five years, grouped in the divisions into which such causes were divided in the international classification prior to the 1938 revision:—

Group.Number of Deaths.Rate per 1,000 Live Births.
1937.1938.1939.1940*1941*1937.1938.1939.1940.*1941*

* Figures for 1940 and 1941 have been adjusted to conform with the classification in use prior to the introduction of the Fifth (1938) Revision of the International List of Causes of Death.

Abortion with septic conditions24302014240·921·100·690·430·68
Abortion without septic conditions specified622440·230·070·070·120·12
Ectopic gestation3 1350·11 0·040·090·14
Other accidents of pregnancy   2    0·06 
Puerperal hæmorrhage6112110170·230·400·730·310·48
Puerperal septicæmia14211613170·540·770·550·400·48
Puerperal albuminuria and eclampsia16121619140·620·440·550·580·40
Other toxæmias of pregnancy1917816130·730·630·280·490·37
Puerperal phlegmasia alba dolens, embolus, sudden death1998140·040·330·310·240·40
Other accidents of childbirth5912690·190·330·420·180·26
Other conditions of the puerperal state   11   0·030·03
    Totals94111105961183·614·073·642·933·36

The Fifth (1938) Revision of the International List of Causes of Death, used for the first time in New Zealand in the mortality and morbidity statistics for the year 1940, contains some revolutionary changes in the classification of causes relating to pregnancy and the puerperal state.

The most important change is represented in the attempt to differentiate in all the principal groups of causes between deaths occurring during the course of pregnancy and those occurring during or subsequent to parturition. Paucity of data in many cases makes it difficult to classify correctly in this manner, but with the assistance of the Department of Health in the matter of eliciting further information from the medical practitioners concerned, reasonably accurate classification has been made in the 1940 and 1941 statistics.

Another important change was that associated with the classification of puerperal infection. Under the generic title of puerperal infection are now included puerperal pyelitis and pyelonephritis, general or local puerperal infection, puerperal thrombophlebitis, and puerperal embolism and sudden death. Greater distinction is also provided for in cases of abortion, both septic and non-septic.

These revolutionary changes in the classification of diseases of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium render the statistics of the last two years difficult to compare with those of previous years. In the foregoing comparative summary table the old classification has been retained and the 1940 and 1941 figures adjusted to it as far as possible.

Full details of puerperal causes classified according to the Fifth Revision of the International List may be found in the 1941 Report on Vital Statistics.

DEATHS FROM EXTERNAL CAUSES.—Deaths from external causes, apart from suicide, claim approximately 3 per cent. of the total deaths. Deaths from external causes in each of four years at quinquennial intervals are given in the next table:—

Cause of Death.Number of Deaths.Rate per 10,000 of Mean Population.
1026.1931.*1036.1941.1926.1931.*1936.1941.

* The number and rate under this heading are affected by the inclusion of 240 deaths caused by the earthquake of 3rd February, 1931.

Homicide141317150·100·090·110·10
Accidental causes—        
  Poisoning1327570·100·190·030·05
  Conflagration14114150·100·080·030·10
  Burns and scalds313420330·230·230·140·22
  Died under anæsthetic, asphyxia, &c.201110120·150·080·070·08
  Drowning1651261151051·220·870·770·68
  Firearms142315160·100·160·100·10
  Falls81981381310·600·680·930·85
  In mines and quarries171214130·130·080·090·08
  Crushing293515*3082902·17*3·572·061·89
  Fractures (causes not specified)2416230·180·110·010·02
  Other365367790·260·370·450·51
      Totals7229397157195·346·514·794·68

The number of deaths recorded from all accidental causes in 1941 was 704, corresponding to a rate of 4·58 per 10,000 of population. This represents, by comparison with 1926, a decrease of 4 in the number of deaths, while the death-rate has decreased by 0·66 per 10,000 of population. Part of the large increase between 1926 and 1941 in the death-rate from accidental falls is due to fuller information being obtained in a proportion of cases formerly classified under the heading of “fractures (causes not specified).”

In classifying deaths attributable to transport accidents under the various subheadings shown in the following table, the rule of assignment is that in fatalities due to collisions of railway-trains and electric tram-cars with motor-vehicles the death is assigned to the railway-train or electric tram-car as being the heavier and more powerful vehicle. In the case of collisions between motor-vehicles and horse-drawn vehicles the death is assigned to the motor-vehicle. The increasing expansion of flying services in New Zealand, both civil and military, has brought in its train a new transport hazard.

The number and rate of deaths resulting from railway, tramway, motor-vehicle, and aircraft accidents during each of the last eleven years are as follows:—

Year.Deaths clue to Accident.Rate per 10,000 of Population.
Railway.Tramway.Motor-vehicle.Aircraft.Railway.Tramway.Motor-vehicle.Aircraft.
193140915950·280·061·10O·03
193227915920·190·061·090·01
193331712060·210·050·820·04
193431515250·210·031·030·03
193521716640·140·051·120·03
1936411020230·270·071·350·02
1937411019540·270·071·300·03
193852723060·340·051·510·04
193939521650·250·031·400·03
1940355183180·230·031·180·12
1941405159500·260·031·030·32

As might be expected under present conditions, deaths arising out of aircraft accidents have greatly increased in recent years. The figures include Air Force accidents as well as civilian casualties.

Deaths from motor-vehicle accidents recorded an appreciable increase up to 1930, but this trend was reversed during the depression years, largely due to a great reduction in the number of motor-vehicles on the road during that period. With the advent of more prosperous times, the toll of the motor-vehicle again mounted, although, fortunately, not in proportion to the tremendous increase in motor-vehicular traffic on the highways of the Dominion. The 1938 total was the highest ever recorded in New Zealand. An appreciable drop, however, has been experienced since 1938 on account of there being less traffic on the roads owing to wartime restrictions in the use of petrol and rubber tires.

The figures given for deaths from motor-vehicle accidents (which do not include deaths of Maoris) are exclusive of accidents where persons have been killed in collisions between motor-vehicles and trains or trams, these, as stated above, being assigned to the heavier vehicle. For 1941 there were 16 deaths from such accidents, bringing the total number of deaths in cases where a motor-vehicle was involved up to 175. The corresponding figure for 1940 was 199. Further data regarding accidents will be found elsewhere in this volume (see Index). A later section is devoted wholly to statistics of industrial accidents.

SUICIDES.—The suicidal deaths in 1941 numbered 143—males 104, females 39— the death-rate per 10,000 of mean population being 0·93.

Year.Number of Suicidal Deaths.Rate per 10,000 of Population.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
1937109581671·430·781·11
1938150381881·950·511·24
1939135451801·730·591·17
1940132361681·700·471·09
1941104391431·370·500·93

The rate of suicidal deaths, until recent years, had been gradually increasing as is evidenced by the following table presenting, for annual averages of various quinquennia, the suicide-rate per 10,000 of mean population:—

Annual average duringMales.Females.Both Sexes.
1895–991·480·310·93
1900–041·660·311·02
1905–091·620·341·02
1910–141·830·411·16
1915–191·790·401·10
1920–241·920·461·20
1925–292·170·561·38
1930–342·290·551·44
1935–391·630·571·10
1940–411·540·481·01

MAORI DEATHS.—Deaths of Maoris are not included in the statistics quoted in preceding pages of this subsection. Their omission is due principally to the fact that a considerably lower standard of accuracy and completeness of data exists in the case of Maori registrations than in the general death records. Registrations of Maori deaths during each of the last five years have been as follows:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Maori Population.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
19378317261,55718·7817·7518·29
19381,1071,0132,12024·4624·1824·32
19399678081,77520·8918·8719·92
19408447491,59317·9817·0017·51
19411,0208811,90121·6619·4820·59

The rates for the two sexes are much more nearly equal for Maoris than for the rest of the population, the female rate being indeed higher than the male in some years (e.g., 1935).

Apart from mere numbers by sex, statistics of Maori deaths are not available prior to 1920. Annual tabulations are now made on the bases of age and cause of death, and the detailed statistics may be found in the annual Report on Vital Statistics. The ages of Maoris whose deaths were registered during the year 1941 were as follows:—

Age, In Years.Males.FemalesTotals.
Under 1294223517
1 and under 5154121275
5 and under 10303161
10 and under 15344377
15 and under 20504090
20 and under 25375390
25 and under 30343872
30 and under 35202848
35 and under 40242044
40 and under 45133144
45 and under 50392463
50 and under 55252247
55 and under 60372562
60 and under 65403676
65 and under 70514091
70 and under 75502272
75 and under 80282755
80 and under 85212142
85 and under 9017926
90 and under 9512921
95 and under 100448
100 and over11011
Unspecified549
      Totals1,0208811,901

With the exception of diphtheria and scarlet fever (only 4 deaths of Maoris from the latter disease being recorded during the last ten years), epidemic and infectious diseases generally exact a much heavier toll proportionately among Maoris than among the non-Maori population, the most noteworthy examples being tuberculosis, particularly of the respiratory system, and typhoid fever. Other diseases of the respiratory system also show much higher rates for Maoris than for Europeans, and the same state of affairs is disclosed for diarrhœal diseases and stomach complaints.

On the other hand, there is a much lower mortality rate among Maoris from certain diseases which rank high as causes of death among the non-Maori population. Principal among these are cancer, heart-disease and other diseases of the circulatory system, nephritis, the group of general diseases which includes diabetes and exophthalmic goitre, and the group of diseases of the nervous system which includes apoplexy and cerebral hæmorrhage. Malformations show lower rates for Maoris than for Europeans, but the indefinite nature of the data in the registration entries covering the deaths of many Maori infants may be partly responsible. The figures of deaths from malformations and the group “early infancy” taken in conjunction indicate a much higher rate for Maoris from these causes as a whole than for Europeans.

A summary is here given showing Maori deaths from the principal causes and groups of causes:—

Cause of Death.Number of Deaths.Rate per 10,000 of Mean Maori Population.
1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
Typhoid fever2024161272·352·751·791·320·76
Measles221239 10·2424·324·38 0·11
Whooping-cough816311020·941·840·340·1111·05
Diphtheria264220·240·690·450·220·22
Influenza34606438293·996·887·184·183·14
Dysentery4151517250·471·721·681·872·71
Pulmonary tuberculosis23629130029030127·7233·3933·6731·8732·60
Other forms of tuberculosis687692861057·998·7210·339·4511·37
Cancer37574348544·356·544·835·275·85
Cerebral hæmorrhage18112839242·111·203·144·292·60
Convulsions (under five years)11191618121·292·181·791·981·30
Heart-diseases13215113818720615·5017·3315·4920·5522·31
Bronchitis27465341443·175·285·954·504·77
Broncho-pneumonia16319613211616819·1422·4914·8212·7518·20
Pneumonia18624020112010421·8427·5422·5613·1917·76
Diarrhœa and enteritis481086858685·6412·397·636·377·37
Nephritis30201426273·522·301·572·872·92
Senility9483618010111·049·526·858·7910·94
Violence—          
Suicide81081050·941·150·901·100·54
Accident74668984868·697·579·999·239·31
Homicide1 3310·12 0·340·330·11
Ill-defined or not specified45583735515·286·654·153·855·52
Other causes30935535128231836·2940·7339·4030·9834·44
    Totals1,5572,1201,7751,5931,901182·86243·24199·23175·07205·90

From 1925 onwards information has been obtained as to whether the cause of death has been certified by a medical practitioner or a Coroner's inquest. As an indication of the improvements achieved in the specifying of the causes of deaths of Maoris, it may be said that in 1925, out of a total of 867 deaths, 446 or 51 per cent. were definitely shown to have been certified, while in 1941 the number so certified was 1,494 out of 1,901 registrations, equivalent to 79 per cent.

As regards infant mortality, the Maori rate is much higher than the non-Maori, principally owing to the ravages of epidemic diseases, tuberculosis, respiratory diseases, and diarrhœal diseases. The infant mortality rate for the first year of life was, for the five years 1937–41, 115 per 1,000 births in the case of Maoris, as compared with 32 per 1,000 among non-Maori infants, and this in spite of the fact that for the first month of life the Maori rate is on the average slightly lower. It is during the succeeding eleven months that the heaviest toll of Maori infant life is taken.

The numbers and rates per 1,000 live births for the last eleven years are given in the next table:—

Year.Maoris.Non-Maoris.
Number of Deaths under One Year.Rate per 1,000 Maori Births.Number of Deaths under One Year.Bate per 1,000 Non-Maori Births.
193122195·5985632·15
193226295·4577731·22
193327392·6177031·64
193427993·5978132·11
1935355109·2077332·26
1936399109·9276930·96
193736692·1781231·21
1938566153·2697135·63
1939473114·9289831·14
194037287·2299030·21
1941517125·061,04529·77

The next table shows for the year 1941 the principal causes of deaths of Maori infants under 1 year, classified according to age:—

Cause of Death.Under 1 Day.1 Day and under 2 Days.2 Days and under 1 Week.1 Week and under 2 Weeks.2 Week and under 3 Weeks.3 Weeks and under 1 Month.1 Month and under 2 Months.2 Months and under 3 Months.3 Months and under 6 Months.6 Months and under 9 Months.9 Months and under 12 Months.Totals.
Whooping-cough     12518241868
Influenza       161311
Dysentery       21339
Tuberculosis        2125
Infantile convulsions        33410
Bronchitis       15219
Broncho-pneumonia  2113912312725111
Pneumonia    124213211356
Diarrhœa and enteritis      236141136
Congenital malformations513 313 11119
Congenital debility, &c. 121 13223520
Injury at birth3241       10
Premature birth22810511 11  49
Other causes peculiar to early infancy1 8231 1  117
Accident      2112 6
Other defined causes   2226218181464
Unspecified or ill-defined2  11 3115317
      Totals3312291312123434109125104517

SUBSECTION D.—MORBIDITY.

DEATH-RATES are of great value as indicating the relative healthiness of different countries or of different years. The statistics of causes of registered deaths are of further use as showing the incidence of fatal diseases or accidents, and as indicating in a general way the relative rise or fall in the incidence of diseases over a series of years. For instance, the fall in the incidence of tuberculosis and the increase in cancer (discussed in Subsection C of this section) can be readily traced from the records of deaths attributed to those causes in different years.

In comparisons of healthiness based on death-rates, however, the effect of the advance of medical science in recent years is not taken into account. It is common knowledge that many diseases regarded a few decades ago as incurable now show a fair percentage of recoveries. Similarly, the death-rates in epidemics are in general much lower now than formerly, owing partly to the steps taken to prevent the spread of the disease, partly to the necessity of early notification in most countries, and partly to increased medical knowledge. Again, many diseases seldom or never result fatally.

Of recent years much attention has been devoted in different countries to the possibility of obtaining reliable statistics of morbidity. In New Zealand certain diseases are notifiable, but beyond this and the statistics of industrial accidents, given in Section 41, practically the only record other than that of fatality is the information ascertainable from the returns of patients treated in public hospitals. Information regarding benefits granted under the Social Security Act is given in Section 24, and the sickness experience of friendly societies' members is mentioned briefly in Section 29. In the absence of full statistics of sickness, however, information from the sources mentioned is of considerable value.

NOTIFICATIONS OF DISEASES.—Notifications of notifiable diseases during 1941 are shown for each month of the year in the following table:—

Disease.January.February.March.April.May.June.July.August.September.October.November.December.Totals.
Scarlet fever192434392640402619242522338
Diphtheria18921223750674647212322383
Enteric fever761453315125456
Pulmonary tuberculosis931157111993106829510712992951,197
Other tuberculosis243228191313211011232423241
Cerebro-spinal meningitis11274571918313533163
Acute poliomyelitis 11  1 1    4
Pneumonic influenza 2  21  1   6
Erysipelas161337352836443538343127374
Puerperal fever—             
  Ordinary671312799851087101
  Following abortion16101312101110116789123
Eclampsia1164136435910 273
Tetanus212 2211211217
Hydatids31253351347542
Trachoma1     1  1216
Ophthalmia neonatorum2111 2 2124319
Lethargic encephalitis12    1    15
Food poisoning253461 123414393
Bacillary dysentery13631177247106711 11348
Amœbic dysentery        1   1
Undulant fever3  31   146321
Actinomycosis 11      1 14
Lead poisoning   2 2121   8
    Totals2612984073672822993012772863052762643,023

The foregoing figures are exclusive of notifications of diseases of Maoris, figures for whom are far from complete. The following were the notifications of principal diseases among Maoris during 1941: Diphtheria, 14; enteric fever, 55; pulmonary tuberculosis, 482; other tuberculosis, 65; puerperal fever, 14; trachoma, 11; bacillary dysentery, 205; cerebro-spinal meningitis, 47; other, 18: total, 911.

A quinquennial summary of notifications (exclusive of Maori notifications) of certain principal diseases is now given:—

Disease.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
Scarlet fever924662480357338
Diphtheria599786517367383
Enteric fever5564615956
Pulmonary tuberculosis9151,0319891,0931,197
Cerebro-spinal meningitis13242219163
Acute poliomyelitis7652249224
Erysipelas329522552339374
Puerperal fever and septic abortion298263251255224

Information as to case-fatality in regard to the first three diseases mentioned above is given in the next table for each of the last eleven years:—

Year.Diphtheria.Scarlet Fever.Enteric Fever.
Cases notified.Deaths.Case-fatality.Cases notified.Deaths.Case-fatality.Cases notified.Deaths.Case-fatality.
   Per Cent.  Per Cent.  Per Cent.
19311,327554·141,304110·84161106·21
1932802404·9982960·72195115·64
1933963272·8078340·5110665·66
1934436265·9676281·055111·96
1935747334·4286380·93871011·49
1936513203·901.15280·6961813·11
1937599244·0192460·6555916·36
1938786313·9466220·3064812·50
1939517244·6448020·426146·56
1940367154·0935710·2859610·17
1941383174·4333820·5956712·50

In diseases of this nature, comparatively wide year to year fluctuations in the numbers affected are inevitable. In general, however, all three show reductions in incidence during the period covered by the table.

PUBLIC HOSPITALS: PATIENTS TREATED.—The public hospitals to which the following statistics relate include all hospitals under the control of the various Hospital Boards; two hospitals which arc also old people's homes (Greytown and Reefton); five special infectious diseases hospitals; the various tuberculosis institutions and special sanatoria; and such public maternity hospitals as also have provision for emergency general cases. Special military hospitals, and additions made to hospitals to accommodate military patients only, are also included. All St. Helens Hospitals, private hospitals, and solely maternity hospitals, are excluded. Outpatients are not covered by the statistics, which, however, relate to all in-patients— whether European or Maori. Inmates of old people's homes or infirmaries controlled by the Hospital Boards, for whom hospital benefits under the Social Security Act are payable for treatment received in such homes, are included in the statistics of patients treated.

During the year 1941 the total admissions to public hospitals in New Zealand numbered 132,902. There were 6,584 patients in hospital at the beginning of the year, the total cases dealt with during the year thus being 139,486, equal to 855 per 10,000 of mean population, including Maoris. In other words, the equivalent of one person out of every twelve in the Dominion received some degree of treatment in public hospitals in 1941, although, of course, the total of cases mentioned includes an unknown number of multiple admissions of the same persons.

The following table shows for each of the last eleven years the total number of patients treated, and the proportion of population:—

Year.Total Patients treated.Rate per 10,000 of Mean Population.
193179,176523
193279,143518
193383,817544
193488,085568
193593,173596
193698,444625
193798,235618
1938107,323668
1939112,502690
1940127,839781
1941139,486855

Since 1932 there has been a continuous and substantial increase in the number of patients treated, with the one exception of 1937, when a small decrease of 200 was recorded. In 1938 the epidemic of measles with its accompaniments of ear troubles and respiratory diseases (chiefly broncho-pneumonia and pneumonia) accounted for nearly 6,000 of the 9,000 increase of that year. The further gain of 5,000 in 1939 cannot be attributed specifically to any disease or group of diseases, and it seems probable that some of this increase may have had its origin in the introduction of the hospital benefit under the social security scheme. This benefit, particulars of which may be found in Section 24, came into operation on 1st July, 1939. The exceptional rise of over 15,000 in 1940 and of a further 12,000 in 1941 can probably be attributed partly to the same cause, but continued outbreaks of mild epidemics of measles, chicken-pox, mumps, &c., in military camps considerably swelled the numbers, as the great bulk of these cases were sent to emergency wards at the hospitals adjacent to the camps. The figures would also include a substantial number of male patients who entered hospital for remedial treatment to enable them to be passed fit for military service.

Condition on Discharge.—Of the 139,486 persons treated as in-patients in public hospitals in 1941, 86,513 were discharged as recovered, 33,653 as relieved, and 5,823 as unrelieved. Deaths in hospital numbered 6,511, and 6,986 patients were still in hospital at the end of the year.

The numbers of admissions, discharges, and deaths for each of the last five years were:—

Year.Admissions.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.
193793,07258,32125,2164,0485,27492,859
1938101,94763,98127,0064,7095,959101,655
1939106,83467,86928,3134,9355,568106,685
1940122,02577,81032,3185,3025,825121,255
1941132,90286,51333,6535,8236,511132,500

The following percentage analysis of total cases dealt with during each of the five years is of interest:—

Year.Discharged asDied.Remaining at End of Year.
Recovered.Believed.Unrelieved.
193759·3725·674·125·375·47
193859·6225·164·395·565·27
193960·3325·174·394·955·16
194060·8725·284·154·565·14
194162·0224·134·174·675·01

Sexes of Patients.—For many years males considerably outnumbered females among hospital patients. In 1932, for the first time, and in each of the three following years, females were in the majority. Since 1935, however, the proportion of males has again shown a tendency to increase. This excess of male patients is especially emphasized in the 1940 and 1941 figures, reflecting the large number of military patients admitted to hospital during the year. The death-rate is invariably higher among male than among female patients, chiefly due to a higher average incidence of serious types of diseases and of accident cases among male patients.

Year.Discharges and Deaths.Deaths.Death-rate per 1,000 Cases.
Males.Females.Males per 100 Females.Males.Females.Males per 100 Females.Males.Females.
193137,86736,7551032,3131,5091536141
193237,09337,563992,3451,5371536341
193339,31739,888992,4321,6041526241
193441,38042,015982,6191,7641486342
193544,10644,1231002,6751,8221476141
193646,94146,3411012,9731,9791506343
193747,02545,8341033,2572,0171616944
193851,09150,5641043,5832,3761517047
193954,17252,5131033,3782,1901546342
194064,75356,5021153,5012,3241515441
194171,37461,1261173,8362,6751435444

Ages of Patients.—The ages of patients who were discharged from or who died in public hospitals during 1941 were as shown in the following summary. The proportions of the population at each group which the discharges and deaths represented are also given:—

Ages of Patients, in Years.Males.Females.Total. Proportion per Cent. of Total Population.
Males.Females.Total.
Under 56,8785,28712,1658·596·847·73
5 and under 105,5154,4389,9538·346·997·68
10 and under 154,6223,8728,4946·445·626·04
15 and under 2517,84713,67931,52613·889·8111·76
25 and under 3510,59913,09123,6908·879·819·37
35 and under 457,0657,19314,2586·676·606·63
45 and under 555,9884,93010,9186·675·205·91
55 and under 656,2004,41010,6107·565·646·62
65 and over6,6534,20510,85810·926·808·85
      Totals (including unspecified)71,37461,126132,5008·877·408·12

The excess of females over males in the age-groups 25–34 and 35–44 is attributable to the fact that these two age-groups contain the majority of the very large numbers of women admitted to public hospitals for normal confinement or for treatment of diseases and accidents of pregnancy, labour, and the puerperal state. This disproportion was less in 1941 than in previous years owing to the influence of the numbers of military patients referred to earlier. In 1939 the number of male patients in the 25–34 age-group was 7,854 and the proportion per cent. of the total male population of those ages 5·78, as compared with 10,599 and 8·87 per cent. respectively in 1941. The corresponding figures for female patients in 1939 were 11,442 and 8·85 per cent., and in 1941, 13,091 and 9·81 per cent.

Summary of Diseases, &c.—As explained in the preceding subsection, the international classification of diseases and causes of death is used in New Zealand. The following table covers all patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals during the year 1940, which is the latest year for which such figures are available:—

Class.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.Males.Females.
I. Infectious and parasitic diseases10,4252,94169241828910,6284,137
II. Cancer and other tumours1,7741,5586924722932,1282,661
III. Rheumatic diseases, diseases of nutrition and of endocrine glands, and other general diseases1,8042,252229871441,8612,655
IV. Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs130233324933231246
V. Chronic poisonings and intoxications295163141340769
VI. Diseases of the nervous system and of organs of special sense2,9092,9637873392913,9003,389
VII. Diseases of the circulatory system2,0042,5452597384133,5632,396
VIII. Diseases of the respiratory system5,4462,2961983621995,4733,028
IX. Diseases of the digestive system22,1694,96557726119015,62912,533
X. Diseases of the genito-urinary system5,3802,837480200953,2795,713
XI. Pregnancy, labour, and puerperal state9,532889279 72 10,772
XII. Diseases of the skin and cellular tissue3,6111,083422192,8961,870
XIII. Diseases of the bones and of the organs of locomotion1,3661,3521322282,000880
XIV. Congenital malformations233376884229466302
XV. Diseases of early infancy2657256448229225
XVI. Senility 1491037950234147
XVII. Violence or accident8,5234,68920931913810,2433,635
XVIII. Ill-defined diseases1,94495548427201,5861,844
      Totals77,81032,3185,3023,5012,32464,75356,502

Principal Diseases.—A summary is now given of the principal diseases treated in public hospitals during the year 1940. All figures given (including deaths) are inclusive of Maoris.

It should be noted that the disease or condition for the treatment of which a patient is admitted to hospital is not necessarily that which would rank as the cause of death in the death statistics. Cystitis, for instance, ranks comparatively high in hospital cases as the condition immediately affecting the patient, but is frequently only the consequence of some more important disease, which would take precedence over cystitis in the statistics of causes of death. Generally speaking, the hospital returns show only the immediate or final disease or condition for which the patient is treated, and classification for statistical purposes is generally made regardless of the primary cause of that disease or condition. In the death statistics, on the other hand, the primary cause of decease is of paramount importance. In the hospital statistics a case admitted on account of the fracture of any bone is treated and classified as “fracture.” Should the patient die, however, the death would be classified in the mortality statistics according to the cause of the fracture—e.g., motor-car accident, accidental fall, &c.

SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL DISEASES TREATED IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS DURING 1940.

Diseases.Total Deaths registered in the Dominion.Total Cases in Public Hospitals.Deaths in Public Hospitals.
Number.Proportion of Total Deaths in Dominion.Proportion of Total Cases in Public Hospitals.

* See letterpress ante.

    Per Cent.Per Cent.
Typhoid and paratyphoid fever181101688·8914·55
Measles1640   
Scarlet fever1307   
Whooping-cough2496729·177·29
Diphtheria1734217100·004·97
Influenza1575,1715031·850·95
Erysipelas4328125·000·30
Acute poliomyelitis3443100·006·82
Pulmonary tuberculosis7912,25438048·0416·86
Tuberculous meningitis74665067·5775·76
Other forms of tuberculosis1118316154·957·34
Venereal diseases1188155244·086·38
Septicæmia (non-puerperal)1493717*1·81
Hydatids151301280·009·23
Cancer1,9062,72372037·7626·44
Non-malignant tumours632,1202438·091·13
Diabetes3141,13014345·5512·65
Exophthalmic goitre626163048·394·87
Leukæmia and aleukæmia59814067·7949·38
Diseases of the spinal cord631071726·9815·89
Cerebral hæmorrhage, apoplexy1,33886448236·0255·79
Diseases of the heart4,7523,1491,07522·6234·14
Diseases of the arteries1522414529·6018·67
Bronchitis2141,96710750·005·44
Broncho-pneumonia3931,02917143·5116·62
Pneumonia3671,78315241·428·52
Pleurisy366653083·334·51
Asthma346851647·062·34
Ulcer of the stomach and duodenum1261,5888365·875·23
Diarrhæa and enteritis1351,2575037·043·98
Appendicitis905,2446875·551·30
Hernia, intestinal obstruction1302,70211185·384·11
Diseases of the liver (excluding hydatids)52972853·8528·86
Diseases of the gall-bladder and biliary passages731,6444865·752·92
Peritonitis1517317*9·83
Nephritis51934815630·0644·83
Urinary calculi156021173·331·83
Diseases of the bladder1485423*2·69
Diseases of the prostate1216454234·716·51
Diseases of the female genital organs63,8977*0·18
Septic abortion171501270·598·00
Puerperal septicæmia281801553·578·06
Other puerperal diseases and accidents (including normal childbirth)7110,4364563·380·43
Diseases of the skin364,7663083·330·63
Osteomyelitis356872262·863·20
Congenital malformations2547687127·959·24
Diseases of early infancy66645411216·8224·67
External causes97613,87845746·823·29
Other diseases1,39541,64869950·111·68
      Totals15,875121,2555,82536·694·80

Chapter 5. SECTION 5.—PUBLIC HEALTH, HOSPITALS, ETC.

SUBSECTION A.—PUBLIC HEALTH.

THE law relating to public health in New Zealand is contained in the Health Act, 1920, and its amending Act of 1940. A full account of the 1920 Act was given in the 1927 issue of the Year-Book.

For the administration of the Act there is established a Department of Health, with a Director-General of Health as chief administrative officer. The Department comprises Divisions of Public Hygiene, Hospitals, Nursing, School Hygiene, Maternal Welfare, and Dental Hygiene, each of which is under the supervision of a Director.

For purposes of local administration the country is divided into health districts, each of which is under the charge of a Medical Officer of Health, who must be a medical practitioner with special qualifications in public health. These officers are entrusted with wide powers, and act as advisers of the local governing bodies in matters pertaining to public health.

In addition to being charged with the administration of the Health Act, the Department controls the registration of medical practitioners, dentists, nurses, midwives and maternity nurses, opticians, masseurs, and plumbers. It supervises the sale of food and drugs (including poisons and “dangerous” drugs), and protects the public against exploitation by fraud in connection with alleged remedies. The Department also administers the law covering the control of cemeteries and crematoria, and has certain responsibilities in connection with the administration of the Pharmacy Act, reference to which is made at a later stage of this section.

A recent addition to the functions of the Department is the administration of that part of the Social Security Act, 1939, which deals with medical, hospital, and other related benefits. This matter is treated in detail in Section 24.

The Director-General of Health is Chairman of the Medical Research Council set up in 1938. The functions of the Council are—

  1. To correlate, as far as may be practicable, medical research work in New Zealand.

  2. To recommend what researches and investigations should be undertaken.

  3. To appoint separate ad hoc committees to take charge of each investigation.

  4. To recommend what amount of money should be allocated for medical research each year, and to suggest an apportionment of the amount to separate investigations.

The medical and dental inspection and treatment of school-children are carried out by special divisions of the Department.

NOTIFIABLE DISEASES.—The system of notification of certain diseases has been in force in New Zealand for many years, and the list of notifiable diseases has undergone several alterations. The list at present is as follows:—

  1. Notifiable infectious diseases mentioned in Part I of First Schedule of Health Act, 1920:—

    Anthrax.Plague (bubonic or pneumonic).
    Cerebro-spinal fever (cerebro-spinal meningitis).Puerperal fever (puerperal septicæmia and puerperal sapræmia).
    Cholera.Scarlet fever (scarlatina).
    Dengue.Smallpox (variola, including varioloid, alastrim, amaas, Cuban itch, and Philippine itch).
    Diphtheria. 
    Erysipelas. 
    Enteric fever (typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever).Typhus.
    Leprosy.Yellow fever.
  2. Infectious diseases declared notifiable by Gazette notice:—

    Dysentery (amæbic and bacillary).Undulant fever.
    Encephalitis lethargica.Septicæmia consequent on abortion or miscarriage.
    Fulminant influenza. 
    Pneumonic influenza.Puerperal fever, involving any form of puerperal sepsis other than or in addition to puerperal septicæmia and puerperal sapræmia.
    Septicæmic influenza. 
    Ophthalmia neonatorum. 
    Acute poliomyelitis (infantile paralysis). 
    Trachoma (granular conjunctivitis, granular ophthalmia, granular eyelids).Any form of sepsis or sapræmia following abortion or miscarriage.
  3. Notifiable diseases, other than infectious, mentioned in Second Schedule:—

    Actinomycosis.Food poisoning (botulismus, ptomaine poisoning).
    Ankylostomiasis (hookworm disease). 
    Bilharziosis (endemic hæmaturia, Egyptian hæmaturia).Chronic lead poisoning.
     Phosphorus poisoning.
    Beriberi.Tetanus.
    Hydatids. 
  4. Notifiable disease, other than infectious, declared by Gazette notice:—

    Eclampsia.Tuberculosis (all forms).

SOCIAL HYGIENE REGULATIONS.—In November, 1924, syphilis, gonorrhoea, and soft chancre were declared to be infectious diseases within the meaning of the Health Act, 1920, and in July of the following year provision was made for the compulsory notification of these diseases in certain circumstances., and for the treatment of those affected by venereal disease in a communicable form. In the Health Amendment Act, 1940, gonorrhoea, syphilis, and soft chancre were added to the list of other infectious diseases included in Part II of the First Schedule to the Act, thus strengthening the position in regard to the control of these diseases.

In December, 1941, amended regulations in connection with the more stringent control of venereal disease came into force, revoking the Social Hygiene Regulations 1925. Under the present regulations it is incumbent upon a medical practitioner, or a medical officer of a hospital, who has been treating any person suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, to notify the Medical Officer of Health if such person fails for two weeks after the date fixed in that behalf by the medical practitioner or medical officer to attend for further treatment, or fails on two or more successive occasions to attend for treatment as directed by the medical practitioner or medical officer, unless he is known in the meantime to have placed himself under treatment by another medical practitioner.

If the Medical Officer of Health has reason to believe (either from a notification as provided for above or otherwise) that a person is suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, he may require such person to submit himself for examination to some medical practitioner and to supply a medical certificate, in the form specified, as to the state of his health in relation to venereal disease. If a medical certificate is not supplied within the time specified, or if the certificate does not definitely disclose whether or not the person to whom it relates is suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, the Medical Officer of Health may require the person to submit himself for examination to a medical practitioner nominated by the Medical Officer of Health, and to obtain a certificate from such medical practitioner.

In cases where a certificate is not obtainable, or where the certificate shows the person to be suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, or where a notice has been received from a medical practitioner of failure to attend for treatment as set out above, the Medical Officer of Health may, if he thinks it expedient so to do in the interests of the public health, make an order under section 84 of the Health Act, 1920, for the removal of such person to a hospital or other place where he may be effectually isolated. The medical officer in charge is required to admit such person and make any necessary examination to determine whether the patient is suffering from any venereal disease, and if so, he may detain the patient for a period not exceeding six weeks for the purpose of diagnosis and treatment. The Medical Officer of Health may, however, on the recommendation of the medical officer of the hospital or institution, extend the period of detention for not more than six weeks at any one time unless he is satisfied that the person detained is no longer suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form. A detained person may, with the consent of the Medical Officer of Health, be released by the medical officer of the hospital or place where he is detained, but must follow out the directions of the medical officer as to further treatment or investigation. Provision is made for the right of appeal by a detained person to a Magistrate, who may order an examination by two medical practitioners, and if it appears from the evidence brought before him that the person concerned is free from venereal disease in a communicable form, the Magistrate may make an order for his release.

Where treatment is not conveniently obtainable at a public hospital or public clinic the Director-General of Health may authorize a registered medical practitioner to administer free treatment if the patient is unable to pay. In such cases fees for services are paid by the State according to a scale laid down.

It is an offence for any person, while suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form and while not being treated to the satisfaction of a medical practitioner, to engage in any employment or act in any capacity in or about any factory, shop, hotel, restaurant, house, or other place if, by reason thereof, in the opinion of the Medical Officer of Health, any food intended for consumption by any other person or any food utensil is exposed to infection from venereal disease, or is likely to be so infected. Any person who, while suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, is employed for hire or reward in any occupation involving the care of children under five years of age also commits an offence. If any person suffering from venereal disease knowingly infects, or docs or suffers any act likely to infect, any other person, he is liable to imprisonment for twelve months, together with a fine of £100.

It is the duty of every medical practitioner who is consulted by any person, sixteen years of ago or over, suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, to give such person a notice setting forth the requirements for treatment and for not infecting others, and expressly warning him or her against marrying until medically certified as cured.

Every precaution is taken for the maintenance of secrecy and the avoidance of publicity in the carrying-out of the regulations.

HYDATID PREVENTION.—In January, 1939, an amendment to the Dogs Registration Act, 1908, came into force requiring local authorities to keep a supply of approved remedies for the care or prevention of disease in dogs caused by infection from the parasite Echinococcus granulosus. At the time of registration every person registering a dog receives a sufficient amount of an approved remedy to enable him to treat the dog every three months until the ensuing date of registration, and also printed instructions for the use of the remedy. The approved remedy at present supplied is arecoline hydrobromide. The Act is administered by the Department of Internal Affairs.

DIPLOMAS IN PUBLIC HEALTH.—In addition to the powers of conferring degrees of Bachelor and Master of Surgery and Bachelor and Doctor of Medicine, the Senate of the New Zealand University has power to grant diplomas in public health, and to make regulations for the examination of candidates for such diplomas. The examination for the diploma in public health is held in two parts, which may he taken separately or at the same time.

REGISTRATION OF MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS.—under the Medical Practitioners Act, 1914, as amended by the Medical Practitioners Amendment Act, 1924, is constituted the Medical Council of New Zealand, consisting of the Director-General of Health and six other registered medical practitioners. One of the six members is appointed on the recommendation of the New Zealand Branch of the British Medical Association.

The Council deals with all applications for registration under the Act, which enacts that every person shall be entitled to registration who satisfies the Council that he is a graduate in medicine and surgery of the University of New Zealand; or registered on the register kept in accordance with the provisions of the Acts regulating the registration of medical practitioners in the United Kingdom, or eligible for registration on such last-mentioned register; or the holder, after a course of not less than five years' study, of a foreign diploma approved by the Council. The Council may, however, refuse to approve any diploma (even in the case of persons registered or eligible for registration in the United Kingdom) unless it appears that New Zealand graduates are, without further examination, entitled to registration in the country granting the diploma. It may also require the holder of a foreign diploma to pass an examination in medicine and surgery to be prescribed and conducted by the Senate of the New Zealand University.

Regulations issued on 20th August, 1941, permit of a provisional practising certificate being issued to a medical student who, with a view to becoming a graduate in medicine and surgery of the University of New Zealand, has completed all parts of the curriculum up to and including the passing of the necessary examinations pertaining to the first five of the six years' course. This is a temporary measure, necessitated by war conditions.

An applicant who is refused registration as a medical practitioner has the right of appeal to the Supreme Court. The fee for registration is £2, payable on deposit of evidence of qualification. Under the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), an annual practising certificate (fee 5s.) is required.

The Medical Council is vested with disciplinary powers, including the suspension of a medical practitioner from practice. Right of appeal to the Supreme Court is provided. The Supreme Court, on the motion of the Medical Council, may order the removal of a name from the register in cases where a medical practitioner is guilty of grave misconduct, or is convicted of an indictable offence punishable by imprisonment with hard labour for a term of two years or upwards. The number of medical practitioners on the register at 31st March, 1942, was 1,756. During the year 1941–42 the names of 25 practitioners were removed and 88 added, 70 of the latter having New Zealand qualifications.

REGISTRATION OF DENTISTS.—The Dentists Act, 1936, provides for the constitution of a Dental Council consisting of—

  1. The Director-General of Health.

  2. Two dentists appointed on the recommendation of the Minister of Health.

  3. One dentist, being a member of the Faculty of Dentistry in the University of Otago, appointed on the recommendation of the Minister.

  4. One dentist appointed upon election by postal vote of those dentists whose registered addresses are in the North Island.

  5. One dentist appointed upon election by postal vote of those dentists whose registered addresses are in the South Island.

  6. One medical practitioner, being a member of the Faculty of Medicine in the University of Otago, appointed on the recommendation of the Minister.

  7. One medical practitioner nominated in that behalf by the New Zealand Branch of the British Medical Association and appointed on the recommendation of the Minister.

Every adult person is entitled to be registered as a dentist who satisfies the Dental Council that he is the holder of a qualification in dentistry obtained from the University of New Zealand; or that he is the holder of a qualification approved by the Dental Council and obtained from a university or other institution in the United Kingdom or in some other part of His Majesty's dominions (in the latter case, however, the Council may require a further examination); or the holder of an approved foreign qualification, but the Council may refuse to approve any foreign qualification if New Zealand graduates in dentistry are not accepted for registration without further examination in the country concerned, or the Council may require the applicant to pass a further examination.

Application for registration should be made to the Director-General of Health. The fee for initial registration is £2. If a provisional practising certificate is required there is a further fee of 5s. A fee of £1 per annum is payable for an annual practising certificate.

The number on the register at 31st May, 1941, was 794.

REGISTRATION OF NURSES, MIDWIVES, AND MATERNITY NURSES.—The Nurses and Midwives Registration Act, 1925, as amended in 1930, provides for a Nurses and Midwives Registration Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health or his deputy; the Director of the Division of Nursing (who is Registrar of the Board); a registered medical practitioner; a registered nurse and a registered midwife, and one other person recommended by the New Zealand Trained Nurses' Association or a similar body; and one person nominated by the Hospital Boards' Association.

Every person who has attained the age of twenty-two years and is certified as having undergone training for not less than three years and three months in a general hospital approved by the Board as a training-school under the Act, and who has passed the prescribed hospital and State examination, is entitled to registration. The number on the register of nurses in active practice at 31st March, 1942, was 3,889.

The Act also provides for the registration of midwives and maternity nurses.

The requirements for training are as follows:—

Maternity Nurses.—In the case of a person who is a registered nurse the period of training is six months, and in the case of any other person is a period of eighteen months. At the end of this time the candidate is eligible to sit for the State Maternity Examination.

Midwives.—No person may be accepted for training as a midwife until such person has been registered as a maternity nurse; the duration of the course of training will then be a period of six months, at the end of which the candidate is eligible to sit for the State Midwifery Examination.

The number on the register of midwives in active practice on the 31st March, 1942, was 1,056, and the number of registered maternity nurses on the active list was 1,022.

The Nurses and Midwives Registration Amendment Act, 1939, provides for the registration and training of “nursing aids.”

REGISTRATION OF OPTICIANS.—The Opticians Act, 1928, provides for the constitution of an Opticians Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health (the Registrar), three persons engaged in practice as opticians in New Zealand (one of whom must be practising as an employee of another registered optician), and a registered medical practitioner with special knowledge of diseases of the eyes.

The Board deals with all applications for registration under the Act. On payment of the prescribed fee (£5), every person is entitled to registration as an optician who satisfies the Board that—

  1. He has received satisfactory training qualifying him to practise as an optician, and is the holder of a certificate of qualification recognized by the Board, or

  2. He has passed an examination under the Act, both theoretical and practical, after a course of not less than three years' training in New Zealand as prescribed by regulations.

Under the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), an annual practising certificate (fee 10s.) is required.

Regulations pursuant to the Opticians Act, 1928, prescribe the conditions and period of training and the syllabus for the examination conducted by the Opticians Board.

The number of opticians on the register at 31st March, 1942, was 287.

REGISTRATION OF MASSEURS.—Under the Masseurs Registration Act, 1920, and the Masseurs Registration Amendment Act, 1924, there is constituted the Masseurs Registration Board of New Zealand, consisting of the Director-General of Health, a registered medical practitioner, and two persons engaged in the practice of massage in New Zealand.

The Board deals with all applications for registration (fee £3) under the Act. It is necessary for applicants to be in possession of approved certificates for the three branches of massage: (1) Massage; (2) medical electricity; (3) remedial exercises and other branches of physiotherapy.

Under the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), an annual practising certificate (fee 10s.) is required.

The number of masseurs on the register at 31st March, 1942, was 623.

REGISTRATION OF PLUMBERS.—The Plumbers Board of New Zealand, constituted under the Plumbers Registration Act, 1912, consists of five members—viz., the Director-General of Health or his deputy (Chairman); the Director of Education; a city or borough engineer nominated by the Municipal Association of New Zealand; a master plumber and a journeyman plumber elected by their respective associations.

The functions of the Board are to decide what persons may be registered under the Act, and in what districts sanitary plumbing may be performed only by registered plumbers. It also decides the scope of the examinations to be held as a part of the process of securing registration.

Under the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), an annual license fee of 5s. is payable by registered plumbers doing sanitary plumbing. A registered plumber is not required to pass any examination or to pay any license fee under local authority by-laws.

The total of names on the register at 31st March, 1942, was 2,881.

SALE OF FOOD AND DRUGS.—In order to make better provision for the sale of food and drugs in a pure state the Sale of Food and Drugs Act was passed by the Legislature, and came into force on 1st January, 1908. The Act is administered by the Department of Health, and provides for the analysis, by analysts appointed under the Act, of any article of food or drink, or of any drug, which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any food or drug intended for sale. If any such article be proved to be unfit for human consumption, or likely to cause injury to health if consumed, heavy penalties may be inflicted on the person or persons responsible. Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration of food, drink, or drugs, and for the inspection of places where such goods are manufactured or packed. The selling of light-weight bread is an offence under the Act, as is also the taking back of bread after it has been in the possession of the purchaser for more than an hour.

Considerable progress has been made in implementing the purposes of the Act. All the commonly used foodstuffs are standardized, and the labelling of packages controlled by regulations which are revised and added to as the necessity arises.

An amendment of the Act in 1924 marks a noteworthy advance in legislation of this kind, and has been used to good effect in controlling all kinds of publicity concerning any food or drug whereby a purchaser is likely to be deceived in regard to the properties of such food or drug, whether it is dealt with by a regulation or not.

The definition of “drug” includes medicines used externally or internally by man; it also includes anæsthetics, soaps, ointments, disinfectants, and tobacco.

Any person may, on payment of the prescribed fee, together with the cost of the sample, require any authorized officer to purchase a sample of any food or drug and to submit it for analysis.

The administration of the Weights and Measures Act is among the functions of the Department of Labour; the correct weight of bread, butter, and other foodstuffs coming within the scope of this Act.

MEDICAL ADVERTISEMENTS ACT, 1942.—This Act, which supersedes and repeals the Quackery Prevention Act, 1908, came into force on 1st January, 1943. An advertisement is described as any words, whether written or spoken, or any picture, drawing, or figure which may be inserted in any newspaper or other periodical or brought to the notice of the public in any other manner. The term does not, however, include any advertisement or scientific matter which is distributed only to members of the medical or pharmaceutical professions, or of any other profession concerned with the health of the human body, or which is published only in a publication which in the ordinary course circulates only among, or is distributed only to such, persons. The control of ill advertisements is in the hands of an authority, called the Medical Advertisements Board, which consists of the Director-General of Health as Chairman, an analyst under the Food and Drugs Act, 1908, a medical practitioner, and two other persons.

The Board may serve on the proprietor of any drug, cosmetic, dentifrice, article, substance, preparation, instrument, or apparatus to which any medical advertisement relates, or on any person for whom or on whose behalf a medical advertisement has been published, a notice requiring the proprietor or other person to prove to the satisfaction of the Board any claim or statement which is contained or implied in the advertisement. Persons served with a notice are entitled to appear before the Board and submit evidence. Advertisements which are the subject of a notice must not he published after the expiration of seven days from the service of the notice and until the Board has notified its decision.

With the prior authority of the Board, the Chairman may, for the purpose of protecting the public, publish statements relating to any matter contained or implied in medical advertisements. All such statements will be privileged. All medical advertisements are to contain the true name of the advertiser. Provision is also made for the control of testimonials appearing in advertisements.

Regulations may be made under the Act to name diseases in respect of which claims to be able to diagnose, prevent, alleviate, treat, or cure may not be published, and specifying drugs which may not be mentioned in any advertisement.

Every person who infringes the provisions is liable to imprisonment for a term up to three months or to a fine not exceeding £50, and for a continuance of the offence to a further fine not exceeding £5 for every day during which the offence continues. In the case of a corporate body the penalty is a fine not exceeding £200, and up to £20 a day for continuing offences.

DANGEROUS DRUGS AND POISONS.—In order to carry out New Zealand's obligations under the Geneva Convention (League of Nations), the Dangerous Drugs Act, 1927, was enacted. The dealing in and the use of prepared opium are prohibited, and the production, manufacture, sale, and distribution of other dangerous drugs are subject to a license granted by the Director-General of Health or some other lawful authority. Provisions are made to prevent illicit traffic in drugs of a habit-forming nature. Suitable regulations are now in force to give effect to the provisions of the Act, and follow lines similar to the regulations in England and Australia.

The Poisons Act, 1934, is aimed principally at preventing deaths from misadventure arising from two main causes: first, the careless use of industrial and farm poisons through loose packing or handling in bottles commonly used for foodstuffs, beverages, or harmless medicines; second, the increasing tendency by the public to use certain of the newer drugs having hypnotic or pain-reducing properties, or supposed to be effective for slimming, &c. Regulations providing machinery for carrying out the Act have been passed on the lines of the provisions in force in Great Britain.

PHARMACY.—The Pharmaceutical Society of New Zealand, constituted by the Pharmacy Act, 1939, consists of about 800 members. These are known as “registered chemists,” and no chemist shop may be opened in the Dominion except under the charge of one of these.

The affairs of the Society are managed by the Pharmacy Board, set up by the Act. This Board consists of twelve members, one of whom is appointed by the Minister of Health, nine are elected on a district basis by members of the society, and two by persons (other than members of the society) employed in pharmacies. The main function of the Pharmacy Board is to administer the Pharmacy Act and its amendments in the interests of the public and of the members of the society, also to watch such other legal provisions generally as may have a bearing upon pharmacy.

The Society has reciprocal agreements with the societies of Great Britain and all the Australian States—that is to say, a member registered after passing the full examinations of a reciprocating country may be registered in any of the others on complying with prescribed formalities and on payment of the necessary fees.

The Pharmacy Board holds examinations annually for those who wish to obtain the necessary qualifications entitling them to registration. Candidates must also serve four years' apprenticeship. The first official College of Pharmacy was opened in Wellington in 1933, and students may also study at any University college or technical college.

The Society has a Benevolent Fund, which is used for the relief of members who may be in needy circumstances, or of their relatives who may be unprovided for.

In addition to the statutory organization set up by the Pharmacy Act, members of the Pharmaceutical Society have another organization known as the Chemists' Defence Association, Ltd., which provides an indemnity guarantee for its members, deals with matters of general interest not covered by the Act, and governs ethical questions as between pharmacists and medical men and the public generally. There is also a Chemists' Service Guild governing purely business matters.

Pharmacy is now subject to the provisions of the Industrial Efficiency Act, 1936, every open shop being under license: no company or individual may open a pharmacy or change his premises without consent from the licensing authority. There are 560 pharmacies at present open under license.

CEMETERIES.—The Cemeteries Act, 1908, which was amended in 1912, 1922, and 1926, constitutes the legislation governing burial and cremation in New Zealand. The Cemeteries Amendment Act, 1926, transferred the work of administration from the Minister of Internal Affairs to the Minister of Health, one of the objects being to utilize the services of Inspectors of Health in giving closer attention to matters for which a field staff is essential.

Widespread provision for cemeteries has been made in the past by the reservation of areas of Crown land for this purpose, but apart from this the Cemeteries Act makes it clear that local authorities are charged with ensuring that in their districts there exists adequate provision for the disposal of the dead.

In most rural areas and in the smaller centres the local authority either acts as trustee or else has been delegated the power of appointing individual trustees to carry out the provisions of the Act. For some cemeteries established on Crown reserves trustees are appointed by the Governor-General. In the larger centres local authorities have acquired land for the establishment of cemeteries.

In regard to cremation, the law provides that this method of disposal may be carried out subject to the prior condition that the deceased was not known to have left any written direction to the contrary and also subject to the condition that the cremation is effected in conformity with the regulations. The latter impose stringent precautions against cremation being used for any criminal purpose. Crematoria have been established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS.—The Division of School Hygiene is responsible for medical inspection of school-children throughout New Zealand. The School Medical Service was placed on a definite basis in 1912 with the appointment of three full-time School Medical Officers. The staff now consists of a Director and 15 full-time and 4 half-time School Medical Officers. In addition, 4 Medical Officers of Health act as part-time School Medical Officers. The nursing work of the Division of School Hygiene, originally carried out by specialized school nurses, is now done by a staff of 100 district nurses as part of their general programme. Thirteen Nurse Inspectors give part of their time to school duties, while a further twenty nurses employed by Hospital Boards and the Public Works Department carry out the school nursing work of their respective areas.

The School Medical Service aims at securing for each child three physical examinations during his primary-school life. These examinations are made as the child enters school, half-way through, and at leaving. In between these times special examinations are carried out when requested by teachers, parents, or district nurses, or when considered necessary by School Medical Officers. Parents are notified of defects found, the choice of medical attendance or public hospital treatment being left to the parents. The district nurse follows up the doctor's work by visiting homes and encouraging parents to have defects remedied.

The following summary furnishes particulars of children medically examined in schools in 1941:—

Children examined—

 Non-Maori.Maori.
  Completely45,5883,524
  Partially23,307 
Number of children notified as defective (medical and dental)29,4822,028

The size of the existing staff does not permit of medical supervision of non-Maori secondary schools as a routine measure, but annual inspections are carried out where circumstances permit. Maori scholarship-holders are examined annually, and routine inspections with X-ray examinations are made at Maori secondary schools.

Kindergartens are inspected as a routine. Pre-school children are being medically examined in increasing numbers, and to this end pre-school clinics have been opened in thirty larger centres of population, in co-operation with the Plunket Society. Advice is given where necessary, and return visits arranged for in cases where the child's health shows need of continued supervision. The mother is referred to her own medical adviser or the public hospital when this course of action is deemed necessary.

Entrants to the teaching profession are medically examined before admission to training colleges. Dental trainees of the Dental Hygiene Division are also medically examined before entrance to Dental School.

The milk-in-schools scheme shows further progress, and in 1941, 233,744 pupils in 1,478 schools were receiving free bottled, pasteurized, malted milk, or milk for cocoa-making.

The health-camp movement has progressed steadily since the formation of the National Federation of Health Camps in 1936, and the inauguration of the King George V Memorial Fund Board in 1938. Four permanent camps are established or in the course of establishment, and seven secondary camps are operating. Within a short time it is expected that adequate health-camp facilities will meet the needs of children throughout New Zealand.

Diphtheria immunization is being steadily offered by the School Medical Service. It is proposed to widen the scope of immunization work to include whooping-cough. Vaccine has been obtained in quantity, and free treatment is available through preschool clinics. Tuberculosis work has been entirely re-organized, the family being taken as the unit for preventive work. Contact supervision, previously done in schools, is now carried out in the homes. School Medical Officers see that the tuberculosis case is under proper care and treatment, arrange the X-raying of all household contacts, also such base hospital, sanatorium, and specialist visits as may be needed for full diagnosis and treatment of incipient disease in contacts. Backward children, or children with defects of speech and hearing, are referred to special classes or schools.

The sanitary condition of school buildings is inspected, and defects are reported to the Education Authorities for remedial action.

DENTAL TREATMENT OF SCHOOL-CHILDREN.—The New Zealand School Dental Service, instituted in 1921, is conducted by the Dental Division of the Department of Health. By the end of 1941 school dental clinics had been established at 376 centres in the Dominion, and further expansion was being continued. Each clinic deals with the children of certain specified schools in its vicinity, and these are organized into a “dental group.” Local administration of clinics is in the hands of a dental clinic committee, composed of parents and other local residents. Treatment of the children in the clinics is carried out by school dental nurses specially trained for this work by the Department. For this purpose a modern well-equipped training school has been erected at Wellington. This was completed and put into operation in May, 1940, replacing the old building which had served as a training school since the inception of the service.

At the end of December, 1941, there were 318 trained school dental nurses in the Service, and in addition there were 129 student dental nurses in training. At the same date, 126,706 children belonging to 2,021 schools were under systematic treatment at the various clinics. With the consent of their parents, children are brought under treatment while they are in the primer classes, and earlier wherever possible, and they are kept dentally fit from that time until they pass out of the Fifth Standard. For this purpose they are re-examined at six-monthly intervals and necessary treatment is carried out. The attendance of children of pre-school age is encouraged, and the number quoted above includes 8,000 children in this category.

Particular attention is given to instructing children in the principles of dental hygiene, and the Department aims at securing the co-operation of both the children and their parents in the endeavour to reduce the prevalence of dental disease.

During the year 1941–42 the staff of the Dental Division gave 4,018 talks, addresses, and other forms of educational activity.

The following is a summary of the treatment performed in the Service during the year 1941: Fillings, 792,645; extractions, 84,951; other operations, 327,249: making a total of 1,204,845 operations.

NATIONAL PHYSICAL WELFARE AND RECREATION.—Probably no other country in the world has better natural facilities than New Zealand for popular recreation. The Dominion has also had the benefit of much organization by sports bodies for the promotion of various games, but it was not until 1937, with the passing of the Physical Welfare and Recreation Act, that the cult of physical fitness became a definite part of a national policy, in line with movements in Great Britain, several countries of the Continent of Europe, and the United States of America. The purpose is tersely set out in the Act (which is based on the main provisions of the Imperial Government's legislation)—"to provide for the development of facilities for, and the encouragement of, physical training, exercise, sport, and recreation, and to facilitate the establishment of centres for social activities related thereto.”

Before the Act was passed the goodwill of representatives of sports bodies from all parts of the Dominion was shown at a conference in Wellington, from which the structure of a National Sports Council emerged. The Act made provision for a National Council of Physical Welfare and Recreation, comprising the Minister of Internal Affairs (Chairman), the Under-Secretary for Internal Affairs (Deputy-Chairman), the Director-General of Health, the Director of Education, a representative of the Naval, Military, and Air Forces, and other members (not more than ten) to be appointed by the Minister. There was provision also for the declaration of areas as districts under the Act and the appointment of District Committees, representing the Councils.

Before preparations were complete for a systematic functioning of the National Council and District Committees, a state of war was declared, and the development of activities had to be adapted to the abnormal conditions.

Physical Welfare Officers.—Despite the difficulties, a practicable programme was carefully planned and physical welfare officers were appointed to put the national policy into operation For administrative purposes, the Dominion has been divided into sixteen districts, the total field staff consisting of twenty-nine men and fifteen women.

Voluntary Leaders.—To make amends, as far as possible, for unavoidable limitation of staff, the Department encourages the training of voluntary leaders until they are qualified to spread the benefits of the instruction given by the Physical Welfare Officers. In this manner very important service has been given for the Home Guard, the Women's War Service Auxiliary, and other organizations.

War Effort.—For some time after the outbreak of war the main activities of the male officers were concerned with the Home Guard.

Later on, the principal training scheme was for the Air Training Corps, information regarding which will be found in Section 8. In addition to the planning of special exercises for the cadets, they are encouraged to take part in suitable sports. Instruction in swimming is an important feature, and a high degree of efficiency has been reached. As a result of the scheme, many cadets who had shown an indifferent attitude to field games prior to joining the Air Training Corps have now developed into enthusiastic participants. A remarkable improvement in the physique of the cadets is evident as a result of these activities.

Sports Councils.—Apart from the National Council envisaged by the Act, the Department's officers have taken leading parts in the formation of Sports Councils in the principal provincial districts. In this enterprise the officers' practice is to have the utmost friendly co-operation with the sports bodies, whose goodwill has been solidly won. Thus the way has been prepared for better progress of sports movements in the future.

School Recreation Cards.—Other assistance for sports bodies is given with the use of recreation cards, which facilitate recruiting among pupils when they leave school.

Group Travel.—A scheme for the promotion of group travel, particularly tours for people of moderate means, was formulated and good progress was made until restrictions on travel intervened.

Camps for Women Industrial Workers.—A successful start has been made with recreational week-end camps for women industrial workers, particularly in industries closely linked with the war effort.

Educational Activities.—Supporting the practical demonstrations, the Department carries on a keep-fit campaign with articles in newspapers, radio talks, and lectures.

SUBSECTION B.—HOSPITALS AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS.

PRIOR to the abolition of the provinces in 1876 hospital maintenance was left to the care of the several Provincial Councils, each of which had a system of its own. On the change-over to the county form of government in the following year all of these diverse systems came under the charge of the Central Government, and many difficulties and incongruities occurred. Gradually there grew up a system of excessive demands upon the Government, and in 1885 an attempt to reduce a somewhat chaotic state of affairs to some semblance of order and uniformity took shape in the Hospitals Act of that year, which provided for the constitution of special hospital districts and Boards. Several amendments, based on the result of experience, were passed in later years, and the present law relating to the subject is embodied in the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act, 1926, to which a number of amendments have since been made.

HOSPITAL BOARDS.—The management of affairs in each hospital district is entrusted to a Hospital Board, consisting of not more than twenty and not less than eight members representing the contributory local authority districts comprising the hospital area. Members are elected at the ordinary general election of the contributory authorities.

Subject to the consent of the Minister of Health, a Hospital Board has power to establish, control, and manage any of the following institutions: Hospitals, charitable institutions, maternity homes, convalescent homes, sanatoria, habitual inebriates' homes, reformatory institutions for the reception of women and girls, and any other institutions for any purpose which the Governor-General by Order in Council may declare to be a public charitable purpose. It may grant charitable aid to indigent, sick, or infirm persons; may provide medical, surgical, and nursing attention for persons not inmates of an institution; and may grant financial assistance to medical and nursing associations and private philanthropic institutions approved by the Minister.

It is the duty of every Hospital Board to provide and maintain such hospitals as the Director-General of Health considers necessary in any part of the district for (a) the reception, relief, &c., of any persons suffering from infectious diseases; (b) the reception, &c., of persons suffering from other than infectious diseases. Hospital Boards are also required to provide for the removal to hospital of these classes of persons. In addition, Boards must provide maternity hospitals.

Provision of Finance.—No rating-powers are given to Hospital Boards, but under the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act the estimated net expenditure (excluding Government subsidy) of a Board is apportioned by the Board among the contributory local authorities within its district in proportion to the capital value of the rateable property in each contributory district. On levies from local authorities for maintenance purposes a scale of subsidy is in operation ranging from 14s. to 26s. per £1, and averaging throughout the Dominion £1 for £1. The principle of the scale is to give relatively greater assistance where the requirements are high in proportion to the rateable capital value of the hospital district.

Levies on contributory local authorities and Government subsidy each form about one-third of the total maintenance receipts of Hospital Boards, and prior to 1939–40 patients' fees and other recoveries from those assisted accounted for the bulk of the remainder. The operation of the Social Security Act, 1938, however, marked a change in the system of Hospital Board finance in so far as patients' fees are concerned. Under Part III of the Act maternity benefits and hospital benefits are payable from the Social Security Fund to Hospital Boards, which are required to accept the payments in full satisfaction of all claims in respect of services rendered to patients entitled to benefits. The former benefit came into operation on 15th May, and the latter on 1st July, 1939. Full details in respect of the benefits appear in the section dealing with “Social Security, Pensions, Superannuation, &c.”

The above remarks apply to levies for maintenance purposes. As regards capital works, the not requirements are met by levy and by subsidy in equal amounts; in other words, the subsidy is at the rate of £1 for £1. Where the expenditure is very heavy, Boards may have recourse to borrowing.

A Government subsidy was formerly payable on voluntary contributions and bequests, but this has been discontinued since March, 1932.

Receipts and Payments.—The following is a summary of the receipts and payments of Hospital Boards for the years ended 31st March, 1940 and 1941:—

1939–40.1940–41.
Receipts.££
Voluntary contributions and bequests8,10014,811
Levies1,093,099967,723
Subsidies1,042,291857,405
Payments from Social Security Fund, patients' payments, and charitable-aid recoveries1,000,2661,289,886
Rent, interest, and dividends29,78731,333
Loans165,938272,808
Sale of capital assets2,3501,835
Miscellaneous receipts40,93471,781
        Totals3,382,7653,507,582
Payments.  
Hospital maintenance2,072,2312,544,639
Charitable aid194,207175,252
Medical associations or medical men in outlying districts16,50516,482
District nursing18,91522,426
Administration115,478120,189
Amounts paid to other Boards or separate institutions90,85580,801
Rents, rates, and taxes2,2302,491
Interest66,69568,177
Contributions to National Provident Fund for superannuation of employees25,64127,787
Capital works363,672638,735
Loan-repayments or payments to sinking fund92,637102,278
Miscellaneous payments42,92430,714
Amounts invested on account of funds for special purposes3,57115,020
        Totals3,105,5613,844,991

Revenue and Expenditure.—Although the figures in the preceding statement relate to receipts and payments, the official returns of Hospital Boards have since 1916–17 been supplied on the basis of an Income and Expenditure Account and Balance-sheet.

Revenue.—The following table, showing the sources of revenue for the last two financial years for which figures are available, relates not only to Hospital Boards, but also to Government institutions:—

1939–40.1940–41.
Amount.Percentage of Total.Amount.Percentage of Total.
 £ £ 
Contributions by Government1,213,34936·6983,68330·4
Levies on local authorities1,093,45733·0966,23029·9
Voluntary contributions10,9430·321,7320·7
Payments from Social Security Fund and recoveries from those assisted942,83128·41,198,93337·1
Rents, interest, and dividends31,5941·037,8391·2
Miscellaneous revenue21,8170·721,6840·7
 3,313,991100·03,230,101100·0
Cash in bank (other than loan-money)105,401 346,968 
      Totals3,419,392 3,577,069 

With the exception of “Payments from Social Security Fund and recoveries from those assisted,” which is a purely cash figure, the above particulars and those below relating to expenditure are taken from the Income and Expenditure Accounts and Balance-sheets.

To ascertain the total revenue for the year 1940–41 the sum of £827,458 (receipts and cash in hand from loans for capital purposes) should be added, making the aggregate £4,404,527.

The amount contributable by the Government consists of subsidies on maintenance levies, £621,916; subsidies on capital levies, £204,121; cost of maintaining Government institutions, £79,615; patients' fees paid to Boards or remitted in respect of Government institutions, £72,366; and special payments to Boards, £5,665; making a total of £983,683.

Expenditure.—The maintenance expenditure for the last two financial years was made up as follows:—

1939–40.1940–41.
Amount.Percentage of Total.Amount.Percentage of Total.
 £ £ 
Hospital maintenance2,038,71480·12,539,80085·4
Charitable relief—    
  Indoor167,1746·684,0602·8
  Outdoor59,6252·347,0871·6
Medical associations9,9690·49,8850·3
District nursing21,2810·823,0530·8
Ambulances15,8110·617,7370·6
Miscellaneous maintenance expenditure18,5190·723,9740·8
Administration124,3874·9127,2784·3
Interest on loans65,6262·671,4842·4
National Provident Fund25,5981·028,6691·0
      Totals2,546,704100·02,973,027100·0

Capital expenditure for the year 1940–41 totalled £776,768, this amount including £101,325 in respect of amortization of loan-money. The total expenditure for the year, excluding amounts paid from one Board or departmental institution to another, was thus £3,749,795.

Hospital Maintenance Expenditure.—The average annual cost of maintenance of general hospitals per occupied bed in the years shown was as follows:—

Year.Provisions.Surgery and Dispensary.Domestic and Establishment.Salaries and Wages.Miscellaneous.Totals, Maintenance.
 ££££££
1910–1122·78·726·738·82·799·6
1914–1525·010·727·043·51·9108·1
1919–2040·415·443·252·40·3151·7
1924–2540·914·950·477·08·4191·6
1930–3140·718·052·691·41·8204·5
1933–3429·416·540·679·42·6168·5
1934–3529·816·641·180·23·5171·2
1935–3631·717·844·585·43·9183·3
1936–3734·118·748·497·04·1202·3
1937–3837·419·752·7110·84·2224·8
1938–3940·520·956·4131·74·5254·0
1939–4042·721·061·8142·54·7272·7
1940–4142·322·261·9153·35·2284·9

Charitable-aid Expenditure.—Charitable-aid expenditure during the last five years has been as follows:—

Year.Indoor Relief.Outdoor Relief.Totals.
 £££
1936–37127,562160,244237,806
1937–38151,568103,329254,897
1938–39173,20291,061264,263
1939–40167,17459,625226,799
1940–4184,06047,087131,147

The increase in rates of various existing pensions, the introduction of invalidity pensions in 1936, and the introduction of social security benefits in 1939, have relieved Hospital Boards of appreciable expenditure under the heading of “Outdoor Relief,” the decrease between 1935–36 and 1940–41 amounting to 74·9 per cent. The reduction in “Indoor Relief” between 1939–40 and 1940–41 is accounted for mainly by the reclassification of certain institutions which are now included with hospitals.

Cost of Government and Local Authorities.—The following shows, for triennial periods, the average annual net maintenance requirements of Hospital Boards—i.e., the average estimated deficit to be met by levies on the local authorities and the Government subsidy thereon:—

Triennium.Average Annual Amount.
1928–29 to 1930–311,193,380
1929–30 to 1931–321,156,699
1930–31 to 1932–331,116,503
1931–32 to 1933–341,075,146
1932–33 to 1934–351,086,479
1933–34 to 1935–361,100,228
1934–35 to 1936–371,173,581
1935–36 to 1937–381,306,206
1936–37 to 1938–391,495,335
1937–38 to 1939–401,711,469
1938–39 to 1940–411,697,051
1939–40 to 1941–421,733,178

Loans.—During the year 1940–41 twenty-seven new loans aggregating £908,600 were authorized for terms ranging from five to twenty-five years.

The amount of loans outstanding at the 31st March, 1941, was £2,198,069. This amount, however, is reduced by a sum of £126,781 standing to the credit of sinking funds, making the net amount of loan-money £2,071,288.

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.—Subsection D of the preceding section contains statistics of in-patients treated at public hospitals other than purely maternity hospitals. In the following table the figures are inclusive of maternity hospitals, sanatoria, &c., and relate to the financial year instead of to the calendar year:—

Year.In-patients treated.Average Number of Occupied Beds.Beds available.
Total Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Population.Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Population.Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Population.
1936–37104,14166·06,3784·08,8765·6
1937–38107,05667·26,5464·08,9825·6
1938–39114,45171·06,8974·39,2255·7
1939–40123,54075·67,3064·59,7396·0
1940–41143,29187·68,8085·411,1476·8

The number of institutions coming under the heading of public hospitals for the year ended 31st March, 1941, was 139, comprising 72 general hospitals (5 of which were also old people's homes, and 2 special hospitals), 1 chronic hospital, 4 convalescent hospitals, 48 maternity hospitals, 5 tuberculosis sanatoria, 1 tuberculosis prevention institution, 2 chronic-tuberculosis hospitals, 2 tuberculosis dispensaries, and 4 infectious-diseases hospitals. A comparison of beds and patients for the last five years is as follows:—

 1936–37.1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.

* In addition, dental cases treated during the year and attendances were: Auckland, 2,406, 9,642; Wellington, 30,792, 49,608; Christchurch, 6,263, 22,859; and Timaru, 1,125, 4,120.

Number of institutions130129129130139
Number of beds—     
  General4,9855,1435,0915,5656,733
  Children's cots1,1101,1651,2361,2511,322
  Maternity606609638688776
  Tuberculosis1,0831,0011,1681,2031,244
  Infectious disease1,0921,0641,0921,0321,072
    Totals8,8768,9829,2259,73911,147
Average number of occupied beds per diem6,3786,5466,8977,3068,808
In-patients treated during year104,141107,056114,451123,540143,291
Deaths during year4,9355,3845,8455,5976,308
Out-patients—     
  Number119,822138,692151,601172,000238,352*
  Attendances526,775547,902565,939569,128693,217*

PRIVATE HOSPITALS.—The Private Hospitals Act, which came into force on 1st January, 1907, is now embodied in the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act. 1926, Part III of which provides for the licensing, management, and inspection of private hospitals. All such institutions must be licensed, and every application for a license must be accompanied by a full description and plan of the house it is proposed to use, together with a statement showing the number and class of cases it is proposed to receive. The license shall state whether it is in respect of a lying-in private hospital or a surgical and medical private hospital, or if for both classes of cases: no private hospital may be used for any purpose other than that in respect of which the license is granted and purposes reasonably incidental thereto.

For every private hospital there must be a resident manager, either the licensee or some person appointed by the licensee, and in every case the manager must be a legally qualified medical practitioner or a registered nurse in the case of a surgical and medical hospital, or a registered midwife in the case of a lying-in hospital, or a registered nurse and midwife, or a registered nurse having as resident assistant a registered midwife, in the case of a hospital licensed for both purposes. No license may be granted in respect of a house not previously licensed until such house and annexed buildings have been approved by the Director-General of Health, and no addition may be made to any private hospital until it has been so approved. No license may be granted unless the character and fitness of the applicant have been proved satisfactory. The license must be renewed on 1st January of each year.

In every private hospital there must be kept a register of patients showing particulars as to name, age, abode, and date of reception of each patient, date when such patient left (or, in the event of death, the date thereof), name of medical practitioner attending, and such other details as may be prescribed. Inquiry may be made at any time as to the management, conduct, and equipment of any private hospital, and if such inquiry discloses an unsatisfactory state of affairs the license may be revoked. Provision is made for the inspection of private hospitals in the same manner as for public institutions.

The Social Security Act, inter alia, provides for the payment to proprietors of private hospitals (who have entered into contracts under the Act) of prescribed amounts in respect of hospital treatment afforded by them. Particulars are contained in Section 24, “Social Security, Pensions, Superannuation, &c.”

The total number of private hospitals licensed in the Dominion is 323, of which 77 are medical and surgical hospitals, 27 medical, surgical, and maternity institutions, 212 maternity hospitals, and 51 medical and convalescent hospitals. These hospitals provide 1,417 beds for medical and surgical cases, 1,222 beds for maternity cases, and 377 medical and convalescent beds.

MATERNITY SERVICES.—Benefits under the Social Security Act, 1938.—The Social Security Act, inter alia, makes provision for payments from the Social Security Fund to hospitals, medical practitioners, and nurses for services in connection with maternity cases. The medical practitioner service did not come into full operation until 1st October, 1939, but the remaining benefits came into force on 15th May, 1939.

Particulars of maternity benefits provided under the Act will be found in Section 24, “Social Security, Pensions, Superannuation, &c.”

State Maternity Hospitals.—There were formerly seven State maternity (St. Helens) hospitals, but in 1933 two—Wanganui and Gisborne—were handed over to the control of the Wanganui and Cook Hospital Boards respectively; and at the end of 1937 the St. Helens Hospital, Dunedin, was closed. Prior to the advent of the maternity benefits under the Social Security Act, the use of these hospitals was confined to cases where the husband's income did not exceed £5 per week, and in cases of Large families £6 per week. There are now no restrictions in this respect. The main function now served by these hospitals is to provide extended training for maternity nurses, so that they may qualify for the more responsible work of mid wives.

This service is given under the supervision of the Medical Superintendent, who is also responsible for the conduct of all abnormal cases and for the supervision of the ante-natal and post-natal care of all patients attending. There is also an out-patient department attached to each hospital, which provides nursing services for patients not entering the institution.

The statistics given below for the year 1941 cover only the four State maternity (St. Helens) hospitals. :—

Hospital, and Year of Opening.Number of Beds.Confinements in Institution.Confinements attended Outside.
Total Live-births.Total Stillbirths.Deaths of Mothers.Deaths of Infants in Hospital.
Auckland (1906)325761931210
Wellington (1905)3054313 66
Christchurch (1907)1534910 619
Invercargill (1918)1728911 53
      Totals941,7575332938

Public Maternity Hospitals.—There were at 31st March, 1941, 79 public maternity hospitals or maternity wards attached to public hospitals under control of Hospital Boards or Hospital Trustees. These maternity hospitals and wards had 636 beds available. These institutions admit all residents of their respective districts, irrespective of income. At most of them patients may be attended by the midwives in charge of the institution, under the supervision of the medical superintendent of the hospital, or in some instances may engage their own medical attendants.

For the reception of single girls there are special charitable institutions at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, in addition to those established by the Salvation Army at the four chief centres and at Napier and Gisborne.

District Midwives and Maternity Nurses.—Fifteen Hospital Boards have forty-one midwives doing district work, in most cases in conjunction with other health work. In addition, there are eighty-six district nurses appointed for the purpose of attending the Maori population, part of their work being attendance on Maori women during confinement.

Ante-natal Services.—Fifty free public ante-natal clinics have been established in various parts of New Zealand in connection with State or public maternity hospitals or maternal welfare societies, such as the Plunket Society. These clinics are conducted by registered midwives and registered nurses who have been specially trained for this purpose, and they work in conjunction with the medical attendants or midwives engaged to attend the patients during labour. The training of midwives in New Zealand includes training in ante-natal work. The total attendances at the various free clinics in New Zealand during 1941 was 42,757. Several thousand copies of the pamphlet “Suggestions to Expectant Mothers” have been distributed free, mainly through these clinics. This pamphlet gives simple instructions for the maintenance of health during pregnancy and information regarding the necessary preparation for confinements to be conducted in private houses.

Every effort is being made to impress the public with the importance of parental hygiene and systematic ante-natal care throughout pregnancy. Addresses and lectures are delivered by Medical Officers of the Department of Health to nurses and societies interested in this subject. So that there will be definite co-operation between the midwife and the ante-natal clinic, and in order that the midwife may be informed of the clinical methods adopted by the Health Department, refresher courses of lectures, given particularly on ante-natal work, are available to all registered midwives and maternity nurses.

BENEVOLENT AND ORPHAN ASYLUMS.—One hundred and twenty-four institutions classed under the heading of benevolent and orphan asylums furnished returns to the Census and Statistics Department for the year 1941. These institutions, which are conducted by Hospital Boards, religious bodies, and other public or semi-public organizations, are alike in that they provide accommodation on a benevolent or charitable basis, but differ largely in the classes of persons to whom they afford assistance. The generic name covers old people's homes, maternity and refuge homes for women and girls, orphanages, homes for the infirm or afflicted, “prison gate” homes, and an institute for the blind. Some of the orphanages deal with cases similar to those dealt with by the special schools under the control of tin Education Department, and a few of the women's institutions receive offenders committed to them by the Courts. The following table relates to the year ended 31st December, 1941:—

Controlling Authorities.Number of InstitutionsInmates at 1st January.Admissions during Year.Births in Institutions during Year.Discharges during Year.Deaths in Institutions during Year.Inmates at 31st December.Total Inmates during Year.
Hospital Boards261,4061,9822181,6654951,4463,606
Church of England15629242272433652898
Roman Catholic Church161,634813406931021,6922,487
Presbyterian Church165031281315415475644
Methodist Church4182117 12110168299
Baptist Church14823 21 5071
Salvation Army281,0717,5271667,682191,0638,764
Brethren12454 5S8 2078
Undenominational associations, &c.175824984258475311,122
      Totals1246,07911,38450611,2216516,09717,969

In many cases there is a variation in the class of inmate provided for by the different controlling bodies. For instance, none of the homes under the supervision of the Presbyterian Church, the Methodist Church, the Baptist Church, or the Brethren are maternity homes of any description. The four churches mentioned control children's hornet and orphanages only, while the Church of England and Roman Catholic Church provide chiefly for children, although some maternity cases are dealt with. The Hospital Boards concentrate chiefly upon old people's homes, while the Salvation Army deals with all types, and is the only body that conducts extensively the “prison-gate” or industrial type of institution. Factors such as these affect the demands made upon the different institutions for accommodation or relief.

There was a slight increase in the total number of inmates of charitable institutions during 1941 as compared with 1940, the totals being 17,969 and 17,228 respectively.

The ages and sexes of all inmates in the institutions at 31st December, 1941, were as follows:—

Age-group.Males.Females.Totals.
Under 5 years260238498
5 and under 10 years521411932
10 and under 15 years6586271,285
15 and under 17 years103227330
17 and under 25 years66212278
25 and under 35 years86138224
35 and under 45 years124105229
45 and under 55 years17595270
55 and under 65 years260143403
65 years and over1,0165681,584
Unspecified65864
      Totals3,2752,8226,097

Some remarkable differences in the sex proportions at the various age-groups are apparent in the foregoing table. The first three groups, which relate to infants and young children, naturally show relatively little disparity. The next three groups, covering ages 15 and under 35 years, show a large excess of females. The number of females in these groups, of course, is greatly increased by the inclusion of girls and young women entering maternity homes. The figures are also affected by the fact that the majority of boys who have spent most of their lives in orphanages obtain outside employment at about ago 15. From 45 onwards a distinct male excess is observed.

The overwhelming majority of males dependent upon charitable aid at these later ages is indeed remarkable, although the “prison-gate” and industrial type of home no doubt swell the numbers at this stage.

The next table contains information concerning inmates of orphanages and of a few other institutions which provide for both children and older people. The figures relate to inmates under the age of twenty-one who were admitted to the institutions during 1941:—

Age, In Completed Years.Legitimate.No Information as to Legitimacy.Illegitimate.Total
Father and Mother both Alive.Father Dead, Mother Alive.Father Alive, Mother Dead.Father and Mother both Dead.No Information as to Orphanhood
09 1   5666
134 3   1148
233251  748
35257   468
462611   382
56810122  8100
6657162  999
772812   496
87672031 4111
96414225 14110
10679211  7105
114761833 481
1236111311 264
133051113 252
141425 5 531
1532412 113
16322   18
174 2    6
18521    8
19311    5
20111    3
Not Stated3      3
    Totals751100188201511321,207

Contrary to what might generally be expected, the above figures reveal that the largest group is that covering children both of whose parents were shown to have been alive. Cases where both parents were dead were comparatively few. Although the total number of children admitted to charitable institutions during the year 1941 was greater than in 1940, the number of cases in which both parents were living showed a decrease of 32.

SUBSECTION C—MENTAL HOSPITALS.

THERE are eight public mental hospitals in the Dominion maintained wholly or in part out of the public revenue. There is also one private hospital licensed for the reception of the mentally afflicted.

The patients on the register at the end of 1941 were distributed as shown below. Numbers given throughout this subsection are inclusive of Maoris. Figures for Maoris are also given separately toward the end of the subsection.

Mental Hospital.Males.Females.Totals.
Auckland4126111,281
Kingseat (Papakura)412330742
Tokanui300374764
Porirua7676831,450
Nelson484394878
Hokitika256282538
Christchurch7776141,391
Seacliff and Waitati6384261,064
Ashburn Hall (private mental hospital)102434
      Totals4,4043,7388,142

The number of patients remaining at the end of each of the last five years is shown in the following table:—

Year.Patients remaining at 31st December.Proportion per 10,000 of Total Population
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
19374,3523,5457,89753·5244·9549·30
19384,2963,5017,79752·2843·9548·18
19394,3693,5817,95052·4644·2848·43
19404,3533,6788,03153·5444·8249·16
19414,4043,7388,14255·1044·9349·91
  Average of five years4,3553,6097,96453·3744·5949·00

The total number of patients under supervision, care, or control during 1941 was 9,273 (4,959 males, 4,314 females), as against 9,340 in 1940. The average number resident in mental hospitals was 7,666 in 1941 and 7,590 in 1940.

ADMISSIONS.—The total admissions to mental hospitals during the year 1941 were 1,242 (606 males and 636 females), this number not including 255 transfers from one institution to another. The principal causes of insanity as assigned on admission were as follows:—

CAUSES OF INSANITY.

Heredity119
Congenital182
Previous attack230
Puberty and adolescence20
Climacteric11
Puerperal state8
Senility196
Involution38
Mental stress, prolonged141
Syphilis21
Constitutional136
Alcohol28
Epilepsy18
Arterio-sclerosis52
Ill health (so stated)20

Of the 1,242 persons admitted to mental hospitals during 1941, those admitted for the first time to any mental hospital in New Zealand numbered 1,003 (487 males, 516 females), and those readmitted 239 (119 males, 120 females).

The figures for 1941 represent one first admission for every 1,626 persons of the mean population of the Dominion. The number of first admissions and the rate per 10,000 of mean population for each of the last five years were as follows:—

Year.Number of First Admissions.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
19374644659295·755·945·84
19384454889335·466·175·81
19395114829936·186·016·10
19404584629205·575·675·62
19414875161,0036·050·246·15
    Average of five years4734839565·806·015·91

VOLUNTARY INMATES.—A person labouring under mental defect, but capable of understanding the meaning of the procedure, may seek admission to a mental hospital as a voluntary boarder. At the beginning of 1941 there were 339 such patients on the books (171 males, 168 females), and during the year 303 (141 males, 162 females) were admitted. If a voluntary boarder should after admission show mental defect sufficiently pronounced and sustained to render it improper to classify him any longer as such, application for a reception order is made to a Magistrate. During the year 1941, 20 (11 males, 9 females) were transferred from the voluntary to the ordinary register, and 10 males and 13 females died, while 291 (140 males, 151 females) were discharged, leaving 308 (151 males. 157 females) on the records at the end of the year.

AGES OF INMATES.—A summary is given showing the ages of patients in mental hospitals at the end of 1941:—

Age, In Years.Males.Females.Totals.
1 and under 5231841
5 and under 10584199
10 and under 1511482196
15 and under 20242161403
20 and under 306594341,093
30 and under 407015571,258
40 and under 507846591,443
50 and under 608368411,677
60 and under 706425961,238
70 and under 80272260532
80 and under 904657103
90 and over628
Unknown213051
    Totals4,4043,7388,142

DISCHARGES AND DEATHS.—The next table gives the average number resident, those who were discharged as recovered, and those who died, during the period 1937–41:—

Year.Average Number resident.Discharged as recovered.Died.
Number.Percentage of Number admitted.Number.Percentage of Average Number resident.
19377,38435931·944976·73
19387,41638034·485477·38
19397,42632827·384606·19
19407,59034129·704966·53
19417,66631325·205577·27
  Average of five years7,49034429·585116·82

The table following shows the length of residence in mental hospitals of patients who died and of patients who were discharged as recovered during the year 1941. Of those discharged as recovered, 67 per cent, had been inmates for less than one year:—

Length of Residence.Patients who died.Patients discharged as recovered.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
Under 1 month372259459
1 month and under 3 months372562212142
3 months and under 6 months281846243054
6 months and under 9 months101222223456
9 months and under 12 months71118173047
1 year and under 2 years172239233255
2 years and under 3 years19203941115
3 years and under 5 years22305281018
5 years and under 7 years161531178
7 years and under 10 years231538325
10 years and under 12 years6814   
12 years and under 15 years12517   
15 years and over5649105134
Died during absence7815   
      Totals297260557128185313

Old age and diseases of the circulatory system are the principal causes of death among mental hospital patients. The figures for the principal causes and groups of causes for the year 1941 are as follows:—

Tuberculosis28
Cancer20
Other general diseases26
General paralysis of the insane12
Epilepsy34
Other diseases of the nervous system43
Diseases of the circulatory system195
Diseases of the respiratory system66
Diseases of the digestive system9
Diseases of the genito-urinary system12
Old age92
External causes5
Died during absence15
Total557

A table is added showing for all admissions since 1876 the percentages of patients who were discharged (as recovered and relieved, separately), who died undischarged, or who still remained et the end of 1941:—

Males.Females.Totals.

* Includes a small number of patients discharged whose condition was not Improved.

Discharged—Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
  Recovered33·7438·7135·92
  Relieved*11·1312·6911·82
Died38·4330·5134·95
Remaining at end of 194116·7018·0917·31
      Total admissions, 1876–1941100·00100·00100·00

PRIVATE MENTAL HOSPITAL.—A license may be granted to enable a private mental hospital to receive patients for treatment. Stringent conditions are attached to the issue of such a license, which may be revoked at any time. The Director-General of Mental Hospitals has wide powers in the regulation and control of private institutions, which are placed practically on the same footing as public mental hospitals in regard to inspection and other matters.

There is only one licensed private institution in the Dominion, that at Wakari (Ashburn Hall), near Dunedin, established in 1882. Particulars of admissions, discharges, deaths, and patients remaining, for the last five years, are as follows. These figures are included in preceding tables:—

Year.Admissions.Discharges.Deaths.Patients remaining at End of Year.
193785539
193878236
193999234
194064531
1941148334

MAORIS IN MENTAL HOSPITALS.—The number of Maoris admitted as patients to mental hospitals is small. The figures for the last five years were:—

Year.Admitted during Year.Remaining at End of Year.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
19371616327869147
19381514298162143
19391621378264146
19401834528183164
19412015358986175

The above figures are also included in the tables covering all inmates of mental hospitals.

The number of Maoris remaining in mental hospitals at the end of 1941 represented a rate of only 18·79 per 10,000 of the Maori population, as compared with a rate of 51·80 in the case of the non-Maori population.

EXPENDITURE, ETC.—The total expenditure on maintenance of public mental hospitals (not including the cost of new buildings and additions), and receipts on account of patients and for sale of produce, &c, during the last five years were as follows:—

Year.Total Expenditure.Receipts on account of Parents, Sale of Produce, &c.Net Expenditure.
 £££
1937–38608,327213,873394,454
1938–39641,053223,570417,483
1939–40658,290354,537303,753
1940–41685,605259,934425,671
1941–42709,887269,247440,640

The figures of receipts and of net expenditure for 1939–40, 1940–41, and 1941–42 are not comparable with those of previous years. As from 1st April, 1939, free maintenance and treatment have been provided in all public mental hospitals in accordance with the provisions of the Social Security Act, 1938. The consequent loss of revenue to the Mental Hospitals Department, through the operation of the Act, is now recoverable from the Social Security Fund, the amounts so recovered during 1939–40, 1940–41, and 1941–42 being £166,000, £171,000, and £181,451 respectively. In addition, amounts of £122,581, £20,293, and £14,964, representing accounts outstanding at 31st March, 1939, were received during the years 1939–40, 1940–41, and 1941–42, respectively. The gross average cost per patient in 1941–42 was £89 4s. 9d., as compared with £86 11s. 4d. in 1940–41.

Chapter 6. SECTION 6.—EDUCATION.

Table of Contents

THE education system of New Zealand can be understood only when it is seen against its historical background. The first settlements in the new colony were relatively isolated units which had each to make its own provision for the education of its children. In some places the provision of schools was left to the churches, in some to private enterprise, and in others to public associations. When the provinces were established in 1852, the Provincial Councils took over education as one of their functions, but this brought no degree of uniformity to New Zealand schools, for each province tended to foster the type of school organization already established in its area. The provinces varied considerably in the efficiency of their school systems; but, in spite of some success in the face of difficulties in certain areas, at the end of the provincial period in 1876 not more than half the children between the ages of five and fifteen were attending school at all.

The present national system of free, secular, and compulsory* education is based on the Education Act of 1877. This Act followed upon the abolition of the provinces, but the provinces, though dead as political units, left their mark upon the school system. A fierce struggle between the protagonists of central and of local control ended in a victory for the provincialists, and the public schools were placed under the control of District Education Boards, which were for the most part the same bodies as the old Provincial Education Boards. The Colonial Government, however, had to provide all the finance in the form of capitation grants, and a small Department of Education was set up in Wellington, very largely for the purpose of distributing the grants. For every school district constituted under the Act there was a School Committee, elected by householders, which, subject to the control of the Board, had “the management of educational matters within the school district.” The School Committees elected the members of the Education Board.

As far as mere structure is concerned, this still remains the pattern of the system of school administration in New Zealand, but there have been, in the intervening sixty-odd years, great changes in the relative functions of the three authorities. The general tendency has been for final power and responsibility to shift from the Committees to the Boards and from the Boards to the Department. The Committees, in fact, through lack of professional executive officers and independent sources of revenue, from the very beginning were unable to take over the full powers that the 1877 Act obviously intended them to have, and for the first twenty years of national education the Education Boards were the predominant authorities in the system.

From just before the beginning of this century the Education Department began to play an increasingly important part in educational administration, partly as a result of improved means of communication. Under the Act of 1877 the Boards had been given wide powers: to administer funds from endowments and departmental grants, to appoint and remove teachers, to pay teachers' salaries according to their own scales, to establish scholarships and provide for secondary education in district high schools, and to control the inspectorate. Legislation, beginning with the establishment of a national scale of primary school salaries and staffing in 1901 and culminating in the Education Act of 1914 (still the basic measure under which the education system is administered), concentrated these powers more and more in the hands of the Department, which began to take a more detailed interest in expenditure by the Boards. The original freedom of the Boards in the expenditure of building grants was taken away, and the present system, requiring special departmental authorization for each new building, gradually became established. From 1901 onwards the Department paid over to the Boards the exact sum required for teachers' salaries, thus leaving a much-reduced capitation grant to be used by the local authorities at their own discretion. In 1914 the Department took over the control of the primary-school inspectorate.

* Every child between the ages of seven and fourteen years has to be enrolled as a pupil of either a public or a registered school. There are statutory exemptions from attendance in certain circumstances.

The centralization of the inspectorate made possible a further change affecting the powers of the Boards. In 1920 a Dominion grading scheme was instituted under which all primary-school teachers were annually awarded grading marks by the Inspectors. A teacher's total marks give him a place on a numerically graded list*. Since all ordinary appointments are decided on the basis of this list, the system of appointment is in effect a national one, and the Boards have very limited powers of discretion although they make the appointments and the teachers are servants of the Boards. In 1940 biennial grading was substituted for annual grading, thus freeing the inspectors of schools in alternate years to give more time to schools. The provision of an annual grading number for teachers was, however, retained.

It does not follow, however, that, since the Boards and the School Committees have lost many of their original powers, they have ceased to play an important part in the system. The Committee's primary function is the care of school buildings, grounds, and equipment, but, in addition to this, many interest themselves very keenly in the general activities of the school and provide in each district a focusing-point for local opinion on educational matters. The Education Boards are still the initiating bodies on matters of buildings, sites, conveyance of pupils, consolidation, and provision of school facilities generally and, although the final word often lies with the Minister of Education or the Department, the Boards have no small influence in the fixing of policy within their districts. The schools are legally their schools and the teachers their teachers, and, although in general the Boards' choices of applicants are limited by the grading system, they have much more discretion in the selection of applicants for special or key positions. The teachers' class-room activities are under the control of the Inspectors, but their general responsibility is to the Boards, and their professional life tends to centre on the Boards rather than on the Department. In spite of the apparent clumsiness of the administrative structure and of periods of strong feeling in the past, the system at present functions remarkably smoothly, and has achieved a balance, workable if not ideal, between the claims of local initiative and national efficiency.

Post-primary education, with the exception of that given in the district high schools, was not brought by the Act of 1877 within the province of the Education Boards. Several secondary schools had been established in various ways before 1877, and these continued under their own Boards of Governors, which were in no way related to the Education Boards. The Education Reserves Act, 1877, set aside one-fourth of the educational reserves for secondary education, vesting the remainder in the Education Boards for primary-school purposes. Thus there was introduced into the colony that cleavage between elementary and secondary education that was characteristic of the English system. In the years immediately following the Act of 1877, a series of Acts set up a number of local High School Boards, each in control of its own land endowments. No effective provision was made for the inspection of these schools by any outside authority or for the co-ordination of their work with any other part of the school system.

Further secondary schools, and, from 1902 onwards, technical high schools, were from time to time established. Before 1901, fees had been charged even in district high schools. In that year free places were instituted in district high schools, and in 1902 secondary schools were offered special capitation grants if they would provide free places for deserving scholars. Under the Education Act of 1908 free places at the technical schools were granted on a more liberal basis, and by 1914 all State post-primary schools were obliged to give free places for two years at least to any pupil who had passed the Proficiency examination. By 1938, less than 1 per cent. of the pupils in public post-primary schools paid tuition fees.

* A teacher's salary was determined by his grade. In 1038 new regulations for the purpose of raising the salaries and stabilizing the staffs of public-school teachers fixed a basic salary dependent on years of service, plus a possible position salary depending on the position held.

† The Education Amendment Act of 1938 provided for increased grants to Education Boards for general purposes, and also for the incidental expenses of the School Committees.

A direct effect of this movement towards free post-primary education was that the Department began to exercise an increasing degree of control over the schools. The Education Amendment Act, 1920, authorized the establishment of Dominion staffing and salary scales for post-primary schools, and instituted the system—already operative in the case of the Education Boards—of paying over to the schools the exact sum required for salaries plus a capitation grant for incidental expenses, less the amount received from local secondary-school endowments. This, in effect, nationalized these endowments, and spread more evenly the benefits resulting from the foresight of the early settlers.

THE SCHOOL SYSTEM.—Perhaps the best method of sketching the outline of the school system as it now stands is to trace the career of a child as he passes through the system. He may at the age of three enter a free kindergarten. The kindergartens are under the control of the Free Kindergarten Association, but are subsidized by the Government. At the age of five he may enter, and at seven he must enter, either a primary school organized under one of the nine Education Boards, or a registered private primary school. All State primary schools are co-educational. The child passes through the infant classes and Standards I, II, III, and IV. At this point he will in most places go straight on to Forms I and II in the same school, but since 1922 there have been established a number of intermediate schools (under the control of Education Boards) and intermediate departments (most of them under post-primary school Boards), which take Form I and II pupils from contributing schools in their areas.

Until 1936, children had to sit, at the end of Form II, the Proficiency examination set by departmental Inspectors. This examination was then abolished, leaving the path to free post-primary education until the age of nineteen completely open to any child satisfying the requirements of his headmaster in Form II or attaining the age of fourteen. When he leaves the primary stage the child must make a choice between alternatives. He may, if ho is fourteen or over, go straight to work, though this is in most cases discouraged. If he is a country child he may have no alternative but to enter Form III of a district high school, which is really a secondary top to a primary school and is under the same control. In more thickly populated areas there will be either a secondary school or a technical high school available to him. In some towns a secondary school and a technical high school have amalgamated to form a combined school. To those not understanding the peculiar character of the New Zealand technical high school this may seem a strange union, but the differences between schools of the two types are, except in the larger centres, relatively slight.

The technical schools, combined schools, and a few of the secondary schools run evening classes, particularly in practical and vocational subjects, which an adolescent may attend after he leaves full-time day school. Apprentices in some trades are required to attend evening classes as a part of their trade training.

Should the pupil desire to undertake a University course he will remain at post-primary school for three or four years before sitting for the University Entrance examination. The completion of another year of satisfactory work at school after passing this examination gives him a Higher Leaving Certificate, which entitles him to free tuition at a University college. The University of New Zealand, whose controlling body is the University Senate, is constituted of University colleges in Auckland, Wellington, and Canterbury, and the University of Otago (which does not itself grant degrees). The School of Agriculture, consisting of Massey and Canterbury Agricultural Colleges and governed under one Council in connection with the University of New Zealand, is open to students specializing in agricultural studies.

The four teachers' training colleges, although they work in conjunction with the four University colleges, are organically related to them only through the recently formed Boards of Studies. The Education Boards in the four main centres are the controlling authorities of the training colleges.

*Established under the Native Schools Act, 1887, and administered by the Education Department since 1880.

The State system also caters for the needs of certain special groups of children. Maori children may attend the public schools, but there are also Native village schools provided for their primary education.* There are also a few mission schools remaining from the pre-Maori War system established with the help of Government subsidies. For his post-primary education the Maori child may go free to any available secondary school; but in remote areas he will go to a denominational Maori secondary school. Some of these denominational secondary schools are financed in part from public endowments specially provided, and all of them receive funds from special State scholarships.

Children living in isolated areas or prevented in other ways from attending school may be enrolled in the Correspondence School for both primary and post-primary work.

Finally there are several special schools and smaller homes, administered by the Education Department's Child Welfare Branch, to take care of deaf-and-dumb, backward, or delinquent children.

In addition to the various State schools described, a parent may send his child to a private school, either primary or secondary, conducted by either religious bodies or private individuals. No Government free place, however, is tenable at these schools*. All private schools must be registered, and are subject to annual inspection by the Department's Inspectors. The majority of the private schools are conducted by the Roman Catholic Church. Amongst the private schools are two endowed secondary schools modelled after the English public school.

To complete the above sketch it should be added that co-education exists only in certain stages of the system. In the public, Native, technical, and some of the secondary schools (particularly those in the country), in the teachers' training colleges, and in the University colleges, pupils and students of both sexes attend together. The principal State secondary schools in the larger centres, however, and—with one exception—all the registered private secondary schools, are single-sex schools.

PUPILS AND STUDENTS.—The number of pupils and students receiving instruction in the educational institutions of the Dominion is shown in the following summary. The table refers to roll numbers as at the end of the year (except in the case of technical classes, which are as at 1st July:—

Class of Institution.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.

‡ Exclusive of children in kindergartens (1,893 in 1941).

§ There were also 303 students in 1939, 519 in 1940, and 585 in 1941 taking part-time courses. In previous years part-time students have been Included in the secondary roll.

Primary Education.     
Public (State) schools207,653206,002205,066203,951204,050
Intermediate schools and departments
Native village schools9,6429,83210,40310,73010,916
Native Mission schools632755722736720
Registered private primary schools27,93127,63127,55827,71827,894
Lower departments of secondary schools226218200186155
Correspondence classes (primary)1,8031,7441,6881,7271,793
Chatham Islands schools157155149139127
      Totals, primary‡248,044246,337245,786245,187245,655
Post-primary Education.     
Secondary schools14,10114,41814,74314,30313,609
Combined schools2,1132,7222,8082,7932,780
Secondary departments of district high schools4,3894,9055,4015,2535,033
Technical high schools7,8338,1498,4818,0097,371
Maori secondary (boarding) schools501457431419400
Registered private and endowed secondary schools5,2105,2865,5735,6375,729
Correspondence classes (secondary)818894628§644§565§
      Totals, post-primary34,96536,83138,06537,05835,487

*Except for Maori “Government pupils” in the denominational secondary schools.

† Education Amendment Act, 1921–22.

Class of Institution.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.

* Exclusive of children in kindergartens (1,893 in 1941).

Technical Classes (excluding Technical High Schools and Technical Day Schools).     
Conducted by Education, Secondary School, or High School Boards3,1724,6215,4145,3994,996
Conducted by Technical School Boards9,98210,61511,4809,8979,233
Conducted by University colleges276316334302313
      Totals, technical13,43015,55217,22815,59814,542
University Education.     
University colleges4,4624,6465,0204,7394,555
Lincoln Agricultural College4410510581136
Massey Agricultural College184383225249166
Students exempt from lectures548573629459409
      Totals, University5,2385,7075,9795,5285,266
      Totals, scholars and students*301,677304,427307,058303,371300,950

The increase recorded in 1941 in the number of primary-school children follows as a result of the increase in the number of children born in 1936 as compared with the immediately preceding years. In this connection also it is of interest to mention that each year commencing with 1936 up to and including 1941 has shown an increase in the number of children born. The decrease in 1940 and 1941 in the numbers attending post-primary schools may be ascribed to the urgent war-time demand for labour, particularly in factories, &c.

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS.—The number of candidates who actually presented themselves for the various examinations conducted by the Education Department during the last five years is given below:—

Examination.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.

* The Intermediate examination was discontinued in 1938.

† The Training College Entrance Examination was discontinued in 1939.

Intermediate1,092****
Public Service Entrance1,0951,5471,8742,5583,038
Teachers' C and B10393171169185
Training College Entrance Examination893167
School Certificate4,5654,5594,8045,0405,172
London University Examinations433 1
Handicraft Teachers' Certificate11101296
Technological Examinations63123176127108
Naval Cadetships43148
Aircraft Apprenticeships14   
Totals7,8316,5097,0417,9078,518

The University of New Zealand conducted examinations in 1941 in the faculties of arts, science, medicine, public health, dentistry, home science, law, engineering, commerce, agriculture, and music; for diplomas in journalism, in banking, and in fine arts; and for admission to the legal and accountancy professions. There were 6,749 entrants for the degree examinations in 1941, compared with 7,662 in 1940. The number of candidates for the University Entrance Examination in the last five years has been: 1937, 4,860; 1938, 4,925; 1939, 5,437; 1940, 5,191; 1941, 5,255.

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION.—Out of public funds £5,218,618 was spent on education for the financial year ended 31st March, 1942. This sum included amounts paid from reserves revenue, but not revenues received by certain secondary schools and University colleges from endowments, fees, &c., which are available for educational purposes. Direct income of post-primary schools and University colleges in 1941–42 from reserves vested in them amounted to £50,377. The following shows-the expenditure from public funds for each branch or service of education for each of the last five years:—

Service.1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.1041–42.

* Includes £99 capital expenditure on kindergartens.

 £££££
General administration42,90745,24448,31246,93350,565
Elementary education2,798,0733,075,1843,433,8183,275,834*3,146,765
Secondary education and technical instruction952,2341,023,3581,055,5021,023,1711,029,970
Training colleges, &c.171,655212,322226,056195,700198,724
Higher education152,396195,488178,996166,920174,343
Native schools155,025181,358236,180241,932227,491
Physical instruction3,1233,0724,0615,3297,324
School for the deaf11,40715,71811,65410,94813,459
Education of the blind4,2326,1965,1745,2606,695
Schools for the mentally backward22,54623,24638,40526,71726,351
Child welfare124,805141,415161,956182,965170,945
Material and storesCr. 792Cr. 711Cr. 5471,165 
Country library service 7,5977,1789,78811,554
Miscellaneous services181,523170,036156,581162,731154,432
Totals4,619,1345,099,5235,563,3265,355,3935,218,618

There is now given a series of comparative figures which shows the cost of education during the period 1931–32 to 1941–42:—

Year ended 31st March,Expenditure from Public Funds.Expenditure per Head of Mean Population.
 £(000)£s.d.
19323,4102411
19332,81611610
19342,7411156
19352,87111611
19363,257217
19373,9762104
19384,61921711
19395,100334
19405,563381
19415,355356
19425,2193310

PRIMARY SCHOOLS.—The primary-school system consisted in 1941 of 2,169 public schools (including district high schools and intermediate schools or departments), 149 Native village and 10 mission schools for Maoris, 304 registered private primary schools, and 5 lower departments of secondary schools. There were also 42 free kindergarten schools.

Lower departments of secondary schools may be run for pupils who have not passed Form II, provided that no part of the cost of instruction or of the maintenance of the department is met out of the income from endowments of the school or from Government grants. At the end of 1941 the total number of pupils in the five departments mentioned in the preceding paragraph was 153 (99 boys, 56 girls), with 7 teachers.

The curriculum of the primary school, as set out in the syllabus of instruction, includes English, arithmetic, geography, history and civics, drawing and handwork (including needlework), nature-study and elementary science, physical education,. moral instruction and health, and singing. Elementary science, agriculture, and, in some schools, dairy work are taught by the regular staff under the supervision of specialist itinerant instructors. Woodwork and metal-work instruction is given to the older boys at manual-training centres, and the older girls are taught domestic subjects, including cookery and hygiene.

The abolition in 1936 of the last barrier between primary and post-primary education—the Proficiency examination—has allowed much more flexibility in curriculum and in teaching methods. Emphasis has recently been placed on the fuller use of broadcasting, visual aids, art-work, the school library, and physical education.

Kindergartens.—Children below the age of five are not enrolled in the State primary schools. They may be enrolled, however, at free kindergartens maintained by local branches of the New Zealand Free Kindergarten Association. Since 1935 the Government has substantially increased its total grant to the kindergartens. In 1939 three women advisers to infant departments and kindergartens were Appointed.

At the end of 1941 there were 1,893 children on the rolls of forty-two free kindergartens. As yet the system is far from universal.

Public (State) Schools.—The figures tabulated below refer to pupils in public schools —i.e., all pupils in primary schools and intermediate schools and departments. Pupils in the secondary departments of district high schools are not included:—

Year.Population at 31st December (excluding Maoris).Number of Schools (Including Intermediate Schools and Departments).Pupils at End of Year.Mean of Average Weekly Roll.Average Attendance, Whole Year.Average Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll.
19371,515,3962,394207,653202,635187,06192·3
19381,530,3662,290206,002200,164177,73388·8
19391,551,3342,230205,066199,133180,77690·8
19401,541,9312,204203,951198,763180,18090·6
19411,538,1462,169204,050200,308177,47288·5

Of the 2,169 schools shown above for 1941, 1,526 had rolls of not more than seventy, and of these 829 had rolls ranging from one to twenty-four.

In each of the education districts are located Inspectors of Primary Schools, who form part of the staff of the Department of Education. The total number of Primary-school Inspectors on the 31st March, 1941, was 38, allocated as follows: Auckland, 12; Hawke's Bay, 3; Taranaki, 2; Wanganui, 3; Wellington, 4; Nelson, 2; Canterbury, 6; Otago, 4; Southland, 2.

The following table relates to pupils on the rolls of the public primary schools and Forms I and II of intermediate schools and departments at the 1st July, 1941:—

Age.1941.Percentage of Total Pupils.
Boys.Girls.Totals.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
5 and under 6 years9,5649,14518,7098·68·79·19·39·5
6 and under 7 years11,07910,15721,23611·410·810·610·710·8
7 and under 8 years10,92610,52921,45511·311·711·210·910·9
8 and under 9 years11,22510,44321,66811·511·511·911·211·0
9 and under 10 years11,46510,71622,18111·711·511·612·011·2
10 and under 11 years12,19411,51923,71311·911·911·711·612·0
11 and under 12 years11,71211.13322,84511·811·811·911·711·6
12 and under 13 years11,49010,94322,43311·411·411·311·611·4
13 and under 14 years9,1637,73616,8997·37·57·57·78·5
14 and under 15 years3,2202,1325,3522·62·72·72·72·7
15 and under 16 years5582738310·50·50·50·50·4
16 years and over68381060·00·00·00·10·0
      Totals102,66494,764197,428100·0100·0100·0100·0100·0

In 1941 a total of 18,997 pupils (9,742 boys and 9,255 girls) left public primary schools, as against 18,243 (9,532 boys and 8,711 girls) in 1940. Of those leaving in 1941, 15,823, or 83 per cent., had passed Form II (Standard 6), and 3,174, or 17 per cent., had not passed that standard. The corresponding percentages were the same in 1940. Of those leaving public primary schools in 1941, 65·0 per cent, went on to full-time post-primary schooling.

Primary Schools for Maoris.—Approximately one-half of the Maori children in New Zealand are educated in the public schools. At the end of 1941 there were 12,712 attending public schools out of a total of 23,138 Maori children receiving primary education.

The language of instruction in the Native schools is English, but the schools are not completely English in outlook, for Maori arts and crafts, song, legend, and history are taught.

Methods of teaching are becoming increasingly practical, and objectives more closely related to the special needs of the Maori people. In many of the Native schools, such equipment as woodwork-rooms, cookery-rooms, model cottages, baths, hot and cold showers, and laundries is supplied. Elementary agriculture and health are essential centres of activity in every Native school.

The number of pupils on the rolls of the 149 Native village schools at the end of 1941 was 10,916 (including 1,199 non-Maori children), while the total roll number of the ten Maori mission schools was 659.

The following table gives the principal statistics of Native village schools during the last five years:—

Year.Number of Schools at End of Year.Roll at 1st July.Average Attendance, Whole Year.Average Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll.Number of Teachers.
Maori.Non-Maori.Males.Females.
19371418,4371,0848,59490·1132273
19381438,7431,0258,47186·6141286
19391459,1641,0298,97088·2157293
19401469,4711,0689,30286·9170296
19411499,6351,0169,04385·4163313

Three Inspectors of Schools attached to the Education Department are engaged in the inspection of Native schools, mission schools, and secondary schools for Maoris.

Intermediate Schools.—The intermediate school (formerly termed junior high school) was first initiated as an experiment in New Zealand in 1923. By the end of 1941, twenty intermediate schools or departments had been established, of which nine are separate schools, six are attached to secondary schools, four to district high schools or departments, and one to a technical school. A child may transfer to an available intermediate school after passing Standard IV of the primary school or with special permission of the Director of Education, on reaching the ago of thirteen. Since 1932 the regular course has been two years, though in a few schools, particularly where pupils are not proceeding to a post-primary school, a third-year course is available. The main purpose of the intermediate school is to secure the benefits of consolidation for the older children and, through the provision of varied and enriched courses, to help them decide on their lines of further education.

Pupils on the rolls of intermediate schools or departments at the end of 1941 numbered 6,475, or nearly 16 per cent. of all children in Forms I or II. The average attendance during the year was 6,157. The ages of pupils on the roll at 1st July, 1941, were:—

Age, in Years.Boys.Girls.Totals.
Under 11294170
11 and under 12441448889
12 and under 131,1961,2202,416
13 and under 141,2541,1292,3,383
14 and under 15441351792
15 and under 168550135
16 and under 1711314
    Totals3,4573,2426,699

Private Schools.—By the Education Amendment Act, 1921–22, every private school was required to apply for registration before the 13th July, 1922, and no private school can now be established unless application is first made to the Department of Education for registration. Certain standards of efficiency and suitability of staff, premises, equipment, and curriculum have to be fulfilled.

The following table contains the principal statistics of private primary schools for each of the last five years:—

YearNumber of Schools.Roll at End of Year.Average Yearly Attendance.Teachers.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
193730613,54814,38327,93125,1811319011,032
193830713,74314,64328,38624,4421389081,046
193930413,77614,50428,28025,2741409191,059
194030613,70814,74628,45425,3561379151,052
194130413,78514,82928,61425,246114858972

The majority of the schools included in the preceding table are Roman Catholic, the figures for Roman Catholic schools for 1941 being—Schools, 232; scholars on roll at end of year, 24,195 (11,819 males, 12,376 females); average yearly attendance, 21,328; teachers, 755 (59 males, 696 females).

POST-PRIMARY SCHOOLS.—One of the most striking features of New Zealand education is the proportion of pupils who proceed to some form of post-primary schooling at the conclusion of the primary course. The movement towards free secondary education for all began in 1901, when free places were introduced in the district high schools. In 1903 it became obligatory on all State post-primary schools to provide some free places, and from 1914 every child who had passed the Proficiency Examination was entitled to free education for at least two years in any State post-primary school. The final step was taken in 1936, when the Proficiency examination was abolished and free post-primary education to the end of the year in which lie is nineteen was offered to every child completing a primary-school course or attaining the age of fourteen years. Extension beyond the age of nineteen is allowable in special cases approved by the Minister. In 1941, 65·0 per cent, of the children leaving public primary schools went on to full-time post-primary schooling. The average length of stay in the State post-primary schools as a whole is about two and a half years. In 1941, returns for secondary and combined schools showed that 38·9 per cent. of their pupils received education beyond the second year.

Post-primary schools are either public (State) or private. The following table shows the number and types of post-primary schools during the last five years:—

Year.Secondary Schools.Combined Schools.Secondary Departments of District High Schools.Technical High Schools.Maori Secondary Schools.Endowed and Private Secondary Schools.Totals.
19374068621857218
19383978820857219
19393979520860229
19403979621863234
19413979821865238

A combined school is an amalgamation of a secondary and a technical school under a single governing body. District high schools are public primary schools with a secondary “top.” The basic course is academic, as in the normal secondary school; but, where staffing and equipment allow, special courses are provided in agriculture, commercial work, and domestic science. Technical schools are described later in this section.

Until 1904, secondary schools were established by special (local) Acts of the General Assembly, and the majority of schools giving post-primary education have been established in this manner. At the present time the provisions of the 1914 Education Act allow the Minister of Education to establish such schools. Secondary schools and combined schools are controlled by Boards of Governors and district high schools by the Education Boards.

The secondary schools are regularly inspected by four Inspectors and the technical schools by three Inspectors, attached to the Education Department. Combined schools are inspected by both secondary and technical Inspectors. In addition, there is a woman Inspector of home science.

The number of pupils at the end of each of the last five years is shown in the following table. No account is taken of lower departments of secondary schools, and in the case of district high schools only the secondary departments are included:—

Year.Secondary Schools.Combined Schools.District High Schools.Technical High Schools.Maori Secondary Schools.Endowed and Private Secondary Schools.Correspondence Classes.*Totals.

* Prior to 1939 part-time students were included in the secondary roll. The number of part-time students was: 1939,363; 1940, 519; 1941,585.

193714,1012,1134,3897,8335015,21081834,965
193814,4182,7224,9058,1494575,28689436,831
193914,7432,8085,4018,4814315,57362838,065
194014,3032,7935,2538,0094195,63764437,058
194113,6092,7805,0337,3714005,72956535,487

At the end of 1941, of the total scholars attending secondary schools, 7,033 were boys and 6,576 girls; combined schools, 1,558 and 1,222; secondary departments of district high schools, 2,201 and 2,832; technical schools, 4,110 and 3,261; endowed and registered private secondary schools, 2,630 and 3,099; and Maori secondary schools, 166 and 234.

War Bursaries for Soldiers' Dependants.—Regulations which came into force in January, 1918, provided for the award of bursaries to dependants of members of the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces who were killed through active military service or who were disabled through such service. In 1941, bursaries were made available to dependants of members of the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force and of veterans of the Great War who are in receipt of pensions under the War Veterans' Allowances Act, 1935. To qualify for a war bursary a child must be eligible for—

  1. Free education at technical classes; or

  2. A free place at a post-primary school; or

  3. A University National bursary.

Nine hundred and forty-two war bursaries were current in December, 1941.

Technical Schools.—The technical schools fall roughly into two types: (a) Those in the small centres, which provide for all the post-primary needs and are distinguishable from secondary schools only by having in general a rather more strongly developed practical side; and (6) the large technical schools in the main centres, in which there is less evidence of the generalized academic curriculum, since this is adequately provided by the city secondary schools.

However, ever, in the latter type most of the courses in the day schools are still designedly pre-vocational and not genuinely “technical” in character. Technical schools are controlled either by a Board of Managers or by the Education Board of the district acting in a similar capacity.

There were twenty-one technical schools in 1941. The following table shows the number of pupils taking the different courses available (as at 1st July in each of the last five years):—

Course.1937.1938.1930.1940.1941.
Industrial2,9083,2163,5173,5463.077
Commercial and general4,4694,5824,6694,6144,199
Domestic1,3201,3831,2361,0941.079
Agricultural379403364382423
Art332381496558479
      Totals9,4089,96510,28210,1889,257

Technical Classes.—The number of centres at which technical classes for part-time day and evening students are given decreased from 138 in 1940 to 126 in 1941. These classes, on the whole, are more in the nature of trade classes than the usual technical-school course, but many of the pupils attend in order to continue their general post-primary education, and a great number to be trained only in shorthand, typing, and book-keeping.

The number of individual students in 1941 was as follows:—

Classes conducted by Education or High School Boards4,996
Classes conducted by Technical School Boards or by Managers9,233
Classes conducted by University colleges313
      Total14,542

Of the above number, 10,188 (6,933 males and 3,255 females) held free places.

Examinations.—Technological examinations were conducted by the Department of Education in 1941 on behalf of the City and Guilds of London Institute at nine centres. The total number of entries was 255, and the number of passes 128. The Department also held its own examinations in technological subjects in 1941: 108 candidates sat for examination, of whom 30 passed in the preliminary, 25 in the intermediate, and 7 in the final examination.

Secondary Schools for Maoris.—The Maori child has the same right to a free secondary education as the non-Maori, and where a State post-primary school is accessible he may attend it. For the Maori children in remote districts, post-primary education is provided by means of Government scholarships granted by the Education Department to selected private denominational schools. There are eight of these schools, five for girls and three for boys. Some of them are also partly financed out of public endowments originally provided for the purpose of Maori education.

At the end of 1941, 400 Maori pupils were receiving secondary education at these schools, 223 of the total being Government scholarship-holders.

In 1940 a further step forward in the provision of post-primary education for Maoris was the approval of the establishment of three Native district high schools in the East Coast district of the North Island. These schools, unlike the private denominational schools, are controlled by the Education Department and will provide courses of a practical nature specially suited to the needs of the Maori pupils.

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE.—Since 1938 full responsibility for the work of vocational guidance of pupils at post-primary schools, which for some years past had been carried on almost entirely by voluntary organizations, has been taken by the Government. Eight vocational guidance officers (four men and four women) were appointed, two to each of the four chief centres; and educational guidance officers, known as “careers-advisers,” have also been selected at certain large post-primary schools to work in conjunction with the district vocational guidance officers. So far as the work of finding positions for children leaving school is concerned, the vocational guidance officers act in collaboration with the officers of the Placement Service of the Labour Department, and in each of the four main cities a “Youth Centre” has been established where the work of guidance and placement is undertaken jointly by officers of the Education and Labour Departments. The New Zealand Council for Educational Research has prepared a survey of vocational guidance facilities as they exist at the present time published under the title of “Vocational Guidance in New Zealand,” by H. C. McQueen.

RURAL EDUCATION: Consolidation of Schools.—In order to give children in country districts the advantages of special equipment and more specialized teaching in larger schools, the consolidation of the smaller rural schools has been encouraged wherever practicable. Owing to transport difficulties brought about by war-time conditions, recent new consolidations have been restricted to cases where the only alternative would have been heavy building programmes.

Conveyance and Board.—A natural consequence of consolidation is the provision of adequate conveyance facilities to bring children into the centres. Free passes on the railway to the nearest public or private school are granted to children living near a railway-line but out of reach of a primary school, and the same privilege is enjoyed by pupils having to travel to attend secondary schools, combined schools, district high schools, and technical high schools, as well as to pupils travelling to attend technical schools or classes other than at technical high schools and manual-training centres.

In certain circumstances, mainly on account of railway facilities not being available, the cost of the conveyance of pupils to schools is met by way of conveyance or horseback allowance, and in other cases the Education Department provides school buses.

The following table gives the details of expenditure on conveyance of pupils for the last two years:—

1910–41.1041-42.
Rail.Other.Totals.Rail.Other.Totals.
 ££££££
Public primary8,633215,864224,4977,222209,888217,110
Private primary4,384 4,3843,261 3,261
Public post-primary18,10128,79846,89912,21330,71642,929
Native4315,24015,283 16,58616,586
Private secondary2,355 2,3551,931 1,931
      Totals33,516259,902293,41824,627257,190281,817

During the last three years the expenditure on board of pupils attending schools was as follows:—

 1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
 £££
Public primary7,8787,9839,013
Public post-primary40,00437,18134,579
Native1,7741,6711,323
    Totals£49,656£46,835£44,915

The following table shows the number of children conveyed to school and in receipt of boarding-allowance as at 1st July, 1941:—

Type of School.Number of Pupils on Roll.Total Pupils conveyed to School.Number receiving Boarding-allowance.
Public primary schools190,87021,388514
Intermediate schools and departments6,69947731
Secondary departments of district high schools5,8522,583257
Secondary schools14,9502,4481,270
Technical high schools9,2572,709508
Combined schools3,053487440
Native schools10,9162,784117
Chatham Islands schools133218
      Totals241,73032,8973,145

Correspondence School.—Since 1922, correspondence classes have been conducted for the primary education of children in very remote areas and of those unable to attend school on account of lengthy illness or other causes. In 1929, courses were extended to cover secondary education up to the stage of the University Entrance Examination. The usual subjects of the syllabus of instruction are taught at the school, and in addition pupils who require instruction which is usually available in a special class in a public school are taught by teachers on the staff of the school who are trained for the purpose. A corporate school spirit is developed through craft and club activities, weekly radio lessons, and personal visits from special travelling teachers. The work of the school has been greatly facilitated by the extension of the practice of visiting pupils in their homes. Vacation schools have been organized in various centres in order to give pupils the opportunity of doing practical work and of taking part in group activities.

Young persons in employment, including teachers of small public schools, junior assistants in Native schools, Post Office cadets, and others who are unable to attend post-primary schools for evening classes, also receive tuition as part-time pupils of the Correspondence School. One of the features of the school is the provision of instruction for pupils taking practical subjects, such as needlework, woodwork, and practical agriculture.

At the end of 1941 there were 2,943 pupils on the roll of the Correspondence School, 1,793 being in the primary department, 585 in the secondary, and 585 part-time students. The staff of the school consists of a headmaster, 43 secondary and 39 primary assistant teachers (6 of whom arc engaged in the infant department), 8 specialists engaged exclusively in teaching needlework, and 4 teachers of “special class” children. There are also 29 office-assistants.

Agricultural Clubs.—An effort has recently been made to see that the curriculum is adapted to the social and economic background of each school, and the teaching of agriculture is made a special feature in the rural schools. Projects have been undertaken by the boys' and girls' agricultural clubs in the rearing of calves, lambs, chickens, pigs, and bees, and in the production of crops. In 1936–37 some 6,750 projects were completed; in 1937–38, 15,188; in 1938–39, 18,531; in 1939–40, 21,370; and in 1940 41, 26,762.

HEALTH SERVICES: Physical Education.—Physical education, including swimming and life-saving, is a recognized part of the primary and post-primary school curricula. In the public schools three half-hourly periods per week are devoted to the subject, and in post-primary schools at least one hour a week. During the summer month of February public schools suspend ordinary time-tables and concentrate on development of physical welfare and outdoor activities. Corrective classes are held in the larger schools for the purpose of remedying physical defects of the children.

As a result of a conference held in 1937, increasing importance is being attached to the place of physical education in the curriculum, A Superintendent, to organize and control physical education in the schools throughout the Dominion, was appointed in 1939. Area organizers have also been appointed to develop still further the work in their respective districts, and assistants have been appointed to teach physical education in the schools to which they are attached and in neighbouring schools.

Medical and Dental Treatment.—Information on the medical and dental inspection of school-children and the dental-clinic system is given in the section (5A) of this Year-Book devoted to Public Health.

Milk in Schools.—The milk-in-schools scheme, for the free issue of a half-pint daily ration of milk to children, commenced on 1st March. 1937. The consumption of the milk is entirely voluntary, and it is found over all schools that about 85 per cent, of children accept.

In remote areas where it is impossible to maintain a pasteurized supply, the needs of the children are met by the free issue of milk for cocoa making or the issue of whole-milk or malted-milk powder (see also section 5A referred to above).

CHILD WELFARE AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS.—The Child Welfare Act of 1925 provided for the creation of a special branch of the Education Department, known as the Child Welfare Branch. The Act was passed to make better provision with respect to the maintenance, care, and control of children who are specially under the protection of the State, and to provide generally for the protection and training of indigent, neglected, and delinquent children.

An important section of the Act provided for the establishment of Children's Courts, to be presided over by Stipendiary Magistrates or Justices specially authorized to exorcise jurisdiction in these Courts. Provision was also made for the appointment of honorary associates of either sex, whose function it is to consider all the facts. concerning children brought before the Courts and to advise the presiding Magistrate or Justice as to what action should be taken. The appointment of Child Welfare Officers for the investigation of all cases coming before the Courts was also provided for. These investigations are carried out mainly by the regular officers employed by the Department, but in outlying districts the services of about two hundred honorary child welfare officers are utilized for this important work.

The principle of dealing with children in the privacy of the Magistrate's room had been followed for many years throughout the Dominion, and the Child Welfare Act was designed to give legality to such a practice. Very wide discretionary powers are given to these special Courts in dealing with children. The ordinary procedure of requiring the child to plead, of taking evidence on oath, and, indeed, of hearing the particular charge may be dispensed with altogether. Wherever practicable the Children's Court is held in premises apart from the ordinary Police Court, and no newspaper is permitted to publish either the names of children appearing before these Courts or any particulars that are likely to identify a child.

A child was originally defined for purposes of the Act as one under sixteen years of age. This age was raised to seventeen in 1927.

In order to provide for the greater protection of infants of unmarried mothers and for the assistance and guidance of the mothers themselves, there is provision for Child Welfare Officers, on being notified of such births, to investigate each case and to render such assistance as is required, either in placing the child in a suitable foster-home or in advising the mother in the matter of affiliation proceedings, or in assisting her in obtaining employment, &c. By an amending Act in 1927 provision was made for the inspection and registration of all private institutions for children.

In addition to the work in connection with the maintenance and education of indigent, neglected, and delinquent children committed by the Courts, the Child Welfare Branch (1) supervises all infants and young children under the age of six years who are living apart from their parents; (2) makes inquiry through its field officers, for the information of Magistrates, into all applications for the adoption of children; (3) supervises all children and young persons placed under the field officers by order of the Court; and (4) controls institutions for deaf or for mentally backward children.

The following figures (which are exclusive of children dealt with as preventive cases, 1,960 in 1941–42) indicate the numbers under control during each of the last five years. In addition there were (1941–42) 19 children at the New Zealand Institute for the Blind, for whom the Education Department made payment:—

 1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
Boarded out, institutions, receiving, homes, and in hospitals, or convalescent homes, &c.3,9854,0464,1104,0514,199
Under supervision9109731,0411,1091,123
Infant-life protection842695623581627
Deaf children113103103117110
Mentally backward children263268240283183
      Totals6,1136,0856,1176,1416,242

The Child Welfare Act authorizes Children's Courts to place children under the supervision of Child Welfare Officers in cases where it appears undesirable or unnecessary to remove them from their own homes, and generally in all cases where friendly contact with the parents as well as the children is sufficient to bring about a readjustment of the home conditions or the correction of incipient anti-social traits in the children. In this important work the Department receives valuable assistance from private social service organizations.

The number of cases dealt with by the Courts in 1941–42 was 2,936 (2,934 in the previous year), and of these 1,123 were placed under supervision and dealt with as indicated in the foregoing paragraph. The number committed to the care of the Superintendent during the year was 564.

At 31st March, 1942, the number of children boarded out was 2,014, as compared with 2,046 at the end of the preceding year. The boarding-out rate is 17s. 6d. per week for infants under twelve months, 15s. per week for children over that age attending primary schools, and 17s. 6d. per week for those attending secondary schools, this last figure including pocket money for the child. The Department provides free medical and dental treatment and medicines, and also school books and stationery.

The Boys' Training Centre at Levin provides for boys of all ages—usually from fourteen years upwards—who require a period of reformative detention in an institution. There is a similar institution for girls at Burwood, and also a Girls' Hostel in Wellington.

An institution at Otokaike provides a special course of education for mentally-backward boys. The older lads, under capable supervision, are employed in farm-work, garden and orchard work, bootmaking, and carpentering. Girls are provided for at the Special School at Richmond, and are employed in housework and laundry-work, sewing, knitting, &c., and in outside occupations, such as gardening and flower-growing.

In order to meet the requirements of children who are retarded in their development owing to physical or other defects, special classes have been established. These classes provide for children in certain public hospitals, for hard-of-hearing children and speech defectives, for under-nourished and physically defective children, and for children who are unable to benefit from ordinary class instruction.

Infant-life protection is carried out under the supervision of trained nurses who are fully qualified in the care and feeding of infants and young children. Very many infants dealt with under this system are illegitimate.

A residential school at Sumner exists for the teaching of deaf children, and special classes are established in the main centres for the education of hard-of-hearing children and for the correction of defective speech among children. Classes are also conducted for adults.

Provision is made for blind children and also for blind adults at the New Zealand Institute for the Blind at Auckland.

British Children.—There were 203 British children in New Zealand at the 31st December, 1941, who had arrived from the United Kingdom under a scheme approved by the Governments of both countries. The children, who are staying for the duration of the war, are with relatives or friends or otherwise in private homes, and are under the general care of the Superintendent of the Child Welfare Branch.

TEACHING PROFESSION: Training of Teachers.—There are four training colleges-available to students who desire to enter the teaching profession, and at the end of 1941 there were 1,511 students in training. Of these, 1,471 were “Division A” students and 40 “Division C” students. The minimum academic qualification for “Division A” is the University Entrance or School Certificate Examinations, while students of “Division C” must be University graduates.

The normal course of training for “Division A” students is a period of two years at a training college, followed by a further period of one year as a probationary assistant attached to a public school. For students of “Division C” the course is for one year. Recently the practice has been revived of giving an extra year's training to selected students wishing to specialize in the teaching of certain subjects of the curriculum, the number undergoing this additional course in 1941 being 80.

Public Primary-school Teachers.—Of the 6,586 teachers at the end of 1940, 87·3 per cent, held teachers' certificates. The average number of pupils for each class teacher was 28 (the average is affected by the inclusion of sole-charge schools, some of them with very small rolls). The table following relates to teachers as at 31st December, 1940, but excludes 220 teachers in intermediate schools and departments:—

Education District.Solo Teachers.Heads of Schools.Probationary Assistants.Assistant Teachers.Total Number of Teachers.Percentage of Male to Female Teachers.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
Auckland1817634649631192619472,04271·5
Taranaki3916651716143915936577·2
Wanganui5731751014324620547069·1
Hawke's Bay633271713324518845174·1
Wellington44439320385211638679258·1
Nelson38344151017199325772·5
Christchurch89741382338951434281,02865·8
Otago7334841030506423858375·6
Southland60236765274714337889·9
      Totals6443639801472274387802,7876,36670·4

If schools with fewer than twenty-five pupils are omitted, the ratio of men teachers to women teachers in 1940 was 100 to 164. The proportion of men to women in charge of schools with not more than twenty-four pupils was 100 to 55. If all public schools are taken, it is found that the ratio of men teachers to women teachers in 1940 was 100 to 142.

Information as to the Teachers' Superannuation Fund will be found in the section of this book dealing with “Social Security, Pensions, Superannuation, &e.” (section 24).

Post-primary-school Teachers.—The following table indicates the number of adult teachers employed in the post-primary schools mentioned. The principals are included except in the case of district high schools, the figures for which apply to assistants in the secondary department only:—

Year.Secondary Schools.District High Schools.Technical High Schools.Combined Schools.Grand Totals.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
19373652891279327415159421,400
193835329214610228615477531,463
193935330516311029315880551,517
194036229615811730716481531,538
194135228814612930615982531,515

TEACHING AIDS.—To assist teachers in any way which may make their work more realistic, a Supervisor of Teaching Aids was appointed to the Education Department in 1941. His work includes the supervision of school broadcasts and the work of the Education Officers in the museums and the building-up of a library of films and film strips.

Broadcasting.—Regular broadcasting programmes for schools were initiated in 1931, the full cost being borne by the National Broadcasting Service. An increasingly varied series of talks is given weekly over the YA stations at Auckland, Wellington, Christ-church, and Dunedin. Owing to the paper shortage only a small supply of programme booklets was available in 1942. No accurate information is available as to the number of schools which listen in to the special educational programmes. Special lessons are broadcast for Correspondence School pupils.

Visual Aids.—The use of visual aids, particularly the film-strip projector, is increasing in the schools. The Department of Education is concentrating on building up, in the Education Board offices, libraries of films and film-strips for free use in schools. The Visual Education Association in Auckland runs a circuit of silent films covering some fifty schools.

Museums.—To assist schools to make the fullest use of the museums, an education officer is attached jointly to the museum and the teachers' training college in each of the four centres. The work of one of these educational officers has been interrupted because of the war. Museum boxes are circulated amongst schools where pupils cannot make regular 'visits to the museum.

Publications.—An illustrated monthly paper, called the School Journal, is published by the Education Department for use as the chief reader in primary schools and intermediate schools and departments, and is supplied free to all schools, both public and private.

A monthly Gazette, mainly for the information of teachers, is published by the Department. In addition to containing articles by leading educationists, it is a medium for the prompt dissemination of official information and for the advertisement of vacancies. Copies are distributed to educational authorities and to State schools throughout the Dominion.

HIGHER EDUCATION: New Zealand University.—Control of higher education in New Zealand is vested in the New Zealand University, founded by the New Zealand University Acts of 1870, 1874, and 1875.

The University was formerly an examining, not a teaching, body with four teaching institutions affiliated to it—the Auckland University College, founded in 1882; Victoria University College, founded in 1897 at Wellington; Canterbury University College, founded in 1873 at Christchurch; and Otago University, founded in 1869 at Dunedin. By the New Zealand University Amendment Act, 1926, the constitution of the University was altered so that it now actually consists of the four University colleges. Each of the colleges, besides providing the usual University courses, specializes in certain directions: Otago University has medical and dental schools, a school of mining and metallurgical engineering, and a school of home science; Canterbury University College has a school of engineering (mechanical, electrical, and civil); and a school of art; Auckland University College has a school of architecture, and a school of engineering up to and including the second professional examination; and Victoria University College specializes in law. There are also two agricultural colleges—viz., Massey and Canterbury—attached to the University (see page 117).

In 1930 a New Zealand University Amendment Act was passed to enable the New Zealand University to discharge its functions under the Law Practitioners Amendment Act, 1930. For this purpose a Council of Legal Education was established to make recommendations to the Academic Board of the University with respect to any matter relating to legal education. Further, the Senate of the University in making or altering statutes concerning legal education must first consider any recommendations made by the Academic Board or the Council of Legal Education.

In 1941 there were 4,857 students actually in attendance at the four University colleges and the two agricultural colleges. Of these, 308 were graduates, 3,950 undergraduates, and 599 unmatriculated students. In addition there were 409 students attached to the various University colleges, but exempt from lectures. Comparable figures for the last five years are given in the following table:—

Year.Students attending Lectures.Exempt Students.Totals.
Males.Females.Males.Females.
19373,3451,117460885,010
19383,9001,2344601135,707
19394,0651,2855141155,979
19403,7121,3573511085,528
19413,2451,6123041055,206

Service in the various brandies of the Armed Forces is the reason for the decline in the numbers of male students during the last two years. It will be noticed that there has been a marked increase in the numbers of female students attending lectures during that period.

Professors attached to the various University colleges in 1940 numbered 72, of whom Auckland had 14; Victoria, 15; Canterbury, 15; Otago, 24; Massey, 2; Canterbury Agricultural, 2. In addition there was a considerably larger number of full-time lecturers, part-time lecturers, and assistants.

Free University Education.—Free University education was instituted in 1911 for all holders of University Scholarships (gained by examination) and bursaries (gained by accrediting). University Junior Scholarships and University National Scholarships are of the value of £25 per annum plus tuition fees, and are tenable for three years. In the case of holders living away from home a further sum of £35 per annum is allowed. The number of University Junior and National Scholarships awarded in 1940 was thirty. Taranaki Scholarships are of the annual value of £60, and the Senate may, at its discretion, extend the tenure from three to four years. The above scholarships are awarded on the results of the Entrance Scholarships Examination. There arc also some thirty or forty local and privately endowed scholarships awarded on the results of the same examination.

Scholarships awarded during the degree course are the Senior University (£60 per annum) and John Tinline Scholarship (£60 per annum). The various colleges also have private scholarships for which their own students may compete. The chief scholarships awarded at the end of the University course are the Rhodes Scholarships, the 1851 Exhibition Scholarships, the Travelling Scholarships in Arts, Science, Commerce, Law, Engineering. Architecture. Medicine, and Dentistry, the Macmillan Brown Agricultural Scholarship, the Shirtcliffe Scholarship, and the National Research Scholarships. All except the last-named are tenable abroad. The Research Scholarships are each of the value of £100 per annum.

In 1937 new regulations were issued for University national bursaries, and holders are now entitled to the payment of tuition fees up to £20 per annum. Furthermore, the higher leaving certificate has been reinstated as a qualification, and a number of boarding bursaries of £30 per annum are available for those who are obliged to live away from home to attend a University college. A bursary is tenable for a three (or possibly four) years' course at a University college or at a school of agriculture recognized by the University. The number of University national bursaries held in 1941 was 1,594. In order to assist qualified students to pursue special University courses, bursaries are available in agriculture, architecture, art, engineering, and domestic science. In 1941 the number of bursaries held was twenty-one in agriculture, eleven in engineering, four in architecture, and forty-nine in domestic science (tenable at Otago University). Fine arts bursaries of an annual value of £60, tenable at Canterbury College School of Art, were established in 1936, and there were fourteen bursaries current in 1941.

From the table given below will be seen the number of students who received free University education during each of the last five years:—

Year.Junior University, University National, and Taranaki Scholarships.Senior University Scholarships.University Bursaries.Training-college Studentships.Other.Totals.
1937105261,0936361612,021
1938111171,2497001992,276
1939107231,3607172082,415
1940111181,5116312372,508
1941102201,5946112222,549

School of Agriculture.—The New Zealand School of Agriculture consists of two agricultural colleges specializing in higher agricultural education—Massey Agricultural College, near Palmerston North, and Canterbury Agricultural College, near Christchurch. Until 1937 the two colleges were separately governed, though both were attached to the University of New Zealand. Under an Act of that year they were co-ordinated as the New Zealand School of Agriculture in connection with the University of New Zealand. They are now governed by one Council, but continue to specialize in their respective spheres of work as separate institutions. The staff of Massey College consisted in 1941 of two professors, twelve lecturers, and six assistant lecturers, while that of Canterbury was made up of a director, professor, assistant director, and ten lecturers. The total number of students at Massey College in 1941 was 166 and at Canterbury 136.

Encouragement to the development of higher agricultural education is given through a Government statutory grant to the Council, amounting to £33,000 in 1941. In addition, a sum of £10,300 was made available in 1941 out of the Public Works Fund for additions and replacements to be undertaken at the colleges. Various research projects at the colleges have been aided by expert assistance and grants from the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

In addition, agricultural bursaries are awarded to qualified candidates to provide them with practical training for positions as teachers or instructors of agriculture. During 1941 three bursars were in attendance at Canterbury Agricultural College, twelve at Massey College, three at Victoria University College, and three at Canterbury University College.

Council for Educational Research.—In 1933 the Carnegie Corporation of New York set up a committee to report on the proposal to found in New Zealand a Council for Educational Research. This committee called a conference of representative educationists to consider the proposal, and approached educational authorities for their co-operation. In view of the unanimous support given to the proposal, the committee recommended the foundation of the Council, and in November, 1933, the Carnegie Corporation appropriated a substantial grant for the purpose, payable in five yearly instalments, beginning in 1933–34. In 1938 the Corporation extended the grant to cover a second five-year period, from 1940 to 1944.

The Council decided to devote the first five years very largely to a survey of the organization and administration of the New Zealand education system. At present, research is being centred mainly on the “practice of education.”

In addition to its activities as a research organization, the Council administers the finances of the Carnegie Museums Trust Fund and acts as a clearing-house for information on educational matters.

The Council's activities are. under the control of a permanent officer (the Director), who is assisted by a staff of four. There, are local Institutes for Educational Research in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

ADULT EDUCATION: Council of Adult Education.—The Council of Adult Education, consisting of the Director of Education, the Director of Broadcasting, two representatives of the Senate of the University of New Zealand, one representative of the Dominion Council of the Workers' Educational Association, and two persons appointed by the Minister of Education, was established under the Education Amendment Act of 1938. The purposes of the Council are—

  1. To co-ordinate the different activities of adult education and take any action it may consider desirable to further the interests of adult education:

  2. To recommend to the Minister of Education the amount of the annual grant for adult education to be paid to the University of New Zealand:

  3. To recommend to the Minister the allocation of the grant among such bodies or agencies engaged in adult education as the Council may approve:

  4. To receive annual reports from the University College Councils and from any other bodies to which grants for adult education are made.

Provision was made for the appointment of district advisory committees to facilitate the work of the Council.

Workers' Educational Association.—The Workers' Educational Association is the principal agency for adult education in New Zealand. It operates in conjunction with the University colleges in the four University districts, and on the administrative side consists of two parts—the District Council and the Tutorial Classes Committee. The former consists of representatives of affiliated bodies (such as trade-unions) and members of classes, and is responsible for organizing classes. The latter is composed of equal representation from the District Council and the University colleges, and is responsible for the maintenance of academic standards and the appointment of staff and class tutors.

The work of the Workers' Educational Association is carried on in the cities by means of tutorial classes, which cover a wide range of cultural subjects, such as economics, sociology, psychology, literature, social and economic history, international affairs, music, art, drama, &c. The usual practice is for the lecture to last an hour, followed by class discussion for an hour.

The country work is carried on by means of duplicated lectures specially prepared as a basis for discussion among groups of interested people. By way of variation, boxes of material illustrative of the lectures (especially in the arts) are sent to the groups. These country groups are visited and assisted by travelling tutors. This method has enabled adult educational facilities to be carried to very remote parts of the country and to reach a large number of people. The result has been that country students now outnumber those attending tutorial classes in the cities.

The Workers' Educational Association is financed by Government grant, University grant, and donations from local authorities, trade-unions, and private individuals.

Country Library Service.—The Country Library Service, founded in 1938, is financed by the Government, and is under the control of the Minister of Education.

Its primary purpose is to assist library authorities in country districts and towns with a population of less than 10,000 to give better service. Free loans of books are granted to libraries controlled by local authorities provided that such libraries give a free service locally and are maintained at a reasonable standard of efficiency. Subscription libraries in country districts—i.e., outside the area of boroughs and town districts—may hire books from the Service for an annual payment of £3 per 100 books. Both free and subscription libraries exchange their books from a book-van, which calls at each library twice (in normal times three times) a year. Fiction and non-fiction books arc supplied from the vans. The more serious type of non-fiction book is available to local libraries by mail from the headquarters of the Service, where an extensive library for students is being built up.

Hampers of books for general reading are sent to isolated groups of readers from Country Library Service headquarters. Individuals living in such sparsely populated areas that they cannot even join a group can get a postal service from headquarters.

The numbers of libraries, &c., obtaining books from the Country Library Service on 31st December, 1912, were as follows: Free libraries, 43; subscription libraries, 354; groups, 70; readers receiving individual service, 200.

Apart from its work in small towns and country districts, the Country Library Service is an important factor in library progress generally in New Zealand. The War Library Service, up to the end of 1942, the Central Bureau for Library Book Imports, and the union catalogue are all located at the Country Library Service.

The launching of the School Library Service, operating upon a circulating basis, was the most important development of 1942. This Service, which is financed by the Education Department and administered by the Country Library Service, aims at giving primary-school children access to the best of modern children's literature. At the end of the first six months in which it was operating, some 400 schools, representing over twenty thousand children, were getting books from the School Library Service.

Community Centre.—In 1938 an experimental Community Centre was established at Feilding under the supervision of two experienced educationists specially appointed to the staff of Feilding Agricultural High School. They spend half a day each per week in class-teaching in order to maintain contact with the older pupils; the remainder of their time is spent at the Community Centre, a building in the town specially equipped to cater for adult education in the fullest sense.

Classes are conducted in drama, child-care, literature, art appreciation, physical welfare, and the like, and courses are also carried out in outlying areas. The centre serves not only as a meeting-place for existing adult-education organizations, but as a place where any individual may call for advice and guidance.

Chapter 7. SECTION 7.—JUSTICE.

Table of Contents

CIVIL CASES.—The law relating to the jurisdiction of Magistrates and Justices of the Peace in civil matters was consolidated by the Magistrates' Courts Act, 1928. Under this statute the ordinary civil jurisdiction of a Magistrate is limited to claims not exceeding £300; or, where the parties agree in writing that the Court shall have jurisdiction, to claims not exceeding £500. Justices of the Peace may hear and decide certain civil cases when the sum in dispute does not exceed £20. The numbers of plaints entered and of cases tried, and the amounts sued for and for which judgment was recorded, in the lower Courts during the last eleven years are shown in the following table:—

Year.Plaints entered.Cases tried.
Number.Total Amount sued for.Number.Total Amount claimed.Total Amount for which Judgment entered.
  £ ££
193191,5951,544,60162,9451,047,511889,978
193275,2611,244,23652,886861,088762,171
193364,6811,065,49944,669766,503687,009
193457,957848,38940,883619,243536,367
193559,105871,41340,094588,844504,448
193654,085767,89737,911523,553440,828
193753,613767,57835,015473,848378,810
193861,351829,93540,327500,395423,528
193967,298894,86642,577555,503456,627
194061,828781,29439,953507,710421,302
194149,000687,77732,913427,536362,538

The numbers of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the total amount for which judgments were recorded, in the Supreme Court of New Zealand in its civil jurisdiction during the last eleven years were as follows:—

Year.Number of Actions Commenced.Cases tried.Judgments recorded.
With Jury.Without Jury.Number.Amount.
     £
19311,48174453706311,400
19321,26370422562215,697
19331,14754418493148,119
193490050346364200,805
193593188303383148,155
1936934128284386176,636
1937887144282334137,714
1938775138127245137,916
1939999130282312153,667
194082596205201112,534
19417516520219882,344

INQUESTS.—The following is a table of inquests held over the last eleven years:—

Year.Males.Females.Totals.Maoris (included in Totals).
19311,1223871,50992
19321,1074241,531103
19331,0233741,39774
19341,1404231,563110
19351,0644961,560134
19361,1754651,640142
19371,2285661,794147
19381,4306052,035156
19391,1584931,651125
19401,1575071,664122
19411,2925301,822145

Inquests held during 1941 are shown hereunder according to the type of verdict returned:—

Nature of Verdict.Males.Females.Totals.
Diseases and natural causes6173981,015
Accident54885633
Homicide448
Suicide9836134
Violent deaths of which nature (accident, homicide, suicide) unknown257 53032
      Totals1,2925301,822

Of the accidental deaths the most common causes are injuries by motor-vehicles and drowning. The verdicts show that in 1941 142 deaths, or 22·4 per cent, of the total accidental deaths, were due to injuries by motor-vehicles, while 121 deaths were due to drowning, 64 to falls, 11 to suffocation, and 52 to accidents on railways.

The inquests on suicidal deaths for each of the last eleven years have been:—

 Inquests on Suicides.
YearMales.Females.Totals.
193119929228
193220050250
193316244206
193415035185
193511139150
193612830158
193710660166
193815847205
193912942171
19408428112
19419836134

Of the 134 suicides during 1941 only 7 were Maoris.

Fire Inquests.—In case of fire causing the destruction of any building, ship, or merchandise, or any stack of grain, pulse, or hay, or any growing crop, a Coroner may hold an inquiry into the cause of such fire, the procedure being similar to that of inquests into causes of death. During the five years 1937–41, only 4 such inquests were held. In 1 case the verdict was arson, and in the remaining 3 cases there was insufficient evidence to determine the cause.

POLICE FORCE.—The Police Force in New Zealand is a national body maintained wholly by the General Government. As at present constituted, it was established under the provisions of the Police Force Act, 1886, which came into operation on 1st September of that year. Prior to that date police duty in New Zealand had been carried out by members of the Armed Constabulary, which was then disbanded, some of its members being transferred to the newly constituted Police Force and others to the Permanent Militia. The Police Force Act, 1886, consolidated in 1908, was revised and brought up to date by the Police Force Act, 1913, and the latter, with minor amendments in 1919 and 1924, is the statute under which the Force now functions.

Organization and Duties.—The Commissioner of Police, with headquarters at Wellington, has, subject to the directions of the Minister in Charge of the. Police Department, the general superintendence and control of the Police Force. The Dominion is divided into fifteen districts, each under the charge of a Superintendent or Inspector of Police, who is responsible to the Commissioner for the maintenance of good order and the proper execution of police duty therein. Districts are divided into sub-districts under the charge of sergeants or constables, and cities and towns where regular beat duty is performed are divided into beats, patrolled by constables under the supervision of sergeants.

The principal duty of the Police Force as defined by the Police Force Act is “the preservation of peace and order, the prevention of crime, and the apprehension of offenders against the peace.” In addition to the enforcement of the criminal law and the provisions of the Police Offences Act, there are several statutes of a regulatory nature which the police are called upon to administer, wholly or partly, such as the Arms Act, Licensing Act, Gaming Act, Dangerous Drugs Act, Motor-vehicles Act, Pawnbrokers Act, Second-hand Dealers Act, &c. They also undertake inquiries and other duties on behalf of other Departments of the Government Service, principally the Social Security Department, Registrar-General's Office, Internal Affairs Department, and Education Department (Child Welfare Branch).

Police in country districts in many cases hold such additional appointments as Clerks and Bailiffs of Magistrates' Courts, Inspectors of Factories, Probation Officers, Inspectors of Sea-fishing, Kauri-gum Rangers, and Sub-enumerators of Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics.

Recruiting.—Recruits for the Police Force must be between the ages of twenty-one and thirty years, be not less than 5 ft. 9 in. in height, and have a normal chest measurement of not less than 38 in. They must have passed the Fifth Standard Examination under the Education Act or an examination of equal or higher grade. They must be of good moral character, smart, active, intelligent, and free from bodily complaint or infirmity. The selection of recruits is made by the Commissioner after exhaustive inquiries have been made into the character, antecedents, and qualifications of the applicants. Before appointment they undergo a course of training in the Training Depot, in which they are drilled and receive instruction in the duties they will be called upon to perform.

Appointments to vacancies in the higher ranks of the Force are made from those members of the next lower rank who have qualified by examination, efficiency, and seniority for such promotion.

Members who show an aptitude for detective duty are detailed for service in the Detective Branch, which is attached to each district headquarters and undertakes the investigation and detection of the more serious crimes.

Strength of Force.—In addition to the Commissioner, the strength of the Police Force on 31st March, 1942, was 1,599, an increase of 90 during the year. The total was made up as follows: 5 superintendents, 17 inspectors, 7 sub-inspectors, 41 senior sergeants, 118 sergeants, 1,030 constables, 276 temporary constables, 6 senior detectives, 36 detective-sergeants, and 63 detectives. There were also 15 police surgeons, 9 policewomen, 8 matrons, 3 district constables, and 1 Native constable.

The proportion of police to population is 1 to every 1,022 persons, and the expenditure (exclusive of the cost of buildings) on the whole Police Force for the year ended the 31st March, 1942, was 8s. 3¼d. per head of population.

The following table shows the growth of the Police Force during the last eleven years:—

Year ended 31st March,Officers.Non-commissioned Officers.Detectives.Constables.Totals.Police to Population (including Maoris).Cost per Head of Population.
       s.d.
193225123659441,1571 to 1,31955
193324121679831,1951 to 1,2875
193423124729921,2111 to 1,2805
193528127749901,2191 to 1,28157
193626123771,0001,2261 to 1,2845
193725127911,0121,2551 to 1,26563
193826145931,1641,4281 to 1,12376
193927148911,1731,4391 to 1,1297
194027149901,1911,4571 to 1,1267
194128155971,2291,5091 to 1,084711¼
1942291591051,3061,5991 to 1,0228

Women Police.—By the Statutes Amendment Act, 1938, provision was made for the appointment of women police, it being enacted that the terms of the Police Force Act, 1913, shall apply to women appointees. The first 10 appointees completed their training and commenced duty in October, 1941, three being stationed in Auckland, three in Wellington, and two each in Christchurch and Dunedin. These women police are attached to the detective staffs and do not wear uniform. Their duties consist mainly of investigating complaints in respect of women and children, and their work is confined largely to their own sex.

CRIMINAL CASES IN MAGISTRATES' COURTS.—Maoris are included in the statistics relating to Magistrates' Courts in the following pages, as well as in those for the Supreme Court and for Prisons. Separate figures relating to offences by Maoris are given towards the end of this section. Children's Court eases are excluded, however, and will be found under the later heading “Juvenile Offenders.”

The following table shows the number of criminal charges dealt with in Magistrates' Courts during each of the last eleven years:—

Year.Number.Per 1,000 of Mean Population.
Against Males.Against Females.Totals.Against Males.Against Females.Totals.
193147,2212,35049,5711·193·1732·74
193247,4482,50649,9541·033·3432·71
193342,1072,36844,47532·773·1328·89
193440,8302,74843,57851·773·6028·09
193541,3462,63443,98052·103·4328·15
193644,5122,56347,07555·663·3029·88
193747,7412,84250,58359·143·6331·81
193854,6583,00057,65867·003·7935·88
193957,3213,00860,32969·333·7537·05
194050,6602,56053,22061·573·1432·50
194143,8142,47846,29254·453·0028·38

The next table shows the results in all cases heard during each of the last three years, and similar information concerning distinct cases for the year 1941–i.e., counting only the principal offence in cases where a person is charged simultaneously with two or more offences:—

Result of Hearing.Total Cases.Distinct Cases.
1939.1940.1941.1941.
Dismissed or withdrawn for want of prosecution or of evidence4,4534,0493,7322,536
Dismissed on the merits1,9441,4601,4071,115
Admonished and discharged34626156
Committed for trial426515428196
Committed for sentence1,1841,0241,028337
Summarily convicted52,28846,11039,63632,419
      Totals60,32953,22046,29236,659

The summary convictions for the year 1941 represent a rate of 24·30 per 1,000 of mean population. The figures for the last eleven years are as follows:—

Year.Number.Per 1,000 of Mean Population.
193140,37426·66
193240,59126·58
193336,04323·41
193435,75223·04
193536,23023·19
193639,51725·09
193742,72626·87
193849,65130·90
193952,28832·11
194046,11028·16
194139,63624·30

The great bulk of the cases dealt with in New Zealand are in respect of comparatively trivial offences—drunkenness and offences against traffic regulations usually accounting in recent years for over half of the total convictions. An analysis of traffic offences is given later in this section.

The following table gives the number of convictions in Magistrates' Courts during each of the last five years, classified according to some of the more common offences or groups of offences:—

1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
Offences against the person581633703697592
Offences against property (including forgery)4,1914,3844,6525,1394,882
Drunkenness (including issue of prohibition orders)6,2587,0497,6616,9045,100
Offensive conduct or language, obstruction, &c., of police, and vagrancy1,1991,7061,7542,8642,434
Breaches of traffic regulations, &c.16,47323,20624,65218,50413,274
Other offences against good order1,7101,3621,4921,3112,336
Selling short-weight or adulterated foods, and other breaches of Sale of Food and Drugs Act163207154154226
Breaches of Licensing Act3,6393,3584,1773,8633,200
Breaches of Destitute Persons Act2,8383,0032,8812,3052,237
Breaches of Impounding Act503573674543314
Breaches of Arms Act273273239355118
Breaches of Employment Promotion and Social Security Acts1,221507108168267
Unlicensed wireless sets1,0769031,169612991
Other offences2,6012,4871,9722,6913,665
      Totals42,72649,65152,28846,11039,636

Included in the “Other Offences” group for 1941 were 937 convictions for breaches of the National Service Emergency Regulations.

Punishment on Summary Conviction.—A table showing punishments following summary convictions for the year 1941 is given:—

Punishment.Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.*Offences against Good Order.Other Offences.Totals.

* Including forgery and offences against the currency.

Released under Offenders Probation Act168813844979
Convicted and discharged681,4871,9356654,155
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence76535162109882
Committed to Borstal institution, Salvation Army Home, &c.61072722162
Fined2781,05019,2077,48828,023
Imprisonment in lieu of fine96024553367
Peremptory imprisonment1347554555561,900
Bound over5 3 8
Order made 71,0722,0813,160
      Totals5924,88223,14411,01839,636

CRIMINAL CASES IN SUPREME COURT.—Criminal cases in the Supreme Court are of two classes—viz., those in which the accused person has pleaded guilty in the lower Court and has been committed to the Supreme Court for sentence, and those actually tried in the Supreme Court.

The following table gives a summary of criminal cases dealt with in the Supreme Court during each of the last five years. As previously mentioned, Maoris are included:—

Year.Tried in Supreme Court.Sentences in Case of Committal for Sentence.Total Sentences.
Indictments and Informations.Convictions.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.Totals.
(a) Total Cases.
19376792634112940251,281371,318
1938670163421096371,305171,322
19396012428271,181191,463261,489
19405902328951,063371,352421,394
19417463130261,167211,469271,496
(b) Distinct Persons.
19372441214883361548423507
1938260141578317647414488
19392331514864041355219571
19402321214953821153116647
19412211213543891452418542

Of the 233 distinct persons indicted during 1941, 139 were convicted and 71 acquitted. Of the remainder, no bill was returned or the prosecution was otherwise not proceeded with in 11 instances, 1 person was found insane, and 11 were awaiting trial at the end of the year.

The next table summarizes the offences of persons convicted or sentenced in the Supreme Court during the last five years:—

Year.Total Convictions or Sentences.Distinct Persons convicted or sentenced.
Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Forgery and Offences. Against the Currency.Other OffencesTotals.Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Forgery and Offences against the Currency.Other OffencesTotals.
1937270824168561,3181782693228507
193830090484341,3221862672213488
1939332973126581,4892103143413571
194037487371761,3942132772433547
1941358961115621,4962062752635542

The following were the principal offences for which persons were convicted or sentenced in the Supreme Court during 1941:—

I.—PERSON.

Murder2
Manslaughter1
Negligent driving causing death or bodily injury21
Failing to stop motor-vehicle after accident involving injury10
Assault17
Wounding with intent1
Sexual offences134
Procuring abortion, and attempt6
Concealment of birth2
Bigamy12

II.—PROPERTY.

Robbery1
Burglary25
Breaking and entering143
Embezzlement3
Theft and receiving68
Fraud and false pretences15
Arson, and attempt13
Other7

III.—FORGERY, ETC.

Forgery25
Forgery and uttering1

IV.—OTHER OFFENCES.

Indecent conduct or language8
Escaping from custody5
Negligent driving2
Breach of Licensing Act1
False declaration1
Perjury2
Breach of War Emergency Regulations14
Other2

Seventy-nine Maoris were included in the 542 distinct offenders sentenced in the Supreme Court in 1941, and 359 others (including 15 women) were born in New Zealand. The birthplace was England or Wales in 50 cases, Scotland in 10, Northern Ireland and Eire in 7, and Australia in 23 cases.

Particulars of sentences imposed in the Supreme Court during 1941 are as follows: Released under the Offenders Probation Act, 124; ordered to come up for sentence, 11; discharged, 3; fined, 22; imprisonment, 236; reformative detention, 98; detention in Borstal institution, 31; awaiting sentence, 14. Sixteen of those sentenced to imprisonment received, in addition, a term, of reformative detention, while 12 others were declared habitual criminals.

Of the offenders, 73 were under twenty years of age, 137 between twenty and twenty-five, 103 between twenty-five and thirty, 106 between thirty and forty, 70 between forty and fifty, 33 between fifty and sixty, and 20 sixty or over.

By the Crimes Amendment Act, 1941, the death sentence for murder was abolished, life imprisonment with hard labour being substituted therefor. This amendment is an affirmation of governmental policy, all death sentences from 1936 onwards having been commuted to imprisonment for life. The same enactment also removed flogging and whipping from the list of sentences that may be imposed.

COURT OF APPEAL.—Under the provisions of the Judicature Amendment Act, 1913, the Court of Appeal consists of two divisions, called the First Division and the Second Division, each division consisting of five Judges of the Supreme Court, who are appointed as members of either division by the Governor-General in Council on the recommendation of three Judges of the Supreme Court, including the Chief Justice. The same division does not exercise the jurisdiction of the Court of Appeal at two successive sittings, but exorcises its jurisdiction separately, except that in cases of importance involving special difficulty the Chief Justice and one other Judge may recommend, for the approval of the Governor-General in Council, that a joint sitting of both divisions be held. The Chief Justice or, in his absence, the senior Judge presides. The decision of the Court must be in accordance with the majority of the Judges present, but if the Judges present are equally divided in opinion the judgment, &c.,. appealed from is deemed to be affirmed.

Under an amendment of 1933, special sittings of the Court of Appeal may be held at times and places appointed by Order in Council. This authority may be exercised only on a certificate of not less than three Judges (of whom the Chief Justice shall be one) that it is not expedient to delay hearing the appeal or other proceeding. For a special sitting any three or more Judges may exercise the jurisdiction of the Court.

In addition to the ordinary appeals from the Supreme Court, certain other proceedings arising in inferior Courts may, on an order of the Supreme Court, be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final unless leave is granted to appeal to His Majesty in Council (i.e., the Privy Council).

In criminal cases questions of law may be reserved by the Supreme Court for the Court of Appeal, and upon a refusal by the Court to reserve any question the person aggrieved may move the Court of Appeal for leave to appeal. Any person aggrieved-may also (after conviction) apply to the Court of Appeal for a new trial upon leave being granted by the Supreme Court. Any person has now the right to apply to the Court of Appeal against a sentence passed in the Supreme Court where such person has been convicted upon an indictment or sentenced for any crime on a plea of “Guilty.”

During the last five years 11 Crown criminal cases were brought before the Appeal Court, and in 3 instances convictions wore affirmed. There were 90 civil appeals, of which 51 were allowed, and also 23 cases removed to the Appeal Court, resulting in 14 judgments for plaintiffs and 9 for defendants.

Particulars concerning applications during the last five years (1937 to 1941) for leave to appeal against sentences under the provisions of the Crimes Amendment Act, 1920, are: Applications filed, 214; granted, 60; refused, 154. In all cases except five in which leave to appeal was granted the sentence was varied as a result of the appeal.

PRISONS AND PRISONERS.—There are fourteen prisons and State reformatories and three Borstal institutions in New Zealand, as well as 22 minor prisons and police-gaols. In addition to these there are the police-stations which, under section 17 of the Statute Law Amendment Act, 1917, may be deemed to be prisons for any period (which must not exceed seven days) during which prisoners are detained there undergoing sentence.

On the 1st January, 1941, the various institutions had 895 persons under detention (males, 882; females, 33). During the year 4,828 were received (males, 4,679; females, 149) and 4,708 discharged or transferred (males, 4,563; females, 145). At the end of the year 1,015 (males, 978; females, 37) remained in confinement. The daily average number of persons in confinement during the year 1941 was 958 (males, 921; females, 37).

The 4,708 discharges during 1941 include 1,629 transfers of inmates to other prisons or to the police. Prisoners discharged on expiration of sentence numbered 2,082, 30 were released on bail, 483 were set free on the recommendation of the Prisons Board, and 264 released on special remission. Debtors discharged during the year numbered 130, and 27 lunatics were transferred to mental hospitals. One prisoner committed suicide during the year. The remaining 62 discharges, with the exception of two prisoners who absconded and were not retaken, represented persons who had been in prison on remand or awaiting trial, and notice of whose acquittal had been received.

The following table shows the number of persons in prison on 31st December of each of the last eleven years:—

At 31st December,Persona in GaolProportion per 10,000 of Population.
Undergoing Sentence.On Remand and awaiting Trial, &c.Total.Undergoing Sentence.Total in Confinement.
19311,614431,65710·6010·88
19321,522611,5839·9210·31
19331,410321,4429·119·32
19341,199371,2367·697·93
19351,112381,1507·087·33
1936915479625·776·07
1937790458354·935·21
1938777318084·804·99
1939895399345·455·69
1940863328955·285·48
1941988271,0156·066·22

In the following table persons in confinement at the end of each of the last five years are classified according to nature of sentence:—

Year.Hard Labour or Simple Imprisonment.Habitual Criminals.Detained for Reformative Purposes.Detained in Borstal Institution.On Remand, awaiting Trial, &c.Totals.
Under Three Months.Three Months and under One Year.One Year and over.

* Includes two debtors.

† Includes one debtor.

1937721312833312614545835
1938621082803414414931808
1939781692872816416939934
1940881532502416118532895*
194115719728120149183271015†

The total number of new receptions—counting each person once every time received—in the various institutions during the year 1941 was 4,828 (males, 4,679; females, 149), as compared with 4,624 (males, 4,469; females, 155) in 1940. Thirty-two persons were in prison awaiting trial or sentence at the beginning of the year, thus bringing the gross total of receptions up to 4,860. When allowance is made for persons awaiting trial or sentence, or for debtors and lunatics received, transfers between institutions, multiple receptions, acquittals, &c., the residual figure represents the number of distinct prisoners received under sentence for criminal offences. The net total under this heading in 1941 was 2,369 (males, 2,293; females, 76), an increase of 168 as compared with the previous year. Of the total of 2,369, 346 (males, 335; females, 11) were Maoris.

Analysing the distinct receptions according to nature of sentence, 2,066 prisoners were sentenced to hard labour, 104 to reformative detention, 167 to Borstal detention, 24 to hard labour and reformative detention, and 8 were declared habitual criminals and sentenced to hard labour or reformative detention.

The number of distinct persons received into prison under sentence of imprisonment during the last eleven years, with the proportion per 10,000 of mean population, is given in the next table. Debtors and lunatics received into gaol have been omitted:—

Year.Number.Per 10,000 of Population.
19313,20321·15
19323,40122·27
19332,73117·74
19342,37615·31
19352,15813·81
19361,79011·36
19371,99112·52
19382,22413·84
19392,50515·38
19402,20113·44
19412,36914·53

Ages and offences of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1941 are summarized in the next table:—

Age, In Years.Offences against the Person.Theft and other Offences against Property.Drunkenness.Vagrancy.Other Offences.Totals.
Sexual Offences.Assaults.Other.
15 and under 206611351547201
20 and under 2517434205916184478
25 and under 3012255142108203405
30 and under 40213631583720258533
40 and under 5017119845818168365
50 and under 601291445619105246
60 and over11  17531538134
Not stated   4 127
      Totals96130237892241021,0052,369
Maoris (included above)15502158211882346

The final table of this category supplies statistics of ages and previous convictions of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1941:—

Age, In Years.Number of Previous Convictions.Total previously convicted.Not Previously convicted.Totals. Distinct Prisoners.*
One.Two.Three.Four.Over Four.

* Including 179 cases where no information was given as to previous convictions (if any).

Under 2161322075117199295
21 and under 254429241972188157384
25 and under 3038302216113219155405
30 and under 4048442918182321176533
40 and under 504818171617327271365
50 and under 601720111713019532246
60 and over116628511018134
Not stated 1  4517
      Totals267180129958101,4817092,369

BORSTAL INSTITUTIONS.—Included among the 1,015 prisoners undergoing sentence at the 31st December, 1941, were 183 persons (164 males, 19 females) detained in Borstal institutions under the provisions of the Prevention of Crime (Borstal Institutions Establishment) Act, 1924. This Act, which is an adaptation of Part I of the Prevention of Crime Act, 1908 (Imperial), as amended by the Criminal Justice Administration Act, 1914, is designed to prevent crime, and provides for the detention of young offenders in a special class of reformative institution. An offender between the ages of fifteen and twenty-one years (twenty-three in certain cases), who would otherwise be liable to sentence of imprisonment by the Supreme Court or sentence of imprisonment of not less than one month by a Magistrate, may be made the subject of an order of detention of from two to five years by a Judge of the Supreme Court, and from one to three years by a Magistrate, without a conviction being recorded in the latter case. Inmates (if not over twenty-five years of age) may be transferred from prisons, reformatory homes, State reformatory institutions, and institutions under the Child “Welfare Act, 1925, to Borstal institutions, and from Borstal institutions to prisons. The Minister of Justice has power to release an offender undergoing detention on condition that he is placed under the supervision or authority of a probation officer, or of a society or person (to be specified) who may be willing to take charge of the case.

PRISONS BOARD.—For the purposes of the Crimes Amendment Act of 1910 there is constituted a Prisons Board, the members of which are appointed by the Governor-General in Council for a period of three years, and may be reappointed. As at present constituted, the Board consists of a Judge of the Supreme Court, as President, and six other members.

It is the duty of the Board to make inquiry from time to time as to whether there is reasonable cause for belief that any habitual criminal, habitual offender, or other person under sentence of imprisonment or reformative detention is sufficiently informed to be released on probation or discharged, or for granting discharge to any person who has been released on probation; and to make recommendations as to the release or discharge of any habitual criminal, habitual offender, or other person under sentence of imprisonment or reformative detention, and as to the conditions which may be imposed on any such release or probation. The Board is required to take into consideration, at least once a year, the case of every habitual criminal, habitual offender, or person under sentence of reformative detention. Other classes of prisoners may not apply for and are not entitled to consideration until they have served at least half the sentence (or five years in the case of those sentenced to terms exceeding ten years), and no case is to be considered until six months after the date of reception of the prisoner into prison.

The following table shows the number of cases considered by the Board during each of the last five years:—

Year.Borstal Detention.Reformative Detention.Hard Labour.Habitual Criminals and Offenders.Habitual Criminals for Remission of Hard Labour.Probationers for Discharge from Probation or Variation of Terms.Totals.
Crimes Amendment Act.Offenders Probation Act.
19372832913156531218987
19332942553075421626954
193929827733758119391,029
194030833627757515271,025
194140230326239414171,041

Of the cases considered in 1941, recommendations were made for release on probation in 498 cases, and for discharge from prison in eight cases. Sixteen probationers under the Offenders Probation Act were ordered to be discharged, while in three cases remission of the principal sentence was recommended. Twenty-five petitions were declined, while the remaining 491 cases were deferred.

PROBATION.—Legislation on this subject dates from 1886. Under the Offenders Probation Act of 1920 probation may be granted for “ offence punishable by imprisonment, whether on indictment or otherwise.” Formerly there were numerous important exceptions. The maximum period of probation was fixed in 1920 at five years.

The conditions of release on probation include the necessity for a person on probation to report to the Probation Officer on specified days not more than one month apart, and to notify his address and any change of address. The nature and place of his employment must be made known to and be approved of by the Probation Officer, and he must not commit any offence against the law. The Probation Officer may warn him not to associate with any particular person or class of persons.

A breach of the conditions of the probationary license renders the offender liable to imprisonment or fine, and in addition he may, in respect of the original offence, be either committed to prison or again released on probation.

The following figures are taken from successive returns prepared by the Chief Probation Officer:—

Year.Number admitted to Probation.
1931750
1932726
1933620
1934664
1935605
1936585
1937636
1938715
1939942
1940902
1941709

The following table gives the ages and terms of probation of offenders dealt with under the provisions of the Act during the year 1941:—

Age, In Years.6 Months or under.1 Year.18 Months.2 Years.3 Years.4 Years.5 Years.Totals.
Under 205120141082113272
20 and under 2569485818 2186
25 and under 30347525101192
30 and under 4053633111 187
40 and under 50218 158 245
50 and under 60110 64  21
60 and over23 1   6
      Totals24328302447229709

JUVENILE OFFENDERS.—Under the provisions of the Child Welfare Act, 1925, offences committed by juveniles are dealt with by Magistrates in special Courts. The Child Welfare Amendment Act, 1927, altered the definition of “child” to cover persons under seventeen years of age, instead of sixteen as formerly. Cases dealt with in Children's Courts are not now included in the statistics relating to Magistrates' Courts, and it is not the practice to enter a conviction against juvenile offenders.

The figures for Children's Court cases during each of the last five years are as follows:—

Result of Hearing.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
Dismissed or withdrawn for want of prosecution or evidence15614513711873
Dismissed on the merits10893445347
Admonished and discharged1,9861,6242,1562,2881,646
Committed for trial or sentence 1  3
Released under Offenders Probation Act816132125
Ordered to come up for sentence4558202735
Committed to care of Child Welfare Superintendent637739796906658
Placed under supervision of Child Welfare Officer1,1871,4531,5461,5071,141
Committed to an institution under Child Welfare Act473534653
Committed to Borstal Institution, Salvation Army Home, &c.3167762665
Fined284301275188199
Order made12113430
      Totals4,5014,5435,1005,1443,975

Offences by juveniles are seldom of a very serious nature, and Magistrates frequently adopt the course of admonishing and discharging the offender. It is found that in only a few cases does the offender's future conduct render it necessary for him to be brought before the Court again.

The principal offences against the person in 1941 were indecent assault (26 cases), unlawful carnal knowledge and attempts (7 cases), and common assault (22 cases). The figures for 1940 were 33, 20, and 30 respectively.

Theft was again the principal offence against property, 1,571 charges being dealt with in 1941, compared with 1,865 in the previous year. These figures do not include burglary and breaking and entering, which was the offence in 383 cases (760 in 1940).

Wilful damage, trespass, &c, is also a common class of offence in juvenile cases, being responsible for 469 charges in 1941 (612 in 1940). In 324 cases the charge was unlawfully converting vehicle to own use. Minor traffic offences were responsible for 325 cases in Children's Courts during the year.

The effect of the operation of the Child Welfare Act, 1925, is reflected in the figures for “other” offences, the number of cases for 1941 (613) being seven times that recorded for 1925 (88). The great majority of these cases are in respect of children not under proper control or in indigent circumstances (417 in 1941 and 574 in 1940). In connection with these charges orders were made for committal to the care of the Superintendent, Child Welfare Branch, or for supervision by a Child Welfare Officer in 328 cases, while in 32 cases the children concerned were committed to an institution under the Child Welfare Act.

CHILDREN'S COURTS.—TOTAL CASES, AND DISTINCT CASES, 1941.

Result of Hearing.Class of Offence.
Against the Person.Against Property.*Against Good Order.Other.Totals.

* Including forgery and offences against the currency.

Dismissed or withdrawn5721528120
Admonished and discharged291,305215971,646
Committed for trial or sentence3   3
Released on probation 25  25
Ordered to come up for sentence 35  35
Committed to care of Child Welfare Superintendent1135312282658
Placed under supervision of Child Welfare Officer26955291311,141
Committed to an institution under Child Welfare Act 14 3953
Committed to Borstal Institution, Salvation Army Home, &c. 592465
Fined22115323199
Order made 201930
      Total cases762,8594276133,975
      Distinct cases651,6203574822,524

In connection with the figures given above, it should be noted that in a considerable number of instances several charges are preferred simultaneously against the one offender; consequently the number of distinct cases (excluding multiple charges) is much below that of total cases, as shown above. Of the 3,975 charges heard in Children's Courts during the year, 3,596 were against males, and 379 against females, while the 2,524 distinct offenders comprised 2,188 males and 336 females.

Very few juvenile cases find their way to the Supreme Court, and, beyond the information disclosed by the Children's Courts returns as to committals for sentence or trial, no statistics of such cases in the higher Court are available. Statistics of ages of persons sentenced show, however, that no persons under seventeen years of age were sentenced in the Supreme Court during 1941.

Twenty-three distinct persons (including four females) under seventeen years of age were received into Borstal institutions during 1941.

OFFENCES BY WOMEN.—Of the 39,636 summary convictions in Magistrates' Courts in 1941 only 2,151, or 5·4 per cent., were of females, the following being the most common offences:—

Common assault535
Attempted suicide44
Theft414
Fraud and false pretences32
Drunkenness155
Vagrancy22
Breaches of traffic regulations624
Offensive conduct or language62
Breaches of by-laws, &c.54
Unlicensed wireless sets215
Application for prohibition order43
Breaches of prohibition orders15
Other breaches of Licensing Act150
Allowing horses, cattle, &c., to wander23

There were also 34 committals of females to the Supreme Court during 1941–15 for trial and 19 for sentence. The Supreme Court statistics show that 31 indictments against women were dealt with during the year, resulting in 6 convictions, representing 3 different persons. In addition, 14 women were sentenced after committal for sentence in respect of 21 offences.

The number of distinct females received into prison under sentence during 1941 was 76 (including 11 Maoris), the principal offences of these being—vagrancy, 8; theft, 30; and breach of probation, 7. The daily average number of women prisoners in gaol was 37. Two reformatories (at Addington and Point Halswell) house women prisoners only. There is also a Borstal institution at Point Halswell (Wellington) for women only.

OFFENCES BY MAORIS.—As previously mentioned, Maoris are included in the statistical tables presented elsewhere in this section, the data given here being for purposes of comparison. According to the Census of 1936, 3·92 per cent. of the total population of the Dominion aged fifteen and over were Maoris (i.e., full, three-quarter, or half-caste).

The number of summary convictions of Maoris brought before Magistrates' Courts for the last five years is shown in the next table:—

Year.Class of Offence.Percentage of Total Convictions in Magistrates' Courts.
Against the Person.Against Property.Against Good Order.Other Offences.Totals.
Drunkenness*Other

* Excluding prohibition-order cases.

19371006234949296672,8136·25
19381264745021,1176512,8705·78
19391314985991,1497083,0855·90
19401235296066478852,7906·05
19411397025859867103,1227·88

The 3,122 convictions entered against Maoris during 1941 related to 2,302 distinct offenders.

The total number of Maoris convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court during the last five years was 354, or 13·31 per cent. of the total of 2,660. Of 79 Maoris convicted or sentenced during 1941 (14·6 per cent. of the total of 542) 27 were for offences against the person (including 16 for unlawful carnal knowledge), and 47 for property offences (including 37 for burglary and breaking and entering). Seventy-two of these were sent up from the Magistrates' Courts for sentence, the remaining 7 having ban tried and convicted in the Supreme Court.

The number of distinct Maoris received into prison under sentence during 1941 was 346 (14·6 per cent. of the total committals). Eleven females are included in this figure. Corresponding figures for 1940 were 330 (323 males and 7 females).

DRUNKENNESS.—The extent to which convictions for drunkenness swell the total of convictions in Magistrates' Courts is obvious from the information given earlier in this section. The number of convictions for drunkenness, including drunkenness with disorderly conduct, drunk in charge of vehicle or of horse, and habitual drunkenness, during 1941 totalled 5,100 (males, 4,945; females, 155). It is of interest to note that in 1895 the proportion of convictions for drunkenness per 1,000 of the mean population was 6·5, while in 1941 the proportion was 3·1.

The convictions for drunkenness in 1941 represent 12·8 per cent. of the total convictions during the year. In addition, there were 1,041 technical convictions in cases of applications for the issue of prohibition orders. Prohibition-order cases are not included in the following table, which shows the number of convictions for drunkenness recorded, and the proportion per 1,000 of the mean population of each sex, during the last five years:—

Year.Convictions for Drunkenness.Per 1,000 of Mean Population.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
19374,8751575,0326·040·203·16
19385,5671795,7466·820·233·58
19396,2741676,4417·590·213·96
19405,7521705,9226·990·213·62
19414,9451555,1006·150·193·13

Repeated charges against the same person are included in the totals shown in the preceding table.

Any person who has been three times convicted for drunkenness within the nine months immediately preceding any conviction for drunkenness may be declared an habitual drunkard, the number of such convictions during 1941 being 15 (12 males and 3 females). A Magistrate may, in addition to or in lieu of a penalty, commit an habitual drunkard to any institution authorized by the Governor-General to receive and detain such persons for any period of not less than twelve months.

The sentences in the 5,100 convictions for drunkenness during the year were: Find, 3,480; imprisonment in lieu of fine, 227; peremptory imprisonment, 196; committed to Salvation Army Home or other such institution, 20; convicted and discharged, 1,133; released under Offenders Probation Act, 4; other sentences, 40.

TRAFFIC OFFENCES.—The Number of traffic offences dealt with in the Magistrates' Courts during 1941 was 15,107, convictions being entered in 14,141 instances. Comparative figures for 1940 were 20,774 and 19,528 for cases and convictions respectively. The more serious cases involving death or injury arc, as a rule, sent on to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence. Fifty-seven such cases were sent forward in 1941 as compared with 62 in 1940. During 1941, 31 persons were sentenced in the Supreme Court for offences of this type. Following a long period of rapid growth in road transport, and a corresponding increase in breaches of traffic regulations, the figures for 1940 and 1941 reveal a substantial drop in the number of minor traffic offences, undoubtedly a reflection of the restrictions imposed on the use of motor-spirits and tires.

During the five years 1935–39, convictions for traffic offences increased by 11,485, or 80·7 per cent., while the number of motor-vehicles licensed increased by 107,337, or 53·5 per cent., during the, same period. As stated above, however, convictions for this class of offence have decreased considerably in the last two years. They showed a decline of 5,387 or 27·5 per cent., during 1941, and since 1939 a decrease of 11,582, or 45·0 per cent.

Nevertheless, traffic offences again constituted a high proportion of cases dealt with in the Magistrates' Courts, no less than 35·7 per cent. of total convictions in 1941 being on this account.

The following table shows convictions in Magistrates' Courts for traffic offences during the last five years:—

Offence.1937.1938.1939.1949.1941.
Failing to stop motor-vehicle after accident involving bodily injury4    
Unlawfully converting vehicle to own use325372384471430
Drunk in charge of motor-vehicle573685670533419
Drunk in charge of other vehicle1516172018
Excessive speed in motor-vehicle1,5872,8553,3892,4671,384
Negligent or dangerous driving of motor-vehicle3,7124,5234,6243,2831,678
Negligent or dangerous driving of other vehicle548426451467295
Breaches of regulations for the lighting of vehicles2,4382,3012,3581,8541,391
Offences relating to the registration, &c, of motor-vehicles4,2654,3172,3071,938759
Offences relating to driver's license2,2791,9841,902
Breaches of parking regulations2,1613,5473,4981,7791,432
Other traffic offences1,7625,2375,7464,7324,433
    Totals17,39024,27925,72319,52814,141
Convictions per 1,000 of mean population10·9415·1115·7911·938·67

Most convictions in the lower Courts are for comparatively trivial offences, and are usually dealt with by fine. Unlawful conversions and intoxication in charge, however, often incur the penalty of imprisonment.

In view of the general interest in problems of road transport, the following table shows the number of convictions in Magistrates' Courts for traffic offences in relation to the number of licensed motor-vehicles and to the consumption of motor-spirits (an indication of road-usage):—

Year.Drunk in Charge of Motor-vehicle.Other Traffic Offences.All Traffic Offences.
Number.Per 1,000 Motor-vehicles licensed at 31st December.Per 1,000,000 Gallons of Motor-spirits used.Number.Number.Per 1,000 Motor-vehicles licensed at 31st December.Per 1,000,000 Gallons of Motor-spirits used.

* Not available.

19314032·157·3014,52014,92379·7270·3
19323081·646·1815,00715,31581·5307·1
19332871·525·6013,62713,91473·6271·3
19342531·264·5213,98514,23871·0254·3
19353271·515·2114,73515,06269·4239·8
19364771·976·6215,82316,30067·4226·1
19375732·148·9816,81717,39065·1211·8
19386852·347·6723,59424,27982·8271·9
19396702·187·2925,05325,72383·5279·7
19405331·75*18,99519,52864·0*
19414191·39*13,72214,14147·0*

The number of convictions for drunkenness in charge of a motor-vehicle showed a steady increase, both absolutely and relatively to road-usage, from 1934 to 1938; the last three years, however, have shown a distinct improvement in the position. On the other hand, the ratio of total offences to the number of vehicles in use and to the consumption of motor-spirits fell steadily from 1932 to 1937, rose to a high level during 1938 and 1939, and in 1941 fell (on the basis of motor-vehicles licensed) to the lowest figure yet recorded. At the same time, it must be recognised that no true survey at the position is at present possible, owing to the war-time restrictions on the use of motor-spirits.

OFFENCES REPORTED TO THE POLICE.—So far all criminal statistics in this section relate to offenders who have been brought before the Courts, no account being taken of those cases where offences have been reported to the police but in which no arrest or summons resulted.

The following figures relating to offences reported are taken from the reports of the Police Department for the years 19371:—

Year.Number of Offences reported.Offences in which Arrests or Summonses resulted.
Number.Percentage of those reported.
193738,62936,07893·40
193844,30841,61893·93
193940,37843,16293·07
194045,00941,61992·50
194138,55935,89693·09

It will be seen that, in cases where a crime is definitely established as such and reported to the police, an arrest or summons usually follows. The proportion of arrests and summonses varies with the offence, however, offences against the person, as might be expected, yielding a much higher proportion of arrests or summonses than offences against property, in which detection of the lawbreaker is relatively more difficult.

The following table shows, in respect of some of the principal offences, the number of offences reported during the last four years, and the number of arrests and summonses which resulted:—

Offences.1938.1939.1940.1941.
ReportedResulting in Arrest or Summons.Reported.Resulting in Arrest Summons.Reported.Resulting in Arrest Summons.Reported.Resulting in Arrest Summons.
Murder and attempts7688551111
Manslaughter55556677
Negligent driving causing death or injury7373494853504946
Attempted suicide9191777774735959
Assaults, wounding, &c.770752845823809782788765
Sexual offences277262412391440406342323
Robbery, breaking and entering, theft and receiving7,8415,9878,9796,6959,8787,4808,7706,907
Forgery, embezzlement, and fraud1,0249501,1841,0541,010961875819
Arson and attempts1714232066612625

Chapter 8. SECTION 8.—DEFENCE.

Table of Contents

THE ARMY.—In peace-time the New Zealand Military Forces arc raised, maintained, and organized under the provisions of the Defence Act, 1909, as amended by the Defence Amendment Acts of 1910, 1912, 1915, and 1931. They are divided into the Regular Force and the Territorial Force.

The Regular Force is maintained in order to provide commanders and staffs at the various headquarters and military establishments; adjutants, instructional staff, and instructional cadres for the Territorial Force; nucleus garrisons for the fixed defences; and maintenance and administrative staffs at ordnance depots. It is raised by voluntary enlistment, and corresponds to the Regular Army in Great Britain.

The Territorial Force is maintained for the defence of New Zealand, and is so organized that on mobilization it will be capable of forming the field army and fortress troops required for that purpose. It is raised on the basis of voluntary service (supplemented during the present war by men called up by ballot), and corresponds broadly to the Territorial Army in Great Britain.

Since the outbreak of the present war an Expeditionary Force (designated Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force) has been formed for service within or beyond New Zealand, under the Expeditionary Force Emergency Regulations 1940.

Liabilities and Terms of Service.Regular Force: The engagement of personnel in the Regular Force is voluntary. The original period of engagement is for eight years, but at the end of five years' service a soldier may be re-engaged (his engagement to terminate on his reaching the age of fifty-five years), or he may transfer to the Reserve for the remainder of his original engagement of eight years. During the first five years' service any soldier who is not on active service may purchase his discharge, but in that case he will be enrolled in the Reserve and be liable to be called up at any time during the remainder of his original engagement. Extension of service up to sixty years of age may be permitted, if necessary, to enable the soldier to qualify for pension. To meet the exigencies of the war, the Regular Force has been augmented by appointing, on a temporary basis for the duration of the war, a number of officers and other ranks for staff and other duties.

Territorial Force, Cadets, and Militia.—The Defence Act, 1909, and amendments provide that all male inhabitants who have resided in New Zealand for six months and arc British subjects arc liable to be trained as follows:—

  1. From fourteen to seventeen years of age, in the Senior Cadets.

  2. From eighteen to thirty-five years of ago (or such less age as may be prescribed), in the Territorial Force; but any member of the Territorial Force who has been classified as efficient for three consecutive years may be posted to the Territorial Force Reserve.

  3. From the date of posting to the Territorial Force Reserve to forty years of age, in the Reserve.

Training in Peace.—From 1st October, 1930, to 22nd July, 1940, the compulsory provisions of the Defence Act were in abeyance, and enlistment and training in the Territorial Force was purely voluntary. Recruits for the Territorial Force voluntarily engaged to serve for three years. Men were permitted to extend their service up to the age of thirty-two years, and W.O.'s, N.C.O.'s, and specially selected men for a further period of three years.

The only Cadets trained are those at secondary schools, practically every such school having a Cadet unit, service in which is entirely voluntary.

Liability for Compulsory Service in War.—In time of war all male inhabitants between the ages of seventeen and fifty-five (with certain exceptions mentioned in the Act) are liable to serve in the Militia. The Militia, when embodied, becomes part of the Defence Forces. Both the Territorial Force and the Militia are liable to serve in any part of New Zealand. On the 22nd June, 1942, the National Service Emergency Regulations were amended to provide that every male member of any armed force shall be liable as such member to serve wherever he is required, whether in New Zealand or elsewhere. As a matter of policy, however, no soldier under the age of twenty-one years is permitted to serve beyond New Zealand.

Special War Legislation.—The National Service Emergency Regulations 1940 provide for the calling-up of men for service in the armed forces. Under these regulations the formation of a General Reserve was authorized, even' person resident in New Zealand over the age of sixteen years becoming automatically a member of that Reserve. The Reserve consists of three Divisions, as follows:—

  • First Division: All male reservists who are natural-born British subjects and who for the time being are unmarried within the meaning of that term as prescribed and have attained the age of eighteen years but have not attained the age of forty-six years, with the following exceptions:—

    1. Members of any armed force who are liable as such members for service outside New Zealand.

    2. Men who have been discharged in consequence of disablement or ill-health from any armed force after service in that force outside New Zealand during the present war.

    3. Men undergoing a sentence of imprisonment for a term not less than one year, or in confinement as of unsound mind.

    4. Natives within the meaning of the Native Land Act, 1931.

    5. Men who have been called up for service with the armed forces and whose appeals have been allowed on the ground that they conscientiously object to serving with the armed forces.

    6. Men who have been declared by a Medical Board to be permanently medically unfit for service with the armed forces.

  • Second Division: All male reservists who are natural-born British subjects and who for the time being are married within the meaning of that term as prescribed and have attained the age of eighteen years but have not attained the ago of forty-six years, with the exceptions specified in paragraphs (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), and (f) above.

  • Third Division: All other reservists.

Consequent upon the coming into force of the National Service Emergency Regulations 1940, voluntary enlistment for the Territorial Force and Second Now Zealand Expeditionary Force closed on the 22nd July, 1940, and from that date service was made compulsory. All men enlisted as the result of being called up by ballot under the National Service Emergency Regulations are required to serve for the duration of the war and twelve months thereafter, or until lawfully discharged.

Application of the Army Act.—Members of the Regular Force and officers of the Territorial Force are subject at all times to military law as established by the Army Act, except where it is inconsistent with the Defence Act, while other ranks of the Territorial Force in time of peace are so subject only when undergoing training. In time of war, however, all members of the Defence Forces are subject to military law at all times, with the limitations mentioned above. The members of the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force, while in New Zealand, are subject to the provisions of the Defence Act as if the Expeditionary Force were part of the Territorial Force, but when overseas are subject to the Army Act, except that the death penalty may not be carried into effect without the concurrence of the Governor-General.

Command and Administration.—The War Cabinet is responsible for controlling the Dominion's war effort, and is constituted as follows:—

  • The Right Hon. P. Fraser, Prime Minister, Chairman:

  • The Hon. F. Jones, Minister of Defence:

  • The Hon. A. Hamilton, Minister in Charge of War Expenditure:

  • The Right Hon. J. G. Coates, M.C., Minister of Armed Forces and War Co-ordination:

  • The Hon. D. G. Sullivan, Minister of Supply and Munitions.

The Minister of Defence controls and administers the three fighting services through the medium of the Department of Defence, which is divided for the purpose into:—

  • The Naval Department:

  • The Army Department:

  • The Air Department.

The Army Board and Army Headquarters.—The Army Board is responsible for the command, training, and administration of the New Zealand Military Forces, and consists of:—

  • The Minister of Defence (President):

  • The Chief of the General Staff (First Military Member):

  • The Adjutant-General (Second Military Member):

  • The Quartermaster-General (Third Military Member):

  • The Army Secretary (Member).

Army Headquarters, which is the counterpart in New Zealand of the War Office, is organized as follows:—

  • The Branch of the General Staff:

  • The Branch of the Adjutant-General:

  • The Branch of the Quartermaster-General:

  • The Finance Branch.

The Military Districts.—New Zealand is divided into three military districts (Northern, Central, and Southern), with headquarters at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch respectively. Each military district is under the command of a senior officer of the Regular Force, who is provided with a suitable staff. Each military district is divided into four Areas. In peace-time an officer of the Regular Force is in charge of each Area, and is responsible for the inspection, training, and administration of both Territorial and Cadet units within his area and for general administration in connection with recruiting, &c.

Composition.—(a) The Regular Force.—The Regular Force consists of:—

  • The New Zealand Staff Corps:

  • The Now Zealand Permanent Staff:

  • The Royal New Zealand Artillery:

  • The New Zealand Permanent Army Service Corps:

  • The New Zealand Army Medical Corps:

  • The New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps.

[NOTE.—Officers of the New Zealand Staff Corps are liable to be posted for staff or instructional purposes to any arm of the service, and are trained accordingly.]

(b) The Territorial Force Reserve.—The Territorial Force Reserve is composed of those who served efficiently for three years in the Territorial Force and are under the age of forty-one years.

Training.The Regular Force: All ranks of the Regular Force are required to assist in the training of the Territorial Force, and provide in certain cases a permanent nucleus thereof. The officers of the Regular Force undergo the same examinations for promotion, and candidates for the staff colleges the same entrance examinations, as British Regular officers.

In addition to specialist courses, refresher courses are held from time to time for the benefit of officers studying for their promotion examinations.

The Territorial Force.—In peace-time the annual training prescribed for all units of the Territorial Force consists of:—

  1. Annual training camp—Mounted Rifles and Heavy Batteries, ten days other arms and services, six days:

  2. Out-of-camp training (at week-end bivouacs)—Mounted Rifles and Heavy Batteries, four days; other arms and services, eight days.

Attendance at a six days' course of instruction at the Army or a District School of Instruction is authorized in addition to the annual training prescribed.

There are obligatory courses in camp lasting one week for Majors, Captains, and Lieutenants who are preparing for their promotion examinations.

As a war measure practically all units have been mobilized.

The Territorial Force Reserve.—Officers of the Territorial Force Reserve are liable to be called upon to attend a camp of instruction with their unit triennially, but these officers have not been called up since 1930. Other ranks do no training at all. Since the outbreak of the present war this Reserve has been considered as nonexistent.

The New Zealand Staff College.—This was established in October, 1941, for the purpose of training officers for Staff appointments.

The Armoured Fighting Vehicles School.—At this establishment instruction is given in the operation of all classes of armoured fighting vehicles used in modern warfare.

School of Artillery.—This is an off-shoot of the Army School, necessitated by the expansion of the Artillery arm of the service. Instruction at this School embraces field, anti-aircraft, and coast artillery.

Military Establishments.The Army School of Instruction: In peace-time the Army School of Instruction provides for refresher and specialist courses for officers and other ranks of the Regular Force, besides courses in tactics, staff duties, &c, for senior officers of the Territorial Force. Since the commencement of the present war, this School has functioned chiefly in the training of selected N.C.O.'s and men for commissioned rank.

All recruits for the Regular Force receive their recruit training at the Army School. Officers and specialists for the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force are also trained at the Army School.

District Schools of Instruction.—Each military district has a training-school at which are held all courses essential for the military education of the junior officers of the Territorial Force. Courses in weapon training, drill, signalling, &o., for all ranks of the Territorial Force are also provided. Officers and N.C.O.'s for the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force and Home Defence Units are also trained at District Schools.

[NOTE.—There is no military college in New Zealand corresponding to the Royal Military Colleges at Sandhurst, Kingston, and Duntroon, but cadets are sent to the last mentioned (in Australia). Under peacetime conditions these cadets, after completing their courses and receiving their commissions, are sent abroad for further training, but during a state of war this practice is suspended, and the newly-appointed officers are utilized to the best advantage either in New Zealand or overseas.]

Officers' Training Corps.—The only Officers' Training Corps in New Zealand in peace-time is the Otago University Medical Company, which consists of medical and dental students. An Officer Cadet Training unit has been established at the Army School to produce officers for the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force.

Home Guard.—This is a wartime organization which was established under the Emergency Reserve Corps Regulations 1940, and constituted a part of the Defence Forces on the 30th July, 1941, by the Defence Emergency Regulations 1941. It forms a second line of defence to the Territorial Force. Training in the Home Guard is compulsory, and the members are subject to the same regulations as the Territorial Force, except where such regulations are modified by Army Orders.

National Military Reserve.—The National Military Reserve was formed in May, 1939, but in 1943 was merged with the Territorial Force or the Home Guard according to the physical fitness of the members.

Women's Army Auxiliary Corps.—In 1942 this organization was authorized by the Government as an auxiliary to the Military Forces. Enlistments are made for service both in New Zealand and overseas with the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force. The Overseas Section consists of the Hospital Division and the Welfare Division. In New Zealand the members of this Corps are employed as clerks, cooks, waitresses, kitchen-hands, and in duties similar to those performed overseas.

Cadets.—In order to facilitate administration, the Cadets are organized in battalions, but, except on ceremonial occasions, seldom work as such.

The annual training approximates thirty drills of one and a half hours' duration, including a musketry course and a “barracks” lasting five days.

Rifle Clubs.—Rifle clubs exist for the purpose of encouraging individuals who are not members of the Naval, Military, or Air Forces, to learn to shoot. They are affiliated to, but do not form part of, the Territorial Force. All British subjects over the age of eighteen years are eligible to join. A free issue of 100 rounds of ammunition is made “to all members who fire and qualify in the annual musketry course prescribed, and a further 100 rounds to those who qualify as marksmen. Other ammunition is provided at quarter-cost. As a war measure the activities of Defence Rifle Clubs have for the time being ceased, and the concessions in the matter of ammunition are consequently suspended.

Expeditionary Forces.—New Zealand supplied ten contingents for service during the South African War, comprising a total of 6,500 officers and men.

Immediately the Great European War of 1914–18 broke out an Expeditionary Force was despatched to Western Samoa and occupied those islands, while a larger force in the form of a mixed brigade was despatched to Europe. The latter force was, however, landed in Egypt, and took part in the defence of the Suez Canal. It gave a good account of itself in the desperate campaign on Gallipoli, and after being withdrawn to Egypt was expanded into a Division and a Mounted Brigade. The Division then went to the western want, while the Mounted Brigade continued to operate in Palestine. Both forces became famous for their military qualities, and took part in practically all the great actions of their respective theatres up to the Armistice.

A total of 98,950 troops left New Zealand for service with the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces, and, of these, 16,697 lost their lives on active service. In addition to the 98,950 of all ranks of the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces, 944 British Army Reservists, British Naval Reservists, and others left the Dominion to rejoin their units in the United Kingdom or in a theatre of war. It is also known that 3,370 (not included above) left New Zealand during the period of the war and joined units of the British Forces or the Expeditionary Forces of other Dominions.

On the Armistice being declared in November, 1918, New Zealand had 52,000 troops in the field, while 10,000 more were ready to embark or were under training.

The tremendous amount of transport work involved in the conveyance of these forces to Egypt, France, Britain, Gallipoli, and Samoa was carried out with extraordinary success, not one New Zealand transport having been lost while conveying troops.

The troops provided for foreign service represented nearly 10 per cent. of the total population of the Dominion in 1914, and over 40 per cent. of the male population between the ages of twenty and forty-five years. These percentages do not take into account New-Zealanders who served in the British or Australian Naval or Military Forces.

The Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force, which was formed shortly after the outbreak of the present war, is serving overseas.

THE NAVY.—The Naval Forces of the Dominion are administered by a Naval Board consisting of the Minister of Defence as Chairman, a Captain (Royal Navy) as-First Naval Member with the rank of Commodore, a Commander (Royal Navy) as Second Naval Member with the rank of Captain, and a Paymaster-Commander (Royal Navy) as Naval Secretary and member with the rank of Paymaster-Captain.

The First Naval member holds office also as Chief of the Naval Staff. The Admiralty have vested in him the charge and direction of Imperial ships and Imperial Naval interests on the New Zealand station. As a temporary measure for the duration of the war, the appointment of Commodore Commanding New Zealand Squadron is in abeyance.

His Majesty the King graciously approved the proposal that the New Zealand Naval Forces should be designated “The Royal New Zealand Navy.” This honour is greatly appreciated, for implies a recognition of the war services of our Naval Forces, covering not only the trained personnel loaned from the Royal Navy, but also those officers and men who entered the Service as New-Zealanders and of whom the Service at the present time predominantly consists.

Throughout the year the ships and personnel of the Royal New Zealand Navy have been employed on active operations against the enemy.

On 7th February, 1942, the combined naval forces of the Australian and the New Zealand areas were established under a single command, which, by agreement with the United States of America, was exercised by Vice-Admiral H. F. Leary, United States Navy, with the title of Commander, Anzac Forces. This, however, has since been amended, and New Zealand ships are now operated by Vice-Admiral W. F. Halsey, United States-Navy, the Commander South Pacific Area, with headquarters at Auckland.

The Naval Station.—The base of the Royal New Zealand Navy is at Devonport, Auckland, and the repair yard is known as “H.M.N.Z. Dockyard, Devonport.” The property in this base was vested in the Auckland Harbour Board, but certain important rights therein were exercised by the New Zealand Naval Board under the terms of two contracts entered into between the Admiralty and the Harbour Board in 1899 and 1903. These contracts gave full rights of use of the machinery and of the Calliope Dock.

It has been decided to replace H.M.N.Z.S. “Philomel,” which, for many years, has acted as depot ship and instructional establishment, by buildings to be erected on shore within the precincts of H.M.N.Z. Dockyard. These buildings will form the shore headquarters of the Royal New Zealand Navy, in which the officers and men will live during such periods as they are not serving on board sea-going ships. The transfer to a shore establishment will also facilitate the development of the instructional establishment, which has been planned to provide for courses to qualify men for non-substantive ratings. A portion of the new shore barracks has been completed and is already occupied.

In the year 1935 the Government approved of plans for the lengthening of the Calliope Dock to permit of the accommodation of a cruer of the “Leander” class. A three-year plan (now completed) was inaugurated for the reconstruction and modernization of the Dockyard at Auckland, and negotiations were made with the Auckland Harbour Board for the purpose of drawing up a new contract to provide for the effective Naval control of the repair facilities to be installed. Under authority of the Naval Defence Amendment Act, 1936, the Crown has purchased the property of the Harbour Board surrounding the Calliope Dock at Devonport, and has entered into a deed of arrangement, dated 22nd December, 1936, with the Harbour Board as to the use of the dock and the provision of certain wharves and other services.

The reconstruction and modernization programme referred to above has been supplemented by a reorganization of the controlling and supervisory staff of the Dockyard, with a result that it has now attained a very high standard of efficiency, and this has been exemplified in the very successful major refits of the cruisers carried out in the early part of 1940.

The Government also proclaimed part of a public domain at Kauri Point, in Birkenhead Borough, for use as a Naval Armament Depot, and inaugurated there a three-year programme (now completed) of developmental works. A further extension of the Naval Armament Depot has now been approved.

Provision of Personnel.—Officers: Officers of the Royal Navy are lent from time to time to the New Zealand Government for service in the ships and establishments of the Royal New Zealand Navy.

In 1940 the entry of New-Zealanders as officers in the Executive, Engineering, and Accountant Branches was inaugurated. Candidates enter as cadets (E), and Probationary Paymaster Sub-Lieutenants respectively, and must be between the following ages on the 31st December of the year of entry: Cadets, 17 years and 18 years 8 months; cadets (E), 17 and 19 years; Probationary Paymaster Sub-Lieutenants, 19 and 24 years.

Candidates must have passed the University Entrance Examination or an equivalent, and they must undergo medical and educational examinations for entry, as well as an interview before a Board. Candidates for entry as Probationary Paymaster Sub-Lieutenant who possess the degree of Bachelor of Laws or Commerce, or who have passed the Accountants' Professional Examination, are not required to undergo the educational examination. Artificer apprentices from the Naval Dockyard at Devonport are also eligible for consideration for entry as cadets (E).

All officers proceed immediately after entry to England for training in the Royal Navy, the cadets and cadets (E) for about three years, the Paymaster Sub-Lieutenants for six months, before being appointed to ships of the Royal New Zealand Navy.

All officers can rise to the rank of Commander and Captain in their respective branches.

Regulations for the entry of officers in the Royal New Zealand Navy (R.N.Z.N. Booklet E.O.I) can be obtained on application to the Naval Secretary, Wellington.

The entry of New-Zealanders as medical officers has been approved, and the first entry was effected in August, 1940.

Vacancies for warrant officers are filled by the promotion of New-Zealand-recruited ratings when such ratings qualify for promotion.

The Admiralty makes provision for the nomination of a limited number of New-Zealand-born Naval cadets into R.N. College, Dartmouth, and of special-entry cadets to the training cruiser; candidates are required to pass medical and educational examinations. The nomination of cadets is made by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Director of Education. The age qualification now ruling is—13 years 4 months to 13 years 8 months for R.N. College, Dartmouth; 17 to 18½ years for special-entry cadets.

These candidates are eligible for periods of “loan” service in the Royal New Zealand Navy as soon as they have passed the examinations for the rank of Lieutenant.

Arrangements were made in 1935 whereby a very limited number of ratings recruited in New Zealand for the Seamen, Signal, Wireless, and Engine-room Branches, who display exceptional ability and marked officer-like qualities, are eligible under Imperial Regulations for promotion to commissioned rank in the Imperial Navy. Officers so promoted arc eligible for periods of service in the Royal New Zealand Navy from time to time.

The Admiralty Regulations also provide for the nomination of a limited number of qualified medical and dental practitioners for entry into the Medical and Dental Branches of the Imperial Service.

Ratings.—Recruiting of New Zealand boys and young men is open for all branches of the Service, provided they are medically fit, give proof of the required educational standard, and possess (where applicable) trade qualifications. The branches of the Service are:—

  • Seamen:

  • Signal and Telegraphist:

  • Engine-room Artificer:

  • Stoker (outstanding Stoker ratings may be qualified as Mechanicians):

  • Electrical and Ordnance Artificers:

  • Shipwright:

  • Joiner, Blacksmith, Plumber, and Painter (in very limited numbers):

  • Sick Berth:

  • Writer and Supply:

  • Cooks and Stewards.

Advertisements giving particulars of numbers required are inserted in the press periodically. Recruiting for all branches is effected by the Director of Recruiting, H.M.N.Z.S. “Philomel,” Auckland. A small pamphlet entitled “How to join the Royal New Zealand Navy” has been published and may be obtained on application to Navy Office, Wellington, H.M.N.Z.S. “Philomel,” and the Naval Recruiters at Wellington, Lyttelton, and Dunedin. All candidates are required to have passed the Sixth Standard or to be capable of passing an educational test of equivalent standard.

The term of engagement in the Naval Service is for twelve years, or, if under the ago of eighteen years, to serve until the age of thirty. Short-service ordinary seamen (six years in Royal New Zealand Navy and six years in Reserve, with an option of transferring to continuous service if recommended) are also entered.

All ratings are eligible for advancement to Leading, Petty Officer, and Chief Petty Officer rates in their respective branches, provided they satisfy the conditions provided for in the regulations.

On completion of the first engagement all ratings may re-engage for two more periods of five years' service, provided they are recommended.

Provision is made for the qualification of ratings in technical work connected with Gunnery, Electricity, Torpedoes, Diving, Physical Training, Signals, and Wireless Telegraphy, &c, in the technical schools attached to Naval establishments in Australia and England.

Ratings may qualify for and be promoted to Warrant Officer rank as vacancies occur. Selected men may be transferred from time to time to the Imperial Fleet to gain further experience.

Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve.—Divisions of the Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve are appropriated to the four divisional headquarters at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Men enrol for a period of four years and may re-enrol for periods of two years up to twenty years total service.

They undergo training at sea in H.M.N.Z. ships.

Recruiting for the Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve is not operative during war, and training at divisional headquarters ceases as soon as the members are mobilized and drafted away. Reservists are permitted to re-enrol.

The Royal New Zealand Naval Reserve and the Royal Naval Reserve were mobilized by Proclamation on 4th September, 1939. H.M. ships of the Royal New Zealand Navy have been brought up to war complement by the draft of reserve officers and ratings, and the various port services established and expanded by the same means. The officers and men of the Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve not required for service in New Zealand have been transferred for the duration of the war to the Royal Navy.

THE AIR FORCE.—The Royal New Zealand Air Force can trace its beginnings to the early days of aviation, when, in 1911, preliminary arrangements were made to train officers and N.C.O.'s (Defence Forces Annual Report, 1912). In the following year a New Zealand officer was sent to England for aviation instruction, and at the same time an aircraft was presented to the Dominion “as the first unit of an Imperial Air Fleet” by a group of citizens in the United Kingdom. This aircraft was brought to New Zealand in 1913, where it was flown and exhibited—the Dominion's first military aircraft. On the outbreak of war in 1914, the aircraft was sent to the Royal Flying Corps in the United Kingdom, and it was decided not to proceed with the establishment of an Aviation Corps in New Zealand for the time being.

Two private flying schools were formed (during the period of the war of 1914–18), one at Kohimarama, Auckland, and one at Sockburn, Christchurch, and a number of New Zealanders received flying instruction at these schools. By special arrangement with the Government, trainees were given the opportunity of qualifying for entry into the Royal Flying Corps.

Approximately seven hundred New Zealanders served with the Air Force in the war of 1914–1918.

Between 1918 and 1920 the question of forming an Aviation Corps in New Zealand engaged the attention of the Government and the military authorities, and an Air Board was set up to advise on aviation matters. Steps were also taken to register all qualified pilots in the Dominion and to establish a Reserve. An expert on aviation matters was invited to New Zealand in 1919 to advise the Government on policy with regard to flying, and shortly after his arrival the British Government offered the Dominion a substantial number of aircraft as a gift to assist in the establishment of an Air Force.

Under this gift thirty-three aircraft arrived in New Zealand in 1921, and the advisers on air policy were constituted as a permanent Board. In 1922 the strength of the New Zealand Permanent Forces included two officers and two other ranks as an aviation unit, the first of its kind in the Dominion.

The New Zealand Permanent Air Force actually came into being in 1923, when the formation of a force to be part of the Permanent Military Forces and a territorial unit to be part of the Territorial Forces was approved. The administration of these Air Forces was within the organization of the Regular Military Forces (Army).

Wigram and Hobsonville were the first Air Stations, being established in 1923 and 1925 respectively.

Service flying in New Zealand developed slowly, but from about 1928 the Aero Club movement gained momentum, and arrangements were made by the Government for these clubs to provide a reserve of pilots.

On the 1st April, 1937, the administration of Service and civil aviation was provided for by the establishment of the Air Department.

Prior to the declaration of war on 4th September, 1939, the Royal New Zealand Air Force consisted of—

  1. The Regular Air Force:

  2. The Air Force Reserve:

  3. The Territorial Air Force.

A Civil Reserve had also been established.

The Regular Air Force was distributed between the administrative headquarters and the two Royal New Zealand Air Force stations at Hobsonville and Wigram. Territorial squadrons had been established at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, and buildings for the Territorial Flight at Dunedin had been commenced. The projected operational stations at Ohakea and Whenuapai were in course of construction, the former nearing completion. The Railways workshops scheme for training flight mechanics and riggers was making satisfactory progress. Buildings at the Railway Workshops at Lower Hutt had been completed, and those at Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin were nearing completion.

Immediately war was declared the Air Force was mobilized. Territorial and Air Force Reserves were called up and, in addition, a number of personnel of the Civil Reserve who, by virtue of their civil trade, were suitable for immediate employment, were called up and posted to Service units.

Empire Air Training Scheme.—Before the war an agreement had been entered into with His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom for the training of pilots, observers, and air gunners for the Royal Air Force, and steps were immediately taken to implement this scheme. A later agreement, however, brought the Empire Air Training Scheme into being. By this scheme New Zealand agreed to set up an organization capable of training the following personnel each year: 880 fully-trained pilots, 520 pilots trained to elementary standard, 546 observers (initial training only), and 936 air gunners (initial training only). The agreement provided for the training of the latter three classes in Canada- This scheme has subsequently been amended and extended.

Recruitment.—A central organization was set up to deal with the recruiting of personnel for technical training, and for the selection of candidates for training as pilots, observers, and air gunners. A special educational scheme was also established, for the purpose of bringing personnel selected for air-crew duties up to the necessary standard in mathematics and elementary science in the interval between their selection and their entry into the Ground Training School. Facilities were also made available for the training of those selected as wireless operators prior to their entry into the Service Schools.

Air Force Stations.—The provision of the additional Air Force stations required for the war-training organization involved some change of plans, the enlargement of existing stations, the construction of new ones, and a considerable expansion of the works and buildings programme generally.

Air Training Corps.—The Air Training Corps was established in October, 1941, for the purpose of providing preliminary training for youths between the ages of fifteen and eighteen and a half years who are desirous later on of joining the Royal New Zealand Air Force. The scheme is divided into three groups: (a) Town Units, consisting of youths between the ages of sixteen and eighteen years; (b) School Units, consisting of youths between the ages of fifteen and eighteen years who are attending secondary schools; and (c) Correspondence Units, consisting of youths between the ages of sixteen and eighteen years and who, by reason of their inability to attend regular parades of the Town Units, are unable to receive instruction except by correspondence. Units are established in all main centres of population in New Zealand.

Women's Auxiliary Air Force.—The Women's Auxiliary Air Force was also established during the year 1941 for the purpose of providing women personnel for various ground duties in the R.N.Z.A.F.

Operations in 1941–42.—The year 1941–42 (up to August, 1942) has been notable for the development of the operational squadrons of the R.N.Z.A.F. The outbreak of war in the Pacific was followed by further vigorous expansion, the Dominion Air defences being substantially increased, while at the same time their capacity for offensive operations was greatly enlarged. The New Zealand Fighter Squadron and the New Zealand Aerodrome Construction Squadron both took part in war operations in Malaya. Other New Zealand units, including Bomber Squadrons, Fighter Squadrons, and Torpedo Bomber Squadrons, are operating with the Royal Air Force overseas.

Awards.—Men from the Dominion have been prominent in all Air Force activities, and from the beginning of the war up to 1st August, 1942, had won over 250 awards for courage and devotion to duty.

Chapter 9. SECTION 9.—EXTERNAL TRADE.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL.

DATA regarding the overseas trade of New Zealand possess a special significance in view of the Dominion's relatively high degree of dependence upon its external trade. According to figures compiled by the Secretariat of the League of Nations, New Zealand's total trade per caput is the highest in the world. Parenthetically, it may be observed, as a factor highly relevant in this connection, that New Zealand's overseas debt commitments are also upon a high scale.

In the official annual statistics of the trade of New Zealand the twelve-monthly period adopted is the calendar year. Summarized trade statistics over a lengthy period of years are included in the Statistical Summary at the end of this volume. Monthly figures covering the principal items of export and import are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics, so that summarized figures are readily available for any twelve-monthly period. As the production year ends about June and the financial year at 31st March, it is desirable to record the trade for years ended 30th June and 31st March as well as for that ended 31st December.

The following table relates to merchandise only—i.e., it excludes specie, information concerning which is, in any case, not being published during the war period. Up to the end of 1929 New Zealand currency and sterling were at virtual parity, but thenceforward New Zealand currency has been below sterling parity (vide section relating to Banking and Currency). Consequently figures of total merchandise trade have been converted to a sterling basis, and a summary covering the last eleven complete years follows:—

Year.Year ended 31st December.Year ended 31st March.Year ended 30th June.
Exports.Imports.Export.Imports.Exports.Imports.
 £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
193235,609,91924,646,60633,942,61724,760,42134,668,40724,655,259
193341,005,91925,581,36637,510,16425,059,52037,470,65725,290,201
193447,342,84731,339,55246,042,57026,135,49649,141,91426,703,380
193546,538,38136,317,26744,918,18032,567,78542,953,69834,301,328
193656,751,94044,258,88649,675,99237,439,94453,659,96339,509,276
193766,713,37956,160,69560,234,51147,621,10464,621,47450,076,468
193858,376,28355,422,18965,007,94658,064,65961,919,91357,542,606
193958,049,31649,387,18357,867,27954,408,44757,891,91156,499,607
194973,741,13348,997,66959,683,938,45,571,77465,858,63646,070,033
194167,479,41349,167,01071,179,43047,918,22465,766,53046,184,967
194280,875,13253,669,59969,163,12150,589,65274,039,15151,377,986
 £(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)
193232,373,00022,406,00030,857,00022,509,00031,517,00022,414,000
193332,805,00020,465,00032,677,00022,049,00031,516,00021,613,000
193437,874,00025,071,00036,834,00020,908,00039,314,00021,363,000
193537,380,00029,170,00035,985,00026,082,00034,450,00027,495,000
193645,584,00035,549,00039,900,00030,072,00043,101,00031,734,000
193753,585,00045,109,00048,381,00038,250,00051,905,00040,222,000
193846,889,00044,516,00052,215,00046,638,00049,735,00046,219,000
193946,439,00039,510,00046,415,00043,657,00046,381,00045,291,000
194058,993,00039,198,00047,747,00036,457,00052,687,00036,856,000
194153,984,00039,334,00056,944,00038,335,00052,613,00036,948,000
194264,700,00042,936,00055,330,00040,472,00059,231,00041,102,000

TRADE PER HEAD.—The next table shows the total merchandise trade, exports, and imports per head of the population. Values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency:—

Year.Exports.Imports.Total Trade.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
192334119321306749
19243816535176741311
1925391813717477155
1926320635486752
192733140312564165
192838333016068193
1929375733167071
193030202914059160
193123181710040118
19322365162103993
193326128161244350
193430103204050143
193529159234115308
19363607281116426
19374119235657757
193836683491070166
1939351211306665195
194045092918674193
194141763021171105
19424965321478210

The year 1942 produced a record for exports, both as regards total value and per caput. The previous highest per caput figure (£45 4s.) occurred in 1919, the import record of £49 10s. 11d. being produced in the following year.

VISIBLE BALANCE OF TRADE.—As a debtor country New Zealand has normally a substantial excess of exports over imports, imports having exceeded exports in only three (calendar) years since 1885—viz., in 1908, 1920, and 1926. The figures for the last twenty years—merchandise only—are as follows:—

Year.Visible Excess of Exports.

* Excess of Imports.

 £(N.Z.)£(Stg.)
19232,575,8102,575,810
19243,981,6203,981,620
19252,817,2902,817,290
1926-4,542,839*-4,542,839*
19273,713,6883,713,688
192810,726,27910,726,279
19296,195,5916,195,591
1930600,863677,000
19318,452,5477,695,000
193210,963,9139,967,000
193315,424,55312,340,000
193416,003,29512,803,000
193510,221,1148,210,000
193612,493,05410,035,000
193710,552,6848,476,000
19382,954,0942,373,000
19398,662,1336,930,000
194024,743,46419,795,000
194118,312,40314,650,000
194227,205,53321,764,000

It will be noticed that the balance for the year 1930 is greater on a sterling basis than on a New Zealand currency basis. The apparent anomaly is due to a combination of (1) successive movements in the exchange rate, and (2) the unequal distribution of exports over the year.

A pronounced fall in exports from the previous year's level was responsible for the import excess in 1926, and a similar movement accounted for the low excess of exports in 1930 and in 1938. The improvement in 1939 was effected by a reduction in imports under the policy of import selection and control which was inaugurated at the beginning of that year. The excess of exports in 1940 was the highest recorded to that date but this was exceeded by approximately £2,000,000 in 1942.

The visible balance of trade — i.e., the excess of exports over imports or vice versa—is an essential record valuable for numerous purposes, but with very definite limitations.

In the first place, although this is not the most important factor, the trade statistics themselves contain inevitable errors. For instance, it is necessary in many instances to assess the value of exports where goods are not sold until arrival at their destination; again, in the case of imports, an arbitrary assumption is made to cover freight, insurance, and handling charges. While errors arising from such sources do not appreciably affect items or totals of exports or imports, they may conceivably cause significant errors in the visible balance of trade, since there is no guarantee that such errors will be of a compensatory nature. In particular, when a small visible balance emerges from a year's trading in commodities, a relatively small margin of error in the assessment of export or import values (or both) may make a quite significant error in the residual balance. The possible error arising from the necessity of pre-estimating the final realization in the case of certain exports is not likely to be of importance in years of relatively stable prices; but, in periods when world prices are changing rapidly, an appreciable margin of error may result from this cause in the assessment of the total of export valuations for a single year.

Furthermore, there are additional difficulties where trade with individual countries is concerned. The ultimate destination of goods exported is sometimes not known at the time of export. In particular, it is evident from the United Kingdom trade statistics that a considerable proportion of New Zealand's exports to continental countries in normal times is recorded in the New Zealand statistics among exports to the United Kingdom. Such produce may be sold on the United Kingdom markets to continental purchasers; while, again, goods may be diverted to continental markets after arrival in the United Kingdom.

Of much greater importance is the fact that the visible trade is not the only factor to be taken into account in considering the balance of payments between countries. Debt payments, capital investments and flow of capital, freight payments, tourist expenditure, and the like, are vitally important factors which frequently reverse a credit visible balance of trade into a debit balance of payments. A statement of New Zealand's overseas receipts and payments is given in the section of this Year-Book dealing with “Banking and Currency.”

The partial disintegration of world trade, accompanied by currency difficulties, which has been such a marked feature of recent economic trends, has intensified interest in the bi-lateral aspect of trade statistics as opposed to the multilateral aspect, which latter is the really significant indication of the external trading relations of a country.

The following table shows for the year 1941 the amount of merchandise exports to, and imports from, each of the principal countries trading with the Dominion. Exports are valued f.o.b. New Zealand ports, and imports at New Zealand import values—i.e., current domestic value in country of shipment plus 10 per cent. allowance for freight, &c. The trade balances therefore represent the differences between exports and imports, both at New Zealand ports. Since this is the accepted practice internationally in statistics of trade, it follows that New Zealand trade statistics will yield different results in respect of her trade with any given country than will be obtained from the trade statistics of that country, unless allowance be made for this practice.

TRADE BY COUNTRIES, 1941.

Country.Exports.Imports.
By Country of Shipment.By Country of Origin.
 £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
United Kingdom52,395,53821,026,39821,158,651
Ceylon1,6701,313,8051,409,702
India1,042,0471,158,1671,360,336
Malaya137,510429,034435,775
Union of South Africa24,205135,625131,216
Canada2,822,3343,052,2203,071,692
Australia2,400,2668,882,2578,022,151
Fiji174,017152,486131,241
Other British countries284,762867,616905,667
  Totals, British countries59,282,34937,017,60836,626,431
China8,913149,225163,243
Egypt1,475,99153,53653,738
Japan44,884195,226215,730
Netherlands East Indies8,8032,066,8452,068,520
Russia (U.S.S.R.)667,0221,6292,639
United States of America5,190,6138,941,4349,117,128
Other foreign countries367,077741,507919,581
  Totals, foreign countries7,763,30312,149,40212,540,579
  Ships' stores433,761  
  Totals, all countries67,479,41349,167,01049,167,010

BALANCE OF OVERSEAS PAYMENTS.—For many years the Census and Statistics Department prepared a statement of New Zealand's international balance of payments—that is, of the Dominion's receipts from and payments to overseas countries. While reasonably accurate information was available for imports and exports, Government and local authority interest payments and debt movements, and miscellaneous Government receipts and payments, there were a number of important items for which it was necessary to make estimates, all more or less unsatisfactory. It was, for example, extremely difficult to estimate investments of private capital in New Zealand and the amount of outgoings by way of interest or dividends on such capital. Hardly more satisfactory was the position regarding tourist expenditure, both by tourists to New Zealand and by New Zealand tourists abroad. Altogether, the statement did not amount to anything more than a rough approximation.

Fortunately, since the institution of exchange control as part of New Zealand's economy, it is no longer necessary to estimate the balance of payments, for the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, through which exchange control is administered, finds it possible to make a complete and detailed statement of the Dominion's foreign exchange transactions, and reference should be made to the section of this Year-Book dealing with “Banking and Currency” for detailed figures of overseas receipts and payments.

INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE AND VOLUME OF TRADE.—The table following facilitates appreciation of the movement of external trade in recent years, both in value and in physical volume. Volume of exports and effect of price changes upon exports-are dealt with at greater length in the subsection succeeding this.

INDEX NUMBERSOF VALUEAND VOLUMEOF TRADE. (Base: 1936–38 = 100.)

Year.Value.Volume.
On Gold Basis.On Sterling Basis.On New Zealand Currency Basis.Exports.Imports.Total Trade.
Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.Total External Trade.
192615519893119759685658072
1927166178100107808683707271
1928190179114107928689737875
1929187194113117919492758881
193014716989102748579777978
193110088655,8585155784965
193279646654594754864869
1933765567496849591014877
193480627860786070986281
193576707770777074967184
1936948694859485901028895
1937110108110108110108109101103102
193895106961079610710197109102
193987879595969595989396
19401027912194122941091087895
194193791119411195104977285

PORT CARGO STATISTICS.—In order to obtain statistics of the total trade of individual ports, a system of monthly returns from the various port authorities was instituted in 1922, showing under some forty headings the quantity of goods handled, distinguishing inwards and outwards cargo, coastal and overseas, and transhipments. The resultant statistics show on a tonnage basis the total trade of each port, including all exports, whether placed on the overseas vessel there, sent to a central port for shipment overseas, or despatched coastwise to another port for consumption in New Zealand.

The following table gives for the aggregate of all ports covered by the statistics (a few very small ports arc omitted) a summary of the cargo handled during each of the last eleven years:—

Year.Inwards.*Transhipments.Outwards.*Total Manifest Tonnage.
Coastal.Overseas.Coastal.Overseas.

* Excluding transhipments.

19311,565,7951,556,275278,9271,637,703723,0236,040,650
19321,403,9771,489,347248,5361,488,052829,9165,708,364
19331,383,8451,374,774235,7221,447,258995,6505,672,971
19341,493,2691,655,838273,8141,540,510953,5286,190,773
19351,603,8251,886,316258,2661,626,784936,3376,569,794
19361,833,9912,304,836282,0671,835,5361,000,0357,538,532
19371,984,3532,639,861318,0671,984,248976,1168,220,712
19381,971,8322,708,117303,9211,937,129936,2748,161,194
19392,088,0522,716,550263,9962,039,431945,2088,317,233
19402,124,2052,269,300286,0362,094,7721,015,9818,076,330
19412,210,3461,903,044310,7142,173,662875,1937,783,673

It is advisable to note that the term “ton” does not invariably denote a weight of 2,240 lb. For a portion only of the goods handled is it practicable to obtain the actual weights involved. In other cases close approximations are made by applying uniform formulæ as to the number of bales, cases, sacks, &c, to the ton. In a few instances the tons are “short” tons of 2,000 lb. A considerable portion of trading goods, however, is recorded in “measurement” tons, 40 cubic feet of space being regarded as the equivalent of a ton. As the practice is uniform, comparisons from year to year are not appreciably affected, nor are comparisons between ports, unless there is a radical difference in the class of trade carried on, in which case recourse should be had to consideration of items of trade. Since a much larger proportion of imports is in “measurement” tons, thus artificially swelling the figures, direct comparison of import cargo tonnage with export is invalid.

IMPORT AND EXPORT CONTROL.—A decline in overseas funds commenced during 1936–37 and—allowing for seasonal fluctuations—continued steadily until 28th November, 1938, when the net overseas funds of the Reserve Bank and the trading banks were under £(N.Z.)8,000,000 (see section on Banking and Currency).

With a view to conserving overseas funds, so as to ensure that overseas-debt services would be met and that sufficient funds would be available for essential imports, regulations—effective from 7th December, 1938, and known respectively as the Import Control Regulations 1938, and the Export Licenses Regulations 1938—were made by Orders in Council of 5th December, 1938.

The Import Control Regulations prohibit the importation of goods except in pursuance of a license under the regulations or of an exemption granted by the Minister. Under the Export Licenses Regulations, goods (with certain minor exceptions) may not be exported except under license.

Three classes of export licenses are provided for—viz., particular, general, and purchaser's. The particular license applies to an occasional shipment; the general license is issuable to exporters who make regular or frequent shipments; and the purchaser's license is for cases where goods have been purchased for export by means of credits made available from overseas. A condition of the issue of any export license is that the overseas credits arising from the sale of the goods (or used to finance their purchase) must be sold to a New Zealand bank in exchange for New Zealand currency.

From 7th December, 1938, also, the Minister of Finance has suspended the obligation of the Reserve Bank to give sterling in exchange for its bank-notes. This obligation was imposed by section 16 (1) of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, 1933, which—as amended by section 8 of the Finance Act, 1934—reads as follows:—

“On presentation at the Head Office of the Reserve Bank in Wellington of notes of the Bank to any amount not less than one thousand pounds, it shall be the duty of the Bank, in accordance with this section, to give in exchange for such notes sterling for immediate delivery in London.”

These measures had the effect of arresting the fall in the overseas funds, and, although there was little improvement during the next twelve months, a series of monthly increases commencing in November, 1939, raised the total to £(N.Z.)27,382,104 by 24th June, 1940. A high level has been maintained ever since, and in December, 1942, the amount was £(N.Z.)40,556,899.

SUBSECTION B.—EXPORTS.

IN New Zealand the Department of H.M. Customs requires for every package exported a declared statement of the contents, value, and destination.

In all cases exports are valued “free on board at the port of shipment.” In oases where the goods are not sold till arrival at their destination values must be assessed in New Zealand with reference to current prices. Exports of merchandise are valued in terms of New Zealand currency, which has been below sterling parity since the beginning of 1930 (vide section on Banking and Currency). The value of total exports, 1932–42, in sterling will be found in the preceding subsection.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as is practicable, but it is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in the country of destination. In the trade records a distinction is made between exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports of imported goods. Export figures for 1941 given in this subsection are subject to amendment.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXPORTS.—The total merchandise exports (i.e., excluding specie) during the last eleven years are given in the following table, classified according to four broad divisions:—

Year.Food, Drink, and Tobacco.Raw Materials and Articles mainly unmanufactured.*Articles wholly or mainly manufactured.Miscellaneous.Total Merchandise Exports.

* Including uncoined gold and silver.

 £££££
193125,724,1997,864,8581,107,610254,03134,950,698
193225,794,1128,482,5391,093,495239,77335,609,919
193328,437,19011,165,2741,141,632261,82341,005,919
193429,210,95616,687,3841,121,438323,06947,342,847
193533,315,23211,655,9081,209,680357,56146,538,381
193636,398,20418,675,3001,234,704443,73256,751,940
193739,836,45925,129,5581,317,848429,51466,713,379
193840,317,72416,395,7531,237,322425,48458,376,283
193940,017,41516,273,7641,233,955524,18258,049,316
194048,864,00222,590,2751,689,979696,87773,741,133
194145,988,42519,100,5721,589,396801,02067,479,413

Easily the most important class is that for food, drink, and tobacco, which, in the case of exports from New Zealand, is composed almost wholly of foodstuffs, the principal items being butter, cheese, and frozen meat Of the total exports during the five years 1937–41 this class accounted for 66·3 per cent. The only other class of any magnitude is that covering raw materials (mainly wool, hides, skins, tallow, and gold), which during the last five years constituted 30·7 per cent. of the total exports for that, period. Manufactured goods do not figure very prominently in New Zealand's exports, and during the five years under review accounted for only 2·2 per cent.

The extent to which the Dominion relies upon the pastoral industry for her exports is indicated by the following figures showing exports of pastoral products and the percentage which they represent among total exports of New Zealand produce. The percentage supplied by this group was high in the late “nineties,” but after 1898 fell relatively, owing mainly to increased exports of agricultural and mining produce. From 1902 onwards, however, the percentage increased almost continuously, till in 1924 and 1925 it amounted to 94·2 per cent. of the total. The percentage dropped noticeably in the depression years, owing to the relatively greater fall in prices of pastoral products, particularly wool, but with the advent of improved prices recovery was made during subsequent years, the record percentage of 94·6 being reached in 1940. The decline recorded in 1941 is attributable to shipping difficulties, and not to a diminished production level.

EXPORTSOF PASTORAL PRODUCTS.

Year.Value.Percentage.*

* Of total exports of New Zealand produce.

 £ 
192238,182,79391·6
192342,128,29592·9
192448,944,82894·2
192551,370,47994·2
192640,763,34891·9
192744,207,03792·9
192851,509,52094·2
192950,780,11393·8
193041,368,14593·6
193132,112,63493·6
193232,102,21891·8
193337,102,51091·8
193443,336,96092·7
193542,569,66692·4
193652,671,97593·6
193762,533,50494·4
193854,285,43593·9
193953,725,43393·5
194069,038,03394·6
194162,221,26392·9

Agricultural exports showed an abnormal increase from 1899 to 1903, the period which covers the South African War, but their importance then steadily declined. Their lowest level (0·6 per cent. of total exports) was reached in 1916 and 1917. From 1926 onwards there was a considerable development in the export of apples, pears, peas, and, to a lesser extent, grass- and clover-seeds, tobacco, and food for animals (chaff, &c). With the exception of wheat, importations of which have frequently been necessary, New Zealand now normally produces sufficient cereal crops to supply home requirements, but only in exceptional years is there a surplus available for export. Forest products, though steady, show a relative downward tendency. Mining products have recorded a marked increase since 1931 due to the enhanced price of gold, which led to greater activity in gold-production and to the export of a large quantity of gold recovered from old jewellery, &c.

In the following table merchandise exports during 1941 are grouped in classes in accordance with the statistical classification which has been used for both exports and imports since 1914:—

No.Class.New Zealand Produce.Re-exports.

* Including commodities not included in Individual groups.

  ££
IFoodstuffs of animal origin (excluding live animals)44,690,261373
IIFoodstuffs of vegetable origin, and common salt1,028,9111,788
IIIBeverages (non-alcoholic), and substances used in making up the same23,98720,721
IVSpirits and alcoholic liquors91,9981,298
VTobacco and preparations thereof102,26283
VILive animals60,676382
VIIAnimal substances (mainly unmanufactured), not being foodstuffs16,721,813 
VIIIVegetable substances and non-manufactured fibres695,0551,034
IXAApparel546621
IXBTextiles3,2542,645
IXCManufactured fibres7732,714
XOils, fats, and waxes869,031298,392
XIPaints and varnishes6941,750
XIIStones and minerals used industrially209,82741
XIVAMetal (unmanufactured and partly manufactured) and ores22,119405
XIVBMetal manufactures other than machinery and machines15,93717,534
XVMachinery and machines30,96965,815
XVIARubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires)260504
XVIBLeather and manufactures thereof (including Substitutes)7,38796
XVIIATimber220,042588
XVIIBWood, cane, and wicker manufactures1,072330
XVIIIEarthenware, china, glass, stoneware, cement, and cement materials5.7551,060
XIXAPaper23,493527
XIXBStationery and paper manufactures12,7335,070
XXJewellery, timepieces, and fancy-goods9577,127
XXIOptical, surgical, and scientific instruments96721,320
XXIIADrugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares58,4969,164
XXIIBManures7,5082
XXIIIAVehicles1,68513,654
XXIIIBMiscellaneous82,91657,160
 Parcel-post92,775 
     Totals, merchandise*66,946,936532,477

Quantity figures of exports of the principal items of New Zealand produce are next given for the last five years. For some purposes, especially for comparisons between recent and more remote years, quantities are preferable to values, since the latter are affected by price-variations.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce).1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.

* Ounces of the fineness of 20 carats and upwards.

† Not available.

The mine—      
  Coal(ton)49,08955,71143,99080,58758,179
  Gold*(oz.)172,317152,487176,370
  Scheelite(cwt.)7359717601,8001,295
  Silver(oz.)439,554370,084315,526
The fisheries—      
  Fish(cwt.)48,70347,22343,47339,10933,160
  Oysters(doz.)70,45833,70962,89938,51915,226
  Whale-oil(gal.)85,35043,605116,258144,122135,720
The forest—      
  Kauri-gum(ton)3,2262,3042,3161,6831,421
  Timber, sawn and hewn(sup. ft.)17,656,98814,534,25313,172,31217,322,81319,036,408
Pastoral products—      
  Butter(cwt.)2,976,0852,614,5492,443,2972 622,7002,263,135
  Casein77,53441,40338,51324,34712,405
  Cheese1,647,1601,610,5231,677,2572,033,5062,366,235
  Eggs In shell(doz.)74,686227,74112,53835,1792,500
  Hides and skins(number)1,814,9591,864,8621,769,3771,696,2021,580,387
  Honey(lb.)318,6211,853,215440,199957,415913,760
  Live slices(number)14,09411,32914,75818,1805,787
  Preserved meats(cwt.)69,84951,43571,61778,481119,850
  Meat extract(lb.)176,176106,965118,377223,385485,262
  Frozen and chilled meats(cwt.)5,410,9125,373,3085,906,2516,976,6255,284,848
  Milk, dried and preserved(lb.)24,713,64820,536,67824,545,70423,440,04729,641,506
  Sugar of milk632,464421,956810,780754,7401,501,360
  Sausage-casings(cwt.)37,89536,46040,81346,11245,017
  Rabbit and hare skins(number)12,050,43810,268,01211,190,29410,412,15613,403,673
  Sheep-skins and pelts12,503,04114,177,59215,156,53613,138,92918,513,632
  Tallow(cwt.)518,800592,260582,740682,700780,560
  Lard17,35219,57419,38520,60719,552
  Wool(lb.)282,330,148271,283,233277,391,713300,288,687215,743,296
Agricultural products—      
  Apples(lb.)36,081,75757,642,92737,980,56723,708,272423,301
  Pears1,638,6364,203,9953,925,7604001,228
  Peas(cental)144,096166,036163,755209,114256,245
  Oats2,2642,1023,8758471,342
  Hops(cwt.)1,2693,4641,0233961,908
  Onions(ton)3892645,042881,129
  Potatoes20,8284,8851,1667,693751
  Seeds (grass and clover)(cwt.)58,10745,48445,82945,74288,191
  Tobacco, unmanufactured(lb.)75,222240,971   
Miscellaneous—      
  Ale, stout, and cider(gal.)17,33719,54819,02932,525442,305
  Phormium fibre and tow(ton)5,4734,5191,59368177
  Sugar(cwt.)26,97820,47219,70118,52416,225
  Metals, scrap (not precious)274,94515,86617,0202,2903,137
  Pumice, Band and stone(ton)2,9313,0463,6813,1773,105
  Blood and blood-and-bone manures2,7301,6951,9301,553460

The values of these principal exports are given in the following table:—

Commodity (New Zealand Produce).1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.

* Not available.

The mine—£££££
  Coal73,48673,47759,971144,068109,500
  Gold1,435,2161,296,8391,628,526**
  Scheelite8,41210,8047,72814,99712,916
  Silver48,18438,87335,159**
The fisheries—     
  Fish172,756175,083162,430154,319141,746
  Oysters990532975781262
  Whale-oil8,1675,32812,90017,09919,223
  Commodity (New Zealand Produce).1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.

* Including items not enumerated.

The forest—£££££
  Kauri-gum151,589103,777112,65087,45088,643
  Timber, sawn and hewn200,855177,831155,652194,370220,042
Pastoral products—     
  Butter16,986,47716,520,22616,111,20718,228,02615,777,864
  Casein247,78298,03069,26557,80332,133
  Cheese5,371,8785,935,0615,869,8908,233,4869,833,861
  Eggs in shell4,83313,7089002,415290
  Hides and skins1,070,837766,341817,533907,1331,090,294
  Honey9,09950,33012,37631,38732,376
  Live sheep69,89162,28964,95069,57935,649
  Preserved meats258,055231,369318,529421,373650,550
  Meat extract10,5836,4829,03226,77487,040
  Frozen and chilled meats14,689,61615,092,05915,390,80119,681,34316,595,290
  Milk, dried and preserved364,676307,603377,506419,176699,533
  Sugar of milk17,29211,34624,41322,95846,687
  Sausage-casings760,264742,595698,317917,610804,016
  Rabbit and hare skins557,132247,390262,904401,7161,006,238
  Sheep skins and pelts2,246,0151,369,3241,400,0721,931,9572,007,376
  Tallow647,969524,775456,527707,721818,370
  Lard34,73226,85222,50129,83426,752
  Wool19,070,24012,185,48311,665,90916,875,46312,613,371
Agricultural products—     
  Apples452,335719,528520,170225,9934,642
  Pears20,40452,50854,534918
  Peas105,760125,758154,580220,160309,852
  Oats1,2731,2141,912679950
  Hops8,34721,0936,8188,39422,853
  Onions3,9902,29574,1323,01115,421
  Potatoes172,18020,45112,21444,4456,825
  Seeds (grass and clover)205,988233,372284,514369,035563,673
  Seeds (various)10,0687,2428,29014,19567,452
  Tobacco, unmanufactured7,52724,096   
Miscellaneous—     
  Ale, stout, and cider4,2394,6484,4657,69591,910
  Dairying machinery20,42634,04235,33419,66814,372
  Blood- and blood-and-bone manures30,40420,27521,85321,7125,338
  Other manures11,4595,64731,09614,3292,170
  Metals, scrap (not precious)99,82115,49818,0423,0994,875
  Foods, infants' and invalids'15,81713,21018,25319,08610,542
  Leather6,6727,8283,5302,3517,101
  Phormium fibre and tow130,71581,64725,2121,3992,759
  Pumice, sand and stone8,0578,81111,17210,34110,979
  Soap7,5708,3195,5334,2409,539
  Sugar21,35816,07115,74316,00013,633
  Woollen manufactures2,1741,812935771,240
  Totals, New Zealand produce *66,208,05757,800,62657,448,03072,973,53666,946,936

DESTINATION OF NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS.—The first exports from New Zealand went naturally to the earlier-developed sister colony, and for a considerable time Australia had a monopoly of our trade. In 1865, 70 per cent., and oven in 1871, 44 per cent., of the total exports went to Australia. But since the establishment of direct shipping lines the United Kingdom has absorbed the bulk of New Zealand exports, having taken during the forty years 1875–1914, £365,880,997 (78 per cent.) of a grand total of exports amounting to £469,347,969. This percentage, prior to the war of 1914–18, did not vary greatly from year to year, but there have been considerable variations since 1914. In each of the three years 1915–17 approximately 80 per cent. of exports went to the United Kingdom, but there was a sudden drop to 64·1 per cent. in 1918. The lowest percentage experienced since that year was in 1928 (72·9) and the highest in 1932 (88·0 per cent.). During the twenty-seven years since 1914, the aggregate value of merchandise exported from New Zealand amounted to £1,302,034,759, of which £1,065,533,521, or 81·8 per cent., was taken by the United Kingdom.

The principal destinations of New Zealand's exports of merchandise (including re-exports) during the last twenty years are given in the table below. The principal “other countries” in 1941, in order of magnitude, were Egypt (£1,475,991), India (£1,042,047), Russia (U.S.S.R.) (£667,022), Fiji (£174,017), Malaya (£137,510), Hawaii (£85,256), Greece (£81,155), British West Indies (£73,793).

Year.United Kingdom.Canada.Australia.France.Germany.United States.Other Countries.*Total Merchandise Exports.

* Including ships' stores.

 ££££££££
192236,154,174446,4572,208,28060,595218,3382,672,775965,33042,725,949
192337,324,605665,6962,614,894340,579190,0003,581,2721,272,14745,939,793
192441,969,691716,5432,474,879561,5691,166,3023,278,1352,342,10452,509,223
192544,066,981423,0682,489,230600,8141,614,0904,349,7581,699,10655,243,047
192635,102,087861,7173,048,282681,668364,6293,818,2321,392,30945,268,924
192736,877,8871,666,5983,665,9621,008,2911,139,6542,681,0911,456,87148,496,354
192840,510,0752,469,1502,902,6551,800,8971,290,0714,160,3152,437,21855,570,381
192940,417,0433,353,9752,338,4101,768,3991,220,5523,553,4272,278,25754,930,063
193036,015,1282,539,2121,562,281519,727401,0842,116,7521,786,33344,940,517
193130,739,976256,8901,167,403419,016309,847920,9311,136,63534,950,698
193231,344,670244,1601,444,860508,960289,917690,0151,037,33735,609,919
193335,275,909560,8751,393,311738,176376,8861,188,9721,471,79041,005,919
193138,629,240697,8651,882,5161,228,699944,3101,250,3642,709,85347,342,847
193538,921,568656,9841,781,811484,610165,3042,468,0662,060,03846,538,381
193645,492,9891,103,0081,843,4751,646,168272,4812,877,7523,516,06756,751,940
193750,705,5911,678,4031,824,1831,014,941919,1484,784,0995,787,01466,713,379
193848,897,9901,127,1242,139,4541,015,456890,9761,421,6302,833,65358,376,283
193946,689,193963,7102,256,0071,579,176390,0062,847,1583,324,06158,049,316
194064,129,1061,709,1692,159,339716,752 2,825,8982,200,86973,741,133
194152,395,5382,822,3342,400,266  5,190,6134,670,66267,479,413

The statistics quoted in the foregoing table indicate the destination of New Zealand exports as recorded by the Customs Department. In some instances the ultimate destination of exports is not known at the time of export, such goods being entered as exported to the country to which they are being shipped. This consideration applies more particularly to wool, considerable quantities of which are shipped to the United Kingdom, and, in normal times, subsequently re-exported to the Continent. It should be observed, however, that in all instances where the final destination is known at the time of export the exports are credited to that destination in the New Zealand trade statistics. It is possible, of course, that the destination of goods may be changed while in transit; and this, in fact, happens occasionally in the case of wool. In such cases the actual destination will be different from that to which the goods have been credited in the statistics; but it is quite impossible to keep a record of movements of this nature.

A further point of some importance is the fact that an appreciable quantity of wool is exported on an “optional” basis—United Kingdom, option Continent. In such instances, the wool is entered in the New Zealand statistics as exported to the United Kingdom.

It will be realized from the considerations outlined above that the actual final destinations of New Zealand exports may vary appreciably from the classification shown in the table. For these reasons it is probable that our exports to Continental countries are normally somewhat higher than the figures indicate; similarly our exports to the United Kingdom for retention in that country are lower than the totals quoted in the table.

The table which follows shows for each of eleven years the percentage of total exports (excluding specie, and—in 1937 and subsequent years—ships' stores), taken by each of the principal countries trading with the Dominion:—

Country.1931.1932.1933.1931.1835.1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
 Per CentPer CentPer CentPer CentPer CentPer CentPer CentPer CentPer CentPer CentPer Cent
United Kingdom87·9688·0286·0381–5983–6380·1676·3084·1780·9987·6078·15
India0·170·150·080·140·130·220·200·240·251·061·55
Union of South Africa0·020·030·030·060·060·040·050·030·100·030·04
Canada0·740·691·371·461·411·952·531·941·672·344·21
Australia3·344·063·403·983·833·252·753·773·912·953·58
Fiji0·250·250·210·180·190·180·140·170·250·260·26
Other British countries0·440·450·380·420·520·480·460·430·550·450·63
  Totals, British countries92·9293·6591·5087·8389·7786·2882·4390·7587·7294·6988·42
Belgium0·420·470·811·291·391·091·030·631·52  
France1·201·431·802·601·042·901·531·752·740·98 
Germany0·890·820·922·000·360·481·381·530·68  
Russia (U.S.S.R.)          0·99
Egypt  0·01 0·020·030·040·280·060·092·20
Japan0·760·670·861·810·932·744·711·020·680·110·07
United States of America2·661·942·912·645·305·077·202·454·943·867·74
Other foreign countries1·151·021·191·831·191·411·681·591·600·270·58
  Totals, foreign countries7·086·358·5012·1710·2313·7217·579·2512·285·3111·58

Destination of Main Exports.—Full details of quantities and values of commodities exported to various countries are given in Part 1 of the annual Statistical Report on Trade and Shipping, while in Part II of the same report values of exports of principal commodities to various countries are summarized. The table which follows shows quantities of principal export commodities sent to various destinations during the last five years. Both New Zealand produce and re-exports are covered:—

Country to which exported.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
Wool.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom149,590,128172,729,452154,959,078257,504,234145,200,646
India57,70993,790186,50311,415,46414,968,424
Union of South Africa173,48020,10933,127  
Canada12,442,4568,318,6138,477,32415,636,28929,780,927
Australia5,992,28319,666,12814,644,2061,568,5754,048,118
Belgium9,785,8936,746,29917,974,138  
Bulgaria131,311337,751341,468  
Czechoslovakia812,665541,671546,713  
Denmark362,061934,272812,009  
France14,997,74521,942,72337,574,44214, 161, 430 
Germany10,453,55514,533,1265,545,100  
Greece245,093713,222843,455 1,667,938
Italy90,754102,04635,845  
Netherlands732,750988,2675,134,562  
Poland2,570,5914,376,7892,007,928  
Portugal107,79247,412366,962  
Russia (U.S.S.R.)    10,927,997
Spain180,202167,971   
Sweden1,344,944923,1253,224,495  
Yugoslavia109,11833,94022,018  
China656,29072,6111,231,5582,695 
Japan38,220,61310,584,0318,312,591  
Egypt408,7553,344,126634,910  
United States of America32,790,5563,975,07414,428,149 9,149,246
Other countries95,40990,68555,132  
      Totals282,352,153271,283,233277,391,713300,288,687215,743,296
Frozen and Chilled Meat.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom5,393,0495,353,7145,876,2426,929,8254,964,507
Canada4003,8199,9633,80527,896
Germany 4,038   
Japan6,2401,454   
Egypt   29,832247,413
United States of America3,8656,16012,5016,82029,976
Hawaii4,8571,2884,6533,98012,655
Pacific islands (other than Hawaii)1,6241,3091,4471,3251,927
Other countries (including ships' stores).8771,5261,4451,038474
      Totals5,410,9125,373,3085,906,2516,976,6255,284,848
Butter.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom2,903,0052,526,9812,391,5122,583,8942,208,644
Hong Kong2,6622,9572,9872,9741,379
India3,4644,2874,9614,9843,667
Malaya3,6835,0036,5035,4926,488
Union of South Africa  5,600  
Bermuda185317 1,0157,236
British West Indies9,0745,3707,7655,7649,972
Canada20829,0525001,5754,953
Germany10,00010,000   
China4,1253,4061,3516065
Japan4,374221 
Philippine Islands1,1752,1971,7752,2152,216
Panama Canal Zone19,16912,1189,9256,5508,250
United States of America2,0082,7871,697575848
Hawaii10,3667,7175,9765,3755,788
Society Islands1,090667397209507
Other countries (including ships' stores).1,4971,6882,2862,0173,122
      Totals2,976,0852,614,5492,443,2972,622,7002,263,135
Cheese.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom1,644,2411,608,4371,676,3202,031,2342,317,130
Hong Kong20026835455
India11238753282
British West Indies12124758  
Canada1,3891,0381451,6251,117
Australia24518316887 
Fiji300243325315333
China516191   
Panama Canal Zone17    
United States of America7   47,124
Other countries (Including ships' stores).11313571138194
      Totals1,647,1601,610,5231,677,2572,033,5062,366,235
Milk (Dried, Preserved, and Condensed.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom20,036,82817,886,64920,477,38417,266,18419,574,768
Burma  1,1202,240157,120
Ceylon20,72016,80010,08034,72050,320
Hong Kong38,20579,75841,61088,410298,186
India139,228379,500315,7661,271,7652,240,158
Malaya3,046,6081,501,0873,104,3023,780,0772,781,299
Palestine   50,220330,400
British West Indies34,24546,12818,63233,87029,520
Australia22,90845,17088,15672,920148,938
Fiji12,4926,3047,19517,70526,440
Western Samoa33,30416,29825,19120,87421,920
China74,162224,036119,516254,622196,000
French Indo-China   54,410 
Japan404,65611,200   
Netherlands East Indies14,49814,1533,36011,27818,162
Philippine Islands126,00019,040   
Egypt   100,8003,233,704
Panama Canal Zone103,60068,42078,40044,80073,920
Hawaii56,958 4742,24036,400
Society Islands498,063170,976224,264292,326392,778
Other countries (including ships' stores).51,59350,55930,25440,58631,473
      Totals24,714,06820,536,67824,545,70423,440,04729,641,506
Tallow.
 Ton.Ton.Ton.Ton.Ton.
United Kingdom16,86822,13919,74131,31519,719
India3,7254,2574,8152,5344,530
Canada8199405551005,364
Australia27036727201,817
Fiji1361182121491
Belgium232133336  
Germany684851,740  
Netherlands58122411  
Japan2 422243   
Thailand357325420 
United States of America480176566 7,612
Other countries827560480 285
      Totals25,94029,61329,13734,13839,328
Hides (Cattle and Horse).
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom113,464 126,81695,497318,050118,320 
India 4,6306,367  
Canada105,26838,14193,69764,89068,547
Australia93,963133,01291,81322,43747,852
Belgium29,13938,48570,406  
Denmark7,49423,78314,087  
Finland6,1826,4523,792  
France23,58917,30221,674  
Germany39,38962,10818,638  
Italy3,530    
Netherlands8,07917,8603,820  
Sweden2,6933,300854  
Yugoslavia1486,36621  
Japan14,1061,3323,833  
United States of America56,27133,317102,282115,048150,782
Other countries5,3135,1913,536 1,049
      Totals508,628518,095530,317520,425386,550
Calf-skins.
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom72,56352,48895,183310,816277,918
Canada199,619540,578191,517120,693145,721
Australia62,46135,90625,4671,339693
Belgium45,81030,200   
France5044,004   
Germany52,37536,685   
Greece5,718    
Netherlands128,20417,41026,869  
Egypt 5,000   
United States of America595,428554,922733,946598,917591,167
Other countries270 40094 
      Totals1,162,9521,246,9931,103,1821,032,1651,015,593
Opossum-skins.
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom58,30952,59246,42926,22013,430
United States of America20,173 36,52872,82393,747
Other countries892500133,00015,532
      Totals79,37453,09282,970102,043122,709
Rabbit-skins.
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom3,435,8321,483,232450,263440,5502,189,105
Canada10,9379,19829,940210,701660,713
Australia26,608527,6881,409,375257,06931,194
Belgium185,465201,971   
France196,829119,47888,35647,406 
Germany 33,952   
Netherlands East Indies 51,07218,439  
United States of America8,403,2237,857,9278,991,9509,456,34010,522,661
Other countries1,921    
      Totals12,075,35010,268,01211,190,29410,412,15613,403,673
Sheep-skim (with Wool).
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom804,631623,315500,433874,75641,770
Canada199,653138,963178,621617,856429,210
Australia7,75762,58918,615 200
Belgium21,29367,41611,886  
France97,012481,226604,145  
Germany112,389115,65465,444  
Netherlands 97,32622,022  
Japan22,19057,863   
United States of America478,057175,090531,506306,189298,400
Other countries1,0004,584   
      Totals1,743,9821,824,0261,932,6721,798,801769,580
Sheep-skins (without).
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom2,639,5494,562,7252,404,0834,906,947874,110
India 300 24,000 
Canada98,580119,91891,318162,72355,704
Australia52,786463,157270,06350,076 
Belgium30,120186,267624,451  
France16,440102,48739,565  
Germany29,2396,3124,318  
Netherlands5,60051,14412,610  
Sweden1,272    
Japan229,65560,77978,288160,978137,229
United States of America7,649,9866,800,7779,698,8686,059,40416,653,009
Other countries5,832    
      Totals10,759,05912,353,56613,223,86411,340,12817,744,052
Sausage-casings.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom1,139,3641,720,8491,728,0541,711,7931,422,689
Canada1,359,0981,143,7771,362,9281,151,6221,562,388
Australia215,146134,781149,666371,011235,211
Germany31,794 121  
United States of America1,497,6151,086,6341,330,0211,936,3251,808,614
Other countries1,2108401,4004,14413,015
      Totals4,244,2274,086,8814,572,1905,174,8955,041,917
Peas.
 Cental.Cental.Cental.Cental.Cental.
United Kingdom87,264112,94698,763166,308199,653
Union of South Africa5,1414,6806,4884,5085,469
Canada6,010901,1356802,262
Australia37,60034,59847,35436,18942,799
Belgium 7,8614,754  
Germany 1,0771,148  
United States of America8,0602,7064,1131,3866,041
Other countries212,084 4321
      Totals144,096166,042163,755209,114256,245
Apples (Fresh).
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom28,889,35039,167,46024,814,52022,576,320400
Hong Kong36,640    
India4,000157,880   
Malaya40,04094,760100,80091,12065,600
British West Indies 80,000   
Canada2,855,2003,847,0402,354,520742,080 
Fiji138,184130,874136,132172,552222,282
Western Samoa21,58319,41213,90914,14012,219
France 1,637,4002,076,720  
Germany985,1202,671,0804,232,120  
Netherlands1,924,8404,687,6001,519,640  
Sweden 1,914,0801,902,840  
China43,200  4,000 
Netherlands East Indies70,48024,40097,40093,600101,640
Philippine Islands46,12054,80044,000  
Brazil1,000,0003,114,360680,000  
Other countries (including ships' stores)32,01442,92510,67314,46021,160
      Totals36,086,77157,644,07137,983,27423,708,272423,301
Seeds (Grass and Clover).
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom13,73612,56312,14026,17642,212
Union of South Africa70266666917645
Canada6,0731,5501,5641,6053,018
Australia23,63021,42519,5266,13021,304
Denmark422100151  
Netherlands466460445  
United States of America12,8208,58011,48610,94020,035
Other countries3332661588171,584
      Totals58,18245,61046,13945,84488,198
Kauri-gum.
 Ton.Ton.Ton.Ton.Ton.
United Kingdom1,8081,5511,4051,009502
Canada297236208276379
Australia13797737880
Belgium153   
France98697020 
Germany413426  
Italy 30   
Netherlands35237710 
Sweden462621  
Japan6576315929
United States of America684158405231431
Other countries 1   
      Totals3,2262,3042,3161,6831,421
Phormium Fibre.
 Ton.Ton.Ton.Ton.Ton.
United Kingdom2,1122,1263506752
Canada962026  
Australia2,7881,7031,038  
Denmark 71   
Germany79366114  
United States of America4651   
Other countries727223  
      Totals5,1934,4091,5516752
Timber (Sawn and Hewn).
 Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.
United Kingdom464,75488,097136,932135,045 
Australia16,087,04713,127,38711,824,38815,192,28617,533,332
Fiji35,27337,82820,002553,203180,226
Tonga62,79653,045159,072110,995223,310
Western Samoa978,3561,187,3611,067,9011,340,2561,091,964
Other countries31,27647,8447,90710,1248,276
Ships' stores56,82652,198118,47864,89236,028
Totals17,716,32814,593,76013,334,68017,406,80119,073,136

EXPORTS FOR YEARS ENDED 30th JUNE.—As indicated elsewhere in this section (page 151) farm products account for an extremely high proportion of exports from New Zealand. The farm-production export season fits much more closely to a June year than to a calendar year. The flush of the dairy-production season, the whole harvest season, and most of the wool-selling season, occur in the early months of the calendar year. By 30th June the great bulk of the season's farm-produce destined for export in normal times is shipped, except held-over wool and a certain amount of dairy-produce and frozen meat kept in cool store to equalize shipments. It is desirable, therefore, for some purposes to tabulate New Zealand exports for years ending in June instead of December, a desideratum which, it may be observed, applies to most countries in the Southern Hemisphere.

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE (QUANTITIES) FOR YEARS ENDED 30TH JUNE.

Commodity.1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.

* Not available.

Butter cwt.2,917,7462,461,8622,319,8752,689,7812,141,891
Casein cwt.57,61328,54342,61817,8072,320
Cheese cwt.1,690,8371,605,1621,749,0052,505,6492,633,157
Fish cwt.49,72245,22438,22139,16033,152
Honey lb.1,126,620826,8981,260,398805,719237,198
Beef, chilled cwt.370,041389,46149,059236 
Beef, frozen cwt.588,583642,301913,7301,184,434778,683
Lamb, frozen cwt.2,804,8852,591,7423,152,1692,441,8363,248,249
Mutton, frozen cwt.988,2701,028,8861,578,318876,230869,870
Pork, frozen cwt.586,025514,161492,272445,400479,178
Veal, frozen cwt.153,427139,565167,876171,7953,324
Meats, potted and canned cwt.56,88561,02278,05169,967244,203
Sausage-casings lb.3,956,9244,382,1425,391,2384,200,4005,140,688
Milk, preserved lb.7,387,1935,826,4967,253,5746,954,43311,610,492
Milk, dried lb.15,460,82616,829,61217,496,68120,432,11818,965,241
Apples, fresh lb.44,792,03850,426,40424,116,844355,843380,490
Pears, fresh lb.2,310,2355,819,2001,040802,258
Peas Cental180,642161,800165,675182,573291,585
Hops lb.246,199230,947169,908123,802165,242
Potatoes ton13,1575,4281,1857,408712
Calf-skins No.1,180,5871,083,4851,067,2411,052,7071,002,639
Hides, cattle No.531,063541,380448,168494,973356,751
Rabbit-skins No.10,934,85911,497,31410,831,04510,721,79614,722,696
Opossum-skins No.121,2364,132108,878150,515263,113
Sheep-skins, with wool No.1,155,4182,010,0682,038,144786,766984,580
Sheep-skins, without wool No.9,307,51714,018,15112,552,51614,559,70815,238,737
Wool bale761,248900,596806,098591,660733,786
Phormium fibre ton4,5702,947483 78
Seeds, grass and clover cwt.45,80746,22340,94658,28099,821
Tallow ton28,58728,33831,71222,69060,816
Coal ton42,02156,21782,76048,63366,659
Kauri-gum ton2,0212,5232,4061,3321,227
Gold oz.164,575170,875185,230**
Silver oz.371,856369,848370,002**
Timber, sawn sup. ft.16,236,55012,933,72415,474,90318,959,07612,143,977

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE (VALUES) FOR YEARS ENDED 30TH JUNE.

Commodity.1937–33.1938–39.1939–40.1910–41.1941–42.

* Not available.

† Including commodities not enumerated.

 £££££
Butter18,284,60315,813,14416,059,08118,675,67814,951,778
Casein168,40256,06988,01344,7556,570
Cheese6,069,0265,726,5236,776,24010,154,91511,504,553
Fish183,192164,093148,129161,546141,502
Honey31,57221,72338,99828,0748,837
Beef, chilled694,788757,84495,976502 
Beef, frozen831,3131,078,8071,672,9452,327,4711,953,117
Lamb, frozen9,759,6118,768,23610,821,4828,628,81911,321,186
Mutton, frozen1,975,8671,812,6242,716,8651,616,1301,577,189
Pork, frozen1,885,2671,685,6751,733,7271,613,5611,817,856
Veal, frozen298,813265,485364,909401,841£7,655
Meats, potted and canned216,452274,499399,125400,2161,226,183
Sausage-casings730,148672,700941,338653,479911,769
Milk, preserved125,63899,242131,951162,931295,561
Milk, dried218,740237,272281,763418,945458,732
Apples, fresh580,571653,383231,8193,9574,099
Pears, fresh28,63578,46024242
Peas129,280144,071178,415230,027325,478
Hops15,11311,5259,1469,62818,202
Potatoes112,70326,7569,64142,97310,757
Calf-skins329,799238,737273,579285,669406,950
Hides, cattle617,666475,227493,560588,158607,725
Rabbit-skins503,393244,191285,844455,5951,156,855
Opossum-skins38,67870527,88141,04282,897
Sheep-skins, with wool445,383386,470544,517282,481352,587
Sheep-skins, without wool988,5681,045,3111,397,5011,384,9232,078,138
Wool12,325,75512,899,39714,663,64411,611,42914,429,382
Phormium-fibre99,28647,0017,797 1,553
Seeds, grass and clover219,736240,945324,140402,353661,835
Tallow577,080453,490589,782489,0051,292,481
Coal58,98172,441139,57281,810143,581
Kauri-gum103,104112,283121,22673,68087,079
Gold1,368,4901,505,8181,854,663**
Silver40,21438,29745,734**
Leather9,4125,4091,6112,50810,340
Timber, sawn194,687154,974164,596217,271151,721
Totals†61,371,88357,384,09865,160,99965,068,18073,351,530

RE-EXPORTS.—The forwarding trade of New Zealand has never at any time been of great significance. The bulk of the total amount is made up by various classes of machinery, hardware, metal manufactures, motor-vehicles, and also items such as apparel, books, tobacco, spirits, and films.

There is a genuine entrepôt trade with the islands of the Pacific, the amount of which is, however, comparatively small. Exports to Cook Islands and Niue, which are treated as part of the Dominion, are not included in the figures of either exports or re-exports.

RE-EXPORTS (EXCLUDING SPECIE) FROM NEW ZEALAND.

 £
19211,213,002
19221,026,801
1923567,885
1924588,395
1925722,016
1926929,741
1927925,121
1928910,016
1929754,050
1930731,111
1931631,554
1932633,532
1933597,168
1934571,554
1935486,648
1936488,135
1937505,322
1938575,657
1939601,286
1940767,597
1941532,477

The destination of this re-export trade is shown in the following table:—

Country.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
 £££££
United Kingdom87,799110,24438,40039,6934,559
Canada4,3693,7701,0741,892446
Australia131,588132,11996,381176,624102,333
Fiji32,54047,41671,906107,32071,456
Tonga11,5632,3745,96813,6236,920
Western Samoa15,02117,06520,40812,76810,393
United States of America12,29216,93619,24520,67115,565
Society Islands3,3561,6941,5231,440775
Other countries29,82624,98720,76910,15612,382
Ships' stores176,968209,052325,612383,410307,648
    Totals (excluding specie)505,322575,657601,286767,597532,477

EFFECT OF PRICES ON NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS.—The incidence of fluctuating prices over a number of years operates to render the currency aggregate of a country's trade of little value as an indicator of movement in the volume of trade—i.e., from a quantity point of view. Owing to the homogeneous nature of the bulk of the Dominion's exports it is possible, fortunately, in nearly every case to obtain the quantity exported as well as the value. By taking the average export values of any particular year, and applying to them the quantities exported for any other year, it is possible to obtain a reliable indication of changes in the volume of exports. A computation on the above basis is particularly applicable in the case of New Zealand, as approximately 97 per cent. of the Dominion's exports are treated quantitatively.

Comparisons of movement in the volume of exports are usually made over short periods in New Zealand, and therefore a computation of value of exports on the basis of values ruling in the previous year is of interest not only as indicating the effect of price-changes from year to year, but also in that it gives a reliable indication of year-to-year changes in the volume of exports. By establishing the relationship of the various years with their immediate predecessors it is possible to obtain link relatives, and by the application of these link relatives to a given base year or period a series of chain relatives (index numbers) permitting longer term comparisons is obtained. Index numbers on the base 1926 = 100, and computed by the method indicated above, are given in the next table:—

Year.Total Exports (New Zealand Produce).Effect of Price-changes.Index Numbers of Volume of Exports.
Recorded Value.Value at Prices of Previous Year.Gain.Loss.
 ££££(1920 = 100)
192044,339,18354,696,306 10,357,123100
192747,571,23348,094,196 522,903109
192854,660,36549,091,4665,568,899 112
192954,176,01356,465,248 2,289,235116
193044,209,40655,655,835 11,446,429119
193134,319,24444,630,116 10,310,872120
193234,976,38738,128,569 3,152,182133
193340,408,75140,999,141 590,390156
193446,771,29339,039,1927,732,101 151
193546,051,73345,694,497357,236 147
193656,263,80549,172,2617,091,544 157
193766,208,05755,966,7910,241,266 157
193857,800,62662,933,946 5,133,320149
193957,448,03058,702,703 1,254,673151
194072,973,53663,558,8919,414,645 167
194166,946,93665,141,6811,805,255 149

As mentioned previously, the comparison of each year with the preceding year brings out the gain or loss resulting from a rise or fall in prices. The gain or loss shown for individual years represents the increase or decrease in value due to rising or falling prices.

A study of the figures given in the Statistical Summary at the end of this book, showing quantities and values of the principal commodities exported over a lengthy period of years, will give a good idea of the relative effects of increased volume and of price-movements in the huge growth of external trade over the period as measured by the total value of exports.

The following comparison between the year ended 30th June, 1914, and the two latest years—1940–41 and 1941–42—is of interest as showing the influence of altered prices on the value of exports of principal commodities. As mentioned earlier, June years are in many respects preferable to calendar years, as affording a comparison between one season and another:—

Commodity.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1914.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1941.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1942.
Recorded Value.Value at Prices of 1913–14.Recorded Value.Value at Prices of 1913–14.
 £££££
Butter2,197,77118,675,67814,536,98314,951,77811,575,899
Cheese2,317,97010,154,9157,429,75811,504,5537,807,845
Beef, frozen (and dulled)561,8172,327,9731,695,651,953,1171,114,555
Lamb, frozen2,545,1758,628,8195,333,69211,321,1867,095,004
Mutton, frozen1,880,5831,616,1301,343,5051,577,1891,333,753
Pork, frozen5,8431,613,5611,033,9691,817,8561,112,383
Meat, preserved122,078400,216248,5141,226,183867,380
Sausage-casings132,038653,479127,428911,769155,953
Apples12,1603,9572,8744,0993,074
Hides319,995588,158797,421607,725574,740
Rabbit-skins90,350455,595141,3991,156,855194,163
Sheep-skins (without wool)545,0371,384,9231,093,4202,078,1381,144,414
Wool8,262,15311,611,4298,314,18614,429,38210,038,596
Phormium fibre576,095  1,5531,872
Tallow711,858489,005651,6041,292,4811,746,494
Kauri-gum790,33873,680108,45187,07999,902
Timber, sawn372,092217,27195,592150,55761,230
Totals of above items21,443,35358,894,78942,954,45365,071,50044,927,257

Exports during 1941–42 of the commodities dealt with realized £20,144,243 more than they would have at prices ruling in 1913–14. In 1940–41 the corresponding gain was £15,940,33(5, and in 1939-40 £14,644,324. During the depression period of 1930–31 to 1934–35 the recorded value of exports of these commodities was actually less than they would have brought at 1913–14 prices, the greatest loss (£9,327,111) occurring in 1932–33.

EXPORTS TO COOK ISLANDS AND NIUE.—Trade with the Cook and other annexed Pacific Islands is not regarded as external to New Zealand, but merely as interchange between different parts of the Dominion, and it is therefore not included in the account of the external trade. The trade of these islands with other countries is also omitted from New Zealand trade statistics. Separate returns are made of the transactions between the Dominion and the annexed islands, and exports to the islands are summarized below:—

Year.Exports.
 £
193159,202
193266,599
193356,254
193454,261
193553,109
193666,857
193787,658
193864,456
193967,968
194075,027
194163,056

Further particulars regarding the trade of the Islands will be found in the section of this book dealing with Dependencies.

SUBSECTION C—IMPORTS.

THE statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed at the Customs. The value shown for all merchandise imported is the current domestic value in the country of export at the time of exportation, plus an allowance of 10 per cent. to cover freight, insurance, &c. Import values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency. In Subsection A will be found (in conjunction with export figures) a summary of import totals for recent years, expressed both in New Zealand currency and in sterling, together with a series of index numbers of the volume of import trade and of the value, expressed in terms of gold, sterling, and New Zealand currency. Import totals are exclusive of specie, except where the contrary is expressly stated.

Owing to war conditions, details of imports for 1941 were not available in time for the compilation of the various classifications and summary tables of this subsection, and consequently the statistics quoted in most instances throughout this section do not extend beyond the year 1940.

IMPORT CONTROL.—The Import Control Regulations, which came into force on 7th December, 1938, prohibit the importation of all goods into New Zealand except under a license or unless exemption from a license is granted by the Minister of Customs. Application for a license must be made in the prescribed form to the Collector of Customs at the port at which it is desired to import the goods. The policy generally is to ensure that after overseas debt commitments have been met from the sterling funds the maximum funds available will be provided for the importation of essential commodities, with particular regard to the needs of primary and industrial production in the Dominion. In the consideration of a license, existing stocks and probable requirements are taken into account, and also the possibility of manufacturing in New Zealand goods which were formerly imported. A further important feature of the policy has been the desire to give the greatest possible preference to the goods of United Kingdom manufacturers.

The possession of a license does not necessarily give the importer the right to an immediate claim on sterling. The procedure on obtaining a license is for the importer to apply for sterling through his bank to the Reserve Bank. Sterling is allocated as it becomes available, frequently in instalments extending over periods up to twelve months. This arrangement is not universally acceptable to overseas manufacturers, but for various reasons no change in the system has yet been found practicable.

The issue of import licenses to the end of 1940 was for six-monthly periods, the first period commencing on 1st January, 1939. The brief period from 7th December to 31st December, 1938, was regarded as a preliminary one during which all goods imported were exempt from a license, provided that they were in transit prior to the date of the regulations (5th December) and also that they arrived in the Dominion not later than 31st December. Reductions were made in certain classes of imports during the first half of 1939, the basic period taken being the first half of 1938; but certain factors referred to later operated to more than offset these reductions, and total imports during the first half of 1939 were actually nearly £1,100,000 more than for the similar period of 1938. Moreover, there was no perceptible change in the direction of trade, and goods of United Kingdom origin imported during the period of 1939 were, expressed as a percentage of total imports, slightly less than in 1938. The factors responsible for increased imports in 1939 were: (1) additional imports of plant and materials were made for the development of industry within the Dominion, and (2) the provision requiring unlicensed goods to be landed by 31st December, 1938, was partly relaxed. Considerable quantities of goods were on order prior to the introduction of control, and provided they were not abnormally large and were the subject of orders despatched overseas before 5th December, 1938, they were admitted without restriction.

The basis for the issue of licenses for the second half of 1939 was announced on 22nd April, 1939. Although the fall in sterling funds had been arrested, it was anticipated that—mainly because of lower wool-prices—the return from exports in 1939 would be less than in 1938. Accordingly it was considered necessary to apply greater restriction for the second half of 1939, the basic period being the second half of 1938. The majority of imports were restricted, in some cases to the extent of 100 per cent., and a maximum preference was given to the United Kingdom. A detailed list of the commodities restricted is beyond the scope of this publication, and it is possible to mention only a few of them. Complete prohibition was applied to, among others: biscuits; chewing-gum; confectionery; matches; soups; cigars, cigarettes, and cut tobacco; beer, whisky, and other alcoholic beverages; various articles of apparel; bags and sacks; carpets, linoleum, and other floor-coverings; bottles; musical instruments; wireless receiving-sets; hand lawn-mowers; storage batteries and parts; electric irons; vacuum cleaners; tinware; assembled motor-vehicles; paints and varnishes; sawn dressed timber; and coal. Imports of unassembled or completely knocked down motor-vehicles from all sources were cut by 40 per cent., but consideration was given to the granting of licenses for additional unassembled vehicles up to 60 per cent. of the value of assembled vehicles imported during the first half of 1938. Consideration was also given to the granting of licenses where importers were able to arrange supplies without drawing on the sterling funds, and a result of this arrangement was that many commodities on the completely prohibited list were for some time in fair supply. The importation of fruits, vegetables, and certain other products was placed under the control of the Internal Marketing Division of the Marketing Department.

Conditions for the third licensing period, from January to June, 1940, were made known on 20th October, 1939. Imports for this period were again based on the 1938 level, and, owing to the prospective additional call on sterling funds for loan repayments and war requirements, they were subject to even greater restriction than before. Although a wide range of goods, generally materials for industry and other essential commodities, carried no restriction other than a confinement to the 1938 level, and many other goods were cut only when from a source other than the United Kingdom, the restriction generally was severe. The policy of maintaining a maximum volume of trade with the United Kingdom was emphasized, but it was recognized that owing to the uncertainties of war it might not always be possible to obtain imports from that source, in which case it was decided to give preference, as far as practicable, to some other British country.

Although some minor concessions were made for the fourth licensing period (July to December, 1940), increased costs of essential imports made impossible any general relaxation of the restrictions. More than 300 items and sub-items, including motor-vehicles, of a total of approximately 780 on the Tariff list were completely banned. Virtually all imports of foreign origin were prohibited. The practice adopted in the second period of giving consideration to importers not obliged to call on sterling was discontinued, except for the importation of plant for the establishment of a business in New Zealand. Among the minor increases were carpets, linoleum, gum-boots, hot water bags, rubber tires, women's stockings, and certain classes of chinaware and hardware.

Import licenses for the fifth period, in order to give importers a longer time in which to make their arrangements, were made to cover the- full year 1941 instead of a six-monthly period as previously. Increases were allowed for a few items, including parts of motor-vehicles, motor engines, rubber tires for motor-vehicles, gum boots, and chinaware for table use. Some provision was also made for imports of chassis for motor-trucks. On the other hand, the restrictions were further tightened for a number of items, and total prohibition was applied to wooden matches, cotton-wool, women's cotton stockings, and bicycle tires and tubes.

A further cut was made in imports for the sixth period (1942). For the purpose of allocating licenses, imports were divided into six groups. In the first group imports from the United Kingdom and Crown Colonies only were allowed up to 50 per cent. of the 1940 value from these sources. In the second group, the allocation for imports from the United Kingdom and other British countries was also up to 50 per cent. For the third and fourth groups imports from all sources were allowed up to 50 per cent. and 100 per cent. respectively of 1940 values. In the fifth group applications for licenses were considered individually, and in the sixth group no allocation at all was made.

The basis fixed for allocations for the seventh period (1943) was, with certain modifications, made the same as for the sixth period. In regard to certain specified items for which formerly an allocation was made it was decided to consider them individually, owing to the indefinite nature of the supply position overseas. The allocation for a number of other items was reduced because of the impossibility of obtaining the same quantities as previously. For certain essential goods it was made obligatory to order through the Ministry of Supply, to enable a scheme of bulk purchasing to be carried out.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS.—A classification of imports under four broad divisions is given in the following table for the last eleven years available. Taken in conjunction with a table based on the same classification which is given in Subsection B (Exports), the figures show plainly how New Zealand's export trade is derived predominantly from the products of her primary industries, and her import trade consists very largely of manufactured or partly manufactured goods.:—

Year.Food, Drink, and Tobacco.Raw Materials and Articles mainly un-manufactured.Articles wholly or mainly manufactured.Miscellaneous and Unclassified.Total Merchandise.
 £££££
19306,066,5421,892,64436,121,373259,09544,339,654
19314,453,2121,439,89220,460,797144,25026,498,151
19324,180,2841,236,46319,072,507156,75224,646,006
19334,016,8421,159,58620,257,535147,40325,581,366
19344,510,4281,380,13425,241,859207,13131,339,552
19355,038,7191,566,67329,497,032214,84336,317,267
19365,472,1121,695,86636,848,951241,95744,258,886
19376,701,2991,956,67047,203,577299,14956,160,695
19387,132,6592,247,48645,808,987233,05755,422,189
19396,516,9902,465,46240,171,398233,33349,387,183
19406,460,6182,918,35739,368,064250,63048,997,669

The principal groups of commodities normally imported are clothing and textiles, metals and machinery, sugar, tea, alcoholic liquors, tobacco, paper and stationery, oils, motor-vehicles and accessories, chemicals and drugs, manures, and timber. It will be seen that articles wholly manufactured or mainly manufactured account for upwards of 80 per cent. of total merchandise imports. It should not be assumed, however, that items included in this class necessarily compete with New Zealand manufactures. In the first place, a large proportion of imports of manufactured commodities is comprised of goods which cannot be produced economically in New Zealand—e.g., cotton piece-goods, pigments—or products of industries which have never been established in New Zealand. A further point to be taken into consideration is the fact that many imports of manufactured or semi-manufactured goods form the raw material of further factory processes in the Dominion—e.g., piece-goods.

Imports for the year 1940 are classified in the following table according to the principal applicable heads of the British Board of Trade classification. The grouping by countries is on the basis of country of origin:—

United Kingdom.Other British Countries.United States of America.Other Foreign Countries.Total Merchandise.

* Including commodities not listed.

 £££££
Grain2,192652,1968,49420,711683,593
lulled products32,129161,84787140194,203
Fish14,43366,0853830,906111,462
Fruits, fresh and dried 805,78357,33859,012922,133
Preserved fruits and vegetables, fruit-pulp, jams, &c.7,854133,6566543,284145,448
Sugar 1,265,085 41,265,089
Tea2999,89943,7521,003,657
Alcoholic beverages404,55198,182767,977570,717
Tobacco95,96528,936572,1201,215698,236
Coal 71,275  71,275
Iron and steel—     
  Pig, ingots, &c2,606122,830342 125,778
  Bar, rod, plate, sheet, &c1,161,561608,98939,4457181,810,713
  Other manufactures of iron and steel1,703,6651,072,411268,08893,4983,137,662
Agricultural implements and machinery56,34075,49977,5922,081211,512
Electrical machinery and apparatus1,658,497291,793355,124255,4802,560,894
Other machinery1,672,710496,1681,044,895151,9373,365,710
Motor-cars and parts thereof1,433,014424,187193,9671,1222,052,290
Other metals and metal manufactures472,105499,55437,21279,4171,088,288
Yarns and threads567,357328,78637720,564917,084
Cotton piece-goods2,377,64964,2826,938181,4642,630,333
Woollen piece-goods1,022,57234,3802366,9961,064,184
Other piece-goods1,106,514384,23844,641383,5351,918,928
Miscellaneous textiles906,788882,7292,57443,5811,861,672
Apparel363,088105,4068,71381,513558,720
Footwear116,914130,56612,61410,071270,165
Chemicals, drugs, dyes, &c1,200,795554,634358,47697,5232,211,428
Fertilizers48,579315,14918,733201,572584,033
Earthenware (including bricks, glass, &c.)438,10696,62430,60538,862604,197
Wood, timber, and manufactures thereof (including wood-pulp)10,788326,960160,580118,410616,738
Newsprint11,425408,506 380420,311
Paper and cardboard, &c.977,939388,359390,483109,1231,865,904
Animal and vegetable oils, fats, greases, and waxes157,516216,47015,15871,666460,810
Oils—Petroleum, crude and refined42,410563,067674,1712,331,4443,611,092
Hides, skins, and furs (undressed)2,61517,27738,54114,65073,083
Leather and manufactures thereof (except clothing and footwear)121,93282,99594,0725,379304,378
Rubber, raw410109,645  110,055
      Totals, merchandise*22,945,38614,760,7536,093,6905,197,84048,997,669

Since 1914 the statistics of both imports and exports have been classified according to the nature of the commodity, the items being assembled in well-defined classes as shown in the following table, covering merchandise imports for the year 1940:—

No.Class.Value in 1940.

* Including commodities not included in Individual groups.

IFoodstuffs of animal origin (excluding live animals)£ 174,926
IIFoodstuffs of vegetable origin, and common salt3,823,832
IIIBeverages (non-alcoholic) and substances used in making up the same1,183,135
IVSpirits and alcoholic liquors607,871
VTobacco and preparations thereof698,236
VILive animals36,777
VIIAnimal substances (mainly unmanufactured), not being foodstuffs107,401
VIIIVegetable substances and non-manufactured fibres754,927
IXAApparel1,124,512
IXBTextiles6,690,211
IXCManufactured fibres1,531,308
XOils, fats, and waxes4,452,623
XIPaints and varnishes426,293
XIIStones and minerals used industrially135,389
XIVAMetal, unmanufactured, partly manufactured, and ores914,065
XIVBMetal manufactures, other than machinery and machines5,536,532
XVMachinery and machines5,784,774
XVIAIndiarubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires)381,559
XVIBLeather and manufactures thereof, including substitutes364,378
XVIIATimber296,864
XVIIBWood, cane, and wicker manufactures196,685
XVIIIEarthenware, china, glass, stoneware, cement, and cement materials635,472
XIXAPaper2,112,220
XIXBStationery778,940
XXJewellery, time-pieces, and fancy goods265,133
XXIOptical, surgical, and scientific instruments793,581
XXIIADrugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares2,290,467
XXIIBManures584,033
XXIIIAVehicles2,411,200
XXIIIBMiscellaneous915,961
     Total, merchandise48,997,669*

The next classification presented is that according to the purpose or use of commodities, particulars being given for the last five years. It should be mentioned that the absence of essential information in regard to actual purpose or use of a number of commodities has created certain difficulties, necessitating the employment of arbitrary decisions in some instances. Also, where certain commodities are used for more than one purpose it has not been possible to segregate the portion applicable to each. In such cases the whole import has been assessed according to the principal use of the article or commodity in New Zealand:—

Class of Merchandise.1930.1937.1938.1939.1940.

* Including unclassified and miscellaneous.

Values.
Producers' materials—£££££
  Building and construction3,032,9303,877,7924,140,9123,509,7882,960,278
  Farm1,049,0951,345,9511,212,7361,332,2371,193,552
Manufacturing—     
  Food1,541,4581,995,7252,154,4171,995,7602,620,141
  Beverages60,04380,95557,46428,94061,541
  Tobacco227,356247,330324,222550,324604,733
  Textiles (apparel or household goods)4,607,0705,334,8203,958,2224,394,3556,359,318
  Other6,789,6638,343,0608,158,7037,841,54610,506,646
Fuels and lubricants2,535,2342,899,2663,092,2823,289,7543,709,438
Auxiliary aids to production919,1731,011,919992,1041,081,2661,606,467
Producers' equipment—     
  Farm1,245,0021,693,0881,609,0831,159,171909,129
  Commerce and industry4,114,5295,532,3336,263,6585,568,2485,007,781
Transport equipment—     
  Railway320,071461,1081,137,2721,383,994335,881
  Road5,949,3657,633,7967,040,5095,595,9572,280,112
  Other33,989132,720205,322113,695197,171
Consumers' goods—     
  Food1,515,1631,954,4332,145,1101,688,7601,444,990
  Beverages1,498,0501,662,6011,651,9281,614,2561,631,841
  Tobacco651,971775,597823,555557,346121,635
  Clothing and accessories2,554,7853,633,5423,071,6391,869,575578,175
  Household equipment2,293,7403,317,0703,045,7652,112,3501,575,487
  Other3,215,5334,021,5174,027,4503,093,6142,239,684
    Totals, merchandise imports*44,258,88656,160,69555,422,18949,387,18348,997,669

In the next table particulars are given of New Zealand's import trade for the years 1936—4 according to the stage of production or degree of manufacture of commodities, the divisions used, following the classification of the League of Nations, being" crude,” “simply transformed,” and “more elaborately transformed.” In addition to total imports, the classification on these lines of the two main classes of commodities—”producers' materials" and “consumers' goods “—is shown:—

1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.
Producers' materials—£££££
  Crude1,831,1632,732,8052,827,0522,869,3583,462,232
  Simply transformed5,465,7136,813,1886,834,7876,515,9857,725,562
  More elaborately transformed10,011,33911,679,61610,344,83710,267,60713,118,315
Consumers' goods—     
  Crude1,583,7531,823,9231,892,9201,792,7261,962,408
  Simply transformed206,050248,466264,315157,926117,592
  More elaborately transformed9,939,43913,292,37112,608,2128,985,2495,511,812
Total merchandise imports—     
  Crude3,946,0835,066,4235,465,5555,441,0136,196,852
  Simply transformed8,177,89210,009,66710,315,2999,756,24110,953,100
  More elaborately transformed32,134,91141,084,60539,641,33534,189,92931,847,717
    Totals, all merchandise imports44,258,88656,160,69555,422,18949,387,18348,997,669

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE.—The import trade of the Dominion, though spread over more countries than the export trade, is confined mainly to the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States, and Canada. In the early years of settlement Australia was the source from which the young colony drew most of its supplies, and for a long period imports from Australia overshadowed imports from the United Kingdom. The proportion of imports from Australia, however, decreased steadily from 60 per cent. in 1862 to 7 per cent. in 1929. In recent years the trend has been upward, and in 1941 over 16 per cent. of New Zealand imports were of Australian origin.

Imports from the United Kingdom comprised between 60 per cent. and 70 per cent. of total imports during the “eighties” and “nineties”; so that, at that time, the United Kingdom and Australia between them supplied approximately 80 per cent. of the total imports of the Dominion. In the decade immediately preceding the war of 1914–18 the United Kingdom supplied about 60 per cent. of total imports; but, with the disruption in trading relations during that war, other countries—notably the United States and Japan—increased their share of New Zealand's import trade.

The economy of New Zealand and other countries following the war of 1914–18 has been characterized by a marked growth in the diversity of products entering into international trade. Notable examples of important new industries are to be found in the growth of the motor, artificial silk, motion picture, and radio industries. International trade in the products of these and certain other new industries became almost a monopoly of the United States; in fact, the dominating position of that country in such spheres of industrial activity has been seriously challenged only recently. The traditional position of the United Kingdom in the forefront of manufacturing activity was shaken severely by circumstances arising from the 1914–18 war; her textile industries, for example, being subjected to acute and increasing foreign competition. In the circumstances, it is not surprising to find that the proportion of goods of United Kingdom origin included in New Zealand's imports of merchandise fell from about 60 per cent. before the war to about 46 per cent. in the late “twenties.”

From 1930 onwards there was a definite improvement in the relative position of the United Kingdom in New Zealand's import trade, partly duo to New Zealand's tariff policy, in which preference to Empire countries plays an important part. During each of the five years, 1931–35, over 50 per cent. of our imports of merchandise were of United Kingdom origin, this recovery having been made despite the growth in imports from Australia of certain goods—e.g., iron and steel—which were formerly almost entirely imported from the United Kingdom. In 1936 and 1937, however, the proportion fell slightly below 50 per cent., and since then there has been a progressive decline to 43 per cent. in 1941.

The United States was sending goods to New Zealand almost from the foundation of the colony, and the share of the imports received from that country steadily increased till in the first decade of the present century it was 11 or 12 per cent. The adoption of Imperial preference seems to have caused a temporary drop in the figure to about 7 per cent., though the proportion maintained a steady increase for several years after the 1914–18 war, and, indeed, considerably surpassed its old level. From 1933 to 1940 about one-eighth of the total imports came from the United States. In 1941 the proportion rose sharply to nearly one-fifth.

Imports of Canadian origin gradually rose to 9·8 per cent. of the total (in 1929), but fell during the depression period to 4·5 per cent. (in 1932). By 1939 the proportion had risen to 8·9 per cent., but there was a sharp fall to 5·9 per cent. in 1940. This was followed by a rise to 6·2 per cent. in 1941.

In considering the foregoing, it should be remembered that the exigencies of war have exercised considerable influence in the direction of import trade during the last two years.

The table which follows shows imports during the last eleven years from the United Kingdom, other British countries, and foreign countries. The information is shown on the basis both of country of shipment and of country of origin:—

Year.Country of Shipment.Country of Origin.Total Merchandise Imports.
United Kingdom.Other British Countries.Foreign Countries.United Kingdom.Other British Countries.Foreign Countries.
 £££££££
193113,831,7445,324,8127,333,59513,306,0015,141,8758,050,27526,498,151
193212,906,4205,136,2766,603,31012,575,9544,972,4687,097,58424,646,006
193313,504,2455,858,0186,219,10313,126,0325,669,7336,785,60125,581,366
193416,152,7627,592,5137,594,27715,789,7617,349,8528,199,93931,339,552
193518,519,6008,592,1099,205,55818,283,0968,320,0649,714,10736,317,267
193022,078,95910,585,08411,594,84321,851,52410,341,09012,66,27244,258,886
193728,184,89113,750,26914,225,53527,861,27513,430,22114,869,19956,160,695
193826,886,47514,522,53614,013,17826,532,68814,238,39714,651,10455,422,189
193923,277,00413,311,17912,299,00023,133,87213,512,25312,741,05349,387,183
194023,111,97415,105,58010,780,11522,945,38614,760,75311,291,53048,997,669
194121,026,39815,991,21012,149,40221,158,65115,467,78012,540,57949,167,010

The next table shows in more detail the principal countries from which New Zealand draws its imports, figures on the basis of country of origin being given for each of the five years 1937 to 1941, and on the basis of country of shipment for the year 1941:—

IMPORTS.

County.On Basis of Country of Origin.On Basis of Country of Shipment.
1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.1941.
Briths Countries—££££££
  United Kingdom27,861,27526,532,68823,133,87222,945,38621,158,65121,026,398
  Ceylon823,470818,192823,964952,3861,409,7021,313,805
  India579,922565,285705,0881,432,4311,360,3361,158,167
  Malaya108,93598,590426,751411,696435,775429,034
  Union of South Africa131,97090,68279,540118,142131,216135,625
  Canada4,563,2874,855,3154,376,9122,887,3003,071,6923,052,220
  Australia6,595,6057,159,4236,419,4697,817,6018,022,1518,882,257
  Fiji95,573112,53847,96058,827131,241152,486
  Nauru Island169,301140,647201,237204,79772,84273,048
  Western Samoa66,916104,81490,485104,620134,997135,215
Foreign Countries      
  Belgium545,534517,782417,488404,75221,03110,263
  Czechoslovakia194,746189,91131,9233,48032958
  Finland109,521116,06580,3765,733  
  France232,4642999,044232,423160,76512,7562,561
  Germany972,7601,119,013872,00949,3056,755578
  Italy174,917163,745137,83597,8232,501224
  Netherlands268,521269,798307,385106,40210,647239
  Sweden368,908404,828325,916208,06420,8407,038
  Switzerland181,479260,360159,161112,52591,88665,534
  Bahrein Islands53,087247,815278,493366,709  
  China143,644121,523117,389131,522163,243149,225
  Iran17,934127,81129,1131,803132,650131,220
  Japan1,629,1911,208,5941,038,584809,165215,730195,226
  Netherlands East Indies2,238,4132,160,5242,434,8262,197,1382,068,5202,066,845
  United States of America6,962,5186,856,1325,613,1546,093,6909,117,1288,941,434

Goods of United Kingdom origin in 1941 exceeded in value the direct imports from that country. This is a reversal of the normal position and may be attributed to the. exigencies of war.

Australia acts as a transhipping centre for a certain proportion of goods received from India and Ceylon. British West Africa and the British West Indies both produce more of the imports than they ship direct. The figures for Canada show a small balance in favour of goods of Canadian origin. Goods of United States origin exceeded direct imports from that country.

The following table shows for the last ten years the percentage of total imports (excluding specie) from each of the principal countries concerned:—

IMPORTS (COUNTRY OF ORIGIN).

Country.1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
United Kingdom51·0351·3150·3850·3949·3749·6147·8746·8446·8343·03
Ceylon1·572·161·871·751·701·471·481·671·942·87
India1·582·262·131·581·251·031·021·432·92·277
Malaya0·390·310·210·220·220·190·180·860·840·88
Union of South Africa0·340·200·180·150·270·230·160·160·240·26
Canada4·494·956·706·757·528·138·768·865·896·25
Australia9·6110·0710·3310·9011·1611·7412·9213·0015·9616·32
Fiji0·470·420·330·220·220·170·200·100·120·27
Other British countries1·721·811·711·351·030·950·971·282·211·84
Totals, British countries71·2073·4973·8473·3172·7473·5273·5674·2076·9574·49
Belgium0·800·670·440·600·920·970·940·850·830·04
France1·200·960·770·610·490·410·420·470·330·03
Germany2·051·841·541·471·691·732·021·770·100·01
Japan1·942·642·67·3·033·002·902·182·101·650·44
Netherlands East Indies3·533·904·413·964·013·993·904·934·484·21
United States of America14·4711·5411·9612·5012·6612·4012·3711·3712·4418·54
Other foreign countries4·814·964·374·524·494·084·614·313·222·24
Totals, foreign countries.28·8026·5126·1626·6927·2626·4826·4425·8023·0525·51

It will be seen that the great bulk of New Zealand's imports of merchandise are of British origin, the proportion of total imports derived from British countries being approximately 75 per cent. during recent years. The strong bias towards Imperial preference in the Customs tariff (which, however, is low relative to that of most countries, even for imports of foreign origin), and the virility of Empire manufacturers, notably Australian and United Kingdom, in meeting foreign competition, have been important factors contributing to the improvement in the proportion of imports of British origin. The Ottawa Agreement, which resulted in increases in the margin of Imperial preference in the tariff on certain commodities, and the placing of several commodities previously dutiable on the free list if of Empire origin, must also be mentioned as a factor of considerable moment.

One of the outstanding facts brought into relief by the foregoing table is the recent marked relative expansion in imports from Australia. The increase has been achieved despite the fact that New Zealand's imports of certain natural products—e.g., timber and coal—from Australia are now on a considerably lower level than in earlier years. The decline in imports of these items has been more than compensated for by increased imports from Australia of certain manufactured and semi-manufactured goods, notably iron and steel. Australian industries have advanced under the stimuli of a depreciated currency and tariff protection to the stage when they can compete effectively in the New Zealand market with the manufactured products of the older countries. The comparative nearness of Australia to New Zealand is a very strong factor operating to the benefit of Australian firms in the New Zealand import market: the closeness of personal contact possible between importers and the Australian manufacturers, the short period in which goods can be delivered after ordering, and the intimate knowledge of New Zealand requirements, all act strongly to the mutual advantage of the Australian exporter and the New Zealand buyer. Moreover, the New Zealand market presents a very strong attraction to Australian firms, since the potential demand in this country is of sufficient size to represent a very profitable addition to the home market.

Origin of Principal Imports.—The table which follows shows by main countries of origin details of the principal imports into New Zealand during each of the last five years available:—

ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS.

Country of Origin.1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.
 £££££
Confectionery:
United Kingdom25,57256,45149,16416,9587,871
Canada4122,9501,558443 
Australia37,93759,17472,99484,21030,056
France1,50075145925816
United States of America1,8412,2413,8463,1981,383
Other countries5511,0501,232340181
      Totals67,81122,617129,253105,40739,507
Fruits (Dried).
Union of South Africa20,90419,2026,5854,4406,715
Australia329,523338,860321,242342,367472,193
Iraq21,05148,92939,04935,31756,392
Turkey13,56815,60413,60412,7341,329
United States of America65,15689,69586,37477,52942,963
Other countries5256,8364,9752,7351,218
      Totals450,727519,126471,829475,122580,810
Fruits (Fresh).
British West Indies17,86114,170 115,04230,77927,453
Canada1,6612,3592,4791,327 
Australia94,185172,182241,063168,629155,607
Fiji75,62868,68286,94028,60341,858
Norfolk Island 1,067271331185
Tonga10,6457,5225,69715,96314,884
Western Samoa45,41162,101101,05581,69286,669
United States of America49,05661,73657,32942,48614,375
Other countries2,5433,699427681292
      Totals296,990393,518510,303370,491341,323
Sugar.
United Kingdom8,4978,4873,1711,4231,830
Australia9,4717,5727,397186,5381,280,767
Fiji10,54615,10913,5283,260 
Netherlands29,42328,7208,2814,4176
Netherlands East Indies42,387538,006464,898414,25211,146
Cuba188,206109,11956,8437 
Dominican Republic243 112,861 
Peru6231970,214 
United States of America12,34710,51544,98258,06482,474
Other countries2,3726,6052,1512,6022,094
      Totals663,279724,164601,270853,6381,378,317
Tea.
Ceylon723,354785,049797,000801,527918,162
India17,71622,84515,96937,19966,123
Kenya and Uganda   20,86611,144
Union of South Africa  17,2824,467 
China6,2775,9513,1243,0683,709
Japan2,4618,4735503441
Other countries21925321717251
      Totals750,027822,571816,860880,4581,003,657
Tobacco and Preparations thereof.
United Kingdom444,637556,359534,301387,35495,965
Australia92,841108,377147,71578,7982,887
United States of America246,310266,345351,104565,163572,120
Other countries10,5349,4479,0064,35527,204
      Totals794,372940,5281,042,1261,035,670698,236
Hosiery.
United Kingdom104,039205,198168,596122,27451,658
Canada103,967130,788111,76448,5744,626
Australia19,21747,42818,6026,86310,229
Czechoslovakia5,24616,3245,172644 
Germany8,97012,17113,8014,0723
Spain1291,793   
Japan3,60431,56145,75259,05312,501
United States of America9211,4751,41315246
Other countries4436091972513
      Totals246,536447,347365,297241,88379,066
Hats, Caps, and Millinery.
United Kingdom143,157168,322155,210126,217167,306
Canada18,57536,33838,00533,96839,752
Australia21,46224,66918,33910,37726,867
Austria11,09919,9479,062  
Czechoslovakia12,30318,73323,9302,702 
France4,9634,6253,5658,0921,524
Germany10,80014,73310,65537,029119
Italy5,38111,35010,28816,3817,161
Poland3,5029,1237,2583,178 
Switzerland12,90811,4307,46311,7029,817
China6,5265,0058,37813,45911,755
Japan31,65535,37718,99014,1626,123
United States of America7,1314,7818,15312,5874,443
Other countries2,9524,5172,8534,342,566
      Totals292,414368,950322,149294,193297,433
Miscellaneous Apparel and Ready-made Clothing.
United Kingdom900,5241,243,4411,030,725605,506136,258
Canada36,398100,875142,99657,08111,690
Australia64,681101,95261,31915,1448,040
Austria3,50010,2128,210  
Belgium9,01411,14611,39212,1502,801
Czechoslovakia23,44927,84125,7516,39649
France4,3476,64310,4926,6901,404
Germany55,55058,26842,00224,909456
Hungary5,56013,61310,9006,269497
Italy6,65929,13023,89812,4671,236
China5,3966,5959,6956,7291,716
Japan90,075114,23575,28332,8731,234
United States of America42,30151,87940,48919,4842,516
Other countries3,3318,72010,9856,1212,594
      Totals1,250,7851,784,5501,504,137811,819170,491
Boots and Shoes.
United Kingdom276,363422,417316,647203,94542,374
Hong Kong2,9153,3306,1925,9732,911
India4,72512,20814,72213,0994,911
Canada109,546155,816163,051141,04073,704
Australia51,47139,25819,0453,6791,153
Czechoslovakia6,29513,6625,400831 
Japan50,87552,36547,53022,8204,195
United States of America5,0997,3914,4722,658100
Other countries1,4821,57796471313
      Totals508,771708,024578,023394,758128,569
Miscellaneous Drapery.
United Kingdom419,115641,348514,466390,677242,716
Canada3,81614,19913,0949,7331,071
Australia8,12418,07514,4427,50119,892
Czechoslovakia6,6448,1549,5011,59244
France9,6307,8719,3688,6586,861
Germany17,05221,99320,51518,276326
Switzerland16,34421,68827,29516,7467,873
China16,38516,42913,69110,7063,228
Japan41,65878,65475,69748,6865,034
United States of America2,7837,4849,0067,3466,473
Other countries10,55220,75127,15116,1256,470
      Totals552,103856,646734,226536,046299,988
Cotton, Liner and Canvas Piece-goods.
United Kingdom1,575,4201,640,4881,217,8331,418,8562,328,855
Canada10,67111,47012,56716,09614,462
Australia6,9668,4592,6716,02917,742
Belgium72,06876,51575,3924,4431,315
France3,8382,8572,0591,215744
Germany8,60013,16817,3424,895 
Netherlands3,69210,73212,2978,0291,125
Switzerland3,6957,7109,9694,7613,596
Japan268,834279,935229,338224,905172,605
United States of America18,35620,02416,54316,1906,895
India2,9943,0945,2605,34032,032
Other countries3,4305,6017,1011,064449
      Totals1,978,5642,080,0531,608,3721,711,8232,579,820
Silk, &c., Piece-goods.
United Kingdom335,225430,032329,500413,596767,658
Canada61,20222,52429,25334,60357,331
Australia35,67046,83512,9317,9954,227
Czechoslovakia3,7047,51913,3571,103 
France27,16619,90325,18225,6128,976
Germany38,00060,35366,34946,199272
Hungary14,56417,03410,6075,141149
Italy2,46513,60214,66926,51611,546
Switzerland11,08515,30014,67911,1296,318
China3,2653,9161,3893,5821,775
Japan416,005431,618308,307308,284300,646
United States of America7,7667,28513,74131,43132,791
Other countries,8,2523,7042,5211,426594
      Totals964,3691,079,625842,485916,6171,192,283
Woollen Piece-goods.
United Kingdom833,6841,105,420763,847740,4421,022,572
Canada2,14912,1015110580
Australia3,7053,7351,5292,33133,755
Belgium1,6712,7832,9394,0131,247
Germany1,9041,5242,5681,932 
Japan4,4113,1652,78571174
Other countries4,8131,8522,4306,5085,956
      Totals852,3371,130,580776,149755,9471,064,184
Paints and Varnishes.
United Kingdom236,925252,025231,603220,091244,126
Canada3,55817,45813,21011,16516,949
Australia127,098137,930164,368114,813110,113
Germany7,6168,2239,8439,602598
Netherlands4,3727,8277,3108,6803,690
United States of America32,68736,13636,15525,48146,978
Other countries3,3366,1704,3104,0243,839
      Totals415,592465,769466,794393,856426,293
Iron and Steel,—Bar, Bolt, and Rod.
United Kingdom118,556164,260209,791121,30533,208
Canada14,8053,44069,2149,10613,132
Australia278,282381,663483,704265,124290,444
Other countries3138742,4521,5963,022
      Totals411,956550,237765,161397,131339,806
Iron and Steel,—Plate and Sheet.
United Kingdom1,032,0491,370,7061,184,1811,000,9421,112,674
Australia48,125102,64291,060206,462201,446
United States of America3,7018,12118,61222,07136,585
Other countries4321,1542,2377,3324,442
      Totals1,084,3071,482,6231,296,0907,3324,442
Iron and Steel—Tubes, Pipes, and Fittings.
United Kingdom362,924432,665479,119439,324459,489
Canada64,49680,27370,82160,709190,270
Australia15,14426,44315,81441,43461,435
Germany4,7718,3427,4316,667 
United States of America9724,1711,54235,89044,738
Other countries2,0331,921778876478
      Totals450,340553,815575,505584,910756,410
Artificers' Tools.
United Kingdom183,229168,936171,220136,788135,662
Canada46,33360,62060,51056,24349,979
Australia10,6718,55612,0289,2598,965
Germany16,80020,60424,17114,415334
United States of America73,41589,56782,84872,54554,975
Other countries10,22611,89410,5028,0365,131
      Totals340,674359,677331,279297,286255,046
Fencing-wire,—Plain and Barbed.
United Kingdom144,953251,561172,745124,70212,010
Canada37,54321,34421,7757,83180,545
Australia58,67462,94075,66858,6716,458
United States of America9,07610,3655,6263,3378,763
Japan16 68  
Other countries16 68  
      Totals250,262346,210275,882194,541114,042
Miscellaneous Hardware
United Kingdom529,059747,320678,662583,974534,114
Canada50,13952,27747,76231,04211,874
Australia75,58199,573103,62053,05331,506
France2,4063,3854,0412,3651,125
Germany21,03429,92332,75616,1601,051
Sweden16,46820,15827,16416,7979,584
Japan23,76230,07715,42210,3602,401
United States of America78,21279,16872,35453,24334,536
Other countries5,7496,9218,6053,056699
      Totals802,4101,068,802990,386770,050626,890
Agricultural Machinery.
United Kingdom95,689106,651103,34870,38456,340
Canada46,54458,01554,27834,62639,036
Australia34,79141,21729,99424,47936,443
France2,0604,0746,9514,023236
Germany4,2595,5664,4662,321100
Sweden15,88919,10519,6806,3531,003
United States of America101,676132,543128,33495,77177,592
Other countries101,676132,543128,33495,77177,592
      Totals301,383367,904348,115239,167211,512
Dairying Machinery.
United Kingdom55,58957,69745,07238,17237,779
Canada5,0653,7791,88459 
Australia25,25518,64619,2445,3473,399
Germany3,1152,9337,6833,9193
Sweden67,06035,19121,33234,93117,412
United States of America2,6889,79614,2469,48023,244
Other countries4,4563,9085,0764,8473,446
      Totals163,228131,950114,53796,75585,283
Electrical Machinery and Equipment (including Telephones and Accessories).
United Kingdom1,312,1631,863,5561,943,2301,736,9401,485,973
Canada100,844158,996245,872191,379105,881
Australia140,787185,640159,897122,690130,635
Belgium4,87113,06251,07165,177197,633
Germany20,60841,04446,20353,3302,064
Netherlands12,18510,0558,6477,6743,874
Sweden29,85845,52352,05151,82327,273
Japan16,22616,21212,0745,509923
United States of America180,619242,021251,751194,317263,105
Other countries16,38223,64135,09416,94720,090
      Totals18,834,5432,599,7502,805,8902,445,7862,237,451
Wireless Apparatus.
United Kingdom72,966143,460211,553148,559107,454
Canada11,48611,1775,4982,8444,390
Australia97,609124,82357,99439,41135,655
Germany3131,6432,23888292
Netherlands10,0747,0753,1567,09111,288
United States of America247,097317,866148,36284,69991,365
Other countries1,0231,1941,354323424
      Totals440,568607,238430,155283,809250,668
Leather and Leather Goods (excluding Boots and Shoes).
United Kingdom170,532200,533148,403125,558121,932
Canada8,57416,72713,3967,5581,995
Australia83,60593,36663,21964,73779,230
Germany8,6257,1874,2442,04325
Netherlands3,9823,8025,9743,094 
United States of America77,65065,59374,12088,05494,072
Other countries8,1797,91510,2637,4907,124
      Totals361,147395,123319,610298,534304,378
Timber
Canada49,52265,02163,24951,17430,140
Australia271,021348,812434,016458,703170,848
Finland94130,52514,014  
Sweden28,3661193,365  
Japan38,72466,41641,22452,00364,177
United States of America35,47638,83054,69974,71127,608
Other countries6,20310,43311,8295,0074,091
      Totals430,253560,156622,396641,598296,864
Earthenware and Chinaware.
United Kingdom243,257300,430278,698239,453209,908
Australia1,9853,1414,5311,3462,510
Czechoslovakia1,4931,7552,475355 
Germany1,4542,4173,5751,43210
Japan30,20231,16132,45217,2081,779
Other countries4998481,359521326
      Totals278,890339,752323,090260,315214,533
Glass and Glassware.
United Kingdom177,790180,992176,114175,698186,822
Canada3,9966,9256,1795,13313,037
Australia64,32956,69760,40268,58970,951
Belgium35,75858,69747,07447,19027,880
Czechoslovakia33,40338,34030,3824,549167
Germany20,80722,87324,15911,801291
Japan17,29522,89523,0629,0426,081
United States of America21,20528,24328,75322,61226,841
Other countries7,4554,0454,6242,9003,059
      Totals382,038419,707400,749347,514335,129
Printing-paper.
United Kingdom178,335276,099303,805255,000331,488
Canada432,721310,159425,759358,676433,667
Newfoundland   12,5234,695
Finland4,9915,2266,1824,6761,033
Germany22,63031,31220,79716,159246
Norway10,0069,2335,1235,7826,488
Sweden3,4032,5953,2253,0941,830
United States of America26,56930,73831,45643,05071,405
Other countries6,78510,98115,13711,31211,059
      Totals685,440676,343820,484710,272861,911
Paper, other than Printing.
United Kingdom289,762329,148303,992319,815557,217
Canada123,646182,077170,479163,106175,956
Australia85,84783,768107,36180,112111,147
Austria2,4187,0726,621  
Belgium10,59710,0363,8393,55512,152
Finland23,79938,46942,51629,7684,236
France3,4274,3601,12014,47316,493
Germany39,34650,15730,37034,4542,514
Netherlands7,11516,89814,30811,3163,830
Norway32,43528,72417,78323,58415,356
Sweden44,55663,92877,70883,67731,568
Japan14,27019,23811,96311,6059,051
United States of America85,617139,552129,350107,321309,686
Other countries9,52010,94017,6445,8491,103
      Totals772,355984,367935,054888,6351,250,309
Books, Papers, and Music.
United Kingdom373,104426,512473,828426,914373,414
Australia83,14095,108138,745152,84597,058
United States of America54,67275,49589,87483,95757,783
Other countries7,2237,2498,3416,764,674
      Totals518,139604,364710,788670,592532,929
Miscellaneous Stationery and Paper Manufactures.
United Kingdom227,252299,714277,826237,107168,249
Canada16,18116,40821,88611,1513,319
Australia88,75095,636107,35481,08453,130
Germany6,3868,6229,4405,393224
Japan7,73810,6738,1144,466206
United States of America30,90041,62149,88833,97119,422
Other countries6,9037,2298,0502,8171,461
      Totals384,110479,903482,558375,989246,011
Fancy Goods, Toys, and Smokers' Requisites (other than Cigarette-papers).
United Kingdom121,670152,751139,864103,73869,792
Canada9,12911,89311,2088,0501,183
Australia16,06020,65516,0228,8015,678
Czechoslovakia17,90821,65924,1723,0334
France5,1376,0896,5233,3991,210
Germany15,14421,13320,5878,543440
Japan52,86162,95657,49514,6521,902
United States of America14,65125,82231,27410,9287,013
Other countries7,79012,09710,7224,1842,713
      Totals260,350335,055317,867165,59889,965
Motor-cycles.
United Kingdom69,446112,21480,00148,05519,986
United States of America7011,5071,039857 
Other countries 59   
      Totals70,147113,72181,09948,91219,986
Motor-cars.
United Kingdom2,080,9162,851,4972,805,4182,065,440710,299
Canada714,0331,127,6611,220,8111,296,3566,418
Germany  28,701481 
Italy 4059,9857,622 
United States of America762,876741,290447,903171,60928,573
Other countries12199401 263
      Totals3,557,9464,720,9524,513,2193,541,508745,553
Motor Lorries, Trucks, Vans, and Buses.
United Kingdom475,930401,515348,442201,79187,459
Canada176,983428,115363,712346,545120,996
United States of America335,564236,736210,07198,79740,936
Other countries 3,454   
      Totals988,4771,069,820922,225647,133249,391
Tires, Tubes, and Covers, for Motor-vehicles.
United Kingdom369,062375,725408,290495,190511,525
Canada261,807429,441394,650311,158213,942
Australia13,65422,0812,5311,7909,684
France2,8721,9159495774
United States of America21,71342,56638,55127,54221,352
Other countries6342606541,230204
      Totals669,742871,988845,625836,967756,781
Motor-spirits.
British Borneo    331,807
Malaya   283,705171,209
Russia145,986    
Bahrein Islands 52,859245,671261,858334,759
Iran57,28115,53063,412  
Netherlands East Indies1,008,2271,169,6641,054,4371,262,6641,305,259
United States of America430,862618,093527,777221,5911,992
Other countries107128428122
      Totals1,642,4631,856,2741,891,3392,029,9592,145,048

IMPORTS FROM COOK AND OTHER ANNEXED ISLANDS.—Trade with the Cook and other annexed islands is not included in the export and import totals for the Dominion, but is shown separately in official publications. The following table shows imports into New Zealand from the group. Further particulars of the trade of the islands will be found in the section dealing with Dependencies.

Year.Imports.
 £
193187,581
193289,136
193392,910
193477,018
193567,779
193686,873
193769,121
193890,479
193960,635
194090,292
194186,073

The principal articles imported into New Zealand from the Cook and other annexed islands are as follows:—

Article.1937.1938.1930.1940.1941.

* Includes basketware £3,313, fancy goods £3,245), vegetables (n.e.i.) £2,051 arrowroot £1,132, and cinematograph films (re-imported), £934.

Fruits, fresh—£££££
  Bananas27,49528,95523,91317,3758,811
  Oranges25,96944,49522,01349,41246,101
  Tomatoes9,6718,8685,5149,1248,456
  Other2464453901,4441,911
Fruit juices1,7321,8791,5912,7462,967
Coconuts472746758626770
Copra582  1,2701,297
Potatoes1,6803,1571,7872,8312,058
All other items1,2741,9344,6695,46413,702*

SUBSECTION D.—CUSTOMS TARIFF AND REVENUE.

THE TARIFF.—The rates of Customs and excise duty in force in New Zealand are set out in the publication entitled “The Customs Tariff of New Zealand,” obtainable from the Government Printer, Wellington.

A summarized historical account of the Customs tariff of New Zealand, setting forth the principal developments and changes from earliest times to 1930 will be found in the 1931 number of the Year-Book. The tariff has now developed into a complex schedule of duties, and considerations of space prevent a detailed account of the rates of duty now levied on goods imported into New Zealand.

Briefly the Customs tariff, apart from the obtaining of revenue, has for its objects the following:—

  1. The development of New Zealand industries.

  2. The maintenance and extension of markets for New Zealand produce.

  3. The encouragement of intra-Empire trade.

Under the Ottawa agreement of 1932, New Zealand, in common with the other Dominions, was committed to hold an inquiry into the tariff, and, if necessary, to revise it in accordance with certain explicitly stated principles. New Zealand undertook to afford protection against United Kingdom products only to industries which are reasonably assured of sound opportunities for success and to grant protection on such a level as to enable the United Kingdom producer to compete on the basis of the relative cost of economical and efficient production.

As a result of the Ottawa Conference, dutiable goods, the produce of the United Kingdom or of any British possession except Canada, the Union of South Africa, Eire, Newfoundland, or India, were exempted from the surtax on duty previously payable. Reductions were made in the rates of duty charged on confectionery, apparel, hosiery, and silk and artificial silk piece-goods, and additional preference to British countries was granted by the imposition of a duty or an increase in the existing rate on foreign cocoa-beans, raw coffee, cigars, rum, asphalt and bitumen, certain unground spices, and paper.

A Tariff Commission was set up in 1933 to inquire into the Customs tariff and to recommend for the consideration of the Government any alterations therein with a view to implementing the agreement made at Ottawa, and having regard, inter alia, to the financial, economic, and industrial conditions in the Dominion.

On the basis of the report of this Commission, resolutions amending the tariff were introduced on 10th July, 21st August, and 13th September, 1934, and ratified by the Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1934.

Some of the principal alterations made to the British preferential tariff were:—

  1. Protective duties were abolished on: Certain stock foods; nails (as from 1st November, 1936)*; certain iron and steel pipes; linseed oil; white-lead ground in oil (as from 1st November, 193(3)*; wireless sets in cabinets; maizena and cornflour in small packages.

  2. The protective duties were reduced on: Preserved and dried milk; baking powder; coffee essence; confectionery; sauce; soap; hats, caps, and millinery; boots and shoes; leather manufactures; glass bottles; oil engines; manufactured stationery; galvanized iron manufactures; metal office furniture; tinware; furniture and upholstery; paints and varnishes; biscuits; plaster pulp sheets; polishes; apparel; whole maize; vinegar; cement; matches; furs and fur skins; floor-mats and floor-rugs of wool.

  3. The revenue duties were reduced on: Carpets; fancy goods; sporting requisites; jewellery; platedware; tobacco pipes; toilet preparations; pianos and other musical instruments; engines for tractors; cigarettes; table chinaware; oak timber; builders' and cabinetmakers' hardware.

  4. The protective duties were increased on: Maize, ground or crushed; porcelain enamelled cast-iron baths; and household gas meters.

  5. Revenue duties were increased on: Cigarette papers.

  6. The protective duty previously payable on motor-car bodies was abolished, and the duties were amended to encourage the assembling of motor-vehicles in New Zealand by a reduction in the rate of duty on vehicles imported unassembled or completely knocked-down.

In addition to the ordinary rates of duty imposed on goods entering the Dominion, additional revenue has been obtained in recent years by a surtax on dutiable imports and a primage duty on certain goods otherwise free.

The surtax was imposed in 1930 in lieu of a primage duty of 1 per cent. or 2 per cent. ad valorem previously charged on practically all imports whether free or dutiable. This surtax was not, however, applied to dutiable goods of Australian origin, which continued to pay the primage duty of 1 per cent. or 2 per cent.

The rate of surtax was fixed at one-twentieth of the total duty otherwise payable on certain goods (e.g., spirits, tobacco, timber, sugar, motor-spirits), and nine-fortieths of such duty on all other dutiable goods, except wheat and flour, and some other lines -which have since been exempted.

* Extended from time-to-time, the latest extension being to 1st November, 1943.

As stated above, surtax was not charged on goods the produce of the United Kingdom or any British country except Canada, the Union of South Africa, Eire, Newfoundland, or India, on and after the 14th October, 1932, and the primage duty payable on Australian goods in lieu of surtax was also removed as from that date.

A primage duty of 3 per cent. was charged, as from the 31st July, 1931, on imports from all countries which were otherwise free of duty. Certain specified items were, however, exempted from primage duty.

The following is a list of the principal items which are free of duty (and in some cases are also exempt from primage duty) under the Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1934:—

Free in any Case.—Live animals; barley (if to be used as stock-food); bran; pollard; seeds; vegetable butters or fats; currants; dates; figs; prunes; glucose and caramel; nuts, except walnuts; rice; acids, other than acetic; inorganic salts of metallic elements, and many other drugs and chemicals; bags and sacks of jute, &c.; woolpacks; raw cotton; hatmakers' materials; buttons; needles and pins; wadding; cotton piece-goods for meat-wraps and cheese-bandages; umbrella-makers' materials; upholsterers' materials; coir, flax, and jute yarns; grindery; leather made from goat and kid skins; patent leathers; bricks, other than firebricks; marble in the rough; grindstones and whetstones; cinema films (subject however to film-hire tax); bookbinders' materials; cardboard and similar boards; parchment and greaseproof paper; printed books, papers, and music; beekeepers' apparatus; percussion caps, detonators, and explosives; hay-rakes, reapers and binders, mowers, and certain other agricultural implements; certain dairying machinery; sewing-machines; iron and other metal in ingots, pigs, or billets; fish and vegetable (other than linseed) oils; kerosene and other refined mineral oils not exceeding in specific gravity 0·860 at 60° F. (other than motor-spirits); waxes; cork; crude tanning materials; manures; skins and hides.

Free if British, but dutiable if Foreign.—Bananas; oranges, mandarins, and grape-fruit; raisins; infants' and invalids' foods; mustard; salt; cocoa-beans; raw coffee; sago and tapioca; maizena and cornflour; macaroni; acetic acid; cream of tartar; disinfectants; chloroform and other anæsthetics; antiseptics; manufactured dyes; most surgical, dental, optical, and scientific instruments and materials; felt, cotton, linen, and canvas piece-goods; silk and artificial silk piece-goods; leather-cloth; oil baize; sewing, &c., cottons and threads; elastics; plain tape; tailors' lining materials; cotton, silk, and artificial silk yarns; plain tablecloths, towels, and similar plain articles; belting (other than leather); children's boots and shoes; gum boots; rubber hose; most rubber manufactures, except tires for motor-vehicles; sheet glass; lenses; watch-glasses; pianos and certain other musical instruments; gramophone records; artists' materials; paperhangings; sensitized surfaces; waxed paper; paper (other than wrapping) in large sheets or rolls; ball bearings; bolts and nuts; rivets and washers; buckles; chains; fire-engines, fire-extinguishers, and other fire-extinguishing appliances; adding and computing machines; typewriters; most electrical apparatus; measuring, testing, &c., appliances; sheep-shearing machines; tractors; artificers', &c., tools; machinery peculiar to industrial processes; iron and other metal in bars or sheets; wire and wire netting; metal cordage; rails for railways and tramways; under-carriage springs and metal fittings for vehicles; asphalt and bitumen; table chinaware.

An indication of the incidence of Customs taxation on various classes of commodities imported will be found in the last two columns of the table on page 190, where the Customs duty collected in 1940 is distinguished as a proportion of the dutiable imports and total imports in each of the statistical classes.

As previously stated, it is impossible to give any account of the range of duties payable on all of the numerous tariff items, but the duties on some of the principal commodities in general use are mentioned hereunder. It should be noted that, in addition, surtax or primage may also be payable.

Tea.—Tea in bulk, when of British origin, was placed on the free list as early as 1907, when the duty on foreign tea was fixed at 2d. per lb. In 1917 a duty of 3d. per lb. was imposed on British tea, the foreign rate being increased to 5d. per lb. British tea in bulk was again placed on the free list in 1923, and the duty on foreign tea reduced to 2d. Rates of 3d. and 5d. per lb. respectively were reinstated as from 31st July, 1931. Under a reciprocal arrangement the duty on South African tea is 1d. per lb.

Sugar.—Sugar also was placed on the free list in 1907, prior to which the duty was ½ d. per lb. Refined sugar of foreign origin was charged ½ d. per lb. under the 1921 tariff, the rate being altered in 1923 to 5/16 d. and in 1924 to¼ d., irrespective of origin. The duty on refined sugar was increased to ¾ d. per lb. in 1931; and raw sugar, which is imported for refinement at Auckland, was made dutiable at ½ d. per lb., or, alternatively, ½ d. per lb. excise duty on manufacture. An additional ½ d. per lb. on both refined and raw sugar was imposed as from 9th February, 1933.

Tobacco.—Prior to the imposition of special war-taxation in 1939, the duties on tobacco were as follows: Cigarettes, exceeding in weight 2½ lb. per 1,000, 10s. 6d. per lb.; cigarettes, not exceeding 2½ lb. per 1,000, 25s. 6d. per 1,000. Cigars, 12s. per lb. under the British preferential tariff and 14s. or 16s. under the general tariff. Manufactured tobacco, cut, 6s. 10d. per lb., and plug, 6s. 8d. per lb. Unmanufactured tobacco for the manufacture of cigarettes, 3s. per lb.; and unmanufactured tobacco for the manufacture of tobacco, cigars, or snuff, 2s. per lb. In order to assist in financing the expenses of the war, further duties, in addition to those set out above, and equal to 25 per cent. of the duties, were levied as from 27th September, 1939. This war tax was replaced on the 1st May, 1942, by the following: Cigarettes, exceeding 2½ lb. per 1,000, 8s. per lb.; cigarettes, not exceeding 2½ lb. per 1,000, 20s. per 1,000; cigars, 8s. per lb., tobacco, cut and plug, 7s. 2d. per lb.; tobacco, unmanufactured, for cigarettes, 9d. per lb.; tobacco, unmanufactured, for the manufacture of tobacco, 6d. per lb. A duty of ½ d. British preferential tariff or ¾ d. general tariff is levied on each sixty cigarette tubes or papers or the equivalent thereof. The excise duties on tobacco, &c., made in New Zealand are shown later under “Excise Duties.”

Alcoholic Beverages.—Prior to the imposition in 1939 of special taxation for war purposes, the rate of duty payable on most spirituous beverages was 40s. per proof gallon, except rum of foreign origin, which was dutiable at 44s. per proof gallon. Sparkling wine was liable to a duty of 10s. per gallon under the British preferential tariff, 9s. 6d. under the trade agreement with the Union of South Africa, and 13s. or 15s. under the general tariff, and still wines to 4s. and 6s. respectively. Australian and South African still wines were liable to a duty of 5s. 6d. per gallon. The duty on imported beer was 1s. 9d. per gallon under the British preferential tariff, and 3s. under the general tariff. In order to assist in financing the expenses of the war, further duties, in addition to those set out above, and equal to 15 per cent. of the duties, were levied as from 27th September, 1939; these were increased to 50 per cent. as from the 1st May, 1942. The excise duty on beer produced in New Zealand is given under “Excise Duties.”

Apparel.—Most apparel pays duty at the rate of 20 per cent. or 25 per cent. under the British preferential tariff and 65 per cent. under the general tariff. The duties on apparel of Canadian and Australian origin vary from the British preferential rates to 40 per cent., 45 per cent., and 55 per cent.

Timber.—Certain types of special timbers and Australian hardwoods, if imported in logs, or rough sawn or rough hewn, are admitted free. Some species of oak timber are free of duty under the British preferential tariff, and dutiable at 6s. per 100 sup. ft. under the general tariff. Other kinds of timber, such as Douglas fir (Oregon pine), redwood, Baltic pine, are subject to the following rates: Logs, round, unworked, 25s. per 100 cubic ft; rough sawn or rough hewn, 7s. 6d. or 9s. 6d. per 100 sup. ft. under the British preferential tariff, and 9s. 6d. or 11s. 6d. under the general tariff; dressed, 19s. per 100 sup. ft. British preferential tariff, and 21s. general tariff.

Motor-vehicles.—Motor-vehicles imported in an unassembled or completely knocked-down condition are dutiable at 5 per cent. under the British preferential tariff and 50 per cent. under the general tariff. Assembled motor-vehicles are subject to a duty of 15 per cent. if admissible under the British preferential tariff and 60 per cent. if liable to the general tariff. Special rates apply to vehicles of Canadian origin.

Tires for Motor-vehicles.—Previously dutiable at 10 per cent. ad valorem under the British preferential tariff and 40 per cent. under the general tariff, these were in 1934 made subject to a duty based on the weight of the tires. Pneumatic rubber tires for motor-vehicles, inner tubes of rubber therefor, and moulded rubber strip for repair of such tires are now dutiable at 2½ d. per lb. under the British preferential tariff and 8d. per lb. under the general tariff. Solid rubber tires are liable to a duty of 1d. per lb. and 4d. per lb. under the British preferential and general tariffs respectively. The duty on tires is earmarked for the maintenance of highways.

Motor-spirits.—Towards the end of 1927 the Motor-Spirits Taxation Act of that year imposed a duty of 4d. per gallon (increased in 1930 to 6d.) on motor-spirits. The proceeds of this tax were devoted to roading purposes. In 1931 and 1933 an increase in duty of 2d. per gallon in each year was made, and an additional 4d. per gallon duty was imposed as from 2nd August, 1939. The total duty on motor-spirits is now 1s. 2d. per gallon, plus a surtax of one-twentieth of the duty on foreign. The proceeds from 6d. per gallon of this tax are earmarked for roading purposes, and the balance (8d. per gallon and surtax) is levied for general purposes and is retained in the Consolidated Fund.

PROHIBITED AND RESTRICTED IMPORTS.—Full particulars of the goods which are prohibited or restricted from being imported into New Zealand are contained in the publication entitled “The Customs Tariff of New Zealand.”

The Import Control Regulations 1938 (made by Order in Council of 5th December, 1938) prohibit the importation of any goods except in pursuance of a license under the regulations or of an exemption granted by the Minister of Customs. (See pp. 165–167.)

EXCISE DUTIES.—An important excise duty is that on beer, which up to 1915 was charged at the rate of 3d. per gallon. In that year the beer duty was altered so as to increase according to the specific gravity of the worts used, the rate being 3¾ d. per gallon when the specific gravity did not exceed 1,047, and increasing by 1/16 d. per gallon for every unit of specific gravity up to 1,055, and by ⅛ d. thereafter. On the 2nd August, 1917, the minimum rate of duty for beer was increased from 3¾ d. to 4¾ d. per gallon, and further (on the 15th September, 1917) to 5¾ d., with a maximum of 6d. per gallon. In 1921 a rate of 11½ d. per gallon (increased to 1s. in 1930, and to 1s. 6d. in 1931) was imposed where the specific gravity of the worts used did not exceed 1,047, the rate being increased by 1/16 d. for every unit of specific gravity above 1,047. The basic rate of excise duty on beer was reduced from 1s. 6d. to 1s. 3d. per gallon by the Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1934, but was increased to 1s. 9d. per gallon as from 2nd August, 1939. In order to assist in financing the expenses of the war, a further increase to 2s. per gallon was made as from 27th September, 1939. The duty was again increased on the 1st May, 1942, when provision was also made for a lower alcoholic content. When the specific gravity of the worts is 1,036 the new duty is 3s. per gallon, rising by 1d. for every unit of specific gravity above, and falling by 1d. for every unit below, 1,036, but subject to a minimum of 2s. 3d. per gallon. In all cases 1s. 3d. per gallon of the duty is war tax. Ministerial approval is required for brewing above 1,036. The specific gravity of distilled water at 60° F. is taken as 1,000, and the specific gravity of the worts is determined in relation thereto.

Prior to the introduction of special taxation for war purposes, cut tobacco was charged an excise duty of 4s. 6d. per lb.; other tobacco, 4s. 4d. per lb. Cigars and snuff paid 4s. per lb., and the excise duty on cigarettes made in New Zealand was 13s. 6d. per 1,000 on cigarettes not exceeding in weight 2½ lb. per 1,000, and 5s. 6d. per lb. on cigarettes over 2½ lb. per 1,000. A war surcharge of 25 per cent. of the excise duty on tobacco, cigars, cigarettes, and snuff was levied as from 27th September, 1939, but this was replaced on the 1st. May, 1942, by war taxation similar to that imposed on imported tobacco, &c. (see page 184). An excise duty of ½ d. is levied on each sixty cigarette tubes or papers or the equivalent thereof.

The Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1931, imposed an excise duty of ½ d. per lb. (increased to 1d. per lb. from 9th February, 1933) on sugar manufactured in New Zealand.

Excise duties were formerly levied direct on certain manufactures the preparation of which involved the use of a considerable proportion of spirits. In lieu of excise duty on the finished manufactured article, however, a special schedule of duties has since 1921 been provided on imported alcohol used in manufacturing these articles in licensed warehouses. The present rates are: On alcohol used in the manufacture of—perfumed spirits. 36s. per gallon; toilet preparations, 34s.; culinary and flavouring essences, 20s.; medicinal preparations containing more than 50 per cent. of proof spirit, 4s. 6d. per gallon. In similar medicinal preparations containing less than 50 per cent. the alcohol used is duty-free.

EXPORT DUTIES.—Tho Gold Duty Act of 1858, amended from time to time, first imposed an export duty on gold. Under the Gold Duty Abolition and Mining Property Rating Act of 1890, the export duty on South Island gold was replaced by a system of rating mining property. The consolidating Gold Duty Act of 1908 maintained an export duty of 2s. per ounce of 20 carats fineness on gold produced in or exported from the North Island. A further export duty of 6d. per ounce (on gold of New Zealand origin only, and exclusive of gold produced by alluvial or dredge mining) was levied by the Mining Act of 1926, and this additional duty applied also to South Island gold. The Customs Acts Amendment Act passed in February, 1933, imposed an additional export duty of 12s. 6d. per ounce troy weight of gold of the fineness of 20 carats and upwards, and covered all gold, with certain minor exceptions, wherever produced or exported. Provision was made for reduction, by Order in Council, of the rate of duty in the event of a reduction in the value of gold in New Zealand. In order to assist in financing the expenses of the war, a further duty was imposed as from 27th September, 1939, of an amount equal to 75 per cent. of the excess of the London market; value of gold (expressed in New Zealand currency), as on the date when the gold is laden upon the exporting ship or when it is posted to an overseas address, over the value of that gold if it is computed at the rate of £9 5s. 8d. (New Zealand currency) for every ounce troy weight of gold of the fineness of 24 carats.

An export duty was also imposed on timber (white-pine and kauri) by Acts of 1901 and 1903, and still operates. The present rates of 5s. per 100 superficial feet on logs, and 3s. or 5s. per 100 superficial feet on flitches, were imposed by the Timber Export Duty Order of 23rd June, 1937. This duty is not payable in respect of sawn timbers.

The Customs Department collects the levies imposed on hides and honey exported. The proceeds (less expenses of collection) are, however, handed over to the respective Boards set up to control the export, &c., of these commodities in the interests of the producers. A levy is also made on wool exported and is paid, less cost of collection, &c., to the Wool Publicity Committee to enable it to carry out its functions.

CUSTOMS REVENUE.—In the earlier years of New Zealand's history the revenue derived from Customs and excise duties produced a greater proportion of the total revenue from taxation than it docs to-day. For a considerable period prior to 1914, there was a constant tendency for this proportion to decrease, and the taxation legislation of the 1914–18 war period temporarily accelerated the movement. The percentage rose after 1921-22, but did not regain its pre-war proportions, and of recent years has again shown a tendency to fall. The figures for the last twenty years are as follows:—

Year ended 31st March,Total Taxation.Customs and Excise Duties.
Amount.Percentage of Total Taxation
 ££Per Cent.
192315,718,3586,644,42042·27
192416,543,9307,870,30947·57
192516,554,6648,187,27349·46
192617,259,6548,974,23552·00
192717,442,6098,826,28750·60
192817,149,9898,501,24549·57
192917,835,1228,565,73648·03
193019,474,0919,517,35948·87
193118,880,8098,181,07643·33
193217,407,8296,545,42837·60
193319,705,6766,785,64134·43
193421,473,4067,140,47833·25
193524,739,4098,094,60532·72
193625,478,5988,876,20334·84
193731,181,60310,340,83833·16
193836,798,97111,737,17031·90
193937,797,90411,727,22431·03
194044,522,02811,734,78426·36
194161,360,84011,258,37018·35
194268,163,25510,622,09215·58

The figures for Customs and excise duties are exclusive of tire-tax, and for 1927-28 and subsequent years the highways proportion (6d. per gallon) of the motor-spirits tax—two classes of duties collected through the Customs for road-maintenance purposes, and included in total taxation. Figures given under the heading of Customs and excise duties for the last three years include special war taxation.

In the foregoing table the financial year has been taken for purposes of comparison with total taxation, figures concerning which are not available for calendar years. In subsequent tables the Customs-taxation figures relate to the calendar year, which is the statistical year for most trade purposes.

In the two tables which follow, the figures do not include taxes for highway purposes, excise duties, or export duties, and are also exclusive of surtax, primage, and depreciated-currency duties for the years during which these have been in force. The 1941 figures for this and subsequent tables were not available when this section was prepared:—

YearFoods and Non-alcoholic Drinks.Clothing and Textiles.Alcoholic Drinks and Tobacco.All other Articles.Total.
Amount of Duty collected.
 £££££
1911147,456682,7101,286,6011,048,8903,165,657
1916170,009985,3351,390,3221,036,2273,581,893
1921237,8781,297,1211,930,8981,826,3575,292,254
1926389,6861,760,4082,679,0803,102,6237,931,797
1931366,709981,1391,780,3051,360,4244,488,577
1936346,167929,7271,866,2173,733,5056,875,616
1937397,5851,258,9822,061,8754,263,5987,982,040
1938419,7961,131,4832,247,7784,313,5078,112,564
1939321,892789,3922,267,1974,228,5887,607,069
1940279,739448,6591,529,8814,013,1046,271,383
Year.Foods and Non-alcoholic Drinks.Clothing and Textiles.Alcoholic Drinks and Tobacco.All other Articles.Total.
Percentage of Total Duty collected.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
19114·6621·5740·6433·13100·00
19164·7527·5138·8128·93100·00
19214·4924·5136·4934·51100·00
19264·9122·1933·7939·11100·00
19318·1721·8639·6630·31100·00
19365·0413·5227·1454·30100·00
19374·9815·7725·8353·42100·00
19385·1713·9527·7153·17100·00
19394·2310·3829·8055·59100·00
19404·467·1524·4063·99100·00

The Customs and excise duties received during the last five years available are shown in more detail in the next table. Primage duties and surtax are included, but not tire-tax or the highways proportion of petrol-tax, which do not really represent Customs taxation, although levied on imports and for the sake of convenience collected through the Customs:—

1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.
Customs Duties.£££££
Spirits778,670831,395898,0191,021,685817,988
Wine43,17446,31654,99038,14135,928
Beer6,5697,96610,4113,269692
Cigars, cigarettes, and snuff545,901625,439667,155595,306189,831
Tobacco486,311544,608615,895611,402484,464
Tea138,494134,221133,824141,180140,650
Motor-spirits1,416,4681,492,6111,616,5532,322,6522,790,975
Other duties3,460,0294,299,4844,115,7172,873,4341,810,855
Primage326,059303,764287,379288,920394,362
Surtax593,336697,229664,414540,350413,651
Dumping duty  2,113858 
      Totals, Customs duties7,795,0118,983,0339,066,4708,437,1977,079,396
Excise Duties.     
Alcohol used in perfumed spirit, &c.—New Zealand21,58619,02820,21625,63630,270
Cigars, cigarettes, cigarette papers, and snuff — New Zealand manufactured210,467236,229274,083332,456538,318
Tobacco—New Zealand manufactured661,180652,416640,364768,140941,883
Beer—New Zealand805,997938,2561,066,6891,251,7481,606,702
Sugar683,089676,246632,172719,144696,347
      Totals, excise duties2,382,3192,522,1752,633,5243,097,1243,813,520
Revenue per head:—£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.
  From Customs duties4 19 05 13 05 12 105 3 74 6 6
  From excise duties1 10 31 11 91 12 91 18 02 6 7
      Totals6 9 37 4 97 5 77 1 76 13 1

The following table furnishes a general view of the ratio of Customs revenue to merchandise imports at intervals since 1895, which is taken as the base year:—

Year.Merchandise Imports.Revenue (excluding Excise Duties).Percentage of Revenue to Total Imports.Index Numbers of Customs Revenue compared with Imports.
Value.Value per Head.Amount.Actual Rate per Head.Rate per Head at 1895 Ratio.
 ££s.d.££s.d.£s.d.Per Cent. 
18956,115,9538671,619,97024124126·491000
190010,207,326121462,170,354214137421·26803
190512,481,178131342,652,6662181312421·25802
191016,748,223161112,954,989216945217·64666
191520,658,720171963,190,8832156415215·45583
192061,553,8534910117,953,477697135612·92488
192552,425,757371748,287,2885199100715·81597
193044,339,654291407,776,103542717417·54662
193536,317,267234116,353,91141463217·50661
193644,258,886281117,795,0114190781017·61665
193756,160,69535658,983,033513097216·00604
193855,422,189349109,066,4705121092916·36618
193949,387,18330668,437,19753780817·08645
194048,997,669291867,079,396466718714·45545

The figures given in the column “Rate per head at 1895 ratio” indicate the amount of revenue per head of population which would have been obtained had the same ratio of Customs taxation to imports prevailed as in 1895.

Substantial reductions in the scale of duties were responsible for the sharp fall in the percentage of revenue to imports between 1895 and 1920. The percentage rose again after 1920, due partly to heavier taxation and partly to a rise in the proportion of imports from foreign countries. To some extent also the position is affected by a change from the 1st April, 1926, in the system of computation for British preference purposes in the case of articles only partly manufactured in British countries.

FREE AND DUTIABLE IMPORTS.—At the present time almost two-thirds of New Zealand's imports are admitted free of duty.

The figures given in the following table are exclusive of specie, which is admitted free. Imports free of duty include items otherwise dutiable but admitted free for Government use, &c. :—

Year.Value of Merchandise Imports.Percentage of Total.Customs Duty collected.
Free.Dutiable.Total.Free.Dutiable.Amount.Percentage of
Dutiable Imports.Total Imports.
 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.£Per Cent.Per Cent.
193020,255,01924,084,63544,339,65445·6854·327,776,10332·2917·54
193112,306,83914,191,31226,498,15146·4453·565,282,51037·2319·93
193211,634,88313,011,12324,646,00647·2152·795,035,91338·7120·43
193312,424,19813,157,16825,581,36648·5751·434,920,59337·4019·24
193415,019,01716,320,53531,339,55247·9252·085,724,50435·0818·27
193517,358,65218,958,61536,317,26747·8052·206,353,91133·5117·50
193620,615,65423,643,23244,258,88646·5853·427,795,01132·9717·61
193725,862,09130,298,60456,160,69546·0553·958,983,03329·6516·00
193826,981,93228,440,25755,422,18948·6851·329,066,47031·8816·36
193926,157,23323,229,95049,387,18352·9647·048,437,19736·3217·08
194031,913,71517,083,95448,997,66965·1334·877,079,39641·4414·45

The next table gives for 1940 detailed figures arranged according to the statistical classification, for the key to which reference should be made to p. 169. The oils, fats, and waxes class, in which motor-spirits predominates, accounted for 47 per cent. of the total Customs duty (excluding primage) collected in 1940. Next followed alcoholic liquors, 14 per cent.; tobacco, 11 per cent.; apparel, 6 per cent.; and machinery and machines, 5 per cent:—

FREE AND DUTIABLE IMPORTS, 1940.

Class No.Value of Merchandise Imports.Percentage of Total.Customs Duty collected.
Free.Dutiable.Total.Free.Dutiable.Amount.Percentage of
Dutiable Imports.Total Imports.

* Including commodities not included in individual groups.

 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.£Per Cent.Per Cent.
I288174,638174,9260·1699·8421,58912·3612·34
II2,252,0461,571,7863,823,83258·9041·10106,6506·792·79
III141,6731,041,4621,183,13511·9888·02151,50014·5412·80
IV26,777581,094607,8714·4195·59855,586147·24140·75
V24,439673,797698,2363·5196·49674,295100·0896·57
VI36,777 36,777100·00    
VII104,1593,242107,40196·983·0274923·100·70
VIII751,3703,557754,92799·530·4758916·560·08
IXA703,820420,6921,124,51262·5937·4193,94022·338·35
IXB4,306,2702,383,9416,690,21164·3735·63354,71914·885·30
IXC1,225,910305,3981,531,30880·0619·9453,23117·433·48
X1,610,2732,842,3504,452,62336·1663·842,948,564103·7466·22
XI319,581106,712426,29374·9725·0311,32810·622·66
XII134,642747135,38999·450·5510514·060·07
XIVA903,26710,798914,06598·821·181,10610·240·12
XIVB4,654,000882,5325,536,53284·0615·94154,01717·452·78
XV4,009,9101,774,8645,784,77469·3230·68288,97016·285·00
XVIA347,42034,139381,55991·058·958,30424·322·18
XVIB179,947124,431304,37859·1240·8821,50517·287·07
XVIIA183,172113,692296,86461·7038·3019,10816·816·44
XVIIB43,458153,227196,68522·1077·9033,25621·7016·91
XVIII409,900225,572635,47264·5035·5035,73515·845·62
XIXA1,893,508218,7122,112,22089·6510·3533,52015·331·59
XIXB642,798136,142778,94082·5217·4824,48017·983·14
XX1,500263,633265,1330·5799·4350,26619·0718·96
XXI686,457167,124793,58186·5013·5014,18713·241·79
XXIIA1,757,766532,7012,290,46776·7423·26105,20219·754·59
XXIIB584,033 584,033100·00    
XXIIIA305,8492,105,3512,411,20012·6887·32148,9067·076·18
XXIIIB627,050288,911915,96168·4631·5459,97620·766·55
Primage and surtax     808,013  
  Totals*31,913,71517,083,95448,997,66965·1334·877,079,39641·4414·45

RATES OF DUTY.—The following table shows merchandise imports in 1940 according to the nature or rate of duty:—

Nature of Duty.United Kingdom.Other British.Foreign.Totals.

NOTE.—The primage duty of 3 per cent. ad valorem payable on certain otherwise free imports, and the surtax of 9/40 or ½0 of the duty otherwise payable on certain dutiable goods, have been disregarded in the compilation of this table.

 ££££
Free17,179,54710,220,1004,514,06831,913,715
Specific duties1,340,3123,309,0272,935,2677,584,606
Ad valorem duties—    
5 per cent.782,2309,4531,729793,412
10 per cent.205,47859,9251,064,9881,330,391
12½ per cent. 112,281 112,281
15 per cent.226,35564,727459,488750,570
20 per cent.3,000,540633,953868,8204,503,313
25 per cent.210,609149,797803,4901,163,896
30 per cent.10116,94146,207163,158
35 per cent. 35,19320,41055,603
40 per cent.30528,47618,10946,890
45 per cent. 5,379182,235187,614
50 per cent.  221,616221,616
55 per cent. 4,50827,62732,135
60 per cent. 10,99385,86596,858
65 per cent.  41,61141,611
Totals ad valorem4,425,5271,231,6263,842,1959,499,348
Total merchandise imports22,945,38614,760,75311,291,53048,997,669

PREFERENCE AND RECIPROCITY.—Preference to British countries in respect of certain commodities was provided for in the earliest tariff in force in New Zealand— that introduced in 1841. The amended tariff of 1844 involved the dropping of this preference to British goods, but two years later preference was again introduced.

The first definite attempt at reciprocity was made in 1870, when the Colonial Reciprocity Act gave power to the Government to make reciprocal agreements with the Australian States, including Tasmania; but this Act, failed to receive the Royal assent and consequently lapsed.

In 1895, however, the Customs Duties Reciprocity Act received the Royal assent, and ratified an agreement which had boon tentatively proposed with South Australia, besides giving power to the Government to make further agreements with the other Australian States. In 1907 the New Zealand and South African Customs Treaty was negotiated. A tariff agreement with the Australian Commonwealth has been in operation since 1922, and with Canada since 1932.

Imperial preference proper was introduced in New Zealand by the Preferential and Reciprocal Trade Act, 1903, which followed the lead given by Canada. At first only a few items were covered by the extra duties levied upon goods of foreign origin, but the Tariff Act of 1907 extended this additional preferential duty to a great number of items. The effect of the 1921, 1927, 1930, and 1934 tariffs has been to widen the disparity in the duty as between goods of British and of foreign origin. Under the Ottawa agreement, New Zealand undertook to preserve the existing margins of preference on United Kingdom goods when the margin of preference did not exceed 20 per cent., and where the margin exceeded that figure not to reduce it below 20 per cent. without the consent of the Government of the United Kingdom. In the tariff of 1934, where reductions in duty were made under the British Preferential Tariff, the rates of duty under the general (foreign) tariff were, except in a few cases, retained.

The following are the classes of goods which are deemed to be the produce or manufacture of countries, the produce or manufactures of which are entitled to be entered for duty at British preferential rates:—

  1. Goods wholly the produce of such countries:

  2. Goods wholly manufactured in such countries from unmanufactured raw material and/or from one or more of the imported partly manufactured raw materials which are enumerated in the regulations:

  3. Goods partially manufactured in such countries, provided that the final process of manufacture has been performed in such countries, and also that the expenditure in material produced in such countries and/or labour performed within such countries in each and every article is not less than one-half of the factory or works cost of such article in its finished state.

The conditions applying to British countries, the products of which are admissible under the British Preferential Tariff pursuant to agreements made by New Zealand with such countries, may be varied to suit the provisions of such agreements.

Prior to the 1st April, 1926, the minimum mentioned in paragraph (c), which is now one-half, was one-fourth.

In the calculation of the proportion of produce or labour none of the following items is to be included or considered:—

  1. Manufacturer's profit, or the profit or remuneration of any trader, agent, broker, or other person dealing in the article in its finished condition:

  2. Royalties payable in respect of the finished goods:

  3. The cost of outside packages or any cost of packing the goods thereinto:

  4. Administrative and general office expenses:

  5. Any cost of conveying, insuring, or shipping the goods subsequent to their manufacture:

  6. Any other charges incurred subsequent to the completion of the manufacture of the goods.

Tea to be entitled to be entered at British preferential rates must be grown in some part of the British Empire, and the final process of manufacture must also be performed in some British country.

Certain imports from Australia and Canada pay more than corresponding items from other British countries.

The following table shows the extent of the imports which are affected by preference, by giving the percentage of the total imports and of foreign imports so affected.

Year.Value of Merchandise Imports.Imports on which Preferential Surtax payable.Percentage of
Total.Of British Origin.Of Foreign Origin.Total Imports.Foreign Imports.
 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
193044,339,65430,317,84714,021,8076,648,14215·0047·41
193126,498,15118,401,8878,096,2643,097,99511·6938·26
193224,646,00617,510,3177,135,6892,388,1189·6933·47
193325,581,36618,759,0066,822,3602,573,64510·0637·72
193431,339,55223,139,6138,199,9393,778,15512·0646·08
193536,317,26726,603,1609,714,1074,898,06313·4950·42
193644,258,88632,192,61412,066,2726,182,65613·9751·24
193756,160,69541,291,49614,869,1997,959,68014·1753·53
193855,422,18940,771,08514,651,1047,569,17213·0651·66
193949,387,18336,646,13012,741,0535,760,78911·6645·21
194048,997,66937,706,13911,291,5304,488,8559·1639·76

Of foreign goods imported in 1940, 40 per cent. were free of duty, as compared with 58 per cent. in 1921. A further 20 per cent. (7 per cent. in 1921), although dutiable, paid no higher rate than if they had been of British origin. This leaves 40 per cent. (35 per cent. in 1921) with the disadvantage of the higher rate of duty applicable to foreign goods. Of the total imports of British origin in 1940, 73 per cent. were classified as free, as were 75 per cent. of goods of United Kingdom origin.

For the purpose of studying better the scope and effect of the preferential surtax, imports for 1940 are classified in the next table into four groups.

United Kingdom.Other British Countries.Foreign Countries.
 £££
Free in any case6,456,4965,210,4514,514,068
Free when of British origin, but dutiable when of foreign origin10,723,0515,009,6493,248,891
Dutiable, with same rates whether of British or foreign origin507,3951,856,0502,288,607
Dutiable, with a lower rate of duty when of British origin5,258,4442,684,6031,239,964
      Totals22,945,38614,760,75311,291,530

Reciprocity with the Union of South Africa.—As already stated, there was inaugurated in 1907 a reciprocal arrangement with the Union of South Africa whereby products of that country, when imported direct, were admitted into New Zealand at reduced rates of duty, in return for similar concessions granted by South Africa in respect of New Zealand products. This agreement was revised in 1922, the duties on wines being increased and tobacco being deleted from the list. A further alteration, whereby maize and dried apples were deleted from the list, was made in 1925. Dried fruits formerly came under the agreement, being admitted free when the general tariff was 4d. per pound and the British preferential rate 2d. On 1st January, 1934, however, the general tariff was reduced to 2d. and the British rate made free.

The items specially provided for in the agreement are feathers, fish, fresh fruit, dried fruit, tea, and wine; while in the case of all other dutiable goods, with the exception of spirits and tobacco, a reduction of 3 per cent. of the duty payable is made.

The following table shows the merchandise trade with the Union of South Africa during the last eleven years.

Year.Merchandise Imports.Merchandise Exports to Union of South Africa.
From Union of South Africa.Of Union of South Africa Origin.
 £££
193176,20176,7578,052
193284,83284,66712,120
193348,79150,64614,427
193455,17456,09229,152
193554,93655,80127,504
1936117,329119,40521,855
1937128,073131,97029,554
193890,26690,68219,357
193976,57579,54060,095
1940112,478118,14221,699
1941135,625131,21624,339

The imports of merchandise of South African origin during the last five years are classified into four divisions in the following table.

1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
 £££££
Special reduction or remission of duty12,0838,26917,4424,66318,640
Reduction of 3 per cent. in duty69,08559,11250,95593,22385,992
No reduction6,1575,3505,4789,64023,691
Free under general or British preferential tariff44,64517,9515,66510,6162,893
      Totals131,97090,68279,540118,142131,216

Reciprocity with Australia.—A trade agreement between Australia and New Zealand was first entered into on the 11th April, 1922. Under this agreement each country granted to goods of the other the benefits of its British preferential tariff, except with regard to certain classes of goods on which special rates were fixed.

During 1933 a Minister of the Commonwealth Government visited New Zealand to discuss the commercial relations between the two countries. A provisional agreement was reached in April, 1933, and confirmed by the Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act, 1933. The new agreement came into operation from 1st December, 1933.

Under the agreement lower duties than those under the British preferential tariff on New Zealand products entering Australia are provided for on many lines, the chief of which are: Stilton cheese; fresh and frozen fish and fish pastes; dried peas; hay; chaff; fresh, smoked, and preserved meats; onions; lucerne-seed; wine; furs; hats; caps; floor-rugs; various agricultural and dairying implements; whale-oil; casein; sugar of milk; and timber.

The agreement provides that goods which are partially manufactured in Australia or New Zealand shall not be regarded as the produce or manufacture of the Commonwealth or the Dominion, as the case may be, unless the expenditure in material produced in either country and/or labour performed within either country represents not less than one-half of the factory or works cost of the goods in their finished state.

Merchandise trade between New Zealand and Australia during the last eleven years has been as follows:—

Year.Imports from Australia.Imports of Australian Origin.Exports to Australia.
 £££
19312,284,5072,073,3611,167,403
19322,571,0802,368,2931,444,860
19332,807,9212,576,0921,393,311
19343,532,0683,238,1241,882,516
19354,295,4573,957,3981,781,811
19365,220,3994,941,3761,843,475
19376,943,8386,595,6051,824,183
19387,468,9877,159,4282,189,454
19396,738,9886,419,4692,256,007
19408,219,3677,817,6012,159,339
19418,882,2578,022,1512,402,518

Article IX of the agreement provides that where with respect to any goods not specially enumerated in the agreement the rate of duty thereon under the New Zealand British preferential tariff is less than the duty under the Australian British preferential tariff, the New Zealand Government may request the Australian Government to admit into the Commonwealth New-Zealand-produced goods of such class at the rate of duty chargeable on goods of that class under the New Zealand British preferential tariff. If within three calendar months after the receipt of the request the Australian Government does not comply therewith the New Zealand Government may, without further notice, impose on such goods of Australian origin a rate of duty not being greater than the rate of duty for the time being in force in Australia on the like goods under the Australian British preferential tariff. A similar provision is made with respect to the admission of Australian-produced goods into New Zealand.

The rates of duty payable on Australian goods imported into New Zealand and not specifically mentioned in the agreement are automatically affected by changes in the New Zealand British preferential tariff. A modification of the agreement was made in May, 1935, whereunder the duty on certain Australian goods which would otherwise have been reduced or removed from 1st June, 1936, following changes made in the British preferential tariff by the Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1934, remained unaltered.

The duties on many Australian goods have since been increased as from 1st March, 1938, by an Order in Council made on 26th February, 1938.

Reciprocity with Canada.—From October, 1925, reciprocal trade arrangements with respect to certain items of Canada - New Zealand trade were in force, but ceased in May, 1930.

Negotiations between the Canadian and New Zealand Governments bore fruit in a trade agreement which came into force in both countries for a period originally of one year, as from the 24th May, 1932. This agreement has been extended from time to time, and is now to continue in force indefinitely.

Under the present Canadian tariff on New Zealand produce are included, inter alia: Butter, 5 cents per lb.; cheese, 1 cent per lb.; and lamb and mutton, ½ cent per lb.; while sausage-casings, hides and skins, wool, apples, seeds, kauri-gum, and phormium fibre are amongst commodities admitted free.

The rates of duty payable in New Zealand on certain imports from Canada are as under: Salmon, 1¾d. per lb.; silk or artificial silk stockings, 55 per cent.; electric cooking and heating appliances, 30 per cent.; certain agricultural implements, 35 per cent.; timber, 7s. 6d. or 9s. 6d. (rough sawn) and 19s. (sawn and dressed) per 100 sup. ft. The general tariff rate on such timber was increased by 2s. per 100 sup. ft. to afford preference to Canada and other British countries. Canadian goods not mentioned in the agreement enter New Zealand at the ordinary British preferential rates of duty. In some instances where the British preferential rates of duty were reduced by the 1934 tariff the rates on certain Canadian goods mentioned in the agreement were also reduced to the British-preferential level. Special duties are payable on motor-vehicles of Canadian origin, these duties varying according to the Canadian content.

Other Trade Arrangements.—New Zealand is also a party to certain commercial treaties, conventions, or arrangements with countries other than those referred to above. Particulars of the trade agreements with certain European countries are contained in the 1940 and previous issues of the Year-Book, but, owing to the war with Germany and its subsequent effects these agreements are at present inoperative. In certain instances the agreements referred to became applicable to New Zealand automatically as a member of the British Empire, while in others New Zealand has become a party signifying her willingness to adhere to treaties negotiated by the United Kingdom. New Zealand has also in some cases entered into agreements with foreign countries by direct negotiation with those countries, and in others the United Kingdom has acted for New Zealand in making trade agreements on her behalf. In some instances the trade involved is insignificant.

By Order in Council of the 21st February, 1934, the duties and exemptions from duty provided for in the Trade Arrangement (Belgium and New Zealand) Ratification Act, 1933, were applied to similar goods the produce or manufacture of the following countries: Argentina, Brazil, China, Czechoslovakia, Egypt, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Norway, and Spain. Sweden was added to the list of countries by Order in Council of the 7th June, 1935, and Greece by Order in Council of 22nd October, 1936.

Direct trade arrangements were also entered into with the Netherlands and Switzerland.

The Customs (Tariff Preference and General) Regulations, 1936, set out the classes of goods from foreign countries which may be entered at concessional rates of duty applying to any such countries as a result of treaty obligations between New Zealand and such countries, viz:—

  1. Goods wholly the produce of such a country:

  2. Goods wholly manufactured in such a country from unmanufactured raw materials:

  3. Goods partially manufactured in such a country, provided (1) that the final process of manufacture has been performed in that country or in any British country the produce or manufactures of which are entitled to be entered under the British preferential tariff otherwise than pursuant to any agreement or arrangement made between New Zealand and such country; (2) that the expenditure in material the produce of that country, and/or in labour performed in that country, on each and every article is not less than one-half of the factory or works cost of such article in its finished state.

Chapter 10. SECTION 10.—SHIPPING.

Table of Contents

REGISTERED VESSELS.—The number and tonnage of vessels on the New Zealand register at 31st December, 1941, were as follows:—

Port of Registry.Sailing-Vessels.Steam-vessels.Motor-vessels.
Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.
Auckland321,9721,589439,7514,93522016,4577,969
Napier   6657294112,7941,452
Wellington938731046108,16856,7052610,8905,758
Nelson   65,3202,337121,598775
Lyttelton41,7281,654103,6561,352122,4011,195
Timaru   19424881113
Dunedin   1611,3306,005124,2392,329
Invercargill   101,502558727197
    Totals454,0873,553138141,32672,67430138,66119,578

Auckland is the port of registry of the majority of the vessels forming New Zealand's “mosquito” fleet, the average net tonnage of the 295 vessels on the Auckland register being only 49 tons. At Wellington and Dunedin many of the vessels of the Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand are registered, while several are registered in the United Kingdom and Australia. The registration figures for all vessels at the end of each of the last eleven years are as follows:—

Year.Sailing-vessels.Steam-and Motor-vessels.Totals.
Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.
1931656,6855,892465193,264104,047530199,949109,939
1932586,1635,380461208,589111,985519214,752117,365
1933565,5884,809460200,141106,786516205,729111,595
1934555,5354,789441182,90396,570496188,438101,359
1935525,4214,726443174,32691,281495179,74796,007
1936535,4234,701430183,00596,405483188,428101,106
1937515,2324,587431181,29394,955482186,52599,542
1938474,8924,283445172,75489,309492177,64693,592
1939484,9074,288456187,37996,831504192,286101,119
1940474,1343,592449185,77695,197496189,91098,789
1941454,0873,553439179,98792,252484184,07495,805

In the next table registered vessels in the Dominion have been classified according to whether employed in the coastal or the foreign trade. The totals given therein do not agree with those shown above, as vessels employed exclusively within “restricted limits” have not been included.

The number of vessels coming within the following category has fallen from 239 to 165 during the last ten years (a decrease of 31 per cent.), while the total net tonnage has declined by 28 per cent. The principal decrease has taken place in the number of vessels on the register which were engaged in the foreign trade only. Of the 239 vessels in 1931, 19 were sailing-ships; but these are now out of commission.

Size of Vessel.Employed in the Coastal Trade only.Employed partly in the Coastal and partly in the Foreign Trade.Employed in the Foreign Trade only.
Number of Vessels.Net Tonnage.Number of Vessels.Net Tonnage.Number of Vessels.Net Tonnage.
Under 50 tons541,080    
50 and under 100 tons302,216    
100 and under 200 tons202,69423212292
200 and under 300 tons51,2891286  
300 and under 400 tons93,1791368  
400 and under 600 tons2952  1586
600 and under 800 tons53,610  21,492
800 and under 1,000 tons32,558  1944
1,000 and under 1,500 tons44,86033,59545,285
1,500 and under 2,000 tons44,83211,79859,163
2,000 tons and over  12,629519,084
      Totals13629,27098,9972036,846

OVERSEAS SHIPPING.—Throughout the remainder of this section all tonnage figures relate to net tonnage.

The tonnage of vessels entered and cleared during 1941 amounted to 4,632,933, as compared with 5,625,852 for 1940. The number of vessels fell from 1,192 to 1,019.

Of late years the tendency has been for vessels of a larger size to be employed in the New Zealand trade, in order to cope with the growing imports and exports of the Dominion and for the purposes of the passenger traffic. Any change over a period of years is thus more noticeable in a comparison of tonnage than by comparing the number of vessels.

Nationality of Vessels.—Considering only vessels entered inwards, those registered in British countries represented, in 1941, 68 per cent. of the number and GO per cent. of the total tonnage, while foreign vessels accounted for 32 per cent. of the number and 40 per cent. of the tonnage. The average tonnage of British vessels was 4,054 and of foreign vessels 5,604. Separate figures for vessels registered in the United Kingdom are not available after 1939, but in that year they represented 43 per cent. of all overseas vessels entering New Zealand ports, and on a tonnage basis 51 per cent., while the average tonnage was 5,551.

Year.United Kingdom.Other British Countries.Foreign Countries.Total.
Vessels.Tons.Vessels.Tons.Vessels.Tons.Vessels.Tons.

* Included with United Kingdom.

Entered.
19372551,453,490262813,595117695,7956342,962,880
19382751,557,731270825,116115701,8586603,084,705
19392701,498,871267825,48097640,5866342,964,937
19404582,036,926**133764,7595912,801,685
19413451,398,714**165924,7505102,323,464
Cleared.
19372471,418,942256810,181117696,6756202,925,798
19382751,561,109267843,088114697,8606563,102,057
19392781,509,768266832,628105677,2636493,019,059
19404692,061,034**132763,1336012,824,167
19413501,409,469**159900,0005092,309,469

Direction of Overseas Shipping.—Particulars of the number and net tonnage of vessels entered and cleared between New Zealand and various countries during 1940 and 1941 are not available, but details for the years 1938 and 1939 are given below.

Country.1938.1939.
Entered.Cleared.Entered.Cleared.
No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.
United Kingdom89604,088121784,683100674,994110733,257
India316,380210,919316,380419,612
Malaya415,66539,174729,724  
Canada43234,51714125,03638197,90822144,731
Australia3081,358,6303331,412,5192821,205,2253361,370,750
Fiji1529,1701432,048510,229820,943
Nauru Island1959,3622062,0571752,1361545,717
Gilbert and Ellice Islands1339,6421133,2532267,2261852,339
Western Samoa1411,914129,0482235,1881824,797
Belgium823,287  514,80013,047
Bahrein Island422,493210,355630,417314,091
French Indo-China1027,431924,3731129,7491335,893
Japan1544,0581441,1621031,4881237,454
Netherlands East Indies42204,31329143,54742201,85730144,934
United States of America48317,41248340,85038283,09234289,214
New Caledonia47,429817,69934,43639,294
Other countries2168,9141645,3342380,0882273,586
      Totals6603,084,7056563,102,0576342,964,9376493,019,659

Forty-six per cent. of the vessels and 42 per cent. of the total tonnage inwards during the two years covered by the foregoing table came from Australia, while a somewhat higher proportion of the shipping outwards was cleared for Australia. The United Kingdom ranks second with 21 per cent. of the total tonnage inwards, the United States third with 10 per cent., Canada fourth with 7·1 per cent., and the Netherlands East Indies next with 6·7 per cent.

Shipping between New Zealand and certain principal countries for each of the last five years available has been as follows:—

Year.Australia.United Kingdom.United States.Canada.Netherlands East Indies.Pacific Islands.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Entered.
1935992,258571,335397,737250,553106,478114,947
19361,155,082565,764414,554251,996140,908130,020
19371,222,157606,596373,132238,316168,565156,702
19381,358,630604,088317,412234,517204,313160,968
19391,205,225674,994283,092197,908201,857175,694
Cleared.
19351,102,314694,438445,020144,21454,880106,313
19361,135,831745,618404,314199,27677,126164,034
19371,319,092738,309292,488144,584123,210166,021
19381,412,519784,683340,850125,036143,547178,228
19391,370,750733,257289,214144,731144,934175,951

SHIPPING TRADE OF PORTS.—New Zealand has twenty-one ports of entry for Customs purposes and there are numerous other ports around the coast. A vessel arriving from overseas may call at several ports in the Dominion to discharge and load cargo, and is recorded as an overseas arrival at the first port of call, and as an overseas departure from the port from which it finally sails. Its movements from one port to another in New Zealand are treated as coastwise shipping. The figures in the following table, which contains particulars for the last three years available, must simply be taken as showing the extent to which various ports are made the first port of arrival or the last port of departure, and not as indicating the relative overseas trade of the various ports.

OVERSEAS SHIPPING, BY PORTS OF FIRST ARRIVAL AND FINAL DEPARTURE.

Port.Entered.Cleared.
1937.1938.1939.1937.1938.1939.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Auckland1,863,4421,875,7971,871,7651,309,8521,418,6181,440,092
Gisborne5,1405,233738 10,2486,021
Napier12,44311,47430,54655,30070,83359,631
New Plymouth70,58893,438107,63236,94636,17738,115
Wanganui18,3355,00011,29237,25834,48045,956
Wellington682,343708,937675,341816,427863,082784,309
Picton8,5889,35213,9611,8922,2513,687
Nelson1,15411,346 3,3396,79216,700
Westport4,36311,28390474,33760,17964,238
Greymouth1661,18764422,22725,95127,002
Lyttelton105,896130,419105,211178,700148,448170,138
Timaru10,67811,3912,028 5,6165,777
Oamaru9,99320,40611,3101,86414,2525,000
Dunedin59,78338,29519,291286,459290,675259,860
Bluff109,968151,147114,274107,197114,45593,133
      Totals2,962,8803,084,7052,964,9372,925,7983,102,0573,019,659

The movement of overseas and coastal vessels on the New Zealand coast is well illustrated in the following table, which gives the aggregate number and tonnage of the total calls made during each of the last eleven years.

Year.Overseas Vessels.Coastal Vessels.Total.
Number.Net Tonnage.Number.Net Tonnage.Number.Net Tonnage.
19312,4128,357,86517,5734,658,13619,98513,016,001
19322,1837,940,90417,4235,025,74219,60612,966,646
19332,1968,531,20717,9815,247,37320,17713,778,580
19342,3088,679,62718,5465,223,90920,85413,903,536
19352,5689,105,55318,2814,947,11720,84914,052,670
19362,5199,952,12418,3144,859,50220,83314,811,626
19372,4169,994,64418,3865,155,39220,80215,150,036
19382,44910,069,10617,9254,910,76120,37414,979,867
19392,4909,766,22417,3654,756,02719,85514,522,251
19402,0827,826,04316,2614,583,52818,34312,409,571
19411,6175,018,64815,0174,342,04716,6349,360,695

Overseas vessels show a substantial recovery from the low level of the depression years, the tonnage showing a steady increase since 1932 and reaching its peak in 1938, followed by a very marked decline in 1940 and 1941 owing to war conditions. The number of visits made by vessels engaged exclusively in the coastal trade reached its peak in 1924, then steadily declined up to and including 1932. A general improvement was recorded during the next five years, but since 1937 there has been a marked fall. Except for a continuous decline since 1937, the aggregate tonnage has not shown so marked a movement, the figures indicating a tendency to employ a larger type of vessel in this class of trade.

MARINE OFFICERS' CERTIFICATES.—The examinations for masters, mates, engineers, &c., of vessels are controlled by the Marine Department, and the regulations relating to these examinations are based upon those of the Imperial Board of Trade, with such modifications as are necessitated by local conditions; but the British Board of Trade recognizes only the following New Zealand certificates as of Imperial validity: Master, extra; master, first mate, and second mate; first- and second-class steam engineers; and first- and second-class motor engineers. It is a condition of such recognition that candidates must possess service qualifications and pass examinations similar and not inferior to those prescribed by the British Board of Trade.

New regulations for the examination of marine engineers were issued by the Board of Trade in the year 1938, and corresponding regulations were made in this Dominion and came into force on the 1st October, 1939. These regulations provide for the issue of combined steam and motor engineers' certificates (Imperial validity). Provision is also made whereby candidates for first- and second-class examinations (Imperial validity) may take the examinations in two parts. Amendments to the rules for the examination of masters and mates were brought into force on 11th October, 1940.

During 1941–42 284 examinations were held. Of the 192 who passed, 51 obtained certificates (Imperial validity) as masters, mates, and engineers of foreign-going steam- or motor-ships; 13 obtained certificates as masters and mates of home-trade vessels; 24 as third-class engineers of steamships; 9 as masters and engineers of steamships plying within restricted limits; 12 as engineers of coastal motor-vessels; and 61 as engineers of vessels propelled by mechanical power other than steam plying within restricted limits; 2 passed for the fore and aft endorsement; 18 for master of a pleasure yacht in New Zealand waters; 1 for license as New Zealand pilot; and 1 for master of a foreign-going pleasure yacht.

SURVEY OF SHIPS.—The Shipping and Seamen Act of 1908, and its amendments, provide for an annual survey by Government surveyors of all vessels, with a view to ensuring their seaworthiness. Certificates of survey were issued in 1941–12 to 142 seagoing steam- or motor-ships, 307 restricted-limits steam- or motor-ships, and 1 seagoing sailing ship. Vessels to the number of 257 wore also surveyed for seaworthiness and efficiency under section 226 of the 1908 Act.

LIGHTHOUSES.—Along the New Zealand coast there are fifty-one lighthouses of various types. In twenty-four cases the lights are watched lights and the apparatus is classed as of the dioptric order—i.e., a central lamp sending its rays through a combination of surrounding lenses—while the remainder of the coastal lighthouses are automatic lights. The buildings housing the lights are of varying kinds, as necessitated by their respective situations.

Fog-signals of the diaphone type are established at Pencarrow Head, Godley Head, Taiaroa Head, and Tiritiri Island; while radio beacons have been established at Baring Head, Stephen's Island, Cape Campbell, Cape Reinga, Tiritiri Island, Portland Island, Cuvier Island, and Mokohinau.

The most powerful light is that of Stephen's Island, which, placed some 600 ft. above high water, is visible at a distance of 32½ nautical miles. Next in order come Cape Brett (altitude 510 ft.) and East Cape (505 ft.), both visible at 30½ miles; Godley Head (altitude 450 ft.), visibility 29 miles; Cuvier Island (altitude 390 ft.) and Mokohinau (altitude 385 ft.), both of which have a visibility of 27 miles. Sixteen other lights have a range of 20 miles or over.

All manually-attended coastal lighthouses are equipped with signalling flags and lamps, the keepers being competent to transmit or receive messages. Coastal lights —i.e., those outside the bounds of the various harbour authorities—are maintained by the Marine Department.

The average cost of erection and equipment of the main coastal lighthouses was about £6,000 per light. The two most costly were Cape Brett Lighthouse (£11,237) on the Auckland Peninsula, and Dog Island Lighthouse (£10,481) in Foveaux Strait. The expenditure on all lighthouses under the control of the Marine Department was for 1941–42—Salaries and wages, £19,120; stores and general maintenance, £15,436; radio-beacons, improvements, &c., £9,857; working-expenses of tender, £1,495; administration expenses, £9,786; interest and sinking-fund charges, £13,401; depreciation, £16,452: total, £85,547. Light dues for 1941–42 totalled £67,993.

WRECKS.—In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in New Zealand waters a Collector of Customs, Superintendent of Mercantile Marine, or other person empowered by the Minister of Marine, institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a Magistrate, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer from whose wrongful act or default damage has resulted.

Should any wreck occur on the coast, the Receiver of Wrecks for that district, usually an officer of the Customs, has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and property.

During the year 1941–42 fifty-five inquiries, two of which were Magisterial, were held into shipping casualties, the number of vessels involved being sixty. There were no total losses during the year, and no lives were lost. Two of the casualties were classified as serious. A summary of the casualties is given.

Strandings—No.Tonnage.
  Total loss  
  Damaged72,177
  Undamaged55,817
Collisions—  
  Total loss  
  Damaged1315,496
  Undamaged4137
Fires—No.Tonnage.
  Total loss  
  Damaged48,620
  Undamaged11,798
Miscellaneous2616,516
    Total casualties6050,561

Chapter 11. SECTION 11.—RAILWAYS.

Table of Contents

RAILWAY history in New Zealand dates from the year 1860. In that year a contract was let for the construction of a line from Christchurch to Lyttelton, and the first portion of this line was opened on the 1st December, 1863. A line from Invercargill to Bluff Harbour was opened on the 5th February, 1867. The Provincial Council of Auckland in 1863 began the construction of a line from Auckland to Drury.

Although nearly all the railways are now State-owned, some were built by private enterprise. Of these the more important were constructed by the Midland and the Wellington-Manawatu Railway Companies.

In the year 1876 the railways of New Zealand passed from the control of the Provincial Governments to the Public Works Department. A few years later the opened lines were handed over to the Working Railways Department, and in 1889 a Board of three Railways Commissioners was appointed. This form of management, however, lasted for only five years, at the end of which period a General Manager, responsible to the Minister of Railways, took over the administration, and this system continued for nearly thirty years. In 1925 the system of railway management was reorganized under the control of a Railways Board of three members, but in 1928 the system of control by a General Manager was-again reverted to. Three years later legislation was passed constituting the Government Railways Board of five members. This form of management was in operation from 1st June, 1931, to 31st March, 1936, after which date the system of control by a General Manager, responsible to the Minister of Railways, was again-introduced.

The development of automatic and electric-power signalling has been greatly extended since its introduction on the New Zealand Railways some years ago. At the present time automatic signalling is in use on 120 miles 12 chains of double line and 360 miles 29 chains of single line, with further extensions under construction. In addition to automatic signalling, power signalling for the operation of yards has largely superseded the older form of mechanical signalling.

The use of electric power on the New Zealand Railways is increasing to a great extent for many purposes, and there are now twenty-five railway substations, with a total capacity of 19,740 kVA. The Christchurch-Lyttelton section of railway, including the Lyttelton Tunnel, was electrified in 1928–29; the Otira - Arthur Pass section, including the Otira Tunnel, in 1923; the Wellington-Johnsonville section in 1938; and the Wellington-Paekakariki section in 1940.

The Railways Department owns and operates its own telephone and telegraph communication system, and over all the main lines the running of the trains is controlled from the District Traffic Managers' offices by means of selective telephone equipment. For general communication, the use of automatic telephone exchanges, two- and three-channel carrier current telephony, and voice-frequency repeaters on the longest lines, give a high-grade service between all stations. Selective inter-calling equipment and teleprinters are in use, and communication equipment is being developed by the use of modern appliances.

MILEAGE OF STATE RAILWAYS.—At the 31st March, 1942, there were 3,390 miles of State railways open for traffic, divided into six distinct sections, as follows:—

Section.Length (Miles).
North Island main line and branches1,585
Gisborne49
    Total, North Island1,634
South Island main line and branches1,604
Westport36
Nelson60
Picton56
    Total, South Island1,756

Government railways are constructed by the Public Works Department, and are transferred to the Railways Department when completed.

The gauge is 3 ft. 6 in., and a steel rail 85 lb. weight per lineal yard has recently been adopted as the standard for the permanent-way. One hundred and ten miles of this weight have been laid. The previous standard was a 70 lb. rail, and this weight is in use on 1,934 miles of line. In both these instances the mileage given includes miles of double track. The remaining mileage is in 53 lb., 55 lb., 56 lb., and 100 lb. steel rails. Sleepers, which are laid down to the number of 2,500 to the mile, are principally of Australian hardwood and New Zealand silver-pine or totara.

COST OF CONSTRUCTION.—The capital cost of State railways as at the end of each of the last five financial years is given below.

31st March, 1938.31st March, 1939.31st March, 1940.31st March, 1941.31st March, 1942.

* Equal to £18,409 per mile of open line.

Open for traffic—£££££
  Railway54,205,49656,413,30460,697,81862,301,14762,407,901*
  Lake Wakatipu steamer service17,64519,46620,39620,39620,396
  Subsidiary services1,832,1502,233,9422,331,0782,431,3552,465,827
  General9,8969,8969,8969,8969,896
      Total56,065,18758,676,60863,059,18864,762,79464,904,020
Lines under construction7,124,0738,399,3008,028,2678,286,1648,819,203
      Grand total63,189,26067,075,90871,087,45573,048,96873,723,223

So varied are the geographical features of the Dominion that a great disparity exists in the cost of constructing the individual sections of lines. The numerous mountain-chains and the innumerable rivers make railway-construction in general both difficult and expensive.

ROLLING-STOCK.—Information as to the rolling-stock in use on the State railways in 1941–42 is given in the following table.

Locomotives— 
  Tender439
  Tank180
  Electric21
  Battery5
      Total645
Passenger- vehicles— 
  Sleepers13
  Combination day-sleepers16
  First-class214
  Second-class1,034
  Composite240
  Rail cars21
  Multiple units12
  Postal9
  Ambulance7
      Total1,566
Wagons— 
  Horse-boxes273
  Cattle852
  Sheep3,447
  Frozen and chilled meat1,105
  Cool-storage1,074
  Covered goods867
  High-side16,999
  High-side bogie372
  Low-side1,688
  Brake-vans494
  Other4,561
      Total31,732

All carriages and wagons required for use on the State railways have, since 1901, been constructed in the railway workshops of the Dominion, with the exception of 2,500 four-wheeled wagons imported from England in 1921–22. Locomotives also are built in the railway workshops of the Dominion.

The weights of the locally-built tender-engines in working trim vary from 66 to 143 tons, while those of the tank-engines range from 29½ to 72 tons.

The following engines of more recent construction deal with the bulk of the traffic.

Class.Type.Traffic.Weight.Tractive Force.
   Tons.lb.
An4-6-2 superheated; simple, with tenderMixed8520,000
A4-6-2 superheated and saturated; compound, with tenderMixed7817,000
G4-6-2 superheated; simple, with tenderMixed9825,800
J4-8-2 superheated; simple, with tenderMixed10924,920
K4-8-4 superheated; simple, with tenderMixed13530,815
KA4-8-4 superheated; simple, with tenderMixed14230,815
KB4-8-4 superheated; simple, with tender (fitted with booster)Mixed14336,815
X4-8-2 superheated and saturated; compound, with tenderGoods9426,620
WAB4-6-4 superheated; simple tank engineMixed7122,250
C2-6-2 superheated; simple, with tenderShunting6615,300

Standard carriages are 56 ft. in length, fitted with chair seats to accommodate twenty-nine to fifty-six passengers, steam-heated, and lighted by electricity. Some 761 carriages were equipped with electric light at 31st March, 1942. Locomotives to the number of 627 are fitted with electric head-lights. The Westing-house brake is fitted to all rolling-stock with the exception of that on the Picton, Nelson, and Westport sections.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.—The total revenue from and expenditure on the railways (including subsidiary services) during each of the years 1931–32 to 1941–42 were as follows:—

Year ended 31st March,Gross Revenue.Expenditure.Net Revenue.Net Revenue per £100 of Capital Cost.
 ££££s.d.
19326,508,9485,670,955837,9931128
19336,034,4035,183,859850,5441130
19346,332,7115,247,1531,085,558210
19356,627,9285,540,4371,087,491203
19367,004,3165,952,8391,051,47711810
19377,790,6516,886,793903,8581130
19388,634,1868,001,389632,797130
19399,345,3878,644,324701,063147
194010,199,0709,010,0391,189,0311193
194111,160,2189,465,5741,694,64421210
194211,938,33810,056,0341,882,3042180

Interest on railway capital liability for 1941–42 amounted to £2,756,146, a deficit of £873,842 thus being recorded for the year, as compared with a deficit of £1,051,900 for the preceding year. A sum of £1,102,899 was set aside for depreciation and renewals, and this amount is included in the total of expenditure for the year.

The revenue and expenditure for the last five years, distinguishing between railway operating and other items, are given in the following table.

Year ended 31st March,Revenue.Expenditure.Net Operating Revenue.
Railway Operating.Subsidiary Services.Railway Operating.Subsidiary Services.
 £££££
19387,591,8251,042,3617,291,785709,604300,040
19398,005,0591,340,3287,663,632980,692341,427
19408,761,6371,437,4337,943,1201,066,919813,517
19419,694,1901,466,0288,406,7901,058,7841,287,400
194210,383,8801,554,4588,902,5921,153,4421,481,288

The various subsidiary services now conducted by the Railways Department, with the revenue and expenditure of each during the last two years, are shown below. Full working-costs, including interest, are charged against these services, and the interest so charged is taken into miscellaneous receipts as revenue.

Service.Revenue.Expenditure.
1940–41.1041–42.1940–41.1941–42.
 ££££
Lake Wakatipu steamers7,1097,15310,89811,351
Refreshment service221,424251,043208,208228,277
Bookstall service123,680140,864117,074132,160
Advertising service31,20927,74228,24524,914
Departmental dwellings145,178147,389195,165220,404
Leases of bookstalls, &c.35,73238,53327,73627,913
Road services—Passengers and goods503,304551,153471,458508,423
Miscellaneous receipts398,392390,581  
      Totals1,400,0281,564,4581,058,7841,153,442

Revenue.—In the following table the railway operating revenue during 1941–42 and each of the preceding ten years is classified according to the class of traffic, &c., from which it was derived.

Year ended 31st March,Passenger-fares.Parcels, Luggage, and Mails.Goods and Live-stock.Labour, Demurrage, &c.Totals.
 £££££
19321,339,589310,2454,019,600113,5315,788,965
19331,207,296283,8223,745,777102,1805,339,075
19341,336,334281,8893,911,24599,3675,628,835
19351,368,089292,0974,138,434108,8445,908,064
19361,466,617299,9644,359,750117,1886,243,519
19371,611,305305,5264,846,417140,3566,903,604
19381,698,021318,4575,411,297164,0507,591,825
19391,785,646334,1705,694,936190,3078,005,059
19402,119,335330,0246,109,293202,9858,761,637
19412,345,718317,8196,818,603212,0509,694,190
19422,658,778325,8977,174,060225,14510,383,880

Revenue from the carriage of goods and live-stock had been steadily increasing up to 1929–30, but from then until 1932–33 successive declines were recorded, due mainly to the economic depression and to motor competition. Since 1932–33, however, revenue from this source has improved to such an extent that the amount for 1941–42 was £2,269,736 (46 per cent.), above the 1929–30 figure. During the period 1926–33, there was a rapid falling-off in the amount of revenue from passenger traffic, mainly due in the earlier years to intensive motor competition and later to the depression. This period was followed by a definite upward trend, due to the improvement in economic conditions. The restrictions placed on the use of motor-spirits since the outbreak of war in September, 1939, have resulted in the diversion of a considerable volume of traffic from road to rail, and this factor, together with the movements of the armed forces, was chiefly responsible for the greater increases recorded during the years 1939–40, 1940–41, and 1941–42.

The revenue from passenger-fares during the year 1941–42 represented an expenditure on railway travel of £1 12s. 7d. per head of mean population, including Maoris. The total railway operating revenue was equal to £6 7s. 4d. per head.

Expenditure.—The total railway expenditure in 1941–42 represented 84·23 per cent. of the gross earnings, and the operating-expenses 85·73 per cent. of operating revenue. It is of interest to trace the movement over a series of years, as in the following statement. The figures commencing with 1926 relate to operating revenue and expenditure, while those for previous years show the proportion of total expenditure to gross earnings.

Year ended 31st March,Per Cent.
192293·89
192381·79
192477·37
192577·97
192681·23
192782·96
192883·81
192984·71
193091·62
193194·47
193291·56
193390·54
193486·65
193586·98
193688·46
193791·81
193896·05
193995·73
194090·66
194186·72
194285·73

The operating expenditure under various heads is now given for 1941–42 and each of the previous ten years.

Year ended 31st March,Maintenance of Ways and Works.Maintenance of Signals.Maintenance of Rolling-stock.Locomotive Transportation.Traffic Transportation.Heed Office and General Charges.*Totals.

* Including superannuation subsidy.

 £££££££
1932997,629107,5851,270,5851,254,7691,424,520246,5655,301,653
1933931,273105,5861,188,4741,114,8011,255,280238,3404,833,754
1934993,207110,2981,220,1021,064,8271,253,833234,8794,877,146
19351,047,825137,4771,236,3241,127,1601,360,928228,8745,138,588
19361,070,085147,4421,406,6851,201,6361,465,052232,2935,523,193
19371,171,963154,1081,565,0831,412,1771,797,058237,9966,338,385
19381,278,980178,8921,792,5621,703,1102,090,471247,7707,291,785
19391,375,829186,5461,832,6151,812,8572,208,310247,4757,663,632
19401,468,268197,9491,896,3661,891,2622,250,905238,3707,943,120
19411,544,202213,6232,043,9762,043,9962,322,492238,5018,406,790
19421,615,382238,1692,211,4762,113,9182,479,852243,7958,902,592

PASSENGERS AND GOODS.—In addition to the traffic figures shown in the following table for 1941–42, 9,022,526 passengers were carried by the Railways Department's road services:, and 6,885 passengers and 7,739 tons of goods on the Lake Wakatipu steamer service. Passenger train-miles run during the year totalled 5,982,389, and the passenger revenue received represents 106·66d. per train-mile and £784 per mile of line operated.

Year ended 31st March,length open (Miles).Train-mileage.Passengers.Season Tickets issued.Goods and Live-stock.*
Including Season-ticket Holders.Excluding Season-ticket Holders.

* Live-stock converted to equivalent tonnage.

      Tons.
19323,31510,168,72019,151,480.6,503,566459,0635,824,811
19333,3159,828,85318,366,6546,870,570437,7755,490,686
19343,32010,163,47419,047,1867,511,346442,7425,642,199
19353,32010,626,40019,654,4677,809,035457,5466,023,960
19363,32011,050,37620,358,5247,963,824482,1466,188,805
19373,32011,868,08321,235,4288,284,956513,0636,813,240
19383,32312,777,85222,441,2128,069,018750,4977,516,049
19393,31913,072,61523,265,7687,813,436888,8447,539,012
19403,39013,366,79824,454,0148,283,067972,7697,673,950
19413,39013,559,64626,276,9239,440,0871,055,7428,426,182
19423,39013,978,96128,610,94511,105,6271,167,1158,473,765

Live-stock carried in 1941–42 comprised 617,075 cattle, 602,533 calves, 11,665,287 sheep, and 673,281 pigs, equivalent to a tonnage of 739,115.

Detailed figures showing the number of rail passengers carried during the last five years are given in the following table.

1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
Ordinary and holiday excursion3,431,1683,429,3653,627,7633,962,3504,886,284
Suburban1,933,5351,758,5761,828,6971,868,1242,056,743
Other reduced fares2,704,3152,625,4952,826,6073,609,6134,162,600
      Totals8,069,0187,813,4368,283,0679,440,08711,105,627
Season tickets issued—     
  Suburban twelve-trip245,342291,715319,715353,103371,421
  Workers' weekly93,05374,13274,75675,79773,716
  Weekly twelve-trip69,39158,51255,37766,67470,436
  Bearer twelve-trip62,96956,64947,75652,45660,095
  Bearer six-trip208,019326,289389,573422,050507,551
  School25,31825,07825,40324,19823,338
  Tourist327251174190154
  Travellers' annual312289264254285
  Other45,76655,92959,75161,02060,119
    Totals750,497888,844972,7691,055,7421,167,115

The following table gives interesting information as to the constitution of the goods traffic for the year 1941–42. The figures are exclusive of steamer traffic on Lake Wakatipu.

Commodity.Tonnage carried.Per Cent. of Total.Tons One Mile (,000 omitted).Average Haul.Revenue.Revenue per Ton-mile.
    Miles.£d.
Grain231,5402·7312,91556131,4312·44
Grain products119,8531·417,5506378,3312·49
Fruit and vegetables86,2071·0217,131199142,7671·97
Root crops, fodder120,1931·4211,1819392,3391·98
Flax, hemp, and tow5,7430·076731176,9612·48
Seeds25,3700·301,5416122,1903·46
Cattle and horses238,8362·8220,44686273,6603·21
Sheep and pigs500,2795·9039,56979537,1583·26
Meat306,0063·6116,52654343,9014·99
Butter108,8451·2812,092111152,5703·03
Cheese133,8881·589,06168147,2753·90
Wool188,3482·2211,60962224,8094·65
Dairy by-products31,5740·382,4927935,8263·45
Fat, hides, skins67,9930·804,1996286,5604·95
Fish11,7700·142,13318119,9152·24
Agricultural lime585,1426·9035,45861221,6041·50
Coal, imported6,1120·07107181,9704·42
Coal, New Zealand hard989,88111·6844,22045368,5162·00
Coal, New Zealand brown1,089,95012·87130,868120775,4551·42
Road-metal29,3200·351,2134111,6452·30
Lime and coke65,6460·774,7397239,1801·98
Timber, imported11,9400·345324510,4194·70
Timber, New Zealand569,1156·7264,604114578,547215
Firewood, posts, &c.72,0070·856,7679440,1461·42
Benzine, gasoline, kerosene195,8302·3116,08882329,6374·92
Cement85,9761·0211,276131108,4222·31
Manures791,7569·3456,90472442,2941·87
Miscellaneous1,804,64521·30146,815812,071,1243·39
    Totals8,473,765100·00688,709817,294,6522·54

The total number of freight train-miles run during the year 1941–42 in carrying the above tonnage was 7,996,572. The revenue received represents averages of 18s. 3d. per train-mile, 17s. 3d. per ton, and 2·54d. per ton-mile.

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES.—The average number of persons employed by the State railways throughout the year ended 31st March, 1942, was 23,352. The staff is divided into two divisions—namely, the first or clerical division, and the second or out-of-door division—and is further classed in five branches, as shown in the following table.

Year ended 31st March,General.Traffic.Maintenance.Locomotive Running.Workshops.Total.

* Included with Locomotive Running.

19382,2606,3084,4268,960*21,954
19392,5856,7824,8173,2886,87024,342
19402,7116,9455,3753,3237,35625,710
19412,7006,8505,4393,2466,26724,502
19422,7456,8994,9323,1965,58023,352

A system of classification, first introduced in 1896, and revised at various times since, applies to Railway employees. An Appeal Board is constituted to hear grievances of members dissatisfied with decisions in regard to promotion, loss of status, or breaches of discipline. The Board consists of a Magistrate and two members of the Railways service, one appointed by the Minister of Railways, and the other elected by the members of the Department. A superannuation fund in connection with the Railways service was established in 1903. Information concerning this is given in the section dealing with “Social Security, Pensions, Superannuation, &c.” A sick-benefit fund, providing for the payment of weekly allowances for periods up to seventy-eight weeks to employees other than salaried staff who are incapacitated by sickness, was instituted in 1929. The fund is subsidized by the Department at the rate of £8,000 per annum, and at 31st March, 1942, accumulated reserves amounted to £31,633.

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS.—With the exception of the Ongarue accident in 1923 (when seventeen passengers were killed and twenty-nine more or less severely injured, through a falling boulder derailing the engine), the history of railways in New Zealand has been one of comparative freedom from accidents of a serious nature. A table is given dealing with railway accidents during each of the last five years.

Year ended 31st March,To Passengers.To Employees.To Others.Fatal.Other.Total.
1938962,211129502,3862,436
1939502,776143482,9212,969
1940512,80588402,9042,944
1941472,256118392,3822,421
1942372,291107372,3982,435

Of the 37 persons meeting with fatal accidents in 1941–42, 6 were passengers and 11 were employees. Of the remainder, who were neither passengers nor employees, 14 were killed at railway-crossings, and 6 in accidents on the line.

Included in the total accidents (2,435) were 21 train accidents, 39 accidents on line, 131 shunting accidents, 47 railway-crossing accidents, and 594 accidents in railway workshops, while miscellaneous accidents totalled 1,603—mainly minor injuries to employees.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS.—Private railways in New Zealand, which are mainly restricted to lines whose chief object is to servo collieries or sawmills, may be roughly divided into two classes: (a) those used solely for the transport of goods belonging to the owners of the line, and (b) those open for the transport of passengers or goods. No information is available concerning the mileage of the former class, but the aggregate length of the latter (main lines only) is approximately 180 miles.

Chapter 12. SECTION 12.—TRAMWAYS.

Table of Contents

SYSTEMS AND OWNERSHIP.—Subject to two exceptions, electric-tramway services in New Zealand have been controlled since their inception by local authorities, the exceptions being—(1) Auckland, where a public company operated from 1902 until 1st July, 1919, when the system was taken over by the Auckland City Council; and (2) Dunedin, where a section of the system was until 1921 operated by a private company. Five of the seven electric-tramway systems operating at the present time are controlled by the Council of the city or borough concerned. At Christchurch the Christchurch Tramway Board, and at Auckland the Auckland Transport Board, are the controlling authorities.

The local authorities derive their powers for controlling tramways from the Tramways Act, 1908. There are also special Acts empowering the construction, &c., of tramways in certain places.

System.Year of Inauguration.Length of Track as at 31st March, 1942.Approximate Population in Area served, April, 1941.
Thoroughfare.Single Line (including Loops).
  M. ch.M. ch. 
Auckland190244 6087 40182,000
New Plymouth19166 247 3018,000
Wanganui190814 2416 6423,000
Wellington190430 3454 46121,000
Christchurch190543 5756 11115,000
Dunedin190316 5228 7673,000
Invercargill19127 409 4024,000

Passenger rolling-stock at 31st March, 1942, comprised 755 cars with a capacity of 32,178 passengers, including 15 trackless trams with a capacity of 562 passengers. The total route mileage was 164 miles, and track mileage (including loops) 261 miles. In addition to the passenger rolling-stock there were 1 water-sprinkler and 1 freight car.

REVIEW OF OPERATIONS.—Summarized statistics of tramway operations during the last five years are given in the following table.

Year ended 31st March,Number of Undertakings.Number of Employees paid out of Revenue.Passenger Car-miles run.Passengers carried.Number of Passengers per Car-mile.
193873,00415,866,280141,901,8918·94
193973,07315,921,656144,262,3369·06
194073,07316,396,807149,736,1959·13
194172,98516,267,155160,077,2279·84
194272,92310,460,881172,937,68410·51

The general trend in the number of passengers carried during the last eight years has been definitely upwards, and the number of passengers carried during the year 1941–42 (172,937,684) is the highest ever recorded. This increased volume of passenger traffic is undoubtedly largely due, in the more recent years, to the restrictions imposed on the use of motor-spirits.

All centres reported increases in passenger traffic for 1941–42 as compared with 1940–41, the absolute and percentage increases being as follows: Auckland, 7,248,000 (10·5); New Plymouth, 269,000 (12·3); Wanganui, 236,000 (12·7); Wellington, 2,062,000 (4·3); Christchurch, 1,901,000 (9·3); Dunedin, 940,000 (5·8); and Invercargill, 204,000 (7·6). The total increase is 12,860,000, or 8·0 per cent.

The financial operations of the tramways are summarized in the following table.

Year ended 31st March,Revenue.Expenditure.Percentage of Expenditure to Revenue.Capital Value.Accrued Funds.
Sinking Funds.Depreciation and Renewal Funds.Accident Funds.
 ££ ££££
19381,455,5991,478,686101·595,640,3571,506,6781,438,857117,411
19391,484,4201,528,143102·955,689,3771,559,6721,502,621114,339
19401,593,7371,596,682100·185,786,4871,611,5901,604,025145,548
19411,690,7421,696,300100·335,092,378580,4321,964,557167,336
19421,820,6301,789,76098·305,101,263686,8292,233,434176,764

Figures showing details of the total expenditure during each of the last five years are given in the next table.

Year ended 31st March,Operating Expenditure.Capital Charges.Other Expenses.Totals.
 £Per Cent.£Per Cent.£Per Cent.£Per Cent.
19381,080,09673·05353,72523·9244,8653·031,478,686100·00
19391,121,06573·36369,44124·1837,6372·461,528,143100·00
19401,142,49771·55403,44425·2750,7413·181,596,682100·00
19411,191,30470·23480,17428·3124,8221·461,696,300100·00
19421,225,92168·50541,66130·2622,1781·241,789,760100·00

An analysis of the capital value of tramway undertakings follows, figures for each of the last five years being given.

As at 31st March,Permanent-way.Electric Equipment of Lines.Cars and other Vehicles.Land.Buildings.Miscellaneous and Undefined.Totals.
 £££££££
19382,335,248540,8491,468,997162,780607,609524,8745,640,357
19392,354,983541,3071,493,671150,419610,055538,9425,689,377
19402,373,683543,2211,557,405149,490622,292540,3965,786,487
19412,052,476490,7011,339,582146,343618,664444,6125,092,378
19422,062,258490,7011,341,655146,096620,430440,1235,101,263

A more detailed analysis of tramway statistics for 1941–42 is given in the succeeding paragraphs.

Volume of Traffic.—The number of passengers carried per car-mile is a useful guide to the relative density of traffic handled by the various undertakings. The length of track may be taken into consideration as a relevant factor. No data are available as to the length of journey per passenger and the car-capacity.

System.Total Passengers carried.Car-miles run (Passenger Cars and Trailers).Passengers per Car-mile,*Average Fare per Passenger.

* Passenger vehicles.

    d.
Auckland75,987,7026,655,98211·422·56
New Plymouth2,446,792316,9427·722·09
Wanganui2,093,210398,8865·252·89
Wellington50,143,8174,304,73711·662·43
Christchurch22,436,6712,900,5527·742·63
Dunedin16,936,4531,492,89211·342·28
Invercargill2,893,039390,8907·401·96
Totals172,937,68416,460,88110·512·49

Financial Transactions.—The Auckland and Wellington services provided 73 per cent. of the total traffic revenue for 1941–42, the former returning £812,661, or 45 per cent. of the total, and the latter £510,582 or 28 per cent.

Following is an analysis of revenue in each centre in 1941–42.

System.Traffic (Passengers and Freight).Traffic Revenue per Car-mile.*Other.Totals.
Cash.Concession.

* All vehicles.

 ££d.££
Auckland812,661 29·276,397819,058
New Plymouth10,49810,93816·2337021,806
Wanganui21,0234,35515·2755325,931
Wellington258,119252,46328·475,509516,091
Christchurch153,88693,48820·474,148251,522
Dunedin82,77178,13425·871,191162,096
Invercargill6,83816,92114·5936724,126
      Totals1,345,796456,29926·2618,5351,820,630

In 1941–42, for the first time since 1930–31, the combined undertakings showed an excess of revenue over total expenditure (including operating-expenses, capital charges, and other expenditure), the surplus amounting to £30,870. The credit for this success is shared by Auckland, Wellington, and Dunedin, the remaining systems still operating at a loss. It should generally be noted, however, that renewal and reserve fund charges, which are actually appropriations of profits, may have the effect in some cases of understating a surplus or of overstating a loss. Of the total expenditure, operating-costs (£1,225,921) comprise 68·5 per cent., and capital charges (£541,661) 30 per cent.

An analysis of the total expenditure incurred in respect of each service in 1941–42 is shown below.

System.Operating Expenditure.Capital Charges.Other Expenses.Totals.
 ££££
Auckland509,629288,1531,198798,980
New Plymouth17,0935,03147322,597
Wanganui22,23315,78160138,615
Wellington384,543113,5143,730501,817
Christchurch158,74280,65613,159252,557
Dunedin112,09636,0642,698150,858
Invercargill21,5852,43231924,336
      Totals1,225,921541,66122,1781,789,760

The principal item comprised in the total operating expenditure is expenses on account of traffic, which in 1941–42 represented 63 per cent.; followed by car-maintenance, 14 per cent.; cost of power, 10 per cent.; track-maintenance, 7 per cent.; and management and office expenses, 6 per cent. The distribution of operating expenditure in 1941–42 was as follows:—

System.Power.Traffic.Car-maintenance.Track-maintenance (Including Electrical Equipment).Management and Office Expenses.Totals.
 ££££££
Auckland53,905330,29671,69629,32024,412509,629
New Plymouth1,8008,8004,1341,2231,13617,093
Wanganui2,65210,3743,9813,4431,78322,233
Wellington31,373239,79954,78629,48129,104384,543
Christchurch16,61798,74322,95712,4717,954158,742
Dunedin8,90474,2498,9959,05110,897112,096
Invercargill2,24410,5424,5913,32888021,585
    Totals117,495772,803171,14088,31770,1661,225,921

Annual capital charges in the way of provision for interest and sinking fund and for depreciation, reserve, and renewal funds comprised 30 per cent. of the total expenditure during the year ended 31st March, 1942. The magnitude of these charges is not surprising, having regard to the relatively large capital outlay that is necessary in tramway undertakings. Of the total provision for capital charges for the year ended 31st March, 1942, 30 per cent. consisted of interest charges and 34 per cent. of sinking fund charges. As the Wanganui tramways are unable to meet capital charges out of revenue, the City Council levies a special rate for that purpose. In the case of Invercargill, the bulk of the capital charges is now paid out of withdrawals from the Depreciation Fund, as authorized by the Invercargill City Council Tramway Depreciation Fund Empowering Act. 1940, and is excluded from the figures here presented. The amounts expended on various capital charges by each system in 1941–42 were:—

System.Interest.Sinking Fund Charges.Depreciation Fund Charges.Renewal Fund Charges.Reserve Fund Charges.Accident Fund Charges.Totals.
 £££££££
Auckland83,254129,24953,65016,000 6,000288,153
New Plymouth2,7842,247    5,031
Wanganui6,9348,695   15215,781
Wellington24,19920,9945,48127,70727,7077,456113,544
Christchurch30,06318,88029,171  2,54280,656
Dunedin14,2456,774 15,045  30,064
Invercargill783 1,467  1822,432
    Totals162,262186,83989,76958,75227,70716,332541,661

The following table, showing the relationship between revenue and expenditure per car-mile run, gives a useful indication of the relative prosperity of the various undertakings.

System.Per Car-mile* run, 1941–42.
Total Revenue.Operating-costs.Capital Charges.Other Expenditure.Total Expenditure.

*All vehicles.

 d.d.d.d.d.
Auckland29·5018·3610·380·0428·78
New Plymouth16·5112·943·810·3617·11
Wanganui15·6013·389·490·3623·23
Wellington28·7721·446·330·2127·98
Christchurch20·8113·146·671·0920·90
Dunedin26·0618·025·800·4324·25
Invercargill14·8113·251·490·2014·94
All systems26·5317·877·890·3226·08

Capital Value.—At the 31st March, 1942, existing electric tramways represented a capital value of £5,101,263.

System.Permanent-way.Electric Equipment of Lines.Cars and other Vehicles.Land.Buildings.Miscellaneous and undefined.Totals.
 £££££££
Auckland742,278168,387332,44116,830176,80357,0331,493,772
New Plymouth63,4349,15823,8658968,0631,657107,073
Wanganui45,55012,32020,710 4,9508,62492,154
Wellington496,402135,751507,19959,496211,11899,1481,509,114
Christchurch464,600115,490314,49439,279158,506263,3921,355,761
Dunedin205,54041,807103,33729,44353,0848,593441,804
Invercargill44,4547,78839,6091527,9061,876101,585
    Totals2,062,258490,7011,341,655146,096620,430440,1236,101,263

These figures should be read in conjunction with the following table, which sets out the reserves available for writing down the value of the various assets. The Auckland Transport Board has already (during 1941–42) reduced the capital value of its system by an amount of £630,423.

Accrued funds and reserves, at the 31st March, 1942, totalled £3,097,027. Ninety-one, twenty-one, and sixty-four per cent. of sinking fund reserves, depreciation and other reserves, and accident reserves, respectively, are funded in securities outside the tramway undertakings.

Figures of accrued funds and reserves as at 31st March, 1942, are as follows:—

System.Sinking Fund Reserves.Depreciation and Other Reserves.Accident Reserves.Totals.
 ££££
Auckland441,387174,7859,908626,080
New Plymouth 48,040 48,040
Wanganui28,912  28,912
Wellington88,2331,075,747105,5671,269,547
Christchurch109,130686,79829,425825,353
Dunedin8,200153,09431,864193,158
Invercargill10,96794,970 105,937
      Totals686,8292,233,434176,7643,097,027

Power Consumption.—With the exception of Christchurch, which generated 10,240 units during 1941–42, the whole of the power used by tramway authorities is drawn from the Government hydro-electric grid systems, or, as in the cases of New Plymouth and Dunedin, from municipally-owned hydro-stations linked to these grids. As a consequence, the cost per unit of the energy used is comparatively low. In using the per-unit cost figures in the next table it should be borne in mind that in the cases of Christchurch and Wanganui the power purchased is A.C. and is converted by the tramway authority to D.C. power for tramway operation, while the other authorities purchase D.C. power. If the operating, maintenance, and capital charges of the Christchurch tramways conversion plant were added to the cost of power purchased, the per-unit cost of the energy used would probably approximate that of the other chief centres. The Wanganui figure also, similarly adjusted, would become more comparable with those for New Plymouth and Invercargill. It should be noted, however, that the figures given in the first column of the table represent in every case the units of D.C. energy used in tramway operation.

Figures for the financial year ended 31st March, 1942, are:—

System.Total Units of Electrical Energy used.Cost per Unit purchased.Units per Car-mile.*Passengers per Car-mile.†

* All vehicles.

† Passenger vehicles.

  d.  
Auckland22,499,6210·573·3811·42
New Plymouth745,1100·582·357·72
Wanganui1,071,8830·532·695·25
Wellington11,659,4520·652·7111·66
Christchurch7,982,5400·452·757·74
Dunedin3,368,2830·632·2611·34
Invercargill605,8210·891·557·40
      Totals47,932,7100·582·9110·51

OMNIBUS SERVICES OPERATED BY TRAMWAY AUTHORITIES.—Omnibus services were carried on by tramway authorities in the following centres in 1941–42:— New Plymouth, Wanganui, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Statistics for the year 1941–42 show that expenditure exceeded revenue by £3,326. Christchurch and Dunedin reported an excess of revenue over expenditure, but the operations of the other undertakings were unprofitable, Wellington recording the greatest deficit, £6,970. Persons employed during 1941–42 totalled 124, made up as follows: Traffic, management, and office staff, 94; garage, 30. The number of vehicles in use was 85.

Passengers carried in 1941–42 increased by 1,233,443 as compared with the number carried in 1940–41, while bus-miles run increased by 92,056. Passengers carried by the various bus services were: Christchurch, 3,073,392; Dunedin, 2,369,662; Wellington, 1,979,595; New Plymouth, 641,822; and Wanganui, 163,389.

Year ended 31st March,
1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.
Undertakings No.55555
Employees No.104111131120124
Salaries and wages £30,73537,02343,24743,90743,947
Capital cost of vehicles £126,8S89161,752180,817209,770207,786
Depreciation £64,36074,40559,13767,27375,450
Total expenditure £84,18794,651115,055125,112130,506
Revenue £75,74183,768102,519112,633127,180
Passengers carried No.5,432,2555,735,0546,559,6826,994,4178,227,860
Bus-miles No.1,224,4701,363,5751,540,3581,530,8141,628,870
Average fare per passenger d. 3·343·503·743·853·69
Passengers per bus-mile No.4·444·214·264·555·05

CABLE TRAMWAYS.—There are four cable-tramway systems in the Dominion, one in Wellington and three in Dunedin. The systems, all of which operate on a 3 ft. 6 in. gauge, extend over routes totalling 4 miles 33 chains. The total revenue in 1941–42 amounted to £51,523, while expenditure totalled £48,982. The total revenue derived from traffic during the year was £51,252, showing an average of 2·07d. per passenger carried. The total capital value stood at £123,048 at 31st March, 1942.

Year ended 31st March,
1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.
Undertakings No.44444
Employees No.8279737473
Salaries and wages £19,07519,53719,10522,28822,944
Capital value £146,904146,904123,048123,048123,048
Expenditure—     
  Operating-expenses £38,15339,52936,58838,40438,854
  Capital charges £10,52210,5139,7439,70710,128
  Total £48,67550,04246,33148,11148,982
Revenue £49,70552,26249,50051,89651,523
Passengers carried No.6,080,7165,921,7385,622,6235,904,9495,950,473
Car-miles run (including No. trailer miles)376,245368,709330,415334,238332,008
Passengers per car-mile No.1616171818

Chapter 13. SECTION 13.—ROADS AND ROAD TRANSPORT.

Table of Contents

ROADS AND BRIDGES.—The total mileage of formed roads in the Dominion at 31st March, 1941, was 53,379, in addition to which there were 5,899 miles of bridle-tracks and 17,313 miles of unformed legal roads. Details are given in the following table.

Counties.Boroughs.Town Districts.Road Districts.Totals.

* Includes 7½ miles unspecified.

† Includes 282 miles other and unspecified materials.

Roads and streets formed to not less than dray-width and paved or surfaced with—Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.
  Bituminous or cement concrete150¾26613½435
  Bitumen or tar3,397½1,73296½21½5,247½*
  Metal or gravel36,652¼1,495½312¾12838,588½†
Roads and streets formed to not less than dray-width, but not paved or surfaced8,838174¼.62½3349,108
      Totals, formed roads49,038½3,667¾476½196¼53,379
Bridle-tracks5,723¾23½145¼5,899
Unformed legal roads16,838¾36853¼5317,313
      Totals, all roads71,6014,059¼5364,394½76,591

The formation of roads in many parts of the Dominion has been attended with considerable expense and difficulties, arising from the configuration of the country and the abundance of rivers. As illustrating the latter aspect, the following table, showing the number and lengths of bridges incorporated in the roads system of the Dominion as at 31st March, 1941, is of interest. Only bridges 25 ft. or over in length have been taken into account, no official enumeration having been made of the innumerable culverts and short bridges.

Material of which Bridge constructed.Counties.Boroughs.Town Districts.Road Districts.Totals.
No.Total Length.No.Total Length.No.Total Length.No.Total Length.No.Total Length.
  Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft.
All concrete or stone81973,711526,285958338788380,666
Steel and concrete60258,626578,654311512666367,421
Steel, concrete, and timber43944,285233,594  12746347,906
Steel and timber71053,218173,289281  72956,588
Australian hardwood1,926199,015909,21092,1152622,027210,402
Native timbers2,363162,848493,6001982531932,434167,466
    Totals6,859591,70328834,632423,719103957,199630,441

ROADS ADMINISTRATION.—The control of roads and bridges in New Zealand comes under the administration of the Minister of Works, the main statutes covering roads administration being the Public Works Act, 1928, and the Counties Act, 1920, and amendments. The Main Highways Act receives specific mention later.

Roads which have been declared to be Government roads are under the immediate jurisdiction of the Minister of Works. Urban roads and streets are controlled by city, borough, or town district authorities, and rural roading is controlled by County Councils and Road Boards.

Apart from Government roads, which are maintained by the State, roads and streets are maintained by the respective local authorities out of their own revenue resources. The Government does not assist in financing general road maintenance except in regard to roads which, as is explained under the next heading, have been gazetted as main highways under the Main Highways Act, 1922, or as State highways under an amendment of 1936. In the case of extraordinary maintenance arising from storms or floods, the Minister may give special assistance to rural local authorities by way of subsidy or grant from the Consolidated Fund according to the severity of the damage and the financial position of the authority concerned.

The Government assists towards the construction of roads and bridges in counties and road districts, particularly in areas where better roading facilities are required in the interests of settlement and primary production. The sums granted by the State for this purpose may be by way of free grant or, more generally, by way of subsidy on a £1 for £1 or £2 for £1 basis. In many instances construction is carried out by the Public Works Department, although frequently the respective local authorities arrange for work to be undertaken. In the latter case the standard of construction, &c., must first be approved, and departmental supervision exercised, before the grant or subsidy can be uplifted. Capital expenditure by the Government on the construction of roads and bridges is met from the Public Works Fund.

Wherever possible, County Councils arrange to finance their roading operations from revenue, but as a general rule the construction of roads and bridges necessitates the raising of loans. The borrowing of moneys by local authorities is subject to review by a Board, constituted under the Local Government Loans Board Act, 1926, which investigates the economic and developmental aspects of all loan proposals formulated by local authorities.

MAIN HIGHWAYS.—Prior to the advent of the motor-vehicle only a small proportion of the total road-mileage outside of boroughs was permanently surfaced. The development of motor-traffic, however, entirely changed the complexion of the roading problem in New Zealand, as elsewhere, and better roads were demanded as motor transport became popular. Later on, with the rapid increase in the use of motor-vehicles, particularly heavy ones, it became very evident that the type of road that was suitable for slow-moving horse-drawn traffic was inadequate. It was found that under the strain of motor traffic the roads, particularly those between the main centres running parallel with railways, were deteriorating, while the necessity for changes in both construction and administration became more and more obvious. To meet the situation the Main Highways Act was passed in 1922, under which provision was made for the declaration of roads as main highways, and thus the control of arterial roads became primarily a national concern.

For the administration of the Act the Main Highways Board was constituted. The Board consists of six members—viz., two members appointed by the Government, an officer of the Public Works Department, two representatives of County Councils, and one representative of owners of motor-vehicles. The Board administers the main highways system, but in most cases delegates its powers of maintenance, control, &c., to the local authority concerned, though at the same time exercising supervision over the standard of work. At 31st March, 1942, the length of main highways totalled 12,384 miles.

Under an amendment to the Act of 1922, passed in 1936, the Board may, with the approval of the Minister of Works, classify any main highway as a “State highway,” the whole cost of maintenance and construction of such a highway (with certain exceptions) being met from the Main Highways Account. Of the 12,384 miles of main highways, 3,990 miles, comprising the principal arterial traffic routes, have been classified as State highways.

Highway Districts.—In terms of the Act the Board has divided the Dominion into eighteen highway districts, composed of counties grouped according to geographic situation and community of interest. For each highway district there is an advisory body, known as the District Highways Council, which is constituted to include an Engineer of the Public Works Department and one representative of each constituent county. The principal functions of these councils are to make recommendations to the Board each year as to which roads within the several districts should be declared main highways and the works which should be undertaken.

Finance.—Under the original Act there were two separate funds within the Alain Highways Account—viz., the Revenue Fund and the Construction Fund, but since 1st April, 1936, these funds have been amalgamated into the Main Highways Account. Revenue for main highways purposes is obtained from the following sources of motor taxation:—

  • Tire-tax (sections 13 and 14, Main Highways Act, 1922).

  • Motor-spirits tax (section 9 of the Motor-spirits Taxation Act, 1927).

  • Motor-registration licenses, fees, &c. (section 24, Motor-vehicles Act, 1924).

  • Mileage-tax (section 19, Finance Act (No. 2), 1931–32).

As from August, 1939, the petrol-tax was increased from 10d. to 1s. 2d. per gallon for British imports, of which 8d. is ordinary Customs revenue, and from 10½d. to 1s. 2 1/10d. for foreign imports, of which 8 7/10d. is ordinary Customs revenue. Ninety-two per cent. of the revenue from the remaining 6d. per gallon is credited to the Main Highways Account, and the other 8 per cent. is distributed on a population basis between cities and boroughs having a population of 6,000 or more, for expenditure on streets forming continuations of main highways. For the year ended 31st March, 1942, the amount distributed between these cities and boroughs was £126,055. For those vehicles whose motive-power is not wholly derived from motor-spirits, and for trackless trolley-buses, a mileage-tax is levied, the revenue from this source being divided on a basis similar to the motor-spirits revenue. Owing to the restrictions placed on the use of motor-spirits consequent upon war conditions, many petrol-driven vehicles are now using, wholly or in part, substitute fuels (producer gas, &c.). Normally such vehicles would be liable for mileage-tax; but, in order to encourage the use of these substitute fuels, they have been exempted by the Substitute Fuels Emergency Regulations, dated 18th September, 1940. “Substitute fuel” means producer gas, or coal-gas, or such other fuel used for the propulsion of motor-vehicles as may be described by the Minister of Transport, by notice in the Gazette, as substitute fuel for the purposes of the regulations.

The original Revenue Fund received an annual transfer of £35,000 from the Consolidated Fund, and the Construction Fund an annual transfer of £200,000 from the Public Works Fund, but in both cases the transfers have been discontinued since 1930. The amount so transferred from the Public Works Fund totalled £1,226,000, and interest on that sum is now debited against the Main Highways Account.

The following table shows the actual income of the Main Highways Account from revenue sources during the last five years.

1937–33.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.

*Not available for publication.

 £££££
Tire-tax158,526149,017102,70662,888*
Registration and license fees of motor-vehicles, &c.523,853575,170588,386546,760*
Motor-spirits tax1,918,4862,083,2782,057,0011,581,793*
Mileage-tax6,1627,47410,71511,197*
Totals2,607,0272,814,9392,758,8082,202,6382,162,139

In addition to the revenue obtained during the year 1941–42, loan-money amounting to £257,069 was raised for main highways purposes.

Revenue from the licensing of motor-vehicles and from the tax on tires and tubes is apportioned between the North and South Islands at the discretion of the Board, but generally so that the amount apportioned to each Island has reference to the number of motor-vehicles in that Island. No statutory provision exists in the case of revenue from motor-spirits taxation, but the apportionment is approximately on the basis of the relative consumption of petrol in the two Islands.

All receipts from special taxation of motor-vehicles are not credited to the Main Highways Account. As already stated, 8 per cent. of the highway-purposes share of the motor-spirits tax and a similar percentage of the tire-tax is distributed among certain cities and boroughs, and, in addition, receipts from drivers' licenses and heavy-traffic fees are collected by local authorities. The following table gives a summary of the returns from special taxation of motor-vehicles for 1940–41 and the four preceding years.

Yield of1930–37.1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.

* Share for highway purposes only (first 6d.).

 £££££
Tire-tax139,723159,928150,350103,84863,881
Motor-spirits tax*1,866,1862,108,7272,289,1192,262,2701,744,226
Fees, &c., under Motor - vehicles Act, 1924493,626563,358612,395619,676573,479
Heavy-traffic fees200,603305,693346,868363,969351,770
Drivers' licenses75,87583,55791,05494,40692,129
Mileage-tax3,5766,6988,12411,64712,171
      Totals2,845,5893,227,9613,497,9103,455,8162,837,656

An analysis of the actual expenditure on maintenance in each Island, as compared with the number of motor-vehicles in each Island at 31st March of each of the last five years, appears in the following table, the percentages relating to Dominion totals.

1937–38.1933–39.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
North Island—     
  Maintenance expenditure66·4669·2668·2867·1468·78
  Motor-vehicles65·7065·8965·9366·0266·27
South Island—     
  Maintenance expenditure33·5430·7431·7232·8631·22
  Motor-vehicles34·3034·1134·0733·9833·73

In the next table are shown the amounts which have been provided by the Board and by local authorities for expenditure on both maintenance and construction of main highways during the last five years. Maintenance figures exclude indirect charges, such as supervision, interest, &c., but include the cost of flood-damage restoration; construction expenditure shown is inclusive of renewals.

 1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
 £££££
Maintenance by Board1,074,1121,311,3401,301,9121,066,824964,447
Maintenance by local authorities153,443152,730151,368135,301126,409
Construction by Board.2,318,6003,058,3463,297,1101,592,178512,907
Construction by local authorities108,225134,359172,839123,91232,936
    Totals3,654,3804,656,7754,923,2292,918,2151,636,699
Percentages.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Maintenance by Board87·589·089·688·788·4
Maintenance by local authorities12·510·410·411·311·6
Construction by Board95·595·895·192·894·0
Construction by local authorities4·54·24·97·26·0

The average expenditure per mile by the Board and local authorities on maintenance of the main highways system during the years indicated has been as follows:—

 £

* Represents average expenditure on true maintenance. Figures for previous years relate to expenditure from the Revenue Fund, and include work other than actual maintenance.

1930–31103·1
1931–3292·5
1932–3370·7
1933–3478·5
1934–35100·3
1935–36122·4
 £
1936–3790·5*
1937–38101·2*
1938–39119·9*
1939–40117·6*
1940–4197·1*
1941–4288·1*

For the year 1941–42 the maintenance costs in the North Island and in the South Island, together with the lengths of the main highways, were as follows:—

Length of Main Highways.Maintenance Expenditure.
Dustless Surface.Gravel or Macadam Surface.Clay or Pumice Surface.Total.Board.Local Authorities.Total.
 Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.£££
North Island2,3864,2132486,847663,41681,346744,762
South Island1,1544,37675,537301,03145,063346,094
  Totals, Dominion3,5408,58925512,384964,447126,4091,090,856

Assistance to Local Authorities.—In terms of the Act of 1922, the Main Highways Board was required to provide one-half of the cost of construction or reconstruction of main highways and one-third of the cost of maintenance and repairs. By subsequent legislation, the rate of assistance from the Main Highways Account was increased, and eventually the Board was empowered to determine the basis of subsidy. Since 1st April, 1931, the standard maintenance subsidy rate has been £3 for £1, and only in exceptional circumstances is this increased. The construction or renewal of bridges was subsidized at £2 for £1 until 1st April, 1938, but from that date it was increased to £3 for £1.

In special circumstances the Board may advance money, by way of loan, to local authorities to provide for the proportion of cost payable by a local authority in respect of the construction or reconstruction of a main highway. Such loans must be repaid by instalments extending over a period (not exceeding ten years) to be agreed upon between the Board and the local authority, and interest is payable at a rate approved by the Minister of Finance.

The Board is also empowered to sell roadmaking machinery, plant, and equipment to local authorities on such terms as it thinks fit, including terms for the payment of the purchase-money by instalments extending over not more than four years, with interest on the unpaid balance at such rate as is fixed by the Board. Since this scheme was introduced, plant, &c., has been purchased to the value of £351,363, of which sum £36,528 was outstanding at 31st March, 1942.

Main Highway Standards.—In order to qualify for financial assistance from the Main Highways Account, local authorities are required to carry out works to a standard approved by the Board. Subsidies are not payable unless the approved standard is observed, although work of a higher standard may be undertaken provided that the additional expenditure involved is found by the local authorities concerned. From time to time the Board's standards are revised to meet the latest developments in highway practice and engineering design, and also to cater for the requirements of increasing traffic. Roadmaking materials used in highway works are subject to standard tests, and during recent years advances have been made in the direction of framing standard specifications which allow of a wider use of certain local materials which formerly were not accepted.

The table below shows the extent and types of work carried out on the main highways system by the Board and by local authorities during each of the last five years, and the totals since the Highways Board commenced active operation in 1924.

Year.Formation and Widening.Gravelling and Metalling.Tar and Bituminous Sealing.Road- and Plant-mix Bituminous Surfacing.Bituminous Macadam (Penetration).Bituminous Concrete.Portland-cement Concrete.Bridges.
 Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Ft.
1937–3832924128249   11,106
1938–39491188357672  25,561
1939–40401285442602  11,676
1940–41186128259114  9,405
1941–42725511435   3,513
Totals from inception to 31st March, 19423,1932,2642,8234073158466148,397

REGISTRATION AND LICENSING OF MOTOR-VEHICLES.—Before the Main Highways Act was passed, the Government, by the provisions of the Customs Amendment Act, 1921, and the Finance Act, 1921–22, recognized and applied the principle that motor-vehicle owners should contribute toward the cost of the construction and upkeep of the road-surfaces which were required principally for them. By these Acts an import duty was levied on tires and tubes, the funds so obtained being used for highway construction and maintenance.

Amongst the funds specified by the Main Highways Act as being available for the Revenue Fund was a sum to be derived from the licensing of motor-vehicles. When the Main Highways Act was passed it was expected that a Motor-vehicles Act dealing with the registration and licensing of motor-vehicles would be simultaneously passed, but owing to the difficulty of co-ordinating all interests it was not until November, 1924, that the Motor-vehicles Act became law. This Act provided for the registration and annual licensing of all motor-vehicles.

Registration fees are 10s. for a motor-cycle and 20s. for any other motor-vehicle. License fees include 10s. for a motor-cycle; £1 15s. for a motor-car; £3 for a motor-omnibus; £5 for a traction-engine; and from £2 to £3 for a motor-lorry, according to weight and tires. Other fees include drivers' licenses, 5s.; changes of ownership, 5s.; and manufacturers' and dealers' fees. Heavy-traffic fees are not levied under the Motor-vehicles Act: they are referred to under the next heading. All such fees, except that for a driver's license, which is payable to the local authorities, have, in terms of the Motor-vehicles Act, to be credited to the Main Highways Account. Heavy-traffic fees are distributed among local authorities.

Prior to 1942 number-plates of distinctive colours were issued at the time of licensing or relicensing, but with a view to economy in the use of metal, &c., 1941 number-plates were required to be retained and exhibited on licensed vehicles together with a 1942 license sticker. The charge for an issue or replacement of number-plates is 2s., and that for license stickers 6d.

The Motor-vehicles Amendment Act, 1936, amended the pre-existing law in several important respects. A uniform speed limit of thirty miles per hour was fixed in boroughs and town districts, while authority was taken to extend the operation of this limit to other localities by notice published in the New Zealand Gazette. This speed limit may also be abrogated in specified localities by similar notification. Penalties were provided for careless and inconsiderate driving. The general penalty for offences was increased from £10 to £50; while the pre-existing authority for the issue of regulations was extended to provide for periodical examination of motor-vehicles (fee, 5s.), and for limiting the hours during which, or regulating conditions under which, a person may drive a trade motor-vehicle in use for commercial purposes. Power was taken also to issue regulations governing pedestrian and other traffic. With a view to minimizing wear-and-tear on motor-vehicle tires, regulations issued in July, 1942, imposed a maximum speed limit of 40 miles per hour with certain specified exceptions.

The following table shows the numbers of the various types of motor-vehicles licensed as at 31st March in each of the last five years. In addition, the number of dormant registrations for each type as at 31st March, 1941, and the total dormant registrations for each year are given. Dormant registrations are those of vehicles the registration of which has not been cancelled, but which have not been relicensed for the current year. Dormant registrations stand for two years, and are then cancelled if not previously relicensed.

Type of Vehicle.Licensed as at 31st March,Dormant Registrations, 31st March, 1941.*
1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.

* Figures of dormant registrations as at 31st March, 1942, are not available.

Cars190,554212,566219,938215,516207,35317,700
Light trucks (i.e., 2 tons and under, laden)26,59027,79427,63927,19726,4566,487
Heavy trucks (i.e., over 2 tons, laden)20,43021,39321,55921,28020,5272,911
Passenger trucks1,3951,6521,7851,5601,360104
Omnibuses65669175474778555
Taxis1,7551,6951,5881,4971,50836
Rental cars71378256457752347
Private-hire cars18917820121
Service-cars69565962257956158
Trailers7,0879,34511,51813,12013,4383,288
Dealers' cars1,8371,9531,8611,3431,021 
Local authority, &c., vehicles2,8924,6505,8736,4016,9332,092
Government vehicles2,7033,4924,2904,7138,958174
Motor-cycles22,88021,10919,20118,27616,0987,401
Dealers' motor-cycles14015014510371 
      Totals280,327307,931317,526313,087305,79340,374
      Dormant registrations31,96234,75637,75040,374* 

The number of motor-vehicles licensed gives a fairly reliable indication of vehicles actually on the road. The preceding table gives the position as at 31st March, but the average number of vehicles licensed during the year gives a better indication of road usage. Averages for each of the last three years ended 31st March for total motor-vehicles are as follows: 1939–40, 296,180; 1940–41, 293,156; and 1941–42, 292,396.

As may be expected under war conditions, with a drastic reduction in motor-vehicle imports and the restrictions imposed on the use of motor-spirits and tires, there has been a decrease in the number of motor-vehicles licensed at 31st March, 1942, as compared with recent years. Prominent features exhibited by the table are the decreases in the number of motor-cars, particularly in 1942, and of motor-cycles throughout the period. Government vehicles show a very substantial increase in 1942 consequent on the increased mechanization of the armed services. The increase in the number of local authority and other vehicles exempted from the annual license fee should not necessarily be taken as an indication of the increase in the number of local authority vehicles, as it includes a miscellaneous collection of machines such as farmers' cars and trucks used solely on the farm, excavators, scoops, trench-diggers, logging machinery, cranes, &c.

As stated previously, dormant registrations are cancelled after two years. If, however, a vehicle is again brought into use after its registration has been cancelled, it is treated as a new registration. The registration figures set out hereunder, therefore, are not an exact record of the number of new vehicles introduced into the country's traffic system each year; they include an unknown number of vehicles which have been out of commission for more than two years.

Year ended 31st March,Cars.Motor-cycles.Other Motor-vehicles.Total Registrations.
193829,8373,01810,41343,268
193928,9372,23310,86242,032
194018,1071,8149,84929,770
19416,7551,7277,06915,551
19422,7771,1868,01011,973

The most outstanding feature in the above table is the heavy decline in the number of motor-car registrations. This movement was, of course, to be expected in view of import restrictions, and restrictions imposed on the civil consumption of motor-spirits and tires.

ROAD TRANSPORT.—The period following the war of 1914–18 ushered in a rapid development of an already considerable road motor transport which has necessitated extensive legislation, not alone for its control but also for the provision of adequate road-surfaces. Certain principal enactments are referred to briefly in chronological order.

The Customs Amendment Act, 1921, among numerous tariff changes, imposed a tire-tax on rubber tires and tubes, previously duty free. The proceeds are credited to the Main Highways Account. For an account of the moneys derived from this and other highways taxation, vide Section 23B (Taxation).

The Main Highways Act of 1922, referred to earlier in this section, constituted the next landmark. Two years later came the Motor-vehicles Act, 1924 (amended in 1927, in 1934–35, in 1936, and in 1939), which has received specific mention under the immediately preceding title. At the same time the Public Works Amendment Act, 1924, was passed (later included in the 1928 consolidation of that Act). Under it regulations could be made fixing, in respect of commercial vehicles of over 2 tons gross weight, heavy-traffic fees payable to local authorities for road-maintenance purposes, and also classifying roads and providing other measures. Regulations to this effect were made in 1925, and are now embodied in the Heavy Motor-vehicle Regulations 1940. In the financial year 1940–41 local bodies received £351,770 by way of heavy-traffic fees. Present annual license fees under the Heavy Motor-vehicle Regulations range from £2 11s. to £63 15s. for a pneumatic-tired vehicle, and from £3 to £75 for a vehicle solid-tired on any wheel.

With the object of controlling motor-omnibus competition with tramways, regulations under the Board of Trade Act were issued in 1926. In the same year they were superseded by the Motor-omnibus Traffic Act, itself later repealed by the comprehensive Transport Licensing Act, 1931 (amended in 1933, 1935, 1936, and 1939).

The Motor-spirits Taxation Act, 1927, imposed a duty of 4d. per gallon (raised in 1930 to 6d. per gallon; further subsequent increases are not connected with road taxation). As previously mentioned, from the net proceeds 92 per cent. is paid into the Main Highways Account, and the balance distributed on a population basis among cities or boroughs of a population of 6,000 upwards.

In 1927 the administration of the Motor-vehicles Act, 1924, was transferred to the Public Works Department, which subsequently issued in draft form regulations containing a uniform code of rules for motor-traffic in the Dominion. After full opportunity for criticism by interested parties the regulations were brought into force in 1928, and have been reissued by the Transport Department as the Traffic Regulations, 1936.

The Public Works Act, 1928, contained extensive provisions relating to the construction, maintenance, and use of roads. Almost simultaneously came the Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act, 1928—vide Section 28B (Accident Insurance).

In 1929 the Transport Department Act constituted the portfolio of Minister of Transport, and also constituted the Transport Department under a Commissioner of Transport. The Act placed the administration of the following Acta under the Transport Department: Motor-vehicles Act, 1924; Motor-omnibus Traffic Act, 1926; Motor-spirits Taxation Act, 1927; Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act, 1928; and Public Works Act, 1928, in so far as it relates to heavy traffic or to motor-vehicles. The Transport Licensing Act, 1931, is also under the administration of the Department.

TRANSPORT LICENSING.—The Transport Licensing Act, passed on 11th November, 1931, is designed to regulate road motor transport with a view to securing co-ordination between it and other forms of transport, and to secure its organization from the standpoint of maximum utility. The Act was substantially amended in 1933, 1935, 1936, and 1939, the principal amendment being the abolition from 1st April, 1936, of the Transport Co-ordination Board (set up under an amending Act of 1933), the powers previously exercised by the Board being vested in the Minister of Transport. By sections 82–86 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1941, those powers, so far as they relate to appeals against Licensing Authority decisions, are vested in a Transport Appeal Authority.

The more important provisions of the law as amended were described on pages 344–346 of the 1940 issue of the Year-Book, but considerations of space prevent their repetition on this occasion. There have been, however, two important amendments in connection with the licensing of goods services. Formerly, certain areas in some of the larger centres were exempt from the operation of the licensing system, but these exempted areas have since been abolished. All goods services conducted for hire or reward now require to be licensed except those carried on solely: (1) In connection with funerals; or (2) In connection with the repair or wreckage of vehicles which have met with mishap; or (3) In the carriage of newspapers; or (4) By farmers for the cartage of milk or whey to or from dairy factories for their neighbours.

The second amendment provides that goods-services operating on a route parallel to 30 miles or more of Government railway shall be licensed even if they are not conducted for hire or reward. Exceptions may be made in the case of certain services.

Passenger Services.—For the year ended 31st March, 1941, the number of passenger services licensed was 1,378, the principal statistics for the last three years available being as follows:—

 1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.
Vehicle-journeys run2,181,4872,294,7772,182,347
Vehicle-miles covered25,455,24825,981,19626,918,792
Passengers carried26,655,48530,589,67332,568,504
 Total.Per Vehicle-mile.Total.Per Vehicle-mile.Total.Per Vehicle-mile.

* Not available.

Operating-costs—£d.£d.£d.
  Vehicle-running457,1864·31532,1244·91645,9885·76
  Vehicle standing charges594,3745·60607,9225·62645,2805·75
  General overhead charges133,0331·26147,5241·36177,8791·58
    Totals1,184,59311·171,287,57011·891,469,14713·09
Revenue—£d.£d.£d.
  Passengers1,195,88711·281,293,89911·95**
  Mail contracts32,0460·3032,5440·30**
  Newspapers23,2490·2217,6010·16**
  Goods and parcels52,1510·4947,2070·44**
  Other14,0500·1315,8270·15**
    Total revenue1,317,38312·421,407,07813·001,661,10714·80
 £d.£d.£d.
Net profits£ 132,7901·25119,5081·11191,9601·71
Total assets1,123,693 1,105,892 1,178,031 
  Vehicles (included in “Total assets”)576,494 609,721 * 
Capital and reserves918,197 976,835 858,121 
Other liabilities205,496 129,057 319,910 
    Total liabilities1,123,693 1,105,892 1,178,031 

Goods Services.—Statistics of goods-services operating under license during the-years 1937–38, 1938–39, 1939–40, and 1940–41, are as follows:—

 1937–38.1933–39.1939–40.1940–41.
Vehicle-miles covered70,295,00080,062,000120,000,000113,000,000
 ££££
Operating-costs3,158,0003,921,0006,640,0006,809,000
Revenue3,583,0004,425,0007,380,0007,435,000
Net profit425,000504,000740,000626,000
Capital and reserves2,445,0003,147,0004,600,0004,666,000
Other liabilities1,207,0001,440,0001,800,0001,479,000

Total operating-expenses in 1940–41 averaged 14·45d. per vehicle-mile, while-revenue averaged 15·78d.

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS ON ROADS: Fatal Accidents.—Statistics of road accidents resulting in fatalities are available for many years past from the vital statistics compiled by the Census and Statistics Department, and these figures are discussed briefly in an earlier section (vide pp. 66–67). Further details of fatal motor accidents, which occurred on public roads, compiled by the Transport Department for recent calendar years are given below.

Nature of Accident.Number of Accidents.
1938.1939.1940.1941.
Collisions, motor-vehicle with—    
  Pedestrian61465852
  Motor-vehicle41533220
  Train109118
  Tram1 31
  Bicycle38382929
  Horse-vehicle or horse under control11  
  Fixed object227713
  Straying stock1   
Went over bank24271716
Otherwise37433119
      Totals236224188158

All Road Accidents.—Motor-vehicle accidents involving death or personal injury are required by law to be reported to the police, and since 15th March, 1937, very full particulars of all such accidents have been furnished to the Transport Department. Analyses made from these reports are published each month in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. For the year ended 31st December, 1941, 2,851 such accidents were reported, resulting in 175 fatalities, and in injuries to 3,589 other people.

The figures shown in the foregoing table relate to fatal accidents only, while the figures quoted in the following table relate to the accidents involving death or personal injury.

Nature of Accident.Number of Accidents.
1938.1939.1940.1941.
Collisions—    
  Between two or more motor-vehicles1,5171,454941817
  Between motor-vehicle and bicycle1,063920894743
  Between motor-vehicle and pedestrian875911727631
  Between motor-vehicle and fixed object192171129140
  Between motor-vehicle and animal or horse-vehicle48472917
  Between motor-vehicle and railway-train38393531
  Between motor-vehicle and tram30332315
  Multiple and other collisions1241169790
 3,8873,6912,8752,484
Non-collisions—    
  Drove off road13212010275
  Went over bank174191120108
  Overturned on roadway178194134106
  Person fell from vehicle48544767
  Other22302211
 554589425367
      Total accidents4,4414,2803,3002,851

Chapter 14. SECTION 14.—AVIATION AND AIR TRANSPORT.

Table of Contents

DEVELOPMENT OF AVIATION.—An outline of the development of aviation in New Zealand was given in the 1942 issue of the Year-Book. Certain historical information relating to aviation is also given in the “Defence” section of this volume.

AERODROMES AND LANDING-GROUNDS.—Particulars of aerodromes and landing-grounds in New Zealand as at 31st March, 1942, are as follows:—

Aerodromes and landing-grounds—

(i) Constructed and usable58
(ii) Usable, extensions proceeding7
(iii) Portion usable, construction proceeding2
(iv) Under construction (not usable)1
 — 68

Emergency landing-grounds—

(i) Constructed and in use10
(ii) Under construction (not usable)2
 — 12

AERONAUTICAL PRODUCTION.—Despite the fact that the Dominion's engineering industry has had little, if any, experience of the exacting requirements associated with aircraft, the demand created by present conditions for the local production of a wide variety of replacement and spare parts and of items of general equipment has been satisfactorily met by a number of the local general engineering and motor-car assembly firms. The scope of this activity has been progressively widened.

With the exception of the engine and certain proprietary articles, the elementary training aircraft used by the R.N.Z.A.F. are now fabricated entirely by New Zealand labour.

CIVIL AVIATION.—The general statutory law relating to aviation in New Zealand is contained in the Air Navigation Act, 1931. The main purpose of this Act was to enable the Governor-General in Council to make regulations for carrying out the Convention relating to aerial navigation signed at Paris on behalf of the New Zealand Government in 1919. Civil aviation is subject to the Air Navigation Regulations 1933, administered by the Air Department. Statutory provisions of localized application are contained in the New Plymouth Airport Act, 1937, the Napier Airport Act, 1935, and the Whangarei Airport Act, 1937, which make provision for the control of these airports. This control is exercised by Boards consisting of representatives of the aero clubs and local authorities concerned, together with, members appointed by the Minister of Defence.

Commercial Air Transport.—Since December, 1935, commercial aviation has been firmly established in New Zealand. Previously commercial activities had been limited mainly to air-taxi work (undertaken by aero clubs) and to two scheduled services of a minor nature. The first major air services were operated across Cook Strait between Wellington and Blenheim and Nelson, and the subsequent extension of services up to the outbreak of war in September, 1939, covered nearly the whole of the Dominion. The year 1940 saw the commencement of two overseas services, one to and from Australia, and the other to and from the United States of America.

Interval Services.—During the year 1941–42 services were maintained on the following routes by the companies indicated:—

(1) Auckland-Wellington (via New Plymouth and Palmerston North)Union Airways of N.Z., Ltd.
(2) Wellington-Dunedin (via Christchurch)
(3) Wellington-Blenheim-Nelson
(4) Nelson-WestportAir Travel (N.Z.), Ltd.
(5) Hokitika-Jackson's Bay
(6) Inchbonnie-Weheka. 

Before the war, services (3) and (4) were operated by Cook Strait Airways, Ltd., but, as a result of the requisitioning of their plant and equipment for Air Force requirements, the company ceased operation and the services are being maintained by the companies indicated for the period of the war. A total of 10 aircraft was taken over from the three companies towards the end of 1939 and, although this has necessarily reduced their activities considerably, air services are still so well patronized that all services are generally carrying capacity loads.

The summarized results of the operations of the commercial air services on scheduled trips during the last seven years are given in the following table.

Year ended 31st March,Mileage.Passengers.Freight.Mail.
   lb.lb.
1936346,1719,10626,12319,431
1937776,93824,25144,074111,377
19381,331,10043,78281,853216,238
19391,574,39553,039166,278316,380
19401,344,55851,802232,018234,989
1941645,70237,023206,936130,806
1942688,72339,058194,858165,670

Figures relating to scheduled aircraft services of the respective companies for the year ended 31st March, 1942, are given in the following table.

Company.Miles flown.Passengers.Freight.Mails.

* Services operated by Union Airways of New Zealand, Ltd., and Air Travel (N.Z.), Ltd.

   lb.lb.
Union Airways of New Zealand, Ltd.394,52013,03528,059109,158
Cook Strait Airways, Ltd.*261,83125,707134,50725,743
Air Travel (N.Z.), Ltd.32,37231632,29230,769
      Totals688,72339,058194,858165,670

Under the provisions of a Proclamation issued in December, 1941, civil flying was considerably restricted. All club, private, or taxi flying has now ceased, leaving only the scheduled commercial services in operation.

Overseas Services: Tasman Empire Airways, Ltd.—The first survey of a route from the United Kingdom to New Zealand was undertaken by Imperial Airways, Ltd., of London, in 1937. Following this, negotiations were entered into between the United Kingdom, Australian, and New Zealand Governments with the object of providing an organization to control a proposed trans-Tasman Air Service. As a result of this a company representing the three Governments, and known as Tasman Empire Airways, Ltd., was formed to operate this service.

The cost of the initial ground equipment was borne by each of the Governments concerned, and the initial share capital of the company is held in the proportion: United Kingdom, 38 per cent.; Australia, 23 per cent.; and New Zealand, 39 per cent. (Government 20 per cent., Union Airways of New Zealand, Ltd., 19 per cent.). There is a Government subsidy of £20,000 per annum.

During the period that Pan-American Airways (referred to later) was operating, the company maintained a thrice fortnightly service in order to connect with, the services from U.S.A. and cope with the additional traffic. On the temporary cessation of Pan-American Airways services, however, the number of trips was reduced to one weekly in each direction.

Date commenced operations30th April, 1940.
Number of aircraft2.
Description of aircraftShort “Empire” S.30 flying boats.
Total seating-capacity26.
Route and frequencyAuckland-Sydney. One trip weekly in each direction.

Traffic for the year ended 31st March, 1942, was as follows: Passengers carried, 1,959; freight, 32,230 lb.; mail, 167,275 lb.

Overseas Services: Pan-American Airways.—In March, 1937, a Pan-American Airways clipper aircraft made a survey for a trans-Pacific service between San Francisco and Auckland via Honolulu, Kingman Reef, and Pago Pago. The results of this were considered entirely satisfactory, and the company immediately prepared the necessary bases at Pago Pago and Auckland (Mechanics Bay). The Pan-American clipper arrived at Auckland on 26th December, 1937, and the service was inaugurated on its return flight to Honolulu a week later. The first southern trip of the clipper, which left Honolulu on 10th January, unfortunately ended in disaster off Samoa on the 11th January, 1938; and services were discontinued until the company obtained delivery of a larger type of flying-boat. The service was resumed in 1940 on a fortnightly schedule, the first flight terminating at Auckland on 18th July, 1940. The company operated to schedule until December, 1941, when the spread of hostilities to the Pacific area following Japan's entry into the war caused the temporary cessation of services.

Date commenced operationsJuly, 1940.
Number of aircraft3.
Description of aircraftBoeing flying-boat.
Total seating-capacity64.
Route and frequencySan Francisco-Honolulu-Canton Island-Noumea - Suva-Auckland. Once fortnightly in each direction.

Traffic for the period 1st April to December, 1941, was: Passengers carried, 638; freight, 18,940 lb.; mail, 29,266 lb.

Aero Clubs.—Aero clubs throughout New Zealand have played a very important part in the training of air pilots and the development of aviation generally. The requisitioning by the Royal New Zealand Air Force of most of the aircraft operated by the aero clubs soon after the outbreak of war, and the suspension of civil flying in December, 1941, have brought aero-club activity almost to a standstill.

A summary of aero-club operations in New Zealand was included in the 1942 and previous issues of the Year-Book.

Civil Aviation Statistics.—Statistics relating to civil aviation in New Zealand during each of the last five years ended 31st March, are as follows:—

1937–38.1938–30.1930–40.1940–41.1941–42.

* I.e., commercial services (including air-taxi and non-scheduled services), also aero dabs in the case of hours flown, miles flown, and passengers carried,

† Regular services only.

Internal services*—     
  Hours flown32,31936,14525,4929,5879,139
  Miles flown3,323,7833,760,5892,788,4081,029,5881,045,305
  Passengers carried59,85970,64462,41442,17742,472
  Mail† lb.216,238316,380234,989130,806165,670
  Freight† lb.91,703196,224246,899206,936194,858
  Passenger-miles†5,518,3636,787,0266,478,5404,373,8225,061,938
  Mail ton-miles†18,20529,24821,72912,55517,616
  Freight ton-miles†4,3019,04512,2379,5859,432
Overseas services—     
  Hours flown   3,1613,427
  Miles flown   459,608505,946
  Passengers carried—     
    Inwards   9621,295
    Outwards   9571,302
Freight—     
    Inwards lb.   19,65231,084
    Outwards lb.   9,55220,086
  Mail-     
    Inwards lb.   47,28892,816
    Outwards lb.   49,347103,825

Civil Aircraft.—Seventy-two aircraft operated by the aero clubs and companies were requisitioned by the Royal New Zealand Air Force shortly after the declaration of war in 1939, and at the 31st March, 1942, only 40 aircraft remained on the civil register.

METEOROLOGICAL SERVICE.—The organization of the Dominion Meteorological Office has been developed to meet the special needs of commercial and military aviation activities. All commercial aircraft operating on internal air lines receive individual route reports and weather forecasts by telephone from the Meteorological Office, Wellington, while, to cater for the requirements of the trans-Tasman and trans-Pacific air services, a branch of the Meteorological Office is maintained at Auckland.

LICENSES.—The licenses and certificates current at 31st March, 1942, were as follows:—

Pilots' “A” licenses105
Pilots' “B” licenses20
Aircraft Navigators' licenses13
Ground Engineers' licenses52
Aerodrome licenses20
Certificates of Registration (aircraft)40
Certificates of Airworthiness (aircraft)22

AIR HAILS.—Inland.—From 1920 onwards various attempts were made to operate air-mail services, but it was not until the inauguration of a service between Hokitika and South Westland in January, 1934, that a service of any permanency was established. The district served in this instance is one which possesses very poor transport facilities; and, though the population is sparse and the area small, the carriage of mails by air has great advantages over a land service. It is for this reason that no surcharge is made on the mail-matter carried by this service.

On the 16th March, 1936, the first regular air-mail services linking up the larger centres of population were established between Palmerston North and Dunedin and between Nelson, Blenheim, and Wellington. As air services increased in frequency and extent the air-mail facilities were correspondingly expanded. The outbreak of war in September, 1939, resulted in the curtailment of air-passenger services, and of necessity the air-mail services were also reduced.

The rate of postage for inland air-mail correspondence was originally 2d. per ounce, but since October, 1939, has been 3d. per half-ounce. For parcels, up to 28 lb., the rates range from 2s. 2d. to 11s.

The numbers of letters and parcels carried by air in New Zealand since the regular air services were inaugurated are shown hereunder.

Year ended 31st March—Letters.Parcels.
1937934,6414,226
19381,688,6418,340
19392,382,42713,606
19401,884,19111,662
19411,785,8005,688
19422,214,0607,356

Overseas.—Although mails had been carried by air across the Tasman on the occasions of special flights in 1934, and one mail was despatched by air across the Pacific via Pago Pago and Honolulu, to the United States of America in January, 1938, permanent facilities were not established for the despatch of mails by air from New Zealand until 1940. Prior to that, air mails had been conveyed by surface route to Australia to connect with the Empire air service to the United Kingdom. The first flight of the trans-Tasman service took place on 30th April, 1940, and on 30th July, 1940, a trans-Pacific service commenced to the United States of America, via Suva, Noumea, Canton Island, and Honolulu.

From July, 1938, to September, 1939, an “all-up” Empire service operated at the rate of 1½d. per ounce for letters, but on the outbreak of war there was a reversion to the former surcharge of 1s. 6d. per half-ounce. Following the entry of Japan into the war, the services to the United Kingdom and to the United States of America have been suspended.

Chapter 15. SECTION 15.—POSTAL AND TELEGRAPHIC.

Table of Contents

POSTAL BUSINESS.—At the 31st March, 1942, there were 1,632 post-offices in New Zealand.

The following table shows the estimated numbers of articles posted and delivered during each of the last five years.

Year.Letters, Letter-cards, and Post-curds.Registered Articles.Accounts. Circulars, Newspapers, Packets, &c.Parcels.
1937304,972,9555,111,969228,583,0269,019,849
1938320,586,4075,235,713273,164,8419,695,292
1939315,853,1985,261,334260,889,0249,473,374
1940291,347,1195,337,176225,946,7649,310,756
1941285,817,2315,977,174237,321,25710,952,238

Articles which are both posted and delivered in New Zealand, representing the great bulk of the business, are necessarily counted twice in the foregoing table. Separate figures of articles posted and delivered during the year 1941 are as follows:—

 Posted.Delivered.
Letters, letter-cards, and post-cards139,760,347146,056,884
Registered articles3,236,3192,740,855
Accounts, circulars, newspapers, packets, &c.113,090,120124,231,137
Parcels5,874,1055,078,133

The average numbers of letters. &c., posted in the Dominion per head of mean population (including Maoris) during each of the last five years were:—

Year.Letters, Letter-cards, and Post-cards.Registered Articles.Accounts, Circulars, Newspapers, Packets, &c., and Parcels.Totals.
193793·471·5369·18164·18
193898·941·6284·45185·01
193995·791·5979·20176·58
194086·961·6669·37157·99
194185·171·9772·50159·64

RURAL MAIL DELIVERY.—The rural-mail-delivery system was instituted in the Dominion about 1900, but due to the high comparative cost little progress was made with it until 1922. As from the 1st January of that year a scheme was introduced whereby a nominal fee is charged for this service; the rates are 10s. per annum for a delivery thrice weekly or less frequently, or £1 for a delivery having a greater frequency. These charges do not bear heavily on the farmer, and they enable the Post Office to extend rural-mail-delivery benefits to districts which were previously without such amenities. Every comparatively well-settled district now has its network of deliveries. The rural-mail carrier delivers and collects correspondence and parcels at or near the gates of farmers, sells postage-stamps, and obtains, as required, money-orders and postal notes.

It is an indication of the popularity of the system that, whereas there were 8,700 rural boxholders in 1920, there were 34,080 at 31st March, 1942.

AIR-MAIL SERVICE.—Details of the New Zealand air-mail service are given on page 229 of this Year-Book.

OVERSEAS PARCEL-POST.—The facilities afforded for the transmission of parcels through the Post Office to places within and beyond the Dominion have proved of much convenience to the public. The regulations admit of parcels up to 22 lb. in weight being sent to Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Fiji, French Settlements of Oceania, Egypt, Jamaica, Tonga, and certain Empire countries, and of parcels up to 11 lb. in weight being sent to all other countries of the world. Inland parcels may weigh up to 28 lb.

Year.Overseas Parcels received.Overseas Parcels despatched.
Number.weight.Declared Value.Customs Duty.Number.Weight.
  lb.££ lb.
1937197,1361,328,004912,774184,68345,600189,801
1938209,6671,407,794969,487223,32950,162197,637
1939133,349845,166736,262139,67944,771173,077
194098,573579,070557,57058,881270,8641,057,266
1941142,343696,505582,87656,227992,0914,615,921

The figures in 1941 show a great preponderance of outward parcels, due to heavy postings to the armed forces overseas, and the sending of gift parcels to civilians in the United Kingdom. Of the parcels received from overseas in 1941, 19,176 came from Great Britain (including those from foreign countries via Britain), while 14,890 came from the United States, and 35,064 from Australia and foreign countries via Australia. These countries, to which 202,271, 3,562, and 20,198 parcels respectively were despatched, also ranked highest (with the exception of Egypt), among countries to which parcels were sent from New Zealand. To Egypt 599,457 parcels for the armed forces were despatched.

NEWSPAPERS.—In June, 1942, there were 273 publications on the Post Office Register of Newspapers. Of these, 44 are published daily, 11 being morning papers and 33 evening papers. Sixteen appear three times per week, 16 twice per week, 61 weekly, 10 fortnightly, 121 monthly, and 5 at irregular intervals.

MONEY-ORDERS.—Of the total money-orders issued in New Zealand during 1941, 45,556, representing an aggregate value of £115,514, were for payment overseas. Of that amount, £36,785 was payable in the United Kingdom, £72,345 in other British countries, and 16,384 in foreign countries. Money-orders issued overseas for payment in New Zealand in 1941 numbered 21,253, the total value represented being £64,108. Of this amount £22,464 was issued in the United Kingdom, £34,706 in other British countries, and £6,938 in foreign countries.

Calendar Year.Number of Offices at end of Year.Money-orders issued.Money-orders paid.
Number.Value.Commission.Number.Value.
   ££ £
1937923784,4954,312,62954,333715,5554,180,205
1938934848,0504,802,29360,441770,1994,633,547
1939940911,4845,094,36471,879784,0874,689,789
1940946812,6674,435,00744,885780,7984,355,432
1941927751,7224,302,12637,519724,9624,253,748

POSTAL NOTES.—The popularity of the postal-note system for remitting small amounts is clearly illustrated in the table given below.

Year ended 31st March,Number of Offices at end of Year.Postal Notes issued.Postal Notes paid.
Number.Value.Commission.Number.Value.
   ££ £
19381,1493,746,5601,454,79335,2583,776,7121,435,907
19391,1493,835,4001,485,42635,9383,825,6811,446,344
19401,1613,374,8521,323,3937,9153,389,4681,290,509
19411,1422,558,9161,020,63035,0472,566,828989,186
19421,1262,408,020980,95233,2932,395,958942,504

British postal orders issued in the Dominion during the year ended 31st March, 1942, numbered 38,402, of a value of £11,161. Those paid numbered 10,222, and represented £5,537 in value.

TELEGRAPH AND TOLL SERVICES.—Up to the 31st March, 1942, a total sum of £11,894,756 had been expended on telegraph construction, including the construction of telephone exchanges. The amount expended during the financial year 1941–42 was £173,147.

During the year ended 31st March, 1942, the revenue from telegrams and toll communications was £1,371,877, to which should be added £1,761,918 revenue of telephone exchanges and £60,176 miscellaneous receipts, making a total telegraph and telephone revenue of £3,193,971.

Year ended 31st March,Number of Telegrams and Toll Messages forwarded during the Year.Revenue (including Miscellaneous Receipts).Value of Government Messages.Total Value of Business done during the Year.
Paid.Free* Government.Total.Telegraph and Toll.Telephone Exchange.

* Urgent marine telegrams: no payment received; discontinued 5th March, 1941.

    ££££
193819,933,84429,86619,963,7101,021,8941,458,0421,7222,481,658
193921,279,08527,92321,307,0081,096,7491,557,3271,5602,655,636
194020,961,24323,30020,984,5431,221,8931,633,1911,4902,856,574
194121,056,12417,11621,073,2401,311,4561,710,3871,2703,023,113
194222,211,42822,211,4281,432,0531,761,9183,193,971

As from 1st October, 1939, the charge for ordinary telegrams on week-days is 8d. for six words or less, and 1d. for each additional word. The charge for letter-telegrams is a flat rate of 1s. 2d. for twenty-four words, and 1d. for each additional two words. On Sundays and departmental holidays the rate for ordinary telegrams is 1s. for six words or less, and l ½d. for each additional word, the total charge being taken to the next penny where necessary. An additional charge of 8d. is made for an urgent telegram, irrespective of the number of words contained in the message. (Letter-telegrams are delivered by post on the morning following the day of lodgment.)

TELEPHONE-EXCHANGE SERVICE.—Telephone facilities are extensively utilized in New Zealand. According to data compiled by the Chief Statistician of the American Telephone and Telegraph Co. as at 1st January, 1941, New Zealand ranks third in number of telephones per 100 of population. Leading countries in this respect are: United States of America, 16·56; Sweden, 14·26; New Zealand. 13·96; Canada, 12·78; Denmark, 11·95; Switzerland, 11·23; Australia, 9·97; Norway, 8·52; United Kingdom, 7·00; Germany, 5·28; Netherlands, 5·23; Belgium, 5·11; Finland, 4·81; France, 3·86.

At the 31st March, 1942, there were 349 telephone exchanges in the Dominion. Of this number, 328 are of the magneto type, 2 common battery, and 19 automatic. The automatic exchanges are: Whangarei, Auckland, Hamilton, Gisborne, Napier, Hastings, Dannevirke, Stratford, Hawera, Wanganui, Marton, Palmerston North, Masterton, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Blenheim, Christchurch, Oamaru, and Dunedin.

The following statement shows the automatic-exchange equipment installed and in use in the Dominion on the 31st March, 1942.

 Capacity of Equipment Installed. No.Equipment in use. No.
Individual lines87,93078,630
Party-lines—  
  Two-party5,4004,804
  Four-party2,6502,122
  Multi-party625396
Individual-line stations 76,816
Party-line stations 18,836
Total of main stations 95,652
Extension stations 40,689
Total number of automatic-telephone stations connected 136,341

The following table indicates the growth of the New Zealand telephone-exchange service (the figures are as at 31st March of each year shown).

1934.1935.1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.

* Represents separate instruments (excluding private stations) connected to main telephone system.

Exchanges349349348348349348347348346
Subscribers, main stations119,689121,841127,056135,853145,370155,038162,508169,224173,302
Toll and service stations4,0294,1074,1454,3134,5074,5704,6474,7364,858
Public call offices7877968709171,0211,1031,2311,2401,293
Extension stations27,17828,66330,59833,83837,68942,00145,88349,44652,187
  Telephone-station totals*151,683155,407162,670174,921188,587202,712214,269224,646231,640

The total number of telephone-stations shows an increase of 79,957, or 52 per cent., during the period covered by the table, the net gain for each of the last live years being 13,666, 14,125, 11,557, 10,377, and 6,994, respectively. The increase in subscribers' main stations during the same period amounted to 53,613, or about 44 per cent., while extension stations show an increase of 25,009, or over 92 per cent.

In addition to the above, there are 3,800 stations connected by private telephone-lines with departmental toll-stations, making a grand total of 235,440 telephone-stations in New Zealand on the 31st March, 1942.

The “party” line system of telephone service is extensively used, particularly by those whose premises are situated at a distance from an exchange. In March, 1942, the number of party-line connections was 16,848, with a total of 65,623 stations.

The first public call offices (coin-in-the-slot telephones) erected in the Dominion were installed at Wellington in August, 1910. Of the total of 1,293 such instruments in use in the Dominion at the 31st March, 1942, the charge in 1,222 cases was 1d.; in nine, 2d.; and in sixty-two, 3d. The revenue of these slot telephones during the year ended 31st March. 1942, was £78,736.

The capital expenditure on the equipment, &c., of the telephone exchanges up to the 31st March, 1942, was £10,095,361, equal to an average cost of £43 11s. 8d. for each connection.

OCEAN CABLES.—Telegraphic communication between New Zealand and Australia was first established by means of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company's cable from Wakapuaka in 1876, this cable being duplicated in 1890. Subsequent developments were the opening of the Pacific cable to Vancouver in December, 1902, with a connection to Australia; the operation of a further cable to Australia in 1912, and the duplication of the Pacific cable in 1926. In 1929 a merger of British cable and wireless companies resulted in the overseas cable services being brought under the control of one authority, and as a consequence one cable to Australia was lifted, and the route of another was altered. All overseas cables now terminate at the one centre.

RADIO COMMUNICATION: Government Stations.—The first wireless-telegraph station in New Zealand for communicating with ships at sea was opened at Wellington on the 26th July, 1911.

There are now thirty-four stations under the control of the New Zealand Government, the principal being those at Awarua, Wellington, and Auckland on the New Zealand mainland, at Apia in Western Samoa, at Rarotonga in the Cook Islands, and at the Chatham Islands. Smaller stations on the mainland or on adjacent islands are those at The Brothers, Centre Island, Cuvier Island. Dog Island, Great Mercury Island, Jackson's Bay, Kermadec Islands, Milford Sound. Mokohinau, Stephen's Island, Puysegur Point, and Portland Island, while there are radio-beacon stations at the lighthouses at Cape Reinga, Cuvier Island, Mokohinau, Portland Island, Stephen's Island, Baring Head, Cape Campbell, and Tiritiri Island.

Communication is effected with outer islands in the Cook Group by Rarotonga-Radio through small feeder-stations at Aitutaki, Atiu, Mangaia, Manihiki, Mauke, Palmerston, Penrhyn, and Pukapuka. Small stations at Aleipata, Atafu, Fagamalo, Fakaofo, Nukunono, Salailua, and Tuasivi communicate with Apia-Radio, while Niue communicates with both Apia-Radio and Wellington-Radio.

By means of the radio-stations at Wellington, Apia, Rarotonga, and Niue, communication is maintained between New Zealand and the Pacific islands, the last three stations mentioned having direct communication with New Zealand. Wellington-Radio has also direct communication with Papeete-Radio (Tahiti) and Nukualofa (Tonga).

The radio business transacted by the New Zealand coast stations during the-last five years was as follows:—

Year ended 31st March,Forwarded.Received.
Messages.Words.Value.*Messages.Words.Value.*

* Amount collected by New Zealand.

   £  £
193814,557199,7255,51524,855321,4995,012
193914,749201,9015,59127,440363,4525,111
19408,843160,7433,11315,694218,2962,717
19415,211131,0802,2526,903149,9032,008
19425,681172,2023,4587,142186,1962,817

The foregoing table does not include free (service) messages.

Prior to the outbreak of war in September, 1939, facilities existed for the despatch of radio-telegrams to vessels at sea, and special rates operated for vessels registered in New Zealand, with further reductions for those engaged in regular passenger services. Owing to the exigencies of war, this service has been suspended, as has also a public radio-telephone service which commenced operation to Australia in November, 1930, and to the united Kingdom and Europe in July, 1931.

Aeronautical Radio Service: “Aeradio” Stations.—In January, 1936, coincident with the inauguration of commercial air lines in New Zealand, the Government found it necessary to provide aeradio facilities at the principal airports then in use. The rapid development of these services has called for additional aeradio stations, and such stations are now in regular use at the following places:—

Mangere, Musick Point, New Plymouth, Palmerston North, Napier, Wellington. Blenheim, Nelson, Westport, Hokitika, Harewood, Taieri, and Jackson's Bay.

By means of these aeradio stations commercial aircraft are in continuous radio communication with one or more ground stations during flight, and are able to obtain the latest weather information and necessary landing instructions. In addition, meteorological and service-operational messages are handled between the various ground stations.

The aeradio station at Musick Point is used for communication with aircraft engaged in the Trans-Tasman and Trans-Pacific services.

Private Stations.—Private radio-stations are governed by the Radio Regulations which were gazetted on the 21st July, 1932.

The licenses for radio receiving-stations (i.e., ordinary radio licenses) are designed to provide for experimental reception as well as for reception from radio-telephone broadcasting stations, and may be obtained at any postal money-order office on payment of the prescribed fee. Further reference to these licenses will be found in Section 42, dealing with radio broadcasting.

The licenses for private experimental (amateur) stations are intended to provide facilities for experimental transmission to those interested in radio science, and are issued subject to the qualifications of the applicants being satisfactory. All such stations have been temporarily' closed since the outbreak of the war.

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.—The receipts and payments of the Post and Telegraph Department for the last two financial years are shown in the following table.

Receipts.1940–41. £1941–42. £
Postages1,430,0721,436,959
Money-order and postal-note commission69,80362,595
Private-box and bag rents and rural delivery fees63,69861,495
Miscellaneous receipts592,993693,169
Paid telegrams352,606376,504
Paid tolls886,635995,373
Telephone exchanges1,710,3871,761,918
      Totals£5,106,194£5,388,013
Payments.££
Salaries2,281,3032,131,898
Conveyance of mails by sea and air96,566161,893
Conveyance of inland mails165,388165,984
Conveyance of mails by railway96,41298,350
Maintenance of telegraph and telephone lines241,209230,165
Depreciation Fund51,28072,100
Motor services and workshops106,715183,612
Miscellaneous570,638803,700
Interest on capital liability665,000667,196
Sick-benefit Fund6,7207,178
Maintenance of Post and Telegraph buildings57,67252,060
      Totals£4,338,903£4,574,136

The year 1941–42 commenced with a credit balance of £38,758. Of the gross balance of £852,635 at the end of the year, £578,000 was invested, £235,963 paid to Consolidated Fund, and £38,672 carried forward.

Receipts and payments for the last eleven years are shown by the following figures.

Year ended 31st March,Receipts.Payments.
 ££
19323,715,2292,794,565
19333,293,9322,688,119
19343,200,4142,648,600
19353,342,9782,844,554
19363,550,3363,141,884
19373,886,0983,622,425
19384,302,2444,045,762
19394,687,5644,529,358
19404,793,6914,445,906
19415,106,1944,338,903
19425,388,0134,574,136

VOLUME OF BUSINESS.—An indication of the volume of business handled during recent years may be obtained from a comparison of the value of transactions as follows:—

 £
1935–36220,000,000
1936–37236,000,000
1937–38295,000,000
1938–39286,000,000
1939–40285,000,000
1940–41362,000,000
1941–42392,000,000

STAFF.—The large volume and multifarious nature of the business of the Post and Telegraph Department entail the employment of a large staff. The Department is administered by the Postmaster-General and Minister of Telegraphs, with the Director-General as executive head. The staff at 31st March, 1942, was as follows: Permanent, 11,860; temporary, 3,508; total, 15,368. These figures include 3,929 employees serving with the armed forces. In addition there were 1,534 country postmasters and telephonists who acted as such in conjunction with other pursuits and did not rank as officers of the Department. There were also 90 officers of the Railways Department who acted as postmasters.

Chapter 16. SECTION 16.—LAND TENURE, SETTLEMENT, ETC.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL.

OCCUPATION OF LAND.—The total area of the Dominion, excluding the Cook and other Pacific islands annexed in 1901, but inclusive of the Kermadec Islands and the “outlying islands,” since these form parts of land districts, is 66,390,599 acres. Of this total, 42,997,400 acres were returned in 1942 as being in occupation, including reserves and Native lands leased, but excluding areas within borough boundaries, holdings of less than 1 acre in extent, and Native land held on the communal system.

According to information published by the Lands Department, the following is the condition of the land in the Dominion as at the 31st March of the years 1941 and 1942.

 1941.1942.

*The greater part, of this land is unsuitable for settlement.

†Includes certain areas alienated by sale to Europeans.

‡Increase of 52 acres revealed by resurvey.

 Acres.Acres.
Total area sold or granted and held on freehold22,041,40422,102,332
Total area reserved for public purposes16,154,09016,206,069
Total area of Crown lands leased under all tenures (exclusive of reserves leased by the Crown)16,518,02216,410,030
Total area of Crown land available for future disposal*1,990,2602,010,169
Total area of Native land†4,538,1244,499,453
Land unfit for settlement, including rivers, lakes, roads, &c.5,148,6475,162,546
      Totals66,390,54766,390,599‡

The number of holdings and percentages of total holdings in occupation, grouped according to size, as returned in the last five years available, are given below.

Area, in Acres.Number of Holdings.Percentages of Total.
1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
1 and under 1011,02411,06711,20411,20611,26512·8912·9213·0312·9813·04
10 and under 5014,75514,79014,74514,688,14,58517·2617·2617·1517·0216·89
50 and under 10012,51612,51112,57412,68212,73914·6414·6114·6314·7014·75
100 and under 20016,23216,32316,43616,58516,64618·9919·0519·1219·2219·27
200 and under 3209,6209,6259,7539,8779,86111·2511·2411·3411·4411·42
320 and under 64010,20410,27510,21710,20810,20211·9311·9911·8811·8311·81
640 and under 1,0004,1754,1754,1384,1124,1544·884·874·814·764·81
1,000 and under 5,0005,9095,8635,8705,8995,8836·916·846·836·846·81
5,000 and under 10,0005535505495485440·650·640·640·630·63
10,000 and under 20,0002882942892982940·360·340·340·350·34
20,000 and under 60,0001481431431461450·170·170·170·170·17
50,000 and over58585555550·070·070·060·060·06
      Totals85,48285,67485,97386,30486,373100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00

Although approximately 45 per cent. of holdings are less than 100 acres in extent, the total area of such holdings represents only a little over 3 per cent. of the occupied land of the Dominion. A further 19 per cent. of the holdings range between 100 and 200 acres, but the aggregate area of these amounts to slightly less than 5½ per cent. of the total. At the other end of the scale it is found that 67 per cent. of the occupied land is held in areas of 1,000 acres and upwards, although the number of such holdings is only 8 per cent. of the total. Holdings of 5,000 acres and upwards, of which there were 1,038 in 1941, account for over 40 per cent. of the total area of occupied land.

Area of Holdings, in Acres.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1 and under 1051,23851,47352,18951,97252,525
10 and under 50374,767375,499375,496373,144374,038
50 and under 100905,258906,369911,776920,201925,878
100 and under 2002,269,6632,282,4462,299,1712,319,6622,330,867
200 and under 3202,410,0762,409,3682,440,3442,473,1242,476,209
320 and under 6404,619,1484,648,4424,618,5044,612,7784,614,325
640 and under 1,0003,315,0203,322,3433,300,1443,272,2363,307,731
1,000 and under 5,00011,509,79611,463,37911,536,86111,506,93411,517,582
5,000 and under 10,0003,786,1803,708,0033,778,5593,759,2803,707,175
10,000 and under 20,0004,039,8474,253,1304,050,8234,159,9164,133,400
20,000 and under 50,0004,543,6964,424,1454,443,9054,547,2484,406,409
50,000 and over5,375,2045,256,0925,093,5004,931,3335,042,198
    Totals43,199,89343,160,68942,901,27242,927,82842,888,337

Tenure of Occupied Lands.—The area of land in occupation as at 31st January in each of the specified years, classified according to tenure, is given in the following table. Freehold land includes land held on deferred payment, if occupied by the owner.

Tenure.1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
Freehold21,222,60521,275,38721,294,54621,504,84721,689,218
Leasehold21,938,08421,625,88521,633,28221,383,49021,308,182
    Total area occupied43,160,68942,901,27242,927,82842,888,33742,997,400

Lands in occupation are not strictly comparable with Crown lands alienated or in process of alienation, for certain lands which were never made waste lands of the Crown have passed into the hands of Europeans. It must also be remembered that not all of the freehold land in the Dominion is in occupation, while (as stated previously) holdings within borough boundaries or under one acre in extent are excluded from the annual statistics.

Condition of Occupied Land.—The land in occupation in the Dominion at the 31st January, 1942, was classified according to condition and use as follows:—

 Acres.Per Cent. of Total.

* Includes areas also sown with grasses and clovers.

In grain and pulse crops641,933*1·49
In green and root crops658,317*1·53
In fallow110,4960·25
In sown grasses and clovers—  
  Cut for hay, seed, or ensilage710,3101·65
  Not cut for hay, seed, or ensilage16,742,15338·94
In vineyards and orchards20,0120·05
In passion-fruit vines108 
In hop-vines578 
In market gardens, nurseries, and seed-gardens9,8770·02
In tung trees29 
In private gardens and pleasure-grounds83,0280·19
In plantations857,9331·99
      Total area in cultivation19,834,77446·11
Unimproved land23,162,62653·89
      Total area in occupation42,997,400100·00

Land in cultivation (under crop and in pasture) forms the subject matter of the section on agricultural and pastoral production immediately following. An indication of the condition and geographical distribution of unimproved land is afforded by the following table, which relates to the position in January, 1942.

Land District.Phormium (New Zealand Flax).Tussock and other Native Grasses.Fern, Scrub, and Second Growth.Standing Native Bush.Barren and Unproductive Land.Total Unimproved Occupied Land.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
North Auckland4,064142,212772,951278,32257,1401,254,689
Auckland8,714112,907950,701446,50869,6131,588,443
Gisborne47149,593151,757171,21614,442387,479
Hawke's Bay153399,451256,90997,21838,294792,025
Taranaki2268,211144,276216,22012,691381,624
Wellington7,993518,681435,561309,305102,9851,374,525
Marlborough2,3371,125,214243,410128,808355,3641,855,133
Nelson3,499239,498298,749280,82017,229839,795
Westland6,372118,895171,041381,699166,256844,263
Canterbury2,8794,477,924138,485114,849655,8705,390,007
Otago2,3915,359,257479,705339,036416,4486,596,837
Southland8,1651,317,487306,030121,883104,2411,857,806
    Totals47,26413,869,3304,349,5752,885,8842,010,57323,162,626

SCENIC RESERVES, PUBLIC DOMAINS, AND NATIONAL PARKS—The consolidating Scenery Preservation Act, 1908, with its amendments of 1910, 1915, 1926, and 1933, contains the major legislation dealing with the reservation of land, Crown or private, for scenic, thermal, or historic reserves. The Act is administered by a Scenery Preservation Board through the Department of Lands and Survey.

The Public Reserves, Domains, and National Parks Act, 1928, is also a consolidation of earlier measures. For the purposes of this Act public reserves do not include education reserves (vide next subsection), scenic reserves (supra), State forests (vide Section 18.—Forestry), land reserved under the Kauri-gum Industry Act, 1908, or reserves under the Tourist and Health Resorts Control Act, 1908. The Act declares the general right of the public to free access to recreational reserves, but gives limited powers;—extended by the Local Authorities Empowering (Aviation Encouragement) Act, 1929—to charge for admission.

Any public reserve for health or recreational purposes vested in or acquired by the Crown may be declared a public domain. Public domains are generally administered by Domain Boards, many of which are already existing local authorities. Domain Boards may purchase land, and land may also be taken for recreation-grounds under the Public Works Act, 1928. In certain limited instances power is given to charge for admission to public domains.

National parks are administered by National Park Boards, which have power, subject to ministerial approval, to fix fees for camping or picnicking within the parks.

The following areas are as at 31st March, 1942:—

 Number.Acres.
Reserves under Scenery Preservation Act1,187843,248
Public domains80879,018
National parks93,022,934

LAND TRANSFER AND DEEDS REGISTRATION.—Under the land transfer system introduced in 1870 the title to land is not affected by the execution of documents. Registration is the fundamental principle, and it is only on registration that any interest passes. The Land Transfer Department assumes all responsibility for the registration, and any person named in the register as taking an interest under a registered instrument acquires a practically indefeasible title.

The land transfer system of title by registration has great advantages over the older system of title by deeds, even when the deeds are duly registered. The state of a land transfer title can be ascertained by a search of the register with very much greater facility than can the state of a title under the deeds system, and the powers vested in Registrars under the Land Transfer Act enable them to keep the register simple, clear, and free from doubts; the simplicity of searching and of the preparation of instruments under the land transfer system enables transactions with land under that system to be carried out at less cost than under the deeds system; and under the land transfer system there is the State guarantee of a practically indefeasible title, as mentioned previously.

These considerations led to the passing in 1924 of the Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act, which has for its object the bringing under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act, 1915, of all land alienated by the Crown and not already under the provisions of that Act, except lands held by aboriginal Natives of New Zealand under their customs and usages.

The work of bringing all land titles under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act as required by the Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act, 1924, is still being proceeded with, and has been completed except in the Auckland District. There are also a few titles in other districts that it has been considered unwise to deal with at present owing to grave doubts as to ownership, or for some other reason. Steady progress is shown in the Auckland District, but it will be some time yet before the work in this district is completed. Progress during the last year or so has been considerably hampered by reason of shortage of staff caused by the war.

Deeds Registration.—Provision has existed since 1841 and is now contained in the Deeds Registration Act, 1908, for the registration of deeds and instruments affecting land which is not subject to the provisions of the Land Transfer Act. Registration is not essential to the validity of the instrument, but it is highly important as a record and to secure priority. The Act provides that every deed shall be void as against any person claiming for valuable consideration under any subsequent deed duly registered unless the earlier deed was registered before the subsequent one. The Department is not responsible for the form or matter of the instruments registered beyond seeing that they are duly stamped and contain a sufficient description of the land to identify it. Provision is made for the deposit of instruments in the Deeds Registry Office for safe custody and reference, and such deposit operates as a release from any covenant for production. The Deeds Index and all recorded and deposited instruments are open to public inspection, and certified copies may be obtained on payment of the prescribed fees.

Information as to transactions under the Deeds Registration Act for each of the years 1931–32 to 1941–42 is given in the following statement.

Year ended 31st March,Deeds recorded.Fees. £
19324,7454,314
19333,6163,081
19342,7972,610
19352,3192,217
19362,3542,290
19372,2632,180
19382,0081,658
19391,3231,104
1940731615
1941488435
1942257256

Land Transfer.—Information as to applications to bring land under the Land Transfer Act during each of the last live years is given in the next table.

Year ended 31st March,Applications.
Number.Area.Value.
Town and Suburban.Country.
  Acres.Acres.£
193825134113,723
19391751,3648,247
19402071169,765
1941217375,875
1942102961,140

The table next following shows transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act during each of the last eleven years.

Year ended 31st March,Number.Area.Consideration.
Town and Suburban.Country.
  Acres.Acres.£
193216,9434,1131,214,54013,205,708
193315,3814,161990,50711,015,434
193415,7604,1931,017,6129,551,205
193518,6284,6841,186,61712,197,376
193623,0446,1741,393,53215,591,391
193725,1787,1721,468,45118,853,823
193826,2698,0621,020,63823,328,714
193928,9658,209957,82023,659,236
194028,0577,4771,038,90122,119,383
194128,8288,0841,102,75225,738,221
194228,20711,405915,20423,261,191

The numbers of transfers registered during the years 1931–32 to 1936–37 include all transfers registered—i.e., transfers of land from trustees to beneficiaries or to new trustees, transfers of mortgages, easements, &c. The numbers shown for the years 1937–38 to 1941–42 relate only to transfers of land on sale. The numbers of miscellaneous transfers for the years 1937–38, 1938–39, 1939–40, 1940–41, and 1941–42 are 5,082, 5,348, 5,265, 5,123, and 4,415 respectively.

Monthly statistics of transfers on sale of land registered under the Land Transfer Act are available and are published regularly in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Certificates of Title issued.—The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the last five years.

Year ended 31st March,In lieu of Crown Grants.Under Transfer Act of 1924.Ordinary.Total.
19387051,9159,75612,376
19396592,11110,64813,419
19401,0471,96710,69513,709
19416921,2519,81911,762
19429808468,91810,744

SURVEYS.—A subsection dealing with surveys was included in recent previous issues of the Year-Book, but considerations of space have necessitated its deletion from this issue.

SUBSECTION B.—CROWN LANDS.

THE Crown lands are administered under the authority of the Land Act, 1924, the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, the Small Farms Act, 1932–33, and the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, by the Minister of Lands, his executive officer being the Under-Secretary of Lands, who is the permanent head of the Department of Lands and Survey. New Zealand is divided into twelve land districts, each being under the local direction of a Commissioner of Crown Lands and a Land Board.

Commissioners of Crown Lands are executive officers of the land districts, having wide discretionary powers under the Act. Each is the Chairman of the Land Board of his district, and transacts all its routine business in the sale, letting, and occupation of Crown lands. A Land Board consists of five members—viz., the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the district, three members appointed by the Governor-General, and one member elected by the Crown tenants of the district.

The Boards transact all business connected with the sale, letting, disposal, and occupation of Crown lands, and all matters connected with the management and control of the public lands in their hands. They are the sole judges of the fulfilment of conditions in leases and licenses, and they can declare them forfeit.

METHODS OF ACQUIRING CROWN LAND.—A selector may purchase for cash, or on deferred payment, or may select on renewable lease. Every applicant must be of the age of seventeen years or upwards, and may apply for Crown land solely for his own use and benefit, and not directly or indirectly for the use or benefit of any other person. Including the land he applies for, he is not to be the owner, holder, or occupier under any tenure of more than one year's duration, either severally or jointly or in common with any other person or persons, of any land anywhere in New Zealand exceeding in the whole 5,000 acres of land, computed as follows: (a) Every acre of first-class land is reckoned as 7½- acres; (b) Every acre of second-class land is reckoned as 2½ acres; (c) Every acre of third-class land is reckoned as one acre.

Crown land may be selected and occupied under the following tenures and systems:—

  1. Town, suburban, and village lands—(a) For cash and deferred payment, by public auction; (b) By lease for terms up to ten years; (c) By renewable lease for thirty-three years.

  2. Rural land (unimproved), (under optional system)—(a) For cash, by application; (b) Purchase by deferred payment; (c) Renewable lease for sixty-six years.

  3. Land-for-settlement estates (improved rural and pastoral land)—(a) Under renewable lease for thirty-three years, with right to acquire freehold of 400 acres of first-class land, 1,200 acres of second-class land, or 3,000 acres of third-class land; (b) For cash or on deferred payment, by auction.

  4. Pastoral land—(a) By small-grazing-run lease for twenty-one years, with right of renewal (maximum area, 20,000); (b) By pastoral license on terms up to thirty-five years.

  5. Land within mining districts—(a) On pastoral licenses under special regulations, with right to acquire the freehold or exchange to a renewable lease; (b) On occupation leases under special regulations, with similar rights as to purchase of freehold and exchange.

  6. Miscellaneous—(a) Temporary occupation on terms up to five years: (b) Sale or occupation for special purposes; (c) Outlying land.

By the passing of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1926, it was provided that after the 9th September, 1926, no more Crown lands were to be disposed of under the occupation-with-right-of-purchase tenure, and that any lands which might have been so disposed of could be disposed of by way of sale on deferred payments in addition to the other modes of disposal provided by the Land Act.

Full particulars are given in the Crown Lands Guide, issued periodically and obtainable at any Land Office, as to the conditions of lease and occupation. Improvements to a certain value are required to be effected on rural land purchased for cash or on deferred payment or held on renewable lease, and residence is compulsory for certain periods on most Crown leaseholds.

DISPOSAL OF ENDOWMENTS AND RESERVES.—Education endowments are available for leasing under the Education Reserves Act, 1928, which permits of a lease being granted, under the Public Bodies' Leases Act, 1908, as well as under the Land Act, 1924. The freehold of the land cannot be acquired.

Public reserves not vested in trustees or a local authority may be leased under the Public Reserves, Domains, and National Parks Act. 1928, for any term not exceeding twenty-one years, with right of renewal for a further term. The freehold of the land cannot be acquired.

LAND DEVELOPMENT.—The Land Laws Amendment Act, 1929, deals chiefly with the promotion of settlement on undeveloped Crown lands. Power is given for the Crown to develop idle Crown lands, and also for the making of advances to Crown tenants holding undeveloped country for the erection of buildings, purchase of stock (the latter since the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1932), and for clearing, grassing, fencing, &c. Settlers taking up unimproved sections may apply for financial assistance, the advances to be made as improvements are effected. The rate of interest has been fixed at 5 per cent. Crown tenants already in occupation of land coming under the designation of undeveloped are also eligible to apply for development advances. At the 31st March, 1942, 444 settlers were still indebted to the Crown in respect of advances-made, the amount outstanding being £220,813, while the area still being farmed or developed in readiness for settlement was 80,430 acres.

LANDS OPENED FOR SELECTION.—During the year ended 31st March, 1942, an area of 96,732 acres of land was offered for selection under the various tenures provided by the Land Act, Land for Settlements Act, and Education Reserves Act.

Under renewable lease an area of 10,836 acres was offered, 343 acres being education endowments, 3,662 acres land for settlements, and 6,831 acres ordinary Crown lands. An area of 8,260 acres was offered under the optional system.

The year's transactions included 100 purchases of small town, suburban, and rural lands, aggregating 3,302 acres, offered for sale by auction; ordinary Crown land holdings representing 3,296 acres; and land for settlements 6 acres.

The total selections during the year covered an area of 444,863 acres, the number of sections being 1,018 under all headings. These, figures include some 406 sections comprising an area of 83,122 acres taken up under miscellaneous leases and licenses, so that the selections on permanent tenures numbered 612 sections, covering a total area of 361,741 acres. The lands dealt with comprise both areas offered for the first time and areas which have become available for reoffering through various reasons. The total area of entirely new rural land selected during the year was 2,781 acres, of which 2,234 acres were Crown land, 327 acres land for settlements, and 220 acres education endowments, the number of sections being 49.

Selections by discharged soldiers are included in the foregoing totals.

SELECTIONS UNDER SETTLEMENT CONDITIONS.—Areas under this heading include all lands sold for cash or selected on the deferred-payment system, small grazing-runs, and leases under the following tenures: renewable lease, mining districts land occupation leases, educational-endowment leases, and pastoral licenses in mining districts under special regulations.

Year ended 31st March,Sold for Cash.Deferred-payment Licenses.Leases and Licenses (Ordinary Settlement).Small Grazing-runs.Totals.
NUMBER.
19381521092651527
193910555332 492
194083713071,462
194178362942410
1942100183751494
AREA (ACRES).
19383,5945,57250,0823,27662,524
19392,5675,66862,244 70,479
19401,32314,28650,22236766,198
19413,1625,26269,20816,36994,001
19423,3022,45474,9135,25585,924

CROWN LAND HELD OR MADE FREEHOLD.—The table following shows the position of Crown lands at 31st March, 1941. Settlement lands under the Land for Settlements Act, which are dealt with later on in this subsection, are included in the figures for the various tenures under which they are held.

Tenure.Total Number of Selectors.Total Area held from the Crown.Total Yearly Rental or Instalment payable.Total Area made Freehold.
Number of Purchasers.Area.
  Acres.£ Acres.
Cash lands    13,311,548
Deferred payment3,631606,764100,89513,1751,489,002
Perpetual leases1465,9097813,113865,141
Occupation with right of purchase964257,26422,3465,7211,421,234
Lease in perpetuity7,0081,443,704163,2823,504604,299
Renewable lease9,4082,666,925362,151905126,540
Agricultural lease9282211,408140,896
Mining districts land occupation leases66115,8171,7122185,535
Homestead   6180,453
Pastoral licenses in mining districts under special regulations40479,9511,76313024,402
Small grazing runs7662,478,17090,5927693,578
Pastoral runs5998,129,86579,712924,399
Hanmer Crown leases104332558  
Small farms17414,4009283154
Miscellaneous leases and licenses6,715987,99139,35916918,488
      Totals30,58916,687,374864,10028,49218,205,669
Thermal-springs leases (Rotorua)2387831,207105325
Education endowments—     
  Primary3,696763,658101,83276,848
  Secondary49538,01314,272114
      Totals4,429802,454117,3111137,187
      Grand totals35,01817,489,828981,41128,60518,212,856
Other endowment lands734317,82812,080127,308

CROWN LANDS MADE FREEHOLD, YEAR ENDED 31st MARCH, 1941.

Tenure (immediately prior to acquisition of Freehold).Area.Amount realized.

* Under section 223 of Land Act, 1924.

 Acres.£
Cash lands sold1,28614,281
Freehold acquired under the following tenures:—  
  Deferred payment28,17097,438
  Occupation with right of purchase27,62552,525
  Lease in perpetuity30,333159,373
  Mining districts land occupation leases126680
  Renewable lease12,72266,715
  Pastoral licenses in mining districts under special regulations606502
  Thermal springs leases (Rotorua)87,396
  Miscellaneous*368252
      Totals101,244399,162

SUBDIVISION OF LAND.—Much of the land legislation has been in the direction of preventing large areas of good land from being acquired or retained by a single individual. Part VI of the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, provides for an agreement being made between the Minister of Lands and the owner in fee-simple of any land for the subdivision of that land, and for the disposal by public tender of the allotments by way of sale or by way of lease with right of purchase.

Section 97 provides for similar agreements between the Minister and the owners of Native freehold land in respect of the disposition by sale or lease of that land.

In Part VII of the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, provision is made whereby the Minister of Lands may at any time in writing notify an owner of land that such land or a portion thereof is required for purposes of settlement. The owner of the land is required, within six months after such notice has been gazetted, to notify the Minister whether he elects (a) to subdivide and offer the land for sale in subdivisions, or (b) to enter into an agreement with the Minister as above, or (c) that the land shall be taken compulsorily under the Act.

In sections 381 and 382 of the Land Act, 1924, provision exists for compulsorily taking private land (not within a borough or town district) in cases where in the opinion of the Dominion Land Purchase Board such land has been acquired by way of aggregation, and where such aggregation is contrary to the public interest. Compensation is payable for all land so taken.

The Small Farms (Relief of Unemployment) Act, 1932–33 (changed to the Small Farms Act by an amendment passed in 1939), which is administered by the Department of Lands and Survey, authorized the Board constituted under the Act to acquire lands for the Crown by way of purchase, or by lease with right of purchase, or by resumption of suitable areas of Crown lands held under lease or license, or by setting aside any land which is subject to the Land for Settlements Act, 1925. Where land suitable for the purposes of the Board is, in the opinion of the Board, not being adequately used, powers are given by the Act for its compulsory acquisition. All holdings under the Small Farms Act are disposed of by way of renewable lease, which does not confer any right to acquire the fee-simple. The Small Farms Amendment Act, 1940, adds discharged soldiers of the present war to the classes of persons to whom leases may be granted, and gives power to take land for this purpose.

LAND FOR SETTLEMENTS.—The purchase of private lands by the Crown for closer settlement purposes is authorized by the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, a consolidation of former legislation.

Thirty estates, of a total area of 27,017 acres, were offered during the year ended 31st March, 1942. Of these, four, comprising an area of 1,042 acres, were purchased for closer settlement and Landed over at 31st March, 1942, to the Small Farms Board for further improvement.

SUMMARY OF ESTATES ACQUIRED TO 31ST MARCH, 1942.

Land District.Number.Area.Purchase-money.
  Acres.£
North Auckland5651,845480,682
Auckland82391,0831,310,982
Gisborne2686,380790,131
Hawke's Bay59264,7831,714,292
Taranaki2731,959376,031
Wellington158160,9712,351,238
Marlborough23234,591756,482
Nelson1448,821150,473
Westland36,03214,062
Canterbury195463,4613,592,100
Otago82336,8032,036,018
Southland3596,609534,780
      Totals7602,173,33814,107,271

The figures in the foregoing table do not include any advances under section 2 of the Discharged Soldiers Settlements Amendment Act, 1917, but include purchases under section 3 of that Act, and under the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1928.

The transfer of certain areas from Crown to settlement lands, and the adjustment, of areas to account for ascertained surpluses or deficiencies, bring the total areas of settlement lands to 2,288,627 acres at the 31st March, 1942. Of this, 393,938 acres have been sold for cash or made freehold, the number of purchasers being 3,361 and total purchase-money £1,967,105, and 98,368 acres are occupied by roads or by reserves unlet. At the 31st March, 1942, 6,074 selectors were holding a total of 1,710,514 acres, the annual rental for which amounts to £417,593; and the remaining 85,807 acres were unlet.

PURCHASE OF LANDS FOR GROUPS OF APPLICANTS.—Part II of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1928, gives power whereby two or more persons may purchase land acquired on their behalf by the Crown. No property was so purchased during the year ended 31st March, 1942.

ASSISTING PURCHASE OF PRIVATE LAND.—Section 3 of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1932, provides authority for the making of advances to purchasers of private freehold properties up to 90 per cent. of the purchase-money, all such advances to be secured by way of first mortgage.

LAND FOR DISCHARGED SOLDIERS.—Under the provisions of the Discharged' Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, and amendments, any person is entitled to the benefits of the Act who was an honourably discharged member of a New Zealand Naval or Expeditionary Force of 1914–18, or was a bona fide resident of New Zealand and served during that war with other British Forces.

There is power to dispose of land under the ordinary tenures of the Land Act, 1924, and the Land for Settlements Act, 1925–i.e., for cash, on deferred payment, or on renewable lease under the former Act, and on renewable lease under the latter Act; also under the “special tenures” of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, which are cash, deferred payment, or a renewable lease with a purchasing clause.

Under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, a total area of 1,456,024 acres has been proclaimed to date, comprising 1,048,361 acres of ordinary Crown lands; lands for settlements, 404,307 acres: and Cheviot Estate, 3,356 acres. Some 702,837 acres of this aggregate fall under section 3 of the Act (ordinary tenures) and 753,187 acres under section 4 (special tenures).

From the inception of the soldier-settlement scheme in 1915, the allotments made number 4,111, covering a total area of 1,444,422 acres.

Under the provisions of section 6 of the Finance Act, 1937, the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account was abolished as from the 31st March, 1938.

The mortgage securities under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act have now been transferred to the State Advances Corporation. Reference to these will be found in Section 23, Subsection D, dealing with State Advances.

As stated under a previous heading, provision for the acquisition of land for the purpose of settling discharged soldiers of the present war has been made per medium of the Small Farms Amendment Act, 1940.

SUBSECTION C—NATIVE LANDS.

DEFINITION AND KINDS OF NATIVE LAND.—Native land is of two kinds—namely, customary land and Native freehold land. Customary land is land which has never been the subject of a Crown grant and is held by Natives under the customs and usages of the Maori people. It is land in respect of which the ancient customary Native title as recognized and guaranteed by the Treaty of Waitangi has not yet been extinguished. Such land, since it has not been Crown-granted, remains vested in the Crown, subject, however, to the customary title of the Natives, and to their right to have the customary title transformed into a freehold title by the Native Land Court. There is little of this class of land now left in the Dominion.

Customary land has always been restricted from alienation except in favour of the Crown. By the Treaty of Waitangi the exclusive right to purchase such land was reserved to the Crown, and in all statutes since passed the alienation of customary land to private individuals has been prohibited, and this prohibition is now extended to the Crown. Native freehold land is the land held by Natives under an English freehold title, though subject to certain restrictions on alienation and other special incidents which are unknown to the ordinary law.

Whether land is Native or European land depends upon the beneficial ownership of it, and not merely on the legal ownership. If land is held by a European in trust for a Native, it is Native land; if it is held in trust by a Native for a European, it is European land. There are, however, four exceptions to this:—

  1. When land has once become European land, it never again becomes Native land unless by special enactment.

  2. Land purchased by a Native from the Crown for a pecuniary consideration is not Native land. This does not include an exchange of land, with or without a payment of money by way of equality of exchange.

  3. Land held by a Native in severalty may be declared to be European land by the Native Appellate Court.

  4. Under certain circumstances (see p. 309 of 1942 Year-Book) the Native owner may have been declared a European.

Even though one of many Native owners may sell, the land remains Native land until all have disposed of their interests, or until the purchaser has had his interests partitioned off. A “Native” means a Maori or half-caste, or a person intermediate in blood between a Maori and a half-caste.

The Native Land Act, 1931, and the Native Purposes Act, 1931, are consolidations, with amendments, of existing legislation.

BOARD OF NATIVE AFFAIRS.—The Board of Native Affairs constituted under the Board of Native Affairs Act, 1934–35, consists of the Native Minister, the Under-Secretary of the Native Department, the Under-Secretary for Lands, the Valuer-General, the Financial Adviser to the Government, the Director-General of Agriculture, and such other members (not exceeding three) as the Governor-General may appoint.

The functions of the Board include, inter alia, the following:—

  1. The control of the development and settlement of Native land or land owned or occupied by Natives, undertaken pursuant to Part I of the Native Land Amendment Act, 1936.

  2. The control of expenditure on farming operations undertaken by Maori Land Boards and the Native Trustee.

  3. The control of investments by—(a) Maori Land Boards; (b) the Native Trustee; and (c) the East Coast Commissioner.

  4. The control of negotiations for the acquisition of Native lands by the Crown.

  5. The control of expenditure on housing operations under the Native Housing Act, 1935, and its amendment of 1938.

NATIVE LAND COURT.—The Native Land Court consists of a Chief Judge and such other Judges as the Governor-General may think fit to appoint. All powers of the Court may be exercised by a single Judge, but there are certain important powers vested exclusively in the Chief Judge. Commissioners are appointed who exercise such jurisdiction of a Judge as the Governor-General authorizes. The chief matters within the jurisdiction of the Court are:—

  1. The investigation of title to customary land, and transforming it into Native freehold land.

  2. The exclusive power of partitioning land among the owners.

  3. The sanctioning of exchanges for other Native land and European land.

  4. Granting probates of wills and succession orders to Natives.

  5. Making orders for the adoption of children.

  6. Appointing trustees for Natives who are minors or under other disability.

  7. The incorporation of the owners of Native land.

  8. The determination of various claims as between Natives.

  9. To grant confirmation of alienation of Native land.

Business dealt with in 1941–42 was as follows:—

Number of sittings107
Number of cases notified10,723
Number of orders made10,084
Number of cases dismissed825
Number of cases adjourned sine die5,191
Number of partitions made240
Area affected (acres)23,330
Number of succession orders made5,068
Number of other orders made5,016

The Native Appellate Court consists of any two or more Judges of the Native Land Court, provided that two Judges at least shall concur in every decision of the Court. With certain exceptions the Appellate Court determines appeals, whether on law or on fact, from all final orders of the Native Land Court.

MAORI LAND BOARDS.—There are seven Maori Land Boards, each consisting of two members, viz.—the Judge (or, if there be no Judge of the district, a Commissioner of the Court appointed by the Native Minister), and the Registrar of the Native Land Court district, the Judge acting as President. The chief functions of a Maori Land Board are:—

  1. To administer certain large areas of Native land vested in those Boards in trust for the Native owners, the Boards having extensive powers of sale, lease, and management.

  2. To act as statutory agent of the Native owners in respect of certain areas of Native land set apart for Native settlement.

  3. To control the administration and disposition of Native land, by resolution of the assembled owners.

  4. To assist Natives in farming their lands.

In the administration of some 660,000 acres of vested lands, the collection and distribution of rents, royalties, and purchase-moneys from these lands, and from freehold areas which have been alienated, the operations of the seven Maori Land Boards are being fully sustained Besides assisting Natives to farm their own lands and in certain circumstances acting as agent for Maoris, the Boards are empowered to engage in any industry in the interests of Natives, to act as receivers for the purpose of enforcing charges imposed by the Native Land Courts, and to deal with various matters affecting land by meetings of assembled owners.

The collective receipts and payments of the Boards for the year ended 31st March, 1942, were respectively £475,749 and £439,385, as compared with £415,805 and £439,827 for the previous financial year. At this date the total liability to Native beneficiaries was £482,166, whilst funds held or invested by the Boards aggregated £660,497, under the following headings:—

 £
Government securities105,013
Mortgages and charges337,679
Deposit with Native Trustee177,897
Cash balances39,908
 £660,497

The Boards' total reserves for general and specific purposes as at 31st March, 1942, amounted to £204,057.

With regard to Native freehold land, the Courts during the year 1941–42 approved of leases comprising 25,137 acres, and confirmed transfers (apart from sales to the Crown) affecting 6,049 acres of freehold land.

POWERS OF ALIENATION.—The ordinary provisions as to alienation of Native land do not affect the power to dispose of land by will, but a Native cannot will to a European except it be a husband or wife or other relative of the person making the will. A Native cannot dispose of customary land, whether by will or otherwise. No alienation of Native land by a Native has any effect until it is confirmed by the Native Land Court.

The Court, before confirming an alienation, must satisfy itself, inter alia, that it is not contrary to the interests of the Native alienating; that no Native is rendered landless; that the consideration is adequate; that the purchase-money is paid or secured; and that the alienation is not otherwise prohibited by lave.

A lease cannot be for a longer term than fifty years, and a mortgage must have the approval of the Native Minister and confirmation by the Native Land Court.

PURCHASE OF NATIVE LAND FOR CROWN.—Since 5th April, 1935, the duty of undertaking, controlling, and carrying out all negotiations for the acquisition of Native lands by the Crown, and the performance and completion of all contracts entered into, is imposed upon the Board of Native Affairs.

Pending any purchase by the Crown the Governor-General may, by Order in Council, prohibit alienation other than to the Crown. Upon the purchase being completed the land is proclaimed Crown land, and is subject to administration under the Land Act, 1924. Where the land is subject to lease when purchased, there may be extended to the tenant the option of purchasing the land from the Crown or having a renewable lease granted to him.

The area of Native land still held by Natives in the North Island is estimated at 3,768,000 acres, and in the whole Dominion at 4,008,000 acres. In many cases the Natives are utilizing their land for pastoral and dairying purposes. Other lands are being farmed for them by Maori Land Boards, by the Native Trustee, and by the East Coast Commissioner.

NATIVE LAND DEVELOPMENT.—In the year 1929 legislation was enacted giving sanction to a scheme for the development and settlement of lands owned or occupied by Maoris. Part I of the Native Land Amendment Act, 1936, which replaces section 522 of the Native Land Act, 1931, imposes on the Board of Native Affairs the duty of undertaking and carrying out this work.

To overcome any delays or difficulties arising from the nature of the titles to the lands proposed to be developed, the Board of Native Affairs is authorized to bring such land under the scope of a development scheme. Upon notification of the fact the owners are prevented from interfering with the work of development, and private alienation of any land within the scheme is prohibited. The funds for development are provided by the Minister of Finance through the Public Works Fund. The Board of Native Affairs is armed with the most comprehensive powers, which it can exercise directly through the Native Department or delegate to any Maori Land Board or to the Native Trustee. The Board is also empowered to direct a Maori Land Board or the Native Trustee to use their funds for development. Power is also taken by arrangement between the Minister of Lands and the Board of Native Affairs to develop Crown lands that adjoin or are surrounded by a Native land-development scheme, thus removing a further obstacle in the way of development. Special legislative provision has also been made enabling one or other of the Maori Land Boards or the Native Trustee to undertake farming of specified blocks on behalf of the beneficial owners.

The total area gazetted under Part I of the Native Land Amendment Act, 1936, to 31st March, 1942, was 926,000 acres, of which 252,000 acres are occupied by 1,920 settlers and 250,000 acres are being developed. The live-stock being carried comprises 29,800 cows, 24,000 other dairy stock, 27,600 run cattle, 155,500 breeding-ewes, and 111,200 dry sheep. In addition, fifteen Native Trust stations and two Maori Land Board stations, comprising 50,000 acres and 19,600 acres respectively, are running the following live-stock: 40,500 breeding-ewes, 41,200 dry sheep, and 11,000 run cattle. The Board of Native Affairs also exercises a measure of control over twenty-three stations of the East Coast Trust, aggregating 132,000 acres and carrying 143,400 sheep and 18,300 run cattle.

NATIVE TRUSTEE.—The administration of Native funds and Native reserves, formerly conducted by the Public Trustee, was by statute transferred to the Native Trustee as from 1st April, 1921. This was part of a comprehensive scheme which seeks to rehabilitate the Maori by inducing him to farm and manage his own lands. As a further means to this end the Native Trustee, with the approval of the Board of Native Affairs, advances money to Natives on the security of their lands, the expenditure of this money, and the management of Native farming operations generally, being supervised in a helpful and sympathetic manner. The Native Trustee Act, 1930, consolidated existing legislation.

The Native Trustee acts as trustee or agent for some 10,000 Native beneficiaries; administers a large number of Native reserves containing an aggregate area of 94,000 acres located in cities, towns, and rural districts; advances money to Natives on the security of their lands; and is actively engaged on pastoral operations on a number of sheep-stations comprising a total area of 50,088 acres. The Native Trustee accepts money on deposit from the Maori Land Boards and acts as banker for the special Native Housing Fund and the Maori Purposes Fund.

The volume of cash business for the year 1941–12 (receipts, £177,061; payments, £197,294) shows an increase in comparison with the figures for the previous year, and at the 31st March, 1942, funds in hand and on deposit at short call amounted to £65,548. Other assets included mortgage investments, £398,217; advances on overdraft to estates, £166,403; properties acquired under mortgage, £17,043; and local-body securities, £5,100.

At 31st March, 1942, the Native Trustee's total liability to beneficiaries amounted to £182,056; £178,359 was held on account of the Maori Land Boards; housing, Maori purposes, and miscellaneous funds totalled £128,965; and accumulated reserves for general and specific purposes amounted to £122,000.

NATIVE HOUSING.—The Native Housing Act, 1935, with its amendment of 1938, which extended the provisions of the principal Act, makes provision for the better housing of the Maori people, and for that purpose provides for the erection of dwellings and for improved housing conditions for Natives. The Board of Native Affairs is empowered under this Act to make advances out of moneys, appropriated by Parliament, for the erection, repair, alteration, or improvement of any 'dwelling upon the security of an interest in Native land and an assignment of rents from Native land, or of any other moneys payable to a Native. Section 18 of the Native Housing Amendment Act, 1938, established a fund, called “The Special Native Housing Fund,” to provide houses for those Natives unable to furnish the security or to make the payments which the Board of Native Affairs would ordinarily require.

The number of advances authorized under the Native Housing Act, 1935, from the inception of the scheme to 31st March, 1942, was 783, of which 642 were for the erection of new dwellings, 44 for the purchase of existing dwellings, and 97 for additions, renovations, &c. The total amount authorized to 31st March, 1942, was £305,000, of which £233,000 had been expended.

In addition to the provision of housing for Maoris under the Native Housing Act, dwellings are provided in the ordinary course of the Native-land-development schemes referred to on the preceding page. The number of houses erected and repaired under these schemes during the year ended 31st March, 1942, was 54, and the total from the inception of the schemes to that date was 1,686, plus some 500 huts.

Chapter 17. SECTION 17.—AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL PRODUCTION.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL.

NEW ZEALAND is a country specialty favoured for primary production. The soil covering is varied in character, a considerable portion of it being of high fertility; but even the poorer soils are largely capable of profitable utilization by reason of the comparatively mild and equable weather conditions. The best grasses and fodder plants flourish in the congenial environment, and the country has gained a world-wide reputation for the quality of its pastures. Numerous streams intersect the country-side; while cheap hydro-electric power is available, most farming districts having been reticulated in recent years. Electricity is now put to a variety of uses on the farm, but by far the most important is that of providing power for milking-machinery.

A conspicuous feature of New Zealand farming is that the stock do not require to be stalled in the winter, though the pastures are more or less supplemented by fodder crops in the colder months of the year.

New Zealand is primarily a grazing country, and, while more of the land is every year being given up to the cultivation of fodder crops, its future will, no doubt, be inseparably associated with stock-raising, principally of dairy cattle and of sheep. Though barely a century has elapsed since the settlement of New Zealand, over seventeen million acres of land in the Dominion have been sown down in English grasses.

Grain crops, principally oats and wheat, are grown chiefly in the eastern and southern districts of the South Island. Barley also is grown, but only to a small extent. Much of the crop of oats produced is chaffed for stock-feeding purposes within the country. Root crops, principally turnips, are grown on a large scale for winter feed and for stock-fattening purposes, more particularly in the South Island. Mangolds are cultivated to an appreciable extent, and farmers realize the great value of lucerne. Ensilage-making, particularly in the stack and trench forms, is increasing in the dairying districts. Quite a feature of milk-producing operations is the growing of green fodder crops to maintain the milk-supply during the drier months of the year. Thus live-stock in New Zealand are for the most part maintained on food produced on the farm itself.

The North Island.—The North Island of the Dominion is remarkable for the congenial environment it furnishes for many phases of primary production. In very few parts is the winter really severe, and the question of stalling stock during the colder months of the year has not to be considered. It is more a grazing than an agricultural country, and nearly all the crops raised are used for feeding farm stock. The dominant industries are dairying and sheep-farming. The standard of dairy-farming is steadily improving, not only by reason of special fodder being provided for the drier parts of the summer and the colder months of the year, but on account of the fact that the farmer has learned the value of herd testing and culling, and the advantages to be derived from the judicious application of top-dressing fertilizers to pastures, and from rotational grazing.

In various parts of the Island fruitgrowing, principally of apples, pears, and peaches, has been placed on a sound commercial basis. In the northern portion citrus fruits can be successfully produced, and, with the adoption of better storage and marketing methods, lemons in particular are being cultivated on a considerable scale. Both the North and the South Islands have established and normally have carried on an export trade in apples, and to a lesser extent in pears.

The South Island.—The South Island is the portion of the Dominion where agriculture proper was first established, the settlement of the land being greatly facilitated by the fact that on the eastern, southern, and northern portions large fertile plains, rolling downs, and hills were available, devoid of the forests which in a very large portion of the North Island had to be cleared before the land could be utilized by the farmer.

In some sections, particularly in Canterbury, Otago, Southland, and Marlborough, grain-growing is prosecuted on a considerable scale. The Canterbury Plains, extending a hundred and fifty miles north and south and running inland for forty miles from the sea, represent an area of over 3,000,000 acres. This region contains the principal grain-growing areas, wheat and oats being the principal crops. In Otago and Southland oats is the grain principally produced. On some of the richer lands the yield of wheat has reached very high figures, even up to 80 or 90 bushels per acre, while over 100 bushels to the acre have been recorded for crops of oats. In root crops up to 70 tons per acre of turnips have been secured, while the yield of mangolds has frequently reached 90 tons. The growing of the finer wools, and the raising of fat lambs for the frozen-meat industry, are features of primary production in the South Island, while the dairy industry is also well represented, especially in Otago and Southland. The breeding of draught horses of a very fine type is carried on to some extent in certain districts.

While the climate in the southern districts of the South Island is not so genial as that of the northern, there are only a few portions where the winter is at all rigorous. The Nelson district, in the north-west corner of the Island, is noted for its fine climate. Nelson has a sunshine-record which is equalled in but few parts of the Temperate Zones. The district is specially suitable for fruitgrowing, which has been developed extensively on commercial lines, and the culture of tobacco-leaf and the hop-vine is well established. At the other end of the Island, in Central Otago, a peculiar configuration of the country enables fruitgrowing to be prosecuted with great success. The winter is comparatively severe, but the warm summer sun and the absence of wind make it an ideal environment for fruitgrowing.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.—Under the control of the Minister of Agriculture the Department of Agriculture provides a service the main object of which is the advancement of the interests of primary production. Under a Director-General of Agriculture there are Directors of Divisions of Live-stock. Animal Research, Dairy. Fields, and Horticulture.

While the service is primarily educative, it also carries out important inspection work. Under the Live-stock Division, all meat exported is inspected by qualified officers. Cattle are inspected for tuberculosis and other bovine troubles; sheep and swine also receive attention; slaughterhouses are licensed and controlled; and all stock exported and imported is examined by the veterinarians of the Department. Special instruction and advice are given in poultry-keeping, swine husbandry, and wool growing and handling.

The Animal Research Division, which was formed in 1939, works in co-operation with the Live-stock, Dairy, and Fields Divisions, and is also in active collaboration with other institutions engaged in animal research, notably the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the Cawthron Institute, and Massey and Canterbury Agricultural Colleges. The Division has well-equipped laboratories at Wallaceville and Ruakura, an important function of the former being the provision of a diagnostic service to the officers of the Live-stock Division.

Instruction in the manufacture of butter, cheese, &c., is given by the Dairy Division. Dairy-produce is inspected and graded prior to shipment, a close supervision being also exercised over the moisture content of butter and cheese, as well as over the weights of such produce; dairy-farm premises are inspected; herd-testing is promoted, and a system of semi-official testing of purebred dairy cows is in operation. Milk-samples are tested for dairy companies and farmers.

The duties of the Fields Division comprise agricultural instruction, the control of experimental areas, advice regarding crops, pastures, and farm-management, co-operative experimental work, grain-grading, and hemp-grading. The Division also has charge of the system of seed testing and certification introduced by the Department.

The Horticulture Division is charged with orchard instructional work, instruction to beekeepers and tobacco-growers, and the inspection of fruit and trees imported and offered for sale. It also inspects orchards and apiaries, inspects fruit for export, and grades export honey.

The Department's principal farm establishment is the Ruakura Farm of Instruction at Hamilton, in connection with which a farm training-college for youths is also conducted. The Te Kauwhata Horticultural Station, in the lower Waikato district, is mainly devoted to vine-growing and winemaking. There are also several other smaller experimental and demonstration areas.

The agricultural instructional work covers a comprehensive field, farmers being assisted by visits or by letters of advice. Numbers of farmers also co-operate with the Department in conducting experiments on their farms. A monthly Journal, the New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, is published at a low rate of subscription, and bulletins are frequently issued. Any farmer can obtain advice regarding his soil, have seed examined for germination-capacity and purity, milk tested for butterfat content or for the presence of disease, plants identified, and diseases of either animals or plants described and remedies suggested—all these services being rendered free of charge. Among other responsibilities of the Department is the registration of live-stock brands, slaughterhouses, dairies, dairy-factories, fertilizers, orchards, nurseries, apiaries, &c.

Subsidies, Grants, &c.—Practically the whole of the expenditure of the Department of Agriculture may be regarded as devoted directly or indirectly to the furtherance of farming and associated interests. The net expenditure of the Department in 1941–42 was £1,880,432, as compared with £1,611,984 in 1940–41, while the estimated net expenditure for 1942–43 is £936,000. The decrease in the estimate for the financial year 1942–43 is due to the fact that the cost of certain subsidies—principally the subsidy on raw materials used in the manufacture of superphosphates—is to be a charge on the War Expenses Account as from 1st April, 1942. A considerable proportion of the Agriculture Department's vote is expended by way of advances, grants, subsidies, &c., the principal items of which are shown in the following table.

Item.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.

* Partly recoverable.

 £££
Payments under statutes—   
  Expenditure, including compensation for stock condemned, under Stock Act14,18411,57210,923
  Expenditure, including compensation, under Meat Act*22,51024,63920,369
  Grant to New Zealand School of Agriculture27,00033,00033,000
  Subsidies to Rabbit Boards (Rabbit Nuisance Act)28,31729,70535,695
  Subsidies to owners of stallions (Remounts Encouragement Act)3,8504,0003,144
Other advances, grants, subsidies, &c.—   
  Carriage of lime for bona fide farmers131,796177,693201,916
  Portion of freight rates on fertilizers222,600236,901183,915
  Portion of freight rates on farm-produce61,03866,39367,085
  Eradication of noxious weeds*50,59849,49024,764
  Cow-testing organizations: Payments to Dairy Board in respect of herd-improvement plan10,54514,35514,941
  Sodium chlorate and Atlacide8,0179,585713
  Subsidy on raw materials used in manufacture of superphosphates81,510570,453903,123
Subsidy on manufacture of butter-boxes  22,401

It will be observed that substantial amounts have been expended in recent years by way of subsidy on raw materials used in the manufacture of superphosphate with a view to maintaining the price of certain fertilizers at pre-war levels. Increases under this heading are largely due to changes in the source of supply necessitated by the war.

The amounts shown in the table in respect of carriage of lime, fertilizers, and farm products, represent amounts paid out of the vote of the Department of Agriculture to the Railways Department for the free carriage of lime by rail (which is a long-standing concession granted to farmers) and the cost of special concessions in freight rates on fertilizers and certain farm products initiated during the depression period.

GROSS FARMING INCOME.—Farming occupies such an important position in the economic structure of the Dominion that statistical information relating to farm-production is vested with special interest. The agricultural and pastoral statistics, which form the subject-matter of the next two subsections, deal mainly with the quantitative aspects of farm production; while, from these statistics and from cognate statistics for other industries, estimates are made of the value of commodity production as a whole—including farm production (vide Section 44). Various other classes of official statistics—for example, prices index numbers—throw some light on the economic position of the farming industry.

In recent years, a considerable amount of data as to prices of farm-produce at country railway-stations, &c., has been collected systematically. This, in conjunction with previously existing statistical information, has made possible the computation of estimates of the farmers' receipts from sales of farm-produce.

The figures do not purport to show the aggregate net income from farming after all expenses of farm operations have been met. They are intended to afford an indication of the income available to farmers as a whole to meet current expenses of farm-operation, living-costs, interest payments, and all other costs.

Except in the cases indicated in the next paragraph, no attempt has been made to exclude, from the scope of the compilations that portion of marketable farm-produce which may be consumed on the farm. Similarly, that portion of farm-produce which is sold to other farmers as material for further farm-production is in general included. For example, the value of production of grass-seeds is included under the heading “Agricultural Produce,” although—except for exports—almost the whole of this crop is used for the sowing or renewal of pasture lands. An exception, however, occurs in the case of stud stock sold for breeding purposes, no data being available on which to base an estimate of the aggregate annual value of such sales. With this exception, the totals shown for all farm-produce thus represent the total receipts from sales (including sales to other farmers), plus certain allowances for farm-produce used on the farm. On the other hand, products of kitchen-gardens and of other activities more intimately associated with the home than with the farm do not come within the ambit of this inquiry.

Production of green-fodder crops, turnips, mangolds, or ensilage is not included. The view taken is that production of these crops is a normal and essential part of farm routine to be regarded more in the nature of a farm cost than as production of a saleable commodity. Consequently, the unknown—but, it is believed, very small—proportion sold of the production of this class of farm-produce is omitted from the totals shown. In the case of production of grasses and clovers, it is arbitrarily assumed that 20 per cent. where cut for hay, and 5 per cent. where cut for ensilage, and in the case of chaff 25 per cent., of the total crop comes within the scope of this inquiry, the remainder being omitted for reasons similar to those advanced in the case of green fodder, &c.

The division into the three groups — (1) Agricultural, (2) Pastoral, and (3) Dairying, Poultry, and Bees—has been made entirely on the basis of the nature of the produce.

The principal items included in the agricultural group are wheat, oats, and other grain crops, grass-seeds, potatoes, onions, tobacco, orchard-produce, and produce of market-gardens, nurseries, hop-gardens, &c. The prices at which the various commodities are valued are, in general, the prices o.r. country stations in the early months of the year, when the crops are harvested.

The estimated cost of sacks, cases, and other containers is excluded, as also are transport charges from farm to market and commission on sales. The fact that the cost of containers is excluded might be regarded as a departure from the general practice adopted in this investigation of omitting to take account of costs incurred on the farm. It should be noted, however, that price quotations for some important classes of agricultural produce—e.g., wheat—are in ordinary commercial practice on a “sacks extra” basis, so that the exclusion of the value of containers in the case of other crops has the merit of consistency.

The principal items included in the pastoral group are live-stock and wool-production. Slaughterings of live-stock have been assessed on the basis of values (alive) at freezing-works, deductions being made to cover the cost of transport from farm to works, saleyards, &c., and of commission on sales of live-stock. The value of store stock or young lambs sold by one farmer to another is counted only once—that is, when sold for slaughtering as fat stock.

It should be mentioned that the value of all live-stock production, including pigs, is included in the pastoral group, although pig-production is largely an adjunct of dairying.

Since these estimates are designed with a view to measuring farm receipts in each year, no allowance is made for the value of the annual increase or decrease in the Dominion's herds, although this item is included in assessing the estimates of value of production included in Section 44 of this Year-Book.

Wool-production is valued at the average prices realized at sales or appraisals held during each season, the aggregate arrived at representing the value of wool produced in each season at average sale or appraisal prices ruling during that season. No adjustments are made to cover the unknown increase or decrease in the total ultimate return from the season's production due to higher or lower prices realized for wool carried over and sold in a subsequent season. Deductions have been made to cover the cost of transport of wool to selling centres, and of woolpacks.

The largest individual item included in the dating, &c., group is the pay-out to suppliers by butter, cheese, and dried milk, &c., factories during each of the dairy seasons shown. An estimate of the value of human consumption of raw milk (at farm-gate prices) is also included, together with the value of butter produced on farms for home use or for sale. The available data permit of only a rough estimate of the value of poultry-products, which, with bee-products, are included in this group mainly for purposes of convenience.

The following table shows figures of gross farming income (in millions of £N.Z.) arrived at for each of thirteen production years.

Production Year.Agricultural Produce.Pastoral Produce.Produce of Dairying, Poultry, and Bees.All Farm Produce.
 £(m.)£(m.)£(m.)£(m.)
1928–297·331·425·564·2
1929–307·424·524·456·3
1930–316·718·317·942·9
1931–326·514·617·438·5
1932–336·914·716·538·1
1933–347·023·417·848·2
1934–356·021·818·346·1
1935–367·426·523·957·8
1936–377·236·727·571·4
1937–387·331·928·968·1
1938–398·230·029·167·3
1939–409·432·331·973·6
1940–419·638·834·783·1

Increases under all headings were recorded for 1940–41, the values for each type of farm production being the highest for any year during the period under review. The agricultural produce group showed the smallest relative increase as compared with 1939–40. Individual items showing substantial increases in aggregate value were linen-flax, potatoes, white-clover seed, oats, and wheat. The greatest relative increase was shown by the pastoral-produce group, the actual increase over the 1939–40 value amounting to £6,500,000. Slaughterings of all classes of live-stock (particularly lambs) in 1940–41 were greater than in the previous year, as was also wool-production. The dairying group in 1940–41, with an increase of £2,800,000 in value, reflected the increase recorded in total butterfat production.

VOLUME OF FARM PRODUCTION.—In order to convey an indication of the extent to which the values have been influenced by movements in the volume of production, or conversely by fluctuations in prices received by producers of farm-produce, index numbers have been compiled showing the movements in volume of production.

For the compilation of these index numbers, a computation has been made for each of the seasons 1928–29 to 1940–41 showing what the aggregate annual value would have been 1938–39 prices had been constant throughout the period. From the resultant aggregates, index numbers have been compiled which measure the movements in the volume of production; for, since prices were assumed to be constant, volume is the only variable factor in the aggregates. The volume indexes of farm production entering into gross farming income, appearing in this section, differ in some respects from those quoted in Section 44 of this Year-Book, but as indicated in an earlier paragraph, the estimates and index numbers here quoted are a measure of gross farm receipts and not necessarily of all farm production (e.g., they make no allowance for such items as the annual increase or decrease in the Dominion's herds).

In the following table, index numbers of value and volume (on the base: 1938–39 = 100) are given, and these give a clearer idea of the extent of year-to-year changes.

Production Year.Agricultural.Pastoral.Dairying, &c.All Farm Produce.
Value.Volume.Value.Volume.Value.Volume.Value.Volume.
1928–29891071057088769577
1929–3090105827284838480
1930–3182113617662856484
1931–3279105498160885787
1932–33841364985571015798
1933–34851197885611087298
1934–35731047388631056897
1935–369012388898211086102
1936–37881111229195113106103
1937–38891061069699108101102
1938–39100100100100100100100100
1939–4011511910895110107109103
1940–41117126129110119115123114

As in the case of value of farm production, index numbers of volume were exceptionally high for 1940–41, being, with the exception of the agricultural group, the highest yet recorded. Increases in production of nearly all agricultural products resulted in an increase of 7 points for that group. Heavy slaughterings of live-stock and increased wool-production were the main cause of the 15-point rise recorded for the pastoral group, while the increase of 8 points in the dairying, poultry, and bees group was due to increased butterfat-production. As a result of these heavy group increases, the index of volume of total farm production for 1940–41 increased by 11 points.

From the aggregate values compiled for the purpose of measuring movements in the value and volume of farm production, the following estimates (shown in the form of percentages of total farm production) of the relative contribution of agricultural, pastoral, and dairying, &c., production to total farm production have been computed.

Production Year.Agricultural.Pastoral.Dairying, Poultry, and Bees.All Farm Produce.
Value.Volume.Value.Volume.Value.Volume.Value.Volume.
1928–29111649434041100100
1929–30131544424343100100
1930–31151643424242100100
1931–32171438434542100100
1932–33181639414343100100
1933–34141449403746100100
1934–35131247434045100100
1935–36131446414145100100
1936–37101351413946100100
1937–38111247444244100100
1938–39121145474342100100
1939–40131344434344100100
1940–41111347454242100100

THE SPREAD IN PRICE LEVELS.—The statistics quoted under the previous headings illustrate the growth in farm production since the 1928–29 season, and the changes in gross farming income. While the fall in gross farming income between 1928–29 and 1932–33, despite a considerably enhanced volume of farm production, suggests in itself a period of difficulty for the farming community, the divergence between price-levels of farm-products, most of which are sold in overseas markets, and internal price-levels generally is the real crux of the agrarian problem in time of depression. Prices of farm-products are particularly sensitive, since the demand for and the supply of most products of the soil are not easily equated. Changing demand conditions for farm-products do not readily result in any compensatory supply changes, nor do changing supply conditions readily bring about compensatory demand changes. The slack is normally taken up through fluctuating prices. On the other hand, the cost of debt charges does not fluctuate so readily, while prices of services and of manufactured goods are also less sensitive than prices of farm-products. An indication of the spread between indexes reflecting farming returns and internal price-levels is shown by the figures in the following table. The index numbers in each case have for purposes of comparison, been equated to base 1938–39 = 100.

Production Year.Index Numbers indicative of—
Gross Farming Income.Export Prices, Pastoral and Dairy Produce (June Year).Internal Price-levels.
Farm Expenditure Index (Average of Two Calendar Years).Retail Prices, All Groups Index (Four Quarters ending May).
1928–2995130110105
1929–3084108110104
1930–31648010598
1931–3257719091
1932–3357648084
1933–3472838083
1934–3568798085
1935–3686918088
1936–371061079093
1937–3810110610098
1938–39100100100100
1939–40109113105105
1940–41123116105109

A series of farm-producers' price-index numbers derived from value and volume figures of gross farming income were published in the 1941 and earlier issues of the Year-Book, but this series has now been discontinued. The export-prices index number for pastoral and dairy produce, although relating only to the export portion of farm production, is included in the preceding table as giving an indication of prices received for farm production.

While the farm expenditure index, (briefly described in Section 35) only partly reflects any increases in costs at the farm caused by a higher volume of farm production, the considerable proportion of total farm costs made up of fixed charges, which do not increase in direct ratio with increases in the volume of farm production, is included in this index. Comparison between the farm-expenditure index and the gross farming income index will thus afford a rough comparison of movements in farm costs and returns. It should be noted that these index numbers indicate the position generally, and do not necessarily apply to individual branches of farm production.

The retail prices all-groups index is the best available indicator of movements in internal prices generally, and this index, when compared with the export prices index, affords a useful comparison between movements in prices received by the farmer and in internal prices. As will be apparent from the figures shown under the next subheading, returns in respect of sales of farm-produce have been governed largely by price-movements overseas, whereas farming-costs are affected more intimately by internal price-movements.

FARM PRODUCTION: EXPORTS AND DOMINION CONSUMPTION.—Estimates of the relative importance of exports and of consumption within New Zealand in the disposal of farm-produce have been compiled by utilizing the statistics of gross farming income, in conjunction with statistics of trade in farm-products.

In the discussion covering the statistics of gross farming income it is explained that these estimates were framed on the basis of “on the farm” values in order that they might indicate the gross receipts by the farmer, after making provision for transport charges and other expenses incurred in the marketing of produce.

In compiling the statistics of the relative importance of the New Zealand market and of export markets for farm-products, the value of exports has been assessed at the “farm” value of the commodities concerned, and not at the f.o.b. declared value for export. This adjustment has been made in order to ensure that both sets of statistics from which the comparison is made are on the same value basis. It will be realized, then, that the statistics of value given in this statement indicate the gross returns to the farmer from farm-products exported and from consumption of such products within the Dominion.

The statistics of the return to the farmer in respect of New Zealand consumption of farm-produce have been obtained by deducting exports from total production. In these compilations exports of milk-products have been converted to a butterfat equivalent, the return to the farmer being computed on the basis of butterfat pay-out; while the slaughterings represented by exports of meat products have been taken as the basis on which to estimate the farmers' receipts from exports of meat. In instances where statistics of stocks are available adjustment has been made for the carry-over from one season to another. It has been assumed that stocks of wool, frozen meat, and butter and cheese carried over are held for export, and that stocks of wheat and oats are subsequently consumed within New Zealand.

Since the estimates of Dominion consumption are the residual element in the process of compilation, any lack of correspondence between the statistics of production and of trade will affect the accuracy of these estimates. Statistics of production relate to the production-year for each commodity, or group of commodities, coming within the scope of this investigation. In many instances the production-years do not cover identical twelve-monthly periods, so that the aggregate of production of farm-produce includes statistics for a number of yearly periods ending in different months. Exports during any one year do not consist entirely of commodities produced within the same twelve-monthly period to which the export statistics relate. The effect of these various factors is, however, minimized by taking averages for three seasons.

The following table, based on the averages of statistics for three production and three export seasons, shows the division of gross farming income into returns from exports of farm-produce and from consumption of such produce within the Dominion.

Three Production Years.Annual Average Gross Farming Income fromPercentages of Gross Farming Income from
Total Production.Exports.New Zealand Consumption.Exports.New Zealand Consumption.
 £(m.)£(m.)£(m.)Per Cent.Per Cent.
Agricultural Produce.
1928–29 to 1930–317·10·76·41090
1929–30 to 1931–326·90·76·21090
1930–31 to 1932–336·70·85·91288
1931–32 to 1933–346·80·86·01288
1932–33 to 1934–356·60·85·81288
1933–34 to 1935–366·80·86·01288
1934–35 to 1936–376·90·76·21090
1935–36 to 1937–387·30·86·51189
1936–37 to 1938–397·60·86·81189
1937–38 to 1939–408·30·87·51090
1938–39 to 1940–419·10·78·4892
Pastoral Produce.
1928–29 to 1930–3124·718·06·17525
1929–30 to 1931–3219·114·24·97426
1930–31 to 1932–3315·911·84·17426
1931–32 to 1933–3417·614·03·68020
1932–33 to 1934–3520·915·84·27921
1933–34 to 1935–3623·919·34·68119
1934–35 to 1936–3728·323·15·28218
1935–36 to 1937–3831·725·76·08119
1936–37 to 1938–3932·926·86·18119
1937–38 to 1939–4031·425·85·68218
1938–39 to 1940–4133·728·45·38416
Dairying, Poultry, and Bees.
1928–29 to 1930–3122·615·27·46733
1929–30 to 1931–3219·913·66·36832
1930–31 to 1932–3317·311·85·56832
1931–32 to 1933–3417·212·34·97228
1932–33 to 1934–3517·512·64·97228
1933–34 to 1935–3620·014·75·37327
1934–35 to 1936–3723·216·96·37327
1935–36 to 1937–3826·819·67·27327
1936–37 to 1938–3928·520·48·17228
1937–38 to 1939–4030·021·28·87129
1938–39 to 1940–4131·922·49·57030
All Farm Produce.
1928–29 to 1930–3154·434·519·96337
1929–30 to 1931–3245·928·517·46238
1930–31 to 1932–3339·924·415·56139
1931–32 to 1933–3441·627·114·56535
1932–33 to 1934–3544·129·214·96634
1933–34 to 1935–3650·734·815·96931
1934–35 to 1936–3758·440·717·77030
1935–36 to 1937–3865·846·119·77030
1936–37 to 1938–3969·048·021·07030
1937–38 to 1939–4069·747·821·96931
1938–39 to 1940–4174·751·523·26931

Of the total gross farming income during the thirteen production-years 1928–29 to 1940–41, 67 per cent. came from exports of farm-produce, while 33 per cent. was accounted for by consumption of such produce within the Dominion.

BULK PURCHASE OF PRIMARY PRODUCE BY UNITED KINGDOM GOVERNMENT.—The deterioration in the European situation during 1938 and 1939 had led to the formulation of plans in the United Kingdom and New Zealand for the supply of foodstuffs and other produce in the event of war. These plans envisaged the United Kingdom Government becoming the sole purchaser of imported foodstuffs, and the Marketing Department becoming the authority in New Zealand responsible for the bulk purchase and shipment of the various food and other products. Immediately on the outbreak of war negotiations with the United Kingdom were put in train, and, within three months, all the necessary arrangements for the internal organization had been made, and, in the main, the negotiations with the United Kingdom had been completed.

The principal products which came within this bulk-purchase plan were wool, dairy-produce, meat, tallow, and woolly sheep-skins. A brief history of the contracts entered into in regard to the three main items—wool, dairy-produce, and meat—and of the principal changes that have taken place since the inception of the scheme is given below.

Wool.—In the case of wool, the contract commenced with this 1939–40 season's clip and is for the duration of the war and one season's clip thereafter. All wool not required for manufacture in New Zealand is covered by the terms of the contract.

The original purchase-price for greasy wool was fixed at 10·55d. sterling per pound f.o.b. This price permitted of an over-all average payment of 12·25d. per pound, in New Zealand currency, to be made to woolgrowers for wool delivered at appraisal warehouses, after allowing for the payment to wool-brokers and wool-appraisers for their services, for costs to f.o.b. and for Marketing Department expenses. The purchase-price for slipe wool was 13·75d. sterling per pound f.o.b., which gave an over-all average payment of 16·9766d. (N.Z.) per pound f.o.b., after allowing for the services of appraisers, Marketing Department's expenses, &c.

Provision was also made for the scouring of certain quantities of wool in New Zealand, payment to be made on a greasy basis, with an allowance of 1½d. per pound to cover scouring costs and additional handling charges.

In addition to the foregoing, half-profits on subsequent sales of wool outside the United Kingdom will accrue to the producers. Distribution of profits (if any) is to be made when the accounts for the final season are closed.

The contract made provision for the purchase-prices to be reviewed in May of each year at the instigation of either Government. The prices quoted above remained in force until May, 1942, when the United Kingdom Government announced an increase of 15 per cent. in the ex-store price of wool for the 1942–43 season, not including the additions for storage and handling charges which enter into the total price paid. This raised the appraisal prices (New Zealand currency) to 14·0875d. per pound for greasy wool and to 19·523d. per pound for slipe wool.

Dairy-produce.—The contract for dairy-produce commenced with the produce of the 1939–40 season, and the quantities agreed upon were 115,000 tons of butter and 84,000 tons of cheese. The United Kingdom Government also agreed that, subject to shipping space being available, it would endeavour to ship any additional quantities available within the limits of its requirements. The basic price agreed upon for creamery butter was 112s. 6d. sterling per hundredweight finest grade, with specified deductions for lower grades, and 64s. 3d. sterling per hundredweight for finest and first-grade cheese and 62s. 3d. sterling per hundredweight for second-grade cheese. This permitted of an f.o.b. over-all average of 139s. 7¼d. per hundredweight for butler and 79s. 9d. per hundredweight for cheese (New Zealand currency).

No formal contract was completed for the 1940–41 season, but arrangements were made for 120,000 tons of butter and 107,000 tons of cheese, with prices the same as for the previous season. In addition, although it was not embodied in the contract, an undertaking was reached that the general arrangements for the purchase of dairy-produce were to continue for the duration of the war and for a subsequent period to be agreed upon. It was also stated that prices were to be determined by negotiation in May of each year.

In the publication of the details of the agreement for the 1941–42 season it was stated that for the period of the war and one year thereafter New Zealand would aim to limit production of creamery butter for export to approximately 115,000 tons per annum, this figure to be reviewed annually in the light of storage and shipping situations. The price for 1941–42 was fixed on the same basis as in the previous two years. In regard to cheese, New Zealand was to aim at a production of 160,000 tons annually for the same period as in the case of butter, with a similar proviso in regard to revision of the terms of the agreement. The prices were increased to 70s. sterling per hundredweight and 68s. sterling per hundredweight for first and second grade respectively, the increase being granted to meet costs in New Zealand of the changeover of supply from butter to cheese manufacture to attain the objective of 160,000 tons of cheese for export.

A reversal of policy was announced at the commencement of the 1942–43 season. Owing to the increase in supplies of cheese from North America, the United Kingdom Government requested that the season's production be reduced to 90,000 tons with a consequential increase in butter-production. In order to meet the costs arising from the change-back from cheese to butter, the United Kingdom Government agreed to an increase of 4s. 6d. sterling per hundredweight for butter and 3s. sterling per hundredweight for cheese. These increases bring the purchase-prices to 117s. and 73s. sterling per hundredweight for finest-grade butter and first-grade cheese respectively.

As a result of successful experiments conducted in the conversion of butter into dehydrated butterfat for shipment as non-refrigerated cargo, the United Kingdom Government has contracted to purchase 10,000 tons of dehydrated butterfat or such larger quantity as may be produced during the 1942–43 season. The prices payable are 150s. sterling per hundredweight for Grade 1 and 145s. per hundredweight for Grade 2, these prices being on an f.o.b. basis.

The fixed prices payable to dairy-factories under the Marketing Act for butter and cheese for export during the periods covered by the foregoing are as follows:—

Grading.Season.
1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.1942–43.
Creamery Butter.
Finest—d.d.d.d.
  94 points and over15·01515·01515·01515·515
  93 to 93½ points (basic grade)14·8914·8914·8915·39
First—    
  92 to 92½ points14·827514·827514·827515·3275
  90 to 91½ points14·6414·6414·6415·14
Second14·1414·1414·1414·64
Cheese
Finest—    
  94 points and over8·576258·576258·576258·88625
  93 to 93½ points8·5458·5458·5458·855
First—    
  92 to 92½ points (basic grade)8·428·428·428·73
  91 to 91½ points8·35758·35758·35758·6675
Second8·178·178·178·48

Meat.—The quantity of meat agreed upon to be purchased from the production season ended 30th September, 1940, and from the carry-over of the previous season (45,000 tons) was 300,000 tons. This quantity included all classes of meat, also edible offals. In addition, the United Kingdom Government undertook to make every endeavour to provide shipping space for such additional quantities as might be available. The range of prices per pound payable to freezing companies and meat-exporters is shown below. These prices are on a f.o.b. basis and are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency.

  • Lamb: Prime down cross, 6 1/16d. to 7⅞d.; prime Canterbury, 6 13/16 d. to 7 13/16 d.; prime crossbreds, 6½ d. to 7 11/16 d.; second quality, 6 13/16 d. to 7¼d.

  • Mutton: Prime wethers and maiden ewes, 3 11/16 d. to 5 5/16 d.; second quality wethers, 4 3/16 d. to 4 9/16 d.; ewes, 2 15/16 d. to 3⅜d.

  • Beef: Ox and heifer—Hinds, 4¼d. to 5 7/16d.; fores, 3⅛d. to 3 3/16d. Cow—Hinds, 4d.; fores, 3d. Boneless beef, 4d. to 4⅝d. Bobby veal, 5⅛d. Boneless veal, 4 3/16d.

  • Pigs: Carcases—Baconers, 7⅛d. to 7½d.; porkers, 7⅛d. to 7 7/16d.

The actual liftings of meat for the first contract year were 351,000 tons, leaving a carry-over at 30th September, 1940, of 39,938 tons.

For the 1940–41 season, the contract provided for the purchase of 248,000 tons of meat, shipped or unshipped, from the production season ended 30th September, 1941, and from the carry-over from the previous season. The actual liftings of meat under the second year's contract were 268,650 tons, which left a carry-over of 77,902 tons of export meat. With a few minor exceptions, the prices were the same as those paid for the 1939–40 season.

The contract for the third year (1941–42 season) provided for the purchase of 190,000 tons of frozen meat shipped or unshipped, and 37,150 tons of canned meats. The equivalent in carcase-meat of 37,150 tons of canned meats is 111,500 tons, so that the contract for frozen and canned meats represented a total of 301,500 tons of carcase-meat. The purchase-prices for this season were increased by 3/8d. sterling per pound for beef and beef offals, lamb and lamb offals, and baconer carcases and cuts, and by¼ d. sterling per pound for mutton and mutton offals and pork and pork offals.

For the calendar year 1943 the United Kingdom Government has undertaken to purchase up to the total quantity shipped in the calendar year 1942. In arriving at the total tonnages, the calculation includes the carcase equivalent of canned meats, dried meat, and also shipments to the Middle East; and. on this basis, the figure of 328,000 tons has been arrived at. New Zealand is to provide the maximum quantity possible in the forms of canned and dehydrated meats in order to reduce the balance of the 328,000 tons, for which refrigerated space is required, to the lowest possible figure.

FARM MACHINERY.—The following table contains a summary of farm machinery employed on holdings outside borough boundaries in 1932, and during each of the last five years. The increasing use that is being made of electricity and of mechanical equipment is clearly demonstrated, particularly in regard to agricultural tractors and electric motors.

Class of Machinery, &c.1932.1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.

* Not available.

Number.
Milking-plants23,22228,19228,97029,56430,87831,487
Cream-separators51,33456,54355,66555,77354,89654,107
Shearing-machines—      
  Plants7,8539,68010,06410,63410,91611,555
  Stands22,32625,68526,06327,21627,55028,611
Agricultural tractors4,8568,0319,63911,27812,51613,967
Rotary hoes and garden tractors****757813
Electric motors24,16446,10051,34456,51161,82665,699
Internal-combustion engines20,97422,57322,60123,27623,64423,882

The 31,487 milking-plants in use in 1942 had a capacity for milking 107,096 cows simultaneously. The total number of cows milked on holdings employing milking-plants was 1,532,637. The aggregate horse-powers of the agricultural tractors, electric motors, and internal-combustion engines shown above were 271,983, 66,435, and 72,252 respectively.

DEVELOPMENTS IN AGRICULTURAL POLICY.—In recent issues of the Year-Book (pp. 349–371 of the 1941 number) a fairly full set-out of developments in agricultural policy has been included. It is regretted that shortage of staff has precluded this material being revised to cover the numerous changes—mostly of a temporary nature—brought about mainly through the general exigencies of war, the requirements of the United Nations, and the availability of shipping.

SUBSECTION B.—AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION.

As indicated in the general remarks included in the introductory portion of the preceding subsection, grassland products account for a very high proportion of the farm output of New Zealand. It must not be assumed, however, on this account that cropping is of minor importance in the economy of the Dominion. Practically the whole of the internal requirements in respect of agricultural products are grown within the country, the only exceptions of note being tropical or subtropical products such as tea, sugar, cotton, bananas, &c., and—in years of poor harvests—wheat. Endeavours are being made to make New Zealand entirely self-supporting in respect of the supply of wheat.

Fruit is grown on a considerable scale, home requirements of all the important fruits and berries grown in temperate zones being satisfied by New Zealand orchard production. Citrus fruits are grown in the sub-tropical northern portion of the Dominion, and grapes are also cultivated in certain localities with a favourable climate. In addition to the supply of local requirements, a substantial export trade in apples—and to a lesser extent in pears—is carried on in normal times.

In rural New Zealand and in many urban localities the kitchen-garden supplies a very considerable proportion of family requirements of vegetables, while there is a substantial area planted in market gardens, both inside and outside borough boundaries. The major commercial cash vegetable crops are potatoes and onions, local supplies of the former being normally quite adequate, with, in some, seasons, a material surplus. Although the importance of vegetable-growing in agricultural production cannot be measured (a material, though unknown, proportion being noncommercial), it will be realized that this branch of crop-production is of some consequence in that the requirements of the people are supplied from New Zealand production.

Coincident with the growth of the stock-raising industries, there has been a considerable increase in areas sown for supplementary fodders. While practically throughout the whole Dominion animals can be grazed in open pasture for the full twelve months of the year, the winter growth of grass, except in certain favoured localities, requires to be supplemented in order to keep stock in good condition during the colder months, and in some districts supplementary fodders are necessary in the hottest summer months. The supply of supplementary fodders is adequate both in quantity and in quality, so that the Dominion does not import animal-feeding stuffs to any appreciable extent.

The renewal of pasturage requires the annual supply of very considerable quantities of grass-seeds, which are grown almost entirely in the Dominion. There is a small import of certain classes of seeds, but this is almost negligible in relation to requirements: on the other hand, a considerable export trade in some species of grass-seeds has been developed. Hay and ensilage crops are grown almost exclusively on the farms where they are consumed, though there is some degree of localization in the growing of certain other supplementary fodder crops. The bulk of the turnip crop is grown in the South Island, and that Island also predominates in the production of both rape and kale, since the colder climate necessitates more extensive supplementary feeding than in the North Island.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.—Grain-growing is localized to a considerable extent, the fertile plains of Canterbury Supplying 77 per cent. of New Zealand's wheat crop, 50 per cent. of the oats threshed, 56 per cent. of the barley yield, and 45 per cent. of the linseed crop. Maize-growing is largely confined to certain portions of the Auckland and Gisborne districts, these localities proving very suitable for the production of this crop. The commercial growing of pulse crops is carried out extensively in Canterbury, and to a lesser extent in Marlborough, these districts producing practically the whole annual yield. The districts of Canterbury, Otago, and Southland supply 83 per cent. of the total production of grass-seeds. While the Canterbury district produces the bulk of the commercial potato crop, the growing of potatoes for the early market is of considerable importance in the North Auckland and Auckland districts.

Commercial orchards in New Zealand are largely confined to certain areas suited by climatic and soil conditions, while access to markets is also an important factor, particularly in respect of small fruits. The Nelson district is famed for its apple-orchards, a high percentage of the crop from this district normally being exported. Central Otago is well suited to the growing of stone fruits—notably apricots. In several other districts commercial orchard production is successfully carried on: special mention may be made of citrus culture in certain northern districts.

Grape-growing is of increasing importance in North Auckland, Auckland, and Hawke's Bay. Tobacco-growing is mainly confined to the Waimea County, in the Nelson District, hop-growing, also, being almost exclusively confined to the latter area.

Certain areas in the South Island are suitable for the growth of linen flax. This crop, which was first grown in 1940–41 to help counter the inability of the United Kingdom to obtain supplies from former sources, has become one of the more important commercial crops.

The proportions per cent. of crop areas for the 1941–42 season in each land district are given in the following table.

Name of Crop.Area.Land District Percentages.
North Auckland.Auckland.Gisborne.Hawke's Bay.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago.Southland.
Fur threshing—Acres.            
  Wheat258,002     231 81112
  Oats70,796     11  541826
  Barley36,026   3 3114 62161
  Maize8,779539487      1 
  Peas30,976   2 2252 6351
  Other crops9,383  12  3  701113
For chaff, hay, or ensilage—             
  Oats143,218 1 11339 512216
  Grasses and clovers513,0751336231511121646
  Lucerne42,2111142129873 3021 
  Other crops1,6564161114191113075
Green fodder—             
  Oats68,39411 21322 7783
  Rape163,851 1 10 531 54197
  Kale (including chou moellier)63,672 2 174181  33817
  Other crops19,2256143721541 28182
Root. crops—             
  Swedes131,4872201351111 122024
  Turnips205,42614 21412 371929
  Turnips and rape39,802 1 1131  192153
  Potatoes15,201752411313 5095
  Other crops10,2975614418 1 37213
Grasses and clovers for seed155,024  14 23  511623
Linen flax20,200     16  522021
Tobacco2,435       100    
Other field crops1,45313163037  22    
Orchards—             
  Registered15,621195218 2325 818 
  Not registered3,9232516443112411983
Grape-vines4685023420  11 1  
Passion-fruit vines1087817  14      
Hop-vines578      199    

BUSHEL WEIGHTS.—For statistical and other purposes, it is at times desirable to convert, bushel units to a weight basis. For New Zealand produce, conversion is effected by using the following weights per bushel for the commodities mentioned.

Produce.Weight of Bushel.
 Lb.
Wheat60
Oats40
Barley50
Maize56
Peas60
Ryecorn54
Beans65
Grasses and clovers20

AREA UNDER CULTIVATION.—A general summary of the areas under cultivation during each of the last eleven years is given below. The statistics quoted in this and other tables in this subsection relate to holdings of 1 acre or upwards outside borough boundaries.

In addition to the areas shown as under cultivation, there is a considerable area of occupied land still unimproved. In 1941–42 the total area of unimproved occupied land was returned as 23,162,626 acres. Cultivated land accounted in 1941–42 for 46 per cent. of the total area in occupation, unimproved land accounting for the remaining 54 per cent. The classification of the unimproved land in occupation in 1941–42 was as follows: Phormium (New Zealand flax), 47,264 acres; tussock and other naturally established native grasses, 13,869,330 acres; fern, scrub, and second growth, 4,349,575 acres; native bush, 2,885,884 acres; barren and unproductive land, 2,010,573 acres. It should be noted that the area in phormium—a productive asset—is included in the total of unimproved land: an appreciable proportion of the area under tussock and other naturally established native grasses is also of some economic utility—e.g., for low-grade sheep-grazing, &c.

Year.Pasture Land.*Field Crops.Plantations.†OrchardsLying Fallow.Other Cultivated Land.Total Cultivated Land.

* Excluding areas of grasses and clovers cut for seed, hay, or ensilage, which have been included in field crops.

† Prior to 1934–35 large areas of State Forest plantations were excluded from the collections.

 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1931–3216,285,0901,958,671399,30725,75594,15986,61918,849,601
1932–3316,221,3242,191,670409,86025,31796,01889,43619,033,625
1933–3416,472,6042,064,037427,47125,069105,76691,80119,186,748
1934–3516,501,8111,981,804753,68425,087115,83296,30119,474,519
1935–3616,543,7502,090,745779,87725,072107,10997,00519,643,558
1936–3716,610,9031,918,855787,96524,856118,84398,58419,560,000
1937–3816,731,6071,785,329846,97422,397181,41495,28019,663,001
1938–3916,783,6121,807,445844,42321,753140,92595,79119,693,949
1939–4016,632,6081,956,096839,90620,899112,19597,64519,659,349
1940–4116,788,1212,048,198852,19620,064104,18993,88819,906,656
1941–4216,742,1532,010,560857,93319,544110,49694,08819,834,774

In the following pages statistics of the principal crops are quoted with explanatory comment. In addition to summary tables, covering in each instance a range of related items, important individual crops are discussed under separate headings.

PRINCIPAL FIELD CROPS.—The areas under each of the principal field crops for the last five years have been as follows:—

Crop.1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.

*Including turnips and rape mixed.

† Excluding wheat, oats, barley, maize, and peas fed off.

 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
Wheat191,842193,332260,779245,733260,603
Oats289,763279,796268,541306,944282,408
Barley31,60432,52831,72841,08844,431
Maize12,40312,22914,35216,89614,132
Peas14,80013,67822,07835,94031,411
Linseed6621,8211,2161,284859
Linen flax  40313,11820,200
Potatoes23,09018,03220,03316,99815,201
Turnips and swedes*432,651385,846404,841403,746376,715
Mangolds8,2708,8729,6109,2197,847
Onions618674839903825
Tobacco1,9721,8071,8282,1502,435
Green fodder†211,504189,601209,233222,189232,045
Grasses and clovers for seed80,463109,695112,142150,731155,024
Grasses and clovers for hay or ensilage443,880518,919554,607533,462513,075
Lucerne for hay or ensilage38,69137,02339,61441,66542,211
Other crops3,1163,5924,2526,13211,138
    Totals1,785,3291,807,4451,956,0962,048,1982,010,560

The figures quoted in the foregoing table in respect of wheat, oats, barley, maize, and peas relate to the total areas under these crops. It should be noted that a considerable portion of the area under certain crops, particularly oats, is cut for chaff or is fed off.

GRAIN AND PULSE CROPS.—Details of areas, total yields, and yields per acre of the principal grain and pulse crops during the last five years are set out in the following table.

Year.Wheat.Oats.Barley.Maize.Peas.Linseed.

*Bushel equivalents in lb.: Wheat, 60; Oats, 40; Barley, 50; Maize, 56; Peas, 60.

† Not available.

AREAS FOR THRESHING.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1937–38185,94957,91725,4556,14714,277662
1938–39189,28154,42226,8986,02513,4361,821
1939–40257,53249,75125,2627,96221,3231,216
1940–41243,19771,75832,02510,76334,8931,284
1941–42258,00270,79636,0268,77930,976859
TOTAL YIELDS.*
 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Cwt.
1937–386,042,9812,640,9151,085,950295,576372,4845,182
1938–395,564,1362,604,8171,076,774269,024386,97413,322
1939–408,010,0892,081,106915,805404,179563,1598,788
1940–418,305,8653,114,9461,066,408513,554741,535
1941–428,671,2443,444,8121,296,630444,249852,077
YIELDS PER ACRE.*
 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Cwt.
1937–3832·5045·6042·6648·0826·097·83
1938–3929·4047·8640·0344·6528·807·32
1939–4031·1041·8336·2550·7626·417·23
1940–4134·1543·4133·3047·7121·25
1941–4233·6148·6635·9950·6027·51

As will be seen from the preceding table, wheat and oats are the grain crops of major importance, these two accounting for 80 per cent. of the total area under grain and pulse crops for threshing, in the proportions of 63 per cent. and 17 per cent. respectively.

Other crops for threshing in 1941–42 included the following, the resultant yield in each ease being given in parentheses: Lupins, 2,593 acres (43,911 bushels); rape, 2,365 acres (1,402,024 lb.); kale, 961 acres (283,850 lb.); white-fleshed (soft) turnips, 642 acres (180,306 lb.); yellow-fleshed (hard) turnips, 348 acres (113,088 lb.); swedes, 457 acres (116,731 lb.); mustard, 424 acres (111,273 lb.); beans, 327 acres (7,965 bushels); and ryecorn, 204 acres (3,880 bushels).

Further statistical details of wheat, oats, and barley, the three most important grain crops, follow.

WHEAT.—Wheat is the most important grain crop grown in New Zealand. The industry enjoys a sliding scale of Customs duties levied on imports of wheat and flour and also regulation of prices on a basis that is calculated to give the grower a satisfactory return for his produce.

Further efforts in encouraging wheat-growing with a view to making New Zealand entirely self-sufficient in respect of requirements of wheat and wheaten products were initiated by the Government in 1936. An Order in Council which came into force in March of that year prohibits the importation of wheat or wheaten flour, except under permit granted by the Minister of Industries and Commerce. With a view to reducing imports of Grade A wheats necessary for mixing purposes, the Wheat Research Institute has been endeavouring to encourage the growing in New Zealand of better-quality varieties which do not require blending with imported wheats. The Institute has already achieved excellent results, its most outstanding success being the development of a Tuscan variety known as Cross 7. Cross 7 wheat has been grown in increasing quantities, and in the 1941–42 season produced over 51 per cent. of the total grain harvested. It possesses the advantages of desirable baking qualities, good yield, and resistance to wind damage. Another variety, similarly developed, known as Fife Tuscan, also shows signs of increasing popularity.

Despite the protection and encouragement given to wheat-growers, the results in recent years have in the main been disappointing. The Dominion's normal average annual wheat requirements are. approximately 9,000,000 bushels, but that figure has not been readied in any of the last ten seasons. There was a substantial improvement in the wheat position in each of the last three seasons, but production is still below requirements. Imports in recent years have been on a heavy scale, no less than 3,444,869 bushels being obtained from overseas during 1938, followed by 3,095,098 bushels in 1939, 1,944,895 bushels in 1940, and 1,120,498 bushels in 1941.

Varieties of Wheat.—The choice of wheat varieties for sowing is influenced by their suitability to local conditions of climate, soil-type, &c. Wheat-growers receive valuable guidance regarding suitable varieties as the result of research work and field trials undertaken by the Wheat Research Institute and the Department of Agriculture. Particulars regarding varieties of wheat were obtained covering 86 per cent. of the total area of wheat threshed for the harvest of 1942. Of the three groups of varieties, Tuscan accounted for 90·7 per cent. of this area and 88·7 per cent. of the yield therefrom; Hunter's, 7·4 per cent. of the area and 9·5 per cent. of the yield; and Pearl, 1·9 per cent. of the area and 1·8 per cent. of the yield. Of the individual varieties, Cross 7, previously referred to, produced 51·5 per cent. of the total yield, while Tuscan and Solid-straw Tuscan between them produced 25·3 per cent. The area sown with Cross 7 accounted for 48·7 per cent. of the total area, while the other two varieties together accounted for a further 33·5 per cent.

OATS.—Although, as staled above, wheat is the most important grain crop of New Zealand, the area under oats (for all purposes) exceeds that under wheat. Of the total area under oats in 1941–42, 91 per cent. was grown in Canterbury, Otago, and Southland, 4 per cent. in the remainder of the South Island, and 5 per cent. in the North Island. The greater portion of the oat crop is usually converted into chaff without threshing, but the proportion so dealt with depends partly on the condition of the crop and partly on market conditions. In 1937–38, 20·0 per cent. of the area sown was threshed; in 1938–39, 19·3 per cent.; in 1939–40, 18·5 per cent.; in 1940–41, 23·8 percent.; and in 1941–42, 25·1 per cent. Canterbury yielded 42 per cent. of the total oaten-grain produced in 1941–42, followed by Southland with 35 per cent. and Otago with 21 per cent., these three districts together accounting for 98 per cent. of the total oaten-grain yield.

The total and average yields of oaten-grain and of chaff, hay, or ensilage for the five seasons ending with 1941–42 were as follows:—

Season.Grain.Chaff, Hay, or Ensilage.
Total Yield.Average per Acre.Total Yield.Average per Acre.

* Bushel of 40 lb.

 Bushels.*Bushels.*Tons.Tons.
1937–382,640,91545·60270,7321·56
1938–392,604,81747·86316,6981·81
1939–402,081,10641·83247,2021·52
1940–413,114,94643·41279,5791·63
1941–423,444,81248·66242,6871·69

Varieties of Oats threshed.—An analysis of the threshing returns relating to the season 1941–42 gave the following percentage distribution of varieties of oats threshed.

Variety of Oats threshed.Percentage of Total Area.Percentage of Total Yield.
WhitePer Cent.Per Cent.
  Gartons72·3180·96
  Sparrowbill0·060·08
      Totals72·3781·04
Dun9·026·45
Black1·851·30
Algerian15·029·44
Unspecified1·741·77
      All varieties100·00100·00

White oats are predominantly represented in the above figures with nearly three-quarters of the total area threshed, and over four-fifths of the total yield. Gartons, in addition to possessing value as feed oats, are used extensively for milling.

BARLEY.—The area sown in barley does not usually fluctuate to any marked degree from year to year, nor does the yield of grain obtained at threshing. However, the yield of grain during the last five seasons, 1937–38 to 1941–42, has been considerably higher than that obtaining previously, mainly owing to increased sowings. Over the last ten years, annual sowings have averaged 31,600 acres, but in the last live years the average has been 36,275 acres. The area sown in 1941–42 (44,431 acres) is the second largest area to be recorded, being exceeded only in 1920–21, when 47,472 acres were sown. Of the total area grown, approximately 75 per cent. is usually threshed for grain, the remaining 25 per cent. being used for stock fodder (mostly feeding off).

Information supplied in the spring by growers regarding varieties sown, or intended to be sown, shows the following percentage distribution for 1940–41 and 1941–42.

Variety.Proportion of Estimated Total Area.
1940–41.1941–42.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.
Plumage-Archer23·8227·68
Chevallier21·3026·39
Spratt-Archer16·1219·82
Cape18·199·86
Skinless11·917·96
Goldthorpe-Spratt6·765·74
Other varieties1·902·55
    Totals100·00100·00

Plumage-Archer, Chevallier, Spratt-Archer, and Goldthorpe-Spratt are malting varieties. In the aggregate, they accounted for 68 per cent. of the area in 1940–41 and SO per cent. in 1941–42.

Dominion production of barley invariably falls short of domestic requirements. During the five seasons ending with 1941–42, annual production averaged 1,088,000 bushels. During the five calendar years ending with 1941, annual importations averaged 533,000 bushels (stock feed, 408,000 bushels; other barley, 125,000 bushels), while exports were practically nil. Dominion barley requirements are approximately 1,500,000 bushels annually, of which total local production supplies approximately two-thirds.

Efforts are being made to increase production of malting barley to the stage when New Zealand will be self-sufficient in this respect. A Barley Advisory Committee, comprising representatives of growers, maltsters, and the Fields Division of the Department of Agriculture, is working to this end. Included in the wartime programme for increased production is an expansion of the area sown for stock-feeding purposes.

POTATOES.—The production of potatoes is usually adequate to meet the home market, and in the past a surplus was frequently available for export. The problem of the disposal of such surplus quantities in normal times is rendered difficult by import restrictions on New Zealand potatoes entering Australia, although several thousand tons were admitted during 1940, following an exceptionally high average and aggregate yield from a comparatively small area. The acreage sown in 1940–41 (16,998 acres) was the lowest area to be recorded since 1892, the earliest date for which comparative statistics are available. Consequently, though the average yield per acre compared favourably with that of the previous ten seasons, the aggregate yield was insufficient to meet home requirements, necessitating the importation of a considerable quantity of Australian potatoes to help meet the deficiency. An even more unfavourable position obtained in 1941–42 when, owing to a further decrease in the area planted, it became necessary for the Government to adopt a method of systematic marketing of available supplies.

The Dominion figures for the last five years are as follows:—

Year.Area.Total Yield.Yield per Acre.
 Acres.Tons.Tons.
1937–3823,090146,7856·36
1938–3918,03287,6714·86
1939–4020,033141,1057·04
1940–4116,99894,1235·54
1941–4215,20189,6045·89

The 1941–42 yield was made up of 65,775 tons of table potatoes, 17,670 tons of seed potatoes, and 6,160 tons of pig, &c., potatoes. The corresponding quantities in 1940–41 were 64,871 tons, 20,157 tons, and 9,095 tons.

Since 1936, special statistics of areas and yields of potatoes, classified according to varieties as well as by origin of seed planted (Government certified or otherwise) have been compiled annually. The following figures relating to the 1941–42 season cover approximately 50 per cent. of the total potato acreage.

Name of Variety.Government Certified.Uncertified.Not stated.Totals.
Area.Total Yield.Yield per Acre.Area.Total Yield.Yield per Acre.Area.Total Yield.Yield per Acre.Area.Total Yield.Yield per Acre.
 AcresTons.Tons.AcresTons.Tons.AcresTons.Tons.AcresTons.Tons.
Aucklander Short Top1,2988,4426·501,5207,9905·26988708·882,91617,3025·93
Dakota1008498·491,0376,7376·50553185·781,1927,9046·63
Arran Chief2512,66910·637986,1707–73454469·911,0949,2858·49
Inverness Favourite1321,33310·103762,7157·22322698·415404,77·99
King Edward VII1401,1468·193251,8585·728435·384733,047,6·44
Gamekeeper and Northern Star   2269864·36   2269864·36
Epicure462294·911154854·224164·001657274·41
Arran Banner432996·95885496·242168·001338646·50
Jersey Bennes131138·69582474·2611504·56824105·90
Cliff's Kidney201246·20613756·15   814996·16
Aucklander Tall Top382947·74191306·84   574247·44
Majestic221928·73291424·90   513346·55
Robin Adair171166·8218633·50   351795·11
Iron Duke3155·00231195·17   261345·15
Up-to-date382·6721864·10   24943·92
Mixed and minor varieties311585·104291,9554·56783894·995382,5024·65
Unspecified301775·901886983·712507793·124681,6543·53
      Totals2,18716,1617·395,33131,3055·875833,1965·488,10150,6626·25

“Government certified" seed is that for which a Government certificate has been issued in respect of purity, &c. Seed obtained from the ensuing crop cannot be so designated unless the requisite certificate is issued by the authorities.

The table plainly indicates the superior yielding-capacity of certified seed. Between them, the three principal varieties—viz., Aucklander Short Top, Dakota, and Arran Chief—for which separate figures were available averaged 7·3 tons per acre from certified seed and 6·2 tons per acre from uncertified seed. The. advantage of 1·1 tons per acre in favour of crops from certified seed represents a yield-superiority of 18 per cent. Over all varieties, the corresponding advantage is even greater, amounting to 1·5 tons and 26 per cent. respectively.

ONIONS.—Areas, yields, and net exports of onions for the last five years are as follows:—

Year.Area.Total Yield.Yield per Acre.Net. Exports (Calendar Year following).

* Excess of imports.

† Not available.

 Acres.Tons.Tons.Tons.
1937–386184,7777·73-3,670*
1938–396746,92910·283,817
1939–408398,0259·5645
1940–419038,2239·111,098
1941–428258,41810·20

For many years the production of onions was rarely sufficient to supply home requirements. As onions are a semi-perishable commodity it was found convenient to export in the flush of the New Zealand season, and to obtain supplies from overseas later in the year. However, a considerable improvement has been effected in the keeping qualities of the varieties grown, and in recent years exports have exceeded imports.

SUPPLEMENTARY FODDER CROPS.—Although grass is the main crop of the farmer in New Zealand, at certain periods during the year the pastures need supplementing in order that the grassland may not become unduly exhausted, and also in order to maintain stock in a satisfactory condition. In mid-winter the grass is at a low stage of productivity generally, while under dry summer conditions it loses part of its nutritive value. During these periods, it is necessary that some extra feed should be provided, and this is usually done either by cutting the grass for hay or ensilage when there is an ample surplus on the pastures during the flush of the growing season, or by the provision of green fodder or root crops.

The following table gives detailed figures of the areas of the supplementary fodder crops available during each of the last five years.

Year.Chaff, Hay, or EnsilageGreen Fodder.Root and other Crops for feeding to Stock.Total Area of Fodder Crops.
Cereal Crops.Grasses and Clovers, including Lucerne.Cereal Crops.Other Crops.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1937–38176,417482,57173,727211,504443,3191,387,538
1938–39176,779555,94264,480189,601397,0551,383,857
1939–40164,657594,22170,236209,233417,3201,455,667
1940–41173,473575,12779,445222,189416,3561,466,590
1941–12144,874555,28683,097232,045387,1501,402,452

In 1941–42 grasses and clovers cut for hay or ensilage totalled 513,075 acres and lucerne 42,211 acres. Oats was the only cereal crop utilized in any quantity for this purpose, the area of oats cut for hay or ensilage being 143,218 acres. The principal green-fodder crops, apart from oats, are rape (163,851 acres), and kale (including chou moellier) (63,672 acres). The last-mentioned crop is becoming increasingly popular for fodder purposes. Of the cereal crops fed-off to stock during the 1941–42 season, oats accounted for 68,394 acres of the total area (83,097 acres). Swedes and turnips are the principal root crops grown in the Dominion, the total acreage in 1941–42 being 376,715 acres (including 39,802 acres of turnips and rape mixed). Other root crops included 7,847 acres of mangolds and 868 acres of carrots and parsnips. Pumpkins and marrows were grown for fodder to the extent of 1,057 acres.

The total and per-acre yields obtained from the various crops cut for chaff, hay, or ensilage have been as follows for the seasons specified. In the cases of grasses and clovers cut for hay or ensilage, second or catch crops are taken into account in the yield figures, the total yield including crops from areas which had previously yielded some other crop in the season concerned. These areas are not counted twice in the statistics of acreage, and average yields cannot be obtained by the mere division of the total yield by the area figures.

Crop.1940–41.1941–42.
Total Yield.Yield per Acre.Total Yield.Yield per Acre.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Wheat2,2211·831,6561·90
Oats279,5791·63242,6781·69
Barley1,9912·251,3442·03
Maize4884·445984·82
Grasses and clovers for hay913,7601·97867,5401·95
Grasses and clovers for ensilage277,1853·92269,1173·95
Lucerne108,7102·59111,4862·62

GRASS-SEED.—The total area of grasses and clovers cut for seed during the 1941–42 season was 155,024 acres, yielding 1,623,344 bushels of 20 lb., as against 1,804,072 bushels from 150,731 acres in 1940–41. Canterbury, Otago, and Southland land districts between them provided 90 per cent. of the area cut.

The areas and yields of the principal grass and clover crops harvested for seed during each of the five years 1937–38 to 1941–42 are given in the table following.

Year.Rye-grass.Cocksfoot.Chewings Fescue.Crested Dogstail.Red Clover and Cow-grass.White Clover.Brown-top.
AREAS.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1937–3833,32311,6208,1622,7958,8094,80010,314
1938–3954,67012,82511,6056,0727,0797,1829,695
1939–4050,73810,25513,9053,7777,9778,84115,349
1940–4177,8249,97715,0514,11413,25220,1418,750
1941–4265,69210,62413,9004,50123,45825,5139,840
YIELDS
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
1937–3810,547,8431,915,282995,240405,0231,287,894552,483263,384
1938–3915,077,9342,644,8351,906,898646,676995,005863,308222,000
1939–4015,997,2871,063,3942,051,828614,7671,180,8871,038,162379,611
1940–4126,792,9771,425,2272,552,255639,2511,822,9182,341,443271,418
1941–4220,949,0421,528,9102,407,346717,2013,557,1452,819,422290,415

A considerable export of grass-seed has been built up during recent years, especially with the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America, the quantity exported to these countries in 1941 amounting to 83,551 cwt., valued at £526,210. The total quantity of locally-produced grass and clover seed exported to all countries in 1941 amounted to 88,198 cwt., with a recorded value of £563,733.

PASTURE GRASSES.—At the beginning of the year 1942 there were 17,713,378 acres under artificially sown grasses (including 710,310 acres cut for seed, hay, or ensilage during the preceding season), and in addition 13,869,330 acres of occupied land still remained in tussock or other naturally established native grasses, making a total of 31,582,708 acres of grassland in occupation. The following table shows the respective areas occupied by artificially sown grasses and by tussock and other naturally established native grasses during the five years specified.

Year.Artificially Sown Pasture Grasses.Tussock and other Naturally Established Native Grasses.Total Area under Grass.
Cut for Seed, Hay, or Ensilage.Not Cut for Seed, Hay, or Ensilage.*

* Includes approximately 200,000 acres also sown with crops.

 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1937–38563,03416,982,41114,043,11231,588,557
1938–39665,63716,998,27513,850,13731,514,049
1939–40706,36316,860,30013,937,73331,504,396
1940–41725,85817,011,72513,861,48931,599,072
1941–42710,31017,003,06813,869,33031,582,708

During the year 1941–42, 63,881 acres of land which had not previously been cultivated were sown down in new pasture, as against 69,133 acres in 1940–41.

TOP DRESSING (PASTURE LANDS).—Compared with the previous year, the area of grassland top-dressed during 1941–42 showed a decrease of 436,940 acres. The figures relate only to grassland top-dressed, fertilizers used in connection with field crops not being included.

Nature of Top-dressing.North Island.South Island.Dominion.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.
Artificial fertilizers only2,084,637239,4992,324,136
Lime only211,603168,542380,145
Both artificial fertilizers and lime1,142,906365,1901,508,096
      Totals3,439,146773,2314,212,377

Top-dressing in New Zealand is carried out mainly on cattle-grazing areas, including, of course, dairy-farms; the North Island, which contains 87 per cent. of the Dominion's cattle, accounts for 82 per cent. of the area top-dressed.

The following table shows particulars of areas top-dressed during the last five years.

Year.Area Top-dressed.
With Artificial Fertilizer only.With Lime only.With both Artificial Fertilizer and Lime.Total Area Top-dressed.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1937–382,516,236188,9531,168,8003,873,989
1938-392,584,618218,4451,213,8814,016,944
1939–402,764,295204,4781,218,5114,187,284
1940–412,923,378250,9721,474,9674,649,317
1941–122,324,136380,1451,508,0964,212,377

The activities of the Department of Agriculture in the treatment of experimental plots from the various aspects of soil and crop requirements, and the subsequent data published thereon, have been an important factor in conveying to the farmer the many advantages to be derived from the scientific treatment of pastures.

GARDENS AND PLANTATIONS.—The figures for market gardens, plantations, &c., for the last five years are shown below. The area in plantations (not virgin bush) was made up of 835,547 acres of conifers and 22,386 acres of eucalypts and other broad-leaved trees. State plantations are covered by these figures. It should be noted that the statistics relate only to holdings of 1 acre or upwards outside boroughs.

Year.Market Gardens.Nurseries, &c.Private Gardens, &c.Plantations.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1937–387,41387981,698846,974
1938–397,80689081,482844,423
1939–409,01883682,670839,906
1940–419,43293782,045852,196
1941–429,05082783,028857,933

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY.—A great impetus to the planting of fruit-trees was given by the discovery that tracts of land, principally in the Nelson land district, which formerly were regarded as being practically useless, were eminently suited for growing fruit, particularly apples. For a time, considerable areas of this and other land were annually added to the Dominion's orchards, but the acreage then declined until it became stabilized in the neighbourhood of 25,000 acres. However, a further decline has set in over the last six years, the 1941–42 figure of 19,544 acres showing a decrease of 5,528 acres as compared with the 1935–36 total. These figures refer to orchards of¼ acre or over on holdings of 1 acre or more situated outside borough boundaries.

The following table shows the area outside borough boundaries which has been returned as under fruit-trees at each of the last ten annual enumerations.

 Acres.
1932–3325,317
1933–3425,069
1934–3525,087
1935–3625,072
1936–3724,856
1937–3822,397
1938–3921,753
1939–4020,899
1940–4120,064
1941–4219,544

A classification of orchard areas by size appeared in the 1942 issue of the Year-Book.

The growing of outdoor grapes is chiefly confined to the districts situated between the North Cape and Hawke's Bay, the total area returned in vineyards in 1942 being 468 acres. The greater portion of the crop is used for winemaking, several wines of excellent quality being manufactured, but considerable quantities of outdoor-grown grapes are sold for table use.

Passion-fruit, of which 108 acres were grown in 1942, is mainly confined to the North Auckland Land District.

HOPS.—According to returns covering holdings of 1 acre or over outside boroughs there were 578 acres under hop-vines in the season 1941–42.

Practically the whole of the hop gardens are located in Waimea County. Production per acre usually ranges between 1,200 lb. and 1,500 lb., and the aggregate crop is sufficient to satisfy local requirements as well as to provide a surplus for export. Exports during the last five calendar years were as follows:—

Year.lb.Value.
  £
1937135,4198,347
1938387,97221,093
1939114,5416,818
1940156,3228,394
1941213,66622,853

TOBACCO.—Although the cultivation of tobacco-leaf on a commercial basis was initiated comparatively recently, the industry has made marked progress and growers are becoming increasingly familiar with the methods and plant required for the production of cured leaf acceptable to manufacturers. Commercial tobacco-growing is confined to those to whom licenses are issued by the Tobacco Board established under the Tobacco-growing Industry Act, 1935, to control the industry. Most of the tobacco produced is flue-cured, producing a yellow-leaf tobacco which is largely used for the manufacture of cigarettes, the balance, air-cured, being used mainly in the manufacture of smoking mixtures and pipe tobacco. For the production season 1941–42, 96 per cent. was flue-cured, as against 4 per cent. air-cured.

Figures collected from occupiers throughout the Dominion of holdings of 1 acre or more situated outside boroughs show a total of 2,435 acres planted in tobacco in the season 1941–42. Contracts were signed in respect of 3,055 acres, the discrepancy between the two figures being accounted for in part by the difference between the area actually planted and the area contracted for, and in part by areas grown within boroughs.

The total leaf purchased from growers in 1941–42 amounted to 2,721,135 lb.

PHORMIUM.—Large areas in various parts of New Zealand are covered with phormium, or New Zealand flax, the fibre of which is largely used for rope-making, &c. The area of 47,264 acres returned as under phormium on occupied holdings in 1941–42 was divided between the North and South Islands in the proportions of 46 per cent. and 54 per cent. respectively. The figures for each of the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Area.
 Acres.
1932–3364,206
1933–3472,853
1934–3572,823
1935–3668,933
1936–3763,015
1937–3866,515
1938–3957,602
1939–4055,734
1940–4149,936
1941–424 7,264

Statistics of the operations of flax-mills are included in the section of this volume dealing with Factory Production, to which reference should be made for details of output, &c. Since the year 1934 a large wool-pack and sacking factory has operated at Foxton, thus providing a fresh avenue for fibre consumption.

LINEN FLAX.—As the result of the exigencies of war, an entirely new industry has sprung up in New Zealand—the growing of linen flax. Linen fibre is extensively used commercially, but is now of special importance as an essential war commodity. As the United Kingdom normally imported 90 per cent. of her requirements, mainly from Russia, attention was of necessity paid to the possibility of increasing Empire production.

Investigations in the growing of linen flax in New Zealand were first instituted in 1936, and much valuable research work was carried out by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research in collaboration with the Department of Agriculture. These investigations demonstrated the possibility of the establishment of the industry in New Zealand, and led to an officer being sent abroad to study the industry at first hand and to purchase the necessary processing machinery for an experimental factory.

Though 403 acres of linen flax were grown in 1939–40, the industry was not established on a commercial basis till the 1940–41 season, when 13,118 acres were grown in response to a request received from the British Ministry of Supply that New Zealand should grow 15,000 acres. A request that sowings be further extended resulted in an area of 20,200 acres being grown in 1941–42. This represents an increase of 54 per cent. over the area grown in 1940–41.

Factories, together with the necessary housing for workmen, have been erected at seventeen centres. In addition, ninety-nine retting-tanks have been erected. All necessary machinery was manufactured and installed by the Railways Department; it included such items as turbine-scutchers, breakers, tow-shakers, deseeders, flax-carts, boilers, and tank-reticulation. In addition, the Department, in co-operation with a private firm, constructed one hundred flax-pullers.

Three methods of fibre-production were tried—(1) tank-retting, (2) dew-retting, and (3) natural flax, in which the straw undergoes no processing beyond scutching. The first method, tank-retting, has proved to have many superior features over the other methods, and consequently it has been decided to extend facilities and to adopt this method wherever possible. Only when the quantity of straw is greater than can be handled through the tanks will dew-retting be resorted to, this method in turn proving greatly superior to the other alternative, natural flax.

Approximately 80 per cent. of the 1941–42 crop was accepted for fibre, as against 67 per cent. in the 1940–41 season.

SUBSECTION C.-PASTORAL PRODUCTION.

SUMMARY OF LIVE-STOCK.—The numbers of live-stock of various kinds at each of the last five annual enumerations were as shown in the following table. Detailed statistics of live-stock, by counties and land districts, are contained in the Statistical Report on Agricultural and Pastoral Production issued annually by the Census and Statistics Department. This publication also normally contains the summary tables appearing in parliamentary paper H.—23, which is devoted exclusively to a statistical analysis of the annual sheep returns.

1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.

* Sheep returns not collected in 1942.

Horses278,167274,803271,581266,066261,611
Dairy cows in milk1,763,7751,744,4781,739,8741,779,6031,777,239
Cattle (including dairy cows)4,506,0824,564,9484,533,0324,575,8734,641,714
Sheep shorn during season28,509,66829,146,13029,041,53828,764,76229,225,599
Lambs shorn during season4,192,0233,923,1014,119,2704,534,8544,589,064
Lambs tailed during season17,340,91416,948,97917,229,56918,385,77218,523,290
Sheep (including lambs) as at 30th April32,378,77431,897,09131,062,87531,751,660*
Breeding ewes as at 30th April19,663,86619,960,29919,727,65720,030,933*
Pigs (total)756,466683,463714,001769,180688,677
Breeding sows104,80396,75492,759100,37891,338

In the next table the figures of live-stock are given for each land district. Horses, dairy cows in milk, total cattle, sows, and total pigs are as at 31st January, 1942. Sheep shorn, lambs shorn, and lambs tailed are for the season 1941–42.

Land District.Horses.Dairy Cows in Milk.Total Cattle.Sheep shorn.Lambs shorn.Lambs tailed.Breeding Sows.Total Pigs.
North Auckland31,423378,455779,0281,113,561269,408649,20619,567148,827
Auckland47,345601,7131,231,2392,580,897686,7041,792,80933,456244,182
Gisborne13,51845,459352,6502,206,470823,8071,077,6223,23421,706
Hawke's Bay16,88058,525382,4743,947,839784,2772,507,4802,99622,547
Taranaki15,506229,687415,017843,952242,490527,8098,60567,745
Wellington35,953234,155867,5466,487,4641,668,1284,049,03811,90685,757
Marlborough5,52713,64544,7701,033,90728,803471,6337286,065
Nelson5,12132,46274,069395,46712,046172,1872,27818,854
Westland2,03112,69146,15471,1295,75859,3477316,249
Canterbury39,95466,132171,3694,439,92552,0423,065,8855,01241,859
Otago26,21340,502117,9033,466,78310,1682,052,0561,86215,990
Southland22,14060,813159,4952,638,2055,4332,098,2189638,896
      Totals261,6111,777,2394,641,71429,225,5994,589,06418,523,29091,338688, 677

While the annual collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics covers only areas of 1 acre or over outside borough boundaries, the above tables include an allowance for live-stock within boroughs.

The following table shows the proportion per cent. of the various kinds of livestock in each land district. The figures show that the dairying and beef-production. industries are both largely monopolized by the North Island, which has 87 per cent. of both total cattle and dairy cows. Localizing the dairying industry still further, it is found that over half of the milking-cows in the Dominion are in the area comprised of the land districts of North Auckland and Auckland. Taranaki and Wellington are relatively and practically equally important as regards the number of cows in milk; between them they account for over one-quarter of the Dominion total.

Taking the number of cows other dairy cows as a guide to beef-production, Wellington Land District easily leads over one-quarter of the Dominion total, Hawke's Bay is second, followed by Gisborne, Auckland, and North Auckland, in that order. These five districts together depasture 85 per cent. of all cows reserved for beef-production.

Pig-farming is largely an adjunct of dairy-farming, and consequently the distribution of swine closely follows that of dairy cattle.

Sheep-farming is more evenly distributed between, the North and South Islands. The land districts of major importance are Wellington, Canterbury, Hawke's Bay, and Otago, in that order, these four districts accounting for 63 per cent. of the total sheep shorn.

Land District.Dairy Cows, Two Years Old and over (in Milk).Cows and Heifers, Two Years Old and over (other than for Dairying).Total Cattle.Breeding Sows.Total Pigs.Total Horses.Sheep shorn.*Lambs tailed.*

* During season. Remaining particulars fur stock are as at 31st January.

North Auckland21·49·316·821·521·711·73·83·5
Auckland34·315·826·636·835·718·68·89·7
Gisborne2·517·07·63·53·25·37·65·8
Hawke's Bay3·317·18·33·33·36·513·513·5
Taranaki13·03·88·99·49·96·02·92·9
Wellington13·025·718·613·012·413·422·221·9
Marlborough0·71·21·00·80·92·13·52·5
Nelson1·80·91·62·42·61·81·40·9
Westland0·71·01·60·80·90·70·20·3
Canterbury3·73·13·75·56·015·315·216·6
Otago2·22·22·52·02·2 11·911·1
Southland3·42·93·41·01·28·79·011·3

SHEEP.—The number of sheep at the 30th April, 1930, was 30,841,287, this being the highest total up to that time. An annual decline of about 1,000,000 then set in and continued until 1933; but a series of successive increases which followed this period raised the total to the record figure of 32,378,774 in 1938. The two succeeding years were characterized by heavy slaughterings, which together with a particularly severe winter in 1939, resulted in a decrease of 1,315,899 over the two years. A substantial improvement in 1941 resulted in an increase of 688,785, the number as at 30th April, 1941, being 31,751,660. Breeding ewes as at 30th April, 1941 (20,030,933) showed an increase of 303,276 over the 1940 total, the 1941 figure being actually the highest recorded for breeding ewes. No comparable figures are available for 1942, it having been decided to discontinue the collection of returns of sheep for the duration of the war period. However, as the 1941–42 season totals of sheep shorn, lambs shorn, and lambs tailed each constituted a record figure, it would appear a justifiable inference that sheep numbers again increased in 1942.

In the following table showing sheep distribution by Islands, the Chatham Islands are included in the South Island, as they form portion of the Canterbury-Kaikoura Sheep District.

Year.North Island.South Island.Total Sheep at. 30th April.
193115,886,87613,905,64029,792,516
193214,946,98713,744,80128,691,788
193314,954,02912,801,93727,755,966
193415,264,58813,384,45028,649,038
193515,749,01613,327,73829,076,754
193616,371,84413,741,86030,113,704
193717,065,13514,240,68331,305,818
193817,705,99914,672,77532,378,774
193917,509,22214,387,86931,897,091
194017,075,05613,987,81931,062,875
194117,862,33013,889,33031,751,600

Tables showing the classification of sheep according to class, breed, and size of flock appeared in the 1942 and earlier issues of the Year-Book.

WOOL-PRODUCTION.—Although seventh in order in size of actual flocks, in point of production of wool New Zealand is the fourth largest in the world and ranks third in the list of principal exporting countries. With the exception of a small annual consumption by local woollen-mills (normally from 7,000,000 lb. to 8,000,000 lb., but at present nearly double that quantity) the whole of the wool produced in New Zealand is exported.

The following are the figures of estimated production in each of the last ten seasons.

Year ended 30th June,Estimated Production.
 lb.
1933277,100,000
1934289,600,000
1935265,000,000
1936304,300,000
1937302,900,000
1938296,800,000
1939327,700,000
1940310,000,000
1941331,500,000
1942345,000,000

The above estimates have been obtained by a consideration of all available statistical information and have been computed on a greasy basis.

CATTLE.—The total number of cattle in the Dominion at the enumeration of 1942 was 4,641,714, as against 4,575,873 in 1941. The figures for 1942, grouped according to the classification in use, are as follows:—

Breeding-bulls, two years old and over— 
  Dairy breeds62,372
  Beef breeds22,047
Dairy cows and heifers, two years old and over— 
  Cows in milk during year1,777,239
  Heifers not yet in milk116,586
  Cows dry during year47,474
Other cows and heifers, two years old and over709,857
Heifers, one and under two years old— 
  Intended for dairying330,021
  Other185,586
Steers, two years old and over399,393
Steers and bulls, one and under two years old205,151
Heifer calves under one year old— 
  Intended for dairying350,243
  Other199,701
Bull and steer calves under one year old236,044
      Total4,641,714

Most of the leading breeds of the cattle of Great Britain are represented in the Dominion by herds bred on sound lines. Previous to 1933, the development of the beef breeds was somewhat checked, partly owing to the advance taking place in dairying operations and partly through the difficulties of competing with other countries in the British market: but the successful inauguration of chilled beef shipments to the London market led to a marked increase in beef animals. Although the war-time arrangement for the purchase by the United Kingdom Government of New Zealand meat available for export does not include chilled beef, the schedule of prices is so framed that the producers of animals of the type required for the chilled-beef trade will not suffer on account of the temporary cessation of the industry.

The breeding of dairy cattle has made great progress in New Zealand, though there were decreases in the number of dairy cows in milk in each of the five years 1936 to 1940. An increase of 39,729 in 1941 was a distinct improvement in the position, but a slight decrease was again experienced in 1942.

The relationship between the movements in the figures for dairy cows in milk and for total cattle is fairly uniform, although for a considerable period prior to 1937 there was a tendency for dairy cows to constitute an increasing proportion of total cattle. In 1918 the proportion was 25 per cent., as against 38 per cent. in 1942. At the midway point (1930) dairy cows in milk accounted for 37 per cent. of total cattle.

DAIRY-PRODUCE.—The Dairy Industry Act, 1908 (a consolidation of previous legislation), with its amendments, may in general terms be described as an Act to regulate the production, collection, treatment, preparation, and manufacture, under proper sanitary conditions, of dairy-produce—i.e., milk, cream, butter, cheese, and any other product of milk or cream—intended for sale for human consumption within New Zealand or for export.

Inspectors are empowered to inspect premises used for the production or manufacture of dairy-produce. Any defects affecting the cleanliness and sanitation of the premises, or of the plant, machinery, and apparatus used in connection therewith, may be ordered to be remedied to the satisfaction of the inspector, and until so remedied their use in the production of dairy-produce may be forbidden. Inspectors are authorized to condemn any dairy-produce considered unfit for human consumption, and the sale of unwholesome milk or other dairy-produce is prohibited.

Milk or cream purchased for the manufacture of dairy-produce and paid for according to the percentage of butterfat contained therein must have this percentage determined by the Babcock or Gerber test. Dairy factories are required by regulations under the Act to pay different prices for different grades of milk or cream supplied for the manufacture of dairy-produce. Factories are also required to furnish to suppliers a certified annual statement of overrun, and provision is made for an independent investigation by the Audit Department where a supplier is dissatisfied with the statement received.

Dairy-produce intended for export must be sound and wholesome in all respects, and must comply with the requirements of the Act as to inspection, grading, and marking. The export of butter containing more than 16 per cent. of water or less than 80 per cent. of butterfat is prohibited. The export of cheese of which the water-free substance consists of less than 50 per cent. of fats wholly derived from milk is also illegal.

Wide powers are conferred to make regulations prescribing matters of detail with regard to the production, manufacture, sale, and export of dairy-produce. In particular, regulations may be made for the registration of dairies, the licensing of persons carrying on the manufacture of dairy-produce, the registration of brands to be used on dairy-produce, and for the inspection, grading, packing, marking, stamping, and labelling of dairy-produce.

Comprehensive regulations covering all phases of the industry, as regards both “supplying” dairies and manufacturing dairies, are contained in the Dairy-produce Regulations 1938, gazetted on the 28th July, 1938, and consolidating all previous regulations on the subject.

The Dairy Supply Control Order 1940 made it illegal for a supplier of milk to a cheese-factory to transfer his supply to any other concern, but permitted a supplier who had been supplying milk or cream to a creamery to transfer his supply to a cheese-factory. Under the previous regulations no transfer of supply was permitted during any particular season without the antecedent consent in writing of the owner or manager of the factory formerly supplied. The object of the change in regulations was to assist towards an increased cheese-production, which had been the subject of a special request by the United Kingdom Government.

As the result of an increased amount of cheese becoming available from other sources, the United Kingdom Ministry of Food requested the Dominion to reduce its supply of cheese in respect of the 1942–43 season to practically half the quantity aimed at for the 1941–42 season. As against the reduction in cheese, the Ministry of Food indicated its willingness to take the maximum quantity of butter that could be made available for export. Accordingly new and amending regulations were embodied in the Dairy Supply Control Order 1942, which provided, inter alia, for the transfer of a number of suppliers from cheese-factories to creameries, the Order to become effective as from 1st August, 1942. To compensate for inevitable losses incurred and sacrifices made both in the change-over to cheese and in the reversion to butter-production, a special payment of 1½d. per pound of butterfat for the 1942–43 season's export will be made to those suppliers so affected. The United Kingdom Ministry of Food agreed to assist to meet the costs from the change-over by increasing the purchase-prices per hundredweight by 4s. 6d. sterling for creamery butter and 3s. sterling for cheese. These increases bring the United Kingdom f.o.b. sterling purchase-prices to 117s. per hundredweight for butter and 73s. per hundredweight for cheese.

An impetus to the production of dry butterfat is being given by the erection of a large plant at Auckland capable of handling approximately 10,000 tons yearly. Dry butterfat, which can be simply converted into butter, has the advantage that it does not require refrigerated space for shipment, an important factor under present conditions.

The Dairy Industry Act provides for the registration of co-operative dairy companies. Companies so registered are authorized to accept or to compel the surrender of shares issued in certain cases, subject to the rights of shareholders being safeguarded. A dairy company must not include in its registered name the word “co-operative” unless it is entitled to be registered as a co-operative dairy company under the Act.

Production and Export of Dairy-produce.—The quantity of butterfat supplied to dairy factories during 1941–42 was 384,724,007 lb., as compared with 411,393,892 lb. in the previous year, a decrease of 6·5 per cent. The effect of the change-over from buttermaking to cheesemaking, referred to earlier in this subsection, may be gauged from the following table, which shows factory-production of butter and cheese during each of the last five years. Creamery butter produced during 1941–42 fell by 20 per cent. as compared with 1940–41, while cheese-production advanced by 29 per cent.

Factory Year.Creamery Butter.*Whey Butter.Cheese.

*Including whey butter where not separately enumerated.

 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
1937–383,258,21549,1881,769,351
1938–392,910,64646,5761,705,277
1939–403,103,79751,3091,952,748
1940–413,236,17367,0902,447,411
1941–422,597,07278,1973,153,181

Estimates of the production of butterfat per cow are made each year by the Department of Agriculture. The figures represent the butterfat content of milk-production “at the pail,” including the butterfat content of milk fed to stock, spilt, wasted, &c. The following table shows the estimated yield per cow and the estimated total production of butterfat for each of the last eleven seasons.

Season.Estimated Yield per Cow in Milk.Total Butterfat-production.
 lb.Million Pounds Weight.
1931–32215339·8
1932–33230397·1
1933–34235426·7
1934–35224409·9
1935–36233425·3
1936–37245442·4
1937–38238419·9
1938-39216376·7
1939–40239415·0
1940–41252448·8
1941–42238422·7

The total export of butter and cheese in the last five years, and the total quantity of each commodity sent to the United Kingdom, are given in the next table.

Calendar Year.Total Export of Butter.Butter exported to the United Kingdom.Total Export of Cheese.Cheese exported to the United Kingdom.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
19372,976,0852,903,0051,647,1601,644,241
19382,614,5492,526,9811,610,5231,608,437
19392,443,2972,391,5121,677,2571,676,320
19402,622,7002,583,8942,033,5062,031,234
19412,263,1352,208,6442,366,2352,317,130

Butter exports in 1941 were valued at £(N.Z.)15,777,864 and cheese exports at £(N.Z.)9,833,861.

Reference is made earlier in this section to special arrangements made by the United Kingdom Government for the purchase of New Zealand butter and cheese.

Marketing of Dairy-produce.—Prior to legislation enacted in 1936, the dairy industry was controlled by the New Zealand Dairy Board, which consisted of three Government nominees, three representatives of owners of dairy factories, and one appointee of the New Zealand Co-operative Dairy Co., Ltd. Under the Primary Products Marketing Act. 1936, control was vested in the Minister of Marketing. The Primary Products Marketing Department was established, and, under the control of the Minister, was charged with the administration of the Act. By an amendment passed ii. 1939, the title of the Department was changed to the Marketing Department. The Department took over the main functions of the New Zealand Dairy Board, and also the greater part of the Board's staff in New Zealand and London.

The present functions of the New Zealand Dairy Board, which now consists of five members, are confined to the internal side of the dairy industry and to herd-testing. Its levy was increased in 1939 from 1/100d. to 1/50d. per pound or butter and from ½00d. to 1/100d. per pound on cheese manufactured. The proceeds are used to subsidize dairy-research work.

PIGS.—For some years prior to 1937 a quickening of interest in pig production as an adjunct to dairy-farming raised pig numbers considerably above those noted previously, culminating in the record figure of 808,463 in 1936. However, a decline set in over the next three years, a small decrease in 1937 being followed by successive decreases of 46,000 and 73,000 in 1938 and 1939. Though the 1940 and 1941 figures showed increases of 30,538 and 55,179 respectively, these were practically offset by a further decrease of 80,503 in 1942. This decrease may be largely attributed to the change-over by dairy-farmers from butter to cheese supply, resulting in a much decreased quantity of skim-milk being available for pig-food. The reversion back to creameries, and the consequent availability of skim-milk, should result in an increased demand for pigs in 1942–43.

As at 31st. January,Pigs under Six Months Old.Pigs Six Months and under One Year Old.Boars One Year Old and over.Sows One Year Old and over.Total Pigs.
1938488,864142,58920,210104,803756,466
1939438,953128,74319,01396,754683,463
1940446,479156,53618,22792,759714,001
1941480,404170,56317,835100,378769,180
1942444,226136,78816,32591,338688,677

Although developments in pig production up to 1936 were distinctly promising, there was still a tremendous leeway to be made up before New Zealand reached the stage of development achieved by many other prominent dairying countries in this respect. The decline from 1936 to 1939, following the movement in the dairy-cow population, added to the discrepancy. A table showing the relationship existing between the numbers of pigs and of dairy cows in the more important countries appeared in the 1942 issue of the Year-Book.

LIVE-STOCK SLAUGHTERING AND MEAT EXPORT.—Statistics of live-stock slaughterings and of meat exports follow. In making comparisons between slaughterings and exports, cognizance should be taken of the fact that in some periods there is a considerable lapse of time between slaughtering and actual export.

Sheep and Lambs.—Figures showing sheep and lambs slaughtered for food purposes, together with the exports of frozen mutton and lamb, are given in the table following.

Year ended 31st March,Slaughterings—Overseas Shipments (including Equivalent of Pieces, &c.).
At Abattoirs and Slaughter-houses.On Farms.*Total.

* Year ended 31st January.

Sheep.
 Number.Number.Number.Equivalent Carcases.
19383,351,208524,1553,875,3631,952,900
19394,153,927543,3474,697,2742,156,200
19403,878,611565,4824,444,0932,870,800
19414,610,183537,8675,148,0502,629,700
19424,089,995542,4164,632,4112,105,100
  Totals for five years20,083,9242,713,26722,797,19111,714,700
Lambs.
19389,957,73458,63810,016,3729,201,500
19399,910,78262,6319,973,4139,331,700
194010,074,50265,53210,140,03410,323,300
194111,972,41163,67312,036,0848,366,900
194211,631,95868,94211,700,90011,462,700
  Totals for five years53,547,387319,41653,866,80348,686,100

As the United Kingdom provides practically the only market for the mutton and lamb exported from New Zealand, it is interesting to note the extent to which the Dominion contributes to this market in comparison with importations from other countries.

During the five calendar years up to 1939, New Zealand supplied an average of 62 per cent. of the total frozen mutton imported into the United Kingdom and 52 per cent. of the total imports of frozen lamb. Thus it can be seen that New Zealand holds a dominant position in the supply of these commodities. United Kingdom imports from Australia, the next largest supplier, averaged 23 per cent. and 27 per cent. respectively for the same period.

In February, 1939, it was announced that imports of frozen mutton and lamb into the United Kingdom during 1939 were to be curtailed. Imports from Australia and New Zealand were to be reduced by 3 per cent. on the previous year's quotas and imports from foreign countries by 10 per cent. However, the outbreak of war in September, 1939, necessitated a complete review of the position, with the result that an arrangement was entered into whereby the United Kingdom agreed to purchase, as in the case of butter and cheese, certain defined quantities of meat.

Cattle.—New Zealand mutton and lamb form a substantial proportion of the meats sold on the London market, but the Dominion's: frozen beef competes under difficulties with chilled and fresh beef from countries nearer the United Kingdom, with the consequence that New Zealand's share of the United Kingdom's beef imports is relatively small. However, prospects for expansion brightened considerably when several trial shipments of New Zealand chilled beef were despatched to England in 1933. The experiments proved very successful, and were followed by larger shipments. In 1934 approximately 40,000 cwt. were forwarded to the United Kingdom, and each succeeding year witnessed a steady expansion of the trade, the quantity shipped in 1938 being 350,606 cwt. During the first nine months of 1939, 311,112 cwt. were exported; but, with the outbreak of war, the necessity for conserving shipping-space resulted in the temporary cessation of the industry.

The development of the export trade in chilled beef was not at the expense of frozen beef. Quantities of frozen beef shipped to the United Kingdom in 1937, 1938, 1939, and 1940 were 531,160, 544,764, 672,310, and 1,290,579 cwt. respectively as compared with 484,628 cwt. in 1936.

The following table, which is exclusive of veal, shows the number of cattle slaughtered for food purposes in each of the last five years, together with the quantity of beef exported.

Year ended 31st March,Slaughterings of Cattle—Overseas Shipments of Beef (including Equivalent of Boneless, &c.).
At Abattoirs and Slaughter-houses.On Farms.*Total.

* Year ended 31st January.

 Number.Number.Number.Equivalent Carcases.
1938588,6567,940596,596250,800
1939588,7725,684594,456268,000
1940594,9334,813599,746263,400
1941723,9614,322728,283374,800
1942627,0623,967631,029286,400
  Totals for five years3,123,38426,7263,150,1101,443,400

Pigs.—During the five years ended the 31st March, 1942, 4,838,223 pigs were slaughtered at abattoirs, bacon-factories, and registered slaughterhouses, and during the quinquennium to the 31st January, 1942, 139,870 were slaughtered by farmers on holdings of 1 acre or over, the total slaughterings during the five years representing 4,978,093 carcases. The figures for each year are:—

Year ended 31st March,Pigs slaughtered—Overseas Shipments of Frozen Pork, Bacon, and Ham.
At Abattoirs, &c.On Farms.*Total.

* Year ended 31st January.

 Number.Number.Number.Equivalent Carcases.
19381,085,10737,4241,122,531678,000
19391,012,83630,8281,043,664630,000
1940799,75927,845827,604422,000
1941959,36021,562980,922479,000
1942981,16122,2111,003,372534,000
  Totals for five years4,838,223139,8704,978,0932,743,000

As in the case of other frozen meats, New Zealand pork is shipped almost exclusively to the United Kingdom. During the five years 1935 to 1939 imports of New Zealand frozen and chilled pork into the United Kingdom averaged 536,075 cwt., or 52 per cent. of the total imports of this class of pork. These figures illustrate the important position held by New Zealand as a supplier.

In international trade, exports of bacon far exceed those of other pig products, with the United Kingdom normally absorbing most of the exports of other countries. Although New Zealand supplies a substantial proportion of the imports of frozen and chilled pork into the United Kingdom, her contributions of bacon are negligible at present. It should be mentioned, however, that the major portion of the carcases now imported from New Zealand are “baconers,” the curing process being carried out in the United Kingdom.

Veal.—Prior to the outbreak of the present war veal production was displaying evidence of rapid development, and exports of veal had increased appreciably, mainly as a result of the organization of the “bobby” calf trade. Restrictions on the export of bobby-veal have been in operation for part of the war period, and account for the substantial decrease in exports in the year ended 31st March, 1942.

The following table gives particulars of slaughterings and exports for the last five years.

Year ended 31st March,Slaughterings—Overseas Shipments of Veal.
At Abattoirs and Slaughterhouses.On Farms.*Total.

* Year ended 31st January.

 Number.Number.Number.Cwt.
19381,079,5726,7931,086,365149,328
19391,013,9685,8631,019,831140,103
19401,055,9875,0081,060,995189,021
19411,064,9583,4141,068,372175,463
19421,027,7974,0341,031,8314,276
    Totals for five years5,212,28225,1125,267,394658,191

Meat-export Control.—The New Zealand Meat-producers' Board was constituted under the provisions of the Meat-export Control Act, 1921–22. It consists of eight members—five representing the producers of meat for export, two representing the Government, and one representing the stock and station agents. Briefly, its objects are to control the export of meat in the interests of the producers.

Probably one of the most important functions of the Board has been to regulate shipments so as to keep a steady flow of meat to the British markets over the twelve months of the year, having due regard to the months showing the highest consumption of each class of meat.

Other important functions of the Board include supervision of grading, inspection of loading and unloading of vessels, advertising abroad, trial shipments to new markets, scientific survey work, and grants to the Royal Agricultural Society and other bodies to encourage production of suitable export types of lambs, pigs, &c.

The Board has taken an active part in the development of the chilled-beef industry and has also encouraged the expansion of the pig industry by grants to recording clubs, and in other directions.

Immediately on the outbreak of war the Board placed its whole organization, both in New Zealand and in London, at the disposal of the Government, and was closely associated with the negotiations for the purchase and sale of New Zealand meat.

HORSES.—Since 1911, when the peak number of 404,284 was recorded, horses have tended to decline numerically. The foregoing figure included horses in boroughs; and totals on a similar basis in 1916, 1921, and 1926 were 371,331, 337,259, and 314,867 respectively. The census of 1926 showed that 13,014 horses were in boroughs, but no similar count has since been made.

The following table gives numbers of horses by classes recorded during the last five years, excluding horses in boroughs, figures for which are not available.

1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.
Draught and three-quarter draught124,837123,594122,245121,411118,054
Spring-cart (including half-draught)48,06248,17048,56146,20844,586
Hacks and light working horses77,16974,97873,22771,271,509
Thoroughbred and other horses15,08515,04714,53414,14448
      Total horses265,153261,789258,567253,052248,597

A slight decline recorded between 1933 and 1934 in the classes of draught, three-quarter-draught, and half-draught horses was more than made up in the ensuing four years, during which period draught and three-quarter-draught animals increased by 5,383. The 1939 figure, however, showed a decrease of 1,243, followed in 1940, 1941, and 1942 by further successive decreases of 1,349, 834, and 3,357. This decline in the number of horses of the heavy type has been accompanied by a marked increase in the use of mechanical traction for farm work, the number of agricultural tractors on farms in 1942 being 13,967, as compared with 6,585 five years earlier.

POULTRY.—Poultry statistics have been associated with the census of population from 1861 onwards, with the exception of the censuses of 1896 and 1901. Until 1936, however, poultry kept by Maori households had not been brought within the ambit of the census. The extension of the inquiry to Maori households in 1936 furnished probably the first statistics in existence on this subject. No comparative data are therefore available, but there is no reason to suspect that the degree of accuracy in recording the poultry of Maoris differs sensibly from that experienced in the case of Europeans. The total poultry flocks of the Maoris are small (107,361 birds in all), and their omission from the field of earlier censuses does not appear to have been of significance.

The following table shows the numbers recorded at the last six censuses.

Census.Fowls.Ducks.Geese.Turkeys.Total.
19062,784,269281,99944,30077,1013,187,669
19113,215,031329,23045,38997,9333,687,583
19163,141,354220,80846,95556,5213,465,638
19213,491,567379,98846,23473,2203,991,009
19263,308,384352,03043,87976,8523,781,145
1936 (excluding Maori flocks)3,415,793351,60861,41882,8963,911,715
1936 (including Maori flocks)3,488,516377,79166,66786,1024,019,076

Although the total number of birds as disclosed by the 1936 census was the highest yet recorded, the number per head of population has declined steadily since 1911, and the 1936 figure (2·6) is the lowest since the census of 1864.

Although poultry-farming may be regarded as a definite branch of the farming industry, a classification as to the sizes of flocks indicates that poultry-keeping is generally carried on merely as a side-line. At the census of 1936 there were 165,949 households keeping fowls or ducks, and of these 134,148, or 80·8 per cent. had less than twenty-five birds, while 65,669 households (39·6 per cent.) kept less than a dozen birds. At the other end of the scale it was found that the number of flocks containing" more than 100 birds amounted to 3,219 only, or a little under 2 per cent. of the total. There were 194 flocks of 1,000 or over, and of these 62 were situated in Canterbury, 45 each in Auckland and Wellington, and 23 in Otago. Canterbury' is the centre of the wheatgrowing industry, and this fact doubtless accounts in part for the number of large flocks and the high average number of birds in the flocks of that district.

The number of poultry kept in cities, boroughs, and town districts shows a considerable decline on the number returned at the census of 1926. The increasing tendency towards the use of flats, and the closer settlement of towns, &c., have contributed largely towards the decrease in urban districts.

Poultry Control.—The Poultry Act, 1924, provides for the regulating of poultry-keeping and of the sale and export of poultry and eggs. Provision is made for the appointment of inspectors, on whom certain powers of entry are conferred for purposes of inspection of poultry or eggs intended for export. Poultry are required to be kept under sanitary conditions, and cruelty to poultry is made an offence. Every owner of poultry is required to notify an inspector of any outbreak of disease his flock and to comply with the inspector's directions. It is an offence ill diseased poultry. The Governor-General in Council is empowered to declare diseases, to appoint ports of export, and to appoint grading-stores.

In order to provide finance for the organization and development of the poultry industry, the Poultry-runs Registration Act was passed in December, 1933. The Act makes compulsory the annual registration of every poultry-run, which is defined as land used for the keeping of not less than twenty-five head of poultry (hens and ducks not less than six months old) and the production of eggs for sale. The fee payable annually for registration is 2s. 6d. if the flock is in excess of twenty-four but does not exceed one hundred head. For each additional hundred (or part thereof) an additional 2s. 6d. is payable. A Board is constituted for the administration of the Act.

BEES.—The rich dairy pastures of the Dominion and localities where cattle raising is carried on extensively are particularly favourable for apiculture and the production of high-grade honey for the local and export markets. The export trade is, of course, small when compared with the main primary industries, but is capable of considerable development.

The Apiaries Act, 1927, which came into operation on the 1st January, 1928, was passed to consolidate and amend the law relating to the bee industry. Stringent regulations have been enacted in order to control foul-brood, bee moths, and other diseases of bees. Beekeepers are required to register all apiaries of one or more hives, and it is an offence to keep bees in an unregistered apiary. Only frame hives may be used, box hives being prohibited.

The introduction into New Zealand of bees, and appliances used in connection with the keeping of bees and the harvesting of their products, is prohibited, save with the prior consent of the Minister of Agriculture.

Registrations under the Apiaries Act show that as at the 31st August, 1942, 5,209 apiarists and 131,513 colonies were registered.

Exports of honey for the last five years were:—

Year.Quantity. lb.Value. £
1937318,0219,099
19381,853,21550,330
1939440,19912,376
1940957,41531,387
1941913,76032,376

A system of control on much the same lines as in the case of meat and dairy-produce was introduced by the Honey Control Act, 1924. The Board set up (after a poll of producers, who decided by a large majority in favour of the scheme) acts in conjunction with the Internal Marketing Division of the Marketing Department.

Prior to the issue of the Honey (1942–43 season) Emergency Regulations, apiarists had the option of disposing of their honey through the Marketing Department or through the ordinary trade channels. The regulations referred to, however, make it mandatory for all honey produced during the 1942–43 season (with certain minor exceptions) to be sold to the Marketing Department.

Chapter 18. SECTION 18.—FORESTRY.

Table of Contents

THE administration of State forests and related afforestation activities in New Zealand was for many years under the control of the Lands and Survey Department, but in 1919 a separate Forestry Department was formed. This was reorganized in 1920 as a Department of State, called the State Forest Service, and was given statutory recognition and administrative authority by the Forests Act, 1921–22, which provides for a Minister of the Crown to hold office as Commissioner of State Forests.

Central management and control of the State Forest Service is exercised by the Director of Forestry, with the head office at Wellington. For the purposes of local administration the Dominion is divided into seven conservancies, each under the control of a Conservator of Forests, who is responsible to the Director of Forestry. Public convenience and economy are further achieved by the subdivision of conservancies into districts under the charge of Forest Hangers, who are under the direction of Conservators of Forests.

State forests are administered by authority of the Forests Act, 1921–22, its amendments of 1925 and 1926, section 17 of the Finance Act, 1924, sections 24–29 (inclusive) of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1939, section 7 of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1939, and sections 26 to 29 of the Statutes Amendment Act. 1941. The powers conferred by the Forests Act, 1921–22, to deal with forest produce are subject to the provisions of the Coal-mines Act, 1925, the Mining Act, 1926, the Petroleum Act, 1937, and the Iron and Steel Industry Act, 1937. Section 23 of the Mining Amendment Act, 1934, provides for the payment to the Crown of compensation for damage to any land vested in the Crown resulting from mining operations. Such compensation in respect of State forests may be claimed by the Commissioner of State Forests from time to time as damage is caused.

The Timber Emergency Regulations 1939 came into force in September, 1939, after the outbreak of war, and provided for the appointment of a Timber Controller, authority for the control of forests (sale and purchase thereof), the regulation and control of timber-works, and the control of timber materials. The Director of Forestry was appointed Timber Controller.

The Forest (Fire Prevention) Regulations 1940, made pursuant to the provisions of the Forests Act, 1921–22, came into force on 27th September, 1940. These regulations consolidate existing regulations and provide further administrative machinery which experience has shown to be necessary in safeguarding State forests.

STATE FORESTS.—At the 31st March, 1942, the area of permanent State forest was 5,715,260 acres, and of provisional State forest 3,086,909 acres, these totals including 1,010,971 acres and 912,219 acres respectively of national-endowment lands. The aggregate area (8,802,169 acres) represents 13·3 per cent. of the total area of the Dominion proper, and 64·9 per cent. of the total forest area.

FOREST RESOURCES.—The areas of indigenous forests estimated at intervals since the colonization of New Zealand have been:—

 Acres.
184727,600,000
186923,500,000
188621,200,000
189320,500,000
190917,000,000
192312,600,000

In addition to the above, there were at 31st January, 1942, 857,933 acres of timber trees on holdings of 1 acre or more outside borough boundaries. This area includes land afforested by the State, local authorities, farmers, and commercial concerns. Details of the operations of the last mentioned are given towards the end of this section, under the heading “Commercial Afforestation.”

FOREST POLICY.—The forest policy is essentially one of conservation and expansion—conservation of the indigenous forests for the twofold purpose of counter-erosion and sustained timber-production, and expansion of the exotic forests for the creation of a supplementary timber-supply. Only by the integrated use of both upland and lowland forests for the preservation of their timber productivity and of their counter — erosion, their watershed, and their aesthetic and recreational activities, can the objective of the national forest policy—the enjoyment by the public of the maximum economic and social values, both direct and indirect—be achieved.

Important features of the timber-supply situation are:—

  1. Eighty per cent. of the remaining virgin forests are overmature, and there is no net growth, new growth being offset by decay, &c.:

  2. The conversion of overmature forests into healthy growing stands of indigenous species producing timber to the maximum capacity of the forest soil will necessitate silvicultural management extending over a long period, probably several hundred years:

  3. Current timber demands are depleting the virgin indigenous forests at such a rate—over 30,000 acres annually—that, without other provision being made, an adequate supply of timber would not be available during the whole of the intervening period:

  4. The establishment of exotic forests to supplement the indigenous-forest resources is therefore of great importance, and large forests of exotic trees have accordingly been established during recent years:

  5. The part which exotic forests will ultimately play in the forest economy of the Dominion is difficult to predict. Experience in foreign countries where forestry has been practised over a period of several centuries indicates, however, that exotic species have definite limitations, and for this reason the national policy must envisage the management of the indigenous forests to secure their maximum possible production of timber.

Prominent amongst the recent departmental activities directed towards the solution of the timber-supply problem are:—

  1. The establishment of a Working Plans and Silvicultural Branch, and the expansion of technical trained personnel:

  2. The improvement of housing conditions for forest workers, and the wider use of permanent married employees:

  3. The institution of technical forest management to economize in establishment, maintenance, and utilization activities in both indigenous and exotic forests:

  4. The creation of new exotic forest units in timberless districts remote from timber-supplies:

  5. The establishment of State-owned forest industries, including sawmills, box-factories, planing-mills, wood-preservation plants, &c., to act as demonstration control and salvage units in the indigenous and exotic forests.

SOIL EROSION.—As one of the chief features of the Dominion forest policy, prevention of avoidable denudation and soil erosion is an important function of the Forest Service. While nothing can be done about the geological erosion which is constantly going on above, and even to some extent below, the vegetation limit of the mountain-ranges, the staying of further avoidable erosion at lower levels is definitely' possible. It is well known that erosion results from misuse of the land covering, and in New Zealand at least the fundamental causes have been fire and grazing. It follows that control of these two factors is fundamental to the solution of the erosion problem. Every possible attention to these two matters has been devoted in upland State forests, but the problem is far from being an easy one.

The question of combating erosion is being investigated with a view to establishing demonstration projects, in order that the most practicable and economic methods of checking the destruction and restoring a protective vegetative cover on denuded areas may be ascertained.

A forward step in connection with the erosion problem was taken during the 1941 session of Parliament, when the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act was passed. This Act sets up a Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, which will have the general direction of the administration of the Act; and also makes provision for the setting-up of Catchment Boards, each of which will have jurisdiction over the catchment area of one or more rivers.

FOREST MANAGEMENT.—To preserve the existing indigenous forests to posterity it is not sufficient to fence them against stock, and to protect them from fire. The composition of the forest gradually changes, one type of forest growth succeeding another. Generally the valuable timber-producing species are replaced by weed species such as kamahi, taraire, rewarewa, &c.

Of all the indigenous softwoods amenable to silvicultural treatment kauri is outstanding, and the results of investigations have been most promising. Plans for perpetuating the kauri forests and for rationing the supply of kauri timber are now in operation. Both the remaining virgin stands and the cut-over areas carrying regeneration are being brought under forest working-plans, which govern both the extraction of logs and the silvicultural treatment required to maintain forests in a state of maximum productivity. Permanent extraction routes are now being constructed, over which dead and overmature trees will be extracted along with such large healthy trees as can be removed without endangering subsequent regeneration, and logs will be disposed of on the extraction routes. A minimum diameter cutting-limit of 31 in. breast high has been imposed for virgin stands; and provision has been made for the preservation of exceptional trees and clumps as national monuments and of trees for seeding purposes to assist regeneration.

Preliminary work on the control of cutting in certain podocarp forests is being carried out with the objective of so controlling the cut that regeneration will be encouraged, that timber-production will be regularized over a definite period, and that more efficient utilization will be secured.

Forest working-plans are also being prepared for exotic forests as rapidly as present staff difficulties will allow. The history and description of individual compartments are essential preliminary data for working-plans, and the completion of these records for several of the older exotic State forests is now in view.

A significant feature of managed State forests is their logging by the State and the sale of logs in place of trees. By no other means is it practicable to secure the close control of logging operations, so essential to the preservation of young growth and the encouragement of natural regeneration. Just as the inauguration of block sales in place of “royalty payments off the saw” has effected a marked reduction in forest wastage, so will the adoption of log sales further reduce avoidable waste.

In addition to the supply of logs for the production of sawn timber, the exotic forests are being managed to yield a wide range of raw material for other uses and industries. Firewood, round constructional timbers, posts and poles for creosoting, wood-wool, bolts, peeler logs for plywood, and pulp-wood for the manufacture of pulp and paper products, can all be supplied incidental to the production of saw logs, and plans are well advanced for the establishment of the major industries involved.

It is not impossible that the exotic forest capital resource now being established will yield a surplus over the country's demands, even allowing that the supplies of virgin indigenous timber will be rigidly economized. Such a possibility calls for a twofold study of national significance—one, economic, covering basic industrial and transport factors, and the other, research, covering the scientific utilization of the entire range of wood products ranging from fuel to cellulose derivatives. Their economical production in order to compete in the world's market is the objective which is now being pursued.

In 1918–19 exotic-pine is, as judged by the quantities sawn, ranked only amongst the timb of the production. In 1940–41 they ranked as second. that period the annual cut of rough-sawn exotic-pine timber increased from 1,000 ft. b.m. in 1918–19 to 53,445,000 ft. b.m. in 1940–41. The low density and easy-working properties of these woods will tend to enable them to replace rimu to a very, and to dominate the markets for practically all classes of framing constriction timber, just as already the same properties have given them dom in the boxing and crating markets. Even for finishing-work the exotic softwoods, with their low density and satisfactory glueing properties, will find extensive use as core timber for laminated and other built-up construction. This will in effecting economies in the use of the more valuable indigenous will be utilized as veneers, &c., rather than in the solid form.

STATE FOREST UTILIZATION.—The installation of a modern type of log-gang sawmill at Whakarewarewa, to operate in the extensive exotic forests in that locality, was completed early in 1940, and has already fully demonstrated the accuracy of sawing which is inherent to this type of equipment. Associated with the mill are four kilns for the artificial drying of timber, a boxmaking plant for the production of boxes, crates, and other wood products, and a creosoting plant for the protection of fencing-posts, telegraph-poles, &c.

Current wood-utilization research by the State Forest Service includes studies on decay-causing organisms and wood-destroying insects; also the routine testing of different types of creosote and other wood-preservatives which have promise of general commercial application. The State Forest Service continues to emphasize that measures for the protection of building-timber against both decay and insect attack should be based primarily on good design and maintenance. In conjunction with these measures, the intelligent use of standard preservatives, such as pentachlorphenol in a light oil solvent, is being encouraged, particularly for the protection of those timbers peculiarly subject to attack by virtue of their exposure conditions.

Particular attention has been directed to the use of anti-sapstain chemicals to ensure the production of bright clean stock from the exotic pines, and the. excellent results obtained under even the worst conditions of block stacking indicate that the small expenditure involved will result sooner or later in the almost universal use of such treatments for all exotic pine timbers other than those which are to be kiln dried.

The experience of the Service in the use of exotic timbers in its house building and constructional programme has demonstrated forcibly the necessity for further investigating the painting of exotic timbers. The resinous and relatively knotty nature of much of the exotic timber necessitates the development of special paints and painting methods, and to solve these problems a special set of exposure panels has been established and is being kept under close observation.

The adaptation of creosoted timber to a wide range of structures has been investigated. Specimen culverts, bridges, and fire-towers have been made, and prefabricated timbers for both bridges and pontoons supplied. Large quantities of fencing-posts and telegraph and power poles are being produced, and the production of creosoted farm gates is also receiving attention.

The necessity for conserving motor-spirits as a result of the war emergency has focused public attention upon the possibilities of wood charcoal as a substitute fuel, and as a result of long-continued investigations into the use of charcoal-gas producers for both vehicular and stationary engines it has been possible for the State Forest Service to expedite the production of charcoal from a wide variety of indigenous and exotic timbers. Suitable types of portable and pit kilns have been evolved and tested, and a number of operatives trained for instructional purposes should any nation-wide programme of production prove necessary.

FOREST-FIRE PREVENTION.—One of the greatest problems of forest-conservation is that of fire control. Fire lookout stations are now provided in most of the major exotic forest areas, with patrols covering areas of particular danger in both exotic and indigenous forests. Access roads and tracks, tool caches, and telephone communications are being continually improved, and radio transmitters and receivers and mobile fire-lighting equipment brought into use. The development of radio for rapid assembly of fire-fighting crews is an acknowledgment of the fact that the fire is most easily fought in its early stages, whilst aircraft have already proved invaluable in directing actual fire-lighting work.

A further technical advance has been the setting-up of fire hazard prediction instruments measuring relative humidity and the relative dryness of forest fuels. These factors are co-ordinated with the wind velocity, rainfall deficiency, and air temperature to rate the relative fire hazard. Meteorological reports permit interpretation of the various factors to predict dangerous conditions.

The fire district, with its season of controlled burning, has proved to be a valuable means of reducing the danger to forests from fire. The general public now realize the value of fire districts as a means of preventing indiscriminate fire-lighting and “burning-off” except under expert supervision. Fire districts constituted in the interests of local authorities and private companies now number seventeen, and there are forty-four fire districts constituted to protect State indigenous and exotic forests. The total area covered by all fire districts is 3,454,508 acres.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE INDIGENOUS FORESTS.—The forests of New Zealand, as a whole, belong to that great division of the earth's vegetation called rain-forest—a community with its most extreme development in the tropics. New Zealand rainforest may be naturally divided into two classes, subtropical rain-forest and subantarctic rain-forest, the former, in regard to its trees, being a mixed community of broad-leaved trees and conifers, and the latter a pure community of one or more of the species of beech (Nothofagus). For practical purposes the names rain-forest proper and beech-forest suffice. Between these two classes there are many intermediates, the one graduating into the other.

Rain-forest proper consists of many kinds of tall, medium-sized, and small trees, together with a dense undergrowth of numerous species of shrubs and ferns. Woody lianes and huge epiphytes are characteristic, and bryophytes abound. This class of forest is generally confined to the coastal, lowland, and montane belts—the upper altitudinal line of the last-named becoming gradually lower in proceeding from north to south.

In regard to appraisal of timber, rain-forest proper is divided into the following groups, to each of which is appended its distribution: The kauri (extending northwards from a line joining Port Waikato to Tauranga); the rimu (throughout all three principal Islands, its heaviest stands in the central part of the North Island and on the west coast of the South Island); the kahikatea (throughout the North and South Islands, occupying low-lying swampy ground); and the totara (throughout, but mainly in the central part of the North Island).

Beech-forest must be divided into milling-forest and protection-forest. The former consists of (1) forest where the hard beech (Nothofagus truncata) and the black beech (Nothofagus solanderi) are present in quantity, or where there is only the latter (this extends from the south of lat. 38° southwards to northern Nelson, Marlborough, and eastern Canterbury); (2) forest where the silver beech (Nothofagus menziesii) and the red beech (Nothofagus fuca) are either the sole or the principal species (they extend from the Thames mountains through the montane and lower subalpine belts southwards to north-western Nelson, Westland—but absent from the Taramakau River southwards for one hundred miles—and the fiord country of Otago); and (3) forest where the silver beech is pure or nearly so, such occurring principally in southern and western Southland, and extending over the western slopes of the Dividing Range. Protection-forest, where beeches predominate, particularly the mountain-beech (Nothofagus cliffortioides), is essentially high-mountain forest, but on Mount Egmont and on the western side of the Southern Alps, from somewhat north of the Taramakau River for rather more than one hundred miles southwards, the forest is modified rain-forest proper with thin-bark totara (Podocarpus hallii) and kaikawaka (Libocedrus bidwillii) as important trees. In Stewart Island Nothofagus is absent, and the trees of the upper forest are mainly kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa) and southern-rata (Metrosideros lucida).

In addition to the high forests there are scrub forests, of which those made up of manuka (in a wide sense)—Leptospermum scoparium and L. ericoides—are commercially important on account of the value of their wood for fuel, and because, in many instances, they are an early stage of rain-forest.

The foregoing gives merely a general classification of the forests, but, from the aspect of forestry, a division into smaller groups is essential, such to be based on the composition, structure, and life-history of each group. In this regard, altitude, climate, latitudinal change, and the nature of the soil have to be taken into consideration, as well as the combination and forms of the species composing the forest and their arrangement within the forest. In all forests, changes, progressive or retrogressive, are taking place, and, so far as rain-forest proper is concerned (apart from swamp-forest), in the North Island and the northern part of the South Island the tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa) is tending to predominate, and, in the remainder of the South Island and Stewart Island, the kamahi. On the other hand, beech-forest regenerates into similar forest.

Though the forest-tree species of New Zealand number about 112, only a few are of value as timber-trees; in fact, at present only six are being used to any extent by sawmillers, and, of these, five are coniferous (softwood) timbers. There are several—e.g., puriri, kohekohe, pukatea—which possess very high qualities, but which are now to be obtained only in such small quantities that they are of little commercial importance.

In the 1940 and the two preceding editions of the Year-Book will be found a table showing the principal strength properties of New Zealand timbers. There also appeared in the 1940 and earlier numbers a brief description of the principal indigenous forest trees, with their distribution, and the uses of their timbers.

OUTPUT AND CONSUMPTION OF TIMBER.—The principal timbers milled in New Zealand at present are rimu and Pinus radiata. The subjoined table gives particulars regarding the output of timber by species for the last five years. Quantities in the table are quoted in feet board measure (ft. b.m.)—i.e., units of 12 in. × 12 in. × 1 in.

Species of Timber.1936–37.1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.
 Ft. b.m.Ft. b.m.Ft. b.m.Ft, b.m.Ft. b.m.
Kauri7,791,0008,297,0006,203,0005,065,0003,048,000
Rimu174,779,000187,866,000188,537,000207,097,000204,273,000
Kahikatea, white pine46,959,00043,662,00033,433,00033,043,00031,850,000
Matai20,295,00021,255,00022,776,00021,212,00022,392,000
Totara11,444,00012,794,00011,237,00010,882,00012,980,000
Beech8,808,0008,825,0009,036,0009,008,0009,326,000
Pinus radiata (insignis)31,484,00036,359,00041,868,00046,762,00053,445,000
Other and unspecified4,329,0003,708,0003,626,0002,922,0004,894,000
      Totals305,889,000322,766,000316,716,000335,991,000342,208,000

It is interesting to observe that Pinus radiata (the output of which has increased by 69 per cent. over the last four years) has displaced kahikatea as the second most-used timber. As mentioned earlier, the exotic-pine timbers which are now coming to maturity are firmly established for boxing and crating purposes, and their utilization is constantly being extended. This increased use has permitted the conserving of kahikatea supplies, the quantity of this timber milled having declined by 32 per cent. over the last four years.

The total of 4,894,000 board feet shown for “Other and unspecified” species for 1940–41 is made up as follows:—

Species.Ft. b.m.
Miro2,132,000
Tawa1,536,000
Douglas fir336,000
Tanekaha198,000
Blue-gum196,000
Poplar154,000
Rata71,000
Mangeao50,000
Pukatea36,000
Kamahi36,000
Tara ire31,000
Rewarewa23,000
Puriri19,000
Maire16,000
Macrocarpa15,000
Other and unspecified45,000
    Total4,894,000

Exports of New Zealand timber during the calendar year 1941 amounted to 19,036,408 board feet, valued at £220,042, the principal species being rimu (13,960,396 board feet), Pinus radiata (1,594,558 board feet), beech (1,273,211 board feet), kahikatea (835,118 board feet), matai (212,785 board feet), and kauri (9,532 board feet). Imports during the year comprised 12,569,438 board feet of sawn timber, including 7,889,260 board feet of Australian hardwoods, 2,122,442 board feet of Oregon pine (Douglas fir), 1,528,053 board feet of redwood, and 788,09 board feet of oak—valued at £256,001; and laths, palings, shingles, and other items of a value of £91. The figures of exports and imports of timber during the last five years are:—

Year.Exports of New Zealand Timber.Imports of Timber.
Sawn Timber.Sleepers.Logs unworked.Total Value.*
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.

* Includes other items such as laths, palings, &c., amounting to: 1937, £2,909; 1938, £3,731 1939, £2,752; 1940, £3,183; and 1941, £91.

 Ft. b.m.£(N.Z.)Ft. b.m.£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
193717,656,988200,85526,978,302380,36893,21483,665560,156
193814,534,253177,83129,837,968428,955153,16636,544622,396
193913,172,312155,65227,153,978413,265213,01812,563641,598
194017,322,813194,37013,629,851255,89024,66413,327296,864
194119,036,408220,04212,569,438256,00199,22313,482368,797

SALES OF STATE TIMBER.—Under the timber-sales policy in operation in recent years for the disposal of the mature timber in State forests, the standing timber is appraised and disposed of by public tender as a block sale. As stated earlier in this section, a system of State logging and log sales is now in operation in certain areas.

Year.Timber sold.Sale Price.Percentage of Total Timber produced.
 Ft. b.m.£ 
1937–38103,341,450107,80032
1938–3990,292,600104,82128
1939–4077,372,70097,73923
1940–4194,124,000120,54027
1941–4290,637,000111,04026

FOREST FINANCE.—Up to and including the financial year 1915–16 the expenditure on afforestation was provided out of rents and royalties received from State forests and by an annual contribution from the Consolidated Fund. In 1916–17 provision was made for the borrowing of money for forestry purposes, and since that date all receipts and payments are shown in a State Forests Account. Commencing with the year. 1933–34, interest on loans is carried forward as a liability to the Consolidated Fund until realization of the plantations.

Item.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
Receipts.
Indigenous forests receipts—££££
  Timber sales114,609102,957120,753127,926
  Timber royalties and trespass11,29212,1308,5399,532
  Leases, grazing1,4981,6181,5581,523
  Sawmill-sites, industrial, &c.390401402329
  Miscellaneous7,36210,4146,9378,274
  Log-sales from managed forests6,58421,66226,15331,296
Exotic forests: Poles, posts, firewood, &c.11,22510,51813,20715,341
Utilization projects—    
  Sawn timber 34228,94845,815
  Creosoted products463147,99619,262
  Box shooks   32,883
  Miscellaneous7312822,4703,642
    Totals153,737160,638216,963295,823
Receipts from national endowment indigenous forests (included in above)20,08522,11427,40845,374
Payments.
Allocation of revenue—££££
  Consolidated Fund (portion of revenue from national endowment forests)18,71214,41616,15120,442
  Local authorities12,56615,61210,59317,080
General management charges—    
  Salaries63,42270,85877,83481,662
  General expenses28,06727,16831,07028,463
Land purchase8,9011,8846,7881,996
Forestry projects under direct management—    
  Exotic214,721293,884234,704183,561
  Indigenous22,62929,57832,72435,376
Utilization: Sawmill, creosote plant, &c.52,777120,344148,545136,090
Miscellaneous: Expenses of raising loans, and interest on temporary advances278 911978
      Totals422,073573,744565,320505,648

The revenue from indigenous forests is heavily reduced by statutory payments in favour of local authorities and the National Endowment Account, and during recent years the residue has been little more than sufficient to meet the expenses of supervision and management; consequently the establishment of State exotic forests has been financed almost exclusively from loan-moneys.

STATE EXOTIC FORESTS.—State afforestation on an organized basis dates from 1896, when an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed, and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island, and at Rotorua in the North Island. Planting commenced in 1898, when a total of 54 acres was established.

Figures of the areas planted by the State Forest Service for five-year periods are shown below.

Period.Acres.
1921–2540,141
1926–30230,114
1931–35112,963
1936–4022,019

The gross area of State exotic forests at the 31st March, 1942, was 664,730 acres, of which the area actually established was 443,281 acres, exclusive of firebreaks, waste lands, reserves, &c. Of the area of 3,922 acres newly planted in 1941–42, 3,399 acres were open country and 523 acres unburnt cut-over indigenous forest. The inter-planting of cut-over indigenous forests with suitable exotics while the uncut forest is regenerating and coming to maturity is a practice that is being followed increasingly.

While many species were experimented with in the initial stages of the work, the chief species planted in the North Island were European larch (Larix decidua), Austrian pine (Pinus austriaca), Corsican pine (P. laricio), Western yellow pine (P. ponderosa), and a number of eucalypts. In recent years the main species planted have been Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia), Western yellow pine, Insignia pine (P. radiata), and Corsican pine; whilst in the Auckland Conservancy the Southern pines (Pinus palustris, P. taeda, and P. caribaea) have shown promise.

In the South Island practically all the best-known commercial trees of the Northern Hemisphere have been tried, but many have been discarded as unsuitable for various reasons, until at the present time operations are being conducted with a comparatively small range of conifers which experience has shown will most readily adapt themselves to local conditions. The principal species now being used are Western yellow pine, Corsican pine, Douglas fir, and Insignis pine.

Waitangi Endowment.—The Waitangi Endowment, containing 1,354 acres, is portion of an estate containing the historic site of the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi, presented to the Crown as a national monument by Viscount and Lady Bledisloe in 1932.

By authority of the Waitangi Endowment Act, 1932–33, the Commissioner of State Forests is empowered to administer the land as if it were a State forest, and to develop and use the land for afforestation purposes. To date 329 acres have been planted.

The primary object of these afforestation operations, however, is to reclothe a treeless area to form a scenic background for the portion of the estate known as the Waitangi National Trust, which contains the historic site mentioned.

MISCELLANEOUS FORESTRY PROVISIONS.—The method first adopted in New Zealand for encouraging the planting of trees for the production of timber was by means of “land grants”— a settler being given a free grant of land if he planted a certain portion of his land with suitable trees. Several large plantations were established in Canterbury by this method, which, however, was abandoned in the “eighties.” The Selwyn and Ashburton County Councils are the outstanding examples of local authorities which took advantage of this scheme, and are now receiving substantial revenues from their tree plantations.

Under the system of taxation in operation in New Zealand, encouragement is given to the conservation of indigenous forests and plantations and to the establishment of new plantations, by exempting the trees from land-tax and local rates.

The actual land supporting indigenous forests and plantations is subject to land-tax. The tax, however, is assessed on the unimproved value, which for taxation purposes does not include the value of any trees or the value of the labour or capital expended in planting them.

Local rates on land supporting indigenous forests and plantations are levied on the value of the land only. A County Council is empowered to make an annual levy of ½ id. per hundred feet board measure on timber in the county converted from the log into sawn timber; but this levy is not applicable to timber cut from plantations.

Appraisements of timber are not liable to stamp duty if made for the Crown, for a local authority, or for the information of one party only.

Licenses granted by the Crown to cut timber are exempt from stamp duty; other licenses are not exempt.

Land on which trees of any kind are growing is subject to death duties (estate duty, succession duty, and gift duty), which are assessed on the capital value of the land, which includes the value of the trees.

COMMERCIAL AFFORESTATION.—In 1923 the planting of forests was first undertaken by commercial concerns. Two classes of companies have been formed to carry out the various ventures. The first is the ordinary joint-stock company, where the property is vested in the company and the shareholders receive a pro rata share of the profits according to the amount of capital contributed; the second is a company which is registered with a comparatively small capital, but of which the investing public do not become shareholders. The company contracts with each investor that in consideration of his paying the prescribed amount of cash it will convey to him at the end of a given term a certain area of land duly planted according to a prescribed agreement. The interests of bondholders are watched over by trustees until the time arrives for conveyance to the bondholders. Provision is contained in the Companies (Bondholders Incorporation) Act, 1934–35, whereby bondholders may receive shares in exchange for their bonds and become entitled to the same proportionate interest in the same property and rights as they would be entitled to under their bonds.

Of the thirty-one companies engaged in afforestation operations from which returns were received for the year 1940–41, seven were organized on the bond-holding basis, the balance being limited-liability companies. Twenty of the companies carried on operations in the Auckland Provincial District, five in Nelson, two each in Hawke's Bay and Southland, and one each in Taranaki and Otago.

Liabilities and Assets.—The statement which follows shows and classifies the liabilities and assets of all afforestation companies for the last live years.

1936–37.1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.
Liabilities.
Paid-up share capital£££££
Paid-up share capital2,896,2073,111,5037,248,9117,231,3338,399,320
Loan-money95,757107,19197,28486,95695,369
Forfeited Shares Account20,66221,25628,28235,17934,147
Mortgages83,844144,889207,75229,80630,350
Sundry creditors174,249163,034132,098161,34483,157
Bondholders1,672,2721,631,140765,570801,549832,947
Other132,224212,730627,355259,881436,943
      Totals5,075,2155,391,7439,107,2528,606,0489,912,233
Assets.
Land for afforestation purposes1,100,4041,107,3815,218,8905,226,2266,545,949
Land for other purposes3,2703,45933,42828,14428,334
Development Account1,113,4151,247,8681,282,7261,356,1621,406,150
Investments2,036,5601,917,3611,524,1571,482,2571,334,433
Goodwill and preliminary expenses25,96127,35628,50731,00831,279
Other795,6051,088,3181,019,544482,251566,088
      Totals5,075,2155,391,7439,107,2528,606,0489,912,233

It will be observed that total assets and liabilities recorded substantial rises between the years 1937–38 and 1938–39. This increase was due chiefly to one company, formerly bond-issuing, being reconstructed as provided by the Companies (Bondholders Incorporation) Act. Reconstructions under this Act are characterized by increases in share capital and in land held for afforestation, with decreases in liabilities to bondholders and in other transactions relating to bond-issues.

Receipts and Payments.—The following statement shows a classification of the receipts and payments recorded by afforestation companies during each of the last live years. Attention is drawn to the fact that the figures for receipts represent receipts from the cash point of view and should not be confused with revenue.

1936–37.1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.
Receipts.
 £££££
Share capital165,949140,400152,04040,2869,649
Instalments on bonds274,746130,01327,65326,26317,017
Loan-money6,40723,942101,1333,1003,480
Investments realized319,247535,910292,20977,735173,434
Other receipts129,482148,02376,598100,64649,342
    Totals895,831978,288649,633248,030252,922
Payments.
 £££££
Tree-raising3,6122,393978745324
Establishment charges20,17720,7624,5594,0471,115
Maintenance24,93723,79425,96823,82017,035
Management, &c.86,29974,27475,57938,12932,953
Commission, brokerage81,63260,6213,55689112
Land-purchase28,46017,7467,4006,914137
Investments560,997423,312302,32069,53145,292
Other252,690328,496215,45663,010222,343
    Totals1,058,804951,398635,816206,285319,311

Employees and Wages.—The average number of employees engaged during 1940–41 was 108, of whom 3 were engaged in tree-raising, 4 in planting, 32 in maintenance, 40 in fire-prevention, and 29 in management. This number represents a decline of 783 from the peak year (1930). Wages and salaries paid during 1940–41 totalled £26,933.

Planting Operations.—The following table shows particulars regarding the species and number of trees planted during the year 1940–41, together with particulars as to the areas planted.

speciesNumber of Trees.New Area planted during the Year.Total Area planted to 31st March, 1941.
To replace Blanks.On New Areas.
   Acres.Acres.
Pinus radiata (insignis pine)166,050137,950523279,902
Pinus ponderosa   18,984
Pinus pinaster   3,605
Pinus laricio   2
Redwood   2,853
Douglas fir   945
Poplar   675
Cupres macrocarpa   97
Eucalypts   848
Unspecified1,0007,50092,631
    Totals. 1940–41167,050145,450532310,542

Land held for Afforestation Purposes.—At 31st March, 1941, the total area of land held by companies for afforestation purposes was 367,847 acres, the book-value of which was £6,545,949 (see statement of assets), equal to £17 15s. 11d. per acre.

Chapter 19. SECTION 19.—FISHERIES.

Table of Contents

THE following article is by Mr. A. E. Hefford, M.Sc., Chief Inspector of Fisheries, and Director of Fishery Research, Marine Department:—

With its great length of coast-line, extensive natural harbours, and numerous sheltered bays, New Zealand has from the earliest times been famed for the productivity of its coastal fisheries. Off its more northerly coasts, which come within the influence of the south equatorial current, a rich variety of subtropical fish-life is found, as exemplified by such species as the flying-fish, the sunfish, the swordfish, and several shark species. On the other hand, its southern coasts, washed by the antarctic drift, are the natural haunt of the fur-bearing seal, and yield varieties of fish which are characteristic of cold-water conditions.

Of the many kinds of excellent edible fishes the most important are the snapper (Pagrosomus auratus), which is particularly abundant in the North; the tarakihi (Dactylopagrus macropterus), taken mainly by trawlers in the more off-shore waters of Hauraki Gulf, Bay of Plenty, Hawke's Bay, in the vicinity of Cook Strait, and off the coasts of Canterbury and Otago; the flounders of different species (Rhombosolea), which occur in the more shallow and sheltered waters; the blue cod (Parapercis colias), which provides the staple product of the southern line fisheries; and the groper or hapuku (Polyprion oxygeneios), which is caught on lines in the deeper water from the North Cape to Stewart Island.

The most productive grounds are in relatively shallow water, and, except for groper and ling fishing by means of long lines, most of the fishing is carried on at depths of less than 40 fathoms. Depths of over 100 fathoms occur at a comparatively short distance from the coast, and up to the present it is not known to what extent these deeper waters may be productive of marketable fishes. The principal methods of fishing are long-lining for groper (hapuku), ling, “hake” or “kingfish,” and snapper; hand-lining for blue cod; trawling and Danish seining, by which flounders, snapper, tarakihi, gurnard, john-dory, and a variety of other fish are taken. In bay and estuaries set-nets are used for flounders, snapper, and mullet, and seines are also employed principally for the capture of flat-fish and snapper. Though sardines or pilchards (Sardinia neopilchardus) and other species of the herring family were known to occur in large shoals off some parts of the coast, there has hitherto been no regular fishery for these kinds except in Queen Charlotte Sound, where they have been periodically netted for use as bait by the Cook Strait line fishermen. A sardine-canning industry has now been established, supplies from the Marlborough Sounds and Hauraki Gulf being utilized.

In order to ascertain the economic position of the fisheries industry an investigation committee was set up, under the Board of Trade Act, in 1937. This committee conducted exhaustive inquiries into all aspects of the industry, and reference to the committee's report (Parliamentary Paper H.-44A, 1937–38) will give detailed information as to the conditions under which the industry then operated. Under the Industrial Efficiency (Fish) Regulations, 1939, every person employed commercially in fishing or engaged as a principal in fish-dealing is required to take out an appropriate license, issued, conditionally, by the Bureau of industry.

STATISTICS OF FISHERIES.—The most important fishing ports in the Dominion are Auckland, Wellington, Thames, Timaru, Napier, Port Chalmers, Lyttelton, and Bluff. In 1941–42 the total quantity of fish landed at Auckland was 119,583 cwt., of which 87,028 cwt. consisted of snapper, with tarakihi (12,882 cwt.) second in order of quantity. In Wellington tarakihi (8,432 cwt.) was the most abundant kind in the total quantity of 31,055 cwt. landed during the year. Of the total landings of sea fish in the Dominion for the year, snapper represented 33·97 per cent., tarakihi 13·48 per cent., groper (hapuku) 8·41 per cent., blue cod 5·68 per cent., and flat fish, principally flounders, 15·87 per cent.

The estimated total quantity and value of the principal classes of fishery products marketed during each of the last two years are as follows:—

Quantity.Value.
Unit.1940–11.1941–42.1940–41.1941–42.
    ££
Wet fishCwt328,594326,863440,368458,393
WhitebaitCwt3,7184,82631,32126,825
Oysters (dredged)Sack65,99374,75147,84655,928
Oysters (rock)Sack5,7825,9397,9508,908
MusselsSack18,08820,4496,3557,111
CrayfishCwt10,61512,22614,95717,077
Toheroa (canned products)Lb.169,576166,89610,07111,233
Whale oil, &c.Tons65453118,00015,525
Quinnat salmonLb.5,0945,350255334
      Total value   577,063601,334

The figures for whale oil refer to the mainland whale fisheries only.

The following table shows the quantities and values of New Zealand fish and shell-fish exported for each of the last five years (1st April to 31st March).

1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
Fish (frozen)Cwt.45,03643,21335,55235,37829,116
£147,641139,743119,999120,734106,047
Fish (smoked, dried, pickled, or salted)Cwt.1,088467359502476
£2,8961.2311,2491,1671,720
Oysters (Fresh)Doz.65,47033,46664,21035,66715,046
£951533996718259
Oysters (canned)Lb.208,460182,451291,760291,211194,652
£10,9349,35615,75015,85410,898
Toheroa (canned)Lb.47,19842,30263,20287,60274,540
£3,0733,1123,8876,0445,277
Whitebait (canned)Lb.94,697111,49349,983122,66362,948
£9,75814,9177,59318,4819,592
Other kinds (canned)Lb.31,09830,6004,59933,47338,321
£2,4802,6784083,3554,236
    Value of total exports of New Zealand fish and shell-fish£177,733£171,570£149,882£166,353£138,029 

OYSTER-BEDS.—The principal oyster-beds round the coast of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South and Stewart Islands, and the rock-oyster beds on the east and west coasts of the Auckland Peninsula. The Foveaux Strait beds are very extensive.

During the 1941 season 74,751 sacks of oysters, valued at £55,928, were dredged from the Foveaux Strait beds, as compared with 65,993 sacks, valued at £47,846, in 1940.

The rock-oyster beds of Auckland were worked for many years under a variety of systems, but owing to stripping of the beds close seasons had frequently to be proclaimed. From 1908 the picking and wholesale marketing of rock-oysters from the North Island beds has been undertaken by the State, private picking being prohibited. Oysters picked and sold by the State in 1941–42 realized £8,908 (1940–11, £7,950).

Oyster-cultivation work is being systematically carried on by the Marine Department in the Hauraki Gulf, in the Bay of Islands, and in the Kaipara district.

CRAYFISH.—Marine crayfish occur in abundance off many parts of the New Zealand coast, and are caught in baited traps and nets for the local markets. A small but increasing canning industry is also carried on. Canned crayfish to the value of £4,175 was shipped overseas during the year 1941—42.

WHALING.—With the enormous development of pelagic whaling that has taken place in recent years, the whaling industry in New Zealand has greatly declined from the important position which it occupied in the early days of the colony. Only one shore station was in commercial operation during the 1941 whaling season. This station is situated in Tory Channel, Queen Charlotte Sound, and the season's catch in that area was 86 hump-back whales, the total oil-production being 516 tons.

References to whaling operations carried out in the Ross Sea appear in the section towards the end of this volume dealing with “Dependencies.”

The Whaling Industry Act, 1935, was passed in order to give effect to an International Convention for the regulation of whaling and matters incidental thereto.

SEALS.—For many years past the taking of seals has been prohibited, the close season originally declared having been extended from time to time for periods of three years. The latest extension carries the close season to 31st March, 1945.

BIG-GAME FISHING.—Swordfish (striped and black marlin, and occasionally broadbill), mako shark, and other big-game fish occur principally off the east coast of the Auckland Provincial District, and attract both New Zealand and visiting big-game fishermen. The principal centres for this sport are Whangaroa, Russell (Bay of Island, and Whitianga (Mercury Bay), where specially designed and equipped launches in charge of experienced men may be hired. The season lasts from December to May, the best months usually being February and March. The world's record black marlin swordfish (976 lb.) was caught off the Bay of Islands in February, 1926.

WHITEBAIT.—A fishery that is peculiar to New Zealand with regard both to the product and to the methods of operation, carried on from July to November in the tidal reaches of many rivers, is the whitebait fishery. New Zealand “whitebait” are the young of Galaxias attenuatus, a species that lives for the greater part of its adult life in fresh water, descending to tidal water to spawn in late summer and autumn. The spawn is deposited among grass and similar herbage on the margin of the rivers above the ordinary high-water mark in a zone that is submerged only at the highest spring tides. Mere it remains under cover of the herbage and secure from aquatic enemies until it is once more reached by a spring tide about a fortnight or, it may be, a month later. The young then hatch out, and are carried by the ebb tide to the sea. Here they remain until at the age of about five months the young fish, then about 2 in. long and still possessing the almost glassy transparency of the larval stage, migrate up the rivers in dense shoals. This is the time of the whitebait fishery, when they are caught in nets made of wire gauze or mosquito-netting. The cultivation and drainage of riparian lands have considerably diminished the extent of spawning and feeding areas that were available in earlier times. From these causes, as well as from the intensity of the fishing operations, there are now few rivers where the runs of whitebait show anything like the abundance of former years. The most productive whitebait fisheries are near the mouths of the rivers of the West Coast of the South Island and in the lower reaches of the Waikato River. During the 1941 season the whitebait fishery gave employment to over three hundred regular fishermen, mostly Maoris, and a greater number of part-time fishers, and produced 4,826 cwt. of whitebait. The canned whitebait packed in the West Coast and Waikato factories is a much-esteemed delicacy.

FRESH-WATER FISHERIES.—Native Fishes: Of fresh-water fishes indigenous to New Zealand the species of most commercial importance at the present time is Galaxias attenuatus, which provides the whitebait fishery already mentioned. Other species of Galaxias are known in the streams and lakes of the Dominion. With the exception of the eels, which frequently attain an extraordinarily large size compared with those of the Northern Hemisphere, all the native fresh-water fishes are small, and are therefore not considered to possess any sporting value except to the most juvenile of anglers. There are two species of eels—Anguilla australis, the short-finned eel; and Anguilla dieffenbachii, formerly known as Anguilla aucklandii, the long-finned eel. Recent investigations by Marine Department biologists have thrown new light on their distribution. It is now known that all male eels remain in tidal and brackish waters; female long-finned eels are found throughout all accessible fresh waters, while female short-finned eels are restricted to the warmer, deeper, and slowly-flowing waters, and in the South Island are found only in the lower reaches of rivers and in coastal lakes. Eels constituted an important food-supply to the Maoris, who devised very efficient traps for their capture as the adult eels migrated to the sea. This fishery is still carried on by the Maoris of some districts.

The following list shows the definitely known genera of indigenous fresh-water fish and includes all the principal species.

Scientific Name.European Name.Maori Name.Usual Maximum Size.
   Inches.
Galaxias attenuatus“Winnow”Inanga7
Galaxias fasciatusNative trout or mountain troutKokopu10
Galaxias brevipinnis“Gudgeon”Taiwharu or kokopu6
Galaxias huttoni Koaro6
Galaxias burrowsiiCanterbury mudfish 5 to 6
Neochanna apodaMudfishHauhau or waikaka8
Retropinna retropinnaSmeltParaki6
Prototroctes oxyrhynchusGraylingUpokororo12
Cheimarrichthys fosteriTorrent-fish or shark-bullyPapanoko7
Gobiomorphus gobioidesBullyToitoi6
   Feet.
Anguilla australisShort-finned eelTuna3 to 4
Anguilla dieffenbachii (aucklandi)Long-finned eelTuna4 to 5
Geotria australisLampreyKoro-koro or kunakuna2

The “minnow,” smelt, grayling, and, of course, the eels and lamprey, are migratory fish which spend parts of their lives in the sea or in estuarine tidal waters.

Acclimatized Fishes: Although most of the above-mentioned indigenous fishes—especially the eels, kokopu, and upokororo—provided an appreciable portion of the food-supplies of the Maoris, and have been a welcome addition to the camp provision of surveyors, bushmen, and prospectors since the pioneering days, there were many among the early settlers to whom the New Zealand rivers and lakes appeared uninteresting and unproductive in comparison with the salmon and trout streams of their native land. By means of private agency in some cases, and by more organized efforts on the part of Government and local acclimatization societies, attempts to introduce British salmon and trout were commenced in the early “sixties.” The brown trout was first established in 1867 by means of ova imported from Tasmania, where the species had been acclimatized a few years earlier from English stock. Importations of brown trout besides the Loch Leven and sea-trout varieties have been subsequently made, so that the species is now found in most of the fresh and tidal waters of New Zealand. Rainbow or steelhead trout, first introduced in 1883 from California, are also now widely distributed. In some lakes, notably Taupo and others in the Thermal Region, they have largely displaced the earlier brown-trout population. The American brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) was widely planted in the “seventies” and “eighties,” but is now found only in a few back-country streams in the South. The Mackinaw trout, or Great American Lake trout, has been naturalized in Lake Pearson, Canterbury, since–1906. Quinnat salmon, introduced from California in the first five years of the present century, after earlier attempts had failed, are now firmly established, and “runs” of these salmon take place annually between January and June in the larger East Coast rivers of the South Island. They have been taken in smaller and more variable numbers in a few rivers on the West Coast and in the Wellington District. Sockeye salmon, imported at the same time, have given rise to a “land-locked” stock in Lake Ohau, no sea-run examples of this species having yet been identified. The introduction of European Atlantic salmon was attempted at various times in the earlier years, and was finally achieved after 2,000,000 ova had been imported in 1910–12 from British and Continental rivers. The species is now established in the Waiau river system and associated lakes (especially Lake Te Anau) in Southland. It is remarkable that, although there is unimpeded access to the sea, the species has largely adopted “land-locked” habits, most of the fish remaining to feed in fresh water until and after they have reached maturity. Relatively small numbers, however, enter the Waiau from the sea.

Besides the above-mentioned members of the salmon and trout family, other species of fish from the Northern Hemisphere which have been acclimatized in New Zealand are the European perch, tench, and carp, and the North American catfish (Ameiurus catus).

The local administration and management of fresh-water fisheries are in the hands of the acclimatization societies, of which there are twenty-seven in the Dominion. Licenses to angle for acclimatized fish are issued by these societies in conformity with the Fishery Acts, full details as to fees, &c., being given in the 1942 number of the Year-Book.

Chapter 20. SECTION 20.—MINING.

Table of Contents

THE law relating to mining and quarrying is contained for the most part in the Mining Act, 1926, with its amendments of 1927, 1931, 1934, 1935, 1937, 1939 (sections 44 to 48 of the Statutes Amendment Act), 1940 (sections 32 to 38 of the Statutes Amendment Act), and 1941; the Coal-mines Act, 1925, as amended in 1927, 1933, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1939 (section 8 of the Statutes Amendment Act), 1940 (section 6 of the Statutes Amendment Act), and 1941; the Stone-quarries Act, 1910, as amended in 1911, 1920, and 1922; and the Petroleum Act, 1937, as amended in 1939 (section 55 of the Statutes Amendment Act), and 1941 (sections 59 to 63 of the Statutes Amendment Act).

MINERAL PRODUCTION.—In chronological comparisons of values of production or export it is important not to overlook the fact that all monetary expressions of value in this section are in terms of New Zealand currency, which since the end of 1929 has been at varying-levels below gold-standard and sterling parities.

The following statement shows the production of metals and minerals with the exception of gold and silver, particulars of which are being withheld from publication for the duration of the war.

Mineral.1940.1941.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
  £ £
Platinum  35 oz.286
Iron-ore1,188 14/20 tons2,8881,544 tons3,894
Stone 540,820 528,313
Pumice3,166 tons10,3413,160 tons11,226
Coal2,510,099 tons2,516,0992,639,507 tons2,639,507
Tungsten-ore74 tons16,00667 7/20 tons13,463
Manganese-ore980 4/20 tons3,266752 6/20 tons2,995
Silica sand1,354 10/20 tons1,5692,034 tons2,756
Fuller's earth71 tons248109 2/20 tons382
Diatomaceous earth  124 2/20 tons508
Serpentine  7,861 tons6,780
Antimony2 tons5517 tons249
Bentonite205 tons820136 tons578
Quicksilver  2 10/20 tons5,043
Asbestos  53 7/20 tons240
Clays  1,272 tons1,273
Dolomite2,743 tons1,3712,672 tons1,336

Kauri-gum, the (chiefly) fossilized resin of former kauri forests, is counted as a mineral, but is not included in the above table.

The next statement shows the value of New Zealand minerals and allied substances, excluding gold and silver, exported.

Mineral.1939.1940.1941.Total from 1st January, 1853, to 31st December, 1941.
 ££££
Tungsten-ore7,72814,99712,916383,806
Antimony-ore 4429555,440
Mercury360  19,384
Other minerals11,67214,12311,478612,934
Kauri-gum112,65087,45088,64323,906,256
Coal (including bunker)59,971144,068109,5007,882,858

GOLD-MINING.—The gold-mining industry, which in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand, has again come into prominence during recent years, mainly on account of the enhanced price of gold.

For many years succeeding the passing of the boom period of dredging, the most important gold-mining operations in New Zealand consisted in the working of quartz-lodes and the extraction of the precious metals therefrom. Mainly on account of improved methods, however, dredging has again come into prominence, and production from this form of gold-mining has increased enormously in the last few years.

Quartz-mining is carried on mainly in Waihi and surrounding districts, on the west coast of the South Island, and to a lesser extent in Otago.

Gold-dredging possibilities present an entirely new aspect not only on account of the present price of gold, but also on account of the great depths to which modern machines can work and their low cost of operation per cubic yard. The peak of gold-production from dredging occurred in 1902, when approximately two hundred plants were in operation. The number of productive dredges operating in 1941 was nineteen, fourteen of which were situated on the west coast of the South Island and five in Otago and Southland. The link-up of the West Coast in recent years with the main hydro-electric scheme of the South Island has been of special importance to dredging concerns by ensuring for the industry an adequate supply of cheap power.

Alluvial gold, which now occupies a relatively minor place in New Zealand production, is found chiefly on the west coast of the South Island and in Otago and Southland.

SILVER.—Nearly the whole of the locally produced silver exported from New Zealand has been obtained from the refinement of bullion from the quartz-mines, principally those of the Hauraki goldfield, where gold and silver are found alloyed, the ratio of the two metals in the alloy varying greatly. No other silver-mining operations have been carried out profitably in this country.

IRON-ORES.—The two main sources of iron available in New Zealand are the iron-ore deposits of the Onekaka region, Golden Bay, in the Nelson Provincial District, and the ironsands, which are largely concentrated on the beaches of Taranaki, though not limited to that district.

Many attempts have been made to smelt Taranaki ironsand, but commercial success has not attended any of these efforts. Difficulty has been experienced. due to the fineness of the sand and also to the presence of titanic acid. Recent developments indicate that the difficulties can be overcome if the sands are used not entirely by themselves, but mixed with a proportion of the Golden Bay or other ores.

Although the whole of New Zealand's iron-bearing sands have not been surveyed, there is no doubt that the total quantity is enormous. A close investigation of the area in the vicinity of Patea has disclosed upwards of 50,000,000 tons. The iron can readily be magnetically separated. The magnetic fraction averages-50–60 per cent. Fe.

Up to the beginning of 1938 the ore bodies at Onekaka had been subject to a surface survey only. Since that time underground investigation by tunnelling and boring has been conducted, and, although this survey is not complete, it has established that, while the ore body is not nearly so extensive as the surface deposits indicated, there is a useful tonnage for exploitation.

Plans were completed by the middle of 1940 for the establishment of a steel-works using local ores, but owing to war conditions the work has had to be deferred. The possibility of obtaining a complete plant from overseas has become progressively less as the war has developed.

TUNGSTEN-ORE.—Scheelite, one of the principal ores of tungsten, was for a number of years mined on a fairly extensive scale in conjunction with gold, the principal gold-scheelite mines being those at or near Glenorchy, Paradise, Macrae's, Stoneburn, Hyde, and Barewood, Otago; and at Wakamarina Valley, Marlborough.

Exports, which in 1910–19 averaged £26,000 annually, fell to a low figure from 1920 onwards. There was no production for several years on account of the continued low values. Early in 1934, as the result of a substantial rise in the price of tungsten, production was resumed at both Glenorchy and Macrae's, and since the outbreak of war the development of scheelite-deposits has received increased attention. As all the readily available ore occurring at shallow depths has been exhausted, the industry is now faced with an extensive development programme before production can be increased. To assist in this development the State is at present developing mines both at Glenorchy and at Wakamarina Valley, while all assistance possible is being given to independent parties. The Imperial Government has arranged to purchase the Dominion's output at a price which is satisfactory to the producers. In 1940, 74 tons of concentrates, valued at £16,006, were produced, while in 1941 the yield was a little over 67 tons, valued at £13,463. Increased production is expected as a result of the development programme now being carried out.

The total quantity of locally produced ore exported to 31st December, 1941, was 2,879 tons, valued at £383,806.

COPPER.—Ores of copper are found in New Zealand in no fewer than thirty-two localities, but the total recorded production up to the end of 1917 amounted to only 5,032½ tons, valued at £109,878. There has been no production for a considerable number of years, but a copper deposit on Kawau Island, which yielded a considerable but an unrecorded amount early in the country's history, is again to be investigated. The total recorded copper export to the end of 1941 amounted in value to only £19,397.

MANGANESE-ORE.—Manganese-ore has been found at Bombay, Moumoukai (near Hunua), Otau, Wairoa, Bay of Islands, Purua Bay, Mangapai, Otonga, Waiheke Island, and Taieri Mouth, and has been mined at Tikiora (near the Bay of Islands) and at Waiheke Island. Fluctuating prices prevented expansion of this industry, and there was no production for some years. Deposits are, however, generally shallow and rapidly exhausted on exploitation, with production of only limited tonnages of ore. Some 603 tons were produced from the deposit at Moumoukai during 1941, while the deposit at Otau was responsible for a production of 149 tons. The total quantity of locally produced manganese-ore exported to the end of 1941 amounted to 20,101 tons, of a value of £64,048.

MERCURY.—Cinnabar, the principal ore of mercury, is widely distributed in New Zealand. The most important accumulations are in North Auckland, where for some years efforts were made to place the production on a commercial basis. Owing to difficulties in recovering the mercury and to a substantial fall in prices, production ceased in 1931.

Production has again commenced at Puhipuhi, where ore is being obtained by open-cast methods, and mercury is being recovered in a modern treatment plant with a capacity of 50 tons of ore per day. This plant commenced operations towards the end of 1941, and 2½ tons of mercury, valued at £5,043, were produced up to 31st December.

The State is at present prospecting a small occurrence of cinnabar at Karangahake.

The total quantity of mercury of New Zealand origin exported up to the 31st December, 1941, was 89,361 lb., valued at £19,384.

TIN.—Cassiterite in the form of “stream-tin” occurs near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island, where it has been worked to some extent. “Lode-tin” has been found in the same locality. Small quantities of cassiterite have also been detected in the stream-gravels of the Ron, Greymouth, and Westport districts. Among other localities in which traces of tin occur are Wet Jacket Arm (Otago) and Campbell Island.

PLATINUM.—In the published lists of minerals of New Zealand platinum is stated to occur in several places, associated generally with gold in gravel. It is only from Southland, however, that platinum has been exported.

The Customs Department has not kept any separate record of the quantity and value of platinum entered for exportation, the value of this metal exported being included in a general total of exports by parcel-post, by which means platinum has generally been despatched from the Dominion.

SULPHUR. —Native sulphur occurs in the thermal districts of the North Island, near Rotorua and Lake Taupo, and at White Island, but it is doubtful if there is sufficient quantity to enable the deposits to be economically exploited.

Sulphur is mostly disposed of locally as fertilizer, but exports of New Zealand origin to the end of 1941 have aggregated £13,241. No work of any importance has been done at any of the sulphur deposits during recent years.

ASBESTOS.—Considerable development and construction work has taken place at the asbestos-deposits in the Upper Takaka Valley, and improved access has permitted the transport and erection of treatment and power plant.

Operations to date have mainly been of an experimental nature, but it is expected that with the improved access and treatment facilities an appreciable production of asbestos of marketable grade will be forthcoming.

During 1941 some 53 tons of fibre of an estimated value of £240 were produced from operations of an experimental nature.

COAL.—Coal, varying in class from anthracite to lignite, occurs in many parts of New Zealand.

The following is an estimate of the coal resources of New Zealand.

Class of Coal.Proved Coal.Probable Coal.Possible Coal.Mineable under Present Conditions.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
AnthraciteVery littleVery littleVery little 
Bituminous254,000,000490,000,000Small84,500,000
Brown247,000,000738,000,000Large 
Lignite150,000,000377,000,000Large 
  Totals651,000,0001,605,000,000  

In the above table the figures for brown coal and lignite are estimates prepared in 1927 by P. G. Morgan, late Director of the Geological Survey. The figures for bituminous coal are from a paper on “Bituminous Coal of New Zealand” by the same authority, published in the New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology, Vol. IX, No. 5, pp. 257–260, 1928. For the Grey coalfield the figures for “Proved” and “Probable” bituminous coal include all seams over 1 ft. thick down to a depth of 4,000 ft., and for the Buller coalfield the coal of the estimate is all above sea-level and nearly all is in seams over 4 ft. thick. In arriving at the comparatively small figure for bituminous coal “Mineable under Present Conditions,” Morgan (1928) apparently had regard to several adverse factors concerning coal-mining in New Zealand, chief of which are (1) that structural conditions, such as faulting and folding, seriously handicap the economic winning of coal, especially in the Greymouth coalfield; (2) that coal has not yet been mined to a depth of 2,500 ft. below sea-level, and the possibility of economically working coal below that depth in New Zealand has not been proven; (3) that a considerable amount of coal has been lost through fires; and (4) that thin seams much under 4ft. in thickness have not, so far, been economically mined.

Additional information accruing from the survey now in progress in the Greymouth field shows that the above figures for “Probable” bituminous coal will be subject to considerable reduction, but until the field-work is complete no definite statement can be made.

The following table summarizes coal-mining operations.

Year.Output. (Tons.)Person employed above and below Ground.Tons raised per Person employed Underground.Lives lost.
Number.Per Million Tons raised.Per Thousand Persons employed.
Prior to 193173,840,791  4476·06 
19312,157,7565,74549841·850·69
19321,842,0224,636545126·512·59
19331,821,2584,38657073·841·59
19342,060,3154,47863483·881·78
19352,115,1844,23168120·940·47
19362,140,2174,25767841·870·94
19372,277,7994,41769362·641·36
19382,222,0884,563659114·862·41
19392,342,6394,762661177·263·57
19402,516,0995,04666883·181·58
19412,639,5074,99172641·510·80
Totals to date97,975,675  5305·41 

The output of the several classes of coal mined in each inspection district during 1941 is summarized as follows:—

Class of Coal.Northern (North Island).West Coast (South Island).Southern (South Island).Totals.Total Output to the End of 1941.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Bituminous and sub-bituminous80,3671,099,214 1,179,58155,153,167
Brown837,62976,136412,2451,326,01037,009,976
Lignite 745133,171133,9165,812,532
    Totals, 1941917,9961,176,095545,4162,639,50797,975,675
    Totals, 1940869,9701,124,057522,0722,516,099 

An increase in output of 4·9 per cent. is recorded as compared with the 1940 figure. The 1941 output was produced from 140 mines, 57 of which were working on freehold lands and produced 1,132,490 tons, or 43 per cent., the remaining 83 mines producing 1,507,017 tons, or 57 per cent., from Crown lands.

In recent years the better use of lower-grade coal in many plants has resulted in the displacement, to a certain extent, of the high-calorific-value coals.

Co-operative mining continues to be successfully carried out in the Northern and West Coast districts.

The Government is keeping abreast of all the latest developments in regard to the production of oil from coal by the hydrogenation process, or by a synthetic process. Field-work in connection with the survey of the coal resources of the Greymouth district was continued during 1941 and an extensive sampling programme was undertaken of all the working mines in the Dominion. Further laboratory investigations were also made in the search for suitable fuels for producer gas.

Carbonization works have been established at Rotowaro, and a briquetting plant at Sockburn. At Rotowaro 32,260 tons were carbonized in 1941. From the raw coal, 15,807 tons of carbonettes, 6,973 gallons of light and heavy oils. 140,926 gallons of creosote, 592 tons of pitch, and 3,383 tons of “char” were produced. At Sockburn 5,600 tons of briquettes were produced during 1941, as compared with 5,543 tons in 1940. Results of briquetting experiments have been published in Bulletin No. 39, New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

In order to reduce the economic waste caused by unmarketable slack coal produced at mines, a Coal-mines Amendment Act was passed in October, 1935. The Minister of Mines has authority to purchase and store slack, to acquire the necessary plant, &c., for its treatment, and to manufacture and sell any fuel or other products. In 1936, at the instigation of the Minister of Mines, the coal-owners in the Waikato district installed screens of a smaller mesh than formerly in use, and practically all slack made at their mines since then has been disposed of. Similarly the Southland and Otago mine-owners have also adopted a smaller screen mesh.

Subsidy on Coal-production.—In May, 1940, coal-miners were granted increases of 5 per cent. in the rates for contract workers and 7½ per cent. in day-wages rates. This, with similar increases to colliery officials, was estimated to cost 1s. 1d. per ton on coal-production. Just prior to this date the Price Tribunal had examined applications to increase selling-prices of coal on account of the higher prices of colliery stores and had advised the Government that costs had risen 5d. per ton on this account.

In accordance with its policy of stabilizing prices during the war period the Government decided to subsidize mine-owners to the extent of 1s. 6d. per ton to cover the cost of increased wages and stores, and thus avoid an increase in the selling-prices of coal. As the result of further increases of 5 per cent. in piece-work rates and 13·8 per cent. in wages rates as from 1st May; 1942, the Government introduced an additional subsidy on coal-production ranging from 6d. per ton to 2s. 7d. per ton, according to the localities in which mines are located and costs of production. Shipping companies are also granted a subsidy of 2½ per cent. on freight rates. The amount, of subsidy for the financial year 1941–12 was £192,092, and the estimated amount for 1942–43 is £370,000.

State Collieries.—The Coal-mines Act of 1901 provided for the acquisition and working of State coal-mines in New Zealand under the direct control of the Minister of Mines. At the present time there are six State collieries in operation—the Liverpool, James, Strongman, and Blackball in the South Island, and the Mangapehi and Tatu in the North Island.

The outputs of marketable coal for the last two financial years are shown hereunder.

 Output in Tons.Increase.Decrease.
Mines.1940–41.1941–42.Tons.Tons.
Liverpool159,610157,170 2,440
James22,04525,8093,764 
Strongman76,33085,3819,051 
Blackball 25,733  
Mangapehi12,06538,92026,855 
Tatu5668,8758,300 

The disposal, inclusive of stocks on hand at the beginning of the year, was as follows:—

Supplied toTons.
Depots118,430
Railways72,506
Other Government Departments18,309
Shipping companies8,131
Gas companies107,522
Other consumers13,519
      Total338,417

The sales of coal, &c., through the medium of the depots totalled 263,800 tons (value, £441,337) in 1941–42, as against 194,619 tons (value, £341,385) for 1940–41.

A net profit of £3,002 at the mines and a net profit at the depots, and royalties, &c., of £19,532, made a total net profit of £22,534. Of this sum, £18,584 was reserved for taxation. The contribution to the Sinking Fund Account for redemption of loan capital amounted to £9,164.

The average number of miners, &c., employed in and about the State collieries during the year ended 31st March, 1942, was 767.

PETROLEUM.—Drilling for petroleum in past years was carried out in Taranaki, Hawke's Bay, Canterbury, Southland, and Westland. Several bore-holes in search of petroleum were drilled, the deepest being at Moturoa, near New Plymouth, which attained a depth of approximately 6,000 ft. Petroleum of good quality but in limited quantity has been proved, but up to the present time boring for petroleum in the Dominion has not produced any considerable flow.

During 1941 a production of 93,915 gallons of oil was obtained from Moturoa Nos. 1, 2, and 4 wells at New Plymouth. The total production of crude petroleum to the 31st December, 1941, is estimated at 3,177,917 gallons.

Following the passing of the Petroleum Act, 1937, as amended by section 55 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1939, considerable interest has been displayed by some of the major oil organizations, and practically all the potential oil-bearing lands in the Dominion have been applied for. Sixty prospecting licenses are now held, covering 10,299 square miles throughout the country. Expert staff and the most modern equipment have been brought from overseas, and active and thorough investigations are being carried out on all licensed areas.

The first well drilled, at Totangi, near Gisborne, reached a depth of 5,700 ft., but owing to unfavourable conditions had to be abandoned. The drill was then transferred to Morere and a second hole was drilled to a depth of 6,683ft. and then abandoned as it was considered that every possible chance of oil-production therefrom had been exhausted. At the same time another heavy drilling rig was in use at Midhirst, in Taranaki, where a third well was sunk to 10,925 ft., a record depth for New Zealand. This well proved dry and was abandoned. A fourth well is now being drilled near New Plymouth and has already reached a depth of over 6,000 ft.

Preparations are well under way for the extensive drilling of areas in the Manawatu and on the West Coast of the South Island. All the necessary equipment for this work has arrived in New Zealand.

BENTONITE.—Deposits of this mineral occur at Porangahau in the Hawke's Bay district, and production, despite difficult access and working-conditions, has commenced. The main use at present is in the preparation of foundry-moulding sands, but the mineral has many other uses. Investigation has shown the deposit at Porangahau to be of good grade and of some magnitude, so that an expanding production may be expected. The total quantity of bentonite produced to date is 341 tons of a value of £1,398.

KAURI-GUM.—Production of kauri-gum has decreased in recent years. The industry suffered a severe setback through the restriction of European markets during the period of the 1914—18 war; and. while some recovery was made in the five years immediately following the war, trade in this commodity has since been at a comparatively low level.

A system of control of the trade in and export of kauri-gum was provided by the Kauri-gum Control Act, 1925. The Finance Act (No. 2), 1933, provided for the repeal of the Control Act. The property of the Kauri-gum Control Board was vested in the Crown, the Minister of Lands taking over the powers and obligations of the Board. The Internal Marketing Division of the Marketing Department has, since 1937, materially assisted kauri-gum diggers by arranging minimum prices for various types and qualities of gum, and by assisting in the marketing of their product.

During 1941, 1,421 tons of kauri-gum, valued at £88,643, were exported, the total quantity of gum exported to the end of 1941 being 445,605 tons, valued at £23,906,250.

PHOSPHATES.—At Clarendon and Milburn, Otago, considerable deposits of phosphatic rock were discovered in 1902 and were actively worked up to 1924. A thin bed of phosphatic rock has been identified from outcroppings at Kaikoura, and at Amuri Bluff, in Marlborough. A similar bed occurs near Port Robinson. Phosphatic nodules are found in the Kaikorai Valley (near Dunedin), at Weka Pass (North Canterbury), and elsewhere. A limestone containing 10·6 per cent. of tricalcic phosphate occurs in the neighbourhood of Onewhero, Waikato district. Other districts where phosphatic material of good quality is found, though, so far as is known, not in commercial quantity, are Amberley, Dipton, Oamaru, Waimate, Wangapeka, Clarence Valley, Tutira Block (Mangaharuru Survey District, Hawke's Bay), and Whangarei.

The development of the New Zealand deposits has no doubt been retarded by the import of phosphate from Nauru and Ocean Islands, reference to which is made in Section 45 of this volume.

Owing to conditions in the Pacific the deposits at Clarendon are being re-investigated.

GREENSTONE.—The mineral nephrite, the “pounamu” of the Maori, a deep-green semi-transparent mineral with dark opaque patches, more popularly known as one of the varieties of “greenstone,” whenever observed in situ occurs as rounded segregations in talc or tale-serpentine rocks. These segregations vary up to 2 ft. or even more in lateral dimensions. As a rule they average less than 1 ft. in width. So far as is known, the mineral has been found in its original locus only in the Griffin Range, Turiwhate Survey District, North Westland.

BUILDING AND ORNAMENTAL STONES.—New Zealand possesses a great variety of handsome and durable building-stones scattered throughout both Islands. In Auckland there are basalt, andesite, porphyrite, and quartz biotite-diorite, known in the building trade as Coromandel “granite,” a hard, coarsely crystalline rock, capable of taking a fine polish. In addition there are the Whangarei limestone and the Raglan stone, the former an excellent building-stone, the latter a good freestone. Taranaki has the hornblende andesites of New Plymouth and Mount Egmont, and Wellington the andesites of Ruapehu.

In Nelson there are the granite of Tata Island and Tonga Bay and the marble or crystalline limestones of the Pikiruna (Riwaka) Range. The Parliament Buildings at Wellington are constructed of this marble. West Nelson and Westland are well provided with granites and limestones of good quality, well adapted for building purposes; and in the Griffin Range, North Westland, there is found an abundance of finely coloured serpentine, unsurpassed as a decorative stone. Building-stone is scarce in Marlborough, but Canterbury is well supplied, having an abundance of Lyttelton bluestone (andesite) and Mount Somers stone, a limestone of exceptional quality. In Otago there is an abundance of excellent building-stone, ranging from the well-known Oamaru stone to the granite, gneiss, and limestones of Fiordland, all close to deep water. In Southland there are the so-called Ruapuke “granite,” the norite of the Bluff, and the granites of Stewart Island.

The following table relates to quarries under the Stone-quarries Act for the year 1941.

Provincial District.Number of working Quarries under the Act.Number of Persons ordinarily employed.Output of Stone.
Stone or Gravel for Macadamizing or Ballast.Stone for Harbour-works.Building or Monumental Stone.Limestone for Agriculture.Limestone for Cement or Mortar.Miscellaneous.Value at Quarry.
   Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.£
Auckland2431,094921,343 3,423198,903266,35243,320272,005
Hawke's Bay237223,573  40,874  15,067
Taranaki269739,243     8,057
Wellington33133104,0284,055 80,117 12,00047,219
Nelson, Westland, and Marlborough218515,8995,88031820,03146,9842,38816,217
Canterbury and Otago49491119,05337,3204,151388,54949,585 169,748
  Totals, 19413951,9721,223,13947,2557,892728,474362,92157,708528,313
  Totals, 19403671,9521,228,950106,56010,615593,995404,38688,482540,820

The Stone-quarries Act, 1910, with amendments, applies to every place, not being a mine, in which persons work in quarrying stone and any part of which has a face more than 15 ft. deep, and also to any tunnel in the construction of which explosives are used. The Act, however, does not apply to any Government operations, or any road or railway cutting, or excavations for buildings.

PERSONS ENGAGED.—The following table shows the number of persons employed in or about mines and stone-quarries, and in oil-prospecting operations, during each of the last five years.

1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
Metalliferous mines3,9173,0462,8242,8022,420
Coal-mines4,4174,5634,7625,0464,991
Stone-quarries2,1172,6672,0831,9521,972
Oil prospecting434132178174
      Totals10,45510,3109,8019,9789,557

STATE AID TO MINING.—State aid to mining in the Dominion is given in several forms—viz., (1) Geological survey and bulletins; (2) financial aid to prospecting; (3) Government prospecting-drills; (4) schools of mines; (5) subsidized roads to mining-fields.

During the year ended 31st March, 1942, little detailed geological mapping was carried out, officers being mostly engaged in purely economic work. Serpentine was examined north of Auckland and on D'Urville Island; copper on Great Barrier and Kawau Islands; talc on D'Urville Island, at Takaka, and in Westland; magnesite at Takaka and Maruia; the phosphate-deposits at Clarendon were, re-examined, and a promising deposit of mica in high country in Westland was discovered. Oil-shale deposits in Nevis Valley were mapped in greater detail and estimates made of amount of shale and its quality. The detailed mapping of the Greymouth coalfield was continued and is approaching completion. Assistance to oil companies in identification of mollusca and foraimera in bore samples was given. The geological and geophysical examination of possible dam-sites in the Waikato River was undertaken.

The Dominion Laboratory has, as in past years, carried out a considerable amount of analytical and investigational work connected with the mining industry. A small number of prospectors' samples were examined for gold and silver. A further large number of samples taken in connection with the survey of the Onekaka iron-ore deposits and various other ores, including scheelite concentrates, were also examined. A number of samples of mine airs, gases, and stone-dusts were analysed in connection with safety measures in mines. The Coal Survey Laboratory continued the systematic survey of the coal resources of the Dominion, but the programme was modified to deal mainly with problems connected with war conditions, and all long-range work was suspended. Besides the work of the survey, 289 samples were analysed, including producer fuels (char and charcoal), shales, peats, &c. The analysis of over one hundred samples of peat from the Chatham Islands was a major investigation' undertaken to determine the value of the deposit as a source of wax. The wax is being investigated as a possible substitute for montan or other waxes.

As an aid towards the development of the mining industry the Government offers varied and liberal assistance to prospectors in the form of subsidies, expert and technical advice, use of plant, &c. Subject to the provisions of the Mining Act, the holder of a valid miner's right is entitled to prospect for gold or any other metal or mineral (except coal) on any Crown land. He may also obtain authority from the Governor-General to prospect on Native land, and he may also prospect on private land with the consent of the owner. Wardens in mining districts and Commissioners of Crown Lands in other districts may, with the consent of the Minister of Mines, grant prospecting licenses for coal.

For the financial year ended 31st March, 1912, the total expenditure by way of direct financial assistance to mining amounted to £43,978, of which £34,203 was advanced by way of subsidies and loans to companies and individuals engaged in major mining or prospecting work. A sum of £9,775 was expended on subsidies to individual prospectors working small areas, the average number of men engaged on this work during the year being 110. The subsidized gold-mining scheme, which prior to 1st April, 1939, was administered by the Department of Labour, was terminated on the 30th June, 1942. A few men were engaged during the year on the production of scheelite, the output of this ore being 7 tons, valued at £1,610.

In order to avoid an increase in the selling-price of coal, necessitated by increased wages and other costs, a subsidy on coal produced has been in operation since July, 1940 (see page 304).

Prospecting-drills of various types suitable for the conditions existing in the Dominion are lent to bona fide prospectors. A monthly rental is charged for the plant, and the hirer is required to maintain it in good order and condition. Working-expenses are also paid by the hirer, including renewals, &c., and the loss on carbons. The hirer is required to furnish to the Mines Department copies of the borelogs and a plan showing the location of the boreholes. These drills were hired by eight parties during 1941, and a total of 10,064 ft. was drilled.

For the education of prospectors and mining students six schools of mines are subsidized by the Government, in addition to the Otago University School of Mines. The schools of mines are situated at Thames, Waihi, Huntly, Westport, Reefton, and Runanga. Six scholarships, tenable for four years at the University of Otago, are offered annually by the Mines Department. The expenditure on these schools by the Government during the year ended the 31st March, 1942, was £3,390, as against £3,360 during the previous year.

The expenditure in the form of subsidies and direct grants upon roads on gold-fields during the year ended 31st March, 1942, amounted to £1,284, as compared with £959 during the previous year.

Another form of Government assistance to mining consists of the publication of several leaflets as a guide to the prospector. These leaflets may be obtained on application to the Mines Department, and deal with: (a) The description of fields which may be considered to warrant further examination for gold; (b) the description of the best ways of seeking for and of saving gold; (c) a brief summary of the statutory procedure to be followed to obtain a right to prospect or mine for metals or minerals under the Mining Act; (d) notes on the taking of samples of mineral deposits and the valuation of mining prospects; (e) notes for drilling and a method of calculating gold value of alluvial deposits.

Board of Examiners.—The Board of Examiners annually conducts examinations of candidates for certificates as first-class and second-class mine-managers, battery-superintendents, and dredgemasters under the Mining Act, and for certificates as first-class and second-class mine-managers, mine-surveyors, and electricians under the Coal-mines Act. Examinations of candidates for certificates as underviewers and firemen-deputies under the Coal-mines Act are held periodically when necessary. No candidate is permitted to present himself for examination unless he holds an authority from the Secretary to the Board of Examiners. Fifty-four certificates were issued in 1941.

Coal-miners' Relief Fund.—As required by the Coal-mines Act, 1925, the owner of every coal-mine contributes ½ d. per ton on all coal sold, for the relief of coal-miners who may be injured while working, and for the relief of the families of coal-miners who may be killed or injured. These contributions are paid to the Coal-miners' Relief Fund established under the Act, the fund being administered by the Public Trustee with the assistance of local committees.

The income from the ½ d. per ton contribution during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1942, was £5,544, as compared with £5,268 during 1940–41, and interest earnings brought the total receipts to £6,223 and £6,004 for the respective years. The total expenditure for the year ended 31st March, 1942, amounted to £9,386 as against £7,231 for the previous year. The amount standing to the credit of the fund as at the 31st March, 1942, was £17,777, as against £20,940 twelve months earlier.

Information concerning monetary benefits for miners incapacitated by miner's phthisis or any other occupational disease or heart disease contracted while working as a miner in New Zealand appears in Section 24 (Social Security, Pensions, Superannuation, &c.).

Chapter 21. SECTION 21.—FACTORY PRODUCTION.

Table of Contents

Statistics of factory production were collected in New Zealand from 1867 to 1916 in conjunction with the population census; but, commencing with the year 1918–19, the collection became an annual one. An analysis of the statistics for recent years, with a brief summary covering the period 1910–11 to 1940–41, is given in the following pages. More complete statistics will be found in the annual Statistical Report on Factory and Building Production.

It should be noted that in New Zealand the production year does not coincide with the calendar year. In the case of many factory industries a March year is used as the basis of accounting, &c., while in other instances the production year fits more closely to a June year.

A study of the statistics of factory production, particularly those for recent years, reveals that the establishment of new industries and the growth of relatively new industries have been striking characteristics of the pattern of factory-production activity. The growth of the motor-assembling and allied industries has been an outstanding example, while, more recently, notable advances have been made in the number of industries either producing goods that cannot now be imported, or producing goods for the requirements of the armed services. These developments have increased the occupational range of factory employment, and it has become quite evident that the expansion of factory industries is no longer limited to those lines where ready access to raw materials is the deciding factor, local manufactures now catering for the Dominion's needs in many products which were formerly almost exclusively imported. This trend has been accelerated in some directions by the closing of certain sources of supply of manufactured commodities consequent upon the outbreak of war, but the same cause has operated to restrict expansion in some other directions owing to inability to procure the necessary plant and raw materials.

Evidence is also provided by recent statistics that the vast supplies of hydroelectric power now available are being used in industry to an increasing extent, the reticulation of the Dominion (now almost completed) offering a ready solution of one of the major problems of industrial expansion—the provision of ample supplies of cheap power.

INDUSTRIES COVERED BY STATISTICS.—Under the regulations authorizing the collection of statistics of factory production a “factory” is defined as an establishment engaged in the manufacture, repair, or preparation of articles for wholesale or retail trade or for export, which employs at least two hands or uses motive power, with the exception of the following, which are expressly excluded: Bakeries, butcheries, laundries, smithies, waterworks, shops engaged in retail trade only, and farmers or others using motive power for their own individual and private use. The following are, however, required to furnish returns even though employing less than two hands and not using motive power: Tanneries; bacon, butter, cheese, soap, and candle factories; brickyards; and lime-works.

Such industries as jewellery and watch repairing, boot and shoe repairing, and saddlery repairing, come within the meaning of the term “factory,” and figures relating to these industries were at one time included in the statistics. Since 1919 they have been excluded unless they are also engaged in actual manufacture and have at least two persons engaged, or use motive power. Other classes of establishments formerly covered by the statistics but excluded from 1921–22 onwards are those engaged in dressmaking and millinery (unless manufacturing wholesale for sale in retail shops), bespoke tailoring, and establishments engaged in tea blending and packing, liquor-bottling, stone quarrying and crushing, asphalting, and monumental masonry. The latter industries were excluded to bring the statistics into conformity with those of other British countries. In addition, returns are not required from plumbers, from undertakers, or from builders who make joinery solely for their own building contracts. Builders are, however, required to furnish annual returns of building and construction, which are dealt with in the next section.

It should be noted that factory-production statistics do not cover, and do not purport to cover, all establishments registered as factories in the Dominion. “One man” businesses are excluded with the exception of tanneries, bacon, butter, cheese, soap, or candle factories, brickyards, or lime-works; and some small repair-shops (as explained previously) are excluded even though they may employ two or more hands. The effect of these limitations in the scope of the statistical inquiry is seen from the fact that while for the year 1940–41 17,940 factories, employing 132,907 hands, were registered under the Factories Act, only 6,395 factories (with 113,999 persons engaged) were covered by the statistics of factory production.

GENERAL SUMMARY.—The statistics in the table following illustrate the growth of New Zealand's factory production to its present standing.

Year.Number of Establishments.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.Cost of Materials.“Other Expenses “ (i.e., Expenses of Operation other than Salaries and Wages and Cost of Materials).Value of Output.Added Value.

* Productive employees only.

† Not available.

   £££££
1910–113,48345,924*4,786,698*18,782,92929,317,02310,534,094
1915–163,75548,744*5,791,704*30,197,78443,034,03312,836,249
1920–214,02269,68113,172,99652,933,49477,828,01324,894,519
1925–264,79478,70816,153,82251,668,1008,395,92182,358,85130,690,751
1930–315,19477,91415,617,05248,458,3569,388,62677,745,24929,286,893
1931–324,96968,69712,642,93542,472,6008,263,06566,588,74424,116,144
1932–334,99368,92112,048,14842,726,0438,097,04266,109,45523,383,412
1933–345,02872,65112,106,50047,067,5648,108,89071,770,87224,703,308
1934–355,27079,35813,244,37352,277,2858,809,91279,324,47327,047,188
1935–365,53686,58814,844,36760,172,8489,374,36990,014,74829,841,900
1936–375,72896,40118,333,07770,938,16510,481,253105,941,72235,003,557
1937–385,924102,34420,981,58775,371,55810,540,208113,691,55638,319,998
1938–396,146102,53522,270,01075,634,90310,001,804114,447,42638,812,523
1939–406,342108,72224,460,54985,243,38311,043,557129,061,82643,818,443
1940–416,395113,99926,946,79998,547,80411,978,820147,153,55948,605,755

In the calculation of value of products, values at the factory are taken. Despite instructions to the contrary, however, it has been found that some of the returns for 1937–38 and previous years contained an, unknown amount of selling and distributing charges. As these charges have been definitely excluded from the figures for 1938-39 and subsequent years, the value of output, added value, and other expenses of manufacture for these years are not strictly comparable with previous years.

Factory production climbed fairly steadily from 1910–11 until a relatively high level was attained in 1929–30. During the depression there was a decided fall in factory production, but 1933–34 saw the commencement of a gradual recovery in industrial conditions and in 1935–36 a complete recovery from the depression period in factory industries was recorded. The statistics for the year 1936–37 set new record high levels for factory production, and further gains have been recorded in each succeeding year, the rise in 1940–41 being particularly impressive.

Establishments reporting operations in 1940–41 numbered 6,395, or 53 more than in 1939–40 (6,342). The number of persons engaged increased by 5,277, or by 4·9 per cent., while the salaries and wages paid increased by £2,486,250, or by 10·2 per cent. Materials used cost £98,547,804, an increase of £13,304,421, or 15·6 per cent. above the 1939–40 total. The value of output rose by £18,091,733 (a 14-per-cent. increase on the 1939–40 figure) to a record total of £147,153,559.

In making use of the following summary by provincial districts for the year 1940–41 it is necessary to keep in mind the differences in size and population of the respective provincial districts (vide section on “Population “).

Provincial District.Number of Establishments.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.Cost of Materials.Other Expenses of Operation.Value of Output.Added Value.
   £££££
Auckland2,20441,1009,682,27741,751,3494,550,45359,450,15417,698,805
Hawke's Bay3013,711971,2534,536,866475,8106,197,0101,660,144
Taranaki3313,7071,049,1467,457,693512,0399,194,6061,736,913
Wellington1,39626,6876,433,44720,138,8982,636,94631,816,36511,677,467
Marlborough77493134,125542,04063,199761,396219,356
Nelson1992,083508,8711,127,833269,7372,042,248914,415
Westland991,395379,861308,468139,848911,253602,785
Canterbury95118,7964,120,20212,130,9971,599,93719,431,4317,300,434
Otago—       
  Otago52912,1562,646,0866,300,9491,225,36111,204,0174,903,06,8
  Southland3083,8711,021,5314,252,711499,4906,145,0791,892,368
    Totals6,395113,99926,946,79998,547,80411,978,820147,153,55948,605,755

ESTABLISHMENTS AND EMPLOYEES.—The industries contributing chiefly to the increase of 53 in the number of establishments reporting operations in 1940—41 were—Clothing, 30; leather goods, 11; small machines, &c., 11; engineering, iron and brass founding, 10. The principal decreases were—Coachbuilding and motor engineering, 26; furniture, 9.

The following table shows the average (monthly) numbers of wage-earners and of total persons engaged in each class of industry, and the number of establishments operating, during the year 1940–41.

Class of industry.Number of Establishments.Wage-earning Employees.Total Persons engaged.
M.F.M.F
Animal food52711,15035613,137844
Vegetable food1472,4182,4772,9022,736
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants2581,9229872,4011,183
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)1181,4112451,674313
Working in wood6689,1016310,259202
Vegetable produce for fodder17322485
Paper manufactures28631623734677
Heat, light, and power1434,043295,340519
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.3463,619294,142136
Metals other than gold or silver5818,1957679,5041,150
Precious metals471933324146
Books and publications3634,4541, 5865,6692,102
Ornaments and minor art products481363418245
Designs, medals, type, and dies26136218010
Rubber products5232292394126
Machines, tools, and implements1632,0073152,349446
Carriages and vehicles1,3725,435297,058501
Harness, saddlery, and leather-ware1128493941,044439
Ships, boats, and their equipment708903181,023356
House-furnishings4542,5124283,013520
Chemicals and by-products1621,7756802,232883
Textile fabrics181,4591,9191,5751,950
Apparel5864,12015,6845,12816,395
Fibrous materials27498184564200
Miscellaneous62811458913509
      Totals6,39568,11927,73481,70632,293

The distribution of the sexes among the persons engaged shows a considerable preponderance of males, although during the last two years the proportionate number of females has shown a considerable increase. The number of females per hundred males in each of the five years ending 1940–41 has been: 34, 34, 33, 36, and 40.

In the smaller districts there are few industries employing female labour to any great extent; but the male preponderance is considerably smaller in the four main districts, where female labour is in greater demand. In Otago the excess of males is less than in any other district, due to the comparative importance of its woollen-milling industry. Women and girls are chiefly found in the following industries: Clothing manufacture, 12,495; biscuit and confectionery making, 2,128; boot and shoe manufacturing, 2,106; printing and publishing, 2,102; woollen-milling, 1,946; hosiery-making, 1,423; tobacco-preparing and cigarette-making, 842.

The following figures show that in 1940–41 for approximately eleven wage-earners there was one proprietor (actively engaged), manager, or overseer.

 1939–40.1940–41.
Group.Number of Persons.Per Cent. of Total.Number of Persons.Per Cent. of Total.
Proprietors actively engaged2,6202·42,6202·3
Managers, overseers, &c.5,9765·56,1515·4
Accountants, clerks, &c.9,2548·59,3758·2
Wage-earning employees90,87283·695,85384·1
      Totals108,722100·0113,999100·0

An interesting classification of the establishments, according to the number of persons engaged, is given for the years 1924–25, 1929–30, and 1937–38 to 1940–11.

Year.10 or under.11–20.21–50.51–100.Over 100.Totals.
Number of Factories.
1924–252,9727205701551214,538
1929–303,4768005911641375,168
1937–383,9568647371921755,924
1938–394,1298857562031736,146
1939–404,2189577722121836,342
1940–414,2539357772371936,395
Numbers of Persons engaged.
1924–2512,65810,69018,06711,09424,67477,183
1929–3015,47411,78517,97711,65825,96782,861
1937–3816,51812,73122,72712,97137,397102,344
1938–3916,87112,93123,02013,60836,105102,535
1939–4017,21214,04823,31614,73739,409108,722
1940–4117,35913,80223,75916,39142,688113,999

The very small establishments have more than held their own during the period, while there is definite evidence of a swing-over from the group covering moderately-sized establishments to the larger-sized group. The advance in the smallest-sized group over the period may be attributed largely to the growth of the motor industry and the consequent establishment of small repairing concerns throughout the Dominion.

The classification according to the number of persons engaged shows clearly that, judged according to the standards of highly industrialized communities, the average size of the industrial unit in New Zealand is small.

SALARIES AND WAGES.—The figures relating to the amounts paid as salaries and wages include amounts paid as bonuses and for overtime. Figures illustrative of the rise in the aggregate amount paid in salaries and wages will be found in the first table of this section.

The amounts received by male and female employees (inclusive of all groups—executive, clerical, and wage-earning) and the average amount received per employee of each sex, as recorded in the last five collections, are set out below.

Year.Males.Females.Both Sexes.
Total.Average.Total.Average.Total.Average.
 ££££££
1936–3716,019,7702222,313,3079518,333,077190
1937–3818,334,0842412,647,50310120,981,587205
1938–3919,486,3352542,783,67510822,270,010217
1939–4021,111,7402633,348,80911724,460,549225
1940–4122,876,3672804,070,43212626,946,799236

The averages shown relate to all persons engaged, irrespective of age, industry, status, and personal occupation, and year-to-year comparisons may be affected by changes in any of these factors. The figures do, however, give an indication of the increased earnings of factory workers in recent years, the average for males having risen by 40 per cent. and for females by 50 per cent. since 1935–36.

The table following shows the total salaries and wages paid in each class of industry during the year 1940–41.

Class of Industry.Males.Females.
 ££
Animal food4,280,538111,454
Vegetable food768,879323,208
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants703,713180,860
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)478,56436,571
Working in wood2,763,18426,792
Vegetable produce for fodder11,154634
Paper manufactures234,72678,894
Heat, light, and power1,643,17274,240
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.1,110,62917,831
Metals other than gold or silver2,498,302142,862
Precious metals63,1864,911
Books and publications1,647,997278,143
Ornaments and minor art products40,8305,788
Designs, medals, type, and dies58,3091,506
Rubber products86,94213,815
Machines, tools, and implements554,27653,436
Carriages and vehicles1,691,24560,830
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware276,17548,240
Ships, boats, and their equipment340,73747,107
House-furnishings733,73968,723
Chemicals and by-products652,307108,341
Textile fabrics450,896274,768
Apparel1,408,1152,020,865
Fibrous materials134,13625,486
Miscellaneous244,61665,097
      Totals22,876,3674,070,432

Special returns as to employees and wages in a selected week are collected each year. The period covered is the nearest normal week to 31st March, and the data collected include the number of employees engaged at each wage-rate, as well as the total employees and the total earnings during the specified week. Working proprietors, managers, overseers, accountants, and clerks do not come within the scope of the inquiry, which covers wage-earning employees only, and out-workers, if any. All productive employees are covered, irrespective of age or sex, and the figures are therefore inclusive of many juvenile workers receiving low wages. The following summary table shows totals and averages for all factory industries for each of the last five years.

Year.Total Wage-earning Employees.Earnings during Specified Week.
Total.Average
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
   £££s.d.£s.d.
193764,88322,452287,85142,1294891176
193867,08322,059317,10342,28641461184
193968,86822,640338,89947,0524185217
194071,36225,289362,91656,7375192410
194172,83928,406400,07469,6765910291

Certain important reservations must be made in drawing any conclusions from the above table, which must be considered as being strictly limited in its application. Since the figures relate to a single week, an unduly late or early season, abnormally wet weather, &c., would affect the usefulness of either the number of workers or their earnings as indexes of the volume of employment. Further, the figures given are for actual earnings during the week in question and not for nominal wage-rates. Variations in the amount of overtime or short-time may cause appreciable changes in average earnings even though wage-rates remain unchanged. For example, in 1935–36, 2,689,647 hours of overtime were worked and 1,924,697 hours of short time were recorded. In 1940–41 overtime had increased to 6,056,362 hours and short time had fallen to 567,866 hours, while, in addition, statutory amendments made to the Factories Act in June, 1936, had the effect of increasing rates of pay for overtime, and thus increasing the ratio of earnings to hours of overtime worked during the specified weeks in 1937 and subsequent years in comparison with the figures for previous years.

The following table shows the distribution of employees within the various wage-groups for the specified weeks covered by the returns for 1931 and 1941.

Weekly Rate of Wages.Males.Females.
1931.1941.1931.1941.
Under 20s.1,0449091,0551,277
20s. and under 25s.1,5851,7291,5401,261
25s. and under 30s.1,0331,5691,4401,687
30s. and under 35s.1,6691,7151,4781,557
35s. and under 40s.1,1791,2539851,786
40s. and under 45s.8901,7911,0472,394
45s. and under 50s.1,2241,3472,7112,443
50s. and under 55s.7679391,1004,147
55s. and under 60s.5178306406,740
60s. and under 65s.9079424132,947
65s. and under 70s.577491120891
70s. and under 75s.70648376505
75s. and under 80s.79136033188
80s. and under 85s.3,63647137226
85s. and under 90s.3,3654221451
90s. and under 95s.5,1892,30724108
95s. and under 100s.5,7884,300824
100s. and under 105s.4,8896,2921752
105s. and under 110s.2,9556,771839
110s. and under 115s.2,5437,091622
115s. and under 120s.1,22210,19429
120s. and under 130s.2,5729,973723
130s. and under 140s.9724,168712
140s. and under 160s.1,3733,315412
160s. and over1,0233,17745
    Totals48,41672,83912,77628,406

The statistics of distribution of wage-rates just quoted, and the more detailed analysis published in the annual Statistical Report on Factory Production, show that marked changes have occurred in wage distribution, a fact which materially affects the significance of statistics of average earnings. Obviously, if a greater proportion of juvenile workers is employed in any particular year, this will tend to bring down the general average rate of earnings—despite the fact that rates of wages for individual classes of factory work actually may have been raised. A relatively high increase in the number of young women at starting rates of pay must obviously retard the rate of increase in average earnings of females as a whole; in fact, it would be quite possible for the average earnings of females in factories actually to fall through the influence of this factor even though wage-rates for individual classes of work were rising. On the other hand a slackening in juvenile employment would, other things being equal, raise the average earnings of females employed in factories. Similar considerations apply— though not with equal force—in the case of male factory workers.

As indicated in a previous paragraph, the effect of changes in wage-rates on average earnings may be obscured by shifts in the distribution of wage-rates caused by changes in the age constitution of workers. The table of distribution of wage-rates is thus more informative as an indication of wage-changes than are figures of average earnings, since, if desired, the lower groups comprising mostly juveniles can be excluded from consideration.

MOTIVE POWER.—A supply of cheap motive power is essential for industrial development. New Zealand industries were formerly somewhat handicapped in this respect, long railway hauls and, in some instances, sea-carriage being involved in the transport of coal from the mines to the factories. The difficulties in the way of obtaining a plentiful supply of cheap motive power have been met by the development of hydro-electric schemes, for which New Zealand is topographically well suited. The State has in recent years developed this phase of the Dominion's resources, and in doing so has provided a source of cheap motive power.

The following table shows the numbers and aggregate horse-power of each class of engine used in factories for 1921–22, 1928–29, and the last three years.

Class of Engine.1921–22.1928–29.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.
SteamNo.2,2661,8471,4341,3801,336
 H.P.101,083130,686148,781160,061152,377
GasNo.75632111510290
 H.P.24,47614,3596,2605,8095,365
OilNo.389335781657669
 H.P.5,46616,07043,58544,66345,918
ElectricNo.5,23513,73828,45632,02735,660
 H.P.49,571119,637197,195213,635230,911
WaterNo.222252206192183
 H.P.39,104182,914451,965478,826479,656
    TotalsNo.8,86816,49330,99234,35837,938
 H.P.219,700463,666847,786902,994914,227

The figures relating to horse-power represent the indicated horse-power of the engines installed and not the horse-power actually used. The statistics include the horse-power of turbines, pelton wheels, and other engines used in the generation of electric current.

The following table shows the total number of engines and horse-power by classes of industries for the years 1935–36 and 1940–41.

Class of Industry.1935–36.1940–41.
Number of Engines.Horse-power.Number of Engines.Horse-power.
Animal food4,68669,4176,13880,115
Vegetable food1,13213,4981,69915,347
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants1,2168,0371,7598,966
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)2813,3577015,811
Working in wood2,66942,3513,85055,678
Vegetable produce for fodder3347849630
Paper manufactures1633,60761910,191
Heat, light, and power206497,025209617,041
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.1,09830,7171,57128,536
Metals other than gold or silver2,03113,5824,33920,889
Precious metals6777127111
Books and publications2,51110,0823,25012,160
Ornaments and minor art products35676485
Designs, medals, type, and dies67126127206
Rubber products  2461,342
Machines, tools, and implements5032,1191,0442,934
Carriages and vehicles2,2015,2733,5407,699
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware4643,4074752,365
Ships, boats, and their equipment1699402691,269
House-furnishings1,0774,7722,0866,960
Chemicals and by-products7878,0231,35612,117
Textile fabrics3136,1685186,817
Apparel1,4233,5153,1515,899
Fibrous materials1764,0062123,730
Miscellaneous1602,5235397,429
      Totals23,468733,16737,938914,227

The necessity for a plentiful supply of motive power in the expansion of industry is reflected in the foregoing table. The totals of engines in use and horse-power available in 1940–41 as compared with 1935–36 record the substantial advances of 62 per cent. and 25 per cent. respectively.

A drawback to the statistics arises through the lack of information relating to the actual or estimated period during which the engines or motors were in use. This is an important aspect of considerations affecting the quantitative measurement of the motive power employed.

CONSUMPTION OF COAL.—During the year 1940–41, 974,235 tons of coal were used in industries covered by the statistics of factory production, an increase of 89,213 tons, or 10 per cent., as compared with the previous year. Of this amount, 910,586 tons represented New Zealand coal, and the remainder (63,649 tons) imported coal.

Some 63,261 tons (99 per cent.) of the imported coal, and 194,484 tons (21 per cent.) of the New Zealand coal, were utilized in gas-making, this industry accounting for 26 per cont. of the total amount of coal used in industries covered by the factory production statistics. A further 38 per cent. was used by three industries—namely, butter, cheese, and condensed-milk making, 145,367 tons; lime-crushing and cement-making, 114,383 tons; meat freezing and preserving, 114,283 tons.

MATERIALS.—The value of materials used or operated upon does not afford a very satisfactory basis of comparison as between one industry and another, for the reason that the changes wrought during the process of manufacture vary considerably in degree. The factory constituent in the value of animal foods, for instance, is but small, whereas the aggregate cost of finished woollen materials is far in excess of the value of untreated wool.

The cost of materials used in the various classes of industries during the last five years is given in the table hereunder.

Class of Industry.1936–37.1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.

* Not available.

 £££££
Animal food42,593,55044,139,55242,870,16447,552,19753,198,917
Vegetable food3,842,6194,371,2204,296,5504,766,8605,558,309
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants1,655,4181,954,2582,297,7422,806,8563,322,542
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)12,074,5241,771,5851,528,5381,674,7632,556,637
Working in wood2,289,4242,540,3272,779,7813,097,7823,268,863
Vegetable produce for fodder58,89983,81591,54796,37078,361
Paper manufactures263,303320,866337,251474,077800,395
Heat, light, and power4,554,2574,857,1825,582,3246,301,9616,849,196
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.504,853635,120721,857815,486850,690
Metals other than gold or silver1,950,8602,382,8322,568,9713,007,9183,969,894
Precious metals64,19773,62175,96179,74687,185
Books and publications1,179,7941,354,0341,466,7271,518,6871,824,370
Ornaments and minor art products35,49242,76248,52549,62956,481
Designs, medals, type, and dies16,97919,07119,64619,89819,463
Rubber products***88,353163,939
Machines, tools, and implements896,903961,550998,8341,075,1921,207,294
Carriages and vehicles1,557,9251,814,9972,071,3291,909,4891,765,305
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware594,111562,778442,380553,075873,604
Ships, boats, and their equipment315,300343,151309,013300,897430,900
House-furnishings779,217949,364988,9301,118,8931,225,218
Chemicals and by-products1,565,3171,848,9181,984,8682,454,9943,103,635
Textile, fabrics626,934680,818453,591712,758885,073
Apparel3,095,9903,182,9153,178,5574,000,6915,415,695
Fibrous materials223,964258,678246,732264,039386,609
Miscellaneous198,335222,144275,085442,772649,229
Totals70,938,16575,371,55875,634,90385,243,38398,547,804

In considering the cost of materials used it should be remembered that the semi-primary industries (e.g., meat freezing and butter and cheese making) account for a very largo proportion of the total. In 1940–11, for example, the two industries mentioned accounted for £51,899,379 out of a total of £98,547,804 for cost of materials used. Constituting as they do over 50 per cent. of the total cost of materials used in all industries, the figures for the semi-primary industries influence the total figures for any year. Indeed, a study of the total cost of materials over a number of years shows that frequent and wide oscillations in primary-produce prices are clearly reflected therein. Again, difficulty has been experienced in determining what actually constitutes materials in the electric-supply industry. For the purpose of factory-production statistics the figure for materials in respect of this industry is deemed to be the total expenditure for the year, less salaries and wages met out of revenue from the sale of energy.

PRODUCTS.—The value of products is based upon the valuation of goods at the factory-door.

In making use of the gross value of products it must be borne in mind that the figures include the value of raw materials operated upon, which constitutes more than half of the total value; in fact, the cost of materials used has represented 66 or 67 per cent. of the value of the products in each of the last five years. Where the products of one industry—for example, sawmilling—are treated again in other industries, such as furniture-making, joinery. &c., it must be obvious that part of the value of the timber shown as products of the former industry appears again as the materials of the latter industry and enters into the value of joinery and furniture made. Duplication of this kind is found in many industries.

The following table shows the gross value of products by classes of industries as recorded in the last five collections.

Class of Industry.1936–37.1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.

* Not available.

 £££££
Animal food48,927,91950,388,44949,436,67155,132,59561,635,266
Vegetable food6,090,4896,399,4956,445,4587,198,0888,236,144
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants3,630,4084,296,9454,272,8035,037,4815,819,964
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)2,896,2062,505,4032,280,9722,530,7483,544,959
Working in wood5,597,4696,323,4326,503,9687,307,0967,656,820
Vegetable produce for fodder78,635112,849131,049135,840102,795
Paper manufactures544,465651,442654,018972,2841,549,757
Heat, light, and power6,563,1857,189,4567,839,5078,738,1109,754,596
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.2,122,9512,465,8912,791,9573,264,1933,232,354
Metals other than gold or silver4,424,4405,201,5645,798,3186,711,8278,206,032
Precious metals143,178159,902164,980172,198191,709
Books and publications4,406,8044,839,4494,873,5304,885,4545,142,630
Ornaments and minor art products82,34899,036104,318111,448121,622
Designs, medals, type, and dies79,97791,33895,782100,200100,388
Rubber products***223,295370,284
Machines, tools, and implements1,671,5291,774,2211,739,5501,744,3972,293,615
Carriages and vehicles4,334,2365,588,4335,943,4135,289,7454,540,360
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware990,210939,115801,520981,9471,420,323
Ships, boats, and their equipment669,365735,747722,086840,653993,156
House-furnishings1,630,1391,930,4792,044,1902,234,5122,364,572
Chemicals and by-products2,828,0603,220,0643,386,1554,315,1355,226,584
Textile fabrics1,323,8121,382,4721,109,0791,649,9802,273,517
Apparel5,963,4706,351,6486,219,8228,056,17210,406,724
Fibrous materials523,822571,396496,753526,141705,738
Miscellaneous418,605473,330591,527902,2871,263,650
Totals105,941,722113,691,556114,447,426129,061,826147,153,559

ADDED VALUE.—As indicated under the heading of “Products,” the value of products is not always a satisfactory measure of either the absolute or the relative importance of a given industry, for the reason that only part of this value is actually created by the manufacturing processes carried on in the industry itself. In many cases by far the larger portion of the value of products represents the value of the materials used. From a manufacturing standpoint, therefore, the best measure of the importance of an industry is the value created by the manufacturing operations carried on within the industry. This value is obtained in New Zealand by deducting the cost of materials used from the gross value of the products, and is referred to as the “added value.”

The table given hereunder shows the added value by classes of industries for each of the last five years.

Class of Industry.1936–37.1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.

* Not available.

 £££££
Animal food6,334,3696,248,8976,566,5077,580,3988,436,349
Vegetable food2,247,8702,028,2752,148,9082,431,2282,677,835
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants1,974,9902,342,6871,975,0612,230,6252,497,422
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)821,682733,818752,434855,985988,322
Working in wood3,308,0453,783,1053,724,1874,209,3144,387,957
Vegetable produce for fodder19,73629,03439,50239,47024,434
Paper manufactures281,162330,576316,767498,207749,362
Heat, light, and power2,008,9282,332,2742,257,1832,436,1492,905,400
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.1,618,0981,830,7712,070,1002,448,7072,381,664
Metals other than gold or silver2,473,5802,818,7323,229,3473,703,9094,236,138
Precious metals78,98186,28189,01992,452104,524
Books and publications3,227,0103,485,4153,406,8033,366,7673,318,260
Ornaments and minor art products46,85656,27455,79361,81965,141
Designs, medals, type, and dies62,99872,26776,13680,30280,925
Rubber products***134,942206,345
Machines, tools, and implements774,626812,671740,716669,2051,086,321
Carriages and vehicles2,776,3113,773,4363,872,0843,380,2562,775,055
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware396,099376,337359,140428,872546,719
Ships, boats, and their equipment354,065392,596413,073479,756562,256
House-furnishings850,922981,1151,055,2601,115,6191,139,354
Chemicals and by-products1,262,7431,371,1461,401,2871,860,1412,122,949
Textile fabrics696,878701,654655,488937,2221,388,444
Apparel2,867,4803,168,7333,041,2654,055,4814,991,029
Fibrous materials299,858312,718250,021262,102319,129
Miscellaneous220,270251,186316,442459,515614,421
Totals35,003,55738,319,99838,812,52343,818,44348,605,755

EXPENSES OF OPERATION.—It is necessary when attempting to gauge the success or otherwise of an industry to take into consideration the figure for operating expenses other than on wages and materials. Total operating costs of factory production for the year 1940–41 amounted to £137,473,423 (salaries and wages, £26,946,799; cost of materials, £98,517,804; other expenses, £11,978,820), while value of output totalled £147,153,559, showing a surplus of £9,680,136. This surplus represents 11·6 per cent. of the amount of capital invested in land, buildings, plant, and machinery.

The table below shows the principal items comprised in the figure for expenses of operation, other than salaries and wages and cost of materials, for the last live years.

Item.1936–37.1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.
 £££££
Cost of coal635,171685,762755,552852,589898,238
Cost of other fuel and power686,681792,467813,271950,5081,052,494
Insurance299,168428,605507,125580,085655,608
Depreciation1,561,9921,629,9541,689,3311,857,3492,101,534
All other expenses7,298,2417,003,4206,236,5256,803,0267,270,946
      Totals10,481,25310,540,20810,001,80411,043,55711,978,820

FIXED ASSETS.—The values of the fixed assets give some idea as to the permanency and stability of the manufacturing industries in New Zealand, and afford the means of judging to some extent the amount of capital that has been invested therein.

The following table shows the value of land, buildings, plant, and machinery by classes of industries for the last five years available.

Class of Industry.1936–37.1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.

* Not available.

 £££££
Animal food8,963,1029,007,4189,429,1659,598,3269,307,366
Vegetable food2,532,6232,604,8962,768,7582,846,6273,042,514
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants2,009,4672,239,1132,507,3622,588,4682,639,891
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)639,923679,997744,281789,905871,108
Working in wood2,471,3502,555,4922,589,8052,719,0672,864,076
Vegetable produce for fodder39,01051,37570,63669,47844,468
Paper manufactures404,471437,709464,1561,058,1471,068,604
Heat, light, and power34,526,75935,715,74437,220,52138,839,99640,832,891
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.1,829,1501,979,0592,105,2262,160,0072,198,959
Metals other than gold or silver2,276,4832,455,8262,647,0122,977,8573,227,478
Precious metals86,94193,64298,158102,380106,567
Books and publications3,691,2263,751,8733,888,2094,044,6173,939,265
Ornaments and minor art products60,29260,76461,60565,02365,660
Designs, medals, type, and dies71,88869,80074,667106,770106,622
Rubber products***167,290213,751
Machines, tools, and implements505,406565,837580,570624,342731,028
Carriages and vehicles2,805,7723,166,7203,608,0473,682,0833,539,259
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware339,392350,702322,393330,862396,504
Ships, boats, and their equipment198,715208,566282,639295,831300,703
House-furnishings710,339808,737873,129927,654980,680
Chemicals and by-products1,697,2761,768,0371,887,5422,039,5112,298,515
Textile fabrics884,323945,258973,433970,185951,531
Apparel2,168,6052,407,2992,604,0972,803,8063,158,382
Fibrous materials321,392364,179271,857260,278279,443
Miscellaneous363,360390,580424,534504,965589,872
Totals69,597,26572,738,72276,497,80280,573,47583,755,137

In connection with the statistics of fixed assets, it should be understood that the figures given are of necessity only approximate, the principal reason for this being that where one building houses two or more factories carrying on different industries an apportionment has to be made between the industries, and strict accuracy is not always possible in this connection. Furthermore, in many instances fixed assets are stated at their book value, and this may be an understatement owing to appreciated site value, or an overstatement owing to insufficient allowance having been made for depreciation, obsolescence, &c. Where premises occupied are rented or leased it is the practice to estimate the capital value, the basis being the annual rental value.

The value of land, buildings, plant, and machinery may be taken as representing approximately the fixed capital, and a classification indicating the amount of this capital invested in the various classes of industry is of interest. It is recognized that electric-supply undertakings and gasworks require heavy expenditure on plant and machinery, &c., and it is not surprising that the value of fixed assets employed in the industries coming under the “heat, light, and power” class is much greater than that for any other class, notwithstanding that the added value in this case is relatively small. It is particularly interesting to note that, while the added value in the “animal food” class amounts to £8,436,349 as against £2,905,400 for heat, light, and power, the fixed capital in the latter case is £40,832,891, and in the former £9,307,366—£31,500,000 less.

The relation between the value of (a) land and buildings, and (b) plant and machinery illustrates the tendency for the latter to increase at a proportionately faster rate than the former. In 1905–06 the proportions per cent. of land and buildings and of plant and machinery to the total fixed assets were 57 and 43 respectively, but these positions are now reversed, the percentages in 1940–41 being 35 and 65. The table given hereunder shows the movement during the last five years.

Year.Land and Buildings.Plant and Machinery.Total Amount.
Amount.Per Cent. of Total.Amount.Per Cent. of Total.
 £ £ £
1936–3724,445,33835·1245,151,92764·8869,597,265
1937–3825,573,74135·1647,164,98164·8472,738,722
1938–3927,201,64235·5649,296,16064·4476,497,802
1939–4028,544,17735·4352,029,29864·5780,573,475
1940–4129,229,71934·9054,525,41865·1083,755,137

CAPITAL.—Although information as to the amount of capital invested in factory industries has been collected for some years, the figures in this respect have been found to be unsatisfactory. The chief factors militating against the collection of complete information are the methods of accounting in use in many of the smaller establishments, and the difficulty of apportioning the capital where an establishment is only partly manufacturing. In the case of joint-stock companies the capital figures have been found to be reasonably accurate, and are shown in the following table. The figures in the second column relate to the number of companies, not the number of works. A company engaged in more than one industry, however, is counted for each industry.

Year.Number of Companies.Subscribed Capital.Paid-up Capital.Percentage of Paid-up Capital to Total Capital.Loan and Reserve Capital (including Bank Overdraft).Percentage of Loan Capital to Total Capital.Total Capital.Paid-up Shares issued Vendors as Part of Purchase Consideration, included under heading “Paid-up Capital.”
Private Companies.
  ££ £ ££
1936–371,78715,842,23015,010,56574·785,062,19125·2220,072,7561,884,036
1937–381,95015,814,82315,259,33473·735,438,04226·2720,697,3761,759,652
1938–392,00916,046,82115,461,12472·175,962,71127·8321,423,8351,836,548
1939–402,12316,650,33916,114,52072·016,263,73127·9922,378,2511,952,909
1940–412,17318,125,89217,469,34568·947,868,99231·0625,338,3372,015,889
Public and Co-operative Companies.
1936–3773824,519,21722,151,47975·837,061,98424·1729,213,4633,394,090
1937–3874226,740,74124,063,29474·728,139,78225·2832,203,0763,657,542
1938–3977127,903,92525,242,70975·088,377,01624·9233,619,7253,819,547
1939–4075828,535,98626,417,76975·838,421,60124·1734,839,3705,190,299
1940–4177828,027,50525,832,49473·809,172,13926·2035,004,6335,489,462
Total (all Companies).
1936–372,52540,361,44737,162,04475·4012,124,17524·6049,286,2195,278,126
1937–382,69242,555,56439,322,62874·3313,577,82425·6752,900,4525,417,194
1938–392,78043,950,74640,703,83373·9514,339,72726·0555,043,5605,656,095
1939–402,88145,186,32542,532,28974·3314,685,33225·6757,217,6217,143,208
1940–412,95146,153,39743,301,83971·7617,041,13128·2460,342,9707,505,351

In considering the figures given in regard to capital it must be borne in mind that the registered capital is taken in each case, except where the company may not be fully engaged in manufacture (in which case an apportionment is made).

ORGANIZATION OF INDUSTRY.—New Zealand's industrial progress has been fairly rapid, but industry is as set organized on a relatively small scale.

The law in the Dominion restricts the membership of a partnership to not more than 20 persons, a private company to not fewer than 2 or more than 25 persons, and a public company to not fewer than 7 persons. Co-operation is characteristic of certain industries engaged in the processing of primary products, mainly butter and cheese manufacturing. Municipal enterprises are confined mainly to public-utility industries—e.g., gasworks and the generation and distribution of electricity—while the State operates the chief central hydro-electric generating stations and the Government Printing Office.

Information as to the character of organization of the establishments engaged in factory production during 1940–41 is given in the following table.

Character of Organization.Number of Establishments.Persons engaged.Horsepower available.Cost of Materials used or operated upon.Value of Manufactures or Products.Added Value.
Total.Per Establishment.
   H.p.££££
Individual1,9849,14615,5512,572,0975,289,3572,717,2601,370
Private firm or partnership7095,00910,3611,265,6552,866,1331,600,4782,257
Public registered company65034,697135,82227,614,83544,969,54017,354,70526,700
Private registered company2,46055,340119,62130,135,22751,884,43321,749,2068,841
Co-operative and miscellaneous4354,51228,84830,358,15933,197,8062,839,6476,528
Municipal and Government1575,295604,0246,601,8318,946,2902,344,45914,933
    Totals6,395113,999914,22798,547,804147,153,55948,605,7557,601

As would be expected, the average size of establishments operated by public registered companies is larger than in any other type of industrial organization, the added value per unit being three times as high as that for the next highest non-governmental type (private registered companies). Private companies, however, hold a very high place, both numerically and in the share they contribute to the total added value created in New Zealand factories (44·7 per cent. in 1940–41, as compared with 35·7 per cent. in the case of public companies). Municipal and general governmental enterprises accounted for 4·8 per cent. of the total added value in 1940–41.

Examination of the statistics of added value over a series of years indicates that private companies have increased appreciably in relative importance, while the individual and partnership types of organization have declined, and very little change has occurred in the percentage of total added value attributable to the operations of public companies, or municipal and general governmental undertakings.

CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES.—In the following tables a classification of industries according to the nature of the work carried on is presented. The principal objects of the classification are the segregation of those industries in close association with and dependent on the great primary industries of the Dominion, and the separation from other industries of those representing the provision of public utilities under monopoly conditions. The main basis of the classification is the relationship between the value of the material worked upon and the value of the finished product, as expressed in what is known for statistical purposes as the “added value.” In those industries which may for some purposes be regarded as extensions of the primary industries the raw material undergoes only slight changes in the factory or workshop, with the result that the “added value” created is relatively small. In the genuine manufacturing industries (e.g., boot and shoe manufacturing) the raw material is subjected to much more detailed and elaborate processes. The “added value” in these industries is therefore relatively high.

Group I comprises those industries engaged in the preparation of farm products for the market, with the resulting by-products. In this group the “added value” is relatively small in proportion to the value of the output. The specific industries falling within this category are: Meat freezing and preserving, ham and bacon curing, butter and cheese making, sausage-casing making, fellmongering and wool-scouring, boiling-down and manure making.

Group II covers those industries which provide public utility services under monopoly conditions in so far as competition within the industry is concerned. It comprises gasworks and electricity generation and supply.

Group III consists of another portion of what are generally referred to as semi-primary industries. It covers industries arising from the utilization of natural resources. The added value in these industries is large in proportion to the value of output, and represents principally wages. The following industries come within this group: Fish-curing, sawmilling, lime-crushing, brick, tile, and pottery making, concrete-block and fibrous-plaster making, pumice-insulation making, and flax-milling.

Group IV comprises all industries for which statistics are available and which do not come under the previous groups. It includes several industries, such as grain-milling, &c., which may be considered to be on the border-lines of Group I or Group III, and also several industries, such as motor and cycle engineering and repairing, &c., where repair work rather than manufacture in the narrow sense of the term predominates. In general, the industries included in this group may be regarded as “genuine” manufacturing industries.

The following table shows the principal statistics for the various groups for the years 1939–40 and 1940–41.

Group.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.Materials used.Other Expenses of Operation.Products.Added Value.Land, Buildings, Plant, and Machinery.
  ££££££
1939–40.
I1,3,7374,131,34748,852,6282,830,35956,996,3018,143,67310,035,203
II5,8801,659,2916,301,961338,5578,738,1102,436,14938,839,996
III12,4403,159,7012,991,6001,634,5158,600,7145,609,1144,195,783
IV76,66515,510,21027,097,1946,240,12654,726,70127,629,50727,502,493
Totals108,72224,460,54985,243,38311,043,557129,061,82643,818,44380,573,475
1940–41.
I15,1774,738,16155,333,2743,041,45964,398,2799,065,0059,770,865
II5,8591,717,4126,849,196385,3179,754,5962,905,40040,832,891
III12,3173,300,5343,074,2241,767,9628,827,9475,753,7234,350,829
IV80,64617,190,69233,291,1106,784,08264,172,73730,881,62728,800,552
Totals113,99926,946,79998,547,80411,978,820147,153,55948,605,75583,755,137

Comparisons of Group IV—i.e., “true” factory industries—for the years 1939–40 and 1940–41 reveal that persons engaged in 1940–41 increased by 3,981 in number, or by 5·2 per cent.; salaries and wages paid advanced by £1,680,482, or by 10·8 per cent.; while materials used rose by 22· per cent., value of products by 17·3 per cent., “added value” by 11·8 per cent., and value of land, buildings, plant, and machinery by 4·7 per cent. Other expenses recorded an advance of 8·7 per cent.

In the next table the principal statistics of factories coming within Group IV—i.e., the “true” manufacturing industries—are shown, classified according to the value of output.

Factories with Value of Output as under.Number of Persons engaged.Value of Products.Output per Person engaged.
1939-40.1940-41.1939-40.1940-41.1939-40.1940-41.
Number.Per Cent. of Total.Number.Per Cent. of Total.£Per Cent. of Total.£Per Cent. of Total.££
£          
Under 5003980·523960·49114,8080·21110,5820·17289279
500- 9991,2001·561,1201·39451,3310·83449,2840·70376401
1,000- 2,4994,8126·284,3145·352,180,7133·982,091,2553·26453485
2,500- 4,9996,3908·336,4427·993,258,0485·953,417,8745·33510531
5,000- 9,9998,57711·198,30610·304,692,4698·574,860,2587·57547585
10,000-14,9995,9057·705,5516·883,468,1366·343,492,9025·44587629
15,000-19,9994,4445·803,9384·882,701,4724·942,684,8184·18608682
20,000-49,99916,25421·2016,53520·5010,530,14519·2411,907,67718·56648720
50,000-99,9999,40712·279,16511·377,361,43413·457,905,09212·32783863
100,000 and over19,27825·1524,87930·8519,968,14536·4927,252,99542·471,0361,095
  Totals, Group IV76,665100·0080,646100·0054,726,701100·0064,172,737100·00714796

The position of the larger scale establishments in this group of industries is striking in respect of both value of products and output per person engaged.

More detailed statistics of the foregoing groups are contained in the Statistical Report on Factory and Building Production. 1940–41.

VOLUME OF FACTORY PRODUCTION.—In connection with the preparation of the series of index-numbers of volume of production, as given in a later section of this Year-Book, a special series covering volume of production of the factory industries has been constructed. Index-numbers have been computed from 1928–29 onwards for the factory industries as a whole, and also for each of the four groups into which these industries are divided under the immediately preceding heading. A description of the method adopted in computing these index-numbers of volume of factory production was given in the 1942 issue of the Year-Book.

INDEX-NUMBERS OF VOLUME OF FACTORY PRODUCTION.

(Base: 1938–39 = 100).

Production Year.Group I.Group II.Group III.Group IV.All Groups.
Total.Per Person engaged.Total.Per Person engaged.Total.Per Person engaged.Total.Per Person engaged.Total.Per Person engaged.
1928–2972786790929866907190
1929–3075817397959870917492
1930–3178877695779164886990
1931–3282987493498755856090
1932–33921067495468357886394
1933–3493947492548759896592
1934–35961017794648769937495
1935–3698998297799276938196
1936–371031028797888991989298
1937–381011009399949196979797
1938–39100100100168100100100100100100
1939–4011010711010710598109102109103
1940–4112010611911510598112100113102

OVERTIME AND SHORT TIME.—The amount of overtime worked or short time recorded by industries gives a reasonably accurate though not an infallible indication as to whether an industry has been busy or slack. Statistics of these two phases of factory production have been collected for a number of years, and the tables presented hereunder throw some interesting light on one aspect of industrial production during the last five years.

Overtime needs no explanation, and as particulars of overtime are readily ascertainable from the records kept in the wages-books, the information may be accepted as of a reliable character. For statistical purposes short time is deemed to be time lost through machinery, tools, &c., being out of order, lack of materials, adverse market conditions, and other related causes. Time lost through holidays (annual, ordinary, or public holidays) and sickness is not counted as short time. Information as to bow much short time is attributable to each cause is not available.

The following table summarizes overtime worked and short time recorded in factories in respect of wage-earning employees during the last five years.

Year.Overtime.Short Time.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
 Hours.Hours.Hours.Hours.Hours.Hours.
1936–372,317,029667,6062,984,6351,000,61380,9491,081,562
1937–382,726,676599,9873,326,6631,003,447205,2561,208,703
1938–393,081,353527,1613,608,514677,561242,600920,161
1939–403,573,1751,108,3414,681,516610,52252,059662,581
1940–414,500,4311,555,9316,056,362521,38646,480567,866

Almost 50 per cent. of the total overtime worked in 1940–41 was contributed by seven industries—meat freezing and preserving (586,643 hours), woollen-milling (580,984 hours), engineering, iron and brass works (563,086 hours), clothing (511,563 hours), ship and boat building (297,049 hours), biscuit and confectionery (242,268 hours), and tinned plate, &c. (228,902 hours). The meat freezing and preserving industry recorded the highest amount of short time (292,926 hours), followed by the sawmilling industry (92,207 hours) and the coachbuilding and motor-engineering industry (24,373 hours). Marked seasonal fluctuations occur in the meat-freezing, &c., industry, while the sawmilling industry is affected by adverse weather conditions.

The following table gives for each of the last five years the average number of hours of overtime and short time recorded for all wage-earning employees, whether or not working overtime or on short time.

Year.Overtime.Short Time.
Males.Females.Males.Females.
 Hours.Hours.Hours.Hours.
1936–373630154
1937–384127159
1938–3945231011
1939–40504492
1940–41625572

SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS.—The following table, showing an analysis of production costs in 1940–41, together with the value of products for each class of industry, is of interest. The figures are shown in units of £1,000.

Class of Industry.Production Costs.Value of Products.Surplus.*
Salaries and Wages.Cost of All Materials used.Other Expenses of Operation.Total.

* Excess of value of products over production costs.

 £ (000)£ (000)£ (000)£(000)£ (000)£ (000)
Animal food4,39253,1992,89260,48361,6351,152
Vegetable food1,0925,5586787,3288,236908
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants8843,3236724,8795,820941
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)5152,5572683,3403,545205
Working in wood2,7903,2691,0997,1587,657499
Vegetable produce for fodder12787971036
Paper manufactures3148001901,3041,550246
Heat, light, and power1,7176,8493858,9519,755804
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.1,1288519012,8803,232352
Metals other than gold or silver2,6413,9709517,5628,206644
Precious metals68871817319219
Books and publications1,9261,8248054,5555,143588
Ornaments and minor art products4756101131229
Designs, medals, type, and dies602016961004
Rubber products1011645832337047
Machines, tools, and implements6081,2072142,0292,294265
Carriages and vehicles1,7521,7656184,1354,540405
Harness, saddlery, and leather-ware324874921,2901,420130
Ships, boats. and their equipment3884319691599378
House-furnishings8021,2252052,2322,364132
Chemicals and by-products7613,1045504,4155,227812
Textile fabrics7268852971,9082,273365
Apparel3,4295,4167049,54910,407858
Fibrous materials1603879163870668
Miscellaneous3106491621,1211,264143
      Totals20,94798,54811,979137,474147,1549,680

DETAILS OF PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES.—The principal statistics regarding the leading factory industries for the last three years are set out in the following pages. Fuller details are given in the annual Statistical Report on Factory and Building Production.

1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.

* Including milk used (308,517,682 lb. in 1940–41) in making dried whole milk and skim milk, condensed milk, and casein.

† Including butterfat (2,674,703 lb. in 1940–41) contained in milk used for making dried whole milk and condensed milk.

Meat Freezing and Preserving.
Number of—    
  Works 383939
  Persons engaged 7,8978,2829,274
Salaries and wages paid£2,379,7482,637,9143,019,737
Cost of materials used£16,837,12719,070,26721,835,279
Other expenses£1,053,4711,220,1931,332,336
Frozen mutton—    
  CarcasesNo.2,650,9372,965,9262,979,173
Value£1,948,7222,313,0762,417,566
Frozen lamb—    
  CarcasesNo.9,462,17110,072,29510,880,834
  Value£9,111,6399,927,66111,215,359
Frozen mutton and lamb pieces—    
  QuantityCwt.13,62512,13424,792
  Value£16,71912,96826,545
Frozen beef—    
  QuantityCwt.733,4001,204,3481,538,004
  Value£1,238,3032,132,6062,914,968
Chilled beef—    
  QuantityCwt.368,403216,016 
  Value£698,767416,570 
Frozen pork—    
  QuantityCwt.568,342530,318565,015
  Value£1,881,6361,839,6792,019,443
Preserved meats—    
  QuantityCwt.82,000106,784127,715
  Value£336,615486,066621,055
Tallow—    
  QuantityCwt.505,241559,356671,783
  Value£434,245521,151672,652
Bonedust—    
  QuantityCwt.53,34867,43777,756
  Value£21,71427,36834,744
Other manures—    
  QuantityCwt.484,489514,568649,283
  Value£167,131180,074222,781
Hides and pelts—    
  QuantityNo.14,428,90415,072,30116,007,896
  Value£1,612,9351,890,9562,334,310
Wool—    
  Quantitylb.33,400,15939,719,63441,156,454
  Value£1,600,7602,106,8122,694,475
Total value of output£20,653,07423,803,91627,243,668
Ham and Bacon Curing.
Number of—    
  Works 495251
  Persons engaged 498515542
Salaries and wages paid£132,099134,489148,731
Pigs dealt with—    
CarcasesNo.273,872289,811310,084
Cost£972,8341,012,2301,172,271
Cost of other materials used£71,75971,90669,589
Other expenses£114,599129,665113,009
Ham and baconCwt.164,259181,350199,465
Frozen porkCwt.67,68570,78376,383
LardCwt.7,9069,13310,756
Total value of output£1,335,9691,387,0011,526,668
Butter, Cheese, and Condensed-milk Factories.
Number of—    
  Factories 429424416
  Persons engaged 3,9443,8594,080
Salaries and wages paid£1,065,3291,074,1381,204,062
Number of separators—    
  At home 56,74954,81152,550
At factories 459433417
Butterfat separated—    
  At homelb.248,884,192270,392,038283,298,882
  At factorieslb.18,545,51414,832,00814,039,343
Milk received by cheese-factories*lb.2,116,099,6512,326,364,5912,807,509,588
Butterfat (in milk) received†lb.77,470,17488,887,851111,263,933
Value of materials used£24,910,17127,332,13830,064,100
Other expenses£1,288,1681,339,6671,436,182
Butter produced (including whey butter)—    
  QuantityCwt.2,957,2223,155,1063,303,263
  Value£20,173,63121,507,74222,475,022
Cheese produced—    
  QuantityCwt.1,705,2771,952,7482,447,411
  Value£6,344,7497,273,5339,104,424
Total value of output£27,334,58429,840,83732,771,097
Grain-mills.
Number of—    
  Mills 474949
  Persons engaged 738707730
Salaries and wages paid£188,757188,268202,892
Wheat used—QuantityBushels6,545,2796,604,1926,846,445
Total grain—Cost£1,811,9231,811,3181,885,104
Cost of other materials£119,417132,208156,921
Other expenses£162,635163,578180,894
Flour producedTons137,083138,190142,946
Oatmeal producedTons3,2683,0573,136
Other oaten products for human consumptionTons3,7643,8444,497
Total value of output£2,383,1032,137,0602,567,661
Biscuit and Confectionery Making.
Number of—    
  Works 555354
  Persons engaged 3,1903,4963,526
Salaries and wages paid£465,506542,772596,522
Flour usedTons5,7546,9667,9
Sugar usedTons8,1518,6589,003
Cost of all materials used£1,117,9601,239,2001,432,207
Other expenses£272,423288,474305,087
Biscuits and confectionery made£1,905,1042,193,7022,454,219
Total value of output£2,028,8222,327,8622,636,442
1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.

* Including beer duty.

† Included under aerated waters.

Fruit-preserving and Jam-making.
Number of—    
  Works 191818
  Persons engaged 553611693
Salaries and wages paid£94,082102,068127,614
Fruit usedTons5,6145,3698,818
Cost of—    
  Fruit used£98,749106,380148,386
  Sugar and other materials£249,209294,945300,165
Other expenses£47,59756,76964,191
Jams and jellies made—    
  QuantityCwt.56,39054,37258,115
  Value£182,787168,528192,592
Fruit bottled or canned£132,733160,192187,334
Other products£246,672299,146353,867
Total value of output£562,192627,866733,793
Breweries and Malt-houses.
Number of—    
  Establishments 504846
  Persons engaged 1,2431,2151,219
Salaries and wages paid£348,466359,540375,451
Barley used in production of maltBushels892,615845,143762,819
Hops usedCwt.6,2715,9826,125
Sugar usedCwt.38,21936,31442,281
Total cost of materials used£918,644956,9261,052,410
Other expenses*£1,374,9871,791,3802,163,520
Ale brewedGallons16,219,43616,678,35117,997,312
Stout brewedGallons1,174,0791,131,8641,122,929
Value of output*£2,998,2313,504,7953,973,358
Aerated-water and Cordial Factories.
Number of—    
  Works 128125121
  Persons engaged 561562573
Salaries and wages paid£121,495128,541134,392
Total cost of materials used£175,806187,520215,581
Other expenses£64,43260,13766,109
Aerated waters—In bottlesDozen2,565,1312,801,6883,107,417
Aerated waters—In bulkGallons225,009234,119238,960
Cordials—In bottlesDozen84,43295,081110,554
Hop-beer—In bottlesDozen54,298
Hop-beer—In bulkGallons10,475
Total value of output£419,996431,293488,309
Sauce, Pickle, and Vinegar Making.
Number of—    
  Works 191918
  Persons engaged 262269276
Salaries and wages paid£52,39256,72262,697
Cost of materials used£106,540125,492122,458
Other expenses of manufacture£25,69325,73846,494
Vinegar produced—    
QuantityGallons673,667760,641774,556
  Value£33,40037,52250,940
Total value of output£216,205235,823261,510
1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.

* Included under “Adults' boots and shoes”; quantity not known.

Soap and Candle Works.
Number of—    
  Works 192223
  Persons engaged 520567706
Salaries and wages paid£112,041120,914149,504
Cost of materials used£268,363308,676364,602
Other expenses£75,48783,853108,441
Soap manufacturedTons6,8887,4787,315
Toilet soapTons9751,0891,611
Soap-powder (including washing-powder)Tons2,7113,2053,278
Candles manufacturedlb.1,447,3571,667,6021,217,800
Total value of output£542,188566,201688,113
Clothing Factories.
Number of works 380384414
Number of persons engaged—    
  Males 1,8831,9531,994
  Females 10,38711,24812,495
Salaries and wages paid—    
  To males£470,531529,951605,010
  To females£1,098,3551,288,5461,540,918
Cost of materials used£1,846,0282,168,6072,909,997
Other expenses£292,175308,610350,390
Output—    
  SuitsNo.233,001281,115198,270
  ShirtsDozen181,928168,503165,252
  Hats and caps (men's and boys')Dozen29,84241,70146,780
  Hats (women's)Dozen113,316115,348131,266
Total value of output£3,809,0934,618,5345,908,091
Hosiery Factories.
Number of—    
  Works 363643
  Persons engaged 1,2591,6142,006
Salaries and wages paid£182,956255,582350,783
Cost of materials used£301,734495,314796,741
Other expenses£67,51398,612136,521
Output—    
  HoseDoz. pairs181,291228,365315,541
  Half-hoseDoz. pairs71,384122,753209,014
Total value of output£574,237964,4761,459,899
Boot and Shoe Factories
Number of works 697176
Number of persons engaged—    
  Males 1,6341,9312,278
  Females 1,4411,8002,106
Salaries and wages paid—    
  To males£343,029438,315553,967
  To females£143,620203,016249,552
Cost of materials used—    
New Zealand leather£356,054465,285723,193
Imported leather£158,733204,151239,045
Other materials£216,110291,065471,691
Total£730,897960,5011,433,929
Other expenses£101,849138,274168,229
Manufactures—    
  Adults' boots and shoesPairs1,715,0902,060,0862,179,313
  Children's boots and shoesPairs262,945447,433459,321
  Sandals (adults' only)Pairs**355,826
  Slippers and rubber canvas shoesPairs1,244,0831,585,6621,955,876
  UppersPairs656626917
Total value of output£1,355,3981,864,3202,548,861
1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.
Phormium-flax Mills.
Number of—    
  Mills 201817
  Persons engaged 254216221
Salaries and wages paid£48,83145,05750,253
Phormium leaf used—    
  QuantityTons35,01829,87229,735
  Cost£12,0148,5577,759
Other materials£854269216
Other expenses£28,98028,18828,295
Fibre dressedTons4,5393,6133,512
Tow producedTons604443397
Total value of output£94,33485,69891,296
Sawmills.
Number of—    
  Mills 444463467
  Persons engaged 7,9178,4878,421
Salaries and wages paid£1,948,8492,174,7192,275,009
Cost of materials used£1,991,7092,252,4702,328,786
Other expenses£816,124882,649935,679
Sawn timber—    
  QuantityFt. b.m.316,715,882335,991,282342,207,844
  Value£2,935,1053,198,5523,289,332
Posts, rails, &c.£32,31724,15919,823
Planed flooring, skirting, &c.—    
  QuantityFt. b.m.69,636,08868,862,49270,023,296
  Value£1,210,4921,293,3441,352,662
Doors and sashes£133,451230,839220,323
Other products£763,338983,7001,067,800
Total value of output£5,074,7035,730,5945,949,940
Gasworks.
Number of—    
  Works 454444
  Persons engaged 1,9421,8891,873
Salaries and wages paid£526,229538,737544,156
Coal used—    
  QuantityTons226,265242,383257,745
  Cost£447,532490,841532,718
Other expenses£350,218338,557385,317
Total gas generated1,000 cub. ft.4,154,7274,358,8544,480,448
Gas sold1,000 cub. ft.3,591,3523,765,9973,884,597
Coke soldTons76,65779,57185,923
Tar soldGallons3,146,6563,218,1052,850,220
Total receipts£1,527,2751,612,0581,675,383
Total expenditure£1,323,9791,368,1351,462,191
Lime and Cement Works.
Number of—    
  Works 666668
  Persons engaged 1,1231,1951,206
Salaries and wages paid£298,969317,777342,005
Cost of materials used£251,645230,406263,928
Other expenses£389,485415,015478,457
Cement producedTons216,129230,991214,553
Total value of output£1,103,9001,139,6101,218,896
Brick, Tile, and Pottery Works.
Number of—    
  Works 606062
  Persons engaged 1,1171,1941,186
Salaries and wages paid£250,968288,462301,522
Cost of materials used£44,80047,20554,285
Cost of coal used£64,74069,73664,836
Other expenses£122,283133,970140,819
Bricks manufactured—    
  CommonNo.29,057,25933,443,69030,427,912
  FireNo.1,524,6541,621,7211,445,005
  OtherNo.6,112,1153,128,7081,811,345
Total value of all bricks manufactured£187,610210,549188,846
Value of drain-pipes manufactured£245,909272,637228,094
Value of tiles manufactured£49,16349,16852,754
Total value of output£569,634646,281627,285
Tinware and Sheet-metal Works.
Number of—    
  Works 133135133
  Persons engaged 1,8862,1472,269
Salaries and wages paid£389,363458,400522,447
Cost of materials used£752,599943,7311,124,501
Other expenses£131,191153,121183,483
Principal products—    
  Tin canisters and containers£505,034685,675882,136
  Other tinned ware£44,28282,376130,449
  Copperware£156,601215,960226,691
  Leadware£54,59470,29872,052
  Spouting, ridging, and down-piping£135,701137,695130,436
  Other galvanized ware£179,778140,552114,392
Total value of output£1,391,6231,696,6381,993,978
General Engineering, Iron and Brass Works.
Number of—    
  Works 261285295
  Persons engaged 5,0015,3545,677
Salaries and wages paid£1,168,7941,292,3091,529,240
Cost of materials used£1,221,8701,253,9991,500,461
Other expenses£406,248478,067529,359
Total value of output£3,113,2103,355,9983,872,979
Printing and Publishing Establishments.
Number of works 373366363
Persons engaged—    
  Males 6,3096,0675,669
  Females 2,0282,0532,102
Salaries and wages paid—    
  To males£1,752,5001,726,9571,647,997
  To females£251,430260,020278,143
Cost of materials used£1,466,7271,518,6871,824,370
Other expenses£887,916875,535805,010
Total value of output£4,873,5304,885,4545,142,630
Agricultural and Dairying Machinery and Implement Making.
Number of—    
  Works 606161
  Persons engaged 1,1371,1891,273
Salaries and wages paid£267,194278,223316,826
Cost of materials used£691,702681,606663,877
Other expenses£89,95492,876106,222
Total value of output£1,146,970987,0801,281,538
Coachbuilding and Motor and Cycle Engineering.
Number of—    
  Works 1,3901,3951,369
  Persons engaged 10,2899,0927,398
Salaries and wages paid£2,278,8512,038,3221,711,236
Cost of materials used£2,071,3291,907,1621,733,100
Other expenses£719,060702,900602,653
Value of work done—    
  Coachbuilding£936,347784,162599,930
  Motor engineering£5,007,0664,499,7953,816,366
Tanning.
Number of—    
  Works 131515
  Persons engaged 459547655
Salaries and wages paid£109,680136,876178,739
Cost of materials used£291,898383,406611,949
Materials operated upon—    
  Sheep-skinsNo.214,242218,236276,133
  Hides, pelts, &c.No.448,135388,764447,902
Bark usedTons647739635
Cost of bark extract used£25,98233,44152,750
Other expenses£45,83648,27657,936
Output—    
  Leatherlb.4,828,7376,525,8478,069,523
  Basilslb.227,645224,574282,629
  Scoured and slipe woollb.454,992536,689556,990
Total value of output£491,209630,675914,072
Woolscouring and Fellmongering.
Number of—    
  Works 363638
  Persons engaged 398399620
Salaries and wages paid£89,659104,151174,220
Cost of materials used£822,600910,1601,698,941
Materials operated upon—    
  Sheep-skinsNo.1,116,7851,174,2641,418,402
  Greasy woollb.18,321,50219,581,59540,270,863
Other expenses£35,60238,80653,899
Principal products—    
  Scoured and slipe woollb.14,394,25515,945,69728,514,839
  PeltsNo.132,35554,050121,883
  Pickled peltsNo.899,2021,046,7291,248,500
Total value of output£972,3041,126,8902,000,792
Woollen-mills.
Number of—    
  Mills 121313
  Persons engaged 2,4062,9803,489
Salaries and wages paid£392,393521,060718,452
Greasy wool used—    
  Quantitylb.6,492,91610,181,72513,108,793
Cost£312,169504,538731,799
Cost of other materials used£65,816104,818138,356
Other expenses£152,161218,790291,875
Output—    
  Tweed and clothYards1,251,0221,915,0102,464,370
  FlannelYards601,4791,186,9401,241,308
  BlanketsPairs135,122209,721244,025
  HosieryDoz. pairs109,894150,060192,256
  Rugs and shawlsNo.50,38432,38715,491
  Yarnlb.652,9621,017,0951,261,069
Total value of output£951,6361,461,7532,243,460
Ship and Boat Building.
Number of—    
  Establishments 303330
  Persons engaged 722778809
Salaries and wages paid£203,604237,345280,208
Cost of materials used£107,279117,689125,161
Other expenses£38,53741,42762,843
Total value of output£370,826426,731507,934
Furniture-making Works.
Number of—    
  Factories 414436427
  Persons engaged 3,2153,2873,182
Salaries and wages paid£675,134712,772728,081
Cost of materials used£818,564924,3281,013,207
Other expenses£136,813155,751167,888
Total value of output£1,752,2181,910,5912,017,262
Superphosphates and Chemical Fertilizers.
Number of—    
  Works 899
  Persons engaged 9321,0841,171
Salaries and wages paid£249,208305,607337,581
Cost of materials used£1,158,5791,384,0071,626,700
Other expenses£212,911256,615307,294
Products—    
  SuperphosphatesTons408,693417,160501,409
  Chemical fertilizersTons65,910140,723133,313
Total value of output£1,822,8572,246,0492,540,192

Chapter 22. SECTION 22.—BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION.

Table of Contents

WITHIN the short span of a century New Zealand has been transformed from a virgin wilderness into a country whose community enjoys the amenities of modern social and industrial life. In the pioneer stages of colonization, the development of the resources of the Dominion demanded an almost mushroom growth of building and construction activity in the formation of railways, roads, and harbours, in addition to provision for the housing needs of a rapidly growing population. More recently the utilization of vast resources of water-power has involved major schemes of construction of hydro-electric stations in various parts of the Dominion, and the reticulation of practically the whole of the inhabited portion of the country. Land-settlement and the growth of factory industries have both required extensive building and construction works, rural and urban, while the increasing housing needs of a growing population are reflected in a steady long-term increase in the building of dwellings. The increase in trade and industry, with the resultant growth of the towns, has been accompanied by extensive construction of factories, shops, offices, warehouses, &c.

With the passing of the early stages of social and industrial development, replacements of obsolete and obsolescent structures and general maintenance have occupied a larger place in recent building and construction activity than was the case formerly, although there have been new avenues of industry requiring further major building and construction operations. For example, the recent development of aviation in the Dominion required the formation of a chain of landing-grounds and air-ports, a work which became more urgent with the outbreak of war. The increase in motor traffic has necessitated a reorientation of roading policy, much new construction and extensive alterations to the surfaces of existing roads being required. The diversification of the Dominion's factory industries in recent years has involved extensive building operations—particularly in the engineering trades—while modernization of factory equipment and of shop and office accommodation has been responsible for a further appreciable proportion of building activity.

The building and construction industry is particularly sensitive to cyclical fluctuations in business conditions, and it is not surprising to note that in New Zealand marked changes in building activity coincide with the ebb and flow of trade and industry. Governmental policy in regard to public-works construction is, and has been, directed towards accelerating State activity in this direction in times of depression, with a view to alleviating unemployment. While considerable success has been achieved on various occasions, at other times the expansion of public works has been prohibited by the straitened condition of the national finances. During the depression period this factor resulted in the severe curtailment of public-works expenditure, although considerable assistance was given to private and public building enterprises through the agency of the Employment Promotion Fund. Private building, both of dwellings and of business premises, suffered a severe setback during the years 1931–33, but after 1933—and more particularly from 1935 onwards—a substantial revival in building activity took place. Large-scale building construction, however, received a decided check in 1939, the conditions which prevailed for some months prior to and since the outbreak of war severely restricting the importation of essential materials, notably iron and steel. For example, imports of channel and girder iron fell from 240,800 cwt. in 1938 to 70,000 cwt. in 1941. On the other hand, construction work in connection with military camps and aerodromes necessitated the diversion of a considerable number of artisans and large supplies of building materials from normal building activity. The effect of these factors is reflected in the monthly statistics of building permits, given later in this section.

An interesting feature of building and construction activity in New Zealand is the absence of a marked seasonal decline in the winter months, since winters are not sufficiently severe, except in a few districts, to interfere materially with the building of dwellings or other construction work. The Government, in planning public works, regulates the period of greatest activity so as to coincide with the slack season of the year for industry in general.

The function of the State in the stimulation of building and construction enterprise is twofold. Public works, involving both new construction and the maintenance of existing works, are in themselves responsible for a large percentage of the Dominion's total annual building and construction activity. Furthermore, the State encourages private building in various ways. The State Advances Corporation (see Section 23D of this Year-Book) has done much to facilitate home building and land development, while State assistance has also been given in various other forms—e.g., subsidies from the Employment Promotion Fund. As will be seen under a subsequent heading, a big programme of house-building by the State has been undertaken.

A collection of annual statistics of building permits issued in cities, boroughs, and town districts was initiated in 1921–22, while a monthly collection on a more restricted scale was begun in 1926. Since 1925–26 statistics have been collected directly from builders, affording, inter alia, an analysis of costs, &c., not available from the building permit statistics. It will be realized that these statistics are of too recent origin to give an indication of the long-term progress of building and construction. There are available, however, certain statistical data from which the development of building activity can be deduced, and the 1942 and earlier issues of the Year-Book contain details of the long-term trend in building and construction activity.

THE HOUSING SITUATION.—As will be obvious from a perusal of the statistics of building permits and building construction given later on in this section, building operations fell to small proportions during the depression years. With the advent of better times, accompanied by a large increase in the number of marriages and a growing tendency to discontinue the sharing of homes between two families, there arose in many cities and towns a housing demand far in excess of the available supply. The position was aggravated by the fact that a considerable proportion of the existing dwellings did not comply with modern standards of comfort, convenience, and sanitation.

Housing Survey.—The question of relieving the shortage of suitable housing-accommodation received governmental attention, and in 1935 a Housing Survey Act was passed as a preliminary towards a planned programme of housing reform. This Act applied to (1) the Councils or Boards of all boroughs and town districts with not less than 1,000 population, (2) two suburban Road Boards, and (3) any other local authority to which the Act might be applied by the Governor-General in Council. Each authority was required to make a housing survey of its district or—with ministerial approval—of a defined area or areas within the district.

Summarized results of the housing surveys carried out in 115 local districts areas follows:—

Total population901,353
Total dwellings225,363
Buildings used as dwellings: Unsatisfactory, but repairable31,363
Buildings used as dwellings: Totally unsatisfactory6,827
Dwelling units in which equipment is only partly satisfactory23,768
Dwelling units in which equipment is totally unsatisfactory20,096
Dwellings providing accommodation below the minimum standard27,214
  Surplus persons accommodated in dwellings below minimum standard68,405
Dwellings overcrowded9,835
  Surplus persons in overcrowded dwellings14,761

The classification of dwellings as to (1) whether satisfactory as regards physical fitness, (2) whether providing adequate accommodation, and (3) whether overcrowded, was made on the basis of standards laid down by regulations under the Housing Survey Act. The standards of physical condition and of minimum accommodation are too detailed for repetition here, but a résumé of the latter will be found on page 550 of the 1940 issue of the Year-Book. Of the 38,490 dwellings which failed to measure up to the standards of physical condition in one or more respects, in 31,663 cases the deficiencies were repairable. Equipment was wholly or partly unsatisfactory in 43,864 of the houses examined, while some 27,214 dwellings failed to reach the standard of minimum accommodation laid down.

Census Statistics.—As at previous census enumerations, the 1936 census statistics of “overcrowding” were based on a consideration of numbers of persons present on census night (i.e., including visitors, but excluding members of household temporarily absent) in relation to the total number of rooms. In counting the number of rooms, householders were requested to omit scullery, pantry, laundry, bathroom, sleeping-porch if not wholly enclosed, and any other “room” of less than 50 square feet of floor space. With this exception the size of the rooms was not taken into account, and no attempt was made to ascertain the number of bedrooms and to take only these into consideration. The omission of boardinghouses and apartment houses (but not flats) from the census statistics is another important factor affecting the comparability of the census and the housing survey figures of overcrowding. On the other hand, it should be noted that the census figures cover the whole Dominion (excluding Maoris and their residences, however), while the housing survey was in effect limited to towns of over one thousand population.

For the purpose of the census compilation, “overcrowding” was deemed to occur when the number of persons for dwellings of various room categories was in excess of the following standard:—

Number of Rooms.Number of Persons.

* Plus two for each room in excess of five.

One2
Two3
Three5
Four
Five or over10*

As in the housing survey, a child under one year of age was not taken into account, and a child one year or over but under ten was counted as one-half of a person.

The table which follows shows the number of “overcrowded” dwellings on this basis, and also shows the number of “unoccupied” dwellings. The figures for the latter do not include cases where the occupants were temporarily absent on the census night (5,784), nor unoccupied “baches,” &c. (8,435). Further, sub-enumerators were instructed not to count as dwellings any unoccupied dwellings which were both deserted and dilapidated.

Number of Occupied Dwellings.Number of Unoccupied* Dwellings.
Total.Overcrowded.

* Excluding dwellings whose occupants were temporarily absent, also excluding “baches,” &c.

Urban areas—   
  Auckland50,698277572
  Wellington34,304249276
  Christchurch32,290146565
  Dunedin19,59784247
  Hamilton4,4084525
  Gisborne3,6622147
  Napier4,4612281
  Hastings4,1863840
  New Plymouth4,3542742
  Wanganui6,0502363
  Palmerston North5,5673343
  Nelson3,087532
  Timaru4,3993155
  Invercargill5,9233253
Remainder of Dominion—   
  Urban53,322398753
  Rural113,5972,2893,700
    Totals349,9053,7206,594

Unoccupied dwellings are seen to have outnumbered “overcrowded” dwellings (on the census standard adopted) not only in the Dominion as a whole, but in thirteen of the fourteen urban areas.

STATE HOUSE-CONSTRUCTION.—A programme of direct home-building by the Government was commenced in March, 1937, and is being prosecuted as vigorously as war conditions will permit. The purpose of this branch of the Government's activities is to provide homes of a modern standard of comfort to be let at reasonable rentals to people in the medium and lower income groups. The legislative provision for this programme is contained in the Housing Act, 1919, the administration of which was transferred to the State Advances Corporation by the State Advances Corporation Act, 1936. To give effect to the Government's policy a Director of Housing Construction was appointed in September, 1936, and a special Housing Construction Branch of the State Advances Corporation was set up. The State Advances Corporation Act, 1936, made provision for a special Housing Account with the Reserve Rank, the loan liability at 31st March, 1942, being £20,618,945. The Statutes Amendment Act of 1936 provided the necessary authority to acquire land under the Public Works Act, 1928, for the purpose of housing. At 31st March, 1942, land for housing purposes had been purchased in 140 towns, the number of building-sites being 28,372. The actual construction work is usually carried out by private contractors, tenders being called for the various contracts: the number of different principal contractors to 31st March, 1942, was 345. Thirty houses have been constructed by the Department itself by direct labour, and the construction of 19 houses is in hand. The number of dwelling units represented by contracts let since the inception of the scheme was 16,522, while the number of units completed and handed over to the State Advances Corporation for administration was 13,633. Particulars as to numbers, &c., of houses commenced in each year, with more detailed information in regard to activities for 1941–42, will be found later in this section.

During the last three years the Department has embarked on a scheme of multi-unit developments for the main centres. The first of the major of these, a block of 50 flats in Wellington, was completed in November, 1940, and a contract for a further block of 116 units in the same city was let in 1940–41, and at present the block is under construction. In Auckland, preparatory work is being carried out in connection with two major developments, which will provide 468 and 163 dwelling-units respectively.

Up to 31st March, 1942, the total net payments in respect, of purchase of land, provision of services, erection of joinery factories, erection of houses, and all administrative charges, amounted to £20,272,869, while liabilities and commitments at that date were £2,535,766. The amount expended in 1941–42 on the erection of dwellings (including supervision and administrative charges) was £3,482,812, while purchases of land and the preparation thereof for dwellings cost £537,248. The total cost of administration of the Housing Construction Branch (exclusive of interest charges on capital moneys invested) from its inauguration to 31st March, 1942, was £559,327, of which sum £149,812 was in respect of the financial year 1941–42.

The annual report of the Department states that owing to war developments it was found necessary to transfer certain plant and machinery to the more urgent work of constructing military camps and aerodromes, and a large number of artisans were released for the same purpose. Consequently, some of the Department's schemes of land preparation and development were considerably retarded, and housing activities slowed up generally. As the special works are completed, the artisans and other stall' will be retransferred to housing activities. The number of persons engaged on the Department's housing construction and subsidiary work at 31st March, 1942, was 2,275, of which number 340 represented the staff of the Department.

Separate provision for Native housing is made under the Native Housing Act, 1935, reference to which will be found in Section 16, Subsection C (Native Lands).

In addition to the activities briefly outlined above, the housing policy of the Government includes the provision of loans to local authorities at 3 per cent. per annum for the furtherance of municipal and other housing schemes. Money has also been made available to co-operative dairy companies for the financing of housing schemes for their employees. The Rural Housing Act, 1939, and subsequent amendments thereto provide facilities for the granting of financial assistance to farmers requiring new houses for themselves or their employees, or desiring to improve their existing houses. The County Councils have been charged with the duty of investigating the loan applications, and, provided they are satisfied with the security. &e., they have authority to approve a loan subject to the prior consent of the Board of Management of the State Advances Corporation. When a County Council decides to put the scheme in operation it applies for a loan under the Housing Act, and the advances are made from the Housing Account, interest being charged at 3 per cent. Interest on loans granted to the farmer by a County Council is charged at the rate of 3½ per cent. The maximum amount that a farmer may borrow in respect of any house to be erected under this scheme is £1,250. Up to the end of March, 1942, sixty-six applications aggregating £724,550 had been received from counties, and the State Advances Corporation had given its consent to 309 loans to farmers by the counties involving a sum of £220,280.

Where any farm is situated within any borough, town district, or road district, similar powers are conferred on the local authority concerned.

Reference to the provisions made for the governmental financing of home-building on behalf of private owners is contained in the section of this Year-Book dealing with State Advances (Section 23D).

BUILDING PERMITS: Annual Statistics.—Statistics of building permits issued in cities, boroughs, and town districts during each March year have been collected for 1921–22 and subsequent years—for use, inter alia, as an aid in compiling inter-censal estimates of population. These statistics afford a conspectus of changes in building activity from year to year. There is, however, a factor which may affect to some extent the accuracy of the figures as a guide to short-period fluctuations in building activity. This applies more particularly to buildings other than dwellinghouses, and is found in the fact that the value shown represents, in the great majority of instances, the total contract price or estimated cost of the whole building. A permit for an exceptionally large building involves building activity spread over many months, whereas in the permit statistics the value is shown wholly for the year or month in which the permit is issued. This qualification applies with greater force to the monthly statistics, quoted in the next portion of this section, than to the annual statistics.

The scope of the collection was widened by the inclusion in 1926–27 of three road districts—increased to six in 1927–28—in Eden County (suburban to Auckland), and was further extended in 1928–29 by the addition of two counties—increased to four in 1929–30—adjacent to Wellington and Christchurch. Of the six road districts in Eden County, two were amalgamated with Auckland City from 1st April, 1928, and one became a borough from 1st April, 1930.

As a result of the extended scope of the returns, the comparison has been somewhat impaired, and the next table shows the figures under two heads—viz., one giving the totals for all districts covered in the particular year and the second giving the totals for only cities, boroughs, and town districts.

The aggregate population of the areas covered by the statistics comprises 62 per cent. of the total population of the Dominion. Although 38 per cent. of the population reside in the rural areas outside the ambit of this statistical inquiry, it appears that, with the exception of several counties adjacent to large towns, building activity in these areas accounts for only a small percentage of the Dominion total. Commencing with the year 1937–38, returns have been obtained, where possible, and data compiled in respect of building activity in these rural areas (vide later in this section).

Building Permits—Urban Districts.

Year ended 31st March,All Districts covered.Cities, Boroughs, and Town Districts.
Number of New Private Dwellings.Value of New Buildings: All Classes.Total Value All Buildings (including Alterations and Additions).Number of New Private Dwellings.Value of New Buildings: All Classes.Total Value All Buildings (including Alterations and Additions).
  ££ ££
19224,3304,602,8345,283,0124,3304,602,8345,283,012
19235,0256,124,4397,101,6815,0256,124,4397,101,681
19246,2457,708,9339,146,4796,2457,708,9339,146,479
19255,8057,823,3319,304,1605,8057,823,3319,304,160
19266,8508,613,54910,169,5306,8508,613,54910,169,530
19277,1799,357,97711,019,3896,7528,944,33410,575,535
19285,6908,127,7329,665,2165,3887,843,7739,353,055
19295,2127,326,4649,054,4214,8716,988,4088,691,962
19305,7477,917,3499,959,8775,2287,362,9989,336,301
19313,4634,240,2385,473,3953,2004,056,2745,260,620
19321,5551,936,4472,728,4861,4151,847,5082,620,651
19331,4961,874,7952,474,8661,3061,773,3132,341,690
19342,6493,141,8973,889,8902,4162,987,7733,718,717
19352,8922,742,4953,643,6882,6552,612,6843,492,062
19364,1404,695,7365,929,8033,8354,468,1265,674,198
19374,5554,927,3266,581,2334,2074,675,3636,273,444
19386,0438,217,40010,291,6135,5687,876,3529,909,225
19398,09310,196,47612,126,4587,4259,555,74711,431,491
19408,0869,790,11811,418,4347,4299,156,67010,714,396
19417,1479,147,88511,060,1016,0998,024,5959,763,200
19425,5036,958,9978,984,1774,9896,436,1138,185,669

The figures shown for “cities, boroughs, and town districts” cover the districts existing in the year to which the statistics refer. Since these statistics were inaugurated, however, several new boroughs and town districts have been created and are accordingly included. This gradual accession has tended to raise slightly the figures for later years.

Prior to 1936–37 each block of flats was included as a single dwelling, but since than more information is available and each individual flat is now counted as a separate dwelling. Blocks of flats so included in all districts prior to 1936–37 numbered 34 in 1928–29; 36 in 1929–30; 9 in 1930–31; 4 in 1931–32; 4 in 1932–33; 6 in 1933–34; 34 in 1934–35; and 22 in 1935–36.

The following are the details of blocks of flats included from 1936–37 onwards.

Year ended 31st March.All Districts covered.Cities, Boroughs, and Town Districts.
Blocks.Number of Flats.Blocks.Number of Flats.
19379842196417
1938128519118490
19399237481341
19408132778319
1941110431105414
1942137611133595

The statistics quoted in the preceding paragraphs relate only to the main types of building activity. More detailed statistics are included in the annual Statistical Report on Population and Buildings, whore, inter alia, permit statistics for individual towns, counties, &c., are given.

A detailed summary of the totals for the last three years follows.

Building Permits issued—Urban Districts.

Private dwellings—   
  New buildings—1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
    Number8,0867,1475,503
    Value£7,738,940£7,094,337£5,558,595
  Value of alterations and additions£664,434£732,781£629,951
Other buildings—   
  New buildings—   
    Number494452377
    Value£2,051,178£2,053,548£1,400,402
  Value of alterations and additions£963,882£1,179,435£1,395,229
Total—   
  New buildings—   
    Number8,5807,5995,880
    Value£9,790,118£9,147,885£6,958,997
  Value of alterations and additions£1,628,316£1,912,216£2,025,180

The following table arranges districts with building values of over £100,000 in 1941–42, in descending order.

 £
Auckland City1,223,566
Wellington City877,507
Lower Hutt City768,682
Christchurch City584,431
Dunedin City419,235
Hamilton Borough251,058
Mount Roskill Road District240,230
Hutt County218,509
Palmerston North City206,900
Rotorua Borough188,432
One Tree Hill Borough169,474
Takapuna Borough159,879
Mount Wellington Road District131,551
Mount Albert Borough130,544
Waimairi County129,394
Invercargill City122,009
New Plymouth Borough120,791
Onehunga Borough120,659
Wanganui City119,557
Riccarton Borough108,161

Government Housing.—The erection of houses by the Housing Construction Branch of the State Advances Corporation was commenced in March, 1937, and 22 houses were included in the 1936–37 figures, 1,895 in 1937–38, 3,445 in 1938—39, 3,870 in 1939–40, and 3,570 in 1940–41. During the year ended 31st March, 1942, 2,605 houses (each dwelling-unit is counted as a house) were commenced, of which 2,546 are included in urban districts, the remaining 59 being in rural districts. The total of 2,605 comprised 1,444 single-unit houses, 383 double-unit houses, 16 three-unit houses, and 49 blocks of 347 flats. Of the 2,605 units commenced during the year, 1,858 were in the four major urban areas, the respective totals being: Auckland, 920; Wellington. 599; Christchurch; 274; and Dunedin, 65. Houses are also erected by the Native Department under its various development schemes, particulars of which will be found on page 249.

In addition to the above schemes, dwellings are erected by or for the Public Works Department, Mines Department, Railways Department, Education Boards, &c. The following table shows urban districts in which twenty or more houses were commenced during 1941–42 by the various Government Departments concerned.

New Dwellings.
Cities or Boroughs 
  Whangarei21
  Takapuna52
  Devonport38
  Auckland City499
  Mount Albert39
  One Tree Hill52
  Onehunga59
  Hamilton110
  Rotorua35
  Whakatane27
  Gisborne36
  New Plymouth24
  Wanganui City53
  Palmerston North City67
  Lower Hutt City356
  Wellington City224
  Blenheim29
  Nelson City20
  Riccarton65
  Christchurch City208
  Dunedin City62
  Others357
    Total2,433
Town Districts 
Independent— 
    Total46
Dependent— 
    Total15
Road Districts and Counties 
  Mount Roskill R.D.152
  Other8
    Total160
    Total, urban districts2,654

There were 236 new Government dwellings erected in rural districts during the year, Waikato (36) being the only county in which the number exceeded twenty.

Monthly Permit Statistics.—While the annual statistics of building permits issued afford an indication of year-to-year of changes in the value and volume of building activity, short-period movements in building activity are of considerable interest, particularly in times of rapid economic change. With the purpose of providing information as to current changes in building activity, the Census and Statistics Department initiated in 1926 the collection of monthly statistics of building permits issued in the larger centres. Although the monthly returns are not on such a comprehensive basis as the annual collection of these statistics, nevertheless towns with an aggregate population of 828,000 are covered. This represents 51 per cent. of the population, but would cover a considerably higher proportion of the total Dominion building.

In the first table following, the number of permits for new dwellings and the total value represented by all permits issued in the larger centres are shown for each month since January, 1934; while the statistics are shown in greater detail from January, 1941, in the second table.

Building Permits in the Larger Centres.

Month.Year.
1934.1935.1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.

(NOTE.—Commencing with April, 1937, each flat has been counted as a dwelling; prior to that date each block of flats was counted as only one dwelling.)

New Dwellings.
 No.No.No.No.No.No.No.No.No.
January188233291224437675501410285
February162195250238435549589368224
March136225255225547601590415152
April10720427530836344560139359
May11323933735453764169752818
June9721334032343456255536222
July7922634435643662146946839
August14929431941556357860244959
September24731227342557959050646077
October30332123249259450151247573
November24631526645960752551344464
December179261209321384397351325 
Value of all Permits.
 £££££££££
January263,829257,191407,961378,427659,990901,150755,316602,110458,153
February405,133259,379517,974429,237646,811886,597678,921591,772490,413
March613,297332,076458,072486,918829,7641,159,156748,686622,306334,880
April148,135537,172435,463595,064593,262672,977851,811526,852172,110
May274,287346,167422,956604,425846,856903,725895,882693,868167,941
June151,038282,063512,626540,655640,148806,543774,036872,343124,019
July170,845391,384561,382604,377758,8621,311,615809,042769,953163,362
August212,152391,505486,963804,517912,621907,949878,029751,781196,881
September297,231416,004440,237708,230783,919831,856769,442656,064225,381
October392,333399,403428,725802,186991,898659,512759,137770,230248,718
November327,397486,546491,430721,329816,537684,879927,424700,586181,991
December274,026354,107358,638641,571706,326594,963879,284592,245 

The monthly average number of permits issued for the erection of new dwellings in 1934, the lowest year shown in the table prior to 1942, was 167. After 1934, however, the average monthly number of permits rose each year up to 557 in 1939, with a slight decrease to 541 in 1940, and a further decrease to 425 in 1941. The severe restrictions on private building are reflected in the figures for 1942.

It will be observed that the statistics of value of all permits display at times considerable month to month changes. This is due principally to the influence on the figures of permits which may be taken out for exceptionally large undertakings in any one month, the actual work being spread over a lengthy period.

As mentioned earlier in this section, houses erected under the Government's housing schemes are included in the building statistics.

Detailed Statistics, January, 1941, to November, 1942.

Month.Alterations to Existing Buildings.New Buildings.Totals.
Number.Value.Dwellings only.Totals.Number.Value.
Number.Value.Number.Value.
  £ £ £ £
January, 1941485102,671410411,596439499,439924602,110
February, 1941598133,160368384,747378458,612976591,772
March, 1941637137,719415421,680431484,5871,068622,306
April, 194159063,480393413,225406463,372996526,852
May, 1941670144,058528534,229552549,8101,222693,868
June, 1941623139,832362384,496382732,5111,005872,343
July, 1941700117,917468463,158490652,0361,190769,953
August, 1941692186,315449460,478476565,4661,168751,781
September, 1941700126,421460497,319480529,6431,180656,064
October, 1941662158,881475499,264512611,3491,174770,230
November, 1941618182,064444459,672468518,5221,086700,586
December, 1941478167,129325335,970348425,116826592,245
January, 194239986,666285286,260299371,487698458,153
February, 1942430257,647224229,465227232,766657490,413
March, 1942380162,166152151,516163172,714543334,880
April, 194220678,4925956,1247493,618280172,110
May, 194225654,7231821,93037113,218293167,941
June, 194232279,2132221,5953344,806355124,019
July, 194236274,2093940,5885289,153414163,362
August, 1942362108,6365959,0727588,245437196,881
September, 1942403109,8337779,46485115,548488225,381
October, 1942506130,9857378,39684117,733590248,718
November, 194235786,7856470,6138195,206438181,991

Building Permits in Rural Districts.—In view of the widespread interest evinced in building statistics, particularly in regard to housing, attempts have been made to collect data from counties during the last five years. For some years building statistics had been obtained from the counties of Hutt, Makara, Waimairi, and Heathcote, and the three road districts (Mount Roskill, Mount Wellington, and Panmure Township) of Eden County. The great majority of the population in these counties and road districts is urban, and they were included in order to obtain more complete statistics of building activity for the urban areas of Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch.

The collection for rural districts was therefore confined to the remaining counties, with the exception of three (Taupo, Sounds, and Fiord) in which the Counties Act is not in operation. Road Boards are functioning within the counties of Taupo and Sounds, and on Waiheke Island, and these were included in the collection. The number of rural districts covered in the 1941–42 collection was 126, including Taupo Road District, French Pass and Kenepuru Road Districts of Sounds County, and Ostend and Orapiu Road Districts of Waiheke Island. Of these districts, returns for the whole county were received from 102, returns for part of the county were received from 3, 12 did not issue permits and were unable to supply reliable estimates, and in 9 instances replies were not received. It is noteworthy that the majority of counties adjacent to the larger towns issue permits, while the purely rural counties generally do not. It is probable that the latter class does not have much building, and it is reasonable to assume that the figures quoted include the bulk of building operations in rural districts.

Data are available for all Government building in rural districts and have been included in the total for rural building.

Excluding the four counties and three road districts which are included in urban districts, the total of rural building (i.e., counties which submitted returns, certain extra-county islands, with the addition of all Government building in rural districts) amounted to £1,531,164 in 1941–42, and included 1,669 new private dwellings.

The total amount of building for the four counties and three road districts included in urban districts was £798,508 for 1941–42, and included 514 new dwellings. Particulars of new private dwellings and total value of buildings for the various counties are given in the 1941–42 Statistical Report on Population and Buildings.

BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION STATISTICS.—With their present coverage the statistics of building permits give valuable information as to projected building activity. The permit statistics, however do not provide an accurate measure of building operations actually performed during the year, owing mainly to the greater or lesser time-lag between the taking-out of the permit and the performance of the work. Again, the permit figure of estimated cost may be exceeded, or the work may be modified or abandoned. A further shortcoming of the permit returns as a measure of building activity is that they do not allow of the compilation of statistics covering building costs, wages paid, persons employed, &c. To remedy this as far as possible, an annual collection of returns from builders and contractors was inaugurated in 1925. As will be seen from the next sub-heading, the scope of these statistics is wider than that of the permit statistics, though a complete coverage is not claimed.

From the various factors mentioned, it is obvious that the building and construction statistics normally give higher figures than those compiled from the permit returns. It is interesting to note, however, that in some of the depression years, notwithstanding the fact that the permit figures did not then cover country building, they nevertheless gave greater totals than the statistics compiled from the returns furnished by builders. This reflects delays in commencing, or actual abandonment of, building operations owing to the prevailing economic conditions.

Scope of Statistics.—The regulations empowering the collection of the statistics define the term “building and contracting establishment” as including establishments engaged in the construction or repair of buildings, wharves, jetties, bridges, or other construction work which employ two or more hands, inclusive of working proprietors.

The returns collected refer principally to the year ended 31st March. Where the ordinary financial year ends on a date other than the 31st March, figures are accepted in respect of the financial year, provided that the last day falls within the three months immediately preceding or following the 31st March.

The statistics of building and construction do not include the construction of railways, roads, streets, bridges, wharves, buildings, &c., by the General Government or by local authorities, except where, in the case of bridges, wharves, buildings, and other similar constructions, the work has been carried out by contract. Reference to construction by the Public Works Department is made in Section 23. Particulars are included in the following tables in respect of a few local authorities which have a special staff engaged on repairing and making alterations to existing structures.

Figures relating to dwellings under construction by contractors for the Housing Construction Branch of the State Advances Corporation are also included.

From the nature of the industry it is obviously impossible to collect returns from all who engage in building operations, and especially from those who only intermittently undertake building contracts or whose operations are small. Nevertheless, the statistics cover a large proportion of building operations throughout the Dominion, all builders and contractors engaged in a large way or on big contracts, and the majority of others regularly undertaking building and construction work, being included among those from whom returns are received.

Special efforts were made to get in touch with all builders for the 1934–35 and subsequent collections, and it is probable that a considerably greater proportion of building activity was covered by the statistics from 1934–35 onwards than was the case in previous years.

Summary of Statistics.—The figures quoted in the following table illustrate the scope of the inquiry at each annual collection of these statistics over the last eleven years.

Year.Establishments.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages.Cost of Materials (including Payments to Subcontractors).Value of Buildings completed during Year.Total Value of Work done.
   ££££
1930–311,1529,5052,096,4204,600,0595,522,0227,216,627
1931–328304,869920,0101,955,1381,815,6703,073,418
1932–338213,922662,0361,446,8571,407,0902,227,488
1933–348294,459712,3991,707,7321,555,5632,553,719
1934–351,3196,8521,177,0903,315,0183,091,8504,715,456
1935–361,4548,3461,536,9244,424,3424,371,0356,279,959
1936–371,5129,7212,017,8245,620,8455,420,8288,133,847
1937–381,52211,4712,681,4937,096,7227,004,45310,422,230
1938–391,57914,0403,532,6878,952,7029,060,93413,306,072
1939–401,58615,8534,180,81210,945,37912,603,39516,244,546
1940–411,54513,3313,740,55110,318,36111,558,34515,126,468

While the movements in the figures—particularly as between 1934–35 and previous years—must be interpreted with caution, in view of the variations in the coverage of the inquiry, a severe decline in building activity during the years 1930–31 to 1933–34 is clearly indicated. The downward trend was arrested in 1933–34, and the next year witnessed the commencement of a series of substantial yearly increases, culminating in the establishing of new record high levels for cost of materials used and value of work done for the year 1939–40. The figures for the year 1940–41, however, reveal a slackening off in the trade owing to factors arising out of the war. Persons engaged during 1940–41 (excluding subcontractors and their employees) totalled 13,331, a decrease of 2,522, or 16 per cent., as compared with 1939–40, while salaries and wages paid decreased by 11 per cent. The cost of materials used (including payments to subcontractors) declined by 6 per cent., and the value of work done decreased by £1,118,078, or by 7 per cent.

Classification by Districts.—The subjoined table shows the principal statistics for each provincial district for the year 1940–41.

Provincial District.Establishments.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages.Cost of Materials (including Payments to Subcontractors).Value of Buildings completed during Year.Total Value of Work done.
   ££££
Auckland5044,6911,374,1023,807,4634,300,0875,557,146
Hawke's Bay93720194,903430,587677,067685,784
Taranaki52447117,820288,783328,704433,252
Wellington3463,150890,1742,679,2812,811,1953,823,982
Marlborough169923,61738,70629,80670,847
Nelson3624358,438132,457162,403208,141
Westland2113532,13266,62366,311103,103
Canterbury2462,416672,7571,748,0721,965,4722,637,402
Otago—      
  Otago1491,032269,518724,525840,2781,060,409
  Southland82398107,090401,864377,022546,402
      Totals1,54513,3313,740,55110,318,36111,558,34515,126,468

Of the total number of persons finding employment in building and construction operations covered by the returns in 1940–41, 7,841, or 59 per cent., were located in the Auckland and Wellington Provincial Districts. In regard to the value of work done during 1940–41, the Auckland figure exceeded that of Wellington by £1,733,164, while the combined totals for these two provincial districts (£9,381,128) represents 62 per cent. of the total for the Dominion.

Employees and Wages.—The number of persons engaged (including working proprietors, but excluding subcontractors) and the salaries and wages paid to these during the year 1940–41 are given hereunder. In this and in the following table the amounts shown in respect of salaries and wages of proprietors represent amounts drawn by them in lieu of salary or wages.

Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid
Males.Females.Total.To Males.To Females.Total.
    £££
Proprietors1,486 1,486403,169 403,169
Managers and overseers329 329162,038 162,038
Accountants, clerks, &c.13311624934,07017,07451,144
Wage-earners11,267 11,2673,124,200 3,124,200
      Totals13,21511613,3313,723,47717,0743,740,551

The following table shows, for each of the last eleven years, the number of persons engaged, classified according to occupational status, together with the total salaries and wages paid to each group, and also the average payment received per person engaged.

Year.Proprietors.Managers and Overseers.Accountants, Clerks, &c.Wage-earners.Total.
Persons engaged.
1930–311,2812452457,7349,505
1931–329231501453,6514,869
1932–339001311312,7603,922
1933–348961371313,2954,459
1934–351,4111421475,1526,852
1935–361,5451721646,4658,346
1936–371,4042161887,9139,721
1937–381,3882372149,63211,471
1938–391,60429027811,86814,040
1939–401,63633330213,58215,853
1940–411,48632924911,26713,331
Salaries and Wages paid.
 £££££
1930–31331,41394,94141,8151,628,2512,096,420
1931–32180,21156,67323,812659,314920,010
1932–33140,21142,93217,753461,140662,036
1933–34135,28140,27216,282520,564712,399
1934–35213,44943,22919,167901,2451,177,090
1935–36264,78950,91420,1751,201,0461,536,924
1936–37269,43471,58925,3171,651,4842,017,824
1937–38317,28288,00033,9192,242,2922,681,493
1938–39407,366126,10545,2762,953,9403,532,687
1939–40455,017166,03053,1483,506,6174,180,812
1940–41403,169162,03851,1443,124,2003,740,551
Average Amount of Salary or Wages.
 £££££
1930–31259388171211221
1931–32195378164181189
1932–33156328136167169
1933–34151294124158160
1934–35151304130175172
1935–36171296123186184
1936–37192331135209208
1937–38229371159233234
1938–39254435163249252
1939–40278499176258264
1940–41271493205277281

Weekly Rates of Wages.—Returns as to employees and wages in a selected week are collected each year. The period covered is the nearest normal week to 31st March, and the data collected include the number of employees engaged at each wage rate, as well as the total employees and the total earnings (including overtime payments) during the specified week. Working proprietors, managers, overseers, accountants, and clerks do not come within the scope of the returns, which cover wage-earning employees only.

The following table gives the number of wage-earning employees engaged in the building industry at the various weekly rates of wages for the nearest normal week to 31st March in the years 1929, 1931, and 1939 to 1941.

Rate of Wages.Year.
1929.1931.1939.1940.1941.

* Including overtime payments.

Under 20s.169791678575
20s. and under 25s.180180166176123
25s. and under 30s.1028468102107
30s. and under 35s.258238186139179
35s. and under 40s.217163111119106
40s. and under 45s.13791254160100
45s. and under 50s.220240103125115
50s. and under 55s.145961289187
55s. and under 60s.5550473774
60s. and under 65s.13553174184105
65s. and under 70s.8022425668
70s. and under 75s.6880537359
75s. and under 80s.9166173728
80s. and under 85s.7997246314056
85s. and under 90s.8814491029173
90s. and under 95s.3192201,6231,019114
95s. and under 100s.423348727640724
100s. and under 105s.1,5281,529443587845
105s. and under 110s.347171192192425
110s. and under 115s.1,8041,1084,4014,089432
115s. and under 120s.187929156852,591
120s. and under 130s.7413331,8862,3242,647
130s. and under 140s.3131315675211,062
140s. and under 160s.203116297466584
160s. and over7750147226226
Number of employees9,4796,71312,87912,36411,005
Aggregate earnings during week*£43,190£29,168£68,120£65,683£62,947
Average earnings during week*£4 11s. 2d.£4 6s. 11d.£5 5s. 9d.£5 6s. 3d.£5 14s. 5d.

It will be observed from the above that some violent fluctuations have occurred in the average weekly earnings. Though the 110s.–115s. class was the highest individual group for the years 1929, 1939, and 1940, pride of place in 1941 was held by the 120s.–130s. class, followed closely by the 115s.–120s. class. In 1931 the modal group was the 100s.–105s. class. A pronounced increase in the number of wage-earners in receipt of £6 or over per week is shown for the last three years.

Monthly Employment.—The next table gives the number of wage-earning employees engaged on the fifteenth or nearest representative day for each month of the years 1938–39, 1939–40, and 1940–41.

Month.1938.1939.1940.Month.1938.1939.1940.
April10,49912,81711,490November12,35314,04011,246
May10,90213,39211,408December12,12913,30011,200
June11,35113,58211,471    
July11,54413,68911,498 1939.1940.1941.
August11,59913,95011,169January12,17312,55410,895
September11,82414,78710,995February12,39412,53510,999
October12,15115,19711,054March12,53912,16410,890

The absence of a seasonal decline in the winter months is a prominent feature of the statistics. Employment, which had been progressively increasing over a long period, reached a peak in October, 1939, with 15,197 employed. The following months recorded a marked decline to 10,890 in March, 1941.

Value of Work done.—The value of work done by builders furnishing returns each year is classified below according to the nature of the work done. The figures shown in respect of bridges, wharves, and “other” construction do not include construction work done by the General Government or by local authorities, except where such work is carried out on contract by private firms or individuals.

Year.Buildings.Bridges, Wharves.Other Construction.Additions, Jobbing, and Repairs.Totals.
 £££££
1930–315,230,024233,589289,4911,463,5237,216,627
1931–321,873,87792,623161,816945,1023,073,418
1932–331,445,62866,31936,735678,8062,227,488
1933–341,730,67576,68662,668683,6902,553,719
1934–353,560,181110,051114,052931,1724,715,456
1935–364,804,37499,941164,2251,211,4196,279,959
1936–376,074,059115,273122,1631,822,3528,133,847
1937–387,848,658275,778145,6842,152,71010,422,230
1938–3910,732,964278,543240,6922,053,87313,306,072
1939–4013,260,865320,755288,6622,374,26416,244,546
1940–4111,902,373257,764363,4222,602,90915,126,468

Operating Costs in Relation to Value of Work done.—Following is an analysis of operating costs of work done during the last eleven years.

Year.Operating Costs.Value of Work done.
Salaries and Wages.Cost of Materials.Other Expenses.Total Costs.

* Difference between total costs and total value of work done.

† Excess of costs.

Amounts.
 £££££
1930–312,096,4204,600,059307,8677,004,3467,216,627
1931–32920,0101,955,138193,7563,068,9043,073,418
1932–33662,0361,446,857146,3732,255,2662,227,488
1933–34712,3991,707,732137,6582,557,7892,553,719
1934–351,177,0903,315,018181,5614,673,6694,715,456
1935–361,536,9244,424,342212,9546,174,2206,279,959
1936–372,017,8245,620,845274,6647,913,3338,133,847
1937–382,681,4937,096,722360,49710,138,71210,422,230
1938–393,532,6878,952,702451,13912,936,52813,306,072
1939–404,180,81210,945,379577,35015,703,54116,244,546
1940–413,740,55110,318,361571,49214,630,40415,126,468
Per Cent. of Total Value of Work done.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.*
1930–3129·0563·744·2797·062·94
1931–3229·9363·616·3099·840·16
1932–3329·7264·966·57101·25—1·25†
1933–3427·9066·875·39100·16—0·16†
1934–3524·9670·303·8599·110·89
1935–3624·4770·453·3998·311·69
1936–3724·8169·103·3897·292·71
1937–3825·7368·093·4697·282·72
1938–3926·5567·283·3997·222·78
1939–4025·7467·383·5596·673·33
1940–4124·7368·213·7896·723·28

The figures shown for salaries and wages relate to the salaries and wages of those directly engaged by builders, plus amounts drawn by builders in lieu of salary and wages. Payments to subcontractors are included in cost of materials, the only possible classification, since the returns are collected from builders but not from subcontractors—e.g., plumbers, electricians, &c. A considerable proportion of the amounts paid to subcontractors, however, represents wages costs of the subcontractors.

The marked upward trend in the ratio of total costs to the value of work done between 1929–30 and 1932–33 indicates the extent to which the industry was affected by the depression. It will be observed that in 1932–33 and 1933–34 costs (including amounts drawn by builders in lieu of wages) exceeded the total value of work done in those years. A marked fall in average amounts of salaries and wages of employees and in amounts drawn by proprietors in lieu of salaries and wages during the depression period is indicated by the averages quoted in a preceding table. A definite upward turn, however, is indicated by the figures for the last five years.

New Buildings Completed.—A classification of the new buildings included in the returns for the last five years is given in the following table.

Year.Private Dwellings.Blocks of Flats.Business Premises.Other.Totals.
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
1936–373,795884911,3745,748
1937–384,042815001,4346,057
1938–395,930954441,9568,425
1939–406,889943442,5009,827
1940–416,727892792,96710,062
Value.
 £££££
1936–373,033,614312,1291,408,446666,6395,420,828
1937–383,754,525301,3322,254,462694,1347,004,453
1938–395,930,910270,4401,821,0631,038,5219,060,934
1939–407,171,732322,9081,807,1623,301,59312,603,395
1940–417,175,983253,0561,424,6432,704,66311,558,345

A considerable proportion of the buildings classified as “other” is accounted for by garages erected. Wide variations are shown from year to year in the values quoted for blocks of flats. This is to be expected, since the definition covers a wide variety of building types, but a growth in the popularity of this class of residence seems to be in evidence. The number of units contained in the 89 blocks of flats erected in 1940–41 was 280.

Statistics of Private Dwellings.—Following is an analysis of the statistics of private dwellings included in the returns for the last five years.

Number of Rooms.Number of Dwellings (excluding Blocks of Flats).
1936–37.1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.

* Not available; classified according to number of rooms in dwelling.

 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
One5560462780
Two7412410694109
Three172175297344709
Four9451,1561,9271,9981,996
Five1,7501,7052,6853,2292,643
Six506558695927704
Seven171141110133139
Eight6969334445
Nine and over5354319322
Multiple dwellings (units)****280
      Totals3,7954,0425,9306,8896,727

The classification of the number of dwellings according to size shows that, throughout the whole period, five rooms was the most popular size, followed by four-roomed dwellings. This is clearly illustrated by the fact that during the years 1936–37, 1938–39, and 1939–40 the number of five-roomed dwellings erected exceeded the combined totals of the four- and six-roomed dwellings, while for 1937–38 and 1940–41 the total of five-roomed dwellings just fell short of the combined totals of four- and six-roomed dwellings. Statistics of values follow.

Number of Rooms.Value of Dwellings (excluding Blocks of Flats).
1936–37.1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.

* Not available; classified according to number of rooms in dwelling.

 £££££
One5,0635,5914,8325,8796,243
Two15,32725,78228,83935,84548,662
Three66,78579,298184,832213,828475,207
Four590,911895,3151,715,6411,852,6281,958,863
Five1,332,7221,603,9312,786,5873,428,8962,991,060
Six524,410626,613850,1131,143,244950,021
Seven238,286216,884181,023218,491243,682
Eight117,649138,34472,08891,680101,216
Nine and over142,461162,767106,955181,24180,417
Multiple dwellings (units)****320,612
      Totals3,033,6143,754,5255,930,9107,171,7327,175,983

The table below gives the numbers and values of four-, five-, and six-roomed dwellings built, together with the average value per dwelling, in the four main centres—Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin—for the years 1928–29, 1939–40, and 1940–41.

City.1928–29.1939–40.1940–41.
Four Rooms.Five Rooms.Six Rooms.Four Rooms.Five Rooms.Six Rooms.Four Rooms.Five Rooms.Six Rooms.
Number of Dwellings.
Auckland12917255579958246687759148
Wellington18435890269460146231406113
Christ-church230208632873787427139383
Dunedin6216030145144568912647
Values.
 £££££££££
Auckland87,247137,40759,391553,8111,018,269302,264746,079893,547228,837
Wellington158,975379,038116,821271,290534,339196,051237,478508,413165,197
Christ-church159,000176,86764,667265,063376,91485,386249,005416,282105,841
Dunedin50,057154,37840,472147,027163,14674,48690,592148,36571,541
Average Value per Dwelling.
 £££££££££
Auckland6767991,0809561,0631,2291,0861,1771,546
Wellington8641,0591,2981,0091,1621,3431,0281,2521,462
Christ-church6918501,0269249971,1549191,0591,275
Dunedin8079651,3491,0141,1331,3301,0181,1781,522

It will be observed from the foregoing table that building-costs are definitely lower in Christchurch than in the other three centres. A sharp increase in the average value per dwelling is evidenced for the year 1940–41 in comparison with the year 1939–40. The most pronounced increases are recorded for six-roomed dwellings in Auckland and Dunedin. A point of interest is that values for 1939–40 and 1940–41 are in general substantially higher than in the pre-depression year 1928–29.

It must not be assumed that the variations in the average value per dwelling shown, as between the four centres, are accounted for entirely by differences in building-costs. In the first place, there may be quite material differences as between one city and another in the average standard of comfort of dwellings erected in any one year. Furthermore, the minimum requirements embodied in the building regulations in force are not identical in each centre, due partly to differences in terrain, &c.

Chapter 23. SECTION 23.—PUBLIC FINANCE.

SUBSECTION A.—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

THE legislation relating to the custody, administration, and audit of the public moneys and securities is contained in the Public Revenues Act, 1926, which consolidated and amended the then existing enactments on the subject. All public moneys, excepting those payable to or received by the Post and Telegraph Department, the Government Insurance Department, the Public Trust Office, the Native Trust Office, the State Advances Corporation, the State Fire and Accident Insurance Office, the various Public Service Superannuation Funds, the National Provident Fund, the Broadcasting Account, the Iron and Steel Industry Account, the Dairy Industry Account, the Internal Marketing Account, and other special accounts under the Marketing Act, are paid into one account at the bank called the “Public Account,” and are carried to one or other of the following funds or accounts in the books of the Treasury: The Consolidated Fund, the Public Works Fund, and separate accounts or funds specially created. A new subsidiary account called the War Expenses Account was brought into being in September, 1939. and another subsidiary account called the War Damages Fund was established in December, 1941. The Public Account, formerly held at the Bank of New Zealand, was taken over by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand from 1st August, 1934.

The financial year commences on the 1st day of April and ends on the 31st day of March. The receipts of any financial year represent the money received into the Public Account at the bank at Wellington within the year, together with that received into the Public Account at London of which advice is received in time for inclusion in the accounts for the year. The payments represent the money paid (a) at the Treasury within the year, (b) by imprestees, of which accounts are received at the Treasury within the year, and (c) at London, of which advice is received in time for inclusion.

At the end of each financial year the Appropriation Act of that year lapses, but the Minister of Finance is authorized for a period of three months from the commencement of the next financial year to pay money in respect of any service, provided that the amount does not exceed the unexpended balance voted for that purpose in the previous year, together with an amount equal to one-fourth of such vote.

The normal practice is for Parliament to meet at the end of June in each year and to vote supplies from month to month until the estimated expenditure for the year has been approved and the annual Appropriation Act is passed. Where a later session of Parliament is foreseen, a temporary amendment to the provisions set out in the preceding paragraph is made. In the event of a mid-session adjournment, supplies in anticipation of the Appropriation Act may be voted for more than one month.

AUDIT OF EXPENDITURE.—In the audit of expenditure both the pre-audit and post-audit systems are in operation. Pre-audit is applied to vouchers in respect of payments on account of salaries of new appointees; officers claiming more than one month's salary at any time; interest, loan transactions, and return of deposits; unauthorized expenditure; transfers between Government accounts; or expenditure chargeable against the accounts of local authorities. Post-audit is applied to all other payments.

Vouchers must be certified as correct by the proper officer, and forwarded by him to the head of his Department for approval. Vouchers subject to pre-audit are then forwarded to the Audit Office, and on being found correct are sent on to the Treasury to be entered on requisitions for payment. Vouchers subject to post-audit are transmitted by the head of the Department direct to the Treasury. Payment is made by the Treasury, and the claim is afterwards submitted for audit.

GROSS TRANSACTIONS OF ACCOUNTS.—Accounts and funds which were included in the Public Account during 1941–42 are listed in the table following, which shows, for each, the year's transactions and the balance at the beginning and the end of the year. For reasons that will be apparent later, the figures of gross transactions afford no indication of actual receipts and payments.

The State Advances Account is not included, nor are the other funds mentioned separately in the first paragraph of this subsection. Particulars concerning these funds and the working of the Departments concerned will be found elsewhere in this book.

Account.Balance, 1st April, 1941.Receipts.*Credits.Payments.*Balance, 31st March, 1942.

* Excluding credits.

Consolidated Fund—£££££
  Ordinary Revenue3,779,15046,241,25913,311,74246,294,4973,725,912
  Deposits4,242,6942,709,389 2,356,7994,595,284
Public Works Fund—     
  General Purposes1,521,2706,201,3652,142,6964,038,6693,683,966
  Electric Supply186,2323,681,01083,2783,743,224124,018
  Electric Supply Sinking Fund39,323275,314 300,00014,637
Bank of New Zealand Shares1,859,375113,047 113,0471,859,375
Land for Settlements1,758,600791,523190278,6382,271,485
Loans Redemption36,51489,213,469 89,180,50769,476
Main Highways15,9312,475,897255,6402,396,08595,743
Public Debt Repayment913,2582,255,108 2,848,397319,969
Remittances to London 21,632,662 21,632,662 
Reserve Fund1,342,95745,75535431,388,669
Social Security Fund1,867,44014,687,683122,99613,531,2883,023,835
State Coal-mines12,582736,2753,026701,14847,709
State Forests40,012495,9439,682476,67559,280
War Damage Fund 744,576  744,576
War Expenses4,428,54860,905,139 59,796,6695,537,018
Working Railways1,331,33811,375,7041,013,07911,226,2741,480,768
Suspense 95,313  95,313
      Totals23,375,224264,676,43116,942,364258,914,62229,137,033

Of the total balances of the various accounts (£29,137,033) as at the 31st March, 1942, £7,408,313 represented cash, £5,132,244 imprests, and £16,596,476 investments.

NET RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.—In ascertaining the aggregate net receipts and payments of a financial year it is always necessary to deduct substantial amounts from the figures of gross receipts and payments. Many of the accounts have their receipts and payments increased through the transfer of moneys from one account to another. Some of these transfers rank as credits, and are not included as receipts or payments in the table under the previous heading. The principal transfers between accounts which are treated as credits in reduction of expenditure are recoupments to the Consolidated Fund in respect of interest paid by that fund on loan-money.

There are, however, substantial transfers between accounts (or between items of an account) which rank as receipts of the receiving account. These are not always disclosed in the published statements, but an approximate total can be arrived at. This is found to have been in the neighbourhood of £26,000,000 for the year 1941–42. The principal item was the transfer of £7,351,099 from the War Expenses Account to the Loans Redemption Account for the redemption of securities. Next in importance were the transfers of £3,600,000 and £3,226,000 from the Consolidated Fund to the Social Security Fund and War Expenses Account respectively. An amount of £2,255,108 was transferred from the Consolidated Fund to the Public Debt Repayment Account in accordance with the scheme of debt reduction. An amount of £2,188,460, representing motor-vehicle taxation, was transferred from the Consolidated Fund to the Main Highways Account.

The Consolidated Fund received a good deal of revenue from other accounts, the principal items being £1,820,000 from the Working Railways Account as interest on railway capital liability, £113,047 by way of dividends first paid into the Bank of New Zealand Shares Account, and the major portion of £282,760 income-tax paid out of the Electric Supply Account. Payments, other than for debt redemption, aggregating £121,043 were made from the General Purposes Account of the Public Works Fund to other accounts or funds, and £61,300 was paid from the Main Highways Account to the Consolidated Fund. A transfer of £275,164 from the Electric Supply Account was made to the Electric Supply Sinking Fund Account during 1941–42 to meet the cost of redemption of securities.

Most payments from one item of the Consolidated Fund to another rank as credits, but receipts of the Printing and Stationery Department from other Government Departments, excluding those with accounts outside the Public Account, constitute an exception. During the year 1941–42, receipts under this heading amounted to approximately £257,000. Interest payments to the Consolidated Fund on balances in the form of investments also constitute an exception, ranking as receipts in that account. Similarly, certain interest payments from the Consolidated Fund to other accounts are treated as receipts, not as credits.

Although post and telegraph receipts and payments are not included in the Public Account, interest on capital liability and profits of the Post and Telegraph Department are payable to the Consolidated Fund. As costs of other Departments for postages and for other services performed by the Post and Telegraph Department aggregated approximately £320,000 for the year, this latter amount represents in effect a transfer to the Consolidated Fund revenue from various votes of that fund or of other accounts.

The revenue of the Working Railways Account also includes a considerable amount received from Government Departments and paid out of the Consolidated Fund and other accounts. The amount under this head in 1941–42 was approximately £1,214,000, exclusive of payments from the Post Office Account and other accounts outside of the Public Account.

Included in the gross receipts of the Consolidated Fund are Treasury bill issues and renewals to the aggregate of £5,000,000, while redemptions and renewals of Treasury bills swell the payments by a similar amount.

Practically the whole of the receipts and payments of the Loans Redemption Account proper are nominal only, consisting in the main of entries due to the renewal of loan-moneys. A deduction of approximately £86,300,000 must be made on this account from both receipts and payments in 1941–42.

The Remittances from and to London Accounts merely cover the withdrawal of money in London or Wellington for remittance to or from New Zealand, and are in practically the same category as the Loans Redemption Account, the receipts and payments representing book entries only, and usually balancing. There were no operations in the Remittances from London Account during the year 1941–42, but both receipts and payments of the Remittances to London Account amounted to £21,632,662 during the year.

Further deductions have still to be made from the gross totals before a figure approximately representing true governmental receipts and payments (apart from State advances and other activities not included in the Public Account) can be arrived at. The Deposits Account represents only lodgments and withdrawals of (mainly) non-Government moneys, and had in 1941–42 an aggregate of £2,709,389 receipts and £2,356,799 payments.

Including items not already specifically referred to, the total deductions to be made from aggregate nominal receipts are approximately £142,000,000, and from payments £141,700,000, leaving net totals of £122,600,000 receipts and £117,200,000 payments for the year.

The gross and net figures of receipts and payments are as follows for each of the last five years:—

Year ended 31st March,Gross Transactions.*Credits.Net Transactions.
Receipts.Payments.Receipts.Payments.

* Excluding credits.

 £m.£m.£m.£m.£m.
1938119·7118·312·757·557·3
1939132·4133·312·565·066·0
1940186·0183·714·276·974·4
1941229·6220·614·6101·592·9
1942264·7258·916·9122·6117·2

The net totals would be still further reduced if only the net increase (£35,970,158 in 1941–42) in debt were taken into account as a receipt, and both receipts and payments diminished by the amount of loan-money redeemed.

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE.—A system of departmental balance-sheets and statements of accounts was inaugurated on commercial lines in 1920 to show the true cost of the various Departments and services, as distinct from payments out of appropriations on the basis referred to at the beginning of this subsection. These balance-sheets and statements of accounts are published annually in Parliamentary Paper B.-1 [Part IV], to which the reader is referred for details of income, expenditure, &c., in respect of certain Departments and services.

For a number of years up to and including the financial year 1937–38 a statement of income and expenditure, combining the revenue accounts of most Government Departments, and a State balance-sheet, were published. For various reasons the preparation of these documents for years subsequent to 1937–38 has been discontinued until after the conclusion of the war.

Figures shown under subsequent headings in this subsection are on the basis of receipts and payments.

THE CONSOLIDATED FUND.—The Ordinary Revenue Account of the Consolidated Fund covers the ordinary revenue and expenditure of the General Government—i.e., apart from capital items, commercial and special undertakings, advances, &c. Until comparatively recent years its operations afforded an excellent comparison of State revenue and expenditure from year to year, but successive changes in system have largely destroyed the comparability of the figures.

Figures of receipts and payments of the Consolidated Fund over a long period of years will be found in the Statistical Summary near the end of this volume. Figures for the last eleven years are:—

Year ended 31st March,Receipts.Payments.Surplus.

* Deficit.

 £££
193222,719,73324,860,552-2,140,819*
193322,568,52122,528,37940,142
193423,492,74924,202,027-709,278*
193526,126,09424,499,5951,626,499
193626,172,36825,890,568281,800
193731,147,18730,675,158472,029
193836,059,44335,248,621810,822
193936,582,04635,772,678809,368
194037,974,15937,654,820319,339
194140,437,92738,711,5031,726,424
194241,240,95939,568,4971,672,462

The Budget estimate of receipts of the Consolidated Fund for the year 1942–43 is £38,186,000 and the estimated payments £37,981,000, leaving an estimated surplus of £205,000. Included in the estimate of expenditure for the year 1942–43 is an amount of £3,600,000 for transfer to the Social Security Fund.

Receipts.—The receipts of the Consolidated Fund are derived principally from taxation and from interest on the Public Debt Redemption Fund and other public moneys, with transfers from the Working Railways Account and from the Post and Telegraph Department in respect of interest on capital liability. Details of receipts during the last three years are given in the table following.

Source.Year ended 31st March,
1940.1941.1942.

*This excludes certain special taxation receipts, not paid into the Consolidated Fund. For details of taxation receipts see Subsection B.

 £££
Taxation*32,810,59934,873,73235,161,946
Registration and other fees308,283319,662281,778
Marine159,456151,505132,205
Interest on Public Debt Redemption Fund445,556396,520396,566
Interest on railway capital liability1,189,0311,694,6441,820,000
Interest on post and telegraph capital liability639,000665,000667,196
Interest on other public moneys635,158528,683582,602
Reserve bank profits250,286361,363344,942
Post Office Savings-bank profits166,79520,000 
Post and Telegraph Department profits2,92930,000235,963
Tourist and health resorts114,963112,56699,710
Territorial revenue395,489434,511402,741
Departmental receipts701,642697,500709,696
Miscellaneous (including recoveries on account of expenditure of previous years)154,972152,241405,614
      Totals37,974,15940,437,92741,240,959

Payments.—Payments from the Consolidated Fund are divided into two main groups, according to whether they are made under permanent or under annual appropriation. The latter heading covers the payments under the various departmental votes, while the former covers interest on and amortization of the public debt, exchange, disposal of special taxation for main highways, and payments under numerous special Acts. From 1932–33 onwards several important items which formerly ranked as permanent appropriations have become the subject of annual appropriations.

Payments under the main heads of permanent appropriations and each head of annual appropriations during the last three years were as follows (the figures are net—i.e., gross payments less credits):—

Head.Year ended 31st March,
1940.1941.1942.

*Includes payments by way of subsidies in connection with employment promotion.

† From outbreak of war expenditure under these headings has been charged to War Expenses Account.

‡ An additional amount of £1,726,000 was allocated out of surplus during this year.

§ Not including transfer of previous year's surplus (£809,367) to Social Security Fund.

Permanent appropriations—£££
  Civil List27,03327,00529,367
  Debt services—   
    Interest7,982,5058,152,5868,722,808
    Amortization2,155,5683,781,6362,262,296
    Administration and management330,06862,258134,018
    Payments on guaranteed loansCr. 2,513595437
  Transfers to Main Highways Account2,790,0982,229,3512,188,460
  Exchange1,704,7162,403,3612,328,551
  Transfer to War Expenses Account2,287,826 1,500,000‡
  Other567,302649,910730,834
      Totals, permanent appropriations17,842,60317,306,70217,896,771
Annual appropriations—   
  Legislative105,481111,084108,513
  Prime Minister's Department26,24524,52723,546
  Treasury49,21159,77863,375
  Customs158,390153,578147,901
  Land and Income Tax155,259185,449184,304
  Stamp Duties97,531102,42792,603
  Audit33,81239,90037,210
  Public Service Commissioner's Office13,45416,10417,791
  Internal Affairs518,400546,219482,773
  External Affairs208,213209,732246,442
  Printing and Stationery250,818293,184304,397
  Marine179,426168,785147,574
  Labour2,881,908*2,517,326*1,391,685*
  Native535,744412,904407,569
  Valuation48,50337,56031,839
  Electoral10,4528,13356,503
  Census and Statistics33,85033,02329,776
  National Service 100,911107,733
  Justice and Prisons279,463271,641259,021
  Crown Law Office8,4018,3488,534
  Police627,502649,715677,353
  Defence—   
    Naval169,139†
    Army541,969†
    Air215,504†
  Maintenance of public works and services1,090,598575,697510,461
  Lands and Survey306,181368,177361,948
  Agriculture970,3381,611,9841,880,432
  Industries and Commerce, Tourist and Publicity350,884688,842834,106
  Scientific and Industrial Research157,049164,074162,657
  Mines74,485233,063279,152
  Transport83,06367,36275,895
  Health1,519,1391,423,6091,979,094
  Mental Hospitals303,753425,671440,640
  Education4,471,8094,606,3474,503,118
  War and other pensions2,016,8111,957,2172,093,790
  Payment to Social Security Fund1,000,000§3,200,0003,600,000
  National Provident and Friendly Societies119,618103,513100,845
  Services not provided for199,81428,91723,146
      Totals, annual appropriations19,812,217§21,404,80121,671,726
      Grand totals37,654,820§38,711,50339,568,497

The amounts shown under the head of “Education” do not represent the full payment on education services, expenditure under special Acts and from the revenue from certain endowments, &c., not being included. A statement of public expenditure on education is given in Section 6 (Education) of this volume.

PUBLIC WORKS.—For the prosecution of the policy of public works inaugurated in 1870 there was set up a Public Works Fund. For many years all expenditure on public works was borne by this fund, but in course of time separate subsidiary accounts were established to deal with certain special activities. These subsidiary accounts have in general either become merged in the General Purposes Account of the Public Works Fund, or have ceased to exist on the completion of the work for which they were called into existence. The Electric Supply Account, with its separate Sinking Fund Account, is the only one now remaining.

The Construction Fund of the Main Highways Account, which was established in 1923–24 to provide finance for the construction, reconstruction, &c., of main highways, was analogous to the Public Works Fund, and its operations were for some years included in the Year-Book statement of public-works receipts and payments. The Construction Fund of the Main Highways Account was later (1st April, 1936) combined with the Revenue Fund, and the figures of public-works receipts and payments quoted below for the last five years are exclusive of operations of the Main Highways Account. Several other accounts formerly treated separately have now been merged in the Public Works Fund.

Receipts.—A summary of the receipts of the Public Works Fund is given below for the last five years. The figures are exclusive of credits, and transfers between the various accounts are omitted, as are also temporary transfers from other accounts.

Year ended 31st March,Loan-money.Transfers from Other Accounts.Recoveries on account of Expenditure of Previous Years.Interest on Investments, &c.Sales of Electrical Energy.Land Sales, Repayment of Advances, &c.*Other and Unspecified.Total.

* Native-land settlement and settlement of unemployed workers.

† Includes premium on exchange (£365,625).

 ££££££££
19383,974,7262,00996,3431,8291,384,90081,67461,0215,602,502
19399,622,27969637,5231,0821,602,26788,51820,19011,372,555
19409,622,0761,21375,3461801,777,69280,561382,170†11,939,238
19417,818,39532011,7131501,940,474103,36215,7099,890,123
19427,332,84550341,6202,3362,039,20992,76348,9489,558,224

Payments.—Payments from the Fund during each of the last five years are summarized below. As in the case of receipts, the figures are exclusive of credits and of transfers between the various accounts.

Year ended 31st March,Public Works.Dairy Industry Loans.Taxation (Electric Supply).Interest.Debt Charges and Expenses.Other Items.Total.

* Includes £94,050 expended in connection with the purchase of Flock House Estate.

 £££££££
19387,121,4314,565 517,4563,3294657,647,246
193910,506,596  540,7313,47794,225*11,145,029
194010,523,747  550,683139,5932,81111,216,834
19418,522,080 336,048384,844173,17529,6779,445,824
19426,137,117 338,961756,533124,818 7,357,429

No distinction is now made in the Electric Supply Account between capital and maintenance expenditure out of vote. The item “Departmental” in the Public Works Fund covers both construction and maintenance, and other items also are probably affected.

The principal items of public-works expenditure included in the first column of the preceding table are as follows:—

Year ended 31st March,Railways.Roads.Telegraph Extension.Development of Water-power.*Public Buildings.Lands and River Improvement, Irrigation, &c.Lands Settlement.†Departmental and other.

* Including maintenance.

† Settlement of unemployed workers and Native-land settlement.

‡ Includes linen-flax development: 1940–41, £245,977; 1941–42, £572,122.

 ££££££££
19382,412,9901,126,757312,2611,007,9661,234,548238,497565,492222,920
19393,798,0831,290,838575,9441,337,7842,086,294304,782838,380274,491
19404,165,4161,124,590416,7781,425,7181,795,220591,659804,518199,848
19411,930,092599,013256,0532,304,3321,442,431857,943779,983352,233‡
1942693,752242,945173,1472,221,8031,197,902586,735314,106706,727‡

In addition to expenditure on roads from the Public Works Fund, there is the expenditure incurred in roading Crown lands and lands purchased for settlement, which is a charge on the Land for Settlements Account, and is included in the values upon which the rentals of the lands are based.

A more detailed statement of the net payments out of the Public Works Fund during 1941–42 is now given.

 £
Public works, departmental102,736
Railways693,752
Education buildings453,486
Other public buildings744,486
Lighthouses and harbour works18,837
Development of tourist resorts12,207
Roads, &c.242,945
Telegraph extension173,147
Lands, miscellaneous100,249
Irrigation and water-supply486,486
Small-farms development203,682
Native-land settlement107,916
Linen-flax development572,122
Development of water-power2,221,803
Services not provided for825
Transfers to Land for Settlements Account2,508
Charges and expenses of raising loans124,818
Interest756,533
Income-tax282,760
Social security and national security charge56,201
      Total£7,357,429

General Purposes Account.—The total net payments of the General Purposes Account of the Public Works Fund from its inception in 1870 to 31st March, 1942, have been £163,023,350, spread over the various classes of public works as follows:—

Class.£
Immigration3,312,438
Public works, departmental3,902,038
Railways70,599,635
Roads28,281,888
Land-purchases2,148,248
Small-farms development2,606,740
Development of mining879,715
Telegraph extension13,722,613
Public buildings20,454,745
Lighthouses, harbour-works, and defences1,444,182
Contingent defence1,389,449
Rates on Native lands68,672
Thermal springs14,600
Development of tourist resorts840,310
Lands improvement1,744,971
Swamp-land drainage106,171
Plant, material, and services134,826
Charges and expenses of raising loans4,097,884
Coal-mines10,710
Interest and sinking fund218,500
Irrigation and water-supply3,064,233
Motor-transport service33,635
Transfer to Main Highways Account1,226,000
Native-land settlement1,856,923
Dairy industry loans46,125
Linen-flax development818,099
      Total£163,023,350

The total receipts of the General Purposes Account to 31st March, 1942, were £166,707,316, of which £150,135,448 represented the proceeds of loans, and £14,555,000 transfers from the Consolidated Fund. The largest item in the residue of £2,016,868 was an amount of £506,820 in respect of sinking funds set free, next in importance being small-farms development (£457,708). The balance of the account at 31st March, 1942, was £3,683,966.

LAND-SETTLEMENT ACCOUNTS.—Through the closing of several accounts and the merging of these in other accounts or funds, there now remains only one account dealing primarily with land-settlement—viz., the Land for Settlements Account, which covers numerous and diverse activities in connection with land-settlement.

The principal advances accounts, those relating to State advances to settlers, workers, &c., are, as stated earlier in this subsection, outside the Public Account and are not included here.

A statement of receipts and payments of the Land for Settlements Account during the last three years is as follows:—

Receipts.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
 £££
Sales and capital receipts232,208687,118255,277
Rents and interest400,196419,834412,348
Sales of produce, live-stock, and miscellaneous97,856112,77599,190
Receipts from Hutt Valley Settlement lands42,106 2
Acquisition and development of land for soldier settlement 226,1112,508
Interest on investments24,05117,96922,198
Recoveries, &c.3222 
        Totals796,4491,463,829791,523
Payments.£££
Administration, &c.178,209379,731200,596
Interest and other charges536,522292,79358,038
Charges on proceeds of sales of Crown lands9,6825,5487,901
Transfer of receipts from Hutt Valley Settlement lands1,450  
Improvements on small-farms lands 320503
Transfer to Loans Redemption Account3,206 11,600
        Totals729,069678,392278,638

TRADING ACCOUNTS.—Several important trading operations of the Government are outside the scope of the Public Account, while certain others are included in the Consolidated Fund; and the Electric Supply Account covers both construction and trading operations. Trading accounts other than those which might be so regarded but have already been dealt with under previous headings are as follows:—

  • Working Railways Account.

  • State Coal-mines Account.

  • State Forests Account.

The receipts of these three accounts during the last three years were as follows:—

Item.Account.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
  £££
Railway revenueWorking Railways9,935,64110,687,08111,354,136
Contributions and subsidy to Railway Employees' Sick Benefit FundDitto8,0008,0008,000
Sale of coal and wood, rents, &c.State Coalmines345,215457,788601,812
Forests revenueState Forests159,187215,670295,825
Administration expenses recoveredState Forests1,4511,297 
Loan-moneyVarious425,000380,000330,000
Interest receiptsVarious10,6238,59317,389
Recoveries on account of expenditure of previous yearsVarious4616,439760
Transfers from other accountsVarious972  
      Totals 10,886,55011,764,86812,607,922

Payments during the same three years were composed of the following amounts.

 1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
Out of appropriations—£££
  Working railways8,031,3458,662,1629,398,274
  State coal-mines349,707491,886666,479
  State forests553,684500,081474,546
Interest1,196,0271,700,0951,828,710
Amortization of debt5,5006,3209,164
Transfers to other accounts16,33917,7181,151
Subsidy to Railway Employees' Sick Benefit Fund8,0008,0008,000
Social-security charge 5341,474
National-security tax 5341,473
Income-tax  14,826
        Totals10,160,60211,387,33012,404,097

SOCIAL SECURITY FUND.—The Social Security Fund was established as from the 1st April, 1939, under the authority of the Social Security Act of 1938. Receipts and payments of the fund during the first three years of its existence were as follows:—

 1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
Receipts.£££
Social security charge8,860,92010,109,57710,432,314
Registration fee635,441604,179605,222
Penalty for late payment of fee32,07527,69925,771
Fines1,158407549
Miscellaneous receipts1013743
Transfers from Consolidated Fund1,809,3673,200,0003,600,000
Interest7,2313,35613,311
Recoveries 481130
Receipts due to Employment Promotion Fund20,82522,1219,643
        Totals11,367,11813,967,82314,687,683
Payments.£££
Administration expenses and emergency benefits535,899572,220519,110
Medical, hospital, &c., benefits1,056,6991,776,6852,435,588
Services not provided for861569
Monetary benefits9,250,53310,275,36410,576,522
        Totals10,843,21712,624,28413,531,289

More detailed information concerning payments under the various headings are given in Section 24 of this Year-Book.

MAIN HIGHWAYS ACCOUNT.—The Main Highways Account is concerned with the construction and maintenance of main highways and the payment of subsidies to local authorities. Its receipts consist mainly of special taxation collected by the Consolidated Fund and paid over, less certain deductions; and moneys borrowed for purposes of main highways construction.

The separate Revenue and Construction Funds of the Main Highways Account were merged into one account as from 1st April, 1936, by the Finance Act (No. 2), 1935. The statement of receipts and payments which follows summarizes the operations of the last three years.

Item.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
Receipts.
 £££
Taxation2,790,0982,229,3512,188,460
Loan-money2,607,8891,347,975257,069
Unexpended balance of Hutt Road loans 8,412 
Premium on exchange121,875  
Repayment of advances27,79825,82621,136
Interest8,8737,2535,917
Recoveries on account of expenditure of previous years102459391
Miscellaneous1,5652,4092,924
      Totals5,558,2003,621,6852,475,897
Payments.
Construction and improvement of highways3,139,9571,527,776505,339
Maintenance, repairs, and renewals of highways1,484,2111,289,7701,068,028
Subsidies to local authorities206,587213,636211,889
Advances to local authorities20,55212,40013,313
Commutation of Hutt Road fees23,50325,78624,719
Abolition of toll-gates1,5101,5221,501
Interest on transfers from Public Works Fund61,30061,30061,300
Amortization of debt223,860184,475 
Miscellaneous481,335519,261359,996
      Totals5,642,8153,835,9262,246,085

WAR EXPENSES ACCOUNT.—The War Expenses Account was set up under the provisions of the War Expenses Act of 1939, and all receipts and payments in connection with the war effort are dealt with through this account. Defence expenditure was previously included as an annual appropriation of the Consolidated Fund, and upon the War Expenses Account being brought into existence the unexpended balances of the 1939–40 appropriations under these headings were transferred to the new account.

The statement of receipts and payments which follows summarizes the operations of this account since its inception.

Receipts.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.

* Unexpended balances of 1939–40 appropriations.

 £££
Loan-money3,086,05418,152,48331,767,410
National-security tax 6,348,54610,480,964
Other war taxation2,181,8369,396,70111,456,490
Miscellaneous receipts303,799487,7103,918,004
Aeroplane Fund 156,9335,646
Transferred from Consolidated Fund2,287,826* 3,226,000
Fiji Government contribution 50,625 
      Totals7,859,51534,542,37360,905,139
Payments.£££
Navy902,7032,108,8984,627,953
Army3,572,53217,249,62131,538,802
Air Force2,596,1467,487,79611,716,210
Civil34,754278,5934,494,332
Amortization of debt 3,647,9927,351,099
Purchase of aeroplanes for Royal Air Force94,30568,274 
      Totals7,106,13530,867,20559,796,670

WAR DAMAGE FUND.—The War Damage Fund was set up under the provisions of the War Damage Act, 1941, which came into force on the 19th December, 1941. For the period ended 31st March, 1942, premiums amounting to £744,576 were paid into the fund. No payments were made during the period.

SUBSECTION B.—TAXATION.

TOTAL TAXATION.—All revenue collected by means of taxation was until the end of the financial year 1921–22 paid into the Consolidated Fund and applied to general purposes. From 1922–23 to the 5th December, 1927, however, certain items were paid into the Main Highways Account to help to defray the cost of improving and maintaining roads. From the last-mentioned date all such moneys have been paid into the Consolidated Fund in the first instance, and (with certain exceptions) transferred to the Main Highways Account. The proceeds of the employment-promotion taxation introduced in 1930–31 were paid direct into the Employment Promotion Fund. A similar position holds in the case of social-security taxation, receipts from this source being paid into the Social Security Fund, and war taxation, which is paid direct into the War Expenses Account.

A summary of tax collections (total and per head) during the last eleven years is given in the following table.

Year ended 31st March,Total.Per Head.

*Excluding social security and war taxation, the total in 1941–42 was £35,161,946—equal to £21 11s. 4d. per head.

 ££s.d.
193217,407,8291194
193319,705,67612177
193421,473,40613185
193524,739,40915184
193625,478,5981657
193731,181,60319150
193836,798,9712318
193937,797,9042392
194044,522,0282752
194161,360,84037103
1942*68,163,25641162

The following table shows receipts under the various heads of taxation during the last five years.

Head.Revenue for Year ended 31st March,
1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.

* See also under war taxation.

Consolidated Fund—£££££
  Customs revenue*10,758,73310,650,4289,946,8588,777,7578,101,989
  Beer-duty*978,4371,076,7961,378,9991,602,0301,686,233
  Motor-vehicles taxation2,838,7113,059,9892,997,4412,393,7562,340,759
  Land-tax1,038,0341,058,4991,019,084959,4181,009,288
  Income-tax*9,078,7639,303,49510,271,35215,720,49016,511,548
  Death duties*1,679,5991,817,7131,625,865  
  Other stamps taxation1,560,5401,591,7271,843,1481,697,7791,737,470
  Sales-tax*3,499,1313,555,6963,510,1303,502,5333,546,220
  Other taxation232,482191,429217,722219,969228,439
    Totals31,664,43032,305,77232,810,59934,873,73235,161,946
Employment-promotion taxation5,134,5415,492,132   
Social - security taxation—     
  Social-security charge  8,860,92010,109,57710,432,314
  Registration fees, &c.  668,673632,284631,542
    Totals5,134,5415,492,1329,529,59310,741,86111,063,856
War taxation—     
  National-security tax   6,348,54610,480,964
  Postage  250,000500,000700,000
  Income-tax  1,299,8952,385,1242,420,304
  Death duties  134,4503,227,7913,803,772
  Customs, &c., duties  497,4911,034,960990,549
  Sales-tax   2,248,8263,541,865
    Totals  2,181,83615,745,24721,937,454
    Total taxation receipts36,798,97137,797,90444,522,02861,360,84068,163,256
  Taxation receipts per head of mean population—£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.
  Ordinary (Consolidated Fund)19 17 320 1 020 1 921 6 521 11 4
  Employment promotion and social security3 4 53 8 25 16 86 11 46 15 9
  War  1 6 99 12 613 9 1
    Totals23 1 823 9 227 5 237 10 341 16 2

During the early years of the depression period heavier imposts were made in existing fields of taxation and, addition, new classes of taxation were imposed, the latter including a sales-tax and a scheme of special taxation for the relief of unemployment. The need of finance for New Zealand's war effort has necessitated the imposition of new taxes and additional charges under many existing headings.

Total receipts from taxation in 1941–42 exceeded the total for 1940–41 by £6,802,416, or by 11·1 per cent. Taxation for ordinary revenue purposes showed an increase of only £288,214 (0·8 per cent.), as compared with the previous year.

Social-security taxation yielded £11,063,856 during 1941–42, as compared with £10,741,861 during 1940–41.

Receipts from special war taxation during 1941–42 amounted to £21,937,454, or 32·2 per cent. of the total taxation for the year.

Including war and social-security taxation, taxes imposed directly on incomes produced £39,845,130 revenue in 1941–42, as compared with £14,296,109 in 1938–39, and £5,158,112 in 1931–32.

As a war measure, an Excess Profits Tax Act was passed in 1940, providing for the imposition of a special tax assessed on excess profits derived by the taxpayer during the income year 1940–41 and subsequent years covering the duration of the war.

The figures under the various headings are to a small extent swollen by the inclusion of penalties for late payment, and of fines for offences under the various taxation Acts. The figure shown for the postage item of war taxation is the amount paid to the War Expenses Account out of postal revenue, following the imposition of increased charges as part of the war-taxation measures.

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE TAXATION.—Revenue included under the heading of Customs is exclusive of receipts from tire-tax and from that portion of the petrol-tax which is imposed to provide funds for roading purposes, as referred to under the next heading. Gold-export duty, sales-tax receipts, and special Customs duties for war purposes are not counted as ordinary Customs revenue, although collected by the Customs Department. The following figures show Customs and excise revenue, for ordinary revenue purposes, for the last five years.

Year ended 31st March,Customs Duties.*Excise Duties.*Total Customs and Excise Duties.Proportion of Total Taxation. (Consolidated Fund.)

* Excise duties in this table cover only beer-duty; other excise duties are here included with Customs duties.

 £££Per Cent.
193810,758,733978,43711,737,17037·07
193910,650,4281,076,79611,727,22436·30
19409,946,8581,378,99911,325,85734·52
19418,777,7571,602,03010,379,78729·76
19428,101,9891,686,2339,788,22227·84

Increases in the rate of beer duty and in the tax on motor-spirits, for general revenue purposes, were brought into operation on 2nd August, 1939. As from 27th September, 1939, additional duties were imposed on certain items (including beer and tobacco, which two items were subject to still further increases in duty as from 9th May, 1942); the additional revenue in these cases being appropriated for war purposes, and paid direct into the War Expenses Account. Information in regard to these increases and Customs and excise duties generally is contained in Section 9D, Customs Tariff and Revenue.

MAIN HIGHWAYS TAXATION.—The Main Highways Act, 1922, laid down that the Revenue Fund (the Revenue and Construction Funds merged as from 1st April, 1936) of the Main Highways Account was to be credited, inter alia, with—

  • All moneys received as Customs duties imposed in respect of rubber tires, rubber tiring, and inner tubes of rubber for pneumatic tires, n.e.i. (as per the Customs tariff):

  • All moneys received by the Crown under any Act in respect of the licensing of motor-vehicles.

The tire-tax was imposed by the Customs Amendment Act, 1921, prior to the passing of which tires had been admitted free. The licensing of motor-vehicles by the Crown, became operative in the financial year 1924–25, consequent upon the passing of the Motor-vehicles Act, 1924.

A third class of taxation for main-highways purposes was introduced towards the end of 1927 by the Motor-spirits Taxation Act of that year, which imposed a duty of 4d. per gallon on all motor-spirits imported. The rate was increased to 6d. per gallon in 1930. The duty collected is paid into the Consolidated Fund in the first place, and after deduction of expenses of administration and of refunds (which are provided for in cases where the motor-spirits are used otherwise than for motor-vehicles) the residue is divided between (1) the Main Highways Account, and (2) boroughs with a population of 6,000 or over, in the proportions of 92 per cent. and 8 per cent. respectively. An additional 2d. per gallon was imposed from 7th October, 1931, a further 2d. from 9th February, 1933, and a further 4d. from 2nd August, 1939, but these imposts (totalling 8d. per gallon, or 8 7/10 d. with the surtax of 7/10 d. per gallon on imports from foreign countries) are for general purposes, and the proceeds are paid into the Consolidated Fund as part of the ordinary Customs revenue. During the depression period several amounts of motor-spirits taxation were retained in the Consolidated Fund, while certain other amounts were paid out of the Main Highways Account by way of subsidies and rebates on rates levied on rural land.

By section 19 of the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), substituted later by section 4 of the Motor-vehicles Amendment Act, 1934–35, a mileage-tax was imposed on motor-vehicles using motive-power other than petrol. Part of the receipts is regarded as the equivalent of Customs taxation on petrol and remains in the Consolidated Fund, the balance for highway purposes being divided between the Main Highways Account and the larger boroughs after deduction of administration expenses and of refunds. Owing to the restrictions placed on the use of motor-spirits consequent upon war conditions, many petrol-driven vehicles are now using, wholly or in part, substitute fuels (producer-gas, &c.). Normally such vehicles would be liable for mileage-tax; but, in order to encourage the use of these substitute fuels, they have been exempted by the Substitute Fuels Emergency Regulations dated 18th September, 1940.

Taxation receipts for main-highways purposes have been as follows during the last five years. Reference may be made also to the section relating to Roads and Road Transport.

Year ended 31st March,Fees, &c., under Motor-vehicles Act.Tire-tax.Motor-spirits Taxation.Mileage tax.Total.

* Not available for publication.

 £££££
1938563,358159,9282,108,7276,6982,838,711
1939612,395150,3502,289,1208,1243,059,989
1940619,676103,8482,262,27011,6472,997,441
1941573,47963,8811,744,22512,1712,393,756
1942****2,340,759

LAND AND INCOME TAX.—A brief history of the various changes in the rates of, and the law relating to, land-tax and income-tax between 1915 and 1939 is contained in the 1940 and previous issues of the Year-Book. The principal alterations which have taken place since 1936 are as follows:—

As part of the programme of the Labour Government, a graduated scale of land-tax was reintroduced as from 1st April, 1936. An amended scale of income tax, with somewhat heavier imposts, was also adopted, and various changes were made in regard to exemptions. Under the amended scale the reduction of exemptions with increasing income was discontinued, as was also the special flat-rate tax on incomes over £500. The 1936 amendment, superseded by the 1940 amendment, provides that taxpayers may be required to pay their income-tax by instalments instead of in one sum as formerly.

With a view to obtaining additional revenue for general governmental purposes, legislation was passed in 1939 reducing the general exemption from £210 to £200, and increasing the basic rates of taxation.

In connection with the provision of finance for war purposes, the War Expenses Act of 1939 increased all rates of income-tax for the 1939–40 tax-year by 15 per cent. This surcharge was retained for the 1940–41 and 1941–42 tax-years, and was increased to 33⅓ per cent. for the 1942–43 tax-year.

Income derived from farm-lands of an unimproved value of under £3,000 (from 1931–32) was, up to the passing of the Land and Income Tax Amendment Act, 1939, exempt from income-tax. The 1939 Act provides for all profits or gains derived from the use or occupation of any land to be regarded as assessable income. This Act also made provision (amended in 1940 and 1941) for the taxation of income of “proprietary” companies—i.e., companies under the control of not more than four persons.

By the Land and Income Tax Amendment Act of 1940 certain State trading Departments, which were previously exempt, were made liable for the payment of income-tax; the special exemption in respect of children was extended to include children brought to New Zealand under any Government scheme and being supported by any taxpayer; unpaid land-tax, once registered, remains a first charge on land until all arrears are paid; and a new scale of basic rates of income-tax was provided.

The Land and Income Tax Amendment Act of 1941 brought the provisions for taxation of banking companies into line with those for other companies.

Under the Finance Act, 1942, the Commissioner of Taxes is empowered to require any person to deduct income-tax from payments due to defaulting taxpayers and to pay every sum so deducted to the Commissioner.

Statistics relating to the incidence of land and income tax are given later on in this volume (Sections 33 and 34 respectively).

Land-tax.—Land-tax is assessed on the unimproved value of land after deductions provided for by statute have been made by way of special exemption. An owner of land, the unimproved value of which does not exceed £1,500, is allowed an exemption of £500; and where the unimproved value lies between £1,500 and £2,500 there is a similar exemption, diminished, however, by £1 for every £2 over the £1,500 mark, so that no exemption is allowed when £2,500 is reached.

Where the land is subject to a registered mortgage an alternative scale of exemption is provided—viz., £7,500 in cases where the unimproved value does not exceed £7,500, the exemption of £7,500 being diminished by £1 for every £1 above the margin of £7,500 of unimproved value, and disappearing altogether at £15,000. Where the capital value of the mortgage is less than the amount of deduction provided, such capital value is deducted instead.

No special exemption is allowed in the case of land not situated in a borough, when such land has been owned by a person for three years and not improved to the extent of £1 per acre or equal to one-third of the unimproved value, if in the opinion of the Commissioner of Taxes it should have been so improved. In the case of such land, also, the rate of land-tax is 50 per cent. more than the ordinary rate.

In lieu of the special exemptions set out above, the Commissioner of Taxes has discretionary powers to grant relief in certain specified cases of hardship. Subject to deductions provided, life tenants are liable to tax, and joint owners are assessed jointly as regards the land held in conjunction, and are liable severally in respect of each owner's interest in such land and any other land. This liability for joint assessment also applies to companies owning land if half of the paid-up capital or half (in nominal value) of the allotted shares of each company is held by or on behalf of shareholders in the other.

In case of default by a taxpayer in respect of land-tax the amount of tax may be demanded from his successor in title, from a tenant of the taxpayer or his successor, or from a mortgagee of the estate or interest concerned. Land-tax constitutes a charge on the land, and, notwithstanding any disposition of it, such land continues to be liable in the hands of a purchaser or other holder thereof for the payment of the tax so long as the charge remains in force. Registration of the charge is required, and no disposition of the land or of any interest in it may be registered while the charge remains in force. Provision is made for relief in cases of hardship.

Where the unimproved value on which land-tax is payable does not exceed £5,000 the present rate of land-tax is ld. in the pound. This rate is increased by 1/8000 d. for every £1 in excess of £5,000, with, however, a maximum rate of 6d. in the pound.

Income-tax.—Income-tax is payable on the full incomes of registered companies and certain public authorities, and in other cases on income in excess of £200 per annum, with the exception of absentees (other than overseas companies), who are liable for tax on income in excess of £50 per annum. A deduction of £50 from assessable income is allowed in respect of a dependent wife or husband whose personal income does not exceed £50. An exemption of up to £50 is allowed a widower, widow, or divorced person in respect of a housekeeper whose duties include the care and control of a child or children in respect of whom the taxpayer is entitled to a special exemption; £50 deduction is allowed for each dependent child or grandchild under eighteen years of age, and also in respect of each child, brought to New Zealand under any Government scheme, who is dependent on the taxpayer; and amounts up to £50 contributed towards the support of a relative of the taxpayer are also deductible from assessable income, provided that such relative is not in receipt of a monetary benefit under the Social Security Act. Exemption up to 15 per cent. of assessable income, but with a maximum exemption of £150, is allowed for life-insurance premiums and National Provident Fund, superannuation, and similar contributions. Allowance is made for depreciation of premises and plant used in the production of income, the revised scale of depreciation adopted as from 1st April, 1939, in the case of premises being 2½ per cent. for wooden-frame buildings; 1½ per cent. for brick, stone, or concrete walled buildings; and 1 per cent. for buildings of reinforced stone or concrete throughout and steel-framed buildings covered with iron, asbestos, or similar material. A deduction may also be made in respect of any premium paid on account of leased machinery used in the production of income. Certain specified incomes are wholly exempt from taxation. With the exception of depreciation, none of the foregoing exemptions are allowed to absentees.

Income derived from debentures of companies, local authorities, and public authorities is taxable at the source unless a certified list of the debenture-holders (with certain other particulars) is furnished. Where such income is taxed at the source an adjustment is obtainable, so that no taxpayer need pay tax on debenture interest at a higher rate than on income from other sources.

Companies pay tax on their full income (at the appropriate rate for such income) before distribution of dividends. The recipient of income from dividends does not pay income-tax on such part of his income, but the amount is taken into account in fixing the rate of tax to be paid. This provision also applies in the case of income from “tax-free” Government securities or “tax-free” company debentures.

In respect of stock or debentures issued by the Government of New Zealand, or by any local or public authority, or by the Public Trustee as agent of a land-settlement association, interest is not liable to New Zealand income-tax if it is payable out of New Zealand to a person not resident in New Zealand.

Income-tax is payable on the taxable balance—i.e., assessable income less exemptions—and is assessed at the following basic rates, which were laid down in the Land and Income Tax Amendment Act of 1940 and amended by the Finance Act, 1942:—

Debentures issued by Companies and Local and Public Authorities.—(i) Where the income has been derived from debentures issued by a company on terms providing for the payment of income-tax by the company, the rate of tax is 8s. 8d. per £1; (ii) in other cases, where the income has been derived by a company or a public authority, the rate of tax is 12s. per £1. Where the income has been derived by any other taxpayer the rate of tax is 12s. per £1, increased by one-third thereof.

Companies and Public Authorities.—On income not included above, the rate of income-tax for every £1 of taxable income in the case of companies and public authorities is: (i) Where the taxable income does not exceed £6,300, 2s. 6d., increased by 1/100 d. for every £1 of taxable income; (ii) Where the taxable income exceeds £6,300, 7s. 9d., increased by 1/150 d. for every £1 of the taxable income in excess of £6,300, but so as not to exceed in any case the rate of 8s. 8d. per £1.

Other Taxpayers.—On all income not included above, the rate of income-tax is as follows, an addition of one-third being made in the case of unearned income: On so much of the taxable income as does not exceed £100, the rate of tax per £1 is 2s. 6d. For each succeeding £100 or part thereof the rate of tax increases by 3d., until at £3,700 in the case of earned income, and at £2,500 in the case of unearned income, a maximum rate is reached which gives, together with the 33⅓ per cent. war expenses impost, a rate of 15s. 6d. in the £1. The Land and Income Tax Amendment Act, 1940, states that the rate of income-tax for any £1 of income must not exceed 15s. 6d.

The Finance Act, 1942, provides for a new method of assessing income-tax where two classes of income are involved—e.g., earned and unearned, or earned and non assessable. In the case of income that is wholly earned or wholly unearned, however, the method remains the same.

Legislative authority is given in the Land and Income Tax Amendment Act of 1940 for income-tax to be assessed for any year at the basic rates specified, any change required being in the form of an addition or deduction of a certain percentage.

In order to obtain additional revenue for war purposes an addition of 15 per cent. to the amount of tax assessed was made during 1939–40, 1940–41, and 1941–42. This surcharge was increased to 33⅓ per cent. in respect of the 1942–43 assessment. Revenue from the surcharge is paid direct into the War Expenses Account.

As a war measure the Excess Profits Tax Act, 1940, was passed, setting the rate of excess profits tax at 60 per cent. for the income year 1940–41. For the 1941–42 and subsequent income years the rate was increased to 75 per cent. by the Finance Act, 1942.

DEATH DUTIES.—The law dealing with these classes of duty is embodied in the Death Duties Act, 1921, as subsequently amended. The main heads of taxation are estate and succession duties, which are generally referred to by the collective title of “death duties.” In addition to these there are gift duties and Native succession duties.

Estate and succession duties are due and payable to the Commissioner of Stamp Duties on assessment, an additional 5 per cent. penalty, together with interest at 5 per cent. per annum, being payable if duty is not paid within three months (this period may be extended in certain cases) after death. Gift duties are payable at the time the gift is made, and Native succession duties before the registration of the succession order by the Native Land Court. Generally the decision of the Commissioner of Stamp Duties in regard to matters of fact incidental to the assessment of duty is final, but there is an appeal on points of law or of fact by way of a case stated to the Supreme Court. An appeal on a question of law may be referred to the Court of Appeal.

Part III of the Finance Act, 1939, provides for a reduction in the amount of death or gift duty payable in cases where the margin above the limit of value on which a lower rate is payable is small.

The War Expenses Act, 1939, increased all rates of estate, succession, and gift duty by one-third, for the provision of war finance. The increase in the rate of duty applied to the estates of all persons dying after the 26th September, 1939, and, in so far as it related to gift duty, applied to all gifts made subsequent to 26th September, 1939.

Part IV of the Finance Act, 1940, repealed the provisions of the War Expenses Act, 1939, mentioned above, and established new and increased rates for all classes of death and gift duties. Section 8 of the same Act provided for all revenue accruing from death and gift duties to be paid direct into the War Expenses Account as from 31st March, 1940. Provision was also made for the exemption from death duties and gift duty of gifts to the Government for war purposes.

The net revenue received from death and gift duties during each of the last five years was—

Year ended 31st March,Estate Duty.Succession Duty.Gift Duty.Total Death Duties.

* Ordinary revenue.

† War purposes revenue.

 ££££
1938*1,220,584355,899103,1161,679,599
1939*1,373,187329,495115,0311,817,713
1940*1,104,593339,111182,1611,625,865
1940†81,94018,31034,200134,450
1941†2,413,256619,540194,9953,227,791
1942†2,802,978789,302211,4923,803,772

Estate Duty.—When the final balance of the dutiable estate of a deceased person, estimated as at the date of his death, exceeds £200, an estate duty is levied on the amount thereof. In the case of any estate the final balance of which does not exceed £10,000, any interest acquired by the wife of the deceased up to the value of £5,000 is exempt from estate duty, provided that the amount of deduction shall not in any case exceed the difference between the final balance and £10,000. The rate of duty on the whole estate must, however, be determined before any deduction is made. The value of any life-insurance policy or policies comprised in the estate was, by the Death Duties Amendment Act of 1925, deductible up to a maximum of £1,000, irrespective of the amount of the estate, but the Finance Act of 1939 repealed this provision as from 1st August, 1939.

Up to 1920 duty was leviable on property in excess of £500, and the scale of duties ranged from 1 per cent. in cases where the net estate was between £500 and £1,000 to a maximum of 15 per cent. for large estates. The amendment made to the scale in 1920 considerably increased the duty payable, the rates, which were embodied in the Act of 1921, ranging from 1 per cent. on estates not exceeding £2,000 in value to 20 per cent. on estates of more than £100,000. Part II of the Finance Act, 1930, imposed a rate of 30 per cent. on the amount by which the final balance exceeded £100,000. Part III of the Finance Act, 1939, imposed higher rates of duty, ranging from 1⅕ per cent. on estates not exceeding £2,000 in value to 30 per cent. on estates exceeding £100,000 in value.

The War Expenses Act of 1939 increased all rates of estate duty by one-third, but Part IV of the Finance Act, 1940, provided a new scale of duties as follows:—

Final Balance of Estate.Rate per Cent.

* Plus additional 1 per cent. for every £500 or fraction thereof in excess of £500.

† Plus additional ½ per cent. for every £1,000 or fraction thereof in excess of £7,000.

‡ Plus additional ⅓ per cent. for every £1,000 or fraction thereof in excess of £31,000.

§ Plus additional 1/10 per cent. for every £1,000 or fraction thereof in excess of £70,000.

£ £ 
Up to 200Nil
Over 200 to 5001
Over 500 to 5,0001*
Over 5,000 to 6,00011
Over 6,000 to 7,00012
Over 7,000 to 31,00012†
Over 31,000 to 79,00024‡
Over 70,000 to 100,00037§
Over 100,00040

Succession Duty.—In addition to the estate duty referred to above, a succession duty is payable by any person who acquires a beneficial interest in the estate of a deceased person either by will or by intestacy. An exemption from duty is made in favour of charitable trusts, and special provision is made that the wife, lineal descendant, or lineal ancestor of a soldier who has met his death on account of the war of 1914–18 or the present war is allowed a £5,000 exemption in addition to the amounts otherwise provided.

The rates of duty vary according to the degree of relationship of the beneficiary to the deceased person. Part III of the Finance Act, 1939, effected a general increase in the rates, which had remained unaltered since 1920, while all rates were increased further by the War Expenses Act, 1939, and still further increased by the Finance Act, 1940.

The scales of duties as outlined in the Finance Act, 1940, and operative as from 30th June, 1940, are as follows:—

  • Wife.—The rate varies from 2 per cent. for amounts exceeding £5,000 but not exceeding £6,000, to 12 9/10 per cent. for amounts exceeding £70,000.

  • Husband.—From 2 per cent. for amounts exceeding £500 but not exceeding £2,000. to 16⅗ per cent. for amounts exceeding £59,000.

  • Children, &c.—From 1 per cent. for amounts exceeding £500 but not exceeding £1,000, to 16 per cent. for amounts exceeding £61,000.

  • Parents, Brothers, Sisters, &c.—From 3 per cent. for amounts exceeding £200 but not exceeding £500, to 21 per cent. for amounts exceeding £61,000.

  • Other Relatives.—From 6 per cent. for amounts exceeding £200 but not exceeding £500, to 22⅗ per cent. for amounts exceeding £57,000.

  • Other Cases.—From 10 per cent. for amounts exceeding £200 but not exceeding £500, to 31 9/10 per cent. for amounts exceeding £43,000.

In all the above cases provision is made to allow for a reduction in the amount of succession duty payable, so that it will not exceed the difference between the estate duty payable in respect of such succession and percentages of the succession ranging from 50 in the case of wife or husband to 60 in cases other than relatives.

In cases where the successor is a child of the deceased and is under the age of twenty-one years at the time of death of the deceased, no succession duty is payable on amounts up to £1,000, and in successions exceeding that amount the full amount of duty is payable only in cases where the balance will not be reduced below £1,000.

In respect of moneys exceeding £1,000 that may be payable to persons domiciled out of New Zealand, and where the beneficiary is not the husband or wife of the deceased or a relative of the deceased within the third degree of consanguinity, there is an additional rate equal to 10 per cent. of the excess over £1,000.

Native Succession Duty.—Where any succession order is made by the Native Land Court on the death of a Native, no death duty in the ordinary way is payable on the property included in it, but a Native succession duty of 2 per cent. is payable on the value of the property, with a general exemption of £200.

Gift Duty.—A gift means any disposition of property (situate in New Zealand at the time of the gift) which is made otherwise than by will, whether with or without an instrument in writing, without full and adequate consideration in money or its equivalent. No duty is payable on a gift which, together with the value of all other gifts (not exempt from duty by reason of their nature) made at the same time or within twelve months previously or subsequently by the same donor to the same or any other beneficiary, otherwise than by way of a charitable trust, does not exceed the value of £500. Exemption from gift duty is also provided in cases of voluntary discharge of a mortgage debt where the donor and beneficiary are not connected by ties of blood or marriage. Various other exemptions were made by the Death Duties Amendment Act, 1923.

The amount of the gift duty is payable by either the donor or the beneficiary, but the beneficiary is entitled to be indemnified by the donor unless the terms of the gift provide otherwise. Particulars of any gift made are required to be furnished for assessment of duty within one month of the date of the gift, and in default an additional duty of 50 per cent. is payable. Where duty is payable, the rate (since 30th June, 1940) is based on the following scale.

Value of Gift.Rate of Duty. Per Cent.
Over £500 to £1,0005
Over £1,000 to £5,0009
Over £5,000 to £10,00015
Over £10,000 to £20,00020
Over £20,00025

Prior to 1920 there was a flat rate of 5 per cent. on all gifts exceeding £1,000 in value. Gifts between £500 and £1,000 were made dutiable in 1930.

STAMP DUTIES.—The term “stamp duties” covers a miscellany of items of taxation imposed by the Stamp Duties Act, 1923, and subsequent amendments.

The receipts for the last five years are shown under the various heads of stamp duties revenue as used in the public accounts.

Year ended 31st March,
1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.
 £££££
Adhesive stamps139,94762,992216,77155,225183,579
Duty on instruments392,829393,618367,890390,611349,081
Fines and penalties1,9242,0631,7111,6202,140
Impressed stamps227,326233,431229,739233,548222,562
Licenses to companies89,40490,45190,72991,50192,537
Sharebrokers' licenses2,0921,8621,7701,5111,384
Racing taxation558,874661,443787,418785,517749,279
Amusements-tax98,64692,99395,64492,70094,415
Lottery duty20,88320,38824,08324,07520,640
Oversea-passenger duty26,67330,59825,71014,95117,078
Mortgagees' indemnity fees1,9251,8431,6671,6341,505
Miscellaneous1745164,8863,270
      Totals1,560,5401,591,7271,843,1481,697,7791,737,470

Several of the more important items included in the foregoing table are dealt with in more detail under subsequent headings.

RACING TAXATION.—The Government tax on totalizator investments is 5 per cent. of the gross amounts passed through the machines. This percentage was substituted in August, 1930 (by Part I of the Finance Act, 1930), for the former rate of 2½ per cent., which had been in force since March, 1910, prior to which the percentage was 1½. A refund of 2¼ per cent., raised from 1¼ per cent. by the Finance Act (No. 2), 1935, of gross totalizator takings (up to a limit of £500) may be made to a racing club, the Minister of Internal Affairs having the right to specify the purpose or purposes for which the amount refunded in any case is to be applied.

For some years prior to 1939–40 special provision was made annually for the racing clubs to retain for their own use a proportion of the totalizator duty payable under the Stamp Duties Act. From 1st April, 1932, to 31st March, 1934, the proportion was one-fifth, for the next twelve months it was one-tenth, and from 1st April, 1935, to 31st March, 1939, the former proportion of one-fifth was in operation.

From the 1st November, 1915, a tax of 1 per cent. was imposed on the total value of all stakes, and a tax of 2½ per cent. on totalizator dividends, in addition to the tax on totalizator investments. The tax on dividends is computed on the gross amount paid into the totalizator for any horse-race after deducting 12½ per cent. (raised from 10 per cent. by the Finance Act, 1930) to cover the tax on totalizator investments and the club's commission. From the 22nd December, 1921, the tax on stakes was increased to 10 per cent. and that on dividends to 5 per cent. From the 1st April, 1924, the tax on stakes was reduced to 5 per cent., with a further reduction to 1 per cent. from 1st August, 1935.

The following figures relate to the racing year, which ends on the 31st July. As a war measure, the Government imposed a reduction of 50 per cent. in the number of racing-days as from Easter Monday of 1942, and this accounts for the decreases recorded in respect of the 1941–42 racing year.

Year ended 31st July,
1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.

* Retained by the clubs.

Number of racing-days320320319308214
Number of races2,5062,5172,4992,4201,702
 £££££
Amount of stakes527,545550,054563,697551,065430,353
Totalizator investments7,201,8207,981,4428,139,9148,769,9177,224,203
Amount paid in dividends5,945,3656,589,6296,721,6637,241,9075,967,255
Government taxes—     
  On totalizator investments288,073319,258406,996438,496361,210
  On dividends314,992349,097356,023384,404316,632
  On stakes5,2755,5005,6375,5114,304
      Totals608,340673,855768,656828,411682,146
Percentage of totalizator investments retained by clubs612,155678,423610,493657,744541,815
Unpaid fractions*41,23545,03544,73947,36637,291
Refunds of taxation granted to clubs47,05648,39046,57745,90639,981

For the financial year ended the 31st March, 1942, Government receipts from racing taxation amounted to £749,279, but £42,024 of this was paid back to clubs by way of refunds.

AMUSEMENTS-TAX.—A form of tax first introduced in 1917 is the amusements tax, levied on payments for admission to entertainments. The present authority is the Amusements-tax Act, 1922, amended in 1923, 1930, and 1937. “Entertainment” is defined as “any exhibition, performance, amusement, game, or sport to which persons are admitted for payment.” The maximum admission charge on which no tax is payable was originally fixed at 9d., but has been successively altered to ls., 2s., and (in 1930) 1s. 6d. When the payment for admission exceeds 1s. 6d., but is not more than 2s., the tax is 3d.; thereafter, up to 3s., it is 4d.; up to 3s. 6d., 5d.; and above 3s. 6d., 1d. for each 1s. or part thereof, plus 2d. “Payment for admission” includes reservation charges. Provision is made for exemption in certain specified cases—viz., shows promoted by agricultural, pastoral, horticultural, or poultry societies; entertainments, the proceeds or the net proceeds of which are devoted to charitable, philanthropic, patriotic, or educational purposes; any entertainment promoted by any society or institution not established for profit, if the proceeds or net proceeds are devoted to the objects of the society or institution; and any swimming-sports meeting.

The following net amounts have been collected during the last eleven years.

Year ended 31st March,Amount collected.
 £
193274,763
193353,564
193448,715
193549,526
193656,507
193770,564
193898,646
193992,993
194095,644
194192,700
194294,415

FILM-HIRE TAX.—Part V of the Finance Act, 1930, imposed, as from 1st July, 1930, a film-hire tax, which is payable monthly by holders of renters' licenses under Part IV of the Cinematograph Films Act, 1928.

The film-hire tax payable is assessed on the net monthly receipts derived by the renter from renting sound-picture films. On British films the tax is 10 per cent., and on foreign films 25 per cent., of the net receipts. Films made wholly in New Zealand are exempt from the tax. The film-hire tax yielded a revenue of £82,377 in 1937–38, £85,882 in 1938–39, £93,117 in 1939–40, £94,974 in 1940–41, and £99,962 in 1941–42.

SOCIAL-SECURITY TAXATION.—The Social Security Act, 1938, provided for the establishment of a Social Security Fund with special taxation (as from 1st April, 1940) superseding employment-promotion taxation, information concerning which will be found in the 1941 (p. 515) and preceding issues of the Year-Book.

Briefly, the contributions to the Social Security Fund consist of a registration fee and a charge on salaries, wages, and other income for all persons over sixteen years of age. For males over twenty years of age the registration fee is 5s. per quarter, and for all other persons over sixteen years of age 5s. per year; while for all persons over sixteen years of age the charge on salaries, wages, and other income is 1d. in every 1s. 8d. or part thereof. The income of companies was exempt from the former employment-promotion taxation, but is liable for social-security taxation. Certain exemptions are provided for, and this matter is dealt with more fully in Section 24.

Social-security taxation yielded £11,063,856 in 1941–42, towards which total the tax on salaries and wages provided £6,488,691, tax on company income £1,282,500, tax on other income £2,661,123, and receipts from registration fees, &c., £631,542.

NATIONAL-SECURITY TAXATION.—National-security taxation was imposed by the Finance Act, 1940, and came into operation as from the 21st July, 1940. The special taxation which is levied in respect of the same income as the social-security charge is paid direct into the War Expenses Account. There is, however, no special registration fee in connection with the national-security taxation. The rate of tax was originally 1d. in every 1s. 8d. or part thereof, but by the Finance Act, 1942, this was increased to 1½ d. in every 1s. 8d. or part thereof. This increase applied to all salaries and wages derived in respect of any period after the 10th May, 1942, and in the case of income other than salary and wages to all such income derived during the year ended 31st March, 1942, and any subsequent year. Receipts of national-security tax amounted to £10,480,964 during the financial year 1941–42.

SALES TAX.—The 9th February, 1933, marked the inauguration of a sales tax in New Zealand. The tax (from which there were numerous exemptions, including most important items of foodstuffs) was at the rate of 5 per cent. of the sale value of the goods to which it applied, but in June, 1940, and again in May, 1942, increases of a further 5 per cent. and 10 per cent. respectively were made for war taxation. Certain items, such as apparel, footwear, woollen piece-goods and yarns, and certain additional foodstuffs, were exempt from the additional 10 per cent., but in the case of wine manufactured in New Zealand an additional charge of 20 per cent. was added. Discount ranging from 1¼ to 2½ per cent. (reduced from 5 per cent. in June, 1940) of the amount of tax otherwise payable is allowed for prompt payment. The tax is not a turnover tax, being payable once only and, so far as possible, at the point where the goods pass to the retailer. The Sales Tax Act is administered by the Customs Department. The net amount yielded by the sales tax has been: 1932–33 (less than two months), £38,253; 1933–34, £1,847,333; 1934–35, £2,170,503; 1935–36, £2,462,602; 1936–37, £3,044,612; 1937–38, £3,499,131; 1938–39, £3,555,696; 1939–40, £3,510,130; 1940–41, £5,751,359; and 1941–42, £7,088,085.

Numerous classes of goods are exempt from the tax, these being, in the main, commodities of primary production, articles used in the primary industries, machinery for use in manufacture, and foodstuffs for household consumption. Goods exported from the Dominion are exempt, as are also certain commodities (e.g., gold, motor-spirits) which are subject to special taxation.

Monthly collections of sales tax during the last five calendar years have been as follows:—

Month.Ordinary Taxation.War Taxation.
1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.1940.1941.1942.
 ££££££££
January317,598330,294302,604299,749322,771 299,988322,827
February230,525254,484229,559207,889204,547 207,685204,202
March277,690314,707259,246291,443307,512 291,643307,508
April292,281310,597284,185285,313307,131 285,358307,082
May273,087310,040330,843304,699325,275 304,357364,933
June285,738337,492327,482301,881294,656 303,748625,416
July295,664285,530313,293292,976321,06227,565290,831702,551
August287,519271,332284,687303,643302,476250,734303,548645,796
September296,020293,848288,746293,299298,437287,329292,954679,924
October308,579321,125298,098310,872319,005297,715310,787739,469
November304,381291,844297,617312,297305,899297,961312,157675,947
December329,356307,486291,585305,368 291,401305,278 

The collections during a month relate in general to sales during the preceding month.

The foregoing statistics indicate, in a measure, the comparative distribution of merchandise trading operations throughout the year. The following table of receipts from the sales tax gives some indication of comparative trading operations in the principal centres.

Year ended 31st March,Auckland.Wellington.Rest of North Island.Christ-church.Dunedin.Rest of South Island.Total.*

* Includes receipts through Post and Telegraph Department.

 £££££££
19381,039,1521,350,603167,458471,063316,120151,0523,519,109
19391,083,4891,379,186171,188458,826311,619144,1093,572,110
19401,081,6491,309,586168,269481,571330,372139,8783,520,703
19411,888,8121,939,367276,222824,839594,294235,4255,767,638
19422,391,5922,304,936322,5021,031,839746,572281,0047,088,732

The extra revenue accruing through the passing of Part III of the Finance Act, 1940, increasing the rate of sales tax to 10 per cent. as from the 28th June, 1940, and Part III of the Customs Amendment Act, 1942, increasing the rate of sales tax to 20 per cent. (except in the case of certain items) as from the 11th May, 1942, is paid direct into the War Expenses Account.

LOCAL TAXATION.—Local-governing authorities have power under various Acts of the Legislature to impose taxes for general or special purposes, as set out in Section 25 of this Year-Book. The amount of revenue collected by local authorities during the five years ended 31st March, 1941, was as follows:—

Year ended 31st March,Rates.Licenses and other Taxes.Total.Per Head of Population.
 ££££s.d.
19375,994,353630,6276,624,9804311
19386,541,354693,1847,234,5384109
19396,971,550759,2287,730,77841511
19407,289,240773,1638,062,4034188
19417,344,055789,2018,133,2564195

The figures are exclusive of wharfage dues, tolls, &c., received by Harbour Boards, such receipts being regarded as in respect of charges for services.

SUBSECTION C.—STATE INDEBTEDNESS.

THE Minister of Finance may raise loans, when authorized by Parliament so to do, by the issue of debentures, or scrip, or stock, in New Zealand or elsewhere at his discretion. When raising a loan, the Minister may prescribe the mode and conditions of repayment, the rates of interest (not exceeding the maximum rate fixed by the authorizing Act), and the times and places of payment of principal and interest respectively. Power is given to convert debentures or scrip into consolidated stock, and the Minister may specify the terms of conversion at the time when a loan is raised, or arrange that terms shall be subsequently agreed upon. For the purpose of paying off or renewing at maturity any debenture, scrip, or other security, new debentures or other securities may be issued and disposed of if necessary. Authority also exists for the conversion of loan-money which has not yet matured, as well as for the redemption and cancellation of securities before maturity. Section 5 of the Finance Act (No. 2), 1934, authorized the Minister of Finance to transfer the management of the public debt to the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, and the transfer was effected as from the 1st October, 1936.

During the 1914–18 war period provision was made for the issue to the public of “Post Office investment certificates” of a face value of £1 and upwards, and in 1920 legislation which sanctioned a continuous issue of these certificates was enacted. Receipts from this source are utilized for the purposes of any loan which may be authorized by Parliament. The term of the certificates, formerly a minimum of five years, was altered in 1927 to such period as the Minister of Finance may determine. Certificates are now issued with a definite currency of six years, the redemption value being calculated at 3 per cent. compound interest. After six months from date of issue the certificates have a graduated redemption value, and, in addition, if not presented for payment at date of maturity, remain interest-bearing (at the maximum rate payable on Post Office Savings-bank deposits) for four years more.

For the purpose of helping to finance the present war effort, the National Savings Act, 1940, was passed, providing for the investment of moneys in National Savings Bonds or in National Savings-bank Accounts. National Savings Bonds are issued in three denominations, £1, £10, and £100, and are for a term of five years. Moneys deposited in National Savings-bank Accounts up to 30th June, 1943, are repayable on 30th June, 1945, and deposits subsequent to 30th June, 1943, on 30th June, 1946. These investments are approved trustee securities.

The money composing the public debt has been borrowed on the security of the public revenues of the Dominion. No portion of the public estate is pledged for payment of either principal or interest.

In the debt tables the whole debt is shown (in pounds) at its nominal amount, no adjustment having been made on account of the fact that New Zealand currency is at present at a discount on sterling and at a slight premium on Australian currency. If the whole of the debt (£154 millions) domiciled in the United Kingdom were redeemed in cash at the present time, an amount equal to nearly £200 millions in New Zealand currency would be required for the purpose.

Similarly, the present depreciation of New Zealand currency in terms of sterling is not taken into account in reckoning the rate or amount of interest on the debt domiciled in the United Kingdom. Interest is taken at its nominal rate, and the cost of purchasing sterling for payment in London is included in the public accounts as expenditure on exchange.

The National Development Loans Act, 1941, provided for the establishment within the Public Account, as from 1st April, 1942, of a National Development Loans Account, into which all loan-moneys raised for national development are paid. The new procedure in connection with these loans is expected to result in definite savings in interest, &c.

GROSS INDEBTEDNESS.—On only three* occasions in the history of New Zealand has a reduction in the gross public debt been effected during the financial year. The first occasion was in 1891–92, when the debt was reduced by £117,282; and the second in 1922–23, when another slight reduction (£101,061) was recorded. The third occasion was in 1934–35, when the huge floating debt of £22,856,981—comprising outstanding Treasury revenue bills amounting to £3,452,109 and Treasury bills for £19,404,872 in respect of the Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act—was entirely paid off.

The gross indebtedness of the General Government and the rate of indebtedness per head of population (inclusive of Maoris) for each of the last twenty years are given in the following table.

As at 31st March,Amount.Per Head of Population.

* Including £5,379,105 raised in January, 1929, for expenditure in 1929–30.

† Increase mainly floating debt, paid off in 1934–35.

 ££s.d.
1923218,953,32416542
1924221,616,36116485
1925227,814,647165211
1926238,855,47816986
1927245,850,889170190
1928251,396,252172185
1929264,191,983*179119
1930267,383,343179110
1931276,033,358182120
1932281,942,800184163
1933282,622,958183152
1934302,791,996†19568
1935280,581,2171791411
1936282,561,098179106
1937287,670,200181410
1938290,201,342180175
1939303,970,272187110
1940322,907,536196159
1941349,427,575213112
1942385,397,733235163

After the establishment of the Reserve Bank (1st August, 1934), £20,229,700 of sterling funds held by the Government in London were transferred to New Zealand at the current rate of exchange through the Reserve Bank, the credit received (£25,084,828 in New Zealand currency) being sufficient with other funds available to redeem all Treasury bills then outstanding.

Up to the 31st March, 1891, loan expenditure had been chiefly concerned with railways and roads, the taking over of the loan liabilities of the Provincial Governments on their abolition, and the Maori War. The year 1891 marks the beginning of a period during which the functions of the State were widely extended, most notably as regards financial assistance to settlers, workers, and local authorities, the repurchase of alienated lands, the working of coal-mines, and the development of hydro-electric power.

The advent of war in 1914 created a second point of demarcation in the history of the loan expenditure of the General Government, large sums having to be borrowed for war purposes. A feature of this period was the postponement of all public works, &c., except those of pressing necessity. Expenditure of an unproductive nature occasioned by the 1914–18 war was necessarily continued for some time after the Armistice, but the end of the financial year 1919–20 may be fairly regarded as concluding this period. The 1st April, 1940, may be taken as marking the commencement of a new period characterized by the necessity of financing New Zealand's participation in the present war. In 1939–40 only £3,000,000 out of a total net increase of £21,600,000 in the public debt was due to war borrowing, while the provision of war finance in 1940–41 accounted for £14,500,000 of the £26,500,000 increase in the public debt during that year. For 1941–42, out of a total net increase of £36,000,000 in the public debt, £26,100,000 was for war purposes.

* See, however, page 603 of 1940 Year Book.

The gross indebtedness at the 31st March, 1891, 1914, 1920, 1940, and 1942, with the increase between these dates, was as follows:—

* Excluding £4,976,600 raised in March, 1914, for redemptions early in 1914–15.

 £
At 31st March, 189138,830,350
Increase to 31st March, 191455,923,477*
At 31st March, 191494,753,827*
Increase to 31st March, 1920106,416,928
At 31st March, 1920201,170,755
Increase to 31st March, 1940121,736,781
At 31st March, 1940322,907,536
Increase to 31st March, 194262,490,197
At 31st March, 1942£385,397,733

An amount of £7,720,633, representing outstanding advances by way of overdraft in respect of primary produce purchased for export or sale under the authority of the Marketing Act, is not included in the public debt as at 31st March, 1942.

The Hutt Road Act of 1939 made provision whereby the Wellington City Council is kept indemnified out of the Main Highways Account for all liability in respect of certain loans. Loan-money outstanding under this heading amounted to £265,018 as at 31st March, 1942, but against this sinking funds to the value of £153,302 were held at that date by the Public Trustee.

In addition to the foregoing, there are certain contingent liabilities, consisting of loans guaranteed by the State and State guarantees in respect of various undertakings.

In regard to the first item, the amount of guaranteed loans outstanding at 31st March, 1942, was £46,340,024, as against which accumulated sinking funds amounted to £105,120. Of this guaranteed loan total, £46,115,730 is in respect of State Advances Corporation stock and debentures, the remaining loans being those of certain local authorities. Payments on guaranteed loans during the year 1941–42 aggregated £599, but as a set-off against this amount credits were received amounting to £162, leaving a net payment of £437.

The latter class of contingent liabilities comprises various items, such as: the State guarantee to policyholders of the Government Insurance Department under the Government Life Insurance Act, 1908; the guarantee to the Reserve Bank under the Finance Act, 1934, in respect of sterling exchange; and certain undertakings under the State Advances Corporation Act. There are also certain contingent State liabilities in respect of the various Government Superannuation Funds.

CLASSIFICATION OF PUBLIC DEBT.—In classifying the public debt according to nature or purpose the most usual distinction is that made on the basis of whether raised for ordinary purposes, war purposes, housing (in respect of the 1936 scheme), or State advances. The following summary shows that the increase between 31st March, 1920, and 31st March, 1942, was principally in respect of the ordinary debt. Debt incurred in connection with the present war accounted for £43,704,794 of the increase, while provision of finance for the 1936 housing scheme resulted in an increase of £20,000,000. State advances debt has shown a large increase over the period, while debt incurred in connection with the 1914–18 war has shown a substantial reduction. The total of 1914–18 war loans amounted originally to £82,245,673, of which approximately £22,000,000 had been redeemed to the 31st March, 1942.

Class.Total.Per Head.
1920.1942.1920.1942.
 £££s.d.£s.d.
Ordinary106,603,658227,299,831863813917
State advances14,478,07234,142,87811141201710
War, 1914–1880,089,02560,250,2306415036173
Housing (1936 scheme only) 20,000,000   1249
War, 1939- 43,704,794   261410
      Totals201,170,755385,397,733162129235163

A more detailed allocation of the debt as at the 31st March, 1942, is now given.

 £

* Including £43,704,794 of debt in respect of the present war.

Railways75,091,393
Hydro-electric schemes16,801,733
Post and telegraph services16,960,326
Public buildings, schools, and sites19,502,017
Roads and highways40,102,105
Harbours and lighthouses2,218,799
State forests3,387,438
Housing20,618,945
Land settlement and improvement32,286,592
Shares in Bank of New Zealand875,000
Shares in Reserve Bank of New Zealand1,129,785
Investment in State Advances Corporation35,173,859
Share in Nauru and Ocean Island phosphates213,840
Development of mining1,161,195
Tourist resorts780,414
Immigration1,698,019
War and defence*105,344,680
Miscellaneous assets and services8,367,627
Cash and investments in hand3,683,966
  Total£385,397,733

MOVEMENT IN PUBLIC DEBT DURING 1941–42.—During the year 1941–42 transactions in connection with the public debt resulted in the following movements.

Increases—

 External.Internal.Total.
Public Works—£££
  General purposes 6,037,3516,037,351
  Electric supply 1,619,7941,619,794
Main highways 257,070257,070
Iron and steel industry 8,0008,000
State coal-mines 130,000130,000
State forests 200,000200,000
War expenses8,284,05123,483,35831,767,409
Housing 3,700,0003,700,000
Issues for renewal, conversion, and redemption of loans 18,437,93418,437,934
Costs, charges, &c., of conversions and redemptions 2,835,1232,835,123
  Total increase8,284,05156,708,63064,992,681
Total decrease12,917,37716,105,14629,022,523
Net movement-4,633,326+40,603,484+35,970,158

The increase of £40,603,484 in respect of internal or New Zealand domiciled debt was made up of £32,375,784 in long-term debt, and of £8,227,700 in floating debt.

PUBLIC DEBT CONVERSION.—A scheme of conversion of practically the whole of the locally domiciled debt bearing interest higher than 4 per cent. was successfully carried out in the early part of 1933. Holders had the option of dissenting, but interest on the dissented portion was made subject to an interest-tax of 33⅓ per cent. Holders who signified neither assent nor dissent were regarded as having assented.

On the new securities issued in lieu of converted securities the interest-rate is 4 per cent. per annum, except that in the case of securities exempt from income tax the rate is 3½ per cent. until expiration of the period of exemption and 4 per cent. thereafter. The new securities were spread over six maturity dates as follows:—

  • 15th January, 1940.

  • 15th March, 1943.*

  • 15th February, 1946.

  • 15th April, 1949.

  • 15th May, 1952.*

  • 15th June, 1955.

* For securities exempt from income-tax.

In cases where interest was reduced by not more than 20 per cent., the new securities issued were for the same amount of principal as the converted securities. Where the reduction of interest amounted to more than 20 per cent., the holder received a premium, the conversion scheme thus involving a slight increase (£491,254) in the aggregate gross debt.

The amount of debt to which the conversion scheme applied was £115,000,000. Actual assent to conversion was given in respect of some £110,000,000, and implied assent to approximately £5,000,000, dissents expressed covering only £480,000, or less than ½ per cent. of the total.

The successful conversion of £5,000,000 5-per-cent. debt into 3½-per-cent. securities at £97 in October, 1933, was the only external debt operation undertaken during the fiscal year 1933–34.

During 1934–35 and 1935–36 further conversion operations were carried out in respect of external debt. The first comprised £3,989,100 of 4-per-cent. stock, which was converted to 3½-per-cent. stock at par in October, 1934. The second and larger operation concerned £10,135,800 of 5-per-cent. stock maturing in 1945 but with a right to redeem on or after 1st July, 1935. Of this, £8,000,000 was converted to 3-per-cent. stock at £98½, and the remainder (£2,135,800) redeemed.

On 1st August, 1936, the right accrued to redeem £5,869,989 of 6-per-cent. stock, and of this £4,000,000 was converted to 3-per-cent. stock at £98½, and the remainder (£1,869,989) redeemed, mainly by the utilization of funds in the Public Debt Repayment Account.

During the year 1936–37 opportunity was taken to exercise the right to repay £12,426,875 of 4-per-cent. 1937–40 stock and debentures domiciled in New Zealand. Cash and conversion applications totalled £11,440,249, and the balance required for redemption was found by the issue of Treasury bills for £925,000, and by the utilization of £61,626 from debt-redemption resources.

Stock to the value of £17,173,191 fell due in London on the 1st January, 1940, and to meet this the Government arranged for the issue of a £16,000,000 sterling cash and conversion loan bearing interest at 3½ per cent. per annum at £99 per cent. The remainder of the £17,173,191 was held by New Zealand institutions, and other arrangements were made for its conversion.

1941 Conversion Loans.—Conversion of New Zealand domiciled stock nearing maturity was provided for in the 1941 Conversion Loans, the prospectus of which was issued on 15th May, 1941. Two classes of stock were issued in this case—namely, 3¼ per cent. stock issued at £97 per cent. and repayable on 15th September, 1957–60, and 3 per cent. stock issued at par and repayable on the 15th September, 1946–48.

Stock was issued in multiples of £5, and any stock or debentures subject to the offer but not converted was to be repaid at par on the respective conversion dates.

WAR LOANS.—The first war loan in respect of the present war resulted in stock to the value of £9,282,607 being issued. Applications for stock, which was issued at £100 per cent., were required to be lodged by 8th November, 1940; £30 per cent. being payable on application, £40 per cent. on 16th December, 1940 and the remaining £30 per cent. on 25th March, 1941. Stock of this issue is non-interest bearing up to the 1st October, 1943, thereafter bearing interest at the rate of 2½ per cent. The maturity date of this stock is 1st October, 1953, but stock issued to a person will be accepted at par at any time before maturity in payment of death duties in respect of that person's estate.

The minimum basis of subscription was an amount equivalent to the amount of income-tax payable in respect of income derived during the year ended 31st March, 1939, decreased by £50 in the case of individuals, and £70 in the case of companies. The minimum subscription was to be calculated to the nearest £10, and tax-free income was treated as having been subject to income taxation for the purpose of ascertaining this minimum.

Persons who prior to the issue of the prospectus had made interest-free loans to the War Expenses Account were offered an equal nominal amount of stock of this issue, while persons who had made gifts to the War Expenses Account were allowed to reduce their contributions to this loan by the amount of such gift.

An internal loan of £10,000,000 (oversubscribed by £200,000) for war purposes was floated in August, 1941. Two classes of stock were offered to the public, both of which were obtainable in fully-paid allotments or in instalment allotments. The instalment arrangement was as follows: £20 per cent. on application, £30 per cent. on 1st October, 1941, £30 per cent. on 3rd November, 1941, and £20 on 1st December, 1941. Stock bearing interest at the rate of 2½ per cent. and repayable on 1st August, 1946, was offered at par, and stock bearing interest at the rate of 3 per cent. repayable on 1st August, 1951–54, was also offered at par.

Stock was issued in the following forms, and applicants were given the right of choice: (a) Registered stock transferable by memorandum of transfer; (b) stock certificates to bearer with coupons annexed; (c) death-duty stock.

Early in May, 1942, the “1st Liberty Loan” of £15,000,000 was floated for war purposes, and was oversubscribed to the extent of over £2,500,000. It was issued at £100 per cent. in two classes—2½-per-cent. stock repayable on 15th September, 1947, and 3-per-cent. stock repayable on 15th September, 1952–55. Subscriptions were payable in full on application or by instalments, in which case £30 per cent. was payable on application, £40 per cent. on 30th June, 1942, and £30 per cent. on 28th July, 1942. The minimum subscription was £10. Stock was issued in the same forms as the previous loan.

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT LOANS.—In January, 1941, applications were invited for subscription to national development loans. Two classes of stock were issued—namely, 3¼-per-cent. stock issued at £97 5s. per cent. and repayable on 15th January, 1956–59, and 3-per-cent. stock issued at par and repayable on 15th July, 1945.

The proceeds of these loans are being utilized for general developmental purposes, comprising railway construction and improvement, hydro-electric development, land development and afforestation, housing, roads and highways, public buildings, and telegraph and telephone extension.

DOMICILE OF DEBT.—Between the 31st March, 1914, and the 31st March, 1942, the amount of New Zealand's public debt domiciled in London increased from 78½ to 154 million pounds, while that domiciled in New Zealand increased from 17 to 231 million pounds. The amount domiciled in Australia, never considerable, has declined to negligible proportions. The table following shows, for each of the last eleven years, the amount of outstanding debt domiciled in London, Australia, and New Zealand.

At 31st March,Amount.Percentage of Total.
London.Australia.New Zealand.London.Australia.New Zealand.
 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1932159,641,8553,914,550118,386,39556·621·3941·99
1933161,400,7032,868,710118,353,54557·111·0141·88
1934160,908,1052,908,150138,975,74153·140·9645·90
1935160,972,2302,183,550117,425,43757·370·7841·85
1936158,711,9301,592,650122,256,51856·170·5643·27
1937156,737,016891,900130,041,28454·480·3145·21
1938156,857,016882,600132,461,72654·050·3145·64
1939156,853,016879,600146,237,65651·600·2948·11
1940157,863,270879,600164,164,66648·890·2750·84
1941158,371,589879,600190,176,38645·320·2554·43
1942153,755,563862,300230,779,87039·900·2259·88

As a result of operations during 1941–42 the debt domiciled in New Zealand recorded an increase of £40,603,484, while that domiciled in London and Australia recorded decreases of £4,616,026 and £17,300 respectively.

MATURITY YEARS OF DEBT.—The maturity years of the debt outstanding at the 31st March, 1942, are shown in the following statement, which distinguishes between the various countries of domicile.

Maturity Date.Due inTotal Debt.
From 1st April,To 31st March,London.Australia.New Zealand.
Public.Departmental.

* Government has option to redeem on or after the earlier date on giving notice.

† Advances by Imperial Government for State Advances purposes.

‡ Interest-free loans are for various periods, the majority being for the duration of the war and six months thereafter.

§ Funded debt—repayable by instalments.

  £££££
Overdue   38,685 38,685
Treasury bills   24,590,00014,371,00038,961,000
Memoranda of security 2,818,035   2,818,035
Advance subscriptions   1,683,550 1,683,550
1925*19462,090,909†   2,090,909
194019458,944,300   8,944,300
1942*1946  9,208,995631,8609,840,855
1942*196310,505,989 378,639 10,884,628
194319447,339,656   7,339,656
194419457,780,408 249,66012,6108,042,678
1945194622,543,590 2,534,668 25,078,258
19461947  3,679,8031,317,6634,997,466
1946*1949  5,526,680770,3806,297,060
1946*1950  8,302,425660,7808,963,205
1947194811,341,60983,3002,476,6501,501,60015,403,159
1947*195819,225,465   19,225,465
19481949  4,960,69044,0005,004,690
1948*19546,156,701   6,156,701
194919507,500,000   7,500,000
1949*1953  12,484,105 12,484,105
195019511,250,000779,000250,000 2,279,000
19511955  6,663,910233,3306,897,240
1952*195612,000,000 7,974,0051,524,77021,498,775
1952*1957  6,800,2252,315.7659,115,990
19531954  10,016,29644010,016,736
19541959  5,198,960339,1505,538,110
19551956  750461,700462,450
1955*1959  5,892,090383,5906,275,680
1955*19615,145,801   5,145,801
1956195712,900 2,7102,586,5302,602,140
1956*19725,000,000   5,000,000
19571958  10,55021,144,31821,154,868
1957*1961  14,340,815287,43014,628,245
19581959  4,50038,104,82938,109,329
19591960   9,309,2509,309,250
19601961  264,950 264,950
Interest-free‡   1,244,564 1,244,564
§1946§577,447   §577,447
§1958§23,522,753   §23,522,753
  Totals 153,755,563862,300134,778,87596,000,995385,397,733

PRICES OF NEW ZEALAND STOCKS.—The highest and lowest London prices for the principal New Zealand stocks, taken over a range of five years, are quoted.

Rate per Cent.Maturing.Highest.Lowest.
1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.

* Redeemed or converted.

  ££££££££££
3194598⅜97 7/1692 5/1698½99⅞93 9/1685 15/1681½92½95 5/16
31952–5597⅞89 15/1683¼93⅛96 3/1688⅛74½69 7/168490½
1939–45   100 11/16100 15/16   97¾99
1940101 13/16101 7/16100¾**98 13/1697 11/1690½**
41943–63102¾100⅜93 5/16101½101½98 9/1683 7/1677 9/1696⅛96⅜
1944105 1/16103 15/16100½103103100⅜94¼89 15/1697 9/1698⅜
1945105 5/16103 15/16100½103103100⅜94⅛89 15/1697 9/1698 3/16
1947106 9/16104 7/1699103 13/16103 13/1610192⅜88⅜98 5/1699 5/16
1948–58106 1/16103¾98½104¾104¾100¾90⅛84⅞96 9/1698 9/16
51946109 1/16107 7/16102 3/16105 7/16105 7/16103 7/169791 1/1699 15/16100½
51949112 13/16109 7/16102 7/16106106¾105¼97½90⅞99 13/16101⅞
51956-71    114⅜    109¼

INTEREST.—Of the public debt outstanding at 31st March, 1932, approximately 30 per cent. of the total bore interest at a rate of 4 per cent. or lower. As a result of conversion operations and of a general decline in interest rates for new money, the amount of debt at the 31st March, 1942, bearing interest at a rate of 4 per cent. or under was £284,895,771, or 74 per cent. of the total. The rates of interest on the debt as at the 31st March, 1942, were as given below.

Rate of Interest per Cent.Debt maturing in—Total.Gross Annual Interest Charge.
London.Australia.New Zealand.

*Free of interest to 1st October, 1943, and thereafter at 2½ per cent. to 1st October, 1953.

†Funded debt.

 £££££
Overdue  35,88035,880 
Free  1,244,5641,244,564 
Advance subscriptions  1,683,5501,683,550 
*  10,016,73710,016,737*
1  5,000,0005,000,00050,000
  33,961,00033,961,000509,415
  14,680,70014,680,700367,016
324,488,415 65,041,59689,530,0112,685,900
  20,903,92520,903,925679,376
20,246,802 18,615,29138,862,0931,360,172
  380,000380,00014,250
410,505,989 58,091,32268,597,3112,743,892
447,458,547 2,20547,460,7522,135,732
£4 19s. 5·88d.†24,100,200  24,100,2001,193,230
525,705,61083,3001,122,50026,911,4101,345,570
1,250,000779,0006002,029,600111,628
    Totals153,755,563862,300230,779,870385,397,73313,196,181

The total annual amount of interest payable on the public debt as at the 31st March, 1942, including the funded debt (payments in respect of which are at present in abeyance), is £13,196,181, which gives an average rate of £3 8s. 6d. per £100. The total interest and the average rate per cent. payable on the debt domiciled in the various markets are:—

 Total.Average Rate.
 ££s.d.
London (sterling)6,546,423452
Australia47,010590
New Zealand6,602,7482173

The actual net interest payments during the last twenty years out of the Consolidated Fund Ordinary Revenue Account are shown in the table following, together with the rate per head of mean population. The figures for recent years have been affected by the discontinuance of payments on the funded debt, by conversion operations, and (adversely) in some years by the existence of Treasury bills of considerable proportions.

Year ended 31st March,Amount.Rate per Head.
 ££s.d.
19237,904,260607
19247,877,5975181
19257,865,2625158
19268,129,79951610
19278,450,79451811
19288,397,0745164
19298,675,22051810
19309,136,301638
19319,266,676638
19329,035,0255191
19338,498,6815111
19348,836,4675147
19358,023,813533
19367,730,1944189
19377,604,4694164
19387,673,0714163
19397,500,5154131
19407,982,5054179
19418,152,5864198
19428,722,808570

The above amounts are net payments out of the Consolidated Fund only, and do not comprise the whole of the interest payments in respect of moneys raised by way of loans. For loans raised for the purposes of State advances to settlers, workers, local authorities, &c., the interest, although made a charge upon the Consolidated Fund, is recovered from the receipts derived from interest paid by borrowers. Other loan-money coming within the same category is that raised for land-settlement, State coal-mines, the development of water-power, and a number of other purposes. Such interest does not become a burden upon the taxpayer, and consequently is not included in the figures upon which the rate per head of mean population is calculated.

The gross interest charges borne by the Consolidated Fund during the year ended 31st March, 1942, totalled £11,503,882, of which £2,781,074 was recovered from other accounts, &c. There should be set off against the interest charges certain amounts shown in the public accounts not as recoveries but as revenue. These are interest on railway capital liability (£1,820,000), interest on post and telegraph capital liability (£667,196), and interest earned on the investment of public moneys (£582,602).

Of the gross interest payments from the Consolidated Fund during 1941–42, £5,319,696 was paid in London and £86,598 in New Zealand in respect of debt domiciled in London. A gross interest payment of £47,399 was made in Australia in respect of debt domiciled in that country, while £6,050,189 was paid within the Dominion in respect of the internal debt. The figure for payments in London represents interest only, exchange being additional. At the instance of the Imperial Government, no payments have been made for some years past in respect of the funded debt (vide later reference).

Administration and management charges in respect of debt services amounted to £134,018 in 1941–42, and net payments on guaranteed loans amounted to £437. Amortization charges are shown under the next heading.

AMORTIZATION OF DEBT: Public Debt Repayment.—With certain exceptions, the public debt is now subject to the provisions of the Repayment of the Public Debt Act, 1925. This Act, which repealed the Public Debt Extinction Act, 1910, substituted for the long-term sinking-fund system a method whereby the Dominion's debt reduction resources may be available to purchase and cancel Government securities as the market price becomes advantageous, or pay them off at maturity. For this purpose there is issued annually out of the Consolidated Fund a sum equal to ½ per cent. of the debt effected as at the 31st March, plus ½ per cent. of the total amount previously repaid or redeemed under the provisions of the Act. To this is added a sum equal to interest at 3½ per cent. per annum on the debt paid off under the scheme. The bulk of the savings in interest on debt paid off is thus applied to further repayments of debt.

Under the Act of 1925 a capital fund termed “The Public Debt Redemption Fund” was created, consisting of (1) the accumulations of sinking funds, amounting to £11,225,645 (leaving aside the State Advances, Westport Harbour, and other special sinking funds); (2) the amount advanced out of surplus revenue for discharged soldiers' settlement, originally £13,500,000, but later reduced to £2,000,000 through £4,850,000 having been transferred to the Consolidated Fund, £4,000,000 used for debt redemptions, and £2,650,000 written off as a result of the revaluation of the properties of discharged soldiers. The £2,000,000 remaining under this heading is represented by a contingent liability of the State Advances Corporation. The net earnings from the Public Debt Redemption Fund are credited to the Consolidated Fund and applied towards meeting the charge against that fund created by the Act.

The Act does not apply to the whole of the public debt, revenue bills and certain classes of the debt for which there are special amortization provisions being excluded. The latter include funded debt, loans raised for State advances, and loans raised in respect of electric supply. Of the total gross indebtedness of £227,814,647 at the 31st March, 1925, £174,128,135 was subject to the operation of the Act. The amount subject to the operation of the Act as at the 31st March, 1942, was £309,132,696.

To the 31st March, 1942, securities of a nominal value of £24,338,708 had been redeemed under the Repayment of the Public Debt Act. These transactions have effected a considerable annual saving of interest to the Consolidated Fund.

The following table shows the operations of the Public Debt Repayment Account during each of the last five years, together with the interest earnings of the Redemption Fund. In addition to transfers from the Consolidated Fund, the Public Debt Repayment Account is credited with interest earnings (£6,170 to 31st March, 1942) on its investments. On the expenditure side there have been £242 for cost of exchange, and transfers of £23,672 to the Consolidated Fund in respect of premiums on exchange. The account had an unexpended balance of £319,969 at 31st March, 1942.

Year ended 31st March,Interest on Redemption Fund (paid to Consolidated Fund).Transfers from Consolidated Fund.Utilized to redeem and cancel Securities.Nominal Value of Securities redeemed and cancelled.
½ per Cent. of Debt at Beginning of Year or redeemed under Act.3½ per Cent. of Debt redeemed.Total.
Prior to Beginning of Year.During Year.*

* Computed from dates of redemption.

 £££££££
1938463,8661,150,979523,7205,0751,679,7741,713,8111,713,811
1939392,4861,167,668583,7042,7511,754,1231,756,6171,756,617
1940445,5561,245,421645,1851,7711,892,3771,878,2171,878,217
1941396,5201,348,234710,92314,8552,074,0621,178,2281,178,228
1942396,5661,480,333752,16122,6142,255,1082,848,3972,848,397

The funds in the Public Debt Repayment Account are not the only source from which debt-redemptions are made. Other accounts provided £7,740,965 for redemption purposes in 1941–42.

Amortization of Funded Debt.—At the 31st March, 1922, £27,532,164 of New Zealand's public debt was owing to the British Government, all but £1,191,919 of this being on account of war expenditure. Arrangements were made with the Imperial Government in 1922 for the funding of this debt.

The funding was carried out on an annuity basis of 6 per cent., the total payment each year (payable half-yearly at 1st June and 1st December) being £1,651,930. Interest is at the rate of £4 19s. 5·88d. per cent., the balance of the 6 per cent. going to reduction of the debt.

Under the agreement the original amount of £27,532,164 would have been automatically discharged from the public debt by the end of the financial year 1958–59. The British Government, however, following the Hoover proposals regarding war debts, voluntarily suspended New Zealand's obligations in respect of the funded-debt payments due in and since December, 1931. On the other hand, a provision that any part of the funded debt may be redeemed at any time was taken advantage of in 1924, when £200,000 was paid off the Naval Defence Loan.

At the date of suspension, total payments amounted to £15,067,370 of which £11,635,405 represented interest payments and £3,431,965 (including the £200,000 additional paid off Naval Defence Loan) reduction of principal, leaving the outstanding balance of the funded debt at £24,100,199.

The provisions of the Repayment of the Public Debt Act, 1925, do not apply to the funded debt.

Sinking Funds.—Special sinking funds exist in respect of certain classes of debts not covered by the Repayment of the Public Debt Act.

NET INDEBTEDNESS.—While the sinking funds were annually increasing it was customary to regard the net-indebtedness figures as giving the best comparison of indebtedness between one year and another. The initiation of the present system of amortization, however, destroyed the comparison on this basis, and the gross figures (as shown at the beginning of this subsection) now afford a better and more comparable index. The figures of net indebtedness for the last eleven years are as follows:—

As at 31st March,Amount.Per Head of Population.
 ££s.d.
1932279,123,680182194
1933279,380,638181130
1934299,681,54919367
1935277,443,516177148
1936279,277,670177810
1937284,839,92517992
1938288,971,29218021
1939303,553,444186168
1940322,146,63319666
1941348,021,3622121311
1942384,555,798235511

In general the net indebtedness shown in the foregoing table is merely the balance left after deducting from the amount of debentures and stock in circulation the accrued sinking funds, and the net balances of the Loans Redemption Account and of the Public Debt Repayment Account. No allowance is made for the fact that a portion of the debt is actually held by the Government itself. In the course of the year's financial transactions securities are bought and sold by Treasury accounts, and the investments held as at the 31st March in each year, while forming part of the debt, do not represent amounts due directly or indirectly to the public. Public debt held by Treasury accounts as at the 31st March of the last five years has been: 1938, £3,122,237; 1939, £4,495,421; 1940, £4,809,199; 1941, £15,022,117; and 1942, £12,063,199.

The Minister of Finance also holds stock—amounting to £35,395,750 on the 31st March, 1942—issued by the State Advances Corporation as consideration for securities taken over from the State Advances Office and from the Discharged Soldiers' Settlement Account.

GENERAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT DEBT.—The statistics given throughout this subsection refer to the indebtedness of the General Government only, and do not include the debt of local-governing authorities, which is dealt with in the section of this volume relating to local government.

Local-governing authorities had at the 31st March, 1941, a gross indebtedness of £70,172,756, and if this amount be added to the gross debt of the General Government at 31st March, 1941 (£349,427,575) the aggregate becomes £419,600,331. Allowing for duplication on account of outstanding loans to local authorities from the State Advances Corporation and the Main Highways Board, and inscribed debt under the Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, the total is reduced to approximately £412,000,000, which represents a rate of approximately £250 per head of population.

The figures relating to local authorities' indebtedness in the foregoing paragraph are inclusive of Hospital Boards, and to this extent differ from those given in the section on local government. Hospital Board indebtedness at 31st March, 1941, totalled £2,198,069.

SUBSECTION D.—STATE ADVANCES.

As is shown in Subsection C of this section, an appreciable proportion of the public debt of New Zealand is represented by money borrowed by the State not for its own requirements, but for the purpose of lending out at easy rates of interest for various defined purposes.

As early as 1892 the Government commenced the purchase of lands for cutting up for sale or lease to private individuals, and two years later the passing of the Advances to Settlers Act, 1894, marked the inauguration of a series of schemes for lending money to settlers, workers, &c., for the purchase of homes, the improvement of farms, and the development of resources and of industries. The schemes varied considerably in detail, but all lay in one of two main classes—those in which the money was advanced on security, and those in which the expenditure was incurred by the Government itself in the first place and recouped from sales or leases. Advances to settlers, workers, and discharged soldiers are the principal examples of the former class, and the purchase of land for settlements (including the settlement of discharged soldiers) is the principal of the latter.

Of the advances proper, most classes are now administered by a Department known as the State Advances Corporation, and the accounts relating to these are not included in the Public Account, nor are they dealt with in Subsection A of this section. The various systems of advances administered by the State Advances Corporation are dealt with in the present subsection. A brief description of the system of advances to discharged soldiers for settlement purposes is outlined in the section of this book dealing with land tenure and settlement, while particulars of advances for mining purposes are given in the section relating to mining. Mortgage securities under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act have been transferred to the State Advances Corporation, and are dealt with in this subsection.

Under the Mortgage Corporation of New Zealand Act, 1934–35, the State Advances Department was virtually abolished, practically the whole of its operations being taken over by the Mortgage Corporation. The State Advances Corporation Act, 1936 (described under the next heading), effected what practically amounted to a reversion to the traditional State advances system.

STATE ADVANCES CORPORATION.—The Mortgage Corporation of New Zealand Act, 1934–35, authorized the creation of a Corporation under a Board composed of directors appointed partly by the State and partly by the shareholders of the Corporation.

By the State Advances Corporation Act, 1936, the private capital invested in the Mortgage Corporation was cancelled, provision being made for repayment to shareholders in respect of shares held in the Corporation. The capital of the Corporation was maintained at £1,000,000, however, by an investment from the Consolidated Fund, while all securities issued by the Corporation carry a State guarantee. The management of the Corporation is vested in a Board of Directors consisting of two joint managing directors appointed by the Governor-General in Council, one or more other directors similarly appointed, and an ex officio member (necessarily a Treasury official) appointed by the Minister of Finance. In the exercise of its powers, the Board is enjoined to have regard to any representations that may be made by the Minister of Finance. Every direction in writing given by the Minister is binding on the Board.

The change in administration and the institution of a State guarantee on securities issued by the Corporation represented the major alterations to the preexisting law. All the functions of the Mortgage Corporation were transferred to the new body, while certain extensions of function were made—e.g., the administration of the Housing Act, 1919. Following is a résumé of the principal functions of the State Advances Corporation:—

The Corporation administers the State Advances, &c., loans previously transferred to the pre-existing Mortgage Corporation, viz.—

  1. Mortgages in respect of advances to settlers or workers under the State Advances Act, 1913:

  2. Mortgages in respect of advances under the Rural Advances Act, 1926:

  3. Debentures or other securities vested in the State Advances Superintendent in respect of advances to local authorities under Part III of the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926, or corresponding provisions of former Acts:

  4. Crown mortgages in respect of advances under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, or any amendments thereof (including advances under section 11 of the Finance Act, 1933):

  5. Crown mortgages in respect of advances made out of the Land for Settlements Account by direction of the Lands Development Board established under Part I of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1929.

In addition, all other mortgages of land or any other securities held by the State Advances Superintendent or by the Crown as security for loans made out of the State Advances Account or out of the Public Account have been transferred to the Corporation.

The Corporation may advance on mortgage, generally speaking, up to two-thirds of the value of the security, with provision for the extension of the limit in certain cases. In such instances the Minister of Finance guarantees the Corporation against any loss attributable to the excess of the loan over two-thirds of the security. In order to provide finance the Corporation may issue bonds, stock, or other securities, which are State guaranteed. In addition to its primary function of providing cheap long-term finance in the form of first mortgages on property, the Corporation may now make loans to local authorities out of the Housing Account for purposes of erecting workers' dwellings. It may also make advances for the following purposes: The development of existing industries or the establishment of new industries; assistance to war industries; financing increased production; rehabilitation of ex-servicemen.

Loans are, in general, secured by table mortgage for a term not exceeding fifty years, though in certain instances a flat mortgage for a period not exceeding five years may be granted. There is provision for varying the scheme of table mortgages in special circumstances, part of the mortgage (at least one-half) to be in the form of a table mortgage and the remainder a flat mortgage falling due on the date of the last instalment of the table mortgage.

A mortgagor may be required to effect a policy of life insurance as additional security, such policy to be assigned to the Corporation. A mortgagor may not give any subsequent mortgage or any other charge over land subject to any mortgage to the Corporation, except with the written authority of the Board.

The Board is required from time to time to fix the rates of interest to be paid under mortgages to the Corporation, so as to make adequate provision to cover the costs of administration and for all other matters incidental to the proper functioning of the Corporation. After such provision as the Minister of Finance thinks proper has been made for the depreciation of securities or other assets, and for such other matters as in his opinion are necessary for the efficient conduct of the business of the Corporation, the surplus for each financial year is to be paid into the Public Account unless the Minister, in his discretion, authorizes the Board to credit it, in whole or in part, to the General Reserve Fund of the Corporation.

Each mortgagor is required to pay in cash or to borrow, as an addition to the capital sum, 2 per cent. of any mortgage granted by the Corporation. These amounts, together with the surplus profits referred to above, and certain payments on account of mortgages transferred to the Corporation, form the General Reserve Fund.

The Corporation is empowered to administer the Housing Act, 1919 (see Section 37—Labour Laws and Allied Legislation), and a brief summary of operations under the Act is given further on in this section. By Order in Council, dated the 5th March, 1937, the Board of Management of the State Advances Corporation was constituted the Rural Intermediate Credit Board established under the Rural Intermediate Credit Act, 1927, superseding the Public Trust Office, which had administered the Board's business since the inception of the scheme in 1927. The change in control took effect as from 1st July, 1937.

The State Advances Corporation Act, 1936, provides, as has already been mentioned, for the granting of loans for the development or establishment of industries in the Dominion and for assistance to war industries. Applications under this heading are investigated in the first instance by the Bureau of Industry, and must be approved by the Minister of Finance before being granted.

FINANCIAL.—Balance-sheet figures show that the authorized capital remained at £1,000,000, while stock and debentures outstanding at the 31st March, 1942, were valued at £46,115,730, a decrease of £654,180 as compared with the position at 31st March, 1941. This decrease is due to a redemption of part of the Corporation's short-dated stock issue.

The general reserve fund at 31st March, 1942, amounted to £3,729,709, and, in addition, there were specific reserves amounting to £479,483, making the total reserves £4,209,192, as compared with £4,137,714 at 31st March, 1941.

Mortgages and accrued interest at 31st March, 1942, totalled £48,115,511, a decrease of £1,393,759 as compared with 31st March, 1941, while Government and local-authority securities at £5,840,896 were less to the extent of £304,950.

The total number of loans under administration at 31st March, 1942, was 64,017, briefly classified into:—

 Total Number.Total Amount. £
Urban securities42,03324,792,212
Rural securities19,93623,352,298
Local-authority securities2,0485,778,827

In addition, the Corporation is responsible for the management of approximately 14,350 tenancies, the bulk of which are in respect of houses erected under the Government's housing programme.

The disposition and appropriation of profits in respect of operations during the year ended 31st March, 1942, are given in the following table.

Amount.Percentage of Stock Issue plus Capital.Percentage of Gross Earnings.Percentage of Gross Profits.
 ££s.d.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Gross earnings2,323,1044184100·00 
  Less capital charges—Interest1,703,335312173·32 
Gross profits619,76916326·68100·00
Less—      
  Management expenses and depreciation of fixed assets241,419010310·3938·95
  War damage insurance42,88601101·856·92
  Administration of Rehabilitation Advance1,6140010·070·26
  Reserve for losses50,2810212·168·11
  Surplus for year 1941–42283,569012012·2145·76
  Less Income, National-security, and Social-security Tax Reserve145,000     
Surplus due to Crown138,569     

Interest on mortgages, current accounts, and local-authority securities for the year 1941–42 amounted to £2,310,530, a reduction of £60,175 as compared with 1940–41. This was due mainly to a decrease in investments and to repayments of principal by mortgagors and local authorities being in excess of new loans granted during the year. Interest payable on stock and debentures, at £1,561,045, showed a decrease of £6,068 as compared with 1940–41, this being accounted for by a net decrease of £654,180 in the stock issue.

New Business.—A summary of loan operations (new business) is given in the following table.

Loans Authorized.Year ended March, 1941.Year ended March, 1942.Total, 1st August, 1935, to 31st March, 1942.
Number.Value.Number.Value.Number.Value.
Urban securities— £ £ £
  Refinance2420,780174124,0263,9102,426,458
  Erection of dwellings907888,975622630,7897,8006,968,860
  Other purposes17078,534280191,9202,3571,477,637
    Total urban1,101988,2891,076946,73514,06710,872,955
Rural securities—      
  Refinance1868,11085231,3422,5155,811,114
  Other purposes391374,634166203,4012,0592,147,733
    Total rural409442,744251434,7434,5747,958,847
Loans to industry (under Section 29)  537,0001044,170
Grand totals1,5101,431,0331,3321,418,47818,65118,875,972

The lending-rate of the Corporation for loans on mortgage was maintained at 4⅛ per cent. during 1941–42. As has already been mentioned, loans are in general secured by table mortgages for varying periods. The following summary shows the annual cost—i.e., interest and principal payments—per £100 borrowed on table mortgage for the various periods:—

Term.Annual Amount payable.
 £s.d.
10 years1262
15 years902
20 years7710
25 years690
30 years51610
35 years586
40 years526
45 years4182

The terms of lending for home-building were varied during the year 1937–38 to encourage the erection of further houses. New provisions were—

  • The previous restriction, limiting advances to persons earning less than £300 per annum (with an increased income limit in the case of those with large families), was removed.

  • The maximum loan was increased from £1,000 to £1,250, with special provision for an increase beyond that figure in cases of large families.

  • Provided the applicant could make a reasonable cash contribution towards the cost of a section and dwelling and the proposal was otherwise acceptable, no limit was placed on the percentage to be advanced.

  • Where little or no cash could be provided by the applicant, he would be considered for a tenancy of a State rental house if such would be available within a reasonable period.

  • Advances on special loan were to be subject to the Corporation being satisfied as to the character and creditworthiness of the applicant, and the suitability of the section and proposed house.

  • Ownership of an existing dwelling was to disqualify an applicant for a special loan.

  • Transfer of a property subject to a special loan must be subject to consent of the Corporation, and profit on sale would not be permitted.

  • Instalments were to be collected at convenient intervals, where possible as a deduction from wages.

Special plans prepared by leading architects are available in book form, and assistance in calling tenders and in the erection of the houses is available from the Corporation's expert officers.

Adjustment of Mortgage Liabilities.—Information concerning the adjustment of mortgages and the relief granted to the Corporation's mortgagors consequent upon the operation of the Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act, 1936, may be found in the 1941 (page 536) and previous issues of the Year-Book.

Reverted Securities.—The number of reverted securities in the hands of the Corporation at 31st March, 1942, as mortgagee in possession was 3,816, for an aggregate book value of £3,525,599. Of these, 3,631, valued at £3,330,373, were urban properties, and 185, valued at £195,226, rural properties. Comparable figures at 31st March, 1941, were 3,849 urban properties, valued at £3,332,554, and 152 rural properties, valued at £234,910.

DISCHARGED SOLDIERS SETTLEMENT MORTGAGES.—By Order in Council dated the 5th August, 1936, provision was made for the transfer of mortgages under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act to the State Advances Corporation. The transfer of securities under this heading was completed during 1937–38.

In consideration of the transfer of these assets, State Advances Corporation 3⅜-per-cent. stock was issued to the Crown. The difference between the book value of the securities transferred and the value of stock issued represents a contingent liability of the Corporation to the Crown.

SOLDIERS FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE BOARD.—In January, 1940, the Government appointed a Board consisting of seven members to administer funds to be made available for the assistance of soldiers (and their dependants) who are unable to meet essential commitments from their own resources. Arrangements were made for the clerical and investigation work in connection with applications for assistance to be undertaken by the staff of the State Advances Corporation, which is represented on the Board.

All the incidental financial arrangements, including the payment of grants approved by the Board, are undertaken by the Corporation, the necessary funds being drawn from the War Expenses Account. Up to 31st March, 1942, 7,686 applications had been lodged, and authorizations to that date amounted to £192,174, while amounts written off through various causes totalled £7,775.

RURAL INTERMEDIATE CREDIT.—The Rural Intermediate Credit Act, which was passed during the 1927 session of Parliament and came into force on the 1st January, 1928, provided for the setting-up of a special Rural Intermediate Credit Board and the making of advances as follows:—

  1. To members of co-operative rural intermediate credit associations, whose formation (with not less than twenty members and with certain defined objects) is provided for. The application for the loan is received and considered by the association concerned, which, on approving it, applies to the Board to advance the amount required to cover the loan. The term of the loan is for not more than five years. An association may arrange with a bank or other approved financial institution for a loan in cases where the term is less than six months.

  2. To persons engaged in farming operations on their own account, or to trustees, executors, or administrators carrying on farming operations, the loan (for certain specified purposes and for a term of not more than five years) being advanced direct.

  3. To co-operative societies (with not less than thirty members and with a subscribed capital of at least £2,500) having for their principal objects the production or sale of staple agricultural or pastoral products.

  4. The Board may discount bills and promissory notes drawn or made by farmers, provided these are endorsed by guarantors approved by the Board.

Up to the present, operations have been confined to classes (a), (b), and (d), no advantage of the provisions of the Act having been taken by societies described in class (c).

The Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), authorized the Board, or an association with the consent of the Board, to grant an extension of time or other concession in the case of an existing loan. Every loan granted after 10th March, 1933, by the Board or an association may be repayable upon demand or by instalments, and upon such other conditions as the Board thinks fit.

The total amount of advance in force at any time to a member in class (a) was originally set down as not to exceed £1,000. This limit was extended to £2,000 by the Rural Intermediate Credit Amendment Act, 1929. In the case of co-operative associations, the amount advanced may be not more than 80 per cent. of the fair market value of the live-stock or produce upon which the loan is secured.

Pursuant to the provisions of Part VI of the State Advances Corporation Act, 1936, the former Rural Intermediate Credit Board went out of office on the 1st July, 1937, and was replaced by the Board of Management of the State Advances Corporation, the members of which now constitute the Rural Intermediate Credit Board. Branch officers of the Corporation had succeeded the Public Trust officials who acted as District Supervisors for the Rural Intermediate Credit Board, and to facilitate this the branch organization of the Corporation was further extended.

Apart from several consequential machinery amendments, the Act also enlarged the scope of the original Act of 1927 by repealing the limitation of £2,000 in respect of direct loans to farmers and also the stipulation requiring a collateral instrument of guarantee in respect of every such loan.

During the year ended 30th June, 1941, loans granted by associations amounted to £89,565, as compared with £70,016 in 1939–40. The number of such loans outstanding at 30th June, 1941, was 712, for an aggregate amount of £159,547.

Loans granted direct by the Board during 1940–41 totalled £6,700, as compared with £1,193 in the previous year. There were sixty direct loans, of a total value of £8,312, outstanding at 30th June, 1941.

In recent years the discounting of promissory notes made by farmers has been operated only in a minor degree. The total value of notes discounted during the year ended 30th June, 1941, was £769, and the amount of advances at that date was £650.

The total net assets at 30th June, 1941, amounted to £532,901. Included in this figure are advances (less reserves), £163,555; short-term investments, £95,000; Redemption Fund investments, £243,047; and cash, £28,814.

The interest fixed for advances other than to co-operative rural intermediate credit associations is now 5 per cent. per annum, this being also the discount rate. In the case of loans to co-operative rural intermediate credit associations the rate charged is 4½ per cent., so that associations may be in a position to make advances to their members at 5 per cent. The Board has imposed conditions as to the manner in which this margin of ½ per cent. is to be employed by the associations.

Advances totalling £400,000 have been received from the Consolidated Fund, and £262,900 was raised by debentures which have since been repaid, the only borrowed capital now held being that on loan from the Consolidated Fund. Of this, one-third is held in the Redemption Fund, which totalled £240,801 on 30th June, 1941.

HOUSING.—The Housing Act of 1919, authorizing the acquisition of land and the erection of dwellings for disposal by way of sale or lease, was originally administered by the Labour Department, but the sections relating to administration were repealed by the State Advances Amendment Act of 1922, and the powers of the Housing Superintendent and of the Housing Board were thereupon transferred to the State Advances Superintendent and to the State Advances Board. No provision was made in the Act constituting the Mortgage Corporation of New Zealand for the transfer of the administration of the Housing Act, which therefore remained under the jurisdiction of the State Advances Superintendent.

Provision was made in section 16 of the State Advances Corporation Act, 1936, for the transference of the powers, functions, duties, and obligations of the State Advances Superintendent and of the State Advances Board to the State Advances Corporation and to the Board of Management respectively.

Under the provisions of the 1936 Act the Housing Account was constituted a separate account, financed from Government sources, and quite distinct from the lending operations of the Corporation. The Corporation is empowered, in connection with housing services, to make such charge against the Housing Account as may from time to time be approved by the Minister of Finance. The Housing Account was opened with the Reserve Bank of New Zealand on the 1st July, 1936, by the transfer of moneys held in the State Advances Account on that date in connection with the Housing Act, 1919.

Information regarding the operations of the Housing Construction Branch may be found in Section 22, Building and Construction.

Chapter 24. SECTION 24.—SOCIAL SECURITY, PENSIONS, SUPERANNUATION, ETC.

Table of Contents

SOCIAL SECURITY.—Very important changes in the law relating to pensions, superannuation, and health services were introduced by the Social Security Act, 1938, which came into force on 1st April, 1939. The Act has two main objects:—

  1. To substitute for the previous system of non-contributory civil pensions a system of monetary benefits on a contributory basis:

  2. The inauguration of a system of medical and hospital benefits and of other related benefits.

The various classes of pensions, &c., which were superseded by monetary benefits of similar application were old-age pensions, widows' pensions, Maori War pensions, miners' pensions, invalidity pensions, and family allowances, while the unemployment benefit replaced the system of sustenance payments previously in force. In addition four new classes of benefit were inaugurated—the orphans' benefit, the sickness benefit, emergency benefits (for cases of hardship), and the universal superannuation benefit. A brief historical account of the various pensions mentioned above as having been replaced by the social security scheme is contained in the 1940 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 619–624).

Administration.—The Act established a Department of State entitled the Social Security Department, under the control of a Commission consisting of not more than three members. The Department administers under the direction of the Minister of Social Security that part of the Act dealing with monetary benefits referred to under No. (1) above, while that part of the Act dealing with medical, hospital, and other related benefits is administered by the Health Department under the direction of the Minister of Health.

The new Social Security Department replaced the old Pensions Department and absorbed the major portion of the Employment Division of the Department of Labour. The Act states that the Department may be divided into two or more divisions, and two have been created each under the control of a Director, one dealing with unemployment and sickness benefits, and the other with all other monetary benefits. The War Pensions Act, 1915, and its amendments, the War Pensions Extension Act, 1940, and the War Pensions and Allowances (Mercantile Marine Act, 1940), are also administered by the Social Security Department, one of whose directors is also designated Secretary for War Pensions. It should be noted, however, that, unlike the benefits under the Social Security Act, which are paid from the Social Security Fund (referred to later), war pensions are paid through the Consolidated Fund from general taxation.

Financial Provisions.—Finance to enable the provisions of the Act to be carried out is provided for by the establishment, within the Public Account, of the Social Security Fund. Subject to such exemptions as may be prescribed by Order in Council, every person of the age of sixteen years and over is required to register under the Act and to pay a registration fee. The fee payable by females and by males between sixteen and twenty years of age is 5s. per annum, and by males over twenty years of age 5s. per quarter. In addition to the registration fee, there is also payable to the fund a social security contribution of ld. for every sum of ls. 8d. or part thereof of salaries, wages, and other income, including the income of companies. Company income was not subject to the charge under the Employment Promotion Act, which the present legislation superseded. The Social Security Act also makes provision for the payment to the fund of such other moneys as may be appropriated by Parliament from time to time.

The Act provides that the assessment, collection, and recovery of the social security contribution shall be administered as if it were income-tax, and that the Commissioner and Deputy Commissioner of Taxes and all officers appointed for the purposes of the Land and Income Tax Act, 1926, shall have, in respect of the social security contribution, the same powers as they have in respect of income-tax, and all provisions of that Act shall apply with respect to the social security contribution in the same manner in all respects as with income-tax.

The revenue of the fund for the financial years 1939–40, 1940–41, and 1941–42 was made up as follows:—

 1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
 £££
Registration fees635,440604,179605,222
Charge on salaries and wages5,540,6436,174,0926,488,691
Charge on company income658,3731,107,3381,282,500
Charge on other income2,661,9042,828,1472,661,123
Penalties and fines33,23228,10526,320
Transfer of Consolidated Fund surplus (Finance Act, 1939)809,367  
Grants from Consolidated Fund (Social Security Act)1,000,0003,200,0003,600,000
Other receipts28,15925,96223,826
    Total revenue£11,367,118£13,967,823£14,687,682

Monetary Benefits.—A brief description of the main provisions relating to the various monetary benefits under Part II of the Act is now given:—

Superannuation Benefits.—Every person over the age of sixty-five years who satisfies the prescribed residential qualifications is entitled, from 1st April, 1940, to a superannuation benefit without conditions as to income or property. The residential qualifications are contained in section 12 of the Act, which reads as follows:—

  1. No person shall be entitled to a superannuation benefit under this Part of this Act unless he satisfies the following conditions, namely :—

    1. In the case of a person who was resident in New Zealand on the fifteenth day of March, nineteen hundred and thirty-eight (being the date of the passing of the Pensions Amendment Act, 1937), that he has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than ten years immediately preceding the date of his application for a superannuation benefit:

    2. In any case to which the last preceding paragraph does not apply, that he has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than twenty years immediately preceding the date of his application for a superannuation benefit.

  2. For the purposes of the last preceding subsection, continuous residence in New Zealand shall not be deemed to have been interrupted by absence therefrom—

    1. In any case to which paragraph (a) of the last preceding subsection applies,—

      1. If the total period of absence from New Zealand does not exceed one year; or

      2. If the total period of absence from New Zealand exceeds one year but does not exceed that period by more than six months for every year of residence in New Zealand in excess of a period of ten years, and the applicant has been actually resident in New Zealand for the twelve months immediately preceding the date of his application:

    2. In any case to which paragraph (b) of the last preceding subsection applies,—

      1. If the total period of absence from New Zealand does not exceed two years; or

      2. If the total period of absence from New Zealand exceeds two years but does not exceed that period by more than six months for every year of residence in New Zealand in excess of a period of twenty years, and the applicant has been actually resident in New Zealand for the twelve months immediately preceding the date of his application.

Provision is also made to cover the cases of absence by a seaman serving on board any ship registered or owned in New Zealand and for absence in any capacity as a member of any of His Majesty's Forces.

The rate of the benefit is £10 per annum commencing on 1st April, 1940, and continuing at that rate for one year, thereafter being increased by £2 10s. per annum until the maximum benefit of £78 per annum is reached. Thus, as from 1st April, 1941, the rate of superannuation benefit was £12 10s. per annum, from 1st April, 1942, £15 per annum, and so on until the maximum is reached in 1968.

A superannuation benefit is not payable in addition to any other benefit. For example, a superannuation benefit and an invalid's benefit cannot be paid to the one person. Similarly, a superannuation benefit and an age-benefit are not payable to the one person. If a beneficiary in receipt of a superannuation benefit is later granted an age-benefit, the maximum benefit payable is £78, the amount of the superannuation benefit being merged in the amount of the age-benefit granted.

Age-benefits.—Every person who has attained the age of sixty years is entitled to receive an age-benefit, subject to satisfying certain qualifications in regard to residence and character. The residential qualifications are exactly the same as those set out under the preceding heading in regard to superannuation benefits, while the character qualifications mainly relate to desertion of wife or husband or wilful failure in the case of a married man or widower to provide adequate maintenance for wife or for children under sixteen years of age.

The basic rate of the benefit is £78 per annum, subject to any increase that may be granted on account of dependants or subject to certain deductions on account of income or accumulated property, &c. From 1st May, 1942, payments in respect of age-benefits have been increased by way of bonus to the extent of 5 per cent. of the maximum rate of benefit payable in each particular case as shown herein. Particulars of additions to and deductions from the basic rate are as follows:—

  • Unmarried applicants: The basic rate is reduced by £1 for every complete £1 of income in excess of £52 per annum.

  • Married applicants: Where husband and wife are both entitled to the benefit, the basic rate is reduced by 10s. for every complete £1 of their total income in excess of £52 per annum. In cases where only one of them is entitled to the benefit, the reduction is at the rate of £1 for every complete £1 of their total income in excess of £130 per annum. In either instance the maximum income inclusive of age-benefit is limited to £208 per annum. A further provision allows of an extra payment, not exceeding £26 per annum, to a male recipient when his wife is ineligible for any benefit under the Act. This is payable only up to a limit of the total income of the couple plus benefit of £182 per annum. In addition, an allowance not exceeding £26 per annum may be made in respect of each dependent child under sixteen years of age of parents entitled to the age-benefit, but not so as to exceed in any case the rate of £234 per annum.

By Emergency Regulations dated 26th August, 1942, earned income in excess of the above allowances may be exempted, at the discretion of the Commission, for any period during which the applicant has earned such income, provided that no age-benefit has been paid in respect of that period.

In addition to the foregoing, a special allowance not exceeding £13 per annum may be paid to any person in receipt of an age-benefit who served as a member of a New Zealand contingent in connection with the South African War.

In addition to the deductions on account of income set out above, the rate of the benefit is reduced by £1 for every £10 of net capital value of accumulated property in excess of £500. The net accumulated property of a husband or wife for this purpose is half of the total net accumulated property of both.

In computing the net capital value of property no account is taken of the following, but any income derived therefrom is charged as income:—

  1. Any interest in land or house property, or mortgage or other encumbrance over such property:

  2. Any interest in any annuity or in any policy of life-assurance:

  3. Any furniture used in the home of the applicant or any personal effects belonging to the applicant.

Income from a property and the value of the same property are not both charged to reduce the age-benefit—e.g., if shares worth £600 produce an income of £30 per annum, either the value of the shares or the income therefrom may be charged, whichever method provides for the greater reduction.

Widows' Benefits.—Every widow who is the mother of one or more children under sixteen years of age is entitled to a benefit in respect of widowhood. In addition, any widow not being the mother of children under sixteen years of age who satisfies the following conditions is also entitled to the benefit:—

  1. A widow who has had one or more children, provided that the duration of her marriage was not less than fifteen years or, in the alternative, that the aggregate of the period of the duration of her marriage and any subsequent period during which she had the care of at least one of her children under sixteen years of age was not less than fifteen years:

  2. A widow who, on the expiration of not less than five years after the date of her marriage, became a widow after she attained the age of fifty years:

  3. A widow of not less than fifty years of age who became a widow after she had attained the age of forty years, provided that the duration of her marriage was not less than ten years and that not less than fifteen years have expired since the date of her marriage.

It will be noted that no widow under fifty years of age who has not had one or more children can qualify for the benefit.

Provision is also made for other classes of women (not being widows) to receive benefits as if they were widows. Particulars are as follows:—

  1. Any married woman (being the mother of one or more children under sixteen years of age) who has been deserted by her husband and satisfies the Commission—

    1. That she has taken proceedings against her husband for a maintenance order under Part III of the Destitute Persons Act, 1910, and either that she has failed to obtain a maintenance order or that the order, if made, has not been complied with; and

    2. That the whereabouts of her husband is not known.

  2. Any married woman (being the mother of one or more children under sixteen years of age) in respect of whose husband a reception order is in force under the Mental Defectives Act, 1911 (whether or not he is detained in an institution under the Act), or whose husband is for the time being detained as a voluntary boarder under Part V of that Act.

Except in the case of widows with one or more children under sixteen years of age, no widow is entitled to receive the widows' benefit unless she and her husband were both resident in New Zealand for not less than three years immediately preceding the death of the husband.

The term “children” does not include any child born out of New Zealand unless at least one of the following conditions is satisfied—namely, that—

  1. The mother of the child was only temporarily out of New Zealand at the time of its birth; or

  2. Both parents were resident in New Zealand for the three years immediately preceding the date of the father's death (in cases where the husband of the applicant is dead); or

  3. Both parents were resident in New Zealand for the three years immediately preceding the desertion of the applicant by her husband or for the three years immediately preceding the making of a reception order in respect of the husband or before his admission to an institution as a voluntary boarder.

The term “child” includes a step-child or a child adopted during the lifetime of the husband of the applicant (in cases where the husband is dead) or adopted while the husband and wife were living together (in cases of desertion, &c.). It may also (at the discretion of the Commission) include any child who is being maintained by the applicant or was at any time maintained by the husband of the applicant.

The basic rate of the widows' benefit in cases where there are no children under sixteen years of age is £52 per annum, reduced by £1 for every complete £1 of income in excess of £52. Where the applicant has a child or children under sixteen years of age the basic rate is £65 per annum plus £26 per annum for each such child, with a maximum benefit of £234 per annum. A reduction is made at the rate of £1 for every complete £1 of total income of the applicant and her children in excess of £78 per annum. From 1st May, 1942, payments in respect of widows' benefits have been increased by way of bonus to the extent of 5 per cent. of the maximum rate of benefit payable in each particular case. There is no deduction from this bonus on account of income.

Property is not taken into account in assessing any class of widows' benefit.

Orphans' Benefits.—A benefit in respect of complete orphanhood is payable in the case of a child under sixteen years of age who was born in New Zealand or whose last surviving parent was resident in New Zealand for a period of not less than three years preceding the date of his or her death. A step-child or an adopted child comes within the definition of the term, and payment may be made to any person for the time being having the care and control of the child. No payment is made on account of any orphan maintained in a State institution, but payment may be made to the governing bodies of homes and orphanages of religious or other organizations.

The amount payable as an orphan's benefit is limited to a maximum of £39 per annum less any income received by or for the benefit of the orphan, but a lesser amount may be granted if it is considered that the circumstances of the case warrant it. From 1st May, 1942, orphans' benefits have been increased by way of bonus to the extent of 5 per cent. of the rate of benefit payable in each particular case. There is no deduction from this bonus on account of income.

Family Benefits.—The rate of the family benefit under the original Act was 4s. per week for each child in excess of two in all cases where the average weekly income of the applicant and his family (including the value of any benefits received) did not exceed £5, increased by 4s. for each child in excess of two. Under the Social Security Amendment Act, 1940, the benefit of 4s. per week became payable in respect of each child in excess of one, with a corresponding increase in the amount of allowable income. This benefit was further extended by the Finance Act, 1941, and is now payable in respect of each child of the applicant. The average weekly income of £5 has been increased to £5 5s. by regulations dated May, 1942. From 1st May, 1942, payments of family benefits have been increased by 50 per cent. of the maximum rate of benefit payable in each particular case. For the purposes of the Act the term “child” in general means a child under the age of sixteen, but the benefit may be granted or continued in respect of any child who has attained the age of sixteen if by reason of any physical or mental defect such child is totally incapacitated from earning a living. The term also includes step-children and children adopted prior to any original application for the benefit, and may also include children who, though not actually members of the family, are being maintained as such.

The application for the family benefit may be made either by the father or by the mother, but in general payment is made to the mother unless there are special circumstances that render it advisable to pay the benefit to the father or other suitable person.

Invalids' Benefits.—Subject to certain residential and other qualifications, every person of the age of sixteen years and upwards who is not qualified to receive an age-benefit is entitled to an invalid's benefit if he—

  1. Is totally blind; or

  2. Is permanently incapacitated for work as the result of an accident or by reason of illness or of any congenital defect.

The other qualifications referred to are as follows:—

  1. That he has resided continuously in New Zealand for a period of not less than ten years immediately preceding the date of his application. Continuity of residence is not deemed to be interrupted where the total period of absence does not exceed twelve months, or does not exceed twelve months by more than one month for every year of residence in New Zealand in excess of ten years if the applicant has been actually resident in New Zealand for the twelve months immediately preceding the date of his application. In the case of a totally blind person absence for the purpose of vocational training or for treatment in respect of the eyes, or in other cases any period of absence for the purpose of obtaining any special surgical treatment if the Commission is satisfied that there were good and sufficient reasons for leaving New Zealand to obtain such special treatment, is also not deemed to interrupt continuous residence.

  2. In the case of an applicant in respect of blindness, that he was born in New Zealand or became blind while permanently resident in New Zealand. In the case of every other applicant, that he was born in New Zealand with the condition to which his incapacity for work is attributable, or that he became incapacitated for work by reason of an accident happening in New Zealand or by reason of illness contracted in New Zealand. These restrictions do not apply to any applicant who was actually resident in New Zealand on the 4th day of September, 1936 (the date of the passing of the Pensions Amendment Act, 1936, which first made provision for invalidity pensions other than for blindness), or to any person becoming resident in New Zealand after that date who has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than twenty years immediately preceding the date of his application for a benefit.

  3. That incapacity for work was not self-induced or in any way brought about with a view to qualifying for an invalidity benefit.

  4. Applicant must be of good moral character and sober habits.

Provision is made for a medical examination, when necessary, to determine the extent of incapacity. In the event of an application being declined on medical grounds, the applicant has the right of appeal, within three months after the decision of the Commission has been communicated to him, to a Board of three medical practitioners nominated by the Department. An invalid's benefit may be paid in respect of a period of absence from the Dominion not exceeding two years in the aggregate if the Commission is satisfied that such absence was for the purpose of obtaining any special medical or surgical treatment.

The prescribed rates for invalids' benefits are as follows:—

  • Married man or a man who has been married, with a dependent child or children under sixteen years of age: £78 per annum, increased by £26 per annum for his wife (if any) and £26 per annum for each dependent child, with an allowable income of £78 per annum. The maximum amount of benefit that can be paid is £234 per annum:

  • Single person under twenty-one years of age: £52 per annum, with an allowable income of £52 per annum:

  • Married woman: £78 per annum, with an allowable income of £104 per annum:

  • All other persons: £78 per annum, with allowable income of £52 per annum.

In each case the amount of the benefit is reduced by £1 for every complete £1 of income in excess of the amounts stated as allowable. Deductions on account of property are the same as for age-benefits, which are described under a previous heading. In computing the income for any blind person no account is taken of personal earnings up to £156 per annum. In addition, personal earnings of such persons are subsidized to the extent of 25 per cent. so long as the total income, including any benefit, received does not exceed £234 per annum.

From 1st May, 1942, invalids' benefits have been increased by way of bonus to the extent of 5 per cent. of the maximum rate of benefit payable in each particular case. No deduction is made from this bonus on account of income or property.

The term “child” includes a step-child or a child legally adopted prior to the date of application for a benefit, and may, at the discretion of the Commission, include any child who is in fact maintained by the applicant.

Miners' Benefits.—Subject to the qualifications set out hereunder, a miner's benefit is payable to any person who, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, contracted miner's phthisis and is thereby permanently and seriously incapacitated for work, or to any person who contracted, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, any other occupational or heart disease and is thereby permanently and totally incapacitated for work. The term “miner's phthisis” includes tuberculosis of the lungs or any other disease of the respiratory organs commonly associated with, or a sequel to, miner's phthisis.

The necessary qualifications are—

  1. Employment as a miner in New Zealand for not less than two and a half years:

  2. Continuous residence in New Zealand for not less than five years immediately preceding the date of his application for a benefit. Continuity of residence is not deemed to have been interrupted by occasional absences aggregating not more than six months:

  3. Good moral character and sober habits.

The basic rate of the benefit is £78 per annum, increased by £26 per annum for a wife and by £26 per annum for each dependent child under sixteen years of age, with a maximum benefit of £234 per annum. From 1st May, 1042, payments of miners' benefits have been increased by way of bonus to the extent of 5 per cent. of the maximum rate of benefit payable in each particular case. The income qualification referred to below does not affect this bonus. The amount of benefit payable in respect of any child or children is reduced by £1 for every complete £1 of the income of the applicant in excess of £104. The income in this case includes any income received by the wife or children in receipt of the benefit, but the reduction referred to applies only to the children's portion of the benefit, the amount payable to the miner and his wife being payable regardless of their circumstances.

A special provision is made for the payment from the Social Security Fund of reasonable funeral expenses of any person who dies while in receipt of a miner's benefit. The amount to be paid is at the discretion of the Commission.

If a person in receipt of a miner's benefit dies leaving a widow, such widow is entitled to a benefit of £45 10s. per annum during widowhood. This benefit is payable regardless of the circumstances of the widow, her income or property not being considered in the granting of a benefit.

Maori War Benefits.—Persons entitled to apply for a Maori War benefit are those who served in any of the Maori wars and were awarded a medal for active service in any such war. Other conditions which an applicant must fulfil to qualify are as follows:—

  1. Continuous residence in New Zealand for not less than ten years immediately preceding the date of his application: Provided that the continuity of his residence shall not be deemed to have been broken by any period of absence during which his home or family was in New Zealand:

  2. That during the five years immediately preceding his application he has not deserted or wilfully neglected to maintain his wife or children:

  3. That the applicant is of good moral character and sober habits.

The rate of a Maori War benefit is £78 per annum, and this amount is payable regardless of the circumstances of the applicant, income or property not being taken into consideration. From 1st May, 1942, payments of Maori War benefits have been increased by 5 per cent. of the maximum rate of benefit payable in each particular case.

Unemployment Benefits.—Subject to the conditions set out below, every person over the age of sixteen years who is not qualified to receive an age-benefit is entitled to a benefit in respect of unemployment. An applicant is required to satisfy the Commission in respect of the following:—

  1. That he is unemployed:

  2. That he is capable of undertaking and is willing to undertake suitable work:

  3. That he has taken reasonable steps to obtain suitable employment:

  4. That he has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than twelve months.

An unemployment benefit is not payable in respect of the first seven days of any period of unemployment, except in special circumstances. In addition, the Commission may postpone, for a period not exceeding six weeks, the commencement of the benefit, or it may terminate the benefit in any of the following circumstances:—

  1. If the applicant has voluntarily become unemployed without good and sufficient reason:

  2. If the applicant has lost his employment by reason of any misconduct as a worker:

  3. If the applicant or beneficiary has refused or failed, without a good and sufficient reason, to accept any offer of suitable employment:

  4. In the case of a seasonal worker, if his earnings for the season are sufficient for the maintenance of himself and his family notwithstanding a period of temporary unemployment.

The rates of the unemployment benefit are 10s. per week for persons under twenty years of age without dependants, and £1 per week for others, increased by 15s. per week for a dependent wife and 5s. per week for each dependent child, but not exceeding in any case £4 per week. This maximum applies in cases where an applicant has a wife and nine or more children dependent on him. A married woman is entitled to receive the benefit only if her husband is unable to maintain her. If a beneficiary is not receiving a benefit in respect of a wife, an allowance may be made in respect of any person who has the care of his home. As in the case of other benefits, the term “child” includes a step-child, or a child legally adopted prior to the date of application for the benefit, and may include any child who is in fact maintained by the applicant.

The foregoing rates of benefits may be reduced, having regard to the income received or the property owned by the applicant and his wife and dependent children.

Sickness Benefits.—Every person over the age of sixteen years who has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than twelve months and who satisfies the Commission that he is temporarily incapacitated for work through sickness or accident, and that by reason thereof he has suffered a loss of salary, wages, or other earnings, is entitled to a sickness benefit. The amount of the benefit is limited to the amount by which the weekly earnings of the applicant have been reduced by reason of his incapacity. Every application for a benefit must be supported by a medical certificate, and no benefit is payable for the first seven days of incapacity except under special circumstances.

The rates of sickness benefits correspond to the unemployment-benefit rates, except that as from 1st September, 1940, the rate for a dependent child was increased from 5s. per week to 10s. per week. In fixing the amount payable no account is taken of the income of an applicant's wife or dependent children, his income only being considered in this respect. Furthermore, in arriving at the maximum allowable income, no regard is taken of any capital assets as in the case of most of the other benefits under the Act, only the income from these assets being taken into account.

A person in receipt of a sick-benefit from a friendly society or a like benefit from any other source may receive, in addition, a sickness benefit from the Social Security Fund. The scale of permissable income in such cases is increased by £1 per week, but in no case may the total income from all sources exceed £5 per week.

Emergency Benefits.—An emergency benefit may be granted by the Commission to any person who by reason of age, physical disability, domestic circumstances, or any other reason is unable to earn a sufficient livelihood for himself and those dependent on him and is ineligible for any other monetary benefit.

The amount of the emergency benefit is at the discretion of the Commission, which fixes as nearly as possible an amount equal to that payable for the type of benefit for which the applicant most closely qualifies.

Medical, Hospital, and other Related Benefits.—The part of the Act dealing with medical and like benefits is of general application to all persons ordinarily resident in New Zealand, and makes provision for medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, and other related benefits. The Act provided that the various benefits should be available on and after 1st April, 1939, or if for any reason arrangements for the effective administration of benefits of any of the prescribed classes could not be completed before that date, such benefits should be available on or after such later date as might be determined by the Minister (being the earliest possible date on which arrangements for their effective administration could be brought into operation).

Medical Benefits.—Under the provisions contained in the Act every person is entitled to such medical treatment as is ordinarily given by medical practitioners in the course of a general practice. Certain services are excluded. The principal of these are as follows:—

  1. The administration of anæsthetics:

  2. Medical services afforded in relation to maternity cases. (These services are covered by maternity benefits and are described under a later heading):

  3. Medical services involved in any medical examination of which the sole or primary purpose is the obtaining of a medical certificate:

  4. Medical services involved in the treatment of any venereal disease in a communicable form. (Treatment in this connection is provided for under the Health Act, 1920):

  5. Medical services involved in or incidental to the extraction of teeth by a medical practitioner:

  6. Medical services in respect of which fees are payable under the Social Security (X-ray Diagnostic Services) Regulations—see later heading.

The principal Act provided that a registered medical practitioner who wished to come within the scope of the scheme was required to enter into a contract with the Minister, and regulations issued on 19th February, 1941, prescribed the procedure in connection with the initiation of the scheme, the classes of benefits that were to be provided, the obligations of practitioners who undertook to operate the scheme, and the rates of remuneration payable to them. A brief outline of the procedure as set out in the regulations is as follows: A person entitled to receive medical benefits was required to make application on the prescribed form, which he then presented to the medical practitioner of his choice. If the practitioner was willing to provide the necessary services for the person named in the form, he completed an agreement as between the applicant and himself by attaching his signature thereto. These completed agreements formed the basis of the practitioner's list of patients, for each of whom he was entitled to receive from the Social Security Fund a capitation fee at the rate of 15s. per annum, plus mileage fees in certain circumstances. This scheme came into operation on 1st March, 1941.

An important change in principle was made by the Social Security Amendment Act, 1941, which provided an alternative to the capitation scheme. This amendment, which came into force on 1st November, 1941, provides that every medical practitioner who renders any of the prescribed services shall be entitled to receive from the Social Security Fund a fee of 7s. 6d. for every occasion on which any such service is provided. Mileage fees are also provided for in certain cases. Regulations dated 22nd October, 1941, issued under the Act, stipulate that where the practitioner is called upon to provide, in response to an urgent request, services on a Sunday, or between the hours of 9 p.m. and 7 a.m., the appropriate fee shall be increased to 12s. 6d. The Act also provides that the practitioner, instead of claiming the amount to which he is entitled under the Act from the Fund, may receive payment from the patient. In such cases the patient is entitled to recover from the Fund (such recovery being limited to the prescribed fee), and the practitioner is required to provide the necessary receipt to enable this to be done.

Pharmaceutical Benefits.—Persons claiming medical benefits are entitled to receive, without cost to themselves, all such medicines, drugs, approved appliances, and materials as are prescribed for their use by a medical practitioner in the course of providing any medical services under the Act. Regulations providing for pharmaceutical benefits were issued on 22nd April, 1941. Under these regulations the proprietor of any pharmacy within the meaning of the Pharmacy Act, 1939, or any other person entitled to sell any drugs or pharmaceutical requirements, may be permitted to become a contractor under the scheme. The regulations stipulate that the Minister shall prepare a drug tariff, which shall contain particulars of maximum quantities, standards of quality, and prices of medicines, drugs, appliances, &c., that may be supplied and charged against the Fund. Hospital Boards are entitled to receive payment for pharmaceutical requirements supplied to out-patients, but not in respect of in-patients. Pharmaceutical benefits came into operation on 5th May, 1941.

Hospital Benefits.—The Act provides for the payment to Hospital Boards and to the proprietors of licensed hospitals and other approved institutions (who have entered into contracts under the Act) of prescribed amounts in respect of hospital treatment afforded by them. The amount paid to a Hospital Board is in full satisfaction of its claim for the treatment of patients; in the case of licensed hospitals and other institutions the amount paid is in partial satisfaction of claims against the patients or other persons liable for the hospital charges.

These benefits came into force on 1st July, 1939, and the rates prescribed by Order in Council dated 16th June, 1939, are as follows:—

  1. Where treatment has been afforded on not more than two days, the sum of 12s.:

  2. In every other case, the sum of 6s. for every day on which any treatment is afforded:

Provided that the day of admission to hospital and day of discharge therefrom shall together be counted as one day.

The Act also provides that in lieu of payment being made in respect of individual hospital patients, the Minister may from time to time authorize the payment of a grant in respect of hospital treatment afforded in any private hospital or other approved institution.

Hospital benefits are also available in respect of maintenance and treatment afforded to any in-patient of Queen Mary Neurological Hospital, Hanmer Springs, or of the Rotorua Sanatorium. The fees chargeable to patients of these institutions have been reduced by 6s. per day, and corresponding payment is made from the Social Security Fund to the credit of the Departments controlling the institutions.

Regulations issued on 19th March, 1941, made provision for payment from the Fund to Hospital Boards in respect of treatment afforded to out-patients. The amounts to be paid, which are to be not less than one-half and not more than two-thirds of the expenditure or liability incurred in providing out-patient treatment, are determined by the Minister.

Mental Hospitals.—The principal Act made provision for the treatment of patients in public mental hospitals without charge as from 1st April, 1939. By section 10 of the Social Security Amendment Act, 1939, a licensed (private) mental hospital may be recognized and approved by the Minister as a hospital for the purposes of the Act, and hospital benefits in respect of treatment therein are payable accordingly.

In order to recoup the Mental Hospitals Department for the loss of revenue consequent upon the operation of the Social Security Act, an amount estimated to be equivalent thereto is transferred each year from the Social Security Fund.

Maternity Benefits.—Maternity benefits include ante-natal and post-natal advice and treatment by medical practitioners, and the services of doctors and nurses at confinements in maternity hospitals or elsewhere.

These benefits came into force on 15th May, 1939, but the maternity medical practitioner service was not in full operation until 1st October of that year. The principal Act required that medical practitioners, licensees of private hospitals, &c., and midwives and maternity nurses, who wished to come within the scope of the scheme should enter into a contract with the Minister. While this provision remains in force in regard to hospitals and midwives and maternity nurses, the Social Security Amendment Act, 1939, provides that any medical practitioner who renders medical services to a woman who is entitled to a maternity benefit is entitled to receive certain prescribed fees from the Social Security Fund. The scale of fees, which may be fixed by agreement between the Minister and the New Zealand Branch of the British Medical Association, or in default of such agreement by a special tribunal, is intended to cover the usual services performed in maternity cases. The amount calculated in accordance with the scale of fees for the time being in force shall be accepted by the medical practitioner in full satisfaction of his claims in respect of the services for which payment is made, except in the case of a practitioner who is recognized as an obstetric specialist in accordance with the terms of the Act. Such a practitioner, in addition to the fees payable from the Social Security Fund, may recover additional fees from the patient.

The main provisions in regard to maternity benefits apart from the medical practitioner service are as follows:—

  1. State maternity (St. Helens) hospitals: No charge is made for any services in the St. Helens Hospitals.

  2. Public maternity hospitals or maternity wards under control of Hospital Boards: Payment from Social Security Fund to Hospital Board as under:—

    1. Two pounds five shillings in respect of the day or days of labour:

    2. Twelve shillings and sixpence in respect of each of the fourteen days succeeding the birth of the child:

    3. A fee of £2 where any patient is actually attended during labour and at delivery by a medical officer employed by the Board.

    These amounts are to be regarded as in full settlement of all claims in respect of the maternity benefits afforded by the Board.

  3. Licensed (private) maternity hospitals: Licensees of licensed maternity hospitals who have entered into contracts under the Act are entitled to receive fees from the Social Security Fund at the same rates as stated in (2) (a) and (b) in regard to Hospital Boards. In some cases the licensee's contract requires him to accept such payment in full satisfaction of his claim in respect of the prescribed period, and in other cases he is permitted under his particular contract to make a specified additional charge on the patient.

  4. Midwives and maternity nurses: Approved midwives and maternity nurses who are in attendance in cases where confinement takes place other than in a maternity hospital are entitled to receive from the Fund fees at the rate of £1 for the day or days of labour (£2 in the case of midwives) and 13s. per day for each of the fourteen days succeeding the birth of the child. These amounts are to be regarded as in full satisfaction of a nurse's claims in respect of the nursing services.

Supplementary Benefits.—Authority is given for the inauguration of supplementary benefits as and when the occasion for providing such benefits arises. Among the supplementary benefits contemplated were specialist and consultant services, radiological services, dental services, home-nursing services, and domestic assistance.

The first of these supplementary benefits was introduced by the Social Security (X-ray Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1941, which came into operation on 11th August, 1941. The benefits provided for by these regulations comprise the following:—

  1. The making of X-ray examinations with the aid of a fluorescent screen:

  2. The taking of X-ray photographs:

  3. The supply of any drugs or other substances for the purpose of any such examination or photograph:

  4. The provision of medical services incidental to any such examination or photograph, except medical services of a kind not ordinarily performed by radiologists as such:

  5. The provision of any other incidental services for the purposes of any such examinations or photographs.

X-ray photographs or X-ray examinations made or taken for dental purposes or for the purposes of life assurance are not included in the services that may be provided.

In order to be recognized as a radiologist for the purpose of the regulations a medical practitioner is required to make application to the Minister specifying his academic qualifications and professional experience, and also the nature of the apparatus or equipment in his possession or available for his use in the performance of radiological work. The Minister may give absolute or limited recognition or may refuse recognition. The scale of fees payable from the Fund in respect of services rendered by recognized radiologists is prescribed in a schedule to the regulations, and the amount of such fees is to be deducted from the amount charged to the patient.

The second supplementary benefit introduced concerns massage treatment by private masseurs, and commenced on 1st September, 1942, in accordance with the Social Security (Massage Benefits) Regulations 1942. The general arrangement for these benefits consists of contracts with individual masseurs under which they are paid from the Social Security Fund a fee of 3s. 6d. for each massage treatment and undertake not to charge the patient any additional fees in excess of 3s. 6d. for treatment afforded in the masseurs' rooms or 7s. for treatment afforded elsewhere.

The Finance Act (No. 2), 1942, brought specialist services within the scope of the medical benefits. Specialist services are defined as “medical services that involve the application of special skill and experience of a degree or kind that general practitioners as a class cannot reasonably be expected to possess.” An amount not exceeding 7s. 6d. is payable from the Fund in respect of every occasion on which any such services have been provided and is payable by way of refund to the patient.

Benefits and Pensions in force.—A summary showing particulars of the various social security benefits and the various pensions in force in each of the last three financial years is as follows:—

Class of Benefit or Pension.Number in Force at 31st March,Annual Value at 31st March,Payments during
1940.1941.1942.1942.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
Social security benefits—   ££££
  Universal superannuation 36,60241,021512,762 240,336445,686
  Age93,26297,60699,1527,337,2486,517,8997,101,3467,190,694
  Widows'10,17410,56910,765849,363785,952836,368844,928
  Orphans'33035037218,90914,88017,71318,275
  Family11,05316,62618,316631,902252,562411,811539,183
  Invalids'11,81111,93612,1071,022,611942,196999,6481,011,375
  Miners'98893188880,40392,65388,65683,258
  Maori War12743121,103744440
  Unemployment4,0531,906841 434,497299,161138,528
  Sickness2,5653,4523,672 208,790279,581304,154
  Emergency1,0432,0342,170 86,711130,096126,718
  Medical      205,673
  Hospital    606,8861,086,6881,190,954
  Mental hospital    166,000171,000181,451
  Maternity    283,813518,997549,850
  Pharmaceutical     279,698 
  Supplementary      27,962
Pensions—       
  War (War Pensions Act, 1915)23,87423,45822,8941,619,2061,673,7301,649,0761,617,481
  War (War Pensions Extension Act, 1940) 5513,297313,399 14,376178,135
  War veterans' allowances2,0792,0331,888216,864203,439211,325210,575
  South African War5047451,4781,9931,8581,581
  Mercantile marine 93266 916617
  Emergency Reserve Corps 12127 31,062
  Sundry pensions and annuities13883769,37712,10610,1529,329
  Civil Service Act, 19088662,3373,1302,6472,354
      Totals161,440208,207217,51912,616,56412,288,34014,072,49815,159,961

A summary of pensions and social security payments during each of the last eleven years, together with the amount per head of mean population, is now given.

Year ended 31st March,Payments during Year.
Total.Per Head of Mean Population.
 ££s.d.
Pensions.
 ££s.d.
19323,088,536208
19333,031,7811198
19343,149,8952010
19353,338,3542211
19363,659,664269
19374,940,428327
19386,312,5303192
19396,780,344442
Pensions and Social Security.
 ££s.d.
194012,288,3407106
194114,072,4988121
194215,159,961960

WAR PENSIONS.—The general administration of the various enactments providing for pensions and allowances in respect of service in the present and former wars are functions of the Social Security Department, one of whose Directors is also designated Secretary for War Pensions. With the exception of Maori War benefits, all Acts dealing with war pensions are directly related to the War Pensions Act, 1915.

War Pensions under the War Pensions Act, 1915, and the War Pensions Extension Act, 1940.—The War Pensions Extension Act, 1940, extends the provisions of the War Pensions Act, 1915, to cover the present war. The Extension Act provides for members of the Royal New Zealand Navy, the New Zealand Army, the Royal New Zealand Air Force, and the New Zealand Army Nursing Service. Territorials and members of the Permanent Forces are also included, the provision in their case being in substitution of provisions which have been in operation since 1926.

The War Pensions Act, 1915, as amended, provides for the payment of pensions on certain conditions to disabled members of the New Zealand Forces of the war of 1914–18 (as defined by the Act) and to dependants of disabled, deceased, or missing members of such Forces.

The term “dependant” includes widow, wife, child, or any other member of the soldier's family who was in fact wholly or partially dependent upon his earnings at any time within the period of twelve months immediately preceding the date upon which he became a member of the Forces.

Formerly there were stipulations (eased from time to time) regarding time, &c., of marriage, but these were repealed by the War Pensions Amendment Act, 1940. A war pension or a war veteran's allowance may now be granted to or on account of the wife and children of a member irrespective of the date of the marriage. “Child” includes a step-child, a child adopted on or before 31st May, 1940, or an illegitimate child born within ten months after the date of the soldier's departure from New Zealand as a member of the Forces.

The following is a summary of the present maximum weekly rates of pension payable in respect of disablement or death.

Rank, or Equivalent Rank.In Case of Disablement.In Case of Death.
Soldier.Wife or other Dependant.Each Child.Widow without Child or other Dependant.Each Child.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Private200100010011000100
Corporal200100010011100100
Sergeant200100010011200100
Sergeant-Major200100010011400100
Regimental Sergeant-Major200100010011500100
Lieutenant22611301002500100
Captain250126010021000100
Major2120160010021700100
Lieut.-Colonel310110601003600100
Colonel330111601003800100
General3501126010031000100
 In Case Disablement.In Case of Death.
 Nurse.Dependant other than a Child.Child.Dependant other than a Child.Child.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Nurse22611301002500100
Sister250126010021000100
Matron
Matron-in-Chief2120160010021700100

A regulation of 1942 provides that if a member of the Forces, while in receipt of a permanent pension in respect of his total disablement, has died from a cause not attributable to his service in the Forces, the War Pensions Board may nevertheless in its discretion grant a pension to his widow and dependants as if his death were attributable to war service, provided his marriage had taken place before he received a permanent pension in respect of total disablement.

The same regulation provides that persons in receipt of an age-benefit may have this increased by an amount not exceeding £26 if they happen to be parents of a deceased member of the Forces and if they were wholly or partially dependent on such member of the Forces during the twelve months preceding the date on which he joined the Forces.

Other grants and concessions which may be made to disabled soldiers include the following:—

  1. Additional pension up to £8 per annum to amputees wearing artificial limbs, to compensate for extra wear-and-tear upon amputees' clothing:

  2. An allowance not exceeding £3 per week in cases where a pensioner is so disabled as to require the services of a paid attendant:

  3. A free pass on the New Zealand railways to members in receipt of full permanent pensions:

  4. A permit to travel first class at second-class rates on the New Zealand railways to leg amputees and others suffering locomotor disabilities to a degree of 50 per cent. or over for which they receive permanent pensions:

  5. Free medical and surgical treatment in respect of pensionable disabilities. Surgical appliances such as artificial limbs, &c., are also supplied and kept in good order and repair.

Any person in receipt of a war pension in respect of his own disablement may be granted any of the monetary benefits under the Social Security Act for which he may qualify. Also a person who was in receipt of an old-age pension and a war pension or war veteran's allowance prior to the operation of the Social Security Act may be granted an age-benefit, provided that the aggregate rates payable after the commencement of the Act do not exceed the aggregate rates immediately prior to its operation. Otherwise no person in receipt of a war pension can receive a monetary benefit under the Social Security Act, other than a superannuation or a family benefit.

WAR PENSIONS CURRENT AT 31ST MARCH, 1942.

Class of Pension.War Pensions Act, 1915.War Pensions Extension Act, 1940.
Number of PensionersNumber of Children.*Annual Value.Number of PensionersNumber of Children.*Annual Value.

* Dependent children.

Ex-members of Forces—  £  £
  Permanent12,1718806,83624 1,277
  Temporary3,4334267,6882,209 202,196
Dependants of disabled ex members2,9323,656237,71133937929,477
Widows1,953599217,41954544073,168
Other dependants of deceased ex-members2,4059789,552180767,281
      Totals22,8944,3641,619,2063,297895313,399

ECONOMIC PENSIONS PAYABLE AT 31ST MARCH, 1942.

(These figures are included in the above table.)

Class of Pension.War Pensions Act, 1915.War Pensions Extension Act, 1940.
NumberAnnual Value.Number.Annual Value.
  £ £
Ex-members with permanent pensions2,641196,3034312
Ex-members with temporary pensions1,06880,18072656,135
Widows72427,0602568,388
Widowed mothers984,530572,690
      Totals4,531308,0731,04367,525

Figures showing the number of pensions in force as at 31st March of each of the last five years are given below.

At 31st March,Soldiers (Permanent).Soldiers (Temporary).Dependants (on account of Disablement).On account of Death.Total.
WidowsParents and other Dependants.
Under the War Pensions Act, 1915.
193811,0364,4393,0771,8003,74424,096
193911,4754,3183,1461,8793,43924,257
194011,8973,9933,1411,9062,93723,874
194112,2353,5433,0981,9322,65023,458
194212,1713,4332,9321,9532,40522,894
Under the War Pensions Extension Act, 1940.
1941 43374368551
1942242,2093395451803,297

Total payments of pensions to 31st March, 1942, were: War Pensions Act, 1915, £34,464,623; War Pensions Extension Act, 1940, £192,511. Figures for the last eleven years were:—

Year ended 31st March,Pension Payments (under the 1915 Act).
 £
19321,261,778
19331,217,586
19341,246,441
19351,264,110
19361,349,447
19371,483,345
 Pension Payments.
Year ended 31st March,Under the 1915 Act. £Under the 1940 Act. £
19381,597,524 
19391,616,248 
19401,673,730 
19411,649,07614,376
19421,617,481178,135

During the year 1941–42 medical treatment of war pensioners cost £26,214, including cost of pensioners resident overseas; railway concessions to certain classes of war pensioners cost £4,003; and loading on life-assurance policies of war pensioners due to war-service disabilities amounted to £168.

Economic Pensions.—By an amendment to the War Pensions Act, 1915, provision was made for the payment of economic pensions to soldiers or their dependants. An “economic pension” is defined under the Act as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds, and being in addition to any pension payable as a right in respect of the death or disablement of a member of the Forces.

Economic pensions consist of three classes. Rates are as follows :—

  1. A maximum pension of £1 10s. weekly to disabled soldiers.

  2. A maximum pension of 10s. weekly to widows of soldiers with one child, with an additional 2s. 6d. weekly for each child in excess of one.

  3. A maximum pension of £1 weekly to widowed mothers of deceased soldiers.

From 1st May, 1942, payments in respect of economic pensions have been increased by way of bonus to the extent of 15 per cent. of the maximum rate of pension payable in each particular case.

In every case the income of the pensioner affects the grant. Soldiers pensioned for minor disabilities do not receive economic pensions.

The limit of this supplementary pension is £234 per annum.

War Veterans' Allowances.—The object of the War Veterans' Allowances Act, 1935, which is deemed part of the War Pensions Act, 1915, is to make provision for returned soldiers (or nurses) who, apart from any wounds or other injuries received during war service, are ageing prematurely or otherwise becoming unemployable by reason of physical or mental disability. The term “veteran” includes—

  1. Any person who, having been a member of the Forces within the meaning of the principal Act, served overseas as a member of the New Zealand Army Nursing Service, or, in the case of any other member of the Forces, served as such with a unit in actual engagement with the enemy; and

  2. Any other person who, being domiciled in New Zealand at the commencement of the war of 1914–18, served therein as a member of any of His Majesty's Forces other than the New Zealand Forces with a unit in actual engagement with the enemy; and

  3. Any person who, being domiciled in New Zealand at the commencement of the South African War, served therein as a member of a New Zealand contingent raised for service in connection with that war, or as a member of any of His Majesty's Forces other than the New Zealand Forces, with a unit in actual engagement with the enemy.

The War Pensions Board is required to be satisfied that an applicant veteran is unfit for permanent employment by reason of physical or mental disability, and that he has resided continuously in New Zealand (irrespective of occasional absences not exceeding six months in the aggregate) for five years immediately preceding his application.

The rates of allowances payable, certain of which were increased as from September, 1941, and again as from November, 1942, are shown hereunder.

  1. Unmarried veteran (including married veteran whose wife and children are not dependants) : £78 per annum, diminished by £1 for each complete £1 of his annual income (not including this allowance) in excess of £52.

  2. Married veteran or widowed veteran with dependant children: £78 per annum in respect of the veteran's personal claim; £52 per annum in respect of his wife; and £26 per annum in respect of each dependent child. These rates are diminished in every case by £1 for every complete £1 of combined annual income (not including this allowance) in excess of £52. The total allowance payable is limited to £234 per annum.

Other provisions of the Act authorize the payment of a gratuity not exceeding twice the annual amount of the allowance to the widow of a deceased veteran in receipt of an allowance.

The receipt of an allowance under this Act does not affect any right to receive a pension under the War Pensions Act.

The Finance Act, 1938, contains authority as from 1st April, 1939, for payment of forfeited allowance to dependants when the veteran is in prison or is being maintained at the Government's expense as an inmate of any public institution. In the Board's discretion allowances in respect of children may be continued for educational purposes for up to two years after the child has attained the age of sixteen.

Since the passing of the War Veterans' Allowances Act in October, 1935, 3,953 allowances have been granted, of which 1,888, with an annual value of £216,864, were in force as at 31st March, 1942.

Mercantile Marine Pensions.—The War Pensions and Allowances (Mercantile Marine) Act, 1940, makes provision for the payment of pensions and allowances to members of the New Zealand mercantile marine and their dependants, in respect of death, disablement, or detention suffered as a result of the present war, and is a new departure as far as New Zealand's war-pension legislation is concerned. The weekly rates of pension in the case of death range from 30s. to 57s. for a widow without a child, with an additional 10s. for a widow with a child or children and 10s. for each child.

In the case of total disablement the weekly pension ranges from 40s. to 52s. for a member, and from 20s. to 26s. for a wife, with an additional 10s. in respect of each child. The rates payable in respect of partial disablement are determined by the War Pensions Board in each case.

In respect of detention, a weekly allowance ranging between 35s. and 47s. is payable on account of a member and from 20s. to 26s. to his wife, with an additional 10s. for each child.

In all cases pensions to dependants other than a wife or dependent children are limited to the value of the benefits actually received by the claimant from the member during the twelve months preceding his death or disablement.

Emergency Reserve Corps Pensions.—The Finance Act (No. 4), 1940, makes provision for pensions to members of the Emergency Reserve Corps, established under the Emergency Reserve Corps Regulations 1940, and to their dependants, where death or disablement is suffered as a result of duties as a member. The rates of pension in respect of the death of a male member are the same as for a private in the Army, and in respect of a female member, 10s. per week is payable to or on account of a dependent child. In respect of total disablement the maximum weekly rates of pension are 20s. for an unmarried member under twenty-one years of age, and 40s. per week for other members, plus 20s. for a wife and 10s. for each dependent child. Pensions in respect of partial disablement are in each case determined by the War Pensions Board.

In respect of any other dependant the pension is limited in all cases to the value of benefits actually received by the claimant from the member during the period of twelve months preceding the date of death or disablement.

South African Veterans' War Pensions.—An amendment to the existing law governing pensions to veterans of the South African War is contained in the Finance Act (No. 4), 1940. Previously these pensions were granted under the authority of the Defence Act, 1909, but the amendment referred to provides that pensions may now be granted under Part III of the War Pensions Extension Act, 1940, in respect of death or disablement suffered by members of any New Zealand Contingent who served in South Africa in connection with the South African war.

In addition to war pensions, South African veterans who are in receipt of an age-benefit under the Social Security Act may receive an additional benefit of £13 per annum in cases where the total income, including pension, does not exceed the rate of £130 per annum. Such payments are included with social-security benefits and not with South African War pensions.

MISCELLANEOUS PENSIONS.—In addition to the various classes of pensions enumerated in the foregoing part of this section there are pensions under the Civil Service Act, 1908, and other miscellaneous pensions and annuities.

The recipients of pensions under the Civil Service Act are ex-officers of the Civil Service who acquired pension rights under a system in operation prior to the introduction of compulsory contributory superannuation schemes. There were at the 31st March, 1942, 76 pensions, &c., classed as “sundry pensions and annuities.” This class covers ex-officers of the Legislative Department, and ex-members of the Police, Defence, and Naval Forces, certain ex-members of the Legislature, and others, by way of compassionate allowance, &c.

SUPERANNUATION FUNDS.—Schemes in force for the provision of superannuation payments to public servants on their retirement embrace the State Railways, Public Service (including Police), Teachers, and Stipendiary Magistrates. Local authorities are empowered to establish schemes under the Local Authorities Superannuation Act, 1908.

The law relating to the various superannuation schemes, other than those for the Railways Department and local authorities, is contained in the Public Service Superannuation Act, 1927, a consolidation of former legislation on the subject.

Section 13 of the Finance Act (No. 2), 1940, as amended by section 16 of the Finance Act (No. 4), 1940, confers on contributors to any Government Superannuation Fund the right to elect to surrender portion of the retiring-allowances to which they would be entitled on retirement in order to provide for the payment, after their death, of annuities to their surviving widows or dependants.

Public Service Superannuation Fund.—The Public Service Superannuation scheme, which includes all branches of the Public Service except the Railways Department and that part of the Education Service which comes under the operations of the teachers' superannuation scheme, came into force on the 1st January, 1908. The scheme, although optional on the part of public servants permanently employed at that date, is compulsory on all persons permanently appointed thereafter. Certain classes of non-permanent officers may be permitted to join the Fund.

The Police Provident Fund, which was established on the 1st December, 1899, under the Police Provident Act, 1899, was merged in the Public Service Superannuation Fund on the 1st April, 1910.

The fund is administered by a Board, and consists of payments by contributors, interest on investments, Government subsidy, fines imposed on public servants as such, and proceeds of Police Department sales of unclaimed property.

The contributions vary with the age on joining the fund: For ages under thirty they are 5 per cent. of the salary; ages thirty and under thirty-five, 6 per cent.; thirty-five and under forty, 7 per cent.; forty and under forty-five, 8 per cent.; forty-five and under fifty, 9 per cent.; fifty and over, 10 per cent.

The principal benefits are:—

  1. A pension for every year of service equal to one-sixtieth of the average annual salary for the last three years, payable (a) after forty years' service, or (b) at age sixty-five, or (c) on retirement owing to ill-health. The maximum pension is not to exceed two-thirds of the salary, nor, in the case of entrants after the 24th December, 1909, £300 per annum.

  2. A pension of £31 per annum to the widow of a contributor or pensioner during widowhood, and £23 per annum for each child under the age of fourteen.

Special pensions may be given in the case of members of the Police Force for injuries received on duty.

Females may retire after thirty years' service or at the age of fifty-five. In certain cases, and subject to certain terms and conditions, the Minister in charge of a contributor's Department may reduce the retiring age to sixty years for males and fifty years for females, or may reduce the requisite service to thirty-five years irrespective of age, or may reduce the retiring-age to fifty-five years if length of service is not less than thirty years.

Since 1931, the retiring qualifications have been modified to permit of a further reduction of five years in age or service in the case of contributors compulsorily retired through no fault of their own. A specially computed reduced superannuation is provided. The provisions cover the three major funds.

At the 31st March, 1942, there were 29,956 contributors, paying £423,427 per annum into the fund. The pensioners at the same date numbered 4,282, and were entitled to £604,886 per annum, made up as follows:—

 Number.Pensions. £
Retired for age or length of service2,200508,876
Retired for ill-health38942,614
Police injured on duty183,131
Widows1,34341,633
Children3328,632
      Totals4,282£604,886

The following table contains particulars of the public servants who were contributing to the fund at the 31st March, 1942, grouped according to their respective rates of contribution.

Rate per Cent.Number.Annual Salary.Annual Contributions.
Male.Female.Total.
    £s.d.£s.d.
522,4104,19326,6036,876,15168343,807114
61,5871271,714583,73710035,02450
7954721,026361,6758425,31757
841218430157,2000012,57600
9140814856,483685,083100
103323516,185001,618100
  Totals25,5364,42029,9568,051,432118423,427111

Accumulated funds at the 31st March, 1942, amounted to £3,324,148, total assets to £3,347,487, and investments to £3,138,670, £1,154,158 being invested in mortgage securities and £1,984,512 in local-authority debentures and Government securities. The investment figures include £31,058 invested on Stipendiary Magistrates' account.

In his report on the Fund as at 31st March, 1939, more particulars of which may be found in the 1942 issue of the Year-Book, the Government Actuary stated that the estimated subsidy required during each of the years 1940–44 was £357,000 per annum, to which should be added a further £216,000 per annum on account of subsidies short paid in past years.

The subsidy to the fund was originally £20,000 per annum, in 1910 to £22,500, and in the next two years to £23,000. In 1913 it was increased to £48,000, and in 1919 to £86,000. In consequence of the position disclosed by the Actuary as at 31st December, 1919, an additional amount of £100,000 was contributed to the fund by the Government, divided between the years 1923–24 and 1924–25. An additional amount of £100,000 was also paid in 1929–30, following the actuarial investigation as at 31st March, 1927; while, commencing with 1932–33, additional amounts have been paid each year, mainly to compensate the fund for losses incurred as a direct result of the statutory reduction in interest. The total subsidies paid to the fund from its inception to 31st March, 1942, amount to £3,212,205.

All valuations of the fund prior to 1924 were made on the basis of interest at 4 per cent., a 4½-per-cent. rate being adopted for the next three periods. As the effective rate of interest earned on the funds had been steadily decreasing since the 1934 valuation and was then considerably below the 4½-per-cent. mark, a 4-per-cent. rate was adopted for the latest valuation. The average rate of interest earned in each of the last ten financial years has been as follows:—

Year ended 31st March,Average Rate per Cent.
 £s.d.
19335189
19345116
1935584
1936565
19374188
19384151
1939452
1940414
1941449
1942463

The total revenue of the fund for the year ended 31st March, 1942, was £725,053, including members' contributions £422,266, interest on investments and on contributions £139,603 (which includes a special payment of £11,478 from the Consolidated Fund to reimburse the Superannuation Fund on account of the statutory reduction of interest on all classes of securities), and Government subsidy £153,076, the last-mentioned including a special payment of £21,287 on account of increased benefits to widows and children. The total amount expended during the year was £697,444, including retiring and other allowances £587,924, refunds of contributions £99,723, transfers to other funds £1,529, and cost of administration £7,897.

A table is now given showing the progress of the fund for the last five years.

Year ended 31st March,Number of Contributors.Annual Contributions.Interest receivable from Investments.Contributions from Government.Annual Value of Allowances.Accumulated Fund.
  £££££
193824,235347,735137,751174,259522,7133,072,185
193926,283374,136130,688242,950537,0953,199,010
194028,487407,446128,577169,806559,2903,255,658
194129,295418,597135,978159,358585,3613,296,540
194229,956423,427138,550153,076604,8863,324,148

Teachers' Superannuation Fund.—The scheme of superannuation for teachers came into operation on 1st January, 1906. The benefits were brought into line with those of the Public Service Superannuation Fund in 1908, existing contributors having, however, the right of electing to remain subject to the provisions formerly in force.

There are a few slight differences between the Public Service and the Teachers' Funds, the chief being that where teachers' back service is recognized it need not be continuous, and that a contributor is not deemed to have retired from the Education Service by reason of unemployment unless the unemployment extends for twelve months or unless the contributor deliberately retires from the Service as distinct from a particular position in the service. In certain circumstances the period of twelve months can be extended by the Board.

The expenditure of the fund for the year ended 31st January, 1942, was £391,742, of which retiring and other allowances represented £350,188, and refunds of contributions £32,070. The revenue for the year was £371,407.

On the 31st January, 1942, there were 9,827 contributors, representing annual contributions amounting to £173,301.

The retiring and other allowances as at 31st January, 1942, were made up of—

 Number.Pensions. £
Retired for age or length of service1,532302,486
Retired for ill-health26435,909
Widows33310,323
Children822,132
      Totals2,211£350,850

The progress of the fund during the last five years is shown in the following table.

Year ended 31st January,Number of Contributors.Amount of Contributions received.Interest received.Government Subsidy.Amount paid in Allowances.Accumulated Fund.
  £££££
19388,357139,83542,75954,824328,007834,465
19398,653146,23141,315329,675329,096975,491
19409,005158,90742,699155,979330,462967,076
19419,463170,29742,021166,917333,459974,885
19429,827173,50842,362155,627350,188954,640

Since the inception of the scheme, the Government has paid £2,471,491 in subsidies to the fund.

In his report on the Teachers' Superannuation Fund for the five years ended 31st January, 1939, the Government Actuary stated that the annual subsidy required for each of the years 1940 to 1944 was £349,000.

Government Railways Superannuation Fund.—The Government Railways Superannuation Fund was established on the 1st January, 1903, by the Government Railways Superannuation Fund Act, 1902, now embodied in the Government Railways Act, 1926.

The pension here is also one-sixtieth of the annual rate of pay for every year of service, but the retiring-age is sixty for both males and females. Until recently another difference of importance was that the annual allowances to widows and children were paid only in cases where contributors died before retiring on a pension; but, by section 14 of the Finance Act (No. 2), 1940, these allowances were placed on the same footing as in the case of the Public Service and Teachers' Superannuation Funds.

From 1st April, 1924, the moneys belonging to the fund have been separately invested by the Public Trustee. The average rate of interest earned during the year 1941–42 was 5 per cent.

The income for the year totalled £560,133, including members' contributions, £222,206; interest, £62,034; subsidies from Railways Department, £190,565 (including £20,565 on account of increased allowances to widows and children and members actuarially retired); and Consolidated Fund, £85,000. The expenditure during the year amounted to £620,979, of which retiring-allowances represented £506,386, allowances to widows and children £40,135, and refunds of contributions, &c., £74,458.

At the 31st March, 1942, there were 4,141 persons on the fund, receiving allowances involving an annual liability of £538,142.

The progress of the fund during the last five years is shown below.

Year ended 31st March,Number of Contributors.Amount received from Contributors.Interest earned by Fund.Amount received from Government.Amount paid in Allowances.Accumulated Fund.
  £££££
193814,511209,51664,589231,091453,2601,272,724
193915,630217,14463,998238,451463,0271,282,354
194016,024209,30464,146257,212489,3921,279,836
194116,664214,73363,581258,076516,6091,248,383
194217,067222,20662,034275,565546,5211,187,537

The actuarial report on the Railways Superannuation Fund as at 31st March, 1939, gave the value of the total liability of the State in respect of the fund at that date as £12,349,000.

Superannuation of Magistrates.—The scheme for Magistrates provides for the same rates of contribution as under the Public Service scheme, but gives an annual retiring-allowance for each year of service (whether continuous or not) equal to one-fortieth of the annual salary receivable at the date of retirement, with, however, a limit of twenty-five fortieths. The retiring-age is sixty-eight, instead of sixty-five as in the case of the Public Service scheme.

Members' contributions during the year ended the 31st March, 1942, totalled £1,427, interest on investments brought in £1,246, and the State subsidy was £5,000. Administration expenses during the year were £41, and retiring-allowances were £5,042. The accumulated fund at the 31st March, 1942, amounted to £31,058.

Local Authorities Superannuation.—The Local Authorities Superannuation Act, 1908, which came into force on the 10th October, 1908, applies to Borough Councils, County Councils, Town Boards, Road Boards, Harbour Boards, Fire Boards, tramway companies, or any authority possessing rating-powers over any district.

Local authorities have not availed themselves of the provisions of the Act to any great extent, and statistical information as to the various funds which have been initiated under the authority of this statute is not available. Special provisions concerning local authority employees have been subsequently made under the National Provident Fund scheme, referred to under the next heading.

NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND.—The National Provident Fund was established by Act in 1910, and came into operation on the 1st March, 1911. The Fund is administered by a Board composed of the Minister in Charge of the Fund as Chairman, three members appointed by the Governor-General, the Financial Adviser to the Government, and the Superintendent of the Fund.

The benefits under the Act are guaranteed by the State, which also subsidizes the contributions to the extent of one-fourth of the amount paid into the Fund, and meets the administrative expenses of the Fund.

The Fund provides two distinct services:—

  1. Annuities and subsidiary benefits for members of the general public, with extensions for members of approved friendly societies and employees of firms, &c.

  2. Superannuation for local-authority employees.

Membership of the public portion of the Fund is open to any person between the ages of sixteen and forty-nine years residing in New Zealand whose average income during the three years prior to joining has not exceeded £300 per annum. There is no medical examination on entry, and the method of joining is extremely simple, the applicant having merely to fill in a form at a postal money-order office or local office of the Fund, and pay a first weekly contribution. Contributions may be met by deduction from salary or savings-bank account, while a discount is obtainable for contributions paid for three or more years in advance.

The contributions for each 10s. of weekly annuity range from 9d. per week in the case of persons joining at age sixteen to 9s. 4d. per week for persons joining at age forty-nine.

The following benefits are payable:—

  1. After contributing for five years, an allowance, after three months' incapacity for work, of 7s. 6d. per week for each child under fourteen years of age. No contributions are payable while in receipt of incapacity allowance. The income of a contributor during incapacity, independent of the Fund, is not to exceed the rate of £4 per week.

  2. After contributing for five years, an allowance, on the death of a contributor, of 7s. 6d. per week for each child under fourteen years of age, and 7s. 6d. for the widow so long as any child is under fourteen years of age.

  3. On reaching age sixty, an annuity of 40s., 30s., 20s., or 10s. per week, according to the scale of contributions.

  4. On withdrawal or death, a refund to contributor or representative of all contributions paid, less any benefits received.

A maternity allowance of £6 (a State grant) is provided in the Act for the birth of a child to a contributor where the joint income of the parents does not exceed £300 per annum. No allowance is payable from the Fund if the maternity benefits as provided under the Social Security Act have been received.

In 1916 provision was made for the approval of friendly societies as contributing authorities under reduced tables for annuities and for the payment of maternity allowances to members. In 1927 and 1929 further extensions provided for the entry of employees of firms, &c., eliminating the income bar, and increasing the maximum pension to £4 per week.

A most important extension of the scope of the Fund was made in 1914 when provision was made whereby local authorities could procure superannuation for their employees. This step was taken to enable all local authorities within the Dominion to become members of one fund so that employees could move from one local authority to another without loss of pension rights or any involved system of transfer values. Uniformity as to contributions and benefits is assured as between the various classes of local authorities, and thus avenues of advancement are opened to employees and fields of selection widened to employers. The benefits and contributions are similar to those operating in the three State Service funds.

In 1925 the voluntary provisions operating in respect of local authorities were made compulsory for Hospital Boards in respect of members of their nursing and clerical staffs, thus providing superannuation for members of the nursing profession.

To make provision for trained nurses in certain Departments of State, a further amendment enabled the Minister of Finance, through the employing Department, to contribute for nurses in the same manner as Hospital Boards, thus again facilitating transfers and conserving pension rights.

Joint and survivorship pensions and other options are available to all employees on retirement.

Since the inauguration of the Fund in 1911, 111,614 persons (86,616 males and 24,998 females) have entered, and of these 83,267 (males, 64,251; females, 19,016) have discontinued for one reason or another, leaving 28,347 (males, 22,365; females, 5,982) on the books at the 31st December, 1941. Of the 3,185 discontinuances in 1941, 2,872 were on account of withdrawal, lapse, and cancellation, 194 on account of having attained the annuity-age, and 119 on account of death.

The numbers of contributors for the various annuity rates as at 31st December, 1941, were as follows, male and female contributors being shown separately:—

Annuity Rate.Males.Females.Total.
10s. per week14,17891015,088
20s. per week2,0733452,418
30s. per week21139250
40s. per week48273555
Other5,4214,61510,036
      Totals22,3655,98228,347

Contributions during the year 1941 amounted to £328,884 and interest to £238,225. Government contributions under the Act totalled £80,324, exclusive of £308 for maternity claims. The largest item on the expenditure side was £94,548 by way of refund of contributions on lapse, reduction, and withdrawal.

The progress of the National Provident Fund scheme during the last five years is indicated in the following table.

Year.Number of Contributors.Annual Rate of Contribution payable.Total Amount of Fund.Claims during Year.
Maternity.In capacity.Retiring.Widows and Children.
  ££££££
193728,972275,3954,992,58737,61810,51166,37012,498
193829,439295,1385,290,25840,60210,30673,69113,476
193928,729300,6405,648,41525,8069,82682,35312,772
194028,302311,5146,023,9342,8779,20889,73712,312
194128,347322,8196,432,8593088,26797,78112,196

The amounts required to provide for subsidy and maternity allowances are voted by Parliament annually.

The last actuarial examination of the Fund disclosed a satisfactory surplus, and the Actuary reported that no additional State subsidy was required.

The accumulated fund at 31st December, 1941, amounted to £6,432,859, of which £6,358,976 was invested, mainly in Government securities.

Chapter 25. SECTION 25.—LOCAL GOVERNMENT.

Table of Contents

LOCAL government throughout New Zealand is exercised by a number of local authorities constituted under various Acts of Parliament. These Acts provide for the creation of districts over which the local authorities exercise jurisdiction. Different types of district are distinguishable, each type being identified with a specific function or group of functions. Geographically, the Dominion is divided into 129 counties, which comprise its total area, except for certain small islands which are not included within the boundaries of the adjacent counties. Administratively, boroughs and independent town districts, which are contained within the areas of the several counties, are regarded as separate entities. From an administrative point of view, therefore, the fundamental districts are counties, boroughs, and independent town districts. Upon this foundation a considerable superstructure of districts of other types has been erected. These overlapping districts may be divided into two broad classes: (1) Districts formed from parts of counties—e.g., road districts; and (2) those which are comprised of a group of adjacent districts of other types united for a common purpose—e.g., electric-power districts. The number of local authorities actively functioning at the 1st April, 1942, was 681, made up as follows: County Councils, 125; Borough Councils, 127; Town Boards (independent), 34; Town Boards (dependent), 21; Road Boards, 10; River Boards, 34; Land-drainage Boards, 47; Urban Drainage Boards, 3; Water-supply Boards, 3; Fire Boards, 58; Local Railway Board, 1; Harbour Boards (including 22 where the Board is a Borough or County Council, &c.), 48; Electric-power Boards, 41; Hospital Boards, 42; Tramway Board, 1; Transport Board, 1; Gas - lighting Board, 1; and Rabbit Boards, 84. In addition to the foregoing there are 18 District Councils of the Main Highways Board constituted under the Main Highways Act, 1922. These, although not local authorities in the strict sense of the term, are nevertheless intimately connected with certain aspects of local government, and have power to make recommendations of considerable importance.

Detailed statistics relating to each local authority, other than Hospital Boards, are contained in the Local Authorities Handbook, an annual publication of the Census and Statistics Department. Hospital Boards, which supply their returns in different form, and to the Department of Health, are omitted from the statistics contained in this section, but summarized data relating to them will be found in Section 5B.

The local-authority year now uniformly ends on 31st March, except in the case of most Harbour Boards. In certain cases where the harbour is administered by a County or Borough Council, the year ends on 31st March, but in all other cases on 30th September.

The history of local government in New Zealand may be conveniently divided into two periods associated with two distinct forms of administration—(1) The provincial system, in which the local government of each province was a function of the provincial authorities; and (2) the present county system, which arose on the abolition of the provinces in 1876, and in which the general responsibility for the local government of the whole country was undertaken by the Central Government.

THE PROVINCES.—Although New Zealand was at first (1848) divided into the two provinces of New Ulster and New Munster, it was not until 1853 that the provincial system really commenced. In that year, the two existing provinces were abolished and the colony was divided into the six provinces of Auckland, New Plymouth (altered to Taranaki in 1859), Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago. The number was later increased to nine by the separation of Hawke's Bay from Wellington (1859), Marlborough from Nelson (1860), and Southland from Otago (1861). Subsequently it was reduced to eight by the merging of Southland with Otago (1870), and restored to nine again by the separation of Westland from Canterbury in 1874, Westland having been a county independent of Canterbury from 1867. Each province was presided over by a Superintendent and Council, with power to legislate for its own territory, subject, however, to disallowance by the Governor, and also to the exclusion of such matters as Customs duties, postal affairs, Crown lands, superior Courts of law, coinage, and paper currency, which were to be controlled by the General Assembly (Central Government). The provinces received from the Central Government a capitation allowance for the maintenance of harbours, hospitals, asylums, charitable aid, and police; while each province was expected to provide for the construction and maintenance of roads, bridges, and other public works out of its own revenues, which were derived chiefly from the sale of waste lands.

The Provincial Councils, therefore, were virtually left with the whole responsibility of providing for the details of local administration. The Councils in turn delegated certain of their powers and functions to lesser authorities, and a number of boroughs, towns, and road and highway districts came into being. Owing, however, to the lack of uniformity between the Ordinances of the various Councils on the subject of local government, considerable confusion arose and rendered impossible any satisfactory co-ordination beyond provincial boundaries. Thus main roads were frequently planned without sufficient regard to the linking-up of the country as a whole. With the rapidly increasing population, and consequent extension of settlements, the need for the development of communications along national instead of provincial lines became apparent. That the provinces had definitely outlived the period of their usefulness became abundantly clear during the prosecution of the Vogel policy of immigration and public works initiated in 1870, and in 1875 the Abolition of Provinces Act was passed in the face of strong parochial opposition.

CONSTITUTION OF LOCAL DISTRICTS.—In 1876 local government entered upon an entirely new phase, the Central Government assuming the general responsibility for the local administration of the whole country. All existing legislation on the subject was repealed and new measures were introduced, notably the Counties Act, 1876, which divided the country into sixty-three counties, with provision for administration by elective Councils having powers considerably less than those enjoyed by the Provincial Councils. Another important enactment of the same year was the Municipal Corporations Act, which provided for the incorporation of the thirty-six boroughs then in existence and for the creation of new boroughs. The powers of municipalities were also extended, permitting the construction of tramways, waterworks, and gasworks, while the borrowing-powers of boroughs were placed on a definite and uniform footing. While these measures have long since been repealed, it is upon them that the broad structure of the present system is based.

Since the inception of the county system there has been a great expansion of local government throughout the Dominion. With the growth of population there has been a steady increase in the number of counties, boroughs, and town districts, while entirely new types of district have been created to cater for special services. A description of each type of local authority may be found in the 1940 and previous issues of the Year-Book.

FRANCHISE.—The franchise in local government is a variable one, differing considerably as between urban and country districts. In country districts a property qualification is required, and there is differential voting-power according to the value of property possessed. In boroughs and town districts, generally speaking, every adult is entitled to vote at the poll for the election of the local-governing authority, although on any proposal relating to loans or rates a ratepaying qualification is necessary. One vote only is allowed, but it is possible, by virtue of property qualification, to have a vote in more than one district. Details of the franchise as it affects each type of local district may be found on pages 653-4 of the 1940 issue of the Year-Book.

GENERAL POWERS.—Local authorities in New Zealand derive their powers from the Acts under which they are constituted, and also from special empowering Acts. In addition to legislation providing for particular types of local authority or for individual local authorities, there are several statutory measures which are more or less applicable to all local authorities, such as the Local Elections and Polls Act, 1925, and the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926. In the case of Harbour Boards, there is in addition to a general Harbours Act a special Act for each Board, which is subordinate to the general Act. Certain types of local authority—Urban Drainage Boards, the Local Railway Board, the Tramway and Transport Boards, and the Gas-lighting Board—derive their principal powers from special constituting Acts.

Local authorities have general powers of entering into contracts for any of the purposes for which they are constituted; of selling and leasing land; and of taking or purchasing any land which may be necessary or convenient for any public work.

AMALGAMATION.—Various statutory provisions exist for the voluntary amalgamation of local authorities, and these have been availed of from time to time. There have been numerous amalgamations of contiguous boroughs, while the one-time numerous road districts which played a very important part in the scheme of local government in the essentially colonizing days of New Zealand are now merged in county areas. There is no provision for compulsory amalgamation, but a measure entitled the Local Government (Amalgamation Schemes) Bill was introduced during the parliamentary session of 1936. The Bill, which so far has not been proceeded with, proposes to make provision for the union of two or more adjoining districts (whether or not of like status or constitution), the merger of any district, the transfer of functions from one local authority to another, an adjustment or alteration of boundaries, the conversion of a district into a district of different status or constitution, and other relevant matters.

BORROWING.—Under the Local Government Loans Board Act, 1920, all loan proposals of local authorities, except in regard to money borrowed in anticipation of revenue, require the sanction of the Local Government Loans Board. The Board consists of the Secretary to the Treasury, the Engineer-in-Chief of the Public Works Department, and five other members appointed by the Governor-General. In eases where a poll of ratepayers is necessary preparatory to raising a loan, the Board's consent must be obtained before the poll is held. In no case may the Board sanction any application unless provision is made to its satisfaction for repayment of the loan within such period as it deems reasonable, having regard to the probable duration and continuing utility of the works on which the loan-moneys are to be expended.

The principal legislation dealing with the borrowing-powers of local authorities is contained in the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926, which is mainly a consolidation of previous measures on the subject. A local authority is thereby empowered to raise a special loan for the construction of any public work, for the purchase of land or buildings, or for the purpose of engaging in any undertaking which it may lawfully enter into. As explained previously, a loan proposal first requires the sanction of the Local Government Loans Board. It must then be sanctioned by the ratepayers at a special poll (except in certain cases, provided for by various enactments, where a poll is not required to be taken), and the proposal is not deemed to have been carried unless at least three-fifths of the valid votes recorded are in favour of it, save in the case of boroughs and town districts, where a bare majority only is necessary. The properties and revenue of the local authority may be pledged as security for the repayment of any principal sum or interest thereon, or a special rate may be levied for the same purpose.

The borrowing activities of certain types of local authority are subject to special provisions. Under the Hospital and Charitable Institutions Act, 1026, a Hospital Board must first obtain the approval of the Minister of Health before exercising its power to borrow; in the case of Fire Boards the prior consent of the Minister of Internal Affairs is required; and Rabbit Boards must first seek the approval of the Minister of Agriculture. Harbour Boards derive their authority to borrow for harbour-works from special empowering legislation, and similar authority is given for the capital works of certain other local authorities.

Thu Finance Act (No. 2), 1935, extends the right of applying for a State guarantee of a special loan under the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926, to cover also any loans that a local authority is authorized to raise by the latter Act without taking a poll.

RATING.—Local authorities are largely dependent on revenue from rates to carry out their activities, and even loans raised for special purposes are ultimately liquidated by such revenues—known then as special rates. Three broad classes of rates are distinguished:—

  1. General, for general purposes.

  2. Separate rates levied for the construction of public works, for the acquisition of land or buildings, or for the benefit of the whole or part of a local district.

  3. Special rates imposed to secure the repayment of loan-money, being sufficient to produce interest and sinking fund, or interest and instalment of principal, as the ease may be. Special rates can be levied only by resolution gazetted, and, unlike general and separate rates, are not subject to any statutory limit.

There are three main systems of rating: (1) Capital (land and improvements) value, (2) annual value, and (3) unimproved value. In a few cases rating is on an acreage basis, and in the case of certain Rabbit Boards the rate is according to the number of sheep and/or cattle owned.

The Rating Act, 1925, provides that the local authority of any district (other than a district wherein the system of rating on the unimproved value is in force) may from time to time by resolution determine whether the system of rating on the annual value or on the capital value shall be in force in the district. The system of rating is upon the basis that 1s. in the £1 on the annual value is deemed to be equivalent to ¾d. in the £1 on the capital value of rateable property; or where in a district not rating on the annual value it is necessary for any purpose to ascertain the annual value of any rateable property, then the annual value thereof is equal to 6 per cent. on the capital value of such property. The annual value is deemed to be the letting-value, less 20 per cent. in the case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and 10 per cent. in the case of land, but in no instance is the rateable value to be less than 5 per cent. of the value of the fee-simple.

The Urban Farm Land Rating Act, 1932, with the object of affording some relief to owners of farm lands subject to rating by a Borough Council, authorizes the preparation of a special farm-land roll, which is deemed part of the valuation roll for rating purposes.

Consequent upon the decline in property values during the depression years, many owners took advantage of the provisions of the Valuation of Land Act permitting individual revaluations. In order to preserve equity in rating, the Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1933, authorized local authorities to levy rates upon a proportionate part, not being less than 75 per cent., of the values upon the roll. Where individual revaluations have been made, rates are levied either upon the new valuation or upon the proportionate part of the value existing prior to revaluation, whichever is the lower.

Rating on Unimproved Value of Land.—The Rating on Unimproved Value Act, 1896, was passed to afford local authorities the opportunity of adopting the principle of rating expressed in the title of the measure. The Act is now incorporated in the Rating Act, 1925. It is entirely at the option of the ratepayers of local districts to adopt the system, and provision is made for a return to the old system of rating, if desired, after three years' experience of the new one. The poll is to he taken in the same manner as in the case of a proposal to raise a loan in the district under the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926. Under the original Act it was necessary for a minimum number of one-third of the ratepayers to vote, and a majority of their votes carried the proposal. Now the question of adoption or otherwise is decided by a hare majority of the valid votes recorded, irrespective of the number of ratepayers who have voted.

A rescinding proposal can be carried at a poll by the same means as one for adoption, but not until after three years have elapsed; and, vice versa, rejection of a proposal bars its being brought forward for a similar period.

The valuation roll is supplied to the local authority by the Valuer-General under the provisions of the Valuation of Land Act, 1925, and the definitions of “capital value,” “improvements,” “unimproved value,” and “value of improvements” set out in that Act, as subsequently amended, apply also to rating on unimproved value. Provision is made for adjustment of rating-powers given under other Acts by fixing equivalents. Thus, as already indicated, a rate of 1s. in the pound on the annual value is to be considered equal to ¾ d. in the pound on the capital value.

It should be noted that some local authorities automatically adopt rating on" unimproved value. For example, a town district, borough, or another county formed from part of a country automatically rates on the system in force in the county at the time of the constitution of the new district; also two boroughs amalgamating adopt the system in force in the district with the greater population, unless their Councils agree to the contrary.

A table is given of systems in force during the financial year 1940–41.

System of Rating.Total.
Unimproved Value.Capital Value.Annual Value.Acreage Basis.On Stock.

*Includes Chatham Islands County, for which import and export dues are charged in lieu of rates on land.

†Includes one various.

‡ Includes one system based on water consumption.

Counties5668   125*
Boroughs812126  128
Town districts26245  55
Road districts37   10
River districts1117 6† 34
Land-drainage districts2918   47
Electric-power districts1426   40
Water-supply districts     3‡
Urban drainage districts 21  3
Tramway district 1   1
Rabbit districts14 63674
      Totals22118933696520

Although the figures referred to indicate that the number of local authorities rating on the unimproved value during 1940–41 was 42 per cent. of the total, yet on a population basis the figures reveal that 58 per cent. of the people of the Dominion were in districts so rating. The position in regard to the four major classes of local authorities at 1st April, 1941 (i.e., the beginning of the 1941–42 financial year), was as follows:—

Rating on unimproved Value.Total for Dominion.*Ratio of Unimproved Value to Total.
No.Population.No.Population.No.Population.

* Exclusive of migratory, &c, population.

† Includes the four counties (Eden, Taupo, Sounds, and Fiord) in which the Counties Act is not wholly in force.

     Per Cent.Per Cent.
Counties (excluding all town districts)56278,750129641,730†43·4143·44
Boroughs80631,800127938,17062·9967·34
Town districts (independent)1616,9103428,74047·0658·84
Town districts (dependent)103,440217,43047·6246·30
 162930,9003111,616,07052·0957·60

For the purposes of the foregoing tables a district is deemed to rate on the unimproved value where the general rate is levied on an unimproved-value basis. In a number of instances, in particular of boroughs, certain of the subsidiary rates are levied on other systems.

TOWN-PLANNING.—Town-planning legislation of 1926 and 1929 provides for the making and enforcement of town, extra-urban, and regional planning schemes. Every town-planning scheme is required to have for its general purpose the development of the city or borough to which it relates (including the reconstruction of an area already built on) in such a way as to promote its healthfulness, amenity, convenience, and advancement. Extra-urban schemes have like objects in regard to their areas.

Regional planning schemes must be preceded by a comprehensive survey of the natural resources of the areas concerned, and of the present and potential uses and values of all lands in relation to public utilities or amenities. Regional schemes envisage the conservation and economic development of natural resources by classification of lands according to their best uses and by the co-ordination of all such public improvements, utilities, services, and amenities as are not limited to the territory of any one local authority.

The principal Act provided for a Director of Town-planning and a representative Town-planning Board under the Minister of Internal Affairs as chairman, but the Government has since decided, instead of having a Director of Town-planning, to follow the English precedent of having a Town-planning Officer directly attached to the Government Department controlling town-planning—in this case the Department of Internal Affairs. The Town-planning Board continues to operate.

All cities or boroughs with a population of one thousand or over at the census of 1926, together with certain road districts, were required to prepare town-planning schemes and submit them to the Town-planning Board by the end of 1936. Other boroughs may be added by Order in Council, and smaller boroughs may submit schemes voluntarily. Provision is made for a combined scheme by two or more adjoining local authorities.

Counties, inclusive of smaller boroughs and of town districts, comprise rural areas for the purpose of extra-urban schemes. The authority responsible for the scheme is the County Council, or where more than one local authority is concerned a representative committee approved by the Board.

When a town or extra-urban scheme has been approved by the Board it is the duty of the local authorities having jurisdiction to enforce the requirements of the scheme in respect of all new works of any description. The provisions of a regional planning scheme are not obligatory, but are intended to serve as a guide to the local authorities within the region.

One of the most important divisions of the town-planning legislation deals with betterment, which is defined as the increase in property values attributable to the approval or carrying-out of a town-planning scheme. Briefly, one-half of betterment increase in the value of rateable property constitutes a debt payable to the local authority by the owner of the land. Within prescribed limits, moneys from this source are to be applied, inter alia, to compensate persons whose lands are acquired for town- or extra-urban-planning schemes', or who are otherwise injuriously affected.

HOUSING.—The Housing Survey Act, 1935, was passed in October of that year, its purpose being to ascertain the extent to which the existing housing-accommodation in the Dominion fell short of reasonable requirements. The Act applied to every borough (or city) or town district whose population was estimated by the Government Statistician to be not less than one thousand at 1st April, 1934, to two suburban road districts, and to any other local authority prescribed by Order in Council. An analysis of the results of the survey carried out under the authority of the Act will be found in the section of this Year-Book dealing with “Building and Construction.”

Under section 28 of the State Advances Corporation Act, 1936, the Corporation is empowered to make loans to local authorities for the acquisition of land for the erection of workers' dwellings, or for any other purpose in relation to workers' dwellings. As part of the Government's housing plans, finance has been made available to local authorities at an interest-rate of 3 per cent. for the purpose of erecting municipally-owned workers' dwellings for letting at low rentals. Applications by local authorities for loans under this arrangement must be approved by the Local Government Loans Board and the Minister of Finance.

By the Rural Housing Act, 1939, local authorities are empowered to advance moneys to a farmer for the purpose of enabling him to provide a dwelling for his own use or for the use of any farm worker who is principally employed by him, the money in the first place being supplied by the State Advances Corporation (see p. 337 of this volume).

RECEIPTS.—The sources from which the various classes of local authorities secure the moneys necessary to exercise their functions vary greatly, according to the nature of the statutory duties of the local authority concerned. Generally, however, receipts fall under one of four main classes—viz., rates; revenue from public utilities, licenses, rents, &c.; revenue receipts from the General Government; and receipts such as loan-money and special grants and subsidies from the Government which cannot properly be regarded as revenue.

The receipts of local authorities, divided into the various groups shown above, are given for each of the last eleven years. As stated earlier, the figures quoted here and elsewhere in this section do not cover the operations of Hospital Boards.

Year ended 31st March,Revenue fromTotal Revenue.Receipts not Revenue.Total Receipts.
Rates.Public Utilities, Licenses, Rents, &c.Government.
 ££££££
19315,637,25410,201,076426,31516,264,6454,432,95620,697,601
19325,511,8189,054,187628,06415,194,0694,374,25119,568,320
19335,237,6888,462,628450,65714,150,9734,433,29418,584,267
19345,541,2558,245,173443,23914,229,6673,821,77918,051,446
19355,511,4428,608,064559,22314,678,7293,943,48818,622,217
19365,585,8558,976,035576,51315,138,4034,348,53419,486,937
19375,994,3539,524,939454,49815,973,7904,252,80320,226,593
19386,541,35410,542,197463,09617,546,6474,389,62021,936,267
19396,971,55011,275,084475,54218,722,1766,254,79224,976,968
19407,289,24012,188,955480,57319,958,7686,772,32726,731,095
19417,344,05512,696,676447,54020,488,2714,651,63325,139,904

Local authorities received by way of rates in the financial year 1940–41 a total amount of £7,344,055, and the sum of £620,528 was raised by licenses and £168,673 by other taxes, making £8,133,256 altogether from taxation, which sum is equivalent to £4 19s. 9d. per head of the mean population (including Maoris).

During 1940—41 rates formed 35·8 per cent. of the revenue proper; public utilities, licenses, rents, and other sources yielded 62·0 per cent.; and 2·2 per cent. came from the General Government.

Of the revenue proper of counties, which amounted to £3,287,787 in 1940–41, no less a sum than £2,165,352, or 66 per cent., was raised by way of rates. Town districts, road districts, river districts, land-drainage districts, and urban drainage districts also rely on taxation for the greater part of their income. In the case of boroughs, electric-power districts, and Harbour Boards, on the other hand, rates supply a considerably smaller proportion of the total revenue. During 1940–41 this source of income accounted for 45 per cent. of the total revenue of boroughs, the corresponding proportion for Harbour Boards and electric-power districts being 12·6 per cent. and 0·10 per cent. respectively.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES.—RECEIPTS, 1940–41.

Revenue fromReceipts not Revenue.Total Receipts.
Rates.Public Utilities, Licenses, Rents, &c.Government.
 £££££
Counties2,165,352907,638214,7971,444,2414,732,028
Boroughs4,281,9805,086,254190,7272,030,36511,589,326
Town districts102,86645,1294,72255,079207,796
Road districts55,1016,8661,67228,27691,915
River districts88,46518,027 106,752213,244
Land-drainage districts73,2822,833 19,16395,278
Electric-power districts3,6073,660,556 345,8504,010,013
Water-supply districts4,260165 6295,054
Urban drainage districts267,5824,942 109,071381,595
Urban transport districts28,9421,003,581 23,4501,055,973
Railway district 19,062  19,062
Gas-lighting district 66,738  66,738
Rabbit districts35,23112,08429,03312,24788,595
Fire districts 216,4784,28035,282256,040
Harbour Boards237,3871,646,3232,309441,2282,327,247
      Totals7,344,05512,696,676447,5404,651,63325,139,904

Of the total rates (£7,344,055) collected during 1940–41, general rates levied brought in £3,539,785 and other rates (including penalty on overdue rates) £3,804,270. Of the latter, £2,734,072 was received by boroughs and £839,591 by counties. The whole of the rates collected by Harbour Boards (£237,387) were classed as general rates.

It is of interest to note that for the year 1940–41 the total of all rates collected by counties was equal to £6·98 per £1,000 of rateable capital value (land and improvements). The corresponding figure for boroughs was £14·83, for independent town districts £14·79, and for town districts forming ports of counties £7·00 (excluding rates levied by County Councils).

Sections in successive Finance Acts from 1930 to 1936 authorized the remission or postponement in whole or in part of the 10-per-cent. penalty on unpaid rates. This authority then lapsed, but was reinstated on a permanent basis and made retrospective by the Statutes Amendment Act, 1938.

Public Utilities, Licenses, Rents, &c.—Rates are not the only form of local taxation. Local authorities derive a certain amount of revenue from publicans' licenses, heavy-traffic fees, motor-drivers' licenses, drivers' (other vehicles) licenses, auctioneers' and hawkers' licenses, abattoir fees, building permits, dog-taxes, pound-taxes, tolls, &c. Sources of revenue not classed as taxation are rents, fines and penalties, market dues, sales of material, sales of light and power from gasworks and electric-supply works, tramway and omnibus receipts, interest on deposits, wharf dues, &c.

Of a total revenue of £5,086,254 accruing to boroughs under this head in 1940–41, £013,048 represented tramway and omnibus receipts, £1,979,177 sales of electric light and power, and £459,096 sales of gas.

Receipts from General Government.—A statement of revenue receipts by local authorities from the Government during the last five financial years is given in the next table.

Year ended 31st March,
1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
 £££££
Rates on Crown and Native lands3213628821,2653,877
One-third of receipts from land sold on deferred payment or held on perpetual lease6,6743,6655,8715,8664,802
One-fourth of rents from small grazing-runs1,0898455921,117324
Timber and flax royalties16,19818,84712,34214,91412,631
Goldfields revenue and gold duty26,98225,99623,57225,01121,426
Subsidies on rates219,684231,864239,103235,253242,070
Petrol-tax155,104163,874176,754182,300144,005
Fees and fines8,6655,2294,3124,9946,850
Other revenue receipts19,78112,41412,1149,85311,465
    Totals, Revenue Account454,498463,096475,542480,573447,540

In addition to the revenue receipts shown above (£447,540 in 1940–41), there are special grants from the General Government (£2,676,819 in 1940–41) for various local works of a public or semi-public character, including subsidies from the Labour Department (£1,692,460 in 1940–41). Advances from the Main Highways Account amounted to £15,650. Of the foregoing amounts totalling £3,140,009, counties received £1,393,232 and boroughs £1,388,063.

EXPENDITURE.—The expenditure of local authorities during each of the last eleven years has been as follows:—

Year ended 31st March,Works and Utilities (Construction and Maintenance).Hospital Board Levies.Administration.Interest, on Loans and Overdraft.Other.*Total Expenditure.

* Including payments for amortization of debt, the amount for 1940–41 being £1,843,985.

 ££££££
193114,402,327699,5841,029,0174,021,2332,022,36322,174,524
193212,694,508561,905989,3663,963,3341,878,26820,087,381
193311,584,311574,960907,6593,877,3401,940,90318,885,173
193410,754,446592,092879,2763,476,7672,035,21l17,737,792
193511,656,773601,448875,3173,362,0132,249,34018,744,891
193612,250,661622,512998,9983,243,3862,221,68519,337,242
193713,164,376717,0841,001,5043,120,6522,219,09920,222,715
193814,672,484821,6971,034,6463,031,7932,490,52722,051,147
193917,170,464943,5291,354,2493,029,9902,580,70325,078,935
194017,413,2421,093,4791,350,0113,034,7532,817,71025,709,195
194116,120,898966,2211,371,4343,030,8023,237,27324,726,628

The expenditure in recent years includes expenditure out of grants from the Labour Department, the aggregate amount from this source in 1940–41 being £1,692,460. Included in “other” payments for 1940–41 is an amount of £391,211 for exchange, the hulk of which related to interest payments.

The expenditure of the various classes of local authorities during 1940–41 is shown below.

Works and Utilities (Construction and Maintenance).Hospital Board Levies.Administration.Interest on Loans and Overdraft.Amortization of Debt.Total Expenditure.*

* Including other items.

 ££££££
Counties3,099,689464,658349,558304,195241,4904,539,351
Boroughs7,631,286486,148458,1791,374,747832,88011,363,714
Town districts123,38910,10620,97721,96815,877197,570
Road districts51,1695,3096,32114,5774,57485,770
River districts151,042 13,91023,05014,282204,946
Land — drainage districts52,047 8,31316,71110,40587,753
Electric — power districts2,469,259 259,003566,347367,6943,871,656
Water — supply districts4,555 6654424446,106
Urban drainage districts149,020 21,775120,87263,343374,869
Urban transport districts681,397 45,238126,43581,1951,135,899
Railway district10,661 2,5112781,00020,446
Gas-lighting district42,172 4,5317,2174,61669,847
Rabbit districts77,175 9,52636438588,071
Fir districts192,757 7,26115,12517,030242,720
Harbour Boards Totals1,385,280 163,666438,474188,7702,437,910
    Total16,120,898966,2211,371,4343,030,8021,843,98524,726,628

The table following gives, in respect of boroughs only, the expenditure on new works out of loan-money during the last eleven years, classified under various heads.

Year ended 31st March,Roads, Streets, and Bridges.Drainage and Sanitation.Water works.Houses, Workers' Dwellings, &c.Parks, Gardens, Town Halls, Libraries, Art Galleries, and Places of Public Recreation.Lighting and Power Services.Other Public Works.Totals.
 ££££££££
1931475,644271,906145,5552,82933,685308,58998,8851,337,093
1932359,486222,72785,2244,71917,990134,05675,048899,250
1933133,417164,08022,3341,2432,0708,01049,540380,694
193476,862165,72937,062102,44621621,054243,379
193579,205126,972144,10635010,384136,421397,439
1936123,314109,490201,8556,89038,12394910,095490,716
1937215,76089,269142,9702,00553,2702223,444526,740
1938226,127165,62378,009121,38833,8509,735109,303744,035
1939172,797156,457131,451145,91654,53515,735125,227802,118
1940148,191151,350142,910121,65973,49348,89355,950742,446
1941135,740103,297125,68719,77249,94482,97724,068539,685

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.—The assets and liabilities of local authorities at the end of the financial year 1940–41 are as shown in the table following.

Assets.Liabilities.
Cash Assets.Other Assets (as estimated in published Balance-sheets).Debentures and other Securities: Net Indebtedness.Inscribed Stock, i.e., Loans from Treasury under Local bodies Acts.Other Liabilities (Bank Overdrafts, Temporary Loans, Outstanding Accounts, &c.).Total Net Liabilities.
 ££££££
Counties1,508,4572,481,1225,778,806684,801386,8876,850,494
Boroughs4,623,62634,090,07226,303,849663,636919,11727,886,602
Town districts71,706461,337422,3514,68317,279444,313
Road districts22,064147,860239,9894,0553,775247,819
River districts68,668230,584474,49031,20416,763522,517
Land — drainage districts41,24072,101288,96141,9417,016337,918
Electric — power districts2,572,08616,205,95411,163,188 668,93311,832,121
Water — supply districts4241,8078,736 328,768
Urban drainage districts131,3541,294,5792,399,146 10,8502,409,996
Urban transport districts165,5703,049,8922,046,591 122,9332,169,524
Railway district3,172183,511  3,5003,500
Gas — lighting district17,502218,118119,602 42,401162,003
Rabbit districts50,32424,6693,188 8,55611,744
Fire districts91,303813,128358,034 47,057405,091
Harbour Boards1,752,46216,528,2038,024,585 273,8408,298,425
    Totals11,119,95875,802,93757,631,5161,430,3802,528,93961,590,835

The figures shown in the column “Other assets” are taken from the respective balance-sheets, but are far from complete, inasmuch as no valuations are made for certain items. This applies particularly to roads, which, although representing considerable wealth to the community, do not figure at all in the assets. In this connection it may be mentioned that the greater part of the expenditure of counties and road districts goes in this direction, while in the case of borough no less than 27 per cent. of the loan-money expenditure during the last five years was on roads, streets, and bridges. Assets of local authorities as returned for the last eleven years are as under.

As at 31st March,Cash Assets.Other Assets (estimated).As at 31st March,Cash AssetsOther Assets (estimated).
 ££ ££
193112,194,41766,504,801193711,508,74466,688,860
193212,820,72467,811,808193811,361,08069,792,113
193310,646,33667,323,29819399,981,22271,892,826
193411,176,56267,118,852194010,679,40674,492,688
193511,875,26867,324,158194111,119,95875,802,937
193612,144,80467,168,849   

Cash assets are made up chiefly of loan balances, reserve investments, and cash in hand. Sinking funds, which amounted to £8,912,791 at 31st March, 1941, do not appear in the foregoing table, but are shown as a deduction from the gross loan indebtedness of local authorities. Other assets are comprised mainly of fixed assets and of stocks of stores and materials.

Boroughs are responsible for 45 per cent. of the total assets, Harbour Boards for 21 per cent., and electric-power districts for 22 per cent. Counties show the comparatively low percentage of 5, but this is due to the fact that practically the whole of county expenditure goes on roads, for which no valuation is available.

Hospital Boards, which are not included in the foregoing figures, had assets (excluding outstanding fees and subsidies) amounting to £6,074,942 at 31st March, 1941, bringing the total (excluding sinking funds) for all local authorities to approximately £92,998,000.

INDEBTEDNESS.—Prior to 1935–36 it was customary to classify the local-authority debt into loans from the State Advances Corporation, loans from the Main Highways Account, inscribed debt—i.e., inscribed stock exchanged for debentures under the Bonds and Bridges Construction Act, 1882—and non-governmental loans. The last-mentioned comprise by far the greater part of the debt, and consist mainly of debentures issued to the public. Owing, however, to the operation of the Local Authorities Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion Act, 1932–33, a considerable number of State Advances loans have lost their identity through being included in conversion schemes with non-governmental loans, so that it is no longer practicable to show them separately. Loans from the Main Highways Account being comparatively insignificant in total (approximately £100,000), it is felt that no useful purpose is served by a separate classification. Commencing with 1935–36, therefore, the debt appears under two headings only: (1) Debentures and other Securities, and (2) Inscribed Debt. The reason for retaining the identity of inscribed debt is that it is fundamentally different from the usual type of loan. Originating in the early days of the present system of local government, it arose out of a recognition by the General Government that the primary functions of local authorities, such as road-making, were of national importance, and money was advanced on very favourable terms. The loans were for long terms at low interest-rates, with no provision for repayment, the position being that as soon as a local authority met its final instalment of interest the loan was ipso facto extinguished. Loans of this nature, therefore, are vastly different from what is usually connoted by the term.

The total gross debt of local authorities at 31st March, 1941, was £67,974,687, made up of: Debentures and other securities, £66,544,307; and inscribed debt, £1,430,380. The net indebtedness (i.e., after deducting accumulated sinking funds from debentures and other securities, and making an actuarial estimate of the liability for inscribed debt on an assumed table-loan basis) was £57,900,236.

It is necessary to observe that figures of local-authority debt given herein are not quoted in uniform currency terms. Debt held in New Zealand (the great majority of the total) is expressed in New Zealand currency; that in Australia is expressed in Australian currency; and that held in the United Kingdom is expressed in sterling. The total is ascertained by adding the three currencies together without conversion to a common basis. As, however, the question of immediate repayment is not involved, little gain would be achieved by expressing the figures in New Zealand currency converted at present rates of exchange.

Since the passing of the Local Government Loans Board Act, 1926, borrowing has been on a much lower scale than had been the case for sonic years. During the first four years of its operation (April, 1927, to March, 1931) the net increase in the debt aggregated £8,673,799, a yearly average of £2,168,450, or less than half the average increase of the previous eight years. After 1930–31 there was an almost progressive decline for many years, the total decrease to the end of 1937–38 being £4,625,085. A sharp rise of nearly £1,300,000 in 1939–40 was followed in 1940–41 by a fall of over £1,000,000. Part of the decrease following 1932–33 was due to conversion operations, in which accumulated sinking funds were utilized for repayment purposes, and it should be noted that in 1936 the whole of the debt of the Southland Electric power Board (£1,638,134 gross, £1,237,307 net, at 31st March, 1936) was taken over by the General Government.

The following summary of the operations of the Local Government Loans Board during the last eleven years shows concisely the trend of local authority borrowing during that period. Hospital Boards are included in this instance.

Year.Total Applications.Sanctioned.
New Works.Redemption Loans.
 £££
1930–313,840,5051,766,256838,901
1931–323,412,365781,1952,483,810
1932–332,951,645406,5212,348,231
1933–343,884,132917,5602,744,245
1934–353,859,3631,585,4402,379,955
1935–364,061,0761,550,6902,051,790
1936–372,804,3082,411,358430,313
1937–383,362,1733,098,445122,758
1938–395,138,9173,013,8721,188,525
1939–402,674,4501,701,460355,800
1940–115,336,6402,709,5051,602,670

The outstanding loans of local authorities at the end of each of the last eleven years are shown in the following table.

At 31st March,Debentures and other Securities.*Inscribed Debt.Total Debt.
Gross Debt.Net Debt (i.e., less accumulated Sinking Funds).Gross Debt.Present Indebtedness (actuarially computed).Cross Debt.Net Debt.

* Including loans from State Advances Corporation and from Main Highways Account.

 ££££££
193170,717,00901,393,5481,969,027772,65172,686,63662,166,199
193270,477,71760,838,7441,924,565716,16272,402,28261,554,906
193370,608,35460,239,8631,867,702662,76972,476,05660,902,632
193470,148,17759,245,8501,821,210608,88671,969,38759,854,736
193569,504,65958,995,2541,740,799556,59671,245,45859,551,850
193668,746,07958,732,4361,654,097505,68170,400,17659,238,117
193766,950,37857,463,3701,609,372457,51468,559,75057,920,884
193866,487,01356,995,4411,573,938409,28668,060,95157,404,727
193966,678,21556,988,0801,528,459361,44268,206,67457,349,522
194068,006,31958,041,7461,480,651314,61269,486,97058,356,358
194166,544,30757,631,5161,430,380268,72067,974,68757,900,236

In addition to the scheme of State advances, there exists a system whereby the State guarantee to the payment of interest and principal, in the event of default by the local authority, may be obtained by the borrowing authority. The amount outstanding in respect of local-authority loans guaranteed by the State aggregated £730,674 at the 31st March, 1941, sinking funds in respect of these loans totalling £493,528. Included in these figures is one loan (£1,500; sinking fund, £1,124) of a Hospital Board.

Of the total net indebtedness of £57,900,236 at the 31st March, 1941, boroughs were responsible for £26,420,581, which represents 9–15 per cent. of their rateable capital value. In the ease of counties, which have a much less per caput expenditure on works, &c., the percentage is only 1–91.

The following table shows, per head of the population, the gross debt of local authorities and the annual charge thereon for the last eleven years.

As at 31st March,Population.Gross Debt.Annual Loan Charge.
Amount.Rate per Head.Amount.Rate per Head.
  ££ s. d.££ s d.
19311,511,70072,686,63648 1 84,828,7933 3 11
19321,525,54572,402,28247 9 24,905,4673 4 8
19331,538,02872,476,05647 2 54,919,2213 4 0
19341,550,12571,969,38746 8 74,449,7772 17 8
19351,560,99271,245,45845 12 104,421,5062 16 8
19361,573,81070,400,17644 14 84,395,7582 15 10
19371,587,21168,559,75043 3 114,446,7062 16 0
19381,604,47968,060,95142 8 54,457,8742 15 7
19391,624,71468,206,67441 19 74,602,0622 16 7
19401,640,90169,486,97042 6 114,726, 0742 17 7
19411,636,23067,974,68741 10 104,806,9012 18 9

The increase since 1937–38 is mainly due to increased burrowing by Electric-power Boards. It should be noted that the debt of electric-power districts shown in the following table does not represent the complete local-authority debt on account of electric power, since a considerable portion of the borough debt, and a small part of the county and town district debt also, was incurred for that purpose. The debt of “other districts” at 31st March, 1941, was mainly that of urban transport districts (£2,445,945) and urban drainage districts (£2,751,359).

As at 31st March,Counties.Boroughs.Town Districts.Road Districts.Electric-power Districts.Harbour Boards,Other Districts.Totals.
 ££££££££
19317,699,17532,894,635835,205274,62523,011,52910,517,3967,453,47172,686,036
19327,719,43132,445,623820,219288,37513,121,96010,549,4937,457,18172,402,282
19337,610,69832,534,350820,917286,43513,031,93010,620,4427,571,28472,476,056
19347,523,01732,094,214810,820287,36313,213,07910,496,5337,544,36171,969,387
19357,306,48131,714,600812,996286,59613,399,05310,524,7887,200,94471,245,458
19367,065,75531,480,305704,561277,65313,434,98810,218,6727,168,24270,400,176
19376,932,98831,292,203693,471276,26612,026,08710,152,1287,276,00268,559,750
19336,864,85431,236,969631,488271,02011,890,0319,894,1157,272,47468,060,951
19396,856,52431,286,454487,756267,81112,471,3159,746,9407,089,87468,206,674
19406,893,64231,452,048480,552262,47213,114,6889,960,6397,322,92969,486,970
19416,839,09430,688,111478,690256,30613,106,7749,927,5786,677,63467,974,687

Domicile of Debt.—The loans outstanding, other than inscribed debt, at the end of the financial year 1940–41 are shown below, classified according to domicile, and also according to rate of interest. Reference should be made to observations on page 426 in regard to the currencies in which local-authority debts are expressed.

Rate of Interest, per cent.Domiciled in New Zealand.Domiciled in United Kingdom.Domiciled in Australia.Totals.
 ££££
Free of interest70,611  70,611
3483,234  483,234
767,238  767,238
3⅜40,088  40,088
8,106,642  8,106,642
3⅝25,000  25,000
3 7/108,500  8,500
669,998  669,998
3⅞408,796  408,796
3 729/800537,600  537,600
41,344,788207,200 1,551,988
4⅛497,867  497,867
39,997,479156,800466,80040,621,079
4⅖197,810 9,572207,382
410,3561,361,22510,0171,781,598
4⅗391,878 15,000406,878
4 7/10 500 500
  317,975317,975
4⅘474,734  474,734
512,2324,555,70013,0004,580,932
5⅕1,000  1,000
 1,364,60051,5001,416,100
7201,217,500445,6161,663,836
5⅝  25,00025,000
5 11/16  130,000130,000
6,000 605,981611,981
6 530,00081,750611,750
 500,00026,000526,000
    Totals54,453,0719,893,0252,198,21166,544,307

The average rates work out as follows: New Zealand, 4·10 per cent.; United Kingdom, 5·12 per cent.; Australia, 5·20 per cent.: total, 4·29 per cent.

The interest-rates quoted are those applicable to the amount of debt outstanding. They have not been adjusted to the prices at which the respective loans were raised—e.g., where a loan was issued below par the rate of interest on the sum actually received (omitting the question of flotation expenses) would be higher than the rate shown above.

During 1940–41 the amount domiciled in New Zealand increased by £995,197, that in Australia decreased by £ 66,009, and that in the United Kingdom decreased by £2,391,200.

A five-years summary of the domicile of loans outstanding, other than inscribed debt, is given hereunder.

At 31st March,Amount.Percentage of Total.
United Kingdom.Australia.New Zealand.United Kingdom.Australia.New Zealand.
 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
193713,860,3252,165,30950,924,74420·703·2476·06
193813,328,9252,021,95851,136,13620·053·0476·91
193912,775,5251,981,33551,921,35519·162·9777·87
194012,284,2252,264,22053,457,87418·063·3378·61
19419,893,0252,198,21154,453,07114·873·3081·83

Debt Charges.—Particulars of the annual loan charge of local authorities during each of the last eleven years are as follows:—

At 31st March,On Debenture and other Securities.On Inscribed Debt.Total.
 £££
19314,757,48171,3124,828,793
19324,835,98269,4854,905,467
19334,852,07267,1494,919,221
19344,384,55765,2204,449,777
19354,359,55161,9554,421,506
19364,337,36058,3984,395,758
19374,390,02556,6814,446,706
19384,402,45055,4244,457,874
19394,548,27053,7864,602,062
19404,074,02252,0524,726,074
19414,756,70150,2004,806,901

Amortization charges are included in the above, the amount payable during 1941–42 on debt other than inscribed debt at 31st March, 1941, being £1,914,423. Interest charges payable during 1941–42 on the debt outstanding at 31st March, 1941, aggregated £2,842,278, payable, according to countries of domicile, as follows: New Zealand, £2,220,776; Australia, £114,606; United Kingdom, £506,896 (plus exchange).

Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion.—As part of a general policy of a reduction in interest-rates, the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, imposed, inter alia, a stamp duty of 10 per cent. on interest derived from local-authority securities. The proceeds, less 5 per cent. as administrative charges, were paid to the respective local authorities. This duty was abolished by the Local Authorities Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion Act, 1932–33, which followed somewhat similar legislation dealing with the public debt. Interest-rates on local-authority securities in excess of 4½ per cent. per annum were reduced by 20 per cent., or to a minimum of 4½ per cent. Local authorities were also empowered to draw up individual conversion schemes at a lower and more uniform rate of interest. Dissentients to any such scheme were penalized by a reduction of 33⅓ per cent. below the original rate.

The provisions of the Local Authorities Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion Act, 1932–33, ceased to operate on 31st December, 1935, at which date 90 per cent. of the debt convertible at the 31st March, 1933, had been converted; but provision is contained in section 20 of the Finance Act (No. 2), 1935, for voluntary conversion to be carried out under the provisions of the principal Act.

The Local Authorities Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion Amendment Act, 1934, limited future borrowings to an interest-rate not exceeding 3½ per cent., with provision, however, for varying the rate by Order in Council under the Local Government Loans Board Act, 1926. In May, 1939, the maximum was raised to 4¼ per cent.

Loan Maturities.—The following table classifies loans (other than inscribed debt) according to years of maturity and countries of domicile.

Years of Maturity (ended 31st December).New Zealand.United Kingdom.Australia.Total.
 ££££
Prior to and during 19433,379,4652,047,500239,4505,666,415
1944–489,822,8772,289,525595,49912,707,901
1949–5311,576,0921,368,000173,55613,117,648
1954–5811,218,5881,305,000156,64112,680,229
1959–6312,516,3652,468,000718,21715,702,582
1964–685,043,712415,00080,8485,539,560
1969–73773,714 234,0001,007,714
1974–7598,439  98,439
Unspecified23,819  23,819
    Totals54,453,0719,893,0252,198,21166,544,307

Table loans account for £15,929,956 of the above total, loans in which a number of debentures are redeemed each year for £30,050,579, and loans with one fixed maturity date for £20,563,772. In the case of table loans the year of maturity is taken as that in which the final instalment is payable. Practically the whole of the debt domiciled abroad is composed of loans with one fixed date of maturity.

Chapter 26. SECTION 26.—VALUATION OF LAND.

Table of Contents

SYSTEM AND PROCEDURE.—The existing law relating to the valuation of land in New Zealand is contained in the Valuation of Land Act, 1925 (a consolidation of previous legislation), and its amendments of 1926, 1927, 1932, and 1933. A brief historical account appears in the 1932 and earlier Year-Books.

The work of the Valuation Department is directed by the Valuer-General. The actual work of valuation is done by District Valuers and assistant valuers. The duty of a valuer is to examine each property and to estimate to the best of his ability (1) the unimproved value of the land contained therein, (2) the value of the buildings (if any) or other improvements (if any) upon such land, and (3) the “capital value” of the property. The Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1927, provides that, in any revaluation of property in a borough rating on the unimproved value, the unimproved value only or the value of improvements only may be ascertained, the capital value being adjusted accordingly.

Under the New Zealand law the increased value attaching to any piece of land which is due to the successful working of other lands in the district, or to State or local authority expenditure on public works, or to the general prosperity and development of the country, forms portion of the “unimproved value.” Any increased value, however, which is represented by the improvements effected by the individual possessor, either past or present, does not form part of the “unimproved value.”

Valuers are enjoined not to strain after high values, nor to accept special prices paid for land under exceptional circumstances, but to determine the value neither above nor below the fair selling-value in view of the many and diverse purposes for which the values are used. Land containing or supposed to contain oil, coal, or other mineral deposits is valued as for the surface use only.

THE VALUATION ROLL.—The Valuation of Land Act directs the preparation of a valuation roll for each district, setting forth in respect of each separate property the following particulars:—

  1. The name of the owner of the land and the nature of his estate or interest therein, together with the namo of the beneficial owner in the case of land held in trust:

  2. The namo of the occupier within the meaning of the Rating Act:

  3. The situation, description, and area of the land:

  4. The nature and value of the improvements on the land:

  5. The unimproved value of the land:

  6. The capital value of the land:

  7. Such other particulars as are prescribed.

The district valuation roll so long as it continues in force is by law the roll from which the valuation roll of every local authority rating on the capital or on the unimproved value is framed.

In December, 1932, the Urban Farm Land Rating Act (amended in 1933 and 1935) was passed with the object of giving some rating relief to farm lands subject to rates levied by Borough (or City) Councils, Independent Town Boards, and certain Road Boards. The Act provides for the preparation of farm-land rolls, which are deemed to be part of the valuation roll for rating purposes.

After the values in a district have been revised a new valuation roll is prepared, end the Valuer-General addresses to each person whose name appears thereon a notice setting forth the values at which his property is entered, and naming a date on or before which all objections (in writing) to the values must be lodged.

THE ASSESSMENT COURT.—The Valuer-General refers objections to values to the District Valuer to enable him to review valuations before the sitting of the Assessment Court. If after careful reconsideration by the District Valuer it is decided that an objection will be allowed or a reasonable compromise effected, the valuation is altered accordingly. On the other hand, if the Valuer-General considers that the valuer's estimates are fair, the objection is heard and determined by the Assessment Court.

The Assessment Court consists of three members, of whom one—the President, who must be a barrister or solicitor of the Supreme Court of New Zealand—is appointed by the Governor-General in Council. Of the other two members of the Court, one is appointed by the Governor-General in Council, and the other by the local authority of the district whose roll has been revised, or by two or more local authorities acting in unison, provided the appointee is not a member of, or a paid officer of, any local authority. The Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1927, provides for assessors representing local authorities to be elected (after nomination by two or more ratepayers) by a meeting of ratepayers convened for the purpose.

If the objection to the valuation is allowed, the new valuation is deemed to be entered on the valuation roll, for rating purposes, as at the date of revision as directed by the Governor-General in Council. In the case of objections to revaluations under section 3 of the Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1933, any amendment made by the Assessment Court shall be deemed to be entered in and to appear on the district valuation roll on the 31st day of March in the year following the calendar year in which notice is duly given to the Valuer-General to make a new valuation. If the objection is disallowed, the owner may, within fourteen days after the hearing by the Assessment Court, give notice to the Valuer-General that he requires the capital value to be reduced to the value which he (the objector) considers to be the fair selling-value as specified in his notice (but not less than the aggregate amount owing on mortgages or other charges on the land), or the land to be acquired on behalf of His Majesty at that value or sold in the prescribed manner.

If the Valuer-General is of the opinion that the Assessment Court has made an unfair reduction in a valuation he may, within fourteen days of the hearing, require the owner to consent to what he (the Valuer-General) considers is the fair selling capital value, and, failing such consent being given within thirty days after notice is delivered, he may, with the approval of the Governor-General in Council, acquire the property at that value on behalf of His Majesty.

The decision of the Assessment Court on any objection is subject to appeal to the Supreme Court on a question of law. On all other questions the decision of the Assessment Court is final. The decision of a majority of the three members constitutes the decision of the Court, but if no two members agree the President's decision is taken.

Owing to the heavy decline in values during the depression years, and the impracticability of a universal revaluation, advantage of the provision enabling new valuations to be made was taken by many owners with the object of reducing their rate-payments. In order to maintain rating equity, the Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1933, authorized local authorities to levy rates upon a proportionate part (not being under 75 per cent.) of values upon the roll. Where an individual owner has obtained a revaluation, the new figure or the proportionate part of the previously existing figure is taken, whichever is the lower.

CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF LAND.—General valuations of land for the whole of New Zealand were made periodically up to the year 1897–98. Since that year no general valuations for the whole Dominion have been made, but portions are revalued from time to time. The figures in the following table, showing valuations over a number of years, therefore represent general valuations up to 1897 only, while for subsequent years the figures have been revised to include the latest valuations of small divisions.

GROSS CAPITALAND UNIMPROVED VALUES.

Year.Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
 ££
187899,566,67962,573,868
1882101,000,000 
1885113,270,649 
1888111,137,71475,497,379
1891122,225,02975,832,465
1897138,591,34784,401,244
1902154,816,13294,847,727
1905197,684,475122,937,126
1907236,644,536149,682,689
1909271,516,022172,759,948
1911293,117,065184,062,798
1913340,559,728212,963,468
1915371,076,683230,705,147
1916389,164,729241,322,255
1917405,466,071251,087,708
1918421,383,373260,921,812
1919445,533,445275,988,409
1920470,093,697290,880,264
1921518,584,318317,631,245
1922544,503,376329,174,337
1923553,403,794330,790,991
1924568,500,653333,869,581
1925587,349,575339,310,260
1926603,250,306341,047,952
1927618,264,093341,519,107
1928631,454,676335,217,075
1929655,906,887344,757,796
1930664,571,181338,887,411
1931667,911,212331,634,774
1932662,829,264321,798,700
1933653,707,517314,550,174
1934650,362,355309,770,390
1935637,604,203301,137,513
1936635,801,708295,695,574
1937632,229,720287,844,804
1938636,362,641282,320,015
1939652,898,894282,806,212
1940660,524,008278,880,855
1941673,118,250277,541,575

Valuations showed a rising tendency for many years, reaching a maximum (so far as unimproved values are concerned) about 1929. After that there was an almost continuous fall to 1941, amounting in all to over £67,000,000 (20 per cent.). The fall occurred mainly in rural districts, owing to low prices for farm products in the depression years and to the subsequent writing down of many mortgages. Between 1931 and 1937 the capital value (which includes unimproved value) recorded ii decline of approximately £35,680,000 (5·3 per cent.), but during the next four years an increase of nearly £41,000,000 (0·5 per cent.) took place, the 1941 figure being the highest yet recorded.

The values shown in the foregoing table and in that following are the gross values; they include the value not only of rateable properties, but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt from local rating.

GROSS VALUES.

Year.Number.North Island.South Island.New Zealand.
Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Laud and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
  ££££££
Counties
1937129208,521,253104,153,526117,631,79071,608,906326,153,043175,762,432
1938129209,493,957101,095,343116,151,74769,226,087325,645,704170,321,430
1939129214,137,183100,058,034114,625,19667,277,713328,762,379167,335,747
1940129217,801,91699,038,982114,425,34366,438,234332,227,259165,477,216
1941129219,489,13498,283,860116,208,35565,286,386335,697,489163,570,246
Boroughs.
1937124210,533,34480,192,34787,652,83529,334,982298,186,179109,527,329
1938128214,863,26080,653,23389,526,29529,410,792304,389,555110,064,025
1939128220,924,16480,794,86996,636,51432,683,697317,560,678113,478,566
1940128222,115,04378,627,30999,282,42932,797,895321,397,472111,425,114
1941127227,890,65878,925,373102,360,80933,066,001330,251,467111,991,374
Independent Town Districts.
1937396,864,7942,262,2131,025,704292,8307,890,4982,555,043
1938355,314,3011,669,8151,013,081270,7456,327,3821,940,560
1939345,541,1501,719,7641,034,687272,1356,575,8371,991,899
1940345,851,5371,706,0541,047,740272,4616,899,2771,978,525
1941346,093,1371,706,9141,076,157273,0417,169,2941,979,955
Grand Totals.
1931 453,343,747215,109,854214,567,465116,524,920667,911,212331,634,774
1932 451,101,823210,695,351211,727,441111,103,349662,829,264321,798,700
1933 443,818,572205,447,938209,888,945109,108,236653,707,517314,556,174
1934 441,335,409202,184,372209,026,946107,586,018650,362,355309,770,390
1935 428,852,115195,745,066208,752,088105,392,447637,604,203301,137,513
1930 426,426,138191,420,951209,375,660104,274,623635,801,798295,695,574
1937 425,919,391186,608,086206,310,329101,236,718632,229,720287,844,804
1938 429,671,518183,418,391206,691,12398,907,624636,362,641282,326,015
1939 440,602,497182,572,667212,296,397100,233,545652,898,894282,806,212
1940 445,768,496179,372,355214,755,51299,508,500660,524,008278,880,855
1941 453,472,929178,916,147219,645,32198,625,428673,118,250277,541,575

RATEABLE VALUES.—The values quoted earlier in this section relate to gross values (i.e., the value of all property, whether exempt from local rating or not). The following summary indicates rateable values for counties, boroughs, and independent town districts as at 1st April, 111–11.

North Island.South Island.New Zealand.
Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
 ££££££
Counties204,141,96893,744,730107,971,77463,011,160312,113,742156,755,890
Boroughs204,476,71370,634,21892,611,79430,658,325297,088,507101,292,543
Town districts (independent)5,619,9571,599,313989,037252,1216,608,9941,848,764
  Totals414,2,38,638165,975,291201,572,60593,921,906615,811,243259,897,197

Of the gross capital value, counties represent 49·9 per cent., and boroughs and independent town districts 50·1 per cent. For unimproved value the proportions are 58·9 per cent. and 41·1 per cent. respectively.

On the basis of rateable values, counties possess 50·7 per cent. of capital and 66·3 per cent. of unimproved values, as against 49·3 and 39·7 per cent. for boroughs and independent town districts.

Particulars of values for each county, borough, and independent town district were shown in the 1940 and previous numbers of the Year-Book, but considerations of space preclude their inclusion in the present issue. However, this information in much greater detail is contained in the Local Authorities Handbook, where similar data are also given for dependent town districts and for road districts.

Chapter 27. SECTION 27.—BANKING AND CURRENCY.

Table of Contents

BANKING institutions operating in New Zealand may be enumerated as follows:—

  1. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand.

  2. Six trading banks.

  3. The Post Office Savings-bank.

  4. Five trustee savings-banks.

In addition, a number of trading companies, investment societies, &c, perform quasi-banking functions, accepting deposits and granting credits (short-term and long-term) to clients. In some instances deposits are repayable to the client's order at call—virtually a system of cheque-issuing.

Until the establishment of the Reserve Bank, which commenced to function on 1st August, 1934, each of the six trading banks held the right of note-issue, but this right is now vested solely in the Reserve Bank.

A full description of banking practice in New Zealand is beyond the scope of a Year-Book section, but those desiring information on this subject may usefully refer to the report of the Parliamentary Monetary Committee, Parliamentary Paper B.-3 (1934), and to its minutes of evidence, published as an appendix.

THE RESERVE BANK.—The Reserve Bank was constituted by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, 1933 (amended in minor respects by the Finance Act, 193–1), with the primary object of exercising control, within defined limits, over monetary circulation and credit in the Dominion. As originally constituted, the Bank had a share capital of £500,000, composed of 100,000 publicly subscribed shares of £5, bearing a cumulative dividend of 5 per cent. Very important changes in the constitution of the Bank were made by the Reserve Bank Amendment Act, 1936, which, inter alia, abolished the subscribed share capital of the Bank, with provision for the repayment to shareholders (either in cash or in Government stock, at the option of the shareholder) of the value of shares held and accrued dividends. The General Reserve Fund of the Bank is maintained at £1,500,000, made up of a contribution of £1, 000,000 by the Government at the passing of the original Act, and £500,000 to replace share capital after the passing of the 1936 Amendment Act. It will be seen that the whole of the reserve fund is now contributed by the State—the Bank being thus State-owned. Additional powers were conferred on the Reserve Bank by the Finance Act (No. 2), 1936, and further important changes were made by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Amendment Act, 1939. A résumé of the more important features in connection with the management and functions of the Reserve Bank is given in the 19–12 and earlier issues of the Year-Book.

The general function of the Bank is defined in section 10 (1) of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Amendment Act, 1936, as follows: “It shall be the general function of the Reserve Bank, within the limits of its powers, to give effect as far as may be to the monetary policy of the Government as communicated to it from time to time by the Minister of Finance. For this purpose, and to the end that the economic and social welfare of New Zealand may be promoted and maintained, the Bank shall regulate and control credit and currency in New Zealand, the transfer of moneys to or from New Zealand, and the disposal of moneys that are derived from the sale of any New Zealand products and for the time being are held overseas.”

These provisions were amplified by section 2 of the amending Act of 1939, which reads as follows: “In the exercise of their functions and powers under the principal Act the Governor and Board of Directors shall have regard to any representations that may be made by the Minister of Finance in respect of any functions or business of the Reserve Bank, and shall give effect to any decision of the Government in relation thereto conveyed to the Governor in writing by the Minister of Finance.”

On the commencement of business on 1st August, 1934, the Public Account was transferred to the Reserve Bank, and the management of the public debt was taken over by the Reserve Bank as from the 1st October, 1936.

The net profits of the Bank are paid to the Consolidated Fund, provided that the Bank's General Reserve Fund is not less than £1,000,000. If the Reserve Fund falls below that level, part of the profits must be credited to the Reserve Fund.

The net reserve ratio—that is, the ratio of gold coin and bullion, plus sterling exchange, to the aggregate amount of notes in circulation and other demand liabilities—maintained a percentage of over 95 until August, 1936, after which it fell rapidly to reach 68 at the end of 1936, oscillating between that level and 82 until August, 1938. It then dropped very steeply, and during the greater part of 1939 was little above the statutory limit of 25 per cent. The wartime agreement with the United Kingdom Government, under which the proceeds of the staple exports are credited to the Dominion much earlier than in normal times, and the tardiness in bringing many items to charge consequent on war conditions and arrangements, have had the effect of raising the level of sterling exchange, and as a result the net reserve ratio has been on a higher level during the war period. As explained later, the Minister of Finance now has power to vary or suspend the minimum ratio.

Details of the liabilities and assets of the Bank at the end of June for the years 1938–42, and weekly averages for the calendar years 1935–41, are shown in the following tables.

LIABILITIESOF RESERVE BANK.

Year.Capital and General Reserve Fund.Bank-notes.Other Demand Liabilities.Other Liabilities.Total Liabilities.
State.Banks.Other
 £££££££
Average for Calendar Year.
19351,500,0009,262,5359,709,4515,260,264200,16276,15726,008,569
19361,500,00010,748,1156,397,1848,297,990188,036113,62027,244,945
19371,500,00013,093,3956,073,2179,143,749652,280138,49130,601,132
19381,500,00014,072,0004,170,8556,765,985363,689195,24427,068,433
19391,500,00016,081,5872,777,61710,742,935313,765499,54131,915,445
19401,500,00019,290,8555,894,53214,773,895327,396921,34342,708,021
19411,500,00022,045,9528,864,32411,955,995756,5031,121,87546,244,649
At End of June.
19381,500,00013,774,7244,648,2096,862,841311,151104,695127,204,620
19391,500,00015,467,2812,328,0099,643,785150,998421,52529,511,598
19401,500,00018,616,8726,584,84616,215,093378,486794,99044,090,287
19411,500,00021,843,0877,946,19514,108,318623,916933,53046,955,046
19421,500,00025,528,84617,544,33316,710,2664,699,00611,1,152,29267,134,798

ASSETS OF RESERVE BANK.

Year.Reserve.Subsidiary Coin.Advances.Investments.Other Assets.Total Assets.Net Reserve Ratio.*
Gold.Exchange.MarketingOther.

* I.e., Reserve, less liabilities in currencies other than New Zealand currency, expressed as a percentage of notes and other demand liabilities.

 ££££££££Per Cent.
Average for Calendar Year.
19352,859,42420,997,537181,957  1,937,62032,03126,008,50997·63
19362,801,74720,811,194180,6041,290,1122,026,137135,15127,244,94592·11
19372,801,79118,910,712127,2415,096,026784,1362,782,16499,05830,601,13274·95
19382,801,79113,689,135222,4504,555,1232,803,1742,862,369134,39127,068,43364·96
19392,801,8235,311,963217,4036,095,06113,608,8463,661,654218,69531,915,44527·02
19402.801,84511,121,140133,2163,436,83221,791,0373,028,696395,25542,708,02134·11
19412,801,87410,101,40763,4974,840,71817,095,6723,795,2471,546,23446,244,64943·22
At End of June.
19382,801,79116,609,197235,3714,156,650600,0002,732,065 27,204,62075·82
19392,801,8395,600,692226,7566.301,16510,625,0003,768,164 511,59830·25
19402,801,83914,825,826157,5883,756,96819,760,0002,539,502 090,28742·14
19412, 801,87519,967,00151,4485,265,61513,500,0003,772,5691,596,3846,955,04651·11
19422,801,87824,722,57536,41511,959,51622,300,0004,147,3511,167,06367,134,79842·66

TRADING BANKS.—The Banking Act, 1908, which consolidated the law of New Zealand relating to the general business of banking in the Dominion, provides that the incorporation of banks by Royal Charter shall be as effectual within New Zealand as Acts of the General Assembly. The number of directors is prescribed by the Act, and authority is given to any bank to increase its capital on a resolution of the shareholders. Transfers of shares on which there is any liability must be approved by the directors or their duly appointed attorney or attorneys. A sworn copy of an entry in the books of a bank shall in all legal proceedings be evidence of such entry, and a bank is not required in any legal proceedings to which it is not a party to produce its books before a Court unless ordered by a Judge for special cause. Provision is made for the destruction of cheques, drafts, bills of exchange, or promissory notes after the expiration of ten years from the date thereof in the case of documents payable on demand or from the due date in the case of other documents.

Part II of the Bills of Exchange Act, 1908, consolidated the law relating to cheques on a bank.

The Companies Act, 1933, with the exception of Part XII (re companies incorporated outside New Zealand) and also of the provisions relating to branch registers, does not apply to banking companies formed within and operating only within the Dominion.

With the establishment of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, which commenced to function on 1st August, 1934, there was inaugurated an entirely new era in banking practice in New Zealand. The function of note-issue was transferred from the trading banks to the Reserve Bank; while all gold coin or bullion held by trading banks for their own account was required by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, 1933, to be transferred to the Reserve Bank in exchange for equivalent notes of the Reserve Bank or for credit with that Bank. The basis of payment was £3 17s. 10½d. per ounce of standard—i.e., eleven-twelfths fine—gold content, which was the price at which such gold (in actual fact, coin only) had originally been acquired by the trading banks. Any profit derived from the sale of this gold overseas by the Reserve Bank accrues to the State and not to the Reserve Bank. Consolidated Fund receipts from profits on the sale of gold coin were £1,364,118 in 1934–35 and £231,271 in 1935–36.

While the regulation of currency exchange is now a function of the Reserve Bank, commercial exchange transactions are still carried out through the medium of the trading banks.

Each trading bank is required to maintain with the Reserve Bank a balance of not less than 7 per cent. of its demand liabilities in New Zealand, and 3 per cent. of its time liabilities in New Zealand. These requirements may be varied by the Governor of the Reserve Bank, acting with the authority of the Minister of Finance, but not so as to be less than the percentages quoted above.

There are six banks trading in New Zealand, two of these institutions—the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand—being incorporated by special Acts of the General Assembly of the Dominion. The other four banks, which are predominantly Australian institutions, have in the aggregate much greater capital resources, &c., than the two New Zealand banks. The close Australian affiliations of the Australian banks operating in the Dominion resulted in the past in an interlocking between the Australian and New Zealand financial structures, the separation of New Zealand business being one of the major motives leading up to the founding of the Reserve Bank.

The Bank of New Zealand is partly State-owned, the New Zealand Government. holding preference and long-term mortgage shares to the aggregate value of £2,109,375 out of a total paid-up capital of £6,328,125. Four of the six directors are appointed by the Government, the remaining two by the shareholders. The Bank has also branches in London, Australia, Fiji, and Samoa.

Liabilities and Assets.—Statements of liabilities and assets of the trading banks were gazetted quarterly up to 1934. Since the Reserve Bank commenced operations the trading banks have been required to submit at monthly intervals a return of liabilities and assets in respect of New Zealand business. Averages for calendar years. 1935–41, and figures as at the last Monday in June, 1938–42, are given in the next table.

Notes of trading banks were finally withdrawn from circulation on 1st August, 1936 (see “Coinage and Currency,” post).

LIABILITIESOF TRADING BANKS.

Year.Notes in Circulation.Demand Liabilities.Time Liabilities.Total Liabilities.
In New Zealand.Outside New Zealand.In New Zealand.Outside New Zealand.
 £ (000)£ (000)£ (000)£ (000)£ (000)£ (000)
Average for Calendar Year.
193573826,04937936,17482364,163
193631430,32972335,52767867,571
1937 35,0681,19332,65847869,397
1939 34,9301,76730,82339667,916
1939 38,0422,21630,17852070,956
1940 47,8302,73530,88327281,720
1941 52,5201,66929,02925683,474
At End of June.
1938 35,0621,51631,10833168,017
1939 37,2762,30729,42628569,294
1940 49,1132,73131,38725383,484
1941 52,5521,64729,04114183,381
1942 60,38272228,08324189,428

ASSETS OF TRADING BANKS.

Year.Coin and Bullion.Reserve Bank Notes.Balances held in Reserve Bank.Overseas Assets.Securities held.Advances and Discounts.Land, Buildings, &c.Total Assets.

* Not available.

† Incomplete.

 £ (000)£ (000)£ (000)£ (000)£ (000)£ (000)£ (000)£ (000)
Average for Calendar Year.
19357703,6315,25021,852*45,861*77,364†
19367013,4538,36319,2095,50846,0871,52284,843
19377223,9189,48013,9637,91049,4281,67787,098
19388573,9006,7269,1937,88755,9271,82286,312
19397313,90911,1256,69811,52554,2421,85590,085
19407034,29215,21114,33516,83047,7201,8766100,967
19417594,45312,46213,63321,02249,7011,932103,962
At End of June.
19388914,2506,85911,3636,99554,8861,81887,062
19397533,9369,6246,13610,87255,0901,87288,283
19407113,91816,21215,55616,20547,4571,882101,941
19417764,02914,10012,89919,38350,2191,930103,336
19426524,06016,66613,56128,15114,3211,926109,337

Deposits and Advances.—The total amount of deposits, the amount per head of mean population, the total advances, and the ratio of advances to deposits (weekly averages), for each of the last eleven years, are given in the following table. The percentage ratios of free to fixed deposits are also given, and these show that considerable changes have taken place during the period.

Year.Deposits.Advances.
Not Bearing Interest (Free.)Bearing Interest, (Fixed.)Ratio of Free to Fixed.Total. *Per Head of Population.Total Amount.Ratio to Deposits.

* Including Government deposits.

 ££Per Cent.££s.d.£Per Cent.
193117,297,52833,695,86451·3353,645,018358752,419,52797·72
193216,068,13335,145,05545·7252,851,7363412250,255,67495·09
193318,336,44837,627,02448·7357,620,233378645,705,04479·32
193422,030,53140,281,15851·11963,417,2994017641,389,45765·27
193523,641,19437,315,13663·3661,471,511397644,666,54172·66
193627,412,77437,094,52673·9065,153,972417345,918,43270·48
193731,996,41134,075,14693·9066,842,692424149, 199,59273·60
193831,999,89432,360,28398·8965,038,690409755,650,06585·56
193935,216,07131,393,759112·1867,279,451416354,715,80181·37
194044,046,43132,567,750135·2577,364,430475047,954,49961·99
194149,202,55930,747,779160·0280,720,1014991049,746,39761·63

The average amount on deposit during each of the quarter months since March, 1938, is shown in the next table.

Month.1938.1939.1949.1941.1942.
 £££££
March67,120,26066,930,89376,013,31482,250,11388,227,777
June65,643,62265,678,73578,492,57581,093,83087,812,547
September62,980,98166,825,98577,771,60678,135,62893,164,851
December63,028,46572,481,95277,676,08181,053,395 

The average amount of advances outstanding during each of the quarter months since Mardi, 1938, is next shown.

Month.1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.
 £££££
March54,752,99455,646,23948,551,29851,786,47749,790,864
June55,013,31155,930,89248,263,02451,054,46144,928,164
September56,093,33253,865,24846,475,26948,263,65242,105,906
December57,968,87951,898,35647,734,70850,359,231 

As the provision of Treasury-bill finance has now become largely a function of the Reserve Bank, interest attaches to the following table showing the movement in advances. Government securities held by the trading banks, and deposits. The annual figures shown for 1931–35 represent weekly averages, and those for 1936 and subsequent years the average of the figures for the last Monday of each month.

Year.Advances.Government Securities.Total Advances and Government Securities.Total Deposits.Ratio of Advances (plus Government Securities) to Total Deposits.
 ££££Per Cent.
193152,419,5274,505,58156,925,10853,645,018106·11
193250,255,6748,521,01758,776,69152,851,736111·21
193345,705,04415,266,03260,971,07657,620,233105·82
193441,389,45718,105,02559,494,48263,417,29993·81
193544,624,0055,326,80249,950,80761,499,13481·22
193645,898,6655,211,13951,109,80465,147,22178·45
193749,222,0797,622,53356,844,61266,890,61984·98
193855,659,4347,612,92963,272,36364,112,55998·69
193954,241,25411,263,63965,504,89367,579,82496·93
194047,706,72516,490,48964,197,21478,147,41088·55
194149,631,07320,333,50369,964,57681,269,15786·09

An analysis of advances of the New Zealand trading banks at quarterly intervals is now published by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, and the classification as at the end of June of each of the last five years is given in the following table.

Advances toAt end of June—
1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.
Farmers—£(000)£ (000)£ (000)£ (000)£ (000)
  Mainly dairy5,4455,3805,0135,85,492
  Mainly wool6,2556,2885,7695,4805,167
  Mainly meat2,1512,2061,9371,9221,886
  Mainly agricultural340372264376338
  Mixed4,6274,4384,2734,1424,125
Industries allied to primary production—     
  Dairy companies, factories, &c.1,3081,5052,5281,987680
  Freezing-works, meat companies, &c.1,7072,8462,9695,0812,800
  Woollen-mills603447215122168
  Other2,0131,6611,4631,8881,512
Other manufacturing and productive industries4,5874,6413,8575,1264,454
Merchants, wholesalers—     
  Mainly importers3,8043,2821,8372,4742,293
  Others1,0301,3521,1511,225997
Retailers3,7673,6382,9573,0112,328
Transport—     
  Shipping6379556269
  Other644627557445406
Local and municipal authorities, public utility concerns1,2621,5448708591,041
Stock and station agents1,2321,331587471550
Hotels (public and private), restaurants, &c.1,1991,1061,1121,138988
Financial companies, societies, &c.2,3532,2961,053699669
Professional1,4341,5031,2391,2071,086
Private individuals5,5445,0294,7904,6464,714
Other2,9362,5812,4132,3872,320
      Total advances54,30554,42246,90950,02644,083

Debits and Clearings.—The following table shows weekly averages of bank debits and clearings for each of the years 1931 to 1941.

Year.Debits other than Government.Government Debits.Clearings.
 £ (000)£ (000)£ (000)
193111,3954,3086,589
193210,4183,9665,897
193310,7524,7756,775
193412,7595,2778,120
193513,2021,4097,011
193615,7181,5878,407
193718,7231,8419,956
193817,9651,9959,605
193918,4142,0719,750
194019,3532,39110,800
194119,8442,59611,403

Debits represent the total amount debited to customers' accounts at all branches, and clearings show the total outward exchanges delivered at all branches. These figures, which have been compiled from the weekly returns furnished by the six trading banks to the Government Statistician, give a reliable indication of appreciable changes in the volume of business. Following the depression there was a substantial recovery in 1934, winch accelerated rapidly during 1935, 1936, and 1937. A temporary steadying of the upward movement occurred in 1938, but the movement was resumed in 1939 and continued in the two following years. Government debits with trading banks fell to comparatively small proportions as a consequence of the opening of the Reserve Bank, but show a rising tendency.

Averages of debits (other than Government) and of clearings for the four or five weeks ending on the last Monday of each of the quarter months from March, 1938, onwards are next given.

Month.1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.
 £££££
Debits, other than Government.
March21,520,33122,506,93421,838,05326,320,15025,214,269
June16,577,36017,662,66119,291,97618,837,65519,588,072
September14,868,94914,944,07318,229,10918,922,11117,824,655
December21,430,91420,753,69421,797,62421,178,876 
Clearings.
March12,361,27712,369,87412,601,28615,296,20715,375,363
June9,005,0749,336,80610,775,13110,669,55912,652,366
September7,855,2777,997,1949,911,67111,460,93211,978,964
December11,220,95110,942,40112,044,54612,005,247 

Unexercised Overdraft Authorities.—Particulars of aggregate unexercised overdraft authorities of trading banks are available from April, 1936, following are the averages for calendar years, 1937–41, and the amount at the end of June for each of the years 1930–42.

Year.Average for Calendar Year.At end of June.Year.Average for Calendar Year.At end of June.
 ££ ££
1936 22,895,826194029,257,10829,643,228
193724,205,29825,543,819194132,319,79632,057,178
193823,612,19524,907,0851942 33,891,804
193923,621,39123,973,221   

NOTES IN CIRCULATION.—As indicated elsewhere, the Reserve Bank assumed the note-issuing function on the 1st August, 1934. As from the 10th January, 1935, the notes of the trading banks ceased to be legal tender, while on 1st August, 1936, the liability for the remaining outstanding trading-bank notes was taken over by the Reserve Bank, thus completing the process of the transfer of the note-issue to the Reserve Bank. The following table shows the weekly-average note-circulation for the calendar years 1935–41, and the position as at the last Monday in June for the years 1938–42.

Year.Note Issue.Less Notes held by Banks.Net Note Circulation.
Notes of Trading Banks.Notes of Reserve Banks.Notes of Trading Banks.Notes of Reserve Banks.
 £££££
Average for Calendar Year.
1935758,7729,262,5341,1823,600,1966,419,928
1936312,91510,748,1151143,560,5547,500,362
193713,093,3954,172,3718,921,024
193814,072,6604,083,3249,989,336
193916,081,5874,067,73512,013,852
194019,290,8554,500,14114,790,714
194122,045,9524,611,20117,434,751
At End of June.
193813,774,7244,250,0109,524,714
193915,467,2813,935,48611,531,795
194018,616,8723,917,75814,699,114
194121,843,0874,028,02017,814,461
194225,528,8474,059,67521,469,172

The year 1935 witnessed the commencement of an almost continuous upward movement in the note circulation, due to more favourable economic conditions in association with such factors as the restoration of wage and salary cuts, higher wage-rates, greater activity on public works and housing, increased pensions, &c. Between the months of September, 1935, and September, 1939, the increase in the average note circulation was 98 per cent. Since the outbreak of war in September, 1939, there has been a further substantial increase, the average total of notes in circulation in September, 1942, being £22,462,524. The September, 1942, average is 26 per cent. above that of the corresponding month of 1941 and 77 per cent. greater than the September, 1939, average.

An analysis of the net bank-note circulation at quarterly intervals is compiled and published by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, a summary being given in the following table.

Denomination.1939.1940.19411942.
June 26th.Dec. 25th.June 24th.Dec. 30th.June 30th.Dec. 29th.June 20th.Sept. 28th.
 £ (000)£(000)£ (000)£(000)£ (000)£(000)£ (000)£(000)
10s.566748644749715810796818
£14,3745,8314,9235,8165,7176,5876,4106,648
£55,3927,6797,1668,4638,5849,66510,59011,263
£10  3857059491,2181,5421,643
£507759501,1731,3061,4501,5481,7441,833
  Total, Reserve Bank issue11,10715,20814,29117,03917,41519,82821,08222,205
  Trading banks' notes outstanding425418409402399390387386
  Total, net note circulation11,53215,62614,70017,44117,81420,21821,46922,591

OVERSEAS FUNDS OF BANKS.—Under section 46 of the Reserve Bank of New-Zealand Act, 1933, the trading banks are required to supply returns to the Reserve Bank at monthly intervals, showing, inter alia, overseas assets held and liabilities incurred on account of New Zealand business. From these statements, published in the New Zealand Gazelle, and the weekly gazetted statements of assets and liabilities of the Reserve Bank, the following table has been compiled. Figures of net overseas funds do not necessarily represent freely disposable surplus funds, as a large proportion of the amount at any time is probably pledged for the payment of imports.

OVERSEAS FUNDSOF BANKS.

Year.Trading Banks' Overseas Assets.Reserve Bank's Holdings of Sterling Exchange.Total Overseas Assets.Overseas Liabilities.*Net Overseas Funds.
In London.Elsewhere.

* Prior to 25th July, 1938, these liabilities are wholly those of trading banks.

Average for Calendar Year.
 £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
193515,446,7926,405,41020,920,77142,772,9731,201,78741,571,186
193613,263,3075,945,20920,712,87439,921,3901,400,57938,520,811
19376,286,6854,676,45519,303,24433,266,3841,675,72631,590,658
19386,011,2713,181,8913,423,97022,617,1372,169,24220,447,895
19306,068,1341,629,5795,510,10212,207,8152,765,5519,442,264
194012,362,5831,972,41111,706,77926,041,7733,103,08622,938,687
194111,053,6152,578,98915,879,50329,512,1071,942,70727,569,400
At End of June.
19388 308,7993,054,15116,609,19727,972,1471,846,62926,125,518
19394,668,9551,467,1075,600,69211,736,7542,648,5339,088,221
194013,845,3291,710,99514,825,82630,382,1503,000,04627,382,104
194110,022,4082,877,11919,967,00132,866,5281,801,28331,065,245
194210,901,8452,568,86824,722,57538,283,288977,37837,305,910

Overseas funds declined heavily during the three years 1937–39, particularly after May, 1938, ascribable to three principal causes—(1) the repatriation of capital temporarily held in the Dominion, (2) over-importation, and (3) investment abroad of New Zealand capital. In December, 1938, the Government took action to check the fall in the sterling funds, and introduced import and export control and also the control of overseas remittances. These measures, combined with more favourable export seasons in 1939–40, 1940–41, and 1941–12, and earlier crediting of the proceeds of the Dominion's staple exports to the United Kingdom as a result of British governmental purchases, have brought about a marked improvement in tin-exchange position.

OVERSEAS RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.—Since the institution of exchange control in New Zealand the Reserve Bank has been able to make a comprehensive statement of the Dominion's foreign exchange transactions for the period during which the control has been operating. Following is a classification of the transactions for each of the years ended on the 31st March, 1940, 1941, and 1942.

Year ended 31st March,
1940.1941.1942.
Receipts—£N.Z. (000)£N.Z. (000)£N.Z. (000)
  Exports70,97573,30272,774
  Interest, dividends, legacies, immigrants' funds, repatriated capital, and private debts due in New Zealand1,5884,2204,231
  Trade debts due in New Zealand, including overseas earnings of New Zealand firms1,7343,4432,897
  Commissions, royalties, and insurance68120166
  Donations and allowances342382431
  Travellers' expenses270280268
  Local-authority loan raised overseas322  
  Government loan raised overseas2,500  
  Unclassified683965504
      Total receipts78,48282,71281,271
Payments—   
  Imports, excluding Government37,86842,01539,623
  Interest, dividends, legacies, emigrants' funds, repatriated capital, and private debts due overseas3,1873,9353,782
  Trade debts due overseas, including earnings in New Zealand of overseas firms and payments on goods imported prior to introduction of licensing system4,6712,7592,294
  Government debt and other services, including payments in respect of imports14,06419,62834,501
  Local-authority debt services1,6343,6351,800
  Commissions, royalties, and insurance323538549
  Donations and allowances547622606
  Film-hire and entertainments293343226
  Travellers' expenses727274198
  Unclassified4315 
      Total payments63,35773,76483,579
      Balance+ 15,125+ 8,948- 2,308

During the year ended 31st March, 1942, a sum of £(stg.)0,980,000 was made available to meet charges in respect of the Dominion's war expenses. These amounts are first paid by the British Government and subsequently charged to the New Zealand Government. There is a considerable time lag between payment by the British Government and charging to the New Zealand Government.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS-BANK.—In connection with the Post Office in New Zealand a savings-bank has been conducted since the 1st February, 1867. The minimum deposit receivable, except in certain specified cases, is £s., and no interest is given on any sum less than £1. The present rate of interest on so much of the deposit as does not exceed £500 is 2½ per cent. per annum (from 1st June, 1942) and on so much as exceeds £500 and does not exceed £2,000 the rate is 2 per cent. No interest is payable to any depositor in respect of any amount of his deposit in excess of £2,000.

The Postmaster-General may pay deposits to a maximum of £200 to the legal representative of a deceased depositor without requiring him to take out letters of administration or to prove the will. This provision, together with another provision whereby a depositor may nominate one or more persons to receive part or all of the amount at credit after the depositor's death, enables a widow or orphan to obtain possession of perhaps much-needed funds without either delay or cost.

The number of post-offices open for the transaction of savings-bank business at 31st March, 1942, was 927. There were 136,495 new accounts opened during the year ended the 31st March, 1942, and 89,504 accounts were closed during the period.

Year ended 31st March,Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Interest credited.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.

* Excess of withdrawals over deposits.

NOTE.—This statement does not include figures in respect of school savings-bank accounts, or national savings investment accounts.

  £££££
1932877,09019,463,98525,488,081-6,024,096*1,611,04843,255,499
1933797,09716,933,17619,635,928-2,702,752*1,475,87442,028,621
1934798,26219,428,85317,818,1721,610,6811,231,08944,870,391
1935817,61724,179,53720,946,5623,232,9751,320,34849,423,714
1936840,67125,619,77523,533,5962,086,1791,406,45952,916,352
1937880,85730,676,96927,042,0033,634,9661,514,22058,065,538
1938920,80533,041,08229,629,0743,412,0081,669,38463,146,930
1939946,82230,434,29134,597,708-4,163,417*1,726,57460,710,087
1940960,56525,151,28729,462,838-4,311,551*1,603,46758,002,003
1941992,79228,607,22125,319,1463,288,0751,666,71062,956,788
19421,039,78332,044,73425,376,7456,667,9891,820,60571,445,382

Section 26 of the Finance Act, 1932, provided that moneys lying in savings-bank accounts not operated on for twenty-five years should be treated as unclaimed moneys, which are payable into the Consolidated Fund. Included in the accounts which were closed during 1932–33 were 67,485, the balances of which were paid to the Consolidated Fund in accordance with this provision.

The years 1931–32 and 1932–33 were characterized by substantial withdrawals in relation to the amount of deposits during these years. In each of the five years following 1932–33, the reverse position applied, and deposits exceeded withdrawals by a substantial amount, with the result that the amount to credit of depositors increased by nearly 50 per cent. during that period. In the latter half of 1938–39, and during the first nine months of 1939–40, withdrawals were exceedingly heavy while deposits were on a somewhat lower scale, with the result that an excess of withdrawals amounting to over £4,000,000 was experienced in each of those years. Commencing with January, 1940, this trend was reversed, and transactions for 1940–41 and 1941–42 resulted in a total excess of deposits of £9,956,065 for the two years.

The average amount to credit per open account at the 31st March, 1942, was £68 15s., as against £63 8s. 3d. in 1941, and £49 6s. 4d. at the 31st March, 1932.

The securities standing in the name of the Postmaster-General on account of the Post Office Savings-bank Fund on the 31st March, 1942, represented a nominal value of £71,468,161. A summary of the investments is as follows:—

 £
New Zealand Government securities67,956,804
Local authorities' securities518,817
Securities held in London2,992,540
 £71,468,161

SCHOOL SAVINGS-BANKS.—The school savings-bank scheme was introduced in August, 1934, mainly for the purpose of encouraging thrift amongst young people. An account for each school is maintained in the school savings-banks section of the Post Office Savings-bank. On a scholar leaving school, provision is made for his or her account to be transferred to the ordinary section of the Post Office Savings-bank. Marked progress has been made during the short period the scheme has been in operation. Each year shows an increase in the number of schools adopting the scheme, with a corresponding increase in the number of depositors and in the amount at credit.

The following table shows the figures since the scheme commenced operation.

Year ended 31st March,Number of Schools operating at End of Year.Total Number of Deposit Transactions during Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Number of Withdrawal Transactions during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals* during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Interest credited.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.

* Including transfers to Post Office Savings-bank.

   £ ££££
19358239,5152,5174061732,34412,345
1936236189,91314,5433,6823,16211,3815413,780
1937388248,88022,1796,3068,00214,17729928,256
1938559350,94333,9709,03313,82620,14466049,060
1939764393,89738,85111,72221,36017,4911,11567,666
1940905370,06236,80913,55326,68710,1221,51979,307
1941940365,19337,81213,24929,0388,7741,82189,902
1942961339,43338,27712,22429,7528,5252,089100,517

TRUSTEE SAVINGS-BANKS.—There are five trustee savings-banks—viz., Auckland, established in 1847; New Plymouth, 1850; Dunedin, 1864; Invercargill, 1864; and Hokitika, 1866. The total amount to the credit of depositors at the 31st March, 1942, was £16,129,958, representing an average account of £56 9s. 10d. Figures for the last eleven years are as follows:—

Year ended 31st March,Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Interest credited.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.

* Excess of withdrawals over deposits.

NOTE.—This statement does not include national savings investment accounts.

  £££££
1932214,5176,168,0326,138,77029,262416,38510,132,233
1933212,6735,678,8435,718,258-39,415*377,72010,470,538
1934219,7325,817,8465,741,98975,857301,31410,847,709
1935227,9256,199,2116,073,447125,764312,58911,286,062
1936238,1086,651,5256,487,282164,243323,17711,773,482
1937249,2277,609,3647,240,419368,945337,69812,480,125
1938261,0198,137,4727,638,820498,652360,63913,339,416
1939269,3358,578,0688,430,467147,601378,65913,865,676
1940274,4718,184,1148,523,416-339,302*380,96013,907,334
1941279,9848,218,8957,763,524455,371395,88814,758,593
1942285,5298,513,9647,570,149943,815427,55016,129,958

The following table shows the results of the transactions of each of the trustee savings-banks during the, twelve months ended 31st March, 1942.

Bank.Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Interest credited.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.
  £££££
Auckland198,2045,147,5264,610,887536,639271,95810,285,065
New Plymouth19,121642,239551,96390,27633,5681,242,554
Hokitika2,23244,45839,6674,7914,522166,908
Dunedin41,495942,988837,658105,33080,3052,843,007
Invercargill24,4771,736,7531,529,974206,77937,1971,592,424
    Totals285,5298,513,9647,570,149943,815427,55016,129,958

Following is a summary of trustee savings-banks investments at the 31st March, 1942.

Bank.Mortgages.New Zealand Government Securities.Local Authority Debentures.Fixed Deposits.Total.
 £££££
Auckland3,819,8534,491,0621,626,236 9,937,151
New Plymouth863,004214,40432,532125,1471,235,087
Hokitika76,38746,49319,44848,860191,188
Dunedin1,758,682409,085658,88185,0002,911,648
Invercargill687,564583,433100,300200,0001,571,297
    Totals7,205,4905,744,4772,437,397459,00715,846,371

NATIONAL SAVINGS.—The National Savings Act, 1940, made provision for the issue of savings bonds, in denominations of £1, £10, and £100, and the opening of special savings accounts with the Post Office and trustee savings-banks. Investments are for a term of five years in the ease of bonds, while moneys deposited in savings accounts prior to 30th June, 1943, are repayable on 30th June, 1945, and subsequent to 30th June, 1943, on 30th June, 1946. All money invested under this scheme, other than that needed to meet taxation charges on interest, is paid into the War Expenses Account.

The following table summarizes operations under the national savings scheme since October, 1940, when the scheme first came into operation. The success of the “Bomber Bonds” campaign, carried out in March and April, 1942, is shown by the exceptionally high receipts from the sale of national savings bonds for those months.

National, Savings Bonds.National Savings Accounts.Total.National Savings Bonds.National Savings AccountsTotal.
1940.£££1942.£££
October138,49336,083174,576January123,478216,175339,653
November205,608126,674332,282February133,797242,399376,196
December101,289157,316258,605March1,521,716241,4301,763,146
    April953,802191,3841,145,186
1941.   May48,174186,884235,058
January51,883126,481172,364June52,473219,226271,699
February73,783144,790218,573July53,204234,523287,727
March40,653132,732173,385August53,065182,690235,755
April38,831137,521176,352September65,681316,038381,722
May50,253144,400194,653October46,109195,861241,970
June173,875256,054437,929November39,570179,572219,142
July148,866238,303387,169    
August104,623206,452311,075    
September66,548168,872235,420    
October60,564170,046230,610    
November74,696168,525243,221Totals (to November, 1942)4,565,7984,907,1899,472,987
December139,761289,758429,519    

COMPANY, ETC., DEPOSITS.—Statistics of deposits with building and investment societies and trading companies are available at quarterly periods since June, 1932. The following table shows the amounts held on deposit, classified according to the term of the deposit together with the average rates of interest earned by such deposits, as at 30th June, 1932, and as at the 31st March of each of the years 11133–42.

As at 31st March,Building and Investment Societies.Trading Companies.Grand Totals.
At Call or under Three Months.Three Months and under Two Years.Two Years or over.Totals, Building and Investment Societies.At Call or under Three Months.Three Months and under Two Years.Two Years or over.Totals, Trading Companies,

* As at 30th June.

Amount on Deposit.
 £££££££££
1932*986,953909,6051,488,3743,384,9324,896,608739,0731,134,6526,770,33310,155,265
1933746,240721,8651,050,8383,118,11434,042,5471,008,1851,892,5216,913,25310,062,196
1934437,257672,5782,128,2753,238,1103,292,7401,004,0311,691,3445,988,1159,226,225
1935621,419612,8421,984,4953,218,7562,756,1871,106,8361,983,3915,846,4149,065,170
1936684,599712,2192,218,8033,615,6212,583,1671,077,7541,887,6485,548,5699,164,190
1937778,907728,4132,481,1803,988,5002,297,4381,100,1091,840,6305,238,1779,226,677
1938804,443755,8112,680,4194,240,6732,154,3071,045,7391,897,1365,097,1829,337,855
1939761,388842,3172,956,9364,560,6412,151,3531,005,7151,927,1425,084,2109,644,851
1940735,746873,4443,205,9314,815,1212,111,4701,148,4451,867,4425,127,3579,942,478
1941748,676928,1093,333,7865,010,5712,163,5581,439,9321,909,2335,512,72310,523,294
1942698,724761,8653,588,9665,949,5552,072,6341,101,8132,520,5675,695,01410,744,569
Average Rate of Interest.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1932*4·424·705·234·855·325·655·815·445·24
19333·844·134·944·494·834·955·485·024·86
19343·293·614·354·054·434·205·194·604·41
19352·843·07·023·613·763·634·824·103·92
19362·842·893·733·403·453·684·553·873·68
19372·792·863·623·323·353·604·383·773·57
19382·652·863·613·303·273·624·253·713·52
19392·672·853·653·343·183·604·233·673·51
19402·692·853·723·402·963·584·243·563·48
19412·702·863·733·412·873·414·273·503·46
19422·392·183·533·171·442·363·642·592·86

SUMMARY OF BANK DEPOSITS.—In the preceding paragraphs statistics of deposits with each of the various classes of banking institutions are shown. It is of interest to show the position in summary form in respect of all classes of deposits (other than Government deposits and trading-banks deposits with the Reserve Bank).

 As at 31st March, 1942.
 £
Deposits with Reserve Bank (excluding Government and trading-banks deposits)211,639
Deposits with trading banks (excluding Government)88,372,536
Deposits with Post Office Savings-bank71,445,382
Deposits with school savings-banks100,517
Deposits with trustee savings-banks16,129,958
Deposits in national savings accounts3,201,011
  Total of above£179,461,043

The above deposits are bank deposits only. As shown above, there were on 31st March, 19–12, deposits of £5,049,555 with building and investment societies and of £5,695,014 with trading companies. It should be noted also that other classes of deposit exist—e.g., the Common Fund of the Public Trust Office.

OVERDRAFT AND DISCOUNT RATES.—The trading bunks' overdraft rates and rates of discount, which had for many years been at 6½ or 7 per cent., were reduced to 6 per cent. as from 1st September, 1932. This was followed by further reductions to 5 per cent. from 1st May, 1933, 4½ per cent. from 30th November, 1931, and 4 per cent. from 1st August. 1941.

The Reserve Bank's minimum discount or rediscount rate for New Zealand bills was originally 4 per cent., but was reduced to 3½ per cent. from 29th July, 1935, to 2½ per cent. from 2nd March, 1936, and to 2 per cent. from 29th June, 1936. The rate was restored to the original 4 per cent. on 19th November, 1938, but was reduced to 3 per cent. from 6th September, 1939, to 2 per cent. from 27th May, 1940, and to 1½ per cent. from 26th July, 1941.

DEPOSIT AND INTEREST RATES.—Trading Banks.—The following is a schedule (since June. 1912) of the rates paid by the Associated Banks in New Zealand fur moneys lodged on fixed deposit.

Date operative from.Three Months and under Six Months.Six Months and under Twelve Months.Twelve Months and under Twenty-four Months.Twenty-four Months.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1st June, 1912 24
20th January, 192134
20th June, 19214
11th December, 19264
9th May, 192745
9th July, 19284
1st February, 19305
22nd April, 193045
1st August, 19314
1st June, 193234
2nd December, 19323
11th July, 193323
5th July, 193422 2¾
2nd November, 1934
18th September, 19403/4
17th July, 19413/42

Post Office Savings-bank.—Following is a statement of the interest rates payable in respect of Post Office Savings-bank deposits since 1914.

Date operative from.Amount of Deposit.
£1–£300.£301-£500.£501–£000£1,001–£2,000.£2,001–£5,000.

* Rate in existence on 1st January, 1914.

†See paragraph following.

 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1st January, 1914*544NilNil.
1st January, 192144
1st April, 192844
1st August, 1931
1st April, 19333333
1st August, 1933333
1st August, 1934332⅕
1st March, 193533Nil.
1st August, 19413322Nil.
1st June, 194222Nil.

Prior to 1st January, 1914, the maximum deposit in the Post Office Savings-bank on which interest was payable was £600; but on that date the maximum was raised to £1,000. Between 1st January, 1921, and 1st April, 1928, interest was allowed on deposits up to a maximum of £5,000; but, as from the latter date, the maximum deposit on which any interest is payable has been £2,000. In respect of deposits lodged prior to 1st April, 1928, however, interest at 3¼ per cent. on the excess over £500 was still allowed up to a maximum deposit of £5,000. The rate on the amount between £500 and £5,000 was reduced to 3 per cent. from 1st April, 1933, on the amount exceeding £1,000 to 2¾ per cent. from 1st August, 1933, and on the excess over £500 to 2½ per cent. from 1st August, 1934, and to 2 per cent. from 1st August, 1941. Since 1st March, 1935, interest has not been payable in respect of the excess above £2,000 in any account.

Trustee Savings-banks.—Under the provisions of the Savings-banks Act, 1908, which applies to trustee savings-banks only, these banks were required to pay interest at the rate of 5 per cent. on deposits of £1 and upwards, but not on fractions of £1 or on amounts of under £1. The maximum amount of deposits on which interest was to be paid was fixed at £100 for each depositor; but by the Finance Act, 1921–22, the maximum was raised to £200, which figure still stands. The banks were empowered to reduce the rate of interest, with the consent of the Governor-General, after three months' notice given by an advertisement published in the Gazette.

In the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, provision was made for the fixation by the Governor-General in Council of the maximum rates of interest payable by trustees of savings-banks. Ruling rates immediately prior to July, 1932, varied between 4 per cent. and 4½ per cent.; but, by Order in Council, the maximum interest payable was reduced to 3¾ per cent. as from 1st July, 1932, and to 3 per cent. as from 1st April, 1933. A further reduction to 2½ per cent. was made as from 1st June, 1942.

Company, &c., Deposits.—Authority was taken in the National Expenditure Adjustment Ant. 1932, to fix by Order in Council the maximum rates of interest payable on deposits with stock-and-station agents, trading companies, and building and investment societies. The maximum rates fixed by subsequent Orders in Council have been:—

Period of Deposit.Deposits (including Renewals) taken after—
30th June, 1932.31st March, 1933.31st July, 1934.17th July, 1941.31st May, 1942.
Stock-and-station Agencies and Trading Companies.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
At call or under 3 months 
3 months and tinder 6 months44 
6 months and under 12 months2 
1 year and under 2 years4 
2 years and under 3 years553 
3 years and over55 
Building and Investment Societies.
At call or under 3 months321 
3 months and under 6 months3 
6 months and under 12 months3 
1 year and under 2 years42 
2 years and under 3 years4 
3 years and over443 
Savings departments3  

Other Deposit and Interest Rates.—It is of service at this stage to mention briefly the interest rates payable in respect of certain other classes of deposits. The highest rate of interest payable on moneys in the Common Fund of the Public Trust Office (see Section 44) was fixed at 3½ per cent. by Order in Council dated 27th March. 1933, previous reductions having been made from 5¼ per cent. in 1928, to 4¾ per cent. in 1931, and 4 per cent. in 1932.

Local authorities may also accept deposits (in practice, only for short periods). The present maximum rates of interest (as from 17th July, 1941) on such deposits as fixed by Order in Council are: Call and under three months, 1 per cent.; three and under six months, 1¼ per cent.; six months and over, 1½ per cent.

References to rates of interest on mortgages will be found in Section 31 (Mortgages), while interest on Government debt is referred to in Section 23c (State Indebtedness).

COINAGE AND CURRENCY.—New Zealand Coin.—Section 8 of the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), authorized the Minister of Finance to arrange with the Master of the Royal Mint (in England) for a special issue of silver and bronze coinage of distinctive design for use in New Zealand. Any coins minted in accordance with this arrangement would conform to the standard Mint requirements of weight, fineness, &c., and were given status as legal tender in New Zealand.

The Coinage Act, 1933, which came into operation on the 1st December, 1933, repealed section 8 of the Finance Act (No. 2), 1932-33, and made necessary provisions in respect of silver and of bronze or cupro-nickel coins. The Act contains no provision for the issue of New Zealand gold coins. Section 5 (4) of the Act authorized Proclamations declaring that British coins (other than gold coins) should not be legal tender in New Zealand, and a Proclamation was issued declaring British silver coins not legal tender in New Zealand on and after the 1st February, 1935.

Arrangements were made under which the Royal Mint agreed to remint free of charge the Imperial and Australian silver coin circulating in the Dominion, replacing it with the New Zealand coin referred to above, and to allow the New Zealand Government the bullion value of the coin not used in making such replacement.

The profit accruing to the New Zealand Government from the recoinage on this basis arises from the fact that the Australian coinage and a proportion of the British coinage then in circulation in New Zealand contained a larger proportion of silver than the new coin under the standard set out in the Schedule to the Coinage Act, 1933, which is also the standard governing the present production of Imperial silver coin. In addition, the Commonwealth Government agreed to the repatriation at face-value of a proportion of Australian coin circulating in the Dominion.

Up to 31st March, 1942, New Zealand coins have been received from the Mint of a total face value of £2,674,350. Statistics of the face values of the various denominations of coins received, and the value of New Zealand silver coin in circulation, are as follows:—

 Total received.In Circulation.

* Not available.

 ££
Half-crown825,100568,462
Florin801,500473,796
Shilling431,500287,695
Sixpence292,000265,016
Threepence292,500252,558
Penny22,600*
Halfpenny9,150*

For the recoinage operations Imperial coin of a nominal value of £946,814 and Australian coin of £266,286 nominal value were forwarded to the Royal Mint, and Australian coin to the nominal value of £82,645 was forwarded to Australia. For the last-mentioned, £82,645 was received, and a further amount of £1,000 in Imperial coin was disposed of at face-value to the Royal Mint. Expenses of the Silver and Bronze Coin Account totalled £236,357 to the 31st March, 1942, at which date there was a credit balance of £1,258,814 in the account.

New Zealand silver coinage first came into circulation in 1933, and New Zealand bronze coins were first released for circulation in December, 1939.

Restrictions on Import and Export of Currency.—The Customs Import Prohibition Order now prohibits the importation of all coin (other than silver coin which is over one hundred years old) of whatever metal and wherever and whenever minted, and whether or not it is legal currency in New Zealand or elsewhere. Persons arriving in New Zealand are permitted to have with them on arrival silver coin not exceeding £2 in value. The importation of bank-notes of the Bank of England, and of bank-notes issued by banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland, is prohibited. Persons arriving either directly or indirectly from the United Kingdom are prohibited from bringing with them, in the, same ship or aircraft in which they arrive, the following items: Gold bullion; money, including bank-notes and other currency (other than silver coin not exceeding £2 in value) and postal notes and money-orders, of New Zealand or any other country, and including also promissory notes and bills of exchange; securities for money, including bonds, debentures, debenture stock, and Treasury bills, and including scrip or certificates for and documents representing shares, debenture stock, and other stock, and also all other securities for money. The items enumerated are exclusive of promissory notes, cheques, drafts, and other bills of exchange, for sums expressed in sterling currency of the United Kingdom.

The Customs Export Prohibition Order prohibits the exportation of all coin (other than silver coin which is more than one hundred years old) of whatever metal and wherever and whenever minted and whether or not it is legal currency in New Zealand or elsewhere. Persons leaving New Zealand are permitted to take silver coin not exceeding £2; or, if the journey is by direct route without trans-shipment to Great Britain or Ireland, silver coin to the value of £5 may be taken.

In the cases of both the Export and the Import Prohibition Orders, power is vested in the Minister to authorize in writing the variation of the provisions mentioned. Prohibitions mentioned in both Orders have effect in addition to and not in substitution for any other prohibition in force relating or applicable to the importation or exportation of any of the items enumerated in the Orders or in any other enactment.

Legal Tender and Issue of Notes.—The Coinage Act, 1933, provides that a tender or payment of money, if made in New Zealand coins of current weight, shall be a legal tender to the following extent:—

  1. Gold, to any amount.

  2. Silver for amounts not exceeding £2.

  3. Bronze for amounts not exceeding 1s.

The position in respect of the bank-note issue in New Zealand was radically altered by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, 1933. Section 15 enacted that on and after a date fixed by Proclamation—the Proclamation was signed on the 26th January, 1934, and fixed the date as the 1st August, 1934—the Reserve Bank had the sole right to issue bank-notes in New Zealand; and thereupon the authority of every other bank to issue or re-issue bank-notes was terminated, and such banks were required to redeem their outstanding notes in Reserve Bank notes or subsidiary coin to the extent to which the latter was legal tender. On the 1st August, 1936, every other bank carrying on business in New Zealand was required to pay over to the Reserve Bank an amount equal to the value of its then outstanding notes issued or payable in New Zealand, and its liability in respect of such notes to the holders was assumed by the Reserve Bank. Bank-notes not presented for payment within forty years, commencing 1st April after date of issue in the case of Reserve Bank notes, or after assumption of liability (as above) in other cases, are deemed not to be in circulation, and an amount equal to the value thereof must be paid into the Consolidated Fund as if unclaimed moneys. The Unclaimed Moneys Act, 1908, provides for the payment to the rightful owner of any moneys paid into the Consolidated Fund under the provisions of the Act.

Reserve Bank notes are constituted legal tender up to any amount. There is a provision in the existing legislation which requires the Bank, on presentation at its head office in Wellington of notes to any amount not less than £1,000, to give in exchange sterling for immediate delivery in London. On similar presentation of gold or of sterling for immediate delivery in London, in either case to an amount of £1,000 or more, the Bank must give its notes in exchange therefor. These requirements may he suspended at the discretion of the Minister of Finance, and actually are in suspension at the present time (since 7th December, 1938). The rate of exchange for the above transactions is fixed by the Bank.

The principal Act requires the Bank to maintain a minimum reserve of not less than 25 per cent. of the aggregate amount of its notes in circulation and other demand liabilities; but the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Amendment Act, 1939, empowers the Minister of Finance to vary or suspend this requirement. The term “reserve” includes—

  1. Gold coin and bullion in the unrestricted ownership of the Bank.

  2. Sterling exchange, comprising (1) Deposits at the Bank of England, (2) British Treasury bills of not more than three months unexpired currency, (3) bills of exchange bearing at least two good signatures and of not more than three months unexpired currency.

  3. Net gold exchange, as defined in section 17 (c) of the Act of 1933.

The gold coin and bullion holdings of the Reserve Bank have been, and still are, shown in the Bank's books at face value. The amending legislation of 1939 enables the Minister of Finance to make a revaluation up to the market value of the fine gold contained in the reserve, and the premium resulting from such revaluation is to be credited to a special reserve and held on behalf of the Crown. This special reserve is to lie used in such manner as the Minister of Finance may from time to time determine.

The Reserve Bank may not issue bank-notes of a less denomination than 10s., except with the authority of the Governor-General in Council. The present issue of notes consists of the following denominations: 10s., £1, £5, £10, and £50.

Currency other than Legal Tender.—Neither Australian nor other overseas paper-money circulates, presumably on account of the exchange fee charged by the banks on receiving it.

No consideration of the amount of credit currency in use at any moment can overlook the very large proportion of payments made by cheque, mainly upon the trading banks, but also upon trustee savings-banks and upon various stock-and-station agencies which act in this respect for their customers in the capacity of banker. Such cheques usually go direct from the payee to the collecting bank, but occasionally they pass from hand to hand.

Government postal notes (issued in thirty-nine denominations of from 1s to £1) sometimes enjoy a certain length of life in the form of currency.

NEW ZEALAND AND STERLING EXCHANGE.—Although the movement of gold. whether internally or externally, was unrestricted in years prior to the war of 1914–18, certain of the conditions usually considered essential in the full operation of the gold standard were never effective in New Zealand. More correctly, New Zealand was, and still is, upon a sterling-exchange standard. The explanation is that the New Zealand banking system is not self-contained, in that the banks normally hold a large amount of funds in London. In fact, these London balances are the real regulative factor and the key to the whole New Zealand banking system.

While New Zealand currency was at parity with sterling, except for minor fluctuations above or below parity, no necessity existed for distinction between sterling and New Zealand currency. The latter is entitled to be considered as one of the sterling currencies; but, adopting the convenience of a growing usage, sterling is used herein to refer solely to the currency of Great Britain.

The relationship of New Zealand currency to sterling has assumed added significance since December, 1929. Prior to that date the Dominion currency was at virtual parity with British currency, only slight deviations occurring from time to time, but then commenced to depreciate gradually, reaching, in January of 1931, a level of approximately £110 New Zealand = £100 London for telegraphic transfers. At that level it remained fairly stationary until January, 1933, when as a result of Government intervention it was abruptly depreciated to a further degree. The relationship existing from 20th January, 1933, until the establishment of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand on the 1st August, 1934, was £125 (selling) and £124 10s. (buying) New Zealand = £100 London for telegraphic transfers.

The unusual significance of the currency level in the case of New Zealand depends chiefly upon its position in regard to overseas trade and to overseas borrowings. The course of development of the Dominion has not reached a stage where the country is self-contained to any considerable degree, and the external trade per caput is greater than that of almost all, if not all, other countries. Most of this external trade is with the United Kingdom, while the function of London as an international clearing-house is also of importance in this connection. New Zealand's borrowings overseas, chiefly from the London financial market, have also been upon a high scale, requiring, as noted elsewhere (vide State and also Local Authority Indebtedness), heavy annual payments in London.

From the 1st August, 1934, Reserve Bank quotations for £100 sterling for immediate delivery in London were: Buying rate, £124; selling rate, £125. It was intimated that the policy of the Bank would aim at retaining these rates unchanged for a long period unless there occurred marked changes in existing conditions. To assist in achieving this measure of stability, the Reserve Bank was prepared to enter into forward exchange contracts with the trading banks. While prepared to fulfil its statutory obligations, the Reserve Bank did not desire to compete for exchange business, provided adequate facilities were available elsewhere.

Following the statement of the Reserve Bank's policy, the trading banks adopted as from the 1st August, 1934, a scale of rates representing a reduction of 10s. per £100 on the rates ruling from the 20th January, 1933, to the 31st July, 1931. These rates were slightly changed on the 21st October, 1938, and again on the 6th November, 1940, rates (New Zealand on London) from the latter date being as follows—Telegraphic transfers: Buying. £124 7s. 6d.; selling, £125. Sixty days: Buying, £123 2s. 6d.; selling, £124 17s. This scale is practically the same as that of the Reserve Bank. As most of the export credits are utilized for financing imports, it, is advisable to note that the full exchange rate is not operative in respect of dutiable goods. This arises from the fact that, although Customs duties are assessed in sterling, payment of Customs duties is accepted in New Zealand currency without addition of exchange.

Based upon the average of London daily quotations of gold prices during the month of November, 1942, the New Zealand pound was worth 8s. 1d. in terms of gold, conversion New Zealand — London being allowed at the ratio 125 = 100.

The regulation of currency exchange is now a function of the Reserve Bank, as noted previously. The Finance Act, 1934, provides that any appreciation or depreciation of the assets of the Reserve Lank (expressed in the currency of New Zealand) due to any alteration that may subsequently be made in the exchange rate, while the value of the local currency is not fixed by statute in terms of sterling, shall be credited to or be borne by the Consolidated Fund.

WAR MEASURES.—The Finance Emergency Regulations 1940 (No. 2) of the 18th June, 1940, take the place of earlier regulations gazetted on the 10th April, 1940, but they are also more comprehensive. They closely resemble similar legislation passed in the United Kingdom shortly before the New Zealand measures came into force. The regulations prohibit the export of money and securities from New Zealand except with the consent of the Minister of Finance, and require that gold coin and bullion and also foreign currency belonging to any New Zealand resident be offered for sale to the Reserve Bank of New Zealand.

Under the regulations owners of foreign securities were prohibited from dealing with their securities in any way and were obliged to register them with the Reserve Bank within a specified period. A Reserve Bank statement of the 30th July, 1940, somewhat eased these restrictions by permitting New Zealand residents to deal in overseas securities on the New Zealand register without the prior consent of the Reserve Bank, subject to the companies concerned agreeing to fulfil certain requirements as to returns, &c. As regards overseas securities held by New Zealand residents but registered outside New Zealand, the selling broker is required to obtain the prior consent of the Reserve Bank. Permission to deal in both these classes of overseas securities is subject to the further condition that a form recording the transaction is completed by both the selling broker and the buying broker and supplied to the Reserve Bank. Sales of overseas securities to other than New Zealand residents require the special permission of the Reserve Bank, and in all such cases the proceeds received overseas must be remitted to New Zealand. Tho change from one form of overseas investment to another in an Australian market is not permitted.

The regulations empower the Minister to take over any overseas securities for the purpose of strengthening the financial position of the Dominion, at a price not less than the market value at the time of the transfer. The price payable for securities or currency acquired may be in cash, in New Zealand Government stock, or in a combination of both, according to the discretion of the Minister. For gold, coin or bullion taken over, the vendor has the option of any of these methods of payment.

Further sections of the regulations empower the Minister to require contributions to war loans; prohibit, without his consent, the formation of companies, building societies, &c., or the increase of capital of existing companies; regulate the issue of capital other than by a local authority; and empower the Minister, as he deems necessary in the public interest, to control advances for industrial purposes.

The Savings-banks Emergency Regulations 1941 give legal authority for the trustees of any savings-bank to invest, with the approval of the Minister of Finance, the whole or any portion of the funds of the bank in securities charged upon the public revenues of New Zealand issued in respect of any loan raised or to be raised for war purposes under the authority of the War Expenses Act, 1939, or of any subsequent Act, or in securities issued in renewal or redemption or conversion of any such securities.

Chapter 28. SECTION 28.—INSURANCE.

SUBSECTION A.—LIFE ASSURANCE.

THE statutory provisions affecting life assurance in New Zealand are in the main contained in the Life Insurance Act, 1908, and its amendments of 1920, 1921-22, and 1925; the Inalienable Life Annuities Act, 1910; and the Government Life Insurance Act, 1908, and its amendment of 1912. Any association other than a friendly society which issues policies or grants annuities on human life in New Zealand comes within the scope of the enactments. Every life company must deposit with the Public Trustee money or securities of the statutory character to the value of from £5,000 to £50,000, varying within these limits according to the total amount assured by policies current in its Now Zealand business. The aggregate value of such deposits at 31st March, 1942, was £724,490.

In the case of composite offices, provision is made for the receipts of life and annuity business to be treated as a separate fund, and the Act safeguards the interest of the policyholder by making these funds available only for liabilities arising from such business.

The law bearing on industrial assurance has received the attention of the Legislature in the Life Insurance Amendment Act, 1920. In this class of assurance the premiums must be payable at shorter intervals than three months, and provision is made for its control by regulation. Companies are required to deposit with the Minister of Finance forms of policy tables, rates, and other documents, and policies must contain only such conditions as have been approved by the Governor-General in Council. Restrictions are placed on the forfeiture of policies in default of payments or other requirements.

Annual returns of life assurance are required to be deposited with the Minister of Finance, and it is from these returns that the statistical matter following has been compiled.

Sixteen life-assurance offices were operating in the Dominion during 1941, but one of these no longer transacts new business. Of the sixteen, five only are purely New Zealand institutions—namely, the Government Life Insurance Office, the Provident Life Assurance Co., the Dominion Life Assurance Office of New Zealand, Ltd., the F.A.M.E. Insurance Co., Ltd., and the Maoriland Life Assurance Office, Ltd.

The statistics here given relate exclusively to business transacted in the Dominion.

LIFE ASSURANCE.—ORDINARY AND INDUSTRIAL.—The years 1935–37 witnessed a remarkable expansion in the amount of new business transacted, this being due to improved economic conditions following the period of financial stringency. The greater part of the postponed demand for life-assurance cover would appear to have been satisfied in 1936 and 1937, and this no doubt is partly responsible for the reduced business transacted in the subsequent three years. Another factor that must be taken into consideration in this connection is the introduction of the scheme of social security, a description of which is contained in Section 24 of this volume. The transfer to the armed forces of large numbers of men of the predominantly insurable ages, and war conditions generally, were no doubt the reasons for the lower levels for new business in both 1940 and 1941.

The increased figures of discontinuances in 1938 and 1939 may be regarded largely as the natural result of the substantial increase in new business in the years immediately preceding, but an abnormally large number of maturities in 1938 contributed to the particularly high figure of that year. The amount discontinued in 1941 recorded a decrease of £699,726 as compared with 1940. The net result of the transactions for 1941 was to increase the amount in force by £9,702,705, as compared with an increase of £7,088,632 in 1940.

Eleven years' figures for new business, discontinuances, and amount in force for the combined departments (ordinary and industrial) are given in the table following.

Year.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.Policies existing at End of Year.
 £££
193111,410,69910,774,277112,703,040
193210,375,17910,984,419112,093,800
193310,737,7329,955,758112,875,774
193412,378,2438,697,260116,556,757
193515,358,7498,011,946123,903,560
193620,002,4808,058,828136,013,097
193723,037,2388,248,524150,801,811
193820,506,53010,213,016161,095,325
193919,302,5119,982,613170,415,223
194015,841,0708,752,438177,503,855
194117,753,9118,052,712187,206,560

During the ten years from 1931 to 1941 the amount in force has increased by £74,503,520, or 66 per cent.

Ordinary Life Assurance.—A table showing the progress of business over a period of eleven years is given below.

Year.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.Policies existing at End of Year.
Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.
  ££ ££ ££
193124,5089,166,928311,90422,6608,125,699281,384270,19999,176,9243,233,846
193222,3538,123,793280,57724,4038,594,783300,341268,14998,705,9343,214,082
193324,5038,357,590282,75622,8427,995,447281,020269,81099,068,0773,215,818
193428,5549,778,967312,84820,4446,999,072246,476277,920101,847,9723,282,190
193535,19912,605,789400,14019,1266,292,730216,015293,993108,161,0313,466,315
193646,02616,812,497539,44118,8876,442,382222,380321,132118,697,0313,783,376
193750,98919,376,772606,72019,7026,475,775223,508352,419131,598,0284,166,588
193844,20916,943,706510,84122,7548,222,169292,821373,874140,319,5654,384,608
193940,40416,304,251479,24921,7097,884,027259,907392,569148,739,7894,603,950
194031,00313,043,641391,84919,5656,901,236239,399404,007154,882,1944,756,400
194133,22814,869,366464,63416,9196,2,279,161215,145420,332163,473,9055,005,632

Each of the three years 1935–37 was characterized by a remarkable increase in the amount issued when compared with the year immediately preceding, culminating in the record amount of £19,376,772 for new business in 1937. Each of the succeeding years up to 1940 recorded a decrease, but in 1941 quite a substantial increase was recorded. The amount of the discontinuances, which in 1932 actually exceeded the amount of new business written, gradually fell each year from 1932 until 1935. Thereafter, the discontinuances commenced to rise in sympathy with the increased amount of new business, but decreases have taken place in the last three years, the 1941 total being £1,943,008 below that of 1938. The net result of the transactions for the year 1941 was an increase since the end of the preceding year of £8,591,711 in the sum assured, as against corresponding rises of £6,142,405 and £8,420,224 for 1949 and 1939 respectively.

The average sum assured per new policy taken out in 1941 was £447, compared with £421 in 1940. The per-policy average premium for new assurances in 1941 was £13 19s. 8d., compared with £12 12s. 9d. in 1940.

The corresponding figures for total assurances in force at the end of 1941 are: Average sum assured, £389; average premium per policy, £11 18s. 2d.

Particulars of policies discontinued during the last five years are contained in the next table.

Year.Death.Maturity.Surrender.Lapse.Other Causes.Totals.
Number of Policies.
19372,0303,7334,2889,12752419,702
19382,2625,2574,45510,12565522,754
19392,1353,8515,2329,76572621,709
19402,3023,8234,8118,18644319,565
19413,0133,9364,1105,47838216,919
Sum assured.
 ££££££
1937773,239813,4911,349,4583,212,694326,8936,475,775
1938971,3441,574,0981,526,4953,780,806369,4268,222,169
1939856,157859,4801,889,0023,748,348531,0407,884,027
1940950,224879,3781,496,2933,244,509330,8326,901,236
19411,229,811919,2921,417,3812,443,436269,2416,279,161

The outstanding feature of the 1938 figures was the phenomenal rise in maturities, which was largely due to the maturity of policies which were issued as collateral security for advances made to facilitate investment in a special loan issue during the war of 1914–18. In 1941 deaths showed a substantial increase for both the number of policies and the sum assured, a contributing factor being deaths from war causes. Compared with 1940, lapses in 1941 showed decreases of 33·1 per cent. and 24·7 per cent. for sum assured and number of policies respectively. The total amount written off during 1941 represents 4·05 per cent. of the amount in force at the end of the previous year, compared with the corresponding figure of 4·64 per cent. for 1940.

Discontinuances during 1941 because of death accounted for 0·79 per cent. of the total amount in force at the end of 1940, maturity for 0·59 per cent., surrender for 0·92 per cent., and lapse for 1·58 per cent.

A statement of the aggregate revenue and expenditure of all the companies operating in the Dominion, so far as ordinary business is concerned, further illustrates the course of business during the last five years. The ratios of management expenses to premium income and to total revenue are also given.

Year.Revenue and Expenditure.Expenses of Management.
Total Revenue, excluding Transfers.Total Expenditure, excluding Transfers.Excess of Revenue.Amount.Proportion to Premium Income.Proportion to Total Revenue.
 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
19376,375,4253,715,8532,659,572731,76616·1911·48
19386,531,8104,995,5481,536,262700,27314·9410·72
19396,828,7234,093,8252,734,898685,53713·9510·04
19407,051,4614,079,6082,971,853653,51712·909·27
19417,280,7034,536,6402,744,063698,06113·489·59

Excluding commission, the ratio of management expenses to premium income was 7·48, 7·46, 7·29, 7·11, and 7·42 per cent. respectively for the years 1937 to 1941 inclusive.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE (EXCLUDING TRANSFERS).

1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
Revenue.£££££
New and renewal premiums4,520,6284,688,0734,912,6275,066,1475,177,137
Consideration for annuities160,091105,035107,57075,25776,739
Interest1,688,3771,735,4151,806,5681,907,0532,020,295
Other revenue6,3293,2871,9583,0046,532
    Total revenue6,375,4256,531,8106,828,7237,051,4617,280,703
Expenditure.     
Claims by death and maturity2,187,6963,447,2762,358,1702,470,0882,859,171
Annuities89,08695,81499,144106,838105,831
Surrenders442,729441,954534,047415,740418,320
Cash bonuses46,50746,46260,07651,47143,629
Management731,766700,273685,537653,517695,061
Taxes195,476210,734242,566250,070240,957
Other expenditure22,59353,035114,285131,884173,671
    Total expenditure3,715,8534,995,5484,093,8254,079,6084,536,640

Industrial Assurance.—As in the case of ordinary life assurance, new business in the industrial section reached its peak in 1937, and each succeeding year up to 1940 witnessed a decrease. The decline, however, was relatively less than in the ordinary branch, 23·6 per cent. between 1937 and 1940, as compared with 32·7 per cent. A slight increase in new business was recorded in 1941 as compared with the previous year. A fall in the amount written off by way of lapsed policies was mainly responsible for the decrease of £77,651 in discontinuances in 1941 as compared with 1940. Surrenders also showed a decrease, but maturities and deaths recorded higher figures. The 1941 ratio of discontinuances to new issues was 61 per cent., as against a corresponding figure of 66 per cent. for the previous year.

A summary of the progress of industrial assurance business is given in the following table.

Year.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.Policies existing at End of Year.
Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.
  ££ ££ ££
193143,1732,243,771140,71151,3232,648,578167,169276,25613,526,116804,891
193246,0302,251,386137,73947,1482,389,636152,315275,13813,387,866790,315
193352,2232,380,142144,98338,7141,960,311123,559288,64713,807,697811,739
193457,3382,599,276158,48635,2551,698,188104,369310,73014,708,785865,856
193558,1912,752,960165,21235,1951,719,216104,175333,72615,742,529926,893
193664,3843,189,983192,40033,1031,616,44698,588365,00717,316,0661,020,705
193768,6303,660,466218,00635,0331,772,749107,852398,60419,203,7831,130,859
193865,3963,562,824210,25437,0641,990,847118,176426,93620,775,7601,222,937
193953,5312,998,260177,67237,1502,098,586126,907443,31721,675,4341,273,702
194049,6712,797,429163,73532,3381,851,202113,635460,65022,621,6611,323,802
194150,2562,884,545164,90631,1731,773,551108,227479,73323,732,6551,380,481

As a result of the year's transactions, the amount in force increased during 1941 by £1,110,994, compared with the previous year's increase of £946,227.

The average sum assured under each policy of new business effected in 1941 amounted to £57, with an average annual premium of £3 5s. 8d. Corresponding averages for 1940 were £56, and £3 5s. 11d.

A summary of the number of industrial policies and the sums assured written off according to the several causes is now given in the form of a five-years table.

Year.Death.Maturity.Surrender.Lapse.Other Causes.Total.
Number of Policies.
19372,3707,5671,44623,49615435,033
19382,7197,6441,61324,84923937,064
19392,6489,2363,20021,86020637,150
19402,64610,2372,88916,29627032,338
19413,07411,1642,89713,85218631,173
Sum assured.
 ££££££
193785,979310,50875,0241,286,02915,2091,772,749
1938101,953331,85084,7211,454,65617,6671,990,847
1939100,677409,461152,3721,419,16316,9132,098,586
1940106,297481,084134,8271,107,71621,2781,851,202
1941133,904517,816128,800958,25034,7811,773,551

The amount written off in each year is considerably greater in proportion in the industrial than in the ordinary branch. Whereas in the case of the latter 4·05 per cent. of the amount in force at the end of 1940 became void during 1941, the corresponding percentage for industrial assurance was 7·84. The cause showing the greatest difference in this respect is “lapses,” the proportions of total discontinuances for 1941 being 38·91 per cent. for the ordinary section and 54·03 per cent. for the industrial section, and the percentages of the amount in force at the end of 1940 lapsing being 1·58 and 4·24 respectively.

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE.—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

Year.Revenue and Expenditure.Expenses of Management.
Total Revenue, excluding Transfers.Total Expenditure, excluding Transfers.Excess of Revenue.Amount.Proportion to Premium Income.Proportion to Total Revenue.
 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
19371,367,671853,476514,195351,19932·6125·68
19381,486,416932,894553,522370,56431·4524·93
19391,574,0681,089,990484,078373,74330·0823·74
19401,641,6011,165,028476,573384,07829·5623·40
19411,705,2691,247,926457,343396,42629·3623·25

The difference between the ratio of management expenses to premium income in the industrial branch and the corresponding ratio in the ordinary branch is largely accounted for by the high cost of collection of premiums in the industrial branch, principally in the shape of renewal commission. In the ordinary branch commission (new and renewal) was in 1941 equivalent to 6·01 per cent. of the premium income, and in the industrial branch to 18·01 per cent. Excluding commissions, the ratio of management expenses to premium income was 11·34 per cent. in the industrial branch, as against 7·42 per cent. in the ordinary.

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE.—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE (EXCLUDING TRANSFERS).

1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
Revenue.£££££
Premiums1,077,0971,178,3621,242,5321,299,4071,350,306
Interest283,112299,341322,546333,568346,483
Other revenue7,4628,7138,9908,6268,480
      Total revenue1,367,6711,486,4161,574,0681,641,6011,705,269
Expenditure.     
Claims by death and maturity437,771485,701585,762658,633735,157
Surrenders26,44726,60253,66352,06949,153
Management351,199370,564373,743384,078396,426
Taxes29,84433,11634,39339,11940,125
Other expenditure8,21516,91142,42931,12927,065
      Total expenditure853,476932,8941,089,9901,165,0281,247,926

LIFE ASSURANCE DEATH-RATES.—The following table shows for the period 1931–41 the death-rate per thousand policies exposed to risk in each year. In computing these rates all policies which were in force for any portion of the year have been taken into account.

Year.Death-rate Per 1,000 Policies.
Ordinary Life Assurance.Industrial Life Assurance.Ordinary and Industrial combined.
19315·635·365·49
19325·785·735·75
19335·825·245·52
19345·735·455·58
19355·545·305·41
19365·475·075·26
19375·465·475·46
19385·705·865·79
19395·155·515·35
19405·435·375·40
19416·896·026·42

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.—Of the five companies transacting industrial business in New Zealand, only one apportions its liabilities and assets over ordinary and industrial business, for, although the legislation in force requires separate statements of revenue and expenditure, policies issued and discontinued, &c., no such requirement exists in regard to balance-sheets. The figures presented below accordingly refer to both classes of assurance, and, as indicated earlier in this subsection, relate to New Zealand business only.

The aggregate capital and liabilities at the end of 1941, as compared with the two preceding years, were as follows:—

 1939.1940.1941.
 £££
Paid-up share capital220,797221,860250,444
Life assurance and annuity funds51,102,74454,426,26557,552,899
Depreciation, reserve, and other special funds743,297780,535808,726
Claims admitted but not paid332,856441,768603,600
Other liabilities423,204293,834485,589
      Totals£52,822,898£56,164,26259,701,258

The New Zealand assets at the end of each of the three years 1939–41 were:—

Assets.Amount.Proportion to Totals.
1939.1940.1941.1939.1940.1941.
 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Mortgages on property12,079,82812,400,15812,762,62622·8722·0821·38
Loans on policies5,613,0585,456,1775,215,03210·639·718·74
New Zealand Government securities10,265,38311,237,19514,702,19519·4320·0124·63
Securities of other Governments108,191108,191108,2910·210·190·18
Municipal and local authorities' securities18,672,99720,183,05020,691,95735·3535·9434·66
Landed and house property2,372,8582,410,7662,348,2204·494·293·93
Other investments554,794568,225588,1111·051·010·99
Loans on personal security1,7021,464174   
Agents' balances9,2226,4715,3430·020·020·01
Outstanding premiums417,085400,759412,9330·790·710·69
Interest accrued, &c.530,041507,698527,9231·000·900·88
Cash778,0531,453,414981,3901·472·591·64
Other assets1,419,6861,430,6941,357,0632·692·552·27
      Totals52,822,89856,164,26259,701,258100·00100·00100·00

STATE LIFE ASSURANCE.—The Life Insurance Department of the New Zealand Government was founded in 1869, at a time when New-Zealanders had comparatively poor facilities in regard to life assurance. Payment of all policies with the State Office is guaranteed by the Government. Industrial assurance is not transacted.

The total income of the Department for 1941 was £1,360,056—viz., premium income, £823,048; net interest and rents £510,638; annuity purchase-money, £26,370.

During the year 1941 payments (including bonus additions) to the value of £361,394 were made on account of matured policies, and £260,005 was paid out to representatives of deceased policyholders. Commission totalled £47,194 and other expenses of management £81,091, making the total management expenses £128,285. The ratio of expenses to total income was 8·62 per cent., and to premium income 13·81 per cent.

Figures of new business and of policies in force for each of the last five years appear in the table hereunder.

Year.New Business.Policies in Force at End of Year.
Number of Policies.Premiums.Sum assured.Number of Policies.Premiums.Value of Business.
Sum assured.Bonuses.Total.
  ££ ££££
19379,78077,7703,431,94080,959716,80726,099,4493,309,68729,409,136
19389,33170,5063,436,40686,155746,26828,184,7803,463,35931,648,139
19397,90154,3702,945,99190,081764,45129,787,3933,619,29833,406,691
19405,93844,9532,333,05092,177775,51830,848,7993,729,21134,578,010
19416,89754,5282,800,40895,581799,90332,445,9773,814,17736,260,154

The Department's balance-sheet on the 31st December, 1941, showed that the total assets amounted to £12,351,286, and were invested as shown in the following statement, which also gives the distribution of the assets at the end of the two preceding years for purposes of comparison.

Class of Investment.Amount.Proportion to Totals.
1939.1940.1941.1939.1940.1941.

* Mainly due and overdue premiums and interest, and interest accrued.

 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Mortgages on freehold property4,964,7805,074,9255,061,75543·3042·6840·98
Loans on policies1,249,4181,217,9651,165,77210·9010·249·44
Government securities2,679,6232,730,3042,929,77223·3722·9623·72
Local authorities' securities1,740,3691,995,1972,129,76415·1816·7817·24
Landed and house property503,634527,129536,7734·394·434·35
Miscellaneous assets*220,224223,889242,5841·921·881·96
Cash in hand, on current account, and on deposit108,045121,786284,8660·941·032·31
Totals11,466,09311,891,19512,351,286100·00100·00100·00

SUBSECTION B.—ACCIDENT INSURANCE.

IN terms of the Accident Insurance Companies Act, 1908, accident-insurance policies may be issued by any association, whether incorporated or not, provided such association is not established under any Act relating to friendly societies. The principal classes of accident insurance transacted are as follows:—

  1. Personal accident, covering accident, sickness, &c.;

  2. Employers' liability under statutory or common law;

  3. Motor-vehicle insurance, comprehensive and compulsory third-party risks cover.

Other important classes of accident-insurance policies are in respect of plateglass insurance and fidelity-guarantee insurance.

Information relating to cash deposits required from companies transacting accident-insurance business is contained in the next subsection, which deals with the cognate subject of fire insurance.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.—The number of insurance offices transacting accident business in New Zealand in 1941 was 58, the head offices of the companies concerned being domiciled as follows: Great Britain, 23; Australia, 12; and New Zealand, 23. The number of branches established in the various towns, &c., was 233, and the total number of agencies was 15,067.

Premium receipts in 1941 were £37,634 (1 per cent.) less than in 1940, mainly on account of a decline in motor-vehicle insurance consequent upon the restricted quantity of motor-spirits and tires available to vehicle-owners. Claims in 1941 recorded a greater relative reduction, the difference as compared with 1940 amounting to £122,807 (9·1 per cent.). Expenses other than claims totalled £1,006,369 in 1941, as against £960,232 in the previous year, an increase of £76,358 in taxation expenditure being partly offset by reductions under other headings. The net result of operations for 1941 was an excess of premium receipts over expenditure to the extent of £284,402, similar results being experienced in 1940 and 1939, when the excess amounted to £245,366 and £319,041 respectively.

Year.Number of Offices.Revenue.Expenditure.
Premiums.Other Revenue.Total.Claims.Commission.Salaries.Other Expenses.Total.
  ££££££££
1931521,417,855108,4151,526,270957,644181,099161,366156,3771,456,486
1932531,225,74293,3481,319,090741,185141,051154,554144,6271,181,417
1933571,178,93687,2451,266,181679,826135,052152,080145,3801,112,338
1934581,301,75590,8861,392,641717,355154,978164,658164,0701,201,061
1935581,421,05591,7821,512,837891,874160,747170,088181,5311,404,240
1936581,678,85285,1331,763,9851,119,936194,746198,761186,9001,700,343
1937572,125,20798,1362,223,3431,428,783261,656239,089205,5032,135,031
1938582,507,09699,1552,606,2511,559,322305,934256,500214,5572,336,313
1939582,711,438108,1642,819,6021,518,035300,901270,193303,2682,392,397
1940582,550,12791,0702,641,1971,344,529277,819270,583411,8302,304,761
1941582,512,49394,6112,607,1041,221,722261,716266,791477,8622,228,091

An interesting review of the expenses incurred in transacting accident insurance is contained in the table following. The fluctuations over a period of five years are shown in percentages of revenue to expenditure under various heads.

Year.Ratio per Cent. of
Claims to Premiums.Commission to Premiums.Salaries to Premiums.Other Expenses to Premiums.Total Expenses (other than Claims) to Premiums.Total Expenditure to Premiums.Total Expenditure to Total Revenue.
193767·2312·3111·259·6733·23100·4696·03
193862·2012·2010·238·5630·9993·1989·64
193955·9911·109·9611·1832·2488·2384·85
194052·7310·8910·6116·1537·6590·3887·26
194148·6210·4210·0219·0240·0688·6885·46

The ratio of claims to premiums reached its peak in 1937, but each succeeding year has recorded a marked reduction, with the result that the 1941 figure (48·02 per cent.) is lower than in any other year since 1921. The substantial increases in the amount of business transacted from 1935 up to and including 1939 progressively lowered the working-expense ratio, but, as a result of the fall in premium income, the 1940 figure (28·5 per cent.) was slightly above that of the previous year, despite a decrease in the actual amount of expenditure. A further decrease in expenditure resulted in the ratio for 1941 falling to the 1939 level (28·0 per cent.). An increase of 163 per cent. in the amount of taxation payable raised the ratio of expenses other than claims from 32·24 per cent. in 1939 to 40·06 per cent. in 1941.

ANALYSIS OF PREMIUMS AND CLAIMS.—In the next table, particulars of premiums and claims for the three main classes of accident insurance are given for the last five years. It will be noticed that there is an apparent discrepancy between the totals of premiums and claims as shown herein and the figures already quoted. This is accounted for by the fact that, in order to arrive at the net financial results of the year's operations, it is necessary to take into account reinsurance transactions, and up to this stage of the discussion premiums and claims have been taken at the net figure.

Year.Employers' Liability.Personal Accident.Motor-vehicle.Other Forms.Totals.
 £££££
Premiums.
1937847,546192,4361,115,33690,2352,245,553
1938942,483205,7881,377,473101,2252,626,969
19391,041,970206,5191,489,168113,2872,850,944
19401,068,097194,7341,357,057114,0962,733,984
19411,085,850191,7831,261,263118,3732,657,269
Claims.
1937490,28374,050891,36119,5551,475,249
1938554,04185,106942,88223,8161,605,845
1939580,08378,774888,45921,4411,568,757
1940594,59075,959739,27521,6581,431,482
1941615,56472,770603,41321,7211,313,468

Compared with 1940, gross premium income in 1941 decreased by 3 per cent., while claims fell by 8 per cent.

The 1941 ratio of claims to premiums for personal accident and other forms of accident insurance showed a slight decrease as compared with 1940, while employers' liability recorded a small increase. Motor-vehicle insurance continued the downward movement which has been in evidence since 1937, the 1941 ratio being 47·84 per cent., as compared with 80·43 per cent. in 1936.

Reducing the figures for each of the last three years to a percentage basis, the following results are arrived at.

Class of Insurance.Claims to Premiums.Premiums to Total Premiums.Claims to Total Claims.
1939.1940.1941.1939.1940.1941.1939.1940.1941.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Employers' liability55·6755·6756·6936·5539·0740·8636·9841·5446·87
Personal accident38·1439·0137·947·247·127·225·025·315·54
Motor-vehicle59·6654·4847·8452·2449·6447·4756·6351·6445·94
Other forms18·9318·9818·353·974·174·451·371·511·65
    All classes55·0352·3649·43100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00100·00

MORTGAGEES' INDEMNITY INSURANCE.—The Mortgagees' Indemnity (Workers' Charges) Act, 1927, provides that when mortgages are presented for stamping an additional stamp duty of ls., known as a mortgagee's indemnity fee, is to be paid. The indemnity fees are paid into the Consolidated Fund, from which losses incurred by mortgagees through the enforcement of charges under the Workers' Compensation Act are met. A section of the Act definitely absolves the mortgagor from any obligation to insure or keep insured the mortgagee against loss of this nature in respect of any mortgage under the Act.

MOTOR-VEHICLES INSURANCE (THIRD-PARTY RISKS).—The Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act, 1928, requires owners of motor-vehicles to insure against their liability to pay damages on account of the death of or bodily injury to another person. The payment of the insurance premiums is made annually to Deputy Registrars of Motor-vehicles at the same time as the annual license fee is paid under the Motor-vehicles Act. Owners of motor-vehicles are required to nominate each year the insurance company with which the contract of insurance is to be made, and the contract is deemed to be complete on the payment of the premium.

The favourable claims experience of the last few years, which may be ascribed largely to the restricted use of many types of vehicles consequent upon the war-time rationing of motor-spirits and tires, has led to a revision of premium rates. The new rates, which came into force on the 1st July, 1942, include the following: Trailers, 4s.; tractors, traction-engines, 7s.; motor-cycles, £1; private motor-cars, 16s.; private motor-cars used wholly or in part for the purpose of trade or business, £2 5s.; motor-vehicles (other than trailers and motor-cycles) used by fire-brigades, 10s.; hearses, ambulances, &c., 15s.; trade motors, £1 10s.; manufacturers' and dealers' motor-vehicles, £1 15s.; public motor-vehicles, from £5 to £6 12s. according to seating-capacity; contract vehicles, rental cars, £3, with a maximum premium payable of £4 12s.; private and public motor-cabs, £5 and £10 respectively.

The liability of any insurance company under any contract under the Act is limited to £2,000 in respect of any passenger in the motor-vehicle concerned, and to £20,000 for all claims made by or in respect of passengers. Otherwise there is no limit as to amount.

The liability of the company does not extend to indemnify the owner against any claim made in respect of death of or of injury suffered by any relative of the owner, by any person in the service of the owner at the time of the accident, or by a passenger. The indemnity does, however, cover the case of a passenger for hire in a vehicle plying for hire or carrying passengers for hire.

The following particulars give the experience of the last five years, with a summary covering the thirteen years since the inception of this class of insurance. It should be noted that the figures for claims do not represent the amount paid during each year, but refer to accidents happening during each particular period. It should also be noted that the claims figures include amounts on account of the estimated liability in respect of claims still outstanding at 30th June, 1942, and are therefore provisional only. Claims are frequently the subject of lengthy litigation, and until such time as they are finally settled the estimated liability is taken into account. Experience has shown that the insurance companies usually overestimate this liability, and the figures when finalized, particularly for the latest year, may be expected to be considerably less than the amounts now given.

Registration Year ended—Total for Thirteen Years (since Inception).
31st May, 1938.31st May, 1939.31st May, 1940.31st May, 1941.30th June, 1942*.

* Period covered, thirteen months.

 ££££££
Premiums received289,891348,291448,795445,054477,9893,872,452
Claims paid and estimated liability in respect of claims outstanding at 30th June, 1942296,725368,684326,214320,241283,1743,247,632
Ratio per cent. of claims paid and outstanding to premiums10210673725984

STATE ACCIDENT INSURANCE.—In the year 1901 the Government (Life) Insurance Department opened an Accident Branch. On the 1st January, 1925, the accident business was transferred to the control of the State Fire Insurance Office. Although general accident business was undertaken, the branch was opened more especially to conduct insurance under the Workers' Compensation Act. In recent years, however, other forms of accident insurance have contributed on an increasing scale to the premium income of the office. The main classes now transacted are employers' liability, personal accident, public risk, motor comprehensive, third-party risks, plate glass, and fidelity guarantee.

A summary of revenue and expenditure during the last five years is contained in the following table.

Year.Revenue.Expenditure.
Premiums.Other.Total.Claims.Other.Total.
 ££££££
1937147,71915,969163,68899,50252,839152,341
1938202,27918,568220,847140,80671,036211,842
1939261,12320,198281,321167,67262,108229,780
1940259,39920,557279,956138.000111,266249,266
1941268,77519,771288,546134,208133,205267,413

The premium income of the State Accident Insurance Office has increased tremendously during the last five years, the receipts for 1941 being no less than 136 per cent. greater than in 1936. The corresponding increase for all offices combined was 50 per cent. A favourable claims ratio was experienced in 1941—49·9) per cent. of premium income, as compared with 53·2 per cent. in 1940, and 64·2 per cent. in 1939. A considerable proportion of the State Accident Insurance Office's business is made up of employers' liability insurance, and this accounts for the relatively high claims ratio in comparison with that of all offices combined, 49·9 per cent. in 1941, as against 48·6 per cent.

The total assets at 31st December, 1941, amounted to £827,630, the two largest items being New Zealand Government securities, £312,406; and local-authority securities, £194,699. Reserves and funds at the end of 1941 totalled £579,925.

SUBSECTION C.—FIRE INSURANCE.

IN the Dominion's legislation four separate classes of fire-insurance offices are distinguished—namely: (1) Local insurance companies established within the limits of New Zealand; (2) foreign insurance companies established beyond New Zealand; (3) British offices similarly established; and (4) mutual fire-insurance associations. To these may be added the State Fire Insurance Office, established under a separate Act of Parliament.

Part XIV of the Companies Act, 1933, provides for the incorporation with limited liability of local insurance companies formed for the insurance of property other than that of shareholders. Such a company requires a paid-up capital of £50,000 intact, and if the amount of paid-up capital falls below this sum the company may not carry on insurance business except with unlimited liability. Insurance companies established or incorporated overseas require to have a like paid-up capital intact. Part II of the Insurance Companies Act, 1940, provides that, in the case of an insurance company of doubtful solvency, inspectors may be appointed to investigate and report on the affairs of the company. Mutual associations are referred to specially at a later stage in this subsection.

Statistics of fire insurance are collected annually by the Census and Statistics Department. For 1941, statistics were collected from 43 offices carrying on business in New Zealand. The head offices of these were distributed as follows: Great Britain, 23; New Zealand, 13; Australia, 6; United States of America, 1.

DEPOSITS.—Until the passing of the Insurance Companies Act, 1940, no deposit was required from an insurance company incorporated in New Zealand in respect of fire and accident insurance business, unless the company acted merely as an agent for overseas underwriters, or had, since 1933, commenced motor-vehicle third-party-risks insurance business. Part I of this Act provides that any New Zealand company which, after the passing of the Act, commences in New Zealand any of the specified classes of business, must deposit with the Public Trustee in money the following amounts: In respect of fire insurance, £22,500; employers' liability insurance, £22,500; and all other classes (except motor-vehicles third-party-risks insurance), £5,000. A New Zealand company which, at the commencement of the Act, was carrying on any of the classes of business referred to above was required to deposit cash or approved securities to the value of £1,000 together with a further £1,000 for each complete £2,500 of premium income derived from each class of business during its last financial year. Provision is made for revision of amount of deposit consequent on increase or decrease in business. The maximum deposit is that which would be paid by a newly established company.

The maximum deposits of New Zealand companies are now the same as those required from British companies commencing business in New Zealand after the passing of the Insurance Companies Deposits Act, 1922, and its amendment, also of 1922. This last-mentioned Act also provides that a foreign company, before commencing business in New Zealand, must deposit in money the sum of £50,000, which covers all classes of business other than life or marine.

Since 1927 agents operating in New Zealand on behalf of overseas underwriters have been required to make deposits similar in amount to those specified for British companies under the principal Act of 1922.

The Finance Act, 1933 (No. 2), required any company thereafter undertaking business in terms of the Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act, 1928, to deposit the sum of £10,000. This requirement is, in effect, extended by the Insurance Companies Act, 1940, under which every company undertaking this class of business must, unless it has made the deposit required by the Finance Act, deposit £1,000, together with £1,000 for each complete £2,500 of premium income from such business. The maximum deposit is £10,000.

Life and marine businesses are not affected by the provisions mentioned in the preceding paragraphs.

The capital amount of deposits held by the Public Trustee on the 31st March, 1942, under the Insurance Companies' Deposits Act on behalf of thirty-eight companies was £1,595,230. These moneys are invested in the Common Fund of the Public Trust Office, and interest thereon is paid at regular intervals to the respective companies.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.—The following table indicates generally the extent to which fire-insurance offices have funds available to meet losses and liabilities. Funds of life departments are added for completeness, but by the Life Insurance Act, 1908 (which follows the provisions of the Imperial statute on the subject), life funds must be accounted for separately, and form a security for life-policy holders which is not available for other phases of insurance transacted. The amount of funds (other than life) in New Zealand and elsewhere is, it will be seen, in excess of £391,000,000.

Liabilities.Totals.
Overseas Companies.Local Offices.Mutual Associations.

* These figures in the case of mutual associations relate to premium-note capital.

 ££££
Paid-up capital31,226,9243,275,971*277,27534,780,170
Reserves245,027,0849,427,41276,762254,531,258
Other liabilities100,187,6332,476,7417,578102,671,952
      Totals376,441,64115,180,124361,615391,983,380
Life funds798,448,2117,960 798,456,171
      Total liabilities (and assets)1,174,889,85215,188,084361,6151,190,439,551

In the following table the figures for the amount of assets in New Zealand under various heads are given as at the end of each of the last three years. The figures given include all investments in New Zealand and do not relate merely to the assets held by the New Zealand branches of the companies concerned.

Assets In New Zealand.1939.1940.1941.
 £££
House and landed property1,210,8951,228,1011,249,429
New Zealand Government securities6,489,3526,691,6967,193,908
New Zealand local-authority securities1,666,6701,497,0641,487,585
Mortgages, &c.352,033196,312184,174
Outstanding premiums454,073496,408673,329
Cash and other assets in New Zealand3,405,9953,531,2693,561,493
      Total New Zealand assets13,579,01813,640,85014,349,918

SUMMARY OF BUSINESS.—The gross amount of new and renewal business underwritten during 1941 was £43,817,932 (7·4 per cent.) greater than in 1940, while the gross premiums charged exceeded the 1940 total by £125,073 (6·0 per cent.). Gross losses, on the other hand, recorded a decrease of £146,088, or 23·3 per cent.

1939.1940.1941.

* Excluding reinsurances accepted from other offices.

Offices in New Zealand.   
Number of companies434343
Number of branches182182184
Number of agencies15,03915,26914,995
Amounts underwritten.   
Gross amount of insurance cover in force in New Zealand on 31st December*£494,425,344£516,576,690£552,546,575
Number of policies representing the foregoing*809,428808,195819,209
Gross amount of new and renewal business underwritten during year*£566,146,819£595,290,585£639,108,517
Number of policies representing the foregoing*871,526869,876885,725
Premiums.   
Total gross premiums charged on business (new and renewal) underwritten during year*£1,980,244£2,073,770£2,198,843
Percentage of gross premiums to total amount of business underwritten7s. 0d.7s. 0d.6s. 11d.
Total premiums (as shown above), less premiums refunded to insured other than to other offices£1,849,866£1,941,441£2,034,207
Losses.   
Total number of separate fire losses with which offices were concerned7,7027,5827,299
Gross losses£625,141£627,666£481,578
Percentage of gross loss to amount underwritten (new and renewal) during year (as shown above)0·110·110·08
Percentage of gross loss to total premiums, less refunds to insured (as shown above)33·7932·3323·67
Average loss£81£83£66

The table hereunder shows the position of premium income and fire losses during the eleven years ended 1941. Until the year 1938 there was an unbroken sequence of decreases in the amount of fire losses, the total for 1937 being only one-third of the amount sustained in 1928, the year in which fire losses were the highest yet recorded. A substantial increase took place in 1938, followed by further slight rises in 1939 and 1940, although the loss ratios for those two years were less than that for 1938. In 1941, however, losses fell away to a little above the 1937 level, and this, in conjunction with the increase in premium income, resulted in the lowest loss ratio on record.

Year.Premium Income.Fire Losses.Percentage of Loss.
 ££ 
19311,985,3751,073,84254·1
19321,908,810814,55142·7
19331,780,824591,22533·2
19341,711,841546,93632·0
19351,721,689528,85830·7
19361,748,298474,63127·2
19371,678,055446,34626·6
19381,749,331613,18535·1
19391,849,866625,14133·8
19401,941,441627,66632·3
19412,034,207481,57823·7

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.—A statement of the total revenue and expenditure, both gross and net, of all offices is now given in respect of New Zealand business. The gross reserve for unexpired risks, it should be noted, is calculated on the assumption that it bears the same proportion to gross premium income as does the actual net reserve to the net premium income.

1939.1940.1941.
Gross.Net.Gross.Net.Gross.Net.

* The gross figures are inclusive of reinsurance premiums from other offices.

Revenue.££££££
Reserve to meet unexpired risks as at beginning of year845,828550,145890,649570,382966,504594,813
Amount of fire premiums receivable during year*2,112,1341,287,8132,221,2991,341,9772,409,2721,406,633
Interest and dividends on stock, mortgages, &c.78,02178,02175,84375,84375,42775,427
Rents25,28225,28221,98921,98924,08124,081
Other revenue1,3161,3162,2742,2741,0041,004
      Totals3,062,5811,942,5773,212,0542,012,4653,476,2882,101,958
Expenditure.      
Amount of fire losses incurred during year, including adjustment and other expenses of settlement, but less salvage and amounts covered by reinsurance625,141399,186627,666343,052481,578331,528
Fire Board levies95,82775,54298,94275,068112,00784,680
New Zealand Government taxes158,898132,674273,053227,345306,580269,951
Local-authority rates2,4152,1382,6062,3712,7722,525
License fees5,1234,7355,3525,0305,7225,219
Rents20,49419,24921,94220,77923,57022,106
Allowances and commissions on premiums to agents, subagents, and others223,03994,410236,890102,363246,048100,451
Salaries and wages, including commissions on profits or bonuses238,501219,082252,743233,406266,388244,289
Other expenses of management123,603111,623124,621113,119122,327106,031
Reserve to meet unexpired risks as at the end of the year890,649570,382966,504594,8141,047,676618,906
Other expenditure    246246
      Totals2,383,6901,629,0212,610,3191,717,3472,614,9141,785,932

A summary of the net revenue and expenditure for 1941 of the three classes of offices operating in New Zealand is contained in the next table.

Net Revenue.Net Expenditure.
Premiums.Total.”Claims.Salaries and Commissions.Total.*

* Excluding reserves to meet unexpired risks.

 £££££
Overseas companies792,513815,571209,800182,146623,004
Local companies588,608663,802117,446153,248520,182
Mutual associations25,51227,7724,2829,34623,840
      Totals1,406,6331,507,145331,528344,7401,167,026

The net premium income and the total net income have, in comparison with the corresponding figures for 1940, increased by £64,656 and £65,062 respectively. The excess of net revenue over net expenditure for 1941 amounted to £340,119, as compared with the surpluses of £319,550 and £333,793 for 1940 and 1939 respectively. It should be noted that these figures are exclusive of reserves to meet unexpired risks.

Under the various heads below will be found the percentage ratio of working-expenses to premium income for the years 1937–41.

Items.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Net working-expenses (excluding taxes) to net premium income42·9941·7540·9041·1440·19
Net working-expenses (excluding taxes and Fire Board levies) to net premium income37·5235·9935·0435·5534·17
Gross working-expenses (excluding taxes) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)35·4434·5233·5733·4532·33
Gross working-expenses (excluding taxes and Fire Board levies) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)31·1229·9229·0329·0027·68

A small increase in premiums, together with a slightly reduced expenditure, resulted in a slight improvement in the 1935 ratio, while in 1936 and in 1937, although there was a reduction in premium income, the decrease in working-expenses was sufficient to produce still lower ratios. The downward movement continued during 1938 and 1939, but in 1940 the increase in premium income was insufficient to offset relatively higher costs. Costs continued to rise during 1941, but to a relatively lesser degree, with the result that the increase in premium income was sufficient to produce a perceptible decrease in the ratios.

It is contended in some quarters that Fire Board levies are not a working-expense, but should be added to the total of fire losses. While this view is not subscribed to in the compilation of the statistics, there is a definite relationship between the items, and it is interesting to note that their exclusion from working-expenses reduces the 1941 ratio on the net figures from 40·19 to 34·17 per cent.

FIRES AND LOSSES.—The table following gives figures of fires and losses during each of the eleven years ending 1940. It should be noted that these figures relate to calendar years, and thus differ somewhat from those shown elsewhere, which refer to varying twelve-monthly periods covered by the accounts of the different offices.

The figures quoted herein relate to insured losses only, and in order to arrive at the national property loss by fire some allowance must be made for the uninsured losses. On what is termed a conservative basis, the Inspector of Fire Brigades in his annual report uses the insured-loss figure, plus 12½ per cent., for this purpose, and on this assumption the Dominion's property loss through fire in 1940 is estimated to have amounted to £723,000, compared with £660,000 in 1939 and £1,140,000 in 1930.

Year.Separate Fires.Conflagrations.*Buildings, &c., affectedGross Cover.†Gross Loss.Ratio of Loss to Cover.†

* Included in previous column. For statistical purposes a conflagration is defined as a fire where three or more buildings are affected.

† On buildings affected.

    ££Per Cent.
19304,863545,1457,058,9181,013,05914·35
19314,820565,0865,732,2221,148,52820·04
19324,482294,6785,528,316771,30113·95
19334,352274,5085,738,218573,1399·99
19344,546164,6414,674,747504,21110·79
19355,147265,2864,863,179539,92011·10
19365,318195,4356,248,835465,8047·45
19375,967166,0748,261,471463,0175·60
19385,956216,0877,004,699596,2678·51
19396,373256,5616,486,979587,0329·05
19406,033206,1388,116,928642,2287·91

The next table shows, for each of the four principal urban areas and the remainder of the Dominion, the fires and losses for 1940.

Separate Fires.Conflagrations.*Buildings affected.Gross Cover.†Gross Loss.Ratio of Loss to Cover.†

* Included in previous column.

† On buildings affected.

North Island.   ££Per Cent.
Auckland urban area71717251,291,44036,2602·81
Wellington urban area1,07941,0962,613,135180,0406·89
Secondary urban areas6081611785,93941,0775·23
Remainder of North Island1,13541,161891,073119,25013·38
    Totals for North Island3,539103,5935,581,587376,6276·75
South Island.      
Christchurch urban area74357581,064,57899,1079·31
Dunedin urban area6112617700,19362,1758·88
Secondary urban area286 292243,79611,8524·86
Remainder of South Island8293853522,51492,21417·65
    Totals for South Island2,469102,5202,531,081265,34810·48
Floating, transit, and travelling25-254,2602535·94
    Totals for Dominion6,033206,1388,116,928642,2287·91

Compared with 1939, gross fire-loss increases amounting to £40,708, £53,210, and £55,185 were recorded in 1940 for the Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin urban areas respectively, while in the Auckland urban area there was a decrease of £27,066. Losses in the North Island were £62,755 less than in 1939, but in the South Island an increase of £118,380 was shown.

The lower loss ratio in urban areas as compared with the rest of the Dominion is to be expected in view of the greater fire-brigade facilities for handling fires in the larger centres. This factor is taken into account in framing the fire-insurance tariff.

The following table shows the amount of fire-insurance claims paid per head of population during the period 1936–40.

District.1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.1936–40 (Annual Average.)

* Includes floating, transit, and travelling risks.

North Island.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
Auckland urban area2113358593342
Wellington urban area4056510172226112
Secondary urban areas945178455865
Remainder of North Island77711818105276
  Totals for North Island6361718107772
South Island.            
Christchurch urban area2114615106914890
Dunedin urban area552741118152511
Secondary urban areas855653734061
Remainder of South Island7281885268611
  Totals for South Island6062811539772
  Totals for Dominion*626179778472

Causes of Fires.—From 1924 onwards particulars regarding causes of fires have been obtained from insurance offices, and the summarized results for the quinquennium 1936–40 are contained in the following table.

Cause of Fire.Urban Areas.Remainder of Dominion.Total.
Number of Separate Fires.Loss.Number of Separate Fires.Loss.Number of Separate Fires.Loss.

* Included in various causes from which spread.

  £ £ £
Electricity3,835112,2991,13483,9264,969196,225
Gas67614,071801,82275615,893
Naked lights2164,97238813,43760418,409
Defective chimneys and kindred causes83545,692797178,1961,632223,888
Smoking, and careless use of matches2,69487,0851,01463,0453,708150,130
Sparks from fireplaces8,08495,9223,832156,05111,916251,973
Heating, boiling-down36713,6001647,66753121,267
Use and misuse of highly inflammable spirits and materials51551,95124335,54175887,492
Incendiarism and arson6019,6236431,07912450,702
Outside causes51817,51336335,92588153,438
Other causes1452,627212181662,845
Totals, known causes17,945465,3558,100606,90726,0451,072,262
Fires spread from other buildings*23186,49724363,148474149,645
Floating, travelling, and transit risks    1664,357
Unknown causes1,465943,3711,971734,3583,4361,677,729
      Totals19,4101,408,72610,0711,341,26529,6472,754,348

In all there were 29,647 separate fires during the period. This does not represent the number of buildings, &c., affected, as a fire spreading to other buildings has been counted as one only. Of the total, 166 were on account of floating risks such as motor-cars, &c., and have been excluded from the total of “known” causes. Of the remainder the cause was given in 26,045 cases, leaving 3,436 cases, or 12 per cent. of the total, in which the insurance offices had no knowledge as to the cause of fire. It should also be remembered that in some instances, more especially where a total or semi - total loss was sustained, the actual cause was a matter of conjecture only. These cases, however, are few in number, as the vast majority of such losses are included in the total of unknown causes.

Provision exists for coronial inquiries into fires of suspicious origin, but, as will be seen from page 121, the yearly number of such inquests has been small. In 1932, however, a system was instituted whereby extended inquiries are made by the Police Department into all fires where the possibility of incendiarism is not eliminated or where the cause is obscure. The results of such inquiries are considered by a committee consisting of the Commissioner of Police, the General Manager of the State Fire Office, and the Inspector of Fire Brigades, and should the circumstances warrant it a coroner's inquiry is then recommended.

Extent of Loss.—The following table gives particulars of fire losses during the five years 1936–40, classified according to the amount of loss. No fewer than 26,747 fires, out of a total of 29,647, resulted in a loss of less than £100; while in 22,483 cases, or 75·8 per cent. of the total, the loss per fire was less than £10. The aggregate loss involved in these fires is small—those under £10 accounting for only 2·2 per cent., and those under £100 for 6·7 per cent., of the total amount paid out. On the other hand, only 1.5 per cent. of the total number of fires resulted in a loss of £1,000 or upwards; but the aggregate loss within this category constituted 58·4 per cent. of the total. Corresponding figures for fires in which the loss was £5,000 or over are 0·2 per cent. and 31·8 per cent. respectively.

Loss Category.Number of Separate Fires.Insurance Cover on Buildings, &c., affected.Amount of Loss.Average Amount of Loss per Fire.Proportion of Loss to Total Loss.
££££££Per Cent.
Under1022,48315,507,24961,35332·2
10 and under252,5224,609,90138,367151·4
25 and under252,5224,609,90138,367151·3
50 and under 1007142,812,75950,046701·8 
100 and under 2006831,545,79695,5941403·5 
200 and under300431975,070104,7882433·8
300 and under400339925,638118,0413484·3
400 and under500269434,048120,6984494·4
500 and under750471948,360290,90561810·6
750 and under1,000268605,024229,7388578·3
1,000 and under2,000252884,504337,5171,33912·2
2,000 and under3,00060385,578147,6262,4605·4
3,000 and under4,0038315,137136,1913,5844·9
4,000 and under5,00025212,944111,7054,4684·1
5,000 and over 642,448,692875,81213,68531·8
      Totals 29,64736,118,9122,754,34893100·0

The table hereunder shows the daily incidence of fires during the three years 1938–40. For classification purposes, a day is regarded as commencing at midnight.

Day of Week on which Fire occurred.Number of Separate Fires.Insurance Cover on Buildings, &c., affected.Amount of Loss.Average Amount of Loss per Fire.Proportion of Loss to Total Loss.
  ££s.d.£s.d.Per Cent.
Sunday2,4262,127,691219,6731499011012·0
Monday2,9873,692,726258,682518612114·2
Tuesday2,7033,557,839330,4371061225018·1
Wednesday2,6073,243,114212,56813108110911·7
Thursday2,5772,799,238323,120781257917·7
Friday2,5313,327,735194,4421367616610·6
Saturday2,4822,816,788286,39818611571015·7
Not stated4943,475202194260·0
      Totals18,36221,608,6061,825,526579984100·0

Losses in 1940 have been classified in broad groups according to the nature of the risk, the figures being presented hereunder. The most numerous group, dwellings, represented 83 per cent. of the total fires and 41 per cent. of the aggregate insurance cover on buildings affected, but only 28 per cent. of the total loss.

Class Groups.Number of Separate Fires.Insurance Cover on Buildings Affected.Amount of Loss.Average Amount of Loss per Fire.Proportion of Loss to Total Loss.
Dwellings, &c.5,0103,299,444179,9893628·0
Hotels, &c.242823,19622,294923·5
Bulk stores17128,11829,6441,7444·6
Warehouses13396,0601,5891220·3
Shops287842,28642,4531486·6
Factories and industrial risks1831,803,23694,01351414·6
Farm risks and station property (other than dwellings)7914,3326,701851·0
Theatres and places of public amusement36154,1644,5511260·7
Miscellaneous risks (including unclassified)166656,092260,9941,57240·7
      Totals6,0338,116,928642,228106100·0

MUTUAL FIRE-INSURANCE ASSOCIATIONS.—Mutual associations are dealt with by the Mutual Fire Insurance Act, 1908, which allows at least 100 owners of isolated or farm property to subscribe to a declaration and form themselves into a mutual association to insure against loss by fire to an amount in the aggregate of not less than £40,000. Such associations effect insurance on the premium-note principle, and accept premium notes to be assessed for losses in the proportion of the total amount of such notes. The amount of a member's premium notes limits his liability.

In addition to furnishing returns to the Census and Statistics Department, each mutual association (of which there are three in existence) is required to furnish to the Public Trustee a statement of the condition of the association as at the 31st March in each year.

STATE FIRE INSURANCE.—The New Zealand State Fire Office was the first competitive State fire-insurance office in the world, and first opened for business on 4th January, 1905, with a borrowed capital (long since repaid) of £2,000. The income of the office in its first year was £13,135. In 1941 this figure had risen to £269,695, and reserves and funds at 31st December, 1941, totalled £1,224,244.

The premium income figures in the following table include amounts which are returned to policyholders by way of bonus rebates. At the end of 1936 the bonus rebates then in existence were converted into permanent premium rate reductions, a new series of bonus rebates being instituted at the same time. A decrease of £27,000 in the premium income for 1937 as compared with 1936 is apparent rather than real, as the premium income for 1937 would have shown an increase of over £13,000 had it been on the same basis as that for 1936.

Apart from claims, and the bonus rebates which amounted to £45,587, the principal items of expenditure for 1941 were as follows: Working-expenses, £56,128; Fire Board contributions, £13,977; income-tax, £70,476; and national security and social security taxes, £15,276.

Year.Net Premium Income.Total Net Income.Net Losses.Accumulated Funds.Assets.
 £££££
1937175,726223,45134,7951,113,8301,257,306
1938193,501239,60030,8391,160,4071,257,820
1939205,539256,28239,4431,191,1751,333,243
1940218,253268,51131,6171,206,1341,391,644
1941222,458269,69528,8961,224,2441,456,823

The ratio of claims to premiums in 1941 was 13·0 per cent., as compared with 14·5 per cent. in 1940; the working-expenses ratio was 25·2 per cent., as against 26·8 per cent.; while the ratio of taxes to premium income decreased from 39·6 per cent. in 1940 to 38·6 per cent. in 1941.

The activities of the State Fire Insurance Office were increased during 1940 under the provisions of the Marine Insurance (War Risks) Emergency Regulations 1940. These regulations provide for the compulsory insurance of all home-trade ships, and all premiums in connection therewith are paid into a special fund. The liabilities of this fund are not the responsibility of the State Fire Office, but the whole of the administration of the scheme is undertaken by it.

INSURANCE AGAINST WAR DAMAGE.—The War Damage Act, 1941, makes provision for the compulsory insurance of property against damage suffered as a result of the present war.

In addition to damage occurring as the direct result of action taken by the enemy, “war damage” includes damage occurring as the result of action taken in combating the enemy or as the result of precautionary or preparatory measures taken under proper authority with a view to preventing or hindering the carrying-out of any attack by the enemy. It also includes accidental damage occurring as the direct result of any explosion or fire which involves explosives, munitions, &c., required for war purposes.

The Act establishes within the Public Account a separate account to be called the War Damage Fund, into which are to be paid all moneys payable under the Act. The Act provides for both voluntary and compulsory insurance against war damage. Under the compulsory provisions all property insured to any amount under any contract of fire insurance with an insurance company is deemed to be insured against war damage to the same amount. Under the voluntary provisions any person having an insurable interest in any property may make application for “war damage” insurance, and a contract may be made for the insurance of any property that is not insured under the compulsory section of the Act. Premiums at the prescribed rates (5s. per £100 of insurance cover) are collected by the insurance companies and paid into the Fund.

The Act was brought into operation by Proclamation as from 19th December, 1941, but the application of compulsory insurance was deferred until 1st March, 1942. However, the great majority of property-owners took advantage of the voluntary provisions of the Act, and by 31st March, 1942, some 631,400 applications had been dealt with. The amount of premiums receivable for the period totalled £877,369, and the amount standing to the credit of the Fund at 31st March, 1942, was £875,090.

If the amount in the Fund at any one time is not sufficient to meet the claims thereon, advances may be made from the War Expenses Account. After all claims or outstanding claims have been settled or provided for, and all advances from the War Expenses Account have been repaid, any balance remaining in the Fund is to be applied in accordance with the appropriation of Parliament for the purpose of granting financial assistance to persons suffering loss or damage by reason of earthquake or other disaster.

FIRE BRIGADES.—The following table gives particulars of fire brigades (including branches) in the Dominion for each of the last five years.

Year.Stations.Officers.Men.Total Personnel.
19371724912,0472,538
19381714992,0522,551
19391745692,2932,862
19401795052,1182,623
19411825822,3712,953

Chapter 29. SECTION 29.—FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.

Table of Contents

THE legislation dealing with friendly societies is contained in the Friendly Societies Act, 1909, and its amendments. Provision is made for the registration of all societies and branches with the Registrar of Friendly Societies, and also for the general superintendence by the Government of the administration of the funds of the societies.

A scheme for the extension of State benefits to members of friendly societies, on special terms, was introduced by the Finance Act, 1916, and is now embodied in the National Provident Fund Act, 1926—vide Section 24, Social Security, Pensions, Superannuation, &c.

LODGES AND MEMBERS.—The table following gives the number of registrations (i.e., of friendly societies proper, or lodges, together with benevolent societies, workingmen's clubs, &c., registered under the Act) and of lodge members as at 31st December.

Name of Order.Registrations.Lodge Members.
1939.1940.1941.1939.1940.1941.

* Membership figures relate to “actuarial” societies only.

Manchester Unity Independent Order of Oddfellows27127126837,51935,89834,397
Independent Order of Oddfellows22322221913,47012,68411,862
National Independent Order of Oddfellows221198184178
British United Order of Oddfellows111787772
Ancient Order of Foresters16416116119,41318,56717,553
United Ancient Order of Druids14814714721,98021,20720,389
Independent Order of Rechabites6969685,5265,2995,035
Order of Sons of Temperance101010604582561
Sons and Daughters of Temperance111135123122
Hibernian-Australasian Catholic Benefit Society9392864,7124,5364,356
Protestant Alliance Friendly Society of Australasia141313904884811
Grand United Order of Oddfellows141414576524461
Isolated friendly societies7775783,944*3,881*968*
Working-men's clubs141414   
International Order of Good Templars111111   
Specially authorized societies161616   
      Totals1,1281,1191,108109,059104,44696,765

Annual returns of receipts, expenditure, &c., of lodges are required by law. For the year 1941 the Registrar of Friendly Societies received returns from 939 lodges, with an aggregate membership of 96,765 at the end of the year, as compared with 953 lodges and 104,446 members for 1940. During the year 1,330 members were admitted by initiation, &c., and 856 by clearance: 1,188 died, 866 left by clearance, and 4,941 by arrears, &c.

The aggregate membership of lodges increased year by year, reaching a peak in 1930, when the total was 107,167. The economic depression probably accounted for the decrease in each of the following three years, the number at the end of 1933 being 100,237. A series of increases then commenced, the 1930 level being passed in 1936, and by 31st December, 1938, a total of 113,709 had been reached. In 1939, 1940, and 1941, however, substantial decreases were recorded, the figure for 1941 showing a fall of 7,681 (7·4 per cent.) as compared with 1940, and 16,944 (14·9 per cent.) as compared with 1938.

The statistics given subsequently relate to the lodges (939 in 1941) for which returns were received and tabulated.

MORTALITY AND SICKNESS.—In the following statement of the mortality experience for the last five years no account has been taken of age incidence.

Year.Deaths of Members.Per 1,000 Members at Risk.Deaths of Members' Wives.Per 1,000 Members at Risk.
19371,0079·074033·63
19381,1089·734023·53
19391,0609·474113·67
19401,07410·014223·93
19411,18811.913963·97

The number of members sick during 1941 was 20,414, representing 21·3 per cent. of members at risk. The sickness experienced during the year aggregated 310,199 weeks, equal to 15 weeks 1 day per sick member, and 3 weeks 1 day for each member at risk.

FUNDS OF FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.—The total funds of the societies and branches as at the 31st December, 1941, amounted to £5,670,757, made up as follows:—

Funds.£
Sick and Funeral Funds4,613,139
Surplus Appropriation Funds, &c.591,177
Management Funds, goods, &c.246,340
Widow and Orphans' Funds37,685
Distress, Benevolent Funds, &c.182,416
 £5,670,757
Assets.£
Investments at interest4,997,725
Value of land and buildings449,327
Cash not bearing interest173,385
Value of goods20,498
Other assets26,892
Owing by Management Funds2,930
 £5,670,757

There has been over many years a continuous increase in the amount of accumulated funds standing to the credit of friendly societies, the increase in the last ten years amounting to £1,393,042, or 33 per cent. The average capital per member has also appreciably increased, the gain in the last ten years amounting to £18 2s. 4d. (45 per cent.). The slight fall recorded in the two years 1936 and 1937 can be attributed to the sharp increases in membership in those years. Conversely, the substantial fall in membership over the last three years has resulted in outstanding increases being shown for the average capital per member for 1939, 1940, and 1941. The figure for 1941 shows an increase of £5 12s. 4d. over that for 1940, and £12 3s. 4d. as compared with 1938.

Year.Total Funds.Average Capital per Member.
 ££s.d.
19314,277,7154099
19324,398,15843111
19334,538,0954556
19344,676,4274689
19354,812,7874690
19364,956,94845175
19375,120,1254571
19385,280,4724689
19395,407,60149118
19405,534,36852199
19415,670,75758121

The funds of friendly societies are held chiefly in the form of mortgages on freehold property, as shown in the next table.

Year.Total Funds.Funds invested at Interest.Proportion of Funds invested at Interest.
Mortgages on Freehold Property.Government and Municipal Debentures.Deposited with Banks.Other Investments.Totals.
 ££££££Per Cent.
19375,120,1253,953,431220,654160,77974,6074,409,47186·12
19385,280,4724,145,053230,587148,13774,1154,597,89287·07
19395,407,6014,297,449245,167120,16578,7234,741,50487·68
19405,534,3684,399,394262,030145,62474,6414,881,68988·21
19415,670,7574,525,992273,431128,34769,9554,997,72588·11

The average rate of interest earned on investments credited to the Sick and Funeral Funds amounted to 4·96 per cent. in 1941, as against 4·37 per cent. in 1940, and 4·53 per cent. in 1939.

Receipts and expenditure of Sick and Funeral Funds for 1941 are quoted below. Members' contributions showed a decrease of £14,823 as compared with 1940, while the amount paid out on account of sick-pay decreased by £11,173.

Receipts.£
Members' contributions176,374
Interest and rent199,639
Repayments by central body95,228
Other receipts39,309
 £510,550
Expenditure.£
Sick-pay to own members175,150
Funeral donations56,076
Contributions and levies to central body94,421
Other expenditure42,673
 £368,320

Members' contributions averaged £1 15s. 7d. per member, and interest and rent receipts amounted to £2 0s. 3d. per member, calculated on the mean number of members for the year. Sickness benefits paid averaged £8 11s. 8d. per member sick, or £1 15s. 4d. when averaged over all members, while funeral benefits represented 11s. 4d. per member.

Receipts and expenditure of Medical and Management Funds for 1941 are shown hereunder, a surplus of £4,218 for the year being recorded.

Receipts.£
Contributions of own members193,797
Interest and rent5,820
Other receipts11,645
 £211,262
Expenditure.£
Medical attendance and medicine124,088
Expenses of management58,264
Levies to central body15,673
Other expenditure9,019
 £207,044

As compared with 1940, receipts during 1941 showed a decrease of £35,047, members' contributions having fallen away to the extent of £37,221, while “Other receipts” increased by £1,632, and interest and rent by £542. Total expenditure was £35,558 less than in 1940, a decline in the amount required for medical attendance and medicine accounting for practically the whole of this difference. The decline in contributions and the amount paid for medical attendance does not necessarily indicate an improvement in the health of members, but rather the breaking-down of many of the existing medical schemes of the friendly societies, following on the introduction of medical benefits under the Social Security Act.

Chapter 30. SECTION 30.—BUILDING SOCIETIES.

Table of Contents

THE law relating to building societies incorporated in the Dominion is contained in the Building Societies Act, 1908, which is a consolidation of earlier legislation, most of which had been operative since 1880. The Assistant Registrar of Companies in each district acts as Registrar of Building Societies. Rules, as well as subsequent alterations thereof, must be certified before registration as conforming to legal requirements—by a revising barrister appointed by the Governor-General for the purpose. No stamp duties are payable on documents made under the Act, or generally in respect of building society transactions.

Building societies are afforded all the powers of an ordinary mortgagee, and where a mortgagor makes default in payment of moneys the society may exercise the usual power of sale through the Registrar of the Supreme Court. No reconveyance is needed to discharge a mortgage made under the Act, a receipt endorsed being a sufficient discharge for this purpose.

The maximum rate of interest payable on deposits with building societies is fixed by Orders in Council made under section 51 of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932. A schedule of maximum rates payable on these and other deposits is given on pages 448–449.

Returns of each society's operations are furnished annually to the Census and Statistics Department. The dates upon which the societies close their accounts vary considerably within the year, but the statistics may be taken as corresponding approximately to years ended on the 31st March.

A distinction is made between permanent and terminating societies. A permanent society is statutorily defined as one which has not by its rules any fixed date or specified result at which it shall terminate, and a terminating society as one which by its rules is to terminate at a fixed date, or when a result specified in its rules is attained. In practice a terminating society, or a group thereof, closes when every member so desiring has obtained a loan. There is a considerable difference between the two types of societies, the terminating society being a purely co-operative institution belonging to and managed by the members, proprietary interests being discouraged by placing a limit to the number of shares (usually ten) that any member may hold in any one group. There is, however, nothing to prevent a member from holding the maximum number of shares in more than one group. In the typical terminating society contributions are at the rate of ls. per week per share, each share entitling a member in due course to £100 of loan, with a maximum of £1,000. It is these contributions, together with premiums on loans mentioned later, which make up the funds from which loans are made. Loans are made to members alternately (roughly) by ballot and by auction, the latter going for the highest premium offered. Security is required for the loans, which are repaid, free of interest, in 12½ years, a weekly instalment of 3s. ld. per £100 of loan being necessary to achieve this result. The weekly payment of ls. per share is continued, usually till the end of the group, but sometimes only until the total contributions paid in, plus profits credited to the shareholder, equal the amount owing on the loan. The shareholder's credit balance is then transferred to extinguish the loan. The profit of the society is derived from premiums on loans sold by auction.

Permanent societies are more in the nature of finance companies, and, while both investors and borrowers must be members, the borrower is frequently merely a nominal member. Investments in a permanent society may be made in either large or small amounts. Capital may be raised by shares with a fixed rate of interest, or subject to dividends varying according to profits: as will be observed from the statistics which follow, terminating societies do not issue capital shares. Bonds, debentures, and overdraft are other methods of financing. The principal object of a permanent society is to lend money at a profit on land and buildings, either freehold or leasehold. Table mortgages are usually adopted, the term of repayment varying from 10 to 20 years.

NUMBER OF SOCIETIES.—The number of societies in existence in 1941–42 was 93, of which 58 were permanent and 35 terminating, the latter being comprised of 180 groups. Compared with ten years ago the number of permanent societies has increased by 5. The number of terminating societies has manifested a declining tendency in recent years, although the number of groups has not fallen to the same extent.

SHARES.—A synopsis of the extent to which investments have been made in building-society shares during the last five years is contained in the following table.

1937-38.1938-39.1939-40.1940-41.1941-42.
Investing Shares.     
Number of shares325,736359,180392,035401,202408,768
Members holding40,77647,22650,24649,68351,440
Aggregate value£3,768,228£3,904,339£4,058,798£4,143,225£4,572,409
Capital Shares.     
Number of shares580,369588,915603,001611,074613,857
Members holding5,4375,4805,6925,7585,779
Aggregate value£1,435,670£1,451,853£1,515,740£1,549,386£1,564,702

The average value in 1941–42 of each investing share was £11 3s. 9d., as compared with £12 2s. 10d. in 1936–37, and of each capital share £2 11s. 0d., as compared with £2 9s. 3d. five years earlier. The following is a comparison (1941–42) between permanent and terminating societies on the basis of the distribution of share-money and the number of holders of shares.

Permanent.Terminating.Total.
Investing Shares.   
Number of shares278,588130,180408,768
Members holding17,79833,64251,440
Aggregate value£2,176,600£2,395,809£4,572,409
Capital Shares.   
Number of shares613,857 613,857
Members holding5,779 5,779
Aggregate value£1,564,702 £1,564,702

Of the total aggregate value of both investing and capital shares, amounting to £6,137,111, 61 per cent. is held in permanent societies and 39 per cent. in terminating societies. On the other hand, the number of members holding shares in permanent societies is only 41 per cent. of the total, the terminating societies' shareholders representing 59 per cent. It should be pointed out, however, that one person may hold shares in several groups of a terminating society.

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.—Following is a summary of receipts and payments during each of the five years 1937–38 to 1941–42.

1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
Receipts.£££££
Investors' subscriptions and capital shares588,309584,114669,405615,902651,583
Advances repaid1,027,5051,084,8731,091,9051,174,0921,275,562
Deposits1,902,1101,981,5872,062,8231,644,6391,456,329
Interest300,614327,848357,033386,582385,934
Other receipts248,372266,739228,766172,127149,566
    Total receipts4,066,9104,245,1614,409,9323,993,3423,918,974
Payments.     
Withdrawals322,999363,497362,537366,032357,288
Advances1,631,9961,753,2281,653,7121,576,7301,591,769
Expenses of management79,34285,78187,32794,376102,610
Deposits repaid1,611,9951,709,6651,853,8161,530,9551,401,799
Interest, dividends, &c.422,444417,583376,067379,098421,859
    Total payments4,068,7764,329,7544,333,4593,947,1913,875,325

LOANS.—The number and amount of loans at the end of each of the last five years were as follows:—

Year.Permanent Societies.Terminating Societies.Total.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.*Number.Amount.

* Includes balance owing on premiums on loans.

  £ £ £
1937–3812,6996,744,5057,9692,547,30620,6689,291,811
1938–3913,2297,270,3018,0242,584,77421,2539,855,075
1939–4013,5107,751,4548,1112,591,63521,62110,343,089
1940–4114,0837,951,6277,9582,629,90622,04110,581,533
1941–4214,6368,294,9228,0472,681,02922,68310,975,951

A marked increase both in numbers and in the aggregate amount of loans by permanent societies has taken place during the period, terminating societies showing a slight increase only. The average amount per loan current at the end of each of the last five years was:—

Class.1937–38.1938-39.1939-40.1940-41.1941-42.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Permanent societies531215491165731525641265661411
Terminating societies319130322273191053309633335
All societies4491164631404787848018483178

Particulars of loans granted during each of the last five years are as follows:—

Year.Permanent Societies.Terminating Societies.
By Ballot.By Auction
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Premiums.
  £ £ ££
1937-382,4831,270,020562260,002385165,86635,871
1938–392,3301,356,104501253,300352171,51237,116
1939–401,8971,144,909490243,981436207,18153,106
1940–411,8941,072,424505259,113355179,99152,083
1941–422,1481,207,787488266,830369198,57453,949

The aggregate of premiums on loans auctioned in 1941–42 gives an average of £27·2 per cent., this—assuming the usual loan currency of twelve and a half years—being equivalent to a rate of interest of about 4 per cent. The average premium declined progressively from £27·6 per cent. in 1931–32 to £20·0 per cent. in 1935–36 in sympathy with the general downward trend in interest rates, but has since shown an upward movement.

Commencing with the year 1937–38, statistics of building societies were extended to include a classification of loans into (1) loans granted to finance the erection of new dwellings, and (2) loans granted to finance the purchase of dwellings already built. For the purposes of the statistics a new dwelling is deemed to include one which has been built by the borrower within twelve months preceding the granting of the loan. Particulars for 1941–42, with totals for earlier years, are as follows:—

To Finance the Erection of New Dwellings.To Finance the Purchase of Dwellings already Built.For other and unspecified Purposes.Totals.
No.Amount.No.Amount.No.Amount.No.Amount.
  £ £ £ £
Permanent societies272224,6941,465791,163411191,9302,1481,207,787
Terminating societies—        
  By ballot6135,702175103,278252127,850488266,830
  By auction5835,80116996,06114266,712369198,574
  Totals, all societies—        
    1941–42391296,1971,809990,502805386,4923,0051,673,191
    1940–41730463,8361,227667,946797379,7462,7541,511,528
    1939–40697512,8381,203654,605923428,6282,8231,596,071
    1938–39630458,6961,425709,9861,128612,2343,1831,780,916
    1937–38726522,9401,372615,6521,332557,2963,4301,695,888

The considerable number of loans shown for other and unspecified purposes is due to the fact that some societies are unable to give the necessary classification, so that it may be taken that the foregoing table definitely understates the number of loans actually granted for the erection and purchase of dwellings.

The transfer of normal building activity to construction work in connection with the war effort has produced a sharp fall in the amount of loans granted to finance the erection of new buildings. This has diverted loan-moneys to the purchase of dwellings already built, the amount granted for this purpose in 1941–42 being 48 per cent. greater than in 1940–41.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.—The liabilities and assets of building and investment societies for each of the last five years were as follows:—

LIABILITIES.

Year.To Shareholders (including Reserve Funds and Undivided Profits).Deposits.Appropriations not taken up, or in Trust.To Bankers and other Creditors.Total Liabilities.
 £££££
1937–386,308,8883,347,398228,591294,37010,179,247
1938–396,495,0793,667,846243,787348,14610,754,858
1939–406,765,2313,973,173235,391302,25011,276,045
1940–416,925,5944,156,827274,329238,99211,595,742
1941–427,173,8694,205,583287,285358,07012,024,807

ASSETS.

Year.Advances on Mortgage.*Other Investments and Assets.Cash in Hand and at Bank.Total Assets.

* Including balance owing on premiums on loans.

 ££££
1937–389,291,811613,440273,99610,179,247
1938–399,855,075610,048289,73510,754,858
1939–4010,343,089575,354357,60211,276,045
1940–4110,581,533615,436398,77311,595,742
1941–4210,975,951690,962357,89412,024,807

DEPOSITS.—From April, 1932, figures of deposits with building societies have become available under section 44 of the Building Societies Act, 1908, as amended by the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932. Quarterly statements are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Investment societies are included with building societies in the following figures, as the two classes are not distinguished in the returns.

The following were the deposits with building and investment societies at 31st March, 1942.

Rate of Interest (per Cent.).At Call or under Three Months.Three Months and under Two Years.Two Years and over.Total.
 ££££
Nil10,125  10,125
Under 2½199,522510,96457710,543
2½ and under 3 14,893240,920255,813
3 and under 3½489,077235,0081,034,8321,758,917
3½ and under 4 1,000920,814921,814
4 and under 4½  1,390,7831,390,783
4½ and under 5  1,5001,500
5 and under 5½  6060
    Totals698,724761,8653,588,9665,049,555
Average rate of interest (per cent.)2·392·183·533·17

Chapter 31. SECTION 31.—MORTGAGES.

Table of Contents

MORTGAGE LAW.—Under the Property Law Act a “mortgage” is defined as including a charge on any property for securing money or money's worth; and “mortgage-money” means money or money's worth secured by a mortgage. Under the Land Transfer Act “mortgage” means and includes any charge on land created under the provisions of that Act for securing:—

  • The repayment of a loan or satisfaction of an existing debt;

  • The repayment of future advances, or repayment or satisfaction of any future or unascertained debt or liability, contingent or otherwise;

  • The payment to the holders for the time being of any bonds, debentures, promissory notes, or other securities, negotiable or otherwise, made or issued by the mortgagor before or after the creation of such charge;

  • The payment to any person or persons by yearly or periodical payments or otherwise of an annuity, rent-charge, or sum of money other than a debt.

Where the ownership of land is registered under the Land Transfer Act (as, vide p. 239, the great majority of land titles now are) mortgages on that land are granted by virtue of the provisions of that Act: they take effect as securities and do not operate as transfers of the estate or interest charged. In the case of other land or property a mortgage is granted under what is known as the deeds or deeds-registration system; the mortgage in this instance operating as a conveyance or assignment of the land or property mortgaged, for the mortgagee becomes the registered proprietor of the land, subject to the right of the mortgagor to have the property re-registered in his name on the discharge of his obligations under the mortgage. Although in form a mortgage under the deeds system is a conveyance, in equity it is treated as merely a charge on the land.

Property that may be mortgaged.—Any land covered by the definitions of “land” in the Property Law Act, 1908, and the Land Transfer Act, 1915, may be mortgaged. Where, however, property is subject to restrictions upon alienation, these restrictions usually apply to prevent such property being mortgaged. The following are the main instances in which mortgage of property is forbidden by law:—

  • Family homes registered under the Family Protection Act, 1908.

  • Maintenance-moneys under the Family Protection Act, 1908.

  • Inalienable life annuities (Inalienable Life Annuities Act, 1910).

  • Pensions under the War Pensions Act.

  • Monetary benefits under the Social Security Act, 1938.

  • Property subject to restraint upon anticipation, unless by consent of the Supreme Court.

  • Property subject to restraint upon alienation in accordance with section 24 of the Property Law Act, 1908.

  • An infant's property, by the infant (Infants Act, 1908, sections 12 and 13).

Redemption.—A memorandum of discharge vacates the mortgage debt and operates as a deed of reconveyance of the estate and interest of the mortgagee in the mortgaged property “to the person for the time being entitled to the equity of redemption”; but the mortgagee may execute a deed of reconveyance “if he thinks fit and the mortgagor requires it.” The Public Trustee is empowered to receive mortgage-moneys on account of absentee mortgagees, and in the case of a deed of mortgage to execute the necessary memorandum of discharge. A mortgagor may redeem in the following cases:—

  • Before the due date, on payment of interest for the unexpired term of the mortgage. A special provision in the Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act extends the powers of a mortgagor to redeem in certain cases before the due date.

  • At the due date, in accordance with the provisions of the mortgage.

  • After the due date, upon giving three months' notice in writing or paying three months' interest in lieu of notice, except where the mortgagee is or has been in possession or has taken steps to enforce his security, in which case the mortgagor may redeem at any time upon payment of all moneys due.

  • After default and before sale by the mortgagee. If the mortgagee has entered into possession of the mortgaged land or part of it, the mortgagor loses his right of redemption after twenty years from the date of the mortgagee's entering into possession, or after twenty years from the last written acknowledgment of the mortgagor's title or of his right to redeem.

The Property Law Act abolished what was formerly known as the doctrine of consolidation of mortgages. Where a mortgagor is liable under more than one mortgage, he may now pay off one mortgage without being called on to pay off any mortgage or mortgages on property not comprised in the mortgage he is paying off.

Rights of Mortgagee.—Under New Zealand law a mortgagee has no power of foreclosure in respect of realty. The following represent his principal rights:—

  • He is entitled to the custody of the title-deeds of the property mortgaged.

  • He may sue on the personal covenant contained in the mortgage-deed.

  • He may enter and take possession. This right is exercisable either by actually entering upon the land or a part of it or by bringing an action for possession. At least one month's notice of the intention to exercise the right must be served on the owner for the time being of the land subject to the mortgage. If there is a tenant whose rights are binding on the mortgagee, the latter can give notice to the tenant to pay the rent to him, and this will be equivalent to taking possession.

  • He may assign his interest, either absolutely or by way of submortgage.

  • He may sell, either under the express powers (if any) in the mortgage-deed, or under powers implied by statute, if these have not been negatived in the deed.

  • Instead of selling, as above, a mortgagee entitled to exercise his power of sale may apply to the Registrar of the Supreme Court to conduct the sale. The mortgagee must state in his application the estimated value of the land, and the date of the sale must be not less than one month and not more than three months from the date of the application. He may bid at the sale and become the purchaser of the land, but in such case the amount paid for the land shall not be less than the value of the land as estimated. If it is, the mortgagor must be allowed in account the full amount of the estimate. As in the case of the right to enter and take possession, no power of sale shall become exercisable unless at least one month's notice of the contemplated action has been served on the owner of the land.

MORTGAGORS AND LESSEES REHABILITATION.—The economic conditions prevailing in New Zealand consequent upon the world-wide depression led to the enactment in the early months of 1931 of legislation designed for the relief of mortgagors. The complexity of the problem necessitated much further legislation, and a consolidating Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act was passed in December, 1933. The Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act, 1934–35, which was passed in April, 1935, represented a definite attempt on the part of the Government to effect a final clearing-up of the burden of rural indebtedness. Both these enactments, which are described in some detail in the 1936 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 567–70), were repealed by the Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act, 1936, a description of which may be found in the 1940 issue of the Year-book (pp. 743–47).

In addition to the relief granted to mortgagors by way of adjustment of their liabilities, a reduction in interest-rates was effected by Part III of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932. The reduction in the rate of interest was 20 per cent., but the reduced rate was not to be below 6½ per cent. in the case of chattel mortgages, nor 5 per cent. in the case of other mortgages, except in the case of income-tax-free company debentures to which section 171 of the Land and Income Tax Act, 1923, was applicable. In such cases the minimum was fixed at 4½ per cent. The Act originally applied to interest accruing on or after 1st April, 1932, and before 1st April, 1935, but the reduction was later made permanent. Mortgages (not being for a fixed term, expired or unexpired) securing the repayment of principal, moneys repayable on demand, and mortgages executed after 1st April, 1932, are exempt from the provisions of the Act.

The maximum rates of interest payable under mortgages adjusted in terms of the Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act, 1936, were fixed by Order in Council at 4¾ per cent. per annum for first mortgages on land and 6 per cent. for all other mortgages.

The Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act set up a Court of Record entitled the Court of Review, and provided for the appointment of Adjustment Commissions. Orders made by these Commissions in adjustment of mortgages, &c., were registered with the Court. The following statement shows the number of applications dealt with.

Farm.Other.Totals.
Applications filed15,62118,91234,533
Applications withdrawn3,2235,0718,294
Voluntary adjustments1,3271,3032,630
Orders made11,07112,53823,609

The next statement indicates the extent to which relief was granted to mortgagors and lessees in those cases where orders were made by Adjustment Commissions and filed in the Court of Review.

Farm.Other.Totals.
Principal reduced5,4064,0819,487
Interest arrears remitted4,9822,6397,621
Term of first mortgages extended7,6228,80716,429
Term of second or subsequent mortgages extended3,0182,7575,775
Rate of interest reduced9,14610,71019,856
Rental reduced2,4771752,652
Rental arrears reduced or remitted2,3271652,492
Remission of unsecured debts3,4464783,924
Amount written off by—£££
  Reduction of principal5,589,1481,047,6666,636,814
  Remission of interest arrears1,368,768224,8651,593,633
  Reduction or remission of rent arrears432,04312,999445,042
  Remission of unsecured debts1,143,47866,3671,209,845
      Total8,533,4371,351,8979,885,334

WAR REGULATIONS AFFECTING MORTGAGES.—Following the outbreak of war in September, 1939, the Courts Emergency Powers Regulations 1939 provided that no person could, without the leave of the appropriate Court, do or complete certain acts in respect of existing contracts, &c. These acts included the calling-up of sums secured by mortgage, the exercise of a power of sale under a mortgage, and the commencement or continuation of proceedings for the breach of a covenant under a mortgage other than a covenant for the payment of interest.

The 1939 regulations referred to were superseded by the Debtors Emergency Regulations 1940, and special provisions for the relief of mortgagors were made at the same time (31st July, 1940) by the Mortgages Extension Emergency Regulations 1940. The Mortgages Extension Emergency Regulations apply to all mortgages whether executed before or after the commencement of the regulations, and notwithstanding that any power of sale, rescission, or entry into possession may have been exercised.

Except with the leave of the Court, it is not lawful for any mortgagee or other person:—

  1. To call up or demand payment from any mortgagor or guarantor of the principal sum or any part of the principal sum secured by any mortgage or guarantee:

  2. To commence, continue, or complete the exercise of any power of sale conferred by any mortgage or to exercise any power of rescission or entry into possession conferred by any mortgage, except in respect of property which the mortgagor has abandoned:

  3. To commence or continue any action or proceeding in any Court for breach of any covenant, condition, or agreement expressed or implied in any mortgage or guarantee other than a covenant, condition, or agreement for the payment of interest:

  4. To commence or continue any action or proceeding in any Court for any interest secured by any mortgage or guarantee in excess of interest at the reduced rate (if any) provided for in the mortgage or guarantee in the case of punctual payment.

In determining whether leave to act is to be granted, the Court may take into consideration:—

  1. The effect of the continuance of the mortgage upon the security thereby afforded to the mortgagee:

  2. The desirability of retaining the mortgagor in possession of the mortgaged property:

  3. The inability of the mortgagor or guarantor to redeem the property or to pay the moneys either from his own moneys or by borrowing at a reasonable rate of interest:

  4. The conduct of the mortgagor or guarantor in respect of any breaches by him of the covenants of the mortgage or guarantee:

  5. The extent to which any default of the mortgagor or guarantor has been caused by any economic or financial conditions affecting trade or industry in New Zealand, whether or not they are attributable to any war in which His Majesty may be engaged.

In an action for the recovery of interest secured by a mortgage or guarantee, the Court may, instead of giving judgment for immediate payment, give judgment for payment at a date to be fixed or for payment by instalments.

An amendment (in 1941) to the Mortgages Extension Emergency Regulations made special provision in respect of mortgages covering stock on or produce of mortgaged land. The mortgagor, the mortgagee of the land, the lessor of the land, or any other person having any interest in the land, may make application in regard to the stock mortgage, and the Court may make such order as it thinks fit with respect to :—

  1. The keeping of accounts of all moneys received and expended by the stock mortgagee on account of the mortgagor, after the service on the stock mortgagee of a copy of the application:

  2. The application of moneys received as aforesaid as between the mortgagor, the stock mortgagee, the mortgagee of the land, the lessor of the land (if any), and any other persons having a secured interest in the land or in the proceeds derived from the use of the land:

  3. Such other matters as the Court in its discretion thinks necessary or desirable for the purposes aforesaid.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED AND DISCHARGED.—A table is given showing the amount represented by mortgages registered and discharged during each of the last twenty years.

Year ended 31st March,Mortgages registered.Mortgages discharged.
 ££
192326,031,59614,579,767
192437,862,41922,246,512
192541,123,96629,733,883
192647,093,78033,958,144
192739,979,68129,233,329
192833,190,51923,998,840
192933,559,93225,269,613
193038,869,14428,328,993
193130,208,44720,056,691
193213,410,58110,036,385
19339,161,6638,149,355
19347,802,8539,086,847
193511,845,63413,732,853
193616,227,05817,553,233
193719,700,65019,803,446
193818,144,65319,361,425
193920,050,01116,598,505
194017,630,26014,102,043
194116,271,71515,934,084
194214,557,12315,098,801

Although the statistics of registrations and discharges afford a valuable index of the movement in mortgage indebtedness over the period, year to year comparisons are affected by the fact that duplicate registrations are included prior to 1929–30, while from 1929–30 the extent of duplication has been available and the figures have been adjusted accordingly. Furthermore, the figures include collateral and guarantee mortgages not representing money indebtedness. On the other hand no amount is shown as secured in a proportion of cases where a mortgage is given in anticipation of advances, &c. In addition there are numbers of privately arranged advances which are not registered; and stock and crop liens, bills of sale, and instruments under the Chattels Transfer Act, are not included in the statistics.

Many discharges are not registered, particularly in the case of leaseholds and also of second or other further mortgages when the power of sale has been exercised by the first mortgagee. The figures for discharges are further affected by the high proportion of table mortgages. This is particularly so in cases where the mortgage is approaching maturity, since the whole amount remains on the register until finally discharged despite the fact that the original amount of indebtedness has been considerably reduced.

Mortgages registered.—The total amount for which mortgages were registered, both under the deeds-registration system and under the Land Transfer Act, in each registration district during the last five financial years is given in the next table.

District.1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
 £££££
Auckland5,954,7566,443,9635,609,0205,642,2115,122,456
Gisborne515,222370,241475,781526,412404,373
Hawke's Bay1,087,2571,001,964891,851824,563737,871
Taranaki933,1631,034,046999,050753,713666,781
Wellington4,217,9934,705,3743,700,4223,643,3053,270,158
Marlborough247,388260,788209,969134,817185,316
Nelson347,455419,024348,350287,368252,417
Westland173,878306,948154,036124,903122,591
Canterbury3,263,6532,985,6962,814,8282,137,7612,213,273
Otago1,710,5581,978,6431,583,4991,467,0441,260,692
Southland950,7441,016,038893,649926,138741,495
    Gross totals19,402,06720,522,72517,680,45516,468,23514,977,423
    Duplications1,257,414472,71450,195196,520420,300
    Net totals18,144,65320,050,01117,630,26016,271,71514,557,123

Nine of the eleven registration districts show decreases in the value of mortgages registered during 1941–42, as compared with the previous year, the total of net registrations for the whole Dominion decreasing by £1,714,592.

Of the gross total of £14,977,423 registered in 1941–42, £14,938,378 or 99·7 per cent. was in respect of mortgages under the Land Transfer Act. The proportion is now approaching 100 per cent., owing to the operation of the Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act. 1924 (vide Section 16A).

Classification by Amount.—Of the net total of £14,557,123 registered for the financial year 1941–42, mortgages up to £500 in value represented 17 per cent. of the total; from £501 to £1,000, 29 per cent.; from £1,001 to £5,000, 38 per cent.; and above £5,000, 16 per cent. The following table gives the number and amount in each registration district according to the sum secured.

District.£500 and under.£501 to £1,000.£1,001 to £5,000.Over £5,000.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £ £ £ £
Auckland2,527769,8141,9621,466,2101,1352,092,15865794,274
Gisborne11537,4414632,7663879,3118254,855
Hawke's Bay28483,101265196,16491202,07124256,535
Taranaki29186,230208153,493174371,656855,402
Wellington1,590431,558995757,9057361,289,66566791,030
Marlborough11834,7854028,8812658,632563,018
Nelson24562,217190136,2593048,44115,500
Westland11931,2204532,7352743,636115,000
Canterbury1,509435,253879664,070359642,40328471,547
Otago1,466374,073666483,947186335,238967,434
Southland448119,145330246,386170308,8301067,134
Gross totals8,7122,464,8375,6264,198,8162,9725,472,0412252,841,729
Duplications    11,5003418,800
  Net totals8,7122,464,8375,6264,198,8162,9715,470,5412222,422,929

The total number of mortgages comprising the net aggregate was 17,531, as compared with 18,925 in 1940–41.

In addition, there were 3,155 mortgages registered in 1941–42 and 2,751 in 1940–41 for which no amounts were shown. Excluding these, the average amount for each mortgage registered in 1941–42 was £830, as compared with £870 in 1940–41.

Mortgages on Urban and Rural Securities.—Figures are available in the case of land transfer mortgage registrations showing for each registration district the amounts advanced on urban and on rural properties. No similar data are available in regard to the insignificant amount registered under the deeds system. The distinction is between “town and suburban” and “country” holdings, but sufficient information to permit of a strictly accurate classification is not always available. Generally, however, mortgages are regarded as town and suburban if secured on properties situated within cities or boroughs, or on small holdings in the nature of building allotments which are not definitely distinguishable as country properties. Mortgages classified as town and suburban are secured on areas averaging a little less than one-third of an acre in extent, as compared with an average area in 1941–42 of some 261 acres in the case of “country” securities.

The value of mortgages on town and suburban property registered in 1941–42 was £3,336,494 more than that on country property. In point of numbers 74 per cent. of the mortgages referred to town and suburban areas, and 26 per cent. to country properties. The average amount secured per acre on rural holdings was £4 2s. 5d., as against £1,837 in the case of town and suburban properties. The average amount of each mortgage on country property was £1,074, as compared with £599 on town and suburban holdings. The following table gives mortgages registered during the year 1941–42 under the Land Transfer Act.

District.Town and Suburban.Country.
Number.Area.Amount secured.Number.Area.Amount secured.
  Acres.£ Acres.£
Auckland4,7612,0353,196,4822,178457,1371,887,379
Gisborne1557765,6208965,192338,753
Hawke's Bay598350361,47322673,248376,398
Taranaki468248223,01537968,056443,766
Wellington3,1196161,952,667892224,7271,317,491
Marlborough15911556,0117043,530129,305
Nelson39693180,27815734,94771,689
Westland17839102,2535411,82320,338
Canterbury2,4455831,583,378652208,383629,895
Otago2,211470992,499355118,212268,193
Southland764348423,760350102,564317,735
      Totals15,2544,9749,137,4365,4021,407,8195,800,942

An eleven-year summary upon similar lines is also given. A measure of recovery from the depression period is indicated in the statistics for 1934–35 and following years, but mortgage transactions in post-depression years are much below the level ruling during the “twenties.”

Year ended 31st March,Number.Area.Amount secured.
Town and Suburban.Country.Total.Town and Suburban.Country.Total.
  Acres.Acres.Acres.£££
193217,7934,0462,276,9592,281,0055,771,3646,814,78312,586,147
193313,2573,2311,784,7811,788,0124,133,5074,806,4188,939,925
193412,1922,7491,433,8921,436,6413,873,0763,779,9177,652,993
193514,7753,4251,988,1741,991,5995,087,5346,608,10711,695,641
193618,6794,6012,558,6542,563,2557,731,7459,325,47817,057,223
193721,8754,8582,446,3242,451,1828,932,96610,486,48519,419,451
193823,7646,2441,889,5681,895,81210,624,9438,547,84619,172,789
193924,8475,4181,977,9591,983,37711,752,5988,582,24920,334,847
194022,5475,0351,845,6561,850,6919,879,3897,688,12617,567,515
194121,6184,9541,698,6091,703,5638,705,4517,706,88216,412,333
194220,6564,9741,407,8191,412,7939,137,4365,800,94214,938,378

Rates of Interest.—Classified according to the various rates of interest, and including duplicate registrations (to the extent of £196,520 in 1940–41 and £420,300 in 1941–42), the amounts in the mortgage-deeds registered were:—

Rate per Cent.1940–41.1941–42.Rate per Cent.1940–41.1941–42.
 ££ ££
01,21562043,227195,140
½525 559,593378,588
11,0503,2505⅗650105
450 5⅝ 535
23956,4766,0401,225
 7506325,591286,198
17,04018,2823686,583
1,000 95,18391,612
372,94082,873 2,500
3⅓3,000 7126,753104,165
315,62454,7837⅛ 450
2,0006,8675,5064,526
4558,213476,097833,985160,879
4⅛1,756,6711,646,858925817
431,444766,65291,440910
4⅜ 5751015,55725,612
4,087,8253,707,47215 65
4⅝119,09792,36018 450
322,587256,88719 69/100674 
4⅘400 20 320
4⅞ 375Unspecified3,227,3562,937,298
54,321,2793,657,528   
5⅕12,632740  Totals16,468,23514,977,423

The average rate of interest on new mortgages was maintained at over 6 per cent. per annum from 1922 to 1932, but with the advent of the depression period and the effect of the mortgage relief legislation, subsequent years showed decreases. The inclusion of State Advances mortgages from the year 1935–36 onwards has no doubt also had the effect of reducing the average rate. State Advances mortgages were excluded from the average computation for some years prior to 1935–36. Averages for recent years have been as follows:—

Year ended 31st March,Average Rate per Cent.
19326·28
19335·88
19345·56
19355·06
19364·73
19374·60
19384·65
19394·58
19404·69
19414·69
19424·73

As indicated earlier in this section (page 484), rates of interest in recent years have been considerably affected by legislative action. In 1931–32, the financial year immediately preceding the operation of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, the average rate of interest on mortgages registered was 6·28 per cent., as compared with 4·73 per cent. in 1941–42. In the former year only 10·2 per cent. of the specified amount was at rates not exceeding 5 per cent., while no less than 43·3 per cent. was at rates exceeding 6 per cent. The corresponding figures for 1941–42 were 89·5 per cent. and 3·3 per cent. respectively.

A further analysis of the position is given below.

Year ended 31st March,Not exceeding 4 per Cent.Exceeding 4 per Cent. but not exceeding 5 per Cent.Exceeding 5 per Cent. but not exceeding 6 per Cent.Exceeding 6 per Cent.
Amount.
 ££££
193247,6451,015,8384,808,2674,478,563
1933135,6141,883,9383,456,6371,848,899
1934203,0702,458,7442,450,773861,925
1935995,2555,765,6832,014,969596,914
19361,754,8699,766,0861,868,635454,875
19371,354,59513,331,0681,380,466479,509
1938935,36613,625,5221,008,122720,930
1939915,58914,452,735941,282411,840
1940783,30712,877,9351,220,653350,802
1941973,45211,039,303947,733280,391
1942649,99810,128,707862,531398,889
Percentage of Total.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
19320·49·846·543·3
19331·925·747·225·2
19343·441·241·014·4
193510·661·521·56·4
193612·770·513·53·3
19378·280·68·32·9
19385·783·76·24·4
19395·586·45·62·5
19405·284·58·02·3
19417·383·47·22·1
19425·484·17·23·3

Mortgages discharged.—Of the gross total of mortgages released in 1941–42, £15,061,329 was under the Land Transfer Act and £37,841 under the deeds-registration system. The corresponding figures for the previous year were £15,875,476 and £58,608 respectively.

The total amount of mortgages discharged for the last three years is as follows:—

District.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £ £ £
Auckland6,3004,011,0157,4124,990,3296,9754,650,839
Gisborne418358,622436380,976392334,060
Hawke's Bay945900,3361,0431,078,666989845,024
Taranaki1,0721,036,0301,074967,8571,137930,215
Wellington3,9812,870,4894,3653,488,4664,6843,534,020
Marlborough247214,475207110,789223194,725
Nelson503216,328641281,850606255,784
Westland18380,153185181,12619681,102
Canterbury3,5222,769,3893,3622,369,5393,4242,302,876
Otago2,4651,119,5502,8651,395,9882,7731,296,645
Southland1,069582,7141,310688,4981,179673,880
  Gross totals20,70514,159,10122,90015,934,08422,57815,099,170
  Duplications457,058  1369
  Net totals20,70114,102,04322,90015,934,08422,57715,098,801

ESTIMATE OF MORTGAGE INDEBTEDNESS.—Statistics of the registrations of mortgages on land and of the discharges of such mortgages date back to 1873. The amount of mortgages now in force, however, cannot be ascertained directly from the registration figures, for the following reasons:—

  • No amount is shown as secured in many cases where a mortgage is given in anticipation of advances.

  • Many privately-arranged advances are not registered.

  • The figures include collateral and guarantee mortgages not representing money indebtedness.

  • Duplicate registrations are included.

  • Many discharges are not registered.

  • In the case of table mortgages, the whole amount remains on the register till the last instalment is paid.

The factors leading to overstatement of the amount remaining are much more important than those tending to understatement, and the main source of weakness of the figures, for the purpose of ascertaining the amount in force, is undoubtedly the failure to register many discharges.

On page 755 of the 1940 issue of the Year-Book will be found figures showing the estimated mortgage indebtedness on land over a period of forty years. The estimate as at 31st March, 1900, was £35,000,000, and by a series of gradual increases a maximum of £245,000,000 was reached in 1932. By 31st March, 1939, the figure had fallen to £230,000,000, and there has been no change in the estimate for 1941 and 1942. Of the £230,000,000, £105,000,000 was in respect of town and suburban lands and £125,000,000 in respect of country lands. It should be noted that these estimates relate solely to mortgages of real estate. Mortgages on stock or chattel securities are not included.

MORTGAGES AND LAND VALUES.—In the returns of land, which are required by law to be furnished annually to the Commissioner of Taxes by all owners of land of an aggregate Government unimproved value of £500 or over, provision is made for showing (for mortgage exemption purposes) particulars of amounts owing by the taxpayer at noon on the 31st March, secured on the land either by registered mortgage or by agreement to purchase. Although this source of information does not cover all mortgages, nevertheless most informative figures on the question of the incidence of mortgages in conjunction with such matters as area, unimproved value, and location (i.e., urban or rural) are disclosed.

The statistics quoted are the second of the present series, although similar statistics have been previously published, the last compilation in the earlier series being that for the tax-year 1929–30. A brief summary of the statistics of previous compilations appeared in the 1935 Year-Book. More detailed figures will be found in the 1932 issue and earlier editions. Amendments to the land-tax law, changes in administrative practice in connection with land-tax assessments (the statistical data are extracted from the information appearing on the notice of assessment), and the consequential modification of compilation procedure, have combined to impair the comparability of the current statistics with those for earlier years.

Attention has previously been drawn to the fact that the mortgage data derived from this source are not complete. Mortgages of property other than land and fixtures thereon, although such mortgages represent a substantial part of the total mortgage indebtedness, obviously do not come within the purview of these; statistics. Unregistered mortgages on land are also not included. Apart from these factors, no information is available in connection with a large percentage of mortgages secured on land, as the land-tax statistics do not cover the whole of the lands in occupation. The exemption of lands of an unimproved value of under £500 excludes all save a comparatively small proportion of the land holdings used only for residential purposes. Certain other lands—notably lands of public or local authorities; educational endowment lands; lands used for religious, charitable, educational, or scientific purposes (with some limitations); Crown lands held as small grazing-runs or for pastoral purposes; Native lands which are not occupied by a non-Native; and certain other types of lesser importance—are exempt from laud-tax when in the occupation of the owner.

Crown lands generally, when leased to private individuals, are exempt from land-tax except in those fairly infrequent cases where the lessee's own assessed interest in the unimproved value amounts to £500.

To summarize the position, the statistics may be regarded, with reasonable accuracy, as covering lands sold or granted (and held on freehold) to private— as distinct from public—interests, and then only those eases where the unimproved value of land owned or occupied exceeds £500. It follows that the mortgage data here given do not include the great bulk of the mortgage indebtedness of the important class of tenants under Crown leases (particulars of such leases will be found in Subsection B of Section 16 of this volume) or of the owners of the other classes of land which are exempt from land-tax.

For tile purpose of mortgage statistics, land is classified into three types— viz., rural, urban, and mixed urban and rural. In practice, it is desirable to subdivide each of these classes into two on account of the fact that in a proportion of cases returns are not furnished. The six types shown in the statistics are:—

  1. Cases where returns are furnished—

    1. Country or farming lands.

    2. Town lands or business-sites.

    3. Partly country and partly town lands.

  2. Cases where returns are not furnished—

    • Country or farming lands.

    • Town lands or business-sites.

    • Partly country and partly town lands.

In the case of mixed country and town lands where 75 per cent. or over of the total unimproved value is represented by either country or town lands (as the case may be), the whole of the land included in that return is so classed. The groups “partly country and partly town” cover only those cases where neither country nor town lands represent 75 per cent. or over of the total unimproved value. In the present series this rule has been slightly modified, and those cases where there were over 500 acres of country land in a return which would, according to the rule, be classed as wholly town land, have been included in the “mixed” group.

The statistics which follow relate to the tax-year 1941–42, the position in regard to mortgages, unimproved value, and area being that obtaining on the 31st March, 1941. The first table summarizes the statistics according to each of the six types indicated above, distinguishing also between cases where the amount of unimproved value was under or over £15,000, the limit of the mortgage exemption.

Type, and Amount of Unimproved Value.Number of Returns.Total Area.Unimproved Value.Total Mortgages owing.
  Acres.££
1. Under £15,00033,84315,725,41387,053,56381,180,804
Over £15,0000053,391,18814,874,0397,061,547
    Total34,44819,116,601101,927,60288,242,351
2. Under £15,00015,74464,42927,991,27623,520,906
Over £15,0003617,42313,422,8427,525,525
    Total16,10571,85241,414,11831,046,431
3. Under £15,000521153,1091,491,2881,143,318
Over £15,00045160,9983,448,352528,898
    Total566314,1074,939,6401,672,216
4. Under £15,0007,8913,334,98414,243,0126,390,292
Over £15,000123569,7432,993,095533,107
    Total8,0143,904,72717,236,1076,923,399
5. Under £15,0007,53222,8028,733,7292,569,722
Over £15,000671,1231,608,344390,060
    Total7,59923,92510,342,0732,959,782
6. Under £15,00018434,911326,39083,137
Over £15,000618,389220,71613,649
    Total19053,300547,10696,786
Totals—    
  Under £15,00065,71519,335,648139,839,258114,888,179
  Over £15,0001,2074,148,86436,567,38816,052,786
    Grand totals66,92223,484,512176,406,646130,940,965

The foregoing figures reveal the extent to which returns as to mortgages are not furnished. Out of 66,922 cases covered by the statistics, returns were not furnished in 15,803 instances, or 23·6 per cent. of the total. The total unimproved value in these 15,803 cases aggregated £28,125,286, or 15·9 per cent. of the total unimproved value, but the mortgages covered (ascertained from other sources in cases where the information was available) amounted to only £9,979,967, or 7·6 per cent. of the total mortgages.

These figures indicate that there is probably some omission of mortgages owing to the fact that some returns are not available. The position is complicated, as the failure to furnish returns is not confined to cases where the land is unencumbered or where the non-receipt of the return cannot affect the mortgage exemption. Returns in the latter category are those where the amount of the unimproved value exceeds £15,000, at which point the mortgage exemption ceases, and those where the amount of the ordinary exemption is greater than the amount of the mortgage. The maximum ordinary exemption is £500, and it commences to diminish at £1,500 unimproved value and ceases at £2,500 unimproved value.

If it is assumed that the mortgages in those eases where the returns are not furnished bear the same relation to the unimproved value as in those cases where returns are furnished, the total mortgages for types 4, 5, and 6 would be £23,000,000, an increase of £13,000,000 over the amount shown in the statistics. The extent to which mortgages are omitted through failure to furnish returns may thus, for practical purposes, be fixed at an upper limit of £13,000,000. However, the mortgage exemption benefit to be derived from furnishing a return in the middle range of unimproved-value categories suggests that the actual amount of mortgages for types 4, 5, and 6 would be much closer to the amount shown in the statistics than to the hypothetical amount mentioned. These statistics, of course, do not yield any information regarding mortgages on exempted lands, which include residential and other small areas of under £500 unimproved value.

Ignoring those eases (types 4, 5, and 6) where no returns are furnished, and confining attention to those where definite information is available, reliable figures as to the incidence of mortgages over lands of different types and values are obtainable. The following table summarizes the information for each of the types 1, 2, and 3, showing the amount of mortgages per return and per £1,000 of unimproved value.

MORTGAGES, 1941.—SUMMARY: TYPES 1 TO 3.

Type.Number of Returns.Total Area.Unimproved Value.Total Mortgages owing.Mortgages per
Return.£1,000 of Unimproved Value.
  Acres.££££
1. Country or farming lands34,44819,116,601101,927,60288,242,3512,562866
2. Town lands or business-sites10571,85241,414,11831,046,4311,928750
3. Partly town and partly country lands566314,1074,939,6401,672,2162,954339
      Totals51,11919,502,560148,281,360120,960,9982,366816

The next table shows similar information, according to the amount of unimproved value, for types 1, 2, and 3 in conjunction. Generally speaking, the proportion of mortgages to unimproved value, which is high at the lower values (where the proportion of improvements would also be high), falls steadily as the amount of unimproved value increases.

MORTGAGES, 1941.—BY AMOUNT OF UNIMPROVED VALUE: TYPES 1 TO 3.

Amount of Unimproved Value.Number of Returns.Unimproved Value.Total Mortgages owing.Mortgages per
Return.£1,000 of Unimproved Value.
£ £ ££££
Under 5009325,0869,15798365
500- 5993,3511,894,4401,733,472517915
600- 6994,1282,651,4862,545,674617960
700- 7993,4202,539,9352,606,1267621,026
800- 8992,9352,474,0232,592,7428831,048
900- 9992,5502,405,7562,381,487934990
1,000- 1,99915,56522,068,57922,582,9861,4511,023
2,000- 2,4994,1109,146,0749,063,9212,205991
2,500- 2,9992,8047,660,2496,995,1132,495913
3,000- 3,9993,48111,959,04610,611,5613,048887
4,000- 4,9992,2049,779,2208,394,7353,809858
5,000- 5,9991,4067,690,9146,862,0204,881892
6,000- 6,9991,0156,561,2705,549,3855,467846
7,000- 7,4994193,023,9702,443,1125,831808
7,500- 7,9993472,689,9232,174,3666,266808
8,000- 8,9996355,380,8404,465,3317,032830
9,000- 9,9994604,346,8123,683,3768,007847
10,000- 14,9991,18514,238,50411,150,4649,410783
15,000- 19,9993946,762,6194,502,27311,427666
20,000- 29,9993428,216,0784,009,71111,724488
30,000- 39,9991113,835,0532,131,69519,204556
40,000- 49,999612,728,220943,66815,470346
50,000- 99,999734,889,8722,539,29734,785519
100,000 and over305,313,391989,32632,978186
    Totals51,119148,281,360120,960,9982,366816

That, the higher proportions of mortgages to unimproved value at the lower values of holdings is not due to an overwhelming preponderance of suburban residential sections at these values is seen from a comparison of the foregoing table with that following, which relates to the “country or farming lands” type only. In this instance the amount of mortgage per acre, which is of small significance when urban lands are included, is given.

MORTGAGES, 1941.—BY AMOUNT OF UNIMPROVED VALUE: TYPE 1.

Amount of Unimproved Value.Number of Returns.Total Area.Unimproved Value.Total Mortgages owing.Mortgages per
Return.Acre.£1,000 of Unimproved Value.
£ £ Acres.££££s.d.£
Under 500353,58710,0167,0192011192701
500–5991,477288,972817,805922,45562533101,128
600–6992,001374,8141,287,3101,453,30972631771,129
700–7991,815343,6641,349,8041,615,91789041401,197
800–8991,670318,2951,408,4211,706,3501,0225731,212
900–9991,529326,9951,444,0951,669,3141,0925211,156
1,000–1,99910,9972,878,37115,807,38817,347,2521,5776061,097
2,000–2,4993,2041,264,6187,144,1487,199,9352,247513101,008
2,500-2,9992,2691,033,0606,196,8265,681,7262,5045100917
3,000-3,9992,7761,499,4339,553,0248,646,3663,1155154905
4,000–4,9991,7871,203,1747,956,1316,805,5363,8085132855
5,000–5,9991,1331,075,1176,201,0395,677,5735,011557916
6,000–6,999800896,9955,170,8244,363,3125,4544173844
7,000–7,499324373,0632,340,4261,899,1125,8615110811
7,500–7,999281342,4212,179,1661,815,6426,461561833
8,000–8,999506700,7334,290,4763,520,5027,958506821
9,000–9,999364749,7323,439,2202,896,1337,9563173842
10,000–14,9998752,052,42910,457,4447,953,3519,0903176761
15,000–19,999270954,5034,632,6392,978,58211,032325643
20,000–29,9992301,224,8295,529,6732,450,77110,656202443
30,000–39,99955384,5271,884,7991,133,01920,60021811601
40,000–49,99927259,1961,191,120356,26413,195176299
50,000 and over23568,1331,635,808142,9116,21405087
    Totals34,44819,116,601101,927,60288,242,3512,5924124866

The table well illustrates the incidence of mortgages over the lands which are devoted to the several types of farming. It should be added that, in addition to the £88,000,000 secured on the rural lands included in the table, there is an unknown and varying amount of indebtedness secured on stock, wool, crops, farm implements, and other chattels, which is not included in the registered mortgages on land.

The data shown in the previous table may be viewed, in the next table, from a different aspect—that of the size of the areas involved.

MORTGAGES, 1941.—BY AREA: TYPE 1.

Area.Number of Returns.Total Area.Unimproved Value.Total Mortgages owing.Mortgages per
Return.Acre.£1,000 of Unimproved Value.
Acres. Acres.££££s.d.£
Under 53915723,40019,415498123133830
5 and under 103102,330238,895198,1836398512830
10 and under 154315,182381,665365,563848701011958
15 and under 203506,019332,736198,8465683309598
20 and under 3085520,991902,599630,1977373005698
30 and under 4076027,011902,553670,943883241610743
40 and under 5099744,3791,189,224944,92094821510795
50 and under 752,890174,2273,709,0203,286,9571,13718174886
75 and under 1002,710236,5924,121,2543,859,5331,4241663936
100 and under 1504,915590,4818,685,3618,512,6721,7321484980
150 and under 2003,076531,8956,433,1906,054,8161,9681178941
200 and under 2502,584572,1645,917,9135,491,5562,12591111928
250 and under 3202,493707,7066,479,8785,918,1922,374873913
320 and under 4001,965705,4225,798,3135,251,8872,6737811906
400 and under 5001,915853,8346,181,0085,641,4962,9466122913
500 and under 6401,9311,088,7677,095,2446,055,3393,1365113853
640 and under 750979676,5364,021,1103,841,4043,9245137955
750 and under 1,0001,4401,243,7576,542,6905,776,3724,01141211883
1,000 and under 2,0002,1973,034,89413,945,47411,966,2385,44731810858
2,000 and under 3,0006821,642,1126,028,5034,907,2507,1952199814
3,000 and under 4,0003241,105,5843,714,8742,809,8408,67221010756
4,000 and under 5,000170756,8802,111,8601,364,0808,0241161646
5,000 and under 7,5002021,220,6932,933,9772,213,66310,9591163754
7,500 and under 10,00081700,2951,294,406834,79210,3061310645
10,000 and under 15,00080968,9151,343,271635,4537,9430131473
15,000 and under 20,00028481,209450,577304,78710,8850128676
20,000 and under 30,00022513,605432,086315,43214,3370123730
30,000 and under 40,0007244,000126,47462,0128,859051490
40,000 and under 50,0008369,290164,64174,3139,289040451
50,000 and over7591,674425,40636,2005,17101385
    Totals34,41819,116,601101,927,60288,242,3512,5624124866

Chapter 32. SECTION 32.—BANKRUPTCY.

Table of Contents

THE law relating to bankruptcy in New Zealand is contained in the main in the Bankruptcy Act, 1908 (which is a consolidation of previous enactments), and the Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927. Jurisdiction in bankruptcy matters is vested in the Supreme Court. The Governor-General, however, may by Proclamation confer similar jurisdiction on a Magistrate's Court in cases where the liabilities do not exceed £300.

All proceedings in bankruptcy are commenced by a petition filed in the Court. A petition may be filed either by the debtor or by a creditor, a fee of £6 being payable. The filing of a debtor's petition is equivalent to an order of Court adjudging the debtor a bankrupt, no order being required in this case. Not less than £30 in the aggregate must be owing by the debtor to the creditor or creditors filing a petition.

Immediately on a debtor's petition being filed or adjudication being made on a creditor's petition, the Registrar of the Court gives notice to the Official Assignee in Bankruptcy, in whom all the property of the bankrupt thereupon vests. The bankrupt must hand over his books of account to the Official Assignee, make out balance-sheets, give inventories of his property and debts, and generally assist in the realization of his property. The Assignee may summon the bankrupt before himself, or before a Magistrate, to be examined on oath. The Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927, forbids (save with the consent of the Court, on the application of the Official Assignee) the publication of a report of any examination of a bankrupt before the Assignee or of any matter arising in the course of such an examination.

The Official Assignee is empowered to sell the bankrupt's property, to claim debts due to the bankrupt estate, to carry on the business of the bankrupt so far as is necessary or expedient for its beneficial winding-up, or to divide the property among the creditors. The bankrupt may be appointed by the Official Assignee to manage his estate or carry on his business on behalf of the creditors.

Creditors may accept a composition in satisfaction of the debts due them. In such a case, after approval of the Court, a deed of composition is executed and filed, and the bankruptcy annulled.

On application being made by the bankrupt; the Court is empowered to grant him an order of discharge, either absolute, suspended, or conditional. The application, which must be made within four months after adjudication, may be opposed either by the Official Assignee or by any creditor who has proved his claim. A public examination of the bankrupt may be demanded by the Assignee or a creditor.

By the Trustee Amendment Act, 1933, protection is afforded to a trustee who pays trust-moneys to a bankrupt in good faith and without knowledge of the bankruptcy.

UNDISCHARGED BANKRUPTS.—Section 14 of the Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927. requires the animal compilation of a list showing the names, occupations, and other particulars of all persons who have been adjudged bankrupt since 31st March, 1927, and who have not obtained an order of discharge, or whose order of discharge is suspended for a term, or is subject to conditions remaining unfulfilled.

It was originally laid down that the list was to be published in the New Zealand Gazette, but by section 9 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1936, this requirement has been discontinued, and the Minister of Justice may now from time to time publish the list, or so much of it as relates to adjudications within any specified period ending on the date of the compilation of the list.

TRANSACTIONS IN BANKRUPTCY.— The number of transactions in bankruptcy during the last five years is given below. A long-term record of the more important features will be found in the Statistical Summary, near the end of this volume.

Year.Petitions by Debtors.Adjudications on Petitions by Creditors.Cases in which Composition accepted.Orders of Immediate Discharge granted.Cases in which Orders of Discharge were suspended.

* Including two deceased persons' estates under Part IV of Administration Act, 1908.

193719527212815
193823631 1009
1939231361937
194017835 837
1941143*22 6713

In the case of a partnership, not only the partnership but each partner is counted in the total of transactions.

The general bankruptcy statistics do not cover private assignments and compositions, but relate only to cases dealt with by Official Assignees. Certain statistics of private assignments are available, and details of these appear at the end of this section.

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.—Debtors are required to file a statement of the extent of their liabilities and assets, but there is usually a marked difference between these statements and the amounts actually realized by the Official Assignee or the debts subsequently proved by creditors. During the last decade the amounts actually realized by Official Assignees averaged 57 per cent. of assets according to debtors' statements, and 19 per cent. of debts proved.

It should be understood that in the following table the figures in each column refer to all transactions under the respective heads during the year, the amounts realized by Assignees and paid in dividends and preferential claims relating partly to the current year's bankruptcies (many of which, however, are not disposed of during the year) and partly to cases commenced in previous years.

Year.Number of Bankruptcies.Debtors' Statements of Assets, excluding Amounts secured to Creditors.Amounts realized by Official Assignees.Amount of Debts proved.Amounts paid in Dividends and Preferential Claims.

*Including one bankruptcy settled without statement being filed.

† Including two deceased persons' estates under Part IV of the Administration Act, 1908.

  ££££
1931848401,649108,8091,042,18763,185
1932661252,34875,657624,89255,940
1933450114,81761,723489,89547,884
193432672,57244,533258,92033,788
193525768,21641,037225,50823,142
193626040,55732,983169,86621,520
193722259,10055,970171,70626,700
1938267118,69864,511230,46330,793
193926782,31844,171225,49029,950
1940213*35,37242,418125,28930,288
1941165†24,53835,45371,01134,428

The table following shows for each of the last eleven years the average amount of debts proved per estate, and also the average dividend paid.

Year.Average Debts proved per Estate.Proportion of Dividends to Debts.
 £Per Cent.
19311,2296·06
19329458·05
19331,0899·77
193479413·05
193587810·26
193665312·67
193777315·55
193886313·36
193984513·28
194059124·17
194143048·48

The total payments in 1941 made from assets realized were—

 £
Dividends to creditors (excluding preferential and secured claims)33,218
Preferential claims (rents, wages, &c.)1,210
Secured claims2,884
Government commission3,444
Costs of actions, solicitors' and supervisors' fees2,074
Expenses incurred in carrying on estates1,133
Other charges2,159
      Total£46,122

Balances in bank to the credit of estates aggregated £20,956 on 31st December, 1941, £11,350 less than at the end of the previous year.

AMOUNT OF LIABILITIES.—The following table show's for each of the last five years a classification of bankruptcies according to the amount of liabilities.

Liabilities.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.

* Including one bankruptcy settled without statement being filed.

† Including two deceased persons' estates under Part IV of Administration Act, 1908.

Under £507151483
£50 and under £1002932282730
£100 and under £2507796977155
£250 and under £5004857574638
£500 and under £1,0003737353322
£1,000 and under £2,000151621178
£2,000 and under £5,00058578
£5,000 and over461031
Totals222267267213*165†

Liabilities in the bulk of failures do not exceed £1,000, the number in 1941 with amounts under this sum being 148, or 90 per cent. of the total bankruptcies.

OCCUPATIONS OF BANKRUPTS.—The following table shows in broad industrial groups the occupations of those adjudged bankrupt in the last five years.

 1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.

* Excluding partnerships as such (eight for 1938, and two for 1939). The occupations of the individual partners are included (see page 496).

† Including two deceased persons' estates under Part IV of the Administration Act, 1908.

Fishing and trapping2111 
Agricultural and pastoral1831282219
Forestry38251
Mining and quarrying23213
Processes relating to stone, clay, lime, cement, glass, &c.  21 
Processes relating to chemicals, animal and vegetable products, n.e.i.  2 1
Processes relating to metals, machines, tools, electric fittings, conveyances, jewellery, &c.81419189
Processes relating to fibrous materials, textiles, and dress103254
Processes relating to harness, saddlery, and leatherware2 1  
Processes relating to food, drink, and tobacco28347
Processes relating to wood, basketware, furniture, &c.53633
Processes relating to paper, stationery, printing, photography 3 1 
Processes relating to other materials   2 
Construction or repair of buildings, roads, and railways2943442319
Production or supply of gas, water, electricity, and power   1 
Transport and communication1223211618
Commerce and finance6158514939
Public administration, clerical, and professional95854
Entertainment, sport, and recreation11123
Personal and domestic service8712146
Indefinite occupations5048604029
      Totals222259*265*213165†

Of the 1941 total, 27 were employers of labour, 50 were working on their own account but not employing labour, and 88 were working for wages.

PRIVATE ASSIGNMENTS.—Official bankruptcies, as explained earlier, do not comprise all financial failures and, in order to obtain completeness, the bankruptcy statistics have been supplemented since 1928 by the collection of data relating to private assignments. The statistics cover all operations arising out of deeds of assignment made tinder section 167 (2) of the Stamp Duties Act, 1923.

If private assignments be added to bankruptcies, the total number of failures in 1941 was 224, made up of 165 bankruptcies and 59 assignments. The corresponding total for 1940 was 281.

The number of bankruptcies in 1941 was 48 less than in 1940, and the lowest since 1920. The number of assignments was the lowest since statistics of assignments were instituted (1928).

Assets of the fifty-nine assigned estates for which returns were received were valued at £126,541, and the liabilities were estimated at £153,526. In completed estates assets realized represented 56·5 per cent. of liabilities.

Amount of Liabilities.—The following table classifies estates assigned during the last five years according to the amount of liabilities.

Liabilities.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
Under £100    1
£100 and under £250541  
£250 and under £50010910104
£500 and under £1,0001714201715
£1,000 and under £2,0002318182016
£2,000 and under £5,000131212159
£5,000 and over441154
Unspecified14126 10
      Totals8673786859

Thirty-four per cent. of estates in 1941 show liabilities below £1,000. In the case of official bankruptcies the corresponding figure was 90 per cent.

Occupations of Assignors.—The occupations of assignors in broad industrial classes during the last five years were as follows:—

 1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.

* Excluding two estates in which assignor was subsequently adjudged bankrupt.

Agricultural and pastoral2214 
Forestry1    
Mining and quarrying1   1
Processes relating to metals, machines, tools, electric fittings, conveyances, jewellery, &c.13221
Processes relating to fibrous materials, textiles, and dress5331 
Processes relating to harness, saddlery, and leatherware1    
Processes relating to food, drink, and tobacco63151
Processes relating to wood, basketware, furniture, &c.11263
Construction or repair of buildings, roads, and railways1212181213
Transport and communication53243
Commerce and finance4842362828
Public administration, clerical, and professional11531
Personal and domestic service  235
Indefinite occupations234 3
      Totals867376*6859

Of the 1941 total, 33 were employers of labour, 22 were working on their own account, and 4 were working for wages.

Chapter 33. SECTION 33.—WEALTH.

Table of Contents

PUBLIC WEALTH.—For many years the Treasury compiled annually, from details recorded in departmental balance-sheets, a State balance-sheet which was published in Parliamentary Paper B.-1 [Pt. IV]. For various reasons arising out of war conditions, it has been decided to discontinue the preparation of this statement until after the conclusion of the war. The statement last published showed the position as at 31st March, 1938. The total of State assets according to this amounted to £402,556,454; but, in order that the public debt may be fully accounted for, nominal assets were inserted for outstanding loan expenditure on war and other purposes in respect of which no material asset now exists. Partly on this account, and partly because certain State expenditure is already reflected in the value of property (public or private), it is necessary to make certain deductions from the “assets” in order to arrive at a figure which may be used as a component unit of an estimate of the value of property or wealth in New Zealand. The balance-sheet in summarized form, and particulars of the deductible items, may be found on pages 763–764 of the 1940 issue of the Year-Book. The resultant figure, which may be accepted as a rough approximation of the value of State property at 31st March, 1938, was £270,000,000. Later information is not available, but during the three years to 31st March, 1941, the increase in indebtedness in respect of items included was £32,000,000, and State assets at 31st March. 1941, may be assessed at £300,000,000.

In arriving at an estimate of the aggregate public wealth of the Dominion, as distinct from private wealth, it is also necessary to take into account the assets of local authorities. These (including sinking funds) amounted to approximately £96,000,000 at 31st March, 1938, and to £102,000,000 at 31st March, 1941 (see Section 25).

It should be noted, however, that some £7,500,000 of the local authorities' total indebtedness is owing to the General Government, and allowance must be made for this amount. The public wealth of the Dominion at 31st March, 1941, based on the foregoing would thus be £300,000,000, plus £102,000,000, minus £7,500,000. making a net total of approximately £395,000,000.

PRIVATE WEALTH.—Estimates of the private wealth of the Dominion are arrived at on the assumption that the wealth per head of the living is approximately equal to the average amount left by persons dying. The fact that the younger and more numerous members of the population do not possess as much accumulated wealth as the older members, taken in conjunction with the fact that the death-rate varies with age, renders it necessary for this purpose to divide the population into age-groups. The average wealth of persons dying within any one age-group being known, the average wealth of living persons belonging to that age-group is assumed to be identical, and an estimate of the total private wealth of the Dominion is arrived at by weighting the average wealth of persons in each quinquennial age-group by the number of persons in that group.

The average wealth of deceased pet sons is obtained by a consideration of the estates certified for stamp duty. The number of estates dealt with in any period, however, is usually equal to about one-third only of the total deaths registered during that period; and as most persons leave some estate, however small, it is necessary to make some allowance for estates which have not passed through the Stump Duties Office. Estate and succession duties are based on the size of the estate and the degree of relationship of the beneficiary, and certain exemptions, particulars of which may be found in Section 23B, are provided for. Consequently, many small estates on which no duties are payable are passed for probate or letters of administration. An arbitrary allowance is made for unrecorded estates of persons aged fifteen years and over. No allowance at all is made for estates of persons under fifteen.

Based on the estate and death figures for the triennium 1938–40, the aggregate private wealth estimate for the Dominion at the end of 1940 is £718,000,000, of which £497,000,000 represents the wealth of men and £221,000,000 that of women. Excluding Maoris, this total is equal to £458 per head of population, and £683 per head of population if only those aged twenty and over are taken into account.

It is obvious that estimates of private wealth based on the probate system are approximate only, owing to the various factors involved. For example, part of the wealth of deceased estates consists of insurance policies. In the probate returns the maturity value of the policy is taken, whereas among the living the average surrender value of policies in force is much below the maturity value. Against this, however, is the fact that pensions and annuities enjoyed by the living do not enter into deceased estates, while there is also a tendency towards conservatism in the valuation of personal property for death duty purposes. Further, a not inconsiderable amount of property is disposed of before death by way of gift and does not appear in the probate returns.

It should be explained that the computation of private wealth relates to the population exclusive of Maoris. The inclusion of Maoris would not affect the per caput rate to any extent, but would involve an addition to the total. An addition for Maoris of 4 per cent. to the aggregate figure previously given for 1940 would bring the estimated private wealth of the Dominion to £747,000,000.

Estates passed for Death Duty.—A table is now given showing the number of estates finally passed during 1939 and 1940, classified according to amount. Estates of Maoris are here included.

Amount.Number of Estates.Aggregate Net Value of Estates.
1939.1940.1939.1940.
£ £  ££
Under 5002,6192,409535,258496,198
500 and under 1,0001,2491,231901,649901,921
1,000 and under 2,0001,1501,0501,652,4771,489,228
2,000 and under 3,0005285001,296,5391,229,933
3,000 and under 4,0003283221,139,3081,110,849
4,000 and under 5,000183191810,783851,149
5,000 and under 7,5003112781,880,8981,713,276
7,500 and under 10,0001871551,629,4901,361,758
10,000 and under 15,0001551431,866,4831,743,940
15,000 and under 20,00073601,252,3271,033,397
20,000 and over1151185,178,3974,471,652
      Totals6,8986,46018,143,60916,403,301

The table below shows for the period 1936 to 1940 the total number of estates, classified according to age of deceased and amount of estate.

Age.Under £500.£500 to £999.£1,000 to £1,999.£2,000 to £2,999.£3,000 to £3,999.£4,000 to £4,999.£5,000 to £7,499.£7,500 to £9,999.£10,000 to £14,999.£15,000 to £19,999.£20,000 and over.Totals.
Under 5413        8
5 and under 10821        11
10 and under 15101         11
15 and under 2057142        73
20 and under 25171461992 2    249
25 and under 302011004110312 2 1361
30 and under 3521792671866921 1419
35 and under 40285122883018786213570
40 and under 453361611305227131410435755
45 and under 50510252190894426322213651,189
50 and under 55740418324133794362302914121,884
55 and under 609955994882221156811455388342,736
60 and under 651,09467262927717096145736123523,292
65 and under 701,3187817463221991341851068842673,988
70 and under 751,302830745376233144210126112561004,234
75 and under 801,22771766635522211723215599581163,964
80 and under 859776005443101991241769811241753,256
85 and under 905683262821691067393535636461,808
90 and under 9510492100472620312421827590
95 and over512215184676586148
Unspecified3101561064834173218151325774
  Totals105756,0045,1862,4851,4878951,35478465831757530,320
  Per cent.34·919·817·18·24·92·94·52·61·01·9100 0

AN ESTIMATE OF NATIONAL WEALTH.—The public wealth of the Dominion has been estimated (supra) at approximately £395,000,000, and the private wealth, including that of Maoris, at approximately £750,000,000. In the probate figures used as a basis of computation of private wealth, deductions are made on account of debts, mortgages, and other charges against property. As, however, these in general will rank as assets when estates to which the charges are owing are in their turn passed for probate, the general effect is negligible, except in so far as such items as State advances and debts owing overseas are concerned. The State advances outstanding are included in the public-wealth figure.

In the case of the public wealth the figure given practically represents gross assets, no deduction having, of course, been made on account of indebtedness of the General Government and of local governing authorities. Were the whole of this indebtedness owing outside the Dominion, no deduction on this account would be necessary for the purpose of the present computation, which is merely to ascertain an approximation of the wealth of the Dominion, without taking account of the fact that there are external charges against that wealth. In arriving at the sum of public and private wealth, however, it is necessary to make allowance for the internal indebtedness of the General Government and of local governing authorities, this being included in the private-wealth estimate.

Of the gross indebtedness of the General Government at the 31st March, 1941, £190,000,000 was domiciled in New Zealand. Of the gross debt of local governing authorities (including Hospital Boards) at the same date, £50,000,000 was domiciled in the Dominion, exclusive of the £7,500,000 borrowed from the General Government, allowance for which has already been made in the estimation of the approximate public wealth.

The Hospital Boards' debt may be assumed to be mainly domiciled in New Zealand. The debt of the General Government and all local authorities domiciled in New Zealand thus aggregates £240,000,000, which requires to be deducted from the aggregate of public and private wealth in order to arrive at an estimate of the national wealth. The figures, in round numbers, are:—

 £
Approximate public wealth395,000,000
Estimated private wealth750,000,000
      Total1,145,000,000
Less public and local-authority debt domiciled in Dominion240,000,000
      Estimated national wealth£905,000,000

It appears scarcely necessary to recapitulate reasons why the estimate given can be regarded at best as a rough approximation only. No practicable system has yet been devised that will permit of a reliably close estimation of national wealth being arrived at, and the difficulties in this respect are increased enormously during a period of changing values.

VALUE OF LAND HOLDINGS.—The bulk of the wealth of the Dominion is represented by land and improvements thereon. Particulars of the valuation of land are given in Section 26 of this book. Further information concerning the value of land, with particular reference to the distribution of land ownership among the population and also the utilization of land, are obtainable from the returns of land which are required to be furnished annually to the Commissioner of Taxes for the purpose of land-tax assessment. Statistics compiled from these returns were inaugurated for the land-tax year 1924–25 and were continued, with the exception of the year 1927–28, up to and including the tax-year 1929–30. The statistics were then discontinued for some years, and were resumed again, commencing with the tax assessment-year 1939–40.

Save for a few minor exceptions when the taxpayer is not entitled to the full amount of the ordinary exemption of £500 unimproved value, the statistics cover only lands of an unimproved value (Government valuation) of £500 and over. The Land and Income Tax Act, 1923, with its amendments, exempts from land-tax the lands of specified classes of owners when the land is in the occupation of those owners. The most important classes so exempted are the lands of public and local authorities; educational endowment lands; Crown land leased as small grazing runs or for pastoral purposes; lands used for educational, religious, charitable, or scientific purposes (with some limitations): and Native lands in the occupation or possession of the Native owner or his trustee. As a reasonably accurate generalization it may be stated that, where freehold land is used or occupied by public or semi-public interests, that land is not liable for land-tax, and consequently is not included in these statistics.

The ordinary exemption of up to £500 unimproved value excludes from the statistics the great majority of land holdings used solely for residential purposes.

The primary principle of land-taxation is that the tax is levied on the owner of the freehold, or any lesser interest deemed to be the equivalent of the freehold. Superimposed on this primary principle is the secondary principle that all lands not exempted from land-tax, irrespective of the type of tenure, in the possession or occupation of any person are included in that person's land-tax assessment. In order to avoid double taxation on leased lands, the lessee is allowed a credit, against the tax payable by him, equal to the amount of tax payable by the owner in respect of the leased land.

The statistics, however, are compiled on the basis of the ownership of the freehold. Leased lands which are not completely exempted in the hands of the owner, and which therefore have been included in the owners' assessments, have consequently been excluded in this compilation from the lessees' assessments in order to avoid the considerable duplication which would otherwise have occurred in regard to leased lands.

As the State derives revenue from Crown lands in the form of rent, land leased from the Crown is liable for land-tax only to the extent that the total unimproved value of that land exceeds the capitalized value of the rent. For statistical purposes leases of Crown and other lands, wholly exempted in the hands of the owner of the freehold, have been treated in all respects as if the lessee was the owner of the freehold, and the classes are now included in the tabulation.

Native lands are included only in eases where the land is not in the occupation or possession of the Native or his trustee. The acreage of the Native land so included is 19 per cent. of the total area of such land.

The table which follows summarizes the principal heads of information disclosed by the tabulation for the tax-year 1941–42, and relates to land held as at the 31st March, 1941.

The total unimproved value of land in the Dominion on the 1st April, 1941, was £277,541,575, and 64 per cent. of this amount is covered by these statistics. The exemption of holdings of less than £500 in value (of which a large number are suburban residential properties) is principally responsible for the wide difference between the coverage of rural and urban lands. Land classified in these statistics as rural, which approximately corresponds to land situated in counties, represents 73 per cent. of the total unimproved value of county land. The £51,756,191 unimproved value classed as urban, however, represents only 45 per cent. of the aggregate value of laud in boroughs and independent town districts. The mixed rural and urban land valued at £5,486,746 has been disregarded in the calculation of the latter percentages.

LAND-TAX STATISTICS.—CLASS BY TYPE, TAX-YEAR 1941–42.

Type.Number of Returns.Number of Taxpayers.Total Area.Unimproved Value of Land.Total Mortgages owing.Tax assessed.
Class I.—Individuals and Partnerships.
   Acres.£££
Country or farming lands36,41820,55618,109,78797,561,76784,260,948355,629
Town lands or business-sites18,12513,56362,15926,341,31216,104,03690,439
Partly country and partly town lands553414153,0421,460,363890,8786,494
      Totals55,09634,53318,324,988125,363,442101,255,862452,562
Class II.—Deceased Persons' Estates, Trusts, &c.
Country or farming lands3,7182,9292,497,40914,275,6598,087,71091,933
Town lands or business-sites3,3262,85218,5328,012,9382,966,39656,550
Partly country and partly town lands12211168,320630,611180,5567,481
      Totals7,1665,8922,584,26122,919,20811,234,662155,964
Class III.—Natives, Native Land Boards, Native Trusts, &c.
   Acres.£££
Country or farming lands1,7311,728858,3593,251,327101,0907,645
Town lands or business-sites4141802489,12023,0001,747
Partly country and partly town lands      
      Totals1,7721,769859,1613,740,447124,0909,392
Class IV.—Companies.
   Acres.£££
Country or farming lands5954341,555,7734,074,9562,716,00240,470
Town lands or business-sites2,2121,52314,28416,912,82114,912,781243,404
Partly country and partly town lands8173146,0453,395,772697,56871,799
      Totals2,8882,0301,716,10224,383,54918,326,351355,673
Summary.
Country or farming lands42,46225,64723,021,328119,163,70995,165,750495,677
Town lauds or business-sites23,70417,97995,77751,756,19134,006,213392,140
Partly country and partly town lands756598367,4075,486,7461,769,00285,774
      Grand Totals66,92244,22423,484,512176,406,646130,940,965973,591

In the Statistical treatment of the data, a distinction is made according to the class of taxpayer. The classification adopted is given in full in the foregoing table, but in subsequent tables these classes are distinguished by the class number only. The information is further divided according to the type of land, the three categories being (a) rural, (b) urban, and (c) mixed urban and rural. On account of the necessity of distinguishing, in connection with the mortgage data, between cases where returns are furnished and those where no return is received, each of these types is subdivided into two in the detailed statistics published in the Statistical Report on Prices, &c., and also in the “Mortgages” section of this Year-Hook.

It should be explained that as the assessments are primarily based on ownership they may include both urban and rural lands. It is not possible, therefore, to fully classify lands included in land-tax returns according to whether they are urban or rural. To prevent the overstatement of the real position in regard to mixed lands through such a matter as the inclusion of a suburban section in a return otherwise covering a considerable area of farm land, the classification provides that where 75 per cent. of over of the total unimproved value represents rural or urban lands, as the ease may be, the whole return is so classed. The mixed lands thus include only eases where neither rural nor urban land constitutes 75 per cent. of the total unimproved value-. When, however, a return which would according to this rule be classified as urban includes not less than 500 acres of rural land, the return has been arbitrarily classed as mixed land.

Values of Holdings.—The next table shows the distribution, according to the amount of unimproved value, of all the holdings covered by the statistics. The insignificant total for holdings of under £500 unimproved value is due to the fact that, with few exceptions, such holdings are exempt from land-tax. Owing to the operation of the various exemptions, which are discussed later in this section, no fewer than 22,698, or 34 per cent., of the holdings covered by the statistics were not assessed for tax.

The £1,000–£1,999 category is the most important single group shown in the table, and the aggregate unimproved value of £27,855,071 for this group is equal to 16 per cent. of the total for all holdings. The 49,725 holdings of a lower value than £2,500, at which amount the ordinary exemption ceases, represent 74 per cent. of the total number of returns. The aggregate unimproved value of holdings in these cases was only 32 per cent. of the total, in contrast to the 2,535 cases where only a slightly smaller percentage (30 per cent.) of the total unimproved value was held in units of £10,000 or over.

LAND-TAX STATISTICS.—AMOUNT OF UNIMPROVED VALUE, TAX-YEAR 1941–42.

Amount of Unimproved Value.Number of Returns.Number of Taxpayers.Total Area.Unimproved Value of Land.Total Mortgages owing.Tax assessed.
£ £  Acres.£££
Under 5001711686,37046,96810,901124
500–5995,7133,967426,4133,207,7292,052,6681,432
600–6996,5104,667547,1494,176,6642,933,5013,498
700–7995,0923,490486,7593,780,1772,944,4313,698
800–8994,1072,715437,1993,462,6072,886,1753,835
900–9993,5092,292444,1053,309,5472,713,2784,467
1,000–1,99919,79311,9783,678,87027,855,07124,848,72741,721
2,000–2,4994,8302,8441,522,00210,753,0949,801,05418,886
2,500–2,9993,2801,9591,216,8258,957,5107,626,46817,812
3,000–3,9994,0562,4691,814,04213,928,25811,563,36726,504
4,000–4,9992,5351,5801,470,35911,245,0049,051,21320,682
5,000–5,9991,6039991,210,6588,765,5847,335,62317,016
6,000–6,9991,1377411,079,4457,351,1395,940,53014,968
7,000–7,499461312418,3203,327,2342,623,3147,308
7,500–7,999386366399,6152,991,3902,251,0547,224
8,000–8,999676658776,1815,726,9294,616,66917,189
9,000–9,999528511904,1674,992,4083,868,39417,634
10,000–14,9991,3281,3042,497,16915,961,94511,820,812104,422
15,000–19,9994834801,204,1928,291,0714,964,43094,427
20,000–29,9994124121,147,9199,903,3714,353,343141,834
30,000–39,999136136505,0514,667,8612,217,72292,500
40,000–49,9996666283,3722,953,652943,66866,343
50,000-99,9997979351,4995,306,7862,584,297119,529
100,000 and over3131356,8315,444,647989,326130,538
      Totals66,92244,22423,484,512176,406,646130,940,965973,591

Figures are now given, showing by amount of unimproved value, the number of returns and the aggregate unimproved values held by each of the four classes of owners.

LAND-TAX STATISTICS.—CLASSES, BY AMOUNT OF UNIMPROVED VALUE, 1941–42.

Amount of Unimproved Value.Number of Returns.Total Unimproved Value.
Class I.Class II.Class III.Class IV.Class I.Class II.Class III.Class IV.
£ £    ££££
Under 5001054818 28,94113,9494,078 
500–5994,9025081871162,758,611281,282103,90063,936
600–6995,5366312051383,551,958405,223131,17688,307
700–7994,3194951691093,206,810366,411125,92081,036
800–8993,4314081511142,892,442343,964130,10396,098
900–9992,9833091161012,812,879291,655109,32495,689
1,000–1,99916,6271,96853466423,375,5802,787,816749,064942,611
2,000–2,4994,0054741081839,041,7881,062,720241,087407,499
2,500–2,9992,699368641497,372,9181,003,339173,801407,452
3,000–3,9993,2365068722711,107,8571,741,426295,103783,872
4,000–4,9992,001325361738,881,1761,442,994157,489763,345
5,000–5,9991,27321324936,962,9541,164,419129,055509,156
6,000–6,99986317215875,581,4261,113,14997,320559,244
7,000–7,499361574392,605,927412,48528,440280,382
7,500–7,999303544252,347,174419,81331,049193,354
8,000–8,9994891146674,143,389962,01350,879570,648
9,000–9,999381815613,597,613769,66047,368577,767
10,000–14,9999252031218811,057,8742,448,977139,5462,315,548
15,000–19,9992889231004,933,3861,585,83551,3061,720,544
20,000–29,999213938985,107,3112,248,303191,0242,356,733
30,000–39,99954283511,826,151950,104103,3061,788,300
40,000–49,99925116241,110,073492,944262,9971,087,638
50,000 and over1784811,059,204610,727387,1128,694,390
      Totals55,0967,1661,7722,888125,363,44222,919,2083,740,44724,383,549

Class I (individuals and partnerships) includes the overwhelming majority of returns and nearly three-fourths of the total unimproved value. As might be expected, the preponderance of the class diminishes as the amount of the unimproved value rises, but the numbers of returns for each amount category exceed the combined totals of the other three classes until the £30,000–£39,999 group is reached. Owing to the relatively larger numbers of returns for both estates, trusts, &c., and companies (Classes II and IV respectively) in the higher-amount categories, the average unimproved value per return for Class I is less than that for Class II and much less than that composed of companies, where holdings of £50,000 unimproved value or over comprise 36 per cent. of the total unimproved value for that class. The average unimproved values for the respective classes are: Class I, £2,275; Class II, £3,890; Class III, £2,111; and Class IV, £8,443.

Reference has already been made to the principles adopted in classifying holdings according to the type of land, and the next table shows the number of returns and the aggregate unimproved values of rural, urban, and mixed lands respectively.

LAND-TAX STATISTICS.—TYPE, BY AMOUNT OF UNIMPROVED VALUE, TAX-YEAR 1941–42.

Amount of Unimproved Value.Number of Returns.Total Unimproved Value.
Rural.Urban.Mixed.Rural.Urban.Mixed.
£ £   £££
Under 50059112 16,34130,027 
500–5992,2743,397421,261,9551,921,55424,220
600–6992,9023,560481,866,6562,278,71131,297
700–7992,5452,515321,891,5581,864,74623,873
800–8992,2081,850491,862,8461,558,44241,319
900–9991,9831,483431,871,9881,397,13640,423
1,000–1,99913,5046,07321619,306,4818,244,087304,503
2,000–2,4993,6821,091578,209,7422,417,363125,989
2,500–2,9992,608637357,119,1521,742,09896,260
3,000–3,9993,1648375510,881,8212,854,743191,694
4,000–4,9992,034475269,052,6682,077,998114,338
5,000-5,9991,282292297,012,8831,595,970156,731
6,000–6,999889230185,746,3271,485,932118,880
7,000–7,49935410072,556,785720,18950,260
7,500–7,9993077272,379,717557,42654,247
8,000-8,999538126124,560,4431,064,768101,718
9,000–9,9994249684,007,964907,51876,926
10,000–14,9999773302111,691,2484,005,697265,000
15,000–19,999331137155,678,3472,356,828255,896
20,000–29,999271131106,515,2913,147,137240,943
30,000–39,999696162,359,8572,097,094210,910
40,000–49,999293251,284,4311,434,442234,779
50,000–99,999245051,482,3713,427,203397,212
100,000 and over41710546,8372,568,4822,329,328
      Totals42,46223,704756119,163,70951,756,1915,486,746

Despite the inclusion of 67 urban holdings of £50,000 unimproved value or more as against 28 rural holdings of similar value, the overage unimproved value of £2,806 per rural return is higher than the corresponding average of £2,263 for urban land.

Area of Holdings.—The area figures are of little value in the case of urban and mixed lands, as the returns are correct to the nearest quarter-acre only, and sections of less than one-eighth acre are treated as having no area at all. Furthermore, the area is of less importance as a criterion of the value of an urban holding than is the ease where a rural holding is concerned. The following summary, which gives information regarding area and value in conjunction, accordingly relates only to lands classified as rural.

LAND-TAX STATISTICS.—AREA AND UNIMPROVED VALUE, RURAL LANDS, TAX-YEAR 1941–42.

Area, in Acres.Number of Returns.Number of Taxpayers.Total Area.Unimproved Value.
Total.Per Return.Per Acre.
   Acres.£££s.d.
Under 5674626436,161540136196
5 and under 104733483,515354,955750100198
10 and under 156104367,336519,51185270164
15 and under 205143918,875471,3169175321
20 and under 301,18388328,8951,210,3851,02341179
30 and under 401,09079538,3461,241,8491,1393278
40 and under 501,30686658,1791,491,0571,14225127
50 and under 753,6422,149219,5904,526,1661,24320123
75 and under 1003,3561,924293,2504,926,7341,46816160
100 and under 1505,9243,163712,10610,110,0841,70714311
150 and under 2003,7542,080649,3947,555,0562,01311128
200 and under 2503,1331,714693,3426,921,3172,2099198
250 and under 3202,9811,652846,7407,459,6812,5028162
320 and under 4002,3821,401854,9846,669,4932,8007160
400 and under 5002,2991,3181,024,6246,980,4523,0366163
500 and under 6402,2861,3981,289,2067,979,0823,490639
640 and under 7501,172702809,5624,573,5343,9025130
750 and under 1,0001,7331,0621,496,5387,567,4774,367512
1,000 and under 2,0002,6261,7973,625,12915,869,8946,043477
2,000 and under 3,0008185941,972,4867,079,7838,6553119
3,000 and under 4,0003883121,329,4174,543,48011,710384
4,000 and under 5,000200166890,3532,410,45612,0522142
5,000 and under 7,5002402061,442,1123,514,79614,645289
7,500 and under 10,0009891847,2791,587,02816,1941176
10,000 and under 15,00092741,110,4821,610,01817,500190
15,000 and under 20,0003931663,057676,71717,352105
20,000 and under 30,0003025718,744515,39617,1800144
30,000 and under 40,000109350,956165,03916,504095
40,000 and under 50,00086369,290164,64120,5800811
50,000 and over88667,277432,15154,01901211
      Totals42,46225,64723,021,328119,163,7092,806536

The column showing unimproved value per acre is instructive as showing the wide difference in land values as between the more closely-settled areas and the large holdings. It will be observed that the highest unimproved value per acre appears in the “under 5 acres” group.

Exemptions.—As is the ease in income taxation, certain exemptions and deductions are allowable in the taxation of land, and land-tax is payable only on the balance of the unimproved value. Where the unimproved value does not exceed £1,500 an exemption of £500 is allowed. Where the unimproved value lies between £1,500 and £2,500 there is a similar exemption, diminished in amount, however, by £1 for every £2 of unimproved value in excess of £1,500, so that no exemption is allowed under this head when the unimproved value reaches £2,500. This exemption is that here referred to as the “ordinary” exemption.

When there is a security on the land either by registered mortgage or by agreement to purchase, an alternative scale of exemptions is provided. Since the tax-year 1929–30, the maximum amount allowed as a mortgage exemption has been £7,500, diminished by £1 for every £1 of unimproved value in excess of £7,500. The exemption, therefore, ceases at £15,000 unimproved value. In certain circumstances the exemptions may exceed these amounts, but, as will be seen from the table below, these are few in number. When the capital value of the mortgage is less than the amount of mortgage deduction provided, such capital value only is deductible. Unregistered mortgages on land, liens, and chattel securities are not allowable as deductions.

In lieu of the ordinary or mortgage exemptions, the Commissioner of Taxes has discretionary powers to grant relief in certain specified cases of hardship. The maximum permissible exemption on account of hardship is £4,000.

The following table summarizes the exemptions granted for the tax-year 1941–42, according to both the type of land and the class of owner.

LAND-TAX STATISTICS.—EXEMPTIONS, BY TYPES AND CLASSES. TAX-YEAR 1941–42.

Type.Class.
Rural.Urban.Mixed.I.II.III.IV.
 £££££££
Ordinary5,792,7126,304,093137,1099,740,1241,510,457655,115328,218
Mortgage52,891,97912,572,939633,72057,051,2985,539,69496,1033,411,543
Hardship21,40025,589 40,4936,496  
    Totals58,706,09118,902,621770,82966,831,9157,056,647751,2183,739,761

The exemptions granted, which totalled £78,379,541, represented 44 per cent. of the total unimproved value of the holdings covered by the statistics. Individuals and partnerships (Class I) not only receive the great bulk of the total exemptions granted, but, owing to the generally lower value of holdings in this class, also have a higher proportionate deduction per return.

Lands classed as rural received 47 per cent. of the total ordinary exemption and 80 per cent. of the mortgage exemption. Information for rural, urban, and mixed lands in respect of ordinary and mortgage exemptions, according to the size of unimproved value, appears in the next table.

LAND-TAX STATISTICS.—ORDINARY AND MORTGAGE EXEMPTIONS, BY TYPE, TAX-YEAR 1941–42.

Amount of Unimproved Value.Ordinary Exemption.Mortgage Exemption.
Rural.Urban.Mixed.Total.Rural.Urban.Mixed.Total.
£ £££££££££
Under 5005,76811,404 17,1721,4171,494 2,911
500–599744,5531,311,77817,0002,073,331424,863429,1305,415859,408
600–699869,1291,294,40814,9012,178,438731,647593,78011,3541,336,781
700–799692,284886,2829,3021,587,868831,901514,2109,5791,355,690
800–899539,066629,37918,0141,186,459911,264469,7869,8481,390,898
900–999459,137481,26213,825954,224971,305450,04012,9491,434,294
1,000–1,9992,273,5651,605,83660,6713,940,07211,165,3923,032,230103,16814,300,790
2,000-2,499159,96167,9642,959230,8845,020,2781,009,05257,8406,087,170
2,500–2,99914,2143,978 18,1924,209,851777,24438,1055,025,200
3,000–3,99917,5673,44843721,4526,618,9901,190,60273,7747,883,366
4,000–4,9996,2881,868 8,1565,378,684928,53067,9106,375,124
5,000–5,9994,0861,400 5,4864,267,362653,16150,5024,971,025
6,000–6,9991,705  1,7053,460,239695,43449,2594,204,932
7,000–7,499733  7331,524,532376,38633,7051,934,623
7,500–7,9991,6581,000 2,6581,350,414207,63921,4171,579,470
8,000–8,999393  3932,321,974434,83423,9232,780,731
9,000–9,999 1,500 1,5001,555,571282,95426,8461,865,371
10,000–14,9992,6051,880 4,4852,077,191508,15328,1342,613,478
15,000–19,999    28,2414,8254,52637,592
20,000–20,999 478 47840,86313,455 54,318
30,000–39,999 228 228    
40,000 and over      5,4665,466
    Totals5,792,7126,304,093137,10912,233,91452,891,97912,572,939633,72066,098,638

It is interesting to compare the amount of the mortgage exemption and the amount of the total mortgages owing. The following table gives the relevant figures, for each unimproved-value category, for rural, urban, and mixed lands respectively.

Further information in connection with the subject of mortgages secured on land will be found in Section 31 of this volume.

LAND-TAX STATISTICS.—MORTGAGES OWING AND MORTGAGE EXEMPTIONS, TAX-YEAR 1941–42.

Amount of Unimproved Value.Rural.Urban.Mixed.
Total Mortgages owing.Mortgage Exemption.Total Mortgages owing.Mortgage Exemption.Total Mortgages owing.Mortgage Exemption.
£ £££££££
Under 5007,0191,4173,8821,194  
500–5991,046,709424,863996,023429,1309,9365,415
600–6991,626,762731,6471,287,532593,78019,20711,354
700–7991,789,026831,9011,125,198514,21030,2079,579
800–8991,895,354911,264974,276469,78616,5459,848
900–9991,845,078971,305836,745450,04031,45512,949
1,000–1,99918,881,96211,165,3925,782,9523,032,230183,813103,168
2,000–2,4997,740,2475,020,2781,987,2041,009,05273,60357,840
2,500–2,9996,163,0274,209,8511,395,008777,24468,43338,105
3,000–3,9999,349,1416,618,9902,111,2841,190,602102,94273,774
4,000–4,9997,329,1775,378,6841,631,371928,53090,66567,910
5,000–5,9996,092,2634,267,3621,163,278653,16180,08250,502
6,000–6,9994,675,2583,460,2391,198,599695,43466,67349,259
7,000–7,4992,062,3801,521,532508,242376,38652,69233,705
7,500–7,9991,880,5051,350,414325,166207,63945,38321,417
8,000–8,9993,662,3402,321,974915,369434,83438,96023,923
9,000–9,9993,063,3731,555,571749,956282,95455,06526,846
10,000–14,9998,461,4752,077,1913,098,543508,153260,79428,134
15,000–19,9993,251,74028,2411,547,6074,825165,0834,526
20,000–29,9992,579,69340,8631,666,58213,455107,068 
30,000–39,9991,219,046 915,150 83,526 
40,000–49,999356,264 412,404 175,0005,466
50,000–99,999187,911 2,396,386   
100,000 and over  977,456 11,870 
      Totals95,165,75052,891,97934,006,21312,572,9391,769,002633,720

Taxable Balance and Tax assessed.—The taxable balance represents the residue of the amount of the unimproved value after the deduction of the statutory exemption (if any) to which the taxpayer is entitled. Tax is payable according to the amount of the taxable balance. The graduated scale of tax in force for the tax-year 1941–42 was 1d. in the pound when the taxable unimproved value did not exceed £5,000. This rate was increased by 1/8000d. for every £1 of taxable unimproved value in excess of £5,000, with, however, a maximum rate of 6d. in the pound.

The unimproved value, taxable balance, and tax assessed, according to the type of land and also the class of owner, are shown in the table below.

LAND-TAX STATISTICS.—TAX ASSESSED, BY TYPES AND CLASSES, TAX-YEAR 1941–42.

Type.Class.
Rural.Urban.Mixed.I.II.III.IV.
 £££££££
Unimproved value119,163,70951,756,1915,486,746125,363,44222,919,2083,740,44724,383,549
Taxable balance60,457,61832,853,5704,715,91758,531,52715,862,5612,989,22920,643,788
Tax assessed495,677392,14085,774452,562155,9649,392355,673
Percentage of tax assessed to—       
  Unimproved value0·420·761·560·360·690·251·46
  Taxable balance0·821·191·820·770·980·311·72

The low percentages for Class III (Natives) are explained by the fact that, when Native land is liable for land-tax, the rate of tax is one-half of that charged on non-Native land.

The table following shows the average tax figures for holdings of the various categories on the basis of the amount of unimproved value. The averages move comparatively slowly until the higher categories are reached, when they rise steeply, a position due partly to the higher value itself, partly to a reduction in the proportion of exemption and the ultimate disappearance of the exemption, and partly to the graduated scale of taxation.

LAND-TAX STATISTICS.—TAX ASSESSED, BY AMOUNT OF UNIMPROVED VALUE, TAX-YEAR 1941–42.

Amount of Unimproved Value.Taxable Balance.Tax assessed.Average Tax assessed.
Per Return.Per Taxpayer.Per £1,000 of Unimproved Value.Per £100 of Taxable Balance.
£ ££££s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Under 50026,985124014501492128092
500–599272,6601,43205007308110108
600–699655,2363,4980109015001690108
700–799831,2853,698014611201970811
800–899881,9203,8350188183122088
900–999920,0744,4671561190170099
1,000–1,9999,593,73841,7212223981911088
2,000–2,4994,433,29018,886318231821152086
2,500–2,9993,912,53817,81258791101199091
3,000–3,9996,020,94026,50461081014811810810
4,000–4,9994,861,72420,682832131101169086
5,000–5,9993,786,44317,01610124170811810090
6,000–6,9993,144,50214,96813332040209096
7,000–7,4991,391,8787,30815171238623110106
7,500–7,9991,409,2627,22418144191492840103
8,000–8,9992,945,80517,189258726263000118
9,000–9,9993,125,53717,634337113410231080113
10,000–14,99913,343,982104,422781278017610100158
15,000–19,9998,253,47994,42719510019614511791211
20,000–29,9999,848,575141,834344523445214651810
30,000–39,9994,667,63392,500680211680211191641198
40,000–49,9992,948,18666,3431,0053111,0053112293250
50,000–99,9995,306,786119,5291,513061,5130622106251
100,000 and over5,444,647130,5384,2101814,210181231962711
    Totals98,027,105973,591141102204510501910

The final classification given is one on the basis of area, and rural lands only are included in the table. The figures in the “per acre” column show the effect of the high proportion of poorer lands among the larger holdings.

LAND-TAX STATISTICS.—TAX ASSESSED, RURAL LANDS, TAX-YEAR 1941–42.

Area, in Acres.Taxable Balance.Tax assessed.Average Tax assessed.
Per Return.Per Taxpayer.Per Acre.Per £1,000 of Unimproved Value.
 £££s.d.£s.d.s.d.£s.d.
Under 55,379290880127220160
5 and under 1084,454379016011922114
10 and under 15143,77961l10018018136
15 and under 20172,6707361881178181113
20 and under 30423,4232,1621167290161159
30 and under 40456,2022,012116112107111125
40 and under 50503,3852,22511412115091910
50 and under 751,474,3046,2761146218507179
75 and under 1001,712,6477,3052363151106198
100 and under 1503,354,55214,442289411405187
150 and under 2002,812,13212,3083575184051127
200 and under 2502,564,22711,398312961300411211
250 and under 3202,881,46613,9724139894041176
320 and under 4002,683,19514,393604105604232
400 and under 5002,727,38713,83760410100031198
500 and under 6403,668,42821,105948151110421211
640 and under 7502,018,72211,416914101653032911
750 and under 1,0003,799,70224,069131792213304337
1,000 and under 2,0009,903,92480,257301134413305512
2,000 and under 3,0005,381,61656,00768949459077183
3,000 and under 4,0003,752,81546,35411995148115081041
4,000 and under 5,0002,080,73829,697148981781711081265
5,000 and under 7,5003,108,48644,8581861822171520712153
7,500 and under 10,0001,436,35624,7692521411272390715122
10,000 and under 15,0001,476,92025,607278693460100615181
15,000 and under 20,000622,1698,53121814102753100312122
20,000 and under 30,000467,2697,49424910029915203141010
30,000 and under 40,000153,0762,165216100240111011324
40,000 and under 50,000156,0412,225278263701680113103
50,000 and over432,1519,0381,1291501,1291500320183
      Totals60,457,618495,67711136196605432

Chapter 34. SECTION 34.—INCOMES AND INCOME-TAX.

Table of Contents

INCOMES AND TAX ASSESSMENT.—Complete statistics of annual income are not available for New Zealand, but valuable data exist in regard to incomes of those-furnishing returns to the Commissioner of Taxes for the purpose of income-tax assessment. A system of annual statistics from the particulars on the income-tax returns was inaugurated in 1923 and was continued up to and including the tax-year 1931–32, but was then discontinued for reasons of economy. The compilation was later resumed, commencing with the tax-year 1934–35.

Information concerning the system of income-tax in New Zealand is given earlier under the heading of “Taxation” (vide pp. 365–368). The statistical data relating to income-tax given in this section more properly belong to the Taxation section referred to, but it is considered preferable to treat the figures relating to the incidence of tax with those showing the distribution of the incomes on which the tax is assessed.

The information given in the earlier section relates for the most part only to current (1942) income-tax law, but in this section, in those instances where the law which was in force during the tax-year 1940–41 has since been materially altered, a brief reference is made to the position as it existed in 1940–41. Income-tax law is dynamic rather than static, and amendments have been frequently passed. Caution is therefore necessary in making comparisons of the figures for any one year with those for another year.

It should be explained that the incomes returned in any tax-year are those for the preceding income-year; thus, the statistics for the tax-year 1940–41 relate to incomes received during the year 1939–40, which, in general, may be taken as the twelve months ended 31st March, 1940.

The returns from which these statistics are compiled are required from all taxpayers. In addition, whether taxpayers or not, all companies and public or local authorities engaged in any profession, trade, manufacture, or undertaking carried on for pecuniary profit, irrespective of the amount of income derived, and all persons in receipt of incomes of £200 or over, are required to furnish returns. The statistical compilation is, however, limited to taxpayers and to persons whose assessable incomes amount to £200 at least.

The reference to persons whose assessable incomes are £200 or over should not be interpreted as meaning that there is a complete coverage of incomes over that amount. Certain types of non-assessable income (these are referred to later in this section) are not included in the returns, and are therefore completely omitted from these statistics. The coverage of the returns is also incomplete in one other respect. It is known that a number of persons with assessable incomes of between £200 and £300 fail to furnish returns. The first £200 of assessable income is exempted, and the great majority of missing returns for incomes over £200 represent persons who are known to be entitled to other exemptions which would bring them into the non-taxpaying category.

SUMMARY OF INCOMES, EXEMPTIONS, AND TAX.—The following table briefly summarizes the main items of information for each of the last five tax-years available.

Item.1936–37.1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.

*Excluding company income, where distinction between earned and unearned income is not made for taxation purposes.

† Not available.

‡ Includes the additional 15 per cent. credited to the War Expenses Account.

Number of returns155,677195,578222,059264,523306,099
Number of taxpayers86,888117,574139,800182,128216,333
 £££££
Earned income*46,053,07263,663,20270,517,92782,281,829102,652,329
Assessable income69,077,67891,873,18999,268,262112,184,442138,861,448
Proprietary income3,651,580
Total returnable income72,371,19595,940,109103,188,553116,456,382146,331,986
Exemptions—     
Personal29,822,28937,758,34543,158,99849,257,54658,791,268
Other8,452,22311,176,49313,041,71015,987,00819,352,168
Taxable balance30,803,16642,938,35143,067,55446,939,88860,718,012
Tax assessed6,454,1179,130,0428,984,59812,012,497‡18,814,704‡

Probably the most striking feature disclosed by these figures is the cumulative effect of the large increases shown in each individual year. A strict comparison is, however, not possible, as changes in compilation practice and numerous amendments in income-tax law have affected the comparability of one year's figures with those of another. The inclusion, commencing with tin' tax-year 1940–41, of all farming incomes in excess of £200 has had a considerable effect on the statistics.

INCOMES BY CLASSES.—Prior to the tax-year 1937–38, taxpayers were divided into four classes—viz., individuals, companies, agents for debenture-holders, and nonresident traders. Since the passing of the Land and Income Tax Amendment Act, 1927, the importance of the third class has gradually diminished, and it was decided in 1937–38 to discontinue it as a separate class. The effect of the amendment in question was to release companies from the duty of acting as agents for their debenture-holders resident in New Zealand, provided that certified lists containing certain specified information sufficient to identify the holders, together with particulars of interest payable, &c., are furnished to the Commissioner of Taxes.

“Individuals" comprise all returns for individual persons, other than nonresident traders, and include estates of deceased persons. Partnership returns are ignored in the compilation, as the individual shares of partnership income are included in the individual tax assessments.

The term “companies” not only covers companies incorporated under the Companies Act, 1933, and other Acts relating to the formation of companies, but also includes local and public authorities, associations (incorporated or unincorporated), and aggregations of individuals (other than partnerships) which form separate and distinct entities for income-tax purposes.

A classification on the basis of class is given in the following table for each of the last three tax-years.

Class.Number of Returns.Number of Taxpayers.Aggregate Assessable Income.
1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.*

* Excluding proprietary income.

Individuals214,165256,947298,222131,906174,552208,45679,157,12591,223,462112,276,048
Companies6,5857,0407,3606,5857,0407,36019,774,26020,736,85326,351,459
Non-resident traders1,3095365171,309536517336,877224,127233,941
    Totals222,059264,523306,099139,800182,128216,33399,268,262112,184,442138,861,448

It is interesting to note that the number of returns furnished by individuals was, in 1940–41, equivalent to 57 per cent. of the male population twenty-one years of age and over, and 28 per cent. of the total adult population of the Dominion. Corresponding percentages for taxpayers were 40 and 20 respectively.

Amount of Income.—The broad principle adopted in calculating the assessable income is that any expenditure or loss exclusively incurred in the production of the assessable income for any year may be deducted from the total income from any assessable source for that year. Depreciation is allowed, varying rates for different classes of assets being fixed. Where the operations of a source of income which would be assessable for income-tax have resulted in a loss for the year, the loss may be set off against assessable profits from other sources (if any) or, in default thereof, may be set off against assessable profits in the three following years. Capital profits are not assessable and capital losses are not deductible.

Full details of incomes (earned, assessable, and total returnable) of the various sizes in conjunction with source of income and class of taxpayer are contained in the Statistical Report on Prices, &c. Summarized figures are given under subsequent headings, where, for the sake of convenience and clarity, each of the three classes of taxpayers is dealt with as a separate entity.

Incomes of Individuals:Assessable Income.—Summarized figures according to amount of assessable income of individuals are now given for the last three years available.

Amount of Assessable Income.Number of Returns.Aggregate Assessable Income.
1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.*

* Excluding proprietary income.

£ £   £££
Under 300111,983134,037139,79226,913,22732,294,92434,450,009
300–39955,54472,57588,81218,815,39824,234,20129,988,649
400–49918,79621,49529,5488,272,6709,452,64812,969,442
500–5998,8239,73513,7044,777,6405,272,1257,401,599
600–6995,1505,4207,6343,317,6043,487,6214,895,381
700–7993,3313,3834,7562,478,7792,517,6633,537,762
800–8992,3212,2653,2711,958,3641,911,5762,756,895
900–9991,5501,6312,1021,464,0561,542,7021,986,972
1,000–1,9995,2965,1626,9317,084,8196,849,4139,113,168
2,000–2,9999318511,1262,215,3722,011,4852,651,103
3,000–3,999265250316894,758843,8421,076,678
4,000–4,9999873120428,950315,108526,623
5,000 and over7770110535,488490,154921,767
    Totals214,165256,947298,22279,157,12591,223,462112,276,048

In 1940–41, 69·0 per cent. of the total assessable income came within categories of under £500; 18·3 per cent. in categories of £500–£999; and 12·7 per cent. in categories of £1,000 or over.

Assessable Earned Income.—Earned income is defined as all income derived from any source by a taxpayer (not being a company or a public or local authority) by reason of his personal exertions. Pensions and superannuation are regarded as earned income. Earned income is, of course, exempted from the surtax of 33⅓ per cent. on standard rates which is payable on unearned income of individuals but not of companies.

The next table shows the amount of earned income included in the total assessable income of individuals for the various categories according to the size of assessable income.

Amount of Assessable Income.Assessable Earned Income.Proportion of Assessable Income.
1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.*1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.

*Excluding proprietary Income.

    PerPerPer
£ ££££Cent.Cent.Cent.
Under 30025,132,82930,264,89832,476,36093·3893·7194·27
300–39917,571,33622,869,60328,563,43593·3994·3795·25
400–4997,340,8408,492,52911,919,39988·7489·8491·90
500–5994,048,4554,499,2766,628,27384·7485·3489·55
600–6992,763,3162,908,7664,291,42983·2983·4087·66
700–7992,009,7062,073,0513,037,63181·0882·3485·86
800–8991,603,7991,537,8872,327,64481·8980·4584·43
900–9991,175,1581,264,4961,669,11380·2781·9784·00
1,000–1,9995,689,5445,515,1047,544,69080·3180·5282·79
2,000–2,9991,787,6771,587,7042,120,99480·6978·9380·00
3,000–3,999681,304641,740832,69476·1476·0577·34
4,000–4,999300,419213,951394,70270·0467·9074·95
5,000 and over411,672399,724805,47376·8881·5587·38
    Totals70,516,05582,268,729102,611,83789·0890·1891·39

Generally speaking, the proportion of earned income falls as the size of the assessable income increases, although exceptions to the rule will be observed.

Proprietary Income.—The income-tax year 1940–41 saw the introduction of this classification of income. There are two factors which must be present before the income of a company can be proprietary income in the hands of the shareholder. The first is that the control must be in the hands of not more than four persons. If this is the case, then the company is a proprietary company. The second factor is that a shareholder of a proprietary company is not a proprietary shareholder unless he is entitled to receive not less than one-fifth of the company's income. Only in the case of a proprietary shareholder in a proprietary company is the shareholder's proportion of the company's income transferred to the shareholder's assessment. A proprietary shareholder may be an estate or another company.

In those cases where proprietary income is transferred, then that income becomes assessable income in the hands of the shareholder. The tax is assessed on the taxable balance (including proprietary income), but a credit in respect of proprietary income is allowed against the gross amount of tax thus assessed.

Prior to 1940–41 only the dividends received by the proprietary shareholder were included as non-assessable income, but now the proprietary shareholder's share of the company's profits is included in the assessment as assessable income. It will be seen that this change in practice affects the comparability of the statistics with earlier years, and for statistical purposes it has been decided to exclude proprietary income from assessable income and show this information separately. Proprietary income has, however, been included in total returnable income, and the comparison with previous years is affected accordingly.

The following table shows the amount of proprietary income included in 1940–41, according to categories of returnable income. These figures relate to individuals only; particulars of proprietary income received by companies will be found in the latter part of this section.

Amount of Total Returnable Income (including Proprietary).Proprietary Income.Amount of Total Returnable Income (including Proprietary).Proprietary Income.
£ £££ ££
Under 3002,7821,000–1,999572,888
300–3997,9612,000–2,999380,665
400–49924,6853,000–3,999252,571
500–59931,7204,000–4,999143,669
600–69936,4105,000–9,999345,533
700–79950,03610,000 and over322,566
800–89948,645  
900–99965,963    Total2,286,094

Total Returnable Income.—Commencing with the tax-year 1931–32, certain classes of non-assessable income are taken into account in determining the rate of tax. Statistics of total returnable income were introduced in 1935–36. The total returnable income is obtained by adding to the assessable income the amount of any non-assessable income of the classes used for rate determination. The classes concerned comprise dividends from companies trading in New Zealand, interest on New Zealand Government securities issued free of tax, and interest on company debentures issued free of tax or with a floating rate of interest.

These classes would comprise the greater part of any non-assessable income received by persons whose returns are included in the statistics.

The following table gives particulars of the number of returns and total returnable income of individuals according to size of income.

Amount of Total Returnable Income.Number of Returns.Total Returnable Income.
1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.*

* Including proprietary income.

£ £   £££
Under 300110,789133,682138,18926,677,33532,069,56334,105,976
300–39955,27171,39888,01818,687,30724,099,34429,720,587
400–49918,64221,50129,3698,208,0689,459,12512,894,760
500–5998,9659,71613,6294,809,6225,263,4137,366,610
600–6995,3005,5537,7073,414,8043,573,6334,944,486
700–7993,4453,4904,8392,568,0592,597,4413,598,304
800–8992,3782,3883,4492,008,7332,016,1892,907,404
900–9991,6661,7322,3091,575,2451,638,1212,184,354
1,000–1,9995,8105,7048,0017,833,3337,635,78710,697,951
2,000–2,9991,1461,1141,6082,728,4582,650,2233,825,248
3,000–3,9993863345481,297,0731,132,2061,877,712
4,000–4,999164150246727,505661,8511,085,658
5,000–9,9991741622481,150,7461,052,0261,671,670
10,000 and over292362470,578354,5231,028,161
      Totals214,165256,947298,22282,156,86694,203,445117,908,881

From a comparison of the foregoing table with that based on the amount of “assessable” income, it will be observed that the larger income categories are most affected by the inclusion of the non-assessable income. In the tax-year 1940–41 there were 110 cases where the amount of “assessable” income of individuals was over £5,000, the aggregate assessable income being £921,767: on the basis of total returnable income there were 310 cases, aggregating £2,699,831, with incomes exceeding £5,000.

Aggregation of Incomes: Husband and Wife.—A further innovation in income-tax procedure was introduced in the tax-year 1940–41 by the aggregation of incomes of husband and wife, if (a) they are living together, and (b) the returnable income in each ease exceeds £200. The income of the wife is deemed to be the income of the husband, and an aggregate assessment is made in the name of the husband. In such cases a personal exemption of £200 is allowable for the wife, in addition to that allowable to the husband. Provision is made for separate assessments if written application is made by either the husband or wife before an aggregate assessment has been made.

The following table shows the “aggregate” assessments for 1940–41 according to the amount of assessable income. In this table it will be noted that the number of returns is given as 1,737, but in actual fact 3,474 were received.

Amount of Assessable Income.Number of Returns.Number of Taxpayers.Aggregate Assessable Income.Proprietary Income.Returnable Income.Taxable Balance.Tax assessed.
£ £  £££££
Under 40022217,923 11,6331,474294
400–49912812758,9366,68682,7447,3721,470
500–599307306169,4233,119182,90437,9916,251
600–699272271176,0396,670199,7875l,7409,264
700–799189189140,86012,809167,30555,32911,121
800–899132132111,84615,209134,30449,60010,004
900–999818177,0612,22090,88839,0397,983
1,000–1,999423423581,69074,552746,347372,756102,427
2,000–2,999112112267,24332,672360,897208,62074,411
3,000–3,9994040138,9586,988165,969116,46647,569
4,000–4,999171775,1943,36283,90166,26131,598
5,000 and over1414117,246131126,083110,15455,206
    Total1,7371,7331,922,419164,4182,352,7621,116,802357,598

The figures for aggregate assessments are included in the relative tables in this section.

Sources of Income.—In the compilation of the statistics a distinction is made as to the source from which assessable income is derived, incomes being divided into ten groups according to source as follows:—

Source No.Source.
0Salary or wages.
1Following professional occupation on own account.
2Commerce, trade, or business.
3Industry or manufacture.
4Farming.
5Provision of transport or communication.
6Building or construction.
7Mining or extraction.
8Investments and the like.
9Provision of or engaging in entertainment.

Actual figures as to the amount of income derived from the various sources are not available on account of the fact that, in a considerable proportion of cases, income is obtained from more than one source. The rule followed in such cases in compiling the statistics is to include the whole income under the principal source from which assessable income is derived. As an indication of the extent to which the figures are affected, attention is drawn to the inclusion of £1,439,555 unearned assessable income for source 0 (salary or wages), and of £476,603 earned income for source 8 (investments and the like).

The following table shows the distribution of incomes of individuals from the various sources, and also the proportions of assessable earned income to total assessable and total returnable income, and of total assessable to total returnable income.

Source of Assessable Income.Assessable Earned Income.Total Assessable Income,*Total Returnable Income.†Proportion of—
Assessable Earned to Total Assessable Income.Assessable Earned to Total Returnable Income.Total Assessable to Total Returnable Income.

* Excluding proprietary income.

† Including proprietary income.

 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
074,457,43775,896,99278,305,57898·1095·0996·92
13,009,9443,160,1943,364,58795·2589·4693·93
28,442,8528,856,1669,923,20895·3385·0889·25
3268,597279,983376,87495·9371·2774·29
414,410,12514,972,13215,213,61696·2594·7298·41
5679,644688,908697,19998·6697·4898·81
6777,413801,942821,50396·9494·6397·62
769,47171,22773,29797·5394·7897·18
8476,6037,528,1749,112,6836·335·2382·61
919,75120,33020,33697·1597·1299·97
    Totals102,611,837112,276,048117,908,88191·3987·0395·22

Exemptions.—In the case of individuals, certain statutory deductions are made from the assessable income, and income-tax is paid on the balance. Absentees are not usually entitled to the benefit of these exemptions. The exemptions in force during the tax-year 1940–41 were—

  1. A personal exemption of £200.

  2. An exemption of £50 in respect of a dependent husband or wife whose personal income does not exceed £50.

  3. An exemption not exceeding £50 in respect of a housekeeper employed by a widow, widower, or divorced person to have the care and control of any child or children.

  4. A sum of £50 for each child, grandchild, adopted child, or stepchild under the age of eighteen years who is dependent on the taxpayer. The exemption is also allowed for a permanently incapacitated child over the age of eighteen years.

  5. Contributions not exceeding £50 towards the support of a widowed mother or mother-in-law. Also contributions towards the support of dependent relatives, but not exceeding £50 in respect of any one relative.

  6. Life-insurance premiums, National Provident Fund, superannuation, and similar contributions. An exemption is allowed up to a maximum of 15 per cent. of assessable income or £150. whichever amount is the less.

In the statistics the exemptions are applied in the order in which they appear in the foregoing list. For example, a married man with two children is entitled to the following exemptions: Personal, £200; wife, £50; children, £100; and (say) £15 life assurance premiums, &c. The total exemption is thus £365. Assuming that his assessable income is £300, the exemptions are reduced to a total sufficient to make the taxable balance “nil” and are recorded as personal, £200; wife, £50; and children, £50.

The next table shows the average amount of exemption allowed in the tax-year 1940–41 for each £100 of assessable income.

Amount of Assessable Income.Exemptions per £100 of Assessable Income.
Personal.Wife, Housekeeper.Children.Mother, Mother-in-law, &c.Life Assurance, &c.Total.
£ £££££££
Under 30077·89·42·90·21·291·5
300–39959·110·210·40·32·582·5
400–49945·78·011·40·33·769·1
500–59937·86·29·30·33·957·5
600–69932·35·18·10·24·049·7
700–79928·04·36·80·24·143·4
800–89924·73·65·80·23·938·2
900–99921·83·45·40·24·235·0
1,000–1,99916·22·13·60·23·926–0
2,000–2,9999·30·91·90·23·015·3
3,000–3,9996·30·51·20·12·310·4
4,000–4,9995·30·40·90·12·08·7
5,000 and over2·50·20·30·10·73·8
      Totals52·47·66·80·22·669·6

The total exemptions granted to individuals during the tax-year 1940–41 amounted to £78,136,241, of which “personal” accounted for £58,784,073; wife, &c., £8,556,774; children, £7,588,441; widowed mother, &c., £271,746; and life-assurance premiums, &c., £2,935,207. The comparatively low figure shown as exemptions for children results, of course, from the application of the previously mentioned rule relating to the reduction of potential exemptions.

Taxable Balance and Tax assessed.—After all exemptions have been deducted from the assessable income the balance of income (if any) is taxed in accordance with the schedule relating to the particular tax-year.

Exemptions being practically limited to individuals, this is the only class in which the assessable income and taxable balance are not generally identical. The next table gives for this class particulars of taxable balance and of total tax assessed for the various income categories in 1940–41 and the two preceding tax-years.

Amount of Assessable Income.Taxable Balance.Total Tax assessed.
1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.1938–39.1939–40.*1940–41.*

* Includes the additional 15 per cent. credited to the War Expenses Account.

£ £££££££
Under 3001,836,6412,911,1942,944,116180,318379,757462,926
300–3992,785,9854,169,6995,261,669204,531533,294806,925
400–4992,367,0122,904,9084,007,331235,560390,609643,359
500–5991,957,0712,270,3563,147,289204,331319,403530,762
600–6991,662,5201,800,2402,461,596180,616262,493435,938
700–7991,409,7991,447,2592,002,162160,925219,326375,753
800–8991,195,7201,185,0591,704,135141,341187,876335,367
900–999952,4431,019,3951,290,650117,280164,597265,957
1,000–1,9995,251,6905,095,8236,743,292770,861962,0571,683,657
2,000–2,9991,864,1731,686,2212,244,762367,182421,863760,344
3,000–3,999782,997745,961964,672195,165228,068393,617
4,000–4,999388,857289,444480,975116,718102,077217,636
5,000 and over501,558453,898887,158193,716208,875449,558
Totals22,956,46625,979,45734,139,8073,128,5444,380,2957,361,809

While the foregoing table shows the aggregate taxable balance and amount of tax assessed in respect of individuals in receipt of the various amounts of assessable income, it does not indicate the number of individuals with taxable balances of different amounts or the tax-assessed categories.

Tables showing the analyses by size of taxable balance and by size of tax assessed are published in the Statistical Report on Prices, &c., but space limitations preclude their repetition here. In the tax-year 1940–41, 208,456 individuals contributed to the income-tax revenue, and of these. 52,907 cases were assessed for under £5 of tax, 43,314 for over £5 and under £10, and 99,417 for over £10 and under £100. At the other end of the scale. 539 individuals had incomes which were liable for a tax of £1,000 or over.

The rates of tax payable by individuals for the tax-year 1938–39 were 1s. 8d. in the pound, increased by 1/100d. for every £1 of taxable income where the taxable income did not exceed £5,500. Incomes over that amount paid 6s. 3d. in the £1, increased by 1/100d. for every £1 of taxable income in excess of £5,500, with a maximum rate of 8s. 2d. in the £1. For the tax-year 1939–40 the rate of tax payable was 2s. in the pound, increased by 1/100d. for every £1 of taxable income, with a maximum rate of 8s. 7d. in the £1. For 1940–41 tax-year the rate of tax was 2s. 6d. in the £1 on so much of the taxable income as did not exceed £100. For each succeeding £100 or part thereof the rate of tax was increased by 3d. up to a maximum rate of 12s., which was reached at incomes of £3,800. These rates, introduced in 1940–41. are known as basic rates, and are subject to a percentage increase or decrease each year in accordance with the provisions of the annual taxing Act fixing rates for that year. An additional tax of 33⅓ per cent. on these rates was imposed in respect of unearned incomes. In addition to the foregoing, a further amount equal to 15 per cent. of the above rates was imposed for war purposes in 1939–40 and 1940–11. This additional amount is included in the “total tax assessed” columns in this section. Tax is payable on the amount of the taxable balance, but, as explained previously, the rate of tax is determined by the amount of the total returnable income.

The next table gives, in respect of incomes of individuals, particulars for the last three tax-years of the amount of tax assessed for each of the ten groups of sources, together with various averages for 1940–41.

Source.Total Tax assessed.Average Tax assessed, 1940–41.*
1938–39.1939–40.*1940–41.*Per Return.Per Taxpayer.Per £1 Assessable Income.Per £l Taxable Balance.

*Includes the additional 15 per cent. credited to the War Expenses Account.

 £££££s. d.s. d.
01,206,6482,135,2763,001,06513200 93 8
1216,330280,954443,6581081222 104 9
2337,874440,2501,116,04569882 65 1
37,82712,43757,0011551794 16 7
4542,745461,5021,344,81545611 94 3
524,48229,82953,85937481 43 11
627,56845,691104,96777952 75 2
72,3712,3514,92730381 53 11
8762,183971,0161,233,13061643 35 9
95169892,34269812 44 2
Totals3,128,5444,380,2957,361,80925351 44 4

Company Incomes.—It is perhaps desirable to draw attention to the fact that the term “companies” as it is used in connection with these statistics has been given a wider meaning than that which is commonly assigned to it. A definition of the term will be found on page 513.

The various statutory exemptions which are granted to individuals do not apply in the ease of companies. The numbers of returns and taxpayers, also the amounts of assessable income and the taxable balance, are identical in the case of companies.

The following table gives particulars of the number of taxpayer companies and their aggregate assessable incomes for 1940–41 and the two preceding tax-years.

Amount of Total Assessable Income.Number of Returns and Taxpayers.Aggregate Assessable Income.
1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.*

* Excluding proprietary income.

£ £   £££
Under 1001,3371,4641,45153,03856,50551,103
100–199709745747102,480109,390108,180
200–299509605573124,323147,748138,988
300–399467449461160,366154,748159,047
400–499336374396150,297165,748176,391
500–599278326333150,007176,809180,081
600–699263269243170,343173,489158,936
700–799196187220146,694140,028164,672
800–899175188188147,806159,391158,934
900–999166144155157,225136,232147,575
1,000–1,9998989409711,260,3201,313,8041,363,920
2,000–2,999385416437950,8961,008,3321,061,653
3,000–3,999196226282674,423782,092970,440
4,000–4,999136117147604,005521,300655,022
5,000–5,90086111121484,093609,987658,596
6,000–6,999726787465,917433,861561,101
7,000–7,999404357302,472318,719421,911
8,000–8,999282751238,812228,717432,955
9,000–9,999252539236,997237,049370,849
10,000–19,9991221451711,705,4402,085,5032,371,895
20,000–29,9006160791,482,5541,483,8121,906,753
30,000–39,000233344791,7831,159,4751,527,105
40,000–49,099162221708,049990,032954,083
50,000–99,9993427482,338,1801,880,3973,308,552
100,000 and over2730386,167,7406,263,6858,338,717
    Totals6,5857,0407,36019,774,26020,736,85326,351,459

Of the total assessable income of companies for 1940–41, £18,047,471 was derived from commerce, trade, or business; £5,610,461 from industry or manufacture; £116,145 from farming; £789,537 from transport or communication; £290,771 from building or construction; £344,990 from mining or extraction; £845,842 from investments, &c.; and £306,242 from entertainment, sport, or recreation.

Proprietary Income, of Companies.—The following are tin? details of proprietary income included in the company assessments. For a description of this class of income see page 515:—

Amount of Total Returnable Income (including Proprietary).Proprietary Income.Amount of Total Returnable income (including Proprietary).Proprietary Income.
£ £££ ££
Under 1,0007,2829,000–9,99920,732
1,000–1,9996,06010,000–19,999157,028
2,000–2,99914,69320,000–20,99950,773
3,000–3,99915,66030,000–30,999234,744
4,000–4,9999,14540,000–49,99958,500
5,000–5,99920,42250,000–99,999247,555
6,000–6,99919,314100,000 and over476,107
7,000–7,9998,121  
8,000–8,99919,350    Total1,365,486

Total Returnable Income.—The table hereunder shows the amounts of total returnable income of companies and tax assessed thereon, classified according to the size of the assessable income.

Amount of Total Assessable Income.Total Returnable Income.Total Tax assessed.
1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.*1938–39.1939–40.†1940–41.†

* Including proprietary Income.

† Includes the additional 15 per cent. credited to the War Expenses Account.

£ £££££££
Under 100101,41169,184138,5153,0626,8119,352
100–199113,395133,298151,6555,93213,24916,080
200–299128,899149,553211,9057,75918,79021,523
300–399171,116161,534313,57210,53819,86225,629
400–499156,071174,701454,34310,48321,82829,376
500–599235,993306,579195,87211,25724,18330,188
600–699172,140175,785158,66613,28624,10727,290
700–799147,669141,961166,66011,91220,04129,199
800–899149,176164,762160,66312,81423,08729,151
900–999166,677138,212151,20014,28820,37027,582
1,000–1,9991,287,0861,384,8331,422,524141,349225,497293,964
2,000–2,999961,0751,031,4041,125,913147,515210,808280,753
3,000–3,999729,964793,5931,069,721135,354195,148304,395
4,000–4,999658,752523,012686,678144,761150,430235,880
5,000–5,999519,369639,362675,386136,788202,724267,505
6,000–6,999471,696459,420585,606144,337158,002256,945
7,000–7,999308,911320,955459,55497,920125,896199,017
8,000–8,999239,861229,920440,39085,317100,834212,275
9,000–9,999243,258239,361394,90188,874105,194179,785
10,000–19,9991,785,2452,263,9582,583,288631,340935,6371,177,273
20,000–29,9991,584,6251,549,3442,013,134536,756654,369954,876
30,000–39,999844,3611,209,6651,580,119279,536527,801757,939
40,000–49,999765,2521,037,878981,245250,478418,133459,689
50,000–99,9992,441,3742,010,1813,485,441829,444834,1111,580,608
100,000 and over6,292,3826,714,0938,575,5752,049,1422,532,7673,981,988
    Totals20,675,75822,022,54828,182,5265,800,2427,570,57911,388,262

The figures shown in respect of total returnable income, classified according to the size of that income, do not vary greatly from the figures in the foregoing table. The difference between the assessable income and the total returnable income for 1940–41 amounted to only £1,831,067, and included £1,365,486 proprietary income.

For 1938–39 the actual rate of tax payable by a company having a taxable income not exceeding £5,500 was 1s. in the £1, increased by 1/100d. for every £1 of taxable income. On incomes of over £5,500 the rates were 5s. 7d., increased by 1/150d. for every £1 in excess of £5,500, with a maximum rate of 7s. 6d. in the £1. The amount payable for the tax-year 1939–40 was 2s. in the £1, increased by 1/125d. for every £1 of taxable income, with a maximum rate of 7s. 11d. in the £1.

For 1940–41 the rate was 2s. 6d., increased by 1/100d. for every £1 of taxable income up to £6,600. Where the taxable income exceeded £6,600 the rate was 8s., increased by 1/150d. for every £1 of the taxable income in excess of £6,600, with a maximum rate of 8s. 9d. in the £1. In addition to the foregoing, a further amount equal to 15 per cent. of the above rates was imposed for war purposes in 1939–40 and 1940–41, and this additional amount is included in the “total tax assessed” columns in this section. Companies do not pay the additional tax of 33⅓ per cent. on unearned income.

Income-tax levied on companies in 1940–41 was equal to 43·2 per cent. of the assessable income for that year. For total returnable income the tax assessed was equal to 40·4 per cent.

Non-resident Traders.—A non-resident trader is defined as any person who, being in New Zealand, carries on business there without having any fixed and permanent place of business or abode in the Dominion. Returns made by agents for non-resident traders, and returns by the consignees of overseas goods sold on consignment account, are included in this class.

The principal figures for the tax-years 1939–40 and 1940–41 in respect of non resident traders are given in the following table.

Amount of Total Assessable Income.Number of Returns and Taxpayers.Total Assessable Income.Total Tax assessed.
1939–40.1940–41.1939–40.1940–41.1939–40.*1940–41.*

* Includes the additional 15 per cent. credited to the War Expenses Account.

£ £  ££££
Under 1003172429,7827,3101,063940
100–19963818,90611,2539981,314
200–299475111,13712,7831,3041,653
300–39925248,5098,2841,2391,195
400–49916277,13811,9679591,702
500–59914147,6687,6261,0441,196
600–699482,5345,0413491,606
700–7998165,86111,8547951,989
800–899483,3786,746493946
900–999362,8165,7784261,034
1,000–1,999141820,75124,9893,6404,977
2,000–2,9997917,39520,9653,6904,990
3,000 and over1413118,25299,34545,62341,091
    Totals536517224,127233,94161,62364,633

A special exemption of £50 is allowed, except where the principal is a company. The rates of tax are the same as those applying to New Zealand residents.

SOCIAL SECURITY RETURNS: INCOMES OF INDIVIDUALS.—The Social Security Act, 1938, and regulations under it, require every person of the age of sixteen years or over to furnish annually a declaration of income (other than salary or wages) for the year ended 31st March. Part II of the declaration for the year 1938–39 comprised a statistical questionnaire on which was required to be shown the total income of the individual, including salary or wages, and this data was used for the compilation of statistics of incomes by the Census and Statistics Department. Detailed results of this tabulation were given as an appendix to the Statistical Report on Prices, &c., for the year 1938, while a survey of the results of this inquiry was included in the 1941 and 1942 issues of the Year-Book.

AGGREGATE PRIVATE INCOME.—The concept of “aggregate private income” is obviously open to divergent interpretations. For the purpose of the estimates shown below, it is taken to consist of the gross income of persons from wages, salaries, pensions, investments, &c., and the net income (gross receipts, less expenditure incurred in earning them) of business houses, farmers, professional men, landlords, employers of labour, etc. Capital receipts—e.g., from deceased persons' estates, repayments of debts, &c.—arc excluded. It is probable that the estimate understates the aggregate private income, owing, in some cases, to failure to furnish returns of “other” income or to the inclusion of domestic expenditure or living-costs among expenditure incurred in earning income. No allowance is made on this account in the statistical computation, and the estimates should be regarded as on the conservative side. All payments made in New Zealand to the personnel of the Navy, Army, and Air Force are included in the estimates of salaries and wages.

The computations for the last three years are based mainly on a consideration of the receipts from the social security charge under the Social Security Act, 1938, this charge having replaced the employment charge under the Employment Promotion Act, which formed the basis of previous estimates. Under the Employment Promotion Act certain classes of income were exempt from the charge, necessitating the use of estimates based on other relevant data. The Social Security Act extended the charge to most of the classes in question, and they are now included under the main headings.

The Social Security Act also extended the charge to cover income of companies, and this has now permitted a computation showing the full amount of company income. This is fully so only in respect of 1939–40 and 1940–41, as the Act provided that dividends declared on or before 31st March, 1939, and paid in whole or in part out of the income for the year ended on that date were deductible from the chargeable income of the company for 1938–39. Such dividends (as was the case with all dividends of companies prior to the operation of the Social Security Act) were returned by recipients as “other” income. The effect of this is that the 1938–39 and later years figures for “other” income of individuals and for company income are nor comparable with the figures under their respective heads for previous years, nor are the figures for 1938–39 fully comparable with those for 1939–40 and 1940–41. The figures shown for company income for 1937–38 and previous years consist mainly of undistributed income and income-tax payments.

From the foregoing description of the scope of the statistics, it will be realized that the term “aggregate private income”, as defined, is not identical with the broader concept “national income.”

The receipts for any year from the charge on wages relate to wages and salaries of the current year, while those from the charge on other incomes are in respect of incomes during the preceding year. For the 1940–41 computation, therefore, the 1940–41 receipts from the charge on wages and salaries and the 1941–42 receipts from that on other incomes are taken.

1936–37.1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.

* Not fully comparable with previous yours—see letterpress.

 £(m).£(m).£(m).£(m).£(m).
Salaries and wages85·998·6109·5112·8123·6
Other income of individuals54·555·552·8*52·6*52·8*
Social security benefits and pensions4·96·36·811·212·4
Sustenance payments1·71·40·7  
Company income (including income tax payments)10·511·516·0*23·6*27·7*
      Totals157·5173·3185·8200·2216·5

The proportionate distribution of aggregate private income between salary and wage receipts and other income is shown in the following summary.

Salaries and Wages.“Other" Income (including Company Income).Social Security Benefits Pensions, &c.Total.
Amount.Per Cent. of Total.Amount.Per Cent. of Total.Amount.Per Cent. of Total.

* Not available.

 £(m.) £(m). £(m.) £(m).
1936–3785·954·565·041·36·64·2157·5
1937–3898·656·967·038·77·74·4173·3
1938·39109·558·968·837·07·54·1185·8
1939–40112·856·376·238·111·25·6200·2
1940–41123·657·180·537·212·45·7216·5
1941–42133·0******

It is of interest to compare the year-to-year movement in the total of aggregate private income with the movement in the estimates of value of production and of value of goods available for consumption in the Dominion. In making comparisons, however, it should be remembered that the estimates of value of production are based on values at the point of production, the value of professional services, distributive charges, &c., not being included in the estimate, while transport charges are only partly represented. The value of goods available for consumption is arrived at by adding to the value of production the value of imports, and deducting the value of exports.

The estimated totals under the various headings are given in the following table. It will be noted that there is no fixed relationship between the estimated totals of private income and of value of production.

Year.Aggregate Private Income.Value of Production.Value of Goods available for Consumption.
 £(m).£(m).£(m).
1936–37157·5135·3123·4
1937–38173·3134·5132·6
1938–39185·8133·9131·8
1939–40200·2142·8125·6
1940–41216·5158·4141·4

Chapter 35. SECTION 35.—PRICES.

Table of Contents

PRICE FIXATION.—In New Zealand, as in other countries, increased regulation of prices by governmental control has been a feature of economic policy in recent years. Nation-wide control of prices of essential commodities was resorted to during the war of 1914–18, the motives behind legislation and regulations towards that end being the necessity of purchasing at reasonable prices commodities required for war purposes, and the protection of the consumer from the full force of the abnormal rises in prices caused by the scarcity of many necessary commodities.

The administration of these price-fixing measures was in the hands of the Board of Trade, set up under the provisions of the Cost of Living Act, 1915, regulations being issued from time to time fixing maximum prices for various commodities— e.g., sugar, timber, wheat, &c. The Board of Trade Act, 1919 (in consolidation and amendment of the pre-existing legislation), contained provisions for the establishment of the Department of Industries and Commerce and for a Board of Trade, the Board to consist of the Minister of Industries and Commerce (President) and not more than four other members. By an amendment in 1923 the Board was abolished, its functions being taken over by the Minister. Authority was also taken under the Act “for the establishment of fixed minimum or maximum prices or rates for any classes of goods or services or otherwise for the regulation or control of such prices or rates,” The Act also includes provisions especially aimed at the prevention of profiteering.

The control of prices initiated during the war years continued in some instances well into the post-war period, the dates of cessation of control in certain important individual cases being: Bacon and ham, February, 1920; butter, August, 1921; sugar, August, 1923. Control of prices of building-materials was resorted to in 1920 and 1921, during a period of acute shortage of these materials.

Wheat, flour, and bread prices have been controlled almost without intermission since 1914–15, superphosphates since October, 1931, and motor-spirits from 1933. Road services have been subject to regulation in regard to fares and freight rates since 1931; aircraft fares are also regulated. [For fuller details see pp. 785–786 of the 1940 Year-Book.]

A Prevention of Profiteering Act was passed in 1936, prohibiting the making of unreasonable increases in the prices charged for goods and services.

The Primary Products Marketing Act, 1936, made provision for the fixation of prices of butter and cheese for export and for consumption in New Zealand, and regulations in this behalf have been issued from time to time. An amending Act of 1937 specifically brought eggs, fruit, and honey within the scope of the Act, while subsequent regulations added hops and potatoes.

The control and distribution of bananas and imported citrus fruits have been in the hands of the Internal Marketing Division of the Marketing Department since early in 1938, and in August, 1940, extensive regulations regarding grading and packing of all New-Zealand-grown fruit (other than berries) were gazetted.

Control of prices of milk in Wellington is in the hands of the Wellington City Council, which was granted a monopoly (with certain minor exceptions) of the sale of milk in Wellington by a local Act passed in 1919. The Auckland Metropolitan Milk Act, 1933, authorizes the Auckland Metropolitan Milk Council to fix prices for milk sold in Auckland City and suburbs. In this instance a monopoly has not been created, though it is an offence to sell or deliver milk in the district except under license from the Council.

In June, 1939, a Price Investigation Tribunal was constituted from the members of the existing Advisory Board under the Board of Trade Amendment Act, 1923, and restrictions were placed on increasing prices of goods and services without prior application to this Tribunal; prices were also to be fixed by the Tribunal for goods that had not previously been on the market.

Price Regulation during War.—Pursuant to a Proclamation of Emergency under the Public Safety Conservation Act, regulations were made on 1st September, 1939, with the object of stabilizing prices. These regulations provided that prices of goods and services should not be raised above the prices ruling on 1st September, 1939, except as might be specifically authorized by the Minister of Industries and Commerce. A clause in the regulations also prohibited the hoarding of goods. These regulations were superseded by the Control of Prices Emergency Regulations of 29th December, 1939, which constituted the present Price Tribunal. The general functions of this tribunal are to investigate complaints with respect to prices charged for goods or services, to issue orders fixing the maximum or minimum wholesale or retail price at which any particular goods may be sold, and to take any steps which, in its opinion, may be necessary to prevent profiteering or the exploitation of the public.

Foodstuffs generally, and sugar, wheat, and flour specifically, were brought under the control of the Government by emergency regulations made on 4th September, 1939.

Arrangements for the purchase, at agreed prices, of New Zealand's exportable surplus of meat, wool, dairy-produce, scheelite, woolly sheep skins, and tallow, by the United Kingdom Government were made shortly after the outbreak of the present war. The linen-flax fibre produced at the request of the Imperial Government is also purchased at agreed prices.

In October, 1940, the Economic Stabilization Conference put forward recommendations designed to stabilize prices, wages, and costs. In furtherance of these recommendations the retail prices of thirty-eight commodities, comprising the more important foodstuffs, clothing, fares, fuel, and lighting, were stabilised as from 1st September, 1941.

In December, 1942, as a result of the deliberations of the Economic Stabilization Committee, measures were taken to ensure as far as possible that the level of retail prices should not exceed the level ruling in that month. A varied range of essential items of household consumption has been selected, and their prices stabilized; food, clothing, hardware, furniture, stationery, &c., are all represented in this list of approximately 110 items. Provision has also been made for the stabilization of weekly rentals, and of wage-rates, &c.

RETAIL PRICES.—Retail-price quotations, from which index numbers are regularly calculated, are collected each month in twenty-five centres of the Dominion, selected as being representative of New Zealand as a whole. These twenty-fire centres are distributed over both Islands, from Whangarei in the North to Invercargill in the South, and are representative of both coastal and inland districts, and of both large and small centres. Returns of prices are collected by local Inspectors of Factories, for the most part from representative retailers, and from these data index numbers are compiled in the Census and Statistics Department, Wellington.

The commodities for which monthly index numbers are compiled are foodstuffs and fuel and lighting, foodstuffs being divided into three groups—groceries, dairy-produce, and meat. Statistics of house-rents have been collected at six-monthly intervals since the inauguration of price statistics in 1914, and later the inquiry was extended to cover clothing and miscellaneous items, figures for which are collected at quarterly intervals.

Separate series of index numbers of retail prices are compiled for the following groups:—

  • Group I.—Groceries.

  • Group II.—Dairy-produce.

  • Group III.—Meat.

  • Group IV.—House-rent.

  • Group V.—Fuel and light.

  • Group VI.—Clothing (including drapery and footwear).

  • Group VII.—Miscellaneous items.

In addition, index numbers are compiled for the food (that is, the first three) groups combined, and also for all groups combined.

The nomenclature of Groups I to VI is indicative generally of the nature of their constituent items, but as Group VII is not equally informative it may here be briefly stated that it consists of ninety-five items, including household furnishings, ironmongery, brushware, crockery, reading-matter, cleaning-materials, tobacco, postage and telegrams, transport, and personal services. It will be seen, then, that the all-groups index is almost exclusively a commodity index, and cognizance is not taken of a number of channels of expenditure, some of them being definitely of more than minor importance. Among such may be mentioned: Direct taxation (e.g., income-tax, social-security tax, and national-security tax); sports and amusements; religious and charitable contributions; medical, dental, and legal fees; insurance premiums and losses by fire or accident, &c. It has also been found impossible to include in the regimen a number of items (principally such as, in accordance with modern trends, have been adopted as conventional necessities) owing to the fact that they, from year to year, differ appreciably in their essential nature and the facilities that they provide. Instances of this kind are motor-cars, radios, cooking and heating appliances, cosmetics, &c.

From the foregoing it will appear that the all-groups index cannot properly be referred to as a “cost-of-living” index, and the use of this designation is avoided by the Census and Statistics Department. There are, moreover, additional reasons why such a term would be a misnomer, for a fixed regimen has been adopted and no allowance is made for changes in the quantities of goods consumed, following increases or decreases in prices or reduced or increased purchasing-power.

In the compilation of the index numbers for the food groups, rent, and fuel and light, the aggregate expenditure method is used, the retail price of each individual item in these groups being “weighted” according to its average annual consumption in the Dominion during the years 1926 to 1930, the base period. In the clothing and drapery and miscellaneous groups the unweighted geometric: average of price ratios is used for most subgroups, no reliable data being available as to the consumption of individual items in these groups, except in the case of two subgroups in the miscellaneous group (fares and cleaning supplies) where the aggregate expenditure method is adopted.

Reference to the special wartime price index will be found on p. 534.

RETAIL FOOD-PRICES.—The following table shows the annual average index numbers for the three food groups combined, for each of the four chief centres and for the Dominion as a whole, during the last eleven years. In the compilation of these indexes each item and separate group (groceries, dairy-produce, and meat) is accorded its relative importance in the combined food-groups index number. The average of annual Dominion index numbers for the years 1926 to 1930 equals 1000.

THREE FOOD GROUPS.—INDEX NUMBERS.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
1931848827843829837845
1932773761770751764775
1933724719732700719732
1934781760765743762774
1935863811814811825835
1936893848846845858870
1937977935933957951956
193810089819611006989991
1939105110321039109210541052
1940107910341091111310791076
1941110310831108112711051104

To effect a general survey of the course of prices for the whole Dominion it has been necessary to obtain a weighted average of the index numbers for each of the twenty-five representative centres. Price-indexes for each centre have been weighted in accordance with the number of people in that centre, and a composite index number has been obtained, which, though necessarily artificial, represents accurately enough the average relative level of retail prices in the Dominion.

The twenty-five centres covered have a total population of approximately half that of New Zealand, and they can therefore be regarded as reasonably representative of the Dominion. The four chief centres, which include nearly 40 per cent. of the Dominion's population, account for over 70 per cent. of the population of the twenty-five centres, so that their influence in the Dominion index number is naturally predominating. However, the chief centres not only comprise a great part of the people of the Dominion, but also set the standard which is generally followed throughout the country.

Attention may be drawn in passing to the comparatively small differences recorded between the average index numbers for the four chief centres and the Dominion weighted averages. In this respect, as will be shown later on in this section, the average of the three food groups combined stands in contrast to the rent group.

RETAIL PRICES OF GROCERIES.—Index numbers of retail prices of groceries in each of the four chief centres are given in the following table, which also shows the unweighted average of the four chief centres and the Dominion weighted average. The average of the Dominion annual index numbers for 1926 to 1930 equals 1000.

GROCERIES.—INDEX NUMBERS.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
1931899876842887876891
1932856837804863840857
1933813780787832803819
1934815837817850830845
1935884904858900887899
1936852871854870862878
1937912941916971935945
1938899930909949922933
1939104510551028110310581067
1940102010211014104710261039
1941113011711118116211451156

The factors underlying the fluctuations in the groceries group will be more clearly understood when it is remembered that the items comprising the group are varied in nature, and may be treated in three subgroups as in the next table. The fundamental distinction is that the items comprising Group 1A are almost wholly imported from overseas, while those in Group 1B are almost wholly produced in the Dominion. Sugar is not wholly a product of New Zealand, being imported in the raw state and refined at Auckland. The Dominion weighted average index number, 1926 to 1930, equals 1000 in each case.

GROCERIES SUBGROUPS.—INDEX NUMBERS.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.
Group 1a.—General Groceries.
1937921965925989950
19389399929601006974
193910441043101810541040
194012611211120312021219
194113341325132612981321
Group 1b.—Bread, Flour, Oatmeal, Potatoes, and Onions.
1937854871854914873
1938827839829865840
19391005100998510851021
1940817827829873837
194196910279491029994
Group 1c.—Sugar.
193711661212118711981191
193811381203116011981175
193912421303125913081278
194013851464140914841436
194113771456139114451417

There has been a further marked upward movement in the indexes for general groceries (Group 1A), most of which are imported. Fluctuations in the Group lit indexes are almost entirely caused by variations in the price of potatoes and onions. Minor reductions are shown in the index for 1c.

RETAIL PRICES OF DAIRY-PRODUCE.—The next table shows annual average retail prices index numbers for the dairy-produce group. The Dominion weighted average index number for 1926 to 1930 equals 1000.

DAIRY-PRODUCE.—INDEX NUMBERS.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
1931819836766778800807
1932742761667680713722
1933652708617625651661
1934680704612651662666
1935761787698744748749
1936821839729789795801
1937915935873887903902
1938947983913920941940
193910061030965985997999
19401020104097399810081010
19411022103797799910091010

RETAIL PRICES OF MEAT.—Retail prices of meat fell to a low level during the depression, but the year 1934 marked the commencement of a recovery, which has since been maintained up to and including 1940, the index for that year being the highest yet recorded. The 1941 index showed a slight fall as compared with 1940.

MEAT.—INDEX NUMBERS.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average. (1926–30 = 1000.)
1931829781897815831834
1932729702817714741747
1933705678769650701714
1934827740838725783796
1935919756863789832846
1936977835924866901912
193710729319909959971003
1938113610211035111210761075
1939108710161102117010941077
1940116710401236124611721153
1941114110491195119111441131

HOUSE-RENT.—In investigating changes in the cost of housing, the Census and Statistics Department has traced the movements of house-rent over a series of years. By reason of the fact that leases, infrequent changes of residence, and the difficulty of departing from customary rents all tend to make the movement of the general level of rents comparatively slow, it has not been deemed necessary to attempt to measure the changes over short periods. The data from which the rent figures are compiled are therefore collected semi-annually only, in the months of February and August. Annual index numbers for rent are computed on the assumption that the February index number represents conditions prevailing during the first four and a half months of the year, the August index conditions prevailing during the next six months, and the index for February of the following year conditions prevailing during the last one and a half months of the year.

It is advisable to stress that the index numbers in respect of rent indicate the movement in the average rentals of a large number of houses already let, in many cases for some time, and that they do not purport to convey any statement as to the relative price at which housing accommodation has been obtainable from time to time by would-be occupants of houses then being re-let.

HOUSE-RENT.—INDEX NUMBERS.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average (1926–30 = 1000).
19318761241926936995953
19327631063823846874844
1933693937748799794766
1934696929747792791758
1935719964755802810774
1936770997777821841804
19377911023800838863828
19388151061833865894858
19398601073839892916887
19408941085869912940916
19419211103909936967945

Rent and interest charges were compulsorily reduced by 20 per cent. by the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932. The reduction was at first temporary, but was made permanent, in cases to which it applied, by the Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act, 1936. The Fair Rents Act, passed in 1930, was a temporary measure designed to prevent undue increases in rents, and was to remain in force until September, 1937. Subsequent amendments have extended its duration from time to time, and the amending Act of 1942 places the expiry-date at one year after the termination of the present war. The 1942 amendment extended the scope of the legislation to cover all types of dwellings and flats not previously affected, and, in addition, the limitation to cases where the weekly rental did not exceed £3 was removed. It was alto declared an offence to refuse to let to an applicant with children.

In December, 1912, rents were stabilized, the level being either the rent which was payable on 1st September, 1942, or a “fair rent” which may be fixed by the Supreme Court, or, in cases where the basic rent does not exceed £520 per annum, by a Magistrate.

A comprehensive housing policy, including the building of houses by the Government and local authorities for letting purposes, was commenced in March, 1937, and is being as vigorously prosecuted as the exigencies of war will permit (see Section 22).

FOOD AND RENT.—Generally speaking, apart from the consideration of different rates of population-increase, the chief centres have higher rentals than the minor centres. The four largest centres have, however, lower indexes for groceries and for the three food groups combined than the majority of the smaller towns. The following indexes, representing yearly averages for 1941, illustrate this point.

Group.Weighted Average of Four Chief Centres. (a.)Weighted Average of Twenty-one Smaller Centres. (b.)Excess of (a) over (b).Excess of (***) over (a).Dominion Weighted Average.
Groceries11431188 451156
Dairy-produce101310049 1010
Meat1136111917 1131
Three food-groups11021108 61104
House-rent96988881 945

The following table shows the index numbers for the various groups for each of the twenty-five centres, on the base: Dominion weighted average expenditure, 1926–30, equals 1000.

FOOD GROUPS AND RENT.—INDEX NUMBERS FOR TWENTY-FIVE CENTRES, 1941.

Centre.Group I: Groceries.Group II: Dairy-produce.Group III: Meat.Groups I–III: Food Groups.Group IV: House-rent.
Auckland1130102211411103921
Wellington11711037104910831103
Christchurch111897711951108909
Dunedin116299911911127936
Whangarei118599611711125949
Hamilton1260101111341138952
Waihi1179104811111114605
Rotorua1265102311841162966
Gisborne120310129751057794
Napier11779879891047943
Dannevirke116699310641076828
New Plymouth116497711451102986
Wanganui1215100710801101807
Taihape1247102311701152821
Palmerston North1189104411061114965
Masterton1219101211401128894
Blenheim1240104711801161876
Nelson1155101811581116928
Greymouth1142104211691124885
Ashburton115497411671108855
Timaru113297911881110868
Oamaru1153101311051014840
Alexandra1286104112721210739
Gore115397012111124805
Invercargill117597111611111841
Weighted average for Dominion1156101011311104945

Christchurch, Auckland, and Timaru are the cheapest in respect of prices of groceries, while Alexandra has the highest index for this group. Waihi, Blenheim, and Palmerston North are dearest in respect of prices of dairy-produce; and the Alexandra index for meat is highest, followed by Gore. Christchurch, and Dunedin. Gore and Invercargill show the lowest prices for dairy-produce, while meat is cheapest in Gisborne and Napier.

RETAIL PRICES OF FUEL AND LIGHT.— For the purpose of tracing the course of prices in the fuel and light group, a small group of seven items—coal, coke, firewood, kerosene, gas, electricity, and candles—is taken into account for the four chief centres. It is not feasible to extend this index to the remaining twenty-one centres covered by the food and rent indexes.

FUEL AND LIGHT.—INDEX NUMBERS.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres (1926–30 = 1000).
19311108951995892987
19321020925993894958
1933860931987781890
1934807886976695841
1935900873974713865
1936952879955762887
19371002915977802924
193810409741025816964
193910839981032849991
19401105101210418601005
19411111102510468661012

RETAIL PRICES OF CLOTHING AND OF MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS.—In regard to the method of treatment of the clothing and miscellaneous groups, it is to be explained that, as in the case of fuel and light, the inquiry is in general restricted to the four chief centres; further, except as regards fares and cleaning supplies, in respect of which accurate weights based on usage in the base period are available, enabling the aggregate expenditure method to be employed, no satisfactory information is available or procurable which would enable individual weights to be allotted to each item. For this reason the same measure of precision is not possible in the treatment of these groups, but by selective balancing of representative items and arranging them in representative subgroups a measure of weighting is secured, as each subgroup is treated as a separate unit and given its appropriate weight. Price ratios are computed, geometric averages of which are compiled for the subgroups and for the complete groups. In order to facilitate the dropping of obsolete items and the inclusion of new items (particularly in the clothing groups), the initial computations of price ratios are based on prices ruling at the immediately preceding collection of the data, the group averages being linked to the 1926–30 base.

The movement of prices of clothing and miscellaneous items from year to year may be traced in the table under the next heading.

RETAIL PRICES—ALL GROUPS.—From the collection of household budgets in 1930, the average household expenditure under various heads was found to be as follows:—

 Per Cent.Per Cent.
Groceries9·24 
Dairy-produce8·47 
Meat11·81 
  Three food groups combined 29·52
Rent 21·93
Fuel and light 6·17
Clothing and drapery9·77 
Footwear2·84 
  Clothing, drapery, and footwear 12·61
Furnishings1·55 
Ironmongery and brushware0·37 
Crockery0·26 
Train and tram fares3·46 
Newspapers and periodicals2·00 
Personal services0·54 
Postage and telegrams0·51 
Household cleaning supplies1·09 
Tobacco1·30 
  Total, miscellaneous, specified11·08 
  Total, miscellaneous, unspecified18·69 
  Total, miscellaneous 29–77
  Total, all groups 100·00

These weights are applied to the index numbers of the different groups in the process of arriving at the “all-groups” retail prices index, with the exception that the weight applied to the miscellaneous group is 11·08 and not 29·77. Thus 81 per cent. of household expenditure is covered by the index number. The remaining 19 per cent. represents miscellaneous items for which it has been found impossible to obtain reliable price-quotations. Their omission has the effect of giving them the same general average price-movement as the 81 per cent. covered.

The following table shows the index numbers for all groups for each year since 1914. It should be noted that the annual index numbers given represent the average price-level during each year, not at any of the particular points during the year at which the prices for the respective groups were collected.

ALL GROUPS INDEX NUMBERS.

(Base: Dominion weighted average of prices in 1926–30 in twenty-five centres in case of Groups I to IV, and average of prices in 1926–30 in four chief centres in case of Groups V, VI, and VII, = 1000.)

Year.Food Groups.Rent. (IV.)Fuel and Light. (V.)Clothing, Drapery, and Footwear. (VI.)Miscellaneous. (VII.)All Groups combined. (I–VII.)Increase per Cent. over July, 1914.
Groceries. (I.)Dairy-produce. (II.)Meat. (III.)Three Food Groups. (I–III.)

*Month of July.

1914*624719759703535585686601628 
19157708028328035385937466466767·6
191676988090885754163787171272415·3
1917836933982920553728103179478625·2
19189419681038985566782121689885035·4
1919982102510681027581852147697591245·2
19201206118411141165613101316531131101962·3
1921122812579541134680113115091153103464·6
1922110098581395872410451274110395251·6
1923104310098629657929981173105595952·7
19241060105392010058599851139103398456·7
1925104410431008103091299311111015100459·9
1926104710459941026962100210601013101060·8
1927101510109379831000100510171033100159·4
1928103310069791004101410119951002100660·2
1929973999105210131019992980986100459·9
19309329391033974100799194798698156·2
193189180783484595398786998690644·3
193285772274777584495881497383833·4
193381966171473276689081697679526·6
193484566679677475884183297380828·7
193589974984683577486582898083733·3
193687880191287080488783799386437·6
19379459021003956828924915105092347·0
19389339401075991858964936105495151·4
1939106799910771052887991960108699057·6
19401039101011531076916100510611170103564·8
19411156101011311104945101211591211107370·9

The index numbers for all groups combined did not fluctuate to any great extent between 1922 and 1930, but during the next three years a considerable fall took place. In 1934 an upward movement commenced. The index for 1941 is 35 per cent. above that for 1933, and is the peak index of the series.

WARTIME PRICE INDEX.—Part IV of the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942 provides, inter alia, for the preparation of a special wartime price index, for the purpose of recording as from 15th December, 1942, any increases or reductions in the prices of such commodities and services (including rents) as the Minister of Industries and Commerce directs. The wartime price index is to be gazetted quarterly by the Government Statistician, and is to be used is the basis for the fixation of wage-rates.

The composition of the wartime price index differs from that of the ordinary retail prices index in several respects, viz.:—

Numerous alterations have been made in the schedule of commodities, &c., covered by the various groups and sub-groups.

Weights generally have been revised to represent relative present-day consumption of the various commodities and groups covered by the index.

A new group is introduced covering fresh fruit and vegetables other than potatoes and onions, which—as in the ordinary index—are included in the groceries group.

The dwellings covered by the rent group have been subdivided to give correct relative weights to private and Government houses.

Clothing and footwear have been divided into subgroups to give correct relative weights to the requirements of men, women, and children respectively.

The indexes for the clothing, footwear, and household drapery group, and for most subgroups of the miscellaneous group, are arrived at by the aggregate expenditure method, thus bringing them into line with the remaining groups.

In view of the purpose of the wartime price index, prices of milk, eggs, meat, potatoes, onions, and fresh fruit and vegetables are adjusted on the basis of normal seasonal variations in the prices of these commodities.

WHOLESALE PRICES.—In most countries index numbers of wholesale prices are compiled from the price data available in trade journals or from the published reports of wholesale markets. In New Zealand wholesale markets scarcely exist, and consequently price data for the wholesale-prices investigation have been collected from wholesale merchants and traders, who from the volume of the business they transact are able to supply representative information.

Since 1917 such wholesale-price quotations have been collected monthly, the inquiry being for the most part confined to the four chief centres. In the case of a few commodities (e.g., newsprint), of which there is a consumption so large that the article can scarcely be omitted from the price-index, yet for which no actual market exists within New Zealand, the inclusion of the commodity in the index number has been rendered possible by ascertaining movements of prices from the import statistics. Statistics of imports and exports as a source of price data have, however, been avoided as far as possible, on the ground that where quotations are obtained from traders care can be taken to ensure that the grade, &c., quoted for is kept constant. A considerable volume of data as to wholesale prices was secured from merchants and traders (and in a few cases from import figures) by means of retrospective investigations covering the years 1891 to 1917, and sufficient information was secured to permit of the compilation for each year from 1891 onwards of a “general” wholesale prices index number based on the prices of 106 commodities.

During 1926 a revision of the wholesale prices index was effected, specially designed, inter alia, to permit of the inclusion in the index number of several commodities such as motor-spirits, &c., the importance of which had increased enormously since the index was originally instituted. The list of commodities represents a wide range, covering articles of home production and of foreign production, and of farm, mine, marine, factory, &c., origin.

In 1937 a further revision of the wholesale prices index was put in hand, but except for the new base-period (which is 1926–30 = 1000) these indexes do not differ essentially from those of the previous series. The revision consisted mainly of adjustment of the weights in accordance with changed consumption, the elimination, as far as possible, of “double counting” (the inclusion of a commodity in its raw state and again in a processed condition), the adoption of some new items, and the omission of some others, previously included, which had proved unsatisfactory. A detailed account of the method of computation of the index is given in the Statistical Report on Prices, &c., for 1937.

Indexes in the present series have been prepared, annually from 1914 onward, and monthly commencing with 1936.

WHOLESALE PRICES.—GENERAL INDEX NUMBERS.—BASE: 1926–30 = 1000.

Year.Index Number.
1914748
1915805
1910882
19171024
19181225
19191282
19201536
19211428
19221194
19231115
19241120
19251114
19261053
19271001
1928994
1929988
1930963
1931901
1932878
1933902
1934907
1935936
1936945
19371022
19381036
19391071
19401195
19411311

The wholesale prices index is purely a commodity index no attempt having been made to cover the wholesale prices of services such as the supply of electric power, transportation, &c. The index relates only to commodities consumed in New Zealand, each item included in the make-up of the index being weighted by a factor representing production, plus imports, less exports (i.e., local consumption). The wholesale prices index numbers are compiled by the aggregate expenditure method.

The following table shows annual wholesale prices index numbers by groups.

WHOLESALE PRICES.—INDEX NUMBERS BY GROUPS.—BASE: 1926–30 = 1000.

Group.1914.1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
1. Foodstuffs, &c., of vegetable origin—       
    A. Agricultural produce8428411063921132810411373
    B. Fresh fruit and vegetables7648019069261055884938
    C. Milled agricultural products644770791783776785786
    D. Other foods and groceries of vegetable origin613111011311130118913601438
    A-D. Four subgroups combined63497610371012112411591265
2. Textile manufactures5357698108068159701156
3. Wood and wood products58299710821150118412231313
4. Animal products—       
    A. Meats9419189191042101111421223
    B. Semi-manufactured animal products (not foods)8388411135704691852867
    C. Leather67697911531139112912271281
    D. Other foods and groceries of animal origin7857918508819659931016
    A-D. Four subgroups combined84386992497399210791130
5. Metals and their products919106912491296127715641805
6. Non-metallic minerals and their products—       
    A. Mineral oils1164115912071152123514941556
    B. Coals53996310371061108510851085
    C. Other non-metallic minerals and their products60097310071017102310671098
    A-C. Three subgroups combined821105011061094114012601292
7. Chemicals and manures954826833840861918950
    All groups combined74894510221036107111951311

In the next table index numbers are given by classes. These index numbers should be taken for no more than they purport to represent—viz., the movement in wholesale prices of those commodities, covered by the wholesale prices inquiry, which belong to the respective classes. The figure for Class 111, for instance, does not purport to show the movement in building costs, nor should that for imported items be confused with the index number of import prices. The table also shows the separate index numbers for imported items and locally-produced items included in the wholesale prices series. It will be noted that the index for imported items has advanced to a much greater extent than that for locally produced items.

WHOLESALE PRICES.—INDEX NUMBERS BY CLASSES.—BASE: 1926–30 = 1000.

Year.Consumers' Goods.Producers' Materials, &c.Classes I and II combined.Classes III and IV combined.Imported Commodities.Locally-produced Commodities.All Classes combined.
Class I: Foodstuffs.Class II: Non-Foods.Class III: Materials for Building and Construction.Class IV: Materials for other Industries.
1931837923954920873928938852901
1932783923924908841911933802878
1933801935987930857943986788902
1934824920990933864946977810907
1935915933992938922950980876936
19369179321019951923966979899945
193796697811721038971106810629671022
193899297912151043986108110729871036
1939108810001206105710511090108410531071
1940112111491373121411311249128110781195
1941122812851560130812491304143911391311

Of the total base aggregate expenditure, Class I represents 27·1 per cent., Class II 19·2 per cent., Class III 11·9 per cent., and Class IV 41·8 per cent., while the imported items aggregate 57·7 per cent. of the total.

EXPORT PRICES.—For some years past index numbers have been compiled and published at monthly intervals, indicating the direction and extent of fluctuation in the level of prices of New Zealand produce exported. These index numbers are based on the declared values (in New Zealand currency; for export as recorded by the Customs Department.

Prior to 1932 each commodity included in the compilation was accorded an importance corresponding to the quantity of that commodity exported during the particular month or year under investigation. For example, the annual index number for the year 1931 indicated the relationship between the total value in that year of exports of items included in the index number and the value of the quantities of the various commodities exported in 1931 at the average prices ruling during the years 1909·13, the base period of the investigation. Thus the “weight” or importance of each item in the regimen of the index number varied according to fluctuations in the quantities exported from month to month and from year to year.

Movements in prices, however, are not distributed evenly over the whole field of commodities exported. As a consequence, material fluctuations were caused in the former monthly index numbers, which were due partly to price-movements, but partly also to fluctuations in the relative quantities of commodities exported from month to month.

In order to remedy this weakness in the index number, the system of compilation was modified in 1932; the “weight” allotted to each item included in the new series being the average quantity of that item exported during the previous five exporting seasons—i.e., years ended 30th June. In the revision of the export prices index numbers the opportunity was taken of revising the grouping of commodities somewhat, in order to permit of a closer analysis of the distribution of price-movements among different classes of New Zealand products.

The revised index numbers are shown in the next table, compiled for each group on the base 1909–13 (= 1000).

EXPORT PRICES.—INDEX NUMBERS.—BASE: 1909–13 = 1000.

Calendar Year.Group I: Dairy-produce.Group II: Meat.Group III: Wool.Group IV: Other Pastoral Produce.Groups I-IV: All Pastoral and Dairy Produce.Group V: Agricultural Produce.Group VI: Timber.Group VII: Minerals.Groups I-VII: All Groups combined.
19319891301679767965115521911177984
19329341109625622870110220731162892
19338391165671755867115721101416896
19347671518127388810891200218015541109
1935913157682296710721260216917051102
1936104615961107123912281321214817081250
1937109216511768153514231365248217921440
193812101752117094713401396275218161367
193912311635109894312901543272919541324
1940132417961505128715011379246522071524
1941131718061505150115271508249822701553

The all-groups index for 1940 was 200 points in advance of the previous year; the principal cause of this increase was the purchase of the exportable surplus of New Zealand's meat, wool, and dairy-produce by the United Kingdom Government at prices somewhat in advance of those ruling in the 1938–39 season. Only a minor increase of 29 points was recorded by the 1941 all-groups index.

As previously observed, the calendar year does not coincide at all closely with the farm-production year. This is especially significant in New Zealand, since the great bulk of export goods are farm-produce. For a number of purposes the next table, giving annual average export prices index numbers for years ended 30th June, will be more useful. As in the previous table, index numbers are based upon prices in New Zealand currency.

EXPORT PRICES.—INDEX NUMBERS (JUNE YEARS).—BASE: 1909–13 = 1000.

Year ended 30th June,Group I: Dairy-produce.Group II: Meat.Group III: Wool.Group IV: Other Pastoral ProduceGroups I-IV: All Pastoral and Dairy Produce.Group V: Agricultural ProduceGroup VI: Timber.Group VII: Minerals.Groups I-VII: All Groups combined.
19329741189641671914115821661107934
19338571093621598831115020781375861
19348101415121891110701183215714851089
1935806157781484410141228216516821046
193699315731049113711791311209617321205
1937105416231705143713791362233417521397
1938119617251254125713641378262118051386
193912121677110487712911444274318571320
1940131017341457115814561292261421401479
1941133317821505126514981501236822411524
1942137318211505166915541508264723111579

The effect of the purchase of the exportable surplus of New Zealand's meat, wool, and dairy-produce by the United Kingdom Government at prices somewhat in advance of those ruling in the 1938–39 season is first reflected in the indexes for 1939–40, particularly in the meat and wool groups. The June year indexes for the two following years showed small advances only in the various subgroups; the all-groups index for 1940–41 was 45 points higher than in the previous June year, and that for 1941–42 showed a further 55-point increase.

IMPORT PRICES.—A series of import prices index numbers based on the year 1926 (= 100) and weighted in accordance with average quantities imported during the years 1926–30, was instituted in 1933. While the basic data was deficient in many respects, nevertheless the index served a very useful purpose. With the passage of time, however, certain inherent weaknesses in this series have become apparent, and information previously not obtainable has in some cases now become available.

Accordingly, a revised series of index numbers has now been computed based in the case of individual items on average quantities imported during the three years 1936–38. Group weights have also been instituted in the new series, to accord to the various groups their relative importance, and these have been based on the average total value for the respective groups during the three years 1936–38. The index numbers themselves are on base 1938 (= 100), but even with improved coverage and method now possible they are not sufficiently accurate to be quoted as other than a three-figure index.

The difficulty, inherent in an index number of imports, of obtaining sufficient coverage to provide a reliable indication of changes in prices for any one group, has been overcome in the revised series by the utilization of figures of exports to New Zealand, obtained in detail from the published trade figures of certain overseas countries.

In order to avoid any possible confusion between the import prices index number and the wholesale prices index number for imported commodities, it seems desirable to draw attention to the fact that the price quotations on which the import prices index is based are declared values of commodities for import—i.e., prices in the exporting country plus 10 per cent. to cover freight, &c., expressed in terms of New Zealand currency.

The import prices index also covers some two hundred and fifty items, as compared with approximately one hundred items included in the wholesale prices index for imported commodities.

Revised index numbers for the years 1926 to 1941 have been compiled, and it is considered that this period is sufficiently long to permit of comparison.

A comparative table of index numbers of the various related prices series from the year 1926 onward is as follows. All index numbers are quoted on a New Zealand currency basis, and on the base 1936–158 (= 100).

Year.Import Prices.Export Prices.Wholesale Prices.Retail Prices (All Groups).
Pastoral and Dairy Produce.All Groups.Imported Commodities.Locally produced Commodities.All Groups.

* Provisional.

1926125116114103108105111
192711911511397104100110
19281131281249510699110
19291111231209410699110
193011096959210296107
1931102737390909099
193297656690848892
193399656695839087
193498828294859188
193596818294929492
193696929294959495
1937102107107102102102101
1938102101101103104103104
19391029798104111107108
1940118113113123113119113
1941133*115115139120131118

EFFECT OF PRICE MOVEMENTS ON FARM EXPENDITURE.—Prices of a large-selection of farm products are included in the official wholesale and export prices index numbers. Many of the principal items of farm expenditure, however, are not covered by the wholesale prices index, which is purely a commodity index. A special index number is compiled in which such items as interest-payments, rates and taxes, wages, freight, and commission are included in addition to the material commodities which are bought for use in farm production. Statistics of prices of farm implements, manures, and sundry other commodities not covered by the wholesale prices inquiry are also obtained from merchants and manufacturers of farm machinery, and included in this index, so that practically the whole of the working expenses of the average farm are represented.

While the farm expenditure index indicates the effect of price movements on farm expenditure generally, it is not intended to apply to particular types of farming or to particular localities. Again, the weights used in compiling the index are fixed, the purpose of the index being to measure movements in costs of a standard regimen of commodities and services.

Indexes for the years 1931 to 1941 (on base 1914 = 1000) are given below. The general indexes of wholesale and retail prices, and the export prices index number for all pastoral and dairy produce combined, are also included on the same base year, in order to facilitate comparison of the movements in the farm expenditure index with movements in other significant prices index numbers. Such comparison, however, affords only a broad indication of the relativity between movements in prices of goods and services purchased by the farmer and in the prices of farm products.

Year.Farm Expenditure Index.Pastoral and Dairy Produce Export Prices Index.General Wholesale Prices Index.All Groups Retail Prices Index.

* Approximate. Recent changes in certain items are incapable of exact measurement.

19141000100010001000
1931149088112051447
19321250*79511741334
19331150*79212061266
19341150*99512131287
19351150*97912511331
19361250*112112631376
19371450*130013661470
19381500*122413851514
19391500*117814321576
19401550*137115981648
19411600*139517531709

SHARE PRICES.—Changes in the market value of shares listed on the Stock Exchange give a very sensitive indication of changes in business conditions generally. A series of index numbers of share prices (on base: 1926 = 1000 and instituted in 1932) was published by the Census and Statistics Department for some considerable time, but in conformity with the usual international practice of revising index numbers at intervals, and advancing the base to a later period in point of time, the present revised series of index numbers is based on the year 1938. The market-prices—as on the last trading day in each month—of shares of forty-seven representative companies, with shares on the New Zealand Stock Exchanges, form the basis on which the indexes have been computed. The selection of the shares for inclusion in the index number was made with the object of reflecting New Zealand economic conditions; and, consequently, with one or two exceptions, only companies whose business is conducted largely or wholly in New Zealand are included. The index numbers are for ordinary shares, the prices of which vary directly with the profits of the company.

The market prices on which the index numbers are based have been extracted from Stock Exchange lists of individual exchanges prior to September. 1929, and from the list of share prices included in the Stock Exchange Gazette and its successor, the Official Record of the Stock Exchanges of New Zealand, since that date. The prices quoted relate to the last trading day in each month; so that the “monthly” index numbers compiled from these data relate to that day only, while the annual averages represent the averages of the monthly index numbers. Each individual share price, and each group, is weighted in accordance with the number and value of shares held in New Zealand. The index numbers of New-Zealand share prices give an indication of changes in share values as compared with the base year. In particular, they are intended to indicate the changes in value of a parcel of representative ordinary shares as compared with their 1938 value. The base adopted in this revised series is the average price ruling during the year 1938 (= 1000).

Shares in industrial companies have been computed separately, and the annual index numbers from 1926 to 1941 (on base: 1938 = 1000) are as follows:—

 Industrial.All Groups.
19269091108
19278511073
19288791111
19299601163
19308351007
1931674810
1932667769
1933804897
19349961051
193511021112
193610751057
193710731069
193810001000
1939959952
19401024999
194110211001

An indication of movements in the index numbers for individual groups may be gauged from the following tables, the first of which is confined to the industrial groups.

SHARE-PRICES INDEX NUMBERS—ANNUAL, BY GROUPS, 1931–41. (Base: Average for each group, 1938 = 1000.)

Year.Frozen Meat.Woollens.Gas.Timber.Minerals.Miscellaneous (Industrial).All Industrial Groups.

NOTE.—Index numbers in the above tables are comparable vertically but not horizontally.

19318007571014512741546674
1932868743981552643552667
193310458811055654749713804
1934128511081236870965881996
1935121912161307990117810001102
1936113511791189112711799801075
19371085114110731051111410541073
19381000100010001000100010001000
193990010198521034953988959
1940105512258971022101810351024
1941101212917891051102710571021
Year.All Industrial Groups.Banks.Insurance.Loan and Agency.Miscellaneous (Other).All Groups combine.
19316741115666875841810
19326671029664767736769
19338041115860879832897
19349961167104811099891051
1935110211671138101510271112
193610751066106110479581057
193710731078108511539681069
1938100010001000100010001000
19399599239738561005952
1940102493310718561014999
1941102189511758409921001

A better indication of movements in the market prices of shares may be obtained from the monthly index numbers. Limitations of space preclude the presentation, in this Year-Book, of monthly index numbers over the whole period for which they have been computed, but these may be found in the July, 1941, issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Monthly index numbers for each of the years 1929, 1932, 1935, and 1938 to 1942, are given in the following table.

Month.1929.1932.1935.1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.
Industrial Shares.
January93366810861046956104510131006
February9296321075103495410461013981
March9486211071103593810521004937
April946618110310299411098982971
May963630109710059681013984949
June9806461112999948959981968
July994669113210189589881017991
August99270111061005939100210461015
September9867381090960927103310641024
October9697181111981959101910651051
November94869911239481004101410621076
December9366621117938102210141028 
All Groups.
January11637771114103995110199961000
February1164738109410279471022999967
March1165732109110279351025989940
April1163726112110239301064951971
May117272811131014956983963961
June118273811201003940936957974
July1182779113610179549739911000
August11928111133100894098110211028
September11848381105970927100610371039
October1148817110597695399310461060
November1136796110995298799110511082
December111074811039429989931010 

SUMMARY OF PRICE MOVEMENTS.—The following table gives a summary (on base 1926–30 = 1000) for the last eleven years of the movements in the more important series of price index numbers.

Year.Retail.Wholesale.Export.Import.Share Prices, All Groups.
Food.All Groups.Locally-produced Items.Imported Items.All Groups.All Pastoral and Dairy-produce.All Groups.
193184590685293890162864389742
193277583880293387856658384704
193373279578898690256458586821
193477480881097790770972485962
1935835837876980936697720841018
193687086489997994579981683968
19379569239671062102292694188979
19389919519871072103687289388916
1939105299010531084107183986589872
194010761035107812811195977995102915
1941110410731139143913119941014115917

The extent of the rise in prices in the various groups since the outbreak of the present war is shown in the following table, which has August, 1939, the last pre-war month, as the base for each column.

SUMMARY OF PRICE INDEX NUMBERS, AUGUST, 1939, to NOVEMBER, 1942. (Base: August, 1939 = 1000.)

Retail.Wholesale.Export.Share.
Food.All Groups.Locally-produced Items.Imported Items.All Groups.All Pastoral and Dairy-produce.All Groups.Industrial.All Groups.
1939—         
  August100010001000100010001000100010001000
  November106210311021102810251031102910691050
1940—         
  February100410181006107910491170115711141087
  May101710341023114210931163115310791046
  August100910471002122011301152114410671044
  November102510591012126511611163115510801054
1941—         
  February101610611027129011811156115610791063
  May103710741064129912021175116610481024
  August103110781065133812251199119011141086
  November107710991117134812521203119711311118
1942—         
  February102910851086136012471210120010451029
  May104311031108144013031195118710111022
  August106711241127149013391208120510811094
  November110711431133152113601216120511461151

Since the outbreak of war continuous efforts have been made to ensure that the rises in prices are only such as cannot be avoided. The prices of the majority of locally-produced commodities are subject to some measure of control, and only a comparatively small increase has been recorded in the three food groups index of the retail series, this group being principally confined to locally-produced commodities; the latter group in the wholesale series also shows but a small advance. The prices of imported commodities, which are affected by overseas factors, and which are subject to increased charges for freight and insurance, cannot be subjected to such extensive control. This is reflected in the price-movements of those imported articles which are included in (a) the clothing, drapery, footwear, and miscellaneous items of the retail-prices index, where the proportion of such items is approximately 20 per cent., and the increase in prices since August, 1939, is 28 per cent., and (b) the wholesale-prices index, where the proportion of locally-produced and imported commodities is almost even, and the price-increase in the imported commodities is approximately 52 per cent.

The index covering imported items included in the wholesale price index shows the greatest increase (52 per cent.), followed by the export price index covering all pastoral and dairy-produce (22 per cent.).

Retail prices (particularly of food), and locally-produced items in the wholesale series, show the least advance. These prices are more amenable to control than are those covered by other series, and, as abnormally high prices were ruling for potatoes in August and November, 1939, increases in the price of foods other than potatoes are veiled to some extent.

Chapter 36. SECTION 36.—WAGE-RATES AND HOURS OF LABOUR.

Table of Contents

THE material used in the compilation of statistics of wage-rates in New Zealand is, with certain exceptions, taken from the awards of the Arbitration Court. It is recognized that the rates specified in such awards are minimum rates, and that wages may in some cases be above the prescribed minima, so that a rise or fall in the award rates does not necessarily involve an immediate change in the wage-rates of those workers who are being paid more than these rates. Nevertheless, for the purpose of tracing the movement in wage-rates over any considerable space of time, the award rates form a more reliable basis than any information which could be collected directly from employers or trade-union secretaries as to the ruling or predominant rates in any industry. Prior to the passing of the Agricultural Workers Act, 1936, no fixed rates of wages for farm employees existed; and for this group figures of ruling wage-rates were reported by Inspectors of Factories attached to the Labour Department.

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1932, contained, inter alia, a provision that, in the event of the parties to an industrial dispute being unable to come to agreement before the Conciliation Council, the award lapsed. In cases where district awards have lapsed under this provision figures have been interpolated, based on fluctuations in corresponding rates in other districts. The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1936, restored the full powers of the Court (see next section. Labour Laws and Allied Legislation).

The award rates for the four principal districts—Northern, Wellington, Canterbury, and Otago and Southland—are in general taken as representative of the ruling wages throughout the Dominion. For such industries as are carried on in the towns these rates are quite satisfactory; in cases where the important centre of an industry is situated outside the geographical boundaries of the four principal districts the award rates for that centre are used. For instance, the rates used for coal-mining and sawmilling in the Canterbury District are those prescribed by the awards for the Westland Industrial District.

The system of compilation of wage-rates index numbers was revised in 1936, and the index numbers appearing in the following pages are on the same base as in the case of the retail- and wholesale-prices indexes—viz., the average of the five years 1926–30 (= 1000). The industrial grouping also underwent some modification, consisting principally of the dispersal of the old groups “Other Manufactures” and “Miscellaneous” amongst existing groups, and the introduction of three new groups (”Provision of Power, Heat, and Light"; “Working in Stone, Clay, Glass, and Chemicals”; and “Working in Skins, Leather, &c.”); while the old group “Textiles and Weaving” was combined with “Clothing and Footwear.”

The Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942 provide for the stabilization of all rates of wages and remuneration at the levels ruling on 15th November, 1942, but adjustments by way of general orders of the Arbitration Court may be made from time to time if the movement in the special wartime price index is sufficient to warrant an increase or decrease in wage-rates.

Adjustments, &c., of wage-rates provided for in awards, apprenticeship orders, industrial agreements, or fixed by contract or a scheme of classification made prior to the commencement of operation of the stabilization regulations are recoverable, and provision is made for recourse to a Conciliation Commissioner in all cases where anomalies exist.

A more complete reference to the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations will be found in the section of this Year-Book relating to “Labour Laws and Allied Legislation.”

WAGE-RATES OF ADULT MALE WORKERS: Method of Weighting.—The weights used in the computation of the indexes were derived mainly from three sources— viz., (1) the occupations statistics of the 1926 census, (2) the annual factory' production statistics, and (3) the membership rolls of trade-unions registered under the Arbitration Act. Weights have been allocated to the individual occupations included in these computations, and although in some few cases absolute accuracy in weighting could not be hoped for, the data were sufficiently accurate for the purpose in view, since minor differences in weighting do not affect the accuracy of the index number. Occupations are grouped into industries, with an appropriate weight, for each occupation and each industry; while industries are grouped into fourteen principal industrial groups, these also being given appropriate weights. The weights for the individual occupations and industries have been derived from the census or the factory production statistics; while the industrial-group weighting has been taken partly from these sources and partly from the membership of trade-unions registered under the Arbitration Act. In the case of workers on the land, use was also made of information formerly obtained by means of the annual collections of agricultural and pastoral statistics. Full details of the weighting appeared in the Statistical Report on Prices, &c., for the year 1935.

Nominal Weekly Wage-rates Index Numbers.—Average annual index numbers of nominal weekly wage-rates of adult males over the period 1914–41 are given in the following table. The index numbers for the years 1915–25 have been interpolated on the basis of movements recorded in the earlier series of index numbers. The base in this case is the weighted average of weekly wage-rates for adult males in 1926–30 (= 1000).

Year.Index Number.

* Interpolated.

1914623
1915659*
1916679*
1917711*
1918742*
1919794*
1920887*
1921956*
1922939*
1923925*
1924938*
1925952*
1926966
1927985
19281016
19291017
19301017
1931942
1932864
1933833
1934839
1935858
1936950
19371036
19381081
19391100
19401130
19411170

Wage-rates rose steadily and in fairly regular gradations from year to year from 1914 to 1918. When the provisions of the War Legislation and Statute Law Amendment Act, 1918, came into effect, providing for the regulation of wages in accordance with movements in the cost of living, the lag between prices and wage-rates was partially eliminated, and consequently sharp increases took place. The effect of the post-war slump subsequently became apparent, and decreases were then recorded. Following the recovery from the slump, the index number rose year by year until in 1929 it reached 1017, the highest level recorded prior to the year 1937. A general order of the Arbitration Court, dated 29th May, 1931, reduced all rates of pay and allowances prescribed by awards and industrial agreements by 10 per cent. The rates of remuneration of apprentices were exempted from this order; and, in addition, flax-mill employees in the Wellington Industrial District, who had already suffered a substantial cut in wages, were exempted. The average rates of pay of agricultural and pastoral workers, although not subject to the Court's order, were considerably below those ruling during previous years. As a consequence of these reductions, a substantial fall occurred in the 1931 annual average index numbers for all groups. This reduction in wage-rates, being on a strictly percentage basis, caused a levelling-up in the group indexes, the relatively higher-paid groups of workers suffering the largest reduction in rates.

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1932, made provision for the review of existing awards. During 1932 and 1933 the rates of pay prescribed in several awards were reduced in new awards; and, again, wage-rates of two classes of labour not covered by awards (railway employees and permanent farm hands) suffered further reductions—in 1932 in the former case and in 1932 and 1933 in the latter case. Also in most instances the ruling rates of pay, in cases where previously existing awards had been cancelled, were below the former award rates. Consequently the general index number of wage-rates fell substantially, the 1933 index (833, on the base: 1926–30 = 1000) being 3·6 per cent. below the 1932 figure, and 18·1 per cent. below the former peak level of 1017 recorded in 1929 and 1930. The 1933 index is the lowest annual average index since 1919; but slight increases were recorded in 1934 and 1935.

Complete restoration to the pre-depression level of award (and other) rates of wages and salaries was effected by the Finance Act, 1936, which was passed early in August of that year. A further measure of importance was the Agricultural Workers Act, passed in September, 1936. Both these Acts are discussed in the next section (Labour Laws and Allied Legislation). The effect of the restoration, of wages cuts and the provision, for the first time in the history of the Dominion, of standard rates of pay in respect of certain classes of permanent farm labour, was reflected in the index numbers of wage-rates for 1936, the all-groups index showing an increase of 92 points, or 10·7 per cent., over that for 1935. The full effect of the provisions referred to was not, however, evident until the following year, when the all-groups index registered a further advance of 86 points or 9·1 per cont.

In 1938 and 1939 the general index showed further increases of 45 and 19 points respectively, and in the earlier portion of 1940 remained almost stationary. In July, 1940, an application was made under the Rates of Wages Emergency Regulations 1940, fixing wages in industry, to meet the increased cost of living.' The decision of the Court of Arbitration was an increase of 5 per cent. in all rates of remuneration in awards, industrial agreements, and apprenticeship orders, as from the 12th August. 1940.

The Court awarded a further increase of 5 per cent. as from 7th April, 1942, but with the following limitations: —

  1. In the case of males twenty-one years of age and over, on earnings up to £5 per week only:

  2. In the ease of females twenty-one years of age and over, on earnings up to £2 10s. per week only:

  3. In the case of males or females under twenty-one years of age, and apprentices, on earnings up to £1 10s. per week only.

The following table shows the index numbers of nominal weekly wage-rates of adult males for each industrial group and for all groups combined. Where board and (or) lodging is a usual perquisite attached to any occupation, an allowance estimated to cover the value of such has been added to the money wage-rate. The base in this instance is the Dominion weighted average wage-rate for all groups combined, 1926–30 (= 1000).

Industrial Group.1914.1932.1933.1934.1935.1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.

NOTE.—The index numbers in this table are comparable both vertically and horizontally.

Provision of–           
  Food, drink, &c.665995963967991106811651248126612991344
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles60792392192492797910351063112211651204
  Building and construction65491689889791097910511122112611601197
  Power, beat, and light656990973973975104711071157119412201263
  Transport by water65410259919981045110511901209121712861434
  Transport by land617926899920940100810701093111611581202
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service66086882882484992810171038107710951119
Working in or on–           
  Wood, wicker, seagrass, and fibre634957913899916101410971151117912151251
  Metal717987938936952104811251209124112681303
  Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals58493591189388698010591112113911721209
  Paper, printing, &c.7571058102610191051113011931247125012761313
  Skins, leather, &c.60093891990589697610541090111611841247
  Mines and quarries664937928938965101010761117111711621196
  The land (farming pursuits)519550516528541694824849859866874
  All groups combined62386483383985895010361081110011301170

Prior to 1938 the highest index numbers were recorded in the group, “paper, printing, &c.,” due, no doubt, to the preponderance of highly skilled tradesmen, but during that year higher rates of wages were awarded to a number of Workers in the “food, drink, &c.,” group (largely due to the fact that they work more than forty hours per week), with the result that the index for this group was the highest from 1938 to 1940. The “transport by water” group had the highest index number in the year 1941, this being due to special increases in wage-rates in order to compensate For war risks involved in the industry.

The lowest index for 1941 was that for the group “working on the land” (874), followed by “accommodation, meals, and personal service” (1119). In the latter group, as also in the “transport by water” and “working on the land” groups, the estimated value of board and lodging is, where applicable, added to the money wage-rate in order to make a legitimate comparison with other industries. In the case of waterside workers (an important subgroup of the “water transport” group) this allowance is not, of course, applicable.

Movement in Individual Groups.—The index numbers in the preceding table being on a Dominion all-groups base, comparisons between movements in individual groups cannot be readily made; an increase in a group in which the index numbers are consistently low being considerably smaller numerically than would be an increase of the same percentage in one where the index numbers are higher. The following table brings out the movements in the various groups more clearly. The respective bases are the Dominion average weekly wage-rates for each industrial group 1926–30 (= 1000).

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (ADULT MALES).

Industrial Group.1926–30.1914.1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
Provision of—        
  Food, drink, &c.100060196610531128114411741215
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles100059696110151043110011421180
  Building and construction100063795410241093109711301166
  Power, heat, and light100060095710111057109011141153
  Transport by water1000592100010761093110011621296
  Transport by land100058896110191041106311031145
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service100068095610471068110911271151
Working in or on—        
  Wood, wicker, seagrass, and fibre100058894210181068109411281161
  Metal100064794610151091112011441176
  Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals100057695910351087111211451181
  Paper, printing, &c.100063795010021048105010721103
  Skins, leather, &c.100057493410081042106811331193
  Mines and quarries100063797010331071107111151147
  The land (farming pursuits)100067590310711104111611261136
      All groups combined100062395010361081110011301170

Care must be exercised in drawing inferences from this table, for, while horizontal comparisons are quite valid, the vertical comparison between the various groups is valid only in so far as it shows in which groups the greater or the smaller movements have occurred. For example, the 1941 index for the “paper, printing, &c.,” group is 44 points below that for “mines and quarries,” the reason being that wages of workers in the former group have increased in a lesser degree than have those in the latter, although the actual rates of wages are considerably higher, as may be seen by reference to the previous table on the all-groups base.

Indexes of Hourly Wage-rates.—Legislative reductions in weekly hours of labour during recent years rendered it desirable that indexes of hourly wage-rates should be made available. The indexes given hereunder show clearly the effect of the shorter working-hours prescribed mainly by the 1936 legislation. It will be noticed that these indexes (as is also the case in respect of the indexes of weekly hours of labour) cover thirteen only out of the fourteen industrial groups commonly adopted, since working-hours on farms (which would be essential to the fourteenth group) are incapable of satisfactory statistical treatment. The base is the Dominion weighted average hourly wage-rate for all groups combined, 1926–30 (= 1000).

Industrial Group.1914.1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
Provision of—       
  Food, drink, &c.556100211321215123312631304
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles55295310731105116212091250
  Building and construction61398011121192119812331272
  Power, heat, and light600101411541218120412921330
  Transport by water593105412041222122912971442
  Transport by land54794810891114113611791222
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service44389110551077111911371162
Working in or on—       
  Wood, wicker, seagrass, and fibre57798211551216124512821321
  Metal655105111971285131913471386
  Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals52993311211177120412391279
  Paper, printing, &c.723112912301325132913571396
  Skins, leather, &c.52791110701137117012181257
  Mines and quarries611100811411185118612341271
      All groups combined58799511381195121612551305

The same table is now given with a different base—viz., the Dominion weighted average hourly wage-rate for each group individually, 1926–30 (= 1000).

Industrial Group.1926–30.1914.1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
Provision of—        
  Food, drink, &c.100054297811041185120312311272
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles100057499211171150121212591301
  Building and construction1000630100811431226123212681308
  Power, heat, and light1000597100211401204125012771315
  Transport by water1000562100011431160116712321369
  Transport by land1000578100211511177120112461291
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service1000513103412241250129813201348
Working in or on—        
  Wood, wicker, seagrass, and fibre100057898411581219124812851324
  Metal100061298111181200123212581294
  Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals1000577100212051264129413311375
  Paper, printing, &c.100061596010471128113111551188
  Skins, leather, &c.100057198711601233126813201302
  Mines and quarries1000618102111561200120112501287
      All groups combined100058799511381195121612551305

WAGE-RATES OF ADULT FEMALE WORKERS.— Index numbers showing movements in wage-rates of women workers are compiled, using the award rates of the Arbitration Court, as representative of the ruling rates of wages. A much smaller list of occupations' is used than is the ease in computing index numbers of wage movements for male workers. Although only fifteen occupations are taken into consideration in the case of women workers, these occupations cover a large proportion of the total women in industry—more than sufficient to constitute a representative sample for measuring movements in wages. The weights used have been computed from data as to occupations from the 1926 census results.

The following table shows index numbers of women's wage-rates (on base: Dominion all-groups weighted average, 1926–30 = 1000), divided into the principal industries in which women workers are engaged. It should be noted that domestic servants employed in private homes, numerically a very important branch of women workers, are not represented in the compilation of these indexes; also, that in the case of hotel workers (where board and lodging is a usual perquisite) and of restaurant employees (where meals are usually provided) the value of such additions has been added to the money-wage rates.

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (ADULT FEMALES).

Industrial Group.1914.1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
Provision of—       
  Food, drink, &c.3908098538699509791018
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles534893932977102910691113
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service836117612631294133413521378
Working in paper, printing, &c.48797910551095111011341166
      All groups combined60296110151055110311371174

Movements in Individual Groups.—Movements within the various groups are brought out more clearly in the next table, the base in this case being the Dominion weighted average weekly rate of each group, 1926–30 (= 1000). As with the similar table relating to male wage-rates (p. 547) horizontal comparisons are valid, but vertical comparisons merely show in which groups the greater or smaller movements have occurred.

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (ADULT FEMALES).

Industrial Group.1926–30.1914.1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
Provision of—        
  Food, drink, &c.100045995810101029112411591205
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles100057897210141063112011631211
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service100067094710171042107410881109
Working in paper, printing, &c.100055993110031041105510781109
  All groups combined100060296110151055110311371174

WEEKLY WAGE-RATES: ALL ADULT WORKERS.—A series of index numbers has been computed (on the base 1926–30 = 1000) for all adult workers: this varies but little from the index for adult males, owing to the preponderance of men in industry. Index numbers for the last eleven years available are:—

Year.Index.
1931942
1932868
1933839
1934844
1935862
1930951
19371034
19381080
19391100
19401132
19411172

EFFECTIVE WEEKLY WAGE-RATES.—The index numbers quoted in the foregoing discussion relate to nominal wage-rates—that is, they are based on actual or equivalent money rates without any allowance being made for changes in prices during the period under review. It is obvious that this factor is of considerable importance; for a rise in wage-rates may be offset by a fall in the purchasing-power of the monetary unit, while, on the other hand, a fall in money wages may be offset by a rise in the purchasing-power of money. Changes in the index numbers of retail prices are inversely proportional to changes in the purchasing-power of the pound; and index numbers of effective (or “real”) wage-rates can be arrived at by dividing the index numbers for nominal wage-rates by the corresponding index numbers for retail prices covering all groups of domestic expenditure.

The following table compares nominal and effective wage-rates of adult male and female workers in each of the years 1931–11. The base of the index numbers is in each case the average of the live years 1926–30 (= 1000).

Year.Retail Prices (All Groups).Nominal Wage-rates.Effective Wage-rates.
Males.Females.Males.Females.
193190694295210401051
193283886490510311080
193379583388710481116
193480883988710381098
193583785890310251079
193686495096111001112
19379231036101511221100
19389511081105511371109
19399901100110311111114
19401035110113710921099
194110721170117410911095

In considering these figures, it should not be overlooked that the index number of effective wage-rates (in common, of course, with that of nominal wage-rates) is applicable only to wage-earners in full-time employment at award rates of pay, and not to the average of all wage-earners, inclusive of those unemployed or on short time.

It should be noted that under the employment-promotion legislation a wages-tax (1d. for every 6s. 8d. of wages from August, 1931, to April, 1932; 1d. for every 1s. 8d. from May, 1932, to September, 1934; 1d. for every 2s. from October, 1934, to September, 1935; and 1d. for every 2s. 6d. from October, 1935, to March, 1939) was in operation. As from 1st April, 1939, the employment-promotion legislation was replaced by the Social Security Act, 1938, under which the wages-tax was increased to 1d. for every 1s. 8d. of wages. A further tax on wages, also at the rate of 1d. in 1s. 8d., was imposed as from 21st July, 1940, the proceeds being devoted to war purposes. The latter tax was increased to 1½d. for every 1s. 8d., as from 11th May. 1942. The foregoing taxes have not been taken into account in the compilation of index numbers of effective wage-rates.

WAGE-RATES OF JUVENILE WORKERS.—During 1936, the compilation of index numbers of wage-rates of juveniles was undertaken for the first time, and the results appeared in the introductory notes to the 1935 and 1936 issues of the annual Statistical Report on Prices, &c.

Owing to the fact that a number of industries utilize juvenile labour to a limited extent only, or not at all, it has not been possible to cover a very wide field, but thirty-two occupations representing twelve out of the fourteen industrial groups are included in the case of juvenile males, and four occupations representing three industrial groups in the case of juvenile females.

Wherever possible, the weekly wage-rate adopted in the compilation of the indexes is that provided for a worker having attained the age of eighteen years or having completed three years' service, according to the terms of the award.

In the table which follows the base is, in each case, the Dominion all-groups weighted average of weekly wage-rates, 1926–30 (= 1000).

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE-RATES INDEX NUMBERS (JUVENILE WORKERS).

Industrial Group.1914.1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.

*No provision made in awards fur juvenile females.

Juvenile Males.
Provision of—       
  Food and drink665106111871241126012881331
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles5448749901010103210771126
  Building and construction59293310391039107311221156
  Transport by land609102010951112115612151276
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service562100611221124113611601193
Working in or on—       
  Wood, wicker, seagrass, &c.5548709901087115611581189
  Metal48798211561189120912431278
  Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals51199612541308129413201361
  Paper, printing, &c.6098769749749749941022
  Skins, leather, &c.74693910531197120912491329
  Mines and quarries1142179320042028202821362219
  The land (farming pursuits)68098811341189121712211223
    All industrial groups61998611241164119112171243
Juvenile Females.
Provision of—       
  Food and drink512112412401248128713131351
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles640104412401287131813801444
  Working in paper, printing, &c.*120713021364138014081450
  All industrial groups616107812481289132013721152

It will be seen that the fluctuations in the all-groups indexes for juvenile males differ appreciably from the corresponding figures for adult males given previously, this being largely due to the influence of movements in farm wages, which have a weight of approximately 36 per cent. of the total in the case of juveniles, as against 23 per cent. in the case of adults.

THE BASIC WAGE.—A general order fixing basic rates of wages for adult male and female workers was issued by the Arbitration Court on 2nd November, 1936. The rates are fixed at £3 16s. for adult male workers and at £1 16s. for adult female workers. The basic wage applies to all workers twenty-one years of age or over (excepting casual workers and those working under apprenticeship contracts), the conditions-of whose employment are fixed by any award or industrial agreement. The subject is treated in greater detail in the next section (Labour Laws and Allied Legislation).

AVERAGE RATES OF WAGES.—Schedules showing the unweighted averages of award rates of wages for all occupations as prescribed in awards of the Arbitration Court are contained in the 1940 and previous issues of the Year-Book, but considerations of space preclude their inclusion on this occasion. For the latest data in this connection, readers are referred to the Statistical Report on Prices. &c.

HOURS OF LABOUR.—The following table shows index numbers of the number of hours constituting a full week's work in the various industrial groups for 1914 and for each year from 1936 to 1941. The material from which the index numbers have been compiled has been taken from the awards of the Arbitration Court in most cases: but where hours are not prescribed in the awards, reference has been made to the Factories Act and the Shops and Offices Act. It has been necessary to omit the agricultural and pastoral workers group from these computations, since, with certain exceptions (and those only in recent years), hours of farm labour are not fixed. For each sex, the base is the Dominion weighted average for all industrial groups combined, 1926–30 (= 1000).

Industrial Group.1914.1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.

NOTE.—The index numbers in each section of the above table are comparable both vertically and horizontally.

Provision of—       
Males.
  Food and drink1135988947944944945941
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles1000948888888888888888
  Building and construction988923866866866866866
  Power, heat, and light1061978902883870870870
  Transport by water10931045911911911911911
  Transport by land1044996905905905905905
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service1325974891891891891891
Working in or on—       
  Wood, wicker, teagrass, &c.993947866866866866866
  Metal1008924866866866866866
  Stone, clay, glass, a n d chemicals1026969872872872872872
  Paper, printing, &c.948918896866866866866
  Skins, leather, &c.1039994901901901908922
  Mines and quarries981924866866866866866
    All groups combined1041963890888888888888
Provision of—       
Females.
  Food and drink976940867867867867867
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles1006960901901901901901
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service1217975891891891891891
Working in paper, printing, &c.976941903867867867867
    All groups combined1054962898896896896896

The index numbers in the foregoing table being on a Dominion all-groups base, comparisons between movements in individual groups cannot be readily made. The following table brings out the movements in the various groups more clearly, a separate base being used for each group.

Industrial Group.1926–30.1914.1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.

NOTE.—Vertical comparisons are indicative merely of the relative changes in the length of the working-week in the different industries, not of the actual respective number of hours for the different industrial groups.

Provision of—        
Males.
  Food and drink10001128982942939938939939
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles10001023969908908908908908
  Building and construction10001011944886886886886886
  Power, heat, and light10001041960885867854854854
  Transport by water10001014970845845845845845
  Transport by land10001016969880880886886880
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service10001275937857857857857857
Working in or on—        
  Wood, wicker, seagrass, &c.10001002955874874874807874
  Metal10001058970909909909994909
  Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals10001009952857857857857857
  Paper, printing, &c.10001021989965933933933933
  Skins, leather, &c.10001003959869835869876889
  Mines and quarries10001016957897897897897897
    All groups combined10001041963890888888888888
Provision of—        
Females.
  Food and drink10001000963889889889889889
  Clothing, foot wear, and textiles10001016970911911911911911
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service10001169937856856856856856
Working in paper, printing, &c.10001013977938900900900900
    All groups combined10001054962898896896896896

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1936, contained inter alia, provisions aimed at the establishment of a forty-hour week, without reduction in the weekly wage-rate. New awards contain a provision to this effect, except that the Court may fix longer hours, but is required to state its reasons for so doing. Awards in existence at the time the amendment was passed might be reviewed on application of the unions concerned with a view to the fixing of a forty-hour week. The Factories Amendment Act, 1936, required the fixing of a forty-hour week in factories, applications for exemptions from this provision being heard by the Arbitration Court. A forty-hour week is now in operation in the great majority of industries, although in a few cases increases in hours worked have been permitted in some industries of special importance in the war economy. This matter is dealt with in more detail in the next section (page 559).

SUMMARY OF INDEX NUMBERS.—The following table gives a summary for the years 1931–41 of the movements in index numbers covering both wage-rates and hours of labour.

WEEKLY WAGE-RATES, HOURLY WAGE-RATES, AND AVERAGE HOURS. (Base: 1926–30 = 1000).

Year.Nominal Weekly Wage-rates.Hourly* Wage rates: Males.Hours worked.
Adults.Juveniles.Males.*Females.
Males.Females.Combined.Males.Females.

* Excluding the agricultural and pastoral group.

19319429529429499799479991000
19328649058688589488969991000
19338338878398219108779991000
19348398878448139078789991000
19358589038628079108949991000
19369509619519861078995963962
1937103610151034112412481138890898
1938108110551080116412891195888896
1939110011031100119113201216888896
1940113011371132121713721255888896
1941117011741172124314521305888896

Chapter 37. SECTION 37.—LABOUR LAWS AND ALLIED LEGISLATION.

Table of Contents

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.—In 1858 the New Zealand Parliament enacted that the laws of England as existing on 14th January, 1840, should, as far as applicable, be deemed to apply in New Zealand also. But in what was an essentially agricultural and pioneer country, conditions demanding labour legislation were not present, so that there was but little early progress in labour legislation. Initially, labour administration was interpreted in the light of English statutes, but such interpretations were largely ineffective, owing to the vast difference between English and New Zealand conditions.

One industry, however, was as important to New Zealand as to the British Isles—the shipping industry. In 1854 Britain passed a consolidating Merchant Shipping Act, which contained numerous safety clauses and included a series of regulations aimed at the well-being of the crew, such as a wage-paying code and provisions as to seamen's accommodation, diet, and medical comfort. In 1858 the New Zealand Parliament extended these regulations of the working-conditions of seamen to all British ships under the jurisdiction of New Zealand. A series of Merchant Shipping Acts Adoption Acts were passed in 1869, 1873, and 1874, taking over certain provisions of the British Merchant Shipping Acts of 1862, 1872, and 1873, while other Acts followed in 1877. 1885, and 1890.

Apart from the regulation of working-conditions on board ship, early New Zealand social legislation concerned itself mainly with such general social problems as the care of orphans and the encouragement of thrift by means of suitable institutions. The Master and Apprentices Act of 1865 and the apprentice protection sections of the Offences against the Person Act of 1867 regulated the apprenticeship of young persons to farmers and tradesmen, stipulating that they were to be provided with food, clothing, bedding, and a moral education. These provisions were apparently intended to safeguard the training and interests of destitute children. In 1856 a law was passed to facilitate the formation of friendly societies in New Zealand, and the establishment of savings-banks was to be stimulated by an Act of 1858. The Act providing for the establishment of the Post Office Savings-bank was passed seven years later.

A Distress and Replevin Act (1868) regulated the conditions under which goods and chattels might be seized as a distress for arrears of rent. The Trade-unions Act was passed in 1878, affording unions protection from prosecution for conspiracy by reason merely that their purposes were in restraint of trade. The Inspection of Machinery Act, 1882, provided for the inspection of machinery in factories, &c., and required that persons in charge of boilers be properly qualified. An Employers' Liability Act was passed in 1882, legislating in the matter of industrial accidents with the object of mitigating the consequences to the worker without recourse to expensive litigation at common law.

Legislation specifically governing the conditions of employment of women and girls—particularly in respect of hours of labour—was introduced in 1873, there being several amendments to the Act in later years, while the legislation was amended and consolidated in 1881. Regulation of the hours of labour of children was also provided for. With the existence of slump conditions in the “eighties” allegations of “sweating” arose; and, since such complaints became increasingly numerous, a Commission was set up in 1889 to inquire into this evil. The Commission found that the Employment, of Females Act was ineffective owing to the lack of the necessary powers of enforcement. The Commission declared that actual sweating conditions were not present, though a minority report differed from this view, but pointed out that with increasing industrialization such conditions would rapidly become prevalent if no attempt were made to check them. The Commission made recommendations for future labour legislation, and, as the result of its findings, the Factories Act of 1891 was passed.

Depression, discontent, and a growing labour force—despite depression, the number of hands employed in factories increased approximately 16½ per cent. between 1885 and 1890—formed an economic background favourable to social legislation. Meanwhile the maritime strike of 1890, which caused even further distress throughout the country, proved to the trade-unions that they were not sufficiently strong to obtain their demands by direct action, and diverted their activities to the political field. The strike also aroused public opinion to the necessity for preventing such industrial strife. Political opportunity was still further opened by Sir George Grey, who in 1889 obtained Parliamentary approval for the abolition of the last remnant of plural voting at the elections to the House of Representatives. The extension of the franchise to women followed four years later.

In January, 1891, a Liberal Government came into power under the leadership of Ballance, with Reeves (Labour) and Seddon (Public Works) in the portfolios directly concerned with labour matters. As indicated above, the economic and political background demanded social change, and the change came to such a degree that New Zealand—still in the pioneer stage of economic development—acquired world fame as the land of advanced social legislation. The labour code enacted in the “nineties” was not so much socialistic as a correction of the more manifest injustices of an individualist system. There was not so much State control as an improved framework within which laissez faire could operate. This policy is most clearly seen in the realms of housing and farming, in which the Government aimed at making it easier for the worker to build or to settle on land, by the provision of finance through the State Advances Department (established in 1894). The Family Homes Protection Act, 1895, provided protection for homes from the legal processes resulting from bankruptcy proceedings, &c. The only encroachment on laissez faire principles was the fostering of co-operation on public works from 1891 onwards.

Working-conditions were improved by legislative regulation in four types of industry (factory work, shipping, shops and offices, and coal-mining), wages being also safeguarded though not directly increased.

The great achievement of this administration, however, was the evolution of machinery—the Conciliation Councils, the Arbitration Court, and the Labour Department—which not only administered the labour code efficiently, but could also modify it rapidly to suit the changing economic background. This dynamic machinery was far more effective than the all too soon antiquated improvements by the more normal procedure of static legislative enactment. An adjustable labour code was of special advantage to a primary-produce exporting country which is, of all countries, most open to the fluctuations of economic progress, and it is another example of the British empiricism that delights in suiting action to the conditions of the moment.

This code, and the resulting constant political intervention in labour conditions, profoundly modified labour organization. Since resort to judicial rather than to militant action became the accepted means of settling industrial disputes, much of the bitterness usually associated with the struggle for improved wages and working-conditions was lost. Moreover, the close association with the Courts led to the growth of a strong political bias in the aims of unionism. This was but natural, for, since the legislative code ensured to the workers many benefits for which they would otherwise have had to fight keenly, it was felt that the further amelioration of living-conditions would best be attained by legislation rather than by direct action.

Subsequent progress has been determined largely by this code, although the swing visible in the development of English labour legislation from Salisbury's Factory Acts to Lloyd George's pension schemes—from concrete intervention in working-conditions to attempts at equalizing the distribution of the national income —is also evident in New Zealand. For example, the rate of age-benefit (formerly old-age pension) has been increased considerably—from £18 per annum (1898) to £45 10s. (1925), to £52 (July, 1936), to £58 10s. (December, 1936), to £78 (April, 1939), with a further increase of 5 per cent. by way of bonus from May, 1942. Again, the present Government's housing plans include provision for the erection of homes of a good standard to be let to workers at a reasonable rental, and much progress has already been achieved in this connection (vide page 336).

Prior to the passing of the Social Security Act. 1938 (vide Section 24), the initial pre-eminence of New Zealand in respect of social legislation generally had been largely lost. Hitherto the only governmental provision towards sickness insurance was the National Provident Fund established in 1911. This scheme is a voluntary one, State aid being in the direction of administration, together with a subsidy. The Social Security Act is much wider in scope than similar legislation in other countries; but it is worthy of note that compulsory health insurance, operative in New Zealand only from 1st April, 1939, has been in operation for many years in several other countries—e.g., Germany (1883), Great Britain (1911).

National provision for the relief of unemployment dill not become law in this country until 1930, whereas in Great Britain legislation dealing with this subject has been in force since 1911, the years of initiation of unemployment insurance in certain other countries being as follows: Austria, 1920; Queensland (Australia), 1922; Italy, 1923; Germany, 1924. A Workers' Compensation Amendment Act was passed in October, 1936, liberalizing the scale of payments in respect of accidents. The Social Security Act has rectified the pre-existing deficiencies in New Zealand legislation in regard to medical benefits and unemployment, as compared with the position in other countries.

Up to 1936 progress in other spheres was limited to technical improvements on the original Ballance-Seddon code, except perhaps in the case of the fluctuating fortunes of the Arbitration Court. During the twenty-six years of prosperity from 1895 to 1921 (there was but a slight setback in 1909–10) the scope of the Court's awards was gradually expanded, the most important step being the power conferred in 1898 of prescribing minimum rates of wages. Whereas the Court was originally more concerned with conditions of work, and not at first with wages, there has been a gradual transformation, till in recent years the attention of the Court has been mainly focused on the wages question. As the Court is progressive, or at least not static, its influence expanded at the cost of stationary measures, such as Factories Acts, which, in practice, became a dead-letter as affecting workers under the jurisdiction of the Court. During the depressed years following 1921 wages were reduced, to the dissatisfaction of the workers, yet not fast enough for employers, so that the value of the Court was increasingly questioned till a National Industrial Conference was summoned in 1928 to discuss, inter alia, compulsory arbitration. In the boom years between 1927 and 1930 no action was taken; but in 1932, under stress of depressed conditions, amendments were made to the Act which in effect abolished the system of compulsory arbitration. The Arbitration Amendment Act, 1936, restored the full powers of the Court.

Though no great inroads have been made on the wages system, there has been definite governmental and legislative encouragement of co-operation. In 1891 much public-works construction, such as road and railway formation, was first organized on this principle. The plant, explosives, &c., were supplied to the men by the State at cost price or on low hire terms. A modified form of the system then adopted is still followed, and its scope was increased in 1936. Similarly, the Companies Empowering Act of 1924, the provisions of which were embodied in the Companies Act, 1933, attempted to encourage the principle of profit-sharing among workers. Any company registered under the Companies Act is empowered to issue to its employees labour shares, which are not transferable, have no nominal value, and do not form part of the ordinary capital of the company. Except as otherwise provided, these shares entitle the holders to the same privileges as the ordinary shareholders. In the event of an employee leaving his employment or dying, the shares must be surrendered in cash or in capital shares to him or to his heirs. Another Act in the early “twenties” aimed at fostering co-operation anions farmers, but it became, in practice, a dead-letter.

There was in the original labour code a definite policy of ensuring greater opportunities for the masses by financing farming and house-building projects, through the State Advances Department. This provision of easy credit to put workers on the land was the rural aspect of the labour code, for, apart from some provision for the inspection of housing, there were no other measures designed for the agricultural labourer. Even the Arbitration Court in 1908, 1919, and 1925 refused to make any award covering permanent farm labour. Full provision for the application of standard rates of wages, &c., to farm workers was made in 1936 (see Agricultural Workers Act, post). The policy of social lending survived the years of prosperity, and was employed to cope with part of the post-war demobilization; but the policy was reversed a little later, and the Rural Advances Act of 1926 was a definite attempt to put State Advances loans on a more economic basis, eliminating much of the social background. This tendency was completed by the creation of the Mortgage Corporation in 1935, which definitely marked the subordination of social to economic ends. The agricultural bias and the workers' loans of up to 95 per cent. of their security were both eliminated, in theory at least. At the same time loans for housing were reintroduced for Maoris late in 1935, and further activity in this sphere was foreshadowed by the Housing Survey Act of 1935. The Government was also empowered to lend to farmers, through the Lands Department, by the Dairy Industry (Emergency Powers) Act of the same year.

The State Advances Corporation Act, 1936, marked a definite reversal of the previous Government's policy in regard to State Advances loans. The Mortgage Corporation was abolished, its powers having been taken over by the State Advances Corporation (see Section 23D), while the general purpose of the 1936 Act was definitely in the direction of a liberalization of the lending policy of the State.

During the depression period there was a cessation of the move towards better working-conditions; and, on the grounds of economic circumstances and the danger of inconveniencing still further already bankrupt employers, the various inspection duties that usually preserve the labour code were curtailed. The rates of pensions and of public servants' salaries and wages were reduced, while award rates of wages were also compulsorily reduced. At the same time heavy unemployment liabilities were undertaken and immigration control was made more rigid. Steps were also taken to reduce farmers' mortgage liabilities and to maintain farmers on their land.

In no case do the provisions laid down by any particular labour law cancel the worker's rights at common law; but since, naturally enough, better conditions are laid down by statute than the worker is entitled to at common law, it is unusual to find in these days litigation under the common law affecting master and servant. It sometimes happens, however, notably in workers' compensation cases, that appeal is made at common law instead of under the Act, there being no statutory limits to the damages which may be obtained at common law. Since, with the exception of such of the labour statutes as are of general application, no labour legislation exists as yet affecting certain classes or workers—e.g., domestic servants—their relations with their employers are still governed mainly by the common law affecting master and servant.

New Zealand has been relatively backward in protection for permanent farm labour, for while seasonal labour is in general covered—awards existing both for shearers and shed hands and for threshing-mill workers—the Arbitration Court has made no awards in respect of permanent farm hands. In general, conditions of work on farms were not covered by any specific legislation—except as regards inspection of housing-accommodation—until, in 1936, the Agricultural Workers Act (described in some detail later) was passed, containing definite provision as to wages of dairy-farm workers and better provision for the housing of agricultural workers. Similar legislation has existed in many of the older countries for years past. Further improvement in the position of agricultural workers was made by the Share-milking Agreements Act, 1937, which defined, inter alia, minimum percentages of the milking returns to be received by share-milkers.

Extensive amendments to pre-existing labour laws have been made by the Labour Government (first elected in November, 1935) towards the formation of a more liberal code of social legislation. Legislative provisions novel to New Zealand have been made with the same object in view—e.g., the Agricultural Workers Act, the provision for the declaration of a basic wage contained in the 1936 amendment to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, &c. Following is a list of Acts dealing directly with labour questions passed during the 1936 session of Parliament:—

  • Employment Promotion Act.

  • Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act.

  • Factories Amendment Act.

  • Shops and Offices Amendment Act.

  • Agricultural Workers Act.

  • Workers' Compensation Amendment Act.

  • Coal-mines Amendment Act.

A machinery measure (the Labour Department Amendment Act) brought certain functions of the Department under the control of the Minister of Labour, and defined more clearly the scope of the Department's activities. In addition to the Acts mentioned above, provisions in several other Acts of the 1936 session deal with matters which can be properly regarded as coming within the subject-matter of this section. The following Acts, or provisions in Acts, may be referred to in this connection. In some instances detailed reference is made later in this section, while in others reference is made in the sections indicated.

  • Certain provisions in the Finance Act dealing with restoration of wages and salaries.

  • The Distress and Replevin Amendment Act.

  • Fair Rents Act.

  • Family Allowances Amendment Act. (See Section 24.)

  • Pensions Amendment Act. (See Section 24).

  • Prevention of Profiteering Act. (See Section 35.)

  • Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act. (See Section 31.)

  • State Advances Corporation Act. (See Section 23D.)

Various enactments and amendments to previous Acts introduced in the 1936 session modifying the code of labour legislation and social legislation generally have been briefly referred to. More detailed reference is given in each instance under the appropriate heading in the following pages, where the legislation as it stands at present is discussed, with appropriate historical comment. A short résumé of the Government's policy in relation to public works as it affects working-conditions, &c., on such works is also appended, as being highly relevant to the subject-matter of this section.

Amendments to the code of labour legislation during subsequent sessions of Parliament have been mostly of a machinery nature, the Social Security Act being the only relevant major legislative measure. A 1937 amendment to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act made provision for the setting-up of a second Court of Arbitration. Two further amendments to this Act were passed in 1939, one giving the Minister of Labour power to cancel the registration of a union or an award in certain circumstances, and the other, a war measure, having as its object the prevention of strikes and lockouts. The Share-milking Agreements Act, besides prescribing the minimum percentages of returns for share-milkers, defines the respective responsibilities of employers and share-milkers in farm-management and control of stock. The Coal-mines Amendment Acts of 1936, 1937, and 1941, and the Mining Amendment Act, 1941, contain provisions towards the improvement of working-conditions in mines. The Legal Aid Act, 1939, gives power to make regulations providing legal aid to poor persons, while the Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act, 1939, consolidates the legislation relating to the payment of wages to workers and to the protection of contractors in respect of the payment for work done by them. The Rural Housing Act, 1939, makes further provision for housing facilities in rural localities, while the Small Farms Amendment Act, 1939, provides that Crown land subject to the Act may be disposed of by way of renewable lease.

Another Small Farms Amendment Act, passed in 1940, gives discharged soldiers eligibility to receive leases under the main Act, and makes special provision for their settlement on the land. The Rehabilitation Act, 1941, not only makes more general provision for the re-establishment of discharged soldiers in civil life, but provides legislative machinery for the conversion of industries from a war-time to a peace-time basis with the least possible interference with the welfare of the persons engaged in such industries.

WAGES AND WORKING-CONDITIONS.—Working-conditions of women and girls in factories were the subject of legislation as early as 1873; but the first legislation of this nature applying to all factory workers was the Inspection of Machinery Act of 1874, which provided for the inspection of machinery in factories, &c., and required that persons in charge of boilers should be properly qualified; while three years later an ineffective Factory Act was passed. But it was the Ballance and Seddon Governments which really initiated legislation in this sphere with four main Acts that have served as a basis for all subsequent legislation on this subject, and determined the lines along which progress was to be made—the Factories Act, 1891; the Coal-mines Act, 1891; the Shops and Shop-assistants Act, 1892; and the Shipping and Seamen Act, 1894. The Agricultural Workers Act, 1936, represents a definite extension of the scope of this legislation.

Wartime Labour Legislation.—The Labour Legislation Emergency Regulations 1940, which superseded regulations of a similar nature issued on 14th September, 1939, give the Minister of Labour power to modify or suspend, by Order published in the Gazette, the provisions of any Act, or of any award or industrial agreement under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, or of any voluntary agreement, in so far as they relate to conditions of employment. As the title of the regulations suggests, the powers conferred upon the Minister are intended to be of a temporary nature, and the main object of the regulations is to overcome the effects of the shortage of skilled workers in certain industries which are essential to the efficient prosecution of New Zealand's war effort. This has been effected mainly by permitting the working of shifts and by extending the number of hours that may be worked in any one week. In addition, apprenticeship conditions in certain industries have been relaxed and additional apprentices engaged, while, in the clothing and related trades and the grocery trade, the basic-wage provision has been modified to enable women workers over twenty-one years of age without previous experience to be employed. A similar provision has also been made to meet the case of women volunteers for land work.

The various Labour Legislation Suspension Orders that have been issued under the authority of the foregoing regulations lay down the conditions of employment under which shifts and extended hours may be worked, and the rates of pay in connection therewith. The more important industries, &c., that have been the subject of suspension orders are as follows: Public works for emergency or defence purposes, ammunition-manufacturing works, timber-mills in certain localities, woollen-mills (including woollen-hosiery mills), shearing operations, tinsmithing and sheet-metal works, &c., engaged mainly in manufacturing dairy equipment, clothing and related trades, tanneries in certain districts, biscuit-factories, and cheese-factories.

Following the entry of Japan into the war, a series of Orders under the authority of the Labour Legislation Emergency Regulations 1940 was issued by the Minister of Labour on 17th December, 1941. These were:—

  • Shops Labour Legislation Suspension and Modification Order: Extending from GO to 120 hours the permissible overtime that may be worked in any year.

  • Factory Industries Labour Legislation Suspension Order: Suspending restrictions regarding holiday work in the case of women and boys employed in factories and persons employed in laundries.

  • Holidays Labour Legislation Modification Order: Authorizing postponement of, or work with pay (at full ordinary rates) on, any statutory or special holidays, including annual holidays.

  • Overtime and Holidays Labour Legislation Suspension Order: Suspending existing provisions regarding payment for overtime or holidays and substituting for them a new scale, which provides for time and a half payment for the first four hours overtime on any one day and for the first sixteen hours in any week (three hours and twelve hours where provided by Act, award, &c.), double time for all overtime in excess of these limits, and double time for holidays (treble time where the worker is otherwise entitled to payment for the holiday).

  • Agricultural Workers Labour Legislation Modification Order: Permitting the employment of boys under fifteen as agricultural workers on dairy-farms, subject to conditions set out.

The National Service Emergency Regulations 1940, while dealing principally with the provision of men for military service, demote a division to the question of national service outside the armed forces. The Minister of National Service has power to direct any reservist (male or female) to perform such specified service as the reservist is, in the Minister's opinion, capable of performing. He may also direct a person to remain in his existing employment.

An employer may not dismiss an employee by reason of his being called up for service with the armed forces. It is an offence to employ deserters from the armed forces or reservists who have failed to enrol as such.

Under the original regulations a person directed to remain in his existing employment or to perform specified service, or a reservist or volunteer released from military obligations on the ground that by reason of his occupation his calling up for military duties is contrary to the public interest, was deemed to be engaged in an essential occupation. By an amendment (No. 8) made early in 1942 this definition of an essential occupation was revoked, and the Minister of National Service is empowered to declare any industry to be an essential industry and any undertaking to be an essential undertaking. All undertakings within an essential industry, unless exempted, are essential undertakings.

Special provisions apply with respect to employment in essential undertakings. Except in circumstances provided for, a person may not leave his employment, and an employer may not dismiss an employee or permit him to give his services in any other undertaking. Seven days' notice on either side must be given, and the permission of the District Man-power Officer must be obtained. Every employee in an essential undertaking, so long as he is available for work, is entitled to full-time wages and allowances. If, however, sufficient work is not available for him in his usual occupation, he must perform such other work in the undertaking as may reasonably be required of him. Failure to comply with this obligation, absence from work without leave or reasonable excuse, habitual or persistent lateness for work, failure to work with due diligence, and wilful or negligent failure to exercise proper skill and care, are offences under the regulations.

As indicated above, the appointment of District Man-power Officers is provided for. The Minister may require employers to obtain the consent of a District Man-power Officer before engaging workers and may direct the registration of persons available for employment. Persons so registered must undertake such employment or training as the District Man-power Officer may direct.

An important and far-reaching step has been taken by the Government in connection with the control of work on wharves, &c., in order to ensure the utmost expedition in the loading, unloading, and storage of cargo. The Waterfront Control Commission Emergency Regulations 1940, issued tinder the authority of the Emergency Regulations Act, 1939, provide for the appointment of a Waterfront Control Commission of three persons and the appointment of Waterfront Controllers and other officers at the various ports. The Commission has very extensive powers, including the employment of labour and the prescription of terms and conditions of such employment, and the rates of remuneration. It may also make provision for a guaranteed weekly minimum payment. The whole of the provisions of the New Zealand Waterside Workers' award and of the provisions of the Labour Disputes Investigation Act. 1913, and certain provisions of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act in so far as they relate to that award, have been suspended.

The Rates of Wages Emergency Regulations, issued in May, 1940. provided that the Arbitration Court, from time to time, on the application of any industrial union or association of employers or workers, might amend by general order the provisions of nil awards and industrial agreements in force in so far as they determined rates of remuneration. No such amendment was to be made at less than six-monthly intervals. In making a general order the Court was required to lake into account (a) the economic and financial conditions affecting trade and industry in New Zealand; (b) the cost of living; (c) any rise or fall in the cost of living since a previous order was made; (d) all other relevant considerations. Under these regulations, rates of payment in all awards, &c., were increased by 5 per cent. as from 12th August, 1940, while a further increase of 5 per cent. was made as from 7th April, 1942, but with the following limitations:—

  1. In the case of males twenty-one years of age and over, on earnings up to £5 per week only:

  2. In the case of females twenty-one years of age and over, on earnings up to £2 10s. per week only:

  3. In the case of persons under twenty-one years of age, on earnings up to £1 10s. per week only.

These regulations were superseded by the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations issued in December, 1942, which prescribed a new procedure for the issuing of a general order varying rates of remuneration. Part IV of these regulations provides, inter alia, for the preparation of a special wartime price index for the purpose of recording, as from 15th December, 1942, any increases or reductions in the prices of such commodities and services (including rents) as the Minister of Industries and Commerce directs. This wartime price index is to be gazetted quarterly by the Government Statistician. In the event of there being an increase or reduction of not less than 5 per cent. in the general level of prices included in this wartime price index, the Court of Arbitration is enjoined to issue a general order increasing or reducing rates of remuneration by an amount equivalent to the variation disclosed by the index. This increase or decrease, however, is restricted to the first £6 of the weekly wage of each adult male worker, any amount over and above that sum being unaffected by the order. In the case of female workers, junior workers, and apprentices, the Court may fix a lower amount to which the variation shall apply. There is a further provision which states that the first general order increasing rates of remuneration shall be made when there is an increase of not less than 2½ per cent. in the basic level of prices as disclosed by the index, the explanation being the lag between price and wage-rate movement at the introduction of the stabilization scheme.

The Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations also make provision for the stabilization of rates of remuneration generally. Remuneration means salary or wages, and includes overtime, bonus, and other special payments. For the purpose of the regulations “the basic rate of remuneration” refers to the rate paid as at the date of the commencement of the regulations. In the case of any employment which commences after the date of the commencement of the regulations, the rate shall be that paid for a similar position. If any question arises as to whether any position is similar to any other position, or as to what the basic rate of remuneration for any position may be, the matter is to be settled by a Conciliation Commissioner appointed under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1925. Provision is made for an appeal to the Court. Except in cases approved by a Conciliation Commissioner or in cases where the rates are fixed by a contract or scheme of classification made prior to the commencement of the regulations, any person who pays or accepts any increase in the basic rate commits an offence against the regulations.

The Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations also make provision for the stabilization of rents, reference to which is made at a later stage of this section.

Under the Strike and Lockout Emergency Regulations 1939, strikes and lockouts are forbidden, and also the encouragement of strikes and lockouts. The regulations provide for the appointment of Emergency Disputes Committees to deal with any disputes that may arise.

In addition to the relaxation of apprenticeship conditions in individual industries, referred to earlier, special provision was made—by the Suspension of Apprenticeship Emergency Regulations 1939 and subsequent amendments—to meet the case of apprentices on military service.

Provision for the intensive training of auxiliary workers to replace workers performing military service is made by the Auxiliary Workers Training Emergency Regulations 1911. The scheme is under the general direction of a Dominion Auxiliary Workers' Training Council (consisting of representatives of employers, workers, and Government Departments), with prevision for local councils.

The Occupational Re-establishment Emergency Regulations 1940, which replaced 1939 regulations of similar title, make it generally compulsory for the employer of a person called up for military service to reinstate the employee in his employment on termination of his military service. Re-engagement must be in an occupation, and with wage-rates and other conditions, not less favourable to the employee than would have been applicable had employment been continuous.

The Rehabilitation Act, 1941, makes provision for the re-establishment in civil life of discharged servicemen and for the reconstitution of wartime industries on a peacetime basis. The Act provides for the constitution of a National Rehabilitation Council and a Rehabilitation Board. The function of the Council is mainly to make recommendations to the Minister (after investigation) in relation to the reinstatement of ex-servicemen, while the function of the Hoard is to organize the re-establishment of returned servicemen in civil life. Loans or grants may be made for the purpose of adapting wartime industries to other work or for the establishment of new industries or the extension of old ones. Persons who have been engaged in special war work may be required to continue to give employment to workers employed by them, and subsidies may be granted for this purpose.

Factories Act.—A brief summary of the earlier factory legislation of New Zealand may be found on page 825 of the 1940 issue of the Year-Book.

The Factories Amendment Act of 1936 introduced three main changes. It brought a large number of establishments within the scope of factory legislation, it shortened hours, and it raised wages.

Prior to 1936 the term “factory” had included all establishments where two persons were employed, as well as all places using mechanical power, all bakeries, laundries, gasworks, and several other enumerated establishments. The 1936 Act extended the term “factory” to all establishments where one person was employed.

A forty-hour week is prescribed as the legal maximum for an ordinary working-week in place of the pre-existing maximum of forty-eight hours (women and boys, forty-live hours). The number of hours per day is eight, while work may not be continued for more than four hours and one-quarter (previously five hours) without an intermission of at least three-quarters of an hour. Certain industries which were previously exempt from the forty-eight-hour maximum—meat-freezing works, dairy factories, fellmongery, fish-curing, jam-making, bacon-curing—are also exempt from the operation of these provisions. On application by the occupier of a factory, the Court of Arbitration may by order extend in respect of the factory for any specified period the limits on working-hours indicated above, but not to more than forty-four hours per week. Special provisions are made in the case of dairy factories, limiting, with certain exceptions, to six per week the number of days on which any worker may be employed.

The minimum rate of pay was raised from 10s. per week to 15s., rising by half-yearly increments of 4s. per week until the end of the third year, when the minimum rate of £2 per week operates. Overtime is permitted (as before) upon obtaining a written permit from an Inspector of Factories; but Sunday work for women or boys is definitely prohibited.

Overtime rates of pay were raised to a minimum of 1s. 6d. per hour (preexisting minima 6d. and 9d., according to ordinary rate of pay), while the standard overtime rate is now one and one-half times the ordinary rate (previously one and one-quarter times). The number of paid holidays granted to workers has been increased from six days to eight, and now applies to all workers—not only to boys under eighteen years of ago and women. For live of these days wages were payable to all persons employed at any time during the preceding fortnight, and for the rest of the days to those employed on any four days of the preceding week. By section 17 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1938, as amended by section 25 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1941, payment for each whole holiday mentioned in the Factories Act is made to all persons employed at any time in the fortnight ending on the day on which the holiday occurs. Special provisions have been made requiring extra payment to be made for work done on Sundays or holidays. Generally speaking, treble time is counted for work done on statutory whole holidays (where the worker would be paid ordinary time if not working), double time on Sundays or other holidays, and time and one-half on half-holidays. War modifications of the overtime and holiday provisions are mentioned under the preceding subheading.

No deduction from the pre-existing weekly wage was permitted on account of any reduction, in working - hours made in consequence of the coming into force of the 1936 amending Act. The reduced hours came into operation on 1st September, 1936.

In addition to the provisions described in the previous paragraphs, there arc, inter alia, sections extending the application of rules for the prevention of accidents in factories; while, where better conditions are prescribed in any respect by the amended Factories Act than exist in any award or agreement under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, such award or agreement is to be read subject to the provisions of the Factories Act.

Shops and Offices Act.—As in the case of the Factories Act, important amendments were made to the Shops and Offices Act in 1936, when further advances in keeping with those made in other branches of industrial legislation were put into operation.

Except in certain exempted trades and in small towns for which later hours are prescribed, work in shops must cease at 6 p.m. on four nights of the week, at 9 p.m. on one night, and at noon on the day of the weekly half-holiday. The hours must not in any case exceed forty-four per week (previously forty-eight) or eight per day, with the exception of eleven on one day in the week. Limited overtime (to be paid for) may, however, be worked for stocktaking and on special occasions. A break of not less than one hour for a meal must be allowed after four and one-quarter hours' continuous work, except that an extension to five hours may be made if ten minutes' rest is allowed at the end of a working-period of three hours. Prior to the 1936 amendment the closing-hour on the half-holiday was 1 p.m.

The minimum rate of pay was raised from 10s. to 15s. per week, with hall-yearly increments of 4s. per week until the end of the third year, and thereafter a wage of not less than £2 per week. As in the case of factories, higher rates of wages are, in the ease of many shop-assistants, fixed by awards or industrial agreements under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

In regard to the closing of shops, a weekly half-holiday from noon is compulsory with a few exceptions—e.g., fishmongers and fruiterers. The closing-day is fixed in each district by the local authority, except where it is decided by a poll of the electors taken on petition of a certain number. Even in the exempted trades, a half-holiday must be given to each assistant on a day to be fixed by the occupier.

The closing-hours of shops in any district on the other days of the week have for many years been fixed pursuant to the Act by “requisition” of a majority of the shopkeepers if desired either in the whole of the local district or in any trade in the local district. The hours of closing have been thus determined in very many trades and districts.

In 1920, an amendment to the Act prescribed compulsory closing-hours at G p.m. on four days of the week and 9 p.m. on one day in the well-populated areas, except in certain exempted trades, thus incorporating by statute the closing-hours as already determined by “requisition” in many cases. The Court of Arbitration under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act is also now empowered, when making an award in any trade, to fix not only reduced hours of employment of assistants (which has been done in many trades), but also earlier closing-hours of all shops in that trade in the locality, whether or not assistants are employed therein, with authority to make exemptions in cases of hardship, and this provision has also been acted upon. The Closing of Shops (bate Night) Emergency Regulations 1942 provide for the earlier closing of shops— where considered necessary or expedient—on the late night, and for the difference in time to be made up on other days of the week.

Each trade in any district may, by a majority vote, obtain an order of the Minister of Labour prohibiting the sale in such district, during the time the shops in such trade are required to be closed, of the goods the sale of which is comprised in such trade. This provision is inserted to meet those cases where there is overlapping of the trades of various shopkeepers, only some of whom are required to close at a certain hour. The provision enabling a majority of the shopkeepers in any trade to fix the closing-hours for that trade applies only to those who are principally engaged therein; if the latter are desirous that other shopkeepers carrying on the trade as a minor portion of their business should cease selling the same goods at the closing-hours fixed, they may apply to the Minister for an order prohibiting such sales.

All assistants employed in hotels and restaurants are brought under special provisions as to holidays, hours (which must not exceed forty-four per week nor eight per day), overtime, &c. As in the case of shop-assistants, hotel and restaurant employees must be allowed an interval of an hour for a meal after four and one-quarter hours' continuous work.

The Act also makes provision for the comfort, health, and safety of assistants —viz., in regard to seating-accommodation, ventilation, beating, sanitation, and hygiene.

The hour of commencing work must not be earlier than 7 a.m., except in certain specified instances—e.g., bakers (4 a.m.), butchers (6 a.m.). Persons engaged in delivering milk may be required to start work at 3 a.m. or—in accordance with conditions approved by the Minister, but not otherwise—earlier than 3 a.m. The above exceptions do not apply in the case of boys or girls under sixteen years of age. The latest hour to which a male shop-assistant may be employed in any trade is 10.30 p.m., or 11 p.m. on one day in the week in certain instances; while boys under eighteen or females may be employed until 9.30 p.m., but there are exceptions on certain days—e.g., Christmas Eve. Extension to 10.30 p.m. is permissible in the case of women, girls, or boys under eighteen employed in restaurants. There is no limit under the Act to the time at which adult male hotel and restaurant employees may be required to commence or cease work, although the total hours per day and per week are fixed as above.

No premium may be received by the occupier of any shop in respect of the employment of any shop-assistant or in respect of the teaching or training of any person in any trade or business carried on in the shop, unless the shop is approved by the Chief Inspector appointed under the Factories Act, 1921–22, as a school for learners in a trade or business, and the payment is made pursuant to a written agreement that is approved by the Chief Inspector. The Chief Inspector cannot approve of any shop as a school for learners in any trade or business unless he is satisfied that reasonable facilities are provided for learning the trade or business, and he may at any time withdraw his approval if he ceases to be so satisfied. The Chief Inspector must not approve of any agreement under this section unless he is satisfied that the terms of the agreement are reasonable.

Offices are required to close at noon on the statutory half-holiday and at five o'clock on every other working-day, certain exceptions—e.g., shipping offices, railway offices, and newspaper offices—being allowed. The list of exemptions from this provision has been substantially reduced by the 1936 Act, banks and insurance offices being important cases previously exempt. Limited employment after office-hours is permitted for such purposes as making up balances, &c., payment for overtime at the rate of time and a half (minimum 1s. 6d. per hour) and meal-allowance at the rate of 1s. 6d. per meal being mandatory in respect of such overtime.

The minimum wage-rates applying to shop-assistants set out in a preceding paragraph apply also to office assistants. Prior to the 1936 amendment, office assistants did not come within the scope of the provisions for minimum wages. This particular provision also applies to solicitors' offices and mining offices, which do not come within the definition of the term “office” in respect of other provisions of the Act.

No person who was employed in any shop or office at the time the 1936 amendment came into operation could be dismissed, or have his wages reduced, by reason merely of any reduction or alteration made in his working-hours pursuant to the amendment. Where any such person was dismissed or his wages were reduced after the commencement of the Act, the onus of proving that the dismissal or reduction, as the case might be, was not a breach of the provisions of that Act was placed on the employer.

Awards and industrial agreements covering shop and office workers are to be read subject to the provisions of the Shops and Offices Act—i.e., the conditions. &c., laid down in such awards and agreements must be at least equal to those prescribed in the Shops and Offices Act.

Provision is made for the keeping of a time-table of hours of duty of fruiterers' assistants; and. under certain conditions, shops which sell smoking-requisites in addition to carrying on other business may be compelled to close early in the evenings.

Mining Legislation.—Since the passing of the original Coal-mines Act of 1886, legislation relating to coal-mines has always been set out separately from that regulating all other mines. The Mining Act of 1926, which consolidated no fewer than fifteen previous enactments on the subject, lays down in considerable detail regulations governing all mines except coal-mines. Inspector's of Mines are appointed with wide powers.

The Act requires that a person acting in the capacity of mine-manager of any mine where there are more than twelve men employed at any one time above ground, or more than six underground, must hold a certificate granted after examination by a Board of Examiners empowered under the Act to grant such certificates. Provision is made for proper ventilation in mines, special care is required to be taken in handling explosives, dangerous places must be properly timbered, special regulations are made as to hauling-machinery, &c. No female, and no male person under the age of fourteen years, may be employed in or about a mine, except in a clerical capacity, and—by the Mining Amendment Act, 1911—no lad under the age of sixteen may be employed on or about any dredge engaged in mining operations. No youth may be employed in a mine fur more than eight hours per day or forty-eight hours per week except in cases of emergency. The employment of manual labour on Sundays without the previous written consent of an Inspector of Mines is prohibited. Overtime must be paid for any time worked in excess of eight hours a day, counting from the time the miner enters the underground workings until he leaves them. Time worked on Sundays and holidays must be paid for at time-and-a-half rates. All machinery used to supply motive power is subject to the provisions of the Inspection of Machinery Act, 1908, as far as these provisions apply. Sufficient water must be supplied where it is necessary for the laying of dust in a mine. The Mining Amendment Act. 1927, provides, inter alia, that a mine where twenty men or over are employed on one shift must have two outlets.

The Mining Amendment Act, 1941, lays down that every person in charge of electrical apparatus in mines must be the holder of a mine electrician's certificate. The appointment of an Electrical Inspector of Mines is provided for.

Conditions of employment in coal-mines are dealt with in the Coal-mines Act, 1925. In general the provisions of this Act resemble those of the Mining Act, though, of course, to combat the special risks of coal-mining additional regulation is necessary. For every coal-mine there must be a duly qualified manager, who must be either the owner of the mine or some person appointed by the owner, and who is responsible for the control, management, and direction of the mine. Inspectors of Coal-mines appointed under the Act must hold certificates as first-class mine-managers under the Act. Certain sections of the Act deal with the control of coal-dust, the use of safety-lamps, the prohibition of work in places where the presence of gas is suspected, and the inspection of the mine before the commencement of work, &c. Suitable housing-accommodation must be supplied for workers if required by notice of the Minister of Mines. Comprehensive regulations pursuant to the 1925 Act, and known as the Coal-mines Regulations, were issued in 1939 and amended in the same year and in 1942.

A levy of ½d. per ton on every ton of marketable coal raised from mines is made under the terms of the Act, such moneys forming a fund for the relief of miners injured in the course of employment and of their dependants in the case of death. Information as to miners' pensions (now miners' benefits under the Social Security Act, 1938), provided for originally by the Miners' Phthisis Act of 1915, is contained in Section 24 of this book.

By an amending Act passed in 1927 wages for a period not exceeding six months, payable by the owner of a coal-mine in respect of mining operations, constitute an equitable charge on plant and machinery, with priority over mortgages, &c. Proceedings for the enforcement of the charge must be commenced within twelve months.

An amending Act passed in 1936 provided further measures for the safety of miners. Additional precautions were provided to ensure that unlawful lights, &c., are not taken into mines, and further safeguards were made to alleviate the danger to the health of miners from the presence of dust in mines. Provision was also made for the Minister to establish central rescue stations in coal-mining areas.

The Coal-mines Amendment Act, 1937, contains many provisions designed to ensure the greater safety of workers engaged in coal-mines. No person under the age of twenty-three years may be employed as a mine-manager or other mine official; while certificates of competency as underviewers or firemen deputies must be periodically endorsed by an Inspector of Mines to the effect that the official has passed certain specified efficiency tests. Certain appliances by which coal may be, in effect, screened or sized may not be used underground. A further provision as to housing-accommodation for miners is also included in the amending Act. The Minister may require a mine-owner to pay part of the cost of conveyance of workers to the mine in lieu of providing housing-accommodation.

The Coal-mines Amendment Act, 1941, provides that an Inspector may, if he considers it expedient, require a mine, which on the basis of the number of employees might be managed by a person with a certificate lower than that of a second-class mine-manager, to be managed by a person with a higher certificate than that prescribed by the principal Act. He may also require the appointment for any shift of officials additional to those normally required. Stricter provision is made regarding the use of lamps. The appointment of an Electrical Inspector of Coal-mines is provided for, and the Board of Examiners is enlarged by the addition of a registered electrical engineer or wireman nominated by the Electrical Wiremen's Registration Board.

Shipping and Seamen Legislation.—The first statute relating to this subject was passed in 1858, when the New Zealand Parliament extended the provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act passed by the British Parliament in 1854 to all British ships under the jurisdiction of New Zealand. This Act contained a series of regulations designed for the safety of passengers and crew, and for the amelioration of working-conditions on board ship. Further Merchant Shipping Acts Adoption Acts were passed in 1869, 1873, and 1874, while other Acts followed. A consolidating and amending Act was passed in 1903, which was consolidated with a few minor amendments in 1908, the present law being embodied in that Act.

Adequate provision is made to ensure competence on the part of the controlling officers of ships. Home-trade steamships of 60 tons register and upwards and home-trade sailing-ships of 100 tons register, must carry certificated mates, and such ships of 100 tons register and upwards trading more than three hundred miles between terminal ports must have second mates. A foreign-going ship is required to carry two certificated mates. Foreign-going certificated mates art-entitled to ship as mates in the home trade. It is an offence for a master or owner to engage a certificated officer for the purpose only of enabling the ship to clear, and not for the purpose of making the voyage.

Provision is made for issuing certificates of competency to second mates of home-trade ships, and for recognizing as valid in the Dominion certificates of masters, mates, and engineers granted in any part of the British dominions.

Any master or mate may, at any time, be required by the shipowner or the Minister of Marine to be examined in sight tests by the Government Examiners.

Further sections dealing with the safety of the ship require the adjustment of compasses to be carried out under regulations; and power is given to the Minister to define restricted trading limits for steamers and for vessels propelled by oil, gas, &c. The Governor-General in Council is empowered to make regulations as to the loading and stowage of ballast and the loading of grain cargo in bulk. It is an offence to ship wool, flax, tow, or skins in such a condition as to be liable to spontaneous combustion.

Since 1909 there has been a gradual extension of the type of ship required by law to carry wireless. The regulations now define the nature of the installations and service and the number and grade of operators in different classes of vessels, and provide for inspection.

The provisions regarding working-conditions on vessels require, inter alia, proper sanitary, hospital, and lavatory accommodation, including bathrooms, to be provided for the crew, together with an adequate supply of hot water for those employed in connection with the engines, while a prescribed minimum of space for the seamen's quarters is also laid down. Masters and officers who assault seamen on the high seas are liable to imprisonment or fine.

Intercolonial ships—i.e., those trading between Now Zealand and Australia, or New Zealand and the central Pacific islands—in addition to home-trade, ships are made liable to pay the wages, maintenance, and medical expenses of seamen taken ill in the service of the ship for the remainder of the agreement, not exceeding three months; and, in the case of intercolonial ships, if the agreement expires within one month from the commencement of the illness, payment is to be made for one month after the expiry. The illness which entitles a man to the benefits provided for is one which requires medical treatment for fourteen days.

The wage-rates on foreign-going ships trading between New Zealand ports are to equal the current rates of wages for such work paid in New Zealand at the same time. This does not apply to ships arriving from abroad, not trading in New Zealand further than to ship or discharge overseas passengers or cargo.

The clearances of foreign-going ships which are required to pay the coastal rate of wages are to be withheld until such wages are paid.

Desertion is defined, and deserters who cannot be dealt with before their ship sails can afterwards be prosecuted by the owner or agent, and copies of the agreement and the entries in the log-book are to be accepted by Courts as evidence. Forfeited wages are to be paid into the Public Account.

It is unlawful for any person other than the owner, master, mate, or engineer of a ship, or a Superintendent of Mercantile Marine, to engage or supply seamen for ships, and only seamen who have a knowledge of the English language are allowed to ship.

The law as to inquiries into shipping casualties is on the lines of the Imperial Merchant Shipping Act, and provision is made for rehearings, for Superintendents of Mercantile Marine to take part in such inquiries, and for Magistrates to order a change of venue. Inquiries are not to be held in Police Courts unless other suitable buildings are not available; and in cases where there has been loss of life, but no damage to the ship, the inquiries may be held by Coroners.

The risks run and sacrifices made by the crews of vessels under war conditions have been recognized by the Government in the passing of the War Pensions and Allowances (Mercantile Marine) Act. 1940. This Act, which makes provision for the payment of pensions and allowances to members of the New Zealand mercantile marine and their dependants in respect of death, disablement, or detention as a result of the present war, is referred to in some detail on page 408 of this Year-Book.

Agricultural Workers Act.—The primary purpose of the Agricultural Workers Act, 1936, was to make better provision for the accommodation of agricultural workers, and to make special provisions for the remuneration of workers on dairy-farms and for the conditions of their employment. The Act also includes provision for the extension of these special provisions to other classes of agricultural workers, and, as indicated later, Orders in Council have been issued under this provision. The administration of the Act is in the hands of the Labour Department, which also administered the Agricultural Labourers' Accommodation Act. 1908 (repealed by the present Act).

The sections of the Act in relation to the accommodation of agricultural workers lay down definite requirements for the comfort of such workers, and Inspectors of Factories have power to inspect the accommodation and to require that improvements be made where necessary.

No child under the age of fifteen years may be employed for hire on a dairy-farm (excepting those in such employment at the date of the passing of the Act). This provision has been modified as a war measure (see page 560).

By the Act minimum weekly rates of pay were prescribed for workers on dairy-farms. The Act, fixed the rates to operate from 1st October, 1936 (the date the Act came into force), until 31st July, 1937, and subsequently rates of pay were to be fixed by Orders in Council. In fixing such rates, the guaranteed prices paid in respect of primary produce under the Marketing Act were to be taken into account, but future rates were not to be lower than those fixed by the Act.

Every agricultural worker who is employed on a dairy-farm for not less than four weeks continuously is to be allowed a holiday on full pay plus an amount not less than one half the lodging-allowance rate. The duration of the holiday is to be not less than seven days in the aggregate for every twelve weeks of employment, and a proportionate period for every broken period of employment. If a regular weekly half holiday commencing at noon is allowed, a holiday of fourteen days a year (or proportionate duration for a lesser period of employment) will be regarded as sufficient compliance with the Act.

Provision exists for the employment of “under-rate” workers, with the consent of the Inspector of Factories. An amendment to the Act made by a section in the Statutes Revision Act, 1936, permits the Inspector to apply the under-rate provisions in respect both of money wages and of amount (if any) payable in lieu of board and lodging in cases of female workers employed on farms. This amendment is of considerable import, since the employment of women workers for short periods of the day—notably at milking-time—is common on dairy-farms.

Orders in Council extending the operation of the provisions of the Act to other classes of farm workers have been issued from time to time—orchard workers as from 1st February, 1937; workers on farms or stations used for the commercial production of wool, meat, or grain (including seed), whether exclusively or together with any other purpose, as from 1st May, 1937; agricultural workers in market gardens, nurseries, &c., in the Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, Otago and Southland, and Northern Industrial Districts as from various dates between 23rd April, 1938, and 29th January, 1939, and agricultural workers employed in the tobacco industry, as from 1st October, 1941. The orders do not apply to workers covered by awards or agreements under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

Orchard workers are entitled to ten working-days' holiday on full pay after twelve months' continuous employment, or if employment is terminated after three months' continuous employment a proportionate sum in lieu of the holidays prescribed must be paid. In addition, there are eight compulsory holidays with full pay. Wages are to be paid fortnightly, unless otherwise agreed between the employer, the worker, and the accredited representative of the New Zealand Industrial Union of Workers. The maximum hours that may be worked without payment at overtime rates are eighty per fortnight from the second week in June to the end of August, eighty-eight per fortnight from the beginning of September to the end of December, and ninety-two per fortnight from the beginning of January to the end of the first week in June.

Workers on farms or stations used for the commercial production of wool, meat, or grain (including seed) must be allowed, on the completion of twelve months' service, a total of eighteen days' holiday (on full money wage paid), to be given at the convenience of the, employer. If the period of employment is less than twelve months but more than three months, the worker is to be allowed on the termination of the employment a proportionate number of days. Payment of wages is to be made in full at monthly intervals or at such other period as is agreed upon between the employer and the worker.

Workers in market gardens, nurseries, &c., are allowed one week's holiday on full pay on the completion of twelve months' continuous service, or a proportionate holiday where the period of service exceeds six months. In addition, there are eight statutory holidays which must be observed without deduction from pay. If a worker is required to work on any of these days on essential work, equivalent time off, at a time to be mutually agreed upon between the employer and the employee, is to be allowed. Forty-four hours, to be worked within five and a half days of a week, constitutes a week's work. In special circumstances, certain essential work which is prescribed in the Orders may be performed on a Sunday; but, in such cases, time and a half rates must be paid or equivalent time off granted. Wages are to be paid weekly not later than Friday.

The minimum rates of wages which must be paid to the classes of workers enumerated in the foregoing paragraphs are set forth in the various Orders.

The Basic Wage, and Legislative Changes in Wage-rates.—The amounts of wage-rates generally have always been influenced largely by the rates specified fur individual industries and occupations in awards and industrial agreements registered under the Arbitration Act. As mentioned previously, certain classes of workers have hitherto had no legal protection in the matter of wage-rates; while, again, until the passing of the Shops and Offices Amendment Act, 1936, many classes of office workers were in a similar position.

The New Zealand Arbitration Court functioned for many years before the question of a basic wage was specifically dealt with by the Court. Under the War Legislation and Statute Law Amendment Act, 1918, the Court was required to review on application existing awards and industrial agreements, taking into consideration. inter alia, changes in the cost of living. The Court in April, 1919, made a pronouncement fixing basic rates of wages for skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled workers. (It is of interest at this point to mention that a basic wage was brought into operation by the Federal Arbitration Court in Australia in 1907.) No definite family unit was stated as the basis on which the basic rate was calculated, the minimum pre-war award rates for unskilled labour, with appropriate adjustment, being apparently used as a standard. A cost-of-living bonus, varied at half-yearly intervals in sympathy with movements in the cost of living, was added to the basic rates. In September, 1925, a further pronouncement on the basic wage was made by the Court, standard minimum rates being fixed as follows:—

 PerHour.
 s.d.
Skilled workers23
Semi-skilled workers111 to
 2
Unskilled workers110

The legislation by which the Court was empowered to make general orders having expired, the new rates—which represented an increase on those operating before—were brought into operation as individual awards expired. As in the 1919 pronouncement, no definite family unit was taken as the basis of assessment of the standard rates, which were in general stated to be somewhat in excess of 60 per cent. higher than the rates ruling in 1914.

No further pronouncements directly relevant to the subject of the basic wage were made until 1931. The Finance Act of that year empowered the Arbitration Court to amend, by general order, awards or industrial agreements with respect to rates of remuneration. Rates of remuneration under awards or industrial agreements were reduced by 10 per cent. as from 1st June, 1931, with certain minor exceptions.

Full or partial restoration of this cut was effected in the case of several individual awards made in 1934 and 1935, while complete restoration was effected in respect of all awards by a section in the Finance Act, 1936. This Act went further: it required the restoration as from 1st July, 1936, of all cuts in wages and salaries imposed during the depression period, whether the workers concerned were working under an Arbitration Court award or not.

In September, 1937, the Arbitration Court made a pronouncement on standard wages. The following minimum rates are set out in the Court's pronouncement:—

 PerHour.
 s.d.
Skilled workers29
Semi-skilled workers25 to
 2
Unskilled workers24

These minimum rates are intended as general standard minima for casual labour, and are not necessarily applicable where employment is regular throughout the year.

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1936, inter alia, requires the Arbitration Court to fix basic rates of wages for adult male and female workers. Orders of the Court made to this end may be amended at not less than six-monthly intervals by a subsequent general order. The basic rate of wages for adult male workers is required to be fixed at a rate which would, in the opinion of the Court, be sufficient to maintain a man, wife, and three children in a fair and reasonable standard of comfort. A general order fixing basic rates of wages for adult male and female workers was issued by the Arbitration Court on 2nd November, 1936. The weekly rates are fixed at £3 16s. for adult male workers and at £1 16s. for adult female workers. The basic wage applies (as an absolute minimum) to all workers twenty-one years of age or over (excepting casual workers and those working under apprenticeship contracts) the conditions of whose employment are fixed by any award or industrial agreement. The basic wage has not, up to the present time (May, 1943), come up for review by the Court.

By a general order issued under the authority of the Rates of Wages Emergency Regulations 1940, the Arbitration Court increased by 5 per cent. the wage-rates under all awards and agreements as from 12th August, 1940. A further general increase of 5 per cent., but with certain limitations, was made as from 7th April, 1042. Particulars of these limitations will be found on page 561. The present procedure in regard to the stabilization of wages and salaries, &c., during the war period and the power to issue general orders raising or reducing rates of remuneration generally is referred to under the heading of “Wartime Labour Legislation” at an earlier stage of this Section.

Rates of salaries and wages of public servants have been adjusted from time to time by legislative action. Cost-of-living bonuses were granted in the latter year-of the 1914–18 war and in the years immediately following. Similar action has been taken during the present war. A cost-of-living allowance of £3 5s. or £0 10s. per annum for juniors under 18 years of age (according to whether residing at home) and of £13 for other employees in receipt of salaries not exceeding £335 per annum was granted as from 12th August, 1940. In the case of officers whose salary or wages exceeded £335 per annum, the allowance was abated by £1 for every £3 in excess of £335. A further allowance was granted as from 7th April, 1942, the amounts and conditions being the same as those granted on 12th August, 1940, except that the second £13 did not begin to abate until a salary of £765 per annum was reached. As from 1st April, 1943, the allowance to juniors living away from home was increased from £13 to £26 per annum. At the general regrading of classified officers normally held every five years, the subject of salary scales comes up for review. Statutory reductions were made in 1922, 1931, and 1932, the two latter reductions having since been restored—partially in 1934 and 1935 and completely in 1936.

An interesting innovation made by the Arbitration Court in 1928 was the award of that year whereby the wages of shearers and other wool-shed hands were fixed at a rate fluctuating with the movement of wool prices as determined by the Government Statistician's index number for export, prices of wool. The system did not operate between 1931 and 1933, workers and employers being unable to agree as to rates, though both parties expressed approval of the principle. The award of 1933 contained provision for the resumption of the sliding-scale system, which is still in operation.

In referring to the general question of wage-rates it is relevant to draw attention to the supplementary income which is provided by several of the benefits available under the Social Security Act, while the War Pensions Act is of significance also in this connection (see Section 24).

Protection of Wages.—Workers' wages were first safeguarded by the Truck Act of 1891, which ensured them the payment of their wages in full in coin of the realm. This was followed by a series of Acts—the Contractors' and Workmen's Lien Act, 1892, the Workmen's Wages Act, 1893, the Threshing-machine Owners' Lien Act, 1895, the Wages Attachment Act, 1895, and the Wages Protection Act, 1899—all aimed at making the payment of wages more certain and secure, and at limiting creditors' rights to attach future earnings.

This code was consolidated into the Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act of 1908, which operated until it was superseded by the Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act, 1939. The re-enactment is substantially the same as the 1908 Act except for the omission of several sections relating solely to wages protection, which were largely duplicated by the sections dealing with workers' liens.

Some of the more salient provisions of the Act, as it now operates, are set out below.

In the absence of any written agreement to the contrary, wages of manual workers are to be paid at intervals of not more than a week, and of other workers at intervals of not more than a month. The attachment of workers' wages for debt is prohibited except in the case of any surplus over £2 a week or when specific provision is made in any other Act for attachments on a lower minimum. Exceptions are made by the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1925; the Child Welfare Act, 1925; and the Destitute Persons Act, 1910. The Coal-mines Amendment Act, 1941, provides for deduction from wages, with the written consent of the employee, of sums towards repayment of principal or payment of interest. &c., in respect of advances by the mine-owner to the worker for the purpose of acquiring a home.

The Act prohibits payment of wages being made in goods (truck) or in any other way than in money or by approved cheque, and also prohibits any stipulation as to how the wages-money is to be expended. The truck provisions do not, however, apply where the employer supplies house accommodation, board and lodging, fuel, medical assistance, materials, tools, and the like required for the work, nor to seamen or farm workers.

A contractor, subcontractor, and any worker is entitled to obtain liens on the lands or chattels of the employer upon giving due notice, and the employer must then retain in his hands sufficient of the contract-moneys to satisfy and guarantee payment of the claimant's dues, but the total amount recoverable may not exceed the amount due under the contract. In addition, the Act (as amended by the Statutes Amendment Act, 1940) directs that the employer or contractor (where a subcontract is entered into) shall retain in his possession, whether or not he has received notice of any lien or charge, one-quarter of so much of the contract price as has for the time being become immediately payable, until thirty-one days have elapsed after the completion of the contract.

In the matter of priority of liens and charges the order is as follows: (1) The claims of workers for wages not exceeding three months' wages and not exceeding £50; (2) the claims of workers for wages not included in the foregoing, and the claims of subcontractors; and (3) the claims of contractors. If notice of a lien or charge is not made before the completion of the contract or within thirty days of the completion, the claim will lose priority as against other claims of its own class, but will come before claims of the succeeding class.

All attachments or assignments granted by any employer or contractor are void against the charges or liens of subcontractors or workers for money due under the contract, except in the case of mortgages on land registered before the lien. In that case the mortgage has priority over the lien. If the mortgagee is a party to the contract, or if the mortgage secures any money that is advanced after notice of the lien has been given to the mortgagee, the lien has priority over the mortgage. If, in the case of the death or bankruptcy of a person entitled to a lien or charge, the debt secured by the lien or charge passes to any other person, the right to the lien or charge, passes with it.

No deduction from workers' wages may be made for purposes of insurance against compensation for accident.

Liens to be imposed as security for miners' wages or earnings are dealt with under the Mining Act, 1926, and the Coal-mines Act, 1925.

Wages are further safeguarded by certain sections of the Bankruptcy Act, which give priority of payment for wages or salaries of workers (with certain limitations as to amount and period) in preference to certain other debts, and since the Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927, wages take precedence over rents. Similarly, under the Companies Act wages (with the same limitations as under the Bankruptcy Act) are a first claim, on the assets of a company being wound up. Under the Workers' Compensation Amendment Act, 1936, compensation payments rank with wages as a first charge on the assets of a bankrupt.

Various individual labour laws contain provisions with the special intent of protecting the payment of wages of the workers to whom such legislation applies.

HOUSING LEGISLATION.—The first legal provision in connection with housing was contained in the Factories Act of 1894, which gave Inspectors of Factories power to inspect accommodation provided for shearers and to demand improvements where necessary. More effective powers in this connection were contained in the Shearers' Accommodation Act, 1898. The Agricultural Labourers' Accommodation Act of 1908 extended this legislation and provided for the inspection of housing of agricultural labourers and flax-mill workers. In 1912 the sawmill worker was also included. The Agricultural Workers Act, 1936, and regulations issued thereunder, laid down detailed specifications as to what constituted satisfactory accommodation and superseded the Act of 1908. Statutory regulations issued in 1937 prescribed further details, and stated that the regulations were to apply to the accommodation of persons employed in agricultural, pastoral, horticultural, flax-milling, and sawmilling work.

The Family Homes Protection Act. 1895, consolidated in the Family Protection Act, 1908, made it possible, on certain conditions, to register any piece of land not exceeding £1,500 in value as a family home, so that the estate and interest of the settler and his family in it continue absolute and unaffected by any bankruptcy, assignment, judgment, &c.

The advances to settlers legislation of 1894 provided for State advances on mortgage to the owners of farming lands, and in 1899 this provision was extended to urban lands. Many of these advances would, no doubt, be used for building purposes, but no direct effort in the matter of providing housing-accommodation was made until 1905. In that year a Workers' Dwelling Act was passed authorizing the Minister of Labour to erect dwellings to be let to bona fide workers at a rental of 5 per cent. per annum of the capital value of such dwellings; and, in the following year, a system of advances to workers for the purpose of acquiring homes was instituted. By an amendment passed in 1922, workers could borrow for this purpose up to 95 per cent. of the value of their security. To cope with the post-war demobilization, the Housing Act of 1919 provided for the erection of dwellings not only by the State, but also by local authorities, employers, associations of public servants, and public-utility societies, the State advancing the money. The administration of this Act was later transferred to the State Advances Department, now the State Advances Corporation. Local authorities are also empowered to obtain special loans from the State Advances Corporation to erect workers' dwellings for letting, and are granted certain concessions in carrying out this activity by the Municipal Corporations Act, 1933. There is much incidental legislation, as in the Coal-mines Act and the Government Railways Act, where provision is made for the suitable housing of employees.

Housing regulations are contained in the Municipal Corporations Act, where definite measurements are laid down to prevent overcrowding, and provision is made for the appointment of Inspectors to reduce fire-risk and other dangers. Similarly the Health Act of 1920, which replaced the Public Health Act of 1908, provides for medical inspection and for sanitation minima; an owner may be ordered to cleanse or demolish his building, or to close it till certain alterations are made. The Town Planning Acts of 1926 and 1929 aim to develop and reconstruct areas in such a way as to promote their healthfulness and convenience.

In 1935, as a preliminary to measures for remedying the existing position in regard to housing, a Housing Survey Act was passed, instructing local authorities to ascertain as far as possible the extent to which the existing housing accommodation in their respective districts fell short of reasonable requirements. At the same time a Native Housing Act empowered the Board of Native Affairs to make advances to Maoris for the purchase, erection, or repair of dwellings. A section of the Native Housing Amendment Act, 193e?, established a special fund to provide houses for those Natives unable to furnish the security or to make the payments which the Hoard would ordinarily require. In addition to the provision of housing under the Native Housing Act, dwellings for Maoris are provided in the ordinary course of the Native-land development schemes. Particulars of the numbers of houses erected, &c., are included in Subsection C of Section 16.

The provision of housing facilities for workers is a very important part of the policy of the present Government. Apart from the facilities for the building of homes provided for in the State Advances Corporation Act (see Section 23D), the Government has launched a comprehensive housing plan whereby the legislative machinery provided in the Housing Act, 1919, is being used to build homes to be let to workers at a reasonable rental. An account of the Government's housing programme under this Act and its progress to date is included in Section 22, Building and Construction. Further provision of housing facilities in rural localities is contained in the Rural Housing Act, 1939, which empowers local authorities to advance money to a farmer to enable him to provide a dwelling for his own use or for the use of any farm worker principally employed by him.

Rents.—Certain sections of the War Legislation Amendment Act of 1916 dealt with house-rents, the maximum rent being fixed at S per cent. per annum of the capital value of the dwelling. Material alterations in the law were made by the Rent Restriction Act, 1926. Rent-restriction provisions were kept in force by annual continuing statutes up to 31st October, 1936, when the earlier legislation was superseded by the Fair Rents Act, 1936.

Provisions for statutory reductions in rent and interest payments were contained in the National Expenditure Adjustment Act of 1932, continued by the-Finance Act, 1934, and made permanent in 1936; while Courts were given power to reduce rents and mortgage interest by the mortgage-relief legislation of the depression period, consolidated in the Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act, 1932. The Fair Rents Act, 1936, replacing various measures referred to above, is briefly described in the following paragraph.

The Fair Rents Act, 1936, made temporary provision for the restriction of increases in the rent of certain classes of dwellinghouses, and for the determination of fair rents in respect of such houses. The Act applied, generally speaking, to dwellings actually let at the time the Act was passed (June, 1936) or let at any time between 27th November, 1935, and the date of the passing of the Act. It did not apply to other dwellings or to any dwelling let at a rent exceeding £156 per annum. The rent of a dwelling coming within the scope of the Act may not be raised beyond the rent payable on 1st May, 1936; or, in the case of dwellings not let on that date, the rent last payable before that date. On application of either the landlord or the tenant, a Stipendiary Magistrate may declare a fair rent in respect of any dwelling to which the Act applies, having regard to various specified conditions—e.g., the relative circumstances of landlord and tenant. The fair rent is not to exceed the rent payable on 1st May, 1936, or the rent (if any) payable on 27th November. 1935. The grounds for the recovery of possession are limited by the Act, while restrictions are imposed on the right of the landlord to distrain. The Act was to remain in force till 30th September, 1937, but its operation has been extended from time to time, and the present expiry date is one year from the termination of the present war.

The Act did not apply to flats and apartment-houses, but an amendment passed in 1939 extended its provisions to cover buildings constructed for letting as more than two separate flats or apartments, all flats or apartments not originally constructed for letting separately, and flats and apartments where parts of premises are shared. The 1939 Amendment also made, provision for the making of regulations for the purpose of regulating charges in respect of residential accommodation with attendance or services.

The Fair Rents Amendment Act, 1942, has extended the application of the principal Act to all premises let as dwellinghouses, including those where part only is used as such. The rent that may be charged is now restricted to what is termed “the basic rent.” which is defined as follows:—

  1. With reference to a dwellinghouse let as such on 1st September, 1942, the rent payable on that date:

  2. With reference to a dwellinghouse that was not let on that date, the rent that was last payable.

The Act made it an offence to refuse to let a dwelling on the grounds that the applicant had children. It also provides certain safeguards in respect of members of the Armed Forces in their capacity as tenants or landlords.

As previously stated, the Fair Rents Act applies only to premises let as dwelling-houses, but the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942 provide for the stabilization of all other rents, whether on account of land or buildings. The basic rent under these regulations has the same meaning as in the case of the Fair Rents Act, and rents that may be charged are restricted accordingly. On the application of the landlord or tenant of any property the Court may make an order determining the fair rent of that property.

The Distress and Replevin Amendment Act, 1936, protects personal effects, furniture, &c., to the value of £50 from seizure under a distress order for rent. The pre-existing legislation on this subject did not protect such effects from seizure.

LABOUR DISPUTES.—Trade-unionists were early protected by the Trade-unions Act of 1878 from prosecution for conspiracy by reason merely that the purposes of the trade-unions were in restraint of trade. They were further protected by the Conspiracy Law Amendment Act of 1894, which laid down that any act by a union in furtherance of a trade dispute should not be deemed unlawful so as to render such persons liable to criminal prosecution for conspiracy, if such act committed by one person would not be deemed unlawful. This removed a very serious handicap under which unionists up to that time had suffered.

Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.—The original Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act was placed on the New Zealand statute-book in 1894. Its object was to encourage the formation of industrial unions and associations, and to facilitate the settlement of industrial disputes by conciliation and arbitration. It provided for the registration as “industrial unions” of societies of workers or employers in the various industrial districts, and as “industrial associations” of any council or other body representing any number of such unions; for the making of industrial agreements pursuant to the Act, and the filing of such in the Supreme Court; for the formation of industrial districts, the election of Boards of Conciliation, and the setting-up of a Court of Arbitration.

In 1898 an amendment was passed empowering the Court in its awards to prescribe minimum rates of wages, with special provision for a lower rate being paid in the case of workers unable to earn the prescribed minimum. An important amendment passed in 1903 prohibited any employer, worker, union of workers, or union of employers from taking proceedings to defeat any of the provisions of an award during its currency. It forbade an employer to dismiss any employee merely because he happened to be entitled to the benefit of an award or merely because he was a member of a union.

In 1905 an amendment was passed providing for the punishment by fine of any worker or employer, bound by an award or industrial agreement affecting an industry, who takes part in a strike or lockout in that industry. In 1908 an additional penalty was added in the case of certain “public utility” industries, such as gas-manufacture, the supply of milk or meat, tramway services, &c. By this amendment the constitution of Conciliation Boards was altered to provide for the appointment of four Conciliation Commissioners, whose duty it is to call together representatives of employers and employees in the event of a dispute arising, and to sit with these representatives as a Conciliation Council to endeavour to effect a' settlement. The decision of the Council is not binding, but disputes must be referred to a Council before they may be referred to the Arbitration Court.

A further amendment in 1911 empowered the Court to make an industrial agreement into an award, provided such agreement does not conflict with an existing award or is not contrary to the public interest. It also provided that recommendations of Conciliation Councils become in effect industrial agreements if none of the parties to a dispute disagrees with such recommendations.

Section 18 of the War Legislation and Statute Law Amendment Act, 1918. empowered the Court to amend during the term of an award or industrial agreement the provisions of the award or agreement, in so far as they related to rates of remuneration or hours of employment. In varying the conditions, the Court was to take into account the movement in the cost of living and any changes in the special conditions affecting the industry concerned. This measure, which was designed to meet the abnormal conditions caused by the war of 1914–18, remained in force till 1923.

The law as it existed in 1925 was consolidated in that year, previous consolidations having been effected in 1900, 1905, and 1908.

In 1927 a Bill was introduced into Parliament to exclude from the jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court the farming industry and certain associated industries. The Bill met with considerable opposition and was not proceeded with. An amending Act was, however, passed providing that no award relating to any agricultural, pastoral, or dairying operations, or to any other work effected on a farm, or to the manufacture or production of butter, cheese, or other milk products, should be made before 1st September 1928. In the meantime it was arranged that a National Industrial Conference, representative of all interests concerned, should be held to go fully into this and other questions affecting labour and the relationships between employers and employees.

The conference duly met during the parliamentary recess, and after full discussion came to unanimous agreement on a number of matters, others being left over for further consideration. The provisions of the amendment of 1927 were re-enacted in 1928, another amendment extending for twelve months the period during which awards in the industries mentioned were not to be made, and also providing that no awards in these industries were to be altered or amended in the meantime without the consent of all parties concerned. The provisions referred to lapsed on 1st September, 1929.

A second amendment passed in 1928 permits of industrial agreements and (with the consent of the parties concerned) awards being made for or extended to a term of five years. This amendment also allows of an award or industrial agreement, in lieu of prescribing minimum rates of wages, prescribing a method or basis for calculating minimum rates.

As a result of depression conditions the Court was empowered by the Finance Act, 1931, to amend by general order awards or industrial agreements in respect of rates of wages, though power was given for the exclusion of any class or section of workers from the operation of a general order. In the next year compulsory arbitration was abolished; conciliation was still compulsory, but disputes could be referred to the Court only by mutual consent. Provision was also made for the review of existing awards.

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1936, restored the full jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court, and also made several other amendments, the more important of which are summarized below:—

  • The Court is required to fix basic wages for adult male workers based on the needs of a man, wife, and three children, and also a basic wage for adult female workers. It must make general orders prescribing the basic wages, which will apply to workers in any industry to which any award or industrial agreement relates. (See previous heading—Basic Wage, &c.)

  • Restrictions are imposed on the formation of new unions in districts where a union in respect of the same industry exists; in fact, no such new union may be registered unless with the concurrence of the Minister of Labour.

  • Provision is made for the registration of New Zealand unions covering all existing workers or employees, if all or the majority of district unions concur. In cases where no district union exists a New Zealand union may be formed, subject to compliance with the requirements of the principal Act in respect of registration of unions.

  • All workers who are subject to any award or industrial agreement registered under the Act must become members of a union. (This applies also in respect of awards or agreements in force at the time of the passing of the amending Act.) It is not lawful for an employer to employ or continue in employment, in any position or employment subject to an award or industrial agreement, any adult person who is not a member. Non-members may, however, be employed in cases where union membership is limited and there are no union members available.

  • The Court may confer on union officials the right of entry on employers' premises.

  • Where it is deemed practicable the Court must fix the maximum hours of work per week (exclusive of overtime) at forty; while the Court may review existing awards to this end on application. The hours in such a review are to be fixed at forty, unless in the opinion of the Court such hours are impracticable. No reduction in weekly pay is to be made in consequence of reduced hours—i.e., the hourly rates are to be increased proportionately. The provisions stated in this paragraph came into operation on 1st September, 1936.

  • By the principal Act the maximum weekly union subscription was fixed at 1s. This limitation has now been removed.

The administration of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act is in the hands of the Labour Department, and Inspectors of Factories are charged with the duty of seeing that the provisions of awards and agreements are carried out. The following paragraphs indicate the procedure followed in regard to industrial disputes under the Act:—

  • An industrial union (or association of unions) of workers registered under the Act may cite a union or association of unions of employers, or an employer, or a number of employers, before a Council of Conciliation for the hearing of an industrial dispute before a Commissioner and assessors appointed from either side.

  • An industrial union (or association of unions) of employers registered under the Act, or an individual employer, or employers, may cite a union of workers in a similar manner. The workers may compel any of their employers to come under the Act; but the employers cannot compel their workers to come under it, unless the latter have registered as an industrial union or association thereunder; registration is voluntary.

  • If a settlement of a dispute is arrived at by the parties in the course of an inquiry held before a Council of Conciliation, the terms of the settlement are set forth as an industrial agreement. Applications for exemption from the terms of the agreement must be made within one month after it has been filed. The Court is empowered to grant or to refuse such applications. Where an agreement applies to the employers employing the majority of workers in the industry to which it relates, the agreement may be made binding on all employers, whether parties or not.

  • Every such agreement shall be executed on behalf of the parties by the assessors representing the parties. If settlement cannot be arrived at before the Conciliation Council the matter is referred to the Court. The Council may at the same time submit a recommendation for the settlement of the dispute; whereupon the parties are notified of such recommendation, and if acceptable to them the recommendation is made an industrial agreement; failing agreement the matter is referred to the Court.

  • If a dispute comes before the Court, argument is heard upon the matters in debate, and the Court then makes its award, which becomes binding upon the employers specified in the award, upon any employers commencing business in the district subsequently to the date of the award, and upon all persons working for such employers. In all cases where an industrial agreement or accepted recommendation or award is filed, it becomes binding on all the parties. When an award or industrial agreement has been filed, a strike or lockout becomes unlawful.

An important amendment to the Act was passed during the 1939 session. This empowers the Minister of Labour, if he is satisfied that any discontinuance of employment brought about wholly or partly by any industrial union of employers or of workers has caused, or is likely to cause, serious loss or inconvenience, to cancel the registration of the union concerned or to cancel any award or industrial agreement so far as it relates to it.

As a war measure, regulations dated 4th October, 1939, pursuant to the Emergency Regulations Act, 1939, prohibit participation in a strike or lockout. Section 3 of these regulations reads as follows:—

During the continuance of these regulations no person shall:—

  1. Be a party to a strike or lockout; or

  2. Encourage or procure a strike or lockout or the continuance of a strike or lockout; or

  3. Incite any person or any class of persons or persons in general to be or continue to be a party or parties to a strike or lockout.

The regulations provide for the appointment of an appropriate tribunal to deal with any dispute which, in the opinion of the Minister, would be likely to result in a strike or lockout, and the decision of the tribunal shall be final and binding on all persons directly affected by the dispute.

Reference has been made in an earlier stage of tins Section to the stabilization of wages, &c., during the period of the present war. In this connection the Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations 1942 stipulate that no variation shall be made in the minimum rates of remuneration or the principal conditions of employment applying to any award, industrial agreement, or apprenticeship order during the present war except such adjustments of anomalies as the Court approves having regard to the general purpose of the regulations.

Labour Disputes Investigation Act.—Machinery for dealing with all disputes to which the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act does not relate is contained in the Labour Disputes Investigation Act, 1913.

Under this Act, if a dispute concerning wages or other conditions of employment arises between a society (or societies) of workers, whether registered or not, that is not bound by any award or industrial agreement, and its employers, the society must, before it may strike, give to the Minister of Labour formal notice of the dispute, setting forth the names of the parties to the dispute and the claims made by the society. The Minister then refers the dispute to a Conciliation Commissioner to call a conference, or to a “Labour Disputes Committee” for investigation and recommendation. Such a committee consists of from one to three members chosen from each side, with an independent chairman. In the event of no settlement being arrived at a secret ballot is taken by the Registrar of Industrial Unions among the members of the society as to whether, in the case of no recommendation having been made, a strike should eventuate; or, in the case of a recommendation having been made, as to whether the recommendation should be adopted. Seven days' notice must be given to the employers should a strike be decided upon.

Similar provisions apply with reference to the filing of a dispute and to a lockout by the employers.

In the event of an agreement being arrived at it may be filed with the Clerk of Award's. It is then enforceable in the same manner as an industrial agreement under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

By this Act the principle of settlement of industrial disputes by conciliation and arbitration is extended to workers outside the scope of the Arbitration Court, so that definite restrictions on the right to strike or to lockout exist over the whole field of industry in New Zealand. The powers under this Act are not, of course, as far-reaching as those under the Arbitration Act, its main object being that workers or employers should take time for consideration of the points at issue and not precipitate themselves into industrial strife.

APPRENTICESHIP LEGISLATION.—The statutory regulation of apprenticeship goes back as far as 1865, when a Masters and Apprentices Act was passed which provided for indentures of apprenticeship binding children above twelve years of age to farmers, tradesmen, and artisans for a term not exceeding five years. Every indenture was to contain a covenant on the part of the master that he would provide the apprentice with suitable food, clothing, and bedding, give particular attention to his morals, and pay certain sums into the savings-bank for him after his apprenticeship had exceeded two years. The Act was thus obviously framed with a view to providing for the welfare of orphans and destitute children.

Another Act was passed in 1875 which made provision for the apprenticing of boys to Government Departments for a term of not less than three nor more than seven years. The Departments made available in the first instance were the Government Printing Office and the Railway Workshops. Wages wore to be paid, no provision was made for board, and the Act was clearly intended primarily to meet the case of boys whose parents were alive.

The Master and Apprentice Act of 1908 consolidated the above two Acts into an Act of two Parts, but made no essential change.

A Master and Apprentice Amendment Act was passed in 1920 with a view to facilitating the apprenticing of immigrant or New Zealand boys between the ages of fifteen and nineteen to the occupation of farming until they were twenty years of age. Part I of the principal Act of 1908 (dealing with the relations between master and apprentice) was to apply with some slight modifications.

Until 1923 no legislation was passed to make special provision for the apprentice who worked by the day for the private employer.* His case was regulated by the laws of England in so far as they wore applicable to New Zealand and by such provisions in regard to apprenticeship as the Arbitration Court might have included in its awards. The Apprentices Act of 1923 was a landmark, in so far as it provided an elaborate administrative machinery to safeguard the interests of apprentices.

* The Shipping and Seamen Act of 1903 included some sections regulating the apprenticing of boys to ships.

The Act stated that from time to time, as might be necessary, the Arbitration Court should make orders, as it thought fit, regulating the wages, hours, and conditions of apprenticeship, the proportion of apprentices to journeymen that might be employed in any industry, the period of apprenticeship, and the minimum ago of apprentices. It might also require employers to engage such number of apprentices as the Court might consider necessary to ensure an adequate supply of journeymen in the interests of the industry, order the transfer of an apprentice from one employer to another, order the attendance of any apprentice at a technical school or training establishment, prohibit any employer from employing an apprentice, enter the premises where an apprentice was employed in order to inquire into his welfare, and exert a number of other powers. The Act applied to male apprentices only. Provision was made for the modification of apprenticeship conditions in the case of adults or of persons who were already partly trained.

All contracts of apprenticeship were to be in writing and registered with District Registrars. If the District Registrar was of the opinion that the proposed contract of apprenticeship should not be registered, either because it contravened the Act or for some other reason, then he might refuse to register the contract. His decision could be appealed against to the Court, whose decision was final. Every transfer of an apprentice and every termination of a contract of apprenticeship was also to be notified to the District Registrar. The Secretary for Labour was to act as Registrar of Apprentices, and any Inspector of Factories might be appointed a District Registrar of Apprentices. Apart from registering contracts, these Registrars were to have the duty of ensuring that the Act was complied with, and they were to take proceedings for every breach of an apprenticeship contract. They were also given considerable scope for developing a system of vocational guidance, in so far as they were given powers to demand reports from the head teacher of any school as to the attainments and qualities of any child. The Registrar was required to advise the Director of Education from time to time of the number of persons employed or required in the industries to which the Act applied, together with such information as might be available as to the probable requirements in the future.

The Act made provision for the setting-up of Apprenticeship Committees composed of equal numbers of members of an organization of the employers and the organization of workers connected with any industry or Group of industries. The Court may delegate many of its powers to these committees, but aggrieved persons have the right of appeal to the Court.

An amending Act of 1927 cancelled the power of the Court of Arbitration to determine the proportion of apprentices to journeymen that might be employed in any industry.

The amending Act of 1930 made some improvements in administration, dealt with the case of the unsatisfactory apprentice, and brought in further protective regulations. It stated that if an Apprenticeship Committee could not come to a decision in regard to any matter, the matter was then to be referred to the Court. In certain circumstances the District Registrar might act as an Apprenticeship Committee. If an apprentice proved unsatisfactory, the employer might apply to the appropriate Apprenticeship Committee for the right to discharge him. The employer or the apprentice might appeal against this decision to a Stipendiary Magistrate. The interests of the apprentice were protected by regulations safeguarding his wages in the event of the employer's bankruptcy. The employer was to keep a wages and time book, and a copy of the apprenticeship order was to be affixed in a place where it might be easily read by the apprentice.

The economic depression had an unfavourable effect on the apprenticeship system. The Finance Act of 1931 conferred power on the Arbitration Court to vary the rates of remuneration payable under apprenticeship orders (though such a variation was not to apply to any contract of apprenticeship already in force). The Finance Act of 1932 stated that either party to an apprenticeship contract might apply to a Stipendiary Magistrate to have the contract of apprenticeship amended, cancelled, or suspended. Reasonable opportunity to be heard was to be given to the two parties to the contract, to the District Registrar, and to the appropriate Apprenticeship Committee, if any. If the Magistrate was satisfied that, owing to the economic conditions affecting the industry concerned or the particular business of the employer, the employer could not reasonably be expected to carry out the terms of his contract, he might cancel the contract. In cancelling the contract he might, if he thought fit, award the apprentice such sum by way of compensation as he deemed equitable in all circumstances of the case, having due regard to the ability of the employer to pay any sum so awarded.

The economic depression and its attendant legislation had thus considerably lessened the security and remuneration of the apprentice. The Finance Act of 1936 restored the rates of remuneration to the 1931 level and repealed the provision of the 1932 Finance Act in respect of the cancellation of apprenticeship contracts. It expressly stated, however, that tin's repeal should not revive any contract of apprenticeship that had been duly cancelled thereunder, or reduce the period for which any such contract had been suspended. The Statutes Amendment Act of the same year did, however, make partial provision for those whose contracts had been cancelled, in so far as it stated that any person of eighteen years or over might, with the approval of the Minister of Labour, enter into a special contract of apprenticeship with an employer.

The war raised two new problems: that of the apprentice absent on military service for short periods, and the need for increasing production in certain industries, irrespective of whether they were carried on in private or public undertakings. Hence the Suspension of Apprenticeship Emergency Regulations, issued in 1939 and subsequently renewed, which provided that if apprentices were away on military service and returned within a period of six months, the period of absence should be regarded as time served under the apprenticeship contract. The Statutes Amendment Act of 1941 permitted the temporary transfer of an apprentice from Government to private employment, and vice versa, subject to the consent of the apprentice and his parent.

WORKERS' COMPENSATION.—Common-law rights of the worker in respect of compensation were early increased by the Employers Liability Act of 1882; while the Deaths by Accidents Compensation Act, 1908, gives a right of action which did not exist at common law to certain of the relatives of a person killed by a wrongful act.

The Law Reform Act of 1936 contains, several provisions of particular relevance to the subject of workers' compensation. The Act, inter alia, creates a charge on all insurance-moneys payable as indemnity for compensation, and makes the charge apply immediately on the happening of the event giving rise to the claim. Similar provisions (now repealed) existed in the Workers' Compensation Act, 1922, but under that Act no charge was created unless the insured was insolvent or became bankrupt. Another provision of particular interest in the Law Reform Act is the abolition of the defence of “common employment,” which defence depended on a rule that damages could not be recovered from an employer in respect of the negligence of a fellow-servant. A similar provision in the Workers' Compensation Act (but with a limit of £1,000 damages) was consequentially repealed.

The Workers' Compensation Act, 1922, with its amendments of 1922, 1926, and 1936, represents the existing law on workers' compensation—subject to the provisions briefly outlined in the preceding paragraph. The 1936 amendment, which came into force on 1st January, 1937, contains several important amendments to the previous legislation. The definition of “worker” is extended to include share-farmers and drivers of vehicles who receive a share in the takings as payment for their services, or who pay a fixed sum for the hire of the vehicle (other than under the terms of a hire-purchase agreement). While a share-farmer now comes within the provisions of the Act, he is still regarded as the employer in respect of persons employed by him.

The amending Act contains a provision whereby claims for compensation rank equally with wages in the distribution of the assets of a bankrupt.

“Worker,” for purposes of the Workers' Compensation Act, means any person who has entered into, or works under, a contract of service or apprenticeship with an employer, whether by way of manual labour, clerical work, or otherwise, and whether remunerated by wages, salary, or otherwise; but does not include any person employed otherwise than by way of manual labour whose remuneration exceeds £400 per annum. The Act applies only to the employment of a worker under a contract of service or apprenticeship either in and for the purposes of any trade or business carried on by the employer, or in any of the following occupations, irrespective of whether or not carried on for purposes of the employer's trade: mining, quarrying, excavation, cutting of standing timber and scrub, clearing land, erection or demolition of buildings and other structures, manufacture and use of explosives, handling power machinery in motion, driving vehicles, domestic service (engagement for not less than three days), and any occupation in which a worker incurs a risk of falling any distance exceeding 12 ft., if the injury to, or death of, the worker results from such a fall. For purposes of this provision, an employer may have more than one trade or business. In general, persons working as independent contractors are not under contracts of service or apprenticeship, and are consequently not “workers.” But by way of exception, persons who have contracted to perform any work in a gold- or coal-mine, or to cut standing timber or scrub, or to clear land of stumps or logs, and who do not sublet the contract or employ labour (or who, if they do employ labour, actually perform part of the work themselves), though not “workers,” are yet covered by the Act.

The worker is not entitled to compensation unless he sustains by accident arising out of and in the course of his employment, and happening within New Zealand or on a New Zealand ship, personal injury incapacitating him from carrying on his occupation. No compensation is payable in respect of any accident as above defined which is attributable to the serious and wilful misconduct of the worker injured, unless the injury results in death or serious and permanent disablement. No compensation is payable in respect of the death of a worker following on, or incapacity resulting from, or aggravated by, unreasonable refusal to submit to medical or surgical treatment. Except under certain safeguarding restrictions, “contracting out” is forbidden.

Certain defined diseases are deemed to be personal injuries by accident if they arise within twelve months previous to the date of disablement and are due to the nature of the employment. There is power under the Act for the list of such diseases to be added to from time to time by regulation, as circumstances warrant the adoption of such a course.

Generally speaking, the emptor is the person liable to pay compensation; and for this purpose “employer” includes any body of persons, corporate or unincorporate, the Crown (with certain minor exceptions), and the representatives of a deceased employer. Where a person (the principal), in the course of and for the purposes of his trade or business, contracts with another (the contractor) for the execution by the latter of work undertaken by the former, a workman employed by the contractor on meeting with an accident may claim compensation from either the principal or the contractor, except in certain cases. If the principal pays, he may, however (with certain minor exceptions), recover the amount from the contractor. The principal is not liable unless the accident occurs on or about his land, premises, or ship; or on or about land, premises, or ship on or in which the principal has contracted to do the work in connection with which the accident happens. Where the injury for which compensation is payable has resulted under circumstances creating a legal liability in some person other than the employer to pay damages in respect thereof, the person by whom the compensation is paid or payable is entitled to indemnification by the person so liable.

The Workers' Compensation Amendment Acts of 1926 and 1936 amended the Act of 1922 in the direction of raising the limits of compensation. The compensation payable at present is as follows:—

  1. In case of death: Reasonable expenses of medical or surgical attendance, including first aid, and of funeral (maximum, £50), less any sums paid by way of compensation for the accident prior to the death of the person injured; but plus—

    1. Where he leaves total dependants, a sum equal to 208 times his average weekly earnings, or the sum of £500, whichever is the larger, but not exceeding £1,000; or

    2. Where he leaves partial dependants only, a sum reasonable and proportionate to the injury to those dependants, but not exceeding the sums specified in (a).

  2. In case of injury: At the discretion of the Court, either—

    1. During total incapacity, weekly payments amounting to 66⅔ per cent. of a full working week's earnings at the ordinary rate of pay for the work on which the worker was employed at the time of the accident, notwithstanding that he may not have actually worked or the employment may not have actually continued for a full week (maximum £4 10s. per week; minimum £2); during partial incapacity, weekly payments amounting to 66⅔ per cent. of the difference between the amount if the average weekly earnings before the accident and the average weekly amount which the worker is earning or able to earn in suitable employment or business after the accident, but not exceeding £4 10s. per week; or

    2. A lump sum equal to the present value at 5 per cent. per annum compound interest of the aggregate weekly payments which, in the opinion of the Court, would probably become payable to the worker under (a).

Weekly payments are not to extend over a longer aggregate period than six years, and the aggregate amount is not to exceed £1,000. In the case of the temporary incapacity of an apprentice or a worker under twenty-one years of age, the weekly payment must not exceed an amount equal to a full week's earnings at the time of the accident.

In addition to 2 (a) and 2 (b) above, a sum not exceeding £1 is payable in respect of medical and surgical attendance and first aid to the worker in respect of his injury. No compensation is payable if incapacity lasts less than three days. In the case of certain injuries involving permanent disability (e.g., dismemberment or loss of use), compensation is assessed according to a special scheme representing a proportion (varying according to the nature of the dismemberment) of the compensation payable in the case of total incapacity. In the case of injury to workers whose earnings at the date of the accident are low by reason of their being at the time under twenty-one, or of their being apprenticed to a trade, &c., and in certain other specified cases, special provisions exist in order to prevent hardship.

Proceedings under the Act in respect of compensation for injuries are not maintainable by a worker unless written notice of the accident has been given to the employer as soon as possible after its occurrence; though the Court has power to excuse failure, due to reasonable causes, to give that notice, on the part of the person injured, or if it is clear that the absence of such notice has not prejudiced the employer's position. Except where the Court excuses delay resulting from mistake or other reasonable cause, proceedings must be taken within six months' of the date of the accident or the date of the last payment of compensation in respect of injury, or the date of the death of the person injured, whichever is the later. Formerly such proceedings were taken in the Arbitration Court, but regulations issued on 1st March, 1940, under authority of section 70 of the Statutes Amendment Act, 1939, established a separate Court known as the Compensation Court for the hearing of workers' compensation cases. The new Court has all the powers inherent in a Court of record, and all references in the Workers' Compensation Act, 1922, or in the Workers' Compensation Rules 1939, to the Court of Arbitration are now deemed to be references to the Compensation Court. In certain cases proceedings are heard in a Magistrate's Court. The Court may accept, admit, and call for such evidence as in equity and in good conscience it thinks fit, irrespective of whether strictly legal evidence or not. Costs lie in the discretion of the Court. There is no right of appeal, but for good cause orders or agreements in respect of compensation may be reviewed and even set aside by the Court at any time.

The right of a dependant who survives a worker to receive compensation for the death of that worker survives the dependant; and compensation can be recovered by the representative of that dependant.

UNEMPLOYMENT LEGISLATION.—Prior to the depression period of the early “thirties,” there was little permanent effective legislation to cope with the problem of unemployment. In 1895 a Servants Registry Act provided for the inspection of servants registry-offices and regulated the fees charged therein. The Labour Department was founded in 1891 and attempted, particularly through its Employment Bureaux, to cope with the problem. In 1928 a Committee was set up to examine this matter, which was becoming increasingly more serious; and, following on the presentation of it report, an Unemployment Act was placed on the statute-book during the 1930 session of Parliament.

An Unemployment Board was established to assist in the administration of the Act. The Board, as reconstituted in 1931, consisted of the Minister charged with the administration of the Act (Chairman), the Commissioner of Unemployment, and three members appointed by the Governor-General. The main functions of the Board as set out in the Act were: (1) To make arrangements with employers or prospective employers for the employment of unemployed persons; (2) to take such steps in accordance with the provisions of the Act as it considered necessary to promote the growth of primary and secondary industries in New Zealand, so that an increasing number of workers would be required for the efficient carrying-on of such industries; (3) to make recommendations for the payment of sustenance allowances out of the Unemployment Fund.

The Act of 1930 authorized the payment of sustenance allowances out of the Unemployment Fund, but the activities of the Board were directed towards the placing of men in employment in preference to the payment of sustenance, the funds being mainly devoted to the subsidizing (or refunding in full) of wages of men for whom work was provided under various relief schemes. A 1934 amendment to the Act, inter alia, repealed a subsection of the original Act, which, in effect, had limited to a maximum of thirteen weeks the unbroken period during which sustenance might be paid to any one individual.

The Employment Promotion Act, 1936, replaced and repealed the Unemployment Act, 1930, and other legislation relating to unemployment. The Unemployment Board was abolished, the now Act being administered by the Department of Labour. An Employment Promotion Fund was established (deemed to be the same fund as the Unemployment Fund established under the Unemployment Act, 1930), the revenue of the Fund being derived from the employment tax, fees, and penalties under the Act, and any other moneys appropriated by Parliament for the purpose. The main purposes for which the moneys in the Fund were to be utilized were defined as follows:—

  1. The development of primary and secondary industries in New Zealand, and the establishment of new industries, so that an increasing number of workers will be required for the efficient carrying-on of such industries:

  2. The making of arrangements with employers or prospective employers for the employment of persons who are out of employment:

  3. The assistance, in accordance with the provisions of the Act, of persons who are out of employment or are otherwise in need of assistance.

By the Social Security Act, 1938, provision was made for unemployment benefits, superseding the former sustenance, to become available as from 1st April, 1939. The Employment Promotion Fund was abolished as from 30th September, 1939, and the moneys transferred to the Social Security Fund. The amounts of, and qualifications for, benefits will be found on page 399 of this Year-Book.

Although the Employment Promotion Act was repealed by the Social Security Act, the functions of the Employment Division of the Labour Department continued to include the promotion of work and industry for the absorption of surplus labour, and the placing in close contact of employers with employees through the medium of the State Placement Service. The Employment Division has now been placed under the control of the National Service Department. Particulars of the various measures in operation and of the work of the State Placement Service will be found in Section 39, Employment and Unemployment.

The Immigration Restriction Amendment Act of 1931, which empowered the Governor-General to make regulations restricting the number of immigrants entering the country, aimed, inter alia, at preventing an unwanted inflow increasing the number of those unemployed. Its operation was extended in 1933 and 1935, and it expired on 31st December, 1936.

PUBLIC-WORKS PROGRAMME.—The development of New Zealand to its present stage within a century has involved the prosecution of a vigorous public-works policy. In the circumstances, public works afford an avenue of employment for a large body of wage-earners; and, consequently, a résumé of the conditions obtaining on such works forms an essential part of the subject-matter of this section. The Minister of Works in a statement of public-works policy laid before Parliament, in May, 1936, outlined the Government's policy in relation to public-works employees. An agreement with the workers was drawn up dating from 1st June, 1936, and was to remain in force for three years. Following is a summary of the main provisions of the agreement:—

The hours of work were fixed at forty per week—five days of eight hours.

All works were classified as standard works—i.e., no such works were to be regarded as relief works, and the basic rate of pay was fixed at 16s. per day. A regulated scale of hourly rates was drawn up ranging from the basic rate of 2s. per hour to a maximum of 2s. 10d. according to the degree of skill and danger involved in the various occupations.

The system of co-operative works was adopted as a principle, the scales of piecework payment being designed so that a worker of average ability could earn the basic rates of wage.

Workers were paid for seven statutory holidays in the year; and, in addition, after one year's service a worker was to receive one week's annual leave on full pay, and after two years' service two weeks' annual leave on full pay.

Improvements in accommodation on works were provided for in the agreement, with recreation facilities on large works.

The main provisions of the agreement are still in force, but in October, 1939, an increase of l ½d. per hour, equal to 5s. per week, in the rates of pay was announced Two further increases, each of 5s. per week as from 12th August, 1940, and 7th April. 1942, respectively have raised the minimum wage on public works to £4 15s. per week. These increases were made in conformity with the general orders issued by the Arbitration Cert (see p. 561). In addition, married men who are required to leave their homes and accept single men's accommodation in public-works camps are paid a special allowance of 5s. per week.

A Labour Legislation Suspension Order of September, 1939, suspended all agreements and awards in regard to working-conditions in so far as they applied to public works or contracts for emergency or defence purposes. For all time worked on Saturdays time and a half rates were to be paid. All time occupied in travelling to and from the work outside the ordinary working-hours was to be paid at ordinary rates. The Defence Works Labour Legislation Suspension Order of March, 1942, provided for a normal working-week of fifty-four hours, which an Order of June, 1942, reduced to forty-eight, hours.

Chapter 38. SECTION 38.—TRADE-UNIONS.

Table of Contents

IN New Zealand dual provision for the registration and protection of unions of workers and employers exists in the Trade-unions Act and the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, and further provision has been made in the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1936, reference to which is made in the preceding section of this volume. The 1936 Amendment resulted in a considerable increase in membership of unions both of employers and of workers.

Provision was made under section 7, subsection (17), of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1900 (now section 17 of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1925), for the furnishing of an annual return showing the number and membership of unions registered under the Act. It is from this return (vide Parliamentary Paper H.-11) that the tables in this section have been compiled. Very little information is available as to registration of unions under the Trade-unions Act, which is now practically inoperative. The number of unions registered under this Act as at the end of 1941 was six only, one new union being registered during the year, and one registration being cancelled. Unions registered under the Trade-unions Act may also be registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS OF EMPLOYERS.—The numbers and membership of industrial unions of employers registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act as at the end of each of the last five years are shown in the following table.

As at 31st December,Industrial District.
Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Taranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.North Island.South Island.Dominion.Totals.
Number of Unions.
193746803835123832210239
193846844035123842212248
193949864536122953215264
194048854537122954218267
194147834436122864322267
Membership.
19371,6841,8281,154904266311313924292,3518,441
19381,9221,8881,2681,033357361116926212,4009,131
19392,0591,9751,3141,010350321218745212,8799,893
19402,4491,9151,5661,061333181279281203,50711,169
19412,6321,9591,4441,187363121209173563,86511,802

The number of unions of employers and their membership rose gradually to 149 unions, with 5,819 members, in 1914, the year following that of the prolonged waterside workers' strike. Since that year there have been many slight variations, and considerable decreases in membership were recorded in 1931, 1932, and 1933. The effects of the 1936 Act may be judged from the fact that the 1941 figure of membership shows an increase of approximately 172 per cent. over the 1935 total. A good deal of duplication, however, exists in employers' union membership, many employers belonging to two or more unions.

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS OF WORKERS.—Industrial unions of workers and their membership are shown in the next table as at the end of each of the last five years. It should be noted that the statistics cover only unions registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

The membership of workers' unions rose year by year, without exception, from 17,989 in 1900 to 73,991 in 1914. It fell off during the war years, but a phenomenal rise was recorded in 1919, the year immediately following the cessation of hostilities. The total for 1928 (103,980) was the highest recorded up to and inclusive of 1935, but was far below the present figures. The 1936 Act, which provided for compulsory union membership on the part of workers subject to an award or industrial agreement, has, of course, been responsible for the high figures of recent years.

The 1940 and 1941 figures of membership reflect to a certain extent the withdrawal of men from industry consequent on the prosecution of the war.

As at 31st December,Industrial District.
Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Taranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.North Island.South Island.Dominion.Totals.
Number of Unions.
1937111887011229153027  17499
19381028462103281227261120466
193996805896241226251123442
194093745595241024241126427
194191745393231023221227419
Membership.
193752,78649,66927,28624,1383,5767892,0683,219  69,455232,986
193861,73848,44625,81323,0043,8088471,8382,8442833880,572249,231
193960,92047,41125,35323,5523,6389511,7403,1392843787,665254,690
194059,99946,40824,44922,8903,4857781,5933,0572873785,098248,081
194157,53541,48523,65821,9914,0651,1101,5742,8452953876,453231,049

In the following table industrial unions of workers are classified according to membership.

Year.Under 50.50 and under 100.100 and under 200.200 and under 300.300 and under 500.500 and under 1,000.1,000 and under 2,000.2,000 and under 3,000.3,000 and over.Totals.
Number of Unions.
1901994330195411 202
19371437890485039261213499
19381317473474641271017466
19391237063513938301018442
19401137467434032281218427
19411137170383832271317419
Membership.
19012,7593,0184,0324,8152,0752,5201,6512,900 23,768
19373,8095,43112,79911,52418,74828,93835,19629,61486,932232,986
19383,6185,21910,20111,34917,70829,56837,34624,146110,076249,231
19393,2984,9138,95611,65015,06626,96142,69624,733110,417254,690
19402,9665,1579,57310,60715,69323,21538,07628,524114,270248,081
19412,9614,9489,7689,20715,06022,84135,41731,01299,835231,049
Percentage of Total Membership.
190111·6112·7016·9620·268·7210·606·9512·20 100·00
19371·642·335·494·958·0412·4215·1112·7137·31100·00
19381·452·094·094·557·1111·8614·999·6944·17100·00
19391·291·933·524·575·9210·5916·769·7145·71100·00
19401·192·083·864·286·329·3615·3511·5046·06100·00
19411·282·144·233·986·529·8915·3313·4243·21100·00

There has been a more or less steady growth in the average size of workers' unions, the trend being to a certain extent obscured at times by the cancellation of registration by some large unions, the members of which joined other newly created organizations restricted according to locality.

INDUSTRIAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—In the next table industrial unions of employers as at the end of 1941 are shown according to industrial group, and membership according to industrial group and district.

Industrial Group.Membership—Industrial Districts.Number of Unions.
Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Taranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.North Island.South Island.Dominion.Totals.
  Provision of—             
  Food, drink, &c.1,216585517558227 7634  593,27254
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles3947964812     4159812
  Building and construction31833523320651 21    1,19433
  Power, heat, and light 757394      542967
  Transport by water172425119655  2412614
  Transport by land114615042       2676
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service256418283135556751 15831,30941
Working in or on—             
  Wood, wicker, seagrass, and fibre95615117      31453815
  Metal96913253     357237921
  Stone clay, glass, and chemicals33318     236 8811
  Paper, printing, &c.859733439   11  27821
  Skins, leather, &c.92111        447
  Mines and quarries1  10   1   123
  Land (farming pursuits)2039427  11 39 3,0183,17612
Miscellaneous83512     20025510  
      Totals2,6321,9591,4441,187363121209173563,86511,802267

Similar information to that given for industrial unions of employers is now given for workers' unions, as at the end of 1941.

Industrial Group.Membership—Industrial Districts.Number of Unions.
Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Taranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.North Island.South Island.Dominion.Totals.
Provision of—             
  Food, drink, &c.6,7265,9443,5694,157483 343 295384,91226,46762
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles6,5715,4974,0763,241       19,38519
  Building and construction8,3758,4243,8223,069859177231182  1,42926,56869
  Power, heat, and light          9929921
  Transport by water1,5121,368102644      8,24611,87222
  Transport by land2,7102,0531,3251,035280100212156  19,04426,91520
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service6,0764,8572,7661,923399152208447   16,82830
Working in or on—             
  Wood, wicker, sea-gross, and fibre1,3071,12970730427 79  6,98210,47224
  Metal6,4381,131249879112     6,21915,02823
  Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals1,2473796673580 63   2252,79520
  Paper, printing, &c.621  681      2,8584,1608
  Skins, leather, &c.65020810135       9947
  Mines and quarries1,799 4841362 251,425   3,77224
  Land (farming pursuits)2614178 23     17,58217,9856
Miscellaneous13,24210,4546,7494,8751,740681485626  7,96446,81684
      Totals57,53541,48523,65821,9914,0651,1101,5742,8452953876,453231,049419

INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS.—At 31st December, 1941, there were 23 industrial associations of employers and 38 of workers, the former having 148 affiliated unions and the latter 202. The following summary shows the number of industrial associations of employers and workers in each industrial group, with the number of affiliated unions in each case.

Industrial Group.Employers.Workers.
Associations.Affiliated Unions.Associations.Affiliated Unions.
1940.1941.1940.1941.1940.1941.1940.1941.
Provision of—        
  Food, drink, &c.554040662423
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles    331615
  Building and construction332626554340
  Transport by water1110102255
  Transport by land1144111212
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service222424221313
Working in or on—        
  Wood, wicker, seagrass, and fibre221010441916
  Metal1144441312
  Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals22771133
  Paper, printing, &c.221212    
  Skins, leather, &c.11331144
  Mines and quarries    2266
  Land (farming pursuits)1133    
Miscellaneous2255775353
      Totals23231481483838211202

PROPORTION OF UNIONISTS.—The following table, showing the proportion of workers belonging to unions registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act to the total number of wage-earners in the country, is of interest as manifesting the movement in and the extent of trade-unionism during the period under review. The figures given for total wage-earners are derived from census enumerations and would include professional, business, and other classes in which trade-unionism prior to the passing of the amending Act of 1936 did not exist, and agricultural and pastoral occupations where it was practically non-existent. In addition, females are included in both sets of figures, although the proportion of women unionized during the period covered by the table was negligible.

Year.Total Wage-earners.Year.Numbers of Workers on Rolls of Registered Unions.Percentage of Wage-earners on Rolls of Registered Unions.
1901 (March)224,3461900 (December)17,9898
1906 (April)269,0391905 (December)29,86911
1911 (April)304,2721910 (December)57,09119
1916 (October)302,1611916 (December)71,58724
1921 (April)370,6921920 (December)96,35026
1926 (April)414,6731925 (December)101,07124
1936 (March)499,7971935 (December)80,92918

Since 1936 there has been a substantial increase in the membership of unions as a result of the 1936 amendment to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, and the proportion of wage-earners belonging to registered unions at the end of 1940 is estimated at approximately 50 per cent.

Chapter 39. SECTION 39.—EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT.

Table of Contents

EXCEPT for occasional returns relating to State unemployment relief which were presented to Parliament from time to time, practically no direct statistical evidence as to the extent of unemployment in New Zealand prior to 1892 is available.

Unemployment was well known to have been acute in the middle and late “sixties,” owing to the paralysing effect of the Maori wars in the North Island and to the collapse of the alluvial-gold booms in Otago and Westland. With the inauguration, at the beginning of the “seventies,” of the Vogel policy of public works and assisted immigration, employment was available for large numbers of new arrivals. At the beginning of the “eighties” scarcity of funds for the prosecution of public works, along with other considerations, necessitated the checking for a space of the stream of assisted immigrants. By 1883 the position had materially improved; but unemployment once more became serious in the late “eighties” and early “nineties,” mainly owing to the fall in the prices that New Zealand's products (notably wool) were realizing overseas, and to a further slackening of the rate of prosecution of public works. During both of these periods the unemployment position was so acute as to be responsible for a considerable exodus of male population to Australia and elsewhere.

Direct statistical evidence as to the extent of unemployment in New Zealand is available from the census (since 1896) and from the records of the Labour Department (since 1892). In addition, statistics of unemployment among trade-unionists were collected from trade-union secretaries by the Census and Statistics Department from 1925 to 1930. Certain data as to employment are also available, and are referred to at the end of this section.

CENSUS DATA ON UNEMPLOYMENT.—The great disadvantage of the Census inquiry as an indicator of the trend of unemployment is that it provides data at quinquennial intervals only, up to April, 1926, since when only one census has taken place.

Census.Number of Males unemployed.Proportion per Thousand Male Wage-earners.
12th April, 189614,759100
31st March, 19018,46748
12th April, 19068,18939
2nd April, 19117,15230
15th October, 19165,92026
17th April, 192111,06139
20th April, 192610,69434
24th March, 193635,84695

The 1936 figure includes men on rationed relief work, but excludes men (16,252) partly unemployed but not on relief work.

UNEMPLOYMENT BENEFIT.—In the years immediately preceding 1939 two forms of unemployment relief were available: the provision of work for unemployed under various employment promotion schemes, and the payment of sustenance without work (see the 1942 and earlier issues of the Year-Book). Measures for the promotion of employment are still in operation, but the payment of sustenance without work has been discontinued and a system of unemployment benefits has been introduced in its place. Provision for this was made by the Social Security Act of 1938 (see section 24), and unemployment benefits were paid as from 1st April, 1939. The numbers in receipt of such benefits (since their inception) are as follows:—

NUMBER OF PERSONS IN RECEIPT OF UNEMPLOYMENT BENEFIT.

Month.1939.1940.1941.1942.
January 4,2001,9641,033
February 3,9951,924906
March 4,0531,815841
April4,9154,8962,132815
May5,5655,1462,121826
June7,0366,0482,391848
July8,0096,1872,626886
August8,0664,8502,658863
September6,8054,2862,094803
October6,0153,5341,911734
November4,9242,6201,408618
December5,0422,4051,234 

PROMOTION OF EMPLOYMENT.—The arranging of full-time work for physically fit men whom it is not possible to absorb in private employment is now a function of the Employment Division of the National Service Department. The following table shows the number of men in full-time subsidized employment under the various schemes.

NUMBERS OF MEN IN FULL-TIME SUPSIDIZED EMPLOYMENT.

Date.Assisted on Own Farms (Scheme 4A).Farm-lands Development (Scheme 4B).*Training of Farm Labour (Scheme 4F).Building Trades' Apprentices (Scheme 16).Trainees in Industry (Scheme 16A).General (Scheme 13).Total.

* The farm-lands-development scheme was temporarily suspended on 28th August, 1940, and reopened on 3rd October, 1940. On 5th November, 1941, this scheme was again suspended, but provision was made for existing contracts to be completed.

1939.       
8th April49530 438 12,50413,521
1st July185726 479 12,55213,942
23rd Sept. 2,450 529 13,40716,386
16th Dec. 3,90610502711,24715,672
1940.       
9th March 3,4351847579,41213,347
29th June 3,5794841678,35812,408
21st Sept. 2,885567389810,62614,475
14th Dec. 2,15579828689,14412,391
1941.       
8th March 1,65554422096,3638,791
28th June 1,54830215194,7146,724
20th Sept. 1,478220109104,9766,793
13th Dec. 69713779114,2585,182
1942.       
7th March 2557950102,6683,062
27th June 504218101,4011,521
19th Sept. 3020471,1101,171

Details of the schemes now in operation are given, together with a short summary of the main schemes previously in force and now discontinued.

Scheme 4A: Assistance on Own Farms.—This scheme, as latterly constituted, provided a sustenance allowance varying (according to the number of dependants) from 15s. to £2 13s. per week to families working on their own properties by not entirely able to support themselves. This assistance was discontinued in June, 1939, and the 185 then being assisted were transferred to emergency-benefit assistance under the Social Security Act.

Scheme 4B: Farm-lands Development.—This scheme provided subsidies of up to 75 per cent. of the labour cost of improvement work, both developmental and maintenance.

Scheme 4F: Farm Labour Assistance Plan.—This was reintroduced in September, 1939, to provide an adequate supply of farm labour and also to provide training in farm duties. Originally the subsidy was £1 per man per week for six months only. In view of the urgent demand for increased production, the scheme was enlarged from 27th May, 1940, the subsidy now being £1 10s. per week for the first six months and 15s. for the second six months. Provision is also made for certain house allowances to married men.

Scheme 13: Full-time Employment with Local Bodies, &c.—Certain works of either a national or a local character put in hand by local authorities, School Committees, sports bodies, or other social institutions not established for print, are eligible for subsidy under this scheme, the rate of which varies from £1 10s. and £2 5s. per man-week for single and married men respectively, to, in some cases, the full wages cost at ordinary labourers' rates.

Scheme 16: Subsidizing of Apprentices in Building Trades.— This scheme provides financial assistance primarily to meet the shortage of carpenters, joiners, and bricklayers. The subsidies cover short-term apprenticeships of up to three years' duration at the rate of £1 per week, reducing to 10s. per week in the third year, for carpenters' apprentices, and £1 5s. per week, reducing to 10s. per week, for bricklayers' apprentices. No new contracts have been enter to under this scheme since 30th April, 1940.

Scheme 16A: Subsidizing of Workers in Industry.—A subsidy on the wages of unskilled labour during the period of training in a skilled occupation.

Scheme No. 5 was for several years the main vehicle for the provision of unemployment relief. Under this scheme a maximum of 45,000 men were in receipt of part-time work in 1932 and 1933. The number immediately prior to its cessation on 31st March, 1939, was 77.

STATE PLACEMENT SERVICE.—Provision for Government Employment Bureaux was made as early as 1891. These bureaux were under the control of the Department of Labour, and had the object of finding employment for those who chose to register with them. The number of placements effected through the agency of the bureaux was usually from 2,000 to 6,000 per year. The great depression of the early “thirties” led to a rapid increase in the number of those who registered with the bureaux, and in November, 1930, their number reached 7,000. In that month an Unemployment Board was appointed, which made registration at a Government bureau a condition for receiving relief. This caused large numbers (over 11,000 in December, 1930) to register with the bureaux as a pre-requisite of receiving relief rather than with the hope of obtaining employment, and the bureaux, instead of being placement services as in the first instance, now largely came to function as unemployment registration bureaux. The Unemployment Board was abolished in 1936, and its activities were transferred to the Employment Division of the Department of Labour. The old bureaux were replaced in 1936 by a State Placement Service, which once more concentrated on the original function of the Government Employment Bureaux—that of providing employment. The present Placement Service has, however, been organized on a more comprehensive scale, has received greater publicity, and effects a much larger number of placements each year. Its activities are carried out through the medium of four District Employment Offices (one in each of the four chief centres) and forty-four offices of the Social Security Department (fifteen Registrars and twenty-nine District Agents). At first confined to males, the Service was extended to women and girls in April, 1939.

Placement officers obtain from applicants for work full information regarding their qualifications and employment-history, and, by maintaining contact with employers throughout the Dominion, have been able to effect more than 208,000 placements of males since the inauguration of the scheme.

An analysis of positions filled during 1941 (males only), according to locality and to duration of employment, is given in the following table, in which work extending over three months is classified as permanent, from one week to three months as temporary, and less than one week as casual. Totals for the four previous years are also given.

POSITIONS FILLED BY STATE PLACEMENT SERVICE (MALES ONLY).

District.Permanent.Temporary.Casual.Total.
Year 1941.
Auckland3,6073,3131,4318,351
Hawke's Bay5235525241,599
Taranaki250202421873
Wellington3,6101,7821,8537,245
Nelson and Marlborough426306156888
Westland24415718419
Canterbury1,8331,6662,8576,356
Otago1,8101,2293,0336,072
      Totals, 194112,3039,20710,29331,803
      Totals, 194010,8279,22411,26231,313
      Totals, 193911,3708,56912,87932,818
      Totals, 193812,8859,41617,35439,655
      Totals, 193717,65012,05117,09246,793

No information is available regarding female placements prior to the 1st October, 1939. For the six months ended 31st March, 1940, 1,284 placements were effected; for the year ended 31st March, 1941, there were 3,553 placements, and for the year ended 31st March, 1942, there were 3,474 placements.

Government Youth Centres have been in operation in Auckland, Napier. Wellington, and Christchurch since 1938 with the object of giving vocational guidance to young persons of both sexes, and placing them in suitable occupations. In Dunedin work of a similar nature is carried out by the Dunedin Vocational Guidance Association, which is outside departmental control but co-operates with the youth centre system.

NUMBER OF PLACEMENTS EFFECTED BY YOUTH CENTRES.

Year ended 31st March,Boys.Girls.Total.
Permanent.Temporary.Total.Permanent.Temporary.Total.
19402,1473352,4821,4911711,6624,144
19412,2334302,6631,961 1,9614,624
19422,0083312,3392,0772042,2814,620

SEASONAL FLUCTUATIONS IN EMPLOYMENT.—The importance of the unemployment question throughout the world in recent years has prompted in most countries statistical examination of the fluctuations or periodicity of employment. Until recent years the statistics available on this subject in New Zealand have been somewhat scanty, being restricted to employment on public works. Data are now available for some of the avenues of industrial employment (including building and construction, but excluding transport and mining) as well as employment with local authorities.

Factory Industries.—Below are given details as to the months of maximum and minimum male employment in the eighteen leading factory industries or groups of factory industries, and the total for all factory industries, in 1940.

Industry.Maximum for Year.Minimum for Year.Average of Twelve Months.
Number.Months.Number.Months.
Working in wood9,292January8,919June9,127
Metals other than gold or silver8,265October7,726January8,061
Meat freezing and preserving10,694April4,315October7,602
Coach - building, motor engineering, &c.6,129January5,046November5,571
Heat, light, and power5,625May5,183November5,433
Apparel4,193October3,761January4,056
Printing, publishing, &c.4,053March3,776November3,916
Processes relating to stone, clay, &c.3,478April3,288July3,389
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture3,637December1,446July2,708
House-furnishings2,614May2,482November2,557
Vegetable food2,208February2,070Oct. and Nov.2,120
Machines, tools, &c.2,128December1,626February1,912
Drinks, narcotics, &c.2,110December1,774August1,895
Chemicals and by-products1,780November1,428January1,670
Textile fabrics1,585September1,328January1,463
Animal matters (fellmongering, &c.)1,574April1,176August1,363
Ships, boats, and equipment970September694May864
Leatherware, &c.864August729January827
    Totals, all factory industries71,793April63,973July68,280

Changes in seasonal employment are very marked in the meat freezing and preserving industry, in dairy factories, and in the industries concerned with animal matters, such as sausage-casing manufacture and fellmongery and woolscouring. The variations in employment of most of the other industries quoted are not now seasonal in origin, but are due to a general decline or expansion of these industries largely attributable to the war. Thus the numbers employed in the motor engineering, printing, and house-furnishing industries have contracted, a large number of the men employed having been withdrawn into the Army or more essential industries. Maximum employment is therefore found at the beginning of the year, and minimum employment towards the end. The metals, chemicals, apparel, and textile industries have expanded, either in response to war needs, or because former sources of supply of manufactured goods have been cut off as a result of the war. Employment in these industries was in general at a minimum towards the beginning of the period, and at a maximum towards the end.

Building and Construction Industry.—Figures of numbers (at monthly intervals) of persons engaged in this industry are given in the section of this Year-Book relating to Building and Construction.

Public Works.—Since 1935 figures have been available which show the number of workers in the direct employ of the Public Works Department, those employed by contractors for public works, and those employed by local authorities on (a) works which are financed wholly or partly by the Public Works Department, and (b) highway or road construction and maintenance. In the next table figures on this basis are given for the last five years.

Month.1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.
January20,16522,82421,19814,86911,094
February20,64622,28519,89614,55311,114
March21,26823,06819,60314,72112,192
April21,34422,42618,88114,77513,107
May21,18821,82518,17114,64813,843
June21,55321,65317,16814,12915,627
July22,35821,26817,18113,43216,045
August23,20921,07617,24612,97214,440
September23,66123,12016,66512,73213,921
October23,85123,24116,04612,34813,964
November23,33122,23115,66812,28213,927
December23,24521,72015,50311,464 

Figures are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics showing the average numbers engaged during each month on the various classes of public works throughout the Dominion. Average totals under the various headings are as follows, for each of the last five years:—

Year ended 31st March,Roads.Hydroelectric Works.Land Improvement, &c.Irrigation.Public Buildings.Aerodromes.Railways.Other Works.Total.
193811,3719771,5874271,1516142,87182019,818
193912,9521,2211,1525061,8147222,7131,58022,660
194011,0001,4036337111,7301,6792,3152,13421,605
19416,2011,8744841,0391,3561,7061,5572,16716,384
19423,8011,8543858381,4051,5789881,91612,765

Local Authorities.—Employment by local authorities comprises principally the construction and maintenance of roads and streets, and the operation and maintenance of public-utility industries (gas, electric supply, and tramways) and social services.

Particulars relating to wage-earning employees engaged by the various classes of local authorities during the year ended March, 1941, are presented in the next table. The figures shown are for those employed at 15th (or nearest representative day) of each month. The statistics do not cover Hospital Boards, Fire Boards, or Electric-power Boards. Employees of Electric-power Boards are included in the figures for manufacturing industries, published in the Statistical Report on Factory and Building Production, while employees of Hospital Boards are shown in the paragraph following this table.

Class of Local District.Maximum for Year.Minimum for Year.Average of Twelve Months.
Number.Month.Number.Month.
Boroughs13,570September11,729March12,952
Counties5,063April4,095March4,612
Harbour Boards2,749April2,428August2,576
Urban transport districts1,688November1,648March1,671
River districts472August252March385
Urban drainage districts395August291March359
Rabbit districts341December220April276
Town districts280July202March250
Land-drainage districts228May89January148
Road districts138April, May98March125
Gas-lighting district44July38Jan., Feb., March41
Railway district14Various12Aug., Sept.13
Water-supply districts6 6 G
    All districts24,370April21,479March23,404

The total number of wage-earning employees of local districts normally rises during the winter months. The withdrawal of men to the forces during the past few years has, however, obscured the seasonal fluctuations, and in the case of the year ended March, 1941, total employment was greatest in April, 1940, and least in March, 1941.

The introduction of hospital benefits on 1st July, 1939, under the Social Security Act of 1938 is reflected in the increase in the institutional staff of public hospitals. The institutional staff of public hospitals and charitable institutions under the control of Hospital Boards was as follows for the last five years ended 31st March:—

Nature of Staff.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
Stipendiary medical299305328334523
Other professional and technical259306334359385
Nursing3,2913,5363,8504,2524,768
Indoor domestic2,1132,3942,6302,8153,053
Outdoor432488514540601
Miscellaneous180200229242322
      Total6,5747,2297,8858,5429,652

In recent years the visiting medical staff of Hospital Boards has declined slightly. The figures for the last available five years ended 31st March are as follows: 1937, 418; 1938, 426; 1939, 430; 1940, 422; 1941, 407.

Chapter 40. SECTION 40.—INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

Table of Contents

THE compilation of statistics regarding industrial disputes was first undertaken by the Census and Statistics Department at the beginning of the year 1920. Information concerning disputes prior to that year was obtained by examination of the records of the Labour Department.

Under the system originated in 1920, returns furnished by Inspectors of Factories from inquiries made in each district form the main source from which information is obtained. It is considered that the statistics based on these reports are less liable to bias than would be the case if parties to the dispute or other private persons were relied on to furnish the information. It is the duty of an Inspector, during the course of a dispute in his industrial district, to collect all available particulars relating to it. The Inspectors have power to make the necessary inquiries, and thus are able to obtain complete information.

In these tabulations the term “industrial dispute” refers only to those disputes which result in a strike or a lockout, or where organized “go slow” or other passive resistance methods are clearly manifested. Many disputes are, of course, settled without recourse to such measures; these are not recorded for statistical purposes.

It occasionally happens that there are strikes in different centres with the same or similar objects, and occurring at or about the same time; in such cases the several disturbances are treated as one if the available evidence is sufficient to justify such a course, while the duration is taken as the maximum duration in any centre.

Regulations issued on 4th October, 1939, under the Emergency Regulations Act, 1939, prohibit strikes and lockouts and provide the necessary machinery for the settlement of any dispute that may arise.

Reference to enactments framed to mitigate the severity of industrial disputes in normal times will be found in Section 37 of this Year-Book (Labour Laws and Allied Legislation).

NUMBER AND MAGNITUDE.—Although for years prior to 1920 (in which year the present system of reporting was instituted) the records of the Labour Department contain certain information regarding industrial disputes, the details are not sufficiently complete to permit of a comparison with later years.

Year.Strikes.Lockouts.Total Disputes.Firms affected.Workers involved.Working-days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.

* Not available.

       £
192077 77*15,138**
192177 7711210,433119,20890,477
192258 58676,41493,45660,782
192349 49797,162201,812114,074
192434 345814,81589,10562,732
192581283939,90574,55249,149
192651 59676,26447,81132,355
192738 38404,47612,48511,819
192837239569,25821,99722,304
192946147607,15125,88926,940
193038 38445,46731,66937,299
193123124376,35648,48644,544
193223 23679,355108,605105,715
193315 15433,55865,09959,334
193424 24373,77310,3937,121
193512 12652,32318,56315,266
193643 431287,35416,98012,886
193752 527311,41129,91632,129
193872 7210311,38835,45642,104
193966 6663615,68253,80160,394
1940561579910,47528,09728,062
194189 899715,26126,23734,552

In calculating the number of working-days lost, it is assumed that work would have been continuous if no dispute had taken place, and no allowance is made for loss of work from unemployment or other causes which might have occurred even if there had been no dispute. In some cases, such as shearing, there is a definite amount of work to be done, and a stoppage of work does not decrease the total amount of it, but only postpones its completion. In those cases the figures are perhaps more or less fictitious, but in the great majority of cases they represent a real loss.

From the passing of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act in 1894 till the end of 1905 there were no industrial disputes between employers and workers coming within the scope of the Act; indeed, New Zealand may be said to have been almost entirely free from industrial disputes during that period. The greatest number of disputes in any one year since 1894 was recorded in 1941, when thee were eighty-nine disputes—mostly, however, of trivial importance. Although the year 1939 saw the greatest number of workers involved (15,682), it was only slightly in advance of 1941, the next highest year, with 15,261 workers. In the former year the industries most effected were mining and shipping, and in the latter mining and meat-freezing. From the point of view of lost time the maximum was reached in 1923, when there were serious disputes in the coal-mining and shipping industries. Next in order come 1921 (marked by strikes of waterside workers) and 1932 (chiefly strikes of waterside workers and coal-miners).

NATURE AND DURATION.—The next table shows the nature of the disputes and the number of workers involved during the years 1931–41.

Year.Nature of Dispute.Number of Workers Involved.
Direct Strike.Sympathetic Strike.Partial Strike.*Lockout.Total.Direct Strike.Sympathetic Strike.Partial Strike.*Lockout.Total.

* I.e., where no actual cessation of work, but a “go slow” or other policy of protest adopted.

193119311245,42935057256,356
1932185  237,9451,410  9,355
1933132  152,728830  3,558
19342211 243,62011538 3,773
193512   1?2,323   2,323
193633 10 435,910 1,444 7,354
193751 1 5210,411 1,000 11,411
19387011 7211,10755226 11,388
1939651  6614,811871  15,082
194052131578,6306141,1973410,475
194188 1 8915,247 14 15,261

The table following illustrates the duration of disputes during 1941.

Duration.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers Involved.Number of Working-days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
    £
1 day and less6110,4368,88211,332
Over 1 day but not over 2118371,4081,719
Over 2 days but not over 34108207284
Over 3 days but less than 1 week54551,2551,833
1 week but less than 2 weeks73,33514,48515,884
2 weeks but less than 4 weeks    
4 weeks and over190 3,500
      Totals8915,26120,23734,552

It will be seen that the vast majority of disputes are in the nature of direct strikes, although in some years “sympathetic” strikes (when the workers go on strike in sympathy with the claims of other workers, and not on account of a grievance arising out of their own wages or conditions) attain serious proportions.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—The following table shows the number of disputes in each industrial district for the last five years and also the number of workers involved; from this it will be seen that in 1941 Westland had the greatest number both of strikes and of workers involved.

Year.Northern.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.West-land.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Totals.
Number of Disputes.
193732 5 164452
193831412  1210372
193923281209366 
194015 111175857 
194133 5 408389 
Number of Workers involved.
19376,950 1,760 91,1391,06349011,411
19386,6702251,052  1,9491,01547711,388
19399,430981,355 103,66789023215,682
19404,382 2,087 262,55653788710,475
19415,890 1,341  6,5501,15033015,261

INDUSTRIAL DISTRIBUTION.—In the following table industrial disputes are classified according to the industrial groups in which disputes took place, this grouping being the same as that used in the compilation of wage and trade-union statistics. In three of the fourteen groups of the classification there were no disputes, and such groups have been omitted. Of the three strikes recorded in 1938 under the heading “Miscellaneous” two were of wool-store workers and one of general labourers, and the one in 1939 was of shearers.

Industrial Group.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
Number of Disputes.
Provision of—     
  Food, drink, &c.712141323
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles1   3
  Building and construction423 1
  Power, heat, and light 1 1 
  Transport by water17179178
  Transport by land1 223
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service    1
Working in or on —     
  Wood, &c.1222 
  Metal311  
  Stone, clay, glass, chemicals, &c.311322
  Paper, printing, &c. Skins, leather, &c. 1  1
  Mines and quarries— Coal-mines1420291343
  Gold-mines12274
Miscellaneous 31  
      Totals5272665789
Industrial Group.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
Number of Workers involved.
Provision of—     
  Food, drink, &c.2,5903,0003,7291,8224,717
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles106   70
  Building and construction366131250 8
  Power, heat, and light 114 26 
  Transport by water3,5341,6431,1533,145226
  Transport by land39 2,0248011,293
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service    20
Working in or on—     
  Wood, &c.7020155220 
  Metal6902089  
  Stone, clay, glass, chemicals, &c.4581,18946431160
  Paper, printing, &c. 29   
  Skins, leather. &c.    6
  Mines and quarries—     
    Coal-mines3,0294,3677,6273,4268,462
    Gold-mines52922263724399
Miscellaneous 6658  
      Totals11,41111,38815,68210,47515,261

Out of a total of 336 disputes during the five years, 135, involving 28,848 workers, occurred in connection with mining and quarrying; while in the shipping industry there were 68 disputes involving 9,701 workers. The two industries in which strikes predominate are mining and shipping, although strikes in the meat-freezing industry are also numerous. For a number of years prior to 1934 there were more strikes in the mining and quarrying industry than in any other group; from 1934 to 1937 the shipping industry was in the ascendancy, but since 1938 the mining industry has again become the predominant group. A more detailed analysis of disputes occurring during 1941 is given below.

Industrial Group.Number of Disputes.Number of Firms affected.Number of Workers involved.Number of Working-days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
Directly.Indirectly.Total.
       £
Provision of—       
  Food, drink, &c.23244,1185994,7176,9845,275
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles3370 703216
  Building and construction118 889
  Transport by water88226 226161191
  Transport by land331,281121,2936,2757,661
  Accommodation, meals, and personal service1120 2010845
Working in or on—       
  Stone, clay, glass, chemicals, &c.2260 602210
  Skins, leather, &c.116 63 
Mines and quarries—       
  Coal-mines43508,462 8,46211,56916,407
  Gold-mines44399 3991,0754,938
      Totals899714,65061115,26126,23734,552

CAUSES.—In the next table the causes of disputes which occurred during the last five years are shown. Under the heading “Wages” are included disputes concerning wages, overtime, or rates for piecework.

Disputes concerning the employment or non-employment of certain classes of persons are included under the heading “Employment.” This question usually arises in connection with trade-union affairs, such as, for instance, the dismissal of a worker on allegedly insufficient grounds, or, until recently, the employment of non-unionists. Since 1936, however, all adult workers who are subject to any award or industrial agreement have been required to be members of a union, and unless there are no unionists available no employer may employ a non-unionist.

“Other working conditions" are of diverse nature, but some may be mentioned as follows: Distribution of work in coal-mines and on wharves, conveyance to and from work, atmospheric conditions in coal-mines, accommodation on ships, numbers of men to be allocated to certain duties, supply of food, method of handling cargo.

Under the heading “Sympathy” are included all disputes caused by workers striking, not on account of a grievance with their own particular employer, but in sympathy with the demands of other workers.

Cause.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
Number of Disputes.
Wages1426261922
Hours11242 
Employment1216211219
Other working-conditions1524141930
Sympathy 111 
Other causes 3 418
Number of Workers involved.
Wages3,6824,5585,5883,9723,401
Hours2,1391062,07763 
Employment1,9411,6934,0621,8812,635
Other working-conditions3,6494,6753,0842,5636,231
Sympathy 55871614 
Other causes 301 1,3822,994

The following table gives further details for the year 1941.

Cause.Number of Disputes.Number of Firms affected.Number of Workers involved.Number of Working-days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
     £
Wages22243,40110,30217,838
Hours     
Employment19202,6353,8454,776
Other working-conditions30336,2319,0338,059
Sympathy     
Other causes18202,9943,0573,879
      Totals899715,26126,23734,552

METHODS OF SETTLEMENT.—Following is a table showing the methods of settlement of disputes during the last five years. “Negotiations under Act” covers negotiations under both the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act and the Labour Disputes Investigation Act. “Otherwise” also includes cases where a third party has assisted in the settlement, but has not been appointed formally under the Acts.

Method of Settlement.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
Number of Disputes.
Negotiations under Act151461219
Private negotiations between parties3053453155
Substitution 4 13
Otherwise71151312
Number of Workers involved.
Negotiations under Act2,4842,4361,1893,3623,338
Private negotiations between parties7,6208,76110,2414,3628,934
Substitution167 12633 
Otherwise1,307244,2522,6252,956

Further information for the year 1941 is given in the next table.

Method of Settlement.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers involved.Number of Working-days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
    £
Negotiations under Act193,3388,4058,877
Private negotiations between parties558,9348,06213,632
Substitution33312455
Otherwise122,9569,64611,988
      Totals8915,26126,23734,552

RESULTS.—In compiling the table which follows, no dispute has been included as ending in favour of either employers or workers unless the result has been beyond question. In cases where workers have made more than one demand, succeeding in one or more and failing in one or more, or where they have made one or more demands and in respect of each have been partially successful only, the result has been treated as a compromise. Where strikers have returned to work without any definite decision being arrived at regarding the demands made, or where (as in the case of a sympathetic strike) no definite demand has been made, or where a strike is merely by way of a protest, the result has been recorded as indeterminate.

RESULTS OF DISPUTES.

Result.1937.1938.1939.1940.1941.
Number of Disputes.
In favour of workers1724202218
In favour of employers1713221516
Compromise6138619
Indeterminate1222161436
Number of Workers involved.
In favour of workers2,1762,8064,0863,3822,035
In favour of employers4,4783,7235,3562,9582,293
Compromise1,0951,1861,6301,1244,083
Indeterminate3,6623,6734,6103,0116,850
Number of Working-days lost.
In favour of workers5,4787,6839,6875,8801,432
In favour of employers16,93517,3707,46712,1927,531
Compromise2,5891,54826,1815,0037,884
Indeterminate4,9148,85510,4665,0229,390

Of disputes ending definitely in favour of one party or the other during the five years, workers succeeded in one hundred and one instances and employers in eighty-three. In the previous five years (1932–36) workers were successful in twenty-six instances and employers in thirty-nine.

In the following table the causes and results of disputes occurring during 1941 are shown in conjunction.

Result.Cause.
Wages.Hours.Employment.Other Working-conditions.Sympathy.Other.Totals
Number of Disputes.
In favour of workers6 83 118
In favour of employers5 54 216
Compromise5 112 119
Indeterminate6 511 1436
Number of Workers involved.
In favour of workers183 1,107534 2112,035
In favour of employers1,603 285340 652,293
Compromise349 2083,246 2804,083
Indeterminate1,266 1,0352,111 2,4386,850
Number of Working-days lost.
In favour of workers43 1,043240 1061,432
In favour of employers6,740 243356 1927,531
Compromise1,658 1045,562 5607,884
Indeterminate1,861 2,4552,875 2,1999,390

Chapter 41. SECTION 41.—INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS.

Table of Contents

As a result of an international conference of official statisticians held at Geneva in 1923, under the auspices of the International Labour Office set up by the League of Nations, the collection and compilation of statistics of industrial accidents on substantially uniform lines is now being undertaken in virtually all of the principal countries. From the administrative standpoint, the principal types of industrial accidents occurring in Now Zealand may be classified as follows:—

Factory Accidents.—Section 41 of the Factories Act requires that all accidents likely to incapacitate the injured person for at least forty-eight hours be reported to an Inspector of Factories. Reports are prepared by Inspectors of Factories in connection with each such accident causing loss of work amounting to three days or more. These reports are ultimately forwarded to the Census and Statistics Department for statistical analysis.

Scaffolding Accidents.—The procedure adopted in connection with the compilation of statistics of scaffolding accidents is identical with that in connection with factory accidents.

Accidents to Employees of the Railways, Public Works, Printing and Stationery, and Post and Telegraph Departments.—Individual reports of all accidents involving loss of work for three days or more are supplied by the respective Departments to the Census and Statistics Department for detailed analysis and tabulation.

Accidents to Employees in Mines and Quarries.—Certain particulars of accidents to employees in metalliferous mines, in coal-mines, and in quarries and other places under the Stone-quarries Act, are given in successive numbers of the Mines Statement, Parliamentary Paper C.-2. Commencing with the year 1938, individual reports of all accidents involving loss of work for three days or mere are now being furnished, although information as to duration of disability and as to compensation paid is not available.

Other Industrial Accidents.—There are numerous types of industrial accidents for which it has not as yet been found practicable to collect and compile statistics. The principal classes of such accidents are those occurring to persons engaged in land transport (other than railway operation), in “watersiding,” in bushfelling, and in marine navigation. Accidents of the last-mentioned type are reported to the Marine Department under the Shipping and Seamen Act.

FREQUENCY RATES.—For the purpose of computing frequency rates in respect of industrial accidents in New Zealand, data as to the number of employees in establishments coming under various industrial headings have been compiled by the Census and Statistics Department from returns furnished for the purpose by the Labour Department's Inspectors of Factories; while information as to the hours worked has been ascertained from awards, and supplemented by the statistics of short time and overtime compiled from data collected with the annual census of factory production. Similar data have been obtained from the records of the Post and Telegraph, Public Works, and Railways Departments. One hour's work performed by one man is taken as a unit. Data as to man-hours are not available in the case of mining or scaffolding operations, nor are compensation data in respect of mining accidents.

Year.Total Accidents.Accidents per 100,000 Man-hours worked.*Accidents where Particulars of Compensation available.Total Compensation† or Damages paid in such Cases.Compensation per Case where known.

* Excluding scaffolding accidents and mining accidents.

† Including medical expenses.

‡ See letterpress.

    ££
19367,7032·6837,702122,62415·9
19379,3943·0509,385181,05419·3
1938‡12,5533·1089,807196,22520·0
1939‡14,3143·17310,633195,33818·4
1940‡13,5482·9339,794194,85319·9

Compared with the previous year the 1940 total shows a decrease of 766, the greatest numerical movement (697) as well as the greatest percentage movement (over 33 per cent.) having occurred in the Public Works group.

The distribution of industrial accidents in 1940 according to the source of information (accidents to Printing and Stationery Department employees being included in the Factory group) is indicated in the following table.

Class.Total Accidents.Accidents per 100,000 Man-hours worked.Accidents where Particulars of Compensation available.Total Compensation or Damages paid in such Cases.Compensation per Case where known.

* No information available.

† Excluding scaffolding and mining accidents.

‡ Excluding mining accidents.

    ££
Factory5,4802·3695,47493,76317·1
Public Works1,3871·9011,38529,91421·6
Scaffolding293*29311,87740·5
Railways2,3815·3872,37756,01523·6
Post and Telegraph2651·2932653,28412·4
Mining3,742****
      All classes13,5482·933†9,794‡194,853‡19·9

It is usual for scaffolding accidents to involve the highest compensation per accident, owing to the proportionately greater number which terminate fatally. There were four fatalities in this group during 1940, while the group having the next highest average compensation per accident (Railways Department) included eleven fatalities.

Compared with 1930, the frequency rate—i.e., accidents per 100,000 man-hours worked—was slightly lower for all accidents, decreases having occurred in the Public Works, Post and Telegraph, and Railways groups, and an increase in the Factory group. The meat-freezing industry had the highest frequency rate for any individual sub-group, while the lowest appeared in the sub-groups for laundering and boat-building.

In the table following, industrial accidents during the year 1940 are classified into certain important industrial groups. Details for individual industries, under this and other headings, are published in the annual Statistical Report on Prices, &c., issued by the Census and Statistics Department.

Industrial Group.Total Accidents.Accidents per 100,000 Man-hours worked.Accidents where Particulars of Compensation available.Total Compensation or Damages paid in such Cases.Compensation per Case where known.

* Data on which to compute not available.

† Excluding scaffolding and mining accidents.

‡ Excluding mining accidents.

Provision of—   ££
  Food, drink, &c.3,7190·9113,71648,15113·0
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles1970·3431974,26421·6
  Building and construction—     
    Public Works1,3084·8711,30028,58321·9
    Scaffolding293*29311,87740·5
  Power, heat, and light1272·2481202,78822·1
  Communications and land transport—     
    Post and Telegraph2651·2932653,28412·4
    Railways2,3815·3872,37756,01523·6
  Personal services10·023155·0
Working in or on—     
  Wood, seagrass, &c.3211·17732112,51239·0
  Metal0721·50967113,41720·0
  Stone, clay, glass, &c.3782·0203779,77825·9
  Paper, printing, &c.1090·8281092,16219·8
  Skins, leather, &c.220·454221,18153·7
Mining3,742****
Miscellaneous130·4411383664·3
      All groups13,5482·933†9,794‡194,853‡19·9‡

The following table shows, for the last five years available, the average compensation paid, in conjunction with the extent of disability.

Year.Temporary Disability.Permanent Partial Disability.Fatality.Total.
Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.

* Where amount of compensation known.

  £ £ £ £
19367,4839·1193180·726747·57,7015·9
19379,11610·3233243·436833·09,38519·3
19389,53011·1236228·941880·69,80720·0
193910,36410·9239256·830705·410,63318·4
19409,55711·4207294·330822·09,79419·9

Normally the average amount of compensation paid in respect of fatalities is considerably below the maximum amount which may be paid under the Workers' Compensation Act in respect of such accidents. This is due mainly to the fast that in cases where the deceased worker had no dependants only medical and funeral expenses are paid; and that in cases of partial dependency the amount paid as compensation varies in proportion to the extent of such dependency.

CAUSE OF ACCIDENT AND EXTENT OF INJURY SUSTAINED.—With regard to the extent and degree of the disability sustained, it is usual to distinguish fatal accidents, accidents causing temporary disability, accidents causing permanent partial disability, and accidents causing permanent total disability. In the actual compilation of the statistics difficulty occasionally arises as to whether a particular injury should be regarded as temporary or permanent; and in cases of doubt the conservative practice has been adopted of classifying the injury in the temporary-disability class. The following table relates to the five-years period 1936–40, but excludes mining accidents, which are available for the last three years only.

Cause.Temporary Disability.Permanent Partial Disability.*Fatality.Total.Percentage of Total Accidents.

* Including permanent total disability cases as follows: 1936, Nil; 1937, 3; 1938, Nil; 1939, Nil; 1940, 3; total, 6.

Machinery—     
  Prime movers481 490·1
  Transmission97831080·2
  Lifting-machinery72242117751·6
  Power-working machines3,34550583,8588·2
Vehicles2,40258512,5115·3
Explosions and fires1,47821161,5153·2
Poisonous, hot, and corrosive substances373 13740·8
Electricity141271500·3
Falls of persons—     
  From elevations2,53050202,0185·5
  Into excavations374123770·8
  Slipping and stumbling on the level3,6911923,7127·8
Stepping on or striking against fixed objects—     
  Stepping on4081 4090·9
  Striking against2,5231322,5385·4
Falling objects, not being handled by the person injured1,4923561,5333·2
Falls of earth1,07740171,1342·4
Handling of objects—     
  Heavy9,970118310,09121·3
  Sharp3,7494523,7908·0
  Hand-trucks, &c.901319051·9
  Continual handling5452 5471·2
Hand-tools—     
  In hands of person injured—     
    Glancing of tool6,030104 6,13512·9
    Breaking of tool1022 1040·2
    Flying particles85324 8771·9
    Other1,272521,2792·7
  In hands of other than person injured54115 5561·2
Animals2222 2240·5
Miscellaneous—     
  Strains, sprains, and septic wounds undefined as to cause (sustained while slaughtering)235112370·5
  Doors, windows, covers, gates (excluding elevators)457514031·0
  Other482614891·0
Summary.
Factories21,5696954222,30647·1
Public Works10,2441944110,47922·1
Scaffolding1,35158251,4343·0
Railways11,4481775511,68024·7
Post and Telegraph1,4541011,4653·1
      Totals46,0661,13416447,364100·0

In mines, the majority of the accidents occurred in connection with the operating of mine trucks; other predominating causes were handling of heavy or sharp objects, falls of coal, slipping on uneven surfaces, and pieces of coal dislodged by the miners' tools.

LENGTH OF EXPERIENCE AT PROCESS: Factory Accidents only.—In recent years an attempt has been made to obtain information regarding the length of experience of each employee at the work on which ho was engaged at the time of the accident. The information thus obtained in respect of factory accidents is given below for the years 1937–40. The necessary information was not available in all cases, the number covered representing approximately 96 per cent.

Length of Experience at Process.1937.1933.1939.1940.
No of Cases.Per Cent of Total.No. of Cases.Per Cent of Total.No. of Cases.Per Cent of Total.No. of Cases.Per Cent of Total.
Under 6 months1,06326·896724·01,35128·31,48328·2
6 months and under 1 year3719·33318·23807·94518·6
1 year and under 2 years45511·448412·04319·05109·7
2 years and under 3 years3558·941510·349010·353210·1
3 years and under 4 years2696·72736·83677·74027·7
4 years and under 5 years2817·02025·02595·43065·8
5 years and under 10 years57814·563215·771014·982815·7
10 years and under 20 years3839·644811·150110·54759·0
20 years and over2335·82786·92896·02765·2
      Totals3,988100·04,030100·04,778100·05,263100·0

The fact that all inexperienced workers are not necessarily those who have recently attained working-age accounts for the modified, although similar, characteristics of the following tabulation according to age-groups.

Age, in Years.1937.1938.1939.1940.
No. of Cases.Per Cent of Total.No. of Cases.Per Cent of Total.No. of Cases.Per Cent of Total.No. of Cases.Per Cent of Total.
Under 161453·51443·41432·91623·0
16 to 2091721·988220·71,01120·61,01818·8
21 to 2472817·475817·882716·884215·5
25 to 341,25229·81,28130·11,57032·01,75332·4
35 to 4464115·362314·673414·992317·0
45 to 543217·73438·03978·15019·3
55 and over1854·42295·42304·72164·0
  Totals4,189100·04,260100·04,912100·05,415100·0

Cases where the age was not stated have been excluded from the above table.

NATURE OF INJURY.—A classification of accidents according to the nature of the injuries sustained gives the following results for the last five years; the figures for 1938 and subsequent years include mining accidents.

Nature of Injury.1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.Totals, 1930–40.

* Traumatic only. In addition there were in 1937, 76 surgical amputations; in 1938, 81; in 1939, 84; and in 1940, 54.

Contusions and abrasions1,5801,8733,4694,1244,01915,065
Burns and scalds2304264144864582,014
Concussions6069568873346
Cuts and lacerations2,6753,0483,3633,6833,46316,232
Punctures3585046757856732,995
Amputations140100*80*103*112*535
Dislocations4347525862262
Fractures3143965125584542,234
Sprains and strains2,1302,7643,6084,0693,72916,300
Other and ill-defined1731673243605051,529
      Totals7,7039,39412,55314,31413,54857,512
Cases where septic poisoning followed—      
  Number1,0041,3031,6022,1301,8917,930
  Percentage of all accidents13·013·912·814·914·013·8

A feature of special interest brought out by this table is the relatively high percentage of accidents in which septic poisoning followed. The increased proportion of contusions, &c., in 1938, 1939, and 1940, is due to the inclusion of mining accidents.

PART OF BODY AFFECTED.—Informative figures showing the number of cases in which the different parts of the body were affected by industrial accidents which occurred during the years 1936–40 are given in the following table. Mining accidents are included in the figures for 1938 and subsequent years.

Part of Body affected.1930.1937.1938.1939.1940.Totals, 1930–40.
Head1591632442552501,071
Eves2963985927956892,770
Rest of face103151163228161806
Neck3331505863235
Back7738461,2691,3711,3345,593
Thorax and contents3474645855905422,528
Abdomen and contents1881952532202001,056
External genitals2424352631140
Upper limbs—      
  Collarbone and shoulder1672483784313881,612
  Arm4335226998257733,252
  Hand and wrist9911,2291,5121,7681,7137,213
  Finger and thumb2,2002,6983,2513,8233,75815,730
Lower limbs—      
  Pelvis, hip, and thigh1551853293583141,341
  Leg7388221,2051,3781,2685,411
  Ankle and foot9491,2111,6161,8381,6377,251
Undefined or multiple1472073723504271,503
      Totals7,7039,39412,55314,31413,54857,512

Accidents to the fingers and hands form a large proportion of total accidents. Out of the total of 57,512 accidents classified during 1936 to 1940, 22,943 cases were recorded where fingers or hands were affected.

A tabulation made for 1940, correlating nature of injury with part of body affected, showed that the most common type of accident was to the fingers and thumbs, resulting in cuts or lacerations: 2,195 of the 13,548 accidents tabulated came under this category. Of the 166 cases of amputations (of which 112 were traumatic and 54 were surgical), 143 resulted in loss of some part of the fingers or thumbs. Contusions of the feet numbered 583, and cuts and lacerations of the hands 529. Of the 3,729 sprains, 1,136 resulted in injury to the back, while sprained thighs, legs, and feet accounted for a further 1,139.

DURATION OF INCAPACITY.—A further measure of the extent of disability is furnished in the cases of temporary disability by data as to the duration of absence from work as the result of the accident. A summary of this aspect, together with the number of cases of permanent partial disability and fatality, is given below. Information as to time lost is not available for mining accidents, and these are therefore excluded.

Duration.1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.Totals, 1936 to 1940.
Number.Number.Per Cent.Number.Per Cent.Number.Per Cent.Number.Per Cent.Number.Per Cent.
1 week or under1,5191,87419·92,02320·62,35722·12,06021·09,83320·7
1 week to 2 weeks2,4882,96631·63,20832·73,46832·63,20132·615,33132·4
2 weeks to 4 weeks2,1232,65028·22,60926·62,74225·72,65327·112,77727·0
4 weeks to 6 weeks5897588·17988·18057·67547·73,7047·8
6 weeks to 13 weeks5966206·66606·77326·96586·73,2666·9
13 weeks to 6 months1251821·91661·71941·81681·78351·8
Over 6 months43630·7640·7660·6670·73030·6
  Total specified cases of temporary disability7,4839,11397·09,52897·110,36497·39,56197·546,04997·2
Cases where employee did not return or duration not stated150·010·070·130·0170·0
Permanent partial disability1932402·62402·52492·32122·21,1342·4
Fatality26360·4420·4300·3300·31640·4
  Totals7,7039,394100·09,811100·010,650100·09,806100·047,364100·0

In many cases the injured employee did not cease work immediately, a considerable period intervening in some instances. The following table shows, for such cases occurring during the year 1940, the length of time elapsing before the employee left work, and the final cause of cessation of work.

Factories.Public Works.Scaffolding.Railways.Post and Telegraph.
Period elapsing.     
1 week or less85210843642102
Over 1 week and up to 2 weeks1091625710
Over 2 weeks65172505
Final Cause.     
Incipient septic poisoning528451415425
Strains187431429345
Other causes311531930247
      Totals1,02614147749117
Percentage of all accidents18·710·216·031·544·2

The preceding table indicates that many employees suffering from minor injuries pay little attention to such injury, especially in the case of small cuts, strains, or abrasions. This neglect often causes more severe pain (or with abrasions, septic poisoning), and the absence then enforced is usually longer than if the first injury had received immediate attention. Lost time usually entails a reduction in wages, especially if the injury results in under three days' absence, in which case no compensation is payable. Further, in the case of apprentices, lost time has to be made up at the termination of the period of apprenticeship, and these two considerations are likely to militate against the worker ceasing work immediately on account of a minor injury.

ACCIDENT SEVERITIES.—In view of the fact that the age of the individual is not particularly relevant to the character of the hazard from which the injury has occurred, for the purpose of calculating accident-severity rates a constant loss of 60,000 working-hours is counted for each fatality irrespective of the age of the person at the time of death. In respect of permanent partial disablement an international scheme for the apportionment of loss of earning-power caused by this type of accident has been drawn up by the International Labour Office. Under this scheme, which has been adopted with some slight modifications in the treatment of New Zealand statistics, time lost on account of permanent partial disability is assessed on the basis of a proportionate part of the time lost in connection with injuries resulting in death. For example, dismemberment or the loss of the use of a hand is regarded as a 50-per-cent. disability—that is, the time lost on account of impaired working capacity in this case is assessed as 50 per cent. of 60,000 working-hours—i.e., 30,000 working-hours.

The severity rate for all accidents during the period 1930–40 has varied between 1,305 (in 1939) and 1,653 (in 1938). The extent of the toll on industry exacted by industrial accidents is realized when it is considered that during the five years 1936–40 one hour was lost as a result of such accidents out of every sixty-seven hours worked in the industries covered by the following table. Reports on mining accidents, which have been collected from 1938 onwards, do not provide the necessary data for inclusion in this table.

1936.1937.1938†1939.†1940.†

* Excluding scaffolding accidents.

† Excluding mining accidents.

Total cases resulting in—     
  Temporary disability7,4849,1189,52910,3719,564
  Permanent partial disability193240240249212
  Fatality2036423030
Total7,7039,3949,81110,6509,806
Calendar days lost per accident91103988487
Hours lost per 100,000 man-hours worked (i.e, severity-rate)*1,4511,6191,6531,3951,407

Comparison of the severity rates as between different industrial groups is affected by the varying proportions of serious accidents and fatalities in different industries in different years. In the main groups covered by the cumulative table for the five years 1936–40 shown below, the effect of this factor is minimized by the relatively largo number of accidents classified.

Industrial Group.Number of Accidents resulting inCalendar Days lost per Accident.Hours lost per 100,000 Man-hours worked (Severity Rate).
Temporary Disability.Permanent Partial Disability.Fatality.Total.

* Data on which to compute not available.

† Excluding scaffolding accidents.

Provision of—      
  Food, drink, &c.13,9322071114,150441,435
  Clothing, footwear, and textiles66947271896156
  Building and construction—      
    Public Works9,9891903810,217963,782
    Scaffolding1,35158251,434274*
  Power, heat, and light4341344511621,541
  Communication and land transport—      
    Post and Telegraph1,4541011,46535307
    Railways11,4481775511,6801003,248
  Personal services255 30462393
Working in or on—      
  Wood, seagrass, &c.1,66219381,8631991,579
  Metal2,937125103,072111932
  Stone, clay, glass, &c.1,61160101,6811331,648
  Paper, printing, &c.42033 453107449
  Skins, leather, &c.9113 104188507
Miscellaneous433 46168312
      All industries46,0661,13416447,364931,503†

Mining Accidents.—The preceding table does not include reports of mining accidents, as these are available only from 1938 onwards. The following (able shows the extent of disability suffered by those working in mines during the last three years available.

Number of accidents resulting in—1938.1939.1940.
Temporary disability2,6823,5913,675
Permanent partial disability475357
Fatality132010
    Total cases2,7423,6643,742

In 1938 and 1939 investigation was made as to the total number of individuals suffering accident as distinct from the total number of accidents. It was found that approximately 25 per cent. of those injured were involved in two or more accidents.

LOSS OF EARNING-POWER INVOLVED.—Provision is made in certain cases for the actual impairment of wage-earning capacity to be stated. Of the 269 cases of permanent partial incapacity in 1940, the question as to what wages the employee would earn on resumption was answered in 132 eases. In 110 cases it was reported that, though dismemberment or disablement had occurred, no diminution of earning-power had taken place. In 22 cases, however, definite and serious impairment eventuated.

HOUR OF OCCURRENCE.—The following tabulation of industrial accidents, according to the hour of occurrence, shows the effects of fatigue during the working-day. Mining accidents are included in 1938, 1939, and 1940.

Time of Occurrence, to Nearest Hour.Year.Causes, 1936–40.
1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.Machinery.Falls of Persons.Handling Objects.Hand Tools.Other.
8 a.m.324362419452441186368536355553
9 a.m.7508921,1181,2161,1075057021,5711,0381,267
10 a.m.1,1131,2631,6441,9861,8547051,0012,4971,5442,113
11 a.m.1,0821,3371,7021,9741,9437239942,4811,7032,137
12 noon6317509001,0371,0214326061,2458751,181
1 p.m.257305443549514244315513338658
2 p.m.7238861,2771,6341,4345367281,7061,2241,760
3 p.m.1,0081,1721,5351,7851,6407531,0132,0971,3201,957
4 p.m.8111,1271,2411,4641,2996439121,7941,0671,526
5 p.m.334430449518470198343640343677
Other hours4836779621,3371,4383808601,1104812,066
Not stated9091817297292106143468200670
Not applicable97102466595532823679
    Totals7,7039,39412,55314,31413,5485,4167,98816,94010,52416,644

This table indicates that accidents are definitely most numerous during the later part of both morning and afternoon, but in comparing these two periods it must be remembered that, prior to the introduction of the forty-hour (live-day) week in September, 1936, there were six mornings and only five afternoons in the normal working-week.

A more definite indication is given by considering the length of time the employee had worked on the day when the accident occurred. The following table is exclusive of accidents to Post and Telegraph employees, the information not being available for this group.

Number of Hours already worked.1936.1937.1938.1939.1940.Totals, 1936—40.

* Excluding accidents to Post and Telegraph employees.

Under 14546076497457083,163
1 and under 28701,0861,4141,6041,4816,455
2 and under 31,1271,3611,7152,0771,9378,217
3 and under 41,1761,3871,8092,1511,9988,521
4 and under 56598409631,0961,1044,662
5 and under 66678441,0551,3581,2855,209
6 and under 79571,0551,5942,0321,7797,417
7 and under 88501,2011,3971,6541,5956,697
8 or over4034585007827212,864
Not stated1981999994015772,374
Not applicable901011106398468
      Totals*7,4579,13912,20513,96313,28356,047

The foregoing tabulation shows that the greatest number of accidents occurred during the third and fourth hours worked in the day.

Chapter 42. SECTION 42.—RADIO BROADCASTING.

Table of Contents

Details of the history and development of the radio broadcasting service in New Zealand are given in the 1942 and earlier issues of the Year-Book.

NATIONAL BROADCASTING SERVICE.—The Broadcasting Act of 1936 established the National Broadcasting Service as from the 1st July, 1936, and vested its control in a Minister of the Crown. All property, lights, liabilities, and engagements of the pre-existing controlling authority (the Broadcasting Board) were transferred to the Crown.

The administration of the Service was placed in the hands of a Director of Broadcasting, appointed by the Governor-General in Council to hold office for a period not exceeding three years. Permanent officers in the employ of the pre-existing Board became officers of the Public Service as from the 1st July, 1936, and the Act contains other provisions relating to the appointment to the Public Service of any other persons who are possessed of any technical or other expert knowledge in relation to broadcasting.

Section 9 of the Act allows for the appointment of an advisory body, called the Broadcasting Advisory Council, to consist of not more than five members, to be appointed from time to time by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister. Appointment to the Council is for a period of three years, except that members may be reappointed or removed from office by the Governor-General.

All programmes to be transmitted from private broadcasting-stations (see below) are supervised, and the Minister has authority to prohibit the broadcasting of any programme or part of a programme which in his opinion is unsuitable for broadcasting.

Stations and Programmes.—There are fourteen national broadcasting-stations, as follows:—

Station.Aerial Energy.Frequency.Wave-length.
 Kilowatts.Kilocycles.Metres.
1YA, Auckland10·00650462
1YX, Auckland0·15880341
1ZM, Auckland0·751,250240
2YA, Wellington60·00570526
2YC, Wellington5·00840357
2YD, Wellington0·20990303
2YH, Napier5·00750400
2YN, Nelson0·03920327
3YA, Christchurch10·00720416
3YL, Christchurch0·301,200250
3ZR, Greymouth0·10940319
4YA, Dunedin10·00790380
4YO, Dunedin0·151,140263
4YZ, Invercargill5·00680441

The four “YA” stations and stations 2YH (Napier) and 4YZ (Invercargill) are the main stations of the National Broadcasting Service, stations 1YX (Auckland), 2YC (Wellington), 3YL (Christchurch), and 4YO (Dunedin) ranking as alternative or auxiliary stations.

In order to give the best service possible for listeners throughout the entire Dominion, further services are provided by two other classes of stations: Government-owned stations operated under contract, and privately owned stations. These are—

2YB, New Plymouth.2ZM, Gisborne.
2ZJ, Gisborne.4ZD, Dunedin.

During the twelve months ended 31st March, 1942, transmission-time of stations in operation aggregated 52,256 hours, of which 28 hours were lost owing to technical faults and power failures. The main stations transmit almost continuously from 6 a.m. to 11.20 p.m. each day; while the alternative stations transmit from 5 p.m. to 10.30 p.m. on week-days and from 6 p.m. to 10 p.m. on Sundays.

An analysis of the combined programmes of the seven main stations of the National Broadcasting Service for a sample week in March, 1941, showed that, of the total transmitting-time, 64 per cent. was devoted to music: 19·8 per cent. to news, parliamentary broadcasts, reports, and announcements, &c.; 3·9 per cent. to educative and general talks; 3·7 per cent. to children's sessions; 5 per cent. to plays and sketches; 3·2 per cent. to church and devotional services; and 0·4 per cent. to sporting commentaries and sporting talks. This allocation of time remains substantially the same except for the provision of any additional time which may be necessary for broadcasts connected with the war effort.

The dominant aim of the National Broadcasting Service at the present time is to keep the people informed reliably and promptly on the progress of the war. From two and a half to three hours daily of the time of main National Stations is devoted to rebroadcasts of news bulletins, commentaries, and talks broadcast from London by the British Broadcasting Corporation. In addition, there is broadcast daily a news summary prepared in New Zealand by the Service, and war effort appeals, announcements, and talks by representative citizens are also broadcast. At the same time there is available in the programmes normal broadcast fare of a cultural, entertaining, or informative nature.

The practice is followed of giving broadcasting engagements to the best musical and other talent available in New Zealand. During the year ended 31st March, 1942, there were nearly 2,000 broadcasts by local artists, and 676 by local musical societies, bands, and other musical combinations.

The writing and production of dramatic and other special features in which local actors and actresses are employed is carried out by the Productions Branch of the National Broadcasting Service, and encouragement is being given to New Zealand writers, 111 plays by such writers having been purchased during the year.

The recording facilities of the National Broadcasting Service are a valuable adjunct. The studios of the Service are engaged daily in recording plays and programmes written by overseas and New Zealand authors; talks and news bulletins broadcast overseas which are rebroadcast in New Zealand at more convenient times; and historical talks, events, and other features.

Subject to some limitation in regard to matters not available for broadcasting in wartime, the proceedings of the House of Representative are broadcast from Station 2YA in order to acquaint the public with the provisions of the various Bills and the views of the representatives.

The National Broadcasting Service sent a Broadcasting Unit of three officers and complete mobile equipment to Egypt with the New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Material recorded in Egypt by the Unit, such as talks, commentaries, and personal messages spoken by members of the lighting services to relatives and friends in New Zealand, are sent regularly to New Zealand and broadcast each week from the National Stations. In the year ended 31st March, 1942, 2,800 greetings and 180 talks and commentaries from members of the New Zealand fighting services overseas were broadcast. Recorded material from New Zealand is also sent to the Unit, which makes arrangements for this material to be broadcast in Egypt for the benefit of members of the New Zealand Forces.

Time signals from the Dominion Observatory are broadcast through the National station at Wellington (2YA) four times each day. The signals take the form of a series of six “dots” at intervals of one second, the last “dot” being the exact minute. These series are broadcast at 28, 29, and 30 minutes of the hour.

The time signals are broadcast daily at—

  1. 10.28, 10.29, and 10.30 a.m.

  2. 3.28, 3.29, and 3.30 p.m.

  3. 7.28, 7.29, and 7.30 p.m.

  4. 10.28, 10.29, and 10.30 p.m.

In the event of the failure of any of the above time signals, the signals are broadcast half an hour later.

Fuller details of this time service may be obtained from the article on time service arrangements published in the Miscellaneous section of this Year-Book (post).

The programmes of the national stations are published each week in the weekly journal, the New Zealand Listener, which was first issued by the National Broadcasting Service on 30th June, 1939.

Financial Statistics.—The following table shows the expenditure of the National Broadcasting Service for the last live financial years.

 1937-38.1938-39.1939-40.1940-41.1941-42.
 £££££
Programmes109,526122,427110,410121,955111,688
Maintenance of plant34,45838,30741,31848,05843,368
General administrative and running expenses28,54929,96533,72432,05132817
Subsidies to private “B” stations1,334541203210210
Depreciation of assets34,76646,58547,76641,03035,788
Other expenses3,8025,86933,73136,27937,259
      Total expenditure£212,435£243,694£267,152£279,583£261,130

Income during each of the years shown amounted to £311,817, £359,599, £407,992, £461,928, and £460,689, and the excess of income over expenditure to, £99,382, £115,905, £140,840, £182,345, and £199,559 respectively.

NATIONAL COMMERCIAL BROADCASTING SERVICE.—The Broadcasting Act, 1936, authorized the Minister of Broadcasting to establish and operate commercial broadcasting-stations from which advertising-matter may be broadcast. For every locality that is served by a commercial station the Minister is required to provide an alternative service from at least one non-commercial station. Advertising over the air is forbidden except from the commercial stations authorized under the Act. The Broadcasting Amendment Act, 1937, made legislative provision for the establishment of a National Commercial Broadcasting Service and provided for the appointment of a Controller, who, under the direction of the Minister, is in charge of the Commercial Service.

Following the coming into operation of the Broadcasting Act, 1930, the State purchased Station 1ZB, Auckland, which had previously operated as a “B” station, and commenced the broadcasting of programmes which included advertising-matter. Commercial stations were subsequently established at Wellington (2ZB), Christchurch (3ZB), and Dunedin (4ZB), all of which were opened in 1937, while Station 2ZA (Palmerston North) was opened in 1938. The stations in the four main centres operate for eighteen hours daily, while Station 2ZA, Palmerston North, operates for seven hours daily. All stations are on the air for seven days a week, and maintain full programmes on days on which advertising is not accepted (Sundays, Christmas Day, Good Friday, and Anzac Day). Particulars of aerial energy, frequency, and wave-length of each commercial station are as follows:—

Station.Aerial Energy. Kilowatts.Frequency. Kilocycles.Wave-length. Metres.
1ZB11,070280·4
2ZB11,130265·5
3ZB11,430209·7
4ZB11,280234·4
2ZA¼1,400214·3

Advertising constitutes the only source of revenue of the Commercial Broadcasting Service, no portion of the radio-receiving license fees being allocated to this Service. For the year 1941–42 income totalled £230,854, and expenditure £167,871, making a net profit for the year of £62,983. Corresponding figures for the previous financial year were—Income, £207,764; expenditure, £155,680; net profit, £52,084.

The programmes of the commercial stations contain a high percentage of entertainment, as compared with commercial announcements or direct advertising.

Sessions of informative value to the public include sporting broadcasts; home-service sessions; film excerpts; gardening; child psychology; health lectures; returned soldiers' sessions; book reviews; and cultural, travel, and topical talks. A comprehensive service is rendered to the community in various sessions; announcements and programmes including broadcasts in connection with sickness and accident, missing persons, blood-transfusion service, safety-first propaganda, direct assistance in the raising of funds for community services, charities, and public-welfare assistance generally.

The Service maintains a close connection with the Organization for National Security. The broadcasting of war news is restricted to the British Broadcasting Corporation's short-wave transmissions, which are relayed from all stations at frequent intervals. The Service is also a medium for the broadcasting of ministerial statements and other information connected with the war effort. Publicity efforts have been undertaken in connection with the war savings, patriotic funds, and waste material campaigns, and with Air Force recruiting.

STATISTICS OF RADIO LICENSES.—The growth in the number of radio-receiving licenses is apparent from the following table. The license fee for a receiving-station, which from 1st April, 1925, had been £1 10s. per annum, was reduced to £1 5s. per annum as from 1st April, 1935.

As at 31st March,Auckland.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago.Dominion.Licenses per Hundred of Population.
193222,47531,05511,9639,48774,9804·92
193327,24138,49215,72712,02993,4896·08
193435,05446,35421,02815,650118,0867·62
193546,77657,18027,85021,002152,8089·79
193660,37871,15534,54126,191192,26512·22
193777,23486,79744,19833,068241,29715·20
193892,236101,71752,49338,549284,99517·76
1939101,721114,02058,52443,244317,50919·54
1940107,843127,11764,29446,428345,68221·07
1941116,454126,04065,32747,614355,44121·72
1942122,220131,38667,02850,077371,21122·71

An indication of the increased popularity of radio entertainment may be gamed from the fact that at 31st March, 1942, approximately 88 per cent. of the households in New Zealand were in possession of radio-receiving sets.

A summary of all radio licenses issued in New Zealand as at the 31st March, 1942, follows:—

District.Receiving-stations.Radio-dealers.Other.Total Licenses.
Auckland122,22030311122,534
Wellington131,38636015131,761
Canterbury67,0281581767,203
Otago50,577139550,721
      Dominion371,21196048372,219

Licenses are issued free of charge to institutions for the blind and also to any blind person who is the recognized head of a household. In addition, public hospitals, benevolent and orphan institutions, and other charitable institutions are granted free license privileges, provided that the sets are used for the benefit of patients or inmates. Free license privileges have also been extended to the operation of receiving-sets in schools, where such sets are used for educational broadcast purposes. The number of free licenses as at the 31st March of each of the last five years was: 1938, 811; 1939, 966; 1940, 997; 1941, 1,379; and 1942, 1,492.

A penalty is attached to the operating of unlicensed radio apparatus, and convictions for this offence during the last five years available numbered: 1937, 1,076; 1938, 903; 1939, 1,169; 1940, 612; and 1941, 991.

Chapter 43. SECTION 43.—ELECTRIC POWER.

Table of Contents

STATE DEVELOPMENT OF WATER-POWER.—New Zealand is well served with a plentiful supply of water-power for the development of hydro-electricity, and since 1900 extensive use has been made of this agency in the generation of electrical energy. Prior to 1900 comparatively little development had taken place, but in 1903 water-power to the extent of 9,911 horse-power was actually available. During the next decade this amount rose to 34,956 horse-power, and by 1923 to 54,244 horsepower. This figure was increased fivefold during the following ten years, the horse-power available at 31st March, 1933, being 328,708. Since then, and up to 31st March. 1942, a further advance of 58 per cent. has been recorded, the total horse-power of hydro-electric generators at the latter date being 519,978.

The Public Works Act vests in the Crown the sole right to use the water-power of the Dominion, subject to any existing rights, and gives the Government the right to develop such power, or to delegate the right to any local authority, or, outside a mining district, to any person or company, subject to certain conditions.

The regulations covering the delegation of this right, which were amended in June, 1934, make it essential that permission be obtained from the Minister of Works by any person, &c., desiring to obtain a license to generate power by this means. The regulations provide for an annual rental to be paid to the Crown by the licensee, such rental, except in special cases, to be at the rate of £1 per kVA. of maximum demand per annum, with a minimum annual payment of £10. A number of local authorities and private concerns have taken advantage of this provision of the Act.

For a number of years there had been persistent demands that the Government itself should develop the power resources of the Dominion for the benefit of the people generally. This culminated in the passing of the Aid to Water-power Works Act in 1910, and the Lake Coleridge scheme for the supply of electricity to Christchurch City and Canterbury Provincial District was selected for development. Operations were commenced on these works in 1911 and completed in 1915, with a capacity of 5,300 kVA., which was extended to 26,495 kVA. in 1926, and further extended to 40,640 kVA. in 1930. After the successful inauguration of the Lake Coleridge scheme a complete system was drawn up of interconnected power systems in both the North and South Islands.

The following table gives the present and ultimate installed capacity of each Government generating station, together with the static head.

Name of Station.Present Installed Capacity.Ultimate Installed Capacity.Static Head (Feet).
No. of Units.kW.kVA.No. of Units.kW.kVA.

* Installation of the last two units, which will complete the development of this station, awaits delivery of plant on order.

† Work is proceeding on these stations.

‡ No development work has yet been undertaken on this station.

§ Construction work on this station has been commenced, but is now temporarily suspended.

Arapuni*6109,500126,0008152,700174,000175
Karapiro†   390,000100,000100
Horahora810,30012,860810,30012,86027
Mangahao519,20024,000519,20024,000895
Waikaremoana—       
  Upper station‡   240,00044,400440
  Tuai (middle station)352,00062,200352,00062,200675
  Piripaua (lower station)†120,00022,200240,00044,400370
Cobb River†   412,00015,0001,920
Arnold River (Kaimata)23,0603,60023,0603,60042
Lake Coleridge934,50040,640934,50040,640486
High bank†   125,20028,000330
Waitaki460,00066,666575,00083,33370
Lake Tekapo§   121,60024,00080–105
Lake Monowai36,0007,05036,0007,050154

In November. 1919, the Waihi Gold-mining Co.'s electric-power plant of 7,860 kVA. at Horahora was acquired by the State, the capacity of the station being extended to 12,860 kVA. in 1925. The requirements of the whole of the Auckland District were in time to be supplied from Arapuni, and a commencement with this development was made in 1925. The first unit was brought into operation in June, 1929, and the station was linked up with Horahora. Six units with a total capacity of 126,000 kVA. are now in operation, and the station will be completed by the installation of two more units, each with a rating of 24,000 kVA.

Work is in progress and contracts for the supply of machinery have been let for another large station on the Waikato River at Karapiro, the ultimate capacity to be 100,000 kVA. In the course of this development the site of the present station at Horahora will be submerged.

To ensure adequate water-supplies to the stations on the Waikato River during the periods of peak loading in the winter months it has been considered advisable to conserve the heavy spring and summer run-off, and control works regulating the flow of the river at its source in Lake Taupo have been effective from September, 1941.

Another major generating station, Mangahao, was commenced in 1922, the full development of 24,000 kVA. being completed in 1925.

Following the completion of the Mangahao station, a commencement was made on the first stage (40,000 kVA.) of the development of the middle (or Tuai) station at Waikaremoana, and power was turned on to this capacity in November, 1929. With the bringing into operation of the third unit (22,200 kVA.) in December, 1939, this development was completed, and in the same year work was begun on the lower station at Piripaua, the full development of 44,400 kVA. being undertaken. The civil engineering work on this station has been completed, and one unit of 22,200 kVA. capacity is now in service.

These four stations in the North Island—viz., Horahora, Arapuni, Mangahao, and Waikaremoana—have been linked up and are operated as one system, while connections also exist with all the larger generating stations (hydro- or steam-driven) operated by supply authorities. This enables power to be supplied to or drawn from these as required.

In the South Island, after the completion of the Lake Coleridge scheme the Waitaki River was selected as the next source of power, the scheme established there commencing operations at the end of 1934. Four units, each of 16,666 kVA. rating, are now in operation, and the scheme provides for the ultimate installation of a fifth unit of like capacity. Meantime measures are being taken to raise the level of, and to control the outflow from, Lake Tekapo in order to ensure an adequate supply of water to the Waitaki station during the winter months, and a single unit of 24,000 kVA. is being incorporated in the control works. At present, however, work on both lake control and generating station is temporarily suspended. Another single unit of 28,000 kVA. is to be installed at Highbank to make use of the surplus water available in the winter months in the Rangitata irrigation race. This station was expected to be in operation for the winter load of 1943.

In October, 1936, the Government took over the Southland Electric-power Board's system, including the generating station at Lake Monowai, and in February, 1938, acquired the Grey Electric-power Board's generating plant at Kaimata, on the Arnold River. During 1939 a grid system paralleling that in the North Island was established by linking these two stations with the Coleridge-Waitaki scheme, already interconnected. The Dunedin City Council's hydro-station at Waipori is also linked to the system, enabling power to be supplied to or drawn from this station if required.

Construction of a generating station on the Cobb River, with an ultimate installed capacity of 15,000 kVA., had been undertaken by a private enterprise, the Hume (Cobb River) Electric-power Co., Ltd. The undertaking has been acquired and will be completed by the Government.

The following table for the last five years covers those State systems in actual operation in each year.

1937–38.1938-39.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
 £££££
Capital outlay16,399,11217,255,48118,238,99019,784,15920,442,128
Total revenue1,468,6991,697,1171,932,2642,207,9972,294,992
Power purchased 46,235156,481351,278372,847
Working and management expenses300,235350,540375,827450,996481,563
Interest589,645602,244592,127590,142569,034
Sinking fund164,553626,042484,811217,929329,427
Depreciation173,01596,912141,22681,658104,799
Taxation   336,047338,960
Total costs1,279,9681,722,8641,931,7202,150,7602,294,992
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
Units generated1,070,666,4751,239,363,1841,396,940,3971,524,008,3701,574,632,117
Units purchased Totals 22,186,83766,426,276141,822,638156,856,412
Totals1,070,666,4751,261,550,0211,463,366,6731,665,831,0081,731,488,529
Units sold947,612,9001,117,652,7481,292,522,6781,481,145,8251,551,254,998

ELECTRIC-POWER BOARDS.—The policy of the Government generally is to supply power in bulk, leaving the reticulation and retail supply in the hands of the local authorities. Formerly the only local authorities available for this purpose were the cities, boroughs, counties, and town districts, but with the extension of electric supply into the country areas a wider organization became necessary. This was first provided under the Electric-power Boards Act of 1918, which provided for several local districts to combine for the purpose of electric-power distribution, and to set up a special Electric-power Board to carry out the work, with rating-powers over the district concerned. The legislation was consolidated and amended in the Electric-power Boards Act. 1925, amendments to which were enacted in 1927 and 1928. An Act of 1930 established an Association of Electric-power Boards and municipal electric-lighting authorities.

So far only one of the four main cities—viz., Auckland—has been included in the reticulation area of a power district, but of the secondary centres the cities of Wanganui and Lower Hutt, and the boroughs of Gisborne, Hastings, Petone, Masterton, Blenheim, Greymouth, Ashburton, and Oamaru are so included.

Thirty-two Boards—viz., Bay of Islands. North Auckland, Waitemata, Auckland, Franklin, Central Waikato, Cambridge, To Awamutu, Waitomo, Thames Valley, Bay of Plenty, Poverty Bay, Wairoa, Hawke's Bay, Central Hawke's Bay, Dannevirke. Opunake, South Taranaki, Wanganui-Rangitikei; Manawatu-Oroua, Horowhenua, Hutt Valley, Tararua, Wairarapa, Grey, North Canterbury, Malvern, Springs-Ellesmere, Banks Peninsula, Ashburton, South Canterbury, and Waitaki—have carried out fairly complete reticulation of their areas, and are distributing power taken in bulk from the Government generating stations. Of the aforementioned Boards, seven (Bay of Islands, Hawke's Bay, Opunake, South Taranaki, Wairarapa, Banks Peninsula, and Waitaki) have hydro-stations, which generate small quantities of power. Seven other Boards—viz., Wairere, Taranaki, Marlborough, Waimea, Golden Bay, Teviot, and Otago Central—have local water-power stations in operation. The Tauranga and Otago Boards purchase power in bulk from other authorities, although both now receive a part of their supply direct from the Government stations. The Southland station now operates under Government control (since 13th October, 1936). The Westland Board has delegated its license to a private company for a term of years, while three others—viz., King-country, Buller, and Reefton—were not actively functioning during 1941–42. The Lake Wakatipu Electric-power district was merged with the Otago Central district on 1st December, 1939.

The following is a summary of the financial operations of actively functioning Electric-power Boards.

Year ended 31st March,Capital Outlay as at End of Year.Revenue.Expenditure.
Sale of Electricity.Sale of Material (Profit).Totals.*Capital Charges.Operating Costs.Totals.*

* Includes other items.

 £££££££
193213,847,7602,129,1924,5552,203,485944,868908,1162,076,822
193314,026,3202,120,6975,2092,248,6631,095,826896,3282,199,841
193414,226,2592,098,0884,5622,154,188981,196884,4602,066,683
193514,657,5142,198,4935,7232,252,187937,814937,0932,122,139
193614,319,4202,281,4877,8342,338,2211,003,6601,018,2722,275,941
193713,097,7272,361,67813,0812,411,878966,2551,098,4702,348,274
193813,722,2362,531,49618,5352,580,724904,7821,260,9592,490,311
193914,380,0812,789,26822,5442,846,052915,4141,469,5022,708,997
194015,038,9783,172,91423,4643,239,2601,087,7061,667,7453,140,742
194115,458,5053,555,49827,5753,660,5561,104,5071,944,0753,554,494
194216,041,6803,695,15718,7163,793,8081,126,4422,055,0563,695,145

Revenue in the foregoing table is exclusive of moneys derived from rates, which yielded £3,380 in 1941–42. Capital charges are inclusive of interest, sinking-fund, and depreciation payments, while operating charges include wages, stores, fuel, distribution, and street-lighting expenses.

ALL STATIONS.—In addition to the Government undertakings controlled by the Public Works Department, the Tourist Department's undertakings at Rotorua and those undertakings operated by Electric-power Boards, there were, during 1941-42, forty-eight establishments operated by other organizations, six of which represented private enterprise, the rest being local authorities of various classes. A general summary covering all stations in operation for the last three years is given hereunder.

Year ended 31st March,
1940.1941.1942.

* Includes taxation.

StationsNo.1009998
Persons engaged (both sexes).No.3,9913,9863,881
Salaries and wages£1,120,5541,173,2561,203,601
ConsumersNo.426,505442,382455,132
Number of—    
  Ranges 92,323105,422116,775
  Milking-machines 27,18429,24930,763
  Water-heaters 106,878124,193136,681
Generators (capacity)—    
  MainkVA.355,145356,836400,102
  StandbykVA.120,377122,948122,657
Route-miles of linesMiles27,35828,18029,037
Revenue—    
  Current—    
    Retail£4,994,9385,444,6555,533,594
    Bulk£2,000,8172,441,5942,538,704
  Other (including rates)£130,297192,964185,926
      Total revenue£7,126,0528,079,2138,258,224
Expenditure—    
  Working expenses£3,758,3964,547,5804,665,455
  Capital charges£2,663,6612,321,6642,469,673
      Total expenditure£6,422,0576,869,2447,135,128
Appropriations£509,617957,131*960,381*
Capital outlay—    
  Total expenditure£40,642,78342,839,34744,110,992
  Depreciation£5,965,6896,120,2805,518,053
  Net value at 31st March£34,677,09436,719,06738,592,939
Units—    
  Generated(000)1,631,3321,829,7261,928,646
  Per head of mean populationUnits9991,1191,183
  Sold (retail)(000)1,281,1241,448,3161,546,265
  Bulk sales(000)1,370,9851,628,7471,715,502

The figures given in respect of employees refer only to those whose salaries and wages are met out of revenue from the sale of energy.

Classification of Stations.—Prior to the 1935 issue of the Year-Book, electric-supply stations were classified into two groups, one being termed generating stations and the other distributing stations. Stations which were solely engaged in generating or which generated more units than they purchased were classified as generating, while those which purchased all their energy or purchased more than they generated were classed as distributing stations.

The classification now adopted is as follows:—

  1. Generating stations:—

    1. Generating solely.

    2. Generating and purchasing, but generating bulk of supplies of power.

  2. Distributing stations:—

    • (3) Generating and purchasing, but purchasing bulk of supplies of power.

    • (4) Purchasing solely.

The following table sets out the main particulars of all stations classified in this manner for the year ended 31st March, 1942.

Generating only.Both Generating and Purchasing.Purchasing only.Totals.
Mainly Generating.Mainly Purchasing.
Stations. No.1222194598
Capital outlay to date £635,93024,117,6929,671,1769,686,19444,110,992
Present net value £558,02621,589,5528,119,7568,325,60538,592,939
Revenue £90,6762,911,6902,758,6662,497,1928,258,224
Working-expenses £40,9051,120,4221,875,9141,628,2144,665,455
Capital charges and appropriations £45,0781,759,122819,966805,8883,430,654
Units generated (000)20,2141,750,846157,586 1,928,646
Units purchased (000) 192,055732,831792,1071,716,993
Units sold—     
  Bulk sales (000)3,8401,475,774169,19066,6981,715,502
  Retail sales (000)13,764255,512638,052638,9371,546,265

Employees and Wages.—The following summary, covering all stations, shows for the year ended 31st March, 1942, the principal details for employees, and for salaries and wages paid.

Class of Employment.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.
Males.Females.Totals.To Males.To Females.Totals.
(a) Salaries or Wages paid out of Revenue from Sale of Energy.
    £££
Secretaries, managers, engineers276 276142,416 142,416
Clerical staff5464551,001151,11866,429217,547
Wage-earning employees2,579252,604840,8592,779843,638
      Totals3,4014803,8811,134,39369,2081,203,601
(b) Salaries or Wages not paid directly out of Revenue from Sale of Energy.
    £££
House-wiring159 15939,418 39,418
Trading departments59137217,8942,17020,064
New construction-works769 769246,746 246,746
      Totals987131,000304,0582,170306,228
      Grand totals4,3884934,8811,438,45171,3781,509,829

Capital Outlay.—The following figures of capital expenditure during 1941–42 and of capital outlay to 31st March, 1942, do not include the outlay in stocks of materials and capital invested in trading departments. Expenditure on the Cobb River scheme is likewise omitted. If the latter item were included the totals would be increased by £122,458 and £464,437 respectively.

Class of Expenditure.Expenditure during Year ended 31st March, 1942.Total Expenditure to 31st March, 1942.
 ££
Land in connection with power-house, headworks, cottages, &c.3,367290,638
Power-house buildings, cottages, &c.68,8512,209,143
Generating plant, headworks, &c.262,3069,506,542
Special standby plant3,8131,904,461
Main transmission-line and main substations877,5538,947,107
Distribution system, substations, land, cottages, &c.370,60213,169,485
Public (street) lighting4,228521,896
Office and store buildings, workshops, garages, houses, and service buildings33,5461,054,754
Loose tools, meters, instruments, furniture, trucks, motorcars, and equipment44,9361,579,029
Interest during construction55,9761,810,268
Loan conversion premiumsCr. 10,76886,450
Miscellaneous (work under construction, cost of raising loans, law-costs, &c., and other capital expenditure)432,8873,031,219
        Totals2,147,29744,110,992

Of the total capital expenditure shown for 1941–42—viz., £2,147,000 (representing an actual gross outlay of £2,283,000, less amounts written down totalling £136,000)—approximately £1,421,000 was contributed by the State and £726,000 by Electric-power Boards and other local authorities. Although this last amount includes part of the cost of the Dunedin City Council's new unit at Waipori, by far the greater portion (£506,000) of local-authority expenditure was charged to transmission and distribution systems. Expenditure on generating-plant at Government stations (mainly Piripaua and Highbank) accounted for £184,000 of the total State outlay: construction of new high-tension lines and main substations, together with extensions to existing lines (chiefly on the following routes: Arapuni-Bunnythorpe, Stratford-Te Kiri. Highbank-Hororata, and Tekapo-Timaru) required a further £724,000; while miscellaneous Government expenditure, totalling £331,000, included £240,000 spent on the Karapiro development and £39,000 on Lake Taupo control.

Assets and Liabilities.—The following statement of assets and liabilities summarizes the financial position of the industry as at 31st March. 1942, in addition to setting out the state of reserves and invested funds.

Asset££
Capital expenditure44,110,992 
  Less amounts written off, &c.334,885 
  43,776,107
Stocks and trading department capital1,671,043
Reserve funds accrued (invested out-side the undertakings)— 
  Sinking funds2,053,925
  Depreciation funds971,015
  Renewal and other funds1,028,341
Cash in hand and bank, sundry debtors, &c.2,668,904
  &52,169,335
Liabilities.££

*Includes £1,838,178 already utilized by Government undertakings for redemption of loans.

Capital raised35,105,038 
  Less repaid2,773,364 
Balance owing 32,331,674
Other liabilities (including sundry creditors)1,238,935
Reserves 
  Sinking fund reserve*4,234,623
  Depreciation reserve5,183,168
  Renewal fund reserve577,136
  Accident fund reserve76,584
  Other special reserves6,243,339
  General reserve1,063,819
Credit balance, Revenue Account1,220,057
  £52,169,335

Power Plant.—Particulars relating to the power plant in use during the year ended 31st March, 1942, are set out hereunder.

Source of Power.Main Plant.Standby Plant.Totals.
 No.B.H.P.No.B.H.P.No.B.H.P.
Steam-engines11,25032106,05233107,302
Water-turbines99516,512133,731112520,243
Gas-engines  61,81961,819
Oil-engines111,7664327,2815429,047

Units.—The following table sets out the number of units generated and their disposal. It should be noted that the figures for units sold are inclusive of both bulk sales and the ultimate retail sales of the same energy, the totals shown being paper figures only. Thus centralized generation has combined with increased retail consumption to swell the figures for sales of energy.

Year ended 31st March,Units (000 omitted).
Generated.Purchased.Totals.Sold.Lost in Transmission, &c.
19381,252,562954,2852,206,8471,933,055273,792
19391,413,5181,155,4522,568,9702,261,818307,152
19401,631,3321,373,6633,004,9952,652,109352,886
19411,829,7261,629,9583,459,6843,077,002382,622
19421,928,6461,716,9933,645,6393,261,767383,872

Revenue.—Revenue is derived chiefly from the sale of energy, and in 1941–42 this source was responsible for 98 per cent. of the total. The amount of revenue derived from rates has shown a steady decrease, and during 1941–42 represented only 0·05 per cent. of the total. The following table sets out the revenue of all stations.

Year ended 31st March,Sale of Energy.Profits, Sale of Apparatus.Miscellaneous.Interest.Rates.Totals.
 ££££££
19385,569,30334,97760,63517,1489,8785,691,941
19396,187,36147,28660,38010,1387,0676,312,232
19406,995,75546,03865,41112,0486,8007,126,052
19417,886,24944,938131,33511,3945,2978,079,213
19428,072,29834,850137,6088,9304,4788,258,224

Expenditure.—A study of the expenditure figures reveals that overhead costs, comprising management expenses and capital charges, have been until recent years slightly greater than prime costs, which may be taken as the operating-expenses. During the year ended 31st March, 1942, however, of the total expenditure recorded (£7,135,128), 42·73 per cent. represented overhead expenses, while operating-expenses or prime costs stood at 57·27 per cent.

The recent rise in the percentage of operating-expenses to total expenses is largely due to an increase in the ratio of bulk sales to retail sales, which tends to inflate the figure for cost of power. Energy may be sold more than once in bulk before reaching the retailing authority. In this connection mention may be made of certain contracts existing between the Government and some municipal authorities, whereby the latter are required to maintain their standby plants and to operate them, whenever called upon, to supplement the [State hydro-electric supply. The units so generated, chiefly by fuel plants, are purchased by the Government and resold, in most cases to the generating authority, for distribution. The increased demand made during 1940–41 and 1941–42 upon this auxiliary supply accounts for the sharp rise in costs of fuel and standby plant.

The table following gives an analysis of expenditure.

Item.Year ended 31st March,
1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.

* Includes fuel used in standby plants.

Operating Expenditure.
 £££££
Cost of power1,382,0141,657,8272,008,9892,446,2362,545,841
Cost of generation90,52292,390110,679139,751142,867
Fuel12,6349,39742,639310,922311,213
Stores5,3613,8634,7712,5713,598
Repairs44,00844,68340,23121,32816,926
Standby plant74,011*100,555*127,142*153,943176,500
Cost of transmission72,404101,327187,781206,498206,670
Cost of distribution600,469,685,879659,950695,597657,349
Public (street) lighting29,81129,00931,16232,97925,665
      Totals2,311,2342,724,9303,213,3444,009,8254,086,629
Miscellaneous Expenditure.
 £££££
Cost of management403,195442,127468,832478,864518,445
Insurance22,99327,02627,48427,55730,618
Losses from trading4,3985,3879,6866,2503,118
Other expenditure58,14642,94939,05025,08426,645
      Totals488,732517,489545,052537,755578,826
Capital Charges.
 £££££
Interest1,263,5971,276,2431,299,3581,302,2451,270,679
Sinking fund391,450876,029781,014520,682645,777
Depreciation reserve322,818254,716369,636262,466312,265
Loan repayment98,323106,757129,419164,081171,701
Exchange61,73536,86084,23472,19069,251
      Totals2,137,9232,550,6052,663,6612,321,6642,469,673
      Grand totals4,937,8895,793,0246,422,0576,869,2447,135,128

The distribution of the expenditure per unit sold is given hereunder.

Year ended 31st March,
1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.
 d.d.d.d.d.
Operating-expenses0·290·290·290·310·30
Capital charges and miscellaneous expenses0·320·330·290·220·23
      Totals0·610·620·580·530·53

Appropriation of Surplus.—The following table shows the appropriations of net surplus for years ended 31st March.

1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.
 £££££
Renewal Fund33,500100,00739,44582,62081,969
Reserve Fund15,96723,155223,827238,398240,921
Taxation   336,641343,923
Other372,861250,649246,345299,472293,568
    Total appropriated422,328373,811509,617957,131960,381

HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER IN USE.—The following table shows the hydroelectric horse-power actually in use in the various districts at the 31st March in each of the last five years. The figures cover all hydro-plants exceeding one horse-power, whether main or standby, with the exception of plants not exceeding six horse-power used exclusively for farming purposes.

District.1938.1939.1940.1941.1942.
 H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.
Auckland North3,1463,0973,0673,0674,074
Auckland
Auckland South182,877183,831182,881182,881181,900
Gisborne56,27956,03984,03984,03984,027
Hawke's Bay
Taranaki North12,87915,05715,06115,04114,605
Taranaki1,4951,4951,4951,4951,485
Wellington North33,037½33,037½32,034½32,03532,020
Wellington3,0953,0953,0953,0953,035
Marlborough
Nelson1,5091,4641,4091,4091,375
Westland9,2109,40010,0008,9909,120
Canterbury59,81859,81859,81859,81859,604
Canterbury South
Otago79,60480,782½80,722½80,223116,367
Southland13,223½13,223½13,26912,81912,366
      Totals456,173460,339½486,891484,912519,978

The following table gives an analysis of the purposes for which plants were generating power as at the 31st March, 1912.

District.Mining.Electric Supply.Flax-mills.Sawmills.Farming.Construction Works.Freezing works.Paper-mills.Miscellaneous.Totals.
 H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.
Auckland North 4,070  4    4,074
Auckland
Auckland South 181,900       181,900
Gisborne 84,000      2784,027
Hawke's Bay
Taranaki North 14,600      514,605
Taranaki         1,485
Wellington North 32,000      2032,020
Wellington 3,035       3,035
Marlborough
Nelson 1,375       1,375
Westland6307,830 350    3109,120
Canterbury9559,500  9    59,604
Canterbury South
Otago150115,810  169   238116,367
Southland6009,6868  3207501,000212,366
      Totals1,475515,29183501823207501,000602519,978

The figures shown in the above table do not, of course, indicate the purposes for which hydro-electric power was used, since by far the greatest proportion of the total horse-power used in industry would be drawn from the electric-supply stations and not generated in separate plants.

Chapter 44. SECTION 44.—MISCELLANEOUS.

Table of Contents

PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE.—The Public Trust Office is designed mainly to afford, at low rates of commission, a secure and convenient recourse in any case where a person residing either in New Zealand or abroad desires to draw a will, form a trust, or appoint an executor, trustee, agent, or attorney in the Dominion. The Office aims also to relieve those who for various reasons may be unable or unwilling to commence or continue the administration of trust property to which they may have been appointed. Statutory provisions also allow the Public Trust Office to apply to the Supreme Court for the administration of intestate estates, and unless a better claim to administration is made by a suitable person such application will be granted. The Office can also “elect to administer,” in lieu of taking out letters of administration, estates of less value than £400, whether testate or intestate.

The Public Trust Office commenced operations in 1873, at the end of which year 257 estates, of a total value of £17,500, were being administered by the Office. Since then there has been a practically continuous increase in both the number and the value of estates administered, the records at 31st March, 1942, showing 20,455) estates of an aggregate value of £64,685,685.

At 31st March,Total Value of Estates in Office, including Unrealized Assets.Funds at Credit of Estates and Accounts.
 ££
193259,132,51236,859,518
193359,757,44936,815,941
193460,760,49337,155,883
193560,706,01636,666,196
193660,660,31036,500,511
193760,770,81436,553,648
193860,815,30636,890,407
193961,715,71337,631,649
194062,622,17537,958,525
194164,436,09238,720,943
194264,685,68539,449,623

The next table presents a classification of the estates which came into the Office during the year ended 31st March. 1942, and of the total estates under administration as at that date.

New Estates during 1941-42.Estates under Administration at 31st March, 1942.
Number.Value.Number.Value.
  £ £
Wills estates1,9223,404,4768,31621,590,380
Trust and agencies372646,9342,8968,225,299
Intestate estates583399,2942,6431,580,348
Mental patients' estates498427,2992,6933,014,474
Miscellaneous estates1741,636,9853,90730,275,184
      Totals3,5496,514,98820,45564,685,685

Testators and other clients appointing the Public Trustee their executor or trustee may direct investment of their funds either in the Common Fund of the Office or outside the Common Fund. In the former case the investments are not earmarked to the estate, but are guaranteed by the State. Interest, which is at such rate as is fixed from time to time by the Governor-General in Council, accrues from the date the moneys reach the Office, and is free of all commission and other charges.

In the case of special investment outside the Common Fund, the investments belong to the estate, but there is no State guarantee, and (subject to the Public Trustee's ordinary liability as a trustee) any loss falls on the estate. Commission is charged on the interest collected.

In general, investment in the Common Fund is preferred by clients, the safety of such investment being an important consideration. This is illustrated by the fact that as at 31st March, 1942, the investments of the Common Fund amounted to £24,264,644, while those held on behalf of estates and funds which were required to be otherwise invested amounted to £15,237,189. The total amount invested by the Public Trust Office as at 31st March, 1942, on behalf of the estates and funds under administration was thus £39,501,833.

During the year ended 31st March, 1942, 10,955 wills were deposited with the Public Trustee, and 2,821 were withdrawn on account of the death of the testator or for other reasons, the net increase for the year being 8,134. The number of wills on deposit at the 31st March, 1922, was 31,839; by 1932 it had increased to 77,124; while at 31st March, 1942, it had risen to 113,213.

In addition to preparing wills in the first instance, the Office affords its clients special facilities for the revision of existing wills to provide for changes desired by them. During 1941–42, wills to the number of 4,896 held on behalf of testators were so revised.

JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES.—For thirty years following the enactment of the Companies Act of 1903, no comprehensive revision of statute law relating to companies was made in New Zealand, and the essential provisions of company law remained substantially unaltered, in 1930 the Attorney-General appointed an advisory committee, including representatives of the business community, and of the professions of Jaw and accountancy, to act with the Law Draftsman in framing a new measure, which, in the form of the Companies Act, 1933, came into force on 1st April, 1931. In great part the measure is an adaptation of the Imperial Act of 1929 to suit the special conditions of New Zealand.

A noteworthy step in the history of company legislation was taken by the Companies (Bondholders Incorporation) Act, 1934–35, which provided machinery for the incorporation of the holders of bonds issued by certain afforestation and other companies.

The position of certain investment companies in 1934 led to the appointment of a Commission of Inquiry and the passing of a novel series of legislative enactments designed to investigate their affairs and to protect the investors. The Acts passed comprised the Companies (Special Investigations) Act, 1934; the Companies (Special Liquidations) Act, 1934–35; and the Companies (Temporary Receivership) Act, 1935.

A company, to acquire legal entity, must be incorporated, and under the Companies Act, 1933, incorporation is granted after the registration of the memorandum of association with the Registrar of Companies. A company incorporated overseas is not required to re-register in New Zealand, but must deliver to the Registrar of Companies for registration a certified copy of its instrument of constitution, as well as a list of its directors and the name of its authorized representative in New Zealand.

During the year ended 31st December, 1941, 279 private and 7 public companies were registered, and 2 overseas companies filed documents. In the following table these companies are classified according to the amount of their nominal capital.

Amount.Private Companies.Public Companies.Overseas Companies.
Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.
  £ £ £
Under £1,000  7836,5251500
£1,000 and under £2,0007285,740    
£2,000 and under £3,00053118,050    
£3,000 and under £4,0002270,250    
£4,000 and under £5,000624,200    
£5,000 and under £6,0001681,250    
£6,000 and under £7,000743,000    
£7,000 and under £8,00017,500    
£8,000 and under £9,000216,500    
£9,000 and under £10,000      
£10,000 and under £15,00011116,000    
£15,000 and under £20,000699,800115,000  
£20,000 and under £50,000247,000240,000  
£50,000 and over32,038,6593855,81527,550,000
      Totals2792,784,4747911,31527,550,000

In comparing one year with another, as in the following table, it should not be overlooked that re-registrations on account of reconstruction of companies or for other reasons are included. Such re-registrations may have a considerable effect on the year's total, where large companies are concerned.

Year.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Year.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital,

* See letterpress.

  £  £
192241713,125,49419328126,865,769
192350213,006,08519338307,300,999
192456521,367,3101934933200,739,139*
192562114,760,398193581024,238,018
192665510,748,23119369429,934,903
19276988,701,80819378886,113,476
192873610,984,90719388246,575,619
192990312,472,05719396818,910,167
19308936,702,67519403913,779,277
19317958,283,581194128811,245,789

Overseas companies which filed documents, as required by Part XII of the Companies Act, 1933, are included in the above table. The extraordinarily high figure for 1934 is due to the inclusion of overseas companies (numbering 187 and with an aggregate nominal capital of £ 193,023,363) which previous to 1934 had established places of business in New Zealand and which were required to deliver documents to the Registrar of Companies before 1st October, 1934.

Companies carrying on Business.—Statistics of companies carrying on business in New Zealand were first compiled for the year 1926, and a further tabulation on the same basis—i.e., classification according to the size of the capital—was made for 1932, For the third compilation, covering all companies functioning at the 31st December, 1938, an additional classification was made according to the type of business. A strictly accurate classification under this heading was not possible, as a company may be empowered by its memorandum of association to carry out a diversity of objects. In such circumstances a company was classified according to what appeared to be its principal activity.

Tables classifying public and private companies (separately) according to the amount of their nominal capital, and the type of business in which they were engaged appeared in the 1940 and 1941 numbers of the Year-Book. A further table classifying overseas companies according to type of business also appeared in the 1941 number. A summary of the principal heads of information available in respect of public and private companies at 31st December, 1926, 1932, and 1938, is here given.

At 31st December,Number.Nominal Capital.Subscribed Capital.Paid-up Capital.Amount owing under Charges.

* Not available.

  ££££
Public Companies.
19261,63089,544,85858,807,51949,982,59316,181,126
19321,73297,553,57871,021,73659,106,90215,453,164
19381,626100,172,97873,170,41164,932,44617,477,939
Private Companies.
19263,43936,060,343***
19326,08348,363,106***
19387,39955,793,621*49,270,54420,460,066

The apparent decrease in the number of public companies between 1932 and 1938 is probably due to the fact that the figure for the earlier year includes a number of companies in liquidation or otherwise in a more or less moribund state, while the number for 1938 referred only to companies actively functioning. Nevertheless, the effective capital employed by public companies (paid-up capital plus charges owing) shows an increase in 1938 of £7,850,000 over the 1932 amount and of £16,250,000 over the 1926 figure. These increases do not necessarily represent new money invested in industry or other activities, as increases due to the conversion of previously existing organizations into companies are also included.

The number of private companies more than doubled during the period 1926 to 1938, while the nominal capital increased by just under £20,000,000. The effective capital employed by private companies at the end of 1938 was approximately £69,750,000, which, added to that of public companies, gives a total of £152,000,000. This amount, of course, is exclusive of company reserves employed in business.

In addition to the public and private companies covered above, there were 212 overseas companies operating in New Zealand at 31st December, 1938. These had a total nominal capital of £195,934,469, but there is no information showing the amount of capital employed in New Zealand, which obviously must be only a very small proportion of the amount shown.

There were, at the end of 1938, 29 companies limited by guarantee, 14 unlimited companies, 27 rural intermediate credit associations, and 5 companies of a miscellaneous character.

PATENTS, DESIGNS, AND TRADE-MARKS.—Proceedings instituted for the grant of letters patent, and for the registration of designs and trade-marks, reached a total of 1,856 in 1941, as compared with 2,011 in 1940. Both these figures reflect the effect of war conditions, and the 1941 total is the lowest yet recorded. Comparative totals for the various complete years of the last war were 1,953 for 1915, 2,040 for 1916, and 2,031 for 1917.

Of the 1,214 applications for letters patent during 1941, 590 were filed with provisional specifications and 624 with complete specifications. Patent fees for the year amounted to £10,158.

The total number of applications received up to 31st December, 1941, was 85,345, and the patents in force in New Zealand at that date numbered 8,982. The number of patent agents on the register was 14.

Of the applications for letters patent during 1941, 634 were received from residents of New Zealand, 320 came from Great Britain, 124 from Australia, and 120 from the United States of America. Prior to the outbreak of war a considerable number of applications were received from Germany, the figures for 1937 and 1938 being 173 and 141 respectively.

The effects of war have exercised a considerable influence in the class or type of invention for which applications for patents were received. Applications coming within the “Explosives and firearms” class in 1941 numbered 34, as compared with 26 in 1940, 17 in 1939, and an average of 6 for the previous five years. Other inventions relating to mechanisms of warfare for which applications were received during 1941 were as follows, the 1940 figures being shown in parentheses: Marine and submarine, 27 (12); building construction, 23 (15): telephony and telegraphy, 246 (223): and vehicles, 44 (27).

The number of applications during 1941 in respect of trade-marks was 534, and the fees received totalled £2,749. Of the total applications, 301 were made by residents of New Zealand, 137 came from Great Britain. 46 from Australia, and 42 from the United States of America.

Applications for registration of designs totalled 108, and the fees received for the year were £119.

The following table shows the number of applications for patents and for the registration of trade-marks and designs in each of the last eleven years.

Year.Patents.Trademarks.Designs.Year.Patents.Trademarks.Designs.
19312,06599915119371,832889193
19321,84592516419381,960860160
19331,76181414319391,821694137
19341,76691514619401,277626108
19351,73094318519411,214534108
19361,8361,096124    

For the year 1941 the total receipts of the Patent Office were £13,147 and the payments £5,712, leaving a surplus of £7,435. Comparative figures for 1940 were: Receipts, £12,241; payments, £6,076; surplus, £6,165.

INSPECTION OF MACHINERY.—The Inspection of Machinery Act is designed to promote the safety of life and limb in the operation of steam boilers, digesters, other steam-pressure vessels, and air-receivers; hydraulic, electric, and other lifts; all types of power-driven cranes and power-driven machinery on land; and machinery used on vessels afloat that are not self-propelled. Nothing in the Act applies to any machinery driven by manual or animal power, or to any machinery the motive power of which does not exceed one horse-power. Machinery which is used exclusively for farming purposes and docs not exceed six horse-power is also exempt from annual inspection.

Boilers, pressure-vessels, air-receivers, lifts, and cranes are required to be of approved design and workmanship, and the moving parts of machinery must be adequately guarded.

All boilers and machinery are inspected and certificated once per year and lifts twice per year. It is illegal to work a boiler or other pressure-vessel or any machinery, including a crane or a lift, which does not carry a current certificate of inspection issued by the Marine Department.

Particulars of inspections of boilers and machinery during the years ended 31st March, 1941 and 1942, were as follows:—

Boiler inspections—1940–41.1941–42.
    Stationary, portable, and traction boilers4,5534,641
    Steam-pressure vessels4,3294,705
    Air-receivers2,1273,025
      Total boilers11,00912,371
Machinery inspections—  
    Lifts3,3233,642
    Cranes500525
    Hoists1,6181,691
    Machines driven by steam power10,21110,074
    Machines not driven by steam power76,40681,323
    Electric-power supply station units151138
    Tractors371389
      Total machinery92,58097,782
      Grand total103,589110,153

The Act provides that where loss of life or serious bodily injury to any person occurs by reason of the explosion of a boiler or as a result of an accident caused by machinery, the explosion or accident must be reported by the owner, and the cause investigated by an Inspector of Machinery. There was one boiler explosion during the year 1941–42, but no one was injured. The number of accidents reported as caused by machinery were: Fatal, 3; non-fatal, 119.

In 1941–42 new boilers, pressure vessels, and air receivers to the number of 679 were inspected and tested before being used. Of these, 424 were made in New Zealand.

Revenue and expenditure in connection with inspection of machinery for the last five years have been as follows:—

1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
Revenue—£££££
  Inspection fees, &c.20,87221,56222,41821,73922,797
  Examination fees, &c.604618547409596
      Totals21,47622,18022,96522,14823,393
Expenditure22,04521,74722,52322,05322,844

The Act also provides for the issue of certificates to those who pass the prescribed examinations for land engineers and engine-drivers in charge of boilers and machinery, for winding-engine drivers for mining purposes, for drivers employed on locomotives working on railway-lines not under the control of the Government Railways Department, and for the drivers of traction-engines on roads. Certificates are also issued to electric-tram drivers, as provided by the Tramways Amendment Act, 1910. The issue of these certificates is controlled by a Board of Examiners set up by the Act, the Chairman being the Chief Inspector of Machinery.

The total number of candidates examined during the year 1941–42 was 578, and of this number 474 were successful.

VALUE OF PRODUCTION.—Complete statistics covering all phases of production are not available: and, in compiling the following statistics of value of production, estimates of production have been made in several cases where direct data are not obtainable. Since statistical information as to production in each of the major productive activities is readily available, the items for which estimates must be made are, with the exception of one group of commodities, relatively unimportant. Although the value of products made in the home—e.g., home-made clothing, jams, kitchen-garden products, &c.—must, in the aggregate, account for a considerable annual value, it is quite impossible to estimate with any reasonable degree of accuracy the value of such production, which is, on this account, omitted from the statistics of the value of production.

It should be noted that production of material commodities only is taken into consideration in these statistics.

The general principle followed in assessing values has been to value products as near as possible to the actual point of production. For example, live-stock is valued at “on the hoof” prices, while values at the factory are used in the case of factory products. In some cases, however, reliable data as to values at or near the point of production cannot be obtained; and in these cases export valuations or wholesale price quotations have been used in assessing values. Although absolute uniformity of treatment in the basis of valuation as between different commodities has not been possible, the method of valuation of each individual item has remained substantially the same throughout the period covered. The statistics thus afford a fairly accurate indication of fluctuations in the value of production from year to year, although the absolute figures for any individual year must be regarded as a close approximation only.

Since the basis of valuation is (as far as possible) at the point of production, transport costs are only partly represented in the values shown, while the accretions to the value of commodities caused by the services of retailers and other distributors of finished products are not included in the statistics.

In classifying the value of production into the principal groups care has been taken to avoid duplication, products of one group which constitute the raw-material of another group being counted once only. For example, the gross value of agricultural products in 1940–41 is estimated at £,30,400,000; but, as the major part of this was utilized for the purpose of adding value to live-stock, the net value only (£10,100,000) is classified under the heading “Agricultural,” since live-stock and live-stock products are included in either the “Pastoral” or the “Dairying, &c.,” group.

Products have been classified into the groups to which they most logically belong from a production point of view; butter and cheese, for example, being classified under “Dairying, &c.,” and not as factory products. The figure shown under the heading “Factory” is the aggregate value added to materials by the process of manufacture, excluding industries which are already included in other groups (e.g., butter and cheese making, meat-freezing, fish-curing, and saw-milling). The total output of factory industries is included in cases where the materials are produced in New Zealand and are not already included as production in some other group.

The estimates of value of production from the year 1900–01 onwards are quoted in the following table. It should be understood that all values are in terms of New Zealand currency, which since the latter portion of 1929–30 has been at a discount in terms of sterling. A global estimate such as this is, from its nature, subject to amendment from time to time as additional data on production become available, and improvements in technique are effected. Minor amendments in the estimates for earlier years are incorporated in the figures appearing hereunder.

VALUE OF PRODUCTION.

Year.Agricultural.Pastoral.Dairying, Poultry, and Bees.Mining.Fisheries.Forestry.Factory.Building and Miscellaneous.Totals.
 £(m.)£(m.)£(m.)£(m.)£(m.)£(m.)£(m.)£(m.)£(m.)
1900–014·112·23·72·90·12·05·43·533·9
1905–064·317·35·34·20·12·66·85·245·8
1910–114·020·57·44·60·22·88·15·853·4
1915–167·631·211·54·80·31·99·75·372·3
1916–176·331·412·73·30·22·410·65·272·1
1917–187·332·913·83·50·22·611·55·377·1
1918–198·037·614·83·10·32·612·65·984·9
1919–208·837·218·03·40·43·115·16·492·4
1920–218·830·226·23·10·44·618·67·699·5
1921–229·528·821·82·90·54·517·28·293·4
1922–238·131·425·23·00·44·518·09·7100·3
1923–247·133·224·63·20·54·719·211·4103·9
1924–258·144·126·23·10·54·820·811·9119·5
1925–268·432·925·23·20·64·722·313·1110·4
1926–278·832·724·73·50·54·023·013-·9111·1
1927–289·639·327·23·60·53·522·813·1119·6
1928–299·943·129·33·60·53·424·012·4126·2
1929–309·136·128·43·70·63·625·613·4120·5
1930–318·824·622·23·60·52·923·311·397·2
1931–328019·321·93·40·41·718·610·083·3
1932–338·920·421·23·40·41·717·710·683·7
1933–348·732·122·53·50·42·018·610·698·4
1934–357·928·323·03·80·42·620·710·096·7
1935–369·234·528·84·60·43·623·210·7113·8
1936–378·847·132·74·00·53·626·711·9135·3
1937–388·640·733·84·20·64·130·012·5134·5
1938–399·237·433·84·40·64·030·514·0133·9
1939–4010·138·435·94·90·64·433·515·0142·8
1940–4110·148·538·95·00·64·537·113·7158·4

The total value of production reached a record level of £158,400,000 in 1940–41, and recorded an increase of £15,600,000, or 10·9 per cent., as compared with the previous year.

Although agricultural production remained at the same level, the other farming groups showed substantial increases. Pastoral production increased by £10,100,000, due mainly to heavy slaughterings of all classes of live-stock, while an increase in the number of live-stock in the Dominion and in wool-production also contributed to the group increase. Increased butterfat-production accounted for the rise of £3,000,000 in the dairying, poultry, and bees group.

Tho mining and forestry groups both recorded small increases of £100,000, while the value of fisheries production remained at the same level.

Factory production advanced by £3,600,000 or by 10·7 per cent. over the 1939–40 level, and established a new record for this group. It should be borne in mind that the amount shown as factory production in the value of production statistics does not include the value of production in the industries processing primary products. Production in such cases is credited to the appropriate primary-production group (dairying, pastoral, forestry, &c).

The decrease of £1,300,000 in the “Building and Miscellaneous” group is attributable to decreased activity in the building industry and in public-works construction during 1940–41.

VOLUME OF PRODUCTION.—In connection with the annual estimate of value of production it has been customary to publish also an index number of the volume of production. Up till recently this index was arrived at by applying to the index of value of production a specially computed index of producers' prices.

A new system of computation of the index of the volume of production is now being used, and the new series of index numbers is given below.

The method of computation of the new volume series is somewhat involved and cannot be set out in full detail. Where, however, figures of physical volume of output are available (as for practically all farm, mining, forestry, and fishery production) these figures have been used. For factory industries, quantity figures—either of products or of materials used—have been utilized where available, and in the case of other factory industries a figure closely indicative of volume movements has been arrived at by applying to the cost of materials used an index of wholesale prices of the principal materials used in the industry.

Information as to the number of dwellinghouses erected, classified according to number of rooms, is normally available, and from a consideration of this data, value figures for other classes of building activity have been converted into equivalent dwelling-or room-units. The composite total of actual and equivalent dwelling- or room-units is a sufficiently reliable indicator of actual volume of building production to permit of its incorporation in an index measuring the year-to-year movement in the volume of total production. Similarly, for those physically productive occupations (representing only a small percentage of aggregate production) not included in any of the groups mentioned above, a reasonably close approximation of movement is afforded by a consideration of the numbers of men engaged, with allowance for changes in working-hours and also for the relative productive output of different classes of labour.

The following table gives figures of values, and index numbers of value and volume of production, for the principal headings.

VALUE AND VOLUME OF PRODUCTION.

(Base of index numbers: 1938–.39 = 100.)

Year.Farm.Factory.*Total (including Other).
Value.Index Number of Volume.Value.Index Number of Volume.Value.Index Number of Volume.
Total.Index Number.Total.Index Number.Total.Index Number.

* Excluding factory industries included in other groups.

 £(m.)   £(m.)   £(m.)
1928–2982·31028124·07968126·29478
1929–3073·6928625·68472120·59083
1930·3155·6698623·3766597·27380
1931–3249·2618618·6615683·36277
1932–3350·5639817·7585783·76385
1933–3463·37910118·6615998·47388
1934–3559·2749820·7686996·77289
1935–3672·59010423·27676113·88595
1936–3788·611010626·78890135·3101100
1937–3883·110310530·09895134·5100101
1938–3980·410010030·5100100133·9100100
1939–4084·410510233·5110109142·8107105
1940·4197·512111637·1122113158·4118112

A measure of relative productivity is afforded by the next table, which gives figures and index numbers of value and volume of production in total and per head of population.

VALUE AND VOLUME OF PRODUCTION.

Year.Mean Population, Year ended 30th June.Value of Production.Volume of Production.
Total.Per Head.Index Numbers (1938–39 = 100).Index Numbers (1938–39 = 100).
Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.

* Not available.

  £(m.)£    
1900-01812,01033·941·72550**
1905–06929,06645·849·33460**
1910–111,050,01453·450·94061**
1915–161,150,37272·362·85476**
1916–171,148,57872·162·85476**
1917–181,151,23577·167·05881**
1918–191,174,62884·972·36387**
1919-201,217,15092·475·96992**
1920-211,258,31399·579·17496**
1921-221,291,37693·472·37087**
1922-231,317,154100·376·17592**
1923-241,339,786103·977·57894**
1924-251,367,978119·587·489106**
1925-261,399,583110·478·98295**
1926-271,427,569111·177·88394**
1927-281,447,657119·682·689100**
1928-291,464,582126·286·2941047887
1929-301,482,805120·581·390988390
1930-311,504,02297·264·673788086
1931-321,521,22883·354·862667781
1932-331,533,25283·754·663668589
1933-341,545,62898·463·773778892
1934-351,556,92396·762·172758992
1935-361,568,432113·872·685889598
1936-371,582,244135·385·5101103100102
1937-381,598,570134·584·1100102101102
1938-391,616,650133·982·8100100100100
1939-401,636,680142·887·2107105105103
1940–411,634,238158·496·9118117112111

CONSUMPTION OF COMMODITIES.—Recent issues of the Year-Book have contained a section devoted to a detailed study of consumption requirements of the Dominion. Unfortunately, war conditions have militated against obtaining accurate up-to-date information in regard to detailed civil consumption, but information quoted in previous issues of the Year-Book (the 1942 issue in particular) should be sufficiently reliable in regard to normal civilian consumption requirements.

Some commodities (sugar, tea, honey, motor-spirits, clothing and footwear, knitting-wool, and eggs) are subject to a system of rationing at the present time, the restrictions in most eases being imposed in order to ensure a fair distribution of available supplies. The rationed quantities are in some cases not very far short of normal civilian consumption requirements.

INDUSTRIAL EFFICIENCY.—In keeping with modern trends of industrial planning and organization in overseas countries, the Legislature of the Dominion introduced in 1936 a measure designed “to promote the economic welfare of New Zealand by providing for the promotion of new industries in the most economic form and by so regulating the general organization, development, and operation of industries that a greater measure of industrial efficiency will be secured.” This legislation became operative as the Industrial Efficiency Act, 1936, and under it the Bureau of Industry was constituted.

The Bureau of Industry, which meets at frequent intervals, is comprised of both “ordinary” and “special” members, appointed by the Minister of Industries and Commerce. The “ordinary” members are Government officers who are appointed because of some special knowledge or qualifications appropriate to the administration of the Act. “Special” members are those who have been appointed to represent manufacturing industries and agricultural and pastoral industries.

The Industrial Efficiency Act charges the Bureau with a number of functions, the principal of which is the making of recommendations to the Minister for the administration of the Act. In addition to its advisory functions, the Bureau is the licensing authority under the Act, and besides preparing plans for industries it is charged with maintaining a continuous survey of industries, of industrial finance, and of industrial methods, as well as collaborating with the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and the New Zealand Standards Institute.

The Act provides for the formulation of an industrial plan for the organization of any industry or related industries. Prior to October, 1940, only two industrial plans, relating to the pharmacy and flax industries respectively, had been brought into operation. In that month, however, the Licensed Industries General Regulations were introduced, with a view to facilitating the preparation of plans and to serve as the basis for the plans. Since then plans for the footwear, electric range, and radio manufacturing industries have been brought into operation, while plans for a number of other industries have been provisionally formulated. These, however, have not been proceeded with owing to war conditions.

An industrial plan sets out, for the most part in general terms, what might be described as a code for the better organization of the industry, and defines the functions of the industrial committee, which is appointed in each case to administer the plan. Such a plan cannot be put into operation until a majority of those engaged in the industry indicate their acceptance, and where a plan is accepted the Act provides for the appointment of an industrial committee representing the employers, the workers, and the Government. When the licensees in the industry reject a plan, the industry is delicensed, which removes the industry from the operation of the Act.

It is, however, the portion of the Act relating to industrial licensing that has engaged the greater attention of the Bureau of Industry. Licensing is usually a prerequisite to planning, and involves control being exercised over the entrance of new units into the respective industries, as well as the imposition of appropriate conditions on licenses in order to ensure that the industry is being carried on by licensees in a manner calculated to conform to industrial efficiency and national interest.

Provision is made in the Act for all decisions of the Bureau of Industry to be subject to appeal by persons who consider themselves aggrieved by the decisions, and this section of the Act has been availed of to a considerable extent. The appeals are heard by an appeal authority appointed by the Governor-General. Although a number of appeals have been successful, the proportion of these to the total decisions of the Bureau is under 1 per cent.

As an indication of the extent to which businesses have become subject to the Industrial Efficiency Act, it may be mentioned that there are about 6,500 licensed units, made up mainly of the distributive or semi-distributive industries. There are licensed some 3,700 resellers of motor-spirits, 560 pharmacists, 630 fish-retailers, and nearly 1,350 fishermen. So far as manufacturing industries are concerned, the total number of units is not large, many licensed industries having less than six units, while others range up to eighty.

In addition to the above functions, the Bureau of Industry is charged with making recommendations to the Government on applications made by industrial enterprises for financial assistance from the State.

On 1st November, 1942, the following thirty-five industries were subject to licensing under the Industrial Efficiency Act:—

  • Manufacture of agar for sale.

  • Manufacture of apple-juice for sale.

  • Manufacture of products consisting of a combination of asbestos and cement.

  • Manufacture of batteries or cells, commonly known as dry cells.

  • Manufacture of cement: Portland and other structural or building cement.

  • The business of any chemist or druggist carried on by the keeping of any open shop or place for the compounding or dispensing of prescriptions.

  • Manufacture of cigarette-papers.

  • Manufacture of colloidal sulphur.

  • Taking, by a fisherman, of fish for sale (not trout, whitebait, or oysters).

  • Export offish (not salmon, trout, whitebait, or oysters).

  • Canning of fruit and vegetables.

  • Manufacture of footwear for sale.

  • Manufacture of gut from casings.

  • Manufacture, from linseed, of oil or oil cake for sale.

  • Manufacture of macaroni for sale.

  • Manufacture of malt-extract.

  • Importation and/or wholesale distribution of motor-spirits.

  • Retail sale and distribution of motor-spirits.

  • Manufacture of nails.

  • Taking of oysters from oyster-beds.

  • Manufacture of paper-pulp or paper products.

  • Milling of phormium products.

  • Dehydration of plants for medicinal purposes.

  • Preservation of fish for sale in hermetically sealed cans, jars, or other containers.

  • Manufacture of pumps or the assembly of parts thereof for the distribution of motor-spirits.

  • Sale by retail offish (not trout or oysters).

  • Sale by wholesale offish (not trout or oysters).

  • Manufacture of radio-receiving sets for sale.

  • Manufacture of electric ranges, including the assembly of parts thereof.

  • Manufacture of rennet.

  • Manufacture of bituminous roofing-material for sale.

  • Manufacture of rope and twine.

  • Manufacture of rubber tires and tubes for all types of vehicles.

  • Manufacture of salt for sale.

  • Manufacture of wooden heels for footwear.

The descriptions of the industries listed above in many cases serve only in a general way to indicate the scope of the industries as licensed, full details being available in the relevant licensing notices.

GENERAL ELECTIONS.—The 1938 general election of parliamentary representatives was held in October of that year—for Maori electorates on the 14th, and for European electorates on the 15th. Dealing with the latter only, it is found that out of a total roll number of 995,173 some 924,057 persons (92·85 per cent.) exercised their votes. A summary for the general elections of 1931, 1935, and 1938 is as follows:—

 1931.1935.1938.
Number of votes recorded for candidates elected382,562442,716550,121
Number of votes recorded for candidates defeated310,510385,079367,563
Number of informal votes4,9556,8876,373
Total number of electors who voted at the election698,027834,682924,057
Percentage of votes recorded for candidates elected, to total valid votes recorded55·2053·4859·95
Total number of electors on roll (where contest)838,344919,798995,173
Number of districts where no contest4  
Percentage of electors on roll who voted83·2690·7592·85
Percentage of votes recorded for candidates elected to total number of electors on roll45·6348·1355·28
Number of seamen's rights exercised8371,2291,146
Number of electors voting as absent voters31,16038,77641,633
Number of electors exercising postal votes6,9569,79617,324

The relative interest in the poll evinced by men and women may be measured by the percentage of votes recorded to the number on the roll—viz., men 93·43 per cent. and women 92·27 per cent. in 1938, the 1935 figures being 92·02 per cent. and 89·46 per cent. respectively.

A statement of the voting in individual electorates in 1938 is given in the 1940 Year-Book (pp. 922–925).

By-elections.—Since the general election of 1938, by-elections have been necessitated in nine electorates, as follows:—

Electorate.Sitting Member.Cause of Vacancy.Date of By-election.New Member.

* On military service overseas.

† Elected unopposed.

Christ church SouthHoward. E. J.Death:3/6/39Macfarlane, R. M.
Auckland WestSavage, Rt. Hon. M. J., P.C.Death18/5/40Carr, P.
WaipawaJull, A. E.Death16/11/40Marker, C. J. G.
WaitemataLyon, Capt. W. J.Death*19/7/41Dreaver, Mrs. M.M.
Bay of PlentyHultquist, Lt. A. G.Death*13/12/41Sullivan, W.
Mid-CanterburyGrigg, Major A. N., M.C.Death*14/1/42†Grigg, Mrs. M. V. C.
TemukaBurnett, T. D.Death7/2/42Acland, H. J. D.
HaurakiAllen, Lt.-Col. J. M.Death*7/2/42Sutherland, A. S.
Christchurch EastArmstrong. Hon. H. T.Death6/2/43Howard. Miss M. B.

LICENSING.—According to a return compiled by the Department of Justice, the following are the licenses for the sale of intoxicating liquors:—

Publicans' licenses1,032
Accommodation licenses192
Wholesale licenses145
Packet licenses19
New Zealand wine licenses4
      Total1,392

The date of the return is nominally 1st September, 1929, but the numbers quoted cannot be increased, and the figures may be accepted as correct at the present time. In addition, there were, in 1942, 46 club charters.

The annual fees payable for licenses are:—

(1) For a publican's license—£
  (a) Within the limits of a borough or town district40
  (b) Outside the aforesaid limits25
(2) For a New Zealand wine license1
(3) For an accommodation license, a sum to be determined by the Licensing Committee, not exceeding20
(4) For a packet license— 
  (a) For a vessel exceeding 50 tons register10
  (6) For a vessel not exceeding 50 tons register5
(5) For a wholesale license20
(6) For a conditional license, according to duration of license, a sum not exceeding30

Fees form part of the revenue of the local authority of the district in which the license was issued.

National Licensing Polls.—The licensing poll of 15th October, 1938, held in conjunction with the parliamentary elections, was the sixth at which the three issues—national continuance, State purchase and control, and national prohibition (without compensation)—were submitted to the electors. Official figures of the 1938 poll, together with those of the four preceding polls, are as follows:—

 1922.1925.1928.1935.1938.

NOTE.—There was no referendum taken in 1931, on grounds of economy.

For national continuance282,669299,590373,692521,167546,995
For State purchase and control35,72756,03764,27657,49996,131
For national prohibition300,791319,450294,453243,091263,208

The voting results in each electorate in 1938 are shown on page 927 of the 1940 Year-Book.

Local Option.—In the no-license districts an additional issue is submitted—viz., local restoration—three-fifths of the valid votes cast being required for the carrying of the proposal. The voting figures for each of the twelve districts for 1938 are also shown on page 927. of the 1940 Year-Book.

RELIGIOUS PROFESSIONS.—The following table presents a summary of the religious professions of the population as recorded at the general census of 1936, together with comparative figures for the preceding census of 1926. Detailed statistics are contained in a special census volume (Vol. VI.—Religious Professions).

The figures quoted below are exclusive of Maoris, but a summary of the religious professions recorded by the Maori population may be found in the census volume referred to in the previous paragraph, while, much greater detail is given in the special volume devoted solely to Maoris (Vol. III.—Maori Census).

Religious Profession.Adherents.
1920 Census.1936 Census.
Church of England553,993600,786
Presbyterian330,731367,855
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)173,364195,261
Methodist121,212121,012
Baptist21,95524,703
Brethren12,92417,086
Salvation Army12,24112,608
Church of Christ7,98411,197
Congregational7,2827,179
Christian Scientist1,3824,617
Seventh Day Adventist2,8733,825
Hebrew2,5912,653
Lutheran2,4832,537
Rationalist5572,066
Agnostic8041,499
Christadelphian1,0791,303
Spiritualist1,2711,201
Freethinker818925
Confucian1,194778
Latter-day Saints (Mormon)599745
British-Israelite4704
Unitarian1,024669
Other16,54624,268
Object to state62,58571,302
Not specified6,97314,705
      Totals1,344,4691,491,484

LOTTERIES.—Under section 42 of the Gaming Act, 1908, the Minister of Internal Affairs may grant permission (subject to such conditions as he thinks fit) for the disposing by raffle or chance of any painting, drawing, sculpture, or other work of art, or literature, or mineral specimen, or mechanical model. By the Stamp Duties Amendment Act, 1931, any such license granted for the raffling of mineral specimens in excess of £100 value is subject to a lottery duty of 10 per cent. of the nominal value of all tickets represented in the drawing of the lottery, whether such tickets have been disposed of by way of sale or otherwise. Information as to receipts from this source will be found in Section 23B—Taxation.

The Gaming Act also permits sweepstakes and art-unions (as defined) under certain specified conditions.

During the year ended 31st March, 1942, 165 licenses were issued under the authority of section 42 (above), of which 108 were for works of art, 44 for small amounts of alluvial gold, and 13 for larger amounts of alluvial gold (£5,000 each).

The following is a summary of large alluvial-gold lotteries subject to lottery duty during the last five years.

1937–38.1938–39.1939–40.1940–41.1941–42.
Number of lotteries109131313
Gross sales £207,464182,109260,611220,960223,783
Commission on sales £31,12027,31639,09233,14433,567
Expenses £29,23726,36534,02232,83832,148
Prizes £50,00045,00065,00065,00065,000
Net proceeds £97,10783,428122,49789,97893,068
Lottery duty £20,74618,21126,06122,09622,378
Net profit £76,36165,21796,43667,88270,690

Of the net profits in 1941–42, £41,500 was distributed to the various mayoral or other recognized central funds established for the relief of distress, and £28,250 allocated to charitable and philanthropic organizations, including children's health camps.

Under clause 38 of the Patriotic Purposes Emergency Regulations 1939, permission was given to raffle gifts of real or personal property for the funds of either the National or any Provincial Patriotic Council, and a special system of licensing of these raffles was instituted in May, 1940.

TIME-SERVICE ARRANGEMENTS.—The following article on the New Zealand time-service arrangements was prepared by Mr. R. C. Hayes, Acting Director of the Dominion Observatory.

One uniform time is kent throughout New Zealand. The following extract from the New Zealand Gazette, of 31st October, 1868, contains the Government announcement regarding the standardizing of mean time.

“Colonial Secretary's Office,

“Wellington, 30th October, 1868.

“In accordance with a resolution of the House of Representatives to the effect that New Zealand Mean Time be adopted throughout the colony, it is hereby notified for public information that the time corresponding to the longitude 172° 30' east of Greenwich—which is exactly 11½ hours in advance of Greenwich time—has been adopted as the mean time for the colony; and that from and after the second day of November the public offices of the General Government will be opened and closed in accordance therewith.

“E. W. STAFFORD.”

New Zealand Mean Time (N.Z.M.T.), sometimes referred to as “Standard Time,” is normally observed during the winter months. It is 11 hours 30 minutes fast on Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T.), and corresponds to the approximate mean longitude of the Islands of New Zealand (172° 30' east).

The use of Summer Time in New Zealand is governed by the Summer Time Act, 1929, and its amendment of 1933. For general purposes in New Zealand the clock is advanced thirty minutes during the period beginning at 2h., New Zealand Mean Time, on the last Sunday in September in any year, and ending at 2h., New Zealand Mean Time, on the last Sunday in April in the following year. Nothing in the Summer Time Act shall affect the use of New Zealand Mean Time for purposes of astronomy, meteorology, or navigation, or affect the construction of any document mentioning or referring to a point of time in connection with any of those purposes.

As a war measure, Daylight Saving Emergency Regulations have been made in recent years to ensure continuation of the observance of Summer Time throughout the whole year. The times mentioned in this article are New Zealand Summer Time, unless otherwise stated.

The time throughout New Zealand is controlled by the Dominion Observatory, Wellington. The Observatory signal clock is kept as correct as possible by means of astronomical observations, and by comparison with radio time-signals from observatories in other parts of the world.

The Observatory provides the following time-service:—

(1) RADIO TIME-SIGNALS TRANSMITTED THROUGH STATION ZLW ON A WAVE-LENGTH OF 500 Kc/s (600 METRES) I.C.W.

These signals are transmitted between 10h. 55m. and 11h. 00m. a.m. daily, and are in accordance with the modified ONOGO system. The procedure is as follows:—

At 10h. 55m. 30s., the “Attention” call (__ · __ · __). followed by the Observatory call sign ZMO (__ __ · __ __ __ __ __).

From 10h. 56m. 05s. to 10h. 56m. 50s., the letter O (__ __ __), repeated every ten seconds, except that the third series from 25s. to 30s. consists of a single dash prolonged for five seconds.

From 10h. 57m. 00s. to 10h. 57m. 49s. the letter X (__ · · __), repeated every five seconds.

From 10h. 57m. 55s. to 10h. 58m. 00s., First Time Signal, consisting of six dots cat intervals of one second.

From 10h. 58m. 08s. to 10h. 58m. 50s., the letter N (__ ·), repeated every ten seconds.

From 10h. 58m. 55s. to 10h. 50m. 00s., Second Time Signal, consisting of six dots at intervals of one second.

From 10h. 59m. 06s. to 10h. 59m. 50s., the letter G (__ __ ·), repeated every ten seconds.

From 10h. 59m. 55s. to 11h. 00m. 00s., Third Time Signal, consisting of six dots at intervals of one second.

The series of six dots which constitute the actual time-signals are transmitted directly from the Dominion Observatory signal clock, which is seldom more than a quarter of a second in error. The remaining signals are for tuning and identification purposes only, and should not be used as precise time-signals. Corrections to the time-signals can be obtained on application to the Dominion Observatory.

(2) RADIO TIME-SIGNALS TRANSMITTED THROUGH THE NATIONAL BROADCASTING SERVICE STATION 2YA.

Time-signals are supplied to the National Broadcasting Service for transmission through station 2YA. The signals consist of six dots, separated by intervals of one second, the last dot being the exact minute. Each transmission consists of a group of three signals at consecutive minutes, the scheduled times of transmission being as follows:—

  1. 10h. 28m.; 10h. 29m.; 10h. 30m. a.m.

  2. 3h. 28m.; 3h. 29m.; 3h. 30m. p.m.

  3. 7h. 28m.: 7h. 29m.; 7h. 30m. p.m.

  4. 10h. 28m.: 10h. 29m.; 10h. 30m. p.m.

In all cases the time-signals are superimposed on the station programmes, but in the event of failure or suppression of signals at scheduled times, they are transmitted thirty minutes later if circumstances permit.

In addition to the above official time signals, the National Broadcasting Service transmits one series of six dots at each hour from 7 a.m. to 7 p.m.

(3) TIME-SIGNALS BY TELEGRAPH.

The Observatory sends time-signals by telegraph to the General Post Office and the Railways Department, Wellington, at 9h. a.m. daily. This signal is transmitted to all telegraph-offices in New Zealand and to all railway-stations in the North Island.

(4) PUBLIC CLOCKS.

The Government Buildings clock (Wellington) is checked at 9h. a.m. daily by means of a special circuit between the clock and the Observatory. The error of this clock is usually less than 15 seconds.

An electric synchronous clock, installed at the Observatory, is checked twice daily. Observations show that the variation of the electric clocks amounts to a few seconds only.

TOURIST ATTRACTIONS.—Reference to pages 932–935 of the 1940 Year-Book, or pages 812–815 of the 1939 issue, will give a brief description of the main tourist attractions in New Zealand.

MINERAL WATERS AND SPAS.—For information concerning the mineral waters and spas of New Zealand reference should be made to the 1940 and earlier editions of the Year-Book, which contain a short description of the Rotorua and Te Aroha spas, together with analyses of the more important, springs at the latter, while in the 1913 issue of the Year-Book will be found detailed analyses of the various mineral waters throughout New Zealand.

REVIEW OF LEGISLATION, 1942.—Acts passed: Public Acts. 20; local Acts, 7; private Acts, 3.

The following is a brief synopsis of the more important public Acts passed by the General Assembly during the 1942 session, which ended on 4th December.

The Overseas Representatives Act, 1942, makes provision for the retention of seats in Parliament by overseas representatives of the New Zealand Government.

The Finance. Act, 1942, increases the rates of income-tax in certain cases, and increases the rates of excess profits tax and national security tax.

The Land and Income Tax (Annual) Act, 1942, fixes the rates of land-tax and income-tax for the tax-year commencing on the 1st day of April, 1942.

The War Damage Amendment Act, 1942, extends the definition of “war damage” by including damage occurring as the result of measures taken with a view to destroying property for the purpose of preventing it being used by the enemy.

The Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1942, makes certain increases in rates of Customs duties and sales tax, and in the rates of excise duties payable in respect of beer and tobacco. The additional revenue resulting from these increases is to be credited to the War Expenses Account.

The Prolongation of Parliament Act, 1942, provides for the continuation of the present House of Representatives until the expiration of one year from the termination of the present war. The Act contains a proviso to the effect that at least once in every year the Prime Minister shall move a motion either approving the continuation of the House or fixing an earlier date for its expiry.

The War Expenses Amendment Act, 1942, increases (to £180,000,000) the borrowing-powers of the Government in respect of war expenses, and provides for the payment of additional revenue from income-tax to be paid into the War Expenses Account.

The Emergency Regulations Amendment Act, 1942, extends the duration of the Emergency Regulations Act, 1939, and also extends the existing power to modify enactments, and validates regulations made under the principal Act.

The Medical Advertisements Act, 1942, makes provision for the regulation of advertisements relating to drugs, cosmetics, dentifrices, and other similar substances, or claiming ability to treat or alleviate human ailments. A Medical Advertisements Board is constituted, which has the function of inquiring into the claims contained in medical advertisements. If a claim cannot be established, the advertiser is prohibited from repeating the advertisements. A prohibition is placed on the publication of fictitious testimonials, and no person is allowed to accept payment for a testimonial.

The Women Jurors Act, 1912, provides for the enrolment and service as jurors of women between the ages of twenty-five and sixty who express their desire to serve as such.

The Finance Act (No. 2), 1942, contains miscellaneous provisions relating to the payment and receipt of public moneys; prohibits the establishment of superannuation schemes by local authorities without the consent of the Governor-General; provides that permanent members of the Public Service may become contributors to the Public Service Superannuation Fund in respect of previous temporary service; and provides for the restoration of superannuation rights to persons retiring from the Government or Education Service for service with the Armed Forces.

The Statutes Amendment Act, 1942, relates to a number of matters of a miscellaneous nature, the more important of which are here referred to. Section 5 provides that charging orders binding the Crown may be made under the Destitute Persons Act, 1910. Sections 9–13 constitute an industrial efficiency appeal authority, and vest in it the powers formerly exercised by the Minister of Industries and Commerce. Sections 14—17 provide that the consent of an infant to an order of adoption may be dispensed with and that, in the discretion of the Court, an unmarried person may adopt a child of the opposite sex less than forty years younger than the adopting parent. Sections 24–27 modify the law relating to the admission of barristers and of solicitors. Section 31 prohibits unqualified persons from testing sight and selling spectacles. Section 35 provides that for the purposes of the Workers' Compensation Act, 1922, the loss of one eye, where the injured person already has lost an eye, shall be equivalent to the loss of both eyes.

The Fair Rents Amendment Act, 1942, extends the duration of the principal Act until one year after the termination of the war and extends the application of the principal Act to all dwellinghouses. An increase in rent imposed after the 1st September, 1942, is irrecoverable unless the increase has been sanctioned by the Court. A sub-tenant in occupation with the express or implied approval of the landlord shall be deemed the tenant of the landlord for the purposes of the principal Act. Every tenancy of a dwellinghouse shall be binding on the mortgagee. A landlord is prohibited from refusing to let a dwelling to a tenant for the reason that the tenant has children. Special provision is made as to the relation of the principal Act to servicemen.

Chapter 45. SECTION 45.—DEPENDENCIES.

Table of Contents

ON pages 1 and 2 of this Year-Book the islands comprising the Dominion of New Zealand are divided into three groups, viz.:—

  • Islands forming the Dominion proper.

  • Outlying islands included within the geographical boundaries of New Zealand as proclaimed in 1847.

  • Islands annexed to New Zealand.

In the preceding sections statistical attention has been paid to the first of these groups only. In the present section it is proposed to deal briefly with the second and third groups, and also with the mandated territories of Western Samoa and Nauru, the Ross Dependency, and the Tokelau or Union Group.

Stewart Island and the Chatham Islands, although coming within the first group for general purposes, are given brief mention.

Stewart Island.—Stewart Island, which, with its small adjacent islands, has an area of some 670 square miles, is separated from the South Island by Foveaux Strait. It has several good harbours, is well wooded, and mountainous, the highest peak being the extinct volcano, Mount Anglem (3,200 ft.). The principal industry is sea-fishing, and the island is also a noted holiday resort. Stewart Island is a county, and statistically is treated as part of the South Island. The estimated population at 1st April, 1941, was 490, including 130 Maoris.

Chatham Islands.—The Chatham Islands consist of two inhabited islands and several unimportant islets of a total area of some 372 square miles. They contain no high country, and the larger island has a central lagoon of about 72 square miles. The chief industries are sheep-farming and sea-fishing. Although about 450 miles eastward of Banks Peninsula, the group was constituted a county in 1901, and is not classed with the outlying islands. Before 1922 the islands were not included in any electoral district, and thus had no parliamentary representation, but from 1922 have been included in the Lyttelton Electoral District, and in the Western Maori Electoral District for the election of Maori representatives. In view of the special circumstances of the Chathams, certain laws are modified in their case. For instance, petrol taxation for roading purposes is not imposed, while formerly the Employment Promotion Act did not apply, although the Social Security Act now does. By the Chatham Islands County Act, 1936, the County Council's power of levying rates under the Counties Act was abrogated as from 1st April, 1937, and funds are now obtained by the imposition of import dues.

The Chatham Islands are for most purposes grouped with the South Island, and are also treated for statistical purposes as part of Canterbury Provincial District, although the latter is not strictly correct in point of law. The islands are included within the Wellington Deeds, Land Transfer, and Land Districts, but within the North Canterbury Hospital District and the Canterbury-Kaikoura Sheep District. The estimated population at 1st April, 1941, was 700, including 330 Maoris.

OUTLYING ISLANDS.—The outlying islands (total area, 307 square miles) included within the geographical boundaries as proclaimed in 1847 are:—

Three Kings Islands.Bounty Islands.
Auckland Islands.Snares Islands.
Campbell Island.Solander Island.
Antipodes Islands. 

Three Kings Islands.—The Three Kings Islands are a group of uninhabited islets (area, about three square miles) extending about seven miles in an east-north-east direction, and situated about thirty-eight miles west-north-west of Cape Maria van Diemen, at the northern extremity of the North Island.

Auckland Islands.—The Auckland Islands lie about 290 miles south of Bluff Harbour, their accepted position being given as latitude 50° 32' south and longitude 166° 13' east. They have several good harbours. The largest of the islands is about twenty-seven miles by about fifteen miles, and is very mountainous, the highest part being about 2,000 ft. above the sea. The total area of the group is about 234 square miles.

Campbell Island.—Campbell Island, which lies about 150 miles south-east of the Auckland Islands, is mountainous and has several good harbours. It has a circumference of about thirty miles and an area of approximately forty-four square miles.

Antipodes Islands.—The Antipodes Islands are an isolated group, consisting of several detached rocky islands (aggregating about twenty-four square miles) lying nearly north and south over a space of four to five miles; accepted position 49° 41' 15' south, and longitude 178° 43' east.

Bounty Islands.—The Bounty Islands are a little cluster of islets, thirteen in number, without verdure, their position, verified by observation, being 47° 43' south, longitude 179° 0½' east. The total area is probably less than one square mile.

Snares Islands.—The Snares Islands are situated about fifty-six miles to the southwest of Stewart Island, and comprise six islets of a total area of about 600 acres.

Solander Island.—Solander Island, which lies about forty miles to the north-west of Stewart Island, is a bare rock, one mile in length and approximately half a square mile in area.

None of the outlying islands is at present inhabited.

KERMADEC ISLANDS.—The Kermadec Islands, four in number, with some outlying islets, rank as “annexed islands,” having been annexed to New Zealand by Proclamation dated the 21st July, 1887. The islands are situated between the parallels of 29° 10' and 31 30' south latitude, and between the meridians of 177° 45' and 179° west longitude. The principal island, Sunday, is 600 miles distant from Auckland, and lies a little more than half-way to Tonga, but 100 miles to the eastward of the direct route to that place. It is 300 miles eastward of the route to Fiji, and 150 miles westward of that from Auckland to Rarotonga.

The islands are volcanic, and in two of them signs of activity are still to be seen. The rainfall is plentiful but not excessive. The climate is mild and equable, and slightly warmer than that of the north of New Zealand. The following are the areas of the islands and islets of the group: Sunday Island, 7,200 acres; Herald group of islets, 85 acres; Macaulay Island, 764 acres; Curtis Islands, 128 acres and 19 acres; L'Espérance, 12 acres: total, 8,208 acres. Sunday Island is twenty miles in circumference, roughly triangular in shape, and at the highest point 1,723 ft. above the sea-level. It is rugged and broken over a very large extent of its surface, and, except in a few places, covered by forest. The great luxuriance and richness of the vegetation bear witness to the excellence of the soil, which has been formed by the decomposition of a dark-coloured pumiceous tuff and a black andesitic lava, with which is mixed a fine vegetable mould. Lack of a suitable water-supply is one of the drawbacks. Three of the four lakes on the island are fresh, but are so difficult of approach as to be practically useless.

Several attempts have been made to settle on the islands, the latest being in 1935, when a small party took up residence on Sunday Island. For the benefit of the trans-oceanic air services a meteorological station and an aeradio station have been established on this island. With the official staff, the population in April, 1942, was 9.

COOK ISLANDS.—A brief description of the history, administration, and geographical boundaries of the Cook Islands, which rank as “annexed islands,” is contained in the 1942 and previous issues of the Year-Book. The proclaimed area, roughly speaking, lies over 1,500 miles from New Zealand in a north-north-east direction. Being wholly within the tropics it experiences a warm humid climate, characterized, where the soil is fertile, by luxuriant vegetation. The majority of the islands are subject to hurricanes, which occur between January and March.

In considering the islands within the territory a distinction can be made between the scattered islands in the north, and the islands towards the south forming the Cook group proper. The majority of the northern islands are typical coral atolls of no great height or size, while in the southern cluster volcanic action has been responsible for islands of greater area and fertility. As a consequence the southern islands support the greater population. With one exception, none of the islands possesses a good harbour, so that throughout the territory the ever-present coral reefs greatly hinder transport and commerce.

Following is a brief description of the individual islands.

LOWER GROUP.—Rarotonga (16,500 acres), the most fertile and valuable island of the territory, rises to a height of 2,100 ft. It is clothed to the tops of the mountains with, splendid vegetation, and has abundant streams, considerable tracts of sloping land, and rich alluvial valleys. The town of Avarua is the centre of the local administration and is 1,634 miles from Auckland.

Mangaia (17,500 acres, 110 miles from Rarotonga) is the south-easternmost of the Group. Mangaia is not as fertile as Rarotonga, but produces large quantities of coconuts, bananas, oranges, limes, citrons, and other fruits. The most remarkable feature of Mangaia is the “makatea,” or raised coral wall, rising a few hundred yards inland from the beach, which surrounds and shuts off the whole interior of the island. Honey-combed with caverns, and its surface a mass of spear-like points, this wall is supposedly due to the original reef being raised by volcanic action. The island's greatest height is 656 ft.

Atiu (6,950 acres, 120 miles from Rarotonga) resembles Mangaia in formation. It is a raised mass of coral, steep and rugged, except where there are small sandy beaches and some clefts. On the highest point of the central ridge coconuts, bananas, oranges, and coffee grow with the utmost luxuriance; and the kumara, one of the most valuable of South Sea vegetables, yields large crops.

Mauke (4,600 acres, 151 miles from Rarotonga) is a low circular island about two miles across, lying to the north-east of Rarotonga. Like Mangaia and Atiu, it is surrounded by an unbroken fringing reef. Mauke is very fertile.

Ailutaki (3,900 acres, 140 miles from Rarotonga) is about eighteen miles in circuit and one of the most fertile of the islands forming the Lower Group. It is capable of exporting large quantities of tropical fruits and vegetables, but exports are restricted owing to the irregular and infrequent shipping calls.

Mitiaro (2,500 acres, 142 miles from Rarotonga) is a good example of an elevated coral reef, thinly coated with sand and gravel of the same material. The greater part of the surface is not more than 6 ft. above high-water mark.

Manuae (1,524 acres, 128 miles from Rarotonga), and its neighbouring islet, Te Au-o-Tu, are surrounded by a reef, which is about 10½ miles in circumference.

Takutea (302 acres, 120 miles from Rarotonga) is a small coral island, moderately fertile.

NORTHERN ISLANDS.—Penrhyn (4,000 acres, 740 miles from Rarotonga) is also known as Tongareva. It is one of the most famous pearl-islands in the Pacific, but of recent years, owing to changes in world fashions and in the success of pearl-culture, exports of pearl-shell and pearls have fallen to low proportions. The large lagoon with its two entrances affords the only land-locked shelter within the proclaimed area for vessels other than fishing-boats, and it is the refuge of trading schooners during the hurricane season. As drought conditions sometimes exist, largo concrete tanks have been built for the conservation of rain-water.

Manihiki (1,250 acres, 650 miles from Rarotonga) is an atoll about thirty miles in circumference, valuable for the extent of its coconut groves. It also suffers on occasions from droughts, and is equipped with concrete water-tanks.

Pukapuka (1,250 acres, 720 miles from Rarotonga) is a small solitary atoll, also known as Danger Island.

Rakahanga (1,250 acres, 670 miles from Rarotonga) is also an atoll, and shares its Resident Agent with Manihiki, from which it is only twenty miles distant.

Palmerston (1,000 acres, 277 miles from Rarotonga) consists of eight islets threaded along a reef.

Suwarrow (600 acres, 525 miles from Rarotonga) is a coral atoll of triangular form possessing a land-locked lagoon eight miles by six, which is capable of being made into an excellent harbour. The island, which is uninhabited, is a sanctuary for sea birds, and part of it is a naval reserve.

Nassau (300 acres, 670 miles from Rarotonga) is a small island well planted with coconuts.

Revenue and Expenditure.—Revenue is derived principally from Customs duties, which, with minor exceptions, follow the New Zealand Customs tariff; from Court fees and fines, dog-tax, motor fees, road and water rates, stamp sales and duties, trading licenses, &c. The Rarotongan Treasury finds all revenue for ordinary expenditure, but the New Zealand Government subsidizes that Treasury for medical and educational purposes. Including grants from the New Zealand Government (£24,000) the revenue of the Cook Islands for the year 1941–42 was £49,395, and the expenditure was £46,952.

Health.—Under the provisions of the Cook Islands Act, 1915, all Natives are provided gratuitously with medical and surgical aid. As a result of this policy the population is particularly free from most of the usual tropical diseases. Those diseases consistently prevalent, however, and calling for constant medical service are leprosy and pulmonary tuberculosis. Of recent years particular attention has been directed towards child-welfare, resulting in a marked lowering of the infant death-rate. In the administration of public health the Chief Medical Officer is assisted by a small European staff together with native medical practitioners. It is hoped that eventually at least one of the latter will be resident on each island.

The manufacture or importation of intoxicating liquor is prohibited, except for medicinal, sacramental, or industrial purposes.

Population and Vital Statistics.—A census of the Cook Islands taken as for 30th April, 1936, showed an increase in population of 21·46 per cent. on the preceding census of 1926. The increase was restricted to the Native population, which numbered 11,991 (males 6,235, females 5,756) in 1936. The population other than Natives—255, comprising 141 males and 114 females—showed a decline of 26 in the ten years since 1926.

Island.Population, 1926 Census.Population, 1936 Census.Island.Population, 1926 Census.Population, 1936 Census.

* Uninhabited at time of census.

Aitutaki1,4311,719Pukapuka526651
Atiu9331,086Rakahanga327290
Mangaia1,2491,459Rarotonga3,9365,054
Manihiki416487Suwarrow**
Manuae238Takutea**
Mauke511652Nassau*18
Mitiaro238265   
Palmerston9790Totals10,08212,246
Penrhyn395467   

Each of the seven censuses taken since the annexation of the islands in 1901 has shown an increase of population. In the report of the Cook Islands Administration for 1941–42 the estimated population at 31st March, 1942, was given as 13,962, an increase of 249 during the year. During the year ended 31st March, 1942, registered births numbered 553 (males 279, females 274); deaths, 248 (males 125, females 123).

Education.—Eleven Government schools are established on six islands of the Lower Group and at Pukapuka, and the Administration subsidizes the London Missionary Society for its seven schools established on the other islands. In addition, seven Roman Catholic Mission schools are established on various islands within the Group.

The aim of the Administration is to educate the children up to the equivalent of Standard IV of the New Zealand school syllabus, with facilities at Rarotonga for advanced children to attain a level comparable to Standard VI in New Zealand. A limited number of scholarships is granted, which enable pupils of outstanding ability to enter Maori colleges in New Zealand in order to fit them for positions in the Cook Islands Public Service A system whereby the schools are staffed entirely by Native teachers is being gradually introduced. During the year 1941, 3,186 children were being educated in the Cook Islands schools—2,480 in Government schools, 391 in the London Missionary Society schools, and 315 in Roman Catholic Mission schools.

Communication.—For trading connections with other countries the islands are mainly dependent on a steamer service to and from New Zealand. By this service regular calls are made at Rarotonga, and occasional calls, for purposes of loading cargo, at the larger and more productive of the southern islands. Transportation between the islands is mainly undertaken by schooners.

Radio communication has largely destroyed the former isolation of the islands, there being only two permanently inhabited islands, Mitiaro and Rakahanga, without radio-stations. The chief station is Rarotonga Radio, which maintains direct communication with the substations and with Wellington, Apia, and Suva.

Trade.—The figures of exports and imports for each of the years 1937–41 are:—

Year.Exports.Imports.Total Trade.
 £££
193786,33386,534172,867
193873,18474,789147,973
193956,68973,559130,248
194090,39779,469169,866
194187,17787,068174,245

The principal commodities exported during 1941, with 1940 figures in parentheses, were as follows: Citrus fruit, 124,809 (130,068) cases; bananas, 17,319 (32,430) cases; tomatoes, 17,168 (30,833) boxes; copra, 139 (100) tons.

NIUE.—Geographical.—Situated on the extreme western boundary of the proclaimed territory, Niue is 600 miles distant from the main islands of the Cook Group. In construction the island is a raised coral island of no great height, and has an area of 64,028 acres. Being formed of extremely porous soil it is deficient in streams, and as a consequence is of moderate fortuity only. For trading purposes it is further handicapped by the lack of a harbour and the position of the coral reef—the latter, owing to the extreme steepness of the sea-bed, being very close inshore, and affording no protection from heavy seas.

Population.—Returns for the census taken on 30th April, 1936, disclosed the population as 4,104. Totals for the six preceding censuses taken since the annexation of Niue by New Zealand (11th June, 1901) are as follows:—

19024,079
19063,822
19113,943
19163,880
19213,750
19263,795

The following comparison with the census taken on 20th April, 1926, shows an increase of 309 (8·14 per cent.) in the ten years.

Native population—Census, 1926.Census, 1936.
    Males.1,7631,980
    Females2,0002,102
European population—  
    Males1812
    Females1410
      Total population3,7954,104

The population was estimated by the Niue Island Administration to be 4,424 at 31st December, 1940.

Education.—There are three Government schools, where agriculture, handicraft, domestic art, and woodwork form part of the curriculum. The average roll number of these three schools in 1941 was 601. In addition, there are nine schools under the control of the London Missionary Society, which are subsidized by the Administration. The average roll number for these schools during 1941 was 379.

Health and Vital Statistics.—A Government hospital is established in Niue, the staff consisting of a European matron and a number of Native nurses. The medical work of the island is under the control of a European medical officer, assisted by several Native trainees. Medical and surgical aid and attendance are given free of charge to all Natives.

During 1941 births registered in Niue numbered 151; deaths, 77.

Revenue and Expenditure.—Revenue of the Niue Island Administration for the year ended 31st March, 1942, was £16,953, including a grant of £11,000 from the New Zealand Government, and expenditure (including depreciation of £714) aggregated £16,976.

Trade.—Exports and imports for the last live years are given below. The greater part of the trade is with New Zealand.

Year.Exports.Imports.Total Trade.
 £££
193723,32129,30952,630
193815,04516,38031,425
193911,55415,45927,013
194020,23819,73539,973
194111,17316,82728,000

With a view to improving the marketing of bananas in New Zealand, grading and packing for export are now done under the control and supervision of the Resident Commissioner and his inspectors.

Exports of principal commodities during 1941 were—

 Quantity.Value. £
Bananas2,287 cases943
Kumaras210 tons2,871
Fancy baskets3,945 dozen5,366
Hats1,150 dozen1,003
Copra50 tons336

WESTERN SAMOA.—A brief account of the history and administration of the territory of Western Samoa, which is administered by New Zealand under a mandate from the League of Nations, is contained in the 1942 and previous issues of the Year-Book.

Geographical.—Western Samoa is comprised of the two large islands of Upolu and Savai'i and the islets of Apolima, Manono, Fanuatapu, Namua, Nu'ulua, and Nu'usafe'e. The geographical boundaries are latitudes 13 degrees and 15 degrees south and longitudes 171 degrees and 173 degrees west.

Savai'i is the larger of the two main islands, with a length of 48 miles, a breadth of 25 miles, and a total area of 703 square miles. The island is mountainous, rising to a height of over 6,000 ft. Upolu, which extends some 45 miles in length and 13 in breadth, measures about 430 square miles in area, and rises to a height of over 3,600 ft. Of the two, Upolu is the more fertile and populous, and contains the port and capital of Apia. The climate of the group is mild and equable, with an average temperature in the vicinity of 80° F., and an average annual rainfall of about 116 in.

Population.—A census of population was taken by the Administration on the night of 4th November, 1936. The following table shows the summarized results, together with corresponding figures for the 1926 census.

1926.1936.
Europeans and European-Samoans2,2703,075
Native Samoans (including other island races)36,88052,266
Chinese—  
  Contract labourers862502
  Others6220
Melanesian or Polynesian contract labourers15583
      Totals40,22955,946

Following are statistics of the age-constitution of the Native Samoan population as disclosed by the 1936 census.

Matai (heads of families ranking as chiefs or orators, usually over thirty-five years of age)3,100
Taulele'a (untitled men, of any age over fourteen years)10,149
Tamaiti (boys, two to fourteen years)11,534
Tama meamea (infant boys, under two years)1,685
      Total, males26,468
Fafine (all women who have been married, and all other women over twenty-five years of age)11,273
Teine muli (unmarried females, fifteen to twenty-five years)2,707
Teineiti (girls, two to fourteen years)10,457
Teine meamea (infant girls, under two years)1,361
      Total, females25,798
Total of Samoan population, 4th November, 193652,266

Statistics of total (European and Samoan) population on 31st March, 1942, compiled by the Administration are as follows: Males, 32,021; females, 30,784: total, 62,805.

Health and Hospitals.—The Samoa Health Ordinance, 1921, is on the fines of the New Zealand Health Act, 1920, but remodelled to suit local conditions. A Government hospital is maintained at Apia, district hospitals have been established at Tuasivi (Savai'i) and Aleipata (Upolu), and there are seven dispensaries in out-districts and at mission-stations, two new ones having been opened during the year. The health service staff at 31st March, 1942, consisted of 15 Europeans, 3 of whom were Medical Officers, and 136 Samoans.

Of the more important tropical diseases, only three are prevalent in Western Samoa—viz., ankylostomiasis (or hookworm), frambœsia (yaws), and filariasis (elephantiasis). Every effort has been made to stamp out these diseases, particularly hookworm and yaws, and systematic campaigns to this end have been in progress since 1923, resulting in a marked improvement in the general health of the Natives. Emphasis has also been laid on infant-welfare, and success in this field is shown by the decline in the infant death-rate. At the present time, with the generous assistance of overseas research institutions, a determined effort is being made to isolate the cause of malignant jaundice. During 1941–42 there were 2,741 in-patients and 76,705 out-patients treated at the hospitals and dispensaries.

Under the mandate administration the sanitation of Apia has been considerably improved, and the reticulation with a high-pressure water-supply system completed. Water has been piped into several villages from springs in the hills, while in other villages where this is not possible large reinforced-concrete tanks have been erected to receive the rain-water from church buildings.

Education.—Originally education in Samoa was conducted solely by the missions, and, except where pupils were being trained as pastors, instruction was of a somewhat elementary nature. After the establishment of the mandate the Administration schools undertook more advanced teaching, involving the partial use of the English language. At the same time several of the mission schools made available parallel facilities for pupils other than trainees.

As the education system now operates, three grades of schools are recognized. In Grade I are village schools conducted solely by the missions, and generally under the charge of Native pastors. In Grade II schools more advanced instruction is given, the arrangement being in most instances that the missions supply the buildings and the Administration pays, trains, and supplies the teachers, who are Samoans. In Grade III schools the standard that can be reached is equal to that of a completed primary course, and from the outstanding pupils of these schools the teachers of Grade II schools are recruited. A level of education comparable to Grade III can also be attained in the European primary school, in the resident mission colleges (where pastors are trained), and in one mission day school. For lie trailing of teachers for Grade II schools there is a training-school at Apia, and in 1938 a post-primary school was opened for the purpose of providing secondary education suitable for Samoans who intend to reside in Samoa. Thorough inspection of Administration schools is carried out by the Superintendent of Schools, assisted by five Native Inspectors in Grade II schools. Shorter visits are periodically paid to mission schools.

For the year 1938 (the latest year for which figures are available) there were 311 pastor or Grade I schools operated by the several missions, which, together with 36 other mission schools are colleges, had an attendance of 17,820, these pupils being taught by 43 European teachers, 87 Native teachers, and 295 pastor teachers.

For Administration schools the figures for 1941 were as follows:—

School.Number.School Population.Teaching Staff.
Grade II9612,532195
Grade III31708
Teachers' Training-school1501
European school150616

Revenue and Expenditure.—After reducing loan indebtedness by £5,625, the accounts for the year showed an excess of expenditure over revenue of £609. The accumulated surplus was drawn on to the extent of this deficiency and now stands at £40,244. Of this amount £6,718 was in cash, £8,676 in investments and advances in Samoa, and £24,850 in investments in New Zealand.

The figures of revenue and expenditure for each of the last five years are:—

Year ended 31st March,Revenue.Expenditure.
 ££
1938139,450139,070
1939123,803119,233
1940131,416135,648
1941107,980110,000
1942100,883101,492

The principal sources of revenue are import and export duties, which for the calendar year 1941 returned £39,609 and £8,277 respectively. The principal direct taxes payable in the Territory are a graduated salary-tax, building-tax, and water rates, which produced £1,420, £2,650, and £1,232 respectively in 1941–42. As from 1st April, 1941, a graduated store-tax has been payable on business turnovers. This tax replaced the flat-rate store-tax previously payable by general storekeepers only. The public debt of the Territory at 31st March, 1942, was £91,215.

The staff employed by the Administration at 31st March, 1942, numbered 660, of whom 58 were Europeans, 76 of part Samoan blood, and 526 Native Samoans, the great majority of the Native Samoans being employed in the education and health services. There wore, in addition to the foregoing, 233 elective Native Samoan district and village officials.

Trade.—The exports and imports of Western Samoa for each of the last eleven years are:—

Year.Exports.Imports.Year.Exports.Imports.
 ££ ££
1931194,447164,9501937352,436267,868
1932183,028150,9021938248,605196,272
1933173,837150,8561939220,409194,736
1934128,11792,7841940221,733165,453
1935189,298137,7571941242,881154,335
1936263,255167,020   

TOKELAU OR UNION GROUP.—Situated between 8° and 10° of south latitude and between 170° and 173° of west longitude, the Group consists of three typical coral atolls—Atafu, Nukunono, and Fakaofo—the formation in each case being a string of islets enclosing a reef-bound lagoon. The maximum width of any of the islets does not exceed 300 yards, while the total area of all the islets is 2,550 acres.

A census of population in the Group was taken by the Western Samoan Administration on the night of 4th November, 1936. The total population was 1,170, as compared with 1,033 at the 1926 census. Figures for the three islands are as follows (1926 totals in parentheses): Fakaofo, 508 (444); Atafu, 378 (360); Nukunono, 284 (229). The population in June, 1942, was 1,364.

The only exportable product of the islands is copra. The total amount of copra available for export in a normal year is estimated to be 365 tons—viz., 65 from Atafu, 210 from Nukunono, and 90 from Fakaofo. Since 1923 Apia, Samoa, which is 270 miles distant, has been the port of entry for the Group.

There is a radio station on each of the three islands.

NAURU.—Prior to its forcible occupation by Japan in 1942, the Island of Nauru was administered under a mandate, dated 17th December, 1920, conferred upon the British Empire and approved by the League of Nations. This mandate was held jointly by the Imperial Government, the Government of Australia, and the New Zealand Government.

Nauru Island is barely ⅓ of a degree below the equator and lies 166° 56' east of Greenwich. It is an elevated island about three miles and a half long and two miles and a half wide, with a circumference of twelve miles and an area of 5,396 acres. With the exception of a narrow coastal belt favourable for the growth of coconuts, and of a brackish lagoon, the island consists of phosphate deposits overlying a bed of coralliferous limestone. The island is completely surrounded by a coral reef, and beyond the reef the sea-bed slopes sharply downwards at an angle of 45°. These two factors, together with the presence of the strong equatorial current of two knots, materially affect the shipping facilities of the island. The fact that the island lies in the latitude of the easterly trade winds, which blow from nine to ten months of the year, is also significant, since it explains the comparative absence of rainfall, a condition necessary for the existence of phosphate deposits.

The origin of the deposits on Nauru Island, as well as those on Ocean Island, is a matter of conjecture. The deposits do not appear to be simple guano, and some authorities consider them to be of a marine sedimentary origin raised from the sea-bed and subjected to weathering.

From the point of view of phosphate manufacture the deposits are of a very high grade, exports averaging 85·4 per cent. tricalcic phosphate and 3·4 per cent. calcium carbonate. Owing to the uneven nature of the outcrops of coralliferous limestone the extent of the deposits cannot be measured accurately, but it is estimated that there are between fifty and ninety million tons of phosphatic rock available.

The shipments of phosphate from both Nauru and Ocean Islands, with deliveries to New Zealand, during each of the five years ended June, 1940, were as follows:—

Year ended 30th June,Exports.Shipments to New Zealand.
Nauru Island.Ocean Island.Total Shipments.Quantity.Per Cent. of Total.

* Estimate.

 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons. 
1936506,600319,779826,379192,87923·3
1937577,600429,0001,006,600243,40024·2
1938836,250329,8501,166,100290,30024·9
1939924,250300,2671,224,517293,04723·9
1940932,000*315,000*1,247,000*404,000*32·4*

At the 31st December, 1940, there were 1,761 Native inhabitants, who speak a language akin to that of the Gilbert Islanders. In addition there were 49 Natives of other Pacific Islands, and 1,350 Chinese, who had been introduced for the working of the phosphate-deposits. Europeans numbered 192, the total population being thus 3,352.

Revenue and expenditure and trade of the Nauru Administration for each of the fire years 1936–40 were:—

YearRevenue.Expenditure.Exports.Imports.
 ££££
193624,90623,989469,607154,940
193753,34329,311513,989144,454
193829,42830,827546,683272,256
193933,08429,391605,974170,624
194027,10426,223541,168192,749

Imports consist almost entirely of food-supplies, and of machinery for the working of the phosphate.

THE ROSS DEPENDENCY.—By Imperial Order in Council of 30th July, 1923, the coasts of the Ross Sea, with the adjacent islands and territories between the 160th degree of east longitude and the 150th degree of west longitude, and south of the 60th degree of south latitude, were proclaimed a British settlement, within the meaning of the British Settlements Act, 1887, under the name of the Ross Dependency, and the dependency was placed under the jurisdiction of the Governor-General of New Zealand.

It is estimated that the mainland area is about 175,000 square miles; but, being completely ice-covered, it is uninhabited. On various occasions bases have been established on the mainland by Antarctic expeditions, which have made extensive explorations within the territory and on contiguous portions of the continent. As yet no economic wealth has been won from the mainland, but the territorial waters, with their large numbers of whales, have been the scene of operations for numerous factory whaling-ships. There has been, however, no New Zealand capital invested in these, enterprises.

An article on the Ross Dependency, written by Mr. M. J. S. Nestor, appeared in the 1938 number of the Year-Book (pp. 900–903).

Whaling.—Regulations dated the 24th October, 1929, which supersede those of 1st November, 1926, prohibit whaling operations within the boundaries of the Ross Dependency without a license, for which the annual fee payable is £200, and in addition to which the Government requires a royalty of 2s. 6d. per barrel (40 gallons) of whale-oil. The owner or master of a vessel engaged in whaling or used as a floating whale-factory is liable to a fine not exceeding £1,000 for each day on which operations are carried on without a license. A penalty not exceeding £100 per day is provided for in cases of non-compliance with the terms of the license granted in respect of any vessel used for whaling or as a floating factory, and a similar penalty for failure to equip a floating factory in accordance with the requirements of the regulations, or for failure to convert a whale into commercial products within forty-eight hours after delivery at the factory. Provision is made for the arrest on warrant of any vessel in respect of which an offence against the regulations is committed.

The regulations apply, of course, only to territorial waters, and operations are carried on outside territorial waters by unlicensed expeditions. The great majority of whales are taken outside territorial waters.

The Whaling Industry Act, 1925, gives legislative effect, so far as New Zealand is concerned, to the International Whaling Convention signed at Geneva in 1931. The general principles of the Convention are in the direction of conservation of whales and regulation of the industry.

Chapter 46. SECTION 46.—STATISTICAL SUMMARY.

STATISTICAL SUMMARY FOR NEW ZEALAND.

POPULATION AND EXTERNAL MIGRATION (INCLUDING MAORIS).

Year.Population.Mean Population.Year ended 31st March.
At 31st December.At 31st March.Year ended 31st December.Year ended 31st March.Overseas Passenger Arrivals.*Overseas Passenger Departures.*

* Excluding “through” passengers, and tourists on cruising liners.

1890667,477664,853662,749658,49116,29116,291
1895740,699731,468734,410725,10424,44923,398
1900808,132798,471802,246792,50118,43517,531
1905925,605908,116913,144895,10833,52422,582
19101,050,4101,035,2121,040,5341,025,63834,71532,854
19151,152,6381,150,3861,149,2381,145,02733,37727,254
19201,257,6111,236,9151,242,3961,207,66026,90023,990
19251,401,2301,379,4871,384,4281,359,99542,21129,913
19301,506,8091,489,2031,493,0191,478,02733,83931,454
19311,522,7621,511,7001,514,2151,498,41630,74125,632
19321,534,7351,525,5451,527,0621,517,94017,89121,063
19331,547,1241,538,0281,539,5901,530,11918,71321,308
19341,558,3731,550,1251,551,5321,542,65119,68722,022
19351,569,6891,560,9921,562,2331,554,29724,90128,051
19361,584,6171,573,9271,575,2311,565,26326,93628,050
19371,601,7581,587,2111,589,9721,578,75731,67032,023
19381,618,3131,604,4791,606,7631,594,27538,73836,352
19391,641,6391,624,7141,628,5121,611,36242,64837,685
19401,633,6451,640,9011,637,3051,633,44731,43225,404
19411,631,2761,636,2301,630,9481,635,71513,81413,100
1942 1,634,338 1,630,4197,1026,893

VITAL STATISTICS.

Year.Numbers.Rates per 1,000 of Mean Population.Deaths under 1 Year per 1,000 Live Births.
Live Births.Marriages.Deaths.Deaths under 1 Year.Live Births.Marriages.Deaths.
189018,2783,7975,9941,43829·446·129·6678·67
189518,5464,1106,8631,63726·785·949·9188·27
190019,5465,8607,2001,46925·607·679·4375·16
190523,6827,2008,0611,59927·228·289·2767·52
191025,9848,2369,6391,76026·178·309·7167·73
191527,85010,0289,9651,39425·339·129·0650·05
192029,92112,17512,1091,51325·0910·2110·1550·57
192528,15310,41911,0261,12521·207·858·3039·96
193026,79711,07512,19992418·837·788·5734·48
193126,6229,81712,04785618·456·818·3532·15
193224,8849,89611,68377717·126·818·0431·22
193324,33410,51011,70177016·637·187·9931·64
193424,32211,25612,52778116·517·648·5032·11
193523,96512,18712,21777316·178·238·2532·26
193624,83713,80813,05676916·649·258·7530·96
193726,01414,36413,65881217·299·559·0831·21
193827,24915,32814,75497117·9310·099·7135·63
193928,83317,11514,15889818·7311·129·2031·14
194032,77117,44814,28299021·1911·289·2430·21
194135,10013,31315,1461,04522·818·659·8429·77
194233,57412,21916,38596421·737·9110·6028·71

EDUCATION.

Year.Number of Scholars receivingUniversity Students (excluding affiliated Agricultural Colleges).
Primary Education atSecondary Education at
Public Schools.Registered Private Schools.Native Village Schools.Secondary* (Including Endowed) Schools.District High Schools.Technical* Schools.Registered Private Schools.

* Combined secondary and technical high schools, instituted in 1931, included with secondary schools.

1890117,91213,6912,2592,117   596
1895129,85614,7042,6762,525   742
1900130,72415,6023,1092,792   805
1905137,62316,7383,8634,0602,872  1,153
1910156,59419,0524,2805,1761,9161,253 1,862
1915183,63122,4775,1916,4882,1021,9559922,039
1920198,46022,1935,5089,1962,1572,7661,4393,822
1925215,06325,9336,38612,5143,1365,1322,5114,442
1930219,23526,4517,07016,1494,2406,9533,8254,801
1931218,68926,7267,50316,3444,9447,3973,6734,869
1932207,48926,4107,31315,9484,4867,1063,5264,912
1933200,81926,4287,34015,7154,5117,1493,5864,806
1934199,91326,6367,58715,9014,3657,1833,6514,721
1935197,52626,8697,87616,1624,5937,3233,9684,818
1936210,38627,7099,17516,5564,0707,4224,2414,967
1937207,87927,9319,64216,8114,3897,8334,6135,010
1938206,22027,6319,83217,7644,9058,1494,6625,219
1939205,26627,55810,40318,1765,4018,4814,9485,649
1940204,13727,71810,73017,7105,2538,0095,0235,198
1941204,20527,89410,91616,9865,0337,3715,1324,964

JUSTICE.

Year.Summary Convictions in Magistrates' Courts.*Total Convictions or Sentences in Superior Courts.Total Distinct Persons sentenced in Superior Courts.Prisoners in Gaol at End of Year (undergoing Sentence).
Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.

* Excluding Children's Court cases, from year 1914 onwards.

189014,12821·322700·412270·345170·78
189513,38318·224070·553590·495310·72
190019,24223·994270·533910·496270·65
190525,37127·784490·494330·477600·82
191032,43531·174950·484940·478430·80
191538,44633·455090·444410·389410·82
192034,74027·961,0110·814590·379960·79
192543,40731·351,4651· 065110·371,2840·92
193045,54430·501,5241·025380·361,5231·01
193140,37426·661,6241·076000·401,6141·06
193240,59126·581,7101·126360·421,5220·99
193336,04323·411,5130·986310·341,4100·91
193435,75223·041,2130·784900·321,1990·77
193536,23023·191,1480·734720·301,1120·71
193639,51725·091,1780·754620·299150·58
193742,72626·871,3180·835070·327900·49
193849,65130·901,3220·824880·307770·48
193952,28832·111,4890·915710·358950·55
194046,11028·161,3940·855470·338630·53
194139,63624·301,4960·925420·339880·61

AGRICULTURE.

Season.Wheat for Threshing.Oats for Threshing.
Area.Yield.Yield per Acre.Area.Yield.Yield per Acre.
 Acres.Bushels.Bushels.Acres.Bushels.Bushels.
1890–91301,4605,723,61018·99346,2249,947,03628·73
1895–96245,4416,843,76827·88364,78812,263,54033·62
1900–01206,4656,527,15431·61449,53419,085,83742·45
1905–06222,1836,798,93430·60354,29112,707,98235·86
1910–11322,1678,290,22125·73302,82710,118,91733·41
1915–16329,2077,108,36021·59212,6887,653,20835·98
1920–21219,9856,872,26231·24147,5595,225,11535·41
1925–26151,6734,617,04130·44102,4854,115,60640·14
1930–31249,0147,579,15330·4487,1523,376,60938·74
1931–32268,7566,582,69824·4968,6902,818,15241·03
1932–33302,53111,054,97236·54116,2065,132,18344·16
1933–34286,2719,036,01731·5678,3433,242,50041·39
1934–35225,3895,933,24526·3252,5161,890,14535·99
1935–36248,6398,859,22335·6377,5023,302,64242·61
1936–37221,7907,168,96332·3274,7723,525,43047·15
1937–38185,9496,042,98132·5057,9172,640,91545·60
1938–39189,2815,564,13629·4054,4222,604,81747·86
1939–40257,5328,010,08931·1049,7512,081,10041·83
1940–41243,1978,305,86534·1571,7583,114,94643·41
1941–12258,0028,671,24433·6170,7963,444,81248·66

LIVE-STOCK.

Year.Horses.Total Cattle.Dairy Cows (in Milk).*Sheep.Pigs.Goats.

* Figures from 1891 to 1916 include dairy cows not in milk.

† Not enumerated.

1891211,040788,919206,90617,865,423222,5539,055
1896237,4181,047,901276,21719,138,493239,778
1901266,2451,256,680372,41620,233,099250,975
1906326,5371,810,936517,72020,108,471249,727
1911404,2842,020,171633,73323,996,126348,754
1916371,3312,417,491750,32324,788,150297,50117,601
1921337,2593,139,223890,22023,285,031349,89217,367
1926314,8673,452,4861,181,44124,904,993472,53421,761
1931295,7434,080,5251,499,53229,792,516476,194
1932280,9944,072,3831,582,66428,691,788513,416
1933276,8974,192,0231,723,91327,755,966591,582
1934273,9064,301,1281,816,40228,649,038660,393
1935272,9864,293,4991,827,96229,076,754762,755
1936276,1704,254,0781,823,35830,113,704808,463
1937277,7994,389,1011,805,40531,305,818802,419
1938278,1674,506,0821,763,77532,378,774756,466
1939274,8034,564,9481,744,47831,897,091683,463
1940271,5814,533,0321,739,87431,062,875714,001
1941266,0064,575,8731,779,60331,751,660769,180
1942261,6114,641,7141,777,239688,677

TRADE.

Year.Excluding Specie.*Specie.†
Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.
Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.

* Figures are in terms of New Zealand currency.

† Specie exports and Imports represent face value.

‡ Not available for publication.

 ££s.d. £s.d.££
18909,569,31614895,928,89581811242,404331,630
18958,518,119111206,115,95386732,105284,176
190013,223,258169810,207,3261214622,903438,770
190515,642,069172712,481,1781313413,878347,679
191022,152,4732151016,748,2231611127,736303,360
191531,430,822277020,658,72017196318,0901,070,114
192046,405,366377061,553,85349101136,58041,975
192555,243,0473918152,425,7573717419,22530,650
193044,940,517302044,339,65429140175363,087
193134,950,698231826,498,15117100202,33056,155
193235,609,919236524,646,006162101,355,86155,310
193341,005,9192612825,581,36616124296,032424,704
193447,342,8473010331,339,55220402,283,9001,242,000
193546,538,3812915936,317,26723411521,000381,821
193656,751,940360744,258,8862811145,24536,601
193766,713,3794119256,160,69535653,500318,510
193858,376,283366855,422,1893491031,80531,274
193958,049,31635121149,387,18330662,79525,364
194073,741,133450948,997,66929186
194167,479,413417649,167,01030211
194280,875,132496553,069,59932147
Year.Exports of New Zealand Produce.
Wool.Frozen Meat.*Tallow.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.

* Includes exports of chilled beef.

 Lb.£Cwt.£Cwt.£
1890102,817,0774,150,599898,8941,087,617173,300162,471
1895116,015,1703,662,1311,134,0971,262,711263,560260,999
1900140,706,4864,749,1981,844,8312,123,881367,780368,473
1905139,912,7375,381,3331,690,6842,694,432318,940347,888
1910204,368,9578,308,4102,654,1963,850,777620,180766,841
1915196,570,11410,387,8753,591,2607,794,395535,260780,828
1920162,327,17611,863,8274,629,28211,673,696540,8201,748,773
1925205,726,85617,739,7363,414,20511,174,567500,760895,061
1930197,239,6147,664,3624,036,63910,937,382492,560683,571
1931211,718,8685,515,3764,138,8068,892,555465,280413,080
1932238,179,0625,742,8214,645,4808,436,306507,540462,081
1933286,307,4417,422,2665,203,1139,845,627560,400516,063
1934255,796,78312,516,4254,969,44711,886,955553,240480,354
1935222,661,4037,097,1335,206,51412,768,968505,540630,638
1936314,409,40213,293,7065,119,80413,239,414521,900628,310
1937282,339,14819,070,2405,410,91214,689,616518,800647,969
1938271,283,23312,185,4835,373,30815,092,059592,260524,775
1939277,391,71311,665,9095,906,25115,390,801582,740456,527
1940300,288,68716,875,4636,976,62519,681,343682,760707,721
1941215,743,29612,613,3715,284,84816,595,290786,560818,370
1942304,163,95018,335,6255,721,51517,777,4361,040,6801,142,886
Year.Exports of New Zealand Produce.
Butter.Cheese.Gold.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.

* Not available for publication.

 Cwt.£Cwt.£Oz.£
189034,816122,70140,45184,986187,641751,360
189557,964227,60176,743150,909293,4931,162,181
1900172,583740,620102,849229,111373,6141,439,602
1905305,7221,408,55788,562205,171520,4852,093,936
1910356,5351,811,975451,9151,195,373478,2861,896,318
1915420,1442,700,625817,2582,730,211422,8251,694,553
1920312,0093,022,3351,222,0506,160,840212,973883,748
19251,245,32410,240,1321,376,7545,800,808114,696472,364
19301,884,23711,854,0561,812,9816,438,438133,749550,678
19311,988,56610,649,5271,636,3474,461,293140,970581,032
19322,185,54510,639,0531,790,4314,951,268200,6481,092,288
19332,635,24711,648,6991,982,9424,766,351177,2411,281,612
19342,614,51910,042,7761,984,4964,694,459162,4901,320,690
19352,789,29813,616,7401,727,5524,376,512171,2831,441,790
19362,796,14515,317,5761,658,2065,122,438168,0731,398,656
19372,976,08516,986,4771,647,1605,371,878172,3171,435,216
19382,614,54916,520,2261,610,5235,935,061152,4871,296,839
19392,443,29716,111,2071,677,2575,869,890176,3701,628,526
19402,622,70018,228,0262,033,5068,233,486**
19412,263,13515,777,8642,366,2359,833,861**
19422,344,02916,481,2142,689,23211,879,009**
Year.Exports of New Zealand Produce.
Kauri-gum.Phormium Fibre.Timber (sawn and hewn).
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 Tons.£Tons.£Sup. ft.£
18907,438378,56321,168381,78942,098,863181,689
18957,425418,7661,80621,04038,297,905141,892
190010,159622,29315,906332,18257,517,085232,174
190510,883561,44427,877696,46775,370,136318,895
19108,693465,04420,645448,41481,940,062407,658
19154,575279,13323,220571,62176,797,161383,883
19206,481556,75618,949647,54569,664,014697,608
19255,370414,90116,408516,46649,204,676573,882
19303,818189,6358,009198,21326,676,131300,582
19313,058128,0951,78430,93017,532,304172,633
19322,06862,1373,37542,48827,286,884253,883
19333,08977,9733,82842,77025,829,404237,503
19343,20986,9173,59147,50134,530,279320,527
19352,87279,1133,66153,96839,585,198364,359
19363,23796,1615,707106,94026,993,334265,108
19373,226151,5895,193127,28417,656,988200,855
19382,304103,7774,40980,47214,534,253177,831
19392,316112,6501,55124,73913,172,312155,652
19401,68387,450671,37517,322,813194,370
19411,42188,643521,03919,036,408220,042
19421,06174,737265147,511,71894,811

FACTORY PRODUCTION,—PRINCIPAL STATISTICS.

Year.Number of Establishments.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.Cost of Materials.Other Expenses.Value of Output.Added Value.

* Productive employees.

† Not available.

   £££££
1910–113,48345,924*4,786,098*18,782,92929,317,02310,534,094
1915–163,75548,744*5,791,704*30,197,78443,034,03312,836,249
1920–214,02269,08113,172,99652,933,49477,828,01324,894,519
1925–264,79478,70816,153,82251,668,1008,395,92182,358,85130,690,751
1930–315,19477,91415,617,05248,458,3569,388,62677,745,24929,286,893
1931–324,96968,69712,642,93542,472,6008,263,06566,588,74424,116,144
1932–334,99368,92112,048,14842,726,0438,097,04266,109,45523,383,412
1933–345,02872,65112,106,50047,067,5648,108,89071,770,87224,703,308
1934–355,27079,35813,244,37352,277,2858,809,91279,324,47327,047,188
1935–365,53686,58814,844,36760,172,8489,374,36990,014,74829,841,900
1936–375,72896,40118,333,07770,938,16510,481,253105,941,72235,003,557
1937–385,924102,34420,981,58775,371,55810,540,208113,691,55638,319,998
1938–396,146102,53522,270,01075,634,90310,001,804114,447,42638,812,523
1939–406,342108,72224,460,54985,243,38311,043,557129,061,82643,818,443
1940–416,395113,99926,946,79998,547,80411,978,820147,153,55948,605,755
1941–426,367117,21429,504,299102,260,86012,812,901155,566,19553,305,335

INDEBTEDNESS OF GENERAL GOVERNMENT.*

AMOUNT OF DEBENTURES AND STOCK IN CIRCULATION.

As at 31st March,Domiciled inTotal.Per Head of Population.
London.Australia.New Zealand.

† Not available.

‡ Increase due mainly to floating debt under Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, 1932–33, which was paid off in 1934–35.

 £££££s.d.
189038,667,9505832
189540,386,9645543
190043,299,679181,6004,393,17347,874,45259192
190549,379,6191,209,5509,322,83159,912,00065196
191057,733,6584,113,98513,043,00274,890,64572610
191576,410,0013,979,00019,670,909100,059,91086197
192095,708,3293,385,650102,076,776201,170,755162129
1925120,818,4872,952,200104,043,960227,814,647165211
1930146,580,5024,276,750116,526,091267,383,343179110
1931154,546,9414,175,350117,311,067276,033,358182120
1932159,641,8553,914,550118,386,395281,942,800184163
1933161,400,7032,868,710118,353,545282,622,958183152
1934160,908,1052,908,150138,975,741302,791,996‡19568
1935160,972,2302,183,550117,425,437280,581,2171791411
1936158,711,9301,592,650122,256,518282,561,098179106
1937156,737,016891,900130,041,284287,670,200181410
1938156,857,016882,600132,461,726290,201,342180175
1939156,853,016879,600146,237,656303,970,272187110
1940157,863,270879,600164,164,666322,907,536196159
1941158,371,589879,600190,176,386349,427,575213112
1942153,755,563862,300230,779,870385,397,733235163

* In the debt tables the whole debt is shown (in pounds) at its nominal amount, that portion domiciled overseas not being converted to its New Zealand currency equivalent.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF GENERAL GOVERNMENT.

Year ended 31st March,Consolidated Fund.Public Works Fund.
Receipts.Payments.Receipts.Payments.
From Taxation.From other Sources.Totals.

NOTE.—Commencing with 1925–26, railway revenue and expenditure, and with 1928–29, post and telegraph revenue and expenditure, were removed from the transactions of the Consolidated Fund. Revenue of the Consolidated Fund, however, now includes interest in respect of railway and post and telegraph capital liability, while the expenditure for the years 1925–26 to 1928–29 covers payment to the Working Railways Account in respect of losses on non-paying branch lines and Isolated sections. From 1931–32, also, post and telegraph net profits are paid into the Consolidated Fund. Employment promotion taxation receipts (1930–31 to 1938–39) were not paid into the Consolidated Fund, nor are social security taxation receipts (see p. 360).

 ££££££
18902,090,4052,176,7144,267,1194,256,92183,142482,464
18952,300,3502,147,5494,447,8994,352,185353,000504,486
19002,891,1262,808,4925,699,6185,140,1271,062,116993,223
19053,754,3793,592,8187,347,1976,635,9021,908,6831,354,158
19104,180,5165,058,4019,238,9178,990,9222,093,6972,216,397
19155,881,9056,570,04012,451,94512,379,8032,224,4912,737,364
192016,256,5279,824,81326,081,34023,781,5242,243,3892,232,815
192516,177,36112,465,63928,643,00027,399,2004,833,2805,482,069
193019,474,0915,875,77025,349,86125,200,8822,339,3586,237,585
193118,599,9804,468,95123,068,93124,708,0427,356,0506,547,883
193216,189,9676,529,76622,719,73324,860,5525,179,8984,895,861
193315,605,2066,963,31522,568,52122,528,3791,958,3862,277,336
193417,059,8296,432,92023,492,74924,202,0272,363,7752,572,415
193520,177,6075,948,48726,126,09424,499,5953,000,3722,714,210
193621,556,4154,615,95326,172,36825,890,5683,458,1252,863,643
193726,940,8454,206,34231,147,18730,675,1586,743,0406,601,091
193831,664,4304,395,01336,059,44335,248,6215,602,5027,647,246
193932,305,7724,276,27436,582,04635,772,67811,372,55511,145,029
194032,810,5995,163,56037,974,15937,654,820,11,939,23811,216,834
194134,873,7325,564,19540,437,92738,711,5039,890,1239,445,824
194235,161,9466,079,01341,240,95939,568,4979,558,2247,357,429

LOCAL AUTHORITIES.*

Year ended 31st March,Receipts.Payments.Total Gross Indebtedness.
Revenue.Other Receipts.Totals.
From Rates.From other Sources.
 ££££££
1890460,303707,725206,6881,374,7161,476,5406,316,716
1895581,868683,857328,7981,594,5231,584,5187,422,306
1900714,151848,032372,0281,934,2111,960,0738,149,272
19051,019,4311,255,2221,350,6313,625,2843,497,32112,056,736
19101,526,3171,934,0342,362,1715,822,5224,898,48217,809,917
19152,140,0862,861,2972,595,7067,597,0896,806,56724,538,721
19203,144,2134,486,5823,329,00310,959,79810,883,58630,187,942
19254,668,8847,512,0807,613,39919,794,36319,422,83353,353,466
19306,010,98710,746,7315,495,42722,253,14522,061,08871,207,539
19315,637,25410,627,3914,432,95620,697,60122,174,52472,686,036
19325,511,8189,682,2514,374,25119,568,32020,087,38172,402,282
19335,237,6888,913,2854,433,29418,584,26718,885,17372,476,056
19345,541,2558,688,4123,821,77918,051,44617,737,79271,969,387
19355,511,4429,167,2873,943,48818,622,21718,744,89171,245,458
19365,585,8559,552,5484,348,53419,486,93719,337,24270,400,176
19375,994,3539,979,4374,252,80320,226,59320,222,71568,559,750
19386,541,35411,005,2934,389,62021,936,26722,051,14768,060,951
19396,971,55011,750,6266,254,79224,976,96825,078,93568,206,674
19407,289,24012,669,5286,772,32726,731,09525,709,19569,486,970
19417,344,05513,144,2164,651,63325,139,90424,726,02867,974,687

* Exclusive of Hospital Boards.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES.*—LOAN INDEBTEDNESS.

(Exclusive of Inscribed Debt.)

As at 31st March,Counties.Boroughs.Harbour Boards.Electric-power Districts.Other.Totals.
 ££££££
18908,5052,541,4533,155,600 272,5015,978,059
189510,5102,757,3953,652,350 265,2556,685,510
19006,9002,939,0253,845,881 265,5447,057,350
19057,8004,863,9864,382,551 763,90510,018,242
191076,8777,687,2095,788,400 1,385,19914,937,685
19151,025,60111,352,8026,990,573 2,389,25321,758,229
19202,032,96015,295,9587,495,641 2,892,19227,716,751
19254,616,68825,882,8659,750,6606,514,7574,315,89851,080,868
19306,533,32231,521,14910,460,69212,636,3518,028,55569,180,069
19316,641,05732,139,38910,509,20713,011,5298,415,82770,717,009
19326,685,90531,683,23810,549,49313,121,9608,437,12170,477,717
19336,614,05631,791,67510,620,44213,031,9308,550,25170,608,354
19346,557,84931,358,64710,496,53313,213,0798,522,06970,148,177
19356,402,88930,992,12910,524,78813,399,0538,185,80069,504,659
19366,228,61430,773,34210,218,67213,484,9888,040,46368,740,079
19376,124,76630,505,61210,152,12812,026,6878,141,18566,950,378
19386,082,79430,542,4319,894,11511,890,0318,077,64266,487,013
19396,106,54430,600,6549,746,94012,471,3157,752,76266,678,215
19406,184,12730,768,9939,960,63913,114,6887,977,87268,006,319
19416,154,29330,024,4759,927,57813,106,7747,331,18766,544,307

* Exclusive of Hospital Boards.

† See note at foot of page 658.

TRADING BANKS (AVERAGE OF FOUR QUARTERS).

Year.Assets.Liabilities.
Advances.Coin and Bullion.Totals (all Assets).Notes in Circulation.Deposits.Totals (all Liabilities).

* Gold coin and bullion, and note-issuing functions, taken over by Reserve Bank (August, 1934).

† As at last Monday in December.

‡ The Reserve Bank assumed liability for the outstanding notes of the trading banks as from 1st August, 1936.

 ££££££
189013,996,0862,536,52917,735,259903,01012,368,61013,356,598
189511,600,0803,310,94318,159,781897,91913,544,41514,491,627
190011,343,4112,739,19717,314,5351,299,82515,570,61016,964,582
190515,496,3954,006,10821,770,5251,468,97720,545,60122,144,166
191018,439,9995,035,76426,398,9271,626,09424,968,76126,742,081
191523,638,9706,781,00633,209,4832,846,27531,433,65334,448,270
192038,241,9327,728,94256,111,4337,890,41859,405,34167,818,469
192545,298,9557,722,91762,128,8086,775,47052,207,20260,219,697
193053,657,3976,798,55669,748,0716,255,71756,425,01463,984,419
193152,419,5276,917,89768,557,1205,782,35453,645,01861,463,034
193250,255,6745,957,94469,015,2095,958,26852,851,73660,649,208
193345,705,0445,105,84669,656,7006,205,42957,620,23365,281,375
193441,389,4573,477,248*73,509,1774,844,826*63,417,29969,259,271
193544,666,541767,589*83,008,626†765,343*61,474,51165,981,411†
193645,918,432720,317*83,865,501†65,153,97265,939,649†
193749,199,592742,500*85,822,902†66,842,69267,842,240†
193855,650,065875,825*85,072,329†65,038,69066,820,736†
193954,745,801746,801*96,108,637†67,279,45175,978,460†
194047,983,526718,208*101,496,183†77,345,06382,032,696†
194149,746,397761,914*105,291,004†80,720,10184,073,585†

POST OFFICE SAVINGS-BANK.

Year.Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Interest Credited to Depositors.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.

* Fifteen months, 1st January, 1920, to 31st March, 1921.

† Excess of withdrawals over deposits.

  £££££
189097,2081,658,5431,500,437158,10692,3192,441,876
1895137,6832,794,5072,369,333425,174129,4903,895,543
1900197,4084,170,4293,827,416343,013146,1695,809,552
1905276,0666,625,7445,984,185641,559259,0818,662,023
1910380,58510,708,9399,695,5151,013,424424,66814,104,990
1915509,08513,706,05711,294,9732,411,084707,25222,166,365
1920–21*664,81944,302,85241,162,4863,140,3661,818,53543,352,031
1925–26758,15531,833,622.32,602,506- 768,884†1,731,57847,911,322
1930–31878,04324,531,56928,063,338- 3,531,769†1,763,82547,668,547
1931–32877,09019,463,98525,488,081- 6,024,096†1,611,04843,255,499
1932–33797,09716,933,17619,635,928- 2,702,752†1,475,87442,028,621
1933–34798,26219,428,85317,818,1721,610,6811,231,08944,870,391
1934–35817,61724,179,53720,946,5623,232,9751,320,34849,423,714
1935–36840,67125,619,77523,533,5962,086,1791,406,45952,916,352
1936–37880,85730,676,96927,042,0033,634,9661,514,22058,065,538
1937–38920,80533,041,08229,629,0743,412,0081,669,38463,146,930
1938–39946,82230,434,29131,597,708-4,163,417†1,726,57460,710,087
1939–40960,56525,151,28729,462,838- 4,311,551†1,603,40758,002,003
1940–41992,79228,607,22125,319,1463,288,0751,666,71062,956,788
1941–421,039,78332,044,73425,376,7456,667,9891,820,60571,445,382

POSTAL.

Year.Letters, Cards, &c., posted and delivered.Total Mail Matter (Including Parcels) posted and delivered.Money-orders Issued.Postal Notes issued.‡Postal Revenue.‡
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.

* Received and despatched.

† Counted once only.

‡ Year ended 31st March following.

    £ ££
189045,927,699*69,999,563*176,427602,077189,91568,395229,867
189530,788,582†54,487,885†243,497812,604349,627120,957242,615
190041,806,994†76,801,567†369,8341,214,853490,506151,180316,858
190574,767,288†122,493,568†417,4411,541,712875,324270,300410,967
1910210,450,636310,236,516569,6572,457,5231,666,959517,315603,150
1915251,790,651356,519,892664,8603,471,8182,370,079712,753858,583
1920266,680,788360,747,489699,6745,276,7762,280,219691,2011,352,677
1925303,737,841471,503,757766,6894,977,2303,040,722902,1191,320,277
1930322,732,067542,003,413833,5055,069,6293,907,2881,128,8071,582,550
1931271,243,916465,484,009714,4783,993,0352,884,654952,4441,744,553
1932253,222,142436,615,397648,9513,335,5522,686,648958,3731,393,655
1933269,032,940461,132,572635,6743,112,7292,883,0701,061,9461,294,757
1934282,663,434486,830,600654,6213,209,7133,325,5611,140,6951,384,265
1935296,974,198526,126,679673,0573,374,0293,827,4171,293,9551,466,857
1936299,763,764534,097,248733,9663,794,6483,833,2881,378,3871,628,868
1937310,084,924547,687,799784,4954,312,6293,746,5601,454,7931,822,308
1938325,822,120608,682,253848,0504,802,2933,835,4001,485,4262,033,488
1939321,114,532591,476,930911,4845,094,3643,374,8521,323,3981,938,607
1940296,684,295531,941,815812,6674,435,0072,558,9161,020,6302,084,361
1941291,794,405540,067,900751,7224,302,1262,408,020980,9522,194,042

GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS.

Year ended 31st March.Miles Open for Traffic.Capital Cost of Open Lines.Train-mileage.Passengers carried, excluding Season-ticket Holders.Goods and Live-stock.*Revenue.†Expenditure. †

* Equivalent tonnage of live-stock.

† From 1925–26, figures relate to railway operation only.

‡ Capital cost written down by £10,400,000.

  £  Tons.££
18901,80913,899,9552,868,2033,376,4592,112,7341,095,569682,787
18951,99315,352,6133,221,6203,905,5782,123,3431,150,851732,160
19002,10416,703,8874,187,8935,468,2843,251,7161,623,8911,052,358
19052,37421,701,5726,107,0798,514,1124,185,4672,209,2311,492,900
19102,71728,513,4767,889,16611,141,1425,490,0183,249,7902,169,474
19152,94534,133,8259,383,42013,565,7726,453,4724,105,4572,920,455
19202,99636,390,1157,408,60812,760,8146,000,2795,752,4874,105,067
19253,08544,570,7469,083,62312,397,0797,025,3167,112,5245,545,416
19303,28757,787,67112,022,0438,466,7797,788,9737,473,9936,848,026
19313,32260,545,15411,281,8987,265,9126,957,7096,781,3886,406,143
19323,315‡51,424,88310,168,7206,503,5665,824,8115,788,9655,301,653
19333,31551,480,9499,828,8536,870,5705,490,6865,339,0754,833,754
19343,32053,909,34710,163,4747,511,3465,642,1995,628,8354,877,146
19353,32054,089,19010,626,4007,809,0356,023,9605,908,0645,138,588
19363,32054,253,05911,050,3767,963,8246,188,8056,243,5195,523,193
19373,32054,696,43711,868,0838,284,9566,813,2406,903,6046,338,385
19383,32356,065,18712,777,8528,069,0187,516,0497,591,8257,291,785
19393,31958,676,60813,072,6157,813,4367,539,0128,005,0597,663,632
19403,39063,059,18813,366,7988,283,0677,673,9508,761,6377,943,120
19413,39064,762,79413,559,6469,440,0878,426,1829,694,1908,406,790
19423,39064,904,02013,978,96111,105,6278,473,76510,383,8808,902,592

BANKRUPTCY.

Year.Number of Bankruptcies.Debtors' Statements of Assets, excluding Amounts secured to Creditors.Amount realized by Official Assignees.Amount of Debts proved.Amount paid in Dividends and Preferential Claims.
  ££££
1890652262,733112,951381,124122,276
1895485133,60388,684239,56270,018
190030477,68953,415141,80037,411
1905304100,81347,798146,33228,150
1910393127,63479,100176,00147,796
191529492,87663,310153,92642,374
192014544,02647,89777,75245,227
1925653235,37798,648471,02880,187
1930780471,50283,308827,34568,611
1931848401,649108,8091,042,18763,185
1932661252,34875,657624,89255,940
1933450114,81761,723489,89547,884
193432672,57244,533258,92033,788
193525768,21641,037225,50823,142
193626040,55732,983169,86621,520
193722259,10055,970171,70626,700
1938267118,69864,511230,46330,793
193926782,31844,171225,49029,950
194021335,37242,418125,28930,288
194116524,53835,45371,01134,428

Chapter 47. SECTION 47.—OFFICIAL.

GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF NEW ZEALAND.

  • His Excellency Marshal of the Royal Air Force, Sir Cyril Louis Norton Newall, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.M.G., C.B.E., A.M.

  • Military Secretary and Comptroller of the Household—Major C. J. Holland-Martin, Royal Fusiliers.

  • Official Secretary—D. E. Fouhy, Esq.

  • Aide-de-Camp—Captain H. G. Helmore, M.B.E., N.Z. Temporary Staff.

  • Honorary Aides-de-Camp—Naval: Commodore E. Rotherham, R.N.; Commander M. J. Yeatman, R.N.; Acting-Commander A. D. Boyle, R.N. (Retired). Military: Brigadier A. E. Conway, O.B.E., N.Z. Staff Corps; Colonel J. G. Jeffery, M.C., V.D., N.Z. Temporary Staff; Lieutenant-Colonel D. T. Maxwell, N.Z. Staff Corps; Lieutenant-Colonel S. J. Hanna, D.S.C., N.Z. Temporary Staff; Lieutenant-Colonel W. R. Lascelles, N.Z. Temporary Staff. Air: Acting Air Commodore M. W. Buckley, M.B.E., R.N.Z.A.F.; Acting Air Commodore R. B. Bannerman, D.F.C., R.N.Z.A.F.; Group Captain S. Wallingford, R.N.Z.A.F.; Group Captain K. L. Caldwell, M.C., D.F.C., R.N.Z.A.F.

  • Honorary Physician—Colonel I. S. Wilson, M.C., E.D., M.D., F.R.C.S. (Eng.), F.R.A.C.P., N.Z. Medical Corps.

  • Honorary Surgeon—Surgeon Commander H. K. Corkill, O.B.E., V.D., M.B., Ch.B. (Edin.), F.R.C.S.(E)., R.N.Z.N.V.R.

  • His Excellency assumed office on the 22nd February, 1941.

  • For details of previous vice-regal representatives reference should be made to various issues of the Year-Book, while a complete list of the earlier vice-regal representatives will be found in the 1931 issue (pp. 59–60).

SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES AND PREMIERS.

SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT IN NEW ZEALAND IN 1856.

Name of Ministry.Name of Premier.Assumed Office.Retired.
1. Bell-SewellHenry Sewell7 May, 185620 May, 1856.
2. FoxWilliam Fox20 May, 18562 June, 1856.
3. StaffordEdward William Stafford2 June, 185612 July, 1861.
4. FoxWilliam Fox12 July, 18616 Aug., 1862.
5. DomettAlfred Domett6 Aug., 186230 Oct., 1863.
6. Whitaker-FoxFrederick Whitaker30 Oct., 186324 Nov., 1864.
7. WeldFrederick Aloysius Weld24 Nov., 186416 Oct., 1865.
8. StaffordEdward William Stafford16 Oct., 186528 June, 1869.
9. FoxWilliam Fox28 June, 186910 Sept., 1872.
10. StaffordEdward William Stafford10 Sept., 187211 Oct., 1872.
11. WaterhouseGeorge Marsden Waterhouse11 Oct., 18723 Mar., 1873.
12. FoxWilliam Fox3 Mar., 18738 April, 1873.
13. VogelJulius Vogel, C.M.G.8 April, 18736 July, 1875.
14. PollenDaniel Pollen, M.L.C.6 July, 187515 Feb., 1876.
15. VogelSir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.15 Feb., 18761 Sept., 1876.
16. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson1 Sept., 187613 Sept., 1876.
17. Atkinson (reconstituted)Harry Albert Atkinson13 Sept., 187613 Oct., 1877.
18. GreySir George Grey, K.C.B.15 Oct., 18778 Oct., 1879.
19. HallJohn Hall8 Oct., 187921 April, 1882.
20. WhitakerFrederick Whitaker, M.L.C.21 April, 188225 Sept., 1883.
21. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson25 Sept., 188316 Aug., 1884.
22. Stout-VogelRobert Stout16 Aug., 188428 Aug., 1884.
23. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson28 Aug., 18843 Sept., 1884.
24. Stout-VogelSir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G.3 Sept., 18848 Oct., 1887.
25. AtkinsonSir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G.8 Oct., 188724 Jan., 1891.
26. BallanceJohn Ballance24 Jan., 18911 May, 1893.
27. SeddonRt. Hon. Richard John Seddon, P.C.1 May, 189321 June, 1906.
28. Hall-JonesWilliam Hall-Jones21 June, 19066 Aug., 1906.
29. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bart., P.C., K.C.M.G.6 Aug., 190628 Mar., 1912.
30. MackenzieThomas Mackenzie28 Mar., 191210 July, 1912.
31. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.10 July, 191212 Aug., 1915.
32. NationalRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.12 Aug., 191525 Aug., 1919.
33. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.25 Aug., 191914 May, 1925.
34. BellHon. Sir Francis Henry Dillon Bell, G.C.M.G., K.C.14 May, 192530 May, 1925.
36. CoatesRt. Hon. Joseph Gordon Coates, P.C., M.C.30 May, 192510 Dec., 1928.
36. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bart., P.C., G.C.M.G.10 Dec, 192828 May, 1930.
37. ForbesRt. Hon. George William Forbes, P.C.28 May, 193022 Sept., 1931.
38. CoalitionRt. Hon. George William Forbes, P.C.22 Sept., 19316 Dec, 1935.
39. LabourRt. Hon. Michael Joseph Savage, P.C.6 Dec, 19351 April, 1940.
40. LabourHon. Peter Fraser1 April, 194030 April, 1940.
41. LabourRt. Hon. Peter Fraser, P.C.30 April, 1940 

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL, 1943.

His Excellency the GOVERNOR-GENERAL.

  • Right Hon. P. FRASER, P.C., Prime Minister, Minister of External Affairs, Minister of Island Territories, Minister in Charge of Police, Legislative, Electoral, Audit, and High Commissioner's Departments.

  • Hon. W. NASH, Minister of Finance, Minister of Customs, Minister of Stamp Duties, and Minister in Charge of Land and Income Tax, Public Service Superannuation, and Census and Statistics Departments.

  • Hon. D. G. SULLIVAN, Minister of Industries and Commerce, Minister of Supply and Munitions, and Minister in Charge of Scientific and Industrial Research Department.

  • Hon. H. G. R. MASON, Minister of Education, Attorney-General, Minister of Justice, Native Minister, and Minister in Charge of Prisons, Public Trust Office, Patents, Designs, Trade-marks, and Copyright Office, and Native Trust Department.

  • Hon. R. SEMPLE, Minister of Works and Minister of Railways.

  • Hon. W. E. PARRY, Minister of Internal Affairs, Minister of Social Security, and Minister in Charge of Registrar-General's Office, and Tourist and Health Resorts.

  • Hon. P. C. WEBB, Minister of Labour, Minister of Mines, Postmaster-General and Minister of Telegraphs.

  • Hon. F. JONES, Minister of Defence, and Minister in Charge of War Pensions.

  • Hon. D. WILSON, M.L.C., Minister of Immigration, Minister of Civil Defence, and Minister in Charge of Broadcasting, Government Life Insurance, and State Fire Insurance Departments.

  • Hon. J. G. BARCLAY, Minister of Agriculture, Minister of Marketing, Minister of Lands, Commissioner of State Forests, Minister in Charge of Valuation, Land for Settlements, and Scenery Preservation Departments.

  • Hon. A. H. NORDMEYER, Minister of Health, and Minister in Charge of Mental Hospitals, Friendly Societies, and National Provident Fund Departments.

  • Hon. J. O'BRIEN, Minister of Transport, Minister of Marine, and Minister in Charge of Inspection of Machinery and Printing and Stationery Departments.

  • Hon. A. MCLAGAN, M.L.C., Minister of National Service and Minister of Industrial Man-power.

  • Hon. E. T. TIRIKATENE (representing the Native race).

  • Hon. A. HAMILTON,* Minister in Charge of War Expenditure.

  • Hon. W. PERRY, M.L.C.,* Minister of Armed Forces and War Co-ordination.

  • Hon. C. F. SKINNER, M.C., Minister of Rehabilitation.

  • Clerk of the Executive Council—C. A. Jeffery, C.M.G.

*Member of War Cabinet, but not of domestic Cabinet.

LABOUR MINISTRY.

(Assumed Office, 30th April, 1940.)

Name and Office.FromTo

* Deceased.

NOTE.—The first twelve of these Ministers were also members of the two previous Ministries, the first assuming office on 6th December, 1935, and the second on 1st April, 1940.

Right Hon. Peter Fraser, P.C.—  
  Prime Minister30 April, 1940 
  Minister of External Affairs7 July, 1943 
  Minister of Island Territories7 July, 1943 
Walter Nash—  
  Minister of Finance30 April, 1940 
  Minister of Customs30 April, 1940 
  Minister of Stamp Duties30 April, 1940 
  Minister of Marketing30 April, 194021 January, 1941.
Daniel Giles Sullivan—  
  Minister of Industries and Commerce30 April, 1940 
  Minister of Railways30 April, 194021 January, 1941.
  Minister of Supply and Munitions30 April, 1940 
Henry Greathead Rex Mason—  
  Minister of Education30 April, 1940 
  Attorney-General30 April, 1940 
  Minister of Justice30 April, 1940 
  Native Minister7 July, 1943 
Hubert Thomas Armstrong*—  
  Minister of Health30 April, 194021 January, 1941.
  Minister of Public Works21 January, 19418 November, 1942.
Robert Semple—  
  Minister of Public Works30 April, 194021 January, 1941.
  Minister of Transport30 April, 19409 December, 1942.
  Minister of Marine30 April, 194012 June, 1940.
  Minister of National Service13 June, 194030 June, 1942.
  Minister of Railways21 January, 1941 
  Minister of Marine21 January, 19419 December, 1942.
  Minister of Public Works9 December, 194216 April, 1943.
  Minister of Works16 April, 1943 
William Edward Parry—  
  Minister of Internal Affairs30 April, 1940 
Patrick Charles Webb—  
  Minister of Mines30 April, 1940 
  Minister of Labour30 April, 1940 
  Postmaster-General and Minister of Telegraphs30 April, 1940 
Frederick Jones—  
  Minister of Defence30 April, 1940 
William Lee Martin—  
  Minister of Agriculture30 April, 194021 January, 1941.
Frank Langstone—  
  Minister of Lands30 April, 194021 December, 1942.
  Commissioner of State Forests30 April, 194021 December, 1942.
  Minister of External Affairs30 April, 194021 December, 1942.
  Native Minister30 April, 194021 December, 1942.
  Minister for the Cook Islands30 April, 194021 December, 1942.
David Wilson, M.L.C.—  
  Minister of Immigration30 April, 1940 
Dr. David Gervan McMillan—  
  Minister of Marine12 June, 194021 January, 1941.
James Gillispie Barclay—  
  Minister of Agriculture21 January, 1941 
  Minister of Marketing21 January, 1941 
  Minister of Lands7 July, 1943 
  Commissioner of State Forests7 July, 1943 
Rev. Arnold Henry Nordmeyer—  
  Minister of Health21 January, 1941 
Paraire Karaka Paikea*—  
  Member of Executive Council without portfolio21 January, 19416 April, 1943.
James O'Brien—  
  Minister of Transport9 December, 1942 
  Minister of Marine9 December, 1942 
Eruera Tihema Tirikatene—  
  Member of Executive Council without portfolio26 May, 1943 
Angus McLagan, M.L.C.—  
  Member of Executive Council without portfolio30 June, 1942 
  Minister of National ServiceOctober, 1942 
Clarence Farringdon Skinner, M.C.—  
  Minister of Rehabilitation24 July, 1943 

WAR CABINET.

The personnel of the War Cabinet (formed on 16th July, 1940) as at present constituted consists of the following: Right Hon. P. Fraser, P.C., Prime Minister; Hon. W. Nash, Minister of Finance; Hon. F. Jones, Minister of Defence; Hon. D. G. Sullivan, Minister of Supply and Munitions; Hon. A. Hamilton; and Hon. W. Perry, M.L.C.

The Right Hon. J. G. Coates, P.C., M.C., an original member of the War Cabinet, died on 27th May, 1943, and was replaced by Hon. W. Perry on 10th June, 1943. The Hon. S. G. Holland was appointed a member of the War Cabinet on 30th June, 1942, and resigned on 2nd October, 1942.

The War Cabinet is responsible for making all decisions in relation to war matters.

WAR ADMINISTRATION.

The War Administration, which was formed on the 30th June, 1942, and was in being for several months, was charged with the responsibility for all matters connected with the war and with New Zealand's war effort. It was constituted as follows: Right Hon. P. Fraser, P.C., Prime Minister and Chairman of War Administration and of War Cabinet; Hon. S. G. Holland, Minister in Charge of War Expenditure and Deputy Chairman of War Administration and of War Cabinet; Hon. F. Jones, Minister of Defence; Right Hon. J. G. Coates, P.C., M.C., Minister of Armed Forces and War Coordination; Hon. D. G. Sullivan, Minister of Supply and Munitions and Deputy Prime Minister; Hon. A. Hamilton, Associate Minister of Supply and Munitions; Hon. R. Semple, Minister of Transport; Hon. W. J. Poison, Minister of Primary Production for War Purposes; Hon. P. K. Paikea, Minister in Charge of Maori War Effort; Hon. W. J. Broadfoot, Minister of National Service; Hon. A. McLagan, M.L.C, Minister of Industrial Man-power; Hon. W. A. Bodkin, Minister of Civil Defence; and Hon. A. H. Nordmeyer, Minister of Health.

The Hon. S. G. Holland, Hon. W. J. Poison, Hon. W. J. Broadfoot, and Hon. W. A. Bodkin resigned on 2nd October, 1942.

PARLIAMENTARY SESSIONS.

[For earlier Parliaments and sessions refer to pp. 59–60 of the 1930 and p. 986 of the 1940 editions of the Year-Book. On some occasions there have been long adjournments during sessions, without Parliament being prorogued.]

Parliament.Dates of Opening of Sessions.Dates of Prorogation.Dates of Dissolution.
Twenty-third4 Dec., 192819 Dec., 192812 Nov., 1931.
27 June, 192911 Nov., 1929
26 June, 19305 Nov., 1930
11 Mar., 19317 May, 1931
25 June, 193111 Nov., 1931
Twenty-fourth23 Feb., 193211 May, 19321 Nov., 1935.
22 Sept., 193221 Mar., 1933
21 Sept., 193322 Dec, 1933
28 June, 193416 April, 1935
29 Aug., 193529 Oct., 1935
Twenty-fifth25 Mar., 193631 Oct., 193620 Sept., 1938.
9 Sept., 193716 Mar., 1938
28 June, 193819 Sept., 1938
Twenty-sixth27 June, 19391 Feb., 194030 Aug., 1943.
30 May, 194016 Dec, 1940
12 Mar., 194129 Oct., 1941
11 Dec., 194114 Dec, 1942
23 Feb., 194327 Aug., 1943

LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL.

ROLL OF MEMBERS OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL OF NEW ZEALAND, MAY, 1943.

Speaker—Hon. M. FAGAN. Chairman of Committees—Hon. B. MARTIN. Clerk of Parliaments and Clerk of the Legislative Council—C. M. BOTHAMLEY, J.P.

Name.Provincial DistrictDate of Appointment.
Archer, Hon. John KendrickCanterbury22 Sept., 1937.
Bishop, Hon. Thomas OttoWellington9 Mar., 1943.
Black, Hon. WalterNelson8 Sept., 1941.
Bloodworth, Hon. ThomasAuckland8 Sept., 1941.
Briggs, Hon. MarkWellington9 Mar., 1943.
Brindle, Hon. ThomasWellington9 Mar., 1943.
Campbell, Hon. ArchibaldOtago15 Dec. 1939.
Connelly, Hon. MichaelOtago9 Mar., 1943.
Cotter, Hon. JamesAuckland9 Mar., 1943.
Cumming, Hon. JamesWellington23 June, 1941.
Davis, Hon. Eliot RypinskiAuckland8 Sept., 1941.
Doyle, Hon. Thomas FrancisSouthland9 Mar., 1943.
Duncan, Hon. John EdwardAuckland22 Sept., 1937.
Eddy, Hon. RichardWellington23 June, 1941.
Fagan, Hon. MarkWellington11 June, 1937.
Grounds, Hon. WilliamAuckland15 July, 1940.
Hanan, Hon. Josiah AlfredOtago15 July, 1940.
Hunter, Hon. George RobertCanterbury9 Mar., 1943.
Lark, Hon. Frank EdwinAuckland9 Mar., 1943.
McCullough, Hon. John AlexanderCanterbury9 Mar., 1943.
McIntyre, Hon. William HendersonNelson10 Sept., 1942.
McLagan, Hon. AngusCanterbury30 June, 1942.
McLeod, Hon. JamesTaranaki8 Sept., 1941.
Martin, Hon. BernardAuckland9 Mar., 1943.
Mawhete, Hon. RangiWellington9 Mar., 1943.
O'Byrne, Hon. Thomas FrancisSouthland23 June, 1941.
O'Kane, Hon. Patrick JosephHawke's Bay8 Sept., 1941.
Perry, Hon. WilliamWellington23 June, 1911.
Robbins, Hon. Benjamin ConradAuckland9 Mar., 1943.
Rogers, Hon. William JamesWellington15 July, 1940.
Ryall, Hon. JohnWestland15 July, 1940.
Statham, Hon. Sir Charles Ernest, Kt.Wellington9 Mar., 1943.
Waite, Hon. Fred, D.S.O.Otago23 June, 1941.
Ward, Hon. Vincent AubreyWellington23 June, 1941.
Wilson, Hon. DavidWellington22 Sept, 1937.
Young, Hon. Frederick GeorgeAuckland8 Sept., 1941.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.

ROLL OF MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, MAY, 1943.

Speaker—Hon. W. E. BARNARD. Chairman of Committees—R. MCKEEN.

Clerk of the House: T. D. H. HALL, C.M.G., LL.B.

Name.Electoral District.

*Since deceased.

†Now Mrs. Polson.

For European Electorates. 
Acland, Hugh John DykeTemuka.
Anderton, William TheophilusEden.
Atmore, HarryNelson.
Barclay, Hon. James GillispieMarsden.
Barnard, Hon. William EdwardNapier.
Barrell, Charles AbrahamHamilton.
Bodkin, William AlexanderCentral Otago.
Boswell, Charles WallaceBay of Islands.
Broad foot, Walter JamesWaitomo.
Carr, Rev. Clyde LeonardTimaru.
Carr, PeterAuckland West
Chapman, Charles HenryWellington North.
Coates, Right Hon. Joseph Gordon, P.C., M.C.*Kaipara.
Cobbe, Hon. John GeorgeManawatu.
Coleman, David WilliamGisborne.
Combs, Harry ErnestWellington Suburbs.
Cotterill, Joseph Bernard FrancisWanganui.
Cullen, Edward LutterellHawke's Bay.
Denham, William Mortimer ClarenceInvercargill.
Dickie, Harold GaitPatea.
Doidge, Frederick WiddowsonTauranga.
Dreaver. Mrs. Mary MansonWaitemata.
Endean, William PhillipsRemuera.
Forbes, Right Hon. George William, P.C.Hurunui.
Fraser, Right Hon. Peter, P.C.Wellington Central.
Frost, Frederick LedgerNew Plymouth.
Goosman, William StanleyWaikato.
Gordon, Edward Brice KillenRangitikei.
Grigg, Mrs. Mary Victoria Cracroft†Mid-Canterbury.
Hamilton, Hon. AdamWallace.
Hargest, Brigadier James, D.S.O., M.C.Awarua.
Harker, Cyril Geoffrey EdmundWaipawa.
Hodgens, JosephPalmerston North.
Holland, Sidney GeorgeChristchurch North.
Howard, Miss Isabel BowdenChristchurch East.
Jones, Hon. FrederickDunedin South.
Kidd, David CampbellWaitaki.
Kyle, Herbert Seton StewartRiccarton.
Langstone, Hon. FrankWaimarino.
Lee, John Alexander, D.C.M.Grey Lynn.
Lowry, Leonard GeorgeOtaki.
McCombs, Terence HendersonLyttelton.
Macdonald, Thomas LachlanMataura.
Macfarlane, Robert MafekingChristchurch South.
McKeen, RobertWellington South.
McMillan, Dr. David GervanDunedin West.
Martin, Hon. William LeeRaglan.
Mason, Hon. Henry Great-head RexAuckland Suburbs.
Massey, John NormanFranklin.
Meachen, Edwin PurcellMarlborough.
Moncur, Alexander FrancisRotorua.
Munro, James WrightDunedin North.
Nash, Hon. WalterHutt.
Neilson, PeterDunedin Central.
Nordmeyer, Hon. Arnold HenryOamaru.
O'Brien, Hon. JamesWestland.
Osborne, Arthur GeorgeOnehunga.
Parry, Hon. William EdwardAuckland Central.
Petrie, Charles RobertOtahuhu.
Polson, William JohnStratford.
Ransom, Hon. Sir Ethelbert Alfred, K.C.M.G.*Pahiatua.
Richards, Arthur ShaptonRoskill.
Roberts, BenjaminWairarapa.
Robertson, JohnMasterton.
Roy, James Alexander McLean, M.C.Clutha.
Schramm, Frederick WilliamAuckland East.
Semple, Hon. RobertWellington East.
Skinner, Clarence FarringdonMotueka.
Stewart, Mrs. Catherine Campbell SwordWellington West.
Sullivan, Hon. Daniel GilesAvon.
Sullivan, WilliamBay of Plenty.
Sutherland, Andrew SinclairHauraki.
Thorn, JamesThames.
Webb, Hon. Patrick CharlesBuller.
Wilkinson, Charles AndersonEgmont.
Williams, Charles MorganKaiapoi.
For Maori Electorates. 
Ngata, Hon. Sir Apirana Turupa, Kt.Eastern Maori.
Paikea, Hon. Paraire KarakaNorthern Maori.
Ratana, Haami TokouruWestern Maori.
Tirikatene, Hon. Eruera TihemaSouthern Maori.

JUDICIARY.

Judges of the Supreme Court and Court of Appeal. — Chief Justice: Right Hon. Sir Michael Myers, P.C., G.C.M.G. Puisne Judges: Hon. A. W. Blair: Hon. D. S. Smith; Hon. Robert Kennedy; Hon. H. F. Johnston; Hon. A. Fair: Hon. J. B. Callan; Hon. E. H. Northcroft.

Judge of Court of Review (Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act, 1936).— Hon. H. F. Johnston,

Judges of the Arbitration Court.—Hon. A. Tyndall, Hon. W. J. Hunter.*

Temporary Judge of the Compensation Court.—P. J. O'Regan, Esq.

HONOURS.

Since the preceding issue of the Year-Book the following honours have been conferred by His Majesty the King for services rendered to the Dominion of New Zealand.

MILITARY DIVISION.

Notified 15th June, 1942:—

Companion of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath: Major-General (temporary Lieutenant-General) Edward Puttick, D.S.O., New Zealand Staff Corps. Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire: Group Captain George Stacey Hodson, A.F.C., R.A.F. Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire: Major (temporary Lieutenant-Colonel) Edgar Ravenswood McKillop; Lieutenant-Commander Richard James Bailey, R.N. Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire: Flight Lieutenant Donald Edward Grigg, R.N.Z.A.F., Lieutenant and Quartermaster (Temporary Captain and Quartermaster) Thomas Alexander Stewart McKenzie, New Zealand Permanent Stall. Air Force Cross: Wing Commander Donald William Baird, R.N.Z.A.F.; Flight Lieutenant Edward Buckland Firth, R.N.Z.A.F. Air Force Medal: Sergeant Allan Arthur Hodder, Air Gunner, R.N.Z.A.F. British Empire Medal: Chief Stoker Herbert Frederick McKain, R.N.; Supply Chief Petty Officer John Francis Whitehead, R.N.

Notified 14th January, 1943:—

* President of Price Tribunal.

Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire: Brigadier Henry Esau Avery, C.M.G., D.S.O., New Zealand Military Forces. Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire: Commander Andrew Douglas Holden, Royal New Zealand Naval Reserve; Lieutenant-Colonel George Frederick Bertrand, New Zealand Military Forces; Wing Commander Esmond Allen Gibson. R.N.Z.A.F. Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire: Flight Lieutenant Frank Lionel Goldsmith, R.N.Z.A.F.; Commissioned Gunner William Robert Corner, R.N.; Warrant Officer (Class II) Martin Te Takahi McRae, New Zealand Military Forces; Squadron Sergeant-Major (Warrant Officer, Class II) Eric William Gerrie Hulton Forsyth, New Zealand Military Fortes. Air Force Cross: Squadron Leader James Duff Hewitt, R.N.Z.A.F.; Squadron Leader Henry Walker. R.N.Z.A.F. British Empire Medal: Pilot Officer Walter Andrew Chandler, R.N.Z.A.F.; Warrant Officer Gordon Kells, R.N.Z.A.F.; Chief Engine-room Artificer Charles Thomas John Foster, R.N.; Supply Chief Petty Officer John Fleetwood Potts, R.N.; Sergeant John Rennie, New Zealand Military Forces; Corporal Leslie Maddren, New Zealand Military Forces.

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS.

LIST OF DEPARTMENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT, WITH TITLES AND NAMES OF PERMANENT HEADS, AUGUST, 1943.

Department.Permanent Head.
Title.Name.
AgricultureDirector-GeneralE.J. Fawcet, M.A. (Cantab.).
AirChief of Air Staff and First Air Force Member of the Air BoardAir Vice-Marshal L. M. Isitt, C.B.E.
 Air SecretaryT. A. Barrow.
MeteorologicalDirectorWing Commander M. A. F. Barnett, M.Sc., Ph.D., F. Inst. P.
ArmyChief of the General StaffLieutenant General E. Puttick, C.B., D.S.O.
 Army SecretaryF. B. Dwyer.
AuditController and Auditor-GeneralC. G. Collins.
BroadcastingDirectorJ. Shelley, M.A. (Cantab.).
Census and StatisticsGovernment StatisticianJ. W. Butcher.
Crown LawSolicitor-GeneralH. H. Cornish, K.C., M.A., L.L.M.
CustomsComptrollerE. D. Good.
EducationDirectorC. E. Beeby, M.A., Ph.D.
External AffairsSecretaryA. D. M. McIntosh, M.A.
Government Life InsuranceCommissionerJ. W. Macdonald.
HealthDirector-GeneralM. H. Watt, C.B.E., M.D., D.P.H.
Housing ConstructionDirectorG. W. Albertson.
Industries and Commerce, Tourist and PublicitySecretary for Industries and Commerce, and General Manager for Tourist and PublicityL. J. Schmitt.
 Commissioner of SupplyF. R. Picot.
Internal AffairsUnder-Secretary and Clerk of WritsJ. W. A. Heen, C.B.E., LL.B.
ElectoralChief Electoral OfficerL. Irwin.
Island TerritoriesSecretaryW. Tailby.
Justice and PrisonsUnder-Secretary of Justice, Controller-General of Prisons, Chief Probation Officer, and Registrar-General of Births, Deaths, and MarriagesB. L. Dallard.
LabourSecretaryH. E. Moston, C.B.E.
Land and Deeds and Stamp DutiesSecretary for Land and Deeds, and Commissioner of Stamp DutiesP. G. Pearce.
Land and Income TaxCommissioner of TaxesJ. M. Park.
Lands and SurveyUnder-Secretary and Land Purchase ControllerR. G. Macmorran.
Law DraftingCounsel to Law Drafting OfficeJ. Christie, C.M.G., LL.M.,
 Law DraftsmanH. D. C. Adams.
LegislativeClerk of Parliaments and Clerk of the Legislative CouncilC. M. Bothamley.
 Clerk of House of RepresentativesT. D. H. Hall, C.M.G., LL.B.
MarineSecretaryL.B. Campbell, A.M.Inst.C.E.
MarketingDirector, Export DivisionG. A. Duncan.
 Acting-Director, Internal Marketing DivisionR. P. Fraser.
Mental HospitalsDirector-GeneralT. G. Gray, C.M.G., M.B. Ch.B. (Aberd.), M.P.C.
MinesUnder-SecretaryC. H. Benney.
National Art Gallery and Dominion MuseumDirectorW. R. B. Oliver, D.Sc.
National Provident, and Friendly SocietiesRegistrar and SuperintendentR. Sinel.
National ServiceDirectorJ. S. Hunter.
 Controller of Man-powerH. L. Bockett.
NativeUnder-Secretary and Native TrusteeO. N. Campbell.
NavyChief of the Naval Staff and First Naval MemberCommodore Sir Atwell H. Lake, Bt., O.B.E.
 Naval SecretaryPaymaster — Captain N. H. Beall, O.B.E., R.N.
PoliceCommissionerD. J. Cummings.
Post and TelegraphDirector-GeneralJ. G. Young.
Prime Minister'sPermanent Head, Chief Private Secretary, Secretary to Cabinet, and Clerk of the Executive CouncilC.A. Jeffery, C.M.G.
Printing and StationeryGovernment PrinterE. V. Paul.
Public Service Commissioner's OfficeCommissionerJ. H. Boyes.
Public Service SuperannuationActing-SecretaryR. Sinel.
Public TrustPublic TrusteeW. G. Baird.
Public WorksEngineer-in-Chief and Under-SecretaryW. L. Newnham, M.Inst.C.E.
RailwaysGeneral ManagerE. Casey, A.M.Inst.C.E.
Scientific and Industrial ResearchSecretaryE. Marsden, C.B.E., D.Sc.
Dominion LaboratoryDirector and Dominion AnalystR. L. Andrew, F.I.C.
Geological SurveyDirectorJ. Henderson, M.A., D.Sc., B.E., A.O.S.M.
Social SecurityChairman, Social Security CommissionH. Digby-Smith.
State Advances Corporation of New ZealandJoint Managing Directors{A. D. Park, C.M.G.
  T. N. Smallwood.
 ManagerG. E. Miller.
State Fire and Accident InsuranceGeneral ManagerJ. H. Jerram, I.S.O.
State ForestDirector and SecretaryA. R. Entrican, A.M.Inst.C.E.
TransportCommissionerG. L. Laurenson, A.M.Inst.C.E.
TreasurySecretaryB. C. Ashwin, M.Com.
Government Actuary's BranchGovernment ActuaryS. Beckingsale, F.I.A.
ValuationValuer-GeneralW. Stewart.

THE PUBLIC SERVICE.

The Public Service of New Zealand was placed under the Commissioner system of control by the Public Service Act, 1912. The Public Service Commissioner is appointed by the Governor-General, and is responsible only to Parliament.

Except in the case of the Post and Telegraph Department, the Railway Service, the uniformed branches of the Police, Air, Navy, and Army Departments, the Legislative Department, the Judiciary, and the Magistracy, and in a few other instances, public servants are under Commissioner control.

The present Public Service Commissioner is Mr. J. H. Boyes.

GRADING OF OFFICERS.

The Public Service Act provides for the classification of officers in the following divisions:—

  1. Administrative.—To include such positions as the Governor-General, by notification in the New Zealand Gazette, may declare to belong to this division. Officers in this division are paid such emoluments as may be provided in the annual appropriations authorized by Parliament.

  2. Professional.—To include all officers whose duties involve special skill or technical knowledge usually acquired only in some profession, and whose offices the Commissioner directs to be included in this division. The schedule of salaries payable is as under:—

    Class.Subdivision.
    1st.2nd.3rd.4th.5th.6th.7th.8th.9th.10th.

    * With efficiency bar at £265.

     ££££££££££
    Special A765         
    Special B715         
    Special C665         
    I540565590615      
    II49051        
    III445470        
    IV400425        
    V355380        
    VI280305320335      
    VII8095115155180205*230255280305

    Subject to good and diligent conduct, an officer in Class VII receives the amounts shown for that class year by year. Promotion beyond Class VII depends upon vacancies occurring in the higher grades, or on the growth in importance of the position held by the officer. In special cases salaries in excess of the maximum of the division may be paid with the approval of the Commissioner, but in such cases provision must be made in the annual estimates of expenditure and the amount of increase must be appropriated by Parliament.

  3. Clerical.—To include all such officers as the Commissioner may from time to time direct to be included in this division. Payment of salaries follows the scale set out for the Professional Division.

  4. Educational.—To include all officers under the control of the Public Service Commissioner engaged in the Education Service as defined by the Public Service Superannuation Act, 1927. In this division officers are paid salaries in accordance with a fixed amount or scale determined by the Commissioner.

  5. General.—To include all officers not included in the other divisions. The salary rates are on the basis of a fixed amount or on a scale determined by the Commissioner.

The Commissioner is required to grade officers in the foregoing divisions according to fitness and the character and importance of the duties performed by such officers. The Act provides for a general regrading of the whole of the Service every five years. Under notice published in the New Zealand Gazette of 13th November, 1941, the five-year interval has been temporarily extended on account of war conditions.

PROMOTION OF OFFICERS.

The determining factors as regards the promotion of officers are efficiency and suitability. Only where it is not possible to separate officers on these grounds is recourse made to seniority. Relative efficiency of officers is determined by reference to special qualifications and aptitude for the discharge of duties of the office to be filled, together with merit, diligence, and good conduct.

APPOINTMENT OF OFFICERS.

Only natural-born or naturalized British subjects are eligible for appointment to the New Zealand Public Service. All admissions are, in the first instance, on probation, the usual probationary period being two years. An employee may be dispensed with at any time during this period. Entry to cadetships in the Clerical and Professional Divisions is determined by competitive examinations. Vacancies in the other divisions, and in the classes of the Professional and Clerical Divisions above the lowest grade, are advertised in the Public Service Official Circular (a publication circulating throughout all Government Departments), and, where necessary, in newspapers. The competitive examination for entry to the Clerical and Professional Divisions is now the Public Service Entrance, but where applicants are available with higher qualifications—e.g., University Entrance, School-leaving Certificate, &c.—they are given preference.

PUBLIC SERVICE BOARD OF APPEAL.

Officers have the right of appeal concerning—

  1. The gradings allotted by the Commissioner at the five-yearly regrading of the Service;

  2. Promotions approved by the Commissioner if the appellant had applied for the position and his appointment thereto would have involved his promotion; and

  3. Determinations and penalties imposed by the Commissioner in respect of charges made against officers.

The constitution of the Board of Appeal is as under:—

  1. Two persons, of whom at least one must be an officer of the Public Service, appointed by the Governor-General.

  2. Two persons, being officers of the Public Service, elected by officers of the Public Service.

One of the members appointed by the Governor-General is selected by him as Chairman. Only one of the elected members is entitled to sit at the hearing of any appeal.

Decisions of the Board of Appeal are final, and no writ of mandamus, prohibition, or certiorari lies in respect thereof to any Court.

NUMBER OF PUBLIC SERVANTS.

In Departments under the control of the Public Service Commissioner the number of permanent officers (excluding administrative officers and Native-school teachers) on 1st April, 1941, was 12,365, and on 1st April, 1942, was 12,827. The number of temporary employees (other than Native-school teachers, workmen, &c.) in these Departments was 10,032 on 1st April, 1941, and 14,457 on 1st April, 1942. These figures include those on leave of absence to serve with the Armed Forces.

Staffs of the Railways, Post and Telegraph, and Police Departments will be found in appropriate sections elsewhere in this volume, as will also the number of school-teachers. The number of workmen in the employ of the Public Works Department will be found in the section on Employment and Unemployment, and of miners, &c., in State coal-mines in the Mining section. While not exhaustive, the foregoing cover substantially the whole of the employees of the State with the exception of the Defence Services. Civilian personnel of the Services are included in the figures shown on the preceding page.

NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT REPRESENTATIVES OVERSEAS.

MINISTER.

  • New Zealand Minister in Washington, 27 Observatory Circle, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.: Hon. Walter Nash, M.P.

HIGH COMMISSIONERS.

  • High Commissioner for New Zealand, 415 Strand, London, W.C. 2., England: Mr. W. J. Jordan.

  • High Commissioner for New Zealand, Ottawa, Canada: Vacant.

  • High Commissioner for New Zealand, Canberra, A.C.T., Australia: Mr. C. A. Berendsen, C.M.G., LL.M.

TRADE COMMISSIONERS AND OTHER OFFICIAL REPRESENTATIVES.

  • Canada and United Stales of America.—Mr. E. E. Ackland, P.O. Box 16, Vancouver, B.C. N.Z. Supply Mission, care of High Commissioner for New Zealand, 103 Wurtenberg Street, Ottawa, Canada. The Director, N.Z. Supply Mission, 203 McGill Building, 908 G Street (Postal address: P.O. Box 680, Benjamin Franklin Station), Washington, D.C., U.S.A. N.Z. Supply Mission, care of British Purchasing Commission, 15 Broad Street, New York, U.S.A. Mr. S. B. Pilcher, Honorary Agent, care of Union Steam Ship Co., Ltd., San Francisco.

  • South Africa.—Mr. H. Middlebrook, 3 Natal Bank Buildings, West Street, Durban. Mr. H. J. Constable, P.O. Box 1969. Johannesburg.

  • India.—N.Z. Delegation, Eastern Group Supply Council, New Delhi, India.

  • Fiji.—.Messrs. W. R. Carpenter and Co., Fiji, Ltd., Suva.

  • Australia.—N.Z. Trade and Tourist Commissioner, and N.Z. Supply Liaison Officer. 14 Martin Place, Sydney. The District Manager, N.Z. Government Tourist and Trade Bureau, and N.Z. Supply Liaison Officer, Colonial Mutual Life Building, Collins and Elizabeth Streets, Melbourne.

OFFICIAL REPRESENTATIVES OF BRITISH COUNTRIES IN NEW ZEALAND.

  • United Kingdom.—High Commissioner in New Zealand: Sir H. F. Batterbee, K.C.M.G., K.C.V.O., Government Life Insurance Building, Wellington. H.M. Trade Commissioner: R. Boulter, C.M.G., T. and G. Buildings, Grey Street (P.O. Box 369), Wellington.

  • Canada.—High Commissioner: Dr. W. A. Riddell, Government Life Insurance Building, Wellington. Acting Trade Commissioner: C. B. Birkett, Yorkshire House, Shortland Street, Auckland.

  • Australia.—Trade Commissioner: J. L. Menzies (acting), D.I.C. Building, Wellington.

OFFICIAL REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA IN NEW ZEALAND.

Legation: D.I.C. Building, Wellington.

Chargé. d'Affaires—Raymond E. Cox; Commercial Attaché—Basil D. Dahl; Second Secretary, Consul—Thomas S. Horn; Third Secretary, Vice-Consul—T. Eliot Weil; Third Secretary, Vice-Consul—John Evarts Horner; Third Secretary, Vice-Consul—Parker T. Hart; Military Attaché—Colonel John H. Nankivell; Naval Attaché—Captain James P. Olding; Assistant Military Attaché for Air—Major Harry M. Brandon; Press Attaché—Peter O'Crotty; Assistant Naval Attaché—Lieut. George Bliss Lane.

Consulate, Auckland.

Consul—Hiram A. Boucher; Vice-Consuls—John C. Fuess, Paul Paddock; Hon. Vice-Consul—Leonard A. Bachelder.

Consular Agency, Christchurch.

Consular Agent—H. P, Bridge.

Consular Agency, Dunedin.

Consular Agent—Harman Reeves.

FOREIGN CONSULS.

CONSULS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES RESIDING IN, OR WITH JURISDICTION OVER, NEW ZEALAND, SEPTEMBER, 1943.

  • Belgium.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Western Samoa): Armand Nihotte, Wellington. Acting-Consul: G. M. Smith, Auckland. Hon. Consul: Sir J. Ward, Bart., Christchurch. Consul: A. H. Alien, Dunedin.

  • Brazil.—Consul de Carriere for New Zealand: Senhor Mario Santos, Sydney. Consul: C. A. L. Treadwell, O.B.E., Wellington.

  • Chile.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: R. Dundas Smith, Sydney.

  • Consul: J. M. Wilson, Auckland.

  • China.—Consul-General: Wang Feng, Wellington. Consuls: Sze Zau Tsung, Yue H. Jackson, Wellington; Vice-Consuls: Cheng Fu Pan, Lam Chak-Kwan, Western Samoa.

  • Czechoslovakia.—Consul-General for New Zealand: Dr. Adolph Solansky, Sydney. Honorary Consuls: R. M. Algie, Auckland; E. J. Hyams, Wellington; D. J. Shea, Christchurch.

  • Denmark.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: Count Erik Hans Schack, Sydney. Consul: Stronach Paterson, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: W. Perry, Hokitika; C. G. Macindoe, Auckland. Acting-Consul: A. C. Perry, Christchurch.

  • Greece.—Honorary Consul-General for New Zealand: T. E. Y. Seddon, Wellington. Deputy Consul-General: S. Garland.

  • Latvia.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand—including Western Samoa—and its Dependencies): C. Zarine, London. Honorary Consul: N. E. Heath, Auckland.

  • Netherlands.—Consul: M. F. Vigeveno, Wellington. Honorary Vice-Consuls: F. Bauer, Auckland; G. N. Francis, Christchurch; G. Ritchie, Dunedin.

  • Nicaragua.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction in New Zealand): Senor Don Rafael Medina, Sydney.

  • Norway.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: F. S. Platou, Sydney. Honorary Consul (with jurisdiction over Western Samoa also): J. Halligan, Wellington. Honorary Vice-Consuls: D. Millar, Auckland; V. E. Hamilton, Christchurch; W. F. Edmond, Dunedin; E. E. Broad, Invercargill.

  • Peru.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: J. M. Paxton, Sydney.

  • Poland.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Western Samoa): Dr. Kazimierz Wodzicki, Wellington.

  • Portugal.—Consuls: David L. Nathan, Auckland; W. S. Wheeler, Wellington. Honorary Vice-Consul: Alfred Nathan, Auckland. Vice-Cousul: J. Elvidge, Dunedin.

  • Spain.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Western Samoa): Senor Don Ricardo Baeza Duran, Sydney. Honorary Vice-Consul: A. K. S. Maokenzie, Wellington.

  • Sweden.—Consul-General for Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji: C. O. D. von Dardel, Sydney. Consul: J. T. Martin, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: C. M. Richwhite, Auckland; W. Machin, Christchurch; J. S. Ross, C.M.G., Dunedin.

  • Switzerland.—Consul: Dr. W. Schmid, Wellington.

  • Turkey.—Consul-General for New Zealand and Dependencies and Western Samoa: Inayetullah Cemal Ozkaya, London. Honorary Consul: E. G. Cowell, Auckland.

  • United Slates of America.—See Official Representatives, p. 674.

  • Uruguay.—In charge of consulate: F. D. Burnett, Wellington.

  • Yugoslavia.—Honorary Consul: John Totich, Auckland.

Appendix A. APPENDICES

(a) PRINCIPAL EVENTS.

CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF SOME NOTEWORTHY EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND.

1642.Discovery of New Zealand by Tasman.
1765.Discovery of Pukapuka Island, in Cook Islands Territory.
1769.Captain Cook's first visit to New Zealand.
1773.Captain Cook discovered Island of Manuae, in Cook Group.
1788.Discovery of Macaulay and Curtis Islands (Kermadec Group), and of Bounty Islands.
1791.Discovery of Snares and Chatham Islands.
1792.First sealing gang left on New Zealand coast.
1703.Discovery of Raoul or Sunday Island (Kermadec Group). Visit of Lieutenant-Governor King, of Norfolk Island, to Doubtless Bay.
1800.Discovery of Antipodes Islands.
1806.Discovery of Auckland Islands.
1807.Defeat of Hongi and the Ngapuhi Tribe.
1810.Discovery of Campbell Island.
1814.Arrival of Rev. Samuel Marsden, and introduction of Christianity. Horses, cattle, sheep, and poultry first brought to New Zealand.
1818.Hongi's and Te Morenga's great expedition to East Cape.
1819–20.Raid on Taranaki and Port Nicholson by Patuone, Nene, and Te Rauparaha.
1820.Hongi's visit to England. First vessel entered Auckland Harbour.
1821.Hongi's capture of Mauinaina and Te Totara Pas. Ngati-Toa migration from Kawhia to Otaki.
1822.Fall of Matakitaki Pa, Waikato, to Hongi.
1823.Fall of Mokoia Pa, Rotorua, to Hongi.
1823–28.Jurisdiction of Courts of Justice in New South Wales extended to British subjects in New Zealand.
1824.Fall of Te Whetumatarau Pa to Pomare.
1825.First attempt at colonization, by an expedition under Captain Herd. Great defeat of Ngati-Whatau by Hongi.
1827.Hongi's forces destroyed mission station at Whangaroa.
1828.Death of Hongi.
1829.Brig “Hawes” captured by Maoris.
1830.Battles of Taumata-wiwi and Kororareka. Fall of Kaiapohia Pa, Canterbury, to Te Rauparaha.
1831.Tory Channel whaling-station established. Application of thirteen chiefs for the protection of King William IV. Capture of Pukerangiora Pa. Waitara, by Waikato.
1832.Repulse of Waikato at Nga-motu Pa.
1833.Mr. James Busby appointed British Resident at Bay of Islands.
1834.Battle near Otaki. Waimate Pa shelled and captured by British—first occasion on which H.M. troops employed in New Zealand.
1835.Declaration of independence of the whole of New Zealand as one nation, with title of “United Tribes of New Zealand.” Ngati-Awa tribes migrated to and conquered Chatham Islands.
1836.Battles between Waikato and To Arawa.
1838.Pelorus Sound discovered. Arrival of Roman Catholic mission under Bishop Pompallier.
1839.Governor of New South Wales authorized to include within the limits of that colony any territory that might be acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand. Preliminary expedition of New Zealand Company under Colonel Wakefield arrived at Port Nicholson.
1840.Arrival of New Zealand Company's settlers at Port Nicholson. Treaty of Waitangi signed. British sovereignty proclaimed. Captain Hobson appointed Lieutenant-Governor, with residence at Auckland. Settlements formed at Petre (Wanganui) and Akaroa.
1841.Issue of charter of incorporation of New Zealand Company. New Zealand proclaimed independent of New South Wales. Arrival of New Plymouth settlers.
1842.Settlement founded at Nelson.
1843.Affray with Natives at the Wairau.
1844.Royal flagstaff at Kororareka cut down by Heke.
1845.Destruction of Kororareka by Heke.
1846.Arrival of first steam vessel (H.M.S. “Driver”) in New Zealand waters. Capture of pa at Ruapekapeka and termination of Heke's war. Native hostilities near Wellington. Te Rauparaha captured and detained as a prisoner. New Zealand divided into two provinces, New Munster and New Ulster, and representative institutions conferred.
1847.Attack by Maoris on Wanganui.
1848.Suspension of that part of New Zealand Government Act which had conferred representative institutions. Severe earthquake at Wellington. Otago founded.
1850.Surrender of New Zealand Company's charter, all its interests reverting to the Imperial Government. Canterbury founded.
1852.Discovery of gold at Coromandel. Constitution Act passed, granting representative institutions to New Zealand, and dividing country into six provinces.
1854.Opening at Auckland of first session of the General Assembly.
1855.First members elected to the House of Representatives under system of responsible Government. Very severe earthquake on both sides of Cook Strait.
1856.Appointment of first Ministry under system of responsible Government.
1857.Goldfield opened at Collingwood.
1858.New Provinces Act passed. Hawke's Bay Province constituted.
1859.Establishment of Marlborough Province.
1860.Hostilities in Waitara district.
1861.Truce arranged with Waitara Maoris. Bank of New Zealand incorporated. Southland Province established. Gold discovered at Gabriel's Gully, Otago.
1862.Coromandel proclaimed a goldfield. Wreck of s.s. “White Swan,” with loss of many public records. First electric-telegraph line opened—Christchurch to Lyttelton.
1863.Wreck of H.M.S. “Orpheus” on Manukau bar, with loss of 181 lives. Control of Native affairs transferred to Colonial Government. Commencement of Waikato War. Defeat of Maoris at Rangiriri, and occupation of Ngaruawahia. First railway in New Zealand opened.
1864.Severe fighting in Waikato and elsewhere, including Battles of Rangiaohia, Orakau, Gate Pa, and Te Ranga, Gold discovered on west coast of South Island.
1865.Seat of Government transferred to Wellington. Further fighting, followed by proclamation of peace. Activities of Hauhau fanatics, including murders of Europeans. Rebel Natives defeated at Wairoa.
1866.Further defeats of rebel Natives. Commencement of Panama steam mail-service. Cook Strait submarine telegraph-cable laid.
1867.Opening of Thames Goldfield. Lyttelton Tunnel completed. Admission of four Maori members to House of Representatives as direct representatives of Maori people.
1868.Maori prisoners, under leadership of To Kooti, seized schooner “Rifleman” and escaped from Chatham Islands to mainland, where they massacred Europeans. Considerable fighting with these and other rebel Natives.
1869.Continuation of fighting with rebels and of pursuit after To Kooti. Termination of Panama mail-service. Visit of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh. Government Life Insurance Office established.
1870.Further fighting with Te Kooti. Last of Imperial troops left New Zealand. Commencement of San Francisco mail-service. Bounty Island taken possession of. Inauguration of Vogel public-works policy. Act passed to establish the New Zealand University. Southland Province reunited with Otago.
1871.Commencement of railway-construction under public-works policy.
1872.Resumption of friendly relations with Waitara Maoris. Appointment of Maori chiefs (two) to Legislative Council. Public Trust Office created.
1873.Establishment of New Zealand Shipping Company.
1874.In pursuance of immigration and public-works policy, 31,774 assisted immigrants introduced. Westland Province established.
1875.Resumption of amicable relations with Maori King. Establishment of Union Steam Ship Company. Abolition of Provinces Act passed.
1876.New Zealand connected by cable with Australia. Abolition of Provinces Act came into operation, provincial institutions being abolished and the country divided into counties and boroughs.
1877.Education Act passed, providing for free and compulsory education.
1878.Completion of the Christchurch-Invercargill railway.
1879.Trouble with Parihaka Natives, under Te Whiti, and imprisonment of 180 of these. Triennial Parliaments Act passed. Adult male suffrage introduced. Kaitangata coal-mine explosion, whereby thirty-four lives lost.
1880.Release of Parihaka prisoners.
1881.Wreck of s.s. “Tararua,” with loss of 130 lives. Severe earthquakes in Wellington. Arrest of Te Whiti and Tohu.
1882.First shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand.
1883.Amnesty to Maori political offenders proclaimed. Te Whiti and Tohu released. Direct steam communication inaugurated between New Zealand and England.
1885.New Zealand Industrial Exhibition at Wellington.
1886.Tarawera eruption, involving loss of 101 lives and destruction of Pink and White Terraces.
1887.Annexation of Kermadec Islands. Members of House of Representatives reduced to seventy-four, including four Maoris.
1888.British protectorate over Cook Islands proclaimed.
1889.South Seas Exhibition at Dunedin.
1890.Great maritime strike. First election of House of Representatives under one-man-one-vote principle.
1891.Inauguration of Liberal regime under Hon. John Ballance, succeeded on his death in 1893 by Mr. Seddon. This and following years marked by passage of industrial and social legislation.
1892.Introduction of lease-in-perpetuity system of land-tenure.
1893.Franchise extended to women. Special licensing poll introduced.
1894.Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act passed. Government Advances to Settlers Act passed. Wreck of s.s. “Wairarapa,” with loss of 135 lives.
1895.Government assumed management of Midland Railway.
1896.Brunner Mine explosion, causing sixty-seven deaths. Abolition of non-residential or property qualification to vote. Government Valuation of Land Act passed.
1898.Old-age Pensions Act passed.
1899.Labour Day instituted. New Zealand Contingent (the first of ten) sent to South Africa.
1900.Number of European representatives in Lower House increased to seventy-six.
1901.T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York visited New Zealand. Penny postage adopted by New Zealand. Cook and other Pacific islands annexed.
1902.Pacific cable opened. Wreck of s.s. “Elingamite “, with loss of forty-three lives. Conference of colonial Premiers in London.
1903.Empire Day proclaimed. State Fire Insurance Act passed.
1905.Workers' Dwellings Act passed. Title of New Zealand's representative in London altered to “High Commissioner.”
1906.Death of Rt. Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier since 1893. Advances to Workers Act passed. New Zealand International Exhibition at Christchurch.
1907.New Zealand constituted a Dominion. Lease-in-perpetuity system of land-tenure abolished. Parliament Buildings destroyed by fire.
1908.Through railway communication established between Wellington and Auckland. Wellington-Manawatu Railway purchased by Government. Second Ballot Act passed.
1909.s.s. “Penguin” wrecked in Cook Strait, with loss of seventy-five lives. Battle-cruiser presented by New Zealand to Imperial Government. System of compulsory military training introduced.
1910.Field-Marshal Lord Kitchener reported and advised on New Zealand defences. Public Debt Extinction Act and National Provident Fund Act passed.
1911.Wireless telegraphy installed in New Zealand. Widows' Pensions Act passed. First poll on national prohibition taken.
1912.Foundation-stone of new Parliament Buildings laid. Public Service placed under Commissioner control.
1913.Visit of Dominions Royal Commission. Visit of gift ship H.M.S. “New Zealand” to Dominion. Extensive strikes. Second Ballot Act repealed.
1914.Western Samoa occupied by New Zealand Advance Expeditionary Force. Main Expeditionary Force left for Egypt. Huntly coal-mine disaster, whereby forty-three lives lost.
1915.New Zealand Expeditionary Force engaged in operations on Gallipoli Peninsula. National Cabinet formed. National register of men compiled.
1916.New Zealand Division transferred to western front, Mounted Brigade being retained in Egypt. Compulsory enrolment of men for war service introduced. Lake Coleridge electric-supply scheme opened.
1918.S.s. “Wimmera” sunk by enemy mine off New Zealand coast, with loss of 26 lives. Otira Tunnel pierced. Great influenza epidemic, causing over five thousand deaths.
1919.Women made eligible for seats in Parliament. New Zealand represented at Peace Conference by Right Hon. W. F. Massey, P.C., Prime Minister.
1920.Visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales. Railway strike. First aeroplane flight over Cook Strait. League of Nations gave New Zealand mandate to administer Western Samoa. Anzac Day constituted.
1921.Samoa Act passed, making provision for government in terms of mandate. New Zealand represented at Disarmament Conference, Washington, by Hon. Sir John Salmond.
1922.Meat-export trade placed under control of a Board.
1923.Opening of Otira Tunnel. Ross Dependency proclaimed and placed under jurisdiction of Governor-General. Dairy-produce Export Control Act passed, and adopted by dairy producers.
1924.Railway strike. Direct two-way radio communication effected with England. Motor-vehicles Act provided for registration and annual licensing of motor-vehicles. Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act passed.
1925.Repayment of the Public Debt Act passed. New Zealand and South Seas International Exhibition at Dunedin. Death of Right Hon. W. F. Massey.
1926.Administration of Tokelau (Union) Islands transferred to New Zealand. Absolute control adopted by Dairy-produce Control Board. Family Allowances Act passed.
1927.Visit of T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York. Summer Time Act passed. Petrol-tax imposed.
1928.Kingsford Smith and party made first successful flight across Tasman Sea. Compulsory insurance of motor-vehicles provided for by Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act.
1929.Severe earthquake in Murchison-Karamea district caused seventeen deaths. Daylight-saving (half-hour) permanently adopted for summer months. Fatal clash between police and Mau at Apia.
1930.Legislation providing for relief of unemployment first passed. Deaths of Sir Joseph Ward, Sir Robert Stout, and Sir Thomas Mackenzie, ex-Premiers,
1931.Worst earthquake in history of New Zealand occurred in Hawke's Bay, resulting in the loss of 255 lives. General reduction of 10 per cent. in wages and salaries. Parliament approved draft Statute of Westminster. Mortgagors' relief legislation passed.
1932.Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act made important changes in industrial legislation. National Expenditure Adjustment Act made reductions in old-age and other pensions, in salaries of State employees, and in rentals, interest rates, and other fixed charges. The historic Waitangi Estate presented to the nation by Their Excellencies Lord and Lady Bledisloe. New Zealand represented at Ottawa Conference.
1933.Exchange raised at instance of Government to £125 N.Z. for £100 London (telegraphic transfers). Sales tax of 5 per cent. on wholesale sales instituted. Interest reduced on public internal debt, and provision made for local authorities' interest reduction and loans conversion. Successful experimental shipments of chilled beef to England. First New Zealand silver coins in circulation.
1934.First official trans-Tasman air-mail. Reserve Bank incorporated and commenced business. H.R.H. the Duke of Gloucester arrived on an official visit. First licensed air-transport service commenced operations.
1935.Bank-notes of trading banks ceased to be legal tender. Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act passed, and Court of Review established. National Government defeated at general election, and Labour Government assumed office.
1936.Inauguration of inter-Island trunk air services. Reserve Bank nationalized. System of guaranteed prices for butter and cheese introduced. Forty-hour' week became operative. Powers of Arbitration Court restored. Rail-car services inaugurated. New Zealand elected to seat on League of Nations Council.
1937.New Zealand represented at Imperial Conference by Right Hon. M. J. Savage, Hon. W. Nash, and Mr. W. J. Jordan. Death of Lord Rutherford of Nelson.
1938.Death of Dr. Sir F. Truby King. Country library service inaugurated. “All-up” letter air-mail service to British countries brought into operation. Mr W. J. Jordan, New Zealand's representative on League of Nations, elected President of the League Assembly. Appointment of Sir H. Batterbee as first British High Commissioner in New Zealand. Social Security Act passed. General election: Labour Government returned for second term. Introduction of import control.
1939.Declaration of war with Germany. Emergency war legislation passed and Ministry of Supply established. Recruitment for 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Formation of National Military Reserve. Imposition of petrol restrictions. Visit of Hon. P. Fraser to London in connection with Empire war effort. Arrangements for purchase of primary products by Imperial Government. New Zealand Centennial Exhibition opened at Wellington. Appointment of Major-General Freyberg, V.C., as Commander of New Zealand Forces overseas. Issue of New Zealand bronze coinage. Naval engagement off River Plate, South America, in which H.M.S. “Achilles,” largely manned by New Zealand ratings, in action.
1940.Centennial celebrations. Departure of First Echelon of 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force, followed later by further echelons and reinforcements. Arrival of Dr. W. A. Riddell as first High Commissioner for Canada. Death of the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage, P.C.; succeeded in office by Hon. P. Fraser. Universal superannuation became operative. Trans-Tasman air service commenced. National register of man-power compiled. Declaration of war on Italy. Special War Cabinet formed. Cessation of voluntary recruiting. Regulations gazetted providing for formation of Home Guard and Emergency Precautions Organization. Proclamation of enrolment of First Division of the General Reserve under National Service Emergency Regulations. Economic conference called to consider stabilization of costs, wages, and prices. First flight of South Pacific air service between Honolulu and Auckland. Departure of New Zealand delegation for Empire Economic Conference at Delhi. Ballots for military service—territorial and overseas. National savings scheme inaugurated by opening of national savings accounts and issuing of national savings bonds. Excess Profits Tax Act passed. Number of vessels became victims of enemy raiders in Pacific. Island of Nauru bombarded by enemy raider.
1941.Formation of Women's Auxiliary Air Force. Italian raider sunk by H.M.S. “Leander” in Indian Ocean, Air Force Cadet Corps established. Daylight saving period extended to cover whole year. Pharmacy benefits under Social Security Act instituted, Minesweeper H.M.S. “Puriri” sunk by mine in Hauraki Gulf, five fatalities. Age-limit of the First Division of the General Reserve reduced to eighteen. First enrolment of married men for military service. £10,000,000 War Loan oversubscribed. Home Guard placed under army control. Minesweeper “Hinau” launched; first New-Zealand-built naval vessel. Death penalty abolished, also flogging and whipping. Change in designation of naval forces to “Royal New Zealand Navy.” General election postponed. “General Practitioner Scheme” under Social Security Act inaugurated. Declaration of war with Finland, Hungary, and Rumania. Declaration of war with Japan. Territorial forces mobilized. Restrictions on holiday travelling. War Damage Act passed. Hon. W. Nash appointed as first Minister to Washington.
1942.Formation of naval auxiliary patrol. Dollar currency made negotiable at any bank in New Zealand. Complete mobilization of Military Forces ordered. Restrictions placed on sale of motor tires and tubes. Introduction of control of industrial man-power—certain industries declared essential. Compulsory enrolment of all male British subjects between ages of eighteen and sixty-six, inclusive, in Emergency Reserve Corps. Brigadier Patrick J. Hurley appointed United States Minister to New Zealand. Lend-lease reciprocal aid extended to include Australia and New Zealand. Formation of Women's Army Auxiliary Corps. By-elections for Hauraki, Temuka, and Mid-Canterbury. Gold to value of £2,397,000 salvaged from R.M.S. “Niagara,” sunk off New Zealand coast by enemy mine in 1940. Direct radio communication inaugurated with United States of America. Contract made for supply of dehydrated butterfat to United Kingdom. Commodore Sir Atwell H. Lake, Bt., O.B.E., appointed Chief of Naval Staff. Hon. F. Langstone appointed first High Commissioner for New Zealand in Canada. Rationing introduced, principal items being tea, sugar, clothing, footwear, and household linen. First Liberty Loan of £15,000,000 for war purposes oversubscribed. Formation of Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service. Severe earthquakes in Wairarapa and Wellington districts on 24th June and 2nd August. Formation of War Administration of thirteen members, including members of Opposition. Prolongation of Parliament Act extended life of Parliament until expiration of one year after termination of present war, subject to review once in each year. Visit of Prime Minister to Australia in connection with war matters. Hon. W. Nash, New Zealand Minister to Washington, visited London. Mobilization of women for essential work. Prime Minister visited United States of America at the invitation of President Roosevelt. Strike in Waikato coal-mines—control of mines taken over by the Government. Withdrawal of Opposition members from War Cabinet and War Administration. Second Liberty Loan of £10,000,000 oversubscribed. Hon. F. Langstone resigned from position of High Commissioner for New Zealand in Canada. Control Orders issued simplifying design of clothes. Thirty-seven lives lost in fire at Seacliff Mental Hospital. Economic Stabilization Emergency Regulations issued, and provision made for computation of special wartime price index.

(b) GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Previous issues of the Year-Book have contained a comprehensive list of New Zealand works, but considerations of space now prohibit the publication of such a list.

The following represents additions to the list of works appearing in the 1942 issue of the Year-Book, and has been prepared by Miss A. Woodhouse (Acting-Librarian of the Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington).

RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY.

  • MINN, Herbert Ralph. The Burden of this Unintelligible World: being a Rhythmical Version of the Book of Job. Dunedin. Whitcombe and Tombs. 1942.

  • GREENWOOD, William. The Upraised Hand, or the Spiritual Significance of the Rise of the Ringatu Faith. Polynesian Society Memoir No. 21. Wellington. The Polynesian Society. 1942.

ECONOMICS.

  • SUTCH, William Ball. The Quest for Security in New Zealand. Harmondsworth, England, Penguin Books. 1942.

LAW.

  • CUNNINGHAM, Herbert Adam. Taxation Laws of New Zealand. Second Edition of Land- and Income-tax Law in New Zealand. Wellington. Butterworth. 1942.

  • SMITH, Norman. Native Custom and Law affecting Native Land. Wellington. Maori Purposes Fund Board. 1942.

SOCIAL STUDIES.

  • GOURLAY, Henry William. Odd-fellowship in New Zealand. Christchurch. Andrews, Baty, and Co. 1942.

  • WESTON, Raymond C. G. Centennial History of New Zealand Pacific Lodge, No. 2. Wellington. Ferguson and Osborn. 1942.

EDUCATION.

  • MCQUEEN, Henry Charles. Education in New Zealand Museums: Studies in Education, No. 7. Wellington; N.Z. Council for Educational Research. 1942.

GEOLOGY.

  • COTTON, Charles Andrew. Landscape as Developed by the Processes of Normal Erosion. Cambridge, England. University Press. 1941.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

  • ANDERSEN, Johannes Carl. Maori Place Names, also Personal Names, &c. Polynesian Society Memoir No. 20. Wellington. Polynesian Society. 1942.

  • BEATTIE, Herries. Moriori: The Morioris of the South Island. Dunedin. Otago Daily Times Co. 1941.

  • BEST, Elsdon. Forest Lore of the Maori. Polynesian Society Memoir No. 19, and Dominion Museum Bulletin No. 14. Wellington. Polynesian Society and Dominion Museum. 1942.

  • PHILLIPS, William J. Maori Carving. New Plymouth. Thomas Avery and Sons. 1941.

MEDICINE.

  • SMITH, George McColl. Medical Advice from a Backblock Hospital. Christchurch. Caxton Press. 1942.

POETRY.

  • DOWLING, Basil. A Day's Journey. Christchurch. Caxton Press. 1941.

  • ELLIOTT, James Hawthorn. Idylls of an Idler. Hamilton. Waikato and King-country Press. 1942.

  • (HASTINGS, Angela.) A New Zealand Village, by Riordan Hastings (pseud.). Christchurch. Whitcombe and Tombs. 1942.

  • HERVEY, John Russell. New Poems. Christchurch. Caxton Press. 1942.

  • LAWSON, Richard. Fragmenta Animi, 1894–1941. Christchurch. Whitcombe and Tombs. 1941.

  • MACLEOD, Nellie F. H., and (Macleodsmith. Elsie). In the Dark Hour. Poems by N. F. H. Macleod and L. C. Lesley House (pseud.). Christchurch. Caxton Press. 1942.

  • RICHMOND, Mary Elizabeth. Yet We Believe. Wellington and Dunedin. A. H. and A. W. Reed. 1942.

DRAMA.

  • (FLETCHER, Owen Frederic.) Hans Andersen. A Biographical Play. Wellington. Coulls, Somerville, Wilkie. 1942.

FICTION.

  • GILBERT, Gavin Robert. Free to Laugh and Dance. Christchurch. Caxton Press. 1942.

  • STEVENS, Flora Alexa. Children First. Wellington. Harry H. Tombs. 1941.

DESCRIPTION AND TRAVEL.

  • MARSH, Ngaio, and Burdon, Randal Matthews. New Zealand. London. William Collins. 1942.

BIOGRAPHY.

  • HARCOURT, Melville. A Parson in Prison: A Biography of the Rev. George Edgar Moreton. Auckland. Whitcombe and Tombs. 1942.

  • KIDSON, Isobel Maria. Edward Kidson. Christchurch. Whitcombe and Tombs. 1941.

  • RAMSDEN, Eric. Busby of Waitangi. Wellington and Dunedin. A. H. and A. W. Reed. 1942.

WORLD WAR, 1939—

  • HOLE, Tahu. Anzacs into Battle. London. Hodder and Stoughton. 1942.

  • SAUNDERS, Hilary A. St. George. Return at Dawn: The Official Story of the N.Z. Bomber Squadron. Wellington. Director of Publicity. 1942.

HISTORY.

  • BUTLER, Frederick Burdett. Early Days, Taranaki. New Plymouth. Taranaki Herald Co. 1942.

  • FARIS, Irwin. Charleston (Nelson Province, New Zealand). Wellington and Dunedin. A. H. and A. W. Reed. 1941.

  • FIELD, Arthur Nelson. Nelson Province, 1642–1942. Nelson. A. G. Betts and Son. 1942.

  • MCKENZIE, Norman Roderick. The Gael Fares Forth: The Romantic Story of Waipu and her Sister Settlements. 2nd edition. Wellington. Whitcombe and Tombs. 1942.

  • LOWER HUTT BOROUGH COUNCIL. Lower Hutt, Past and Present. Lower Hutt. Hutt News Printing and Publishing Co. 1941.

  • PETONE'S First Hundred Years. Wellington. Petone Borough Council. 1940.

  • WHITE, George, and Munro, A. Waimamaku: The Story of a Hokianga Settlement. Auckland. Unity Press. 1941.

MISCELLANEOUS.

  • BAGNALL, Austin Graham. A reference list of books and other publications associated with the New Zealand Centennial. Wellington. Department of Internal Affairs. 1942.

  • TAYLOR, Clyde R. H. Index of the Journal of the Polynesian Society, Vols. 1–50. Wellington. The Polynesian Society. 1942.

PACIFIC ISLANDS.

  • PACIFIC ISLANDS YEAR-BOOK, 1942. Sydney. Pacific Publications. (Contains general and up-to-date accounts of Pacific Island groups.)

SAMOA.

  • DOWNS, Evelyn A. Everyday Samoan Grammar Elucidated from Conversation in the Language. Apia. Western Samoan Mail. 1942.

  • KRAMER, A. The Samoan Islands (translated from the German edition of 1902). Rarotonga. 1941.

  • COULTER, J. W. Land Utilization in American Samoa. Honolulu. Bishop Museum. 1941.

(c) LIST OF ARTICLES ON SPECIAL SUBJECTS APPEARING IN PREVIOUS ISSUES OF THE YEAR-BOOK.

Article onAppeared for the Last or Only Time in the Year-Book of
Year.Page.
Acclimatization1894430
Agriculture in New Zealand (by M. Murphy, F.L.S.)1912809
“Britomart,” mission of, at Akaroa in August, 184019271012
Building-stones1892194
Cancer in New Zealand—a statistical study1926889
Chatham Islands, the1900531
Cheviot estate, the1895264
Christchurch to West Coast, journey from1899548
Coal-deposits of New Zealand, the1900479
Cook Islands, the laws of1902573
Co-operative system of constructing public works1894234
Dairy farm survey1938429
Education system of New Zealand, the1925816
Effect of nativity order on infant mortality1925835
Exotic trees in Canterbury1904569
External trade of New Zealand, the1915858
Fauna, the194036
Forest-trees and the timber industry1899470
Frozen-meat trade, the1894311
Geology19407
Gold-dredging industry, the1899509
Government training-ship “Amokura”1913942
Hanmer thermal springs1905631
Hemp industry, the1900477
H.M.S. “New Zealand”1913932
Kauri-gum1900489
Labour in New Zealand1894362
Lakes of New Zealand193211
Land and income tax assessment1913884
Laws of England and New Zealand, difference between1896281
Libraries1940928
Live-stock production—A review based on standard values and units1929990
Local government in New Zealand1925845
Maori, ancient, his amusements, games, &c.1907707
Maori, ancient, his clothing1908734
Maori, chant (tangi)1907711
Maori, colour-sense of the1905637
Maori, marriage customs1906638
Maori, mythology1900536
Maori, neolithic, the1902578
Maori, place-names1919936
Maori, religion1901530
Maori, sociology1903641
Maori, songs1908739
Marlborough Sounds, the1901517
Midland railway, the1894386
Mineral waters and spas1940935
Mineral waters of New Zealand1913896
Moa, heir of the1899517
Mortality rates, New Zealand1927995
Mount Cook, a night on1900525
Mount Cook, district, the1899554
Mount Cook, its glaciers, and the Hermitage1898552
Mount Sefton, ascent of1900519
New Zealand contingents for South Africa1900449
New Zealand international exhibition1907701
Otago lakes, the1901523
Patents, designs, and trade-marks1893350
Plants of New Zealand, the194028
Pumice-stone deposits of New Zealand1900486
Railways in New Zealand, their history and progress1894377
Rivers of New Zealand19326
Ross Dependency1938900
Scenic wonderland, a1898565
Sheep, crossbreeding of1894308
Sheep-farming1894302
Shipping companies—  
New Zealand Shipping Company1895392
Shaw, Savill, and Albion Company1895393
Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand1895389
Southern Alps, the1894474
State farms1894243
Sydney pageant, the1901527
Terman intelligence tests in New Zealand schools1925823
Thermal-springs district1905614
Timber-trees of the world1903605
Tokaanu to Raetihi1899539
Topographical nomenclature of the Maori1919936
Totalizator, the1926838
Tourist attractions1940932
Tree-planting1906611
Tuhoeland1899546
Varieties of soil1892193
Wages and working-hours in New Zealand1919860
Waihi Gold-mining Company1897432
Waikato district and through to Wanganni1899520
Waiouru to Mangaonoho1899543
Wanganui River, up the, to Tokaanu1900509
Wattle-growing in the Auckland Provincial District1897430
Wellington—Manawatu railway, the1895381
Wellington municipal milk supply1925777
West Coast Sounds, the1894482
White Island, a day on1906637

INDEX.

A

Abattoirs, Slaughterings at, 279–282.
Abolition of Death Penalty, 125.
Aborigines (see Maoris).
Accident Funds, 210, 212, 213, 308.
Accident Insurance, 461–465.
State, 464.
Accidents—
Aircraft, 67.
Automobile, 61, 67, 120, 133, 225.
Cases treated in Hospitals, 75, 76.
Causes of, 604.
Deaths from, 61, 66, 69, 75, 76, 120, 208, 225, 303, 603–609, 630.
Frequency Rates, 602.
Industrial, 601–610, 630.
Mining, 66, 303, 308, 601–610.
Railway, 67, 120, 208, 601–610.
Time lost through, 607.
Traffic, 66, 120, 208, 225.
Tramway, 67.
Acclimatization of Fishes, 4, 298.
Accommodation Licenses, 637.
Accounts, National Savings, 375, 446.
Accounts, Public, 351–392.
Acreage and Yield of Crops, 263–273, 655.
Acreage of Holdings, 237, 495, 511.
Acts passed in 1942, 641.
Actuarial Valuation of Superannuation Funds, 411, 412, 413, 415.
Ad valorem Duties, 191.
Added Value in Manufacturing, 310, 311, 318, 321, 323, 325–333, 658.
Adjustment of Mortgages, 390, 484.
Administration, 8–10.
War, 8, 137, 666.
Adopted Children, 38, 642.
Adult Education, 117.
Adult Suffrage, 10.
Adulteration of Food, 82, 123.
Advances—
Bank, 436, 438, 439, 440, 660.
Building Societies, 478–481.
State (see State Advances and State Aid).
Advertisements, Medical, 82, 641.
Advertising by Radio, 613.
Aeradio Stations, 234, 644.
Aerated-water Factories, 328.
Aero Clubs, 143, 226, 228.
Aerodromes, 144, 226.
Aeronautical Production, 226.
Aeronautical Radio Service, 234.
Afforestation, 285–287, 292–294.
Bondholders, 293, 627.
Companies, 293.
After-lifetime, Average, 53.
Age Benefits, 394, 404, 556.
Age Distribution, 27.
Age, Mean—
At Death, 51.
At Marriage, 44.
Agents, Overseas, 641, 674.
Ages—
Of Cancer Decedents, 64.
Of Hospital Patients, 74.
Of Infants dying, 58, 59, 68, 70.
Of Injured Employees, 605.
Of Inmates of Charitable Institutions, 93, 94.
Of Inmates of Mental Hospitals, 96.
Of Issue left, 54—57.
Of Maoris dying, 68, 70.
Of Migrants, 18.
Of Offenders probationed, 130.
Of Orphans, 54, 56.
Of Parents, 34–37, 54, 55.
Of Patients in Public Hospitals, 74.
Of Persons dying, 51–53, 68, 70, 502.
Of Persons marrying, 43–45.
Of Population, 27.
Of Prisoners, 128.
Of Public-school Pupils, 105, 107.
Of Tubercular Decedents, 62.
Aggregate Private Income, 523–525.
Aggregate Wealth, 502.
Aggregation of Incomes, 517.
Aggregation of Land, 344.
Agricultural and Pastoral Production, 249–284, 631–634, 655.
Value of, 252–258, 631–633.
Volume of, 254, 633.
Agricultural Bursaries, 117.
Agricultural Clubs, 111.
Agricultural Colleges, 103, 115, 117, 251, 252.
Agricultural Machinery, 178, 261, 283, 332.
Agricultural Policy, Developments in, 261.
Agricultural Produce—
Consumed locally, 257.
Exported, 145–164, 257.
Gross Farming Income, 252–258.
Price Index Numbers, 536–539.
Agricultural Workers Act, 544, 546, 558, 568.
Agriculture, 249–273.
Department of, 251.
Research in, 251.
Aides-de-Camp, 663.
Air Bases, 143, 144.
Air Force, 143.
Expenditure on, 362.
Air Mails, 226–228, 229.
Air Training Corps, 86, 144.
Air Transport and Aviation, 226–229.
Aircraft, 226–229.
Accidents, 67.
Construction, 226.
Licensing and Control, 226–229.
Radio Communication, 234.
Aitutaki Island, 2, 234, 644.
Alcoholic Liquors—
Brewed, 328.
Duty on, 184–188, 363, 364.
Sale of, 637.
Alienation of Land, 237, 241–245, 247.
Aliens, Naturalization of, 19.
Alluvial-gold Mining, 4. 300.
Amalgamation of Local Authorities, 417.
Amortization of Debt, 356, 362, 376, 378, 379, 383–385, 424, 430.
Amusements-tax, 371, 372.
Anchorage (Suwarrow) Island, 2, 645.
Angling, 298.
Animal Life, 7.
Annexed Islands, 2, 11, 643–647.
Annual Value Rating-system, 418.
Annuities, 404, 409–415, 457, 460.
Ante-natal Services, 92.
Anthracite, 302.
Antimony-ore, 299, 300.
Antipodes Islands, 1, 643.
Apiculture, 284.
Apolima Island, 648.
Apparel, Duty on, 184.
Appeal Court (see Courts).
Apples, 272.
Exported, 153–164.
Apprentices, 554, 562, 578–580, 590.
Appropriations, Expenditure under, 356.
Arbitration Act, 544, 545, 553, 557, 563, 564, 570, 575–578, 584, 596, 599.
Unions registered under, 584–588.
Arbitration Court (see Courts).
Award Wage-rates, 552.
Area—
Of Cook and other Islands, 2, 644.
Of Exotic Forests, 292, 294.
Of Indigenous Forests, 285.
Of Land Holdings, 236, 492–495, 508.
Of New Zealand, 1, 2, 236.
Of Provincial Districts, 20.
Top-dressed, 271.
Under Crops, 263, 264–273, 655.
Under Cultivation, 237, 263, 264–273.
Army, 136–140.
Expenditure on, 362.
Arrivals, 16–19, 653.
Articles on Special Subjects in Previous Issues, 683.
Artillery, 139.
Art-unions, 371, 638.
Asbestos, 299, 302.
Assessable Income, 512–523.
Assessment Court, 432.
Assessment of—
Income-tax, 367, 512–523.
Land-tax, 366, 510.
Land Values, 432.
Assets—
Of Afforestation Companies, 293.
Of Bankrupts, 497, 499, 662.
Of Banks, 436, 438, 442, 660.
Of Building Societies, 481.
Of Electric-power Undertakings, 621.
Of Fire-insurance Companies, 466.
Of Friendly Societies, 476.
Of Life-assurance Companies, 460.
Of Local Authorities, 425, 500.
Of Manufacturing Industries, 319.
Of Reserve Bank, 436.
State, 500.
Assigned Estates, 495–499.
Assisted Immigration, 18.
Associations, Industrial, 587.
Assurance, Life, 454–461.
Asylums, 95–98.
Benevolent and Orphan, 92–94.
Atafu Island, 234, 650.
Atiu Island, 2, 234, 644.
Atlantic Salmon, 298.
Auckland—
Broadcasting Stations, 611–615.
Building Values, 339.
Dwelling Construction Costs, 350.
Dwellings, 336, 340.
Fires, 470.
Population, 22–25.
Rainfall, 7.
Retail Prices, 528–532.
Sales-tax Receipts, 374.
Shipping, 199.
Sunshine, 7.
Temperature, 7.
Tramways, 209–213.
Auckland Islands, 1, 643.
Audit of Expenditure, 351.
Auriferous Mining, 300.
Australia—
Debt domiciled in, 380, 429, 430.
New Zealand High Commissioner in, 674.
Reciprocal Trade with, 194.
Trade Commissioner for, 674.
Automatic Telephones, 233.
Automobiles (see Motor-vehicles).
Autonomy, Local (see Local Authorities).
Auxiliary Workers Training, 562.
Avarau (Palmerston) Island, 2, 645.
Aviation and Air Transport, 143, 226–229.
Award Wage-rates (see Wage-rates).
Awards to Members of Air Force, 144.

B

Bachelors marrying, 42–45.
Backward Children, 104, 112.
Bacon produced, 326.
Baconer Exports, 281.
Balance of Overseas Payments, 148, 443.
Balance of Trade, 146–148.
Balances of Public Accounts, 352.
Balance-sheet, State, 500.
Ballots for Military Service, 136, 137.
Bananas, 526, 646, 647.
Banking and Currency, 435–454, 660, 661.
Banking Companies, Taxation of, 366.
Bank-notes, 436, 438, 441, 451, 660.
Denominations of, 442, 452.
In Circulation, 438, 441, 660.
Bankruptcy, 495–499, 662.
Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, 376.
Banks, Overseas Funds of, 150, 436, 438, 442.
Banks, Savings—
Post Office, 444, 446, 447, 448, 555, 661.
School, 445.
Trustee, 445, 447, 449.
Barley, 263, 264, 265, 267, 270.
Barren Land, 236, 238.
Basic Wage, 551, 569–571, 584.
Beans, 265.
Beds, Hospital, 90, 91.
Beef—
Chilled, 153–164, 276, 280, 326.
Exports of, 153–164, 280.
Beer—
Duty on, 184, 185–188, 363, 641.
Production of, 328.
Bees, 284.
Belgium, Trade Arrangement with, 195.
Benefit Societies, 475–477.
Benefits, Social Security, 87, 88, 91, 98, 393–404, 556, 589.
Benevolent Asylums, 92–94.
Benevolent Societies, 475–477.
Bentonite, 299, 305.
Bibliography—
General, 681–683.
New Zealand Flora, 27.
Big-game Fishing, 297.
Bills, Treasury, 353, 376, 379, 381, 439.
Birthday Honours, 669.
Birthplaces of Persons naturalized, 19.
Births, 29–40, 653.
In Cook Islands, 646.
In Niue, 647.
In State Maternity Hospitals, 92.
Biscuit-factories, 327.
Bitumen-surfaced Roads, 215.
Bituminous Coal, 302, 303.
Blind, Benefits for the, 397.
Blind, School for the, 113.
Blocks of Flats, 339, 340, 349.
Board of School-children, 110.
Boat-building Works, 333.
Bobby Calves, 281.
Boer War Pensions, 404, 409.
Boilers, Inspection of, 630.
Bond-issuing Companies, 293, 627.
Bonds, National Savings, 375, 446.
Bonuses, Cost-of-living, 570, 571.
Boot and Shoe Factories, 329.
Boroughs, 415–430.
Bridges in, 215.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 433.
Debts, 428, 660.
Employees of, 594
Housing, 338–342, 421.
Mileage of Streets, 215.
Population of, 25.
Borrowing-powers of Local Authorities, 417.
Borstal Institutions, 126, 128.
Boundaries of New Zealand, 1–3.
Bounty Islands, 1, 643.
Brass-foundries, 331.
Bread—
Fixed Price for, 525.
Law re Sale of, 82.
Breeding Ewes, 274, 275.
Breeding Sows, 274, 279.
Breweries, 328.
Brickworks, 331.
Brides and Grooms, 40–46.
Bridges, 215, 347.
Bridle-tracks, 215.
Brigades, Fire, 475.
Briquetting and Carbonizing of Coal, 303.
British Children staying in New Zealand, 113.
British Nationality, 19.
British Phosphate Commission, 2.
British Postal Orders, 231.
British Preference, 165, 172, 174, 191–195.
British Trade Representatives, 674.
Broadcasting, 611—615.
Commercial, 613.
For Schools, 115.
Time Signals, 613, 640.
Bronze Coinage, 450.
Budgets, Household, 533.
Building and Construction. 333–351, 386–390.
Building Costs, 344, 348, 350.
Building Industry, Training of Apprentices, 590.
Building Materials, 334, 344, 348, 525.
Building Permits, 338–343.
Building Societies, 478–481.
Deposits, 447, 449, 481.
Buildings, 333–351.
Building-stones, 299, 306.
Bullion, Exports of, 153, 161, 162.
Bullion Production, 299, 300.
Bureau of Industry, 634—636.
Burials, 84.
Bursaries, 108, 116, 117.
Bush, 238, 264, 285.
Bushel Units, Weights of, 263.
Business Failures, 495–499, 662.
Business Premises erected, 349.
Butter (see Dairy-produce).
Butterfat, Dehydrated, 260, 277.
Butterfat Yields, 278.
By-elections, 637.

C

Cabinet, 8.
Members of, 664, 665.
War, 8, 666.
Cabinetmaking, 333.
Cable Tramways, 214.
Cables. Ocean, 233.
Cadets, 136, 139, 141.
Call, Deposits at, 438, 481.
Campbell Island, 1, 643.
Camps, Health, 85.
Camps for Women Industrial Workers, 86.
Canada—
New Zealand Representatives in, 674.
Reciprocal Trade with, 195.
Representatives in New Zealand, 674.
Cancer, 61, 62–64, 69, 75, 76, 97.
Candle-factories, 329.
Capital—
Expenditure of Government, 357, 358.
Invested in Electric-power Undertakings, 617–621.
Invested in Factories, 320.
Invested in Railways, 203, 358, 662.
Invested in Telegraph Construction, 232, 358.
Invested in Telephone Construction, 233.
Invested in Tramways, 210, 212, 214.
National, 502.
Of Banks, 435, 436, 437.
Of Joint-stock Companies, 320, 627–629.
Capital Value of Land, 431–434.
Rating on, 418.
Carbonizing and Briquetting of Coal, 303.
Cargo handled at Ports, 149.
Car-miles run by Trams, 209, 210, 214.
Carnegie Corporation, 117.
Carrots, 270.
Casein Exported, 153, 154.
Cassiterite, 302.
Casualties in the War (1914–18), 140.
Casualties, Shipping, 201.
Catchment Boards, 286.
Cattle, 274, 276, 280, 655.
Causes of—
Accidents, 604.
Death, 60, 61–70, 75, 76, 97.
Fires, 471.
Industrial Disputes, 599.
Insanity, 95.
Cement-concrete Roads, 215.
Cement-works, 330.
Cemeteries, 84.
Census, 11–15, 19–22, 28, 588, 589.
Of Dwellings, 335.
Of Poultry, 283.
Of Religions, 638.
Unemployment Statistics, 589.
Central Reserve Bank (see Reserve Bank).
Cereals, 265–268.
Certificated Teachers, 114.
Certificates—
Dentists' Practising, 80.
Engine-drivers', 631.
Land Titles, 240.
Marine Officers', 200, 567.
Medical Practitioners', 80.
Mine Officials', 565.
Certification of Seed, 251, 268.
Chaff, 263, 266, 269.
Charitable Aid, 87–90, 92–94.
Charitable Institutions, 87, 92–94.
Chatham Islands, 1, 275, 307, 642.
Schools, 102, 111.
Cheese (see Dairy-produce).
Chemical Fertilizer Works, 333.
Chemists, Registration of, 83.
Chief Justice, 669.
Child Welfare, 57, 84, 104, 112, 130, 578.
Childbirth, Deaths in, 61, 64–66, 75, 76, 92.
Children—
Adopted, 38, 642.
Affected by Divorce Proceedings, 48.
Allowances in respect of, 394–415.
Born, Sexes of, 32, 39, 40.
British, staying in Dominion, 113.
Left by Parents dying, 54–57.
Medical Inspection of, 84.
Offences by, 112, 130–132.
Under One, Deaths of, 51, 57–60, 70, 643.
Children's Courts, 112, 130–132.
Children's Homes, 92–94, 113.
Chilled Beef, 153–164, 276, 280, 326.
Chinese—
In Nauru, 651.
In Western Samoa, 648.
Chou Moellier, 269.
Christchurch—
Broadcasting Stations, 611–615.
Building Values, 339.
Dwelling Construction Costs, 350.
Dwellings, 336, 340.
Fires, 470.
Population, 22, 23, 26.
Rainfall, 7.
Retail Prices, 528–532.
Sales-tax Receipts, 374.
Sunshine, 7.
Temperature, 7.
Tramways, 209–214.
Chronological List of Events, 676–681.
Cinematograph Film-hire Tax, 373.
Cinnabar, 301.
Cities, Population of, 23, 25, 26.
Citrus Fruits, 250, 526, 646, 647.
Civic Planning, 420.
Civil Aviation, 226–229.
Civil Law Cases, 119, 120.
Civil List, 8.
Civil Marriages, 40, 45.
Civil Service (see Public Service).
Claims, Insurance, 456–474.
Classification of Industries, 322–324.
Classification of Public Debt, 377.
Clearings, Bank, 440.
Clergy of each Denomination, 46.
Marriages by, 45.
Climate, 6.
Clinics, Ante-natal, 92.
Clinics, School Dental, 85.
Clocks, Public, 640.
Closing-hours of Shops, 563.
Clothing, Rationing of, 634.
Clothing-factories, 329.
Clothing-prices, 533, 534.
Clover-seed (see Grass-seed).
Club Charters, 637.
Clubs, Aero, 143, 228.
Clubs, Rifle, 139.
Clubs, Working-men's, 475.
Coachbuilding-works, 332.
Coal—
Consumption of, 303, 316, 330.
Exports of, 153, 161, 162, 300.
Production of, 299, 302–304.
Resources, 302.
Used in Factories, 316.
Coal-miners' Relief Fund, 308, 566.
Coal-mines Act, 299, 566.
Coal-mining, 302–304.
Coastal Shipping, 196, 200.
Coastal Trade Tonnage, 149.
Coastal Vessels registered, 196.
Coast-line, 2.
Coin held by Banks, 436, 438, 660.
Coin imported and exported, 145.
Coinage, 450.
Coin-in-slot Telephones, 233.
Colleges—
Agricultural, 103, 115, 117, 251, 252.
Military, 139.
Naval, 142.
Pharmacy, 83.
Teachers' Training, 114.
University, 104, 115–117, 654.
Collieries, 302–304.
State, 304.
Combined Schools, 102, 108, 111.
Commerce, Overseas, 145–196, 656, 657.
Commercial Afforestation, 293.
Commercial Air Transport, 226–229.
Radio Communication, 234.
Commercial Broadcasting, 613.
Commercial Failures, 495–499, 662.
Commodities—
Consumption of, 634.
Rationing of, 634.
Community Centre, 119.
Companies—
Bond-issuing, 293, 627.
In Manufacturing Industries, 321.
In Manufacturing Industries, 321.
Co-operative Dairy, 278.
In Manufacturing Industries, 321.
In Manufacturing Industries, 321.
Deposits with, 447, 449.
In Manufacturing Industries, 321.
In Manufacturing Industries, 321.
Income of, 513, 520, 524.
In Manufacturing Industries, 321.
In Manufacturing Industries, 321.
Joint-stock, 627–629.
In Manufacturing Industries, 321.
In Manufacturing Industries, 321.
Private, 627–629.
In Manufacturing Industries, 321.
Share Price Indexes, 540–543.
Taxation of, 367, 368, 371, 373, 393, 513, 520–522, 523.
Comparisons with other Countries—
Health Insurance, 556.
Telephones to Population, 232.
Unemployment Insurance, 556.
Compassionate Allowances, 409.
Compensation Court, 582, 669.
Compensation, Workers', 461–463, 464, 580–582, 602, 603, 642.
Compulsory Education, 99.
Compulsory Insurance, 463, 474.
Compulsory Military Service, 136, 137.
Compulsory War Loan, 379.
Conciliation Councils, 544, 575–578.
Concrete-surfaced Roads, 215.
Condensed-milk Factories, 327.
Conditional Licenses, 637.
Confectionery-factories, 327.
Confinement—
Deaths in, 61, 64–66, 75, 76, 92.
State Maternity Hospital Cases, 92.
Conflagrations, 470.
Conjugal Condition of Persons marrying, 42.
Conjugal Rights, Restitution of, 47.
Consent to Marriage, 40.
Conservation of Forests, 285–288.
Conservation of Soil, 286.
Consolidated Fund, 352, 354–357, 363, 659.
Consolidation of Schools, 110.
Constitution, 8.
Of Local Districts, 416.
Construction and Building, 333–351, 386–390.
Construction of Aircraft, 226.
Construction of Railways, Cost of, 203, 358, 662.
Construction of Roads, 215–219, 358.
Consuls, Foreign, 674, 675.
Consumers' Goods, Imports of, 170.
Consumers' Goods, Wholesale Prices of, 536.
Consumption of—
Coal, 303, 316, 330.
Commodities, 634.
Electricity, 213, 315, 619, 620.
Farm-produce, 257.
Timber, 290.
Wheat and Flour, 266.
Wool, 276, 332.
Contagious Diseases, 71, 75, 76, 77, 85.
Contingent Liabilities, 377.
Contractors' Liens, 571.
Contribution, Social Security, 393.
Control of Exports, 150.
Control of Imports, 150, 165–167, 185.
Control of Prices, 525.
Control of Rivers, 286.
Conversion of Debt, 379, 430.
Conveyance of Children to School, 110.
Convictions in Magistrates' Courts, 123, 654.
Convictions in Supreme Court, 124, 654.
Convictions, Summary, 123, 124, 654.
For Drunkenness, 123, 132, 133, 134.
For Traffic Offences, 123, 132, 133, 134.
Of Juveniles, 130–132.
Of Maoris, 132.
Of Women, 132, 133.
Cook and other Pacific Islands, 2, 11, 644–646.
Exports to, 164.
Imports from, 181.
Population, 11, 645.
Radio-stations, 234, 646.
Trade, 646.
Co-operative Credit Associations, 390.
Co-operative Dairy Companies, 278.
Co-operative Public Works, 555, 584.
Copper, 301.
Cordial-factories, 328.
Corn Crops, Acreage and Yield of, 264–268, 655.
Coroners' Inquests, 120, 121.
Correspondence Classes, 102, 111.
Cost of Living, 525–535.
Bonuses, 570, 571.
Costs—
Building, 344, 348, 350.
Dwelling, 350.
Factory, 325.
Farm, 256, 539.
Railway Construction, 203, 358.
Roading, 215–219, 358.
Council, Executive, 8.
Members of, 664.
Council for Educational Research, 117.
Council, Legislative, 8.
Members of, 667.
Council of Adult Education, 117.
Council of Physical Welfare and Recreation, 86.
Counties, 415–430.
Bridges in, 215.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 433.
Debt, 428, 660.
Employees of, 594.
Housing, 342.
Mileage of Roads, 215.
Population of, 24.
Country Lands, Mortgages on, 487, 490–495, 504–510.
Country Library Service, 118.
Country Quota, 9.
Courts—
Appeal, 126.
Arbitration, 544, 545, 553, 556, 557, 559, 561, 569, 570, 575–578, 582, 669.
Assessment, 432.
Bankruptcy, 495.
Children's 112, 130.
Compensation, 582, 669.
Divorce, 47.
Judges of, 669.
Magistrates', 119, 122–124, 132–135, 495, 582, 654.
Native Appellate, 247.
Native Land, 246.
Of Review, 484, 669.
Supreme, 47, 120, 124, 495, 654, 669.
Cover, Fire, 467—474.
Cow-testing, 251.
Cranes, Inspection of, 630.
Crayfish, 296, 297.
Cream-separators on Farms, 261.
Credit, Rural Intermediate, 390.
Creditors' Petitions, 495, 496.
Credits-in-aid, 352–354.
Crematoria, 84.
Crime, Law and, 119–135.
Criminals, Habitual, 129.
Crops, 237, 262–273, 655.
Crown Lands, 236, 241–245.
Rates paid to Local Authorities, 423.
Crown Tenants, 242.
Advances to, 242.
Cultivation, Area in, 237, 262–273.
Currency and Banking, 435–454.
Curriculum, School, 104.
Curtis Islands, 643.
Customary Land, 245.
Customs Tariff and Revenue, 181–196.
Customs Taxation, 181–196, 363, 364, 641.
Cycle-works, 332.

D

Daily Incidence of Fires, 473.
Dairy Cows, 274, 276, 655.
Dairy Industry, 250, 252–258, 276–279, 327, 440.
Dairying Machinery, 261, 332.
Dairy-produce, 276–279.
Consumption of, 257.
Export of, 150–164, 257, 259, 278, 657.
Export Price Indexes, 537–539.
Factories, 277, 327.
Fixation of Prices, 260, 525.
Grading of, 277.
Gross Farming Income, 252–258.
Local Consumption of, 257.
Marketing of, 259, 279.
Processing of, 327.
Production of, 278, 327, 632.
Purchase for War Purposes, 259, 277, 526.
Retail Prices Indexes, 529, 531, 532, 534.
Damage (War) Insurance, 352, 362, 474, 641.
Danger (Pukapuka) Island, 2, 645.
Dangerous Drugs and Poisons, 83.
Dates of Maturity of Debt, 381, 382, 430.
Dates of Principal Events, 676–681.
Daylight Saving, 639.
Dead-births, 39, 60, 92.
Deaf, School for the, 104, 113.
Dealing in Coin, Restriction on, 450.
Death Duties, 363, 368–370.
Estates certified for, 501.
Death Penalty abolished, 125.
Deaths, 49–70, 120, 643.
Accidental (see Accidents).
Distribution over Year, 51.
Due to Earthquakes, 6.
From Puerperal Causes, 61, 64–66, 75, 76, 92.
In Coal-mining Accidents, 303.
In Hospitals, 73–76.
In Mental Hospitals, 96.
In State Maternity Hospitals, 92.
Inquests on, 120.
Of Friendly Society Members, 476.
Of Infants, 51, 57–60, 70, 643.
Of Insured Persons, 456, 458, 459.
Of Maoris, 30, 68–70, 120.
Debentures, 367, 375, 426.
Debenture-tax, 367.
Debits, Bank, 440.
Debt, Conversion of, 379, 430.
Debt of Local Authorities, 90, 385, 426–430, 659, 660.
Debt, Public, 375–385, 658.
Debtors' Petitions, 495, 496.
Deceased Persons, Estates of, 500–502, 504, 625–627.
Decrees in Divorce, 47.
Deeds Registration, 239.
Defective Children, 104, 112.
Defectives, Mental, 95–98.
Defence, 136–144.
Expenditure on, 352, 356, 361.
Deferred-payment Lands, 241, 243.
Deficits, 354.
Degrees, University, 79, 103, 116.
Dehydrated Butterfat, 260, 277.
Demography, 11–29.
Denominational Schools, 102, 107.
Denominations of Bank-notes, 442, 452.
Denominations of Coins, 450.
Density of Population, 28.
Dental Nurses, 85.
Dental Treatment of School-children, 85.
Dentists, Registration of, 80.
Departments, Government, 670.
Departures, 16–19, 653.
Dependants of Soldiers, 404–409.
Dependencies, 2, 11, 642–652.
Dependent Children, Care of, 104, 112, 130.
Deposits, 438, 439, 444–450, 481, 660, 661.
By Insurance Companies, 454, 465.
Interest-rates on, 448–450, 481.
With Building Societies, 447, 449, 481.
With Local Authorities, 450.
With Savings-banks, 444–449, 661.
With Trading Banks, 438, 439, 447, 448, 660.
With Trading Companies, 447, 449.
Depreciation Allowance, 367.
Depreciation of New Zealand Currency, 452.
Designs, Registration of, 629.
Destination—
Of Exports, 154–160, 278.
Of Shipping, 198.
Detention, Reformative, 113, 127, 128.
Development Loans, 380.
Development of Lands, 242, 248, 590.
Diagnosis, X-ray Services, 403.
Diatomaceous Earth, 299.
Diphtheria, 61, 69, 71, 72, 76, 77, 85.
Diplomas, 79, 103.
Disabilities from Industrial Accidents, 601–605, 606–609.
Discharged Mortgages, 486, 489.
Discharged Patients, 73–75.
From Mental Hospitals, 96.
Discharged Soldiers (see Soldiers).
Discharged Soldiers Settlement, 245, 390.
Discount Rates, 448.
Diseases, Notification of, 71, 77.
Diseases, Principal, Deaths from, 61–66, 68–70, 75, 76.
Diseases treated in Hospitals, 75, 76.
Disputes, Industrial, 574–578, 595–601.
Dissolution of Marriage, 46–48.
Dissolution of Parliament, Dates of, 667.
Distribution of Deaths over Year, 51.
Distribution of Population, 19–27.
District High Schools, 102, 108, 111, 654.
District Nurses, 92.
Districts, Electoral, 9.
Districts, Local, 415–430.
Districts, Military, 138.
Dividend (Totalizator) Duty, 371.
Dividends, Bankruptcy, 497, 662.
Divorce, 40–48.
Divorced Persons remarrying, 42.
Dolomite, 299.
Domains, Public, 238, 242.
Domicile of Debt, 375, 380–383, 429, 658.
Dominion of New Zealand, 642.
Drainage Districts, 415–430, 594.
Dredging, Gold, 300.
Drilling for Oil, 305.
Drills, Prospecting, 308.
Drivers' Licenses, 220.
Drowning Accidents, 66, 120.
Drugs, 82, 83, 401.
Drunkenness, 123, 128, 132, 133, 134.
Ducks, 283.
Dumping Duty, 138.
Dunedin—
Broadcasting Stations, 611–615.
Building Values, 339.
Dwelling Construction Costs, 350.
Dwellings, 336, 340.
Fires, 470.
Population, 22, 23, 26.
Rainfall, 7.
Retail Prices, 528–532.
Sales-tax Receipts, 374.
Shipping, 199.
Sunshine, 7.
Temperature, 7.
Tramways, 209–214.
Duration of Marriage, 36, 48.
Duration of Strikes, 596.
Dutiable Imports, 181–196.
Duties—
Customs and Excise, 181–196, 363, 364, 641.
Death, 363, 368–370.
Export, 186, 364, 650.
On Interest Receipts, 379.
On Lottery Tickets, 371, 638.
On Overseas Passenger-tickets, 371.
Stamp, 371.
Dwellings—
Advances for, 249, 386–390, 421, 478–481.
Census Enumerations, 335.
Costs of, 350.
Erected, 337, 338–343, 349–351.
Fire Losses on, 473.
Maori, 249.
Rents, 530–532, 534, 573.
State, 336, 340.
Untenanted, 336.
Workers', 336, 340, 386–390, 421, 572.

E

Earned Income, 513, 514, 518.
Earnings of Building Employees, 346.
Earnings of Factory Employees, 314.
Earthquakes, 4–6.
Deaths clue to, 6.
Economic Pensions, 406, 407.
Economic Stabilization, 526, 531, 544, 561, 562, 574, 577.
Education, 99–119, 654.
Boards, 99–101.
Endowments, 100, 104, 242, 243.
Expenditure on, 103, 110, 356.
Education Gazette, 115.
Educational Association, Workers', 118.
Educational Research, 117.
Eels, 297.
Effective Wage-rates, 550.
Eggs, 283, 525, 634.
Elections, General, 9, 636.
Electoral Districts, 9.
Electoral Qualifications, 9, 417.
Electors, Compulsory Registration of, 10.
Electric—
Current, 213, 315, 615–625.
Power Boards, 415–430, 617, 660.
Power in Factories, 315.
Power on Farms, 249, 261.
Railways, 202, 203.
Tramways, 209–214.
Electricity, Consumption of, 213, 315, 615–625.
By Tramways, 213.
Electricity Generation and Supply, 615–625.
Emergency Benefits, 400, 404.
Emergency Reserve Corps, Pensions for, 404, 409.
Emigration, 16–18, 653.
Empire Air Training Scheme, 144.
Employees—
Afforestation Companies, 294.
Building and Construction, 344–347.
Electric-supply, 620.
Factory, 310–314, 321, 323, 326–333, 592, 658.
Hospital Boards, 594.
Legislation affecting, 554–584.
Local Authority, 593.
Mining, 303, 304, 307.
Postal, 236.
Public Service, 673.
Public Works, 583, 593.
Railway, 208.
State Coal Mines, 304.
Tramway, 209, 214.
Unions of, 555, 574, 584–588.
Wage-rates of, 314, 346, 544–552, 561, 563, 564, 569–571, 584.
Employers' Liability, 461, 463, 555, 580–582.
Insurance, 461, 463, 464.
Employers' Unions, 585.
Employment and Unemployment, 582, 588–594.
Employment Bureaux, 582, 591.
Employment Placement Scheme, 591.
Employment Promotion, 582, 589–593.
Fund, 583.
Taxation, 363.
Employment, Seasonal Fluctuations in, 324, 592–594.
Enactments affecting Labour, 554–584.
Enactments of 1942, 641.
Endowments, Education, 100, 104, 242, 243.
Endowments, National, 242, 285, 291.
Engine-drivers' Certificates, 631.
Engineering-works, 331, 332.
Engines—
Employed in Factories, 315.
Employed on Farms, 261.
Inspection of, 630.
Railway, 203, 204.
Ensilage, 237, 263, 264, 266, 269, 271.
Entertainments-tax, 371, 372.
Entrepôt Trade, 162.
Entry, Ports of, 199.
Erosion, 286.
Essential Undertakings, 560.
Estate Duty, 369.
Estates—
Acquired for Settlement, 244.
Administered by Public Trust Office, 625–627.
Assigned, 495–499.
Passed for Death Duty, 501, 502.
Evacuees, 17, 113.
Ewes, Breeding, 274, 275.
Examinations—
Education Department, 103, 109.
Electric-tram Drivers', 631.
Engine-drivers', 631.
Marine Officers', 200.
Medical, of School Children, 84.
Medical Practitioners', 79.
Mining, 308, 565.
Navy, Candidates for, 103, 141.
Of Motor-vehicles, 221.
Teachers', 103.
University, 79, 103, 141.
Excess-profits Tax, 364, 368.
Exchange (Currency), 436, 442, 452–454.
Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, 376.
Effect on Trade Statistics, 145–148.
Expenditure on, 356.
New Zealand — London, 453.
Reserve, 436.
Exchanges, Telephone, 232.
Excise Duties, 185, 188, 364, 461.
Executive Council, 8.
Members of, 664.
Exemptions from Taxation—
Income-tax, 366, 367, 513, 518.
Land-tax, 366, 491, 508–510.
Ex-nuptial Births, 36, 37.
Exotic Trees, Planting of, 292–294.
Expectation of Life, 53.
Expeditionary Forces, 136, 140.
Expenditure—
Audit of, 351.
Broadcasting, 613, 614.
Defence, 352, 356, 361.
Education, 103, 110, 356.
Electric-power Boards, 618.
Farm, 256, 539.
Local Authority, 87–90, 218, 423, 618, 659.
Public, 351–362, 659.
Railway, 203, 204, 205, 358, 662.
Tramway, 210–214.
Export Control—
Dairy-produce, 279.
Export Licenses, 150.
Honey, 284.
Kauri-gum, 305.
Meat, 282.
Export Duties, 186, 364, 650.
Export Licenses, 150.
Export Prices, 163, 256, 259–261, 537–539, 540, 542, 543.
Export Surplus, 146–148.
Exports, 145–164, 656, 657.
Currency, Restrictions on, 450.
Dairy-produce, 150–164, 257, 259, 278, 657.
Excess over Imports, 146–148.
Meat, 150–164, 279–282, 656.
Minerals, 152–164, 300, 657.
Of Ports, 149.
Specie, 144.
Timber, 153–164, 290, 657.
Valuation of, 145, 150.
Value in Sterling, 145, 149.
Value on Gold Basis, 149.
Values, Index Numbers, 149.
Volume, Index Numbers, 149, 163.
Wool, 153–164.
External Migration, 13, 16–19, 653.
External Trade, 145–196, 656, 657.
Extra-marital Conceptions, 36, 37.

F

Factories, 309–333.
Accidents in, 601–610.
Act, 562.
Dairy, 277, 327.
Employees, 310–314, 321, 323, 326–333, 592, 658.
Promotion of, 634–636.
Factory Production, 309–333, 632, 633, 658.
Fair Rents Act, 531, 558, 573, 642.
Fakaofu Island, 234, 650.
Fallow Land, 237, 264.
Family Benefits, 396, 404.
Family Budgets, 533.
Farm Employees, Wage-rates, $c., 544–551, 558, 568.
Farm Expenditure Indexes, 256, 529.
Farm Finance, Provision of, 241–245, 386–392, 440.
Farm Holdings, 236, 492–495, 503–511.
Farm Implements, 178, 261, 283.
Manufacture of, 332.
Farm Machinery, 178, 261, 283.
Farm Produce—
Consumption of, 257.
Export of, 151–164, 257, 259–261, 280–282, 656, 657.
Marketing of, 259–261, 279, 282.
Price Indexes, 536–540, 542.
Purchase for War Purposes, 259–261, 277, 526.
Farmers—
Advice for, 251.
Financial Assistance to, 241–245, 386–392, 440, 590.
Mutual Fire Insurance, 473.
Provision of Labour for, 590.
Farming, 249–284.
Fanning Income, Gross, 252–258.
Farming Industry, Subsidies to, 252, 590.
Farming Lands, Mortgages on, 484, 487, 490–495, 504–510.
Fathers—
Ages of, 34, 54.
Duration of Marriage of, 36.
Fauna, 7.
Feeble-minded, Schools for, 113.
Feeder Stations, Radio, 234.
Feilding Community Centre, 119.
Fellmongering-works, 332.
Female Suffrage, 10.
Female Wage-rates, 314, 549–551, 554.
Fern Lands, 238, 264.
Fertilizer Factories, Chemical, 333.
Fertilizer used, 271.
Fertilizers, Prices of, 525.
Fibre, Phormium (see Phormium).
Fidelity-guarantee Insurance, 461, 464.
Field Crops, 262–271, 273.
Fiji, Contribution to War Expenses, 362.
Film-hire Tax, 373.
Finance, Farm, 241–245, 386–392, 440.
Finance of Local Authorities, 87–90, 421–430, 659, 660.
Hospital Boards, 87–90.
Finance, Public, 351–392, 658, 659.
Financial Assistance to Soldiers, 390.
Fire Brigades, 475.
Fire Districts, 288, 415–430.
Fire Inquests, 121, 472.
Fire Insurance, 465–474.
State, 473.
Fire Losses, 467–474.
Fire-prevention in Forests, 285, 288.
Fires, Daily Incidence of, 473.
Fires on Vessels, 201.
First Births, 32, 35–37.
First Offenders' Probation, 129.
Fish, 4, 295–299.
Exported, 153, 161, 162, 296.
Value of Production, 296, 632.
Fisheries, 295–299.
Fishing, Big-game, 297.
Five-day Week on Public Works, 584.
Fixation of Prices, 525.
Fixed Deposits, 438, 481.
Flats erected, 339, 340, 349.
Flax, Phormium (see Phormium).
Flax Lands, 238, 264.
Flax, Linen, 273.
Floating Debt, 376, 378, 379, 381.
Flogging abolished, 125.
Floods, 6.
Flora, 7.
Flotation of Loans, 375, 379.
Flour—
Consumption of, 266.
Fixed Price for, 525, 526.
Production of, 327.
Restriction on Imports, 265.
Flour-mills, 327.
Flying, 143, 226–229.
Flying Clubs, 143, 226, 228.
Fodder Crops, 263, 264, 266, 269.
Fog Signals, 201.
Food and Drugs, Sale of, 82.
Food, Retail Prices of, 526–530, 531, 532, 534, 542, 543.
Foodstuffs, Wholesale Prices of, 536.
Footwear Factories, 329.
Footwear, Rationing of, 634.
Foreign Consuls, 675.
Foreign Vessels entered and cleared, 198.
Foreigners naturalized, 19.
Forest Fire-prevention, 285, 288.
Forest Produce exported, 152–164, 290, 657.
Forest Trees, 289.
Forestry, 237, 284–294.
Value of Production, 632.
Forty-hour Week, 553, 563, 576, 584.
Foster-homes for Children, 113.
Foundries, 331.
Foveaux Strait Oysters, 296.
Fowls, 283.
Fractions, Totalizator, 372.
Franchise, General Government, 10.
Franchise, Local Government, 10, 417.
Free and Dutiable Imports, 181–186, 189, 190.
Free Education, 99–117.
Free Radio-licenses, 615.
Freehold, Crown Land made, 243.
Freehold Land, 237, 243.
Freezing-works, 326, 440.
Freight—
Carried by Air-transport, 228.
Carried by Shipping, 149.
Carried by Trains, 205, 206, 207.
Train-mileage, 207.
Frequency Rates of Accidents, 602.
Fresh-water Fisheries, 297–299.
Friendly Societies, 475–477.
Frozen Meat exported, 153–164, 280–282, 656.
Fruit, Export of, 153–164.
Fruit Industry, 237, 263, 264, 272, 525.
Fruit-preserving Factories, 328.
Fuel and Light, Retail Prices of, 532, 534.
Fuels and Lubricants, Imports, 170.
Fuels, Substitute, 217, 303, 307, 365.
Fuller's Earth, 299.
Funded Debt, 384.
Funds, Government Sinking, 385.
Funds of Public Account, 351–362.
Funds, Superannuation, 409–415.
Funeral Funds, 476.
Furniture-making Works, 333.

G

Gaming Act, 638.
Gaols, Prisoners in, 126–129, 654.
Garden Tractors, 261.
Gardens, Acreage in 237, 271.
Gas-driven Vehicles, 217.
Gas-lighting District, 415–430, 594.
Gasworks, 316, 330.
Gauge, Railway, 203.
Geese, 283.
General Assembly, 8–10, 667, 668.
General Elections, 9, 636.
Generating Stations, 616, 619.
Geographical Features, 2–4.
Geological Survey, 307.
Geology, 4.
Geysers, 3.
Gift Duty, 369, 370.
Glaciers, 3.
Goats, 655.
Gold, Discovery of, 4.
Gold exported, 153, 657.
Duty on, 186, 364, 423.
Gold Reserves, 436.
Goldfields, Subsidized Roads on, 308.
Gold-mining, 300.
Gonorrhœa, 78.
Goods carried on Railways, 205, 206, 207, 662.
Goods-service Licenses, 223, 224.
Government Departments, 670.
Government Housing, 249, 336, 340.
Government Insurance, 460, 464, 473, 474.
Government Railways, 202–208, 662.
Superannuation Fund, 412.
Government Representatives Overseas, 673
Government Roads, 215, 216.
Government, System of, 8–10.
Government Valuations, 431–434.
Governor-General, 663.
Powers, Duties, $c., 8.
Grading—
Of Dairy-produce, 251, 277.
Of Honey, 251.
Of Phormium Fibre, 251.
Of School-teachers, 100.
Graduated Land-tax, 365.
Grain Crops, 237, 262–268, 655.
Grain-mills, 327.
Granite, 306.
Grapes, 263, 272.
Grass Lands, 237, 238, 264, 269, 270.
Grass-seed, 237, 263, 264, 270.
Certification of, 251.
Exported, 153, 160, 161, 162.
Varieties of, 270.
Green Crops, 237, 263, 264, 269.
Greenstone, 306.
Greenwich Mean Time, 639.
Groceries, Retail Prices of, 528, 531, 532, 534.
Gross Farming Income, 252–258.
Gross Indebtedness, 376, 426–430, 658, 659.
Mortgage Indebtedness, 490.
Of Local Authorities, 426–430, 659.
Grounds for Divorce, 47.
Group Travel, 86.
Growth of Population, 12–16, 31.
Guaranteed Loans, 377.
Gum, Kauri, 300, 305.
Exported, 153–164, 305, 657.

H

Habitual Criminals, 129.
Habitual Drunkards, 133.
Half-castes, 13, 29.
Half-holiday, Weekly, 563–565.
Ham and Bacon Curing, 326.
Harbour Boards, 415–430, 594, 660.
Harbours (see also Ports), 2.
Harvests, 262–273, 655.
Hay, 237, 263, 264, 266, 269, 271.
Heads of Government Departments, 670.
Health Camps, 85.
Health Insurance, 392, 397, 400–404, 556.
Health, Public, 77–98, 111.
Heavy-traffic Fees, 218, 220, 222.
Herald Islets, 643.
Hervey Islands, 2, 644.
Hides and Skins exported, 153–164.
High Commissioners Overseas, 674.
High Schools, 102, 104, 107–109, 110, 654.
Technical, 102, 104, 107–109, 110, 654.
Higher Education, 115–117, 654.
Highway Districts, 216.
Highways, 215–220.
Taxation, 217, 220, 223, 360, 364.
History, 676–681.
Hoes, Rotary, 261.
Holdings (see Land Holdings).
Holidays, 560, 563, 568, 569, 584.
Home Guard, 139.
Homes, Benevolent, 92–94.
Homes, Children's, 92–94, 113.
Homicide, 61, 66, 120, 125, 135.
Honey, 284.
Exported, 153, 154, 161, 162, 284.
Levy on Exports, 186.
Marketing of, 284, 525.
Honours conferred, 669.
Hops, 237, 263, 272, 525.
Export of, 153, 154, 161, 162.
Horse-racing Taxation, 371.
Horses, 274, 282, 655.
Horticultural Station, 251.
Horticulture, 272.
Hosiery-factories, 329.
Hospital Benefits, 87, 401–404.
Hospital Boards, 87–90, 401, 414, 415, 418.
Employees of, 594.
Employees' Retiring-allowances, 414.
Finances of, 87–90.
Levies on Local Authorities, 87–90, 423, 424.
Hospital Districts, 415.
Hospitals, 72–76, 87–98.
Maternity, 91, 92, 402.
Mental, 95–98, 402.
Private, 91, 401, 402.
Private Mental, 97, 402.
Public, 72–76, 90, 92, 401, 402.
St. Helens, 91, 402.
Hot Springs, 3.
Hotels, Licensed, 637.
Hourly Wage-rates, 548.
Hours of Labour, 324, 552–554, 560, 563, 564, 566, 569, 584.
House of Representatives, 9.
Members of, 668.
Household Budgets, 533.
House-rents, 530–532, 534, 573.
Houses (see Dwellings).
Housing, 333–343, 349–351, 386–392, 421, 572.
Of Maoris, 249, 573.
State, 249, 336, 340, 392, 573.
Survey, 335, 421, 573.
Humphrey (Manihiki) Island, 2, 645.
Husbands' Petitions in Divorce, 48.
Hydatids, 71, 76, 78, 79.
Hydro-electric Power, 3, 4, 615–625.
Used for Industrial Purposes, 315, 624.
Hydrogenation, 303.
Hygiene, 77.
Dental, 85.
School, 84.
Social, 78.

I

Illegitimate Infants—
Births of, 36, 37, 39.
In Benevolent Institutions, 94.
Legitimation of, 38.
Protection of, 113.
Immigration, 13, 16–19, 653.
Assisted, 18.
Restriction on, 19, 583.
Imperial Airways, 227.
Imperial Government Purchases, 259–261, 277, 280, 301, 526.
Implements, Farm, 178, 261, 283.
Manufacture of, 332.
Import Control Regulations, 150, 165–167, 185.
Import Licenses, 150, 165–167, 185.
Import Price Indexes, 538, 542, 543.
Imported Commodities, Prices Indexes, 536, 539, 542, 543.
Importers, Bank Advances to, 440.
Imports, 145–150, 165–181, 189–196, 656.
Excess of Exports over, 146–148.
Free and Dutiable, 181–185, 189, 190.
Of Ports, 149.
Purpose or Use of, 170.
Restrictions on, 150, 165–167, 185, 265.
Specie, 145, 656.
Timber, 290.
Value in Sterling, 145, 149.
Value of, Index Numbers, 149.
Value on Gold Basis, 149.
Volume of, Index Numbers, 149.
Improved-farm Settlements, 241, 244.
Improvements, Value of, 431.
Incapacity from Industrial Accidents, 601–610.
Income, Aggregate Private, 523–525.
Income, Gross Farming, 252–258.
Incomes, 512–525.
Income-tax, 363, 365, 367, 512–523.
Increase in Population, 12–16, 31.
Indebtedness, Mortgage, 490.
Indebtedness of Local Authorities, 90, 385, 426–430, 659, 660.
Indebtedness, Public. 375–385, 658.
Index Numbers—
Deaths, Sex-ratio, 51.
Factory, Volume of, 324, 633.
Farm, Volume of, 255, 633.
Export Prices, 256, 537–539, 540, 542, 543.
Factory, Volume of, 324, 633.
Farm, Volume of, 255, 633.
Farm Expenditure, 256, 540.
Factory, Volume of, 324, 633.
Farm, Volume of, 255, 633.
Farm Production Volume, 255, 633.
Factory, Volume of, 324, 633.
Farm, Volume of, 255, 633.
Gross Farming Income, 256.
Factory, Volume of, 324, 633.
Farm, Volume of, 255, 633.
Hours of Labour, 552, 553, 554.
Factory, Volume of, 324, 633.
Farm, Volume of, 255, 633.
House-rent, 531, 532, 534.
Factory, Volume of, 324, 633.
Farm, Volume of, 255, 633.
Import Prices, 538, 542, 543.
Factory, Volume of, 324, 633.
Farm, Volume of, 255, 633.
Marriage-rates, 42.
Factory, Volume of, 324, 633.
Farm, Volume of, 255, 633.
Prices of Consumers' Goods, 536.
Factory, Volume of, 324, 633.
Farm, Volume of, 255, 633.
Prices of Imported Commodities, 536, 539, 542, 543.
Factory, Volume of, 324, 633.
Farm, Volume of, 255, 633.
Prices of Locally-produced Commodities, 536, 539, 543.
Factory, Volume of, 324, 633.
Farm, Volume of, 255, 633.
Production, 632–634.
Factory, Volume of, 324, 633.
Farm, Volume of, 255, 633.
Ratio of Customs Revenue to Imports, 189.
Retail Prices, 256, 528–534, 539, 540, 542, 543, 550.
Share Prices, 541–543.
Value of Exports, 149.
Value of Imports, 149.
Value of Production, 255, 632–634.
Volume of Exports, 149, 163.
Volume of Imports, 149.
Volume of Production, 255, 324, 633, 634.
Volume of Trade, 149.
Wage-rates, 545–551, 554.
Wartime Price, 534, 561.
Wholesale Prices, 535, 536, 539, 540, 542, 543.
Indigenous Forest, 284–292.
Individuals, Incomes of, 513–520, 523.
Industrial Accidents, 601–610, 630.
Industrial Associations, 587.
Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration, 544, 545, 553, 557, 563, 564, 570, 575–578, 584, 596, 599.
Industrial Disputes, 562, 574–578, 595–601.
Industrial Efficiency, 84, 634–636.
Industrial Life Assurance, 455, 457–459.
Industrial Planning, 562, 634–636.
Industrial Share Prices, 541–543.
Industrial Unions, 555, 574, 584–588.
Industries—
Bank Advances to, 440.
Classification of, 322.
Essential, 560.
Licensing of, 634–636.
Manufacturing, 309–333.
Industry, Bureau of, 634–636.
Industry, Organization of, 321, 634–636.
Inebriates, 123, 128, 132, 133, 134.
Infancy, Diseases of, 60, 70.
Infant Mortality, 51, 57–60, 70, 643.
Maori, 70.
Infantile Paralysis, 71, 76, 78.
Infant-life Protection, 57, 92, 113.
Infectious Diseases—
Control of, in Schools, 85.
Deaths from, 60, 61, 69, 72, 75, 76.
Hospital Cases, 75, 76.
Notification of, 71, 77.
Injuries (see Accidents).
Inland Air Mails, 229.
Inland Fisheries, 298.
Inmates—
Of Charitable Institutions, 92–94.
Of Gaols, 126–129, 654.
Of Hospitals, 72–76, 90.
Of Mental Hospitals, 95–98.
Inquests, 120, 121.
Insanity, 95–98.
Insolvency, 495–499, 662.
Inspection, Dairy, 251, 277.
Inspection, Medical, of Schools, 84.
Inspection of Machinery, 555, 630.
Instruments, Duty on, 371.
Instruments, Registration of, 238.
Insurance, 454–475.
State, 460, 464, 473, 474.
Intercensal Population, 11, 15, 16.
Interest—
Credited by Savings-banks, 444–446, 661.
On Local Authorities' Debt, 423, 424, 429, 430.
On Mortgages, 484, 488.
On Public Debt, 382.
On Railway Capital Liability, 204.
Payments Overseas, 148, 383, 429.
Rates (see Rates of Interest).
Recouped to Consolidated Fund, 353, 355.
Reduction of, 379, 390, 430, 448, 449, 484, 488.
Tax on, 379.
Inter-Island Passengers, 20.
Intermediate Credit, 390.
Intermediate Schools, 102, 106.
Internal Marketing, 284, 526.
Internal Migration, 20.
International Comparisons (see Comparisons).
International Payments, 148, 383, 429, 443.
Intestate Estates, 625–627.
Intoxicating Liquor—
Brewing of, 328.
Duty on, 184–188, 363, 364.
Sale of, 637.
Invalids' Benefits, 397, 404.
Investment Certificates, 375.
Investment Societies, 478–481.
Deposits, 447, 449.
Investments, State, 378.
Investments, Totalizator, 372.
Invisible Imports and Exports, 148.
Iron-foundries, 331.
Iron-ores, 299, 300.
Ironsands, 300.
Irrigation and Water-supply, 358.
Islands—
Administered on Mandate, 2, 11, 648–652.
Annexed, 2, 11, 643–647.
Outlying, 1, 643.
Issue of Bank-notes (see Bank-notes).
Issue of Deceased Parents, 54–57.
Issue, Previous, of Parents, 34.

J

Jam-factories, 328.
Joint-stock Companies, 627–629.
In Manufacturing Industries, 321.
Journal of Agriculture, 251.
Journal, School, 115.
Judicial Separation, 47.
Judiciary, Members of, 669.
June Year Exports, 145, 161, 162, 164.
June Year Imports, 145.
Justice, 119–135, 654.
Juvenile Offenders, 112, 130–132.
Juvenile Wage–rates, 551, 554.

K

Kauri-gum, 300, 305.
Exported, 153–164, 305, 657.
Kermadec Islands, 2, 11, 643.
Kindergarten Schools, 85, 105.
King George V Memorial Fund, 85.

L

Labour Department Employment Bureaux, 582, 591.
Labour Disputes, 574–578, 595–601.
Labour Disputes Investigation Act, 577.
Labour, Hours of, 324, 552–554, 560, 563, 564, 566, 569, 584.
Labour Laws and Allied Legislation, 554–584.
Labour Ministry, 665.
Labour on Farms, State Assistance, 590.
Labour Shares, 557.
Lake Wakatipu Steamer Service, 203, 205.
Lakes, 4.
Lamb exported, 153–164, 280.
Lambs, 274.
Slaughtered, 280.
Land and Income Tax, 363, 365–368, 503–511, 512–523.
Land Boards, 241.
Maori, 247.
Land Development, 242, 248, 590.
Land Districts, 241.
Land Drainage Districts, 415–430, 594.
Land for Discharged Soldiers, 245, 390.
Land for Settlements, 244.
Land, Government Valuation of, 431–434.
Land Holdings, 236.
Mortgages on, 490–495, 504–510.
Value of, 490–495, 503–511.
Land, Occupation of, 236–238.
Land Offices, 241.
Land, Purchase of, 241–245.
Land Tax, 363, 365, 366, 491, 503–511.
Land Tenure and Settlement, 236–249.
Land Titles, Registration of, 238–240.
Land Transfer, 238, 240.
Land, Valuation of, 431–434.
Landing-grounds, 226.
Lands open for Selection, 242.
Land-settlement Accounts, 352, 359.
Lapsed Assurance Policies, 456, 458.
Late Night for Shops, 564.
Latest Statistical Information (see Fore-front of Book).
Law and Crime, 119–135, 654.
Law, Mortgage, 482.
Laws affecting Labour, 554–584.
Laws enacted in 1942, 641.
League of Nations, 2, 83, 648, 651.
Lease, Renewable, 241, 242, 243.
Leasehold-landholdings, 237, 243.
Legacy Duty, 369, 370.
Legal Education, 115.
Legal Roads, Unformed, 215.
Legal Tender, 450–452.
Legislation—
Labour and Allied, 554–584.
Passed in 1942, 641.
Legislative Council, 8.
Members of, 667.
Legitimation Act, 38.
L'Esperance Island, 643.
Lessees, Rehabilitation of, 483.
Letter-boxes, 230.
Letters Patent, 629.
Letters posted, 230, 661.
Letter-telegrams, 232.
Levies by Fire Boards, 468, 469.
Levies by Hospital Boards, 87–90, 423, 424.
Levy—
Coal Production, 308, 566.
Dairy Research, 279.
Hide Export, 186.
Honey Export, 186.
Wool Research, 186.
Liabilities—
Mortgage, Adjustment of, 390, 484.
Of Afforestation Companies, 293.
Of Bankrupts, 497, 498, 499, 662.
Of Banks, 436, 438, 442, 660.
Of Building Societies, 481.
Of Electric-power Undertakings, 621.
Of Fire-insurance Companies, 466.
Of Friendly Societies, 476.
Of Life-assurance Companies, 459.
Of Local Authorities, 90, 425.
Of Reserve Bank, 436.
Library Service, Country, 118.
Licensed Houses, 637.
Licenses—
Aerodromes, 229.
Air Pilots', 229.
Aircraft Navigators', 229.
Anglers', 299.
By Local Authorities, 374, 421–423, 637.
Companies', 371.
Export, 150.
Ground Engineers', 229.
Import, 150, 165–167.
Motor-vehicle, 220–224.
Plumbers', 82.
Publicans', 637.
Radio, 614.
Ross Sea Whaling, 652.
Sharebrokers', 371.
Transport, 220–222, 223, 224.
Licensing, 637.
Of Industries, 634–636.
Of Lotteries, 638.
Of Private Hospitals, 91, 97.
Poll, 637, 638.
Liens, Contractors', 571.
Life Assurance, 454–461.
Death-rates, 459.
State, 460.
Life, Expectation of, 53.
Life Table, 53.
Lifts, Inspection of, 630.
Light and Fuel, Retail Prices of, 532, 534.
Light Dues, 201.
Lighthouses, 201, 234.
Lignite, 302, 303.
Lime and Cement Works, 330.
Lime for Top-dressing, 271.
Limestone, 306.
Lincoln Agricultural College, 103, 115, 117, 251.
Linen-flax, 263, 264, 273.
Linseed, 264, 265.
Liquidations of Companies, 627.
Literature, New Zealand, 681–683.
Live-stock, 274–284, 655.
Carried on Railways, 205, 206, 207, 662.
Slaughtering of, 279–282.
Loans—
Allocation of, 377.
By Building Societies, 480.
Conversion of, 379, 430.
Dates of Maturity of, 379, 381, 430.
Domicile of, 375, 380, 429, 658.
Loans—continued.
National Development, 375.
Of Hospital Boards, 90.
Of Local Authorities, 90, 385, 388, 417, 425, 426–430, 659, 660.
On Assurance Policies, 461.
Raised for War Purposes, 376, 379.
Redemption of, 356, 357, 375, 376, 379, 383–385, 427, 430.
Local Authorities, 415–430, 659, 660.
Advances to, 219, 337, 387, 388, 421, 440.
Amalgamation, 417.
Assets of, 425, 500.
Debt of, 90, 385, 426–430, 659, 660.
Employees of, 593.
Employment Subsidies, 590.
Expenditure of, 89, 218, 423, 424, 659.
History of, 416.
Levies on, by Hospital Boards, 87–90, 423, 424.
Liabilities of, 90, 425.
Receipts of, 88, 421–423, 659.
Subsidy from Main Highways Account, 219.
Superannuation, 413, 414.
Taxation by, 374, 418, 421–423.
Local Consumption of Produce, 257, 258.
Local Government (see Local Authorities).
Local Option, 638.
Local Railway District, 415–430.
Local Taxation, 374, 418, 421–423.
Location of Debt, 375, 380–382, 429, 658.
Location of New Zealand, 1.
Lockouts, 562, 574–578, 595–601.
Locomotives, 203, 204.
Lodges, Friendly Societies, 475–477.
London, Exchange on (see Exchange).
London Prices of New Zealand Stock, 382.
Losses from Fires, 467–474.
In Forests, 288.
Lotteries, 638.
Duty on, 371, 638.
Lubricants and Fuels, Imports of, 170, 180.
Lucerne, 263, 264, 270.
Lunacy, 95–98.
Lupins, 265.

M

Macaulay Island, 643.
Machinery—
Accidents, 604, 630.
Factory, 320.
Farm, 178, 261, 283, 332.
Imports of, 178.
Inspection of, 555, 630.
Magistrates' Courts (see Courts).
Magistrates, Superannuation of, 413.
Mails, 230, 661.
Air, 227, 228.
Road Services, 224.
Main Highways, 216–220.
Account, 217, 352, 360.
Main Highways—continued.
Construction and Maintenance, 216, 218, 219.
Districts, 216.
Expenditure on, 217–219, 361.
Finance, 217–219.
Standards, 219.
Taxation, 217, 220, 223, 360, 364.
Maize, 263, 264, 265, 270.
Malnutrition of School-children, 84.
Malthouses, 328.
Malting Barley, 267.
Mandated Territories, 2, 11, 648–652.
Mangaia Island, 2, 234, 644.
Manganese-ore, 299, 301.
Mangolds, 264, 270.
Manihiki Island, 2, 234, 645.
Manono Island, 648.
Man-power Utilization, 560.
Manuae Island, 2, 644.
Manufacturing Production, 309–333, 440, 634–636.
Manures used for Top-dressing, 271.
Maori Electorates, 10, 636.
Maori Land Boards, 247.
Maori War Benefits, 399, 404.
Maoris—
Births of, 30, 39.
Children attending Schools, 84, 102, 106, 109, 110, 111, 654.
Deaths of, 30, 68–70, 120.
Half-castes, 13, 29.
In Mental Hospitals, 98.
In Prisons, 127, 133.
Infant Mortality of, 70.
Lands, 245–249.
Marriages of, 46.
Members of Parliament, 9, 669.
Offences by, 125, 132.
Population, 11, 28.
Poultry kept by, 283.
Schools for, 102, 106, 109, 110, 111, 654.
Map of New Zealand [End of Volume].
Marble, New Zealand, 306.
Marine Insurance, 474.
Marine Officers' Certificates, 200, 567.
Market Gardens, 237, 271, 569.
Marketing of Primary Produce, 259–261, 279, 282, 525.
Marriages, 36, 40–48, 643.
Massage (Social Security) Benefits, 403.
Masseurs, Registration of, 81.
Massey Agricultural College, 103, 115, 117, 251.
Materials used in Factories, 310, 311, 317, 321, 323, 325–333, 658.
Maternal Mortality, 61, 64–66, 92.
Maternity Allowances, 402, 414, 415.
Maternity Benefits, 87, 402, 404.
Maternity Hospitals, 91, 402.
Maternity Nurses, 80, 92, 403.
District, 92.
Maternity Services, 91.
Matured Assurance Policies, 456, 458.
Maturity of Loans, Dates of, 379, 381, 430.
Mauke Island, 2, 234, 644.
Mean Population, 15, 16, 634, 653.
Mean Time, 639.
Measures and Weights, 82, 263.
Meat—
Export Control, 282.
Export of, 153–164, 279–282, 656.
Export Price Index, 537, 538.
Freezing-works, 326, 440.
Inspection of, 251.
Production, 279–282.
Purchase for War Purposes, 260, 526.
Retail Prices of, 530, 531, 532, 534.
Medical Advertisements, 82, 641.
Medical Benefits, 400, 404.
Medical Inspection of Schools, 84.
Medical Practitioners, 79, 400.
Medical Services, 78–92, 400–404.
In Cook Islands, 645.
In Niue, 647.
In Western Samoa, 648.
Members of Lodges, 475, 476.
Members of Parliament, 8, 636, 641, 667–669.
Mental Hospitals, 95–98, 402, 404.
Mercantile Marine, 196–201.
Pensions for Members of, 404, 408, 568.
Merchandise, Exports of, 145–164.
Merchandise, Imports of, 145–150, 165–181, 189–194.
Merchants, Bank Advances to, 440.
Mercury, 299, 300, 301.
Metal Reserves of Banks, 436, 438, 452, 660.
Meteorology, 6, 229, 644.
Midwives, 80, 92, 403.
Migration, External, 13, 16–19, 653.
Migration, Internal, 20.
Mileage of—
Commercial Air Services, 227, 228.
Main Highways, 216, 219.
Railways, 202, 206, 208, 662.
Roads, 215.
Tramway Routes, 209, 214.
Mileage-tax, 217, 218, 365.
Military Colleges, 139.
Military Districts, 138.
Military Establishments, 139.
Military Forces, 136–140.
Military Pensions, 399, 404–409.
Milk—
Control of Prices of, 526.
Examination and Testing of, 251, 277.
For School-children, 85, 112.
Used in Dairy Factories, 327.
Milking-machines, 261.
Milk-products (see Dairy-produce).
Mills, 309–333.
Mineral Waters, 641.
Minerals, 299–309.
Miners' Benefits, 398, 404.
Miner's Phthisis, 309, 398.
Minimum Wage-rates, 544–551, 563–565, 570, 584.
Mining, 299–309.
Accidents, 66, 303, 308, 601–610.
Act, Examinations under, 308.
Acts, 299, 565–567.
Advances, 307.
Produce exported, 153–162, 300.
Scholarships, 308.
Strikes, 597, 598.
Subsidies, 304, 307.
Subsidized Prospecting, 307.
Value of Production, 299, 632.
Minister at Washington, 674.
Ministers of each Denomination, 46.
Marriages by, 45.
Ministries, Successive, 662.
Ministry, Labour, 667.
Minors, Marriages of, 40, 45.
Mission Schools, 102, 106, 646, 647, 649.
Mitiaro Island, 2, 644.
Modification of Labour Legislation, 559–562.
Monetary Benefits, Social Security, 393–404.
Money-orders issued and paid, 231, 661.
Morbidity, 70–76, 476.
Mortality (see Deaths).
Of Insured Persons, 459.
Of Members of Friendly Societies, 476.
Mortgage Corporation, 386.
Mortgage Exemption, 366, 493, 508–510.
Mortgage Indebtedness, 490.
Mortgagee, Rights of, 483.
Mortgagees' Indemnity Insurance, 371, 463.
Mortgages, 482–495, 504–510.
Extension Emergency Regulations, 485.
State Advances, 387–391.
Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act, 390, 483, 531, 558.
Mortgagors' Liabilities Adjustment Commissions, 484.
Mortgagors' Relief, 390, 483.
Mothers, Ages of, 34–37.
In Illegitimate Cases, 37.
Motion-picture Film-tax, 373.
Motive-power in Factories, 315.
Motor Traffic Offences, 123, 133.
Motor Transport, 213, 215, 220–224.
Motor-engineering Works, 332.
Motor-omnibus Traffic, 213, 220–224.
Motor-spirits—
Fixed Prices for, 525.
Restrictions on Use of, 217, 222, 461.
Taxation on, 185, 188, 217, 218, 223, 365
Motor-vehicles—
Accidents, 61, 67, 120, 133, 225.
Dormant Registrations, 221.
Drivers' Licenses, 220.
Duty on, 185, 195.
Examination of, 221.
Insurance, 461–464, 466.
Licensing of, 220–224.
Operated by Tramway Authorities, 213.
Motor-vehicles—continued.
Registration of, 220–222.
Speed Limit, 221.
Taxation, 217, 220, 363, 365.
Traffic Offences, 133, 134.
Motor-vessels registered, 196.
Motor-works, 332.
Mountains, 2.
Multiple Births, 33–35.
Municipal Tramways, 209–214.
Municipalities (see Boroughs).
Murder, 61, 66, 120, 125, 135.
Abolition of Death Penalty for, 125.
Museums, 115.
Mussels, 296.
Mutton exported, 153–164, 280.
Mutual Fire Insurance, 466, 473.

N

Nassau Island, 2, 645.
National Broadcasting Services, 115, 611–615, 640.
National Development Loans, 375.
National Endowments, 242, 285, 291.
National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 430, 449, 484, 489, 531, 574.
National Licensing Polls, 637.
National Military Reserve, 139.
National Parks, 238, 242.
National Provident Fund, 413–415.
National Savings, 375, 446, 447.
National Security Taxation, 362, 363, 373.
National Service, 137, 560.
National Wealth, 502.
Nationality, 19.
Of Naturalized Persons, 19.
Of Vessels, 198.
Native Affairs, Board of, 246.
Native Appellate Court, 246.
Native Bush, 238, 264, 285.
Native Constables, 122.
Native Fresh-water Fishes, 297.
Native Grasses, 238, 264, 271.
Native Housing, 249, 573.
Native Land Court, 246.
Native Lands, 236, 245–249, 504.
Native Population, 11, 28.
Native Schools, 102, 106, 109, 110, 111, 654.
Native Succession Duty, 370.
Native Trust Office, 248.
Native-land Purchase, 248.
Natives (see Maoris).
Nativity, Order of, 32, 39.
Natural Increase of Population, 13, 31.
Naturalization, 19.
Nauru Island, 2, 651.
Naval Cadetship Examinations, 103, 141.
Naval Defence, 140–143.
Naval Expenditure, 362.
Naval Reserve, 143.
Naval Station, 141.
Navigators Islands (see Western Samoa).
Neo-natal Deaths, 58–60, 70.
Nephrite, 300.
Net Indebtedness—State, 385.
Local Authority, 428, 429.
New Zealand Mean Time, 639.
New Zealand Representatives Abroad, 641.
New Zealand University, 103, 104, 115–117, 654.
Newspapers—-
Posted, 230, 661.
Registered, 231.
Nisi Decrees in Divorce, 47.
Niue Island, 2, 11, 164, 181, 646.
Radio Communication, 234.
No-license Issue, 637, 638.
Non-resident Traders, Incomes of, 513, 522.
Note-issue, 436, 438, 441, 451.
Notes in Circulation, 438, 441.
Notification of Births, 30.
Notification of Diseases, 71, 77.
Noxious Weeds Eradication, 252.
Nukunono Island, 650.
Radio Station, 234.
Nullity of Marriage, 47.
Nurseries and Plantations, 237, 271, 292–294.
State, 292.
Nurses—-Dental, 85.
District, 84, 92.
Maternity, 80, 92, 403.
Pensions for, 405.
Plunket, 92.
Registration of, 80.
Retiring-allowances for, 414.
School, 84.

O

Oats, 263, 204, 265, 266, 270, 654.
Exported, 153, 154.
Varieties of, 267.
Observatory, Time Signals from, 613, 640.
Occupation of Land, 236–238.
Occupation with Right of Purchase, 241, 243.
Occupational Re-establishment, 562.
Occupations, Essential, 560.
Occupations of Bankrupts, 498, 499.
Ocean Cables, 233.
Ocean Island, 051.
Offences, 119–135.
By Children, 112, 130–132.
By Maoris, 125, 132.
By Women, 122, 124, 132, 133.
Reported to Police, 135.
Offenders Probation Act, 129.
Officers' Certificates (Marine), 200, 567.
Officers' Training Corps, 139.
Offices Acts, Shops and, 563–565.
Official Assignees, 495–499.
Official Representatives Abroad, 674.
Officiating Ministers, 45, 46.
Oil, Production from Coal, 303.
Oil-shale, 307.
Oil-wells, 305.
Old-age Pensions, 394, 556.
Old-peoples' Homes, 92–94.
Omnibus Traffic, 213, 217, 220, 221, 224.
Omnibuses licensed, 221.
Onekaka Iron-ore, 300.
Onions, 264, 269.
Opium, Prohibition of, 83.
Opossum-skins exported, 158, 161, 162.
Opticians, Registration of, 81.
Orchards, 237, 263, 264, 272, 569.
Ordinary Life Assurance, 455–457, 459—401.
Organization of Industry, 321, 634–636.
Origin of Imports, 168, 171–181.
Ornamental Stones, 306.
Orphanages, 92–94.
Orphanhood, 54–57.
Orphans' Benefits, 396, 404.
Ottawa Agreement, 174, 182, 191.
Outlying Islands, 1, 643.
Out-patients, 90.
Maternity Hospitals, 92.
Output of Factories, 310–333, 658.
Overcrowding in Dwellings, 335, 336.
Overdraft Authorities, 441.
Overdraft Rates, 448.
Overseas Air Services, 227, 228.
Overseas Air-mails, 227–229.
Overseas Companies, 627–629.
Overseas Funds of Banks, 150, 436, 438, 442.
Overseas Parcel-post, 231.
Overseas Passenger Duty, 371.
Overseas Payments, 148, 383, 443.
Overseas Representatives, 641, 674.
Overseas Shipping, 197–200.
Overseas Trade, 145–196, 656, 657.
Overtime in Factories, 324, 563.
Overtime Legislation Modification, 560.
Oysters, 153, 296.

P

Pacific Cable, 233.
Pacific Islands, Annexed, 2, 11, 643–647.
Radio Communication, 234.
Packet Licenses, 637.
Paid Holidays, 563, 568, 569, 584.
Palmerston Island, 2, 234, 645.
Pan-American Airways, 227, 228.
Paralysis, Infantile, 71, 76, 78.
Parcel-post, 230, 231.
Parents—-
Ages of, 34–37, 39, 54.
Duration of Marriage of, 36, 48.
Issue left by, 54–57.
Previous Issue of, 34.
Parks, National, 238, 242.
Parliament, 8–10, 641.
Members of, 8, 636, 667–669.
Prolongation of, 9, 641.
Parliamentary Elections, 9, 636.
Parliamentary Under-Secretaries, 8.
Parliaments, Successive, 667.
Parry (Mauke) Island, 2, 644.
Party-line Telephones, 233.
Passenger-mileage—
Tramways, 209, 210, 214.
Railways, 206.
Passengers—
Commercial Aircraft, 227, 228.
Inter-Island, 20.
Motor-vehicle, 214, 224.
Overseas, 16–18, 652.
Railway, 205, 206, 207, 662.
Tramway, 209, 210, 214.
Passenger-service Licenses, 223.
Passenger-tickets, Duty on, 371.
Passion-fruit, 263, 272.
Passports, 18.
Pastoral and Agricultural Production, 249–284, 631–633, 655.
Value of, 252–258, 631–633.
Volume of, 254, 633.
Pastoral Produce—
Consumed locally, 257.
Export Prices Indexes, 256, 537, 538, 539, 540, 543.
Exported, 151–164, 257, 258, 656, 657.
Gross Fanning Income, 252–258.
Wholesale Prices Indexes, 536.
Pasture Grasses, 237, 238, 204, 270.
Patents, Designs, and Trade-marks, 629.
Patients in Mental Hospitals, 95–98.
Patients in Public Hospitals, 72–76, 90.
Payments Overseas, Balance of, 148, 443.
Peaks, Altitude of, 2.
Peas, 203, 264, 265.
Export of, 153–162.
Pelts, Export of, 153–164.
Penal Institutions, 126–129.
Penalty on Unpaid Rates, 422.
Penrhyn (Tongareva) Island, 2, 234, 645.
Pensions, 392–415, 524.
Permanent Building Societies, 478–481.
Permanent Heads of Departments, 670.
Permanent Military Forces, 136, 138.
Permits and Passports, 18.
Permits, Building, 338–343.
Personal Accident Insurance, 463.
Petitions—
Bankruptcy, 495, 496.
Divorce, 46–48.
Petrol—
Fixed Prices for, 525.
Restrictions on Use of, 217, 222, 461.
Tax, 185, 188, 217, 218, 223, 365, 423.
Petroleum, 305.
Pharmaceutical Benefits, 401, 404.
Pharmacy, 83.
College of, 83.
Plan, 84, 635.
Phormium, 238, 273.
Fibre exported, 153–164, 657.
Grading of Fibre, 251.
Mills, 330.
Phosphate Rock, 305.
From Nauru Island, 2, 651.
Phthisis, 60, 61, 62, 69, 70, 71, 76, 78, 90, 97.
Maori Deaths from, 69, 70.
Miner's, 309, 398.
Physical Education, 86, 104, 111.
Physical Welfare, 86.
Physiography, 1–4.
Pickle-factories, 328.
Pig Meat, 281.
Pigs, 274, 279, 655.
Slaughtered, 281.
Pilots, Air, 229.
Pisciculture, 298.
Placement Service, 583, 591.
Plaints, 119.
Planning, Industrial, 562, 634–636.
Plant Research, 251.
Plantations, 237, 264, 271, 292, 293.
State, 292.
Plants, New Zealand, 7.
Plate Glass Insurance, 461, 464.
Platinum, 299, 302.
Pleasant (Nauru) Island, 2, 651.
Plumbers, Registration of, 81.
Plunket System, 57, 92.
Plural Births, 33.
Plural Voting Abolition, 10, 555.
Poisoning, 66.
Poisons, 83.
Police Force, 121.
Offences reported to, 135.
Superannuation, 409.
Policies, Insurance, 454–474.
Poliomyelitis, 71, 76, 78.
Political Disabilities Removal, 10.
Polling—
At General Elections, 636.
At Licensing Polls, 637.
Population, 11–29, 428, 634, 653.
Age Distribution, 27.
Of Cook Islands, 11, 645.
Of Kermadec Islands, 11, 644.
Of Nauru Island, 651.
Of Niue Island, 11, 647.
Of Tokelau Islands, 11, 650.
Of Western Samoa, 11, 648.
Pork exported, 153–164, 281.
Potfolios of Ministers, 664.
Ports—
Of Entry, 199.
Of Registry, 196.
Shipping of, 199.
Trade of, 149.
Post Office Employees, 236.
Accidents to, 601–610.
Superannuation of, 409–411.
Post Office Investment Certificates, 375.
Post Office Savings-bank, 444, 446, 447, 448, 555, 661.
Postal and Telegraphic, 230–236, 661.
Postal Notes, 232, 661.
Post-primary Education, 102, 107–109, 110, 111, 654.
Potatoes, 263, 264, 268, 525.
Export of, 153–162, 268.
Varieties of, 268.
Pottery-works, 331.
Poultry, 283.
Poultry-runs Registration, 284.
Pounamu, 306.
Power Boards, 415–430, 617, 660.
Power, Electric (see Electric).
Power used in Factories, 315.
Preferential Tariff, 174, 181–185, 191–196.
Pregnancy, Diseases, $c., of, 61, 64–66, 71, 75, 76, 77, 92.
Premiers, Successive, 663.
Premium Income, 455–474.
Prevention of Crime Act, 128.
Prevention of Forest-fires, 288.
Prevention of Profiteering, 525.
Prevention of Quackery, 82, 641.
Previous Issue of Parents, 34.
Price Levels, Spread in, 256.
Prices, 525–543.
Effect on Exports, 149, 163.
Effect on Farm Expenditure, 256, 539.
Effect on Imports, 149.
Fixation of, 525.
Of New Zealand Stocks, 382.
Regulation of, 526.
Stabilization of, 304, 526, 561.
Wartime Index, 534, 561.
Primage Duty, 183, 188.
Primary Products—
Consumption of, 257.
Export of, 151–164, 257, 258, 278, 280–282.
Marketing of, 259–261, 279, 280, 282, 284, 525.
Purchase for War Purposes, 259–261, 277, 526.
Primary Schools, 102, 104–107, 110, 111, 654.
Prime Ministers, Successive, 663.
Principal Events, 676–681.
Printing Establishments, 331.
Prisons and Prisoners, 120–130, 654.
Prisons Board, 127, 129.
Private Assignments, 499.
Private Companies, 321, 627–629.
Private Gardens, 271.
Private Hospitals, 91, 401, 402.
Private Income, Aggregate, 523–525.
Private Mental Hospital, 95, 97, 402.
Private Radio-stations, 235.
Private Railways, 208.
Private Savings-banks, 445, 447, 449.
Private Schools, 102, 107, 108, 110, 654.
Private Wealth, 500–503.
Probation, 129.
Probationer Teachers, 114.
Producer-gas, 217, 303, 307, 365.
Producers' Equipment, Imports of, 170, 171.
Producers' Materials, Imports of, 170, 171.
Production—
Aeronautical, 226.
Agricultural and Pastoral, 249–284, 631–633, 655.
Dairy, 278, 327, 632.
Factory, 309–333, 631–633, 658.
Fisheries, 295–299, 632.
Local Consumption of, 257, 258.
Meat, 279–282.
Mineral, 299–309, 632.
Timber, 290, 632.
Value of, 254, 525, 631–634.
Volume of, 254, 323, 633.
Wool, 276.
Professors, University, 116, 117.
Profiteering, Prevention of, 525.
Profit-sharing, 557.
Programmes, Radio, 612, 614.
Prohibited Immigrants, 19.
Prohibited Imports, 185.
Prohibition Issue, 637.
Prohibition Orders, 133.
Prolongation of Parliament, 9, 641.
Promotion of Employment, 582, 589–593.
Promotion of Industries, 562, 634–636.
Proprietary Income, Taxation of, 513, 515, 521.
Prorogation of Parliament, Dates of, 667.
Prospecting, State Aid to, 307.
Prospecting-drills, 308.
Protection of Wages, 571.
Provident Fund, National, 413–415.
Provincial Districts, 416.
Area and Population of, 20.
Building and Construction in, 344.
Factory Production in, 311.
Stone-quarries in, 306.
Provincial Education Boards, 99.
Provincial Governments, 202, 376, 416.
Provisional State Forests, 285.
Provisional War Deaths Register, 49.
Public Clocks, 640.
Public Companies, 321, 627–629.
Public Debt, 375–385, 658.
Repayment of, 356, 358, 376, 378, 383–385.
Public Domains, 238, 242.
Public Finance, 351–392, 658, 659.
Public Health, 77–98.
Diplomas, 79.
Public Hospitals (see Hospitals).
Public Reserves, 236, 238, 242.
Public Schools, 99–115, 654.
Public Service, 672–674.
Board of Appeal, 673.
Civil Service Act Pensions, 404, 409.
Cost-of-living Bonuses, 571.
Employees, 673.
Entrance Examination, 103, 673.
Superannuation, 409–411, 641.
Public Trust Office, 625–627.
Public, Wealth, 500.
Public Works—
Accidents, 601–610.
Employees, 583, 593.
Five-day Week on, 584.
Fund, 217, 352, 357, 358, 659.
Programme, 583.
Railway Construction, 202, 358.
Road Construction, 216, 358.
Publicans' Licenses, 637.
Publications—
Agriculture Department, 251.
Census and Statistics Department [facing p, 1].
Education Department, 115.
General Bibliography, 681–683.
Mines Department, 308.
New Zealand Flora, 7.
Register of, 231.
Publishing Works, 331.
Puerperal Accidents, $c., 61, 64–66, 71, 76, 77, 78, 92.
Puisne Judges, 669.
Pukapuka (Danger) Island, 2, 234, 645.
Pulmonary Tuberculosis (see Phthisis).
Pulse Crops, 265.
Pumice, 299.
Pumpkins, 270.
Punishments by Courts, 122–135.
Pupils, School, 102–111, 654.
Purchase of Land for Settlement, 244.
Pure Food Laws, 82.
Purpose or Use of Imports, 170.

Q

Quackery-prevention, 82, 641.
Quadruplets born, 33.
Quarries, 306.
Accidents at, 601 610.
Quartz-mining, 300.
Quicksilver, 299, 301.
Quinnat Salmon, 296, 298.
Quinquennial Census, 11–15, 19–22, 28, 588, 589, 638.
Quorum—
Executive Council, 8.
House of Representatives, 10.
Quota, Country, 9.
Quotations, New Zealand Stock, 382.

R

Rabbit Districts, 252, 415–430, 594.
Rabbit-skins exported, 153–164.
Racing, Tax on, 371.
Radio Advertising, 613.
Radio Beacons, 201, 234.
Radio Broadcasting, 115, 235, 611–615, 640.
Radio Communication, 234, 646.
Radio Licenses, 614.
Radio Stations, 611–615.
Radio Time-signals, 613, 640.
Radiologists, 403.
Raffle Tickets, Duty on, 371, 638.
Rail Cars, 203.
Rails, Weight of, 203.
Railway Accidents, 67, 120, 208, 601–610.
Railway District, 415–430, 594.
Railway Equipment, Imports of, 170.
Railway Fares, School-children's, 110.
Railways, 202–208, 662.
Private, 208.
Revenue and Expenditure, 204–206, 352, 355, 358, 359, 662.
Superannuation Fund, 412.
Rain Forests, 289.
Rainfall, 7.
Rakahanga (Reirson) Island, 2, 645.
Rape, 265, 269.
Rarotonga Island, 2, 234, 644.
Rateable Value of Land, 434.
Rates collected by Local Authorities, 374, 421–423, 618, 659.
Rates of Exchange, 452.
Rates of Interest—
On Building Societies' Deposits, 447, 449, 481.
On Fixed Deposits, 448, 449.
On Local Authorities' Debt, 429.
On Mortgages, 484, 488.
On Public Debt, 379, 382.
Paid by Savings-banks, 448, 449.
Reduction of, 379, 390, 430, 448, 449, 484, 488.
Rates of Wages, 314, 346, 544–552, 561, 563, 564, 569–571, 584.
Emergency Regulations, 546, 561, 570.
Rates of War Pensions, 405.
Rating by Local Authorities, 87, 418–420.
On Unimproved Value, 419.
On Urban Farm Lands, 418, 431.
“Real" or Effective Wage-rates, 550.
Receiving-homes, 92–94, 112.
Receiving-stations, Radio, 235.
Reciprocal Tariff and Trade, 191–196.
Recreation and Physical Welfare, 86.
Recruiting—
Air Force, 144.
Army, 136–139.
Navy, 141–143.
Police, 121.
Redemption of Loans, 356, 357, 375, 376, 379, 383–385, 427, 430.
Redemption of Mortgages, 482.
Reduction of Interest, 379, 390, 430, 448, 484, 488.
Reduction of Mortgages, 390, 484.
Reduction of Public Debt, 376.
Reduction of Rent, 484, 531, 574.
Reduction of Wages, 545, 570.
Re-exports, 162.
Reformative Detention, 113, 127, 128.
Refuge Homes, 92–94, 112.
Refunds to Racing Clubs, 372.
Regional Planning, 420.
Registered Articles posted, 230.
Registered Companies, 627–629.
Registered Mortgages, 486–490.
Registered Vessels, 196.
Registrars, Marriages before, 40, 45.
Registration—
Of Adopted Children, 38.
Of Soldiers, 49.
Of Apiaries, 284.
Of Soldiers, 49.
Of Applicants for Employment, 591.
Of Soldiers, 49.
Of Births, 29.
Of Soldiers, 49.
Of Building Societies, 478.
Of Soldiers, 49.
Of Chemists, 83.
Of Soldiers, 49.
Of Companies, 627.
Of Soldiers, 49.
Of Dairy Companies, 278.
Of Soldiers, 49.
Of Deaths, 49.
Of Soldiers, 49.
Of Deeds, 239.
Of Dentists, 80.
Of Designs, 629.
Of Electors, 10.
Of Friendly Societies, 475.
Of Industrial Unions, 584.
Of Land Titles, 238.
Of Maori Births, 30.
Of Marriages, 40.
Of Masseurs, 81.
Of Maternity Nurses, 80.
Of Medical Practitioners, 79.
Of Midwives, 80.
Of Mortgages, 486.
Of Motor-vehicles, 220–222.
Of Newspapers, 231.
Of Nurses, 80.
Of Opticians, 81.
Of Patents, 629.
Of Pharmaceutical Chemists, 83.
Of Plumbers, 81.
Of Poultry-runs, 284.
Of Private Schools, 107.
Of Soldiers Killed or Missing, 49.
Of Still-births, 29, 39.
Of Trade-marks, 629.
Of Trade-unions, 584.
Of Unemployed, 591.
Of Vessels, 196.
Registration Fee, Social Security, 393.
Registry, Ports of, 196.
Regulation of Prices, 525.
Rehabilitation, 559, 562.
Reirson (Rakahanga) Island, 2, 645.
Relief, Charitable, 87–90.
Relief Fund, Coal-miners', 308, 566.
Relief of Mortgagors, 390, 483.
Relief of Unemployment, 244, 399, 404, 556, 582, 588–592.
Religious Denominations, 638.
Marriages by Ministers of, 45.
Officiating Ministers, 46.
Religious Professions, 638.
Renewable Leases, 241, 242, 243.
Rent Reduction, 484, 531, 574.
Rent Restriction, 531, 558, 573, 641.
Renters, Film, Taxation of, 373.
Rents, House, 530–532, 534, 573.
Rents, Stabilization of, 526, 531, 562, 574.
Repatriation, 245.
Repayment of Public Debt, 356, 362, 376, 378, 379, 383–385.
Representatives Abroad, 641.
Representatives, House of, 9.
Members of, 668.
Reproduction Rate, 14.
Research, Agricultural, 251, 266.
Research, Coal, 303.
Research, Educational, 117.
Research Institute, Wheat, 266.
Research, Mining, 307.
Research Scholarships, 116.
Research, Silvicultural, 286.
Reserve Bank, 148, 150, 165, 375, 435, 442, 448, 451–454.
Reserves, Air Force, 143.
Reserves, Military, 136–139.
Reserves, Naval, 143.
Reserves, Public, 236, 238, 242.
Restitution of Conjugal Rights, 47.
Restoration, Salary and Wages, 546, 570, 571.
Restriction, Immigration, 19, 583.
Restrictions on Imports, 150, 165–167, 185, 265.
Retail Prices, 256, 526–535, 539, 540, 542, 550.
Retailers, Bank Advances to, 440.
Retardate Children, 104, 112.
Returnable Income, 513, 516, 517, 518, 521, 522.
Revaluations, Land, 432.
Revenue, 351–362.
Customs, 187–190, 363, 364.
Electric-power Boards, 618.
Local Authority, 88, 421–423, 659.
Postal, 235, 66].
Railway, 204, 205, 662.
Social Security Fund, 360, 393.
Tramway, 210–213.
Reverted Securities, 390.
Review, Court of, 484, 669.
Review of Legislation, 641.
Rhodes Scholarships, 116.
Rifle Clubs, 139.
River Districts, 415–430, 594.
Rivers, 3.
Control of, 286.
Road Accidents, 225.
Road Districts, 415–430, 594.
Bridges in, 215.
Debt of, 428.
Mileage of Roads, 215.
Road Transport, 205, 220–225.
Roading Costs, 218.
Roads, 215–225.
On Goldfields, Subsidized, 308.
Taxation, 185, 188, 217, 218, 220, 223, 361, 364.
Rock Oysters, 296.
Rocks, Geological Account of, 4.
Rolling-stock—
Railway, 203.
Tramway, 209, 214.
Roman Catholic Schools, 107, 646.
Root Crops, 237, 263, 264, 265, 268.
Ross Dependency, 2, 652.
Whaling, 052.
Rotary Hoes, 261.
Rotorua Thermal Springs, 641.
Royal Naval Reserves, 143.
Royal New Zealand Air Force, 143.
Royal New Zealand Navy, 140–143.
Rural Advances, 242, 245, 380–392.
Rural Education, 110, 111.
Rural Housing, 336, 337, 342, 421, 573.
Rural Intermediate Credit, 390.
Rural Mail Deliveries, 230.
Rural Mortgages, 484, 487, 490–495, 504–510, 483.
Rural Population, 20–22.
Country Quota, 9.

S

Sailing-vessels registered, 196.
St. Helens Hospitals, 91, 402.
Salaries and Wages, 524.
Cuts in, 545, 570, 571.
Restoration of, 546, 570, 571.
Salaries of Members of—
Executive Council, 8.
House of Representatives, 10.
Legislative Council, 9.
Sale of Food and Drugs, 82.
Sales of State Timber, 291.
Sales Tax, 363, 373, 641.
Salmon, Acclimatization of, 298.
Samoa (see Western Samoa).
Sanatoria, 72, 90.
Sanitary Plumbing, 81.
Sanitation, 77–80.
Sash and Door Factories, 330.
Sauce-factories, 328.
Sausage-casings, Export of, 153–164.
Savage (Niue) Island, 2, 646.
Savai'i Island, 648.
Savings Accounts (National), 375, 446.
Savings Bonds (National), 375, 446.
Savings-banks, 444–446, 447, 448, 449, 555, 661.
Sawmills, 290, 330.
Scaffolding Accident's, 601–610.
Scenic Reserves, 238.
Scheelite, 299, 301, 526.
Scholarships, 116, 308.
School Committees, 99–101.
School Journal, 115.
School Savings-banks, 445.
School System, 101.
School-children, 102–119, 654.
Board and Conveyance of, 110.
Dental Treatment of, 85.
Medical Inspection of, 84.
Milk for, 85, 112.
Schools, 102–119.
Consolidation of, 110.
Dental Clinics, 85.
Military, 139.
Of Agriculture, 103, 115, 117, 251, 252.
Of Mines, 115, 308.
School-teachers, 114.
Superannuation, 411.
Scrub Lands, 238, 264.
Sea-fisheries, 295–297.
Seals, 297.
Seamen Acts, Shipping and, 554, 567.
Season Tickets, Railway, 206, 207.
Seasonal Employment, 324, 592–594.
Secondary Education, 102, 107–109, 110–111, 654.
Second-growth Land, 238, 264.
Secular System of Education, 99.
Seed-gardens, 237, 271.
Seeds, Grass and Clover, 237, 263, 264, 270.
Certification of, 251.
Exported, 153, 160, 161, 162.
Seismology, 4–6.
Selections of Lands, 242–245.
Senior Cadets, 136, 139.
Sentences on Criminals, 124–135, 654.
Separate Rates, 418.
Separation, Judicial, 47.
Separators, Cream, 261.
Serpentine, 299, 307.
Service, Public (see Public Service).
Service-car Licenses, 221, 223.
Services—
Air Force, 143.
Army, 136–140.
Navy 140–143.
Sessions, Parliamentary, Successive, 667.
Settlement of Industrial Disputes, 574–578, 599–601.
Settlement of Land, 241–245.
Settlement, Small-farm, 243, 244, 245, 559.
Settlers, Advances to, 242, 245, 386–392.
Sex Proportions, 14.
Sexes of—
Children born, 32, 33, 39, 40.
Factory Employees, 311.
Inmates of Charitable Institutions, 93.
Patients in Mental Hospitals, 95–98.
Patients in Public Hospitals, 73.
School-teachers, 114.
Shale, 307
Share Prices, Index Numbers, 540–543.
Sharebrokers' Licenses, Tax on, 371.
Share-milking Agreements, 559.
Shares in Building Societies, 479.
Shares, Labour, 557.
Shearers' Wage-rates, 571.
Shearing-machines on Farms, 261.
Sheep, 274–276, 655.
Sheep and Lambs slaughtered, 280.
Sheep-skins and Pelts exported, 153–104.
Sheep-skins, Purchase for War Purposes, 259, 526.
Sheet-metal Works, 331.
Shipbuilding Works, 333.
Shipping, 190–201.
Shipping and Seamen Acts, 554, 567.
Ships (see Vessels).
Shoe-factories, 329.
Shops and Offices Act, 563–565.
Short-time in Factories, 324.
Sick Funds, 208, 308, 359, 476, 566.
Sickness, 70–76, 399–404, 476.
Insurance, 461, 463, 476, 556.
Signals, Time, 613, 640.
Silica Sand, 299.
Silver, 300.
Coins, New Zealand, 450.
Exported, 153.
Silviculture, 286.
Sinking Funds, 385, 426, 428.
Skins and Hides, Export of, 153–164.
Slaughter of Animals for Food, 279–282.
Slaughterhouses, 251, 279–282.
Sleepers, Railway, 203.
Sleeping-cars, 203.
Slot Telephones, 233.
Sluicing, 300.
Small Farms Act, 243, 244, 245, 559.
Snares Islands, 1, 643.
Snowfall, 6.
Soap-factories, 329.
Social Hygiene, 78.
Social Security, 392–404, 523, 556.
Benefits, 87, 88, 91, 98, 393–404, 524, 556, 589.
Fund, 352, 360, 393.
Registration Fee, 360, 393.
Taxation, 360, 363, 364, 373, 393.
Social Welfare, 87–90.
Soil Erosion, 286.
Solander Island, 1, 643.
Soldiers, 136–140.
Acquisition of Land by, 245, 559.
Financial Assistance to, 390.
Pensions, 404–409.
Registration of Deaths of, 49.
Rehabilitation of, 559, 562.
War Bursaries for Dependants, 108.
Sources of Income, 517.
South Africa, Reciprocity with, 193.
South African War Pensions, 404, 409.
Southern Alps, 3.
Sown Grasses, 237, 263, 264, 269–271.
Spas, 641.
Special Articles in Previous Issues, 683.
Special Rates, 418.
Special Schools, 112.
Specie, Movement of, 145, 656.
Specific Customs Duties, 183, 191.
Speed Limit, 221.
Spinsters marrying, 42–45.
Spirits, Duty on, 184, 186, 188.
Sports Councils, 86.
Spread in Price Levels, 256.
Stabilization of—
Prices, 304, 526, 561.
Rents, 526, 531, 562, 574.
Wages, 520, 544, 562.
Staff College, 139.
Staff Corps, 138.
Stakes, Tax on, 371.
Stamp Duties, 363, 371.
Estates certified for, 501.
Standardized Death-rates, 53.
For Cancer, 63.
Standardized Marriage-rates, 41.
Standards—
Main Highway, 219.
Weights and Measures, 82.
State Advances, 336, 386–392, 421, 555, 557, 573.
Corporation, 336, 377, 386, 557.
Reverted Securities, 390.
State Afforestation, 285–288, 292.
State Aid to—
Afforestation, 292.
Building, 242, 249, 336, 340, 386–392, 421.
Crown Tenants, 242.
Discharged Soldiers, 245, 390, 559, 562.
Farming Industry, 241–245, 248, 251 590.
Hospital Boards, 87–90.
Housing, 242, 249, 336, 340, 386–392, 421.
Immigrants, 16–19.
Kauri-gum Industry, 305.
Local Authorities, 87–90, 219, 421, 423, 590.
Manufacturing, 387, 634–636.
Mining, 304, 307.
Prospecting, 307.
Purchases of Private Land, 245.
Reconstruction after War, 562.
Settlers, 241–245, 386–392.
Soldiers, 390.
Unemployed, 399, 556, 588–594.
Water-power Development, 615–617.
Wheat-growing, 265.
State Assets and Liabilities, 500.
State Coal-mines, 304, 352.
State Departments, 670.
State Employment Bureaux, 582, 591.
State Finance, 351–392, 658, 659.
State Forests, 284–293, 352, 359.
State Highways, 216.
State Housing, 249, 336, 340, 573.
State Indebtedness, 375–385, 658.
State Insurance—
Accident, 464.
Fire, 473.
Life, 460.
War Damage, 474.
State Lands (see Crown Lands).
State Maternity Hospitals, 91, 402.
State Placement Service, 583, 591.
State Railways, 202–208, 662.
State Schools, 99–119, 654.
State Water-power Supply, 615–617.
Stations—
Air Force, 144.
Hydro-electric, 616.
Radio, 611–615.
Statistical Information, Latest [see Fore-front of Book].
Statistical Publications [facing p, 1].
Statistical Summary, 653–662.
Status of Aliens, 19.
Statutes of 1942, 641.
Steam-vessels registered, 196.
Sterling Exchange—
Holdings of, 436, 438, 442.
Rates, 453.
Standard, 452.
Sterling Values of Currency, 452.
Sterling Values of Trade, 145, 149.
Stewart Island, 1, 642.
Oysters, 296.
Population, 25.
Still-births, 39, 60, 92.
Registration of, 29, 39.
Stipendiary Magistrates' Courts (see Courts).
Stock and Station Agents—
Advances to, 440.
Deposits with, 449.
Stock, Live (see Live-stock).
Stock, Quotations for, 382.
Stone-quarries, 306.
Stones, Building and Ornamental, 299, 306.
Stranding of Vessels, 201.
Street-cars, 209–214.
Streets and Roads, Length of, 215.
Strikes, 562, 574–578, 595–601.
Students, University, 103, 115–117, 654.
Subdivision of Land, 244.
Submarine Cable, 233.
Subscribers, Telephone, 232.
Subsidies—
Main Highways, 219, 361, 423.
On Coal-production, 304.
On Rates, 423.
To Farming Industry, 252, 590.
To Hospital Boards, 87–90.
To Miners, 307.
Subsidized Employment, 588–591.
Subsidized Prospecting, 308.
Subsidized Roads on Goldfields, 308.
Substitute Fuels, 217, 303, 307, 365.
Succession Duty, 369, 370.
Suffrage, 10, 417.
Sugar—
Duty on, 184.
Fixed Price for, 525.
Rationing of, 634.
Suicide, 61, 67, 69, 120.
Sulphur, 302.
Summary Convictions, 123, 654.
Summer Time (Daylight Saving), 639.
Sunday Island, 643, 644.
Sunday Work, 563, 566, 569.
Sunshine, 7.
Superannuation, 409–415, 641.
Benefits, Social Security, 393, 404.
Superphosphate and Fertilizer Factories, 333.
Superphosphate, Fixed Prices for, 252, 525.
Supplementary, Medical $c., Benefits, 403.
Supreme Court (see Courts).
Surpluses, Consolidated Fund, 354.
Surrenders, Life Assurance, 456, 458.
Surtax, 182, 188.
Surveys, 240.
Of Coal Resources, 302, 307.
Of Housing, 335, 421, 573.
Of Ships, 200.
Suspension of Legislation, 560.
Sustenance Allowances, 524, 583, 589.
Suwarrow (Anchorage) Island, 2, 645.
Sweepstakes, 638.
Swordfish, 297.
Sympathetic Strikes, 595–601.
Syphilis, 61, 78, 95.

T

Table Mortgages, 387, 486, 490.
Takutea Island, 2, 644.
Tallow exported, 153–164, 656.
Tallow, Purchase for War Purposes, 259, 526.
Tanneries, 332.
Tariff Commission, 182.
Tariff, Customs, 181–196.
Tasman Empire Airways, 227.
Tax, Land and Income, 363, 365–368, 503–511, 512–523.
Taxation, 362–374, 641, 659.
Customs, 181–196, 363, 364, 641.
Employment Promotion, 363.
Local, 374, 418, 421–423.
Main Highways, 217, 220, 223, 360, 364.
Motor-spirits, 185, 188, 217, 218, 223, 365.
Racing, 371.
Sales, 363, 373.
Social Security, 360, 363, 364, 373, 393.
War, 184–186, 361, 362–374, 550, 641.
Taxis, 221.
Taxpayers, Income, 513–523.
Taxpayers, Land, 504–511.
Tea—
Duty on, 183, 188.
Rationing of, 634.
Teachers' Examinations, 103.
Teachers' Superannuation Fund, 411.
Teachers' Training Colleges, 114.
Teaching Aids, 115.
Teaching Profession, 114.
Technical Education, 102, 107–109, 111, 654.
Telegraph, Services, 232, 234.
Telegraph, Time Signals by, 640.
Telephones, 232.
Temperature Records, 7.
Tenants, Relief of, 483.
Tenure of Occupied Land, 237.
Tenures, Selection Lands, 241–245.
Terminating Building Societies, 478–481.
Territorial Air Force, 143, 144.
Territorial Forces, 136–139.
Third-party Risks Insurance, 461–464, 466.
Three Kings Islands, 1, 643.
Tile-making, 331.
Timber—
Carried on Railways, 207.
Consumption of, 290.
Export Duty on, 186.
Exports of, 153–164, 290, 657.
Import Duty on, 184.
Imports of, 290.
Output, 290.
Plantations, 237, 271, 292–294.
Resources, 285.
Royalties, 291, 423.
Sales, 291.
Trees, 289, 290, 292, 294.
Time lost—
In Factories, 324.
Through Industrial Accidents, 607.
Through Industrial Disputes, 595–601.
Time Service, 613, 640.
Tin, 302.
Tinware-works, 331.
Tire-tax, 185, 217, 218, 364, 365.
Title, Certificates of, issued, 240.
Titles, Compulsory Registration of, 239.
Tobacco, 263, 264, 272.
Duty on, 184, 185, 188, 641.
Excise Duty on, 185, 188.
Exports of, 153, 154.
Imports of, 168, 169, 170, 175.
Toheroa, 296.
Tokelau (Union) Islands, 2, 11, 650.
Radio Stations, 234.
Toll Communications, 232.
Tongareva (Penrhyn) Island, 2, 645.
Ton-miles, Railway, 207.
Tonnage of Cargo, 149.
Tonnage of Registered Vessels, 196.
Tonnage of Shipping, 196–200.
Top-dressing, 271.
Total Returnable Income, 516, 522.
Totalizator Investments, 372.
Totalizator Taxation, 371.
Tourist Agents Abroad, 674.
Tourist Attractions, 641.
Tourists, 17.
Tourists' Rail Tickets issued, 207.
Town Districts, 415–430.
Bridges in, 215.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 434.
Debt, 428.
Employees of, 594.
Government Housing in, 340.
Mileage of Streets, 215.
Population, 26, 27.
Town Land, Mortgages on, 487, 490–495, 504–510.
Town-planning, 420.
Tractors on Farms, 261, 283.
Trade, 145–196, 656, 657.
Agreements, 191–196.
Balance of, 146–148.
Cook Islands, 164, 181, 646.
Nauru, 652.
Niue Island, 647.
Of Ports, 149.
Representatives, 674.
Volume of, 149.
Western Samoa, 650.
Trade-marks, 629.
Trade-unions, 555, 574, 584—588.
Trading Accounts, State, 359.
Trading Banks, 437–443, 447, 448, 660.
Trading Companies' Deposits, 447, 449.
Traffic—
Accidents, 66, 120, 208, 225.
Motor, 222–224.
Offences, 123, 132, 133.
Railway, 204–207.
Tramway, 209–214.
Training Farms, 113.
Training of Air Force, 144.
Training of Defence Forces, 136–144.
Training of Police Recruits, 121.
Training of Teachers, 114.
Train-miles run, 206, 207, 662.
Tramway District, 415–430.
Tramways, 209–214, 423.
Accidents, 67.
Cable, 214.
Transfer, Land, 238, 240.
Transhipments of Cargo, 149.
Transit Trade, 162.
Trans-Pacific Air Service, 228.
Transport, 196–229.
Co-ordination Board, 223.
Districts, Urban, 415–430, 594.
Equipment, Imports, 170.
Licensing Act, 223.
Trans-Tasman Air Service, 227.
Treasury Bills, 353, 376, 379, 381, 439.
Treaty of Waitangi, 245.
Tree-planting, 292–294.
Trees, Indigenous, 289.
Trend of Population, 14.
Triennial Parliaments, 9.
Triplets born, 33.
Tropical Diseases in Samoa, 649.
Trout, Acclimatization of, 298.
Trustee, Native, 248.
Trustee, Public, 625–627.
Trustee Savings-banks, 445, 447, 449.
Tuberculosis, 60, 61, 62, 69, 70, 71, 76, 78, 90, 97, 398.
Maori Deaths from, 69, 70.
Tung Trees, 237.
Tungsten-ore, 299, 300, 301.
Turkeys, 283.
Turnips, 263, 264, 265, 209.
Tussock Land, 238, 264, 271.
Twins and Triplets born, 33.

U

Unclaimed Moneys, 444, 451.
Undergraduates, 116.
Undesirable Immigrants, Exclusion of, 19.
Undeveloped Land, Settlement of, 242.
Undischarged Bankrupts, 496.
Unemployment, 582, 588–593.
Benefit's, 399, 404, 589.
Small Farms Scheme, 244.
Taxation, 360, 363, 373.
Unexercised Overdraft Authorities, 441.
Unformed Roads, 215.
Unimproved Occupied Land, 237, 238.
Unimproved Value of Land, 431–434.
Holdings, 490–495, 504–511.
Land-tax assessed on, 366, 510, 511.
Rating on, 419.
Union (Tokelau) Islands, 2, 11, 650.
Radio Stations, 234.
Unions, Trade, 555, 574, 584–588.
United Kingdom, High Commissioner for, 674.
United Kingdom, Purchase of Primary Produce, 259–261, 277, 526.
United States of America—
New Zealand Minister in, 674.
Official Representatives, 674.
Universal Superannuation, 393, 404.
University Education, 103, 115–117, 654.
University Examinations, 79, 103, 141.
University Professors, 116, 117.
University Scholarships, 116.
Unpaid Rates, Penalty on, 422.
Unproductive Land, 236, 238.
Untenanted Houses, 336.
Upolu Island, 648.
Urban Areas—
Dwellings, 336.
Fire Losses, 470.
Population, 22, 23.
Urban Drainage Districts, 415–430, 594.
Urban Drift, 21.
Urban Farm Lands, Rating on, 418, 431.
Urban Population, 20–22.
Urban Security, Mortgages on, 487, 490–494, 504–510.
Urban Transport Districts, 415–430, 594.
Use or Purpose of Imports, 170.

V

Valuation—
Of Exports, 147, 150.
Of Imports, 147, 165.
Of Land, 431–434.
Of Superannuation Funds, 411, 412, 413, 415.
Value added in Manufacturing, 310, 311, 318, 321, 323, 325–333, 658.
Value of—
Currency, 452.
Exports, Effect of Prices on, 163.
Farm Production, 252–258, 631–634.
Goods available for Use, 525.
Land Holdings, 490–495, 503–511.
Materials used in Factories, 310, 311, 317, 321, 323, 325–333, 658.
Production, 631–634.
State Property, 500.
Veal slaughtered and exported, 281.
Vegetation, 7.
Vehicles—
Motor (see Motor-vehicles).
Railway, 203.
Tramway, 209.
Venereal Diseases, 61, 76, 78, 95.
Vessels—
Entered and cleared, 197–200.
Insurance of, 474.
Nationality of, 198.
Radio Communication with, 234.
Registered, 196.
Survey of, 200.
War, 140–143.
Wrecked, 201.
Veterans' Allowances, War, 404, 407.
Village-settlements, Tenures, 241.
Vinegar-factories, 328.
Vineyards, 263, 272.
Violent Deaths, 61, 66, 67, 69, 75, 76, 120, 225, 303.
Virgin Bush, Area of, 238, 264, 285.
Visible Trade-balance, 146–148.
Visitors to New Zealand, 16—18.
Visual Aids in Teaching, 115.
Vital Statistics, 29–76, 653.
Cook Islands, 645.
Niue Island, 647.
Viticulture, 263, 272.
Vocational Guidance, 110, 592.
Volcanoes, 2.
Volume of—
Exports, 149, 163.
Factory Production, 323, 633.
Farm Production, 254, 633.
Imports, 149.
Production, 254, 323, 633.
Trade, 149.
Voluntary Contributions to Hospitals, 88.
Voluntary Enlistment, 136, 137.
Voluntary Mental Patients, 96.
Voting—
At General Elections, 636.
At Licensing Polls, 637.
Qualifications, 10, 417.
Vouchers, Audit of, 351.

W

Wage, Basic, 551, 569–571, 584.
Wage-earners, 588.
Wage-rates, 314, 346, 544–552, 561, 563, 564, 569–571, 584.
Wages—
And Working Conditions, 559–572, 575–580, 584.
Estimate of, 524.
Increases in, 546, 561, 563, 564.
Legislative Changes in, 569–571.
Lost through Industrial Accidents, 609.
Lost through Industrial Disputes, 595–600.
Of Afforestation Employees, 294.
Of Building Employees, 344–346, 348.
Of Electric-supply Employees, 620.
Of Factory Employees, 310, 311, 312–315, 323, 325–333, 658.
Protection of, 571.
Reduction of, 545, 570.
Restoration of Cuts in, 546, 570, 571.
Shearers', 571.
Stabilization of, 526, 544, 562.
Tax on, 360, 363, 373, 393, 550.
Waitangi, Treaty of, 245.
Waitangi Treaty Site, Gift of, 292.
Wakari Private Mental Hospital, 98.
War, 136–144.
Administration, 8, 137, 666.
Farm Produce, 259–261, 277, 280.
Financial Transactions, 453.
Labour Legislation, 559–562, 577.
Mortgages, 484.
Bursaries for Soldiers' Dependants, 108.
Farm Produce, 259–261, 277, 280.
Financial Transactions, 453.
Labour Legislation, 559–562, 577.
Mortgages, 484.
Cabinet, 8, 137, 665, 666.
Farm Produce, 259–261, 277, 280.
Financial Transactions, 453.
Labour Legislation, 559–562, 577.
Mortgages, 484.
Damage Insurance, 352, 362, 474, 641.
Farm Produce, 259–261, 277, 280.
Financial Transactions, 453.
Labour Legislation, 559–562, 577.
Mortgages, 484.
Deaths Register, 49.
Farm Produce, 259–261, 277, 280.
Financial Transactions, 453.
Labour Legislation, 559–562, 577.
Mortgages, 484.
Debt, 376, 377, 378.
Farm Produce, 259–261, 277, 280.
Financial Transactions, 453.
Labour Legislation, 559–562, 577.
Mortgages, 484.
Expenditure, 352, 361, 443, 641.
Farm Produce, 259–261, 277, 280.
Financial Transactions, 453.
Labour Legislation, 559–562, 577.
Mortgages, 484.
Indebtedness, 376, 377, 378, 641.
Farm Produce, 259–261, 277, 280.
Financial Transactions, 453.
Labour Legislation, 559–562, 577.
Mortgages, 484.
Measures affecting—
Farm Produce, 259–261, 277, 280.
Financial Transactions, 453.
Labour Legislation, 559–562, 577.
Mortgages, 484.
Pensions, 404–409, 568.
Prices, 304, 526.
Purchases of Produce, 259–261, 277, 280, 301, 526.
Risks, Marine Insurance, 474.
Taxation, 184–186, 361, 362–374, 550, 641.
Veterans' Allowances, 404, 407.
Warships, 140–143.
Wartime Price Index, 534, 561.
Waterfront Control, 561.
Water-power, 615–625.
Water-supply Districts, 415–430, 594.
Wealth, 500–511.
Weather, 6.
Weights and Measures, 82, 263.
Wellington—
Broadcasting Stations, 611–615.
Building Values, 339.
Dwelling Construction Costs, 350.
Dwellings, 336, 340.
Fires, 470.
Population, 22—25.
Rainfall, 7.
Retail Prices, 528–532.
Sales-tax Receipts, 374.
Shipping, 199.
Sunshine, 7.
Temperature, 7.
Tramways, 209–214.
Western Samoa, 2, 648-650.
Population of, 11, 6–18.
Radio Communication, 234.
Whale-oil, 153, 296, 297, 652.
Whales and Whaling, 297, 652.
Wheat, 263, 264, 265, 270, 655.
Consumption of, 266.
Export of, 152.
Fixed Prices for, 265, 525.
Research Institute, 266.
Restriction on Imports, 265.
Varieties of, 266.
Whey Butter, 278.
Whipping abolished, 125.
White Island Sulphur, 302.
Whitebait, 296, 297.
Wholesale Licenses, 637.
Wholesale Prices, 535–537, 539, 540, 542, 543.
Widowers, Remarriages of, 42.
Widows—
And Orphans, 56, 57.
Benefits, 395, 404.
Remarriages of, 42.
War Pensions, 405–409.
Wills administered by Public Trust Office, 625–627.
Wine, Duty on, 184.
Wine Licenses, 637.
Wireless (see Radio).
Withdrawals from Savings-banks, 445–446, 661.
Wives, Aggregation of Income, 517.
Wives, Allowances in respect of, 394–415.
Wives' Petitions in Divorce, 48.
Women—
Army Auxiliary Corps, 139.
Auxiliary Air Force, 144.
Deaths of, in Childbirth, 61, 64–66, 75, 76, 92.
Eligible for Parliament, 10.
Jurors, 641.
Offences by, 122, 124, 132, 133.
Police, 122.
Suffrage for, 10, 555.
Wage-rates of, 314, 549–551.
Working-conditions of, 555, 563, 564, 565, 568.
Working-hours of, 552, 553, 554.
Wool, 276.
Export Price Index, 537.
Exported, 151–164, 656.
Purchase for War Purposes, 259, 526.
Used at Local Mills, 276, 332.
Woollen-mills, 332, 440.
Wool-scouring Works, 332.
Workers, Advances to, 386–390, 392.
Workers' Compensation, 461–463, 464, 580–582, 602, 603, 642.
Insurance, 461–463, 464.
Workers' Dwellings, 336, 340, 387–390, 392, 421, 572.
Workers' Educational Association, 118.
Workers' Unions, 555, 574, 584–588.
Workers' Weekly Railway Tickets, 207.
Working-conditions, Wages and, 559–572, 575–580, 584.
Working Railways Account, 204, 352.
Working-days lost through Industrial Disputes, 595–601.
Working-hours, 552–554, 560, 563, 564, 566, 569, 584.
Working-men's Clubs, 475.
World Comparisons (see Comparisons).
Wrecks, 201.

X

X-ray—
Diagnostic Services, 403.
Examination of School-children, 84, 85.

Y

Yields of Butterfat, 278.
Yields of Crops, 265–273, 655.
Youth Centres, 592.
Youths—
Wage-rates of, 551, 554.
Working-conditions of, 563, 564, 565, 568.

Z

Zoology, 7.